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WISCONSIN ACADEMY
OF
SCIENCES, ARTS, AND LETTERS
VOL. XV, PART II
EDITED BY THE SECRETARY
Published by Authority of Law
mm
MADISON:
Democrat Printing Company, State Printer
1907.
KwM . ;/i^vp%':v ; X;v al
i005tl
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TRANSACTIONS
OF THE
WISCONSIN ACADEMY
SCIENCES, ARTS, AND LETTERS
VOL. XV, PART II
Wf ^ <(
EDITED BY THE SECRETARY
Published by Authority of Law
MADISON, WIS.
Democrat Printing Co., State Printer
1907
TABLE OF CONTENTS
The St. George, or mummers’, plays: A study in the protology
of the drama, ..... Arthur Beatty,
The settlement of Oklahoma (with Plates IX-XIV),
Solon J. Buck,
A revision of the North American species of Diaptomus (with
Plates XV-XXVIII), . . . C. Dwight Marsh,
The nature and development of the primary uredospore (with
Plate XXIX), . . . A. H. Christman,
Infection experiments with the mildew on cucurbits, Erysiphe
cichoracearum DC., .... George M. Reed,
Comparative studies in the trophi of the Scarabaeidae (with
Plates XXX-XXXIV), . . C. B. Hardenberg,
The Attidae of Borneo, .......
George TV. Beckham and Elizabeth G. Peckham,
An investigation into the breaking of watch mainsprings in
greater numbers in the warm months of the year than in
the cold months (with Plate XXXV), . Richard G. Norton,
Wisconsin’s quartzite implements (with Plates XXXVI and
XXXVII). .... Charles E. Brown,
The growth and organization of the starch grain (with Plates
XXXVII I-XL) , .... R. H. Denniston,
Table illustrating the progress of rotation in office to 1835,
Carl Russell Fish,
The individuality and variation of the pyloric caeca of the Cen-
+rarchidae (with Plates XLI-XLV and two text-figures),
Roswell H\ill Johnson,
Nuclear structure and spore formation in Microsphaera alni
(with Plate XLVI), .... M. C. Sands,
Cytological studies on Ceratiomyxa (with Plate XLVTI),
Edgar TV. Olive,
Mycological narrative of a brief journey through the Pacific
Northwest, . . . . . J. J. Davis,
Studies on some lakes in the Rocky and Sierra Nevada moun¬
tains (with Plates XLVIII-L), . . Chancey Juday,
PAGB
273
325
381
517
527
548
603
654
656
b64
709
713
733
753
775
781
1Y
Contents .
The determination of the value of the right of way of Wisconsin
railroads as made in the appraisal of 1903,
Ernest Brown SJcinner,
Jacob Wympfflinger’s “Tutschland,” . E. K. J. H. Voss,
An ordinance of the city of Nuremberg, adopted in the year
E. K . J. H. Voss.
J. J. Davis,
Reuben Gold Thwaites,
War don A. Curtis,
William F. Giese,
Edith Lueders,
John Goadby Gregory,
William Herbert Hobbs,
J . A. Watrous,
1562, .
The Academy: Its past and future,
Memorial Addresses (with portraits) :
James Davie Butler,
David Bower Frankenburger, .
Amos Arnold Knowlton,
Herman Frederick Lueders,
John Lendrum Mitchell, .
Nathaniel Southgate Shaler,
Stephen Vaughn Shipman,
Charles Frederick A. Zimmerman,
Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters —
List of officers and members, .....
List of exchanges of the Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts,
and Letters, ..... George Wagner,
Proceedings of the Academy,
Reports of the Secretary, ....
Reports of the Treasurer, ....
Report of the Librarian, ....
Report of the Exchange Committee,
Rules and regulations governing the Academy-
Extracts from the charter, .
Extracts from the Wisconsin statutes.
Constitution of the Academy,
Resolutions regulative of the proceedings of the Academy,
Page
794
823
874
887
897
912
915
917
920
924
927
931
934
967
995
1013
1018
1021
1022
1027
1029
1030
1033
THE ST. GEORGE, OR MUMMERS’, PLAYS: A STUDY
IN THE PROTOLOGY OF THE DRAMA.
ARTHUR BEATTY,
University of Wisconsin.
PREFATORY NOTE.
Tlie scope of this paper is so- narrow that only a single as¬
pect of the ceremonies of primitive peoples is noticed. There
is no opportunity to discuss the ritual and the hearing of the
songs on the question of the origin of poetry and the drama.
A volume on this important aspect of folk ceremonies is in
preparation by the author.
Perhaps a word is needed in justification of the new term
“Protology.” The word is used simply because we have no
name for the method herein employed. “Comparative Litera¬
ture” implies a study of the relations between literatures , but
this essay does not follow this method. It rather goes outside
the domain of literature , written or spoken, into the world of
belief and ceremonial , where it is conceived the ultimate origin
of the Mummers’ plays lies. Thus in all such studies as are
largely extra-literarjq and are yet enquiries into literary orig¬
ins, a new term seems to be required, and so I venture to launch
the word P'rotology.1
INTRODUCTION.
In the study of Einglish literature we come into contact
with certain forms which are not amenable to the ordinary
literary laws. IWe are accustomed to associate definite author-
1 7 rpwTO? and Aoyos.
274 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts , and Letters.
ship with our novels, plays and poems, but these other forms
are all anonymous. We are accustomed to demand a defi¬
nite written form ; but these are fluent, with as many as a score
of texts, the one asi authoritative as the other. We are accuse
turned to think of literature as being written; but these
anomalous forms are spoken, and are perpetuated, not by be¬
ing handed down- in an authoritative text with the latest addi¬
tions and corrections, but by means of the memory of the in¬
dividual who passes it on from his own to the generation
following.
These forms are: (1) The Ballad, (2) The Folk-Tale, and
(3) The Folk-Drama.
The prevalent method of accounting for these three forms
is by connecting them! with distinctly literary Works, and hold¬
ing that they are the debris of forms which were produced by
the ordinary methods. Thus the ballad is a broken down form
of the romance and epic; the folk-tale is a folk memory of
what was heard in the master’s hall, as the minstrel declaimed
the deeds of the heroes of old ; and the folk-drama is a debased
form! of the Greek drama filtered down through the church
to the unlettered class.1
As far as the ballad is concerned, this method of accounting
for origins has been triumphantly combated by Professor F. B.
Gummere,2 Professor G. L. Kittredge,3 and Andrew Lang,4
who argue for a popular, non-literary origin ; but for the folk¬
tale and drama the popular origin has not been so strenuously
asserted.5
1 Representatives of this method are W. J. Courthope, “History of
English Poetry,” vol. 1, 1895; T. P. Henderson, “Scottish Vernacular
Literature,” 1901; J. H. Millar, “Literary History of Scotland,” 1903;
Gregory Smith, “The Transition Period,” 1900 (in “Periods of Euro¬
pean Literature”).
2 “Beginnings of Poetry,” 1901.
3 Introduction to the Cambridge Edition of Child’s “English and
Scottish Popular Ballads,” 1904.
4 Chambers’ “Cyclopaedia of English Literature,” subject “Ballads”;
Folk-Lore, vol. 14. pp. 147 ff.
5 Professor Joseph Bedier’s work, “Les Fabliaux,” arrives at a nega¬
tive result. While it overthrows Benfey’s theory that European folic -
Beatty — The St. George^ or Mummers’, Plays. 275
In the present study, we shall consider only a small portion
of the drama — 'the St. George, or Mummers’, Plays — and en¬
quire what the probable origins of these plays are. But neces¬
sarily, as we discuss this narrow question, we cannot avoid
raising some questions which apply to the whole field of the
relations between the “folk” and the “literary” literature.
THE ST. GEORGE PEAY. *
At many places in England, even to-day, there is given a
play by the village folk, which has to do with the deeds of St.
George or a similar hero. To be sure, the plays differ very
tales came from India, it does not establish a popular origin. Profes¬
sor Wundt, “Volkerpsychologie,” Bd. 2, 1905, has some excellent crit¬
icisms of the Benfey theory, pp. 326-343. “Nur haben dann freilich
diese Marchen jedesmal wieder eine eigenartige Beschaffenheit, und es
liegt zudem nicht der geringste Grund vor, anzi^nehmen, dass die
Marchendichtung xiberhaupt das Privilegium ernes’ besonderen Stam-
mes oder die Schopfung einer in dieser iippigen Fulle nur einmal in
der Welt dagewesenen Phantasietatigkeit sei, sondern die mythische
Marchenerzahlung wird schlies’slich ebensogut als ein allgemeiner und
urspriinglicher Besitz der Menschheit gelten muss’en, wie das Lied Oder
der Tanz Oder wie die mythologischen Vorstellungen selber, nur dass
freilich, wie diese, so auch jene Formen ihres Ausdruckes nach Zeit
und Rpum iiberaus wandelbar sind.” — p. 343.
“Ueberhaupt ist die da und dort in philologischen Kreisen noch im-
mer spukende Hypothese, dass Fabel und Marchen irgendeinmal an ir-
gendeinem Punkt der Erde zu einer bestimmten Zeit erfunden worden
seien und von da aus ihre Wanderung durch die Welt angetreten hat-
ten, eine ebenso voreilige Verallgemeinerung, wie s’ie psychologisch
unmogliche Vorstellungen liber diese Art der Volksdichtung voraussetzt.
Marchen und Fabeln findet man iiberall, wo man sie sucht. Dass ein-
zelne ansprechende Fabel- und Marchenstoffe zum Teil weite Strecken
durchwandert haben, ist in Anbetracht dieser der Volksphantas’ie zu-
kommenden Eigenschaft des Fabulierens begrieflich genug und wird
eigentlich erst durch sie erklarlich.” — p. 357, note 1.
The best general treatment of the drama is that of Professor Wundt,
“Volkerpsychologie,” Bd. 2, pp. 463-526. (“Mimus und Drama.”)
The folk-origin of English Drama has been upheld by Mr. T. F.
Ordish in Folk-Lore, vols. 2 and 4, 1891 and 1893, and more especially,
in a restricted sense, by Mr. E. K. Chambers in his’ work, “The Mediae¬
val Stage,” 2 vols., 1903.
A volume on the Folk-Drama by Mr. T. F. Ordish is promised by the
English Folk-Lore Society.
276 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters.
much in length and in incident : indeed, the difference in in¬
cident® is very striking; but there is a family likeness which
makes possible a classification under the general head of St.
George, or Mummers7, Plays.
The most complete study of these plays is that of
Chambers,1 who gives a list of twenty-nine texts,2 and on the
basis of these various texts gives an account of the leading
features of the plays. From these texts and from Mr. L,
Gomme’s excellent description of the presentation of these
plays,3 we can say that the following features are common to
all, or to the greater part of them:
(1) The drawing of a circle, inside of which the players
stand when playing their parts. This seems to have no con¬
nection with the familiar “witch’s circle.” It is rather the
mere marking out of the limits of the stage.
(2) A fight between individuals, or a melee.
(3) The death and revivification of one or more persons.
In this incident these plays, correspond with the German
Shrove-tide and Whitsuntide plays.4 - The revival of the
dead is accomplished by a braggadocio Doctor.
(4) The costumes of the players frequently consist of
masks and armor like leaves.
(5) Some of the characters represent animals.
The importance of the third heading, the death and revivi¬
fication, is so characteristic of the plays that we shall present a
few of the different treatments of it. Taking the Lutterworth
play5 as the norm, Prince George fights the Turkish Knight
and is mortally wounded. The Doctor comes- in and revives
1 “The Mediaeval Stage,” vol. 1, chap. 10.
2 L. c., vol. 1, pp. 205-206. In Appendix K of his book Mr. Chambers’
prints the Lutterworth play.
3In Nature. Dec. 23, 1897. Other descriptions are to be found in
Folk-Lore. Vol. 10, pp. 186 ff., has photographs of a Warwickshire play.
4 Chambers, “The Mediaeval Stage,” vol. 1, p. 218.
5 Written down by Kelly in 1863, “Notices of Gloucester,” pp. 53-56.
Reprinted by Billson, “Folk-Lore of Leicestershire and Rutland,” 1895,
p. 130; by Manly, “Specimens of the Pre-Shaksperean Drama,” 1897,
vol. 1, pp. 289-292; and by Chambers, “The Mediaeval Stage,” 1901, vol.
2, Appendix K.
Beatty — The St. George, , or Mummers’, Plays. 277
the Prince. In the Warwickshire play,1 the Turkish Knight
fights with St. George and is- killed. Father Christmas
revives him. Again he is killed, and Dr. Brown revives
him. In one Oxford play,2 the Dragon enters; they all
fight, and the Doctor — Old Doctor Ball — revives all hut the
Dragon, whom he kills. In the other Oxford play,3 St. George
alone is wounded. This is also true of the Middlesex play.4
In one Dorset play5 St. Patrick kills Captain Bluster1; St.
George kills the Gracious King, General Y alentine and Colonel
Spring ; and the Irish Doctor revives all of them. Old Father
Christmas kills Old Bbt, his wife, and the Doctor revives
her. In another Dorset play,6 the hero is King George, and
he performs equally valiant deeds. In a play of uncertain
locality,7 Prince George kills the Dragon and is himself killed
by the Turkish Knight, Alexander. Then he is revived, and
kills Alexander. In another,8 the Dragon is killed and revived.
In still another9 King George is killed and revived.
Whence came this- play? The most obvious answer is that
of Mr. A. W. Pollard10 that the influence of the old piSay of
St. George is traceable. Unfortunately the old play does not
exist, though Warton11 says that a miracle play of St. George
was enacted in a field in 1511. Mr. Chambers shows that a
play alleged by Collier12 to- have been given by Henry Y. to
the Emperor Sigismund was in reality a sotelte, or large cake.
However, a play on the subject of St. George was written by
i Folk-Lore, vol. 10, pp. 186 ff.
25 Notes and Queries, vol. 2, p. 503; Manly, “Specimens,” vol. 1, pp.
289 ff.
3 6 Notes and Queries, vol. 12, p, 489.
4 2 Notes and Queries , vol. 10, p. 466.
5 Folk-Lore Record, vol. 3, p. 92.
e Folk-Lore Record, vol. 3, p. 102.
7 Archaeologist, vol. 1, p. 176.
s Folk-Lore Record , vol. 3, part 1, pp. 113-114.
9 Folk-Lore Journal, vol. 4, p. 97.
10 “English Miracle Plays,” 2d ed., 1895, p. lix, note 2.
11 “History of English Poetry,” vol. 3.
12 “Annals of the Stage,” vol. 1, p. 29.
278 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts , and Letters.
William Smith about 1623, which is mentioned by Warburton,
and was unfortunately burned with other manuscripts by War-
burton’s cook. The title was St. George for England , and it
seems to have followed the story of St. George’s life rather
closely.1 This is true of the description of Cbllier’s cake,
which seems to have represented the chief events in the saint’s
life.
Ten Brink says:2 “The play of St. George was widely
spread in Eingland, and was usually performed on St. John’s
Day, when a solemn procession was formed. In many places
this drama may have absorbed the remains of native traditions
of a very early date.”
The processions, or “ridings,” spoken of by ten Brink, are
well attested by records. For instance, in 1536 we find at
Leicester the guild was paid four shillings “for dressing the
dragon.”3
Chambers gives references to others4 — to Norwich, Coventry
(1474, 1498), Stratford, Chester, York -and Dublin, as well
as to Lydd and Bassingbourne (1577, on St. Margaret’s D'ay).
We know that a play on the subject of St. George was given
in the fifteenth century in Germany,5 and that one on St.
George and St. John was presented in 1497 — 1498. 6 A St.
George play was also given in Turin in 1427. 7 A similar play
was given in Paris about 1422, and another at Nevers in
1428. 8 In all these instances the play deals with the saint as
he is known in the later hagiological writings.
Thus, while we know a good deal regarding the St. George
“ridings,” our knowledge of the dramas on the subject of St.
George is extremely meagre ; but it is certain that the life of
1 Fleay, “Chronicle of the English Drama,” vol. 2, p. 251.
2 “English Literature,” vol. 2, p. 293.
s Billson, “Leicestershire Folk-Lore,” p. 110.
4 “The Mediaeval Stage,” chap. 10.
s Keller, “Fastnachts’spiele,” nos. 125-126.
e W. Creiznach, “G-eschichte des neueren Dramas,” vol. 1, p. 231.
7 Creiznach, vol. 1, p. 231; D’Ancona, “Storia della Litteratura Itali-
ana,” p. 104.
s Petit de Julleville, “Les Mysteres,” vol. 2, pp. 10, 644.
Beatty —The St. George , or Mummers’ \ Plays. 279
the saint m!ust have been very well known in Elngland. He ap¬
pears in the old English Martyrology of the ninth century;1
and he displaced St. Eidward as the patron saint of England
in 1349. Moreover, his legend was read in the churches on
the Sunday before his day (April 23).
I give a part of this as it actually reached the ears of the
people about the middle of the fifteenth century in Gloucester¬
shire.2 It also has the advantage of briefly putting before us
the main incidents in the legend. The most complete form of
the later, or “canonical,” version is found, of course, in
Jacob a Voraigne.3
1 E. E. T. S. Ed. Herzfeld, 1900. Only the martyrdom appears.
The dragon is a later accretion. Professor J. E. Matzke finds that the
legend of St. George is mentioned as early as 494, when it was pro¬
nounced apocryphal and not worthy of credence, by Pope Gelasius.
Professor Matzke shows that the earlier forms of the story contained
only the tortures and death of the Saint, and that the Dragon came in
after the composition of the “Legenda Aurea” in the thirteenth cen¬
tury — ‘‘Contributions to the History of the Legend of St. George,” in
Publications of the Modern Language Association , vol. 17, pp. 464-535,
vol. 18, pp. 99-171; “The Legend of St. George; Its Development into a
Roman d’Aventure;” 1, c., vol. 19? pp. 449-478. See also E. S. Hartland.
“The Legend of Perseus,” vol. 3, passim, with references’.
2 Sidney Hartland, “County Folk-Lore: Gloucestershire.” F. L. S.,
1895.
3 “Legenda Aurea,” lviii. The story of St. George is’ epitomized in
E. S. Hartland, “The Legend of Perseus,” 3 vote., 1894-1896, vol. 3,
pp. 38-40. Also S. Baring-Gould, “Curious Myths of the Middle Ages,”
p. 301; W. A. Clouston, “Popular Tales and Fictions,” 2 vols., 1887, vol.
1, pp. 155-157. In connection with Mr. Hartland’s statement that he
does not find this class of legend below a rather advanced grade of cul¬
ture, it may be worth while to call attention to the Wollunqua myth
of the North Central Australians (Spencer and Gillen, “Northern
Tribes of Central Australia,” 1904, chap. 7.) This Wollunqua monster is
a huge serpent who lives in a certain pool; and the natives live in
constant dread of it. There is a tradition that it once came out and
destroyed a number of people, but it was driven off. Here are all the
elements of the St. George legend, except the hero and his sword. The
Australian monster was driven off by being pelted with stones, and he
is less’ systematically voracious. But the courteous hero and system
are the inventions of civilization.
280 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences (, Arts, and Letters.
DE FO STI GEORGIJ [Of the Feast of St. George].
Gode men & wymen suche a day &c. ze shull have the feest
of Seynt George the whiche day ze shull come to chyrche i the
worshyp of God & of his hooly martyr Seynt George . that
bouzte hys day ful der for we rede I hs lyf thfc thr was an
orrybul dragd bysyd5 a cyte th‘ was called Syrene of the
whych dragd me of the cyte wer so aferd th* by cousel of th*
kyng uche day thy zyue hym a sheep & chyld for to ete for he
shulde not com ito the cyte to ete he . thene whe all the
chyldre of the cyte wer ete . for encheso th* (*) the kyng zaf he
th* cousel thy const’ynede hym th‘ had but oon dawzt1’ for to
zeve hur to the dr ago as thy had zeve her chyldre before thene
the kyng for fere of the pepul wepyng & gret sorow makyng
delyv’ed he hys dowgt1 in her beste aray . & thy sette her in
the place the as they wer woned to sette her chyldre to
abyde the dragd & a sheep w‘ hur . but thene by the ordynace
of God Seynt George coom rydyng that way . & whe he syz
the aray of the mayde he thouzte wel th4 hoe shulde be a
womd of g* worshyp & asked hur why .hoe stode th’r w* so
moornyng chere . thene onswered hoe & sayde . gentul knygt
wel may I moorne & be of heve cher th* a akyng dowztr &
now am set her to be an orrybul dragon5 p’ye th* ete all the
chyldre of ths cyte . & for all they be ete now mot I be ete
also . for my fadr gaf he that cousel . & th5fore gentul
knyzt go hen5 faste & save thy self lest he lese the as he
wol me . Damysel q5 George th* wer gte shame to me th‘ am a
knyzt wel arayed zyf I shulde fie & thu th* art a womd abyde .
thene w* thys word anoo the orybu worme putte up hys hed
spyttyng fyr owt of hs mowth & p’fered batel to George .
thene made George a c5sse by fore hym & rood at hym w* hys
spere w* suche a mygte th* he bar down the dragd to the yrthe .
thene bad he the damysel tye hir girdul abowt hs nekke &
lede hym aft1' hur into the cyte . thene the dragd sued hur
forth as h‘ had ben a getul hownd mekely w*out any mysdoyng .
but whe the pepul of the cyte syz the dragd come they flowen
uche mon ito hujue (2)for ferde . thene George called the pepul
ageyn & bad he not be aferd . for zyf they wolde beleue i
Crst & take C’stedome he wold slen hym before hem anoo & so
1 Because.
2 Hiding.
Beatty — The St. George, or Mummers’ , Plays. 281
delyvere he of ne enimy . thene wer they all so glad th’
twenty 1000 of me w*owte wyme & chyldre were fulwed anoo
fyrst the kyng & al hys howshold w* hym . And thene he
slowz the drago & bad hem to tye to hym oxon & drawe hym
owt of the cyte th* tee savor of hym shnlde not greve hem .
& then he bad the kyng bylde church’ fast in uche cornel
of the lond & be lusty to here godd’ servyse & do honor to all
me of hooly chyrche & evermoore have minde & copassion of
all that wer nedy & pore1 .
Such is the pious legend, and in this form it appears in
more than one place in Europe. Mr. Hartland, in his study of
the Legend of Perseus,2 finds it in Marchen3 and Saga,4 and
traces a similar rescue story all over Eiurope, Asia and the
bTorth of Africa. I find the story of St. George in a Danish
ballad in which the saint is called our Lady’s Knight; and
the. story is told in strict accord with the legend.5 The story
does not occur in any English popular ballad, so far as I know,
but in several instances the saint is spoken of familiarly and as
our Lady’s Knight.6 I am not aware of any English folk-tale
which embodies the legend; but a similar story is told in Ire¬
land, concerning Cfichullain and the Wooing of Elmer.
But even though the story of St. George does not appear in
Elngland either as popular ballad or folk-tale, there is no manner
of doubt that it was very well known. There is, therefore, no
need of presupposing a literary play of St. George in order
to account for a St. George play among the people. It seems
more likely that the saint may have stepped directly out of
the church story into the popular play.
1 Cited in “A New History of Gloucestershire,” Cirencester, printed
by Samuel Rudder, 1779, p. 461, note.
2 3 vols., 1894-1896.
s L c., vol. 1, p. 68.
4 L. c., vol. 3, pp. 38-47.
s Grundtvig, “Gamle Danske Volkeviser,” No. 103, vol. 2, pp. 559 ft.
e See Child, “English and Scottish Popular Ballads’.” Illustrations to
“Battle of Otterburne,” etc. — Index. I am perfectly well aware that
the two opening poems of the third book of Percy’s “Reliques of An¬
cient Poetry” are “The Birth of St. George” and “St. George and the
Dragon;” but these are late and are not popular in tone.
282; Wisconsin Academy of Science Arts , and Letters.
However, there are some difficulties; Jeven in this simple
hypothesis. According to the church legend, St. George does
not marry the rescued maiden. Instead he gives the would-be
father-in-law some sound orthodox advice and leaves. But in
the Lutterworth play St. George proclaims:
“I slew the fiery dragon and brought him to the slaughter,
And won the King of Elgypt’s only daughter.”
The daughter here referred to, Sabra by name, herself ap¬
pears in the C'ornish play, but does not speak.
These lines and this incident cannot have been derived from
the church legend, but must have come from some other
source. The word “won” may mean merely “rescued” or
“won from the dragon,” but the other meaning seems the more
probable one.
In the classical and all the secular forms of the story the
marriage of rescuer and rescued is an important feature, and
this antimonastic detail appears in the play. It may be merely
a change in accordance with the folk-feeling of the appropriate
ending, or it may come from a form of the story which the
churchly legend displaced. In spite of the difficulties, however,
it seems clear that St. George and his Dragon, in the form in
which we know them, came from the hagiological story.
The Doctor, too, under his various names, may be traced in
part to definite written sources. An important part of his
speech is his boasting and his hard bargaining. He has
traveled far and his powers are great, and he will not sell his
experience for nothing. The position of St. George or of the
person or persons who are dead is a somewhat awkward one,
and so the doctor is in a position to drive a hard bargain.1
Almost the very speech that occurs in some of the folk-plays,
occurs in an early Latin play on the Resurrection, preserved in x
MS. of the twelfth century at Tours. The three Marys are at the
tomb and they wish to purchase an unguent (unguentum) for
i In some forms of the legend the Magician Anastasius appears and
opposes his magic to St. George’s supposed magic power. It is diffi¬
cult to see how Anastasius could be the original of the Doctor. Anas-
tas’ius does not resuscitate any one. See Matzke, op. cit., vol. 17, PP.
467-475; vol. 18, pp. 481-484, for the part played by Anastasius.
Beatty — The St. Georg o} or Mummers' , Plays. 283
the body of Christ. The Mercator praises his wares and holds
out for a high price:
“Quo si corpus posse tis unguere,
Non amplius posset putre score,
Neque vermes possent eommedere,”
he proclaims; and at last consents to accept* “unum auri
talentum.”1
Another. case is in a French play, f(Les Trois Maries pre¬
served in a MS. of the end of the thirteenth century at Paris.
The merchant asks five gold besants for his ointment and ac¬
cepts two.2 In a German play of the twelfth century3 almost
the same words are used, and the medicine dealer says that his
salves will bring the dead to life again. The Doctor also ap¬
pears in another German play and haggles over the price of his
wonderful wares.4 In the most thorough examination of this
scene, its sources are traced to Provengal and Italian plays; and
in its earliest form it seems, always to occur in connection with
the three Marys. Those plays which have the Doctor dis¬
sociated from the Marys seem to be later.5 Nevertheless, it
1 E. de Coussemaker, “Drames Liturgiques” (1861), pp. 38-39.
no. 3.
2 Coussemaker, 1. c., pp. 272-273.
3 C. W. M. Grein, "Alsfel'der Passionspiel,” 1874.
4 F. J. Mone, “Altdeutsche Schauspiele,” 1841; R. C. Prutz, “Geschich-
te des1 deutschen Theaters,” 1847, p. 123. The play is given in
W. Wackernagel, “Altdeutsches Lesebuch,” 1880, cols. 501-510.
The Benediktbeuer Passion Play is printed in Schmeller, “Carmina
Burana” (1847), and in R. Froning, “Das Drama des Mittelalters,”
vol. 1, pp. 284 ff.
The scene occurs also in “The Play of the Sacrament,” Transactions
of the Philological Society, 1860-61. This play dates from about 1461,
according to its editor, “W. S.”
s Richard Heinzel, “Abhandlungen zum altdeutschen Drama,” Wien,
1896. For references and sources see the whole chapter, “Ueber das
Medicusspiel und die lustige Person in dem altdeutschen Drama.”
chap. 6.
Wilhelm Wundt, “Volkerpsychologie,” 2 Band, 1 Teil, pp. 486-495,
has a searching discussion of the Doctor and his’ allies. Wundt notes
that embryonic forms of the clown, or mimus, occur among savages
(p. 491).
The most exhaustive treatment of the mimus is Hermann Reich, “Der
284 Wisconsin Academy of Science isr, Arts, and Letters.
seems not improbable that Oreiznach’s opinion that the origin
of the speech is a popular one, is correct,* 1 despite the fact that
no ultimate source, literary or popular, has so far been dis¬
covered. In the pages that follow, there will be found a good
deal of evidence that the Doctor and his speech were invented
by the people in their communal ceremonies.
“George a Green,” and his kind, in the popular ceremonials,
with their grotesque costumes and extravagant speeches, seem
to be the direct forerunners of the Doctor in the St. George
plays. In any case, the Doctor and his speech were in circula¬
tion as early ais the twelfth century at least, and we may grant
borrowing on the part of the English plays, without enforcing
the possibility that the French and other plays may have bor¬
rowed from folk-plays, as Creiznach’s opinion suggests.
Let us grant, then, that St. George and his. Dragon, and
the Doctor’s characteristic speech all come from the regular
liturgical drama, and from church legend, by the plain and
simple way of borrowing. There remain still greater diffi¬
culties :
(1) In borrowing the St. George legend, the performers of
the folk-dramas have altered one of its most essential features.
In the St. George story, and in all the related stories,2 the
hero fights and conquers a dragon, or worm, or monster; in
no case is he himself killed.3 In the plays, ,on the other hand,
Mimus: Ein Literatur-Entwickelungsgeschichtlicher Versuch,” 2 vols.,
1903.
It is worth while to note that the “Doctor” appears in the all-com¬
prehending comic world of Moliere, in “L’ Amour Medecin,” Act II,
Scene 7, under the name of VOperateur. The cure-all is called or-
vietan; and though worth more than all the gold in the world, is sold
for “une piece de trente sols.”
1 W. Creiznach, “Geschichte des neueren Dramas,” vol. 1, p. 120.
2 Hartland, “The Legend of Perseus,” passim.
3 This refers only to the later type of St. George legend. In the
earliest form St. George is killed from three to four times and is resus¬
citated. This type is the apocryphal form of the legend, and one
which the church attempted to suppress. It certainly lived on and in¬
fluenced the Latin forms of the legend in the Middle Ages, The death
Beatty — The St. George, or Mummers’ , Plays. 285
St. George is killed as often as he conquers. Moreover, the
-struggle is sometimes a melee , and there is a general slaughter.
In many of the plays, the dragon does not appear at all. Thus
there is every evidence that the St. George incident is very
ronghly laid on over some older story, which evidently did not
place any special stress on the death of any particular person
or persons.
(2) This brings us to the second important point of differ¬
ence between legend and play. We admitted that the char¬
acteristic speech of the Doctor might easily he borrowed from
the liturgical plays; but we cannot say the same thing of his
characteristic act. Here, too, we come to the one constant and
central incident of the St. George plays — the revivification of
all the persons who were killed. In none of the liturgical
plays does snch an incident appear, nor does there seem to be
any idea, even the most remote, of snch an outcome in any of
the English guild plays. The whole incident is absent from
all the liturgical and ecclesiastical plays. Neither the plays in
Ooussemaker, nor any of the German plays that I have been
able to examine, nor any plays in the York, Coventry, Dublin,
Digby, Towneley, Chester or Beverley cycles have the ele*
ments out of which the constant and most characteristic in-
f
cident in the Mummers’ plays could by any possibility have
been developed.
What, then, is the source of the Doctor and his revivifying
medicine? To answer this, let us remove from the play the
comparatively recent accretion of the St. George element. We
have now a play the central act of which is a death or deaths ,
with or without a struggle or fight , and followed by the revivi¬
fication of all the dead by a leader , or a Doctor. This play
brings us to ground that is very familiar to the student of
of St. George in the plays may thus be a memory of this earlier form
of the story. But this will not explain many of the details’ of the play.
In the plays the one who habitually resuscitates is not St. George, but
the Doctor. Even if one were to grant that the revivification incident
passed from the legend to the play, there would still remain to be ex¬
plained the great popularity of the incident, its frequent dissociation
from St, George in the play, its constant association with a combat,
and its ultimate origin.
286 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts , and Letters.
European folk-lore and anthropology. It in no way points to
literary sources, but to purely popular ceremonies which are
still to be observed in many parts of Europe, and are to be met
with in various forms wherever the savage or the peasant is to
be found.1 In brief, we have in plain sight the ceremonies and
practices which have been studied so carefully for Europe by
Grimm2 and Mannhardt,3 and the Eturopean and savage prac¬
tices, in their world-wide distribution, which have been more
recently studied by Mannhardt’ s disciple, Frazer.4 This field
has drawn to it many students of_ late, prominent among whom
are EL V. Anichkof,5 who has considered the ritualistic songs
of the Slavs and the attendant ceremonies, and, on the basis of
a very wide comparative study, has done much to show that the
origin of poetry is in the primitive ceremony.6
The idea, or ideas, at the basis of all these ritualistic cere-
monies is the efficacy of sympathetic and imitative magic. As
Frazer says:
“The general explanation which w'e have been led to adopt
of these and many similar ceremonies is that they are, or were
in their origin, magical rites intended to ensure the revival of
nature in spring. The means by which they were supposed
to effect this end were imitation and sympathy. Led astray by
his ignorance of the true causes of things, primitive man be¬
lieved that in order to produce the great phenomena of nature
on which his life depended he had only to imitate them, and
that immediately by a secret sympathy or mystic influence the
little drama which he acted in forest glade or mountain dell,
1 See J. G. Frazer, “The Golden Bough,” vol. 2, pp. 190-192; and
Yrjo Hirn, “The Origins of Art,” 1900, pp. 283 ff.
2 Jakob Grimm, “Deutsche Mythologie.” English translation by
Stallybrass.
s W. Mannhardt, “Wald- und Feldkulte,” new ed., 1904.
4 “J. G. Frazer, “The Golden Bough,” 3 vols., 2d ed., 1901.
s “Ves’ennyaya Obryadovaya Pyesnya na Zapadye e u Slavyan'r
(Spring Ceremonial Songs in the South and Among the Slavs), St.
Petersburg, 1903. Part 1, “From Ceremonial to Song,” alone is pub¬
lished.
e His formula is: “From Ceremony to Song,” and “From Song to
Poetry.”
Beatty — The St. George ^ or Mummers’ , Plays. 287
on desert plain or wind-swept shore, would be taken up and
repeated by mightier actors on a vaster stage. He fancied
that by masquerading in leaves and flowers he helped the bare
earth to clothe herself with verdure, and that by playing the
death and burial of winter he drove that gloomy season away,
and made smooth the path for the returning spring. . .We may
smile at his vain endeavors if we please, but it was only by mak¬
ing a long series of experiments, of which some were almost inev¬
itably doomed to failure, that man learned from experience the
futility of some of his attempted methods and the fruitfulness
of others. After all, magical ceremonies are nothing but ex¬
periments which have failed and which continue to be repeated
merely because, for reasons which have already been indi¬
cated,1 the operator is unaware of their failure. With the ad¬
vance of knowledge these ceremonies either cease to be per¬
formed altogether or are kept up from force of habit long after
the intention with which they were instituted has been for¬
gotten. Thus fallen from their high estate, no longer re¬
garded as solemn rites on the punctual performance of which
the welfare and even the life of the community depended, they
sink gradually to the level of simple pageants, mummeries, and
pastimes, till in the final stage of degeneration they are wholly
abandoned by older people, and, from having once been the
most serious occupation of the sage, become at last the idle
sport of children. It is in this final stage of decay that most of
the old magical rites of our Ekiropean forefathers linger on
at the present day, and even from this, their last retreat, they
are fast being swept away by the rising tide of those multitud¬
inous forces, moral, intellectual, and social, which are bearing
mankind onward to a new and unknown goal.”2
1 Vol. 1, pp. 78 ff.
2 “The Golden Bough,” vol. 1, pp. 110-112. Of the relations’ between
ceremonial and myth ho says:
“We shall probably not err in assuming that many myths, which we
now know only as myths, had once their counterpart in magic ; in other
words,, that they used to be acted as a means of producing in fact the
events they describe in figurative language. Ceremonies’ often die out
while myths survive, a.nd thus we are left to infer the dead ceremony
from the living myth.” L. c., vol. 2, pp. 164-165.
288 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts, and Letters .
Frazer1 states that in this explanation he is following in the
footsteps of Wannhardt, and notes that Mannhardt’s conclu¬
sions have been not a little confirmed by magical ceremonies
which are practiced in Central Australia for the purpose of
awakening the dormant energies of nature at the approach of
spring. We can say more than this, that not only in Australia,
but in America, Africa and Oceania magical ceremonies are
employed which point to beliefs similar to those which seem
to lie at the basis of the European spring ceremony. The
death and resurrection are not associated with the magic spring
ceremony alone. They occur in a totally different class,
namely, in the initiation rites of various peoples. In these
rites, the end is not favorable weather, but a new person, and,
to meet this end, the novice dies and is revived, receives a new
name, and is a new person. To be sure, death is not always
simulated; but where it is not, some act symbolical of the new
birth is performed.
In this paper we shall consider: (1) The European cere¬
monies; (2) the Australian magic food ceremonies; (3) the
Australian and Oceanic initiation ceremonies ; (4) the Ameri¬
can initiation ceremonies, and (5) the American agricultural
and related ceremonies.
I.
EUROPEAN CEREMONIES.
As might be expected, the accounts of ceremonies in Ancient
Europe are meagre, but Grimm2 has gathered many references
to them from classical writers, poems1, and various other
sources. When a people has endured “the drums and tramp¬
ling of three conquests!,” and lias been exposed 1x> centuries
of time, — that “grim wolf,” who' “with privy paw daily de¬
vours apace, and nothing said,” it is a marvel that anything
like ceremonies and traditions should remain ; and the fact
that so much does remain is an eloquent testimony to the
tenacity of custom and tradition.
1 “The Golden Bough,” vol. 1, p. 113.
2 “Deutsche Mythologie.” Unfortunately, the very suggestive book
by Professor Albrecht Dieterich, “Mutter Erde: ein Versuch tiber
Volksreligion,” 1905, came to hand too late for adequate mention.
Beatty — The St. George f or Mummers’ , Plays. 289
Left us take an example from practices which still live.
“In Little Russia it used to he the custom at Elastertide to
celebrate the funeral of a, being called Kostrubonko, the deity
of the spring. A circle was formed of singers, who moved
slowly around a girl who lay on the ground as if dead, and as
they went they sang:
‘Dead, dead is our Kostrubonko!
Dead, dead is our dear one V
until the girl suddenly sprang up, on which the chorus joy¬
fully exclaimed :
‘Come to life, come to life has our Kostrubonko !
Oome to life, come to life has our dear one P m
In some parts of Swabia some one pretends, to be killed and
to come to life again. On Shrove Tuesday Dr. Ironbeard pro¬
fesses to bleed a sick man who thereupon falls as dead to the
ground, but the doctor at last restores him to life by blowing
air into him through a tube.* 2
In Saxony and Thuringen there is a Whitsuntide ceremony,
called “chasing the Wild Wan out of the bush,” or “fetching
the Wild Wan out of the wood.” A young fellow enveloped
in leaves or moss is called the Wild Wan. He hides in the
wood and the other lads of the village go- out to seek him.
They find him, lead him captive out of the wood, and fire at
him with blank muskets. He falls as if dead to the ground,
but a lad dressed as a doctor bleeds him, and he comes to life
again.3 In Dauphine, on the first of Way the young people
clothe in leaves a youth whose bride or sweetheart has left him.
He lies down on the ground and pretends, to. go to; sleep. Then
a maiden who likes him, and is willing to marry him, comes,
awakes him, raises him up, and offers him her arm and a
banner.4 In some ceremonies the resurrection is represented
iW. R. S. Ralston, “Songs of the Russian People,” p. 221; E. V.
Anichkov, “Spring Ceremonial Songs,” p. 340.
2 F. J. Wiedemann, “Aus dem inneren und aus, seven Leben der Ehs-
ten.” (In Frazer, vol. 1, p. 82.)
3 Mannhardt, 1. c., vol. 1, pp. 335-336.
4 Mannhardt, 1. c., vol. 1, p. 434 (Maibraut).
2— S. & A.
290 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts , and Letters.
I,V„.
by a procession,, as in the Bohemian ceremony. The young
girls go out to the woods, cut down a young tree, ornament it,
and come marching back to the village singing :
“Death we carried out of the village,
Summer we carry into the village.”1
In still other ceremonies the resurrection is simply an¬
nounced, but the idea of the revived spring is as strongly in
mind as in those in which it is clearly represented.2
Thus far we have directed our attention only to the death
and resurrection incident. Let us now take some cases which
are representative of their class, and which illustrate another
incident in the St. George play. We noticed that there is
a struggle and sometimes a melee in the play, and this is illus¬
trated in many of the folk-ceremonies. In the region of the
Middle Rhine a representative of summer clad in ivy combats
a representative of winter clad in straw or mioss and finally
gains a victory over him.3 In Bavaria the same drama used to
be acted on the same day. Summer was dressed up in green and
carried a blossom or a little tree hung with apples or pears, and
Winter was muffled up in furs and carried a snow shovel or a
flail. They and their retinues struggled, and Winter was beaten
and driven out. In some parts of Bavaria the1 boys who play
Winter and Summer engage in a war of words before they como
to blows. The dialogue is in verse and each character vaunts
his own season. A few couplets may serve as specimens:
summer.
“Green, green are the meadows wherever I pass,
And the mowers are busy among the grass.”
WINTER.
“White, white are the meadows wherever I go,
And the sledges glide hissing across the snow.”
1 Mannhardt, 1. c., vol. 1, p. 156.
2 This class of ceremony is well represented in Frazer, 1. c., vol. 1,
pp. 70-91. See Mannhardt, 1. c., vol. 1, passim.
s Frazer, 1. c., vol. 1, p. 99.
Beatty — The St. George , or Mummers' , Plays. 291
SUMMER.
“I am the Summer in white array,
I am chasing the Winter far, far away.”
WINTER.
“I am the Winter in mantle and furs,
I?m chasing the Summer o’er hushes and burs.”
SUMMER.
“O Winter, your chatter no more! can I stay,
I’ll kick and I’ll cuff you without delay.”
Then follows a scuffle between the characters, in which Sum¬
mer wins, and turns Winter out of doors. But soon the beaten
Winter peeps in at the door and says with a humbled and crest¬
fallen air:
“O Summer, dear Summer, I’m under your ban,
For you are the master and I am your man.”
To which Summer replies in a peaceable fashion.1 In the
Isle of Man the Queem of May and the Queen of Winter en¬
gage in a mock battle.2
The constant use of leaves or green branches has an import¬
ant bearing on the dress of the actors in some of the St. George
plays. The “armor” is made of tissue paper, and this has
been supposed by some to represent the scale of the dragon.
But the contention of Gomme3 that the “armor” represents
leaves is almost overwhelmingly proven by a consideration of
decorations used in the folk ceremonies. In nearly all the
ceremonies we have described, green branches form an import¬
ant part of the dressi, and in some they form a very striking
feature of the ceremony. On St. George’s day in Oarinthia
the chief figure is “Green George,” clad in green branchesu
1 In Frazer, 1. c., vol. 1, pp. 99-101. Others of a similar nature are
cited in these and the following pages.
2 L. c., vol. 1, p. 103.
3 Nature, Dec. 23, 1897.
292 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts , and Letters.
At the end of the ceremony the effigy of St. George is thrown
into the water.1 The same figure appears in Transylvania
and Koumania:. Oln these costume® of leave® and the attendant
ceremonies Mannhardt and Frazer have collected a great deal
of evidence.2 A study of this mass of testimony will convince
one that the connection between the leave® of these ceremonies
and the tissue paper “scaled armor” is complete.
Even from the comparatively few European folk-ceremonies
I have cited, it must seem rather clear1 that these are very close
to the central incident® of the St. George plays.. This impres¬
sion will be strengthened when we consider how widely such
ceremonies and beliefs have been spread over Europe in all
age®. Again Frazer presents us with a mass of evidence in
his study of the death and resurrection of Adonis,3 of Attis,4
of Osiris,5 of Dionysus,6 of Demeter and Proserpine;7 and in
his study of the Lityrses.8
Further, we may say that these beliefs go more deeply into
savagery than anything else that can be observed in Europe;
and in strangely similar rites among savages we catch a
glimpse of what the European ceremonies must have been in
past ages, before civilization drove them from among the more
progressive classes to the backward and ignorant of our own
time. To these ceremonies we shall now direct our attention.
II.
AUSTRALIAN FOOD (OR INTICHIUMA) CEREMONIES.
We shall base our investigations upon the reports of reput¬
able observers, who have lived among the people for a consid-
1 Frazer, 1. c., vol. 1, pp. 209 ft.; Mannhardt, “Wald- und Feldkulte,”
vol. 1, pp. 313 ff.
2 Mannhardt, 1. c., vol. 1, pp. 311-341; Frazer, 1. c., chap. 1, especially
pp. 166-224.
3 L,. c., vol. 1, pp. 115-130.
4L. c., vol. 1, pp. 130-137.
6L. c., vol. 1, pp. 137-160.
e L. c., vol. 1, pp. 160-168.
7L. c., vol. 1, pp. 168-222.
« L. c., vol. 1, pp. 222-261.
Beatty — The St. George j, or Mummers’ , Plays. 293
erabl© time. This is a very important matter, for the casual
traveler has no authority to speak. We choose for special
consideration the great works of Spencer and Gillen/ hooks
which are acknowledged to he the best that have ever been
published on a primitive or savage people.1 2
These people the authors describe as very primitive, having
no notion of the causes of very simple matters. For this
reason the book is valuable, as being the description of one of
the most nearly primitive of all peoples.
We shall first consider the first class of magic ceremonies,
and then the second, or initiation, class.
The first, class is very important among the Australians,
because each totem group takes upon itself to procure for the
tribe a plentiful supply of its totem, and to- this end they per¬
form ceremonies that are based on imitative magic. We shall
summarize a part of Spencer and Gillen’s account, beginning
with the Witchetty Grub ceremony. The witchetty grub is
an important article of food among the Arunta tribes. The
ceremony has constant reference to the myth of how the first
witchetty grubs were produced in the Alcheringa , or myth
ical period. With these explanations the account will be in¬
telligible.
Eiach totem has its own ceremony, and no two of them are
alike; but though they differ to a very great extent so far as
the actual performance is concerned, the important point is
that one and all have for their sole object the purpose of in¬
creasing the number of the' animal or plant after which the
totem is called; and thus, taking the tribe as a whole, the ob¬
ject of these ceremonies is that of increasing the total food
supply.
Elvery local totemio group has its own Irdichiuma [sacred
ceremony], and each one is held at a time decided upon by the
Alatunja,? under whose direction it is carried out. When the
1 “The Native Tribes of Central Australia,” 1899. “The Northern
Tribes of Central Australia,” 1904.
2 See the reviews of the first work by Gummere, “Modern Philology,”
vol. 1; by J. G. Frazer, Fortnightly Review, vol. 71.
s The head man of a local totemic group.
294 Wisconsin Academy of Science's Arts, and Letters.
ceremony is to be performed, the men assemble at the main
camp, and those who are to take part in the ceremony go away
quietly. Every man leaves all weapons behind him, for all
must go quiet, unarmed and without any decoration of any
kind. Even the hair girdle, the one constant article of clothing
Worn by the men, must be left in camp'. They all wlalk in
single file except the Alatunja , who sometimes takes the lead
and at other times walks by the side of the column to see that
the line is kept. On no account ‘must any of the men, except
the very old ones, eat any kind of food until the whole cere¬
mony is over. Anything that is caught in the way of game
has to be handed over to the old men. They usually start for
the special camping ground late in the afternoon, and remain
there all night. At daylight the party begins to pluck twigs
from the green trees at the mouth of Eimily Gap, and every
man carries a twig in each hand except the Alatunja , who car¬
ries nothing save a small pit chi, or wooden trough, which is
called Apmara. Walking again in single file, they follow1 the
path taken by the celebrated Intwailiuka, the great leader of
the witchetty grubs in the Alcheringa } until they come to a
shallow cave where a large block of quartzite lies, around which
are some small rounded stones. The large block represents the
adult witchetty grub and the small ones the young grubs.
The Alatunja begins singing and taps the stone with his
Apmara , while all the other men tap it with their twigs-, chant¬
ing songs as they do so, the burden of which is an invitation to
the animal to lay eggs. Then they tap the small stones.
Then the Alatunja takes up one of the small stones and strikes
each man in the stomach with it, saying: “You have eaten
much food.” Then he strikes each man in the Stomach with
his forehead. Then they go away to the rock where Intwail¬
iuka used to cook, pulverize and eat the grub. The Alatunja
strikes the rock with his Apmara , and each man does the same
with his twigs, while the older men again chant invitations
to the animals to come from all directions and lay eggs. At
i The fabulous ancestral epoch.
Beatty — The St. Georg & ,f or Mummers' , Plays. 295
the base of the rock, built deeply in the sand, there is supposed
to be a very large Maegwa1 stone.
It was at this spot that Intwailiuka used to stand while he
threw up the face of the rock numbers of Churunja unchinia,
which rolled down again to his feet; accordingly, the Alatunja
does the same with some of the Churunja which have been
brought from the storehouse close by. While he is doing this
the other members of the party run up and down the face of
the rocky ledge, singing all the time.
Once more the line is formed and they got to a pit a mile
and a half away. The Alatunja goes into the hole, which is
four or five feet deep. Soon lie lays bare two stones which
have been carefully covered up, in the base of the hole; the
larger one represents the chrysalis stage from; which emerges
the adult animal ; the smaller one is the egg. While the stones
are exposed to view, songs referring to the stones are sung,
and the stones are solemnly handled and cleansed with the
palm of the hand. One by one the men go into the hole, and
the Alatunja, lifting up the large stone, strikes the stomach
of each man with it, saying again: “You have eaten much
food.7’ Finally, dropping the stone, he butts at each man in
the abdomen with his forehead.
There are altogether some ten of these pits, and all are vis¬
ited. When the round of the pits ( Ilthura ) is made, and the
same ceremony enacted each time, then a start is made for the
home camp. When within a mile or so of the latter, they
decorate themselves. A string is tied around their heads, and
forehead bands are put on, beneath which twigs of a bush on
which the grub feeds ( Udnirringa .) are fixed so that they hang
downwards. Hose bones are thrust through the nasal septum,
and rats7 tails and top-knots of cockatoo' feathers are worn in
the hair. The Alatunja has only the forehead band and the
nose bone. He carries the Apmara (trough) under his arm
and a twig of the Udnirringa' bush in his hand. The totemic
Ilhinia, or sacred design, is painted on the body of each man
with red ochre and pipe clay, and the latter is used to paint the
i The adult insect of the witchetty grub.
296 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts and Letters.
face, except for the median line of red. A start is again made
for the camp* with the Alatunja at the head.
The old man who has been left in charge of the camp has
built a long, narrow wurley, called an U mb ana, which is in¬
tended to represent the chrysalis case from which the Mae gw a,
or fully developed insect, emerges. When the old man sees
the party approaching, he. steps out and sings :
“Ilkna pung Kwai, Yaalan ni nai, Yu mulk la, Ya.an tai
yaa lai.”1
The party all enter the Umbana. They then begin to sing
of the animal in its various stages, of the ATknalinta stone and
the great Maegwa at its base. As soon as the performers enter
the wurley, the P uvula and Kumara (i. e. those who belong to
the other half of the tribe) men and women, lie face down¬
wards, and in this position they must remain until they are
given permission to arise. The singing continues for some
time, then the Alatunja in a squatting position shuffles out of
the Umbana , gliding slowly along over the space in front,
which has been cleared for a distance of some yards. He is
followed by all the mien, who sing of the emerging of the
Maegwa from its case, the Umbana, Slowly they shuffle out
and back again, until all are once more in the wurley, when
the singing ceases, and food and water are brought to them by
the old man who had remained in camp and built the Umbana .
When it is dusk they leave the wurley, and go to a fire, sing¬
ing of the grub. This is kept up until a little before day¬
break, and during all that time the women of the right moiety
(who had been allowed to rise) must stand peering about in
the darkness, to see if the women of the other moiety, over
whom they are supposed to keep watch, continue to lie down.
They also peer about watching the Intichiuma party, just as
the women did in the Alcheringa (i. e. in the fabulous times to
which the myth refers). Suddenly the singing ceases, and
the fire is quickly put out by the Alatunja. This is the signal
for the release of the Purula and Kumara men and women,
i The authors do not translate these words. They are probably
meaningless.
Beatty — The St. George^ or Mummers’, Plays. 297
who run to the main oamp. The Intichiuma party remain at
the wurley until daylight. They then go to the men’s quar¬
ters in the main camp, give the ornaments to the other moiety
of jbhe tribe, rub off their sacred painting, and the ceremony
is brought to a close.1
I have described this ceremony rather fully, as it is repre¬
sentative of its class. It will be noticed how full of detail it
is, and how mimetic each detail is. It is, indeed, a dramatic
history of the birth and development of the grub. At the end,
and as the climax, of the ceremony is the prostration of the
men and women and their final release. In this prostration
death is symbolized, and they awake to a new life in the cer¬
tainty that a supply of witchetty grubs is assured.2
In many of these ceremonies the symbolization of renewal
is merely a state of silence or quiet; but in all cases there is
a definite idea, of the magic power which is supposed to come
from the ceremony. Thus, in the ceremony of the grass-seed
totem in the Kaitish tribe,3 the headman is supposed to be
filled with magic power, and must practice strict continence
during the progress of the ceremony, or all would be spoiled.
In the rain ceremony of the Kaitish tribe continence and si¬
lence are necessary,4 while in others the removedness of the
performers from ordinary life is symbolized by the expulsion
from camp of all who have no part in the ceremony.5 In an¬
other, part of the performers go into1 a wurley and lie face
downward where they have to remain until the ceremony is
1 :L. c., pp. 169-178. See also “The Northern Tribes,” pp. 289-294.
2 Other ceremonies are given by Spencer and Gillen, “The Native
Tribes”: The Intichiuma of the emu totem, pp. 179-188; the Hakea
flower, pip. 184-185; the manna totem, pp. 185-186; the honey ant to¬
tem, pp. 186-189; the important Undiara, the Intichiuma of the kanga¬
roo totem, pp. 193-201. Two traditions are given in connection with
this ceremony on pp. 196-199.
3 “The Northern Tribes,” pp. 291-294.
4 L. c„ p. 295.
5 For instances, see “The Native Tribes,” pp. 179-199; “The Northern
Tribes,” pp. 283-319.
298 Wisconsin Academy of Science % Arts , and Letters.
over.1 But, however the renewal of life is represented, it is
essentially a pantomimic representation of the magical effect
of the ceremony. The remjovedness of the performers from
ordinary life is always emphasized by the elaborate paintings
and masks which are constant accompaniments of all savage
ceremonies.
In several of these ceremonies we find examples of the
mimic contest, which is, so frequently an element of the St.
George plays, and of the Efuropean folk ceremonies. For in¬
stance, in the ceremony of the grass-seed totem already re¬
ferred to>, part of the men go back to their camp sulky, and
seizing their boomerangs throw them at the othejr men who
have received the offering of food. These men guard them¬
selves with shields but make no attempt to retaliate. This
quarrel is of course only a pretence.2 This instance may be
paralleled in many of the ceremonies ; and seems to occur so
frequently that it may be considered as an almost characteris¬
tic accompaniment.3
III.
INITIATION CEREMONIES OF AUSTRALIA AND OCEANIA.
There is still another class of ceremonies which are paral¬
leled among many primitive and savage peoples, — the initia¬
tion ceremonies. This class of ceremony is held when the
youth are initiated into the tribe, or, as the Australians say,
“are made men.” It seems to be a universal idea of primitive
man that the child who is born in the tribe is not of the tribe
until he is formally admitted, and the ceremony in all in¬
stances seems to have reference to the peculiar circumstances
attendant upon the forefathers of the tribe, and to be a re-en¬
actment of these circumstances. The ceremony is thus based
on the belief in imitative magic; for the neophyte, by assum¬
ing the dress and performing the traditional acts of the myth-
1 In the ceremony of the Water Totem, “The Native Tribes',” pp.
189-193.
2 “The Northern Tribes,” p. 292.
s See the references to the works of Spencer and Gillen above.
Beatty — The St. George s, or Mummers’ , Plays. 299
ioal ancestor together with the initiated members of his tribe,
has the powers and privileges which that mythical ancestor
won, or which are characteristic of the tribe. This initiation
further is enacted by a pretended death and resurrection to
typify the birth of the initiate into the tribe. It is also sym¬
bolized by the giving of a new namle, and is indicated by the
belief that the god takes away the initiate from the camp and
re-makes him. Hence, when the death and resurrection are
not enacted, the basal idea is expressed by the expulsion and
recall of the initiate. These ceremonies often extend to great
length and are all of a dramatic nature. The interludes are
dramatic as well as the more sacred portions of them. The
interludes frequently have representations of mimic quarrels
or fights1 very much like the quarrels in the European folk
ceremonies.
The Burbung initiation ceremony of the Wiradthuri tribes
in Australia (as is frequently the case) is an enactment of a
legend (or legends) “intimately connected with the ceremony.”
The legend is briefly this: A long time ago there was a
gigantic and powerful being, something between a black fellow
and a spirit, called Dhuramootan, who was one of Baiami’s
people. His voice was awe-inspiring and resembled the rum¬
bling of distant thunder. At a certain age the boys of the
tribe were handed over to him, that he might instruct them in
the laws and observances of the tribe. When he brought them
back it was always observed that each boy had lost one of his
upper incisor teeth, as a visible sign of his initiation. He
pretended that he killed the boys, cut them up and burned
them to ashes, and then formed new boys, but each with a tooth
missing. But some boys were missing, and the tribe found
that Dhuramoolanj feasted on some of them. They became
angry and destroyed him. Baiami put his voice into all the
trees of the forests. He split open a tree and made a bull-
roarer from it, and it had Dhuramoolan’s voice. Blaiami told
the tribe that in future they must initiate the youths them¬
selves, using the bull-roarer to reproduce Dhuramoolan’s voice.
i Spencer and Gillen, “The Native Tribes,” pp. 293-294.
300 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts, and Letters.
B'aiami thought it best not to inform the women and uniniti¬
ated regarding the change in initiation, but to have them be¬
lieve that Dhuramoolan still came for the youths.
Dhuramoolan had a wife, Moonibear, and she is repre¬
sented in the ceremony by a small bull-roarer, which is heard
in the camp at night by the women, who> know its- peculiar
sound.
The ceremony is the enacting of the story and other similar
ones. The ground is sacred and has Baiami’s image on the
trees and ground. A new name is given the boys, which is
known only to themselves and the initiated men of the tribe.1
In another Australian initiation, the ceremony falls into
parts :
1. The procession, which falls into “stages,” and perform¬
ances accompanying it. They perform pantomimic represen¬
tations, some to amuse, some to instruct, and some to terrify.
2. The magic camp is formed where the knocking out of the
tooth is done, where a constant succession of ceremonies of
pantomimic representations, miagic dances, and “inverted
speech” (i. e., speech where the words convey the opposite of
the usual meaning) continue until morning.
3. The ceremonial performances. — Hear the magic fire the
youths are placed, each with his feet in a pair of holes. The
leader gives a signal and the men who are kneeling by the: fire
raise each his piece of bark and bring it down with a loud re¬
port, and at the same time he and the others surge away from
his end of the row, making a rumbling sound, in imitation of
the surf breaking upon and rushing up the shore ; the other
end man now in his turn strikes the ground, and he and all
the mien surge back with a similar deep sound. This is in¬
tended to represent the thunder from the mountains rolling
back the sound to the sea,. When this, has gone on rhythmi¬
cally for some time, the men begin an excited dance, wdiile the
old man whose office it is to knock out the teeth performs that
ceremony.
l R. H. Matthews, “The Burbling of the Wiradthuri Tribes.” Journal
of the Anthropological Institute, vol. 25, pp. 295-318.
Beatty — The St. George, or Mummers’ , Plays. 301
4. The pantomimic representations. — These are of various
kinds ; some are amusing pieces of buffoonery, others represent
the different totems, and others again are what may he truly
called moral lessons. One represents the doctoring of a sick
child; another a wallaby drive,1 those hunters in ambush al¬
ways missing the prey and being punished in a ludicrous man¬
ner. A totemic representation is the approach of a pack of
dingoes and a dance around the fire. Besides these there are
magic dances.
5. The return. — There are also* certain ceremonies of which
the following may serve as an example. “The procession being
formed, and on the march from the magic camp*, the roaring
of the bull-roarer is heard and a halt is made. The old men,
having carefully cleared a piece of ground, proceed to mould
in earth, in high relief the life-sized figure of a naked man in
the attitude of the dance. He is represented as having his
mouth filled with magic substances, and in the full ceremonies
is surrounded by an assortment of native weapons. This is
Daramulun. The novices are brought and placed in front of
this figure and the dances take place — one to the word Dara¬
mulun , the other to the word Ngatalbal. It is now that the
novices are finally instructed as to this being and his. attributes.
I have heard them told by the principal old man, ‘This is the
Master (B'iamban) who can go anywhere and do* anything.’
They are also cautioned never to reveal this, or to make such a
representation unless at the ceremonies, under pain of death.
“The figure is now carefully covered up*, and the procession
proceeds a further stage on its march, when another halt is
made and the novices are seated at a distance with their
guardians. The old men, meanwhile, disguise several of the
others with stringy bark fibre. During this time a grave is
dug, and one of the old men, lying in it on his back, after the
manner of a corpse, is lightly covered up with sticks and rub¬
bish and earth, and so far as possible the natural appearance
of the ground is restored, the excavated earth being carried
i These are to be noted in connection with certain animal features
of the St. George plays.
302 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts and Letters.
away to a distance. The buried wizard bolds a small bush in
bis band, resting on bis chest; tbe bush appears, therefore, to
be growing in tbe soil2 and other bushes are stuck in tbe soil
to heighten tbe effect. All being ready, the novices are
brought to the edge of the grave. The ‘singer’ is somewhere
close at hand, and the performers at perhaps two hundred
yards’ distance. In the present instance!, the singer com¬
menced a well-marked but melancholy chant, the words of
which are no more than the class name of the buried man, and
the word for the stringy bark fibre used for the disguise. The
performers now commenced to move in a kind of slow dance,
keeping time with the song. The performers in their1 advanc¬
ing line held a small strip of bark in each hand, and by strik¬
ing these together with a sharp sound they marked the time of
the song and of their steps. A little at one side, and advanc¬
ing with them, are two other disguised men, who represent
two very ancient and therefore powerful wizards, by whom
the proceedings are directed. Each one, as signifying his
great age, assists himself in his tottering dance with a staff in
each hand. When the strange procession reached the grave,
it wound round it and ranged itself on the side opposite to the
novices. The song still continued, and then the bush held by
the buried man began to move and to quiver — to move more
and more, until suddenly the earth opened, so to say, and the
wizard rose, and throwing off his concealment, danced his
magic dance in the grave and exhibited his magic substance®.
. . . The ceremony is most impressive. It is1 the bring¬
ing back to life of the dead wizard by other wizards invoking
his class name.”1
In the Kurnai ceremonial the boys are laid asleep and are
awakened by the “Doctor.” When they awake they are men.
This ceremony is described by Howitt in great detail, and is
most instructive.2
1 A. W. Howitt, “On Some Australian Ceremonies of Initiation.”
Journal of the Anthropological Institute , vol. 13, pp. 432-459. This ac¬
count has since been reprinted in his “Native Tribes of Southeast
Australia,” 1905.
2 A. W. Howitt, “The Native Tribes of Southeast Australia,” 1905,
pp. 620-626.
Beatty — The St. George , or Mummers’ , Plays. 303
Mr. Ei. S', Parker saw the natives of Laddon perform the
dance of separated spirits. This does not seem to be an initia¬
tion rite, hut its similarity is instructive.
“Holding houghs in each hand, which were waved in unison
alternately over each shoulder, and dancing for some time in
lines and semicircles, at length they gradually gathered into a
compact, circular body; then, slowly sinking to the ground
and burying their heads under the boughs',' they represented,
according to the statement of the old native 'who was master
of the ceremonies, the approach of death, and in the perfectly
still and motionless posture they maintained for some time the
state of death itself. Then the old man, breaking suddenly
into a new dance, and waving furiously his houghs over the
prostrate mass, gave them the word, and suddenly springing
to their feet, they joined him in his rejoicings, This was ex¬
plained to me as intended to represent the revival of the soul
after death/71
A still earlier observer confirms these accounts in his chap¬
ter on the ceremonies,1 2 Early in the morning the boys are
seized from behind and a bandage is fastened over the eyes of
each. They a[re then led half a mile away from the women
and children, when they are laid on the ground and covered
with a cloak, or skin, so as not to see what is passing among
the adults, who proceed with the ceremony. Three of the per¬
formers limp and groan, until they arrive opposite one of the
boys, upon whom they seize. The individual seized jumps up
and i*uns off at full speed, but he is caught and laid down near
the other boys'. He is now supposed to be in a state of en¬
chantment from which he is aroused by being lifted up by the
ears, at the same time that loud noises are made into them.
In another passage3 the author describes the1 pretended trance
of the initiates, and their “disenchantment,77
These Australian ceremonies may be illustrated from Lori-
1 E. S'. Parker, “The Aborigines of Australia,” 1854. Cited by R.
Brough Smyth, “The Aborigines of Victoria,” vol. 1, p. 167.
2 E. J. Eyre, “Discoveries in Central Australia,” 2 vols., 1845; vol. 2*
pp. 333-334.
s L. c., pp. 336-339.
304 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts f and Letters.
mer Fison’s description of an initiation ceremony in Fiji.1
This instance will also serve as an interesting parallel, not
only to the Australian, but also to the' American instances
which are to follow.
The legend is given in a brief form, which we shall not
quote, but we shall proceed at once to the ceremony. There is a
general feast for four days, and cloth is- given. Then,
“On the morning of the fifth day a huge -feast is prepared,
and when their culinary labors are over, the young men, with
their heads freish shaven, are swathed in the largest and best
rolls of cloth, take in their hands the choicest weapons which
have been reserved for this occasion. Following their leader,
the old Vere (a class-name — the leader) with the graven staff,
their eyes fixed upon the ground that they may tread exactly
in his footsteps, they proceed to the great Nanga as on former
occasions. B)ut where are the men who used to be chanting
there the voice of the Surf ? The great Nanga is deserted and
empty. The procession stops, and a dead silence prevails.
Suddenly, from the forest a harsh scream of many parrots
breaks forth, and then a mysterious booming sound which fills
the young men’s souls with awe. The old Vere now moves
slowly forward, and leads them for the first time into the
Nanga tambutambu. Here a dreadful spectacle meets their
startled gaze. Hear the outer entrance, with his back to! the
Temple, sits the chief priest regarding them with a fixed
stare ; and between him and them lie a row of dead men, cov¬
ered with blood, their bodies apparently cut open, and their
entrails protruding. The Vere steps over them one by one,
and the awe-struck youths follow him until they stand in a
row, their ‘souls drying up’ under his strong glare. Suddenly
he blurts out a great yell, whereupon the dead men start to
their feet and run down to the river to cleanse themselves from
the blood and filth with which they are besmeared. These are
the Vere and the Vunilolo' matua , who represent the departed
ancestors on the occasion, the blood and entrails being those of
i Lorimer Fison, “The Nanga, or Sacred Stone Enclosure, of Waini-
mala, Fiji.” Journal of the Anthropological Institute , vol. 14, pp. 14-30.
Beatty — The St. George J or Mummers' | Flays. 305
many pigs which have ‘f alien for that night’s repast.’ The
scream of the parrots and the mysterious roaring sound were
made by hidden performers, the latter being produced by blow¬
ing strongly into a bamboo trumpet, the mouth of which is
partially immersed in water.
“The dead men having come to life again, the novices offer
their weapons and the bales of native cloth in which they are
swathed. These are removed to the storehouse, and the
young men are made to sit down in front of it. The chief
priest now relaxes the sternness of his demeanor, and becomes
a remarkably lively old gentleman. Dancing to and from one
side of the Nang a to the other, he cries in stridulous tones,
' TJe , cirue , ao, iweil Where are the people of my long a (en¬
closure) ? Are they gone to Tongalevu? Are they gone to Tum-
halevu (the deep sea) V Presently a deep-toned chant is
heard, and the revivified dead, cleansed and ornamented, come
from the river with a rhythmical movement timed to their
solemn chant.”
They eat and drink, and are purified ceremonially, when
the rite is at an end.1
In some of the ceremonies we may notice the incident of the
mimic contest, which is much like the incident in the St.
George play. In the Australian Corrobborees this is a fre¬
quent incident, and we shall now illustrate it.
“The first performance was a war-dance, wherein a variety
of complicated evolutions and savage antics were gone through,
accompanied by a brandishing of clubs, spears, boomerangs
and shields. Suddenly the crowd divided into two parties,
and after a chorus of deafening yells and fierce exhortations,
as if for the purpose of adding to their own and each other’s
excitement, they rushed together in close fight. One division,
i For an account of the “IvTalu” ceremonies in the Torres Straits, see
A. C. Haddon, “Head Hunters, Black, White and Brown,” 1901, chap. 4.
For an account of Brazilian ceremonies, see Karl von den Steinen,
“Unter den Naturvolkern Zentral-Brasiliens,” 1897, chap. 13. Theo¬
dor Waitz, “Anthropologie der Naturvolker” (ed. Gerland, 6 vols.,
1859-1872), is a storehouse of facts.
3— S. & A.
306 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts , and Letters.
shortly giving way, was driven from the field and pursued into
the dark void, where roars and groans, and the sound of blows,
left but little to be imagined on the score of a bloody massa¬
cre.”1
The aborigines of Victoria also have a corrobboree in which
the party breaks up into two divisions, one representing the
black fellow's and the other the whites. After all the appear¬
ance of a desperate fight, the whites are driven back, to the
great joy of the onlookers.2
In another Australian initiation ceremony the boys were
pursued by the men, who1 threw boomerangs at the initiates.
The youths reached the corrobboree ground, and were safe.
They were then freed from the ban of silence.3 In the Bin-
binja tribe a boy was sent away from the camp. He wias then
allowed to return and at sundown he was made to lie down
and was covered with paper bark. His elder brothers fixed a
row of boomerangs upright in the ground in front of the boy,
who still lay quietly down while the performers retired. The
brothers sang around the fire, and at midnight the boy was
awakened and allowed to- see a sacred ceremony.4 In another
ceremony the boy was similarly covered with bark, and was
later uncovered1, as a sign of his admission into the tribe.5
In central Queensland the youth is driven out of the camp
and is brought back again as a sign of his final identification
1 Lieut.-Col. Mundy, “Our Antipodes,” pp. 45-6. In R. Brough Smyth,
“The Aborigines of Victoria,” 2 vols., 1878; vol. 1, p. 175.
2 R. Brough Smyth, 1. c., vol. 1, p. 171.
3 Spencer and Gillen, “Northern Tribes of Central Australia,” p. 363.
4 Spencer and Gillen, “Northern Tribes,” p. 366.
s Spencer and Gillen, “Northern Tribes,” p. 371. These authors give
many examples of these ceremonies. In “The Native Tribes of Central
Australia” they give initiation ceremonies and their traditions on pp.
225-226; 282-286; 288; 293-294; 304-305; 312-316; 318-320; 331-332;
334-337; 338-341 — ’“associated with a curious and rather complicated
tradition”; 360. A full account of the traditions dealing with the
Alcheringa ancestors is given in chapters 10 and 11, pp. 387-449.
The following accounts of ceremonies of initiation will be found in
the Journal of the Anthropological Institute:
A. W. Howitt, “The Jeraeil, or Initiation Ceremonies of the Kurnai
Beatty — The St. George i, or Mummers’ , Plays. 307
with his tribe. In some of the ceremonies of this region the
women engage in a mimic contest.1 In yet another Australian
ceremony the faces of the hoys are covered up. In this cere¬
mony the novitiates must fight their seniors.2
Another, and an earlier, observer describes! the sham hunts
and fights at some initiation ceremonies3 in Australia.
In Africa the ceremony of initiation is carried out in al¬
most the same manner and with the same intention as in the
case of the Australians. “The boys always take a new name,
and are supposed by the initiation process to become new be¬
ings in the magic wood, and on their return to their village at
the end of their course, they pretend to have entirely forgotten
their life before they entered the wood; but this pretence is
not kept up beyond the period of festivities given to welcome
Tribe,” vol. 14, pp. 301-325. The legend and some of the mimetic rep¬
resentations are given, for example, the “opossum game,” which is
the dramatic presentation of an opossum hunt. The realism is ex¬
treme, the tree being represented by a log stood upon end, and the
“opossums” climbed up the tree exactly as the real animals do. This
is true of nearly all these mimetic plays. They outdo the demands of
Bottom and his fellow mechanicals.
A. L. P. Cameron, “Notes on Some Tribes of New South Wales,” vol.
14, pp. 344-370. The dramatic representation is brought out very
clearly, but the legends are not connected with the ceremonies he de¬
scribes. Legends are given on pp. 368-370. These are partly etiolog¬
ical, one giving the origin of fire.
Sir H. H. Johnston, “Initiation Rites on the Congo,” vol. 13, pp. 472
ft. See also Proceedings of Royal Geog. Soo., N. S., vol. 5, p. 572 ff.,
1883. R. H. Mathews, “The Keepaara Ceremony of Initiation,” vol. 26,
pp. 320-340. Godfrey Dale, “Customs and Habits of the Natives In¬
habiting the Bondei Country,” vol. 25, p. 189. In this article the dra¬
matic nature of the ceremony is brought out very clearly. It would
hardly be suspected that a tribe of the hill country of India could bor¬
row customs from the Australians, and yet they are very much alike.
The example is therefore of unimpeachable value.
1 W. E. Roth “Ethnological Studies in the Northwest Central Ab¬
origines,” p. 170.
2 John Matthew, “Eaglehawk and Crow,” 1899, pp. 118-119.
3 G. Hodgkinson, “Australia from Port Macquarie to Moreton Bay,”
1845, pp. 230-235.
308 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts -9 and Letters.
them home. 7,1 North of the Congo the initiates recount mar¬
vels of the ceremony, saying that they were roasted, that they
entirely change their habits and life, and that they receive a
spirit quite different and quite new lights.1 2 In the valley of
the Congo the young men and women fall down in a fit and
are carried away to an enclosed place outside of the town.
They are supposed to have died. But parents and friends
supply food, and the doctor brings them to life again.3
The natives of Bondei cause their boys to pass through a
fire in a pit in which they are supposed to be burned to death.
They are “killed” with a bamboo sword, and the bloody en¬
trails of a fowl are laid on the initiate to frighten the boys
who are looking on.4
IV.
AMERICAN INITIATION CEREMONIES.
We shall now examine the ceremonies of the North Ameri¬
can Indians, a people on a higher plane of culture than the
Australians or the Central Africans. Some of the tribes of
these peoples have been studied with great thoroughness, and a
good example of such study is the monograph by Professor
Franz Boas on the Kwakiutl Indians of British Columbia.5
This excellent work may be supplemented by articles on the
A avahos and Zunis and other Indian tribes in the Journal of
American Folk-Lore and in the American Antliropoiogist, as
well as by other monographs issued under the enlightened su¬
perintendence of the late director of the United States Bureau
of Ethnology, Major J. W. Powell. To these must be added
the work done by the British Association for the Advancement
of Science on the Indian tribes of northwestern Canada, and
1 Mary A. Kingsley, “Travels in West Africa,” p. 531.
2 J. G. Frazer, “The Golden Bough,” vol. 3, p. 428.
s J. G. Frazer, 1. c., vol. 3, pp. 425-426.
4 Godfrey Dale, “The Natives’ of Bondei,” Journal of the Anthropo¬
logical Institute, vol. 25, p. 189.
s Report of the Smithsonian Institution, 1895.
Beatty — The St. George 9 or Mummers' , Plays. 309
many separate works by various authors. To a few) of these
I shall refer in the course of the discussion. For our pur¬
poses the most useful works are those of Dr. Washington
Matthews/ J. Walter Fewkes,1 2 Frank Hamilton Cushing,3
J. O. Dorsey,4 and the work of Boas, previously referred to-.
In all these works the mimetic nature of the ceremonies of
these tribes is brought out very clearly, and the magic nature
of their origin is almost as clear as in the case of those of the
Australian. For instance, one of the best observers says:
“When a man is dressed in his godly costume he does not
speak, he only makes motions and utters a peculiar cry, — each
god has his own special cry, — and he may perform acts on the
patient with his special weapon or talisman. The masquer¬
ader, they say, is, for the time being, no longer a Havaho — but
a god, and a prayer to him is a prayer to a god.”5
The same statement regarding the Zuhi is made by Cushing,
who says that when the costume connected with the god is put
on with the proper ceremonial, the actor in the drama-dance is
the deity he presents, and is possessed of his powers :6 “The
Kaka, or sacred drama dance, is represented by a great variety
of masks and costumes worn by Zuhi dancers during the per¬
formance of this remarkable dramatic ceremony. Undoubt¬
edly many of the traditional characters of the sacred drama
thus represented are conventionalizations of the mythic con¬
ceptions or personifications of animal attributes. Therefore
many of these characters partake of the characteristics, in ap¬
pearance as well as in other ways, of animals and men.
It is believed that through the power of breath communicated
by these ancient gods to men, from one man to another man,
and thus from generation to generation, an actual connection
has been kept up between initiated members of the Kaka
1 “Navaho Legends,” 1897.
2 “The Snake Ceremonials at Walpi.”
3 “Zuhi Folk-Tales,” and articles in the Journal of American Folk-
Lore.
* In the publications' of the Field Columbian Museum.
s Washington Matthews, “Navaho Legends,” p. 47, § 106.
« F. H. Cushing, “Zuhi Folk-Tales,” pp. 229-230.
310 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts , and Letters .
drama and these original demi-god characters which it repre¬
sents; so that when a member is properly dressed in the cos¬
tume of any one of these characters, a ceremony (the desoripr
tion of which is too long for insertion here) accompanying the
putting on of the mask is supposed not only to place him en
rapport spiritually with the character he represents^, but even
to possess him) with the spirit of that character or demi-god.
He is, therefore, so long asi he remains disguised as one of
these demi-gods., treated as if he were actually that being
which he personates. ”
These authorities are confirmed by Boas in the before-men¬
tioned study. In speaking of the legends which have to do
with the gifts which the spirits impart, to* the Kwakiutl youth,
he says:
“The principal gifts in these tales are the magic harpoon
which insures success in sea-otter hunting; the death bringer,
which, when pointed against enemies, kills them; the water of
life which resuscitates the dead; the burning fire which, when
pointed against an object, burns it; and a dance, a song and
cries which are peculiar to the spirit. The gift of this dance
means that the protege of the spirit is to> perform the same
dances which have been shown him. In these dances he per¬
sonates the spirit. He wears his mask and his ornaments.
Thus the dance may be considered a dramatic performance of
the myth relating to the acquisition of the spirit, and shows to
the people that the performer by his visit to the spirit has ob¬
tained his powers and desires. When nowadays a spirit ap¬
pears to a young Indian, he gives him the same dance, and the
youth also returns from the initiation filled with the powers
and desires of the spirit. He authenticates his initiation by
his dance in the same way as his mythical ancestor did.”1
This corresponds with what is said by J. GL Frazer regard¬
ing such a ceremony as that at the sanctuary of the goddess
Astarte in Zela, when her myth “was translated into action.”
“The story of her love and death and that of her divine lover
Was performed year by year as a sort of mystery-play by men
i Report of the Smithsonian Institution, 1895, p. 396.
Beatty — The Si. George, or Mummers', Plays. 311
and women who lived for a season and sometimes died in the
character of the visionary beings: whom they personated. The
intention of these sacred dramas, we may be sure, was neither
to amuse nor to instruct an idle audience, and as little were
they designed to gratify the actors, to whose baser passions
they gave the reins for a time. They were solemn rites which
mimicked the doings of divine beings1 2, because man fancied
that by smell mimicry he was able to arrogate to himself the
divine functions and to exercise them for the good of his fel¬
lows. The operations, of nature, to his thinking, were carried
on by mythical personages very like himiself ; and if he could
only assimilate himself to them completely, he would be able
to wield all their powers. This is probably the original motive
of most religious dramas, or mysteries among rude peoples.”1
The legends and the ceremonies in connection with these
“gifts” given to the Kwakiutl youth are one and the same
thing, and we cannot understand the one without the other.
They “relate entirely to spirits that are still in constant con¬
tact with the Indians, whom they endow with supernatural
95 2
powers.
One of the spirits who thus helps is Baxbakualanu Xsi-wae
(= the first one to eat at the mouth of the river, i. 0. in the
north, because the ocean is considered a stream running north¬
ward). He is a cannibal living in the mountains who is al¬
ways in pursuit of man. One who meets his cannibal grizzly
bear, Hai'alik'ilal, may become a hamaks’a , or any of eight
other orders:.3
There are several versions of the legend dealing with the
origin of the hamats’a\, one of which Boas: gives,4 with a variant
ending.5 The substance is as follows:
ISfanwaqawe, the chief of the Awikenox, had four1 sons who
were mountain goat hunters. At one time members of his
tribe were disappearing one after the other and he did not
1 “The Golden Bough,” vol. 3, p. 164.
2 Boas, p. 393.
3 L. c., pp. 394-395.
VL. c., pp. 396-400.
5 L. c., pp. 400-401.
*
312 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts, and Letters.
know what became of them. The chief wanted to eat moun¬
tain goat meat, and his sons offered to go hunting. Their
father advised them not to go into the house the smoke of
which looks like blood, else they would never return home.
This was the house of Baxbakualanu Xsi-wae. He told them
also to avoid the house the smoke of which was gray on one
side, for that was the house of the grizzly bear. The young
men set off early in the morning and about noon discovered the
grey smoke. They went to the house, met the bear and finally
overcame him. Hext day they saw the bloody smoke and went
to the house. An old woman who was rooted to the floor told
them whose house they were in, and instructed them to dig a
pit in the corner of the house and to put hot stones into it.
This they did and covered it with boards. This was a trap
for the cannibal god. He returned, and, crying “1 lap/' danced
about the place with his crow and fell in. Then when he died
the elder brother took the ornaments of red cedar bark off the
singers who had fainted. He took also the masks1, the hamats’a
pole and the whistles. The old woman then taught him the
song of the cannibal god.
Then the elder brother told his father, who went to the
house. The old woman gave him the hamats’a mask, the raven
mask and the ho-xhohu mask, the cannibal god’s mask, and all
the different kinds of red cedar bark. Then she taught the
father and sons the songs. She sang the song of the head
mask :
“The hamats a mask for the forehead.
The ho-xhohu mask of the forehead.
The raven mask of the forehead.
The cannibal mask of the forehead.”
Then she sang the song of the qo'minoqa , who always goes
to get food for the cannibal god. (Given, p. 398.)
Then she taught them regarding the initiation of a hamats' a.
Then she told the chief that she was his daughter and that
he could not dig her up. Then she sang the song of the
no’nltsistalal. (P. 399.)
Then she instructed him to have the eldest son made a
Beatty — The St. George ^ or Mummers’ > Plays. 313
hamats’a and gave them a ritual. This the chief did, and he
was the first to celebrate the winter ceremonial.1
The dramatization of this myth and the myths allied to it,
is very elaborate in the masks, dress and ritual, many of which
can be explained by a reference to the myth.2 An important
part, too, is played by the dances and songs.
As the myth implies, “the object of the whole winter cere¬
monial is, first, to bring back the youth who is supposed to
stay with the supernatural being who is the protector of his
society, and then, when he has returned in a state of ecstasy,
to exorcise the spirit w7hich possesses him and to restore him
from his holy madness. These objects are attained by songs
and dances. In order to bring the youth back, members of
all the secret societies perform their dances. It is believed
that they will attract the attention of the absent novice, until
finally one of the dances may excite him to such a degree that
he will approach fiying through the air. As soon as he ap¬
pears, his friends endeavor to capture him. Then begins the
second part of the ceremony, the exorcising of the spirit, or,
as the Ewakiutl call it, the taming of the novice. This is ac¬
complished by means of songs sung in his honor, by dances
performed by women in his honor, and by the endeavors of
the Shaman .3 * * The songs are made up mostly of four verses.
“Each novice, viz., member of a society, has his own songs.
They open wfith a burden which varies according to the society
to which they belong. This burden is sung in order to in¬
dicate the tune. Then follow the words, which, however, are
interspersed with repetitions of the burden. The words are
called The walk of the song’ (or, as we should say, the words
1 A similar legend is given on pages 403-405. This illustrates what
Boas says (p. 663), that there are several legends to explain the same
ceremony. This fact is ,so significant that it should he noted. It
seems to point to the probability that the ceremony is of earlier date
than the legends.
2 E. g., the raven mask, pp. 448-449; the cross-pieces' and head rings,
etc., pp. 449-454. See the illustrations — an important feature of Boas’
work.
3L. c., p. 431.
314 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts , and Letters.
go this way). Etach song is accompanied by beating of time
with batons, and by a drum. The beating is sometimes so
lond that it almost drowns the song. The rhythm of the tune,
as well as of the beating, is exceedingly complex ; but the most
striking characteristic is the fact that the beating is always
syncopated. The arm is raised when the tone is nttered and
falls qnickly afterwards. In all songs of the winter ceremon¬
ial the beating begins several bars before the singing. It is
the reverse in profane siongs. The beating is an intrinsic part
of the song and cannot be separated from it,”1 The dances i
the various societies differ in character, but they have certain
features in common,2 while the paraphernalia, costumes, masks
and so oni, are prescribed by the myth. The painting of the
face in the dances is prescribed in the same way and has a
reference to the legend with which the ceremony is connected.
As in the case of the Australian dances, the story is acted out
with some skill and with remarkable realism.3 Bio as gives
many of these dramatic dances, with their legends.4
In the ghost dance, for example, in accordance with the
legend, the dancer gives a mimic representation of a visit to
the lower world. He wears the head ring and neck rings
which are associated with this dance.5 Elaborate preparations
are made. A ditch is dug in the dancing house behind the
fire, and speaking tubes of kelp are laid under the floor of the
house so as to terminate in the fire. The ghost dancer ap¬
pears, led by one attendant. He goes around the fire four
times, summoning the ghost. After he has made the fourth
circuit he slowly disappears in the ditch near the fire. The
people try to hold him by the rope, but apparently he sinks
out of reach. Then many voices are heard coming from out
of the fire- — actually the voices of people hidden in the bed¬
rooms who speak through the kelp tubes. It is announced
i L. c., p. 432.
2L. c., pp. 432-445. The Hamats’a dance is described on page 443.
s See pp. 436-447, with the illustrations.
4 The ghost dance, pp. 482-3, with its legend, p. 408; the Matem
dance, p. 483, with its legends, p. 411.
5 Illustrated on p. 497.
Beatty — The St. George , or Mummers’ , Flays. 315
that the ghosts have taken the dancer away, who will return
after a certain number of days. When the time of liis return
is at hand, another dance is held. A carving representing a
ghost is seen to rise out of the ground carrying the dancer.* 1
As Boas says, the object of the whole winter ceremonial is
to call back the novice and to cure him.
There is a master of ceremonies, who has general super¬
vision of the rite, and there is much dialogue and many long
improvised speeches at first. Songs are sung also.
“The whole ceremonial of bringing back the novice is, ae-
cording to the Kwlakiutl, a repetition of the’ same ceremonial
performed by the wolves who attempted to bring back their
novices; and the following tradition, which, however, is not
complete in its details, is made to account for its origin:2 3
“Mink made a salmon trap. The tribes had a winter cere¬
monial, and the chief of the wolves had disappeared in the
woods. There they spoiled Mink’s trap. For three days they
did so. Then Mink became angry. He Watched and saw
them take a salmon from his trap. Tie crawled up and killed
them with his club. He cut off their heads and carried them
home.
“Now the wolves were going to bring back their novices.
Mink went and watched his trap and caught a sisiul. He took
it home. In vain the wolves waited for the novices to appear.
“Mink came with the heads under his blanket, then went out
and came back wearing them on his head. Then the wolves
saw what he had done and tried to kill him. But he came
with the si$iul mark and all the people died. He resuscitated
whom he liked. That is the end.”
1 The song of the ghost dancer is as follows:
1. I went down to the under world with the chief of the ghosts.
Therefore I have supernatural power.
2. The chief of the ghosts made me dance. Therefore I have super¬
natural power.
3. He put a beautiful ornament on to my forehead. Therefore I
have supernatural power.
2 L. c., pp. 538-539.
316 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts , and Letters.
When the novices are purified, they act as if they had for¬
gotten everything, and hive to learn all anew.1
In another Kwakiutl ceremony, Hamaqua is supposed to-
throw disease into people. Bilood. flows from the performer’s
mouth and he vomits forth a worm. Then he throws a rope,
which finally falls among the people. They rush towards the
fire and fall down lifeless. They are then carried away dead,
and are brought to life again by Ham aqua. 2
In an initiation ceremony of the Musquakie Indians the
initiates die and “awake men.”3
One of the most complete studies of initiation ceremonies of
our savage people is the elaborate paper by Mr. W. J. Hoff¬
man,4 on the Mide win , or “Grand Medicine Society,” of the
Ojibwa Indians. In this society there are four degrees, each
with an elaborate ritual. In each the death and revival of the
candidate is an essential. A brief description of one ceremony
will suffice for all. After a long series of ritualistic dances
and songs, the first priest grasps his medicine sack as if hold¬
ing a gun, and aims it at the candidate’s left breast, uttering
a song. This he does three times. This is all repeated by a
second priest and then by a third. How a fourth priest, who
is the leader of the ceremony, aims the sack at the candidate’s
head, who falls forward upon the ground, apparently lifeless.
Then the four priests lay their sacks on the candidate’s back,
and a shell drops from his mouth. He begins to revive, but
the priest puts the shell back into his mouth and he falls upon
the ground as before. They then pass around the candidate’s
body, and this causes him to revive. The chief priest then
says to him, “Get up,” which he does. Then to the drum the
priest sings a song.5
1 J. G. Frazer, 1. c., vol. 3, pp. 425-428.
2 L. c., pp. 485 if.
3 Mrs. M. A. Owen, “Folk-Lore of the Musquakie Indians,” 1904, pp.
68-69. A partial account of what was’ probably an initiation ceremony
on the Pacific coast is given by J. B. Jewett in his “Narrative .
Among the Savages’ of Nootka Sound,” Middletown, 1815, p. 98.
4 7th Annual Report of the Bureau of Ethnology (1891), pp. 143-300.
s Hoffman, 1. c., pp. 210-220. For the ceremonies connected with
the other degrees see pp. 231-236; 243-251; and 258-274.
Beatty — The St. George , or Mummers’, Plays. 317
Dr. Hoffman has also studied the ceremonies of the Menom-
onie Indians, and has given the accounts of other authors.
In several of these ceremonies the death and resurrection is
an important part.1
v.
AMERICAN AGRICULTURAL AND KINDRED CEREMONIES.
When discussing the folk ceremory in which the Manx May
Queen and her “court” fight the representative of winter and
his retinue1, Frazer appositely quotes an Eskimo ceremony
which is clearly magical in intent. On the approach of win¬
ter, the Eskimo divide themselves into1 those born in winter
and those born in summer and engage in a tug-of-war. In
order to have a fine winter, those who were born in summer
are victorious.2
Of course, the Eskimo are not an agricultural people, and
so the ceremony might not appear appropriate to the begin¬
ning of a chapter on agricultural ceremonies. But the Es¬
kimo depend much on the weather and so resort to methods of
producing a favorable season by means of the mimic contest.
The underlying motive thus seems to1 be exactly the1 same as
that of the corresponding European rites. The Tusayan In¬
dians have ceremonies called the Katrinas, which are per¬
formed for the purpose of influencing the season, in which the
actors divide themselves into' two irregular groups. All break
out into song, and the shield-bearer makes eccentric dashes
among his associates, first on one side and then on the other.
While the song lasts the shield-bearer continues these rushes,
and the assembled groups crouch down and meet his dashes by
rising and driving him back. He madly oscillates from right
1 Hoffman, 14th Annual Report of the Bureau of Ethnology, vol. 2,
p. 295. See esp. pp. 101, 110-111; 112-113. The initiation ceremony
not infrequently takes on the form of the real death and supposed re¬
vival of the totem of the clan. This class of ceremony we cannot dis¬
cuss, as it seems to be connected with sacrifice. See J. G. Frazer,
“Totemism,” 1887, pp. 48 ft.
2 Frazer, 1. c., vol. 1, p. 104. Cited from Franz Boas, 6th Annual Re¬
port of the Bureau of Ethnology (1888), p. 605.
318 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts , and Letters.
to left, that is from tjhe north to- the south slide of the room,
and swings his shield in rhythm, while those near him beat
their feet in time. The shield is dashed from face to face,
and the groups make many motions as if to seize it, but no one
does more than touch it with outstretched hands. The move¬
ments on both sides are highly suggestive of attack and de¬
fense. This represents the struggle between the bad spirits
and the beneficent Sun, who is able to resist all attacks upon
him.1
In these ceremonies, masks play an important part. The
"Wearing of the mask of a deity indicates that the wearer is
endowed with the god’s power and will retain much of this
power. While the mask is on, therefore, the wearer is “out
of the body,” and his “return” to earthly things and earthly
powers is indicated by the doffing of the mask.2
But the death and return are shown more plainly in an¬
other Tusayan Katrina, which is plainly intended to conse¬
crate the corn-seed. The performers made a pile of cones, and
a reward was offered to anyone who could lift the pile and set
it back without disturbing the cones; but all failed. The
cones were then placed in two piles, and a youth succeeded.
Then all the performers fell down “dead.” They were rubbed
with ashes, and so revived. At the close of the ceremony,
com which was placed beside the cones was distributed in
small handfuls to the women, and another handful was planted
in the hivas .3 Among the A avahos the Mountain Chant is used
for various purposes — the curing of disease, and at the same
time of “invoking the unseen powers in behalf of the people at
large for various purposes^ particularly for good crops and
abundant rains.”4 The ceremony is given by one who wishes
to be restored to health, and incidentally to confer benefits
upon the community. Part of the ceremony is as follows :
1 J. W. Fewkes, “The Tusayan Katcinas.” 15th Report, Bureau of
Ethnology (1897), pp. 251-313 (p. 269).
2 Fewkes, 1. c., p. 276. ,
3 Fewkes, 1. c., pp. 278-279.
4 Washington Matthews, “The Mountain Chant.” 5th Annual Report,
Bureau of Ethnology, 1887, pp. 385-467 (p. 386).
Beatty — The St. George, or Mummers', Flays. 319
“A blanket was spread on the ground on the north of the
lire, near where the man in evergreens was concealed. [Thi§
man was previously described.] At the last appearance of
the man in evergreens the woman fell back apparently par¬
alyzed and suffering from a difficulty of breathing, all of
which was probably feigned, but was supposed to be a sign that
the right remedy for her ailment had been found and that
none other need be tried. The medicine man now proceeded
to restore her to consciousness by drawing zig-zag lines from
her body east and west and straight lines north and south, like
their symbols for the chain and sheet lightnings, by stepping
over her in different directions, and by rattling.”1 She then
c ‘recovered consciousness . J ?
A hunting ceremony with similar import is celebrated by
the Eskimo. They kill the evil spirit of the deer, which
would prevent good hunting. The main performer is the
medicine man. “He goes through a number of gyrations and
contortions, constantly hallooing and calling, till suddenly the
imaginary deer is among them!. EfW begins a lively time.
Elvery one is screaming, running, jumping, ' jspearing and
stabbing at the imaginary deer, till one would think a whole
madhouse was let loose. Often this deer proves very agile,
and must be hard to kill, for I have known them' to- keep- this
performance up for days, in fact till they were completely ex¬
hausted.
“During one of these performances:, an old m!an speared the
deer, another knocked out an eye:, a third stabbed him, and
so on till he was dead. One who is able or fortunate enough
to inflict some injury on this bad deer, especially he who in¬
flicts the death blow', is considered extremely lucky, as he will
have no difficulty in procuring as miany deer as he wants, for
there is no longer an evil spirit to turn his bullets or arrows
from their course.”2
Somewhat the same result is aimed at among the Zuni In¬
dians in one of their ceremonies-, by means of a mimic contest.
1 Matthews, 1. c., pp. 423-424.
2 Franz Boas; “The Central Eskimo.” 5th Report, Bureau of Eth¬
nology (1888), pp. 399-669 (p. 607, cited from Kumlien).
320 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences } Arts , and Letters.
A representative of the god carries an effigy of a deer and is
pursued by the young men. When the representative is caught,
he throws down the effigy, amid great excitement. The one
who catches the effigy exclaims: “I have killed the deer.7’
He sprinkles it with meal, praying that he may be successful
in the hunt. The catching of the effigy is indicative of suc¬
cess in the coming hunt, and great efforts are made to get
ahead of one another in capturing the so-called “deer.” This
and the rest of the attendant ceremony is to bring rains to
fructify the earth.1 This deer-effigy, and similar effigies, so
common in Indian ceremonial, are very similar to those of
Europe, which have been so fully described by hlannhardt.
The Zuni bury little bunches of plumes, and deposit ashes and
sweepings in the fields, with the firm assurance that the corn
will increase.2 To be sure, this is not a resurrection acted
out dramatically, but this method of procedure is very com¬
mon among the American Indians. The spirit of the corn is
in the effigy or puppet instead of a person, and the ceremony
is modified accordingly. Another depository of the com
spirit is in the sand and pollen paintings so common among
the Indians of the Southwest.3 These ritualistic paintings, which
seem to be without a parallel in Europe, have been carried
to a very high state of development. For these reasons the
dramatic representation of the death and revival by means of
a person, and the presentation of the mock combat, are both
somewhat meagre among the Forth American Indians. But
in the cases we have found, we have testimony that it is far
from unknown in this kind of ceremony, and this suffices to
establish a connection of common intention between these cere¬
monies and those of Europe.
In concluding this division, it may be instructive to cite an
instance from a people on the same cultural level, but widely
1 Matilda Coxe Stevenson, “The Zuhi Indians,” 23rd Annual Re¬
port, Bureau of Ethnology (1904), pp. 1-634 (p. 260).
2 Stevenson, 1. c., pp. 108-141, with excellent illustrations.
s Stevenson, 1. c., pp. 108-141; and “The Sia,” 11th Annual Report of
the Bureau of Ethnology, pp. 1-165. ‘Washington Matthews, “The
Mountain Chant,” 5th Annual Report of the Bureau of Ethnology
(1887), pp. 385 ff.
Beatty — The St. George , or Mummers? , Plays. 321
separated geographically. In the paddy feasts of the natives
of Sararw!ak; in the Island of Borneo, a ceremony is celebrated,
in which all the people are “doctored” by a medicine man, and
“die.” The pretended corpses are laid in a row and after a
time they are revived. This ceremony is a preparation for
the yearns labors.1 2
CONCLUSION.
The. immediate result of our enquiries seems to be that the
part of the St. George or Mummers’ Play which could not be
explained by reference to literary sources may be explained by
a reference to the people — the folk — themselves. We have
seen that the central incident of the play is widely spread all
over Eiurope in ceremonies practiced by the folk themselves.
Further than this, we have seen that among the lowly Austra¬
lians, the Africans, the Forth American Indians, the incident
is common; and this, by all the methods of anthropological
reasoning, points to the certainty that in the earlier stages of
culture these ceremonies flourished in Eiurope, and that their
object and aim was magical. They were attempts on the part
of man to force the powers of nature to his will, to produce
for him abundant harvests and rich vintages, as it is the ob¬
ject of the Australian and Forth American Indian today. As
the magic idea passed out of the European ceremony with ad¬
vancing civilization, the peasant still continued to keep it up,
because of that vague feeling of probable efficiency in tradi¬
tional customs, and partly because a small portion of the magic
efficiency still remained. Here we have the original form of
the St. George play, in which there is the mock struggle or
the mock death and revival, now scarcely magic, and almost
entirely entertaining. To this village mumming came Chris¬
tian influence, and the mock struggle attracted to itself, and
made an integral part of itself, the champion of Christendom
and the patron of Ehgland — St. George. But the late Chris¬
tian influence was not strong enough to transform the tradi-
i H. Ling Roth, “The Natives of Sarawak and British North Borneo/’
2 vols. Yol. 1, pp. 412-415.
4—1 S. & A.
322 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts , and Letters.
tional drama; and St. George; as we have seen, is killed as
frequently as lie kills.
To the death and revival and the mock struggle as direct
contributions from the folk, may be most probably added the
Doctor, as we have seen. We see him appearing in Australia.,1
Sarawak,2 America,3 as well as in various parts of Europe,4
and this gives great strength to the opinion of Oreiznach that
he was developed outside of the liturgical drama.5 If our rea¬
soning is just, he must have been in Elurope as early as the
earliest agricultural magic rites. At least he has representa¬
tives even among the very primitive' rites of the Australians'.
We have already noted the costumes of the players in the
St. George mumming.6 We need only to mention again that
green boughs and green leaves are habitually associated with
most of these ceremonies, in Europe7 and out of it.8
In our description of the plays, we said that some of the
actors represented animals. The ceremonies we have exam¬
ined are very largely associated with animals, and in initiation
and other ceremonies there are many animal presentations.
The testimony on this point is so overwhelmingly abundant
that I have not made any special note of it. Moreover, it is
not important for an understanding of the plays as read, as
animal costumes are noticeable only when the plays are pre¬
sented. It is to be noted, however, that many of the plays
have no animals whatever.9 Examples of the mimic contest
we have found in plenty.10
As a direct result, then, of our examination, we can say that
we have accounted for the Stti. George plays),, first, in assigning to
them an original motive, and, secondly, in giving a derivation of
1 Pp. 299, 300, 302, 303, 308.
2 P. 321.
3Pp. 315, 316, 317, 318.
4P. 289.
5P. 284.
e Pp. 276, 291, 292.
7 Pp. 289, 290, 291, 292, note 2.
s Pp. 294, 300, 302, 303rf 304, 307, 319, 320.
» In his forthcoming book on the Folk Drama, Mr. T. F. Ordish may
clear up this and other points.
io Pp. 290, 291, 298, 299, 301, 305, 306, 307, 317, 318, 319, 320.
Beatty — The St. George , or Mummers', Plays. 323
the various parts. But, as I have said, the Sit, Geoqga plays bring
up the whole question of the drama. If the intent of all these
ceremonies is the bringing about of a desired result by means
of mimetic action, or mimetic magic, we may perhaps see what
was in Aristotle’s mind when he made the statement that po¬
etry arose from the instinct of imitation, and from the instinct
for harmony and rhythm.1 Is it not probable that Aristotle
had here in mind initiative or mimetic ceremony? Curtins
attempts to connect the verb i through Wos with the
Sanskrit ma-ya , phantom \, or juggling. This connection is
frowned upon by Leo Meyer, but it is most interesting and is
highly probable from the evidence of folk-lore. Such a con¬
nection would exactly correspond with the known facts of sav¬
age and peasant life, and it is certain that the Bacchanalian
and other Greek festivals were in part mimetic in the magic
sense.2
In nearly all the savage ceremonies we see a very close con¬
nection between ceremony and myth, and there seems to be lit¬
tle doubt that the ceremony is not the derived form. In other
words, the myth or legend is a late invention to1 explain the
ceremony. In all cases where both survive, the ceremony has
all the marks of being the original.3 Thus the legends, epics
and ritual songs have as their ancestor the pantomimic cere¬
mony, and therefore we are not making an impossible or even
1 “Poetics,” iv, 2-6.
2 On the origin of Drama, and its mimetic character, see Wundt*
“ VolKerpsychologie ,” vol. 2, chap. 1, pp. 463-526 (“Mimus und Drama”).
3 See W. Robertson Smith, “Religion of the Semites,” sect. 1; Wash-
ington Matthews, “Navaho Legends,” Introduction. Stevenson, 11. ce,
Matthews expresses the general facts excellently, 1. c., p. 52:
“Whenever an opportunity has occurred of studying a rite with its
associated myth, it has been found that the myth never explains all
the symbolism of the rite, although it may account for all the more
important acts. A primitive and underlying symbolism, which proli-
ably existed previous to the establishment of the rite, remains unex¬
plained by the myth, as though its existence were taken as a matter
of course and required no explanation. Some explanation of this
foundation symbolism may be found in the Origin Legend, or in other
early legends of the tribe; but something remains which even these d©
not explain.”
324 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts0 and Letters.
an improbable assumption when we trace our mummers’ play
back to a mimetic ceremony.1
Finally, we may note that the central theme of the St.
George plays is similar to the central doctrine of the Christian
Church. If our reasoning is sound, we cannot suppose that
this is derived from the Church ; moreover, according to the best
evidence, the incident was present in ceremonies long before the
appearance of the Christian Church. It was, therefore, an in¬
dependent possession, and this consideration might lead to a
modification of Chambers’ opinion that the folk-drama con¬
tributed to the mighty stream of European drama only the
tiniest rill.2 Mr. Frazer has given as a reason for the rapid
spread of Christianity in Western Asia the fact that the
death and resurrection of a god had been yearly celebrated for
generations before the crucifixion of Christ.3 Somewhat the
same reason may be given for the dramatization of the resur¬
rection in the Church liturgy — a question which Mr. Cham¬
bers nowhere answers. A remembrance of the fact that the
people among whom the Church came were familiar with this
incident, may show us why this part of the church service de¬
veloped so rapidly, was the first to become dramatic, and was
the first to develop the trope and liturgical play.4 The liturgi¬
cal plays did not deal with other events of the life of Christ
until later. Elven the passion plays were a later develop¬
ment.5 From this standpoint, a study of the whole matter
would be most useful, as indicating the progress of liturgy
and early drama, in their inter-connection.
1 On this whole matter, see Wundt, “Vblkerpsychologie,” vol. 2, chap.
1, pp. 307-394 (“Das Lied and erzahlende Dichtung”). Wundt makes
the assumption a most natural one and traces the process of develop¬
ment in an admirable, though brief, manner.
2 “Mediaeval Stage/’ vol. 1, p. 82. He is criticising Grimm’s state¬
ment that these ceremonies are the probable source of modern drama.
(In Grimm’s “Kleinere SChriften,” vol. 5, p. 281.)
3 L. c., vol. 3, pp. 195 ff. I quote Frazer in this connection in spite
of Mr. Andrew Lang’s criticism of “The Golden Bough,” in “Magic and
Religion,” 1901.
4 L4on Gautier, “Histoire de la Podsie Liturgique au Moyen Age,”
vol. 1, “Les’ Tropes,” 1886. (The second volume is not yet published.)
8 Chambers, 1. c., vol. 2, p. 39.
THE SETTLEMENT OF OKLAHOMA.
SOLON J. BUCK, A.
Assistant in American History in the University of Wisconsin.
(With Plates IX-XIV.)
PHYSIOGRAPHY.
The story of the Indian has been virtually the same from
the settlement of Jamestown in 1607 to the present time.
Slowly but gradually his territory has diminished before the
advance of the white man, hungry for land, until in the year
1889 the domain of the American Indian, which once included
our whole country, had come to comprise merely the so-called
Indian Territory, a district slightly smaller than Hie state of
Kansas and immediately south of it, together with a number of
smaller reservations scattered through the western states. It
is this Indian Territory which will probably constitute the fu¬
ture state of Oklahoma, and the western half of which, tou
gether with the former Public Land Strip or “Ko Man’s
Land” north of the Texan panhandle, constitutes the present
territory of Oklahoma.
The territory of Oklahoma lies between the parallels of thirty-
four and thirty-seven degrees north latitude, and between nine¬
ty-six and one hundred degrees west longitude, excepting
Beaver county, which, thirty-five miles Avide and one hundred
and sixty miles long, stretches to the one hundred and third
parallel west longitude. In latitude it corresponds with
Tennessee and in longitude with central Kansas and Texas.
(325)
326 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts, and Letters.
Its .area is about thirty-nine thousand square miles, or twenty-
five million acres, corresponding roughly to that of the state
©f Ohio'. The land, like that in most of the prairie states,
slopes gradually upward from an altitude of seven hundred
and fifty feet in the east, to one of four thousand in the west,
the lowest parts being along the Cimarron in Pawnee county,
and the highest in the extreme west of Beaver county.1
A range of hills extending in a wide curve from the east cen¬
tral to the southwestern border and culminating in the Wichita
mountains, whose highest peak has an altitude of twenty-three
hundred feet, breaks up the monotony of the prairie. The ter¬
ritory is crossed from northwest to southeast by three large
rivers, the Arkansas, Canadian and Red, and their branches,
the Cimarron, North Canadian and Washita.2 The valleys of
these rivers are generally well wooded, and in the eastern part
of the territory there are considerable areas covered with tim¬
ber, chiefly the different varieties of oak and mesquite.3
All of Beaver county and the neighboring district are west
of the line of sufficient rainfall and consequently, without irri¬
gation, suited to1 stock raising only. The area of sufficient
rainfall extends farther west in Oklahoma than in the states to
the north, and the farmer has pushed his way well into the wes¬
tern tier of counties, and in the river valleys many successful
farms are found well beyond the danger line. The soil of cen¬
tral and northeastern Oklahoma has proven its excellence by the
abundant crops of the last ten years. It is well described by
Governor 0. M. Barnes in his report for 1900. He says:
aThe surface is mostly of a rich, red clay or sandstone decom¬
position mixed, in the valleys, with black alluvial deposits,
sad is highly productive, as shown by the rich results to the
husbandman during the past three years. The soil is of suffi¬
cient depth and character to render it almost inexhaustible, and
ifc will stand many successive crops before needing fertiliza¬
tion.”4 In this region the crops of the North and South meet.
1 Interior Department, Miscellaneous Reports, 1901, pt. 2, p. 414.
2 Ibid., 1900, pt. 2, p. 632.
s Ibid., 1898, p. 681.
4- Ibid., 1900, pt. 2, p. 632.
Buck — The Settlement of Oklahoma. 327
Side by side can be seen the wheat or corn fields of Kansas
and the cotton fields of Texas and the lower South. A great,
diversity of crops exists, each farmer planting the staple of
the locality from which he came.1 This section is especially
suited to fruit raising, peaches and grapes being very abundant.
Melons are a staple crop in some of the eastern counties, and
hundreds of carloads are shipped east every year.2
The southern part of Oklahoma comprises Greer county,
long disputed with Texas, and what was formerly the Kiowa,
Comanche and Apache Indian reservation. The former is ex¬
ceptionally productive, considering its western location. In the
Kiowa, Comanche and Apache tracts there are fertile lands,
along the Washita and other valleys, with undulating plains
stretching away to the Ked river on the south. Much of the
land in this area is suitable only for grazing, and thousands of
acres in the mountains are absolutely worthless except for min¬
erals. The Washita mountains in the northeastern part of the
reservation consist of gigantic piles of rock pushed up through
the prairie and covering an area of twelve by thirty miles.
T'hey are interspersed with fertile valleys and mountain parks.
Hundred of large mountain springs give rise to- streams which
flow in every direction to join the large rivers. The moun¬
tains also give promise of considerable wealth in minerals, oil
and natural gas.3
Indian- Territory Before the Opening.
The idea of removing the troublesome Indians of the south¬
ern states to the great unsettled plains west of the Mississippi
appeared immediately after the acquisition of Louisiana in
1803. In ihe very next year Congress passed an act authoriz¬
ing the President to make such removals, the Indians to ex¬
change their lands east of the Mississippi for other lands to be
granted them in the West. In 1809 a delegation from the
Cherokee Indians in Georgia, the Carolinas, Alabama and
1 Int. Dept., Misc. Repts., 1900, pt. 2, p. 633.
2 Ibid., 1902, pt. 2, pp. 438, 440.
3 Ibid., 1900, pt. 2, pp. 684-686.
328 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters.
Tennessee visited Washington and in an interview with Jeffer¬
son represented to him that a part of their tribe was anxions to
move to lands west of the Mississippi in order to continue their
hunting life. The President gave them permission to send a
party to explore the territory and afterwards to move to the
lands of their choice, and by 1817 one-third of the Cherokees
had crossed the river.1 By two treaties in 1817 and 1819 (7
Stats., 156, 195) the United States conveyed to the Cherokees
a large tract of land between the Arkansas and White rivers,
mostly in the present state of Arkansas.2
In order to make room for the advancing settlement, a new
treaty was entered into with the Cherokees in 1829 (9 Stats.,
311), by which they gave up all claim to the lands in Arkan¬
sas granted to them in 1817 and 1819, and the United States
agreed to guarantee to them forever seven million acres and a
perpetual outlet west with free and unmolested use of all that
country west of the western boundary of the seven million acres
as far as the United States extended.3 By treaties of 1833 and
1835 (7 Stats., 414, 478), this Cherokee land was defined so as
to include Tract 1, Plate IX, together with other land in
what is now the state of Kansas', and in 1838 a single patent ;was
issued to the Cherokees conveying all of this land.4 Meanwhile
the Indian Territory, as such, had been created by an act of
Congress of 1834, setting it apart for the permanent occupa¬
tion of all the five tribes from the southern states.5 The dis¬
covery of gold in Georgia and Alabama had led to trouble with
the Indians remaining there and to a demand for their re¬
moval, so that the Cherokees east of the Mississippi were by
the treaty of 1835, mentioned above, forced to cede all their in¬
herited lands and to join their tribesmen in Indian Territory.6
The first steps toward the removal of the Creek Indians
were taken in 1824, in which year a treaty was made (7 Stats.,
1 Congressional Record, vol. 18, p. 334.
2 Senate Executive Doc., 78, 51 Cong., 1 Sess., p. 3.
3 Ibid.
4 Ibid., p. 4.
s United States Census, 1900, Indians, p. 529.
e Congressional Record, vol. 18, p. 334.
INDIAN TERRITORY; THE ORIGINAL CESSIONS.
Trans. Wis. Acacl., Yol. XV. Plate IX.
Buck — The Settlement of Oklahoma.
329
278) giving them permission to examine the country. The
removal took plaice in the years 1832.-3 3, and in 1833 a treaty
(7 Stats. , 417) conveyed to them the tract numbered 2 on
Plate IX. By this treaty the Seminoles, with whom a treaty
of removal had been made- in 1832 (7 S'tats., 369), were to be in¬
corporated into the Cheek nation and to enjoy a part of their
lands. A patent was issued to the Creeks for this land in
1851.1
The first session of land west of the Mississippi to the Choc¬
taws was made by a treaty of 1820 (7 Stats., 210), by which
they were given the tract of lanl between the Arkansas river
with its branch, the Canadian, and the Bed river. By the
treaties of 1825 and 1830 (7 Stats., 333), this tract was re¬
stricted on the east to the western Arkansas boundary, making
it coincide with Tract 3, Plate IX. The patent was not issued
to the Choctaws for this land, however, until 1842, at which time
the Ohickasaws, who gave up their lands east of the Mississippi
in 1832 (7 Stats., 381), had been settled there also.2 Thus
the whole of Indian Territory, excepting the small Quapaw
agency (Tract 4, Plate IX), was covered by these three let¬
ters patent of 1838, 1842 and 1851 to the Cherokees, Choctaws
and Creeks respectively.
In 1837 an agreement was entered into between the Choc¬
taw and Chickasaw Indians by which the Choctaws formed the
western part of their domain into the Chickasaw district as a
permanent home for that tribe, but never to be alienated with¬
out the consent of both tribes. By a second convention in
1854 this district was defined as is indicated by Tracts 4 and
5, Plate X. The next year the United States made a treaty
(11 Stats., 611) with the two tribes, by which the Chickasaw
district was confined to Tract 4, Plate X, and the territory
west of this1 — Tract 5 — was leased to the United States for a
permanent home for the Wichitas and such other Indian tribes,
with certain exceptions, as the United States might see fit to
locate there.3
1 Sen. Ex. Doc., 78, 51 Cong., 1 Sess., pp. 15-16.
2 Ibid., pp. 24-25.
3 Ibid., pp. 25-27.
330 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts , and Letters.
The first division of the Creek territory was made in the
year 1855. As before mentioned, the Seminoles had been in¬
corporated into the Creek nation by the treaty of 1833, but the
two tribes did not get along well together, and the dissensions
finally became so violent that the United States government
intervened and made the treaty of 1856 (11 Stats., 699), by
which the Creeks ceded to the Seminoles the land between the
Canadian river and its Xorth Fork, designated as Tract 6, on
Plate X.1
Many of /the Indians in the territory Kvere isilaveholdjers,
and for this reason and others, when the Civil war broke out
in 1860, all of the tribes made treaties with the southern con¬
federacy and thus severed their relations with the United
States. Some of the tribes repudiated this action early in the
war, while others remained allies of the confederates through¬
out. At the close of the war, it was necessary to make some
new arrangement with these Indians, and so a series of fou~
treaties was made in the year 1866 with the several tribes.
By these treaties the Choctaws and Chickasaws converted the
lease of Tract 5, Plate X, into an absolute conveyance, the
Seminoles ceded their entire domain, Tract 6, and the Creeks
the entire western half of their domain, Tract 7, to the United
States “in compliance with a desire of the United States to
locate other Indians and freedmen thereon.”2
The Cherokees gave up what land they possessed in Kansas
and also agreed with the United States that all of their land
west of ninety-six degrees west longitude, which is Tract 8,
Plate X, should be held in reserve as it were, the United
States to have power to settle thereon, under certain conditions,
friendly Indians to whom the Cherokees Would convey the land
in fee simple and at a price to be agreed upon, but the title and
jurisdiction of the Cherokees in this land was to remain unim¬
paired until so conveyed.3 Plate XI represents the situation
1 Sen. Ex. Doc., 78, 51 Cong., 1 Sess., p. 16.
2 Congressional Record, vol. 18, pp. 335-36; Sen. Ex. Doc., 50, 48 Cong.,
2 Sess., p. 18.
3 Sen. Ex. Doc., 109, 48 Cong., 1 Sess., p. 2.
INDIAN TERRITORY; DIVISIONS TO 1866.
3
oa"
o
P
<
©
2
p
©
Buck — The Settlement of Oklahoma.
331
in Indian Territory after the treaties of 1866. Tract 1 is what
remained of the original three cessions shown on Plate IX ;
Tract 2 represents the territory in the possession of the United
States for the purpose of settling Indians and freedmen there¬
on; and Tract 3 is the Cherokee Outlet, the disposal of which
was in the control of the United States.
To take up the disposal of the two latter1 areas by the United
States: Tract 1, Plate XII, was sold to the Seminoles by the
same treaty of 1866 by which they gave up their entire do¬
main. The rest of their present territory was purchased from
the Creeks in 1882.1 By the treaty of 1867 (15 Stats., 496),
Tract 2, Plate XII, was given to the Sacs and Foxes,2 and by
another treaty in the same year (15 Stats., 581), Tract 3 was
ceded to the Kiowas, Comanches and Apaches.3 The Chey¬
ennes and Arapahoes were located on Tracts 4 and 8 by execu¬
tive order in 18 69. 4 The first disposition of Cherokee land
was made by an order of the Secretary of the Interior in 1871
locating the Usages on Tracts 5 and 6. An act of Congress of
the next year (17 Stats., 228) gave the Usages Tract 5
and the Kansas Indians Tract 6. 5 The Pottawatomies and
Absentee Shawnees were located on Tract 7 by act of Congress
in 1872 (17 Stats., 15 9), 6 and in the same year the Wichitas
were located on Tract 8, an agreement to1 that effect being
made with the Cheyennes and Arapahoes, but this, was never
ratified by Congress.7 In 1876 the Pawnee Indians were lo¬
cated by act of Congress (19 Stats., 28) on Tract 9, partly
within the Cherokee Cutlet and partly in the Creek cession.8
Then Tracts 10 and 11 were given to the Xez Perces and Pon¬
cas respectively by acts of Congress in 1878 (20 Stats., 74, 76)
and Tract 12 to the Utoes and Missouri as in 1881 (21 Stats.,
1 Sen. Ex. Doc., 50, 48 Cong., 2 Sess., p. 18.
2 Ibid.
3 Ibid., 109, 48 Cong., 1 Sess., p. 6.
4 Ibid., and Sen. EX. Doc., 50, 48 Cong., 2 Sess., p. 19.
s Ibid., 109, 48 Cong., 1 Sess., p. 3.
e Ibid., 50, 48 Cong., 2 Sess., p. 18.
7 Ibid., 78, 51 Cong., 1 Sess., p. 29.
s Ibid., 50, 48 Cong., 2 Sess., p. 18; Sec. Int. Rept., 1883, \rol. 2, p. 42.
332 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts , and Letters.
318). 1 The last disposals were made in August 1883, when
the Iowas and Kickapoos were located by executive order on
Tracts 13 and 14 respectively.2
04 the remaining territory, the title of the United States to
Tract 15 was disputed by Texas owing to a disagreement as to
what constituted the Ked river of the treaties of 1819 with
Spain and 1828 with Mexico. The portion of the Cherokee
Outlet which was still unassigned, and consequently still under
the jurisdiction of the Cherokee®, is represented by Tracts 17
and 18, including about six million acres. Tract 15, including
1,887,800.47 acres3 in the very center of Indian Territory,
and embracing parts of both the Creek and Seminole cessions,
Was still unassigned. This was the region known to the In¬
dians and afterwards to the “boomers” and the world at large
as Oklahoma, “the beautiful land.”
Such was the status of the land in the western part of Indian
Territory, later the territory of Oklahoma, in the decade from
1879 to 1889, the period of the Oklahoma “boomers.” And
now perhaps some statistics regarding the density and con¬
dition of the Indian population will be of value in understand¬
ing the situation. To take first the Indians settled on the
Cherokee strip in Tracts 5, 6, 9, 10, 11 and 12, Plate XII;
es.-
we find in 1884 a population all told of four thousand, three
hundred and eight Indians possessing an extremely fertile tract
of two million, one hundred and twenty-two thousand acres, or
nearly five hundred acres for every man, woman and child.4
When we consider that the white farmers, who- afterwards settled
Oklahoma thought a farm of one hundred and sixty acres ample
for a family, an average of about thirty-two acres per individ¬
ual, we can comprehend the fact that the poor down-trodden
American Indian had become a wealthy landlord. These In¬
dians on the Cherokee strip were mostly semi-civilized and culti¬
vated the soil to some extent. The Indians on what was. some>-
1 Sec. Ini. Rept., 1883, vol. 2, p. 42.
2 Sen. Ex. Doc., 50, 48 Cong., 2 Sess., p. 18.
3 Ibid., p. 19.
4 Stec. Int. Rept, 1883, vol. 2, pp. 131-33.
Buck — The Settlement of Oklahoma.
333
times considered part of the original Oklahoma, Tracts 2, 7, 13
and 14, numbered about two thousand, one hundred and sixty
souls, and their territory included roughly about one million, six
hundred and fifty thousand acres of the best land in the terri¬
tory, an average of about seven hundred and seventy acres for
each individual.1 Some of these Indians were partly civilized
and some were still in the blanket stage. Tracts 3, 4 and 8
contain in round numbers about eight million acres and were
held by ten thousand, three hundred blanket Indians, making
an average of seven hundred and fifty acres apiece,2 but these
Indians were not so well off comparatively as the others, be¬
cause their land was located farther west and much of it was of
little value.
There remained about six million acres of the Cherokee strip,
one million, eight hundred and eighty-eight thousand acres in
Oklahoma proper, and Greer county with a million and a half
acres,3 in which there were no Indians. In the latter there was
already some white settlement under the jurisdiction of Texas.
Outside of the Indian Territory, but afterwards a part of Okla¬
homa, was the Public Land Strip, or “Ho Man’s Land,” con¬
sisting of three million, six hundred and eighty-one thousand
acres.4 This strip of land, which had accrued to the United
States from Texas, had never been organized or placed under
the jurisdiction of any state or territory. It was, however,
a part of the public domain, and as such was open to settlement
under the homestead laws. There were already quite a num¬
ber of settlers in this land along the edges of the streams where
. settlement was possible, and as they were entirely without law
they had organized a provisional government, and on March 4,
1886, resolved themselves into a territory to be called Cimiarron
and elected a certain Dr. Chase as delegate to Congress to de¬
mand recognition. Hothing came of this organization, however,
1 S>ec. Int. Rept., 1883, vol. 2, p. 142.
2 Ibid., pp. 118, 128; Congressional Record, vol. 17, Appendix, pp. 175-
76.
3 Int. Dept., Mis’c. Repts., 1902, pt. 2, p. 493.
4 Ibid., p. 492.
334 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts , and Letters.
but it served as a means of protecting property rights among
the settlers.1
Here, then, are twenty-four million, seven hundred and seven¬
ty-four thousand, four hundred acres in all, occupied by less
than seventeen thousand Indians, who can at best make use of
but a very small part of it. It could not be expected that all
the rest of the land would lie idle when surrounded by settled
states in which land was a,t a premium. Consequently the
natural thing happened, and this vacant land was taken possess¬
ion of by stock raisers with their vast herds of cattle. At first
they simply drove on their herds and asked no question as to
the ownership of the land. But the Indians soon saw that here
was an opportunity to turn their vast unused acres to account,
and they began to make leases to the cattlemen, which, although
at absurdly low rates per acre, netted them large sums of money
because of the great extent of the area leased.
An investigation of these leases made in 18852 shows that the
Cherokees had leased the six million acres in the Outlet to the
Cherokee Strip Live Stock Association for one hundred thouss
and dollars per annum, or less than two cents an acre. The
Cheyennes and Arapahoe® had leased the whole western part
of their domain, about three million, -eight hundred thousand
acres, in eight different leases at two cents per acre. The Os-
ages had leased three hundred and eighty thousand acres in six
leases at six cents per acre, and the Kansas Indians, fifty-two
thousand acres at four cents and three hundred acres at fifty
cents, the latter being under cultivation. Each of the other small
tribes, the Kez Perces, Poncas, Pawnees, Otoes and Missourias,
Sac® and Foxes and the Iowas, had leased about half of its reser¬
vation at an average rate of three cents per acre. The Okla¬
homa district, being thus surrounded on nearly all sides by
leased grazing lands, was of course overrun with cattle for
which no payment was made to anyone.3 Some of these Indians,
as the Cherokees, who held their land in fee simple, seem to
1 Int. Rept., Misc. Repts., 1900, pt. 2, p. 671.
2 Sen. Ex. Doe., 17, 48 Cong., 2 Sess., pp. 12-15.
3 Ibid., pp. 90, 91.
3
2
p
ff
M
*■«
Buck — :Tlie Settlement of Oklahoma.
335
have had the right to make these leases, but those who had pos¬
session merely under executive order had no authority to do so.
It was, however, understood that the Department of the Inte¬
rior would not interfere. In spite of all the landed possessions
of these Indians in the territory and of the money flowing into
their coffers from these cattle leases, they were still paupers of
the government, unable to take care of themselves, and it was
costing the United States a quarter1 of a million dollars every
year to support them.1
Another aspect of this region, surrounded as it was with
settled states, was the fact that it furnished an unusually safe
harbor for criminals and outlaws from all the surrounding
region. A fugitive from justice had but to make his way into
Indian Territory and be adopted into some of the tribes or join
some of the cattle ranches, and he was practically safe from
the arm of the law.2 That Indian Territory was the home
of the law breaker is shown by the fact that the United States
District Court for western Arkansas, which had jurisdiction
over Indian Territory, had five hundred and fifty-two- criminal
prosecutions in the fiscal year ending June 30, 1885, a number
double that of fifty-seven of the other sixty-eight districts in the
United States.3 Such, then, was the situation in Indian Terri¬
tory in the eighties, and everything was indeed ripe for the
work of the “ Oklahoma boomers1.”
THE AGITATION FOR THE OPENING OF OKLAHOMA.
There are many facts which tend to show that the plan of
settling Oklahoma with white men was in the beginning the
work of the railroad interests involved.4 In July 1866, shortly
after the Indian treaties of cession, a bill was rushed through
Congress granting to- the Atlantic and Pacific railroad each
alternate section for forty miles on both sides of the proposed
1 Congressional Record, vol. 17, Appendix, p. 177.
2 Ibid., p. 5214.
s Ibid., Appendix, p. 178.
4 'New York Tribune Extras, vol. 1, no. 7, p. 23; Sen. Eix. Doc., 50,
48 Cong., 2 Sess., pp. 49, 55.
336 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts , and Letters.
line of location through Indian Territory, title to be made
good when the Indian title should be extinguished.1 Although
this grant had been forfeited through failure to complete the
road in the specified time, the company, or its successor, still
felt it had some claim to the grant, which would be strengthened
by opening the territory to white settlement. Moreover, it was
evident that the earning capacity of all the different roads
through the territory would be vastly increased by the addi¬
tional traffic which would come with its settlement.2
The movement seems to have been started by two* men, Col.
E. G. Boudinot, a Cherokee Indian and a talented lawyer and
lobbyist in Washington, holding the position of clerk of the
House committee on private claims,3 and C. C. Carpenter,
a man of unsavory reputation in connection with a similar en¬
terprise for opening the Black Hills to settlement.4 In the
Chicago Times of February 17, 1879, Col. Boudinot published
an article calling attention to certain lands in Oklahoma which
he asserted were open to settlement, and, in answer to numerous
inquiries, he prepared a map and a letter declaring all western
Indian Territory below the Cherokee Strip, excepting the Sac
and Fox, Pottawatomie and Wichita reservations^ to be
property of the United States and open to settlement under
the homestead laws. This map and letter were widely circu¬
lated throughout the country and attracted the attention of
many homeseekers.5
Early in 1879, O. O. Carpenter, presumably in the pay of
the railroads, issued a circular and spread notices through the
newspapers of Kansas to the effect that Oklahoma was open
to settlement, and inviting people to take possession of it.6
Many worthy people were attracted by these notices and be¬
gan to move toward Oklahoma. The attention of President
Hayes having been called to this state of affairs, he issued a
1 Congressional Record, vol. 17, Appendix, p. 181.
2 Chautauquan, June 1889, p. 533.
s Ibid.
4 Sen. Ex. Doc., 50, 48 Cong., 2 Sess., p. 49.
s Ibid., p. 51.
e Ibid., pp. 8, 52.
Buck — The Settlement of Oklahoma. 337
proclamation on the twentieth of February, 1879, warning all
persons against attempting to invade or settle on any land in
the Indian Territory and advising them that they would be re¬
moved by military force if necessary.1 At the same time,
the army was given instructions to enforce the proclamation and
the proposed invasion was checked with little difficulty, the
people readily turning back when informed of the true condi¬
tions.2 *
From this time on, attention centers in Captain D. L.
Payne, the most noted of the “Oklahoma boomers.” He was
of a frontier type, a skilful hunter, soldier and politician.
In 1878 he was doorkeeper of the House of Representatives. s
Payne was probably in the pay of the railroads at the start, but
his fertile brain soon evolved a scheme of organization where¬
by “booming Oklahoma” became an extremely profitable occu¬
pation in itself, and no incentive was needed to keep the leaders
at it. Payne and his associates organized what they called
the “Oklahoma Colony.” Every one who joined the colony
had to pay a fee of at least one dollar, and in addition, the
leaders organized themselves into a town-site company and
sold claims to lots at fronr two to twenty-five dollars each, ac¬
cording to whether “booming” was dull or brisk. It is esti¬
mated that one hundred thousand dollars must have been re¬
ceived in this way before the death of Payne.4
In order to get around the President’s proclamation of 1879
and to delude the people into believing that they still had the
right to settle in Oklahoma, the leaders of the “colony” repre^
sented that the President had changed his mind as to the state
of these lands since the issuance of the proclamation, and had
admitted in his last message to Cbngress that they were open to
settlement.5 To correct this statement the President issued a
second proclamation on February 12, 1880, declaring such
representations wholly without foundation, and reiterating the
1 Sec. Int. Rept., 1879, vol. 1, p. 294.
2 Ibid., pp. 14, 103; Sen. Ex. Doc., 50, 48 Cong., 2 Sess., p. 9.
s Chautauquan, June 1889, p. 534.
4 Ibid.; Sen. Ex. Doc., 50, 48 Cong., 2 Sess., p. 5.
s Sec. Int. Rept., 1880, vol. 1, p. 96.
5— S. & A.
338 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences Arts , and Letters.
declarations of the former proclamation.1 In spite of this,
the first organized raid on Oklahoma took place in April 1880.
A party of about twenty-five men, led by Captain Payne and
“Oklahoma Harry” (Harry L. Hill, a wealthy resident of
Wichita), left Arkansas City April 13th and advanced into
Oklahoma over what is known as the Hog’s Back trail. On
April 22nd, they selected a town-site about forty miles east of
Fort Reno and a mile and a half south of the Forth Fork of
the Canadian river.2
Meanwhile the military officers in charge of the Missouri
district had been instructed to remove the intruders, and if any
returned, to turn them over to the United States marshal at
Fort Smith.3 In pursuance of this, the outfit led by Payne
was corralled on May. 12th by Lieutenant Pardee and twelve
soldiers, and Payne and thirteen of his followers were arrested.
These were held until the third of June awaiting instructions
and then conducted outside of the territory and warned not to
return.4 Hot at all deterred by this treatment, Payne was soon
at work again, and on the fifteenth of July was again discov¬
ered in the Indian Territory and captured with twenty-two
followers. This time they were held until August 7th, when
Payne and the other old offenders were turned over to the
United States marshal for the western district of Arkansas,
and the others released. The prisoners were soon released on
bail to appear at the Uovember term of court, and at the subse¬
quent May term a civil suit in the nature of an action for debt,
the only action possible under the law, was brought against
Pavne in the name of the United States to recover the statu¬
tory penalty of one thousand dollars for invasion of Indian res¬
ervations. Judgment was of course rendered against him, but
nothing could be collected, as he was entirely impecunious.5
Even while awaiting trial Payne had not been quiet, and in
December 1880 had assembled about two hundred men be-
1 Sec. Int. Kept, 1880, vol. 1, p. 323.
2 Ibid., pp. 96-97; Chautauquan, June 1889, p. 534.
3 Sen. Ex. Doc., 50, 48 Cong., 2 Sess., pp. 3-4.
4 Ibid., p. 4.
s Sec. Int. Rept., 1881, vol. 2, p. 54.
Buck — The Settlement of Oklahoma.
339
tween Caldwell and Arkansas City, and would have entered the
territory but for the presence of the troops. They encamped near
Caldwell December 11th, determined to wait until the troops
were removed, but were forced to disperse about January 6th
by the extreme cold.1 In the year 1882 Payne was twice cap¬
tured in Indian Territory, once in May with twenty-nine men,
when the party was merely conducted across the border and
released, and again in August with seven men and two women,
when Payne and six of the men were taken to Fort Reno as
prisoners and, in the latter part of September, turned over again
to the civil authorities at Fort Smith, where the previous per¬
formance was repeated.2
There is no need of going into the details of the subsequent
raids, for they are but variations of these. About twice each year
Payne and a party of “boomers” would be arrested in the ter¬
ritory by the military, the old offenders turned over to the mar¬
shal at Fort Smith, and then released to repeat the farce. It
Was evident that the United States laws were entirely inade¬
quate to deal with the situation, and the Secretary of the In¬
terior and Commissioner of Indian Affairs were continually
urging upon Congressi, but without success, the advisability of
passing a more stringent law to cover the offence.3 The mili¬
tary officers also soon tired of the farce they were compelled to
play in periodically ejecting the intruders. The commanding
general of the Missouri district reported in 1882 that these
raids were entailing a heavy expense upon the government
and subjecting the troops to long and severe marches to no pur¬
pose. He suggested that Payne be shut up in the guardhouse
and made to work for his living until some remedy for the sit¬
uation be found. Such action, of course, could not be counte¬
nanced by the Secretary of War, and so the continuous vaude¬
ville performance went on.4
The most noteworthy of all raids was that which in 1884
effected a settlement at Pock Falls and at other places a few
1 Sen. Ex. Doc., 50, 48 Cong., 2 Sess., pp. 4, 10.
2 Ibid., p. 4; Sec. Int. Rept., 1881, vol. 2, p. 54.
3 Sec. Int. Rept., 1882, vol. 2, p. 13.
4 Sen. Ex. Doc., 50, 48 Cong., 2 Sess., pp. 4, 11.
340 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters.
miles south of the Kansas border in the Cherokee Strip. The
raiding parties had been gradually growing in strength up to
this t;ime> and this one was made up of about six hundred men,
women and children. On July 1, 1834, President Arthur
issued a proclamation which was substantially the same as
those of his predecessor, but the settlement at Kook Falls con¬
tinued to prosper and developed into a well settled town with
its stores and its newspaper. Finally, on August 6, 1884, Gol.
Hatch appeared at Rloek Falls, after the little settlement had
prospered quietly for several months, and, explaining his mis¬
sion to the leaders and the people, read the President’s proc¬
lamation and ordered them to withdraw. The next day -the
removals began, the improvements at Rock Falls were burned,
Payne and others arrested and taken to Fort Smith, and the
rest of the colonists driven across the border into Kansas, but
Cherokee lands were not entirely cleared of intruders until
the middle of September.1
The reported presence and active assistance of a cowboy in
the removals at Rock Falls2 indicates one of the principal
grievances of the “Oklahoma boomers.” They knew that not
only Oklahoma proper, but the whole western part of Indian
Territory was in reality in possession of the cattlemen, and
they could not understand why their right to make use of this
land was not as good as that of the stock-raising companies nor
why they should be ejected by the military forces while the
cowboys and their herds were protected. In 1884 it w'as called
to the attention of the Secretary of the Interior that Oklahoma
was covered with wire cattle fences, and in June their removal
by the military was ordered. This was carried out in Septem¬
ber, but it did not 'mean a removal of the cattle themselves.3
Payne died suddenly in November 1884 under suspicious
circumstances, and a report was circulated to the effect that he
had been poisoned by the cattlemen. He was succeeded by
Clapt. W. L. Couch, who had been one of his associates. Couch
1 Sec. Int. Rept.. 1884, vol. 1, pp. 31-32; Chautauquan, June 1889, p.
534.
2 Ibid., pp. 534-35.
3 Sen. Ex. Doc., 50, 48 Cong., 2 Sess., pp. 5-6.
Buch — The Settlement of Oklahoma.
341
made such representations to Secretary Lamar of the Interior
Department, concerning the; injustice of excluding settlers and
allowing cattlemen to remain, that an order was issued in
March 1885 for the removal of the cattle in Oklahoma. The
carrying out of this order was long delayed by the plea of the
cattlemen that their herds had been crowded for range and
were too poor to stand the journey, and it is probable that it
was never strictly enforced.1
Two raids occurred under the leadership of Couch in 1885.
In January he was found at Stillwater1 with several hundred
armed men and a few women and children, living in small ex¬
cavations in the sand hills on the left bank of the Cimarron
river. When Lieutenant D'ay with a troop of thirty men or¬
dered them to remove, he was met by two hundred men armed
with shotguns and Winchesters. Nlot wishing to precipitate a
collision, the Lieutenant sent for reinforcements' and arranged
his troops so as to cut off supplies and new arrivals! who were
constantly pouring in. Finally the provisions gave out, and
on January 27th the troops closed in and effected a removal.2
During the summer a camp of “boomers” was formed near
Arkansas City numbering from' six to eight; hundred, with the
avowed intention of crossing the border at the first opportunity.
In October and ^November they entered, headed by Couch, and
encamped near Council Grove on the Canadian, but were soon
removed by the military with little difficulty.3 The Gulf,
Colorado and Santa Fe railroad having by this time succeeded
in getting from Congress a right of way through the territory,
Couch now ceased “booming” to take contracts for grading the
new line, and although a few people entered Oklahoma every
year from 1885 to 1889, there were no more organized raids.4
Although a great many petitions for the opening of Okla¬
homa were received by Congress at each session from the wesr
tern states, and although several bills concerning it had been in-
1 Cosmopolitan, vol. 7, p. 461.
2 Sec. Int. Rept., 1885, vol. 2, pp. 58-60; Sen. Ex. Doc., 50, 48 Cong.,.
2 Sess., p. 7.
3 Sec. Int. Rept., 1885, vol. 2, pp. 58-60.
4 Chautauquan, June 1889, p. 535.
342 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, , Arts , and Letters.
troduced, Congress did not take any real notice of the situation
until 1885, when a resolution was passed authorizing the
President “to open negotiations with the Creeks, Seminole®
and Cherokees for the purpose of opening to settlement under
the homestead laws, the unassigned land in Indian Territory.”
(23 Stats., 384.) President Cleveland did not consider this
resolution as obligatory, and believing that such action would
not be advisable in the state of affairs then existing, he paid no
attention to it.1 But the demand for opening Oklahoma w^as
not to be stifled in this way. The agitation increased in the
western states, floods of petitions poured in upon Congress, and
one by one the states passed resolutions in favor of the opening.
As a result of this agitation, a bill was introduced into the
House in 1886 to provide a territorial government for Indian
Territory and to create a commission to treat with the Indians
for opening the vacant land to settlement. A strong opposition
to this bill was immediately developed which based its argu¬
ments on the idea that the interests of the Indians were not re¬
ceiving sufficient consideration, and that it would be a violation
of their solemn treaties. The influence of the powerful cattle
corporations was also exerted against the bill, and it failed of
passage after having given occasion to a long debate.2
Congressman Springer, chairman of the committee on ter¬
ritories, introduced another bill in Congress in 1888, from which
he had endeavored to eliminate the objectionable features of the
previous bill. This bill provided for the organization of the
territory of Oklahoma out of Indian Territory, excepting the
land of the five civilized tribes and including the Public Land
Strip. Ho lands patented to the Indians were to be included
nor any Indian rights disparaged, nevertheless the opposi¬
tion maintained that to organize Oklahoma into a territory be¬
fore the clear title had been procured from the Indians, was
practically to force them to sell, and in spite of the: demands of
the western people and the arguments advanced to support the
bill, its promoters were unable to push it through.3
1 Congressional Record, vol. 19, p. 6744.
2 Ibid., vol. 17, p. 4064.
3 Ibid., vol. 19, p. 6741.
Buck — The Settlement of Oklahoma. 343
It having now become evident that Congress would take no
step toward opening Oklahoma until arrangements had been
made with the Indians^ the President, acting under the author¬
ization of 1885, made a treaty with the Creeks on January 19,
1889, by which they agreed to convey to the United States a
complete title to the land ceded by the treaty of 1866 in con¬
sideration of a little over two million dollars. This arrange’
ment was ratified by act of Congress March 1, 1889 (25 Stats.,
735), and was followed by a section tacked on to the Indian ap¬
propriation bill of March 2nd (25 Stats., 1004), which appro¬
priated a slightly smaller sum to pay the Seminoles for the
lands ceded to them in 1866, and provided for opening to set¬
tlement the land thus acquired by proclamation of the Presi¬
dent. All of this land was in the possession and occupancy of
various Indian tribes, except the one million, eight hundred
and eighty-eight thousand acres of Oklahoma proper, and so a
proclamation was issued March 23, 1889, defining this area
(Tract 16, Plate XII^,^and declaring it open to homestead
settlement after twelve o’clock noon, the twenty-second of April,
1889.1 At last the dream of the “boomer” was to be realized
and he was to be permitted to make a home for himself on
government land in the fertile Oklahoma district.
OKLAHOMA OPENED TO SETTLEMENT.
The law under which Oklahoma was opened (25 Stats.,
1004) made no provision whatever for the government of the
territory. It merely provided that it should become a part of
the public domain and be disposed of in accordance with the
homestead laws to qualified persons, in areas not to exceed one,
hundred and sixty acres for each settler. Sections 16 and 36
of each township were reserved for the benefit of the public
schools, and it was further provided that anyone who should
enter prior to the opening should forfeit the right to homestead
any lands thereon. The only jurisdiction of any sort over the
district was that of the courts of Texas, Kansas and Arkansas,
i Sfec. Int. Rept., 1889, vol. 1, pp. 95-103.
344 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, , Arts , and Letters.
in criminal cases punish able by death or hard labor, and of the
newly established United States court of Indian Territory with
jurisdiction in other1 offences and civil cases) where the amount
involved was one hundred dollars or more. Under the act of
March 1, 1889 (25 Stats., 784), which created this court, an
attorney and United States marshal had been appointed for it,
and the latter had been given power to appoint deputies.
Under this very defective system there was no law and no one
with executive power but a marshal of a distant United States
court.1 In spite of all this:, the President and the Secretary of
the Interior felt that it would be far better to open up the ter¬
ritory as it was and trust to the innate sense of justice in the
American people, than to postpone the opening until proper
government could be provided by the' next session of Congress
and thus disappoint and entail great hardships upon the thou¬
sands of people already gathered on the borders of the prom¬
ised land.
The President’s proclamation of March 23rd2 provided for the
establishment of two land offices for Oklahoma, one at Guthrie
and one at Kingfisher Stage Station, and registers and receiv¬
ers for these were immediately appointed. Inspector1 Pickier
was detailed from the General Land Office and proceeded to
make arrangements for establishing the Oklahoma offices.
The buildings for these offices were made in sections, conveyed
into the territory on wagons, and there put together, and on the
stated day the land officers were in their places and the offices
opened ready for business.3 The United States marshals ap¬
pointed a large number of deputies in anticipation of the
crowds to come and made arrangements for1 preserving order
among the settlers, and a military force was also detailed by the
Secretary of War to keep out the: people: on the border until the
stated time and to assist in preserving order during the
opening.
Word had gone forth throughout the United States that
Oklahoma was at last to be opened to the homeseeker, and
long before the opening day her future population began to
1 Sec. Int. Rept., 1889, vol. 1, pp. iv-v.
2 Ibid., pp. 95-103.
a Ibid., p. v.
Buck — The Settlement of Oklahoma. 345
gather on the borders. Those on the north stopped at Arkan¬
sas City or Caldwell or camped along the border. Each of
these places had its population increased many fold by this
great influx of transients, while on the1 southern border a veri¬
table metropolis sprang up where before was nothing but a rail¬
road station and a water tank. This was . at Purcell in the
Chickasaw district, just across the Canadian river from Oklar
homa.1 A week before the opening, there were about fifteen
hundred prospective settlers at each of the northern cities, and
the number grewi at a rapidly increasing rate as the time drew
near. Together with those at smaller camps and on the south¬
ern line, there were on the twenty-second of April at least
twenty thousand people waiting for the sound of the bugle
which should let them into' the coveted territory.
As those on the1 north would otherwise have been at a serious
disadvantage compared to their southern rivals, the authori¬
ties decided to permit them to cross1 the Cherokee Strip
after the eighteenth. Consequently most of the outfits moved
down from the cities to the line on the seventeenth to get an
early start the next day. At a signal blast from a bugle in
the morning, the procession started across the strip. Before
noon five hundred wagons had crossed the border of the ex¬
temporized road near Arkansas1 City, and more were on the
way, and still the city was overflowing.2 Trains came rolling
in every hour filled with prospective settlers from all parts of the
Union, and on the morning of the twenty-second most of these
gathered around the depot and the five trains drawn up' on ad¬
jacent tracks ready to make the run, and speculated as; to which
train would start first. But so great was the crowd that those
were lucky who got a place on any of the trains. The plat¬
forms were overflowing, some clambered up on top of the
coaches, and a few even rode on the car trucks in their anxiety
to get there in good season. As the trains moved slowly across
the strip, the passengers could see the endless procession of wag¬
ons still winding on toward the goal. When the Oklahoma
border was reached, the “boomers” were found drawn up in a
1 Tribune Extras, vol. 1, no. 7, pp. 21-9.
2 Ibid., pp. 29-30.
346 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts, and Letters.
line awaiting the sound, of the bugle which would give them
permission to cross the imaginary lim protected by the troops.
In the front rank were the best riders of each outfit mounted
on their fleetest steeds, and behind were the “prairie schooners”
and mule teams writh the families and outfits driven by the
“boomers’ ” wives.1
At exactly twelve the blast from the bugle rent the air, an ex¬
ultant shout came forth from the throats of the waiting “boom¬
ers,” the quivering steeds sprang over the line, and the race for
homes was on. One by one the reckless riders disappeared over
the crest of a hill, closely followed by buggies and buckboards
with the rear brought up by the heavy wagons and outfits, so
that the spot where thousands had been camped during the fore¬
noon was practically deserted within half an hour after the first
man crossed the line.2 The land had been surveyed and laid
out in mile-square sections with the corners marked by stones
or blazed trees, and each settler was to be allowed to “squat”
on a quarter of one of these sections. Frequently it would
happen that several would locate on different parts of the; same
quarter-section. Each would claim priority, and each would
make improvements, and thus the way was prepared for much
litigation and bad feeling, often leading to family feuds and
twilight shootings.3
Meanwhile, the first train from the north which had also
crossed the border at the blast of the bugle had pushed on to
Guthrie, the spot where one of the land offices was located.
When this train arrived, at half-past one, all there was of the
future capital of Oklahoma was the railroad water-tank, a
small station house, a shanty for the express company, and the
government land office, a building about twenty by forty feet
and located five hundred feet from the depot on the brow* of a
gentle rise stretching eastward from the tract. A town-site
company had already been organized4 by a few enterprising
1 Cosmopolitan, vol. 7, p. 461.
2 Ibid., vol. 7, p. 461.
s Atlantic Monthly, vol. 86, p. 329.
4 Under the homestead laws a town-site company is permitted to
survey and lay out in lots a district not larger than half a section,
Buck — The Settlement of Oklahoma.
347
deputy-marshals, railroad men and their friends, several hun¬
dred acres of town-site had been staked out, and a few* 1 tents
erected near the land office to hold the claim. But the people
from the train soon grasped the situation, and no attention was
paid to the rights and privileges of the deputy marshals and
their friends. The passengers made their exit from the ears
through the windows or any other convenient openings and
scrambled pell-mell up the hillside in the wild race for town lots.
Everything was in confusion, no one seemed to know where the
streets were going to run or where he wanted to drive his stakes.
The race was not over when a lot was staked out, for improve^
ments had to he made in the shape of a little tent or wooden
shanty. Many hired an enterprising man with a plowr, who
appeared on the scene, to mark out their lots with a furrow,
but as eternal vigilance is the price of liberty, so was it the
price of a town-lot in Guthrie that day, and the surest way to
prevent a claim from being jumped was to: guard it with a
loaded revolver.1
At the close of the first day Guthrie was a city of nearly
a thousand tents and several thousand inhabitants, but in a
short time many of these tents were superseded by small frame
structures and the city began to assume a more permanent asr
pect. The first few days were largely spent in wrangling over
lots and in contentions between the different town-site com¬
panies. The representatives of the various companies finally
got together and appointed a committee to adjust matters, and
this committee went around from lot to lot taking evidence and
pronouncing judgment as to the rightful possessor of the
lot. Although their decisions were not always accepted, it
quieted matters somewhat, and before the city was a week old
the savage and ferocious “boomer” with knives and pistols
sticking out all over him had quietly tucked his revolver away
in his satchel and appeared as a plain, ordinary, everyday
grocer, butcher, or real estate man.2 The organization of a
and these lots, with certain reservations excepted, are then open to
homestead settlement.
1 Cosmopolitan , vol. 7, p. 461.
2 Ibid.
348 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts , and Letters.
municipal government began on the very first night, when the
roll of the states was called and a representative governing com¬
mittee appointed. The next day this committee was endorsed
by viva voce vote of the people:, and they proceeded to the
election of a mayor. Two candidates were put up, and the
adherents of each formed in line four abreast and marched
past a definite point to be counted ; but it was soon discovered
that an ingenious system of repeating was being used, and the
election nearly broke up in a row. Finally the two candidates
picked out a committee of six who added a seventh to their
number, constituted themselves a nominating board and
presented the name of Cbl. D. B. Dyer to' the people for mayor.
He was unanimously elected and at once turned all his energies
to the organization of the young municipality.1
Among the other disagreeable features of Guthrie life dur¬
ing the first few days was the scarcity of food and water.
The one eating tent was continually overflowing, although the
rate was five dollarsi per mieal. The water in the Cimarron river
was brackish and practically unfit to drink, and crowds hung
around the railroad tank which was guarded by soldiers.
To add to the unpleasantness, a sand storm arose on the third
day and covered everything with the fine sand of the prairie.
Many became disgusted with the situation and decided to pull
out at the first opportunity; but they found nearly as much
difficulty in doing so as they had in getting in. At one
time it seemed as if the city would be depopulated, and lots
which had previously changed hands at fancy prides wjent
begging at five dollars. But this lasted only for a few days.
The places of those who left were rapidly filled by newcomers,
provisions soon became more plentiful, and the town settled
down to a steady growth and development.2
One hundred days after its settlement Guthrie presented the
appearance of an ordinary western metropolis, with its streets
and alleys, stores, parks, boulevards and fine iron bridges. An
excellent electric light system was in operation and the contract
1 Tribune Extras , vol. 1, no. 7, p. 43; Cosmopolitan, vol. 7, jp. 468.
2 Tribune Extras , vol. 1, no. 7, pp. 39-42.
Buck — The Settlement of Oklahoma.
349
let for a street railway. It had a population of about fifteen
thousand, most of whom were men who had not yet brought their
families. There were about four thousand houses in the course
of construction and several hundred tents still scattered through
the suburbs. The city boasted five banks, fifteen hotels, three
music halls, fifty grocery stores and six printing offices with
three daily papers. The price of lots had risen from five hunr
dred dollars a few weeks before the opening, to between two and
five thousand dollars, and Guthrie was well started on the
fair road to prosperity.1
The other metropolis of Oklahoma, and the rival of Guthrie,
was Oklahoma City, located about thirty miles further south
on the north fork of the Canadian. This place was settled
largely by the “boomers” from the south who had occupied
Purcell and Beaver City, and who seem to have had a larger
proportion of speculators, confidence men and other lawless
characters in their ranks than those from the north.2 Therefore
the events attending the settlement of this site, though much
the same as those at Guthrie, were somewhat more disorderly,
and but for the presence of the United States troops, serious
collisions might have taken place. The troops, which were
under the command of Brigadier-General Merrit, and later of
Captain Styles, were stationed at Oklahoma City to preserve
the peace and assist the marshals in carrying out their orders,
but the situation was such that the military took entire charge
of the city until the sixth of May and practically controlled
the situation all summer.
On April 21st, Brigadier-General Mterrit issued a prociamar
tion announcing that the presence of the troops was to protect
the United States government property and mails, and to guard
the people from lawlessness and disorder.3 Soon after noon on
the twenty-second the scramble for town lots began. The mili¬
tary officials were constantly forced to interfere to prevent the
honest settlers from being bulldozed out of their rights and to
settle rows and street fights, and. it was not always possible to
1 Cosmopolitan, vol. 7, p. 468.
2 Tribune Extras, vol. 1, no. 7, pp. 23-29.
3 Sen. Ex. Doc., 72, 51 Cong., 2 Sess., p. 22.
350 i Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters.
geit a marshal from whom proper authority could be obtained.
In fact, many of the marshals sympathized with the worst ele¬
ments in the crowd. On the twenty-third of April, the only
pump in town was taken possession of by a Chicago gambler
named Cole, who demanded five cents for every drink and en¬
forced his demands with a revolver. He was soon removed by
the military authorities. They were also continually called
upon to protect a settler who had homesteaded the claim just
west of the city on which the crowd was determined to lay out
a town-site.1
On the twenty-sixth of April a call was issued signed by a
dozen citizens of Oklahoma City for a massLmeeting on the next
day to organize a municipal government. At this meeting it
was decided to elect a temporary mayor who should make ar¬
rangements for a regular election on the first of May. W. L.
Couch was unanimously elected. On May 1st, a regular ballot
election was held and Couch was again elected, according to the
books of the city recorder. At the time the election was accept¬
ed in good faith as the expression of the will of the people,
but later it was questioned by many. The new government
was installed on the sixth of May and the military officials re-
signed their control to it, but it was absolutely powerless with¬
out their aid in enforcing its orders, and until August 5th a
guard of from five to fourteen men was sent to town from the
camp every day. After that until October 21st, from two to four
men were sent. During this period several attempts were
made to displace the city officials by holding new unauthorized
elections, but as the established government was always sup¬
ported by the military authorities, these were all failures. The
action of the military officials throughout seems to have been
approved by all the better and more solid citizens of the new
community, who desired a stable government, but it was late in
the fall before the disturbing elements; were finally quelled
and the city settled down to a regular life.2
Several other cities wrere laid out and settled in Oklahoma on
1 Sen. Ex. Doc., 72, 51 Cong., 2 Ses.s., pp. 30-38.
2 Ibid., pp. 22-30.
Buck — The Settlement of Oklahoma. 351
that memorable opening day, the principal ones being King¬
fisher, where the other land office was located, and Korman,
which later became the site of the territorial university. At
each of these places the scenes and events of the first few days
at Guthrie and Oklahoma City were reproduced on a smaller
scale. Outside of the cities, practically all of the available
land was taken up by would-be farmers during the course of a
few days.1 The opening was too late in the spring for the fann¬
ers to do much in the way of crops the first year, and so most
of them proceeded to build rude houses and make themselves
comfortable in their new home when not putting in their time
quarreling over the title to their quarter-sections. Although
a great many of those who* took up homesteads were farmers
who wished to better their conditions, there was also- a large
proportion of people from the other walks of life, who, having
won a quarter-section in the rush, were forced to live on it and
turn farmers in order to prove up* their claims. The demand
for land was so great that the sections reserved for the- benefit
of the schools were readily rented during the year.
Perhaps the most noticeable thing about the first opening in
Oklahoma was the imbecile policy or lack of policy of the
government in regard to it, which led to so much confusion,
illegality, corruption and future litigation. Although the In¬
terior department can not be blamed for the failure of Congress
to provide suitable legislation, it still would seem that more care
should have been exercised in providing men of integrity for
marshals and for receivers and registers at the land offices.
The district was- supposed to have been cleared of every in¬
truder the day before the opening, and the law provided that
“sooners” should not be allowed to homestead claims ; neverthe¬
less when the first honest settlers who crossed the line at noon
reached the interior, they found many of the best claims all
staked out and in possession of men who had spent the night
hidden in the cracks of the earth or among the bushes along
the rivers.2
The greatest amount of corruption seems to have been at
1 Sec. Int. Rept., 1891, vol. 3, p. 450.
2 Atlantic Monthly, vol. 86, p. 329.
352 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts , and Letters .
Guthrie, where a veritable conspiracy was planned by the mar¬
shals and their friends. Some of the marshals used their ap¬
pointive power to make deputies of all their friends and rela¬
tives, and each one of these registered a choice claim when the
land office was opened at noon. Many of the miost valuable
claims around the site of Guthrie were filed on by relatives and
friends of the register at the Guthrie office, who afterward ad¬
mitted that he knew they were in the territory before the open¬
ing and had thereby sacrificed their rights to make entry.1 The
attempted looting of the town-site of Guthrie by the a sooner s”
and their official friends has already been referred to, and the
way in which their plans were in a measure defeated by the
rush of honest homeseekers. A great deal of confusion in re¬
gard to town-sites was due to a defect in the law. The act of
March 2, 1889, provided that tovm-site entries might, be per¬
mitted after the opening, in accordance with sections 2387 and
2388 of the revised statutes ; but these sections provide that ap¬
plication should be made through certain town or county offi¬
cers, and there were no such in Oklahoma nor any power to
create them. So nothing could be settled without further leg¬
islation, and the land officers were instructed simply to receive
all applications for town-sites and report them to the general
office without taking any action.2
As soon as the Interior department became aware of the situa¬
tion in Oklahoma a commission was sent out to investigate, and
it reported in June 1890 that a great number of town lots and
other claims were in the possession of “sooners” who had been
in the territory previous to the opening. These, had secured
their certificates and in some cases had sold them to others who
were now claiming the lots.. The department was. kept busy
for a long time settling contested claims, and although justice
in every case was not to be expected, an effort seems to have
been made to get at the true situation and deprive the asooners”
of their unjust possessions. A ruling of the department to the
effect that the provision in regard to homesteading by those
1 House Ex. Doc., 209, 51 Cong., 1 Sess-.
2 Sec. Int. Rept., 1889, vol. 1, p. vii.
Buck — The Settlement of Oklahoma. 353
who were in the territory prior to the opening applied as well
to those who were legally there as to intruders, deprived many
of the deputy marshals and railroad employes of their easily
gotten claims.1
The people who settled Oklahoma were for over a year en¬
tirely without any law or organized government excepting that
established by common consent. Finally, in May 1890, an act
was passed by Congress (26 Stats., 80) organizing them into a
territory. This act; provided that “all that, portion of the
United States now known as the Indian Territory, except so
much as is actually occupied by the five civilized tribes, and
the Indian tribes within the Quapaw Agency, and except the
unoccupied part of the Cherokee Outlet, together with that por¬
tion of the United States known as the Public Land Strip, is
hereby erected into a temporary government by the name of
the Territory of Oklahoma.” It was further provided that the
Cherokee Outlet should become a portion of the territory with¬
out further legislation as soon as the Indian title should be ex¬
tinguished, and also that any other lands in Indian Territory
might thereafter become a part of Oklahoma, whenever the In¬
dian tribes owning such lands should signify their assent.
The act established seven counties in the territory, numbered
from one to six in Oklahoma proper, the seventh being Beaver
county in the Public Land Strip, and county seats were desig¬
nated for each. The laws of 'Nebraska, such as were not lo¬
cally inapplicable, were extended over Oklahoma until the leg¬
islature should have an opportunity to frame a; new code. All
lands in the Public Land Strip were declared open to settle¬
ment and a land office was established at Beaver, but preference
Was to be given to “all actual and bona, fide settlers upon and
occupants of the land” at the time of the passage of the act.
Another act of the fourteenth of May (26 Stats., 109) re¬
lieved the town-site situation by providing for the1 establish¬
ment of a commission to take the plaoe of the regular officers as
trustees for the town-site.
On the fifteenth of May 1890, George W. Steele was ap-
1 Sec. Int. Rept., 1890, vol. 1, p. xix.
6— S. & A,
354 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts , and Letters.
pointed first governor of the territory of Oklahoma, and on the
twenty-second he assumed the duties of his office. These com
sisted at first in defining the boundaries of the counties, organ¬
izing county governments and appointing officers to carry out
the provisions of the laws of Nebraska. A census enumeration
was immediately taken which disclosed a population of over
sixty thousand. On the basis of this, the territory was appor¬
tioned into districts for legislative purposes, and on the fifth of
August 1890 an election was held for members of the first legis¬
lative assembly. This assembly met August 27th, and after
spending the greater part of the session of a hundred days in
quarreling over the location of the capital, finally enacted a
fair code of laws to take the place of the Nebraska code. The
organization of the government in this youthful territory was
now fairly complete, and it continued to run with very little
friction.1
Many things combined to make the first two years in Okla¬
homa especially hard ones for the farmers on their new claima
Large numbers of them had already failed in western Kansas
or northwestern Texas on account of drought or had been wait¬
ing on the borders of the country until their resources had been
exhausted. When we add to all this the fact that the opening
was too late for any crops to be raised in 1889, it can readily be
seen how dependent the farming population must have been on
the results of the harvest of 1890. But through some strange
freak of fate an unexampled drought occurred in that year
which was almost fatal to the first crops throughout the new
territory. Under such circumstances it was but to be ex¬
pected that destitution and suffering would be prevalent
among Oklahoma’s ill-fated citizens, and urgent measures of
relief were necessary. The governor made an appeal to
Congress, and on the first of September a resolution was
passed (26 Stats., 679) appropriating a generous sum for ren
lieving the destitute in the new territory. The Atchison,
Topeka and Santa Ke, and the Chicago and Keck Island
railroads did their share toward relieving the situation
i Sfec. Int. Rept., 1891, vol. 3, pp. 449-450.
Buck — The Settlement of Oklahoma. 355
by furnishing seed wheat to the farmers at actual cost
without transportation charge, to be paid for out of the
crop without interest. With this help and that of favorable
weather conditions, abundant crops were produced in all lines
in 1891, and the farmers were well started on the road to
prosperity.1
THE CHEROKEE STRIP AND OTHER OPENINGS.
The act of March 2, 1889 (25 Stats., 1004), by which Okla¬
homa proper was opened to settlement, also established a com¬
mission of three members to be appointed by the President to
negotiate with the Cherokee® and all other Indians owning
or claiming land west of the ninety-sixth parallel in Indian
Territory, for the cession of all title in such lands to the United
States. This body, known as the Cherokee commission, pro¬
ceeded at once to negotiate treaties or agreements with the
Iowas, May 20, the Sacs and Poxes, June 12, the Pottawatomies
and Absentee Shawnees, June 25 and 26, and the Cheyennes
and Arapahoe s, October 18, 1890. By these treaties the sev¬
eral tribes agreed to take up land in severalty and to relin¬
quish to the United States the remainder of their reservations,
Tracts 2, 4, 7 and 13, Plate XII.
By an act of Congress of February 13, 1891 (26 Stats.,
749), the Iowa and Sac and Fox agreements were ratified and
the President was authorized to open the land to settlement.
Another act of March 3rd (26 Stats., 1016) ratified the agree¬
ments with the Pottawatomies and Shawnees, and the Chey¬
ennes and Arapahoe®, and appropriated nearly three million
dollars to pay the Chickasaw® and Choctaws, who also had a.
claim over part of the Cheyenne and Arapahoe reservation, for
all interest in the lands ceded by them in trust to the United
States in 1866.
The allotments to the Indians having been completed in all
these reservations except the Cheyenne and Arapahoe, the Pres¬
ident, issued a proclamation September' 18, 1891, opening the
remaining nine hundred and forty-one thousand acres of the
1 Sec. Int. Rept., 1891, vol. 3, pp. 450-451.
356 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts , and Letters.
Iowa, Sac and Fox, and Pottawatomie and Shawnee reserva¬
tions to settlement after twelve o’clock noon, September 22nd.1
All lands in Oklahoma had been free to homesteaders up to
this time, but the act of May 2, 1890, which organized the ter¬
ritory, provided that when any lands purchased from the In¬
dians should thereafter be opened, the settler should pay the
United States a sum per acre equal to the amount paid by the
United States to extinguish the Indian title but in no case less
than a dollar and a quarter. In accordance with this law,
the homesteaders on these newly-opened lands were obliged to
pay from a dollar and a quarter to a dollar and a half per acre
for their farms. This act also provided that “no person who
shall at the time be seized in fee simple of one hundred and
sixty acres of land in any state or territory, shall hereafter be
entitled to enter land in said Territory of Oklahoma.”
In spite of these restrictions, twenty thousand people gathered
on the borders of the reservation in anticipation of the opening,
and when the signal was given the rush which took place was
similar to that of 1889. Every available quarter-section was
taken for a homestead before sunset of the opening day.2 3 Res¬
ervations had been made for county-seats at Tecumseh and
Chandler, and when these were opened during the next few
days the usual wild scramble for lots took place. There were five
thousand people awaiting the signal to enter and only twenty-
four hundred lots at each place. A great many speculators
and others who had no intention of settling on the site took
part in the rush and then sold their claims to lots to the honest
settlers who wished to make homes on them. The evils
of this system of opening town-sites were so great that the Sec¬
retary of the Interior recommended that in future openings
the lots should be sold by the government at a low valuation.5
However, with the advantage of a territorial organization al¬
ready established, and with careful management on the part of
the officers, the second opening in Oklahoma was on the whole
1 Sec. Int. Rept., 1891, vol. 1, p. iv.
2 Ibid.
3 Ibid., vol. 3, p. 453.
OKLAHOMA TERRITORY; THE OPENINGS.
Made Part of Oklahoma 5. Opened September 16. 1893.
Buck — The Settlement of Oklahoma.
357
successfully carried out, and the former reservations soon be¬
came an integral part of the territory.1
It had been the intention of the Interior department to open
the Cheyenne and Arapahoe reservations at the same time as
the others which had been ceded, but delay had occurred in
assigning the allotments to the Indians. Although they had
agreed to take up land in severalty, when the time came they
at first refused to act, and then, when finally induced to ful¬
fill their part of the agreement, the supply of money for it ran
short.2 However, the difficulties were all settled by spring, and
on April 12, 1892, the President issued a proclamation open¬
ing to settlement at twelve o’clock noon, April 22nd, the three
million acres remaining after the Indian allotments had been
made. This reservation (Tract 4, Plate XII), lying as it
does in the same belt as drought-stricken western Kansas, was
looked upon with suspicion by the people of the Southwest.
However, the eastern part was nearly all taken up during the
summer, and quite a number of successful farms were located
in the western part, which proved to be a fairly good agricul¬
tural region.3
When the Cherokee commission was established, it was auth¬
orized to offer to the Oherokees for their Outlet the same terms
as those upon which the Creeks had given up their western
claims, that is a dollar and a quarter per acre, deducting all pre¬
vious payments. The Indians, however, did not look with favor
upon this proposition, as they were already getting a good in¬
come from the cattle leases and the corporations were offering to
make a new fifteen year lease at a much higher rate.4 In order
to get rid of this competition, the Department of the Interior
decided to consider these leases as invalid, and on the seven¬
teenth of February, 1890, a proclamation was issued ordering
that all live stock be removed from the Strip before October 1st.
The time was afterwards extended to Xovember 1st, and then
1 Sec. Int. Rept., 1891, vol. 1, p. iv.
2 Ibid., p. v.
3 Ibid., 1892, vol. 3, p. 474.
4 Ibid., 1889, vol. 1, p. xiii.
358 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters.
later to December 1st.1 But the Olierokees still held out, and it
was not until December 19, 1891, that an agreement was finally
ratified by their Council by which they were to receive eight
and a half million dollars for their interest in the six million
acres of the Outlet. Agreements had also been made with the
Tonkawas or ISTez P'erces, October 21, 1891, and with the Paw¬
nees, November 21, 1891, for allotments and the cession of the
surplus. These, together with the unassigned part of the Chero¬
kee Outlet, made 6,361,135 acres in all, to be opened to set¬
tlement.
Oh March 3, 1893, Congress passed an act (26 Stats., 640)
ratifying these agreements, with some slight changes in that
with the Cherokees, and providing for the opening of the land
to homesteaders at a price ranging from one dollar to two and
a half dollars, according to location. This act contained an
important innovation, in that it provided that “no person shall
be permitted to occupy or enter upon any of the lands herein
referred to, except in the manner prescribed by the proclama¬
tion of the President opening the same to settlement.
The Secretary of the Interior shall, under the direction of
the President, prescribe rules and regulations, not inconsist¬
ent with this act, for the occupation and settlement of said
lands, to be incorporated in the proclamation of the President,
which shall be issued at least twenty days before the time fixed
for the opening of said lands.” The changes in their agree¬
ment were formally accepted by the Cherokees on the seven¬
teenth of May, and on August 19, 1893, the President
issued his proclamation.2 It provided for a system of certifi¬
cates for would-be settlers, by which speculators and un¬
qualified persons were to be kept from occupying claims and
then selling them to homesteaders as had occurred in the other
openings.
A narrow strip all around the Outlet was to be open to tem¬
porary occupation beginning September 11, 1893, and on this
strip nine booths were to be established, five on the north and
1 Sec. Int. Rept., vol. 1, p. xxxvi; 1891, vol. 1, p. clvi.
2 Ibid., 1893, vol. 1, p. x.
Buck — The Settlement of Oklahoma.
359
four on the south. These booths were to be kept open ten hours
daily from September 11th until discontinued, and every person
who desired to enter was to be required to appear at one of the
booths and make a declaration in Writing before one of the offi¬
cers, showing his qualifications to initiate a claim. A certifi¬
cate was then to be issued entitling the holder to enter after the
opening, and the military officials who guarded the line were
to let no one in without such certificates until the booths were
discontinued. The certificates were to be issued in different
forms for homestead and for town lot entry.1
The opening of the Outlet had been so extensively advertised
by the railroad companies and the public press, that when the
booths were opened, the rush for certificates was so great as to
necessitate the employment of additional help and the erec¬
tion of new booths ; but although the number of applicants
vastly exceeded the expectations of the officials, all those who
were qualified were supplied with certificates before the hour ^f
opening. There was considerable suffering at times among the
thousands who were waiting to register, on account of the in¬
tense heat and stifling dust. Then, too, when twenty thousand
people crowded around a single booth the water supply often
ran short, for it was impossible to locate all the booths at places
at once suitable for entry and provided with a sufficient supply
of water. But aside from these unavoidable hardships, the
plan was carried to a successful conclusion, and prevented to a
large extent the wrongful occupation which had marred the
first opening.2
Twelve o’clock noon, the sixteenth of September, 1893, was
fixed as the opening hour, and at that time an area larger than
many of the states was added to' the public domain. One hun¬
dred and fifteen thousand certificates had been issued from the
different booths, and it is presumable that at least one hundred
thousand people took part in this, the wildest and most excit¬
ing run for homes that ever took place. The fertile eastern
half of the Strip and the Pawnee and Nez Perces reservations
1 Sec. Int. Rept., 1893, vol. 1, pp. x-xi.
2 Ibid., p. xi.
360 Wisconsin Academy of Science 4 Arts , and Letters.
were completely occupied before sunset, and large numbers
overflowed into the drier western parts.1
The Governor of the territory says in his report for 1893
that although the booth system did a vast amount of good in
keeping out illegal claimants, there was still, in spite of all the
faithful officials could do, a large number of “sooners” who took
possession of some of the best land and lots.2 The Secretary of
the Interior also reported that, “while1 the opening of the Strip
last September was relieved of many difficulties by the regular
tions legally made, yet it must be confessed that the manner of
entry was not satisfactory.”3
The act under which this region was opened authorized the
President and the Secretary of the Interior to divide it into
counties and to establish one or more new) land districts at
their discretion. Acting under this authority, the Secretary di¬
vided the region into seven counties, two large ones in the west¬
ern part and five smaller ones in the eastern, while Payne
county in original Oklahoma was given an extension in the Out¬
let. Three land districts were established with offices at Alva,
Enid and Perry, and tie Pc aver district was extended fo in¬
clude the western county, the office being moved to Woodward.
The Secretary also' reserved about half a section in the center
of each county for county seats, and these were settled in the
same manner as Tecumseh and Chandler had been, except that
the system of certificates acted as a check on speculation.
Sometimes the speculators started rival towns near the estab¬
lished ones, and, when they could get the favor of the rail¬
road, were able seriously to embarrass the development of the
official sites.4 But these were only minor difficulties and did
not affect the general development of the Strip, which went on
so rapidly that within a year the population and resources of
Oklahoma had been doubled.
1 Sec. Int. Rept., 1893, vol. 3, p, 460.
2 Ibid.
3 Ibid.
4 Ibid., vol. 1, p. xii.
Buck — The Settlement of Oklahoma.
361
A DECADE OF GROWTH.
After the opening of the Cherokee Strip in 1893, the terri¬
tory of Oklahoma enjoyed a decade of steady, rapid growth,
with but one period of boom when the Wichita and the Kiowa,
Comanche and Apache reservations were settled in 1901. Dur¬
ing this period the population advanced from two hundred and
fifty thousand in 1894 to five hundred and fifty thousand in
1902, the valuation of taxable property in the same period
from $19,948,000 to $72,677,000, and the amount of occupied
land from 7,870,000 acres to 17,230,000 acres. Besides the
opening mentioned above, which will be discussed later,
the Kickapoo Indian reservation (Tract 14, Plate XII)
was made available to settlement in May 1895. The agreement
with the Kickapoos had been made June 21, 1891, but was not
ratified by Congress until March 3, 1893 (27 Stats., 557).
After the Indian allotments had been made, the territorial
government selected about one hundred thousand acres of this
land as indemnity school land in lieu of that which was lost
by being in the Osage Indian reservation, and this left only
about fifty thousand acres open to homestead settlement, enough
for some three hundred farms. But the school land was rap¬
idly leased out, and the reservation was soon all under culti¬
vation.1
The next addition to the jurisdiction of Oklahoma Terri¬
tory was made in March, 1896, when the Supreme Court finally
decided the dispute over Greer county in favor of the United
States. The Chickasaw and Choctaw Indians had also ad¬
vanced a claim to interest in this district, so the President, in
order to prevent complications, issued a proclamation declaring
the land in this region to be not yet open to settlement.2 The
claim of the Indians having proved to be without foundation,
Congress passed an act on January 18, 1897 (25 Stats., 490),
providing for the opening of the land. Preference was to be
given to all actual settlers and occupants at the time of the pas-
1 Sec. Int. Rept., 1895, vol. 3, p. 524.
2 Ibid., 1896, vol. 1, p. 108.
362 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters.
sage of the act, who were also to be allowed to purchase land al¬
ready in use in addition to the one hundred and sixty acre
homestead at one dollar per acre. Sections 16 and 36 of each
township were as usual reserved for the public schools, and also
sections 13 and 23 for such purposes as the legislature of the
“future state of Oklahoma may prescribe.” The intention
probably was that these should be used for the benefit of higher
institutions of learning. Under this act the county was open¬
ed to settlement on the twenty-fourth of June, 1897. A land
office was established at Mangum, and the land was gradually
taken up.1
Because of physical conditions, such as soil and situation,
Oklahoma is, for the present at least, primarily an agricultu*
ral region, and so the settlement of the territory can best be
traced in the occupation of the land. For this purpose, the
following table, which shows the percentage of the available
or unreserved land occupied in each county from 1894 to 1902,
has been compiled from the reports of the General Land Office :
Table showing percentage of unreserved land occupied in each
county from 1894 to 1902.
i Sec. Int. Rept., 1897, vol. 1, pp, 99-102, 125.
Buck — The Settlement of Oklahoma. 363
The first thing noticeable; about this table is that in 1894,
the year after the Cherokee Outlet was opened, practically all
of the available land east of the western line of Grant, Garfield,
Kingfisher and Canadian counties (see Plate XIV) was
taken up, the percentage being ninety-eight or above in every
county except Pawnee, where it was ninety-five. Indeed, this
land was not only all taken up in 1894, but its occupation, was
practically contemporaneous with its opening and often there
were two or even three qualified entrymen for each quarter-sec¬
tion. This great demand for land in eastern Oklahoma illustrates
the fact, which the American people are gradually beginning to
comprehend, that we have at last taken complete possession of
our apparently unlimited heritage, that the frontier, so famous
in American history, has finally disappeared, and that further
agricultural development must be intensive rather than ex¬
tensive.1
In western Oklahoma, we find in 1894, Greer, Caddo, Co-
mjanche and Kiowa counties not yet being opened, a percent¬
age of occupied land running from about five in Beaver, Wood¬
ward and Day, to eighty-nine in Blaine, and averaging fifty
in the intervening counties. It will be seen that the westward
advance is greater in the southern counties, so that the lines of
equal settlement would run from northeast to southwest. The
first of the western counties to join the ranks of those whose
settlement was practically complete, which for convenience we
may consider to be when ninety-five per cent of the land is oc¬
cupied, was Blaine, which rose from! eighty-nine per cent in
1894 to ninety-six per cent in 1896 ; and this was soon followed
by Washita, which advanced from seventy-five per cent in 1894
to ninety-six per cent in 1898.
Previous to 1898, the advance in the next tier of counties,
Woods, Dewey and Custer, had been slow though gradual ; but
with the occupation of all available land in Blaine and Wash¬
ita, these counties began to take rapid strides, and in 1901 all
three joined the column of settled counties. The increase in
the rate of settlement all along the line in the years from 1900
1 Sec. Int. Rept., 1891, vol. 1, p. 49.
364 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts , and Letters.
on was due to several different things.. In the first place, the
territory enjoyed exceptionally abundant harvests in 1899 and
1900, and this prosperity of the Oklahoma farmers was: exten¬
sively advertised throughout the Union by the different advance¬
ment associations and railroads interested. Elaoh summer the
railroads ran frequent homeseekers’ excursions at very low
rates, bringing thousands of people into the country, many of
whom remained. Moreover, the old fashioned mode of migra¬
tion had not become obsolete, for, as the Governor reports :n
1898, “not a day during the year but the white-topped prairie
schooner can be seen wending its way from north, south, east
or west toward a new abiding place in Oklahoma.”1
Another cause of the increased rate of settlement in western
Oklahoma in these years was the ultimate: success of the
agitation for free homes. As lias been shown, a price of at
least a dollar and ai quarter per acre was charged of homestead¬
ers on all land in Oklahoma except that included in the first
opening of 1889 and in the Public Land Strip. The settlers
of the territory were unanimous in feeling that this was an un¬
just discrimination, since the public domain had hitherto been
free to homesteaders, and as early as 1892 local organizations
were formed to agitate the subject. In 1894 the Republican
party in the territory took up: the cause and elected Hon. D. T.
Plynn delegate to Congress to urge the issue, which he did, de¬
claring that the people were entitled to free1 homes as a matter
of right and justice. In 1895 a free homes convention was held
at Perry, and a league was organized to carry on the work.
The legislature of the territory appropriated five hundred dol¬
lars to further the objects of the league and to> secure the desired
legislation. In 1896 the agitation became general, and each of
the three leading national party platforms declared for free
homes on all public land. Even then, when success seemed
assured, the efforts of all the congressmen from1 the public land
states failed to secure its passage by both houses until May 14,
1900. 2
1 Int. Dept., Misc. Repts., 1898, p. 726.
2 Ibid., 1901, pt. 2, p. 402.
OKLAHOMA TERRITORY; THE ADVANCE OF SETTLEMENT.
Trans. Wis. Acad., Vol. XV.
Buck — The Settlement of Oklahoma.
365
The passage of this act was beneficial to Oklahoma in diverse
ways. The full payment had not been required until the final
proving up of a claim, and the many thousands of farmers who
had not yet made final proof found themselves suddenly from
one to three hundred dollars richer. The Governor estimated
that this act saved to the homesteaders in Oklahoma about
fifteen million dollars, nearly all of which made its appearance
in new houses and bams, additional stock and other improve¬
ments, and thus contributed nia ter i ally to the general prosper¬
ity of the territory. Another result was the; attraction of im¬
migration to the western part of the territory, where many farm¬
ers who had hesitated to take up land at a dollar and a quarter
per acre were now eager to settle when all price was removed.1
In the summer of 1901, the three counties' of Caddo, Kiowa
and Comanche were opened to settlement and, as may be seen
by the table for 1902, entirely settled within a year. In fact,
owing to the system employed by the government, one hundred
and sixty-four thousand people were attracted to this! opening,
and as there were homesteads: for only thirteen thousand in the
reservations to be opened, there were one hundred and fifty-
one thousand disappointed people left in the territory.2 Most
of these had come prepared to stay, so large numbers merely
went west to the counties of Kioger Mills and Greer, and filed
on nearly all of the remaining land there. Woodward and Day
also made a big advance in this year, and even in Beaver the
rate of settlement increased considerably.
At present, then, we have practically all available land
in Oklahoma occupied except in the three northwestern coun¬
ties of Beaver, Woodward and Day, where the remaining land
is suited only to grazing and is now used by unauthorized stock-
raisers. An agitation has been going on for some time to
bring about some different disposition of this land, the Gover¬
nor having at times recommended that it be leased to the cattle¬
men or donated to the territory,3 and again that it be opened to
1 Int. Dept., Mis'c. Repts., 1901, pt. 2, p. 402.
2 Sec. Int. Rept., 1901, p. lxxxvi.
s Int. Dept., Misc. Repts., 1897, p. 682.
366 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences,, Arts , and Letters.
homesteaders in whole sections, so that the settler can have
enough land to engage in cattle-raising with profit.1 Should
the latter suggestion he followed, the land in these counties
will probably soon be taken up, but otherwise, little further
occupation can be expected until some; feasible means of irri¬
gation is discovered.
THE government's LAND LOTTERY.
The last opening of Indian reservations in Oklahoma Ter¬
ritory took place in the summer of 1901, when the reservations
formerly occupied by the Wichita and the Kiowa, Cbmanche
and Apache tribes (Tracts 3 and 8, Plate XII) were given
over to white settlement. The Wichita reservation (Tract 8)
had been treated for by the Cherokee commission, June 4,
1891, and at the time of the Cheyenne and Arapahoe opening,
the Secretary of the Interior, expecting this; reservation to fol¬
low within a year, had designated it county “I” and located
the county seat. However, the opening did not take place as
expected, for Congress failed to ratify the agreement until
March 2, 1895 (26 Stats,, 895), and then, owing to legal tech¬
nicalities encountered in carrying out the Indian allotments
provided for, it was again delayed until 1901. 2 The agreement
with the Kiowas, Oomanches and Apaches had been made by
the commission October 21, 1892, and provided for allotments
of one hundred and sixty acres each in severalty to the Indians,
and the reservation of four hundred and eighty thousand acres
for grazing land. This was ratified by Congress June 6, 1900
(31 Stats., 678), and the Indian allotments having been com¬
pleted in this and the Wichita reservations, another act was
passed March 3, 1901 (31 Stats., 1093), providing for the
opening of the remaining land to settlement.
This act provided that the lands should be opened by proclam¬
ation of the President, and, “to avoid the contests and con¬
flicting claims which have hitherto resulted from opening simi¬
lar lands to settlement and entry, the President* 1 proclamation
1 Int. Dept., Misc. Repts., 1900, pt. 2, p. 671.
2 Ibid., 1899, pt. 2, p. 742.
Buck — The Settlement of Oklahoma.
367
shall prescribe the maimer in which these lands may be settled
upon, occupied and entered by persons: entitled thereto under
the acts ratifying said agreements, respectively, and no per¬
son shall be permitted to settle upon, occnpy or enter any of
said lands except as prescribed in such1 proclamation nntil after
the expiration of sixty days from the time: when the same are
opened to settlement and entry.”
It provided that the Secretary of the Interior should sub¬
divide the reservation into counties and reserve three hun¬
dred and twenty acres for county seats in each. This was
to be surveyed and platted to make a, town-site and the lots were
to be sold at auction, no person being allowred to purchase more
than one business and one residence lot. The receipts: were to
be used to build a court house at each place, to pay the expenses
of the county governments until the first collection of taxes and
for the construction of roads and bridges. Two land districts
were to be established, with offices at El Keno and the county
seat nearest to Fort Sill.
In accordance with this act, President McKinley issued his
proclamation on July 4, 1901, opening the unreserved lands to
entry after nine A. M., August 6th, and prescribing the manner
of entry. It was provided that from July 10th to July 26, 1901,
the land offices at E'l Peno< and Lawton near Fort Sill should
be open for the registration of all desiring to homestead land in
the reservations. The applicant was to give proof of his qual¬
ifications to make entry, and then be given a certificate per¬
mitting him to go upon and examine the lands. The order in
which these registered applicants were to be allowed to make
entry was to be determined by drawings for both districts to
take place at El Keno beginning July 29, 1901. Entry was to
begin August 6, 1901, in the order established by the drawing,
and to continue at the rate of one hundred and twenty-five a
day, and not until after sixty days was the land to be open to
settlement under the homestead laws.1
On the 21st of June, Secretary Hitchcock established the
counties of Caddo, Cbmanche and Kiowa, and Pioger Mills,
1 Sec. Int. Rept., 1901, p. ccxl.
368 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences \, Arts, and Letters.
Washita and Canadian were given slight extensions into the
new districts in order to rectify their boundaries. The Secre¬
tary designated Hon. W. A. Richards, assistant commissioner
of the general land office, to take charge of the opening under
his instructions, and full powers were given to him.1 The as¬
sistant commissioner immediately proceeded to locate!, reserve
and survey the three county seats of Anadarko, Lawton and
Hobart, and then took charge of the registration. Estimating
that three-fourths of the entries would register at El Reno,
twenty-five of the thirty-three land office clerks were sent there,
and the other eight were sent to the Lawton office which was
for the time being located at Fort Sill.2 Many of those who
registered at Fort Sill came in wagons and went into camp in
the valley of Cache Creek upon the military reservation.
At times there were ten thousand people camped there, but
good order prevailed throughout, both in camp and at the reg¬
istration booth, which closed at six P. M., July 26th, with a
total registration of twenty-nine thousand. The clerks were
then transported to El Reno to assist in the drawing.3
At El Reno, six booths were opened for registration at nine
A. M. July 10th. Here there were several thousands in line,
many of whom had been waiting for twenty-four hours or more
to register, and as there were quite a number of women among
them, the commissioner at once established an extra booth ex¬
clusively for women. At first there was some: disorder around
several of the booths due to the eagerness to- register early, but
as soon as it Was explained that all applicants would stand an
equal show, no matter when they registered, the disorder
ceased; and thereafter there was very little disturbance of
any kind in the city, in spite of the fact that for thirty days it
had to care for ten times its normal population. On July 13th
an accident occurring to the pumping machinery of the Eil
Reno waterworks! threatened a serious situation, but the city
officials stationed casks of ice water at convenient places on the
1 Sec. Int. Rept., 1901, pp. lxxiv, ccxliv.
2 Ibid., pp. ccviii-cclix.
3 Ibid., p. cclix.
Buck — The Settlement of Oklahoma. 369
street and no effort was spared to keep the people supplied.
The waterworks were speedily repaired, hut the drinking places
proved so useful that they were retained throughout the regis¬
tration. After the second day no unregistered applicants were
left in front of the booths when they closed at night, although
the incoming trains brought crowds vastly exceeding the ex¬
pectations of the officials and running the total registration at
El Reno to 135,416 when it closed on July 26th.1
On July 1 1th, the day after the registration began, a force
of clerks was employed in separating by districts and arranging
in order the applications and identification cards which had
been filled out by each applicant, and these latter were placed
in blank envelopes and sealed. When the registration was
closed, all the clerks were employed at this work, which was
completed at 4 P. M. Sunday, July 28th. The Secretary of
the Interior had appointed a commission of two public men
to superintend the drawing in conjunction with Assistant
Commissioner Richards, and these three met July 25th and
readily agreed upon a plan for the drawing.2
In accordance with the plan decided upon, a platform
was erected in the street facing the high school grounds',
which rose gradually from the platform' and afforded ample
space for the crowds to witness the drawing. Two boxes, ten
feet long, two and one-half feet wide and two and one-half feet
deep were constructed and bolts placed in each to serve as
pivots for revolving them. There were three large openings
on one side of each for receiving the envelopes and five num¬
bered holes on the other to admit the hand for the drawing. On
the morning of Monday, July 29th, the boxes were placed on
trestles on the platform and the envelopes brought up and
separated according to districts, those for one district being
buff, and for the other white. With much care to avoid any
possible charge of unfairness, the envelopes were put into the
respective boxes, the openings sealed and the boxes revolved
until the lots were thoroughly mixed. Ten young men under
1 Sec. Int. Rept., 1901, pp. cclx-cclxi.
2 Ibid., pp. cclxi-cclxii.
7— S. & A.
370 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts, and Letters.
age were selected to draw, and it having been determined by
lot which should draw first, twenty-five envelopes were drawn
in order from the five openings in the Eil Rieno box. Each
one as drawn was passed to the commissioners, numbered con¬
secutively, opened, and the name and description read to the
people. The El Reno box was then closed, aud the same number
were drawn from the Lawton box, after which the session
was adjourned until two o’clock. A great deal of interest
was manifested by the people in this drawing, and fully
thirty thousand were present. The crowd greeted the an¬
nouncement of each name with great applause.1
In the afternoon, five hundred lots were drawn from
each box in the same manner, except that the announcements
were made by typewritten lists read to the people and posted
on bulletin boards and afterwards printed in all the Oklahoma
and many Kansas, Missouri and Texas dailies. A force of
clerks was also engaged in preparing postcards which were
sent out as fast as possible to those whose names were drawn,
notifying them of the fact. The drawing continued at the
rate of two thousand a day until sixty-five hundred were
drawn from each box, that, being the estimated number of posr
sible homesteads in each district. The boxes were then re¬
moved to a building, the rest of the envelopes drawn in the
same manner, and notices mailed to all so that each applicant
might know that his name was placed in the box and duly
drawn.2
On the morning of August 6th, at seven A. M., the land
offices at El Reno and Lawton were opened for the entry of
land. Each office was provided with a large map of the dis¬
trict showing the smallest legal subdivision, and each entry
was marked off as made. These maps were accessible to all
who wished to make entry and proved to be of great service
to both applicants and officials. On the first day the first one
hundred and twenty-five names were called in order at each of¬
fice, and the lucky holders of these numbers, having been allowed
1 Sec. Int. Rept., 1901, pp. cclxii-cclxiii.
2 Ibid., pp. cclxiii-cclxiv.
Buck — The Settlement of Oklahoma. 371
to examine the land after registration, now made entry of
the quarter-sections selected. Any who failed to appear were
passed until the close of the day, when they were called
again, and if they did not appear then their right to enter was
forfeited. Very few failed to appear during the first few
days, but as the good claims grew scarcer the proportion who
failed to appear increased. Many who held high numbers
and lived at a distance made no effort to secure a claim, and
others were probably deterred by sickness or accident. The
entries under the proclamation ended on October 4, 1901, with
5895 entries at Lawton, and 5748 at El Reno, or 11,638 in all/
The sale of the lots in the town-sites was also under the
direction of Assistant Commissioner Richards, who appointed
as commissioners to have charge of such sale, J. R. Hampton
for Lawton, G. O. Hosier for Anadarko, and EL P. Holcombe
for Hobart. Proper auctioneers and clerks were chosen to
assist the commissioners, and at 9 A. M. August 6th, the sale
opened at each town-site. The commissioners were somewhat
inconvenienced by the lack of accommodations at the sites, but
managed to get along with tents and temporary structures*
The sale proceeded regularly and rapidly at each site with no
disturbance whatever, all the lots being sold before the auction
closed, and at prices considerably higher than was expected.
At Lawton there were 1422 lots which sold for $414,845 ; at
Anadarko, 1129 lots at $188,455; and at Hobart, 1308 lots
at $132,733. Deducting the total expense of surveying and
laying out each site together with the expenses of the sale, the
three county seats had left to their credit the sums of $410,-
594; $185,149; and $129,175 respectively, which was sufficient
to start each county on a sound financial basis.1 2
The President’s proclamation had provided that other town
sites might be located under the homestead laws, though not
near to the county seats, and eleven applications for such were
accepted during the sixty days. Since then, several more
have been located.3 Although the number of homestead entries
1 Sec. Int. Rept., 1901, pp. cclxvii-cclxviil.
2 Ibid., pp. cclxiv-cclxvi.
3 Ibid., pp. ccxlii, cclxvii.
372 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts , and Letters.
during the sixty days fell fifteen hundred below the estimated
number of quarter-sections, it seems that nearly all the desir¬
able farms were taken, and what may have been left were im¬
mediately entered under the homestead laws when the sixty days
limit had expired. Thus once more a large area, this time
about two million acres, excluding the Indian grazing land, the
military reservation and the Wichita forest reserve, was added
to the jurisdiction of Oklahoma territory and settled within a
year, with a population of nearly seventy-five thousand people.
The system under which the last great opening in Oklahoma
was carried on evoked considerable criticism from the public
press on account of its lottery aspects, and was branded by one
writer as morally and economically wrong,1 but when we con¬
sider the people who were most deeply interested, the applicants
themselves, we find almost universal satisfaction and no com¬
plaint of unfairness or injustice.2 Of course the fact that over
ten times as many people were drawn to the opening as could get
homesteads seems to be a defect in the system, but the disap¬
pointed ones calmly packed up and returned home or winded
their way to western Oklahoma to try their luck in another lot¬
tery where the prize was not the land, but sufficient rainfall to
make the land productive. Certainly this method of opening
large tracts of land was far better than any previously employed,
for it did away altogether with the “sooner” element and the
litigation over conflicting claims.3
THE PEOPLE WHO SETTLED OKLAHOMA.
A question which immediately presents itself in consider¬
ing the settlement of Oklahoma is, who are the people who
have settled the territory and where did they come from?
Although this question has been touched upon incidentally in
other places, it will be well to consider it here by itself. The
best source of information on the subject is of course the United
States census for 1900, where we find that in that year the
1 John G. Speed, Outlook , July 20, 1901.
2 Sec. Int. Rept., 1901, p. cclxviii,
* Ibid., p. Ixxvi. 1
Buck — The Settlement of Oklahoma.
373
population of Oklahoma was 398, 331.1 While it has increased
greatly in the years succeeding that census, it is neces
sary to take these figures as the standard for our consideration,
as the statistics cannot he obtained for the later years.
The only way to get any figures as to the numbers who
migrated from different states to Oklahoma seems to be to take
the general nativity tables of the census, which show the place of
birth of the inhabitants. While, of course, many of the settlers
of Oklahoma did not come there directly from the state of their
birth but had often migrated once or twice before, probably the
only changes necessary' in these figures to make them show the
immediate sources of migration would be to increase somewhat
the percentages from the western states and correspondingly de¬
crease those from the eastern states.
The census gives the proportion of native and foreign-born
in Oklahoma respectively as ninety-six and one-tenth per cent
and three and nine-tenths per cent, a percentage of foreign-born
far below the average for the United States as a whole.2 Of
the native-born population, seventeen and two-tenths per cent
were born in Oklahoma, and the other eighty-two and eight-
tenths per cent came from other parts of the United States, as
shown in the following table:3
Table showing place of birth of native-born population in Okla¬
homa, 1900.
Taking those states which are usually considered as
southern, Missouri, Texas, Tennessee, Arkansas, Kentucky,
1 U. S. Census, 1900, vol. 1, p. li.
2 Ibid., p. cvii.
3 Ibid., p. cxliii.
374 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts, , and Letters.
Indian Territory, Alabama, Mississippi and Louisiana, the
total percentage is thirty-five and one-tenth, while from the
northern states, Kansas, Illinois, Iowa, Indiana, Ohio, Ne¬
braska, Pennsylvania and New York, it is forty-one and
four- tenths,1 thus showing that in spite of Oklahoma’s southern
location the majority of her population is from the North.
That is perhaps further exemplified by the fact that the political
parties in the territory have always been very evenly divided,
with the Republicans usually in the ascendency,2 in contrast to
the large democratic majorities of the other southern states.
This may in a measure be due to the small percentage of negroes,
only three and nine- tenths in the territory,3 which allows the
white citizens to be divided into two nearly equal parties with¬
out danger of negro control.
Dividing the Union now by the Mississippi river, we find
that forty-nine and eight-tenths per cent of Oklahoma’s native-
born population comes from the states west of the Mississippi,
and only twenty-six and seven-tenths4 from those east of the
river, but it will be seen that of that twenty-six and seven-tenths
per cent, the Northwest furnished fifteen and six-tenths, the
South eight and six-tenths and the Bast two and five-tenths,
while the southern and northern sections west of the river are
quite evenly divided, with twenty-six and five-tenths and twenty-
three and three-tenths per cent respectively. Thus we ' see that
the bulk of Oklahoma’s population came from the three north¬
western states'’ of Illinois, Indiana and Ohio1, and from the states
between the Mississippi and the mountains excepting Minnesota
and the Dakotas. To make still another arrangement of the
states, we have from the four surrounding Oklahoma and Indian
Territory, namely, Kansas, Missouri, Arkansas and Texas, to¬
gether with Indian Territory itself, forty-two and four-tenths
1 1 have considered Missouri as a southern and Kansas as1 a north¬
ern state, because they are usually thought of as such, although really
lying in the same belt.
2 Int. Dept., Misc. Repts., 1901, pt. 2, pp. 323-24.
a U. S. Census, 1900, vol. 1, p. cxiv.
4 In this and the previous divisions, the six and three-tenths per
cent which is not assigned to definite states has been neglected.
Buck — The Settlement of Oklahoma. 375
per cent of Oklahoma’s native-born population, and from all the
rest of the Union only forty and four-tenths per cent, showing
that the settlers came largely from the adjacent states.
To divide the settlers of Oklahoma into any hard and fixed
classes would of course be impossible, but there seem to be some
more or less distinct divisions which might be made. Con¬
sidering them in the light of what1 had been their previous oc¬
cupation, we have first of all the professional “boomers” whose
agitation had opened the territory and many of whom had be¬
come so used to violating the law that they now became “soon-
ers” in their eagerness to reap the fruits of their agitation/
Then we have a large class of farmers who had met with fail¬
ure in other parts of the country, either because of adverse con¬
ditions or for lack of those qualities which go to make up a suc¬
cessful farmer. It was one of this class taking part in the
first rush who had as his motto painted on the canvas side of
his prairie schooner: “Chinch-bugged in Illinois, Bald-nobbed
in Mizzouri, Prohibited in Kansas, Oldihommy or Bust.”2
There were also a great many men from the professional
ranks, such as lawyers, druggists and physicians, and a large
number of merchants who sought Oklahoma during and between
the rushes as a good field in which to build up a practice or a
line of business.3 Lawyers were especially numerous at first,
called by the vast amount of litigation resulting from the rush.
Besides these classes there were many common workmen and
day-laborers, miners, factory employes and unskilled laborers
in general from the cities of the Korthwest,4 who drifted down
to Oklahoma, took part in the rush and often won a home and
became in time successful and independent farmers.
Looking at Oklahoma’s population from the standpoint of
purpose in coming into the territory, we have a possible divi¬
sion into three classes, those who came to make a home, those
who came to make money by speculation, and those who had no
settled purpose in coming. The first class includes not only
1 Tribune Extras, vol. 1, no. 7, p. 23.
2 Ibid.
3 Ibid., p. 24.
4 Ibid., p, 30.
376 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences,, Arts, and Letters.
the honest settler who took op a. farm or bought the claim to one
from a speculator, but also a large proportion of those who set¬
tled the different cities and villages of the territory and built
up a business or a professional practice. Most of the would-be
farmers who came with the first rush were poor men with
scarcely enough laid by to tide them over to the first harvests,
but later, when the success of Oklahoma as an agricultural
country had been proven, a great many conservative and com¬
paratively well-to-do settlers were attracted by a desire to es¬
cape the extreme temperatures of the North or of the far South,
or to be with their more adventurous friends who had gone
before.1
The speculators were a prominent feature in all of the
Oklahoma openings, and a continual source of trouble for the
officials unless hey were in alliance with each other, as at
Guthrie and Oklahoma City. They first made their appear¬
ance as gamblers in the crowds collected on the borders before
the rush and plied their various games with considerable success
among the waiting thousands who had nothing else to occupy
their time and were imbued with the spirit of adventure by the
element of chance in the opening itself.2 Then there were many
who took part in the rush who were not qualified to make entry
under the homestead laws, but believed that here was an oppor¬
tunity to “turn an honest penny’1 by seizing a quarter-section
or a town lot and then selling the claim to the real settler. The
presence of such speculators was especially noticeable in the
various town site settlements,3 and here, too, the gamblers, not
content with fleecing their victims on the border, followed them
in and continued to work their games without restraint among
the successful and unfortunate alike.
The third division, those who came without settled purpose,
were members of a class which is quite common throughout the
Southwest and is generally known as the “movers.”4 They are
1 Int. Dept., Misc. Repts., 1899, pt. 2, p. 726.
2 C. M. Harger, Outlook, Aug. 17, 1901; Tribune Extras , vol. 1, no. 7,
p. 24.
s Sec. Int. Rept., 1891, vol. 3, p. 452.
4 C. M. Harger, Outlook, Feb. 2 and Aug. 17, 1901; H. C. Candee,
Forum, June 1898.
Buck— The Settlement of Oklahoma.
377
usually people who, having changed their location several times,
have finally become so imbued with the “boom-fever” that they
find it impossible to settle down. Numbers of these who were
wandering aimlessly around the Southwest turned their steps
toward Oklahoma when the opening was announced, and took
part in the first rush and in every succeeding rush thereafter. If
they succeeded in getting a claim, they seldom lived on it long,
but soon sold out and were up and moving again. Like the
gypsies of the northern states, they often move about in small
bands with two or three wagons and a small collection of horses,
camp for a week or two along a stream near to some town, where
they eke out a precarious existence by fishing and horse-trading,
and then move on to another location.
One class of people has been left out so far in this discussion,
namely the ranchmen on the western plains. As has been
shown, a large part of western Oklahoma is suitable only to
grazing, and here the herds of the cattle companies roam over
the prairies under the care of the cow-punchers, much as they
did in the rest of Oklahoma before the opening.
No discussion of Oklahoma’s population is complete without
some mention of the Indians, who in 1902 numbered 12,893, a
decrease of twenty-six over the preceding year.1 This does not
include the three hundred Arizona Apaches held at Fort Sill
as prisoners of war. The Indians of the territory are divided
into six different agencies, the Osage, White Eagle and Pawnee
agencies having charge of the Indians in the northeast comer
of the territory.2 Most of these Indians except the Osages have
taken land in severalty and are cultivating it to some extent,
although many lease part or all of their allotments to white cul¬
tivators. The Oisage tribe still holds its land in common and
leases the most of it to cattlemen. The Indian agents all agree
that the principal thing which hinders the development of these
Indians into industrious farmers is their wealth, which is suf¬
ficient to allow them to live without work in a manner satisfac¬
tory to themselves, and thus all incentive to work is taken away.
1 Int. Dept., Misc. Repts'., 1902, pt. 2, p. 452.
2 Ibid., pp. 452-56.
378 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts , and Letters.
The Indians of central Oklahoma, in charge of the Sac and
Fox agency,1 scattered a;s they are throughout their former res¬
ervations wherever they chanced to take up their allotments, are
slowly succumbing to the influence of their white neighbors and
are beginning to cultivate their farms. But still much of their
land is leased and cultivated by white men, while the owners live
in idleness on the proceeds of the leases. In western Oklahoma,
the Cheyennes and Arapahoes under the Darlington agency2 are
living on their allotments along the Canadian and the North
Fork in the eastern part of their former reservation. They
have made some advance toward civilization since taking up
allotments, and most of them have now given up the blanket for
citizen’s dress. In the South, the Indians under the Kiowa
agency,3 who were but recently given their land in severalty, are
already showing the favorable influence of allotments and in¬
dustrious white neighbors, and are making considerable efforts
to improve their farms and homes.
CONCLUSION.
Since the first opening of land in Oklahoma to white settle¬
ment, in 1889, the territory has changed from an area occupied
by a few Indians and cattlemen to a substantial, well settled
commonwealth covered with fine farms and thriving towns and
partaking largely of the characteristics of the state of Kansas.
Before this territory was five years old, the agitation for admis¬
sion to the Union was begun and immediately took two forms.
There were those who favored immediate statehood for Okla¬
homa with the boundaries of the territory, and others who said
that Oklahoma and Indian Territory together would make a fine
state and that they should wait until the Indian Terri tory
could be so incorporated while doing everything in their power
to bring it about. Year by year the agitation increased, com¬
parative statistics were marshaled together and every possible
reason was advanced to show the justice of Oklahoma’s demand
1 Int. Dept, Misc. Repts., 1902, pt. 2, pp. 453-55.
2 Ibid., pp. 456-58.
s Ibid., pp. 459-60.
Buck — The Settlement of Oklahoma. 379
for statehood, and finally the matter was brought before Con¬
gress in 1902-3 by the bill to grant statehood to Oklahoma,
Hew Mexico and Arizona. This bill was thoroughly dis¬
cussed but failed to pass.
In the next Congress a new form of statehood bill wTas ad¬
vanced which proposed to make one state of Oklahoma and In¬
dian Territory combined. This bill passed the House in April
1904, but the Senate adjourned without acting upon it. How¬
ever, the matter had been brought before the nation, and the ag¬
itation was continued in every session of Congress until finally
in June 1906 an enabling act was passed by both houses of Con¬
gress. This act provides for the joint admission of the two
territories, and so a new star will soon be added to the flag for
the state of Oklahoma.
BIBLIOGRAPHY.
United States Government Documents.
Congressional Documents.
48th Congress, 1st Session, Senate Executive Docu¬
ment 109.
48th Congress, 2nd Session, Senate Executive Docu¬
ments 17 and 50.
51st Congress, 1st Session, House Executive Docu¬
ment 209.
51st Congress, 1st Session, Senate Executive Docu
ment 78.
51st Congress, 2nd Session, Senate Executive Docu¬
ment 72.
Congressional Record , 1879-1903.
Documents of the Interior Department, 1879-1902.
Deports of the Secretaries of the Interior.
Deports of the Commissioners of Indian Affairs.
Deports of the Comm i s si oners of the General Land
Office.
Deports of the Governors of the Territory of Okla¬
homa.
United States Census, 1900.
380 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts , and Letters.
Newspaper and Magazine Articles.
New York Tribune, Library of Tribune Extras, vol. 1,
no. 7.
Candee, Helen Churchill: “Oklahoma,” Atlantic Monthly,
vol. 86, p'. 328.
Candee, Helen Churchill: “Social Conditions in Our New¬
est Territory,” Forum, vol. 25, p. 426.
Harger, Charles Moreau: “The Government’s Gift of
Homes,” Outlook , vol. 68, p. 907.
Harger, Charles Moreau: “The Next Commonwealth:
Oklahoma,” Outlook, vol. 67, p. 273.
Spears, John R. : “The Story of Oklahoma,” Chautauqucm,
vol. 9, p. 533.
Speed, John Gilmar: “The Oklahoma Land Lottery,”
Outlook , vol. 68, p. 667.
For other magazine articles see Poole’s Index of Period¬
icals.
Davis, Richard Harding: “The West from a Car Window.”
New York, 1892.
MAPS.
Opposite page
Plate IX. Indian Territory; the original cessions. ... 328
Plate X. Indian Territory; divisions to 1866 . 330
Plate XI. Indian Territory; 1866 . 332
Plate XII. Indian Territory; divisions and cessions,
1866-1883 * . 334
Plate XIII. Oklahoma Territory; the openings . 356
Plate XIV. Oklahoma Territory; the advance of settle¬
ment . 364
A REVISION OF THE NORTH AMERICAN SPECIES
OF DIAPTOMUS.
C. DWIGHT MARSH.
(With Plates XV-XXVIII)
INTRODUCTION.
The genus Diaptomus is of special interest to the student
of plankton, because, in so many cases, it forms the major por¬
tion of that part of the plankton which is available as food for
fishes. It is true that in plankton-rich bodies of water, the
largest collections consist, for the most part, of vegetable materi¬
al, but a large proportion of the vegetable material is waste so
far as concerns its serving directly as food for animals. It is
true, too, that in some cases other Copepoda or Cladocera may
form the bulk of the animal part of the plankton, but com¬
monly it is Diaptomus that is most prominent.
The genus occurs the world over, and is found not only in
lakes, but in running streams and in temporary pools. While
it is found so widely, however, but few of its species are widely
distributed. Most of the species of Cyclops in America are
identical with those of the other continents, but this is true of
none of the species of Diaptomus. All of our species are peculi
ar to this continent, and some of them have a habitat of rela¬
tively narrow limits. It would appear that Diaptomus is quite
susceptible to the influences of its environment, and this fact
makes the study of the genus of peculiar interest.
In connection with lake work the author has been studying
Diaptomus , as a side issue, for some years, and has at length
accumulated enough material, apparently, to warrant publica-
382 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts , and Letters.
tion. The collections studied have covered a wide range of
country, from the Saskatchewan district on the north to Mexico
and Cuba on the south, and from Long Island on the east ta
Washington and California on the west. It must not be as¬
sumed, however, that the collections give any complete idea of
this wide extent of territory. Most of the collections are of a
sporadic character. Outside the states of Wisconsin, Michi¬
gan, Minnesota and Illinois, nothing like any complete explora¬
tion has been made. Within the limits of these states, fairly
complete work has been done. In the rest of the country, much
less is known of the older states of the East than of the new
states and territories of the West.
A study of this material shows a number of new species, and
throws new light on the relationships of those already known.
It has been the ambition of the author to monograph the
genus, so far as ETorth American species are concerned, but this
will not be possible for some years, for very extensive collec¬
tions must be made before such a work can be possible. Mean¬
time the important part played by the genus in plankton makes
it desirable that what is already known should be put in such
shape that the student of plankton may be able to identify his
species. This is very difficult to do at the present time. The
only papers, ostensibly covering all the Horth American spe¬
cies, are those of Herrick and Turner, and Schacht, and
neither of these, for various reasons, can be easily used for the
determination of species. It is very difficult, even for one
who is acquainted with the genus, to recognize species without
figures, and for the average student of fresh water forms, wlm
presumably has no special training in the study of Entomostra-
ca, it becomes a discouraging task even to guess at the species.
With suitable figures, however, any one, who has the patience
to make the necessary dissections, ought to be able to determine
correctly the species he has in hand. The present revision is
undertaken with the hope that it may not only be a contribu¬
tion to our knowledge of the genus, but that it may prove a
distinct help to those who are studying the problems of lim¬
nology, but have no special knowledge of Entomostraca. It
Marsh — North American Species of Diaptomus. 383
seems unfortunate that so many papers on plankton list the
Diaptomi simply under the generic name without an attempt
to distinguish species, thus detracting much from the value of
the observations, inasmuch as the Diaptomi have very distinct
individual peculiarities, and react very differently to their
environments.
With this in view, the author has attempted to provide suffi¬
cient figures of each species so that its identity cannot he a
questionable matter. The original plan involved personal ac¬
quaintance with each species, and figures from specimens actu¬
ally in the collections studied. It was found impossible, how¬
ever, to carry this out in every case ; for example, it was found
impossible to get material of D. novamexicanus , as Herrick
had preserved none of the original material. The papers de¬
scribing Pearse’s species Wardi and spatulocrenatus were re¬
ceived while this paper was in press and after the plates had
been made, so that it was impossible to provide figures, or to do
much more than to give the species their proper place in the
classification. So, in other cases, because of imperfect catalog¬
ing of museum material, it was impossible to get specimens of
the animals originally studied. Therefore, in some cases, it has
been found necessary to reproduce the original figures of the
authors of the species. Most of the figures, however, are from
material in the collection of the author.
As the result of studies on other collections, it is hoped, be¬
fore many years, to supplement this work, so that we may get
more nearly a synopsis of all the North American species.
Meanwhile it is to be expected that intermediate forms will be
discovered which may change materially the specific limits as
they appear at the present time.
The author would express his grateful acknowledgment to
all who kindly aided in this work by assisting in making the
collections on which it is based. To the following he has been
especially indebted: to Professor E. A. Birge of the Univer¬
sity of Wisconsin, not only for the exchange of material from
Wisconsin, but for extensive collections made in the southern
states; to Professor Chauncey Juday of the University of Cali-
384 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts , and Letters .
fornia, for collections from Indiana, Colorado and California;
to Professor Jacob Beighard of the University of Michigan,
for collections from the Great Lakes and from the inland lakes
of Michigan; to Professor II. B. Ward of the University of
Nebraska, for collections from Nebraska, Colorado and Cali¬
fornia; to Professor C. P. Baker of the Stacion Agronomica,
Santiago, Cuba, for collections from Nevada, California, Mexi¬
co, Cuba and the southern states ; to Professor B. H. Brown of
Whitman College for collections from Washington; and to his
former pupil, ftussell T. Congdon, for collections from the
Saskatchewan district.
Many others have collected for me more or less material, and
without this assistance, this revision would have been im¬
possible.
A SPECULATION IN REGARD TO THE AFFINITIES OF THE NORTH
AMERICAN SPECIES OF DIAPTOMUS.
I speak of this as a speculation, for the present condition of
our knowledge in regard to this genus hardly justifies the use
of the term theory. Until vastly more complete collections
have been made, the affinities of the species and the re¬
lationships of the genus to other genera can only be guessed at.
Origin of the genus.
Practically nothing is known of the origin of the genus. Of
course, its ancestors were marine, but there are no marine
forms at the present time very closely related to it. It is gen¬
erally considered that its nearest relative is the genus Drepa-
nopus , of which three species are known. These are found in
the southern oceans in a fewT localities, the latitude varying
from 30 to 47 degrees.
We have no geological knowledge of the history of Diapto-
mus. We may assume that it was separated long before the
glacial period, perhaps far back of that time, and that, prior to
the invasion of the ice, the species of the eastern and western
continents were distinct.
Marsh — North American Species of Diaptomus. 385
Effect of the glacial period on distribution.
Before the glacial period, we may suppose that the waters
of North America were peopled with species of Diaptomus.
Inasmuch as the continental conditions differed less than those
of the present time, it is probable that the number of species
was smaller. This is probable, too, from the fact that the
means of communication from one body of water to another
was probably easy, so that there was less opportunity for the
effect of isolation. As the period progressed, the genus must
have been driven further and further towards the south,
being limited, on the north, during the period, very nearly
to the southern limit of the ice. This limit would not have
been exact, for species of Diaptomus live in the coldest waters.
During the decline of the glacial period it is fair to assume
that, as the ice retreated, the Diaptomi followed towards the
north. Inasmuch as the species of Diaptomi at the present
time are limited in their distribution by climatic influences, we
may assume a gradual change in the species in any given local¬
ity as the climate changed. The forms which had been living
close to the ice border would retreat towards the Arctic, or
might remain as a fauna relicta if local conditions were such
as to make this possible.
If the above assumptions in regard to the origin of the genus
and its geological history are accepted, we must suppose: —
First, that inasmuch as there were several, perhaps many,
species before the glacial period, our modern species will prob¬
ably be divided into groups, according to their phytogeny, but
it is unlikely that we can trace to any one line for all species.
Second, the most primitive species will be the furthest north.
We may expect to find in Arctic or sub- Arctic regions the
forms most nearly related to those that dwelt in the United
States during the glacial period, and these forms will be found
further south only as a part of a fauna relicta unless they have
been able to adapt themselves to great variations of climate;
2o — S'. & A.
386 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts , and Letters.
generally speaking, the species of this genus adapt themselves
to variations of climate only to a limited extent.
Third, if climatic conditions tend to produce new species,
the more recently developed species would be in the south un¬
der warmer temperature conditions, and in the west where
isolation as well as climate comes in as an important factor.
Some emphasis should be placed on the effect of isolation,
for experience shows that the distribution of Diaptomi is
brought about largely, if not entirely, by actual water carriage.
It is, of course, possible that birds and winds may carry the
animals or their eggs in some cases, but this is not an ordinary
method. This is shown by the fact of the isolation of partic¬
ular species in certain lakes. For example, D. Reighardi oc¬
curs in lakes in the Beaver Islands, but not in Lake Michigan
close by. D. Birgei has been found in but one locality in Wis¬
consin; this also is true of D. siciloides, which is found only
in Cedar lake, Washington county. There may be other local¬
ities for these species, but Wisconsin has been pretty thorough¬
ly explored without finding them.
DISTRIBUTION OF SPECIES.
I have recognized thirty-four species of Diaptomi in North
America, distributed as follows. It is to be understood that
these are simply the known localities, and it is possible in
many cases that the distribution is much wider. Anything
like thorough collections have been made only in Illinois, Mich¬
igan, Wisconsin and Indiana. Many collections have been
made in the states in the Mississippi valley, and scattered col¬
lections in the mountain regions of the West. The immediate
vicinity of Lincoln, Nebraska, has been explored by the De¬
partment of Zoology in the University of Nebraska. I have
only one set of collections from the Northwest Territory. The
lakes of the eastern United States are unexplored.
D. albuquerquensis , New Mexico, Mexico, Colorado.
D. Ashlandi, Idaho, Washington, Great Lakes, Indiana,
Michigan, Wisconsin, Oregon.
Marsh — North American Species of Biaptomus. 387
B. asymmetricus, Cuba.
D. Bakeri , California.
B. Birgei, Wisconsin, Indiana, Long Island.
D. clavipes, Iowa, Nebraska, Colorado.
D. conipedatus , Louisiana.
I). dorsalis , Louisiana.
T). Biseni, California, Nebraska.
D. franciscanus , California.
B. Judayi, Colorado.
D. leptopus, Massachusetts, Wisconsin, Illinois, Northwest
Territory, Colorado, Mississippi valley generally.
D. Lintoni, Yellowstone park.
D. minutus, Great Lakes, Yellowstone park, Michigan, Wis¬
consin, Newfoundland, Greenland, Iceland. Not found south
of Wisconsin.
D. mississippiensis, Mississippi, Louisiana, Florida.
B. novamexicanus , New Mexico.
D. nudus, Colorado.
B. oregonensis , Oregon to Michigan, Northwest Territory
to Iowa, Illinois, Indiana and Massachusetts.
D. pallidus, north to Wisconsin and Minnesota, south to
Louisiana, west to Texas and Colorado, east to Illinois, Missis-
sippi valley.
D. purpureus , Cuba.
D. Neighardi, Michigan.
B. saltillinus , Nebraska.
B. sanguineus , Massachusetts, New York to Minnesota,
south to Alabama; reported from Nebraska and Washington.
D. shoshone , Wyoming, Colorado.
D. sicilis. Great Lakes, Wisconsin, Michigan, Wyoming,
Minnesota, Illinois, Nebraska.
D. siciloides, California, Illinois, Indiana, Wisconsin, Colo¬
rado, Nebraska. [ |
D. signicauda, California, Nevada, Colorado.
B. spatulocrenatus, Nantucket.
B. stagnalis , Illinois, Minnesota, Ohio, Kentucky, Alabama.
Ho tenuicaudatus , Saskatchewan.
388 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts , and Letters.
D. Trybomi, Oregon.
D. Tyrelli, California.
D. Wardi, Washington.
D w ashing tonensis, Washington.
It will be noticed that some are restricted pretty closely to
the Mississippi valley, some to the gulf states, and others to
the northern tier of states. Generally speaking, within rather
wide limits, the distribution is one of latitude. The most
northern species, D. minutus, ranges from Iceland to southern
Wisconsin, D. oregonensis has the same southern limit and has
been found as far north as the Saskatchewan, D. pallidus ranges
from Wisconsin to the Gulf, while D. mississippiensis is con¬
fined to the gulf states. Strictly confined to the western part
of the United States and mostly in the mountain regions, are
D. albuquerquensis, clampes, Eiseni, franciscanus, Judayi,
Lintoni , novamexicanus, nudus, saltillinus, shoshone , signi -
ccmda , Trybomi , Tyrelli f Wardi and washingtonensis.
The greater number of species in the West is doubtless
largely accounted for by the results of isolation, but it should
be remembered that collections have been made in only a few
localities, and it may be found both that the known species
have a greater range than now appears, and that intermediate
forms may come to light which will affect present species lim¬
its.
RELATION OF STRUCTURE TO HABITAT.
Except in a very general way, it is difficult to correlate habi¬
tat and structure. Still, certain facts are evident.
1. Peculiar, bizarre characters are more apt to appear in
animals living in shallow waters and with a narrow range of
habitat. This appears in the dorsal process of D. dorsalis , and
in the hook on the fifth foot of the male in D. clavipes. The
process of the first abdominal segment of the female is found
only in D. signicauda and the species associated vTith it, and
these are limited to the mountain regions. This principle,
however, does not apply as widely as we should expect.
2. There is a marked distinction between species living in
deep water, and in shallow. The deepwater, or limnetic, forms
Marsh — North American Species of Diaptomus. 389
are generally transparent, apparently never permanently col¬
ored. Their bodies are elongated, and their appendages are
long and slender. The species of littoral habitat, or dwelling
in shallow water, have stouter bodies, are generally larger,
doubtless due to greater abundance of food, their appendages
are much shorter, and they are frequently highly colored. B.
shoshone is one of the most striking examples of these peculi¬
arities. They are also very noticeable in B. leptopus and B.
sanguineus.
STRUCTURAL RELATIONSHIPS OF THE SPECIES.
In this connection will be discussed only those peculiarities
used for the separation of species. It is understood that this
covers only a small part of the subject, but it will be limited
with some precision to what is known. The characters used
for the determination of species are the following:
1. The form and segmentation of the cephalothorax.
2. The form and segmentation of the abdomen of the female.
[Noticeable are the presence or absence of lateral spines or of a
caudal process on the first segment.
3. The length of the antennae, and the armature of the last
three segments of the male antenna. This armature consists,
in the main, of hyaline lateral lamellae and of a process on the
antepenultimate segment which varies, being sometimes a hook,
more or less prolonged, sometimes an elongated affair which
may be armed with teeth.
4. The form of the fifth feet of the female. A fifth foot,
as can be seen by reference to the plates, consists of two basal
segments, an exopodite of two or three segments, the second
segment produced into a hook, and an endopodite of one or
two segments. This may vary in the following ways :
a. In the form and size of the spine of the first basal seg¬
ment.
b. The exopodite may be two- or three-segmented, and, when
two-segmented, may have two or three lateral spines.
c. The endopodite may be either one- or two-segmented, and
varies in length and in the size of the apical spines.
390 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts, and Letters .
5. The form of the fifth feet of the male. In the male fifth
feet, there are two basal segments. In the right foot, the ex-
opodite consists of two segments, the second segment bearing a
lateral spine and a terminal hook. The endopodite is one- or
two-segmented. In the left foot the exopodite is composed of
two segments, the second segment terminated with two proc¬
esses. The endopodite is one- or two-segmented. The prin¬
cipal modifications are these :
a. Form and size of the spines of the first basal segments.
b. Position of the lateral hairs of the second basal segments.
c. Relative lengths of the segments of the exopodite.
d. Position of the lateral spine of the second segment of the
exopodite.
e. Form and size of the terminal hook.
f. Form and size of the processes and lamellae which some¬
times occur on the segments of the right foot.
g. Form of terminal processes of second segment of the ex¬
opodite of the left foot.
h. Form, size and segmentation of the endopodite. It may
be one- or two-segmented, may be rudimentary, or may acquire
considerable length. Its tip may be armed with setae, or with
two more or less prominent spines.
PRIMITIVE STRUCTURAL CHARACTERS.
In discussing the structural relationship of the species, it is
necessary, if any phylogenetic conclusions are to be reached,
to determine what are the more primitive characters. This is
a matter of some difficulty and must be largely, perhaps, con¬
jecture.
The typical copepod appendage consists of two basal segments
with three-segmented exopodite and endopodite. We may as¬
sume that the fifth feet of both sexes have been derived from
such a typical structure by a process of reduction. I call this
an assumption, for I do not feel certain that it is true. It
seems, however, most probable in the light of present knowl¬
edge. Granting this assumption, it would follow that the most
primitive form would be the one that most nearly approaches
Marsh — North American Species of Diaptomus . 391
this type ; the more nearly equal in length the right and left
feet, the more primitive the form; the more nearly the endo-
podite approaches a three-segmented structure of the same
length as the exopodite, the more primitive the form, etc. Of
course, this reduction may not have been correlated in different
structures ; for example, a two-segmented endopodite might pos¬
sibly be found in a recent form, although in most a one-seg-
mented condition exists. Generally ^speaking, however, it would'
be true that a species would be considered the more primitive in
proportion as it approaches more or less closely to a form hav¬
ing its feet composed of three-segmented rami. It is to be sup¬
posed that this reduction may have gone on at the same time
in two or more lines, so that the fact of a similar stage of re¬
duction in the segments of the feet would not in all cases imply
close relationship, although many times this would be true.
The common presence in two or more forms of a structure that
was developed rather than leffloehind in the process of reduc-
tion2 would be pretty good evidence of close relationship.
It must be borne in mind, too, that very little is known of
the amount of variation in the structures of Diaptomi, and
further knowledge may modify present conclusions. For ex¬
ample, it is difficult to correlate the peculiar armature of the
antepenultimate segment of the right male antenna with other
structures, and it is possible that it may appear that these
structures are much more variable than is now supposed.
THE OREGONENSIS GROUP.
This group includes D. oregonensis, Reighardi, mississippi-
ensis, pallidus, and possibly Bakeri and franciscanus. Leaving
Bakeri and franciscanus out of consideration for the time be¬
ing, the members of the group agree in the following charac¬
teristics :
All are without a distinct appendage on the antepenultimate
segment of the male right antenna. All have the lateral spine
near the end of the second segment of the right male exopodite,
and have a small spine near the inner margin of the same seg¬
ment. The terminal processes of the left foot of the male are
392 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts , and Letters.
digitiform in D. oregonensis, franciscanus and Reighardi, the
inner one is falciform in D. pallidus , while in D. mississippi-
ensis and D. Baheri they are elongated and digitiform. In the
female the fifth feet are nearly the same in all these species.
All have two spines on the second segment of the exopodite.
The lateral spines of the female abdomen are most pronounced
in D. Baheri and D. mississippiensis , but are not large in any
of the species. In D. oregonensis the right and left feet are
nearly of the same length. In the other cases there is consid¬
erable difference between the lengths of the two feet.
As to distribution, D. oregonensis is known to live from
about the parallel of 42 degrees north to the Saskatchewan re¬
gion, and very likely has a still further extension towards the
Arctic. D. Reighardi is localized, so far as is known, to the
northern part of the southern peninsula of Michigan. D. mis¬
sissippiensis is found only in the gulf states. D. pallidus is
found in the Mississippi valley from Wisconsin south, and as
far west as the Rocky mountains. D. Baheri and D. frcmcis-
canus have been found only in California, and each only in a
single locality, although, of course, it is probable that they will
be found to have a wider distribution.
It seems to me that D. oregonensis , pallidus , Reighardi and
mississippiensis have clearly a very close relationship, as shown
by the absence of the antennal appendage and the very close
resemblance in the male fifth feet ; this is noticeable in the pro¬
portions of the segments, the location of the lateral spine, and
especially in the presence of the small spine near the inner
margin. D. Baheri and D. franciscanus have this small spine,
which makes me feel quite certain that they must be in the
same line.
The phvlogeny of part of the group seems to me quite clear.
D. oregonensis is the most primitive form. Its wide distribu¬
tion in the cold temperate region is entirely in harmony with
this supposition. It or its immediate ancestor inhabited the
waters of the United States south of the ice at the height of
the glacial period. As the ice disappeared, it gradually moved
towards the north, adapting itself only in a slight degree to
Marsh — North American Species of Diaptomus . 393
the changes of the environment. D. pallidus may he derived
from D. oregonensis . It has gradually taken the place of D.
oregonensis through the Mississippi valley. The difference in
structure between D. oregonensis and D. pallidus is doubtless
due to minor influences of the environment, accompanied by
isolation. It is not likely that the morphological differences
can be traced to any specific influences of environment. D.
mississippiensis , which is still further removed from I), oregon¬
ensis, is of later origin, and in a more limited habitat has de¬
veloped more pronounced structural differences.
D. Baheri and D. franciscanus differ from the other members
of the group in that they have an appendage on the antepenul¬
timate segment of the right male antenna. If it should appear
that this appendage is an invariable character, these two species
should, doubtless, be separated from the group. The position
of the lateral spine on the right exopod ite of the male fifth
foot and the presence of the small inner spine on the same seg¬
ment make one feel that these two species must belong in the
oregonensis group.
The endopodites of the male fifth feet in D. Baheri are twTo*
segmented, and the right exopodite in D. franciscanus is fre¬
quently two-segmented. The endopodites of the female fifth
feet in D. Baheri are also two-segmented, and in both D. Baheri
and D. franciscanus the exopodites of the female fifth feet are
three-segmented. Thus D. Baheri and D. franciscanus have
many of the characteristics of what I have assumed to be prim¬
itive structures, and it is possible that these peculiarities have
been retained in their somewhat limited habitat; this must be
a matter of conjecture, however, because of our slight knowl¬
edge of the distribution of the California species.
The relationships of the members of the group may then be
expressed in the following way:
394 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, cmd Letters.
mississippiensis
THE TENUICAUDATUS GROUP.
This group includes D. tenuicaudatus , sicilis, Ashlandi, mi-
nutus, Birgei, siciloides, Wardi and shoshone. All, with the
exception of Birgei and siciloides, agree in having a slender
straight appendage on the antepenultimate segment of the right
antenna of the male; these, however, are not the only species
with this appendage. The male fifth feet of D. tenuicaudatus,
D. sicilis and D. shoshone resemble each other very closely. In
D. Ashlandi and D. Birgei the most marked difference is in
the position of the lateral spine.
D. Birgei has an exceedingly short appendage on the ante¬
penultimate segment of the male right antenna, and D. sici¬
loides has a short hook. In all members of the group, with the
exception of D. shoshone and D. minutus, there is a hyaline
lamella on the posterior surface of the first segment of the
right exopodite. This peculiarity is found in some species
outside this group, especially in those of the signicauda group,
and may indicate a common structural relationship between the
groups. D. minutus differs not only in the position of the
lateral spine, but in the form of the terminal hook, and in the
rudimentary right endopodite. In the female fifth foot, too,
D. minutus differs in that the endopodites are rudimentary,
and that they have three spines on the second segment of the
exopodite. D. shoshone has elongated terminal spines on the
endopodite of the female fifth foot and has a distinctly three-
Marsh — North American Species of Diaptomus. 395
segmented exopodite. D. shoshone by its size is separated from
the rest of the group, but its structural relationships seem to be
very close.
D. minutus is most widely distributed, being found from tha
northern United States to Greenland i-nd Iceland, but not on
the Eastern Continent. D. Ashlandi and D. sicilis , so far as
known, are limited to the northern tier of states in the United
States. D. Birgei and D. siciloides belong to warmer waters
but probably do not occur south of the Ohio river, while D.
shoshone is peculiar to the mountain region of the West. D.
tenuicaudatus is a recent find, and is, so far, reported from only
one locality, in the Saskatchewan region. D. sicilis and D.
Ashlandi are distinctly lovers of cold water. In Green lake D.
sicilis occurs in the winter months and D. minutus in the sum¬
mer months. (Marsh, ?97, Marsh, ’03.) D. tenuicaudatus is
considered the most primitive form because of the slender female
abdomen without armature, the nearly equal length of the
male fifth feet, and the two-segmented endopodite of the
left fifth foot of the male. D. sicilis is the most nearly re¬
lated to D. tenuicaudatus. D. shoshone comes very close to
it, but if it is in this line it must have been subjected
to peculiarly favorable circumstances of food to have developed
such an enormous size. D . Ashlandi might easily have been de¬
rived from D. tenuicaudatus, but the separation must have
taken place at a comparatively remote time. D. siciloides and
D. Birgei are somewhat more specialized forms from the same
stock as D. sicilis. D. minutus, according to the standard I
have set up, is the most specialized of the group; there is a
marked difference in the lengths of the fifth feet of the male,
and there is a striking reduction of the endopodites in the fifth
feet of both sexes. The only noticeable primitive character is
the three spines of the second segment of the exopodite of the
fifth feet of the female. From its wide distribution we might
well think of D. minutus as an early form from which the
others have been derived, were it not for its specialized charac¬
teristics. As it is, we must think of it, perhaps, as not derived
from D. tenuicaudatus, but as having a common ancestry with
396 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters .
this form. The relationship of this group, then, may be ex¬
pressed by the following diagram:
sicilis
minutus
D. Tyrelli has no appendage of the antepenultimate segment
of the right male antenna, but the structure of the male fifth
foot leads me to think that it should be classed with this group.
It must be considered as somewhat distinctly separated from
the rest of the group, and its phylogeny is uncertain.
THE LEPTOPUS GROUP.
This includes D. leptopus, leptopus var. piscinae, conipe -
daius , stagnalis, Lintoni, spatulocrenatus and clavipes. . . D,
conipedatus, D. spatulocrenatus and D. stagnalis have a hook
on the antepenultimate segment of the right antenna of the
male. The others have a lateral hyaline lamella. D. lepto¬
pus, D. leptopus var. piscinae, D. conipedatus and D. clavipes
have a hook in the posterior face of the second basal segment
of the right fifth foot of the male, this hook being most pro¬
nounced in the case of D. clavipes. The published figures do
not indicate the presence of such a hook in D. Lintoni or D.
stagnalis, but Schacht’s description of D. stagnalis speaks of
the presence of a “large, smooth, hyaline lamella.” This may
represent the hook of the other species. In the female fifth
foot, the second segment of the exopodite has either two or
three spines in D . leptopus, and three in D. clavipes, D. conipe¬
datus, D. spatulocrenatus and D. Lintoni. In D. stagnalis the
exopodite is distinctly three-segmented. The endopodites of
the female fifth feet in D. stagnalis are two-segmented.
Marsh — North American Species of Diaptomus. 397
D. Lintoni has been found only in the Yellowstone park. D.
conipedatus has thus far been found only in Louisiana, and
D. clavipes in Iowa and Nebraska. D. spatulocrenatus has
been found only in the island of Nantucket. D. stagnalis prob¬
ably occurs generally throughout the Mississippi valley, and D.
leptopus not only in the Mississippi valley but north into Brit¬
ish America. , ,
I have called this the leptopus group because D. leptopus is
the most common species. In many respects, however, D. stag¬
nalis may be considered the more primitive. This is notably
the case in the characters of the female fifth feet — the threc-
segmented exopodite, and the two-segmented endopodite. From
its distribution, one would think of D. leptopus as the more an¬
cient form. In the antennal armature, D. stagnalis , D. coni¬
pedatus , D. spatulocrenatus and D. Lintoni are most nearly
alike.
I think one can do little more than guess at the relationships
of the members of the group. D. clavipes is apparently the
most specialized. The probable relationships may be put, pro¬
visionally, as follows:
clavipes
leptopus
stagnalis
THE SIGNICAUDA GROUP.
This consists of D. signicauda, washingtonensis, nudus and
J udayi. They are put together because of the common character
of the posterior process on the female abdomen. D. J udayi has
a straight process on the antepenultimate segment of the right
antenna of the male. The others agree in having a hook. D .
398 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts , and Letters.
signicauda and D. Judayi have a hyaline lamella on the first
segment of the right exopodite. D. washingtonensis alone has
the primitive character of a two-segmented endopodite in the
male fifth foot. D. Judayi has the most pronounced spines on
the first segment of the female abdomen., It seems that there
should be no question of putting these species together on the
ground of the posterior process of the first segment of the fe¬
male abdomen, although this appears late in the development
of the individual and it is very possible that the peculiarity
originated in different lines. ,
With this group I should place D. Tryborrti, although it is
somewhat aberrant in many details of structure. The asym¬
metry of the female abdomen would lead us to conjecture a re¬
lationship with the signicauda group, but a relationship much
more remote than that of the other members. The male fifth
foot, while peculiar in many respects, yet bears a marked re¬
semblance to the fifth feet of the group in question. In the
“dorsal hump,” too, there is a reminder of D. signicauda. The*
group seems to be nearly related to the tenuicaudatus group* ,
and is probably an offshoot of it.
One species of this group can hardly be picked out as the*
most primitive. I have called it the signicauda group, simply
because that was the first of the species to be described.
THE ALBUQUERQUENSIS GROUP.
In this group are included D. albuquerquensis , dorsalis,,
asymmetricus , purpureus and saltillinus. All have a hooked
process on the antepenultimate segment of the right antenna of
the male. The principal reason for putting them together,
however, is the similarity of the male fifth feet. In all, the
endopodites are short and composed of a single segment. In
all, except D. albuquerquensis and D. saltillinus, there is a hya¬
line process on the inner margin of the second basal segment of
the right foot ; D. saltillinus has a tubercle on the inner margin,
and both D. saltillinus and D. albuquerquensis have a peculiar
process on the posterior surface of this segment. In all there is a
transverse ridge on the posterior surface of the first segment of
Marsh — North American Species of Diaptomus . 399
the right exopodite ; in most cases this runs across the segment.
In all, except D. saltillinus , there is an oblique ridge on the pos¬
terior surface of the second segment of the right exopodite. In
all, except D. purpureas , the terminal segment of the exopodite
of the left foot is armed with a digitiform process and a ^len¬
der articulated spine ; this spine in D. saltillirms is curved. The
fifth feet of the females, too, resemble each other. In all, the
exopodites are three-segmented. The endopodites are short,
and in all, except D. saltillinus , are armed with two rather
prominent spines. The female abdomens, with the exception of
D. asymmetricus , resemble each other; in D. dorsalis and D.
purpureas the first segment is especially long and slender, but
it is stouter in D. saltillinus and D. albuquerquensis. In D.
asymmetricus the general form is like that of D. purpureus ,
but there is the marked peculiarity of the lateral process.
D. albuquerquensis , D. dorsalis and D. saltillinus differ from
the other species of the group in the peculiar dorsal processes
of the fifth thoracic segment.
I have called the group the albuquerquensis group, not be¬
cause there is any reason to think that this species is the most
primitive, but because it was the first described. There would
seem to be little question of the close affinity of all the members
of the group. D. saltillinus differs more widely than do the
others. D. saltillinus , too, is the most northern species, the
others being distinctly southern, D. albuquerquensis being
found in Colorado, blew Mexico ‘and Mexico, and D. purpu¬
reus and D. asymmetricus in Cuba.
It is hardly possible, with the present knowledge, even to
guess at the phylogenetic relationships of the group.
D. sanguineus and D. Eiseni I am not prepared to locate,
even tentatively. It should be noticed, perhaps, that D. albu¬
querquensis , dorsalis , saltillinus , Trybomi , sanguineus and sig-
nicauda all have a pronounced dorsal process or hump. This
may indicate some relationship, but it does not seem clear
enough to lead to a grouping of these species.
Of the groups I have formed, it seems to me that the tenui-
caudatus group is the nearest to the primitive form; it does
400 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts , and Letters.
not appear likely, however, that the others are derivatives of
this, but rather that they go back to a common ancestry which
resembled tenuicaudatus more nearly than the others.
FACTORS CONTROLLING THE DISTRIBUTION OF THE DIAPTOMI.
I think it will appear evident from the discussion of the
groups of the Diaptomi that there are two great factors con¬
trolling their distribution. One is ease of water communica¬
tion, the other is temperature. There is no reason to think
that, under ordinary circumstances, species are distributed in
any way except by water carriage. The existence of species
isolated in particular localities seems pretty conclusive evi¬
dence of this ; this is seen in the peculiarly localized habitat of
D, Reiglnardi, in the distribution of D. Birgei, and in the pres¬
ence of D. siciloides in Cedar lake, Wisconsin, although it
has been found in no other part of the state.
An examination of the distribution of the members of the
different groups shows very clearly the prominence of the two
factors mentioned above. In the oregonensis group, D. Reigk-
ardi, D. Balceri and D. franciscanus are localized species. D.
oregonensis is a distinctly northern species, while D. missis -
sippiensis is as distinctly southern. D. pallidus has a some¬
what wider range, but apparently through communicating
waters.
Of the tenuicaudatus group, none are found in the South.
D. tenuicaudatus has been found only in the far North. D.
minutus has the widest range, being found from Iceland to
southern Wisconsin. D. sicilis and D. Ashlandi are confined
to the northern tier of states, while D. siciloides and D. Birgei
are probably limited, speaking in a very general way, to the
region between the parallels of 39° and 43°. The distribution
with reference to latitude is very marked in the case of most
of the members of this group.
Of the leptopus group, D. leptopus is the most widely dis¬
tributed, being found not only through the Mississippi valley
out north into British America. D. clavipes and D. Lintoni
are probably somewhat localized. D. stagnalis is found from
Marsh — North American Species of Diapt omits . 401
Illinois south, while D. conipedatus is found only in the South.
Here again is pretty clear evidence of the importance of the
factors of water carriage and temperature.
The signicauda group is confined to the mountain region of
the West, and I assume it to be a product of isolation. There
is no evidence of the effect of temperature in the distribution
of the members of this group.
The albuquerquensis group is distinctly southern. D. sal-
tillinus, the most aberrant member of the group, is found as far
north as Nebraska and as far south as Florida, if I am cor¬
rect in supposing that D. albuquerquensis Schacht is D. saltil -
linus Brewer. The distribution of this group, as in the case
of the others, gives distinct evidence of the effect of latitude.
Both Forbes and Ward, following European authors, have
thought that elevation was a controlling factor in the distri¬
bution of fresh water organisms. So far as Diaptomi are con¬
cerned, I see no reason for thinking that elevation has any ef¬
fect in controlling the distribution of our American species,
except in the indirect way that elevation is accompanied by
low temperature. It seems clear to me that the species of Di¬
aptomi are commonly confined within rather narrow limits of
temperature.
diaptomus Westwood.
1785. Cyclops O. F. Muller.
1820. Monoculus Jurine.
1836. Diaptomus Westwood.
1838. Cyclopsina Milne-Edwards.
1838. Glaucea Koch.
1848. Cyclops Nicolet.
1889. Diaptomus De Guerne and Richard.
1897. Diaptomus Schacht.
Although the number of described species of Diaptomus has
greatly increased since the publication of De Guerne and Rich¬
ard’s Revision , and it might be thought wise to subdivide the
genus, it has not seemed to me best. The description as given
by them is exact, and it seems undesirable to make any change
in it.
26— S. & A.
402 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts , and Letters.
The following description is taken from the Revision with¬
out any change : 1
“Cephalothorax segmentis const ans 7, quorum anterior a duo
indistincte sejuncta caput componunt. Segmentum ultimum
thoracale in femina sat magnum, postice in medio profundius
emarginatum adque latera saepius utrinque in laminam exiens
biangulatam. Abdomen breve thorace angustius, in femina
(ramis caudalibus inclusis) segmentis 4, quorum primum in
parte antica dilatatum saepiusque utrinque mucrone laterali
armatum est; in mare vero segmentis 6 ejusdem fere latitudi-
nis compositum. Rami caudales setis 5 uniarticulatis et plu-
mosis, setaque alia multo tenuiore intus adfixa praediti. Frons
i The following translation of the original account of the genus
Diaptomus may be given:
Cephalothorax always of seven segments, of which the two anterior,
indistinctly separated, form the head. The last thoracic segment in
the female is rather large, posteriorly in the middle rather deeply
emarginate, and quite frequently produced laterally on both sides
into a biangulate lamina. Abdomen short, narrower than the thorax,
in the female, including the caudal rami, of four segments, of which,
the first is dilated anteriorly, and commonly armed with a lateral
spine on each side; but in the male it is composed of six segments of
nearly equal width. The caudal rami are armed with five uniarticulate
plumose setae, and with another much more slender seta attached on
the inner side. The front is provided with two very minute tentacull-
form appendages. The antennae of the first pair are composed of
twenty-five segments, which increase a little in length toward the tip;
the right antenna of the male is geniculate with the articulation be¬
tween the eighteenth and nineteenth segments; the six preceding are
swollen, and the five following more or less united into two segments.
The outer ramus of the second pair of antennae is longer than the in-
ner, composed of seven segments, the last segment longest of all and
armed with very long apical setae; the setae attached to the preced¬
ing segments are short and nearly equal. The second pair of maxillae
are short and thick; the third pair are elongate, turned forward, of
seven segments, and furnished with short setae. The eight anterior
swimming feet are biramose, the inner ramus of the first pair of two
segments, and of the following pairs of three segments; the feet of the
last pair, different from the others, are of five segments, with the
second segment arm on the inner side with" a small attendate for
rudiment of an inner ramus; in the female they are short, equal to
each other, the last segment very short and rudimentary, the penulti¬
mate always produced into a strong hook, curved inward; the right
foot of the male is subcheliform, with the last segment formed into a
very long movable hook. The eye is single.
Marsh — North American Species of Diaptomus. 403
appendicibus tentaculiformibus 2 minimis instructus. Anten¬
nae primi paris articulis 25 apicem versus parum longitudine
crescentibus compositae; dextra maris articulatione inter ar-
ticulum 18-mum et 19-mum geniculans, antecedentibus 6-turni-
dis5 sequentibus 5 in 2 mode confiuentibus articulos. Ramus
antennarum 2-di paris exterior interiore longior 7-articuiatus,
articulo ultimo omnium maximo setisque longissimis apicalibus
instructo; setae articulis antecedentibus inhaerentes breves
et fere equales. Maxillae 2-di pails breves et crassae; 3-tii
paris elongatae et antice vergentes 7-articulatae setisque brevi-
bus obsitae. Pedes anteriores 8 biramosi natatorii, ramo inter¬
iore in 1-mo pari 2-, in sequentibus 3-articulato pedes ultimi
paris ceteris dissimiles 5-articulati, articulo 2-do intus appen-
dice parva vel rudimento rami interioris instructo; in femina
breves inter se equates, articulo ultimo perbrevi et rudimentari,
penultimo sine tine in unguem validum introrsum curvatum
exeunte; dexter maris subcheliformis, articulo ultimo in un¬
guem mobilem longissimum conformato. Oculus unicus.”
ANALYTICAL KEYS.
Artificial keys are always unsatisfactory, and yet they seem
necessary in order to help one to a determination of species.
In the following keys an attempt has been made to indicate
the groupings of species by a few salient points. The result
is not what could be wished, but it is hoped that it will be of
assistance, especially to those who are not familiar with the
classification of the genus. The synopses of DeGuerne and
Richard are by all odds the most satisfactory of those hitherto
published; accordingly these analyses are based on their work.
Ro attempt has been made to carry the analysis of the charac¬
teristics of the females far enough to determine all the species,
for it is impossible, in some cases, to separate the females of
related species. A final determination can be made only when
one has the male forms.
404 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts , and Letters.
ANALYTICAL KEY TO THE NORTH AMERICAN SPECIES OF DIAPTO-
MUS BASED ON THE CHARACTERS OF THE MALE.
Antepenultimate segment of the male right antenna with¬
out a district appendage,
Antepenultimate segment slightly produced at the
distal end into a blunt point, first segment of
right exopodite with marked quadrangular hy¬
aline appendage, . Birgei
Right and left feet nearly equal in length, terminal
hook of right foot symmetrical, . oregonensis
Left foot shorter than right,
Left foot reaching beyond first segment of the ex-
opiodite,
Terminal hook of right foot uniangular, right
endopodite equal in length to first segment
of the exopodite, . Reighardi
Terminal hook biangular, right endopodite large,
longer than first segment of the exopo¬
dite, . mississippiensis
Left foot reaching end of first segment of the
exopodite,
Inner process of the terminal segment of the
left exopodite falciform, no hyaline append¬
age of first segment of right exopodite, . pallidm
Inner process of terminal segment of left ex¬
opodite digitiform, a hyaline appendage on
internal distal angle of first segment of
right exopodite, . Tyrelli
Antepenultimate segment of male right antenna with
hyaline lamella,
Hyaline lamella broad, extending beyond the end of
the segment, second basal segment of the right
exopodite armed on the posterior surface with a
small hook, . . . leptopus
Hyaline lamella narrow, extending beyond the end of
the segment slightly, if at all, first basal segment
armed with a hook equal in length to the first
segment of the exopodite, . clavipes
.Antepenultimate segment of the right antenna bears
a slender straight process,
This process is much shorter than the penultimate
segment,
Right endopodite rudimentary,
Lateral spine of the second segment of the right
exopodite is terminal, . Lintoni
Lateral spine of the second segment of the ex-
Marsh — North American Species of Diaptomus. 405
opodite is near the proximal end, the anten¬
nal process is dentate on the outer margin, _ ... Trybomi
Right endopodite about equals in length the first
segment of the exopodite, lateral spine median, . Judayi
The process of the antepenultimate segment of the
right antenna nearly equals or equals the penul¬
timate segment,
The right endopodite equals in length the first seg¬
ment of the exopodite, spines of the first basal
segment large, . tenuicaudatus
The right endopodite exceeds the length of the
first segment of the exopodite, spines of the
first basal segment small, . sicilis
The process of the antepenultimate segment of the
antenna exceeds in length the penultimate seg¬
ment,
Large. Lateral spine of the second segment of the
male exopodite is terminal or nearly so,
The antennal appendage only slightly longer than
the penultimate segment, antennae equal in
length to cephalothorax, . shoshone
Antennal appendage exceeding in length the ul¬
timate segment, antennae reaching the furca, . Wardt
Small. The lateral spine of the second segment of
the right exopodite is on the proximal half of
the segment, the antennae reach beyond the
furca.
Lateral spine of the second segment of the right
exopodite short, right endopodite rudimentary, . . . .mirmtus
Lateral spine long, right endopodite equals in
length the first segment of the exopodite, . Ashlandi
The antepenultimate segment of the right antenna bears
a curved process,
The appendage equals or exceeds in length the penul¬
timate segment,
The appendage about equals in length the last two
segments, the second basal segment of the
right foot is dilated on the inner margin, the
endopodites are two-segmented, . Eiseni
The appendage slightly exceeds in length the penul¬
timate segment, second basal segment of the
right foot not dilated on the inner margin, the
left endopodite one-segmented, . franciscanus
The appendage is shorter than the penultimate seg¬
ment.
One or both terminal processes of the last seg¬
ment of the left exopodite are distinctly falci¬
form,
406 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts , and Letters.
The right endopodite is small, shorter than
the first segment (of the exopodite.
Terminal segment of the right exopodite is
elongate,
Right endopodite rudimentary, left endopo¬
dite 2-segmented, spatulate in form, _ spatulocrenatus
Terminal segment of right exopodite much
the broadest at the distal end, lateral
spine nearly terminal and straight,
left endopodite elongate, . conipedatus
Terminal hook of right exopodite falci¬
form, lateral spine at the distal third
of the segment, second basal segment
of the right foot broad at the distal
end with process at the external distal
angle, . sanguineus
Terminal segment of right exopodite of usu¬
al length,
Lateral spine terminal,
Inner surface of left endopodite rugose,
a very large species, . stagnalis
Segments of right foot short and broad,
terminal hook long and strongly
curved, lateral spine long and
straight, . saltillinus
The right endopodite is distinctly longer than
the first segment of the exopodite,
The first segment of the right exopodite has an
oblique ridge on its dorsal surface.
The first segment of the right exopodite has
a transverse ridge, the lateral spine of the
terminal segment is about one-half as
long as the segment, . aspmmetricus
The first segment of the right exopodite has
two curved processes on its dorsal surface,
the lateral spine of the terminal segment
equals or exceeds in length the segment, . dorsalis
The first segment of the right exopodite does
not have a transverse ridge on the dorsal
surface.
The lateral spine of the terminal segment of
the right exopodite is terminal, the en-
dopodites are distinctly two-segmented, . Bakeri
The lateral spine is situated on the distal
third of the terminal segment of the right
exopodite, the right endopodite is indis-
Marsh — North American Specves of Diaptomus. 407’
tinctly two-segmented, the left one-seg-
mented, . . . washingtonensis
The right endopodite equals or only slightly ex¬
ceeds the first segment of the exopodite,
The terminal segment of the right exopodite
has a transverse ridge on its dorsal sur¬
face, the lateral spine exceeds in length
the segment, . albuquerquensis
The terminal segment of the right exopodite
does not have an oblique ridge on its dorsal
surface, the lateral spine is short, about one-
half the length of the segment, . novamexicanus
The terminal processes of the left exopodite are
digitiform, the right endopodite shorter than
the first segment of the exopodite,
The right endopodite triangular in form, first
segment of the exopodite without hyaline
appendage, . nudus
The first segment of the right exopodite with
hyaline appendage,
Appendage at the inner distal angle, endopo¬
dite about equals the first segment of the
exopodite, . signicauda
Appendage on inner distal half, quadrangular
in form, endopodite much shorter than the
first segment of the exopodite, . siciloides
The first segment of the right exopodite with
a transverse ridge, second segment with
oblique ridge and hyaline process near the
outer margin, . purpureus
ANALYTICAL KEY TO THE NORTH AMERICAN SPECIES OF DIAPTO¬
MUS BASED ON THE CHARACTERS OF THE FEMALE.
The endopodites of the fifth feet are shorter than the
first segments of the exopodites.
The first antennae do not reach the end of the furca,
The endopodites are one-segmented,
The exopodites are two-segmented, the fifth
cephalothoracic segment has a dorsal
process, the first abdominal segment is
asymmetrical, its distal end being ex¬
panded to the right, . Trybomi
The exopodites are three-segmented, there is no
dorsal process, the abdomen is symmetrical, . purpureus
The fifth cephalothoracic segment has a dorsal
process, the first abdominal segment is asym-
408 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters .
metrical, its distal end being expanded to the
right, . Trybomi
The endopodites are two-segmented,
Terminal spines of endopiodite fully as long as
the endopodite, a large species, . .stagnalis
Terminal spines of endopodite short, a moder¬
ate sized species, . Eiseni
The first antennae equal or exceed the length of the
whole body including the furca,
The endopodite is rudimentary, . niinutus
The endopodite equals in length about one-half the
first segment of the exopodite,
Fifth cephalothoracic segment with dorsal pro¬
cess, endopodite one-segmented, . saltillinus
Fifth cephalothoracic segment with dorsal pro¬
cess, endopodite commonly two-segmented, . .aVbuquerquensis
The endopodite exceeds in length one-half the first
segment of the exopodite,
The fifth cephalothoracic segment is armed with
two dorsal processes, . dorsalis
The first segment of the abdomen has a prom¬
inent swelling on the right side . asymmetricus
The endopodite equals or exceeds in length the first
segment of the exopodite,
There is a digitiform process on the right pos¬
terior border of the first abdominal segment.
This process is variable in length, typically,
in signicauda, extending far beyond the sec¬
ond segment, signicauda, nudus , washing tonensis, Judayi
(These species can be satisfactorily separated
only by the characteristics of the male. Gen¬
erally the abdominal process is much more pro¬
nounced in signicauda. The lateral projec¬
tions of the abdomen are strongest in Judayi,
less pronounced in nudus and about equally
prominent in washing tonensis and signicauda).
The first abdominal segment bears no process on its
right hand posterior margin,
The lateral spines of the abdomen are either ab¬
sent or very minute,
The exopodite is distinctly three-segmented,
Antennae equal to cephalothorax, a very
large species, . . . . shoshone
Antennae reach to furca, . Wardi
The exopodite is two-segmented, the abdomen
elongated,
The abdomen is very much elongated, the
lateral swelling of the first segment very
slight, . tenuicaudatus
Marsh — North American Species of Diaptomus . 409
Lateral swelling of first abdominal segment
distinct, sicilis, Ashlandi, oregonensis,
pallidus, Reighardi, mississippiensis, Lin-
toni, spatulocrenatus.
(These species cannot be satisfactorily separ¬
ated by the characteristics of the fe¬
male, although the limits of size will
help somewhat.)
The lateral spines of the abdomen are distinct,
The exopodite is distinctly three-segmented,
the endopodite is two-segmented, . Bakeri
The exopodite is two-segmented, the endopodite
one-segmented, the second segment of the
exopodite has three spines, conipedatus ,
clavipes, Tyrelli , leptopus.
(These cannot be separated by the char¬
acteristics of the female.)
The second segment of the exopodite has two
spines, siciloides, sanguineus , Birgei, nova-
mexicanus.
diaptomus oregonensis Lilljeborg.
Plate XV, figs. 1, 4, 7.
1889. Diaptomus oregonensis DeGuerne and Richard, p. 53 ;
pi. II, fig. 5 ; pi. Ill, fig. 8.
1893. Diaptomus oregonensis Marsh, p. 200 ; pi. IV, figs. 4, 5.
1895. Diaptomus oregonensis Marsh, p. 8 ; pi. VII, fig. 5.
1895. Diaptomus oregonensis Herrick and Turner, p. 72 ; pi.
IV, figs. 7-12 ; pi. IX, fig. 3.
1897. Diaptomus oregonensis Schacht, p. 151 ; pi. XXIX, figs.
1 and 2.
1906. Diaptomus pygmaeus Pearse, p. 244; figs. 1, 2 and 3.
Of medium size. Cephalothorax widest at the middle. The
first segment of the cephalothorax exceeds in length the three
following segments. The last segment is slightly produced
laterally and armed with two minute spines.
The first segment of the female abdomen equals in length
the rest of the abdomen. It is slightly expanded laterally,
and sometimes bears two very minute lateral spines; these,
however, are not always present. The second segment is shor* -
than the third, and the third shorter than the furcal rami.
The length of the furcal rami is twice their width; they are
finely ciliate on the inner margin.
410 Wisconsin Academy of' Sciences , Arts, and Letters.
The antennae are 2 5 -segmented and nearly reach the ends of
the fureal setae. The right male antenna is swollen anterior
to the geniculating joint; the antepenultimate segment has no
special armature.
The first basal segments of the female fifth feet have the
spines of the posterior surface of moderate size. The lateral
hair of the second basal segment is of moderate size. The
first segment of the exopodite is twice as long as wide. The
hook of the second segment is slender and rather slightly
curved. It is finely denticulate on the inner margin. The
third segment is ordinarily represented by two spines, of which
the outer is the longer. In some cases, however, the inner
spine arises from a small segment, which represents the third
segment of the exopodite. The endopodite slightly exceeds in
length the first segment of the exopodite. It is obtusely point¬
ed, is setose at the tip, and armed with two rather long terminal
spines.
The first basal segments of the male fifth feet have the spines
of the posterior surface of moderate size. The second basal
segment is a little less than twice as long as wide. The lateral
hair is situated at the beginning of the distal third. The first
segment of the exopodite is trapezoidal in form, its length and
breadth are about equal, and it is somewhat produced on th3
distal exterior angle. The second segment is twice as long as
its width and is slightly curved on the exterior margin. On
the posterior surface near the internal margin it bears a small
spine; this is situated at the end of the proximal third of the
segment. The lateral spine is situated near the end of the
segment; it is about two-xhirds as long as the segment, is
slightly curved, and minutely denticulate on the inner margin.
The terminal hook is slender, regularly curved, and nearly
equals in length the whole of the right foot. It is finely den¬
ticulate on the inner margin. The endopodite is one-segment-
ed, rather stout, and exceeds in length the first segment of the
exopodite. It is setose at the tip. The left foot equals in
length the right. The second basal segment is in form like
the corresponding segment of the right foot, but is somewhat
smaller. There is a slight projection on its inner margin.
The lateral hair is situated at the beginning of the distal third.
The first segment of the exopodite is twice as long as wide.
Marsh — North American Species of Diaptomus. 411
The outer margin is convex, the inner sinuate and setose. The
second segment is produced into two finger-like processes, one
exterior and one interior. The exterior one is finely denticu¬
late on the inner margin. The interior process bears & small
process on its base which projects inwards. The inner surface
of the segment is setose.
Length of female, 1.5 mm. Length of male, 1.4 mm. These
are the figures of Lilljeborg. There is considerable variation
in the length of specimens from various localities.
This is one of the most widely distributed of the North
American species. The type specimens were from Portland,
Oregon. It is by far the most common species in the lakes of
Wisconsin and Michigan, and occurs, though not in great num¬
bers, in the Great Lakes. It is found in Iowa, northern Illi¬
nois and northern Indiana, in Minnesota, and I have speci¬
mens from Kinistino, Northwest Territory. No extensive
collections have been made in the eastern states, but it is found
in eastern Massachusetts, and I think it probable that this spe¬
cies is distributed all over North America north of the latitude
of northern Illinois. In southern Illinois and in the southern
states its place seems to be taken by D. pallidus.
It is rather remarkable that a species of such wide distri¬
bution should show so little variability.
I have not seen specimens of Pearse’s pygmaeus , but I have
gone over his description and figures very carefully, and I see
no reason to separate it from oregonensis. The only possible
points of difference which I can see, are the form of the hook
-of the exopodite of the male right fifth foot, the form of the
endopodite of the left fifth foot of the male, and the form of
the female abdomen. Pearse states in his description that the
hook is curved somewhat “sharply.” TIis figure, however,
shows no sharper curvature than would be true of oregonensis.
The endopodite of the left fifth foot of the male is more pointed
than in typical oregonensis, but the form of this segment varies,
and frequently is as sharp as in his figure. Apparently, from
his figure, the abdomen of the female is somewhat broader than
in the type. These differences, however, if they are recog¬
nizable differences, could hardly be considered more than va¬
rietal.
412 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters.
DIAPTOMUS REIGHARDI Marsh.
Plate XV, figs. 2, 6, 9.
1895. Diaptomus Reighardi Marsh, p. 9; pi. I, figs. 1-4.
1897. Diaptomus Reighardi Schacht, p. 169; pi. XXVIII,
%. i.
Of moderate size. The first cephalothoracic segment nearly
equals in length the rest of the cephalothorax ; the suture of
this segment is very distinct. The last cephalothoracic segment
is armed on each side with a minute spine.
The first segment of the female abdomen is elongated, nearly
equaling in length the remainder of the abdomen and the furca.
It is dilated laterally and in front. The lateral dilatations are
slight, and are armed on each side with a minute spine. The
second segment is about one-third shorter than the third. The
third segment is slightly shorter than the f ureal rami. The
furcal rami are ciliate on the inner margin.
The antennae are 2 5 -segmented and reach to the end of the
furca. The right male antenna is swollen anterior to the genic-
ulating joint; the antepenultimate segment has no appendage.
The spines of the posterior surface of the first basal seg¬
ments of the female fifth feet are very small. The first seg¬
ment of the exopodite is twice as long as wide. The second
segment is prolonged into a sharp hook which is denticulate on
the inner margin. The third segment is represented by two
spines. The endopodite is one-segmented, slightly longer than
the first segment of the exopodite, is setose at tip, and armed
with two rather long spines.
The spines of the first basal segments of the male fifth feet
are moderately prominent. The second basal segment of the
right foot is about one-half longer than broad. The lateral
hair is situated at about two-thirds of its length. The length
of the first segment of the exopodite is about equal to its width.
It bears a slight fold on its posterior surface near the distal
end. The second segment is more than twice as long as wide.
Marsh — North American Species of Diaptomus. 413
and concave on the inner margin. At about one-third of its
length is a small spine near the inner margin. The lateral
spine, situated at the beginning of the distal third of the seg¬
ment, is slightly curved, and finely denticulate on the inner
margin. The terminal hook is slender, and equal in length to
the whole right foot. At slightly less than half its length there
is an abrupt angle. Distad of the angle, the inner margin of
the hook is denticulate. The endopodite is one-segmented,
rounded at tip, and equal in length to the first segment of the
exopodite. The left fifth foot of the male reaches a little be¬
yond the middle of the second segment of the right exopodite.
The second basal segment is a little longer than wide, and some¬
what shorter than the corresponding segment of the right foot.
The lateral hair is situated at the beginning of the distal third.
The first segment of the exopodite is about as long as wide, its
distal end considerably narrower than the proximal. The in¬
ner margin is strongly convex and setose. The second segment
is about twice as long as the first, and is armed at the tip with
two finger-like processes; the outer of these processes is much
the larger, and is armed on its inner surface with a minute
setose pad. The inner process is separated from the main part
of the segment by a suture. The endopodite is slender, twice
as long as the first segment of the exopodite, and setose at the
tip.
Length of female, 1.1395 mm. Length of male, 1.0248 mm.
This species was found in collections made in connection with
the scientific work of the Michigan Fish Commission in Inter¬
mediate lake, and in North lake on Beaver island. It also oc¬
curred in a collection made by Dr. R. H. Ward in Crooked lake.
It was associated with D. oregonensis , to which it is closely re¬
lated. It is apparently a rather narrowly localized species, for,
although collections have been made quite generally in the
Michigan and Wisconsin lakes, it has, so far, been found only
in these three localities.
414
W isconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts , and Letters.
DIAPTOMUS MISSISSIPPIENSIS Marsh.
Plate XY, figs. 3, 5, 8.
1894. Diaptomus mississippiensis Marsh, p. 15 ; pi. I, figs.,
1-3.
1895. Diaptomus mississippiensis Herrick and Turner, p. 78;..
pi. XLVII, figs. 1-3.
1897. Diaptomus mississippiensis Schacht, p. 173 ; pL
XXXIII, figs. 1-4.
Of moderate size. The suture of the first cephalothoracic
segment is very distinct. This segment is about equal in length
to the three following. The last cephalothoracic segment is
armed on each side with a minute spine.
The first abdominal segment of the female is as long as the
remainder of the abdomen and the furca. It is dilated later¬
ally and in front, and bears two lateral spines of which the
right one is ordinarily somewhat the larger. The second seg¬
ment is somewhat shorter than the third, and the third and the
furca are about equal in length. The length of the furcal rami
considerably exceeds their width, and they are ciliate on the
inner margin. The furcal setae are short and stout.
The antennae are 25-segmented and reach beyond the furca-
The right antenna of the male is much swollen anterior to the
geniculating joint; the antepenultimate segment has no append¬
age.
The female fifth feet are rather short and stout. The spines
of the first basal segments are small. The lateral hairs of the
second basal segments are moderately long. The length of the
first segment of the exopodite is less than twice its width. The
hook of the second segment is short, acuminate and slightly
curved. It is denticulate on the inner margin. The third
segment is represented by two spines, of which the inner is the
longer. The endopodite is one-segmented and slightly exceeds
the length of the first segment of the exopodite. It is setose at
tip and bears two terminal spines.
Mar&h — North American Species of Diaptomus. 415
In the fifth feet of the male the spines of the first basal seg¬
ment are rather large. The second basal segment of the right
foot is broader than long and much swollen on the inner side.
The lateral hair is at the beginning of the distal third. The
first segment of the exopodite is trapezoidal, and as broad as
long. The second segment is stout, its length exceeding its
breadth by about one-half. At the middle of its inner margin
is a small spine. The lateral spine is of moderate length, nearly
straight, and denticulate on the inner margin. It is situated
at the distal angle of the segment. The terminal hook has the
symmetry of the curve broken by two rather abrupt, angles;
its inner margin is finely denticulate. The endopodite is stout
and somewhat spindle-shaped. It is attached to the side of the
second basal segment. It is setose at the tip, and reaches nearly
to the middle of the second segment of the exopodite. The sec¬
ond basal segment of the left fifth foot is quadrate and nearly
equal in length to the corresponding segment of the right foot.
The lateral hair is situated well towards the distal end of the
segment. The first segment of the exopodite is trapezoidal, the
distal end being very narrow. The second segment consists
of an oval base and two elongated digitiform processes. The
basal part is setose on the inner margin. Of the terminal proc¬
esses, the posterior one is the longer. The anterior one is
enlarged and denticulate at tip and is separated from the seg¬
ment by a distinct joint. The endopodite is one-segmented and
nearly equal in length to the exopodite. The whole foot reaches
to the middle of the second segment of the exopodite of the right
foot.
Length of female, 1.2 mm. Length of male, 1.1 mm.
The original description was from material sent by Professor
Birge and obtained in J ackson, Mississippi. I have since found
it in collections made by Professor Birge in Guzman and Sli¬
dell, Louisiana, and Schaeht reports it from lakes in Florida.
416 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts , and Letters .
diaptomus pallidus Herrick.
Plate XVI, figs. 1, 2, 3.
1879. Diaptomus pallidus Herrick, p. 91; pL II, figs. a-d.
1883. Diaptomus pallidus Herrick, p. 383 ; pi. VII, figs. 1-6.
1884. Diaptomus pallidus Herrick, p. 142 ; pi. Q, fig. 17.
1889. Diaptomus pallidus DeGueme and Richard, p. 62 ; fig.
34.
1893. Diaptomus pallidus Marsh, p. 196 ; pi. Ill, figs 6, 7, 9.
1895. Diaptomus pallidus Herrick and Turner, p. 73 ; pi. IV,
figs. 1-6; pi. V, fig. 10; pi. XIII, fig. 17.
1897. Diaptomus pallidus Schacht, p. 144; pi. XXVII, fig. 3.
1905. Diaptomus pallidus Pearse, p. 147.
A slender species of medium size. First cephalothoracic
segment considerably longer than the three following; the last
cephalothoracic segment bears two small lateral spines.
The first abdominal segment of the female nearly equals in
length the rest of the abdomen, is slightly dilated laterally, and
bears two minute lateral spines. The second segment is slightly
Shorter than the third, and the third slightly shorter than the
furcal rami. The furcal rami are ciliate on the inner margin.
The antennae are 25-segmented and reach slightly beyond
the end of the furcal rami. The right antenna of the male is
swollen anterior to the geniculating joint, and without special
armature.
The female fifth feet are short and stout, the spines of the
first basal segments small. The lateral hairs of the second
basal segments are rather long. The exopodite is composed of
two segments, the third segment being represented by two
spines. The second segment is prolonged into a rather long
hook, and serrulate on the inner margin. The endopodite is
slightly longer than the first segment of the exopodite ; the tip
is setose, and armed with two rather long spines.
In the male fifth foot the spines of the posterior surface of
the first basal segments are small. The second basal segment
Marsh — North American Species of Diaptomus. 417
of the right foot is twice as long as broad, and the rather long
lateral hair is situated at about two-thirds of its length. The
first segment of the exopodite is longer than broad. The sec¬
ond segment is twice as long as the first, and bears upon its
inner margin at the end of the proximal third a small spine.
The outer distal angle of the segment is truncated, and the
lateral spine, which is slender and slightly curved, is situated
at the beginning of this truncation. The terminal spine is
slender, curved, and slightly angular, and about once and a
half the length of the first segment of the exopodite. It is
denticulate on the inner margin. The right endopodite is slen¬
der, of one segment, pointed at the tip, with minute terminal
setae, and equal in length to the first segment of the exopodite.
The left male fifth foot reaches about one-third the length
of the second segment of the right exopodite, although its
length is somewhat variable. The second basal segment is
quadrate and longer than broad. The lateral hair is situated
at about three-fourths of its length. The first segment of the
exopodite equals in length the corresponding segment of the
right foot; the distal end is about one-half the width of the
proximal. The second segment is one-half as long as the first.
It is armed with an outer finger-shaped process which has a
small pad on its inner margin, and an inner slender falciform
process which curves over the tip of the segment. This falci¬
form process is armed with a blunt spine on its inner margin.
I fail to verify the armature as described by Herrick (’95, p.
73.) The endopodite is slender, pointed, with minute ter¬
minal setae, and is equal in length to the first segment of the
exopodite.
Length of female, 1.18 mm. Length of male, 1.043 mm.
These lengths are averages from specimens from St. Louis.
They are larger than I had obtained from Wisconsin speci¬
mens, but not as large as the figures given by Herrick.
Herrick’s original description was of specimens found in
Minnesota. He afterwards reported a species Mike pallidus ”
in Alabama. (Herrick, ’87, p. 11.) In his final report he
27— S. & A.
418 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts , and Letters.
speaks of it as in the entire Mississippi valley, but without
specifying definite locations.
Schacht (’97, p. 146) says it is extremely abundant near
Havana, Ill. I have found it in only one locality in Wiscon¬
sin, — Heart lake near Marquette. I have also found it in
collections from Elk lake, Clay county, Iowa. Erom the south¬
ern states I have found it from Missouri, Tennessee, Arkansas,
Louisiana and Texas. It occurs, too, in Lake Minnequa in
Pueblo, Colorado, and in eastern Nebraska, and the presump¬
tion is that it occurs at intermediate points between the Eocky
mountain region and the observed stations farther east. So
it would appear that it is not only found throughout the Mis¬
sissippi valley, but that it is pretty well confined to that valley,
and much more abundant in the middle and southern part of
the region.
DIAPTOMUS EBANCISCANUS Lilljeborg.
Plate XXVI, figs. 7, 11. Plate XXVII, figs. 1, 2.
1889. Diaptomus franciscanus HeGuerne and Eichard, p. 48 ;
pi. I, figs. 12, 13, 34; pi. Ill, fig. 23.
1895. Diaptomus franciscanus Herrick and Turner, p. 58; pi.
VIII, figs. 12 and 16.
1897. Diaptomus franciscanus Schacht, p. 160; pi. XXX, figs.
1-4.
Eather large. Cephalothorax widest at the middle, the last
two segments confluent above. The lateral lobes, seen from
above, are short and obtuse posteriorly, and armed on each
side with two small spines. The first segment of the abdomen
is about equal in length to the rest of the abdomen, is moder¬
ately dilated in front, rounded at the sides, bears two small
lateral spines, but lacks lateral processes. The indications of
a joint — an imperfect suture — remain long after maturity in
the posterior part of this segment. The second abdominal seg¬
ment is much shorter than the third, its test more delicate and
easily pushed together. The furcal rami are short, their length
Marsh — North American Species of Diaptomus. 419
to their breadth as one and one-lialf to one; they are ciliate on
both inner and outer margins.
The first pair of antennae in the female are 25-segmented,
and reach about to the furca. The antepenultimate segment
of the right antenna of the male bears an unguiform process,
slightly longer than the penultimate segment.
In the female fifth foot, the exopodite is three-segmented.
The first segment is somewhat elongate, its length being nearly
three times its width. The second segment is prolonged into
the customary hook. The hook is arcuate, denticulate on the
inner margin, the last tooth being the largest. The segment
bears a small spine at its outer distal angle. The third seg¬
ment is small but distinct, and bears two small spines. The
endopodite is one-segmented, about equal in length to the first
segment of the exopodite, and bears at the tip two unusually
long spines which. are ciliate at base.
In the male, the second basal segment of the right foot is
quadrate, longer than wide, and bears the lateral seta a little
beyond the middle. The first segment of the exopodite is
quadrate and short, being only about one-half the length of the
second basal segment. The second segment is rectangular,
rather less than twice the length of the first; the lateral spine
is situated at the distal angle, and about midway of the inner
margin there is a minute spine. The terminal hook is long,
equaling the whole right foot exclusive of the first basal seg¬
ment, is sigmoid, and slender towards the apex. The endo¬
podite is small, barely reaching the middle of the second seg¬
ment of the exopodite, is imperfectly two-segmented or one-
segmented, and bears a spine at the apex.
The left fifth foot of the male reaches about to the middle
of the second segment of the exopodite of the right foot. The
second basal segment is longer than broad, shorter than the cor¬
responding segment of the right foot, is concave on the outer
margin and convex on the inner; the lateral hair is situated
at about three-fourths of its length. The first segment of the
exopodite is twice as long as wide, nearly as long as the second
basal segment. The second segment is about equal in length
420 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts , and Letters.
to the first, is almost triangular, and thinner on the inner mar¬
gin. The outer part of this segment is thicker, has a short
spine in the middle, and ends in a short and obtuse process.
The oblique apical margin of the inner surface has three small
incisions. The inner margin of this segment is finely ciliate.
The endopodite is one or two-segmented, slender, attenuate to¬
wards the apex, and reaches to about the middle of the second
segment of the exopodite.
Length of female, 2.3 mm. Length of male, 2 mm.
Pound in the neighborhood of San Francisco.
The above is the description of DeGuerne and Richard with
some slight additions. The species has thus far been found
only in the original locality.
DIAPTOMUS BAKERI Sp. llOV.
Plate XVI, figs. 4, 5, 6, 9.
A small species. The first cephalothoracic segment is as
long as the three following, the second, third and fourth being
about equal in length. The last cephalothoracic segment is
armed with two minute spines on each lateral lobe.
The first segment of the female abdomen equals in length
the rest of the abdomen, including the furcal rami. It is broad,
dilated in front and laterally, with two small lateral spines
about midway of its length. The second segment is very short.
The width of the third segment is greater than its length. The
furcal rami are about equal in length to the third segment,
and are ciliate on the inner margin.
The antennae are 2 5 -segmented and barely reach the end of
the furcal rami. The right antenna of the male is much swol¬
len anterior to the geniculating joint. The antepenultimate
segment bears a hook-shaped process which is fully half as
long as the penultimate segment.
The first basal segments of the female fifth feet are armed
with rather small spines. The lateral hairs of the second basal
segments are short. The exopodite consists of three segments.
The second segment is prolonged into a hook which is quite
Marsh — North American Species of Diaptomus. 421
strongly recurved. The hook is denticulate on its inner mar¬
gin, the distal denticulations being unusually large. The outer
angle of the second segment has a small spine. The third seg¬
ment is short, hut distinct, and armed with two spines. The
endopodite equals in length the first segment of the exopodite.
It is two-segmented, and the distal segment is armed at the tip
with three spines, one rather stout and plumose, the other two
long and slender.
The spines of the first basal segments of the male fifth feet
are rather small. The second basal segment of the right foot
is quadrate, its length being to its width as three to two. The
lateral hair is near the middle but on the distal portion. The
first segment of the exopodite is very short, its width being
about twice its length. The outer margin is prolonged distally,
and the inner margin, on the posterior face, bears a hyaline
lamella which is much wider at the distal end of the segment.
The second segment of the exopodite is twice as long as broad
and is quadrate in form. At about a third of its length, on
the posterior face, nearer the inner margin, is a small spine.
The lateral spine is on the outer distal angle, of medium length,
and nearly straight. The terminal hook is as long as the whole
right foot exclusive of the first basal segment, is slender, and
with a marked angle about midway of its length. The right
endopodite is two-segmented, extends something less than one-
half the length of the second segment of the exopodite, and is
tipped with two small, blunt spines. The second basal segment
of the left foot is quadrate, about two-thirds the length of the
corresponding segment of the right foot. The lateral hair is
near the distal angle. The first segment of the exopodite is
long and slender, being nearly four times as long as broad. It
is trapezoidal in form, and bears on its inner margin a rounded
hyaline projection. The second segment of the exopodite is
very slender, and bears two finger-like processes. Hear the
base on the inner margin is a prominent ciliated pad. The
endopodite is slender, two-segmented, reaches about midway of
the length of the second segment of the exopodite, and is ter¬
minated by two minute spines.
422 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts , and Letters.
Length of female, 1.27 mm. Length of male, 1.124 mm.
This species was found in material collected by Professor C.
F. Baker in Lake Lagunita, Palo Alto, California.
This form is closely related to D. franciscanus Lillj. The gen¬
eral form of the male fifth feet is the same, but there are marked
differences in the exopodite of the left foot. The projection of
the antepenultimate segment of the right male' antenna is short¬
er. The endopodite of the female fifth foot is two-segmented,
while it is composed of a single segment in D. franciscanus.
The endopodite in D. Bakeri is armed with three terminal
spines, while there are only two in D. franciscanus. The very
close relationship, however, is shown in that in both species the
exopodite is three-segmented, and both have the peculiar den-
ticulation of the inner margin of the second segment with the
larger teeth towards the distal end.
DIAPTOMUS TENUICAUDATUS Sp. nOV.
Plate XVI, figs. 7, 8. Plate XVII, figs. 2, 3.
The first cephalothoracic segment is nearly as long as the rest
of the cephalothorax. The last segment bears two minute
lateral spines.
The abdomen of the female is unusually long and slender.
The first segment is considerably longer than the next two, and
is somewhat enlarged in front and laterally, but has no lateral
spines. The second segment is slightly longer than the third,
and the furcal rami about equal in length to the second seg¬
ment. The length of the furcal rami is about three times their
breadth.
The antennae hardly reach the end of the furca. The right
antenna of the male is swollen anterior to the geniculating joint,
and the antepenultimate segment bears a straight process, which
equals in length the penultimate segment.
The first basal segments of the female fifth feet are armed
with the customary spines. The lateral hairs of the second
basal segments are rather long. The exopodite is composed of
Marsh — ISIorth American Species of Diaptomus. 423
two segments, the third segment being represented by two
spines. The second segment is prolonged into the customary
hook, which is very finely denticulate on the inner margin.
The endopodite slightly exceeds in length the first segment of
the exopodite, is delicately hairy at the tip, and is armed with
two rather short terminal spines.
The first basal segments of the male fifth feet are armed with
large spines. The second basal segments are rudely trapezoidal
in form with the inner margins curved, and with the lateral
hairs situated at about one-third the length of the segments from
the distal ends ; the segment of the right foot is considerably
larger than that of the left. The first segment of the exopo¬
dite is quadrate, its length and breadth being nearly equal. It
bears upon the outer distal angle a rounded hyaline lamella,
and another rounded hyaline lamella projects on the posterior
surface from the distal part of the segment ; this lamella pro¬
jects slightly over the second segment of the exopodite. The
second segment is much shorter than the combined length of the
first segment and the second basal segment. The lateral spine
is situated at about three-fourths its length. The terminal hook
is falciform, and about a third longer than the two segments of
the exopodite. The endopodite is slender, hairy at the tip, and
slightly exceeds in length the first segment of the exopodite.
The two segments of the left exopodite are rudely oval in form,
about equal in length. The inner margin of the terminal seg¬
ment and the distal third of the inner margin of the first seg¬
ment are ciliate. The second segment bears two short finger¬
like processes. The left endopodite is slender, reaching nearly
half the length of the second segment, and is indistinctly two-
segmented.
Length of male, 1.195 mm. Not enough mature females
were secured to get an average of lengths.
This species was found in material collected by Mr. Russell
T. Congdon in Glen lake, Saskatchewan.
The noticeable peculiarities which distinguish this from other
forms are the elongated female abdomen, without lateral spines,
and the hyaline lamellae of the first segment of the exopodite
of the right male fifth foot.
424 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts and Letters.
diaptomus sicilis Forbes.
Plate XVII, figs. 1, 4, 5, 9.
1882. Diaptomus sicilis Forbes, p. 645 ; pi. VIII, figs. 9, 20.
1884. Diaptomus pallidus var. sicilis Herrick, p. 142 ; pi. Q,
fig. 18.
1889. Diaptomus sicilis DeGuerne and Richard, p. 23 ; figs.
13, 14; pi. II, fig. 18.
1891. Diaptomus sicilis Forbes, p. 702; pi. I, fig. 6.
1893. Diaptomus sicilis Marsh, p. 197 ; pi. Ill, figs. 8, 10.
1895. Diaptomus sicilis Herrick and Turner, p. 60; pi. V,
figs. 1-7 ; pi. XIII, fig. 18.
1895. Diaptomus sicilis Marsh, p. 7 ; pi. VII, figs. 1, 11.
1897. Diaptomus sicilis Schacht, p. 122 ; pi. XXI, figs. 1-3.
1905. Diaptomus sicilis Pearse, p. 147.
A rather small, slender species. The suture of the first cepha¬
lothoracic segment is very distinct. This segment is somewhat
shorter than the rest of the cephalothorax. The last segment
is armed with a minute spine on each side.
The abdomen of the female is elongated. The first segment
is shorter than the rest of the abdomen. It is moderately dilated
laterally. Schacht figures small lateral spines, but I do not
find them in my specimens. The second and third segments
and the f ureal rami are nearly equal in length. The f ureal rami
are more than twice as long as wide. The setae are long and
slender.
The antennae are 25-segmented and reach beyond the furca.
The right antenna of the male is slightly swollen anterior to
the geniculating joint. The antepenultimate segment bears a
slender, straight process, slightly swollen at the tip, and nearly
equal in length to the penultimate segment.
The spines of the first basal segments of the female fifth feet
are small. The lateral hair of the second basal segment is of
moderate length. The first segment of the exopodite is twice
Marsh — North American Species of Diaptomus. 425
as long as wide. The hook of the second segment is moderately
curved, and finely denticulate on the inner margin. The third
segment is represented by two spines, of which the inner is the
longer. The endopodite is slender, slightly exceeding in length
the first segment of the exopodite. It is setose at tip and hears
two rather long terminal spines. It is commonly composed of
one segment, but sometimes has two.
The male fifth feet are of moderate length. The spines of
the first basal segments are slender and rather long. The sec¬
ond basal segment of the right foot is longer than wide, and its
inner and outer margins are convex. The lateral hair is short,
and situated at the beginning of the distal fourth. The first
segment of the exopodite is as long as broad, and somewhat pro¬
duced at the distal outer angle. From the posterior surface
near the internal distal angle extends a hyaline lamella. The
second segment is more than twice as long as its width, is
strongly convex on the outer margin, and slightly concave on
the inner. The distal end is about one-half as wide as the
proximal. The lateral spine is slightly curved, about half as
long as the segment and situated near the beginning of the
distal third. The terminal hook is slender, falciform, sym¬
metrically curved, somewhat less in length than the rest of the
right foot. The endopodite is slender, either one- or two-seg¬
mented, and considerably longer than the first segment of the
exopodite. The second basal segment of the left foot is quad¬
rate, slightly longer than broad, with the lateral hair situated
at the beginning of the distal fourth. The first segment of
exopodite is longer than wide, its inner surface strongly curved
and setose. The second segment is twice as long as wide. The
inner margin has two setose convexities, the distal one being
continuous with the rounded end of the segment. This segment
is terminated by two finger-like processes, the inner being shorter
and more slender. The left foot reaches to about the middle
of the second segment of the right exopodite. The endopodite
is long and slender, reaching about two-thirds the length of the
second segment of the exopodite. It is composed of either one
or two segments, and is setose at the tip.
426 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts, and Letters.
Length of female, 1.25 mm. Length of male, 1.15 mm.
In the material I have examined, the endopodites of the male
fifth feet have more commonly been one-segmented. Only rarely
have I found the endopodites of the female fifth feet two-seg¬
mented.
The original description was from material collected by Dr.
Porbes in Lake Michigan. It is a common limnetic species in
all the Great Lakes. It occurs in Pine lake, Michigan, which
has an almost direct connection with Lake Michigan. It occurs
in Green lake, Wisconsin; in this lake it is a winter form.
(Marsh, ?97, p. 193. Marsh, ?03, p. 23.) I have found it
once in Tomahawk lake, Wisconsin, and Schacht reports that
Dr. Porbes found it in Lake Michigamme, Michigan, and in
Yellowstone park collections. In general, it may be said that
it is pretty largely confined to the large, deep lakes. It has, thus
far, never been found north or south of the Great Lakes, with
the exception that it has been reported by Beardsley (’02) from
Seely lake, Colorado, and by Pearse (’05) from Nebraska.
diaptomus minutus Lilljeborg.
Plate XVII, figs. 7, 11. Plate XVIII, figs. 1, 7.
1889. Diaptomus minutus DeGuerne and Richard (Lillj.), p.
50; pi. I, figs. 5, 6, 14; pi. Ill, fig. 25.
1891. Diaptomus minutus Marsh, p. 212.
1893. Diaptomus minutus Marsh, p. 199 ; pi. IV, figs. 1-3.
1895. Diaptomus minutus Marsh, p. 8 ; pi. VII, fig. 3.
1895. Diaptomus minutus Herrick and Turner, p. 59; pi.
VIII, fig. 9.
1897. Diaptomus minutus Schacht, p. 156 ; pi. XXX, figs. 5-8.
Of small size. The greatest width of the cephalothorax is
in front of the middle. The first segment equals fully one-
half the length of the whole cephalothorax. The last segment
has rounded lobes which are each armed with a minute spine.
The first segment of the female abdomen is nearly as long as
the rest of the abdomen. It is slightly dilated laterally at the
Marsh — North American Species of Diaptomus . 427
anterior part, and is armed with two very minute spines. The
second segment is much shorter than the third, and the two are
sometimes only indistinctly separated. The furcal rami are
about equal in length to the third segment; they are twice as
long as broad. The setae are unusually long.
The antennae are 25-segmented, and reach beyond the end of
the furca. The right antenna of the male is swollen anterior
to the geniculating joint, but not markedly so; the antepenul¬
timate segment bears a long, slender process, slightly curved at
the end, which reaches, sometimes, almost to the end of the last
segment. The setae of the swimming feet are unusually long.
The spines of the first basal segments of the female fifth feet
are rather small. The lateral hair of the second basal segment
is of moderate length. The first segment of the exopodite is
slender, its length being considerably more than twice its width.
The hook of the second segment is only slightly curved, and is
finely denticulate on the inner margin. There is a short spine
on the outer distal angle. The third segment is rudimentary,
not completely separated from the second. It is armed with two
spines, of which the inner is the longer. The endopodite is
acuminate, very small and rudimentary.
The spines of the first basal segments of the male fifth feet
are small. The second basal segment of the right foot is quad¬
rate, longer than broad. The lateral hair is situated at the be¬
ginning of the distal third. The first segment of the right ex¬
opodite is of the same form and size as the second basal seg¬
ment. The second segment is twice as long as the first. The
lateral spine is small and situated proximad of the middle. The
terminal hook is short, thick, symmetrically curved, and slightly
denticulate on the inner margin. Its length is somewhat less
than that of the rest of the exopodite. The endopodite is very
small and rudimentary. The second basal segment of the left
foot is quadrate, and much wider than long. The lateral hair
is situated well towards the distal end. The first segment of
the exopodite is longer than wide, its inner and outer margins
are convex, and its distal end is only about one-half as wide as
the proximal. It is setose on its inner margin. The second
428 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts , and Letters.
segment is more than twice as long as broad, its outer margin
straight, and its inner with two setose convexities. It is termi¬
nated with a finger-like process and a smaller spine nearer the
inner margin. The foot reaches to the end of the first segment
of the right exopodite. The endopodite is slender, attenuate
towards the apex, and reaches to about the middle of the second
segment of the exopodite.
Length of the female, 1 to 1.1 mm. Length of the male,
hardly 1 mm.
Lilljeborg states that the female carries only two eggs. This
was not true of the Wisconsin individuals, for they commonly
had as many as six. This was first described from material col¬
lected in Greenland, where it is found as far north as Disco
island. It appears to be very abundant in the southern part of
Greenland. It was afterwards reported by DeGuerne and'
Richard from Iceland. (DeG. and R., ?92.) It is found in
Newfoundland. It is perhaps the most common of the Diap-
tomi in the Great Lakes and Lake St. Clair. It occurs in a
number of lakes in the northern part of the southern peninsula
of Michigan, hut these are, for the most part, connected rather
closely with the Great. Lakes. In Wisconsin it is found in the
following lakes: Birch, Maple, Tomahawk, Stone, Chain o?
Lakes, Elkhart, Green and Geneva ; all these are of the deeper
lakes of the state, although there are others, equal in depth to
some of these, where it is not found. The most southern point
at which the species has been found is Lake Geneva. To my
surprise, I did not find it in my collections from the Northwest
Territory, but all those collections were in very shallow water.
One would expect to find it all over British America, wherever
the environment was favorable. I think it probable that it is
distributed all over North America east of the Rocky mountains
and north of the latitude of perhaps 43 degrees.
Marsh — North American Species of Diaptomus. 429
diaptomus ashlandi Marsh.
Plate XVII, figs. 6, 8, 10.
1893. Diaptomus Ashlandi Marsh, p. 198 ; pi. Ill, figs. 11-13.
1895. Diaptomus Ashlandi Herrick and Turner, p. 60 ; pi. YI,
figs. 4-6.
1895. Diaptomus Ashlandi Marsh, p. 7 ; pi. VII, fig. 2.
1897. Diaptomus Ashlandi Schacht, p. 166 ; pi. XXXII, figs.
1-4.
A small, slender species. The suture of the first cephalotho¬
racic segment is very marked. The first segment equals the
three following in length. The last segment is armed with
minute lateral spines.
The first segment of the female abdomen equals in length the
rest of the abdomen. It is somewhat dilated laterally and bears
two minute lateral spines. The second segment is shorter than
the third, and the third and the furcal rami are about equal.
The furcal rami are ciliate. The setae are very long and slen¬
der; the internal seta is much more nearly equal to the others
than is generally the case.
The antennae are 2 5 -segmented and reach beyond the end of
the furca. The right male antenna is swollen anterior to the
geniculating joint, and bears on the antepenultimate segment a
slender appendage, slightly enlarged at the tip, which slightly
exceeds in length the penultimate segment. The form of this
appendage varies somewhat, the enlarged tip not being always
evident.
The spines of the first basal segments of the female fifth feet
are very small. The lateral hair of the second basal segment is
very long, equaling the length of the first segment of the exopo-
dite. The first segment of the exopodite is twice as long as
wide. The hook of the second segment is long and slender and
slightly curved. It is finely denticulate on the inner margin.
The whole second segment slightly exceeds in length the first
430 Wisconsin Academy cf Sciences , Arts , and Letters.
segment. The third segment is represented by two spines, of
which the outer is the longer. The endopodite is slender, ter¬
minating in a blunt point. It is a little longer than the first
segment of the exopodite. It is setose at tip, and has two rather
long terminal spines.
The spines of the first basal segments of the male fifth feet
are small and acute. The second basal segment of the right
foot is twice as long as broad. The lateral hair is situated at
the beginning of the distal third. The first segment of the ex¬
opodite is broader than long, the proximal end being much
narrower than the distal. The inner distal angle bears a small
hyaline appendage. The second segment equals in length the
combined length of the second basal segment and the first seg¬
ment of the exopodite. The segment is widest at the end of the
proximal third, and from this point springs the lateral spine;,
this is rather long, acute, with a rather abrupt curvature just
above the base. The terminal hook is slender, falciform with
a symmetrical curvature, and considerably exceeds in length
the rest of the exopodite. It is minutely denticulate on the
inner margin. The endopodite is slender, equaling or exceed¬
ing in length the first segment of the exopodite. The left fifth
foot extends to about the end of the first segment of the exopo¬
dite. The second basal segment is about half the length of the
corresponding segment of the right foot. The lateral hair is
long and slender, and situated at the beginning of the distal
third. The first segment of the exopodite equals the second
basal segment in length; its length exceeds its width by about
one-half. The second segment equals in length the first, but
is much narrower; it is terminated by two small finger-like
processes. Both segments of the exopodite are setose on the
inner margin. The endopodite is long, slender, curved, and
reaches to about the middle of the second segment of the exopo¬
dite.
Length of female, 0.97 mm. Length of male, 0.89 mm.
The original description was from material collected by Pro¬
fessor Birge at Ashland, on Lake Superior. It occurs in all
the Great Lakes, and I have found it in Michigan in Pine lake
Marsh — North American Species of Diaptomus. 431
and Round lake at Charlevoix, which are intimately connected
with Lake Michigan. I have not found it in other localities,
although Schacht reports it from Indiana, Michigan, Oregon,
Idaho, Washington and Yellowstone park.
DIAPTOMUS SHOSHONE Forbes.
Plate XVIII, figs. 2-5.
1893. Diaptomus shoshone Forbes, p. 251; pi. XLII, figs.
23-25.
1895. Diaptomus shoshone Herrick and Turner, p. 61 ; pi. V,
fig. 11.
1897. Diaptomus shoshone Schacht, p. 141 ; pi. XXVI, figs.
1-3.
1904. Diaptomus shoshone Marsh, p. 147 ; pi. XXX, fig. 3 ;
pi. XXXI, figs. 1-3.
Conspicuous because of its size, as it is larger than any other
described American species except D. stagnalis Forbes.
First cephalothoracic segment indistinctly divided. The first
segment equals in length the four following. The last cephal¬
othoracic segment terminates in two minute lateral spines.
The first abdominal segment of the female is somewhat shorter
than the rest of the abdomen, and is strongly dilated laterally
about midway of its length. The second segment is very short.
The third segment is a little less than one-half the length of the
first, and is slightly shorter than the furca. The branches of
the furca are ciliate on both the inner and outer margins. The
furcal setae are very long, being more than three-fourths the
length of the abdomen exclusive of the furca.
The antennae about equal in length the cephalothorax. The
right antenna of the male is swollen anteriorly to the geniculat-
ing joint, and bears upon the distal extremity of the antepenul¬
timate segment a straight process. This process extends to
rather less than half the length of the ultimate segment.
The first basal segments of the female fifth feet are armed
432 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters.
with rather small spines. The lateral hairs of the second basal
segments are delicate. The exopodite is composed of three seg¬
ments. The first segment is stout, its length being to its
breadth as l1/^ to 1. The second segment is produced into the
customary hook, which is armed with short hairs on its inner
margin and with a spine on the outer distal angle. The third
segment is distinct and armed terminally with two spines, the
inner being distinctly plumose. The endopodite is nearly a
third longer than the first segment of the exopodite, and is in¬
distinctly divided into two segments. It is terminated with
two rather long spines, and is armed on the inner surface of the
tip with short, stout hairs.
In the male fifth feet, the spines of the first basal segments
are also rather small. The second basal segment of the right
foot is considerably longer than broad, and its inner and outer
margins are curved. The lateral hair is situated at three-
fourths of its length. The first segment of the right exopodite
is nearly square. The second segment is more than twice the
length of the first, and the lateral spine is situated nearly at
the end of the segment. The terminal hook is falciform, quite
symmetrical in its form, and equals in length the combined
lengths of the basal segments and of the exopodite. It is finely
denticulate in the inner margin. The endopodite is slender
and somewhat longer than the first segment of the exopodite.
The left fifth foot of the male extends to about one-half the
length of the second segment of the right exopodite. The lat¬
eral hair of the second basal segment is situated very near the
end of the segment. The first segment of the exopodite is
about twice as long as broad, and armed on its inner surface
with a setose pad. The second segment is rather more than
half the length of the first and is armed terminally with two
blunt processes. It has also two setose pads, one nearly ter¬
minal and the other on the proximal half of the inner surface.
The endopodite is indistinctly two-segmented, is slender, and
slightly longer than the first segment of the exopodite.
Torbes, in the original description, speaks of the female ab¬
domen as being asymmetrical. This did not appear to be the
Marsh — North American 8 'peeves of Diaptomus. 433
case in my specimens, and in this my observations agree with
those of Schacht.
Length of female, 2.62 mm. Length of male, 2.595 mm.
These are the figures of Forbes. In my specimens there was
more difference between the males and the females. The fe¬
males of the Pike’s Peak specimens averaged 2.9 mm., and the
males 2.495 mm.
The original description of Forbes was from material col¬
lected in Lake Shoshone. It occurs in many lakes in the Yel¬
lowstone park region according to him. In material sent to me
by Professor IT. B. Ward, it occurred in collections in Dead
lake, Mirror lake and Lake Pocksi in the Pike’s Peak region.
The species is very striking because of its great size. It is
highly colored, the specimens from Dead lake showing very
deep blues and reds; the cephalothorax was of a deep blue,
while the antennae, maxillipedes and abdomen were red.
diaptomus wardi Pearse.
1905. D. Wardi Pearse, pp. 148-9 ; pi. XIII, figs. 1-4.
“A rather large species, one-fourth to one-third as wide as
long. Cephalothorax rather stout and broadest about the mid¬
dle; all the segments distinct, the first longer than the second,
and these two together making about one-half the cephalothorax.
Lateral lobes of the last thoracic segment seen from above ob¬
tuse posteriorly and armed with a minute spine at the inner
and outer angles. First abdominal segment shorter than the
remainder of the abdomen and broader than the following seg¬
ments. Second segment of the abdomen much shorter than the
third. Furcal rami short, about one and one-half times longer
than broad, and ciliate on the inner margin in the male. (The
number of specimens of the female was so few that no satis¬
factory examinations of the furca could be made.)
“First pair of antennae reflexed extend about to the furca;
composed of twenty-five articles. Antepenultimate article of
right male antenna provided with a long, blunt process which
surpasses the distal end of the ultimate article.
28— S. & A.
434 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters .
“The outer ramus of the fifth pair of feet in the female
three-segmented, the third segment small hut distinct and hear¬
ing two small spines. The basal segment hears a short, thick
spine at its outer distal angle. The unguiform process of the
second segment of this ramus is rather arcuate, denticulate
within and roughened on the outer margin. In addition to
the two spines on the third segment, this segment has a mi¬
nute spine. The inner ramus is simple and almost equal to
the first segment of the outer ramus, is ciliated at the apex,
and hears two long equal spines.
“Right fifth foot of male rather robust. The basal segment
is provided with a small spinous process near its inner prox¬
imal angle. Second segment of the outer ramus short, being
about one and one-fourth times as long as broad, and bearing
the marginal spine at the distal angle. Terminal hook long,
usually sigmoid, very minutely denticulate on the inner mar¬
gin and tapering toward the apex. Inner ramus narrow and
barely reaching the middle of the second segment of outer
ramus, one-segmented and ciliate at tip. The second seg¬
ment of the left male fifth foot is triangular, and ends in a
short, obtuse process. The inner side is expanded, ciliated,
and a strong, sharp spine projects a little below the middle of
this margin. The inner ramus is simple, slender, and ciliated
at the tip.
“Length of female, 2.16 mm. Length of male, 1.60 mm.
“This species resembles D. franciscanus Lillj. and D. sic-
ilis Eorbes. It differs from the former in the armature of the
male antenna and the form of the male fifth feet, From the
latter it differs in the structure of the female fifth feet, the
size and the shape of the male fifth foot. Both these species
have two- jointed inner rami in the male fifth foot, while in D .
Wardi they are simple.
“The specimens upon which this description is based were
from the collections of Prof. H. B. Ward, for whom the
species is named, and were collected by Edward Butler at
Spokane, Washington.”
While this paper was going through the press, the publica¬
tion of Mr. Pearse, containing the above description, was re-
Marsh — North American Species of Biaptomus. 435
ceived. It was too late to secure material to verify the descrip¬
tion, or to prepare figures. I have therefore taken his descrip¬
tion verbatim. Although his description of the female is
somewhat incomplete, it would appear that the species may
he well founded. It falls into the tenuicaudatus group, and
is closely related to B. shoshone Forbes. It is very possible
that a careful examination of a large number of specimens
will show that it is only a variety of this species. The points
of marked difference, besides that of size, are the greater
length of the appendage of the antepenultimate segment of
the right male antenna, the form of the terminal segment of
the left exopodite of the male fifth foot, and the two-segment¬
ed endopodite of the female fifth foot. The endopodite of the
female fifth feet is only indistinctly two-segmented in sho¬
shone, and this condition might be easily overlooked in the ex¬
amination of a few individuals. The appendage of the an¬
tepenultimate segment of the right male antenna, too, may be
somewhat variable. Inasmuch as Pearse gives no figure of
the female abdomen, we are left in doubt in regard to its
form. While it is very possible that we have here a variety
of B. shoshone, it seems best to recognize the species for the
present.
diaptomus bibgei Marsh.
Plate XVIII, figs. 6, 8. Plate XIX, figs. 1, 6.f
1894. Biaptomus Birgei Marsh, p. 16 ; pi. I, figs. 4-6.
1895. Biaptomus Birqei Herrick and Turner, p. 79; pi.
XL VII, figS: 4-6.
1897. Biaptomus Birgei Schacht, p. 172.
1903. Biaptomus Birgei Juday, p. 123.
Of moderate size. The first segment of the ceplialothorax
is nearly equal in length to the three following. The last cepha¬
lothoracic segment is armed laterally with two minute spines.
The first segment of the female abdomen is as long as the re¬
mainder of the abdomen and the furca. It is much dilated on
the ventral surface, and moderately dilated laterally. The lat-
436 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts , and Letters.
eral dilatations are situated at the distal third of the segment,
and each lobe bears two small spines. The second segment is
very short, and is nearly concealed by the first. The third seg¬
ment and the furca are about equal in length. The furcal rami
are ciliate on both the inner and outer margins.
The antennae are 25-segmented and extend beyond the furcal
rami. The right antenna of the male is much swollen anterior
to the geniculating joint; the antepenultimate segment is pro¬
duced on its distal end into a short, blunt process, which makes
very nearly a right angle with the longitudinal axis of the seg¬
ment.
In the female fifth feet, each of the first basal segments is
armed on the posterior surface with a very strong tooth-like pro¬
jection in place of the customary spine. The lateral hair of
the second basal segment is rather stout. The length of the
first segment of the exopodite is twice its breadth. The hook
of the second segment is strongly curved, and is denticulate on
its inner margin. The third segment is represented by two
spines; these spines are unusually long. The endopodite is
slender and somewhat longer than the first segment of the ex¬
opodite. Its tip is setose, and armed on the inner side with
two long, slender spines.
In the fifth feet of the male, each of the first basal segments
is armed on its posterior surface with a strong tooth-like process
in addition to the customary spines. The second basal segment
of the right foot is longer than broad. On the posterior distal
surface near the inner margin is a small hyaline process. The
first segment of the exopodite is quadrate; it is prolonged
slightly on its outer distal angle, and on its posterior surface
near the inner margin bears a broad quadrate hyaline process,
whose length nearly equals that of the segment. The second
segment of the exopodite is twice the length of the first, is broad
at the proximal end, and narrow at the distal end. The proximal
end is nearly three times as broad as the distal. The lateral spine
is situated at the proximal third, is long, strongly curved, and
serrulate on its inner margin ; its length about equals the length
of the segment. The terminal hook is as long as the rest of the
right foot. It is slender, strongly curved, slightly angular, and
Marsh — North American Species of Diaptomus . 437
denticulate on its inner margin. The endopodite is one-seg-
rnented, conical in form, slightly exceeds in length the first seg¬
ment of the exopodite, and is setose at tip.
The left fifth foot of the male reaches slightly beyond the
first segment of the right exopodite. The second basal segment
is quadrate, considerably smaller than the corresponding seg¬
ment of the right foot. The lateral hair is situated near the
distal end of the segment. The first segment of the exopodite
is twice as long as broad, narrowing to the distal end. The
outer margin is curved, and the inner has a rounded elevation
at its middle. The second segment is slightly longer than the
first. It is setose, especially on its inner surface. It is ter¬
minated with a long finger-like process, which is apparently
jointed, and a slender falciform process on the inner side. The
endopodite is one-segmented, slender, conical, setose at the tip,
and extends to nearly one-half the length of the second segment
of the exopodite.
Length of female, 1.31 mm. Length of male, 1.22 mm.
The original description of this species was from material
collected by Professor Birge near Hew Lisbon, Wisconsin.
Very few individuals were found, but as it seemed so distinct
in its characteristics from any other American species, there
was no hesitation in describing it. As time went on, however,
and no other specimens were found, although the state of Wis¬
consin was pretty thoroughly explored, it became a question
whether it were not an abnormal form. It was something of
a relief to the author, therefore, when the identical form was
found in material collected by Mr. Chauncey Juday in Wino¬
na lake, Warsaw, Indiana. In Mr. Juday’s collections it
was present in considerable numbers, associated with D. ore -
gonensis. The two species were easily separated, as D. Birgei
is distinctly larger than D. oregonensis.
In the fall of 1904 I collected the species at Richmond,
Indiana, and, just as I was finishing the preparation of this
report, I found it in material collected by Professor H. S.
Pratt at Cold Spring Harbor, Long Island. It is not likely
that it occurs in many other Wisconsin localities, for pretty
438 Wisconsin Academy \of Sciences , Arts 3 and Letters.
extensive collections have been made in that state, hut it would
seem probable that it must occur in many localities between
the Mississippi valley and the sea-board.
In the description, as given above, the original description
is modified by the more complete knowledge made possible by
the study of a larger number of individuals.
diaptomus siciloides Lilljeborg.
Plate XVIII, fig. 9. Plate XIX, figs. 4, 5, 7.
1889. Diaptomus siciloides Lilly, DeGuerne and Richard, p.
54; pi. I, figs. 7, 8, 28, 32.
1895. Diaptomus siciloides Herrick and Turner, p. 69; pi.
VIII, fig. 10.
1897. Diaptomus siciloides Schacht, p. 154.
1898. Diaptomus siciloides Brewer, p. 125.
1905. Diaptomus siciloides Pearse, p. 147 ; pi. XIII, fig. 5 ;
pi. XIV, figs. 7, 8.
A small species. The first segment of the cephalothorax
about equals in length the three succeeding segments. The
last segment terminates in two lateral spines.
The first abdominal segment of the female a little exceeds
in length the rest of the abdomen. It is expanded laterally
and in front, and bears two small lateral spines. The second
segment is considerably shorter than the third, and the third
and the f ureal rami are about equal. The f ureal rami are
ciliate on the inner margin.
The antennae are 2 5- jointed and reach the extremity of
the furcal rami. The right male antenna is much swollen
anterior to the geniculating joint. The antepenultimate seg¬
ment bears a hook which equals in length one-half of the pe¬
nultimate segment.
The first basal segments of the female fifth feet are armed
with the customary spines, and the second basal segments with
the usual lateral hairs. The exopodite is composed of two
segments, the third segment being represented by two spines.
Marsh — North American Species of Diaptomus. 439
The second segment is prolonged into the usual hook, which
is denticulate on the imier margin. The endopodite equals
the length of the first segment of the exopodite, and the tip is
armed with hairs and the two terminal spines.
The fifth feet of the male are slender, and the left foot
reaches the distal end of the first segment of the right exopo¬
dite. The first basal segments are armed with rather large
spines. The second basal segment of the right foot has the
lateral hair situated at about two-thirds of its length. The
length of this segment is about twice its width; it bears upon
the distal half of its inner margin a thin hyaline lamella, quad¬
rangular in form. This projects rather from the posterior
surface than immediately from the inner margin. The second
segment of the exopodite is about twice the length of the first
segment. It bears a small spine on its inner margin at about
one-third of its length. The lateral spine is small, curved,
and situated at about two-thirds of its length. The terminal
hook is falciform, symmetrically curved, and nearly equals in
length the rest of the foot. The right endopodite is small
and slender, and reaches about one-lialf the length of the first
segment of the exopodite. It is armed at the tip with minute
hairs. The lateral hair of the second basal segment of the
left foot is situated near the dhtal end of the segment. The two
segments of the exopodite are about equal in length and are
oval in form. The first segment is setose on its inner margin.
The second segment is swollen at the base on its inner margin
into a cushion which is setose. The tip is setose and armed
with two short finger-like processes. The endopodite is very
slender, reaches about one-half the length of the second segment
of the exopodite, and is hairy at the tip.
The above description is like that of Lilljeborg with a few
corrections and additions. In his description he states that
there is a hyaline appendage of the first segment of the ex¬
opodite of the male fifth foot that is “somewhat dilated.” In
his figure this appendage is made somewhat triangular in
form. In all the specimens I have seen, the appendage has
been distinctly quadrangular as I have figured it. I have not
440 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts , and Letters.
seen Lilljeborg’s types, nor have I seen any specimens from
the locality in which his specimens were obtained. If his
figure is correct, the form which I have seen would be a variety
of D. siciloides, but as the agreement in all other details is so
close, one cannot help thinking that the exact form of this
appendage was overlooked. The endopodite of the right male
fifth foot I have found to vary considerably in length, some¬
times being nearly as long as the first segment of the exopodite.
Length of the female, according to Lilljeborg, 1.3 mm. I
have found considerable variation in the length from different
localities. My southern specimens measured as follows: — fe¬
male, 1.225 mm.; male, 1.1125 mm. The Wisconsin speci¬
mens were somewhat smaller, the females being 1.06 mm. and
tli 3 males 1.01 mm.
The type specimens were found in Lake Tulare, near Fres¬
no, in California. Schacht states that it was the most abun¬
dant species in the Illinois river near Havana. He has found
it also in collections from Spirit lake, Iowa. I have found it
in material collected by Professor Eigenmann in Turkey lake,
Indiana, and in collections made by Professor Birge in Hutch¬
ins, Texas, and in Creve Coeur lake, St. Louis. Pearse finds
it in Nebraska. It was present in collections made for me by
Mr. Shelford in Kansas, and I have recently found it near
Hugo, Colorado. It seems likely that it will be found in the
mountain region, thus bridging over the space between Colo¬
rado and California. I have found it in one locality in Wis¬
consin, in Cedar lake, Washington county, where it seems to be
the only species.
The distribution of the species is a matter of a good deal of
interest. It is found from Indiana on the east to California
on the west, and from Texas on the south to Wisconsin on the
north, but nevertheless seems to be a peculiarly localized
species. Doubtless many other localities will be found, for our
knowledge of the distribution of Entomostraca is still very
meager; but some localities have been pretty thoroughly
studied ; we know the Wisconsin fauna quite well, and it seems
strange that the species should have localized itself to such an
extent in Cedar lake.
Marsh — North American Species of Diaptomus. 441
DIAPTOMUS TYKELLI Poppe.
Plate XIX, figs. 2, 3, 8.
1888. Diaptomus Tyrelli Poppe, p. 159.
1889. Diaptomus Tyrelli DeGuerne and Richard, p. 39; pi. I,
figs. 17, 18 ; pi. IV, fig. 26.
1895. Diaptomus Tyrelli Herrick and Turner, p. 76; pi. X,
fig. 9.
1897. Diaptomus Tyrelli Schacht, p. 176.
Of medium size. The suture of the first cephalothoracic
segment is rather distinct. The first segment is considerably
less in length than the three following. The last cephalotho¬
racic segment is expanded into large lateral processes, and is
armed with rather large lateral spines.
The first segment of the female abdomen equals in length
the rest of the abdomen. It is broad, dilated in front, and
moderately dilated laterally. It hears prominent lateral proc¬
esses, which are tipped with acute spines. The second seg¬
ment is shorter than the third, and the two together are some¬
what longer than the furca. The furcal rami are stout and
ciliate on both the inner and the outer margins.
The antennae are 25-segmented and reach about to the end
of the furca. The antepenultimate segment of the right male
antenna is without any special appendage.
The fifth feet of the female are slender. The spines of the
first basal segments are small and acute. The lateral hair of
the second basal segment is of moderate length. The first seg¬
ment of the exopodite is more than twice as long as wide. The
second segment is long and slender, exceeding in length the
first segment. The hook is slightly curved and denticulate on
the inner margin. It is armed with three spines of which the
inner is the longest. The two inner spines represent the third
segment. The endopodite is long and slender, exceeding in
length the first segment of the exopodite. It is setose at the
tip, and armed with two long terminal spines which are insert¬
ed well back from the end of the endopodite.
442 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences t Arts , and Letters.
In the male fifth feet, the spines of the first basal segments
are prominent and acute. The second basal segment of the
right foot is twice as long as broad. The lateral hair is situat¬
ed at the beginning of the distal third. The first segment of
the exopodite is quadrate, and bears a hyaline process on the
inner distal angle. The second segment is strongly curved and
equals in length the first basal segment. The lateral spine is
straight and rather small and situated just distad of the mid¬
dle. The terminal hook is slender, slightly curved, and equal
in length to the rest of the foot with the exception of the first
basal segment. It is denticulate on the inner margin. The
endopodite is small, much less in length than the first segment
of the exopodite. It is ordinarily pointed, but in some cases
the tip is rounded. The left foot reaches to the end of the
first segment of the right exopodite. The second basal seg¬
ment is as long as wide, and strongly convex on the inner mar¬
gin. The lateral hair is situated near the distal end. The
first segment of the exopodite is much longer than wide
and setose on the inner margin. The second segment is about
one-half the length of the first, and the inner surface is a con¬
vex setose pad. The segment is terminated with two digiti-
form processes, of which the outer is the longer. The endopo¬
dite is long and slender, reaching to the middle of the second
segment of the exopodite. It is either one-segmented or in¬
distinctly two-segmented. The tip is distinctly setose.
Length, accordng to Poppe: female, 1 mm.; male, 1.5 mm.
Length, according to Lilljeborg: female, 1.9 mm.; male, 1.8
mm.
My specimens averaged: female, 1.258 mm. ; male, 1.15 mm.
The original description by Poppe was from material col¬
lected at Summit lake in the Pocky mountains, at a height of
5300 feet.' Lilljeborg’ s material was from Centerville, near
Fresno, California.
The material from which my drawings were made was col¬
lected by the U. S. Fish Commission in Alturas lake, Idaho.
Probably, then, it is widely distributed in the mountain re¬
gion of the West.
Marsh — North American Species of Diaptomus. 443
In the description as given above, I have adhered very close¬
ly to the description given in De Gueme and Richard’s Re¬
vision, and the changes which I have made have been mostly
in the way of minor additions. It would appear that the
specimens of the three localities thus far known are very nearly
identical in their structure.
diaptomus ueptopus Forbes.
Plate XX, figs. 1, 2, 5, 7.
1882. D. leptopus Forbes, p. 646; pi. VIII, figs. 17-19.
1884. D. longicornis var. leptopus Herrick, p. 140.
1889. D. leptopus DeGuerne and Richard, p. 21; pi. II, fig.
19 ; pi. Ill, fig. 9.
1893. D. leptopus Marsh, p. 195 ; pi. Ill, figs. 4, 5.
1895. D. leptopus Herrick and Turner, p. 64; pi. II, figs.
1-10 ; pi. IX, fig. 9.
1897. D. leptopus Schacht, p. 130.
The last cephalothoracic segment is armed laterally with
two minute spines.
The first abdominal segment of the female is somewhat less
in length than the remainder of the abdomen and the furca.
It is dilated on the sides, and armed laterally with minute
spines. The second segment is very short, and hardly dis¬
tinguished from the first. The third segment and the furca
are very nearly equal in length. The inner margins of the
furca are ciliate.
The antennae reach to the end of the furca. The right male
antenna is much swollen anterior to the geniculating joint ;
the antepenultimate segment is armed with a hyaline lamella
extending its whole length, and prolonged slightly beyond the
distal end of the segment.
The first basal segment of the female fifth foot is armed with
the customary spine. The second basal segment has the minute
lateral hair at about the middle of its outer margin. The ex-
opodite is composed of two segments. The third segment is
represented by two spines, the outer being the smaller. The
444 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts , and Letters.
endopoclite nearly equals in length the first segment of the outer
ramus. The two terminal spines are rather long, and the inner
margin of the tip is setose.
The first basal segment of the right fifth foot of the male is
armed with a spine of moderate size. The second basal seg¬
ment is quadrangular in form, its length being about twice its
width. The lateral hair is situated nearly at the distal end
of the segment, blear the distal end of the segment, on the
posterior surface, is a shelf -like projection, from which arises
a blunt hook which extends distally over the proximal end of
the first segment of the exopodite. The first segment of the ex¬
opodite is quadrangular, about twice as long as wide. The sec¬
ond segment of the exopodite is rather slender, its length being
somewhat less than three times its width. The lateral spine is
short, and situated well towards the distal end of the segment.
The terminal hook equals in length the preceding segment, is
slightly curved, and is serrulate on its inner margin. The en-
dopodite is somewhat variable in length, sometimes being about
two-thirds the length of the first segment of the exopodite, and
at others nearly equaling that segment. It is armed with fine
hairs at the tip. In the left fifth foot of the male, the spine of
the first basal segment and the lateral hair of the second are
situated as in the right foot. The length and width of the second
basal segment are about equal. The first segment of the ex¬
opodite is about twice as long as wide, quadrangular in formr
with its inner distal angle setose. The second segment is irreg¬
ular in form, about four times as long as wide, setose on the
inner margin. It is armed on the distal extremity with a fin¬
ger-like process and a long, curved spine; this spine is setose.
The endopodite is slender, somewhat curved at its distal part,,
and considerably longer than the first segment of the exopo¬
dite. It is setose on the inner margin of the tip.
Authors vary somewhat in regard to the length. In Forbes’s
original paper, the average length is; given as 1.778 mm., no
distinction being made as to sex. De Guerne and Richard give
the length as about 1.5 mm. Herrick and Turner give the
length of the female as 1.5 to 1.7 mm., and that of the male as
Marsh — North American Species of Diaptomus. 445
1.4 mm. Schacht’s measurements are somewhat larger — viz.,
female, 1.89 mm, and male, 1.83 mm. The differences, in
these measurements are not very qTeat, and probably arise from
the measurement of a comparatively small number of speci¬
mens in each case.
This species seems to be generally distributed through the
Mississippi valley.
diaptomus leptopus vai\, piscinae Forbes.
Plate XX, figs. 3, 6, 8. Plate XXI, fiq*. 7.
1893. Diaptomus piscinae Forbes, p. 253; pi. XLI, fig. 22.
1895. Diaptomus piscinae Herrick and Turner, p. 74; pi. V,
fig. 13.
1897. Diaptomus piscinae Scliacht, p. 125 ; pi. XXII, figs. 1-4.
The original description of this form by Forbes was from
specimens obtained from a small lake near Gardiner, Montana.
Schacht reports it in collections from Portage Slough, Mani¬
toba. I have found it in collections made by Mr. Congdon in
Birch Hills, Alberta, and in material sent by Mr. Juday from a
lake on the University campus in Boulder, Colorado. The
points of difference made by Forbes to distinguish this from D.
leptopus are the length of the setae on the endopodite of the
female fifth foot, the more slender form of the fifth feet of the
male, and the absence of the antennal hook. These differences
undoubtedly exist with the exception of the absence of the an¬
tennal armature. I find in all my specimens the hyaline la¬
mella of the antepenultimate segment of the right male antenna
just as in D. leptopus , but not quite so pronounced. Professor
Forbes kindly loaned me some slides of D. piscinae , and in the
only one which showed the male antennae the hvaline lamella
was present, though the antenna was turned so that it might
easily escape notice.
I have noticed certain other points of difference between the
two forms. The endopodites of the male fifth feet are consid
erably longer in D. piscinae. The third segment of the exopo-
446 Wisconsin Academy \of Sciences , Arts 9 and Letters .
dite is indistinctly separated, is armed with two spines, and
there is a third spine on the second segment. This spinal ar¬
mature was remarked by Forbes, hut Schacht speaks of the third
segment as armed with “two or three spines.7* Schacht also
speaks of three spines in D. leptopus, and the figure of De
Guerne and Richard has three spines. In my statement, as
given before, I have said that there are only two spines in D.
leptopus , as that has uniformly been the case in the specimens
I have examined. It is very possible that this is a variable
feature, and while I have considered this one of the points of
difference of the variety, I think it very likely that it is not a
matter of even varietal distinction. The second segment of the
abdomen in D. piscinae , I have found considerably longer than
in typical D. leptopus.
It seems to me that these differences are so slight that they
certainly should not be considered specific, and it is a question
whether they should even be thought enough to constitute a
variety. I have no doubt that further collections will bring
to light connecting forms, but it may be best, for a time at
least, to retain the varietal name.
diaptomus stagxalis Forbes.
Plate XXVII, figs. 3, 6, 7.
1882. Diaptomus stagnalis Forbes, p. 646; pi. VIII, figs. 8,
10, 11, 12, 14.
1882. Diaptomus gig ant eus Herrick, p. 222: pi. II, figs. 3,
11, 15.
1884. Diaptomus stagnalis Herrick, p. 139 ; pi. Q, figs. 11, 13.
1889. Diaptomus stagnalis DeGuerne and Richard, p. 23; figs.
15, 16 ; pi. IV, fig. 14.
1895. Diaptomus stagnalis Herrick and Turner, p. 66 ; pi. Ill,
figs. 1-12 ; pi. XIII, figs. 11, 13.
1897. Diaptomus stagnalis Schacht, p. 138; pi. XXVIII,
fig. 2.
“Head distinct from thorax; fifth and sixth thoracic seg¬
ments confluent. Lateral angles of last thoracic segment strongly
Marsh — North American Species of Diaptomus. 447
produced backward, each angle bilobed, the outer lobe about
twice as large as the inner (in the male this segment is salient).
Abdomen peculiar in that there is a sudden narrowing at the
beginning of the third segment. First abdominal segment of
the female armed with a large spine on each side; second and
third segments subequal, about twice as wide as long. Furcal
rami subquadrate, ciliate on the inner margin. Furcal setae
rather short, densely plumose. There is but little difference
in the length of the abdominal segments of the male.
“ Antennae 25-segmented, reaching to the middle of the ab¬
domen. The right antenna of the male is greatly swollen an¬
terior to the geniculating joint. The antepenultimate segment
bears a broad hook-like process, which does not reach to the end
of the penultimate segment.
“Second basal segment of the fifth foot of the female with the
usual delicate hair at the outer margin. First segment of the
exopodite short and broad. Second segment large, about one
and one-half times as long as the first, armed on the middle
third of the inner margin with seven or eight very large, strong,
pointed spines, and on the outer margin and opposite the upper
spines of the inner margin with three or four spines. Third
segment distinct, armed with two spines, the outer one short,
thick, sharp, smooth, the inner one about twice as long and
armed with a few rather strong spinules. Just without these
spines, on the second segment, is a shorter smooth spine. The
endopodite of the fifth foot of the female is distinctly two-seg¬
mented, the first segment subquadrate, the second as wide as
the first and nearly twice as long, and armed at the tip with two
thick, heavy spines reaching to the end of the second segment of
the exopodite. These spines are armed with heavy spinules.
Disregarding the spines, the endopodite reaches just to the end
of the first segment of the exopodite.
“Second basal segment of the right fifth foot of the male sub¬
quadrate, about twice as long as wide; on the posterior surface
a large, smooth, hyaline lamella occupying about a third of the
inner margin near the middle, and near the outer distal angle
a minute cuticular process bearing a delicate hair. First seg-
448 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts, and Letters.
ment of the exopodite almost three times as long as broad ; sec¬
ond segment about as long as the first and for about the prox¬
imal third nearly as wide, but beyond this considerably broader.
Marginal spine near the outer distal angle; straight, very
strong and thick, a little less than half as long as the seg¬
ment. Terminal hook rather short and very stout, irregularly
curved, heavily and closely denticulate at the distal half of the
inner margin. Endopodite of the right fifth leg spatulate, not
nearly reaching the middle of the first segment of the exopo¬
dite; apex rounded, armed with a few strong spines.
“ Second basal segment of the left fifth foot armed at the outer
margin, a short distance above the distal angle, with a short,
thick, pointed spine. Eirst segment of the exopodite about
three times as long as wide, armed at the distal third of the inner
margin with a few strong hairs. Second segment about half
as long as the first, having on the inner margin two cushion¬
like processes (the upper, smaller one hairy, and the lower
densely tuberculate) , and being armed at the tip with two proc¬
esses forming a forcipate structure, the outer broad, plowshare¬
shaped, the inner a long and narrow spine, hairy within. En¬
dopodite of left fifth foot one-segmented, of the same width
throughout, with a broadly rounded tip; inner margin rugose.
“Length of female, 4 to 4.5 mm. Length of male, 3 5 to
4 mm.
“This Diaptomus is the largest of the American species and
a very beautiful one. Dr. Forbes states in his original descrip¬
tion that all were red throughout. Specimens taken in April,
1897, from ponds south of Urbana, Illinois, when they were in
the height of sexual activity, were colored as follows; thorax
and anterior appendages (all but the first pair of antennae)
blue; first pair of antennae, fifth pair of legs (in the male),
and abdomen red. In the female all the legs were blue.”
The preceding description was taken from Schacht and was,
presumably, prepared under the supervision, or with the co¬
operation, of Professor Forbes. I have been unable to obtain
any of the Illinois material for verification of the description,
and the species has not occurred in the territory from which
Marsh — North American Species of Diaptomus. 449
my collections have been made, although it is reported as oc¬
curring not only in Illinois and Minnesota, hut in Ohio, Ken¬
tucky and Alabama.
The segmentation of the fifth feet of the female would indi¬
cate that this is one of the least specialized of the members of
the leptopus group.
DIAPTOMUS CONIPEDATUS Sp. nOV.
Plate XX, fig. 4. Plate XXI, figs. 2-4.
A rather large species. The first cephalothoracic segment is
nearly as long as the succeeding three segments. The last
cephalothoracic segment has two minute spines on each lateral
lobe.
The first abdominal segment of the female is somewhat less
in length than the rest of the abdomen and the furca. It is
dilated in front, and slightly dilated at the sides. The lateral
dilatations are armed with small spines. The second and third
segments are about equal in length, and are broader than long.
The rami of the furca are somewhat longer than the third seg¬
ment and are ciliate on the inner margin.
The antennae hardly reach the end of the furca. The right
male antenna is much swollen anterior to the geniculating joint.
The antepenultimate segment is armed with a hook-shaped proc¬
ess, which is not strongly recurved; it is rather less than half
as long as the penultimate segment.
The first basal segment of the female fifth foot has the usual
spine upon its posterior surface. The second basal segment has
the customary lateral hair. The first segment of the exopodite
is short and stout. The second segment is stout and prolonged
into the usual hook which is denticulate on the inner margin.
The third segment is represented by two spines. There is also
a third spine situated outside these two. The endopodite is
much longer than the first segment of the exopodite, is armed
with short hairs on the inner margin of the tip, and has two
rather long terminal spines.
29— S. & A.
450 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts , and Letters ;
The spines of the first basal segments of the male fifth feet
are long and slender. The second basal segment of the right
foot is nearly twice as long as wide. The lateral hair is long
and slender and situated on the distal fourth of the segment.
On the posterior surface not far from the middle line are two
hyaline lamellae projecting inward. The proximal lamella
is accompanied with a spine, and the distal lamella with a re¬
curved hook. The first segment of the exopodite is twice as
long as broad, and has a blunt process on its outer distal angle.
The second segment is twice as long as the first, is slender,
very narrow at the proximal end, and grows gradually wider
towards the distal end. The lateral spine is near the distal
end, is rather long, and nearly straight. The terminal hook
is very stout, almost conical in shape, and much shorter than
the second segment. The endopodite is very small, appearing
as a small process on the inner distal angle of the second basal
segment. The length of the second basal segment of the left
male fifth foot is a little less than twice its width. It is slightly
concave on the outer margin. The lateral hair is situated well
towards the distal end of the segment. The fiist segment of the
exopodite is three times as long as wide, and somewhat concave
on both the inner and outer margins. The distal inner angle is
setose. The second segment of the exopodite is slightly concave
on the inner margin, and is terminated with a finger-like proc¬
ess and a longer falciform spine. The endopodite is long and
slender, reaching beyond the first segment of the exopodite,
is obscurely two-segmented, and is setose at the tip.
Length of female, 1.49 mm. Length of male, 1.325 mm.
This was found in collections made by Professor Birge at
Slidell, Louisiana. Only a few specimens were found, but it
seems to be a well-marked species. It resembles in many re¬
spects D. Lintoni and D. stagnalis , but differs in some marked
particulars.
The noticeable points of difference from D. Lintoni are the
form of the appendage of the antepenultimate segment of the
right male antenna, the form of the terminal segment and hook
of the right male exopodite, and the terminal setae of the en-
Marsh — North American Species of Diaptomus. 451
dopodite of the female fifth foot. It resembles D. stagnalis
in the antennal armature and in the general form of the male
fifth feet; hut it differs in the male fifth feet, in the form of
the second segment of the exopodite, and in the form and size
of the endopodite. It differs in the female fifth feet in the
fact that the terminal spines are shorter, and that the third
segment is not distinct.
diaptomus clavipes Schacht.
Plate XX, fig. 9. Plate XXI, figs. 1, 5, 6.
1897. Diaptomus clavipes Schacht, p. 178; pi. XXXIV, figs.
1-3; pi. XXXV, figs. 1, 2.
1898. Diaptomus nebraskensis Brewer, p. 123 ; pi. VII, figs.
1-4.
1902. Diaptomus clavipes Beardsley, p. 45.
1905. Diaptomus clavipes Pearse, p. 147 ; pi. XIII, fig. 6.
A large species. The first segment of the cephalothorax is
equal in length to the three following. The last segment of
the cephalothorax is armed with two small lateral spines.
The first segment of the female abdomen is longer than the
rest of the abdomen. It is much dilated in front and some¬
what laterally. The lateral dilatations are not abrupt as in
many species. There are two small lateral spines. The third
segment is very short. The furca is about equal in length to
the two preceding segments. The furcal rami are ciliate on
the inner margin.
The antennae are. 25-segmented, barely reaching the end of
the furca. The right antenna of the male is much swollen an¬
terior to the geniculating joint; the antepenultimate segment
is armed with a lateral hyaline lamella.
The spines of the first basal segments of the female fifth feet
are rather small and blunt. The lateral hairs of the second
basal segments are of moderate length. The length of the
first segment of the exopodite is less than twice its width. The
second segment is stout, and the hook is almost straight. It
452 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences t Arts, and Letters.
is strongly denticulate on the inner margin and less so on the
outer. It is armed with three spines. The inner two are
upon a distinct base, which represents the third segment.
These two spines are pectinate, and the inner is considerably
the longer. The endopodite is slender, about equal in length
to the first segment of the exopodite. It is setose at tip and
armed with two long plumose spines.
The spines of the first basal segments of the male fifth feet
are small and acute. The second basal segment of the right
foot is quadrate, with the lateral hair situated near the distal
angle. Upon its posterior surface near the inner distal angle
is a short hook-like process. On the inner margin at a little
less than half its length is a small conical process. Urom the
middle of the posterior surface near the distal end arises a
stout falciform process which nearly equals in length the first
segment of the exopodite. The first segment of the right exo¬
podite is equal in length to the second basal segment. It is
arcuate, the inner surface being concave and the outer convex.
The second segment is longer than the first, quadrangular, and
has the lateral spine at the outer distal angle. The terminal
hook is rather stout, falciform, symmetrically curved, and equal
in length to the segments of the exopodite. The inner margin
is markedly denticulate. The endopodite springs from the
inner margin of the second basal segment. It nearly equals
one-half the length of the first segment of the exopodite. It is
setose at tip.
The left foot reaches to the end of the first segment of the
right exopodite. The second basal segment is trapezoidal in
form, as wide as long, and has the lateral hair near the distal
angle. The first segment of the exopodite is longer than wide
and setose on the inner distal angle. The second segment of
the exopodite is long and slender, arising from the outer half
of the distal end of the preceding segment. Its margins are
slightly concave, and the inner margin is setose. It is termi¬
nated by a digitiform process and a stout spine. This spine is
armed on its inner surface with stout spinules. The endopo¬
dite is long and slender, reaching one-half the length of the
Marsh — JS/orth American Species of Diaptomus . 453
second segment of the exopodite. It is spatulate in form,
armed at the tip with blunt spines, and with very minute spines
over its whole surface.
Length of the female, according to Schacht, 1.37 mm.
Length of male, 1.68 mm. According to Brewer, the female
varies from 2.25 mm. to 2.5 mm. I have not at hand enough
mature specimens to get a good average of size.
Found, according to Schacht, in West Okoboji lake, Iowa.
Brewer’s material was found near Lincoln, Nebraska. Found
by Beardsley in Greeley, Colorado.
The above description was written from material sent by
Brewer. Schacht’s description does not correspond in all de¬
tails. Lie states that the female abdomen is asymmetrical.
This asymmetry was not noticeable in my material. He speaks
of the peculiar hook of the male fifth foot as on the first seg¬
ment of the exopodite. In my specimens it is on the second
basal segment, and his figures show the same situation. This
lack of correspondence between Schacht’s figure and descrip¬
tion has already been noted by Beardsley (’02). On the second
segment of the exopodite of the female fifth foot, Schacht says
there are two spines, of which the outer is the longer. I find
three spines, and the innermost is the longest. His figure
makes the inner the longest. Llis figure, too, omits the terminal
spines of the endopodite of the female fifth foot, although he
speaks of them in his text. There is a difference, too, in the
length of the abdominal segments as compared with the Ne¬
braska material.
If these differences exist and are constant, D. nebraskensis
must be considered a variety of D. clavipes. I think it prob¬
able, however, that if material were available for a compari¬
son of specimens from the two localities, it would appear that
there is not even a varietal difference.
454 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters.
diaptomus lintoni Forbes.
Plate XXVII, figs. 4, 5, 7.
1893. Diaptomus Lintoni Forbes, p. 252 ; pi. XLII, figs. 26-
28.
1895. Diaptomus Lintoni Herrick and Turner, p. 68; pi. V,
fig. 12.
1897. Diaptomus Lintoni Schacht, p. 127 ; pi XXVII, fig. 1.
“A large red species occurring commonly with D. shoshone ;
but distinguishable from it at a glance by its different shape,
its longer antennae, its smaller size, and by characters derived
from the right antenna and the fifth foot of the male. The
thorax is symmetrically elliptical in shape, broadest at the
middle. The posterior angles are not produced or bifid, but
are each armed with a minute spine. The first segment of the
abdomen of the female is not especially produced, but bears at
its broadest part a minute spine on each side. The abdomen
itself is very short, its length contained about three and one-
third times in that of the cephalothorax. The antenna of the
female is long and slender, 2 5- jointed, reaching a little beyond
the tip of the abdomen.
“The fifth pair of legs in this sex is similar to those of D.
shoshone, but much smaller. The inner ramus is not jointed.
It is longer than the basal joint of the outer ramus, bears two
stout plumose setae at its tip, somewhat shorter than the ramus
itself, and has likewise at its inner tip a patch of small sjnnes
or fine hairs. The second segment of the outer ramus with
its terminal claw is two-thirds as long again as the preceding
segment, the breadth of the latter two-thirds its length. The
third joint is indicated by a single long, stout seta and one or
two smaller ones.
“In the male the geniculate antenna is relatively rather slen¬
der, its last two joints without special appendages, its penulti¬
mate with a slender transparent apical process, reaching about
to the middle of the succeeding segment, acute at tip, but
neither serrate nor emarginate.
Marsh — North American Species of Diaptomus. 455
“Fifth pair of legs in the male usually without internal n,-
mus to the right leg, but this ramus sometimes represented by a
small rudiment. The limb is usually slender, and its terminal
claw short. The basal segment of the outer ramus is nearly
as long as the adjacent segment of the pedicel, and the slender
second segment of this ramus is fully as long. Long lateral spines
are borne near the tip of this segment. The terminal claw is
about two-thirds as long as the segment, is somewhat abruptly
angulated near its base, and slightly recurved at the tip. The
inner ramus of the left leg is very stout and long, reaching
almost to the tip of the outer ramus, is slightly curved out¬
wards, and has the apex minutely hairy. The basal segment
of the outer ramus is thick, two-thirds as broad as long, some¬
what inflated within, where it extends downward beyond the
articulation with the second segment as a rounded expansion
covered with extremely fine hairs. Second segment of this
ramus longer than first, but only half as wide, bearing at its
tip, within, a rather small, obliquely projecting cushion cov¬
ered with cilia, and with two stout terminal spines, one short,
blunt, straight, smooth, the other curved and plumose, its
length about half that of the segment to which it is attached.
“The total length of this species is about 2.5 mm., excluding
caudal setae; depth, .42 mm.
“This species is closely related to D. stagnalis Forbes, from
which it differs conspicuously by its smaller size, more symmet¬
rical cephalothorax, without prominent or bifid angles, and
longer and more slender antennae, with longer and more slen¬
der appendage to the antepenultimate segment.
“In the fifth legs of the female this species differs from D.
stagnalis, especially with respect to the inner ramus, which is
larger and longer than in the other, lacks the characteristic seg
mentation of D. stagnalis, and bears at its tip shorter and
broader setae. In the male the terminal claw of the outer
ramus of the right fifth leg is much more slender than in
D. stagnalis, and the inner ramus is much less developed.
The left leg of this pair is different in a number of details,
especially in the length and strength of the inner ramus and
456 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts , and Letters.
the length and dissimilarity of the setae at the end of the outer.
“Common in lakes and pools in Yellowstone park.”
The above is a verbatim copy of the description of Professor
Forbes. JSTothing was added by Herrick or Schacht. The
species has not appeared in the collections which have come to
me, and I regret that I have not had an opportunity to study
the original collections. The figures of the plate are copies of
the original figures of Forbes.
diaptomus spatulocrexatus Pearse.
1906. Diaptomus spatulocrenatus Pearse, p. 246; figs. 6-9.
Of moderate size. The first cephalothoracic segment is
three-fourths the length of the cephalothorax ; it has a trans¬
verse groove at about its middle The last segment is produced
posteriorly and armed with two sharp spines on each lateral
lobe.
The abdomen of the female is stout. The first segment is
longer than the remainder of the abdomen. The second seg¬
ment is one-sixth as long as the first and one-half as long as
the third. The furcal rami are one-fourth longer than wide
and ciliate on the inner margin.
The antennae are 25-segmented and reach to the end of the
furca. The right antenna of the male is swollen anterior to
the geniculating joint. The antepenultimate segment bears a
hook-shaped process, which is fully half as long as the penulti¬
mate segment.
The first basal segments of the fifth feet of the female are
armed with strong spines. The lateral hairs of the second
basal segments are weak. The exopodite consists of two seg¬
ments. The second segment is prolonged into a hook, which
is denticulate on the inner margin ; it bears on its outer margin
three spines, of which the inner is the longest and is distinctly
plumose. The endopodite exceeds in length the first segment
of the exopodite, is setose at the tip, and bears two long plu¬
mose spines.
Marsh — North American Species of Diaptomus. 457
The spines of the first basal segments of the fifth feet of the
male are rather long and slender. The second basal segment
of the right foot is about twice as long as broad, and convex on
inner and outer margins. The lateral hair is situated at about
two-thirds of its length. It bears a small tubercle on the pos¬
terior surface, near the inner margin, at about one-third its
length. The first segment of the right exopodite is twice as
long as wide, convex on the outer margin and concave on the
inner ; the second segment is three times as long as wide,
strongly concave on the inner margin and convex on the outer.
The lateral spine is near the outer distal angle, is of medium
length and slightly curved. The terminal hook is stout, nearly
as long as the segment, bent sharply at about the middle. It is
denticulate on the inner margin. The endopodite is rudimen¬
tary, being represented by a short, curved process.
The left foot, in length, does not reach the end of the first
segment of the exopodite of the right foot. The second basal
segment of the left foot is trapezoidal in form, three-fourths as
long as the corresponding segment of the right foot. The lat¬
eral hair is at about two-thirds its length. The first segment
of the exopodite is one-half as wide as the second basal seg¬
ment, is twice as long as wide, with rounded apical angles ; the
inner distal angle is setose. The second segment is less than
two-thirds the length of the first, is concave on the inner mar¬
gin and convex on the outer. It is armed at the tip with a
stout finger-like process at the outer angle, and a slender curved
process at the inner angle. The process at the outer angle is
finely denticulate on the inner margin, and the process at the
inner angle is setose. The inner margin of the second segment is
setose. The endopodite is two-segmented and nearly equals in
length the exopodite. The first segment is slender. The sec¬
ond segment is oval, crenate on the inner margin, and setose at
the tip and on the inner and anterior surfaces.
Length of female, 1.47-1.58 mm. Length of male, 1.30-
1.33 mm.
This was found in Wigwam pond, Nantucket.
Pe arse’s paper containing the description, of which the above
is nearly a verbatim copy, modified only to correspond to the
458 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences } Arts , and Letters.
order of the other descriptions, was received while this paper
was going through the press. Consequently the author has not
seen the type specimens, and there has been no opportunity to
prepare figures. Pearse speaks of it as related to Lintoni , and
it is evident that it falls into the leptopus group, being closely
related to stagnalis as well as Lintoni. The form f the endo-
podite of the left fifth foot of the male is a distinctive charac¬
teristic.
diaptomus sigxicauda Lilljeborg.
Plate XXI, figs. 8, 10, 11. Plate XXII, fig. 3. Plate XXIII,
fig. 3.
1889. Diaptomus signicauda DeGuerne and Pichard, p. 55 ;
pi. I, figs. 15, 16, 31; pi. Ill, fig. 22.
1895. Diaptomus signicaudatus Herrick and Turner, p. 63;
pi. VIII, fig. 13 ; pi. IX, fig. 10.
1897. Diaptomus signicauda Schacht, p. 164; pi. XXIX, figs.
3-6.
A small species. The cephalothorax is broadest in front
of the middle at the second segment. The first segment is
about twice the length of the second. The last two segments
are confluent, and the last segment has rather broad projecting
lateral lobes with acute posterior angles ending in small spines.
The fourth thoracic segment has a slight dorsal gibbosity.
The first abdominal segment of the female is expanded in
front and laterally, and is armed laterally with minute spines;
on the posterior end on the right side it bears a finger-like proc¬
ess which projects backward. This process is somewhat vari¬
able in length. The second abdominal segment varies in length.
In some cases it is hardly to be distinguished from the first
segment (PI. XXI, fig. 11), while in others it equals in length
the third segment (PI. XXIII, fig. 3). The f ureal rami vary
in length from one and a half times the breadth to twice the
breadth. They are setose on the inner margin.
Marsh — North American Species of Diaptomus. 459
The antennae are 2 5 -segmented, and extend a little beyond
the furcal rami. The antepenultimate segment of the right
male antenna is armed with a small recurved hook.
The first basal segments of the fifth feet of the female are
armed with rather large spines. The lateral hair of the second
basal segment is short and weak. The exopodite is composed
of two segments, the third segment being represented by two
small spines. The second segment is prolonged into a rather
stout hook which is delicately denticulate on the inner margin.
The endopodite is slightly longer than the first segment of the
exopodite, is composed of one segment, armed on the inner
margin of the tip with hairs, and with two rather long terminal
spines. The terminal spines are delicately ciliate.
The fifth feet of the male are rather slender. The first ba¬
sal segments are armed with the customary spines. The second
basal segment of the right foot is trapezoidal in form, and
somewhat longer than broad. The lateral hair is situated at
about two-thirds of its length. The first segment of the ex¬
opodite is also trapezoidal in form, of about half the length of
the second basal segment, and is armed on its inner border with
a hyaline lamella which is widened at the distal end and ex¬
tends beyond the distal angle of the segment. The second
segment of the exopodite about equals the combined lengths of
the second basal segment and the first segment of the exopo-
dite. The lateral spine is situated at the end of the second
third of the segment. The terminal hook is symmetrically
curved, and is somewhat longer than the two segments of the
exopodite. The endopodite is broad, acuminate, and shorter
than the first segment of the exopodite.
The second basal segment of the left fifth foot of the male
has its lateral hair situated almost at the distal angle of the
segment. The first segment of the exopodite is longer than
broad, its inner and outer margins are curved, and it is setose
on the distal third of its inner margin. The second segment
of the exopodite is twice as long as wide, the inner margin ex¬
panded both at the base and at the distal end, and setose. The
fiistal end of the segment is setose, and armed with two finger-
460 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts , and Letters.
like processes. The endopodite is long and slender, reaching
well towards the end of the second segment of the exopodite.
It is setose on the inner margin of the tip.
Length of female, 1.5 mm. Length of male, 1.3 mm.
The original description was written from material obtained
in the Sierra Nevada in California. It is probably pretty
widely distributed through the mountain region of the West.
I have found it in collections from Marlette lake, Nevada, ob¬
tained by Professor C. P. Baker, from Boulder lake, Colorado,
and Hosketts lake, California, collected by Professor Chauncey
Juday, and from several lakes in the Lake Tahoe region col¬
lected by Professor H. B. Ward. One peculiarity not given
in the diagnosis should be noted, namely that the lateral* spine
of the exopodite of the male fifth foot does not lie in the same
plane with the segment, but is curved to one side.
The projection on the first abdominal segment of the female,
from which the species is named, is not present in the immature
specimens, appearing only at maturity.
dixIptomus nudus Marsh.
Plate XXI, fig. 9. Plate XXII, figs. 1, 2.
1904. Diaptomus nudUs Marsh, p. 147 ; pi. XXX, figs. 1, 2r
4, 5.
Of moderate size. The first cephalothoracic segment is
nearly equal in length to the rest of the cephalothorax. The
last cephalothoracic segment is armed laterally with two mi¬
nute spines.
The first abdominal segment of the female is somewhat long¬
er than the rest of the abdomen. It is dilated laterally and
armed on each side with a sharp spine. These spines are at
about the termination of the first third of the segment. The
distal margin of the segment is extended on the right side in
a conical process which extends beyond the second segment.
The second segment is very short, and is nearly covered by
the first. The third segment is about one-third the length of
the first, and is somewhat shorter than the furca.
Marsh — North American Species of Diaptomus. 461
The antennae reach slightly beyond the end of the furca.
The right antenna of the male is swollen anterior to the genic-
ulating joint. The antepenultimate segment bears upon its
distal extremity a hook-like process which is rather less than
half the length of the penultimate segment.
In the female fifth feet, the spines of the first basal segments
are very pronounced. The second basal segments are armed
with rather delicate lateral hairs. The first segment of the
exopodite is stout. The second segment is of the usual form,
and the hook is denticulate on its inner margin. The third
segment is represented by two spines. The endopodite equals
in length the first segment of the exopodite, and is armed at
the tip with two spines and with short hairs.
In the male fifth feet, the spines of the first basal segments
are very pronounced. The second basal segment of the right
foot is trapezoidal in form, and its length exceeds its average
width by about one-half. The lateral hair is at about one-
third of its length from the distal end. The first segment of
the right exopodite is about as broad as long, and has its distal
angle somewhat produced. The second segment of the exopo¬
dite is elongate, being more than three times the length of the
first. The lateral spine is situated at about one-third the dis¬
tance from the proximal end, is hook-shaped, and is inserted at
an angle with the plane of the segment — that is, it does not
lie in the same plane with the flat surface of the segment. The
terminal hook is elongate, falciform, with a regular curvature.
The endopodite is short, rather less in length than the first seg¬
ment of the exopodite, and is of a somewhat triangular form.
The second basal segment of the left foot is similar in form
to the corresponding segment of the right foot, and is about
one-half as long. The lateral hair is situated well towards the
distal end. The first segment of the exopodite about equals
the basal segment in length, but is more slender. The second
segment is short, armed with a terminal pad, a pad on its in¬
ner surface, and with two blunt spines near the distal end.
The pads are armed with short, stiff hairs. The endopodite
is very slender and very nearly equals in length the two seg¬
ments of the exopodite.
462 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts , and Letters.
Length of female, 1.132 mm. Length of male, 1.115 mm.
This species was found in material collected by Professor
H. B. Ward in Dead lake, Lake Michigan, Lake Bocks, and
Mirror lake, — all these lakes being in the vicinity of Pike’s
Peak. It was especially abundant in the collections from
Lake Michigan.
DIAPTOMUS WASHINGTONENSIS Sp. n07.
Plate XXII, figs. 5, 8, 9. Plate XXIII, fig. 2.
One of the smaller species. The first cephalothoracic seg¬
ment is somewhat longer than the combined length of the three
following segments. The last cephalothoracic segment is
armed with minute lateral spines. The first segment of the
female abdomen is as long as the rest of the abdomen. It is
expanded laterally and in front and bears two small spines
laterally. On the posterior end on the right side it bears a
finger-like process projecting backward. The second segment
is ordinarily about one-half the length of the third. The f ureal
rami are about twice as long as their width and are setose on
the inner margin.
The antennae are 25-segmented, slightly longer than the en¬
tire body. The right male antenna is much swollen anterior
to the geniculating joint, and the antepenultimate segment
bears a recurved hook which is continuous with a lateral la¬
mella extending back one-half the length of the segment.
The first basal segments of the female fifth feet are armed
with rather large spines. The lateral hairs of the second basal
segments are very long and slender. The exopodite is composed
of two segments, the third segment being represented by two
small spines. In addition to these spines, there are sometimes
present two other very minute spines. The second segment is
prolonged into the customary hook, which is denticulate on the
inner margin. The endopodite is slightly longer than the
first segment of the exopodite, is composed of one segment, and
armed on the inner margin of the tip with hairs, and has two
rather long terminal spines.
Marsh — North American Species of Diaptorrms. 463
The fifth feet of the male are slender. The first basal seg¬
ments are armed with the customary spines. The second basal
segment of the right foot is trapezoidal in form and longer than
broad. The rather long lateral hair is situated at about two-
thirds of its length. The first segment of the exopodite is
quadrate, its length considerably less than its width. The
length of the second segment is somewhat greater than the
combined lengths of the second basal regment and the first
segment of the exopodite. The lateral spine is situated beyond
the middle of the segment. The terminal hook is symmetri¬
cally curved and is considerably longer than the first two seg¬
ments of the exopodite. The endopodite is triangular in form,
much longer than the first segment of the exopodite, and is
sometimes indistinctly two-segmented.
The second basal segment of the exopodite of the fifth foot
of the male has its rather long lateral hair situated almost at
the distal angle of the segment. The first segment of the ex¬
opodite is about as long as broad, its inner and outer margins
curved, the inner margin setose on its distal third. The second
segment is half again as long as broad, the inner margin ex¬
panded at the base and at the distal end and setose. The dis¬
tal end is setose and armed with two finger-like processes. The
endopodite is slender, reaches well towards the tip of the
second segment of the exopodite, and is setose at the tip.
Length of female, about 1.187 mm. Length of male, about
1.137 mm.
This species was found in material collected for me by Pro¬
fessor B. H. Brown in Walla Walla, Washington.
The close relation of this form to D. signicauda is apparent.
In the female there are distinctive differences. In the male,
however, the structure of the antepenultimate segment of the
right antenna and of the fifth foot are so different that I think
the validity of the species cannot be questioned. The lateral
lamella of the antennal segment I have never found in D. sig¬
nicauda, while it is characteristic of D. w ashing tonensis. The
whole male fifth foot is much shorter and stouter in D. wash-
ingtonensis, the first segment of the right exopodite has no hya-
464 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts , and Letters.
line lamella, the endopodite is longer and is sometimes indis¬
tinctly two-segmented. The left endopodite is very much
shorter in D. w ashing tonensis .
DIAPTOMUS JUDAYI Sp. nOV.
Plate XXII, fig. 6. Plate XXIII, figs. 1, 5.
A small species. The first cephalothoracic segment is con¬
siderably longer than the three following. The last segment
is armed with minute lateral spines.
The first segment of the female abdomen is longer than the
rest of the abdomen. It is expanded laterally and in front
and bears two small lateral spines. On the posterior end of
the right side it bears a finger-like process projecting backward.
This process is somewhat shorter than in the other species of
the signicauda type. The second segment is about half the
length of the third. The furcal rami are rather less than
twice as long as their width, and are ciliate on the inner mar¬
gin.
The antennae are 2 5 -segmented and extend a little beyond
the furcal rami. The right antenna of the male is much swollen
anterior to the geniculating joint, and bears a straight process
on the antepenultimate segment. This process is two-thirds
the length of the penultimate segment.
The first basal segments of the female fifth feet are armed
with the customary spines. The second basal segments have
rather long lateral hairs. The exopodite is composed of twTo
segments, the third segment being represented by two spines.
The second segment is prolonged into the usual hook-like proc¬
ess, and is denticulate on the inner margin. The endopodite
about equals in length the first segment of the exopodite, is
armed on the inner margin of the tip with hairs, and has two
rather long terminal spines.
In the fifth feet of the male, the first basal segments are
armed with rather large spines. The second basal segment of
the right foot is trapezoidal in form and considerably longer
Marsh — JSJorth American Species of Diaptomus . 465
than broad. The lateral hair is situated at about two-thirds
of its length and is rather long. The first segment of the ex-
opodite is trapezoidal in form, and its length and width are
about equal. It bears a thin hyaline lamella resembling that
in signicauda, but it is more pointed at the distal end. This
hyaline lamella is not inserted on the inner margin, but on the
posterior surface, so that as viewed from some directions only
the distal end is visible, although it really extends the whole
length of the segment. The second segment of the exopodite
is somewhat shorter than the combined lengths of the first seg¬
ment and the second basal segment. The lateral spine is sit¬
uated proximad of the middle of the segment. The terminal
hook is symmetrically curved, and is somewhat longer than the
two segments of the exopodite. The endopodite is broad, acu¬
minate, nearly equaling in length the first segment of the exo¬
podite. The second basal segment of the left fifth foot of the
male has the rather long lateral hair situated almost at the
distal angle of the segment. The first segment of the exopodite
is slightly longer than broad, has its inner and outer margins
curved, and is setose on the distal third of its inner margin.
The second segment is nearly three times as long as broad, and
has the inner margin expanded near the base and setose. It
terminates in two finger-like processes, one of which is much
larger than the other. The endopodite is long and slender,
reaching two-thirds the length of the second segment of the
exopodite.
Length of female, 0.93 mm. Length of male, 0.9 mm.
This form was found in material collected by Mr. Chauncey
Juday in Twin lakes, Colorado, and the name is given in rec¬
ognition of the many collections which Mr. Juday has had
the kindness to send to me. The species in most respects
bears a very close resemblance to D. signicauda. The male
fifth foot differs in the proportions of the segments, the form
of the lamella of the first segment of the right exopodite, the
position of the lateral spine on the second segment of the same
exopodite, and in the form of the segment and the terminal
processes of the second segment of the left exopodite. The
30— 'S. & A.
466 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts , and Letters .
most noticeable point of difference, however, and the one that
at once separates this species from the others of the signicauda
group, is the form of the appendage of the antepenultimate
segment of the right male antenna.
diaptomus trybomi Lilljeborg.
Plate XXVIII, figs. 1-4.
1889. Diaptomus Trybomi DeGuerne and Picha xL (Lillj.), p.
58; pi. I, fig. 35; pi. II, fig. 6; pi. Ill, fig. 14; pi.
IV, fig. 28.
1895. Diaptomus Trybomi Herrick and Turner, p. 57 ; pi.
VIII, fig. 17; pi. IX, fig. 4; pi. X, fig. 13.
1897. Diaptomus Trybomi Schacht, p. 158; pi. XXXI, figs.
1-5.
“Of moderate size. Cephalothorax with greatest width at
about the middle; last two thoracic segments distinctly sepa¬
rated, and the last of these as seen from above slightly produced
laterally, armed with two spines (one minute) on each side;
besides, on the right side of this segment appears a largo
dorsal appendage, triangular in form, mucronate at the apex,
and produced towards the right side. The first abdominal seg¬
ment of the female is especially characteristic of the species (in
the male it is formed in the ordinary manner), as in D. sig¬
nicauda asymmetrical, surpassing in length the rest of the ab¬
domen. On the anterior part this segment is armed with a
short mucronate lateral process on either side, and on the
posterior part with a large triangular process extending almost
directly to the right and slightly acuminate at the apex. The
furcal rami are quite short, not twice as long as broad.
“The first pair of antennae of the female are 2 5 -segmented,
hardly reaching the base of the furca. The antepenultimate
segment of the prehensile antenna of the male is armed with a
straight and quite slender process, almost reaching the middle
of the penultimate segment, and provided on the outside to the
apex with small teeth.
Marsh — North American Species of Diaptomus. 467
“The exopodite of the fifth pair of feet of the female is two-
segmented, with the unguiform process of the second segment
slightly curved, robust, denticulate on the middle part of the
inner margin, the last teeth being broader and spine-like. The
third segment is wanting and is represented only by two spines,
the outer half as long as the inner. Endopodite one-segment-
ed, hardly equal to the first segment of the exopodite, with the
apex obliquely acuminate, provided with two quite long sub¬
equal spines.
“The second segment of exopodite of right foot in male is
very long, surpassing in length the first segment and the basal
segment taken together. The marginal spine of this segment
is placed within the middle. The terminal hook is slightly
curved, with the inner margin denticulate. The endopodite is
curved, ovate, broad, turning inward, mucronate at the apex,
hardly reaching the end of the first segment of exopodite. In
the left foot, the first and second segments of the exopodite are
setose within, the second obovate, hairy towards the apex, and
bearing two short spines, one of which turns inward. The en¬
dopodite is one-segmented, slender, equaling in length the first
segment of the exopodite.
“Length of female, about 1.5 mm. ; length of male, 1.4 mm.”
The above is the description as given by EeGuerne and
Richard. It is added that the species was found in great
numbers at “Multrooma Falls,” Oregon. As Schacht suggests,
it is probable that the locality is Multnomah Falls.
DIAPTOMUS DORSALIS Sp. nOV.
Plate XXIII, figs. 8, 9. Plate XXIV, figs. 2, 3, 5, 6.
A small species. The first segment of the cephalothorax
considerably exceeds in length the three following. The last
two cephalothoracic segments are confluent. The fifth segment
has two dorsal teeth, the first of which is the more prominent
and projects backward; the second is rounded and undulate on
its anterior margin. The last segment bears two minute later¬
al spines.
468 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts , and Letters.
The first abdominal segment of the female is slender and
about once and a half as long as the rest of the abdomen. It
is dilated in front and laterally. The lateral expansions are
well forward, and are terminated with lateral spines. The sec¬
ond segment is short, less than one-half the length of the third.
The furcal rami are much longer than the third segment, and
much wider at the distal than at the proximal end. They are
setose on the inner margin.
The antennae are 25-segmented and slightly exceed in length
the furcal rami. The antepenultimate segment of the right an¬
tenna of the male bears a hook which is considerably shorter
than one-lialf of the penultimate segment.
The first basal segments of the female fifth feet are armed
with small spines. The second basal segments have short lat¬
eral hairs. The exopodite consists of three segments. The
third segment is very small, and is tipped with a spine. There
is also a small spine on the distal outer angle of the second seg¬
ment. The second segment is prolonged into a rather blunt
hook which is denticulate on the inner margin. The endopo-
dite is shorter than the first segment of the exopodite, and is
tipped with small hairs. The two terminal spines are very
small.
The first basal segments of the male fifth feet are aimed
with prominent spines. The lateral hairs of the second basal
segments of both feet are situated near the distal end of the
segment. The length and breadth of these segments are about
equal, and both are strongly curved on the inner margins. From
the middle of the inner margin of the second basal segment of
the right foot extends a small quadrangular hyaline lamella.
The first segment of the exopodite of the right foot is short, its
length and breadth being about equal. On its posterior sur¬
face are two hyaline shelf-like projections. The second segment
is considerably longer than the combined lengths of the second
basal segment and the first segment of the exopodite. Its outer
margin is strongly curved. The lateral spine is large, strongly
curved, and situated about midway of the length of the seg¬
ment. From near the base of the lateral spine a transverse
Marsh — North American Species of Diaptomus. 469
ridge extends across the posterior surface of tlie segment. The
terminal hook is falciform and nearly equals in length the
whole right foot. The endopodite is small and slender, consid¬
erably exceeding in length the first segment of the exopodite.
The left fifth foot in length reaches the distal extremity of
the first segment of the exopodite of the right foot. The first
segment of the exopodite is somewhat longer than broad and is
armed on its inner margin with small hairs. The second seg¬
ment is almost circular in outline, and also has the inner mar¬
gin setose. It is tipped with a finger-like process and with a
longer slender spine. The endopodite is slender, somewhat
conical in shape, and reaches to about the middle of the second
segment of the exopodite.
Length of female, 1.13 mm. Length of male, 1.069 mm.
This species was found in collections made by Professor Birge
at Guzman and Milneburg, Louisiana. In the Guzman collec¬
tions it was associated with D. mississippiensis. The form of
the male fifth feet, however, and the dorsal process of the female
make it easy to distinguish the two species. The particularly
distinguishing features of D. dorsalis are the hyaline append¬
ages of the segments of the right male fifth foot, and this
dorsal process. The process very probably resembles that in
D. gibber Poppe, but as DeGuerne and Richard give no figure,
one cannot be certain.
diaptomus saltillixus Brewer.
Plate XXIII, figs., 4, 6, 7, 10. Plate XXIV, fig. 1.
1897. Diaptomus albuquerquensis Schacht, p. 146 ; pi. XXVII,
figs. 2, 4.
1898. Diaptomus saltillinus Brewer, p. 127 ; pi. VII, figs. 5-9.
1905. Diaptomus saltillinus Pearse, p. 148; pi. XIV, figs, u,
10.
Of moderate size. The first cephalothoracic segment equals
in length the three following. The last cephalothoracic segment
is expanded in lateral lobes, each of which bears two minute
470 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters.
spines. The fifth segment of the female has a projecting tooth
at the middle of the dorsal surface.
The first abdominal segment of the female exceeds the rest
of the abdomen in length. It is much dilated in front. The
lateral dilatations are rather slight, at the proximal fourth of
the length, and armed with minute spines. The second and
third segments are about equal in length, and each is somewhat
shorter than the furca. The furcal rami are longer than broad
and ciliate on the inner margin.
The antennae are 25-segmented and reach to the end of the
furca. The right antenna of the male is much swollen anterior
to the geniculating joint; the antepenultimate segment bears a
stout hook which is about one-half the length of the penultimate
segment.
The spines on the posterior surface of the first basal seg¬
ments of the female fifth feet are prominent. The lateral hairs
of the second basal segments are slender. The length of the
first segment of the exopodite is more than twice its width.
The second segment is prolonged into a hook of slight curva¬
ture, and is denticulate on the inner margin. The third seg¬
ment is distinct and armed with two spines. The endopodite
is one-segmented, about one-half the length of the first segment
of the exopodite, and setose at the tip.
The first basal segments of the fifth feet of the male are
each armed with a prominent slender spine as in the case of
the female fifth feet. The second basal segment of the right
foot is as broad as long. It has a tooth-like process at the
middle of its inner margin and a small hyaline process on the
posterior surface near the distal end of the segment. The lat¬
eral hair is near the distal end. The first segment of the ex¬
opodite is short, its length being a little more than one-half its
breadth. It is produced at the outer distal angle, and bears a
small fold on the posterior surface near the distal end. The
second segment is stout, its length being to its breadth in the
proportion of three to two. The lateral spine is situated to¬
wards the distal end, is straight, and equals in length the two
segments of the exopodite. The terminal hook is slender, and so
Marsh — North American Species of Diaptomus. 471
sharply curved at the middle that the two parts make very
nearly a right angle with each, other. Its length equals that of
the whole right foot. It is finely denticulate on the proximal
half of the inner margin. The endopodite is short, stout and
pointed, equaling in length the first segment of the exopodite.
It is setose at the tip. The left foot reaches beyond the middle
of the second segment of the right exopodite. The second
basal segment is longer than broad, and nearly equals in length
the corresponding segment of the right foot. The lateral hair
is near the distal end. The first segment of the exopodite i3
twice as long as wide, and setose on the inner margin. The
second segment is spherical in form, setose on its inner margin,
and is terminated by a setose finger-like process and a slender
falciform spine. The endopodite is slender, equal in length
to the first segment of the exopodite, and setose at tip.
Length of female, 1.5 mm. Length of male, 1.25 mm.
Locality, temporary pools near Lincoln, Nebraska.
If D. albuquerquensis Schacht is identical with D. saltil-
linus, this species is also found in Florida. The relationship
of D. albuquerquensis Schacht to D. saltillinus is discussed un¬
der D. albuquerquensis.
diaptomus adbuqueequensis Herrick.
Plate XXIV, figs. 4, 7-10. Plate XXV, fig. 1.
1895. Diaptomus albuquerquensis Herrick, p. 45 ; figs. 16-26.
1895. Diaptomus albuquerquensis Herrick and Turner, p. 67 ;
pi. VI, figs. 1-3 ; pi. VII, figs. 1-11.
1904. Diaptomus Lehmeri Pearse, p. 889 ; figs. 1-4.
Of moderate size. The cephalothorax is broadest at the mid¬
dle. The first segment is about equal in length to the three
following. The last segment in the female bears a blunt dorsal
tooth; the segment is expanded laterally, each wing bearing
two rather prominent spines.
The first abdominal segment of the female equals in length
the remainder of the abdomen and the furca ; it is dilated lat-
472 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters.
erally and in front, and bears a strong spine on each side.
The second segment is short, being only about one-half the
length of the third. The third segment and the f ureal rami
are about equal in length. The furcal rami are ciliate on both
the inner and outer margins.
The antennae are 25-segmented, and reach to the end of the
furca. The right antenna of the male is much swollen ante¬
rior to the geniculating joint; the antepenultimate segment
bears a slightly recurved hook considerably less in length than
the penultimate segment. In the female fifth feet, the spines
of the first basal segments are pronounced. The first segment
of the exopodite is about twice as long as wide. The hook of
the second segment is nearly as long as the first segment, is
slightly curved, and is denticulate on the inner margin. The
hook has a single fine tooth on the outer margin. There is a
small spine at the base of the third segment. The third seg¬
ment is distinct, and bears two spines of which the inner is the
longer. The endopodite is indistinctly two-segmented, and is
about one-lialf the length of the first segment of the exopodite.
It is setose at tip.
In the male fifth feet, the spines of the first basal segments
are stout. The length of the second basal segment is some¬
what less than twice its width ; it is trapezoidal in form, and
wider at the distal end. The lateral hair is situated close to
the distal end of the segment. The proximal inner angle is ex¬
panded into a wing-like process. At a little less than one-half
its length, there is on the inner margin a recurved hyaline
tooth. On the posterior surface of the segment is a two-headed
hyaline process. The first segment of the exopodite is short,
its length being only about one-half its width. The outer dis¬
tal angle is somewhat extended. The segment has a hyaline
lamella on its posterior surface, and a small hyaline projection
from its posterior distal border. The second segment of the
exopodite is between three and four times as long as the first
segment. The lateral spine is situated at about four-fifths
of its length, is long, nearly straight, and finely denticulate on
its inner margin. On the posterior surface of the segment,
Marsh — North American Species of Diaptomus. 473
about midway of its length, is an oblique ridge. The terminal
hook is longer than the rest of the foot, regularly curved and
finely denticulate on the inner margin. The right endopodite
is one-segmented, about equal in length to the first segment of
the exopodite, and is setose at the tip.
The left foot reaches beyond the end of the first segment of
the exopodite. The second basal segment is elongate, but
shorter than the corresponding segment of the right foot. The
lateral hair is situated at rather more than two-thirds the
length of the segment. The first segment of the exopodite is
about twice as long as wide; the inner margin is convex and
setose. The second segment of the exopodite is about equal in
length and width; it is terminated by a blunt process and a
slender, curved spine; its inner margin has two setose pads.
The endopodite is slender, one-segmented, equal in length to
the first segment of the exopodite, and setose at the tip.
Length of female, 1.765 mm. Length of male, 1.581 mm.
Localities: Albuquerque, New Mexico, City of Mexico, and
Hugo, Colorado.
It was found impossible to get authoritative examples of this
species, as the material was not preserved by Herrick, and the
author was unsuccessful in dredging in the same locality. The
description is from the material obtained in pools near Hugo,
Colorado. Herrick does not mention or figure the tooth on the
inner margin of the first basal segment of the right fifth foot of
the male, or the dorsal tooth on the cephalothorax of the female.
While it is possible that these features, which were not de¬
scribed either by Pearse, are local variations, it does not seem
probable, inasmuch as the correspondence is so complete as far
as the published descriptions go. It seems probable that these
features were overlooked.
It may be noticed that D. a l b uquerq uensis, D. dorsalis and
D. saltillinus are very closely related to each other, and it is
possible that intermediate forms may be found.
Schacht describes D. albuquerquensis from material collected
in Florida. Just what Schacht had it is pretty difficult to tell,
as he gives only two figures, but it seems evident that D. albu-
474 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts , and Letters.
querquensis Herrick and D. albuquerquensis Schacht are not
identical. The figure of the male fifth foot given by Schacht
is very different from that figured by Herrick, and I think it
probable that it belongs to D. saltillinus Brewer. The figure
of the female fifth foot is of neither D. saltillinus nor D. albu¬
querquensis , as both species have a short endopodite. Schacht
states that his D. albuquerquensis was found in connection with
D. mississippiensis , and his figure would correspond very well
to the fifth foot of the female of that species. It seems proba¬
ble, then, that Schacht’ s description is a composite of D. sal¬
tillinus and D. mississippiensis, and that he had no specimens
of D. albuquerquensis.
DIAPTOMUS ASYMMETRICUS Sp. nOV.
Plate XXV, fig. 6. Plate XXVI, figs. 1, 3, 4.
A small species. The first cephalothoracic segment is long¬
er than the three following. The second, third and fourth
segments are about equal in length, the fifth somewhat longer.
The lateral expansions of the last thoracic segment are armed
on each side with an acute spine.
The first segment of the female abdomen is much longer
than the rest of the abdomen. It is expanded laterally at a
little less than one-third its length ; the dilatations are armed
with acute spines which are slightly recurved. The dilatation
on the front of the segment is very pronounced. At about
two-thirds the length of the segment, and on the right side, is
a blunt, rounded projection, which is much more prominent
than the lateral dilatation. The second segment is short. The
third segment is fully four times as long as the second, and is
about equal in length to the furca. The distal end of the fur-
cal ramus is nearly twice as wide as the proximal; the furcae
are ciliate on the inner margin.
The antennae are 25-segmented, and in the female extend
beyond the tip of the furcae. The right antenna of the male
is much swollen anterior to the geniculating joint. The an-
Marsh — North American Species of Diaptomus. 475
tepenultimate segment bears a recurved, hook-shaped process,
which is about one-half the length of the penultimate segment ;
on the outer surface of this hook, and extending down the seg¬
ment, is an inconspicuous hyaline lamella.
The first basal segments of the female fifth feet are armed
with long and rather slender spines. The lateral hairs of the
second basal segment are short and weak. The exopodite con¬
sists of three segments. The first segment is more than twice
as long as its width. The second segment has a small spine
on the outer distal angle; its inner margin is only slightly
curved and is finely denticulate. The third segment is dis¬
tinct and bears two spines, of which the inner is the longer.
The endopodite is shorter than the first segment of the exopo¬
dite, and is one-segmented, or indistinctly two-segmented; its
tip is setose, two of the setae being especially prominent, but
hardly large enough to be called spines.
The spines of the first basal segments of the male fifth feet
are long and acute. The second basal segment of the right
foot is rectangular and longer than broad; the lateral hair is
near the distal end of the segment; on the inner margin, about
midway of its length, is a prominent hyaline projection with
a semi-elliptical outline. The first segment of the exopodite is
short, its length being to its breadth as one to one and one-half ;
on the posterior surface is a ridge running from the inner
margin to about the middle of the segment. The second seg¬
ment of the exopodite is slightly longer than the combined
length of the second basal segment and the first segment of the
exopodite; the outer margin is angular; the lateral spine is
stout, slightly sigmoid, and is situated just beyond the angle
near the end of the proximal half of the segment; on the pos¬
terior surface of the segment, nearly opposite the distal edge
of the lateral spine, is a curved transverse ridge extending
nearly across the segment. The terminal hook is strongly
curved, falciform, slightly longer than the rest of the exopo¬
dite and the first basal segment, and is finely denticulate on
the inner margin. The endopodite is one-segmented, about
twice as long as the first segment of the exopodite, and is se¬
tose at the tip.
476 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts , and Letters.
The left fifth foot reaches to about one-third the length of
the second segment of the right exopodite. The second basal
segment is trapezoidal, its proximal end being the wider; the
lateral hair is near the distal end. The first segment of the
exopodite is longer than broad, the inner and outer margins
convex, and the inner margin setose. The inner margin of
the second segment is a semicircular setose pad ; the segment
is terminated with a slender digitiform process and a long and
slender spine, the two forming a forcipate structure. The
endopodite is slender, one-segmented, longer than the first seg¬
ment of the exopodite, and setose at the tip.
Length of female, 1.39 mm. Length of male, 1.16 mm.
This species was found in collections made by Prof. C. F.
Baker at Havana, Cuba.
DIAPTOMUS PTJRPUBEUS Sp. nOV.
Plate XXV, figs. 4, 7. Plate XXVI, figs. 2, 5.
A large species. The first segment of the cephalothorax
equals the three following. The second, third and fourth are
about equal in length, the fifth somewhat longer. The lateral
expansions of the last cephalothoracic segment are armed on
each side with a small, acute spine.
The first segment of the female abdomen is longer than the
rest of the abdomen. The lateral dilatations are near the
proximal end of the segment, are not marked, and are armed
with small, acute spines. The second segment is short, being
only about one-quarter the length of the third. The third seg¬
ment and the furca are nearly equal. The distal ends of the
f ureal rami are wider than the proximal ; the inner margins
are ciliate.
The antennae are 25-segmented, and in the female barely
reach the end of the first abdominal segment. The right an¬
tenna of the male is much swollen anterior to the geniculating
joint ; the antepenultimate segment bears a recurved, hook¬
shaped process which is about one-half the length of the penui-
Marsh — North American Species of Diaptomus. 477
timate segment. On the outer surface of the hook, and ex¬
tending down the side of the segment, is an inconspicuous hya¬
line lamella.
The first basal segments of the female fifth feet are armed
with long and stout spines. The lateral hairs of the second
basal segments are short and weak. The exopodite consists
of three segments; the first segment is stout, its length being
to its breadth as four to two and one-half. The second segment
has a small spine on its outer distal angle; the inner margin
of the hook is concave and armed with prominent teeth. The
third segment is distinct and bears two spines, of which the
inner is the longer. The endopodite is one-segmented, is
more than one-half the length of the first segment of the exo¬
podite, and at the tip is setose and bears two long spines and
one small one.
The spines of the first basal segments of the fifth feet of the
male are acute, and rather small. The second basal segment
is trapezoidal in its general outline, longer than broad, its dis¬
tal end the broader, and is distinctly convex on its inner and
outer margins; the lateral hair is small and is near the distal
end; on the inner margin, beyond the middle, is a hyaline
projection with a rounded outline. The first segment of the
exopodite is wider than long, and bears on its posterior face at
about two-thirds of its length a transverse ridge. The second
segment of the exopodite is a little more than twice as long as
wide, and approximately rectangular in form; about midway
of the posterior surface is a short, curved ridge; at the middle
of the posterior surface, near the outer margin, is a semi-cir¬
cular hyaline projection; the lateral spine is near the distal
end of the segment; the terminal hook is about as long as the
rest of the right foot exclusive of the first basal segment, is
slender, and bent at near its middle into very nearly a right
angle; the denticulations of its inner margin are very fine.
The endopodite of the right fifth foot is short and stout, barely
exceeding one-half the length of the first segment of the exopo¬
dite, and is setose at the tip.
478 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences 9 Arts , cmd Letters .
The left foot reaches to one-half the length of the second
segment of the right exopodite. The second basal segment is
long and rectangular, equaling in length the correspond¬
ing segment of the right foot, but is not so wide; the lateral
hair is situated not far from the distal end of the segment.
The first segment of the exopodite is twice as long as wide, of
nearly the same width through its whole length, the inner and
outer margins slightly convex, the inner margin setose. The
second segment is conical in form, with a rounded ciliate pad
on its inner margin; the segment terminates in a blunt digi¬
tate process. The endopodite of the left fifth foot is one-seg-
mented and shorter than the first segment of the exopodite; it
is setose at the tip.
Length of female, 2.56 mm. Length of male, 2.24 mm.
This was collected by Prof. C. P. Baker in Havana, Cuba,
and was found associated with D. asymmetricus.
The species is very conspicuous, for, in addition to being of
large size, the furcae, the f ureal setae and the distal ends of
the antennae are colored a deep purple.
DIAPTOMUS SANGUINEUS PorbeS.
Plate XXVI, figs. 2, 5.
1876. Diaptomus sanguineus Porbes, pp. 15, 16, 23; figs. 24,
28-30.
1882. Diaptomus sanguineus Porbes, p. 647 ; pi. VIII, figs.
1-7, 13.
1884. Diaptomus sanguineus Herrick, p. 138; pi. Q, fig. 12.
1884. Diaptomus miwietonka Herrick, p. 138; pi. Q, figs.
8-10. _ . ■
1889. Diaptomus sanguineus DeGueme and Biehard, p. 20;
figs. 9-11; pi. IV, fig. 24.
1893. Diaptomus sanguineus Marsh, p. 195 ; pi. Ill, figs. 1-3.
1895. Diaptomus sanguineus Herrick and Turner, p. 71; pi.
V, figs. 8, 9 ; pi. XIII, fig. 12.
1895. Diaptomus minnetonka Herrick and Turner, p. 71; pL
XIII, figs. 8-10.
Marsh — North American Species of Diaptomus. 479
1897. Diaptomus sanguineus Schacht, p. 183; pis. XXIII,
XXIV, XXV.
1898. Diaptomus sanguineus Brewer, p. 124.
1905. Diaptomus sanguineus Pearse, p. 147.
Rather large. The first segment of the cephalothorax is
nearly equal in length to the rest of the cephalothorax. The
last segment of the cephalothorax is produced laterally, and
armed on each side with two rather prominent spines. The
fifth cephalothoracic segment of the female has a pronounced
dorsal hump.
The first abdominal segment of the female equals the rest
of the abdomen including the furca. It is expanded laterally
and in front, and bears two pronounced lateral spines. The
second segment is about one-half as long as the third. The
furcal rami are setose on the inner margin.
The antennae are 25-segmented and somewhat longer than
the cephalothorax. The right antenna of the male is much
swollen anterior to the geniculating joint. The antepenulti¬
mate segment bears at its distal end a short, stout, recurved
hook, which is continuous with a lateral hyaline lamella of the
segment.
The female fifth feet are rather stout. The spines of the
first basal segments are of moderate size. The lateral hairs
of the second basal segments are commonly long, reaching
nearly to the end of the first segment of the exopodite. The
first segment of the exopodite is twice as long as broad. The
second segment is produced into the customary hook, which is
dentate on the inner margin. The third segment is repre¬
sented by two spines, of which the outer is the shorter. The
endopodite is slender, variable in length, but commonly much
shorter than the first segment of the exopodite. It is setose
at tip, and armed with two rather long spines.
In the male fifth feet, the spines of the first basal segments
are rather small. The second basal segment of the right foot
is trapezoidal in form, wider at the distal end. Its length is
about twice its average width. The outer distal angle is pro¬
longed into a blunt or acute spine; the lateral hair is near th©
480 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts, and Letters.
distal end. The first segment of the exopodite is small and
quadrate. The second segment has about the same width as
the first, and its length is about that of the second basal seg
ment. Its outer margin is convex and its inner sinuous. The
lateral spine is situated at about two-thirds the length of the
segment, and is commonly straight and rather weak. The ter¬
minal hook is falciform with a regular curve, is denticulate on
the inner margin, and is about equal in length to the second
segment of the exopodite. The right endopodite is short and
stout, much shorter than the first segment of the exopodite,
setose at tip. Frequently the joint between it and the second
basal segment disappears, and the endopodite appears simply
as a prolongation of the inner distal angle of the second basal
segment.
The left fifth foot reaches to the end of the second basal seg¬
ment of the right foot. The second basal segment is quadrate,
its inner margin strongly convex. The lateral hair is situated
at the outer distal angle, is stout and plumose. The first
segment of the exopodite is small and trapezoidal, widest at
the base. The second segment is twice the length of the first,
armed on its inner surface with a hemispherical setose pad.
It terminates in two curved spines forming a foreipate struct¬
ure. The inner spine is movable, bears a small tubercle on the
inner side of its base, and is setose. The endopodite is about
three times as long as broad, longer than the first segment of
the exopodite, and is setose at tip.
Length of female, 1.4 to 2.12 mm. Length of male, 1 to
2 mm. (Schacht).
Occurs only in the early spring in stagnant pools. It is
found quite generally in the Mississippi valley. It has been
found as far east as Hew York, as far north as Wisconsin and
Minnesota, as far west as Nebraska, and as far south as Ala¬
bama.
D. sanguineus is a very variable species. Some of these
variations have been discussed in some detail by Schacht. The
variations do not seem to be so great, however, as necessarily
to raise any question as to specific identity. Inasmuch as there
Marsh — North American Species of Diaptomus. 481
is a succession of forms in some pools in the spring, Herrick
has maintained a heterogenetic character of this species, but
his conclusions have not been verified by other authors. The
exigencies of the life of the species may explain its variability.
From the fact that its life is so short, we might expect some lo¬
calization of species, inasmuch as there is hardly time for
dispersion in the ordinary ways, and it is very possible that
extended study will show that there are very definite local
varieties.
Schacht considers D. armatus Herrick a variety of D. san¬
guineus. While I think this identification is probably correct,
I have not ventured to include this among the list of syno¬
nyms, for Herrick’s description is so very meager that it is
impossible to know what form he had before him.
diaptomus eiseni Lilljeborg.
Plate XXV, fig. 3. Plate XXVI, figs. 6, 8.
1889. Diaptomus Eiseni DeGuerne and Richard, p. 44; pi.
I, figs. 19, 29, 33.
1895. Diaptomus Eiseni Plerrick and Turner, p. 58 ; pi. X,
%. ii.
1897. Diaptomus Eiseni Schacht, p. 162.
1898. Diaptomus Eiseni Brewer, p. 128; pi. VII, figs. 9-12.
Among the largest of the genus. The cephalo thorax is
widest at the posterior part of the head. The first segment
does not equal in length the rest of the cephalothorax. The
last two thoracic segments are commonly confluent above, or
indistinctly separated. The lateral lobes of the last segment,
seen from above, are, in the female, short, the anterior and
posterior angles somewhat acute, and the lateral obtuse. The
lateral spines of the last segment are short and thick.
The first abdominal segment of the female equals or exceeds
in length the rest of the abdomen including the furca. It is
swollen laterally and in front, and bears on the lateral expan¬
sions rather large spines which project backwards. The second
31— S. & A.
482 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts, and Letters.
segment is very short, and the third and the furca are nearly
equal in length. The furcal rami are ciliate on both inner
and outer margins.
The antennae are 2 5 -segmented, and in the female reach the
lateral processes of the first abdominal segment. The ante¬
penultimate segment of the right male antenna has a long, re¬
curved, acuminate process, which reaches about to the end of
the antenna.
In the fifth foot of the female, the first segment of the exo-
podite is twice as long as wide. The second segment is pro¬
longed into the customary hook. This segment bears a spine
at its outer angle and is denticulate on its inner margin. The
third segment is distinct and hears two strong spines, of which
the inner is longer and is serrate on its margins.
The endopodite nearly equals in length the first segment of
the exopodite, is indistinctly two-segmented, is setose at tip,
and bears two rather long spines.
In the fifth feet of the male, the spines of the first basal seg¬
ments are rather small. The second basal segment of the
right foot is wider than long, has a peculiar rugose expansion
of the inner margin, and bears the lateral hair at about two-
thirds of its length. The first segment of the exopodite is short,
its length being less than its breadth. It is produced on the
outer distal angle, and hears a small tubercle on the inner
margin near the distal end. The second segment is twice as
long as broad, convex on the outer margin, and concave on the
inner. The lateral spine is placed near the outer distal angle
and is serrate on the inner side. The terminal hook is about
as long as the whole right foot exclusive of the first basal seg¬
ment ; it is abruptly bent at somewhat less than half its length,
making very nearly a right angle. The inner margin is den¬
tate. The endopodite is slender, indistinctly two-segmented,
and once and a half as long as the first segment of the exopo¬
dite. The left foot reaches nearly to one-half the length of
the second segment of the right exopodite. The second basal
segment is as long as wide, with the lateral hair placed near
the distal end. The first segment of the exopodite is twice as
Marsh — North American Species of Diaptomus. 48$
long as wide, convex on both inner and outer margins, and
with the inner margin setose. The second segment is slightly
longer than the first, and armed with two setose pads on its
inner margin. It terminates in a blunt digitiform process,
and from the inner margin projects an acuminate, curved
spine. The endopodite is slender, indistinctly two-segmented,
reaches about one-half the length of the second segment of the
exopodite, and is setose at tip.
Length of female, 4 mm. Length of male, 3.5 mm.
The original description was from material found in Fresno,
California. It was ' later reported by Brewer from Lincoln,
Xebraska. These are thus far the only localities for the
species, but doubtless it will be found at intermediate points.
The description, as given above, is largely a compilation
from DeGuerne and Bichard and Brewer, with such modifica-
cations as a very limited personal acquaintance with the
species has permitted.
In the plate, the figures of the antenna and female fifth
foot are from DeGuerne and Bichard, the male fifth foot from
a preparation kindly loaned by Professor IT. B. Ward.
diaptomus novamexicanus Herrick.
Plate XXVI, figs. 0, 10.
1895. Diaptomus novamexicanus Herrick, p. 46, figs. 27-29.
•1895. Diaptomus novamexicanus Herrick and Turner, p. 70;
pi. VI, figs. 7-10.
1897. Diaptomus novamexicanus Schacht, p. 149.
“A small species of robust form. Cephalothorax widest in
front of the middle. The first segment equals in length the
rest of the cephalothorax. The last segment is armed on each
side with a minute spine.
“The first abdominal segment of the female exceeds in length
the rest of the abdomen. It is dilated laterally, and armed on
each side with a small spine. The second segment is very
short. The furcal rami equal in length the preceding segment.
The furcal setae are short.
484 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts, and Letters.
“The antennae are 25-segmented and reach the furca, or
sometimes the end of the furca. The right antenna of the
male is swollen anterior to the geniculating joint; the antepe¬
nultimate segment has a lateral lamina which is prolonged at
the end of the segment into a hook which barely reaches the
end of the penultimate segment.
“In the female fifth foot, the spines of the first basal seg¬
ments are large. The second segment of the exopodite has a
strongly curved hook, which is denticulate on the inner mar¬
gin. The third segment of the exopodite is distinct, and
bears two spines. The endopodite is one-segmented, hardly
equaling in length the first segment of the exopodite; the tip
is armed with two spines and is setose.
“In the male fifth feet, the spines of the first basal segments
are large. The second basal segment of the right foot is
quadrate, rather longer than broad. The first segment of the
exopodite is quadrate and shorter than the second basal seg¬
ment. The second segment of the exopodite is three times as
long as broad, convex on the outer margin and concave on the
inner. The lateral spine is at about two-thirds its length,
and is rather short. The terminal hook is symmetrically
curved and nearly equal to the combined length of the rest of
the exopodite and of the second basal segment. The right en¬
dopodite is one-segmented, setose at tip, and equal in length to
the first segment of the exopodite.
“The left fifth foot of the male reaches the end of the first
segment of the right exopodite. The first segment of the ex¬
opodite is oval. The second segment is nearly equal in length
to the first ; it terminates in two strong spines, and has a setose
lamina at its base on the inner margin. The endopodite is one-
segmented, setose at tip, and reaches to the middle of the
second segment of the exopodite. The animal is for the most
part colorless, but sometimes is blue or red.
“Length of female, 1.1 to 1.2 mm.”
Locality, the tank of the city works at Albuquerque, Hew
Mexico.
The above is the description of Herrick, and the figures of
Marsh — North American Species of Diaptomus. 485
the plates are copies from his paper. I have been unable to
obtain any material in order to verify the description.
LIST OF PAPERS QUOTED.
Beardsley, A. E., ’02 : Yotes on Colorado Entomostraca.
Trans. Amer. Micr. Soc., xxiii: 41-48.
Brewer, A. D., ’98 : A study of the Copepoda found in the
vicinity of Lincoln, Yebraska. Jour. Cincinnati Soc. Nat.
Ilist., xix: 119-146.<
BeGuerxe, J., and Richard, J.i? ’89 : Revision de Calanides
d’ eau doiuA. Mem. Soc. Zool. de France , ii.
- , ’92 : Sur la Eaune des eau donees de 1’ Islande. Bull.
Soc. Ent. Fr ., 8 fev., 1892.
Eorbes, S. A., ’82 : On some Entomostraca of Lake Michigan
and adjacent waters. Amer. Nat., xvi: 537-542, 640-649.
- , ’91 : On some Lake Superior Entomostraca. Rept. U.
S. Fish Com., 1887, pp. 701-718.
- , ’93 : A preliminary report on the aquatic invertebrate
fauna of the Yellowstone Yational park, Wyoming, and
of the Flathead region of Montana. Bull. U. S. Fish
Com., 1891, pp. 207-258.
Herrick, C, L., ’79: Microscopic Entomostraca. Ann. Rept.
Regents Univ. Minn., 1878, pp. 81-123.
- , ’82 : Papers on the Crustacea of the fresh waters of
Minnesota. Ann. Rept. Geol. and Nat. Hist. Survey
Minn., x: 221-254 +i-ii.
- , ’83 : ILeterogenetic development in Diaptomus. Amer.
Nat., xvii : 381-389, 499-505.
- , ’84: A final report on the Crustacea of Minnesota in-
elude 1 in the orders Cladocera and Copepoda. Ann.
Rept. Geol. and Nat. Hist. Survey Minn., xii.
- , ’95 : Micro-Crustacea from Yew Mexico. Zool. Anz.,
xviii : 40-47.
Herrick, C. L., and Turner, C. LI., ’95 : Synopsis of the En¬
tomostraca of Minnesota. Geol. and Nat. Hist. Survey
Minn., 2nd Rept. State Zoologist.
486 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts , and Letters.
Juday, CL, ’03 : The plankton of Winona lake. Ind. Univ .
Bull., i: 120-133.
Marsh, C. D., ’91: On the deep-water Crustacea of Green
lake. Trans. Wis. Acad., viii: 211-213.
* - ■, ’93 : On the Cyclopidse and Calanidse of Central Wis¬
consin. Trans. Wis. Acad., ix: 189-224.
- - •, ’94 : On two new species of Diaptomus. Trans. Wis.
Acad., ix: 15-17.
- - ’95 : On the Cyclopidae and Calanidse of Lake St.
Clair, Lake Michigan, and certain of the inland lakes of
Michigan. Bull. Mich. Fish Com., no. 5.
- - , ’97 : The limnetic Crustacea of Green lake. Trans.
Wis. Acad., xi: 189-224.
- , ’03 : The plankton of Lake Winnebago and Green
lake. Wis. Geol. and Nat. Hist. Survey , Bull. xii.
- , ’04: Report on Copepoda, in “A biological reconnois-
sance of some elevated lakes in the Sierras and Rockies,”
by Henry B. Ward. Studies from Zool. Lab., Univ. Neb.,
no. 60: 146-149.
Pearse, A. S., ’04: A new species of Diaptomus from Mexico.
Amer. Nat., xxxviii: 889-891.
• - , ’05: Contributions to the Copepod fauna of Nebraska
and other states. Studies from Zool. Lab., Univ. Neb.,
no. 65: 145-160.
- , ’06: Fresh water Copepoda of Massachusetts. Amer.
Nat., xl: 241-251.
Poppe, S. A., ’88 : Diagnoses de deux especes nouvelles du
genre Diaptomus Westwood. Bull. Soc. Zool. Fr., xiii:
159.
Schacht, F. W., ’97 : The North American species of Diapto¬
mus. Bull. III. State Lab. Nat. Hist., v, art. 3.
488 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts , and Letters .
EXPLANATION OF PLATE XV.
Fig. 1. Diaptornus oregonensis: fifth feet of male(X 290).
Fig. 2. Diaptornus Reighardi : fifth, feet of male (X 290).
Fig. 3. Diaptornus mississ ipp iensis : fifth feet of male (X 290).
Fig. 4. Diaptornus oregonensis : fifth feet of female (X375).
Fig. 5. Diaptornus mississippiensis : abdomen of female (X 105).
Fig. 6. Diaptornus Reighardi: abdomen of female (X 290).
Fig. 7. Diaptornus oregonensis : abdomen of female (X1G5).
Fig. 8. Diaptornus mississippiensis: fifth feet of female (X 290).
Fig. 9. Diaptornus Reighardi: fifth feet of female (X 375).
Trans. Wis. Acad., Vol. XV.
Plate XV.
C. D. Marsh del.
490 Wisconsin Academy cf Sciences , Arts , and Letters.
EXPLANATION OF PLATE XVI.
Fig. 1. Diaptomus paUidus : fifth feet of male (X 190)*
Fig. 2. Diaptomus paUidus: abdomen of female (X 165).
Fig. 3. Diaptomus pallidus : fifth feet of female (X 290).
Fig. 4. Diaptomus Bakem: abdomen of female (X 155).
Fig. 5. Diaptomus Bakeri: terminal segments of right antenna of male
(X 155) .
Fig. 6. Diaptomus Bakeri: fifth feet of male (X165).
Fig. 7. Diaptomus tenuicaudatus : abdomen of female (X 165).
Fig. 8. Diaptomus tenuicaudatus : fifth feet of male (X 290).
Fig. 9. Diaptomus Bakeri: fifth feet of female (X 29C).
Trans. Wis. Acad., Vol. XV.
Plate XYI.
C. D. Marsh del.
_ _
Marsh — North American Species of Diaptomus . 491
PLATE XVII.
492
Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts , and Letters .
*T
Fig. 1.
Fig. 2.
Fig. 3.
Fig. 4.
Fig. 5.
Fig. 6.
Fig. 7.
Fig. 8.
Fig. 9.
Fig. 10.
Fig. 11.
EXPLANATION OF PLATE XVII.
Diaptomus sicilis : fifth feet of male (X 290).
Diaptomus tenuicaudatus: fifth feet of female (X 290).
Diaptomus tenuicaudatus : terminal segments of right antenna
of male (X 290).
Diaptomus sicilis: terminal segments of right antenna of male
(X 290).
Diaptomus sicilis: fifth foot of female (X 290).
Diaptomus Ashlandi : fifth foot of female (X 375).
Diaptomus minutus: fifth foot of female (X 375).
Diaptomus Ashlandi: fifth feet of male (X 290).
Diaptomus sicilis: abdomen of female (X 165).
Diaptomus Ashlandi: terminal segments of right antenna of
male (X 290).
Diaptomus minutus : terminal segments of right antenna of
male (X 290).
Trans. Wis. Acad., Vol. XV.
C. D. Marsh del.
J
Marsh — North American Species of Diaptorrms. 493
PLATE XVIII.
494 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts, and Letters .
EXPLANATION OF PLATE XVIII.
Fig. 1. Diaptomus minutus: abdomen of female (X 165).
Fig. 2. Diaptomus shoshone: fifth feet of male (X 108).
Fig. 3. Diaptomus shoshone: abdomen of female (X 68).
Fig. 4. Diaptomus shoshone: terminal segments of right antenna of
male (X 180).
Fig. 5. Diaptomus shoshone: fifth foot of female (X 108).
Fig. 6. Diaptomus Birgei: abdomen of female (X 165).
Fig. 7. Diaptomus minutus: fifth feet of male (X 290).
Fig. 8. Diaptomus Birgei: terminal segments of male antenna (X 290).
Fig. 9. Diaptomus siciloides: fifth foot of female (X 290).
Trans. Wis. Acad., Vol. XV.
Plate XVIII.
C. D. Marsh del.
496 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters .
EXPLANATION OF PLATE XIX.
Fig. 1. Diaptomus Birgei: fifth foot of female (X 290).
Fig. 2. Diaptomus Tyrelli: abdomen of female (X 156).
Fig. 3. Diaptomus Tyrelbi: fifth feet of male (X 190).
Fig. 4. Diaptomus siciloides: terminal segments of right antenna of
male (X 290).
Fig. 5. Diaptomus siciloides: fifth feet of male (X 190).
Fig. 6. Diaptomus Birgei: fifth feet of male (X 190).
Fig. 7. Diaptomus siciloides : abdomen of female (X 165).
Fig. 8. Diaptomus Tyrelli: fifth foot of female (X 290).
Trans. Wis. Acad., Yol. XV.
Plate XIX.
C. D. Marsh del.
PLATE XX.
498
Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts , and Letters .
EXPLANATION OF PLATE XX.
Fig. 1. Diaptornus leptopus: fifth foot of female (X 190).
Fig. 2. Diaptornus leptopus: abdomen of female (X 158).
Fig. 3. Diaptornus leptopus var. piscince: abdomen of female (X 76).
Fig. 4. Diaptornus conipedatus : abdomen of female (X185).
Fig. 5. Diaptornus leptopus: terminal segments of right antenna of
male (X 290).
Fig. 6. Diaptornus leptopus var. piscince: fifth feet of male (X165).
Fig. 7. Diaptornus leptopus: fifth feet of male (X 256).
Fig. 8. Diaptornus leptopus var. piscince: fifth foot of female (X 165).
Fig. 9. Diaptornus clavipes: fifth foot of female (X 165).
Trans. Wis. Acad., Vol. XV.
C. D. Marsh del.
500 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences t Arts , and Letters .
EXPLANATION OF PLATE XXI.
Fig. 1. Diaptomus clavipes: abdomen of female (X 190).
Fig. 2. Diaptomus conipedatus: fifth feet of male (X 190).
Fig. 3. Diaptomus conipedatus ; terminal segments of right antenna
of male (X 290).
Fig. 4. Diaptomus conipedatus : fifth foot of female (X 290).
Fig. 5. Diaptomus clavipes: fifth feet of male (X 114).
Fig. 6. Diaptomus clavipes: terminal segments of right antenna of
male (X 190).
Fig. 7. Diaptomus leptopu&v&v. piscinae: terminal segments of right
antenna of male (X 165).
Fig. 8. Diaptomus signicauda : terminal segments of right antenna of
male (X 290).
Fig. 9. Diaptomus nudus: fifth foot of female (X 267).
Fig. 10. Diaptomus signicauda: fifth foot of female (X 165).
Fig. 11. Diaptomus signicauda : abdomen of female (X 165).
Trans. Wis. Acad., Yol. XY.
C. D. Marsh del.
Marsh — North Americcm Species of Diaptomus .
501
PLATE XXII.
502 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts , and Letters .
EXPLANATION OF PLATE XXII.
Fig. 1. Diaptomus nudus: fifth feet of male (X 158).
Fig. 2. Diaptomus nudus: abdomen of female (X 158).
Fig. 3. Diaptomus signicauda: fifth feet of male (X 290).
Fig. 4. Diaptomus Judayi: terminal segments of right antenna of male
(X 290).
Fig. 5. Diaptomus w ashing tonev sis : fifth foot of female (X 290).
Fig. 6. Diaptomus Judayi: fifth feet of male (X290).
Fig. 7. Diaptomus nudus : terminal segments of right antenna of male
(X 267).
Fig. 8. Diaptomus washingtonensis : terminal segments of right antenna
of male (X 2S0).
Fig. 9. Diaptomus washingtonensis : fifth feet of male (X 190).
Trans. Wis. Acad., Vol. XV.
2
Plate XXII.
C. D. Marsh del.
Marsh — North American Species of Diaptomus.
PLATE XXIII.
504 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts , and Letters.
EXPLANATION OF PLATE XXIII.
Fig. 1. Diaptomus Judayi: abdomen of female (X 165).
Fig. 2. Diaptomus w ashing tonensis : abdomen of female (X 165).
Fig. 3. Diaptomus signicauda: abdomen of female (X 165).
Fig. 4. Diaptomus saltillinus : terminal segments of right antenna of
male (X 290).
Fig. 5. Diaptomus Judayi: fifth foot of female (X 290).
Fig. 6. Diaptomus saltillinus: fifth feet of male (X 190).
Fig. 7. Diaptomus saltillinus : fifth foot of female (X 290).
Fig. 8. Diaptomus dorsalis: fifth foot of male (X290).
Fig. 9. Diaptomus dorsalis: profile of last cephalothoracic segment of
female (X 165).
Fig. 10. Diaptomus saltillinus : dorsal process of last cephalothoracic
segment of female (X 290).
Trans. Wis. Acad., Vol. XV. Plate XXIII.
C. D. Marsh del.
Marsh — North American Species of Diaptomus ,
PLATE XXIV.
506
Wisconsin Academy of Sciences J Arts, and Letters.
EXPLANATION OF PLATE XXIV.
Fig. 1. Diaptomus saltillinus : abdomen of female (X 165).
Fig. 2. Diaptomus dorsalis: abdomen of female (X 165).
Fig. 3. Diaptomus dorsalis: profile of cephalothorax of female (X 16) .
Fig. 4. Diaptomus albuquerquensis : abdomen of female (X 100).
Fig. 5. Diaptomus dorsalis: terminal segments of right antenna of male
(X 290).
Fig. 6. Diaptomus dorsalis: fifth foot of female (X 290).
Fig. 7. Diaptomus albuquerquensis: terminal segments of right anten¬
na of male (X 172).
Fig. 8. Diaptomus albuquerquensis : fifth feet of male (X 75).
Fig. 9. Diaptomus albuquerquensis : spines of left side of last cephalo¬
thoracic segment of female (X 180).
Fig. 10. Diaptomus albuquerquensis : dorsal process of last cephalo¬
thoracic segment of female (X 180) .
Trans. Wis. Acad., Yol. XY.
Plate XXIV.
C. D. Marsh del.
508 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, md Letters ,
EXPLANATION OF PLATE XXV.
Fig. 1. Diaptomus albuquerquensis : fifth foot of female (X 180).
Fig. 2. Diaptomus sanguineus: terminal segments of right antenna of
maie (X 290).
Fig. 3. Diaptomus Eiseni : fifth feet of male (X 76).
Fig. 4. Diaptomus purpureus : fifth feet of male (X 108).
Fig. 5. Diaptomus sanguineus : fifth foot of female (X 165).
Fig. 6. Diaptomus asymmetrieus : fifth feet of male (X 205).
Fig. 7. Diaptomus purpureus : terminal segments of right antenna of
male (X 180).
Fig. 8. Diaptomus sanguineus: fifth feet of male (X165).
Trans. Wis. Acad., Vol. XV.
C. D. Marsh del.
■ |!
•v i
V
Marsh — North American Species of Diaptomus. 509
PLATE XXVI.
510
Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts , and Letters.
EXPLANATION OF PLATE XXVI.
Fig. 1. Diaptomus asymmetricus : terminal segments of right antenna
of male (X 267).
Fig. 2. Diaptomus purpureus : fifth foot of female (X 180).
Fig. 3. Diaptomus asymmetricus : fifth foot of female (X 267).
Fig. 4. Diaptomus asymmetricus : abdomen of female (X 158).
Fig. 5. Diaptomus purpureus: abdomen of female (X 09).
Fig. 6. Diaptomus Eiseni: fifth foot of female. After DeGuerne and
Richard.
Fig. 7. Diaptomus franciscanus : abdomen of female. After DeGuerne
and Richard.
Fig. 8. Diaptomus Eiseni: terminal segments of right antenna of male,
After DeGuerne and Richard.
Fig. 9. Diaptomus novamexicanus : fifth feet of male. After Herrick
and Turner.
Fig. 10. Diaptomus novamexicanus : fifth foot of female. After Her¬
rick and Turner.
Fig. 11. Diaptomus franciscanus : terminal segments of right antenna
of male. After DeGuerne and Richard.
Trans. Wis. Acad., Yol. XV.
C. D. Marsh del.
Marsh — North American Species of Diaptomus.
■ >|i:
511
PLATE XXVII.
512 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts , and Letters.
EXPLANATION OP PLATE XXVII.
Fig. 1. Diaptomus franeiscanus : fifth foot of female. After DeGuerne
and Richard.
Fig. 2. Diaptomus franeiscanus: fifth feet of male. After DeGuerne
and Richard.
Fig. 3. Diaptomus stagnalis : fifth foot of female. After Forbes.
Fig. 4. Diaptomus Lintoni: fifth foot of female. After Forbes.
Fig. 5. Diaptomus Lintoni: fifth feet of male. After Forbes.
Fig. 6. Diaptomus stagnalis : fifth feet of male. After Herrick and
Turner.
Fig. 7. Diaptomus Lintoni: terminal segments of right antenna of male
After Forbes.
Fig. 8. Diaptomus stagnalis: female. After Herrick and Turner.
Trans. Wis. Acad., Vol. XV.
C. D. Marsh del.
514 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts , and Letters .
EXPLANATION OF PLATE XXVIII.
Fig. 1. Diaptomus Trybomi: abdomen of female. After DeGuerne and
Richard.
Fig. 2. Diaptomus Trybomi: fifth feet of male. After DeGuerne and
Richard’
Fig. 3. Diaptomus Trybomi: 23d and 24th segments of right antenna of
male . After DeGuerne and Richard.
Fig. 4. Diaptomus Trybomi: fifth foot of female. After DeGuerne and
Richard.
Plate XXVIII.
Trans. Wis. Acad., Vol. XV.
I
3
C. D. Marsh del.
Marsh — North American Species of Diaptomus. 515
INDEX.
Affinities of species, 384.
Alhuquer querists group, 398, 401.
Altitude, as affecting distribution, 400.
Alturas lake, 442.
Beaver island, 413.
Bibliography, 485.
Birch lake, 428.
Boulder lake, 460.
Cedar lake, 400, 440.
Chain o’ Lakes, 428.
Climate, effect of on species develop¬
ment, 386.
Collections, distribution of, 382.
Creve Coeur lake, 440.
Dead lake, 433, 462.
Dvaptomus , diagnosis of genus, 401.
D. albuquerquensis, 398, 399, 401, 469,
471, 473.
D. armatus, 481.
D. Ashlandi, 394, 395, 400, 429.
D. asymmetricus , 398, 399, 474.
D. Bakeri , 391, 392, 393, 400, 420.
D. Birgei, 386, 394, 395, 400, 435.
D. clavipes, 396, 397, 400, 451.
D. conipedatus, 396, 397, 401, 449.
D. dorsalis , 398, 399, 467, 473.
D. Eiseni, 399, 481.
D. franciscanus , 391, 392, 393, 400, 418.
D. giganteus, 446.
D. Judayi, 397, 398, 464.
D. Lehmeri, 471.
D. leptopus, 396, 397, 400, 443.
D. leptopus var. piscinae , 396, 445.
J}. Lintowij 396, 397, 400, 454.
D. longicornis var. leptopus , 443.
Dj minnetonka , 478.
D. minutus, 394, 395, 400, 426.
D. mississippiensis , 391, 392, 400, 414,
474.
D. nebraskensis , 451.
D. novamexicanus, 483.
D. nudus, 397, 398, 460.
j D. oregonensis, 391, 392, 393, 400, 409.
D. pallidus, 391, 392, 393, 400, 416.
D. pallidus var. sicilis , 424.
D. piscinae , 445.
D. purpureus, 398, 399, 476.
D. pygmaeus, 409, 411.
D. Reighardi, 386, 391, 392, 400, 412.
D. saltillinus, 398, 399, 401, 469, 473.
D. sanguineus, 399, 478.
D. shoshone, 394, 431.
D. sicilis, 394, 395, 400, 424.
D. siciloides, 386, 394, 395, 400, 438.
D. signicauda, 397, 398, 458, 465.
D. spatulocrenatus, 396, 397, 456.
D. stagnalis, 396, 397, 400, 446.
D. tenuicaudatus , 394, 395, 400, 422.
D. Trybomi, 466.
D. Tyrelli, 441.
D. Wardi, 394, 433.
D. toashingtonensis, 397, 398, 462.
Distribution of the Diaptomi, control¬
ling factors, 400.
Distribution of species, 386.
D repanopus, 384.
Elkhart lake, 428.
Geneva lake, 428.
Geographical distribution, 386.
Glacial period, effect of on distribution,
385.
Glen lake, 423.
Green lake, 395, 426, 428.
Habitat, relation of to structure, 388.
Heart lake, 418.
Hosketts lake, 460.
Intermediate lake, 413.
Climate, effect of on species develop¬
ment, 386, 388.
Key to species, 403.
Lagunita, Lake, 422.
Latitude, species distributed according
to, 388.
Leptopus group, 396.
Limnetic and shallow water forms, dif¬
ferences between, 388.
Littoral and limnetic forms, differences
between, 388.
Maple lake, 428.
Michigamme, Lake, 426.
Michigan, Lake, 462.
Minnequa, Lake, 418.
516 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences _, Arts , and Letters.
Mirror lake, 433, 462.
Origin of genus Diaptomus, 384.
Oregonensis group, 391, 400.
Pine lake, 426, 430.
Primitive species, where located, 385.
Primitive structural characters, 390.
Rocks, Lake, 433, 462.
Round lake, 431.
St. Clair, Lake, 428.
Seeley lake, 426.
Shallow water and limnetic forms, dif¬
ferences between, 388.
Shoshone, Lake, 433.
Bignicauda, group, 397, 401. |
Species distinctions, bases of, 388.
Stone lake, 428.
Structure, relation of to habitat, 388.
Summit lake, 442.
Tenuicaudatus group, 394, 400. ,
Tomahawk lake, 426.
Tulare, Lake, 440.
Turkey lake, 440.
Twin lakes, 465.
Typical copepod appendage, 390.
Water carriage, distribution by, 400.
West Okoboji lake, 453.
Winona lake, 437.
I
THE NATURE AND DEVELOPMENT OF THE PRIMARY
UREDOSPORE.
A. H. CHRISTMAN.
(With Plate XXIX)
The true interpretation of the peculiar fertilization phases
in the life cycle of certain of the rusts as discovered by Black¬
man (1) and the author (3) will certainly not be reached with¬
out the study of a great number of forms, including especially
those species with an abbreviated life cycle. The studies de¬
scribed here are intended as a further contribution in this line,
taking up the special case of the development of the so-called
primary uredospore.
Phragmidium potentillae canadensis Diet, is a form in
which the aecidium is commonly supposed to be lacking, and
the so-called primary uredospores result from an inoculation
with sporidia from the teleutospores, while the secondary ure¬
dospores occur later as a result of infections from primary ure¬
dospores.
The hyphae of the primary uredospores differ from those that
produce the later uredospores, in that they apparently also pro¬
duce spermatia while those of the secondary uredospores do
not. In structure, too, there is a difference. Those hyphae
associated with the spermatia, in every case that I have ob¬
served, are composed of uninucleated cells, while the mycelial
cells of stages unaccompanied by spermatia have regularly two
more compact and smaller nuclei.
518 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters.
I am indebted again to Prof. Arthur for my material and its
identification. Portions of the host ( Potentilla canadensis)
bearing the rust were put into Flemming’s strong fixing fluid at
Lafayette, Indiana, and mailed to the author at Menomonie,
Wisconsin. The subsequent treatment, including the staining,
was the same as that described in a previous paper (3).
In the formation of the primary uredospores, the hyphae
mass beneath the epidermis of the host. Certain cells, which
may nearly always be shown to be end cells of longer or shorter
branches, assume a position perpendicular to the epidermis, and,
by elongating, separate it from the tissue beneath. These cells
now enlarge greatly, and divide unequally into a smaller distal
cell and a larger one just beneath it, which is of about three
times its size (PL XXIX, fig. 1).
The cytoplasm of the two cells is at first similar. The nu¬
cleus of the smaller cell is also small, and, in general, appears
as if it had never fully organized after the preceding nuclear
division. The nucleole is not to be seen, and the nuclear mem¬
brane is very imperfect. This whole distal cell now dwindles
and disappears.
In the meantime, the larger cell beneath it grows somewhat,
and comes to lie in close contact with the neighboring cells. At
the point of contact between each pair of cells the walls dis¬
appear, and the two nuclei come to lie in a common cell (fig.
2)-
Up to this point, the process is identical with that described
in my previous work on Phragmidium speciosum Fr. and
Caeoma nitens S. It seems that the walls separating the two
fusing cells are generally more completely dissolved away in the
case of P. potentillae canadensis Diet, than in the case of either
of the other two forms just mentioned, since in later stages one
does not so commonly find the condition which I have described
and figured, in which the basal portion of the fusion cell is di¬
vided by the remnant of the gamete walls. The cells fusing are,
as far as can be seen, equal, and the process is, at least appar¬
ently, a fusion of equal gametes, rather than the fertilization
of an egg by the entrance of a nucleus from some other cell.
Christman — Development of the Primary Uredospore. 519
The fusion cell is a zygospore functionally, however we may
interpret its phytogeny, and becomes in its germination, as we
shall see, a basal cell for a series of uredospores.
The upper region of this cell now enlarges, and the nuclei
come to lie high up in the protoplast rather than to occupy the
bases of the original gamete cells. This condition, as I have
previously described (3), is also found in Uromyces caladii
Earl. A prominence is now formed at the apex of the basal
cell, which, in general appearance, is not unlike a bud. I have
hot been able to observe the nuclear divisions which supply this
bud with nuclei, but they are probably similar to those occur¬
ring later. At any rate, two nuclei come to lie in the bud, and
two are left in the basal cell. The bud is now separated from
the basal cell by a wall, and thus forms the first uredospore-
mother-cell (fig. 3). A nuclear division (fig. 4), which seems
in every respect to be a true conjugate division, now follows
within the uredospore-mother-cell, and a daughter nucleus from
each spindle comes to lie in the upper region, which is destined
to become a spore. The other two nuclei are cut off by a cell
wall in the lower elongated region of the uredospore-mother-cell
(fig. 5). We see thus very clearly that the stalk cell so formed
is directly comparable to the intercalary cell of the aecidium.
In this case, it merely elongates to form a stalk upon which the
uredospore is borne.
About the time that the processes of nuclear and cell division
are complete in the first mother-cell, the basal cell is pushing
out a second bud beside the base of the first stalk cell (fig. 6).
Early in the process of budding, the two nuclei of the basal cell
are seen to lie near the base of the protuberance. When the sec¬
ond spore-mother-cell is about half grown, the division of the
nuclei occurs. This division does not occur in the central re¬
gion of the fusion cell, but rather in the basal region of the bud
(fig. 7). While the two nuclei divide simultaneously, it is not
a conjugate division in the sense that the spindles are closely
parallel during the division. The position of the spindles
would indicate that in this case the division occurs while the
nuclei are being carried into the base of the mother-cell by a
520 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts , and Letters .
flow of cytoplasm. The narrowness of the cell in this region
necessitates that one nucleus precede the other, and we find the
spindles thus arranged the one somewhat above the other. From
analogy we may conclude with tolerable certainly that each cell
in the division which follows will receive one daughter nucleus
from each spindle. Still, with the spindles arranged as shown
in Figure 7, it is possible that such is not to be the case here.
Another interesting feature in this figure is the utter abandon¬
ment of the two nucleoles by the remainder of the karyokinetic
figure. In all other nuclear divisions which I have observed in
the rusts, the nucleole lies at no great distance from, and to
one side of, the spindle. It would appear in this case that the
nucleoles could never be of further use to the nuclei in the
process of reconstruction.
Two of the daughter nuclei from this simultaneous division
come to lie in the hyphal bud, and two return to the basal cell
(fig. 8). By processes similar to those described for the forma¬
tion of the first spore, this second outgrowth is formed into a
uredospore and a stalk cell (fig. 9).
How many times this process can be repeated it is difficult to
say, since two branches are all that can well appear in
one section. I have followed the process as far as to the for¬
mation of the third bud. The later stages are rendered diffi¬
cult of study by a lateral crowding produced by the pushing of
the newer spores between those already formed. This distorts
the basal structures and loosens the older spores, so that the
original arrangement and connections of the cells are not easily
to be made out.
If we compare the spore formation as described here with the
process in Phragmidium speciosum , we find that, in the forma¬
tion of the gametes and in their fusion, the two fungi follow a
common method. This fact is, of course, of the greatest sig¬
nificance, since it shows that a process of conjugation, funda¬
mentally similar to that which occurs in the aecidium as an
origin for each row of aecidiospores, may be transferred in the
life cycle to the uredospore sorus, and lead to the formation of
what appear to be ordinary uredospores. This condition of
Christman — Development of the Primary Uredospore. 521
things, taken together with the fact that, as is well known for
this form at least, the spermagonia accompany the formation
of these so-called primary uredospores, suggests a possible close
morphological relationship of aecidiospores and uredospores in
general. I have given no figures of the spermagonia, hut my
sections show that they are similar in every way to those accom¬
panying ordinary aecidia, except that they are frequently ex¬
panded laterally almost to the extent of forming crust-like
masses. The further fact that the stalk cell of the primary
uredospores is plainly, as described above, an elongated inter¬
calary cell strengthens the above conclusion very materially.
Richards’ account (4) of the development of the aecidium
in Uromyces caladii shows that in this' form a large, well-nour¬
ished hyphal branch, the “carpogonial branch,” is present
as an initial structure in the formation of each aecidium.
This structure is interpreted to be a remnant of a former spore-
producing organ, which may have developed from a fertilized
egg. We have no evidence that such a fertilization as this oc¬
curs in any form at the present time, and it is quite possible
that these large hyphae are purely vegetative. I have been un¬
able to confirm Richards’ observations on my own material of
Uromyces caladii. Still, the study of the initial stages of
aecidium formation is not easy, and I am not certain that such
a carpogonial hypha may not be present. Certainly no such
structure is present in pustules of the caeoma type, unless, per¬
haps, it is comparable to the mass of hyphae which accumulate
beneath the epidermis just before the gametes are formed. The
discovery of such a carpogone would facilitate very much our
interpretation of the aecidium. If Richards’ account be cor¬
rect, the conclusion is easy that the old process of fertilization
by trichogyne and spermatia has been lost, and the new fertili¬
zations described by Blackman and myself have come to take
its place.
In a more recent work, Blackman and Eraser (2) have in¬
vestigated a number of rusts, and find that nuclear migration,
like that found in Phragmidium violaceum, occurs also in
Uromyces poae Raben. and Puccinia poarum Niels. In Puccinia
522 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters.
malvacearum Mont-., Puccinia adoxae D C., Uromyces scillaA'um
Wint., and Uromyces ficariae Lev., they were unable to deter¬
mine the origin of the binucleated phase. It was found that
binucleated vegetative cells were present in the mycelium.
These were found at some distance from the place of spore for¬
mation in the case of Puccinia adoxae and Uromyces scillarum.
In the case of Melampsora rostrupi Wagn., no nuclear migra¬
tion was observed, but definite evidence was obtained that the
binucleated condition had its origin in the fusion of apparently
equal fertile cells, as I have described for Phragmidium speci-
osum, Caeoma nitens and Uromyces caladii.
Blackman and Fraser thus accept the existence of two kinds
of fertilization processes in the rusts, and believe that in both
cases the large fertile cells are egg cells which were formerly
fertilized by male cells (spermatia). This fertilization hav¬
ing been abandoned, the egg is fertilized in the one case
by the nucleus of a vegetative cell and in the other by fusing
with another egg cell. They regard as of little significance
Bichards’ suggestion that the true egg was originally, at least,
a single deep-lying cell, with a long trichogyne, which grew
after fertilization into the carpogonial branch. Still it is quite
possible that the uncertainties of such a fertilization might re¬
sult first in parthenogenesis, and then in the development of
a new method of fertilization by a fusion of carpogonial cells.
The fusion of equal cells would then probably be the more
primitive process, and the migration of nuclei from vegetative
to fertile cells would be a later development in such cases as,
for example, Uromyces poae, where the fertile cells are in less
regular order than in the caeoma, and perhaps in closer prox¬
imity to vegetative cells than to one another. On the other
hand, the nuclear migrations might have constituted a step in
the development of a true fusion of carpogonial cells. The dif¬
ficulty with all such reasoning is that the evidence for the exist¬
ence of Bichards’ carpogonial branch, is hardly satisfactory.
Blackman’s assumption that the “sterile cell” is a reduced trich¬
ogyne is hardly more convincing. The persistence and ap¬
parently normal development of the spermatia is also a fact to
Christman — Development of the Primary Uredospore. 523
be reckoned with by those who assume that these are at present
functionless.
Further data must be had before these difficulties can be
cleared up, and meanwhile it is clear that in their general char¬
acter the fusions found in the development of the aecidiospores
of Phragmidium speciosum, Caeoma nitens, Uromyces caladii
and Melampsora rostrupi , and in the development of the pri¬
mary uredospores of Phragmidium potentillae canadensis are
strikingly similar to the unions of equal gametes as found in
the lower fungi. I am inclined to believe also that the nuclear
migrations described for a long series of forms studied by
Blackman (1) and by Blackman and Fraser (2) are to be in¬
terpreted in the light of this resemblance. Distortions of the
vegetative structure of the fungus might lead, as noted above,
to the substitution of such nuclear migrations for the original
cell fusions.
Blackman has used the term “basal cell” to indicate that
structure from which the aecidiospores arise, whether it be the
product of the fusion of two equal cells or the result of a mi¬
gration fertilization. There are obvious objections to this
usage which become more marked in such forms as Puccinia
adoxae, where the nuclear migrations may be several cell gener¬
ations removed from the base of the aecidium pustule. I shall
refer to the product of the fusion of the two equal gametes as
the “fusion cell,” and use the term “basal cell” for the direct
product of this fusion cell in its germination.
It is, however, my chief purpose at this time to bring out
the resemblance between the true aecidium and the primary
uredo. That the spores in the two cases are in every way
morphological equivalents cannot be doubted. Whatever the
function of the intercalary cell may be, there can be no ques¬
tion that, as S app in.-Trouff y has pointed out, though misin¬
terpreting the fusion cell, it is the morphological equivalent
of the stalk of the primary uredospore, even though it serves a
different mechanical purpose in the latter case. The fact that
the two bases of the fusion cell do not remain so distinct here
as they do in Phragmidium speciosum is not of great moment.
524 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts , and Letters .
The bases of the two original gametes may nearly always be
traced to the budding of the second spore. (See figs. 2, 3 and
4.)
In the light of the above facts as to the primary uredo, it
is of the utmost importance that still further forms with the
abbreviated life cycle be carefully worked out.
Madison , Wis ., May 1906 .
LIST OF PAPERS.
1. Blackman,, V. H. : On the fertilization, alternation of gen¬
erations, and general cytology of the Uredineae. Ann.
Bot.f xviii: 323. — 1904.
2. Blackman, V. H., and Fraser, H. C. I. : Further studies
on the sexuality of the Uredineae. Ann . Bot., xx: 35.
—1906.
3. Christman, A. H. : Sexual reproduction in the rusts. Bot .
Gaz., xix: 267.— 1905.
4. Richards, II. M. : On some points in the development of
aecidia. Proc. Amler. Acad . Arts and Sci ., xxxi: 255. — *
1896.
Christman — Development of the Primary Uredospore. 525
PLATE XXIX.
526
Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts , and Letters .
EXPLANATION OP PLATE XXIX.
The figures were drav/n with the help of the camera lucida,, using
the one-ha1 f inch eyepiece and the one-twelfth oil objective. The
tube length was 150 mm.
Pig. 1. A series of gametes just after throwing off the sterile cells.
Pig. 2. The fusion of two gametes.
Pig, 3. A stage showing the first spore-mother-cell fully formed.
Pig. 4. Simultaneous nuclear division preceding the division of the
spore-mother-cell.
Fig. 5. A later stage in which the spore-mother-cell has divided to
form the spore and the stalk ce£l.
Pig. 6. The second bud forming with the nuclei of the basal cell
near its base.
Fig. 7. Nuclear division preceding the formation of the second spore-
mother-cell. The spindles are not parallel and the nucleoles
are left behind within the fusion-cell.
Pig. 8. A stage showing two nuclei in the bud and two in the fusion-
cell. In figs. 7 and 8 the first spore is omitted. The stalk
cell is present.
Fig. 9. Two fully formed spores on a single basal cell.
Trans. Wis. Acad., Vol. XV.
Plate XXIX.
A. H. Christman del.
INFECTION EXPERIMENTS WITH THE MILDEW ON
CUCURBITS, ERYSIPHE CICHORACEARUM DC.
GEORGE M. REED.
All the recent work on the so-called physiological species of
the mildews has tended to show that each genus and, in many
cases, each species of host plant has. its own particular special¬
ized form. So far as investigated, the mildew from one host
plant is not able to infect a species belonging to another genus.
Marchal (15), it is true, asserts that the same special form oc¬
curs on both oats ( Avena sativa ) and Arrhenatherum elatius.
Salmon’s (24) results, however, contradict those of Marchal
on this point.
Heger (20) has further found that conidia of Erysiphe cich-
oracearum DC. taken from Artemisia vulgaris will not infect
A. absinthium , although both are reported as host plants of
this species of mildew. A similar result has been obtained by
Salmon (24) with the mildew of the clover, Erysiphe polyg¬
ons DC. He found that conidia taken from Trifolium pra-
tense will not infect any other species of this genus, although
plants of this species are readily infected. My work (22) with
the grass mildew, E. graminis DC., upon rye ( Secale cereale )
and blue grass ( Poa pratensis) in general confirm these results.
The degree of the specialization of Erysiphe graminis DC.
within the genus Hordeum , has also been investigated by Sal¬
mon (26). He found (1) that conidia from barley ( Hordeum
vulgar e) readily infected barley, H. distichum , H. zeocriton ,
H. intermedium and H. hexastichum; (2) that conidia from
528 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts , and Letters.
barley caused only a slight infection (“subinfection”) on H.
bulbosum and H. maritimum; (3) that conidia from barley
did not infect H. jubatum, II. sylvaticum, H. murinum and
II. secalinum.
He explains the infection of H. bulbosum and II. maritimum
as due to the fact that many conidia were sown at one place
upon the leaves, and when these germinated a great number of
haustoria attacked each of the epidermal cells in that region.
This is supposed to have had the result that the enzyme as¬
sumed to inhibit the growth of the barley mildew on these
plants was incapable of preventing the growth of so many haus¬
toria, and thus some secured a foothold and a mycelium was
formed which was able to develop and produce a few conidi-
ophores with conidia.
In his experiments with H. secalinum , H. murinum and H.
sylvaticum J noi immediate infection followed inoculation. A
few weeks later, however, several of the plants were found in¬
fected. As these plants were kept in a hot, ill-ventilated room,
Salmon concludes that their vitality was lowered to such an ex¬
tent that they could no longer resist the attack of the mildew
of II. vulgar e which was abundant around them.
It has further been found that the Oidium on Euonymus
japonicus is also limited in its capacity for infecting species of
this genus, some species being infected while others are not. It
is not known to what species of mildew this conidial stage be¬
longs. Arcangeli (1, 2) has determined the fungus as the conid¬
ial stage of Sphaerotheca pannosa (Wallr.) Lev. Salmon (31),
however, thinks the fungus is the conidial stage of some species
of Erysiphe or Micro spha&ra. As a result of infection ex¬
periments, Salmon has found that the Oidium on Euonymus
japonicus will infect E. japonicus var. aureus , var. ovatus au¬
reus , var. microphyllus, var. albo-marginatus , var. President
Gunter, E. radicans var. microphyllus , var. Silver Gem, but not
E. radicans var. carrierei , E. nanus , E. europaeus, E. chinensis ,
E. americanus var. angustifolius , Oelastrus scandens, 0. articw-
lotus , C. orixa , and Prunus laurocerasus var. latifolia. With
two exceptions, the negative results rest upon only one experi-
Heed — Infection Experiments with Mildew. 529
ment. According to my observations, this is not sufficient to
prove that these hosts are immune to the fungus.
Salmon (28, 30) has also obtained some interesting results
by injuring host plants in various ways and then inoculating
them with conidia which would not infect them when unin¬
jured. He has found that if barley leaves are mechanically in¬
jured in any way, or if treated with ether, chloroform or
alcohol, or if heated in water to about 50 degrees C., and then
inoculated with conidia from wheat ( Triticum vulgar e ) , they
lose their power of resistance to the wheat mildew and become
infected, although healthy normal leaves of barley cannot be
infected. However, the conidia produced un the barley leaves
as a result of these methods of treatment are not capable of
causing infection on uninjured barley leaves, but they do in¬
fect normal wheat leaves, the host from which the conidia
were first taken.
It has also been found by Salmon (32) that the mildew on
wheat will infect young leaves of Hordeum sylvaticum. He
has cultivated the mildew on H. sylvaticum for five genera¬
tions, but the conidia produced on the new host never lost the
power to infect the wheat from which the fungus was origin¬
ally taken. Furthermore, it did not acquire the power to in¬
fect the hosts, such as barley, which the mildew found in na¬
ture on H. sylvaticum possesses. We thus see that the fungus
is not changed in any way as a result of living on this unusual
host.
It has further been shown that a fungus can get a start on
a host plant although it may not be able to cause complete in¬
fection. Salmon (33) finds that if the mildew from wheat,
for example, is sown upon barley, the fungus may penetrate
the cells of the barley and in some cases form fully developed
haustoria. More commonly the haustoria' are arrested in their
development, remaining as more or less rounded refractive
bodies in the cells, which soon completely disorganize. Salmon
concludes from these facts that the susceptibility or immunity
of a host plant does not depend on the presence or the absence
of a chemotactic substance in the cells of the host, but “on
34 — S. Sc A.
530 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters.
the capacity or the incapacity for maintaining certain work¬
ing relations between the haustorium and the host cell.” Sal¬
mon further attempts to explain immunity by supposing that
“a power is possessed by the host plant of preventing by means
of certain physiological processes the attainment of that bal¬
ance whereby these working relations are brought about and
maintained.” What he thinks these “physiological processes”
are, is not stated. I am of the opinion that, for all evidence
given, they may be chemotactic as well as anything else. It
may well be that in the cases cited the haustoria of the fungus
push into the host cells in spite of substances formed by the
cells to prevent their entrance. Such chemical substances which
tend to kill the haustoria may not be in sufficient quantity to
prevent their entrance, but may be, none the less, sufficient to
prevent their complete development.
In all cases investigated the ascospores are limited in their
infection capacity in the same way and to the same extent as
conidia from the same host. Marchal (16) states that as¬
cospores of Erysiphe graminis DC. from rye will infect this
host but not wheat, oats, barley, or Agropyrum caninum; as¬
cospores from wheat will infect only wheat; and ascospores
from barley will infect barley ( Hordeum vulgar e ), H. dis-
tichum, H. zeocriton and H. trifur catum. These results have
been partly verified by Salmon (25), who used ascospores from
barley. He has further found (32) that ascospores from Bromus
commutatus will infect this species and B. hordeaceus, but not
B. racemosus. Voglino (37) states that ascospores of Phyllac-
tinia corylea taken from Carpinus will not infect Fagus but
will infect Carpinus and, conversely, ascospores from Fagus
will not infect Carpinus but will infect Fagus.
In this connection it is interesting to note that Salmon (34)
has described three distinct morphological varieties of Phyl -
lactinia corylea (Pers.) Karst, based upon the characters of
the conidia and conidiophores. The variety angulata has co¬
nidia varying in size between 45 and 55/x lone: and between 22
and 26/a wide; they may be rounded, truncate or bluntly apic-
ulate at one or both ends, and more or less constricted in the
middle. It occurs on several species of Quercus, Castanea
Reed — Infection Experiments with Mildew . 531
sativa , TJlmus alata and Fagus ferruginea in North America,
on Hippophae rhamnoides in Europe, and on Adesmia sp. in
Argentine. A second variety, called rigida , instead of the
typical thin-walled, flaccid conidiophore, has a rigid, thick-
walled conidiophore. It occurs on Parmentiera alata from
Mexico. The third variety, subspiralis ■, has a conidiophore
which is especially twisted in its basal portion and is found
on Dalbergia Sissoo from India. It still remains to he de¬
termined whether each of these morphological varieties con¬
stitutes a single physiological species, or whether they are
split up into forms limited to definite hosts.
All of these results indicate that these various physiological
species of mildews have definitely limited powers of infection.
Under normal conditions they are restricted to certain defi¬
nite hosts. If a host plant is injured in any way, it loses its
power of resistance to other specialized forms and so becomes
infected. This infection is not due to any variation in the
infecting power of the mildew, hut to a change in the capac¬
ity of the host to resist infection. The immunity which it
naturally enjoys is destroyed. Furthermore, although the
fungus can develop upon an unusual host which is injured, it
does not change in its power of infection. It does not acquire
the capacity of infecting healthy plants like the injured one,
nor does it lose its power of infecting its original host.
Burma’ the past year I have carried on infection experi¬
ments with the mildew on the cucurbits in order to determine
whether specialization has also occurred in this mildew.
Early in October 1904, plants of the Hubbard squash were
found infected with mildew. Some of the infected leaves
were brought into the greenhouse and placed in a moist cham¬
ber. In a short time conidia were produced abundantly.
These were used to inoculate leaves of various cucurbits grow¬
ing in the greenhouse. About ten days later numerous patches
of mycelium producing conidia abundantly were observed on
one vine. The mildew spread rapidly over this plant, im¬
mense quantities of conidia being produced. The vine subse¬
quently fruited and was thus proved to be a Hubbard squash.
532 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts , and Letters.
Late in December, about two months after it was first
brought into the greenhouse, the mildew began to spread over
other cucurbit plants, mainly vines of various cultivated
gyurds. At first the mycelium was very scanty on these vines
and very few conidia were produced. Later, however, the
mycelium spread rapidly, forming conidia abundantly.
By growing at intervals young cucurbit plants, mainly
squashes, and inoculating them, the mildew has been kept grow¬
ing in the greenhouse since its first introduction.
.Various species of mildews have been reported as occurring
On cucurbits. Sphaerotheca castagnei Lev. has been reported
upon Cucumis sativus by Beck (3), Bucket (7, 8), Von Thii-
men (36), and Voss (38) ; upon Cucurbita maxima by Ca-
vara (6) ; upon C. Pepo by Beck, Von Thiimen and Wettstein
(39) ; upon Cucurbita sp. indet., by Brunaud (5), Jaczewski
(11), Lambotte (12), Leveille (13), and Passerini (21).
Erysiphe polygoni DC. has been reported upon Cucumis sati¬
vus by Magnus (14) and Schroeter (35), and upon Cucurbita
sp. indet. by Berlese and Peglion (4). Erysiphe cichoracea-
rum DC. has been reported upon Cucumis sativus by Hum¬
phrey (10), and upon Cucurbita pepo by Salmon (23). The
latter says: “It is, of course, possible that more than one spe¬
cies of Erysiphe occurs on these host plants [various cucur¬
bits], but in this case it seems more probable that the fungus
has been named constantly Sphaerotheca castagnei merely be¬
cause this species was originally recorded on these host plants,
and it would be very interesting to know if any example with
perithecia of Sphaerotheca really exists.”
Although the conidi al stage of the mildew, known as Oidium
erysiphoides, is very common upon cucurbits, especially in
greenhouses, apparently perithecia are rarely formed. The
vines where the mildew was first found were carefully exam¬
ined, but no perithecia were observed. The infected plants
in the greenhouse were also closely observed for the sexual
fruits of the mildew. Hone were found, however, until No¬
vember 6, 1905, over a year after the first introduction of the
mildew into the greenhouse. At that time perithecia were
Reed — Infection Experiment's ivith Mildew. 533
observed on infected cotyledons of the squash, pumpkin and
cucumber. They were formed on plants which were under
observation by students in plant pathology. These plant.} were
inoculated on October 12th, and infection was first observed
October 18th. Twenty days later the perithecia were first ob¬
served. A study of these showed that the mildew is Erysiphe
cichoracearum DC.
The methods used in the experiments described below were
essentially the same as I have described for the grass mildew
in a previous paper (22). The plants were grown in three- to
five-inch pots. Usually they were inoculated after one or
more foliage leaves had developed and expanded ; in other cases
only the cotyledons were inoculated, the first leaf being still
small and not yet expanded/
The parts inoculated were first moistened with water, and
then conidia were applied by means of a scalpel. Control
plants were kept in nearly every experiment. The plants were
then placed under a bell-jar; in this way a moist atmosphere
was secured. The bell- jar was usually removed a few days
after inoculation. Infection was regularly first observed from
three to five days after inoculation, when minute fiecks of my¬
celium could be seen. A few days later conidia were formed
abundantly.
The experiments were extended to a considerable number of
varieties of squashes, pumpkins, cucumbers and gourds, repre¬
senting the standard sorts in common cultivation. Every pos¬
sible cross infection was tested in order to determine whether
the mildew on anjy one cucurbit would pass over +o any other
member of the family. The results of these experiments are
given in the following tables.
In classifying these different varieties of cucurbits I have
followed Gray’s “Field, Forest and Garden Botany,” and also
Bailey’s “Encyclopedia of Horticulture.” In some cases I am
uncertain to what morphological species a given variety be¬
longs. Some of these varieties are probably hybrids between
species of Cucurbit a.
The seed was obtained from J. M. Thorbum & Co., Hew
York, and Henry A. Dreer, Philadelphia.
534 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts , and Letters.
TABLE I.— VARIETIES OF SQUASH ( Cucurbila maxima Duchesne).
*A leaf of the plant of experiment 18 was inoculated with conidia from the cotyle¬
dons of the same plant.
2Leaves only infected, cotyledons dead.
3One plant only infected.
Reed — Infection Experiments with Mildew ,
535
TABLE II.— VARIETIES OF CUCURBITA MOSCHATA DUCHESNE.
1 One inoculated leaf infected: cotyledons yellow.
2 One inoculated plant infected.
3 Only one leaf and only one cotyledon infected.
4 Only cotyledon infected.
536 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts , and Letters.
TABLE III. — VARIETIES OF PUMPKIN AND ORNAMENTAL GOURD ( Cucurbita
Pepo Linn.)
1 Leaves only infected.
2 Two leaves of the plant used in experiment 17 were inoculated with conidia from
cotyledons of the same plant.
8 One leaf of the plant used in experiment 19 was inoculated.
* Leaves only infected, cotyledons dying.
Reed — Infection Experiments with Mildew.
537
Table IV.— BOTTLE AND DIPPER GOURDS ( Lagenaria vulgaris Ser.)
1 Only one leaf infected.
2 A small infected area on the control cotyledon also.
538 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts , and Letters.
TABLE V. — VARIETIES OF CUCUMBER [Cucumis sativus Linn.)
1 No infection of leaf.
3 Two leaves of the plant used in experiment 16 inoculated.
3 Two plants dead.
4 Two leaves of the plant used in experiment 20 inoculated.
Reed — Infection Experiments with Mildew.
539
RESULTS WITH THE SQUASH, CUCURBITA MAXIMA DUCHESNE
(table i).
In twelve of these experiments the conidia were taken
Boston Marrow and Turban, belong to the species Gucurbita
maxima. As seen from Table I, twenty-six experiments were
performed in which conidia of the mildew were sown upon
seven different varieties of these squashes. Thirty-eight dif¬
ferent plants were used.
In twelve of these experiments the conidia were taken
from varieties of squashes, in three from cucumber plants (Cu-
cumis sativus)y in five from the bottle and dipper gourds ( La -
genaria vulgaris ), in one from the egg-shaped gourd, and in
three from the pumpkin ( Gucurbita pepo). Infection failed
to occur m only one experiment. Some or all of the inoculated
parts became infected in the remaining experiments. Out of
the nineteen leaves inoculated eighteen became infected, and
fifty-four out of sixty of the inoculated cotyledons. Two of
the cotyledons died before the mildew had a chance to develop.
These experiments show that the squash can be infected with
conidia taken from all the other cucurbits tested. In the one
experiment that failed the conidia were taken from another va¬
riety of the squash, the Boston Marrow. Conidia from this
variety, however, in other experiments, infected squash plants.
There was no apparent difference in the readiness with which
the different varieties were infected by the mildew. All were
susceptible. Hor was there any difference observed in the in¬
fecting capacity of conidia from different cucurbits. From
whatever plant taken, the conidia caused infection with equal
readiness.
RESULTS WITH CUCURBITA MOSCHATA DUCHESNE, (TABLE II).
In Table II are given the results with two varieties of this
’species, the large cheese pumpkin and the winter crookneck
squash being tested. Ten plants were used, seventeen cotyle¬
dons and thirteen leaves being inoculated. The conidia were ob¬
tained mostly from the Hubbard squash,. Infection occurred
540 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts , a?ic£ Letters.
on ten cotyledons and eight leaves. Conidia obtained from
these infected plants produced infection on varieties of
Cucurbita pepo, Cucumis sativus and Lagenaria vulgaris.
RESULTS WITH THE PUMPKIN AND ORNAMENTAL GOURDS, CU¬
CURBITA PEPO LINN. (TABLE III).
Several distinct types of cucurbits, differing mainly in the
character of the fruit, belong to this species. It contains the
different varieties of the so-called pie pumpkins and also the
field pumpkins. The summer crookneck or warty squashes
with white or yellow J-shaped fruits, and the ornamental
gourds with small, very hard-shelled fruits of many shapes,
as the apple-shaped, egg-shaped, etc., are also varieties of this
species.
Table III shows that eight experiments were made in which
four different varieties of pumpkins were inoculated with
conidia from various cucurbits. Hine foliage leaves were
inoculated, all of which became infected. Out of eighteen
cotyledons inoculated, all but two became infected.
All these varieties of pumpkins seemed to be as susceptible
to the mildew as were the squashes and, as is shown, were
readily infected by conidia from squashes, the mildew being
thus transferred from one species to another.
Several kinds of ornamental gourds belonging to this same
species ( C . pepo Linn.) were also tested as to their capacity
for infection. The mock orange gourd was used in seven ex¬
periments, fifteen cotyledons and ten leaves being inoculated.
All of these became infected, except five cotyledons which
died before the mildew had a chance to develop.
The apple-shaped and the egg-shaped gourds were also used,
seven experiments being made with these two varieties. All
of the inoculated leaves and cotyledons were readily infected.
As conidia from squashes, cucumbers, pumpkins and the bot¬
tle gourd were used in these experiments, it is plain that various
varieties of both gourds and pumpkins can readilv be infected
with the mildew from the squash, a different species, and from
Reed — Infection Experiments with Mildew. 541
the cucumber and bottle gourd, which belong to different genera.
All of these varieties of C. pepo , whatever the source of the
conidia, seemed equally susceptible to the mildew.
RESULTS ON THE BOTTLE AND DIPPER GOURDS, L AGE N ARIA VUL¬
GARIS SER. (TABLE IV ).
So far as I am aware, no mildew has ever been reported
upon this species, although it is very commonly cultivated with
other cucurbits on account of its peculiar lv shaped fruits.
Seven experiments were made to determine whether the mildew
from various cucurbits would infect it, the bottle gourd being
used in four experiments and the dipper gourd in three. As
seen from the table, the plants were inoculated with conidia
from cucumbers, squashes, the apple-shaped gourd and the bot¬
tle gourd. Twelve leaves and seven cotyledons were inoculated,
ail of which, except two leaves, became infected. As these two
leaves pressed against the bell- jar, dead areas appeared in them
and soon the entire leaves turned brown and died.
It is interesting to note that the incubation period was longer
in the case of the bottle gourd than with the other cucurbits.
For example, plants of the bottle gourd, mock orange gourd,
and Talby’s Hybrid cucumber were inoculated with conidia
from the Princess cucumber on April 26th. On May 6th there
were several patches of mycelium producing conidia abundantly
on the inoculated parts of the mock orange gourd and the cu¬
cumber, while there was no sign of infection on the bottle
gourd. Four days later, however, patches of mycelium produc¬
ing conidia were present on the inoculated parts of the bottle
gourd also. This longer incubation period was not observed in
connection with the dipper gourd.
RESULTS ON THE CUCUMBER, CUCUMIS SATIVUS LINN. (TABLE v).
Seedlings of cucumbers were used in sixteen experiments,
six different varieties being used, as shown in Table V. Four¬
teen leaves and forty-four cotyledons were inoculated. Thirteen
of the leaves and thirty-six of the cotyledons became infected.
The remaining cotyledons died before the mildew had time to
542 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters.
appear. As conidia were taken from the varieties of squashes^
pumpkins and gourds shown in the table these results indicate
clearly that the mildew on the cucumber is the same as that
which occurs on the other cucurbits.
In the course of these experiments, twenty-three different
varieties of commonly cultivated cucurbits were used. These
belonged to five different species representing the three genera
Cucurbita , Cucumis and Lagenaria. Each of these types was
readily infected when inoculated with the conidia taken from
any other. There was no difference in the infecting power of
the mildew on the different species and genera, the fungus
readily passing from plants of one genu’s to plants of either of
the others.
The control plants kept in most of the experiments remained
entirely free from the mildew except in two experiments. In
experiment 9 a small patch of mycelium was observed upon
the stem of the control. As one of the cotyledons of the inocu¬
lated plant was in contact with the stem of the control at the
point of infection, it is likely that some of the conidia placed
upon the cotyledon were washed down upon the stem of the
control and caused infection. In experiment 76, a small in¬
fected area was present on the control cotyledon This was
underneath an inoculated leaf, and probably some conidia were
washed down upon it.
Young plants were used in all of my experiments, and the
question may be raised whether seedlings are not more suscep¬
tible to the fungus than mature plants. Interesting collateral
evidence, however, was observed on this point. Several vines
of cucurbits, especially squashes and ornamental gourds, grew
to maturity in the greenhouse, and the mildew spread over all
these. It at first spread more slowly on the gourds, but later
these also were covered with the white patches of mycelium, pro¬
ducing immense quantities of conidia. In the light of my ex¬
periments, there can be no question but that it was the same
mildew which attacked all the vines.
These results are in striking contrast to those previously ob¬
tained with the mildews on other host plants. In the light of
Reed — Infection Experiments with 21ildeiv. 543
all our previous results, we should expect a specialized form
of mildew for each genus of the cucurbits. Nothing of th©
sort occurs, however. There is no evidence of any specializa¬
tion in the mildew of this family.
Some experiments, however, indicate that the mildew on the
cucurbits is limited to this one family. Conidia from squashes
have been sown on species of the golden rod ( Solidago ) and
Aster , which are reported as host plants of Erysiphe cichora -
cearum DC., without causing infection, and I am carrying on
still further experiments in this line.
Why results so different from those reported for the grass
mildew, for example, should he obtained with the mildew on
the cucurbits is by no means apparent. It is true, of course,
that all the cucurbits studied are quite similar in their mor¬
phological characters and form a group of plants quite similar
also in their ecological relations. They all thrive well under
approximately the same conditions of soil, moisture, light, etc.
Comparisons between two such widely separated families as
the Gramineae and the Cucurbitaceae are, of course, very diffi¬
cult, and it is a question whether we can find from this stand¬
point any light on the question as to why the grass mildew is
split up into physiological species while the cucurbit mildew
is so entirely adaptable and cosmopolitan. Many species of
Poa , for example, differ more among themselves ecologically
than do Cucurbita maxima and C. pepo , and this may be a rea¬
son for greater specialization among the mildews of the Poos.
On the other hand, there are no greater ecological differences
between wheat, barley and rye than between squashes, pump¬
kins and bottle gourds. Whether in morphological characters
Triticum and Secale are more different than Cucurbita and La -
genaria is a difficult question.
Salmon (29) claims to have found four or five physiological
species of mildews on species of Brome grasses, and here we
certainly do not find differences in structure and habit any
more marked than are present in the cucurbits. Salmon as¬
serts, for example, that conidia of Bromus commutatus will not
infect B. racemosus , and vice versa. These two species, how¬
ever, are essentially the same with reference to their ecological
544 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts , and Letters.
relations, being able to live under the same conditions, and do
not differ in their morphological characters any more than do
the squashes and the cucumbers.
It is perhaps best at present to regard it as an open ques¬
tion whether any particular fungus which has acquired the
parasitic habit first infected one species or a large number of
more or less closely related plants. It is possible that the con¬
dition found in the mildew of the Brome grasses is the more
primitive one, and that the mildew of the cucurbits represents
a further step where a particular parasite has become adapted
to live on a much wider range of hosts. Or the line of develop¬
ment may have proceeded in the other direction, the fungus at
first infecting a large number of hosts and later becoming re¬
stricted and specialized to certain definite ones.
Further investigations are needed which shall show whether
there are cases where the mildew is even less specialized than
it is on the cucurbits, the same form occurring perhaps on plants
belonging to different families. It is possible also that we
may find other cases where the specialization has proceeded so
far that varieties of the same species of host plant may each
be infected only by its own particular mildew. Such investiga¬
tions may also be expected to throw light on the nature and the
origin of the parasitic habit. It is interesting to note in this
connection that considerable doubt has been cast upon Masisee’s
(17) theory of the chemotropic origin of parasitism by the
recent work of Fulton (9). In view of the work of Miyoshi
(18, 19) and others, however, we want much more conclusive
evidence than has yet been brought forward before abandoning
the idea that chemotronism is a factor of very considerable im¬
portance in relation to the parasitic habit of fungi.
This work has been done under the direction of Professor
R. A. Harper and I am greatly indebted to him for his kindly
criticisms and helpful suggestions.
Madison , Wisconsin, May 1906.
Reed — Infection Experiments with Mildew. 545
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COMPARATIVE STUDIES IN THE TROPHI OF THE
SCARABAEIDAE.
(With Plates XXX-XXXIV.)
C. B. HARDENBERG.
The mouth-parts of the Coleoptera, although known in a
general way and to some extent used in classification, have not
yet been studied as thoroughly as might be desired; of many
species the mouth-parts are tacitly assumed to be in accord
with the general shape of those of their nearest allies in the
taxonomic division. If we consider, however, that the insect
is directly dependent upon its food for its existence, and that
the habit of acquiring its nourishment will directly affect the
form of its mouth-parts, it becomes evident that a difference
in food habits among members of the same natural group will
cause a corresponding difference in their mouth-parts.
It was with a view of ascertaining these variations that the
present study was begun. One great natural group was selected,
the Scarabaeidae, or Lamellicorn beetles, in which are classed
together insects of very different food habits, — some living on
very soft material, like the dung beetles, others on dry animal
matter (skin beetles), others again on leaves (June beetles et
al.), and some on pollen (Cetoniae). We may therefore nat¬
urally expect to find a considerable amount of variation.
The study was undertaken for the purpose of ascertaining
the following data: (1) the general degree of specialization
in the order of Scarabaeidae and of departure from the as¬
sumed primitive insect type as presented by the Orthoptera;
Hardenberg — Studies in the Trophi of the Scardbaeidae . 549
(2) the influence of the food habits on the variation of the
month-parts; (3) the amount of these variations and their
taxonomic value, if any.1
The subject will be divided into four parts: — (1) General
discussion of the mouth-parts of Coleoptera; (2) Description
of the mouth-parts of Copris Carolina Linn., as a standard for
comparison; (3) Description and discussion of the mouth-
parts of representatives of different genera; (4) Summary
and conclusions.
The material used was taken from the duplicates of Profes¬
sor Marshall’s collection, supplemented by specimens from my
own cabinet. The specimens were boiled in caustic potash
solution; the mouth-parts dissected out, and mounted for mi¬
croscopic examination. Owing to the thickness and peculiar
shape of some of the trophi, especially the mandibles, consider¬
able difficulty was at first experienced in making satisfactory
preparations. They were for the most part mounted in Can¬
ada balsam, without a cover glass; the object was first cemented
to the slide with a little balsam, then the slide inverted and
allowed to dry under a bell jar, successive drops of balsam
being added from day to day until the whole object was cow
ered. In some cases, especially when studying the labial
structures, the object was examined in glycerine, and the parts
were drawn in situ. The drawings were all made with a
camera lucida, but, owing to the minuteness of some parts and
the comparatively large size of others, the magnification is
not the same in all cases. This is indicated, however, for
every figure.
The treatment to which the parts were subjected made any
histological examination of sense-organs impossible ; the pres¬
ence or absence of these was judged by general external ap¬
pearance. Such a thorough examination as would be necessary
ilt was thought at first that the treatment of another interesting
subject in connection with this could he attempted, namely, in how far
a classification based on the mouth-parts would correspond with the
present arrangement of the genera and species in this order; but, al¬
though some important data were gained, the number of species ex¬
amined was too limited to warrant any definite statement for the
present.
550 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts , and Letters .
to settle this question decisively was considered to be outside
of the scope of this article, in which only the morphology of
the parts is discussed.
THE MOUTH-PARTS OF COLEOPTERA.
The mouth-parts and the legs of insects are homodynamous,
both originating as segmental appendages, the former of the
head, the latter of the thoracic region. It is in the order of
Orthoptera that we find conditions as regards the trophi more
nearly approaching those of the original type than in any other
order of insects. Next as to primitiveness come the Coleoptera,
in most of which the sclerites of the trophi can be directly
traced to, and recognized by comparison with, those of the Or¬
thoptera, and in some cases the conditions existing in the for¬
mer are the more primitive.
In general, the maxillae are the parts which have undergone
the least reduction and in which the sclerites are most dis¬
tinctly visible; the other trophi are generally compared with
them.
The mouth-parts consist of three paired and two unpaired
pieces: the labrum, with the epipharynx; the mandibles;
the maxillae or first maxillae; the labium or second maxillae;
the hypopharynx (endo-labium). Of these, the mandibles, max¬
illae and labium are paired appendages of the head-segments;
the labrum with the epipharynx, and the hypopharynx are not
paired.
The labrum or upper lip. This is not a true appendage
and is unpaired in origin, arising in the embryo between the
two halves of the brain (protocerebrum), while all the true
appendages arise on each side of the nervous system (7). It
forms the roof of the anterior part of the mouth and is gen¬
erally movably connected with the clypeus. Kolbe (5) claims
a paired origin for the labrum. He says: — “Am Embryo
mehrerer Insekten wiirde das ITervorgehen der Oberlippe aus
zwei urspriinglich getrennten, Anhangspaarenahnlichen Ge-
bilden nachgewiesen ;” but he neither gives any figures nor
cites any literature to support this claim.
Hnrdenberg — Studies in the Trophi of the Scarabaeidae. 551
The under side of the labrum is covered by a membrane, the
epipharynx (Packard, 7), which contains the organs of taste.
It corresponds in extent to the clypeus and labrum, posterior¬
ly merging into the dorsal wall of the pharynx; the suture
which separates the labrum from the clypeus does not involve
the epipharynx (7). This would seem to show that this or¬
gan is not merely the under side of the labrum, but has an
independent origin; it really is a fold of the membrane which
forms the roof of the mouth. Besides the sense-organs, the
epipharynx is covered with hairs or setae, which are classified
by Packard under two heads:
a. The normal hairs, arising from a definite cell, and
which are either simply defensive, guarding the sense-cups of
the sensory fields in which the sense-cups are borne, or they
are simply tactile hairs.
b. Soft, flattened, often hooked hairs, cylindrical toward
the end but arising from a broad, triangular base, comparable
to the gathering hairs described by Cheshire on the bee’s
tongue.
We shall find that the epipharynx is present and recogni¬
zable in nearly all of the species of Scarabaeidae which were
examined, and that it shows an instructive series of stages in
reduction.
Mandibles. These are used for very different purposes,
being either adapted for cutting, tearing and crushing ,the
food, or for defense; in Cetonia et al., they are used as a
brush for collecting pollen. They are usually opposed to each
other at the tip, or even crossed, but in the Coprini and in
most of the Scarabaeidae the tips are separated and the bases
alone are opposed, strongly chitinized and ridged, the right
one being convex, the left one concave, and the two fitting ac¬
curately into each other. Although the mandible is general¬
ly a strongly chitinized single piece, it really consists of four
(possibly more) sclerites which are well shown in some of the
Scarabaeidae. In some species of Coleoptera ( Passalus cor-
nutus) we find a movable piece at the base of the mandible.
This is the prostheca of Kirby and Spence (4), and is consid-
552 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters.
ered homologous with the lacinia of the maxilla. The man¬
dibles are primarily three-lobed appendages like the maxillae
(7).
Maxillae (first maxillae of Packard). These probably rep¬
resent the primary form of buccal appendage of insects, and
are composed of three basal pieces with three variously modi¬
fied distal lobes or divisions; the mandibles and the labium
are modifications of this type. The parts of which the max¬
illae are composed, and which generally can easily be dis¬
tinguished, are : cardo, stipes, palpifer, lacinia, sub-galea, galea
and palpus.
The cardo or hinge is generally a more or less triangular
piece, wedged in between the sub-mentum and the mandibles,
but in many cases it becomes elongated and club-shaped. It
forms the articulation of the maxilla, and allows a free motion
of the latter upon the mentum. The cardo is, however, not the
only place of attachment, for muscles extend directly to the sub-
galea without passing through the cardo.
The stipes or foot-stalh is usually triangular, bounded on
its base by the cardo, on its outer side by the palpifer, and on
its inner side by the sub-galea. The stipes may become united
to the palpifer and the sub-galea without any trace of suture,
but in all species of Scarabaeidae I have found it present as
a distinct sclerite.
The palpifer or palpus-hearer is situated on the outer side of
the stipes; it is generally quite large and convex and more
greatly developed on the dorsal than on the ventral surface of
the maxillae.
The palpus or feeler is long and slender, usually four- jointed,
the terminal joints bearing in most cases tactile and olfactory
sense-organs.
The sub-galea or helmet-hearer is generally the largest and
most conspicuous sclerite of the maxillae. It is in most cases
somewhat quadrangular, and in the Scarabaeidae its inner
posterior corner generally projects beyond the lacinia and
receives muscles directly from the mentum.
The galea or helmet (outer lobe, superior lobe) is promi-
Hardenberg — Studies in the Trophi of the Scarabaeidae. 553
nent in Coleoptera and is in Scarabaeidae usually helmet-
shaped or spatulate. It is composed of two segments, hut this
condition is obscured in most of the Scarabaeidae.
The lacinia or blade (inner lobe, inferior lobe) is borne on
the inner margin of the sub-galea. It is claimed to be the
cutting part of the maxilla (1), but it is generally its weakest
point and can be only secondary in importance for the above
mentioned purpose, since it follows the galea in its chitiniza-
tion. In Scarabaeidae it is often provided with a hairy fringe
at the tip, the hairs being used as stiff brushes in the pollen¬
eating forms.
Sometimes the lacinia bears at its distal end a small append¬
age, the digitus , which in some cases has the form of an artic¬
ulated claw, as in Cicindelidae. It was found only in a few
species of Scarabaeidae.
The function of the mandibles seems to be two-fold, viz. :
they act as accessory jaws in grinding and cutting the food,
and they are also used for seizing and retaining the food in
the mouth whereby the palpi act as fingers. Whether or not
the palpi contain organs of smell has not yet been settled de¬
cisively (7).
The labium or under-lip (second maxillae of Packard).
This organ is formed by fusion at the basal portion of sepa¬
rate embryonic appendages, which arise in the same manner as
the first maxillae, as appendages of the last or occipital seg¬
ment of the head. The parts, although fused to a consider¬
able extent, can be homologized with the parts of the maxillae.
The labium consists of gula, sub-mentum, mentum, palpigers
with the palpi, iigula and paraglossae; on its upper side we
find the hypopharynx.
There is a great diversity of opinion among different au¬
thors about the homologies of these parts, and the terminology
is very confusing. In the typical labium we find, starting
from the posterior end, the gula (supposed to be the ventral
plate of the occipital segment of the head), the sub-mentum
and the mentum with its palpi and lobes. The mentum is
often so small that it is concealed by the sub-mentum; on ac-
554 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts, and Letters .
count of this it has been entirely overlooked by some authors,
who have applied the name “mentum” to the sub-mentum, and
called the true mentum the “hypoglottis” (Leconte and Horn,
6). The remaining parts of the labium except the palpi are
called the ligula by Comstock (1), and this author divides it
into a central part, the glossa, and “two parts, usually small
membranous projections, one on each side of the base of the
glossa, the paraglossae”
There is great confusion concerning the homologies of the
parts of the labium, some contending that “the sub-mentum
and the mentum, or the mentum when no sub-mentum is dif¬
ferentiated (with the gula when present), appear to be col¬
lectively homologous with the cardines of the first maxillae,
together with the palpifers and stipites” (7). The lobes of
the lahium are generally admitted to be the homologues of the
galea and lacinia of the maxilla. Otokar Xadic (3) consid¬
ers the sub-mentum and mentum together as the sub-mentum,
and thinks that the mentum proper, with its appendages, the
palpigers (squamae palpigerae), the glossae and the para¬
glossae, has grown inward over the sub-mentum. I am in¬
clined to accept his view for some cases; the correctness of
this notion I hope to show subsequently.
The hypopharynx arises as a fold from the floor of the
mouth and is an unpaired membranous structure like the epi-
pharvnx. It is continuous with and forms the anterior part
or fold of the base of the second maxilla. It does not seem to
represent a pair of appendages. Kolbe (5) considers the
hypopharynx a third pair of maxillae, calling it the endo-
labium, and claims that it can be recognized as such in Hemi-
merus talpoides (a roach-like form from West Africa), and
that it bears palpi. He further claims that the hypopharynx
originates as a third pair of jaws from a special primitive
head-segment, but says: “Dieses Organ ist bei den bisher un-
tersuchten Embry onen selbst nicht in elementarer Form gese-
hen, wahrencl doch die zu Mandibeln, Maxillen und zur Dnter-
lippe sich ausbildenden Anhange in den meisten Fallen deut-
lich angelegt sind;” and further: “Indes muss es befremden,
H ardent erg — Studies in the Trophi of the Scarabaeidae. 555
das sich das zugehorige Ursegment am Embryo nicht findet'
wir diirfen docli nicht fiir eine Tatsache halten, was wir nicht
gesehen haben.”
At the present stage of our knowledge it is impossible def¬
initely to settle the question of the origin of the hypopharynx,
but it probably represents a fold of the membranous floor of
the mouth, just as the epipharynx originates as a fold of the
roof of the mouth.
According to Comstock (1), the epipharynx and hypophar-
ynx are rarely both developed in the same insect, except in
Hymenoptera; in the species of Scarabaeidae, however, they
are for the most part either both present or both wanting, but
the hypopharynx is never conspicuous.
The Mouth-Parts of Copris Carolina Linn.
Smith (8) was the first to study the mouth-parts of this in¬
sect and to attempt to homologize the parts of the mandibles
with those of the maxillae. His statements, though mainly cor¬
rect, proved to be erroneous in some points, as I hope subse¬
quently to show.
In this insect (and in the whole group of dung-beetles in
general), we find a very peculiar development of the mouth-
parts, which accords with its food habit. Functionally they are
very much specialized, while morphologically they represent a
low stage in the evolutionary scale.
The epipharynx (PI. XXX, Pig. 1) consists of a large mem¬
brane forming the roof of the mouth. Two lateral areas are
separated from the median part by a row of stiff, bristle-like
hairs which are continued sparsely on the front margin, while
their surfaces are densely covered with short, fine hairs, these
also covering the posterior rwo-thirds of the central portion.
The regular arrangement of these hairs makes it appear as if
the lateral parts of the epipharynx were curved inward and
downward (as is claimed by Smith to be the case), but no evi¬
dence in favor of this view could be found; the hairs are not
situated on a free edge, and a transverse section through the
epipharynx does not show the conditions which we should ex-
556 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts , and Letters .
pect to find in case such a curving has taken place, even if fol¬
lowed by a fusion at the margin. The median part is made up
of a club-shaped chitinized thickening, which bears numerous
blade-like hairs, especially crowded at the apex of the club and
extending more sparsely over the /surrounding membranous
area. Posteriorly, this chitinized median strip is continued
into a transverse band, which shows two large asymmetrical
notches in which are received the molars of the mandibles ; it
then runs dorsad at the sides and forms a supporting arch over
the epipharynx. The epipharynx does not lie loosely in the
roof of the mouth, but is connected to the labrum by means of
a membrane which extends along the sides and the caudal
margin of the supporting arch.
The epipharynx is a hollow structure consisting of a double
membrane. The upper membrane contains the supporting
arch, from the caudal edge of which it is turned back and con¬
nected with the membranous lining of labrum and clypeus;
this shows that the origin of the epipharynx is in a fold of the
upper lining of the mouth. The lower membrane contains thr
sense papillae and fuses with the dorsal wall of the pharynx.
Toward the caudal end of the epipharynx, where the median
chitinized strip fuses with the transverse band, we find a row
of papillae, broadening out laterally, decidedly different in
appearance from the chitinous hairs which are scattered over
the median part of the epipharynx. These papillae may be
gustatory, the hairs just mentioned being probably tactile in
function.
The great extension of the epipharynx and its many sense
papillae would seem to indicate a highly developed gustatory
sense, the need of which, however, does not seem clear in these
animals which live on excrementitious matter.
Mandibles (PI. XXX, Fig. 2). These present a great
deviation from the type we should expect in insects with bit¬
ing mouth-parts, and show that they are originally composed of
many segments. As Smith (8) was the first to call attention
to these facts, and as he also worked out the homology of the
parts, I will here quote his statements, followed by corrections
which proved to be necessary.
Hurdenberg — Studies in the Trophi of the Scarabaeidae . 557
“At the base, outwardly, is a large corneous sclerite, to
which are attached inferiorly most of the muscles and tendons
controlling the entire organ. This may be called the basalis,
or basal piece, and is the homologue of the stipes of the max¬
illae. There is in some species an intermediate piece between
the basalis and the head, which presents the cardo of the max¬
illae and which I propose to call the sub-basalis , or tendon-
bearer; the former on account of its position, the latter as ex¬
pressive of its function. The muscular attachment is, however,
to the basalis as well as to the sub-basalis, even when the latter
is present. Another of the basal pieces united to the basalis
and forming the inner inferior part of the entire organ, I pro¬
pose to call the molar , or grinder. I believe it to be homologous
with the sub-galea, and the function is expressed by the name.
The food is not cut or broken by any other organ, and indeed
needs little cutting. But, to get into the gullet, it must pass be¬
tween those grinders and is there fitted for swallowing. In the
present species, the molars are ridged and dissimilar. The one
grinding face is convex; the other is concave, the convex sur¬
face fitting accurately in the opposite cavity.
“In Macrodactylus, Cetonia and some other genera, these
molars are much larger proportionately, fitted for scraping as
well as for grinding or chewing. Between the molar, which
is always well-chitinized in all the forms I have seen, and a
flattened, more membranous piece, also attached to the basalis,
is a small sclerite, which I have thus far found in Copris only,
and this I call the conjunctivus, or connecting piece. It has no
other function that I can find and does not seem to occur where
there is a greater development of the molar. It most likely
represents the basal joint of the galea and is obscured where
the molar is largely developed. The flat membranous piece
forming most of the inner, and part of the outer, margin of
the mandible toward the tip is the homologue of the galea , and
I have called it the terebra , or piercer. In this species it is
quite closely united to the basalis and is fringed with long,
dense and fine hairs.
“In some other species, notably the Cetonii and pollen-feed¬
ing forms, it is entirely distinct and separate ; much firmer in
558 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts , and Letters.
texture, though also fringed with hair. In those cases the
attachment is seen to be much more to the grinder than to the
basalis, and the connection between the two is distinctly evi¬
dent, which is not the case here. It is the piece which, when
hardened and united with the other parts, forms the apical
acute tooth and justifies the term terebra.
“ Arising from the same base as this piercer is another
small piece, also membranous and fringed with hair, quite
closely united to the terebra. This is the prostheca of Kirby
and Spence, and is homologous to the lacinia of the maxillae.’’
After careful dissection of a number of specimens, I found
the following differences :
1. The conjunctivus is the thickened central part of a mem¬
brane, which is spread over the basal part of the mandible, on
its ventral surface; it bears the lacinia , while the underlying
basal part of the mandible is wholly chitinized.
2. The conjunctivus shows a very peculiar structure which
consists of numerous parallel longitudinal ridges covered with
a reticulated membrane and suggesting a special function.
3. The lacinia is blade-shaped, connected by its thickened
lateral edge to the galea, and is provided with stiff, comb-like
teeth. Underneath it the galea runs through and connects
with the chitinized basal part of the mandible, so that between
the galea and lacinia a kind of sheath is formed, open toward
the inside, in which a needle can be shoved as far as the end of
the lacinia. I have been able to dissect out the conjunctivus
with the lacinia and part of the galea attached (PL XXX,
Pig. 3). These relations are still more clearly shown in al¬
lied genera ( Phanaeus ).
4. The conjunctivus is not found in Copris alone, but is
present in all genera of the dung-beetles so far examined, and
in some is even more prominent.
5. The hairs on the end of the galea are not hairs in the
ordinary sense, but are the fringed edge of the blade of the
galea. They are blunt, branched, and often curved at the
tip (PI. XXX, Fig. 4).
Maxillae (PL XXX, Pig. 5). These do not show any pe¬
culiar variation from the regular type already described. All
Hardenberg — Studies in the Trophi of the Scarabaeidae. 559
parts are present : the small triangular cardo, the large stipes,
and a large convex palpifer, which is provided with a few
long, stiff hairs and bears the four-jointed palpus. The sub¬
galea is large and somewhat quadrangular ; the galea, like the
smaller lacinia, is a flat, helmet-shaped piece covered with
moderately long hairs. Between the sub-galea and the galea
we find a fork-shaped chitinous sclerite, which in other genera
is more conspicuous than in Copris; this is possibly the prox¬
imal segment of the galea. As the maxillae show only slight
variations, they need not be discussed for every species ex¬
amined, and reference to them will be made only when they
present any striking peculiarity.
Labium (PI. XXX, Figs. 6, 7). The labial structures are
all present, but the arrangement is somewhat confusing and
complex, different authors disagreeing as to the homology of
some parts. To give a clear idea of the arrangement as I
understand it, I have used diagrams wherever necessary or
helpful. 1 am inclined to accept the view of Kadic (3) in
regard to the mentum and sub-mentum, believing that the two
sclerites, hitherto called mentum and sub-mentum in coleopter-
ological literature, are really together the sub-mentum, which
thus consists of a posterior and an anterior part. The mentum
proper, in Copris and its allies, is folded in over the sub-men¬
tum, and is, for the greater part, membranous ; its lateral edge,
however, is always chitinized, and appears as a curved chitin¬
ous rod, extending from the lateral anterior corner of the sub-
mentum to the origin of the inner lobe of the labium. As
these outer and inner lobes are homologous with the lobes of
the maxillae, I use the same names throughout, calling the
outer lobe (lobus externus, paraglossa) the galea , and the inner
lobe (lobus internus, glossa) the lacinia.
That part which I consider the true mentum (and which
bears the lobes and the palpifer), has been called by some au¬
thors the hypoglottis, and by others the ligula. I will call it
the mentum.
The diagram (PI. XXXIV, Fig. 1) shows that in Copris
Carolina the mentum presents a small, somewhat triangular
sclerite, which is the remnant of the palpifer, the rest of it
560 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts , and Letters .
having become membranous and allowing free movement of
the whole labial structure. In the other species, this palpifer
is fused with the chitinized edge of the mention and is no
longer separately visible.
The palpi are three- jointed, their basal segments are very
broad, and these and the second segments are clothed with still,
bristle-like hairs.
Further inward we find the two lobes, galea and laeinia,
fused, their separation only indicated by a suture. The galea
is chitinized along its outer margin. The lacmia is thickly
clothed with short hairs, giving it a velvety appearance. Those
of both sides converge posteriorly and end in a chitinized piece
which bears strong teeth on its dorsal edge, and underneath
these teeth (ventrad) long, saber-shaped hairs are borne. In
front of this area we find a somewhat quadrangular unpaired
membrane, clothed with fine, long hairs and concave at its
anterior edge. This I consider the hypopharynx, for a sim
ilar structure in other beetles of this group undoubtedly bears
the sense-hairs (PI. XXX, Fig. 13), although in Copris this
function has been ceded to the proximal part of the laeinia.
Underneath this hypopharynx we often find two thin, chitm-
ous, crescent-shaped plates. These were considered by Smith
(1. c.) to constitute a valve for the gullet. As an examina¬
tion of this so-called “ valve” does not fall within the scope of
this article, a discussion of it will be omitted. Supporting the
hypopharynx and the floor of the mouth we find a peculiar
structure, the “fulcrum hypoph aryngeum. ’ 7 It is composed of
a small chitinous area, usually covered with short, velvety
hairs, from which radiate slightly curved chitinous rods, gener¬
ally four in number; two of these rods are attached to the
inner surface of the anterior plate of the sub-mentum, and the
other two either to the posterior plate of the sub-mentum or
to the gula. These hypoph aryngeal structures, with which the
above mentioned valve seems to be in some way connected,
were not examined in detail.
The velvety area mentioned above, at the junction of the
anterior and posterior arms of the hypoph aryngeal fulcrum,
Hardenberg — Studies in the Trophi of the Scarabaeidae. 561
does not represent the hypopharynx, for which it may easily
be mistaken in other species in which the true hypopharynx is
absent.
THE MOUTH-PARTS OF REPRESENTATIVES OF DIFFERENT GENERA.
Particular attention was paid to the first great group of the
Lamellicornia, the dung beetles, on account of their peculiar
adaptation, and the considerable amount of specific variation in
some of the minor parts, especially the labial structures; also
in order to come to a clear understanding of the relations as
there represented, and thus to be better able to trace the varia¬
tions from this type in the other groups.
Copris anaglypticus Say (PL XXX, Figs. 9-13).
The epipharynx (Fig. 9) shows the same general shape as
in C. Carolina , but the broad, chitinized supporting arch has
disappeared, and in its stead we find only a faint line, which
indicates the attachment to the under side of the clypeus. We
see that already the place of attachment has moved forward.
The mandibles (Fig. 10) show only a slight difference from
those of C. Carolina. The attachment of the lacinia to the
conjunctivus is, however, more definite.
The labium (Fig. 12) shows the galea and lacinia more dis¬
tinctly separated, the lacinia being clothed with long, fine
hairs, and its distal end curved outward.
The hypopharynx (Fig. 13) shows peculiar, two-jointed,
saber-shaped sense-hairs, most of which are placed along its
lateral edge, thus showing a distinct difference from C. Caro¬
lina , in which similar hairs are borne by the proximal part of
the lacinia.
Canthon laevis Drury (PL XXX, Figs. 14, 15 ; Pl. XXXI,
Fig. 16).
Here we find the mandibles (Fig. 15), though of the same
general shape, becoming more chitinized and the membranous
terminal part correspondingly shorter. The lacinia is here
somewhat larger and again distinctly connected with the con¬
junctivus.
36— S. & A.
562 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts, and Letters.
Labium and labial lobes. (PL XXXI, Pig. 16 ; PL
XXXIV, Pig. 2). The anterior part of the sub-mentum is dis¬
tinctly paired. The mentum is indented in the middle, and the
sides of this indentation are fringed with fine hairs. The
galea and 1 acini a are fairly distinct, the lacinia being less
thickly clothed Avith hairs and Avith its distal part wholly mem¬
branous and tAvisted. Its proximal part is connected with the
hypopharynx, which is here triangular and again bears peculiar
hairs, principally on its outside edges.
Choeridium histeroides Web.
The epipharynx is of the usual type, but the club-shaped,
chitinized median thickening is here relatively broad and less
prominent, Avidening posteriorly. We here have the first step
toward a disappearance of this thickening.
Labial lobes and hypopharynx (PI. XXXI, Pig. 17). The
inner lobe is membranous and fringed Avith strong, pointed
hairs, the outer lobe for the greater part chitinized. Where
the lobes join the hypopharynx, their dorsal surface is sparsely
covered A\dth numerous short, conical projections; where they
meet in the median line they are furnished with three long,
blade-shaped hairs, Avhich here, however, are firmly chitinized,
and which may be considered intermediate between the sense-
hairs as found in other forms and the teeth which we find in
Copris. The hypopharynx itself is quadrangular and clothed
with moderately long, fine hairs.
Pleurophorus caesus Panz.
Epipharynx (Pig. 18). Though still presenting the gen¬
eral appearance found throughout this group, the epipharynx
shows some important modifications in structure. The hairs
on the incurved lateral margin are broader, stronger and more
brush-like. The median club-shaped thickened area with its
sense-hairs has entirely disappeared, the field between the lateral
areas being furnished instead with a comparatively few short,
conical projections.
Mandibles (Fig. 19). These show a more distinct chitiniza-
tion at the lateral and distal margin. The fringe of hairs at
the end of the galea has disappeared, the whole mandible being
more compact with its tip no longer membranous. The molar
Hardenberg — Studies in the Trophi of the Scarabaeidae. 563
is still well developed and ridged. The lacinia has increased
in length, reaching nearly to the tip, and still shows the comb-
like teeth. At its base the conjunctive is still distinctly
visible.
Maxillae (Fig. 20). In this species we find that the max¬
illae have begnn to show a variation. The hairy fringe of the
galea has disappeared and is replaced by strong, curved, blunt,
chitinized teeth, surmounted by a slight fringe of hairs. The
lacinia is small and slender, and provided with a number of
thin, curved teeth at the end instead of the hairs heretofore
found.
Labial structures (Fig. 21). The two lobes of the labium
aie distinct, the galea being represented by a broad, flattened,
slightly chitinized plate, and the lacinia having its distal end
greatly differentiated into four peculiarly shaped proc¬
esses. The palpi are here three- jointed, each segment being
smooth and similar to the others. At their junction, the inner
lobes pass over directly into the hypopliarynx, which is only
slightly developed and is recognizable by the fact that its
median area is covered with short, conical protuberances. No
sense-hairs were found, and the hypopliarynx has been so much
reduced that it is no longer recognizable as such; it becomes
optional to call the area described the hypopliarynx, or merely
the median confluent part of the inner lobes.
About the habits of this species nothing could be learned;
its mouth-parts show, however, that it lives no longer on soft,,
excrementitious matter, but on more solid food. The mandibles
have become more chitinized and the hairs on the maxillar
lobes have been transformed into teeth; the gustatory setae
have undergone a great reduction. The present species forms
a transition from this group to the next ( Geotrupes et al.).
Phanaeus cornifex Linn.
We find the epipharynx, mandibles and maxillae very much
like those of Copris; the stipes and palpifer of the maxillae
are clothed with long, stiff hairs.
The labium (PI. XXXI, Fig. 22; PI. XXXIV, Fig. 3)
is in its general appearance very Copris-like ; the proximal
564 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts , and Letters .
end of the inner lobe is also curved inward and connected with
the hypopharvnx, but instead of being differentiated into
chitinized teeth, its surface is covered with low, dome-shaped
papillae, giving it the appearance of a cobble-stone pavement.
Here also, as in Copris, the blade-shaped hairs are borne on the
edge of this upturned part of the lobe, and, becoming slightly
modified, extend to the distal end.
The hypopharynx (Fig. 22) is somewhat quadrangular with
a concave distal edge, and is clothed with moderately long, fine
hairs.
Onthophagus Jiecate Panz.
The epipharynx (Fig. 23) presents the usual appearance.
The mandibles (Fig. 24) are also of the Copris type, but the
lacinia has increased in length, nearly attaining the tip of the
galea. With this has gone a corresponding increase in promi¬
nence of the conjunctivus, and the molars have begun to de¬
crease in size ; the change in the galea is here shown by the fact
that the fringe on its tip has become finer and shorter.
The maxillae (Fig. 25) show a slight reduction in the lacinia
and an increase in the bristles on palpifer, stipes and cardo.
Labial structures (Fig. 26). The lacinia is membranous.
The thick, velvety coat of short hairs has disappeared, and in
its stead we find long, bristle-like hairs covering the entire
blade. The galea is as usual somewhat chitinized along its
lateral margin. The proximal end of the lacinia is continued
directly into the liypopharynx, the connecting membrane,
which shows it, changing gradually from a thickened proximal
to a thinner distal part. This structure continues over the
triangular hypopharvnx proper, which bears along its edges
the characteristic saber-shaped hairs.
Aphodius fimetarius Linn,
Ep'ipharynx (Fig. 27). Here the club-shaped thickening be¬
gins to disappear, and in its place we find a small median pro¬
tuberance, with a few pitted hairs at the distal edge, which ex¬
pands caudad into a broad V-shaped area. This area is slightly
chitinized and smooth, and along its edges is pierced by a num-
Hardenberg — Studies in the Trophi of the Scarabaeidae . 565
her of irregular boles of different sizes, wbicb, increasing in
number at the posterior part, give to the plate a sieve-like ap¬
pearance. This feature has been observed only in this one
species, and its physiological significance is not clear.
The mandibles are short and more thick and compact, but
still membranous at the tip; the lacinia is short and the con¬
junct vus well developed.
The labium and labial lobes (Fig. 28). Both lobes are
membranous, the galea and lacinia fused as usual and but
sparsely beset with setae. At the junction of the hypopharynx
the lobes are continued into an elongated area, covered with
short, blunt, fiat, conical papillae. The hypopharynx itself
is a thin, membranous plate, convex in front and sparsely
covered with thin, soft hairs.
Aphodius granarius Linn.
This second representative of the genus was taken on account
of its different food habits. The members of this genus are pre¬
vailingly found feeding on cow dung, but A. granarius Linn,
has become a pest in our granaries, and it was examined to
see whether such a comparatively slight deviation would show
any effect on the construction of the mouth-parts. This was
found to be the case, although the change has not proceeded
very far and its modification can be directly traced from A .
fimetarius.
Epipharynx (Fig. 29). The V-shaped, slightly chitinized
area described in the preceding species is here flask-shaped
(a direct modification from the dung-feeding A. fimetarius ),
more strongly chitinized and sparsely beset with short papillae,
its posterior border being fringed with a row of sense-cups.
It does not show the perforations which were found in the
preceding species. Its anterior tip shows two blade-shaped
chitinous hairs or teeth. An additional row of blade-shaped
hairs has appeared on the area between this and the incurved
lateral margin of the epipharynx.
Mandibles (Fig 30}. These are shorter and more strong¬
ly chitinized than in A. fimetarius. The lacinia has again
become longer and extends to the tip of the mandible where it
566 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts, and Letters.
is fused with the end of the galea; we cannot say where one
ends and the other begins, only the comb-like fringe of hairs
showing that it is the lacinia with which we have to deal.
Labium (Fig. 31). The inner lobe is sparsely covered
with scattered saber-shaped hairs; where it joins the hypo-
pharynx it changes into an oval, cushion-like structure, thickly
covered with slender, pointed cones. The hypopharynx is
here again a thin plate, broadened in front and covered with
fine, soft, moderately long hairs.
We see in this natural group of the dung beetles a grea:
similarity in the mouth-parts, as was to be expected. Sum¬
ming up the characteristics, we have:
1. A large, membranous epipharynx, with well-developed
sensory area.
2. Mandibles which show that they were originally com¬
posed of a number of sclerites, the homologies of which can be
traced to those of the maxillae; their anterior parts are mem¬
branous, with a pair of grinders or molars placed at their pos¬
terior ends.
3. A labium in which the mentum is turned in over the
sub-mentum, with the labial lobes membranous, and galea and
lacinia generally fused; the inner lobes at their junction pass
over into the hypopharynx ; the latter part and the labial lobes
show a great amount of variation in the different species,
though individual differences were found to be immaterial. In
general we have two types:
a. The hypopharynx is well-developed and bears peculiar¬
ly shaped sensory hairs ; the inner lobes bear almost exclusive¬
ly long, slender tactile hairs.
b. The hypopharynx is clothed with long, slender hairs
which are here non-sensory, this function being taken over by
the median pari; of the inner lobes, which bear peculiar struc¬
tures.
4. A loosely developed elastic swallowing apparatus, the
fulcrum hypopharyngeung the structure of which was not,
however, examined in detail.
Hardenberg — Studies in the Trophi of the Scarab aeidae. 567
The members of the next group, though generally included
among the dung-beetles, show in their moutli-parts a distinct
departure from the types just described, being intermediate
between these and the skin beetles; they also show in some re¬
spects an approach to the predatory type of Coleoptera.
Of the habits of the species examined nothing could be
learned, excepting as to Geotrupes , but in the latter case the
information did not account for the changes shown by the
trophi.
Bradycinctus ferrugineus Burm.
The epipharynx (PI. XXXI, Pig. 32) forms here the under
side of the labrum and is fused with it. Of the gustatory sense-
organ, little has remained of the elaborate structure in the Go-
pris beetles, though still enough to suggest its descent. Along the
median line we find a small elevated area which is club-shaped
in appearance; it projects slightly beyond the anterior margin
of the labrum and bears numerous sense-papillae. Laterally it
also bears a small number of long tactile hairs and towards
the posterior end a row of taste-cups.
Prom the posterior margin a membrane extends backward,
which covers the roof of the mouth and shows several rows of
thin hairs thickly crowded together.
Mandibles (Pig. 33}. The galea has become wholly chiti-
nized, but we still find part of the lacinia present as a fringe
of comb-like hairs, extending along the inner edge. Xo trace
of a conjunctivus can be found, the entire basal part of the
mandible being chitinized too thoroughly to show any such
structure. Below the lacinia, and between it and the molar,
we find a whorled mass of fine hairs, which may possibly rep¬
resent the remnant of the hairs at the end of the conjunc¬
tivus.
Maxillae (Fig. 34). A slender, four-segmented palpus is
present. The galea ends in a sharp tooth, still retaining some¬
what the helmet shape found in the preceding group, but no
longer membranous and hairy. The lacinia is also entirely
chitinized and ends in a sharp, curved tooth. Above it &
second, movable tooth is developed, similar to the digitus of
the Carabidae.
568 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts , and Letters .
Labium (PI. XXXII, Pig, 35). The labial structures show
a decided change and a reduction. The mentum is no longer
turned over and lying on top of the sub-mentum, but is now
in front of this piece. It is very small, however, and being
pushed somewhat back over the sub-mentum, it is easily over¬
looked. As a result of this change in position, the labial palpi
no longer arise above, but distad from the sub-mentum.
The palpi are three- jointed and slender. The lobes are
both present ; the outer one is a slightly chitinized plate, sparse¬
ly covered with stiff hairs; the inner lobe is bmall and mem¬
branous. Xo hypopharynx could be found; the hairy struc¬
ture on the membranous floor of the mouth corresponds neither
in structure nor in position to a hypopharynx, but is similar
to that structure which we find posterior to the epipharynx on
the membrane forming the roof of the mouth.
The whole sensory apparatus of this insect has been reduced,
and those hairy, slightly chitinized parts of the membrane just
referred to seem to be the remnant of the large hypopharyn-
geal structure.
Bolboceras farctus Fab.
The epipharynx (PI. XXXI, Fig. 36) is in general the same
as in Bradycinctus.
The mandibles (PI. XXXII, Fig. 37) are more strongly
chitinized, and the galea has two teeth at the apex. The lacinia
bears a divided tooth; at its end and from here inward the
usual hairy fringe is present. Xo trace of a conjunctivus
could be made out.
The maxilla is similar to that of the preceding species, ex¬
cepting that the digitus of its lacinia has become longer, more
curved and forked at the end. Stipes and palpifer are pro¬
vided with very long tactile hairs.
Labium (PI. XXXII, Fig. 38; PI. XXXIV, Fig 4). The
mentum here is similar to that already described for Bradycinc¬
tus ferrugineus. The labial lobes, however, are thoroughly
chitinized, the outer lobes fused, and only rudiments of the in¬
ner lobes are visible as slight projections. The fused chitinized
outer lobes are very easily mistaken for the mentum, but the
Hardenberg — Studies in the Trophi of the Scarabaeidae. 569
intermediate stage, as shown in the preceding species, proves
their real homology with the outer lobes of the labium.
Bolboceras lazarus Fab.
Here the epipharynx (PI. XXXII, Pig. 39) is less develop¬
ed; it is sparsely beset with hairs and forms the under side of
the labrum. Laterally the epipharynx is continued into a
membrane which is thickly covered with tactile hairs. Xo
taste-cups of any kind could be seen.
Mandibles (Pig. 40). These are in general like those of B.
farctus, still showing a junction between the large galea and
smaller lacinia. The latter part is chitinized, bearing Vthe
characteristic hairs along its margin and showing at its base a
striated portion with which it is continuous. This basal por¬
tion, which lies adjacent to the molar, is doubtless a remnant
of the conjunctive, which here, as in other species of this
group, is no longer recognizable as a distinct piece.
Labium. This is very much reduced. The lobes are mem¬
branous, the inner one rudimentary. Xo trace of a hypo-
pharynx remains, and no sense-cups of any kind could be
found.
Geotrupes egeriei Germ. (PL XXXII, Pigs. 41-45).
Epipharynx (Pig. 41). Here we find the epipharynx occupy¬
ing as usual the under side of the labrum, no longer as a dis¬
tinct membrane but connected with it all along its anterior and
lateral margins. The arrangement of the hairs still shows a
strong resemblance to that found in the beetles of the preced¬
ing group.
Mandibles (Pig, 42). The mandibles are chitinized and end
in strong teeth, the distal one of which is the horny point of
the galea. The lacinia consists of an inner membranous and
an outer chitinous part and forms the second tooth of the man¬
dible. That this is the lacinia is shown by its connection with
the conjunctive ; this can still be distinguished and shows the
remnant of its original structure by the interrupted parallel
ridges on its surface.
Labium (Pigs. 44-45). Here we find a hypopharynx pres-
570 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts , and Letters.
ent in connection with the labial lobes; the hypopharynx is
itself covered with fine hairs, while pointed papillae and sensc-
cnps are borne on the proximal part of the inner lobes of the
labium.
Cloeotus aphodioides Ill. (PI. XXXII, Figs. 46-47, PI.
XXXIV, Fig. 5).
Epipharynx (Fig. 53). The epipharynx has become entirely
corneous. The lateral hairs are disappearing, only a few re¬
maining scattered over the surface. A thickened, V-shaped
median area bears both sense-cups and short papillae.
Mandibles (Fig. 47). The molars are still distinguishable,
those of both sides being nearly alike and failing to show the
convex and concave surfaces hitherto found. There is only
one apical tooth at the end of the galea, and the lacinia, which
extends along the inner side of the galea to the base of the
tooth, presents the characteristic fringe of hairs. A conjunc-
tivus cannot be made out with certainty.
Maxillae. The palpi are slender, both galea and lacinia
well developed.
Labium (PL XXXIV, Fig. 5). Only the frontal edge of
the mentum is chitinized; the rest of it is membranous. It is
here distinctly pushed in over the sub-mentum, and this gives
to the palpigers with their three-jointed palpi the appearance
of arising above the sub-mentum. The labial lobes are repre¬
sented by a very thin plate, fringed with long hairs and sup¬
ported at the proximal part by the hypopharyngeal fulcrum.
X o true hypopharynx could be distinguished.
Trox scutellaris Say (PI. XXXII, Figs. 48-51).
The members of this genus, the skin beetles, are generally con¬
sidered to constitute a group by themselves, and rightly so, for
in appearance and habits they differ greatly from any other
group in this order. In structure their mouth-parts show an
intermediate stage between those of the preceding and those
of the following group.
Epipharynx (Fig. 48). The frontal and lateral edges of
the labrum appear to have been turned in, and the space thus
enclosed is bridged over by a membrane which bears the epi-
Hardenberg — Studies in the Trophi of the Scarabaeidae. 571
pharyngeal structures. These are, however, much reduced,
and laterally we find a number of tactile hairs, while the me¬
dian sense-area bears only a small group of flat, round papillae.
Mandibles (Fig. 49). These are very thoroughly chiti-
nized, so much so that the homology of the parts has become
entirely obscured and cannot be traced with any degree of cer¬
tainty. Their outer surface, as is the case with all the mouth-
parts of this beetle, is thickly covered with short, thick, stiff
hairs, evidently adapted for brushing and scraping.
Maxillae (Fig. 50). Here again the lacinia ends in a tooth
and bears a digitus, which is here double-toothed. Stiff hairs
are intermingled with these teeth.
Labium (Fig. 51). The sub-mentum has its anterior and
lateral margin folded in, and its normally anterior margin
bears the mentum with its palpi and lobes. The labial lobes
are represented by a thin membrane which bears two rows of
hairs. These may indicate the line of fusion of outer and
inner lobes. The hypopharynx has almost entirely disap¬
peared. At the posterior end of the lobes there is only one
row of sense-cups, and in front of these are two pairs of flat,
round papillae.
Hoplia trifasciata Say (PI. XXXII, Figs. 52-54).
Epipharynx (Fig. 52). This shows in its form and structure
a close resemblance to the corresponding organ of Trox scut el-
laris ; in fact, nearly all the following species show the lateral
and distal edge of the labrum turned in and chitinized, the
space enclosed by them being covered with a membrane, the true
epipharynx. In this species both the labrum and the epiphar¬
ynx are very much shortened. The membranous area is fur¬
nished with a few sense-cups in the center and is covered later¬
ally with long, stiff hairs.
Mandibles (Fig. 53). These are strongly chitinized and
show a well developed molar furnished with strong ridges.
The galea forms a single apical tooth; the lacinia is also
present and recognizable by its characteristic hairs.
Labial structures (Fig. 54). Here the conditions are dif¬
ferent from those previously described. The mentum with
572 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts , and Letters.
its palpi has been pushed in over the distal end of the sub-men--
turn, and what is seen projecting distad from the sub-mentum
(looking at it from the ventral side) is only a part of the men-
tum. In the case of Hoplia trifasciata only a small portion
of the mentum is visible from beneath, the greater part of it
lying on top of the sub-mentum. The front and lateral edges
only are chitinized, and the membranous enclosed area is de¬
void of sense-cups, but furnished with lateral rows of long, thin
hairs wdiich converge posteriorly.
Dichelonycha elongata Fab. (PI. XXXII, Figs. 55-58).
Epipharynx (Fig. 55). Here this organ is still more reduced
and almost entirely corneous; only a few scattered hairs and
papillae are left to indicate its original function. The epi¬
pharynx is reduced, not only in specialization, but also in ex¬
tent, and has become very much shortened.
Mandibles (Fig. 56). These are much more chitinized;
they are, in fact, almost entirely corneous. The molar has
greatly increased in size; the apical tooth of the galea has be¬
come broader and the lacinia shorter and much reduced. The
large molar, the broad apical expanse of the galea and the
heavy chitinization give to the organ a strong, compact appear¬
ance.
Maxillae (Fig. 57). The galea is well developed and
strongly chitinized, while the lacinia is much reduced, having
lost its hairy covering and become a thin, chitinous plate. 1 1
forms part of the dorsal surface of the organ and extends to
the median edge where it is deflexed and forms the internal
margin of the maxilla, so that when viewed from the vential
side the lacinia appears as a thin line along the inner edge of
the sub-galea.
The maxillary palpus is very long, and the palpifer bears
two conspicuous, long, stiff setae.
Labial structures (Fig. 58). These are similar in position
to those of the preceding species, except that the inner lobes of
the labium are still distinguishable. They appear as mem¬
branes, separated from each other along the median line for a
short distance from the distal edge, and are sparsely covered
Hardenberg — Studies in the Trophi of the Scarabaeidae. 573
with short, curved hairs. No sense-cups of any kind are ap¬
parent. Caudad from these hairs just mentioned is the usual
Y-shaped hairy area connecting the labial lobes with the hypo-
pharyngeal fulcrum, which is here fairly well developed.
Serica sericea Ill. (PI. XXXII, Pigs. 59-63).
Epipharynx (Pigs. 59-60). In this species the epipharynx has
undergone a still greater reduction. At first sight the membra¬
nous part of the under side of the labrum appears structureless,
Upon closer examination, however, we find remnants of the epi¬
pharyngeal structure which are here represented by a few
sense-pits in the median area, bounded laterally by a row of
hairs.
Mandibles (Pig. 61). In this insect, as in Dichelonycha,
the mandibles have become more compact and strongly chiti¬
nized, not by an increase of the galea but by a greater develop¬
ment of the molar. The width of the galea is reduced, and
the lacinia, increased correspondingly, ends in a slightly chiti¬
nized tooth.
Maxillae (Fig. 62). All the hairs which usually are pres¬
ent on the surface of the galea and the lacinia have disap¬
peared, and the entire organ has become stronger and shorter.
The galea ends in five strong chitinized teeth; the lacinia as
such is no longer distinct.
Labial structures. Figure 6 (Plate XXXI Y) gives a dia¬
grammatic representation of the conditions here. The sub-men¬
tum is large ; beyond it, when seen from beneath, the mentum
projects as a narrow transverse sclerite. A lateral view shows
the mentum moved in over the sub-mentum and bearing the
three-segmented palpi on its ventral surface. Lateral notches
on the sub-mentum allow the passage of these palpi, which
have the appearance of arising from the sub-mentum.
The anterior edge of the mentum is strongly chitinized and
is continued posteriorly into a membrane which forms the floor
of the mouth. No trace is left of hypopharynx and labial lobes ;
lateral rows of hairs, converging caudad and enclosing a Y-
shaped area, may here represent a remnant of the original con
574 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts , and Letters .
ditions. The hypopharyngeal fulcrum is still present and
fairly well developed.
Macrodactylus subspinosus Fab. (Pl. XXXII, Figs. 64
67). In this insect the trophi are less strongly chitinized and
show an approach to those of the pollen-eating beetles (Eu¬
phoria et al.). This was to be expected, as this species lives
on the soft petals of flowers and has no need of strongly chiti¬
nized mouth-parts.
Epipharynx (Fig. 64). This shows a better development
than in the preceding species; the sensory area is larger, the
sense-cups are more numerous, and the arrangement of the
hairs and sense-pits reminds us of that in Hoplia trifasciata.
Mandibles (Fig. 65). These are less chitinized, both galea
and molar having undergone a reduction. The lacinia <is
again enlarged and much broader, giving the whole mandible
a more leaf -like aspect. A remnant of the conjunctivus is
here suggested, there being a slight difference in structure in
that part of the base of the mandible which adjoins the molar.
Maxillae (Fig. 66). These are noteworthy in that they show
that the teeth with which the maxillae are armed in S erica
and the preceding species are really formed by the galea, and
that the lacinia does not take part in their formation. Galea
and lacinia are here separate and distinct, the former ending
in five strong teeth, the latter having a small tuft of hairs at
its end.
Labial structures (Fig. 67). The mentum, which with its
appendages has been pushed in over the sub-mentum, is com¬
paratively broad, narrowing toward the posterior end. It beais
on its ventral side the short three-segmented palpi, while on
its dorsal surface is a small transverse piece which is corne¬
ous and projects dorsally. This I consider to be the remnant
of, the fused inner lobes of the labium. Laterad of this we
again find the usual rows of long hairs converging posteriorly.
At the place where we should naturally expect the hypophar-
ynx to be, there are only a few sense-pits.
Hardenberg — Studies in the Trophi of the Scarabaeidae . 575
Diplotaxis sordida Say (PL XXXII, Figs 68-69; PL
XXXIV, Fig. 7).
Epipharynx. This organ presents a condition similar to
that found in Serica. It is much reduced, the sense-papillae
no longer being apparent, hut the lateral row of hairs is still
present. Its sensory function has evidently been lost.
Mandibles. These are strongly chitinized, each bearing a
prominent curved tooth forked at its free end ; there is a
well developed molar. The lacinia is much reduced, its pres¬
ence being indicated merely by a whorl of hairs at the base
of the inner edge of the galea.
Maxillae (Fig. 68). Except for their short, compact ap¬
pearance and greater amount of chitinization, these do not ma¬
terially differ from those already described. The teeth of the
maxillae (here four in number and prominent) are again
shown to be formed by the galea alone, the lacinia ending in a
number of strong, stiff hairs.
Labial structures (Pl. XXXII, Fig. 69 ; Pl. XXXIV, Fig.
7). The short transverse mentum has been moved in over the
sub-mentum, but for so short a distance that it seems to be situ¬
ated directly in front of it. The true relative position of these
sclerites is shown in the diagram. The anterior and poste¬
rior plates of the sub-mentum are distinct and nearly equal in
size, thus differing from the general arrangement which shows
the posterior plate to be considerably shorter than the anterior.
Xo sensory structures which would suggest a hypopharynx are
apparent, but the lateral rows of hairs are present as usual.
Lachnosterna fusca Froh. (Pl. XXXII, Fig. 70; PL
XXXIII, Fig. 71). This is the common species. Other
species were examined but did not show any essential differ¬
ences in the shape or structure of their trophi from the species
here described.
Epipharynx (Fig. 70). This organ has almost entirely dis¬
appeared, the turned-in front and lateral edges of the labrum
extending nearly over its entire under surface. Whether this
is the chitinized front and lateral edge of the epipharyngeal
576 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts , and Letters.
membrane, or whether it is part of the labrum, would be hard
to decide. No taste-organs of any kind are apparent.
Mandibles. These are strongly chitinized, short and com
pact, and they present highly developed molars which have
numerous sharp, high ridges. The galea is not toothed at the
end but terminates in a slightly chitinous, leaf-like expansion.
Labial structures (Fig. 71). Again we find the anterior
and posterior plates of the sub-mentum nearly equal in size;
the former is convex in front. The mentuin is comparatively
large and has not been moved in very far over the sub-mentum.
Anomala minuta Burm. (PI. XXXII, Fig. 72 ; PL
XXXIII, Figs. 73-74).
Epipharynx (Fig. 72). This organ is less reduced in
this than in the preceding species. It is comparatively
large and chitinous, with a fringe of bristle-like hairs along
its frontal and lateral edges. A few sense-papillae are pres¬
ent, arranged in a triangular shape; they are bounded by the
characteristic lateral row of hairs. I am inclined to believe
from their position and appearance that these papillae, here
as in other species, are gustatory in function.
The mandibles (Fig. 73) and the maxillae are similar in
appearance to those of Diplotaxis and need not be discussed.
Labial structures (Fig. 74). In Anomala the anterior
plate of the sub-mentum is large, the posterior plate compara'-
tively small and transverse. The mentum is large and is
pushed in over the sub-mentum to a considerable extent. Its
posterior margin is convex, its anterior edge slightly concave
with the lateral angles rounded. It is wider than the ante¬
rior part of the sub-mentum, and its front and lateral portions
are visible from beneath, protruding over the edges of the sub-
mentum. As usual, no hypopliarynx is present.
Pelidnota punctata Linn. (PI. XXXIII, Figs. 75-76; PI.
XXXIV, Fig. 8).
Epipharynx (Fig. 75). This is for the greater part
membranous, its anterior edge only being chitinized. It
is strongly indented in front, and its lateral portions are
Hardenberg — Studies in the Trophi of the Scarabaeidae . 577
furnished with three long rows of strong, moderately long
hairs. The velvety, hairy area, which we generally find cov¬
ering the posterior end of the membranous part of the epi-
pharynx, is in this species situated directly behind its front
edge. The whole labrum, with the epipharynx, is pushed far
back under the clypeus, so that this velvety area is really in its
normal position in regard to the gullet of the insect.
Mandibles (Fig. 76). These are large, prominent and
strongly chitinized. The molar is well developed and is fur¬
nished with numerous high ridges ; the galea forms the greater
part of the mandible and ends in two sharp, inwardly projecting
teeth. The lacinia has also been chitinized, but still shows
the characteristic hairs along its inner edge.
Labial structures. The diagram (PI. XXXIV, Fig 8)
shows the existing conditions. The posterior plate of the sub-
mentum is short, the anterior plate long with slightly convex
sides. The mentum is large and nearly quadrangular, some¬
what narrowed posteriorly, and has been pushed in far over
the sub-mentum so that in a ventral view only a small portion
of it can be seen projecting in front. Xo sensory apparatus
suggesting a hypopharynx seems to be present.
Cotalpa lanigera Linn. (PL XXXIV, Fig. 9).
Epipharynx . The labrum is deeply indented and is shoved far
under the clypeus. The epipharynx is almost entirely corneous ;
only its median area is membranous and entirely covered with
stiff hairs. Xo sensory structures of any kind could be found,
Xeither the mandibles nor the maxillae show any striking
peculiarity, and they need not be discussed.
Labial structures. The mentum is shorter than in Anom-
ala ; its position, dorsad from the sub-mentum, is not appar¬
ent when examined from beneath. A fusion has evidently
taken place here between the mentum and the distal edge of the
sub-mentum, not even a suture indicating the place of fusion.
A lateral view of the labial structures discloses the true con¬
dition of affairs; the separation between mentum and sub-
mentum is then plainly shown, and the palpi are seen to arise
dorsad from the sub-mentum.
37— S. & A.
578 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters .
Cyclocephala immaculata Oliv. (Pl. XXXIII, Pigs. 77-79;
Pl. XXXIV, Pig. 10).
Epipharynx (Pig. 77). This is short, entirely corneous,
and does not show any sensory structures. The usual lateral
rows of hairs enclosing a V-shaped area are still present. The
epipharynx is thus very much reduced and apparently func¬
tionless.
Mandibles (Pig. 78). These show a considerable differ¬
ence in form from those in the preceding species of this group.
The molar is small and not strongly chitinized; the galea is
narrow and does not as usual end in a tooth, but is flat and
thin at its extremity. This gives the whole mandible a some¬
what elongated appearance. The lacinia is prominent and
thickly covered on its inner edge with moderately long hairs.
Maxillae (Pig. 79). These are elongated and slender. The
galea is somewhat quadrangular in shape, covered with numer¬
ous thin, long hairs, and its distal edge bears small, irregular
teeth. The cardo is no longer triangular as in the preceding
species of this group, but has become elongated and club-
shaped.
Labial structures (Pl. XXXIV, Pig. 10). The posterior
plate of the sub-mentum is short and transverse; the anterior
plate is long ; its lateral edges are slightly convex and converge
anteriorly. The mentum is pushed in for a considerable dis¬
tance over the sub-mentum, is broader than its distal part, and
has its lateral edges converging posteriorly.
Ligyrus gibbosus De G. (PL XXXIII, Pigs. 80-82; Pl.
XXXIV, Pig. 11).
Epipharynx (Pig. 80). At first sight this organ ap¬
pears totally different from those already described for
other species. Its anterior part is entirely corneous, the
chitinization extending backward for some distance along
the median line. Instead of the usual lateral row of hairs
converging posteriorly, we find that in this species the entire
lateral portion of the chitinous area is covered with moderately
long, pointed hairs which show no definite arrangement. The
Hardenberg — Studies in the Trophi of the Scarabaeidae. 579'
chitinous portion is followed caudad by a membranous part,
which is densely covered with what seem to be short, conical
papillae. Whether these are sense-papillae or merely abortive
hairs I cannot with certainty decide. The anterior edge of the
epipharynx is thickly beset with long, thin, cylindrical hairs*
Mandibles (Fig. 81). These are short and -strongly chitim
ized. The molar is small and smooth and has undergone a
great reduction. The galea is broad; its terminal expansion
shows a rounded tooth. Below this tooth we find on the inner
edge of the galea a tuft of hairs such as is usually found in the
lacinia ; this seems to indicate that in this species a part of the
horny terminal expansion of the mandibles was formed by the
lacinia.
Maxillae (Fig. 82). These are similar in shape to those of
Cyclocephala except that they are somewhat shorter; the galea
is more nearly triangular and ends in two short teeth of equal
length. The entire organ is covered with moderately long,
stiff hairs.
Labial structures (PI. XXXIV, Fig. 11). The posterior
plate of the sub-mentum is small and transverse; the anterior
plate is elongated and narrows anteriorly. Its sides are slight¬
ly convex; its lateral edges are turned inward, and its front
edge is deeply notched. The mentum is pushed in over the
sub-mentum for a considerable distance, and, being broader
than the anterior part of the sub-mentum, it can be seen pro¬
jecting over its front and lateral edges. The mentum narrows
posteriorly and is forked at its caudal end; these two prongs
extend backwards and their lateral edges join the turned-in
sides of the sub-mentum; a cavity is thus formed, the opening
of which is dorsad ; ventrally it is bounded by the sub-mentum.,
whose turned-in edges also enclose the cavity laterally and in
part dorsally. As already mentioned, these turned-in edges
of the sub-mentum form the boundary of the opening of the
cavity, excepting the anterior margin which is bounded by the
mentum ; in this space the fulcrum hypopharyngeum is im¬
bedded. Xo trace of a sensory hypopharynx was found.
580 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts , and Letters.
Xylorectes satyrus Fab. (PL XXXIII, Figs. 83-86).
Epipharynx (Fig. 83). In this species we find the epipharynx
as a free fold of the roof of the mouth. It is somewhat tri¬
angular in shape with convex sides, and its lateral portions are
densely covered with long, sharply pointed hairs ; but a median
area extending the entire length of the organ is left uncovered,
suggesting the presence of a sensory apparatus of some kind on
this area. Xothing could be found, however, which might be
credited with any sensory function.
Mandibles (Fig. 84). The molar is much reduced; the
galea is broad, terminating in two short, blunt teeth, and has
a row of stiff, pointed hairs along its outer edge. The lacinia is
comparatively large, but in this species there is no indication
that it contributes to the formation of the terminal blade of
the mandible.
Maxillae (Fig. 85). These are similar in shape to those of
Ligyrus. The galea has become triangular, the outer of the
two apical teeth being much elongated and sharply pointed.
Labial structures (Fig. 86). The posterior and anterior
plates of the sub-mentum differ greatly in size, the former be¬
ing short and transverse, the latter large, broad and greatly
narrowed anteriorly. The comparatively small mentum is en¬
tirely pushed in over the sub-mentum and is covered with long,
pointed hairs similar in shape to those found on the epi-
pharynx. Its relations to the sub-mentum are like those de¬
scribed for Ligyrus.
Allorhina nitida Linn. (PI. XXXIII, Figs. 87-90).
Epipharynx (Fig. 87). This is entirely corneous and shows
the characteristic lateral rows of hairs converging posteriorly.
Three or four rows have been added to these and cover nearly
the entire lateral area. In the enclosed Y-shaped median area
we find a few sense-papillae and in front of these a tuft of
hairs similar to those on the lateral portions of the epipharynx.
Mandibles (Fig. 88). These are very similar to those de¬
scribed for Cyclocephala; the molar is small, the galea long,
flat and narrow, and the lacinia broad. They show an ap¬
proach in form to the mandibles found in Euphoria.
Hardenberg — Studies in the Trophi of the Scarabaeidae. 581
Maxillae (Fig. 89). These are elongated like the mandi¬
bles ; the galea is no longer toothed hut becomes hairy ; the la-
cinia is more prominent and is furnished at its inner edge with
a row of stiff hairs.
Labial structures (Fig. 90). The mentum is larger and
broader than the anterior plate of the sub-mentum and is
pushed in over it for a considerable distance. Its front and
the lateral chitinized edges are turned inward, and the latter
bear several lateral rows of hairs, but no sense-cups. An ad¬
ditional tuft of smaller hairs is found on the anterior median
area.
Euphoria inda Linn. (Figs. 91-94). This insect may be
considered as the type of the pollen-eating forms. Its mouth-
parts are greatly reduced both in size and in amount of cliiti-
nization.
Epipharynx (Fig. 91). This is very similar in structure
to that of Ligyrus , being entirely chitinous and having its an¬
terior edge beset with long, cylindrical hairs. Its sides are
strongly convex; the anterior edge is concave; laterally it is
covered with numerous pointed hairs which gradually pass over
into short, conical papillae covering the posterior part of the
epipharynx. The median area is not entirely smooth as in
Ligyrus , but bears an isolated tuft of hairs near its anterior
edge.
Mandibles (Fig. 92). The galea is long, slender, slightly'
chitinized and ends in a membranous plate; the lacinia is
broad, not at all chitinous, and has a fringe of thickly crowded,,
soft hairs along its inner margin. A molar can still be dis¬
tinguished, but it is rudimentary.
Maxillae (Fig. 93). These are long, slender and but
slightly chitinized. The four-segmented palpi are short and
stout; the terminal joint of each is nearly as long as the other
three combined. The most striking feature of the maxillae is
the covering of long, stiff, thickly crowded hairs with which
the galea and the tip of the lacinia are provided; they are
used as brushes for collecting pollen.
Labial structures (Fig. 94). The mentum is pushed in far
over the flask-shaped sub-mentum, and being considerably
582 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts , and Letters.
broader than this sclerite, can be seen projecting over its front
.and lateral edges. The palpi, like those of the maxillae, are
comparatively short, with a large, club-shaped terminal seg¬
ment. The snb-mentum is sparsely clothed with long, pointed
hairs, similar ones arising from the inner surface of the men-
tum. A distinct hypopharynx is not present; only a few
sense-papillae are scattered over the mentum.
Osmoderma scabra Beauv. (Fig. 95). The mouth-parts of
this insect are remarkably small in comparison with the size
of its body and lie entirely concealed under the clypeus. They
show a very great resemblance to those of the preceding species,
both in actual size and in structure. The epipharynx alone
shows a notable difference, approaching in its structure that
of Allorhina nitida. We find two conspicuous lateral rows of
hairs, which, converging posteriorly, enclose a V-shaped area;
the posterior portion of this area is covered with sense-cups,
and near the anterior edge a tuft of sharply pointed hairs is
.borne.
Trichius piger Fab. (PI. XXXIII, Figs. 96-99).
Epipharynx (Fig. 96). This organ has assumed an appear¬
ance like that of Copris ; it is again a free fold of the roof of
the mouth, and in the arrangement of its hairs and sense-papil¬
lae it reminds one of the epipharynx of the dung-beetles. Thin,
slightly curved hairs cover the lateral portions, the sense-papil¬
lae being crowded together in a median club-shaped area.
Mandibles (Fig. 97). The galea and the lacinia are of the
type common to the pollen-feeding group, but the molar is
more strongly developed and ridged.
Maxillae (Fig. 98). These resemble in general the type
described for Euphoria , but the long, stiff hairs which cover
galea and lacinia in that species have been replaced by a short
fringe of fine hairs.
Labial structures (Fig. 99). The mentum is comparative¬
ly large and has its anterior edge deeply indented. In correla¬
tion with a greater development of the sense of taste, as
shown by the structure of the epipharynx, we should naturally
Hardenberg — Studies in the Trophi of the Scarabaeidae . 583
expect to find a corresponding increase in tlie sense-organs of
the labial structure. This is the case; the entire dorsal sur¬
face of the mentum is covered with sense-papillae, and every
vestige of hairs has disappeared. The absence of pollen-gath¬
ering hairs on the maxilla, the more highly developed sense-
organs, and the more prominent molar of the mandibles, all
point toward a difference in food habits between this and other
members of the same group, this species not living entirely on
pollen but in part on the flowers themselves.
Valgus squamiger Beauv. (PL XXXIII, Figs. 100-102).
Although nothing could be learned about the food-habits of
this, the last member of the series, its mouth-parts show that
it is a true pollen-eating species.
The epipharynx (Fig. 100) shows the long, stiff, pollen-
gathering hairs covering its lateral portions, while in the me¬
dian area posterior to them are situated a small number of
sense-cups.
The mandibles (Fig. 101) here also show a rudimentary
molar, a conspicuous lacinia and a slender, slightly chitinized
galea, the tip of which is membranous and is fringed with
short, soft hairs.
The maxtillae (Fig. 102) are shorter than those found in
Euphoria , with the palpi stronger and more prominent. The
galea and the lacinia are very thickly covered with long, stiff
hairs for gathering pollen.
The labial structures are essentially the same as those de¬
scribed for Euphoria and need no special discussion.
Summary and Conclusions.
The present study of the mouth-parts of the Scarabaeidae
has brought out many points of interest, some of which may
be discussed under the following headings:
I. Division of the order into groups, and the general
characteristics of the mouth-parts in each;
II. The evolution shown throughout the order from types
which are morphologically lower but which function
ally show a higher specialization, to those in which
these two conditions are exactly reversed.
584 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts , and Letters .
I.
The trophi of the Scarabaeidae show a remarkable adapta¬
tion even to slight differences in food habits. In no other
order of the Coleoptera do we find so great an amount of vari¬
ation, and even slight, comparatively recent changes in habits,
when once established, are followed by a decided modification
of the mouth-parts. (Compare Aphodius fimetarius and A.
granarius).
Comstock (2) divides the order into two great groups, the
scavengers and the leaf-chafers, each of which is further sub¬
divided. This grouping is based entirely upon habits and
general external appearance, and, as might be expected, closely
corresponds with a division based upon the form and develop¬
ment of the trophi. The arrangement given by Comstock is
as follows:
1. The Lamellicorn Scavengers
A. The Tumble-bugs
B. The Aphodian Dung-beetles
C. The Earth-boring Dung-beetles
D. The Skin-beetles
2. The Lamellicorn Leaf-chafers
A. The May-beetles or June-bugs
B. The Bose-bugs
C. The Shining Leaf-chafers
D. The Rhinoceros-beetles
E. The Elower:beetles
These may be taken up in the above order.
1. The Scavengers. These live either in dung or on decay¬
ing animal matter, their mouth-parts showing in general the
following characteristics :
a. A well developed gustatory sense, which is represented
by the more or less prominent epipharyngeal and hypopharyn-
geal structures.
h. Mandibles which show distinctly their origin from a
number of segments, and are characterized by the presence of
a distinct conjunctivus.
Ha/rdenberg — Studies in the Trophi of the Scarabaeidae. 585
c. Maxillae in which the galea is somewhat quadrangular,
usually membranous, and thickly clothed with fine hairs.
d. Labial structures which show both the outer and inner
lobes present but generally fused, those of the one side separate
from and not fused with those of the other side.
e. A mentum which with its palpigers is turned over on
the sub-mentum, so that the palpi seem to arise above (dorsad
from) the sub-mentum.
/. A sub-mentum, consisting of an anterior, smaller, and a
posterior, larger, plate.
The scavengers are sub-divided into four groups :
A. The tumble-bugs ( Canthon ,, Copris , Choeridium , On
thophagus, Phanaeus).
B. The Aphodian dung-beetles ( Aphodius ).
C. The earth-boring dung-beetles ( Brady cinctus , Bolbo-
ceras, Cloeotes , Geotrupes).
D. The skin-beetles ( Trox ).
Of these four groups, the Aphodians are not entitled by the
shape of their mouth-parts to separate rank, but should be
included in the first group with the tumble-bugs.
This group (A and B) would then be characterized by:
a. A large epipharynx which is attached to the under side
of the clypeus by a more or less prominent supporting rrch,
and in which the gustatory area forms a median club-shaped
thickening (broadening posteriorly in the Aphodians) bounded
laterally by one row of tactile hairs, which fringe the edges of
the turned-in lateral parts.
b. Mandibles which show a well developed, ridged molar, a
leaf -like membranous galea with fringed edge, a long, mem¬
branous lacinia and a conspicuous conjunctivus.
c. Maxillae in which the galea is sub-quadrangular, thickly
clothed with fine hairs (as is also the lacinia), and is connected
to the sub-galea by a conspicuous, Y-shaped, chitinous rod,
which may represent the proximal segment of the galea.
d. A distinct hypopharynx with labial lobes, the outer lobe
of which is slightly chitinized and fused with the more or less
586 Wisconsin Academy of ScienceSj Arts , and Letters.
hairy, membranous inner one, the suture being indicated by a
conspicuous row of hairs.
C. The earth-boring dung-beetles show a deviation in the
following organs:
a. The epipharynx is chitinized and attached to the labrum
along its entire anterior and lateral margins; the arrangement
of its hairs and sense-papillae is less definite and regular.
b. The mandibles become more chitinized and end in one or
more sharp teeth; the proximal one is formed by the lacinm’,
which is partly chitinized and partly membranous. The con-
junctivus, which is still conspicuous in Geotrupes, becomes
more and more obscured, and has almost entirely disappeared
in Brady cinctus ferrugineus (compare Figs. 39, 49). The
molars are reduced in size.
c. The maxillae show a change in both galea and lacinia;
the mass of fine hairs disappears and is replaced by a few
stouter ones, the parts becoming slightly more chitinized and
toothed.
d. The mentum becomes chitinized at its front edge, and a
fusion of the lobes along the median line is here first notice¬
able. With this fusion goes a reduction of the hypopharynx.
D. The skin-beetles. In this group the entire set of trophi
has become more strongly chitinized and armed with stiff
hairs adapted for brushing and scraping. The group is rep¬
resented by one genus, Trox (Figs. 48-51).
a. The epipharynx is no longer a separate fold; it shows a
distinct reduction in size; the front and lateral edges of the
labrum are turned in, enclosing a space which is covered by a
membrane, the epipharynx.
b. The mandibles have become so thoroughly chitinized as
to obscure their segmentation; the maxillae show a greater de¬
velopment of the teeth on galea and lacinia.
c. The labium shows a decided reduction in hypopharyn-
geal structures, and the labial lobes have fused along the medi¬
an line to form one broad plate.
2. The Leaf-chafers. These are all herbivorous, and we
should naturally not expect to find a great difference in mouth-
parts between members of the group. Comstock (2) divides
Hardenberg — Studies in the Trophi of the Scardbaeidae. 587
the leaf-chafers into several minor divisions which, though
sharply separated by their external appearance, have similar
habits, so that the mouth-parts do not show such a distinct
division. We can distinguish only two groups, the leaf -chafers
proper (A and C), and the pollen-eating forms (D) ; the
rose-bugs (B), which live on the petals of flowers, form an
intermediate group.
The leaf-chafers proper ( Hoplia , Dichelonycha , Diplotaxis ,
Lachnosterna, Anomala , Pelidnota , Cotalpa , Cyclocephala,
Ligyrus , Xylor odes') show in their month-parts the following
characteristics :
a . The epipharynx shows a considerable modification ; in the
first members of the group it has a membranous median area,
which changes gradually until in the last member it has be¬
come entirely chitinized. With this increased chitinization
goes a corresponding decrease in the development of the sen
sory apparatus.
b. The mandibles show a great development of the molar,
and the galea usually ends in strongly chitinized teeth. The
lacinia is correspondingly reduced and represented by a fringe
of hairs, extending from the base of the apical teeth to the
molar.
c. The labial structures are decidedly different from those
of the scavengers. The mentum is pushed in over the sub-
mentum ; the inner labial lobes are very much reduced or want¬
ing; the hypopharynx has entirely disappeared, and the an¬
terior and posterior plates of the sub-mentum are nearly equal
in size.
In group D, the flower-beetles ( Euphoria , Allorhina , Osmo -
derma , Trichius, Valgus ), the mouth-parts again become less
chitinized and are covered with long, stiff hairs for collecting
pollen.
a . The epipharynx becomes more specialized and prominent,
and in some species again forms a free fold of the roof of the
mouth.
b. The molar is much reduced in the mandible, which has
both galea and lacinia long and slender, the former ending in
588 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts , and Letters.
a leaf -like expansion, often membranous; in the last member
of the series (Valgus), the galea again ends in a hairy fringe.
Thus this group, both in the greater development of the epi-
pharynx and in the shape of the mandibles, betrays a similar¬
ity to the Copris-like forms, a similarity which would seem to
indicate a close relationship.
c. In the labial structures, however, there is shown a fur¬
ther development of the relations which exist in the preceding
group (the leaf-chafers). The mentum has been pushed in
still further over the sub-mentum, and the anterior plate of
this sclerite has now become larger than the posterior one.
II.
Tracing the modifications within the order of the various
organs in question, the following changes may be noted :
Epipharynx. This organ is conspicuous in the Copris -
beetles, in which it forms a highly specialized structure clearly
showing its origin as a fold of the membranous roof of the
mouth. Its attachment is at first far back at the caudal edge
of the supporting arch, the latter being a stiff, chitinous struc¬
ture, which is here necessary to support the large, ^ projecting
organ. The place of attachment moves forward, and, as the
free, projecting part of the epipharynx becomes shorter and
shorter, a strong supporting arch becomes unnecessary and dis¬
appears. At last the place of attachment has reached the front
edge of the labrum, whose under surface is now formed by the
epipharynx. An increase in chitinization now occurs, which,
beginning at the front and lateral edges, proceeds inward,
making the membranous part smaller and smaller until the
whole epipharynx is chitinized (as in the leaf-chafers). With
an increased chitinization goes a corresponding decrease in
function; the sensory apparatus becomes less and less pro¬
nounced, until in the leaf-chafers it has entirely disappeared.
In the flower-beetles we again see an increase in the de¬
velopment of the epipharynx, the reappearance taking place in
the reverse order; that is, the sense-papillae, which were the
last to disappear, are the first to reappear, followed by a de-
Hardenberg — Studies in the Trophi of the Scarabaeidae. 589
crease in chitinization until in Trichius we again find a free
projecting epipharynx which shows in its general shape and
the distribution of its sense-papillae and hairs a close resem¬
blance to that of the Copris-heetles. That the gustatory sense
is here more highly developed than in the typical pollen-eating
forms may possibly be explained by the habits of the insect ;
it is said that it dives deep into the flower and eats the soft
inner part; possibly the fact that the nectaries form part of
its food may account for the greater development of the gusta¬
tory sense in this insect.
Mandibles. In the Copns-beetles we find the mandibles
composed of a number of sclerites, the molars well developed,
that of the left mandible concave, that of the right convex.
The galea is membranous with a fringed edge; the lacinia is
well developed, with a distinct conjunctivus. At the junction
the conjunctivus bears a tuft of hairs, different in shape from
those which fringe the edge of the lacinia. Subsequently the
lacinia becomes longer until it nearly attains the tip of the
galea. The galea now becomes more chitinized, its fringe dis¬
appears and is replaced by one or more chitinous teeth. This
chitinization also involves the outer margin of the lacinia, and
this sclerite, at least in some cases (as in Geotrupes ), takes
part in the formation of the tooth or teeth of the mandible.
As chitinization proceeds further, the hairy fringe indicating
the position of the lacinia becomes shorter and the conjunc¬
tivus less prominent, until at last neither can be distinguished,
and there is only a whorl of hairs between the molar and the
chitinized, toothed part of the mandible. This whorl of hairs,
which is generally conspicuous, indicates the place of junction
between the original lacinia and conjunctivus. The lacinia
evidently becomes chitinized and fuses with the galea, forming
part of the teeth. This is the condition in Trox and the leaf-
chafers, for here strong mandibles are needed for cutting and
grinding tough material. Coming to the flower-beetles, a re¬
duction in chitinization is found; the molars become smaller;
the galea becomes long and membranous at the tip, the lacinia
broad and entirely membranous. In some cases this mem-
590 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters.
branous lacinia shows a weak tooth differentiated at its apex,
which, being of no nse, seems to prove that it did form part
of the toothed end of the mandible which has now become
membranous. In Trichius, again, the tip of the galea becomes
fringed at the edge. This insect thus shows, in the shape of
its mandibles, as in its epipharynx, a resemblance to the
Copris-beetles; but the absence of a well developed molar and
of a conjunctivus shows that it is not closely related to them,
belonging rather at the end of the series.
Maxillae. These are merely accessory organs, used for
passing the food seized by the mandibles on into the mouth,
and also for adjusting it between the molars; acting somewhat
like the tongue in vertebrate animals. They do not, therefore,
show a great amount of variation, only following the mandi
bles in a general way in the greater or smaller amount of chi-
tinization and armature. In the pollen-eating forms they are
clothed with long, stiff brushes.
Labial structures. These show a very interesting series in
development. In the C opris-beetles, the mentum is turned
back over the sub-mentum, so that the palpigers and lobes a-
rise from its dorsal surface. Normally the appendages arise
from the ventral surface of the mentum, the origin of the lobes
being in front of the palpigers ; but on account of the abnormal
relation which is here shown in the position of these parts, the
appendages now arise from the dorsal surface; the palpigers
are in front of the origin of the lobes. The mentum itself is
membranous, and the lobes are comparatively distinct; the
galea and lacinia borne by each half of the labium are fused;
the structures formed on each side by this fusion are separate
except at their posterior ends, at which part the hypopharynx
arises as a distinct median organ. The hypopharynx disap¬
pears, its function being taken over by the posterior parts of
the inner lobes, which begin to fuse along the median line.
This fusion advances until the lobes form a single plate (show¬
ing in some cases remnants of the inner lobes as a dorsad pro¬
jection), and the sensory structures, representing the hypo¬
pharynx, disappear. This is the condition in Trox. In the
Hardenberg — Studies in the Trophi of the Scarabaeidae . 591
leaf-chafers appears a new displacement of the mentum; it io
at first pushed slightly inward over the sub-mentum, a condi¬
tion which later becomes more pronounced. This movement
may continue so far that in extreme cases the mentum is en¬
tirely pushed inward and the sub-mentum projects in front.
The hypopharynx has now entirely disappeared, and the men¬
tum consists of one plate formed by the fusion of the labial
lobes and the mentum proper. The palpigers and palpi arise
from its ventral surface, between the mentum and the sub-
mentum. The front and lateral edges of the mentum become
chitinized and are turned inward, forming a structure similar
to that found in the epipharynx. The lateral edges of the sub-
mentum are curved inward and joined to the edges of the men¬
tum. Lastly, the anterior edge of the sub-mentum fuses with
the mentum where this overlaps it, and at this stage only a
lateral view of the structures shows the true state of affairs.
These are the conditions in the leaf -chafers.
In the flower-beetles the sense of taste shows a greater de¬
velopment, and, although the members of this group approach
in their epipharyngeal structure to the Copris type, their la¬
bial structures remain in their relative position practically un¬
changed. FTo hypopharynx is developed, but taste-cups ap¬
pear on the inner surface of the labium.
The sub-mentum also shows a progressive series of changes.
When in the Coprini both plates are distinct, the anterior is
smaller than the posterior. This difference in size becomes
less pronounced, until at the beginning of the leaf -chafer series
both plates are of equal size. From this point on the anterior
plate increases in size, so that in the flower-beetles the original
conditions are reversed and the anterior plate is large, taper¬
ing toward its distal end, while the posterior plate forms a
small transverse sclerite between it and the gula.
Zoological Laboratory , University of
Wisconsin , June 1905 .
592 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts , and Letters .
BIBLIOGRAPHY.
1. Comstock, J. H. : An introduction to entomology. — 1888.
2. Comstock, J. H. : A manual for the study of insects. —
1888.
3. Kadic, Otokar: Studien uber das Labium der Coleop-
teren. — 1901.
4. Kirby, W., and Spence, W. : An introduction to entomol¬
ogy. — 1898.
5. Kolbe, H. J. : Einfubrung in die Kenntniss der Insek-
ten. — 1893.
6. Leconte, John L., and Horn, George H. : Classifica¬
tion of the Coleoptera of Kortb America. — 1883.
7. Packard, A. S. : A textbook of entomology.
8. Smith, John B. : The moutb-parts of Copris Carolina,
with notes on the homologies of the mandibles. Trans.
Am. Ent. Soc ., xix: 83 — 1882.
The bibliography is very incomplete, as I have not bad ac¬
cess to a number of papers on the subjects here treated.
EXPLANATION OF PLATES.
ABBREVIATIONS.
ep . epipharynx.
s. a . . supporting arch.
max . maxilla.
gal . galea.
sub. gal . sub-galea.
lac . iacinia.
st . stipes.
m. . molar.
conj . conjunctivus.
m. p . maxillary palp.
1. p . labial palp.
p. f . . . palpifer.
P- g . palpiger.
ment . mentum.
s. m . sub-mentum.
a. p . anterior plate of the sub-mentum.
p. p . posterior plate of the sub-mentum.
g- . . gula.
fulc. hyp . fulcrum hypopharyngeum,
hyp . hypopharynx.
i* 1 . inner lobe of the labium.
o.l . . . outer lobe of the labium.
Eardenberg — Studies in the Trophi of the Scarab aeidae . 593
PLATE XXX.
&8 — S. & JL
594 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts, and Letters .
EXPLANATION OF PLATE XXX.
Fig. 1. Copris Carolina Linn.: epipharynx (X 15).
Fig. 2. Copris Carolina Linn.: mandible (X 15).
Fig. 3. Copris Carolina Linn.: part of mandible, with lacinia and con-
junctivus (and with part of the galea attached), to show their
connection (X 15).
Fig. 4. Copris Carolina Linn.: tip of mandible, showing the fringed
edge of the galea (X50).
Fig. 5. Copris Carolina Linn.: maxilla (X 50).
Fig. 6. Copris Carolina Linn.: labial structures, ventral view (X 15).
The posterior plate of the sub-mentum is not separated from
the gula.
Fig. 7. Copris Carolina Linn.: hypopharynx and proximal part of labial
lobes, showing the chitinous teeth (X 50).
Fig. 9. Copris anaglypticus Say: epipharynx (X 15).
Fig. 10. Copris anaglypticus Say: mandible (X15), showing again dis¬
tinctly the connection between lacinia and conjunctivus.
Fig. 11. Copris anaglypticus Say: maxilla (X 15).
Fig. 12. Copris anaglypticus Say; labial lobes and hypopharynx.
Fig. 13. Copris anaglypticus Say: left half of hypopharynx, showing
its two-jointed hairs (X 50).
Fig. 14. Canthon laevis Drury: epipharynx (X 15).
Fig. 15. Canthon laevis Drury: mandibles (X 15).
Trans. Wis Acad., Vol. XV.
Plate XXX.
C. B. Hardenberg del.
Eardenberg — Studies in the Trophi of the Scarabaeidae . 595
PLATE XXXI.
596 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts, and Letters ,
EXPLANATION OP PLATE XXXI.
Fig. 16. Canthon laevis Drury: hypopharynx and labial lobes of right
side (X 50). The twisted distal end of the inner lobe is peculiar
to this genus.
Fig. 17. Choeridium histeroides Web.: hypopharynx and proximal end
of lobes of right side, showing the three chitinous teeth at the
proximal end of the inner lobe (X 150).
Fig. 18. Pleurophorus caesus Panz.: ephipharynx (X 208). The median
chitinous area has entirely disappeared.
Fig. 19. Pleurophorus caesus Panz.: mandible (X 208).
Fig. 20. Pleurophorus caesus Panz.: maxilla (X 208), the distal part of
the palpus not shown.
Fig. 21. Pleurophorus caesus Panz.: labial structures (X 208), showing
the peculiar shape of the inner lobes.
Pig. 22. Phanaeus carnifex Linn.: hypopharynx and labial lobes of
right side (X 50), showing the peculiar armature of the proxi¬
mal end of the inner lobes.
Fig. 23. Onthophagus hecate Panz.; epipharynx (X 50).
Fig. 24. Onthophagus hecate Panz.: mandible (X 50).
Fig. 25. Onthophagus hecate Panz.: maxilla (X 50). The distal part of
the palpus has been omitted.
Fig. 26. Onthophagus hecate Panz.: hypopharynx and labial lobes of
right side (X 67).
Fig. 27. Aphodius jimetarius Linn.: epipharynx (X 50). Notice the
broad, chitinized median area.
Fig. 28. Aphodius fimetarius Linn,: hypopharynx and labial lobes of
right side (X 150).
Fig. 29. Aphodius granarius Linn.: epipharynx (X 150).
Fig. 30. Aphodius granarius Linn.: mandible (X 150).
Fig. 31. Aphodius granarius Linn.: hypopharynx and labial lobes of
left side (X 150).
Fig. 32. Brady cinctus ferrugineus Burm.: epipharynx (X 15).
Fig. 33. Brady cinctus ferrugineus Burm.: mandible (X 15).
Fig. 34. Bradycinctus ferrugineus Burm.: maxilla (X 15), showing the
presence of a “digitus” on the lacinia.
Fig. 36. Bolboceras farctus Fab.: epipharynx (X 15).
Plate XXXI.
a c.
Qal.
/
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33
(
Trans. Wis.
1., Vol. XV.
Plate XXXT.
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C. B. Hardenberg del.
Hardenberg — Studies in the Trophi of the Scarabaeidae. 597
PLATE XXXII.
598 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts , cmd Letters.
EXPLANATION OF PLATE XXXII.
Fig. 35. Brady cinctus ferrugineus Burm.: labial structures (X 15).
Fig. 37. Bolboceras farctus Fab.: mandible (X 15).
Fig. 38. Bolboceras farctus Fab.: labium (X 50), showing the rudiments
of the inner lobes.
Fig. 39. Bolboceras lazarus Fab.: epipharynx (X 15).
Fig. 40. Bolboceras lazarus Fab.: mandible (X 15).
Fig. 41. Oeotrupes egeriei Germ.: epipharynx (X 15).
Fig. 42. Geotrupes egeriei Germ.: mandible (X 15), showing the well de¬
veloped conjunctivus, and the lacinia forming one of the teeth
of the mandible.
Fig. 43. Geotrupes egeriei Germ.; maxilla (X 15).
Fig. 44. Geotrupes egeriei Germ.: hypopharynx and labial lobes (X 15).
Fig. 45. Geotrupes egeriei Germ.: hypopharynx and proximal part of
inner lobes (X 50).
Fig. 46. Cloeotes aphodioides 111.: epipharynx (X 50).
Fig. 47. Cloeotes aphodioides Ill.: mandible (X 50).
Fig. 48. Trox scutellaris Say: epipharynx (X15), showing the beginning
of chitinization from the edges inward.
Fig. 49. Trox scutellaris Say: mandible (X 15); the lacinia greatly re¬
duced, molar absent, and the place of the conjunctivus indi¬
cated by a whorl of hairs.
Fig. 50. Trox scutellaris Say: maxilla (X15).
Fig. 51. Trox scutellaris Say: labial structures (X 50). The hypopharynx
has entirely disappeared.
Fig. 52. Hoplia trifasciata Say: epipharynx (X 50), showing the pro¬
gressive chitinization from the edges inward (compare Fig. 48).
Fig. 53. Hoplia trifasciata Say: mandible (X 50).
Fig. 54. Hoplia trifasciata Say: labial structures (X 50); entire disap¬
pearance of hypopharynx and labial lobes; and a beginning of
chitinization at the edges, similar to the process going on in
the epipharynx.
Fig. 55. Dichelonycha elongata Fab.: epipharynx (X 50).
Fig. 56. Dichelonycha elongata Fab.: mandible (X 50).
Fig. 57. Dichelonycha elongata Fab.: maxilla (X 50). Part of the pal¬
pus is not shown.
Fig. 58. Dichelonycha elongata Fab.: labial structures (X 50).
Fig. 59. Serica sericea Ill.: epipharynx and labrum (X 15).
Fig. 60. Serica, sericea Ill.: epipharynx (X 50), showing reduced sensory
area.
Fig. 61. Serica sericea Ill.: mandible (X 15). The tooth is formed en¬
tirely by the lacinia.
Fig. 62. Serica sericea Ill.: maxilla (X 50).
Fig. 63. Serica sericea Ill.: labial structures (X 15).
Fig. 64. Macrodactylus subspinosus Fab.: epipharynx (X 50).
Fig. 65. Macrodactylus subspinosus Fab.: mandible (X 50).
Fig. 66. Macrodactylus subspinosus Fab.: maxilla (X 50).
Fig. 67. Macrodactylus subspinosus Fab.: labial structures (X 50),
showing rudiments of the inner lobes.
Fig. 68. Diplotaxis sordida Say: maxilla (X 50).
Fig. 69. Diplotaxis sordida Say: labial structures (X 50).
Fig. 70. Lachnosterna fusca Froh.: labrum (X 15), showing rudiments
of epipharynx.
Fig. 72. Anomala minuta Burm.: epipharynx (X 50).
Plate XXXII.
<50
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k
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n
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59
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Trans. Wis. Acad., Vol. XV. | Plate XXXII.
C. B. Hardenberg del.
Eardenberg — Studies in the Tro'phi of the Scarabaeidae. 59$
PLATE XXXIII.
600 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts , and Letters ,
EXPLANATION OF PLATE XXXIII.
Fig. 71. Lachnosterna fusca Froh.: labial structures (X 15). Anterior
and posterior plates of the sub-mentum are of about equal size .
Fig. 73. Anomala minuta Burm.: mandible (X 50).
Fig. 74. Anomala minuta Burm.: labial structures (X 50); semi-dia¬
grammatic; the anterior plate of the sub-mentum is larger
than the posterior plate.
Fig. 75. JPelidnota punctata Linn.: labrum-epipharynx (X 15).
Fig. 76. Pelidnot a punctata Linn.: mandible.
Fig. 77. Cyclocephala immaculata Oliv.: labrum-epipharynx (X 15).
Fig, 78. Cyclocephala immaculata Oliv.: mandible (X 15).
Fig. 79. Cyclocephala immaculata Oliv.: maxilla (X 15).
Fig. 80. Ligyrus gibbosus De G.: labrum-epipharynx (X 50).
Fig. 81. Ligyrus gibbosus De G.: mandible (X 15).
Fig. 82. Ligyrus gibbosus De G.: maxilla (X 15).
Fig. 83. Xylorectes satyrus Fab.: epipharynx (X 15).
Fig. 84. Xylorectes satyrus Fab.: mandible (X 15).
Fig. 85. Xylorectes satyrus Fab.: maxilla (X 15).
Fig. 86. Xylorectes satyrus Fab.: labial structures, dorsal view (X 15),
showing the small mentum pushed entirely in over the sub-
mentum. The anterior plate of the sub-mentum is very much
larger than the posterior plate.
Fig. 87. Allorliina nitida Linn.: labrum-epipharynx (X 15).
Fig. 88. A Uorhina nitida Linn.: mandible (X 15).
Fig. 89. Allorhina nitida Linn.: maxilla (X 15).
Fig. 90. Allorhina nitida Linn.: labial structures, dorsal view.
Fig. 91. Euphoria inda Linn.: labrum-epipharynx (X 50).
Fig. 92. Euphoria inda Linn.: mandible (X 50).
Fig. 93. Euphoria inda Linn.: maxilla (X 15).
Fig. 94. Euphoria inda Linn.: labial structures, ventral view (X 15).
Fig. 95. Osmoderma scabra Beauv.: labrum-epipharynx (X 15).
Fig. 96. Trichius piger Fab.: labrum-epipharynx (X 15).
Fig. 97. Trichius piger Fab.: mandible (X 50).
Fig. 98. Trichius piger Fab.: maxilla (X 15).
Fig. 99. Trichius piger Fab.: labial structures, dorsal view (X 15).
Fig. 100. Valgus squamiger Beauv.: labrum-epipharynx (X 150).
Fig. 101. Valgus squamiger Beauv.: mandible (X 150).
Fig. 102. Valgus squamiger Beauv.: maxilla (X 50).
Plate XXXI II.
<3al.
xrj^rjt
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32
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96
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90
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102
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Trans. Wis. Acad., Vol. XV.
Plate XXXIII.
C. B. Hardenberg del.
Hmdenberg — Studies in the Trophi of the Scqa'qJ) oeidue . 601
PLATE XXXIV.
602
Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and L<
EXPLANATION OF PLATE XXXIV.
Fig. 1. Copris Carolina Linn.: diagram of labial structures.
Fig. 2. Canthon laevis Drury.
Fig. 3. Phanaeus carnifex Linn.
Fig. 4. Bolboceras farctus Fab.
Fig. 5. Cloeotes aphodioides Ill.
Fig. 6. Serica serieea Ill.
Fig. 7. Diplotaxis sordida Say.
Fig. 8. Pelidnota punctata Linn.
Fig. 9. Cotalpa lanigera Linn.
Fig. 10. Cyclocephala immaculata Oliv.
Fig. 11. Ligyrus gibbosus De G.
Plate XXXIV.
Wis. Acad., Vol. XV.
Plate XXXIV.
Cl. R. Hardenberg del.
THE ATT I DAE OF BORNEO.
GEORGE W. PECKHAM AND ELIZABETH G. PECKHAM.
We owe the opportunity of seeing the Attidae here described
to the kindness of Mr. R. Shelford, formerly curator of the
Museum of Sarawak, by whom most of them were collected. A
few species from our own collection have been included.
Where other localities are not mentioned, the spiders were col¬
lected in the neighborhood of Sarawak.
We have followed the classification of Simon, based upon
the dentition of the falces, which gives us the three groups,
Pluridentati, Fissidentati and Unidentati.
PLURIDENTATI.
Myrmarachne Shelf ordii sp. nov.
$. Length 5 mm., exclusive of falces. Falx 2 mm. Legs
4132, ail slender.
A yellowish-brown species with a wide, dark, transverse band
on the abdomen.
The cephalic part is on a little higher plane than the tho¬
racic, from which it is separated by a slight constriction. The
quadrangle of the eyes occupies half of the cephalothorax, is
one-fourth wider than long, and is wider behind than in front.
The first row is slightly curved downward, with the eyes close
together and all large, the middle not twice the lateral. The
second row is about halfway between the others, and thle third
row is as wide as the cephalothorax. The falces are long and
horizontal, flattened above and below, with a stout spine on
the upper edge at the distal end, opposite the insertion of the
37— S. & A.
604 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts , and Letters.
fang, which is nearly as long as the falx. Both margins have
numerous teeth, those on the upper being longer. The ster¬
num is long, pointed behind and truncated in front. The first
coxae are separated by a little less than the width of the labium,
which is very long, plainly longer than wide. The maxillae
are long and narrow, and are excavated, the wider distal end
being connected with the base by a neck. The legs are all
slender, the third and fourth pairs unarmed. There are six
pairs of long spines under the tibia of the first and three pairs
of short ones under the tibia of the second, while both legs have
two pairs under the metatarsus and are provided with lateral
spines. The patella of the first leg has one small spine below.
The first leg is longer than the second by the tarsus, metatarsus
and half the tibia. The pedicle is not visible from above. At
the end of the tarsus of the palpus are two small spines.
The cephalothorax and the front part of the abdomen are
covered with light yellowish hairs. A wide, glistening, dark
band crosses the abdomen, its front edge being a little in front
of the middle, and behind this hairs of a lighter yellow than
those in front extend to the spinnerets. All the legs are yellow.
The falces are slightly rugose and have iridescent coppery re¬
flections.
Two males, from Sarawak.
The sternum of this species is not so pointed as is usual in
Myrmarachne.
Myrmarachne borneensis sp. nov.
$. Length 8.5 mm., notineluding falces. Falx 2 mm. Legs
1482, first longer than second by tibia, metatarsus and tarsus.
The integument is black, and in our specimen the only hairs
remaining are some white ones which thinly cover the anterior
sides of the cephalothorax and the clypeus. The horizontal
falces are flattened above and rugose, narrowest at the proxi¬
mal end, with a spine above at the inner distal end. The in¬
ferior margin has numerous small teeth, and the superior mar¬
gin several larger ones. The first legs have the coxa and tar¬
sus light-colored, thei trochanter medium brown, and the other
PecJcJium-—The Attidae of Borneo. 605
joints dark brown. The second legs are light excepting the
dark coxse and dark streaks on the other joints. The third
have the coxa, trochanter and femur dark and are otherwise
light-colored, and the fourth have the coxa, trochanter and
tarsus light and the other joints dark. There are no lateral
spines. The first leg has eight pairs of long spines under the
tibia and two pairs under the metatarsus. The second tibia
has three pairs and one unpaired spine on the anterior border
at the distal end. Those on the posterior border are much
longer and stouter than those on the anterior. The metatarsus
of the second leg has two pairs of long spines.
The palpus has, on the outer upper comer of the tibia, a
pointed apophysis, and below this, on the side of the same
joint, some very stout hairs, which are nearly thick enough to
be called spines. The tibia and patella are nearly equal in
length and taken together do not equal the tarsus, which has a
coiled tube.
One male, from Sarawak.
Linus crassipalpis sp. nov.
S. Length 5 mm. Legs 4123, all the tibiae fringed below.
The cephalothorax is short and very high, and is steeply in¬
clined in both directions from the dorsal eyes, the posterior
slope being convex. The sides are not far from parallel, there
being a slight widening behind the dorsal eyes. The quad¬
rangle of the eyes occupies about one-half of the cephalothorax
and is plainly wider in front than behind. The front row is
plainly curved downward, the eyes being close together. The
middle ones are large and bulging, and are twice the size of
the lateral. The second row is nearer the third than the first,
with the eyes rather large. The third row is about as wide
as the cephalothorax at that place. The labium is plainly
wider than long.
Our specimen is rubbed. The cephalothorax has white
hairs in a wide band on each side, and in a central band on
the thoracic part. On each side of this band, on the cephalic
plate, and surrounding all the eyes, are yellow hairs. The ab¬
domen shows no distinct pattern, but has white hairs in front,
606 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts , and Letters.
yellow farther back, and dark-hrown at the end. The clypens
is half as wide as the front middle eyes and is covered with
short yellowish hairs. The falces are vertical, short and weak.
They are dark in color with short yellowish hairs. The palpus
is reddish with thick yellow hairs. The tarsus is much en¬
larged. The legs are long and dark-colored, except the meta¬
tarsi and tarsi, which are pale. They are nearly equal in
thickness, and have black fringes on the tibiae. These fringes
are easily rubbed off in handling.
This species might be L . mbvexus except for the curve of
the first row of eyes. Thorell emphatically states that in his
species this row is not curved downward, but is straight.
One male from Sarawak.
C yrba cirmillata sp. nov.
This species has red hairs around the eyes, projecting red¬
dish falces and pale palpi.
$. Length 4.8 mm. Legs 3124, first pair a little the stoutest.
The cephalothorax is high and slopes in both directions from
the dorsal eyes, the thoracic part falling more steeply after the
first third. The sides are widest at the dorsal eyes, being
nearly parallel in front but contracted behind. The cephalic
part is as long as the thoracic. The front eyes are large, the
lateral more than half the middle, and close together, the row
being curved downward. The second row is about halfway
between the others, and the third is but little narrower than the
cephalothorax. The sternum is truncated in front. The an¬
terior coxes are separated by the width of the labium, which is
a little longer than wide. The falces project and are rather
stout and long, with six teeth on the lower margin and two on
the upper. The first and second legs, besides lateral spines,
have 3-3 under the tibia and 2-2 under the metatarsus.
Our specimen is imperfect. The cephalothorax isi reddish-
brown, darker on the sides than above. The eye-region is
bordered by rufous and white hairs which surround all the
eyes, extending between those of the third row. Back of this,
on the upper slope of the thorax, is a thick patch of yellowish-
Beckham — The Attidae of Borneo. 607
white hairs. The cephalic plate and the lower sides are rubbed
bare. The clypeus is narrow, edged with white hairs. The
falces are reddish. The abdomen has a dark central band ex¬
tending from the front end to the middle, where it meets the
first of two curved transverse dark bands which cross the dor¬
sum, one at this point and one farther back. The intervening
spaces seem to have been covered with white hairs. The palpi
are pale and the legs pale barred with reddish-brown, the first
pair being the darkest and a little the stoutest, with the tibia
but little longer than the metatarsus.
A single female.
FISSIDENTATX.
Canama rutila sp. nov.
$. Length 7.5 mm. Legs 3412, not hairy, first and second
pairs scarcely stouter than the others.
The cephalothorax is high and falls steeply in both direc¬
tions from the dorsal eyes, the thoracic slope being slightly
rounded in front and more abrupt than the cephalic. It is
widest in the cephalic part, the thoracic narrowing from the
dorsal eyes to the end. The sides are nearly vertical. The
quadrangle of the eyes is one-tliird wider than long, is wider
behind than in front, and occupies nearly half of the cephalo¬
thorax. The front eyes are somewhat separated and form a
straight row, the lateral being more than half as large as the
middle. The second row is halfway between the others, the
eyes being separated from those of the third row by a depres¬
sion. The dorsal eyes are on the edge of the cephalothorax.
The falces are stout and vertical, the upper margin bearing
two teeth and the lower a bifid ridge, the two points being
equally long. The sternum is oval, slightly truncated. The
front coxse are separated by fully the width of the labium,
which is a little longer than wide. The spines of the anterior
legs are 3-3 on the tibia and 2-2 on the metatarsus, besides
laterals. The posterior legs have many strong spines, with
two circles on the metatarsus of the third and three on the
metatarsus of the fourth.
608 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts , and Letters.
The general color is light, hut the eyes are on black spots.
The body has a covering of white hairs, streaked and banded
with red hairs. The falces and clypeus are yellow. The palpi
are long and pale with some black and white hairs on the
tarsus. The legs are light-colored with black spines. They
have some short red hairs on the patellae and some black hairs
on the metatarsi and tarsi. The under parts are pale, the max¬
illae and labium being tipped with black hairs.
One female, from Sarawak.
MicroJiasarius animosus sp. nov.
6. Length 4.2 mm. Legs 1342, first pair slightly enlarged
and fringed.
$. Length 5 mm. Legs 1342, first and second pairs a little
the stoutest.
We put this species into MicroJiasarius although it does not
entirely agree with M. pauperculus E. S., the only other repre¬
sentative of the genus.
The cephalothorax is higher and shorter in the male than in
the female. The cephalic part is inclined, and the thoracic
drops steeply from the dorsal eyes to the posterior border. The
sides are slightly wider behind than in front. The front eyes
are close together, this row being slightly curved in the male
and straight in the female, with the lateral more than half as
large as the middle eyes. The second row is halfway between
the others, and the third row is a little narrower than the ceph-
alothorax. The quadrangle is a little wider in front than be¬
hind. The falces are vertical, with two teeth on the upper,
and a compound bifid tooth on the lower margin. The ster¬
num is cordate, nearly as wide as long, and widely truncated in
front. The front coxae are separated by more than the width
of the labium, which is wider than long. In the male there is
a short, stiff fringe of dark hairs under the femur and tibia
Of the first leg. The first and second legs have three pairs of
spines under the tibiae, besides laterals, and two pairs of very
long spines under the metatarsi, with no laterals. The meta¬
tarsi of the third and fourth pairs have each two circles.
Peckham — The Attidae of Borneo. 609
In the male, the ground color of the cephalothorax is reddish-
brown. Our example is somewhat rubbed, but there seems to
have been a covering of bright red hairs. A transverse snow-
white band crosses the cephalic part just in front of the dorsal
eyes, and far back on each side of the thoracic part is a large
oval spot of pale golden hairs, ringed with black. Under alcohol,
the abdomen is pale, mottled with dark streaks, but when dry
it shows pale golden hairs covering the front end, with a black
band low down on the anterior border, a middle region with
some bright red hairs, which, perhaps, completely covered it
in a fresh state, and a somewhat triangular golden region be¬
hind, outlined in black. The first leg hjasi the patella brown
and the tarsus pale, but is otherwise dark. There is a black
fringe under the femur and a slighter one under the tibia. The
other legs are pale with dark rings. The palpus is pale ex¬
cept the tarsus, which is brown, and has long white hairs on
the femur.
The female is much like the male, although the abdomen
seems to have been covered with a mixture of red and white
hairs. The legs are brown with pale tarsi, the first having a
slight fringe under the tibia. The palpus is all brown, the
tarsus having some dark hairs and one long spine on the out¬
side, behind the middle.
One male and two females, from Sarawak.
Mantius difficilis sp. nov.
2. Length 5.5 mm. Legs 3412, scarcely differing in thickness.
The cephalothorax is moderately high and is very slightly
inclined in both directions from the dorsal eyes, the thoracic
part falling more steeply in the second half. The sides are
parallel and nearly vertical in front, but grow narrow from
the dorsal eyes backward. The quadrangle of the eyes is wider
behind than in front, is nearly twice as wide as long, and oc¬
cupies two-fifths of the cephalothorax. The front eyes are all
separated and form a row which is curved downward, the
middle being less than twice as large as the lateral. The second
row is about halfway between the others, and the third row is
610 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts , and Letters.
as wide as the cephalothorax. The falces are not quite, verti¬
cal. They are weak and rather long, with two teeth on the
upper, and a hidentate ridge on the lower margin. The ster¬
num is oval, not truncated. The coxae are separated by less
than the width of the labium which is longer than wide. The
spines of the anterior legs are 3-3 on the tibia and 2-2, very
long, on the metatarsus, besides laterals. The patellae are all
spined on both sides. The posterior legs have numerous small
spines and three circles on the metatarsi. The spinnerets are
not visible from above, being short, with their insertion on the
under surface.
Our example is rubbed nearly hare. The eyes are on black
spots. The cephalic part shows a few white hairs on a dark
background. The thoracic part is brown, and seems to have
had wide white bands on the sides. The abdomen is of a dull
gray color with a few white hairs. The legs and falces are
pale yellowish-brown.
One female.
Mian tins armipotens sp. nov.
$. Length 6.5 mm. to 10 mm. Legs 1342, first stoutest and
fringed.
The cephalothorax is high, vith the cephalic part very
slightly inclined and the thoracic falling steeply in a rounded
slope. It is nearly vertical and parallel in front, but grows
narrower toward the end of the thoracic part. The eyes are
on tubercles with depressions between. The quadrangle is a
little wider behind than in front, is one-third wider than long
and occupies nearly half of the cephalothorax. The front
eyes are large and sub-touching and form a row which is
curved downward. The middle are less than twice as large as
the lateral. The second row is halfway between the others.
The third row is as wide as the cephalothorax. The falces are
stout, vertical, and convex in front. The upper margin has
two teeth, one larger than the other, and the ridge on the lower
margin is hidentate. The sternum is oval, very slightly trun¬
cated. The front coxae are separated by the width of the
labium which is longer than wide. The tibia and metatarsus
Peckham — The Aitidae of Borneo. Oil
of the first leg are fringed. With the exception of the tarsi,
all the joints of all the legs are spined. In the first and second
the tibiae have 3-3 and the metatarsi 2-2 besides laterals. In
the third and fourth the metatarsi have two circles.
The cephalothorax is of a dark reddish-brown color, while the
abdomen is much lighter and yellowish. The cephalic part is
covered with golden hairs, the color deepening to red around the
eyes. The sides have wide white bands which pass around the
lower thoracic part. The abdomen, judging from the marks
that are left on our specimens, is covered to the ends of the
spinnerets with a mixture of white and reddish-golden hairs,
and has two impressed white dots. The falces are dark brown
with some long white hairs. The clypeus is very low. The
palpus is reddish-brown with two longitudinal white lines run¬
ning as far as the tarsus. The first leg is brown, the patella
being light-colored, while the tibia and metatarsus are darkened
and have a heavy, stiff, black fringe. There are some short red
and white hairs on the upper surface, and the under side of
the femur has a dark streak. The other legs are light brown.
The mouth parts are dark brown tipped with white. The
sternum is yellow with a few white hairs, while the coxse are
much darker and are marked by a sooty black streak which
extends, in some cases, on to the trochanters and femora.
Three males, from Sarawak.
Malleus gen. nov.
The cephalothorax slants steeply in both directions from the
dorsal eyes, the thoracic part falling still more abruptly after
the first half. It rounds out widely at the posterior part, the
sides being vertical and parallel in front. The quadrangle oc¬
cupies two-fifths of the cephalothorax, is a little wider in front
than behind, and is nearly one-fourth wider than long.
The front eyes are close together in a straight row, the lat¬
eral being more than half as large as the middle. These eyes
bulge out on the sides so that the first row is wider than the
cephalothorax at that place. The second row is halfway be¬
tween the others, and the third is as wide as the cephalothorax.
612 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts , and Letters.
There are neither tubercles nor depressions. The falces pro¬
ject forward, but are not horizontal. They are rather short,
and are convex above, with small fangs. There are two teeth
on the upper and one bifid tooth on the lower margin. The
sternum is nearly as wide as long, cordate, and widely trun¬
cated in front. The front coxse are separated by fully the
width of the labium, which is about as wide as long.
In fuscus, the type species, of which we have only the fe¬
male, the relative length of the legs is 4312. The first and
second legs have three pairs of spines under the tibia and two
under the metatarsus, besides lateral spines. The third and
fourth legs have many strong spines, there being two circles
on the metatarsus of the third and three on the metatarsus of
the fourth.
The width of the sternum and labium brings this genus close
to Microhasarius E. S., but it differs in the spinal armature
and in the shape of the cephalothorax.
Maileus fuscus sp. nov.
$. Length 5.5 mm. Legs 4312, first pair a little the stoutest.
The ground color of the cephalothorax is dark on the sides
and brown in the middle. The sides are covered with yellow¬
ish-red hairs and have a white line around the lower margin.
A central longitudinal white band extends from the middle of
the cephalic to the middle of the thoracic part. Around the
eyes the hairs are bright red. The clypeus is low with a few
white hairs. The abdomen has a central longitudinal scalloped
white band, in the middle of which is a dark line, ending, be¬
hind, in two chevrons. The upper sides are mottled brown,
and the lower sides are white, spotted with brown and black.
The palpi are pale, and the legs pale with dark rings. The
falces are yellowish.
One female, from Sarawak.
Ptocasius gratiosus sp. nov.
$. Length 8.2 mm. Legs 1342, first and second pairs stoutest.
The cephalothorax is high with a very rounded upper sur-
Peckham — The Attidae of Borneo.
613
face, inclined in both directions from the dorsal eyes. The
sides form a gently curved line from front to hack, and are
scarcely wider below than above, excepting at the dorsal eyes,
where they are widely swollen. The quadrangle of the eyes is
a little wider behind than in front, is one-third wider than
long, and occupies nearly half of the cephalothorax. The front
eyes are close together in a straight row, the middle nearly
twice as large as the lateral. The eyes of the second row are
a little nearer the first than the third row, and are separated
from the latter by deep depressions. The dorsal eyes are
placed on tubercles, and form a row nearly as wide as the ceph¬
alothorax. The falces are heavy, with short, strong fangs.
They are not quite vertical, being visible from above. The
upper margin has two teeth, and the lower a ridge which is
unequally bifid. The sternum is oval and truncated. The
front coxae are separated by the width of the labium, which is
a little longer than wide. The spines of the anterior legs are
3-3 on the tibia and 2-2 on the metatarsus, besides laterals.
The posterior legs have many strong spines, the metatarsus of
the third having two circles and that of the fourth three circles.
This is a dark species, and our example is rubbed nearly
bare. The cephalic plate is dark-colored and glistening, the
thoracic part is brown, and there seem to have been wide white
bands on the sides. The abdomen, which is rather slender and
tapering, shows alternate transverse bands of lighter and
darker brown which seem to have been covered with white and
yellow hairs. The first and second legs are dark, with femora
and tibiae almost black, polished, and slightly iridescent. The
posterior legs are brown with the femora darkened. The palpi,
which are very slender at their insertion, are brown with some
white hairs on the tarsus. The falces are dark and iridescent,
with bluish reflections, and have some short white hairs scat¬
tered over the front faces.
We have one male, from Singapore, in the Workman collec¬
tion.
614 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences Arts and Letters.
Booseveltia gen. nov.
The cephalothorax is high, very long and wedge-shaped, the
cephalic part being narrow and not inclined while the thoracic
widens out and falls in a gradual slope, The quadrangle of
the eyes is a little wider behind than in front, is one-fourth
wider than long and occupies two-fifths of the cephalothorax.
There are no tubercles nor depressions. The front eyes are
slightly separated and form a curved row, the middle being
nearly twice as large as the lateral. The second row is half¬
way between the others, and the third is nearly as wide as the
cephalothorax. The falces project but are not horizontal. The
upper margin is rounded out so as slightly to overhang the
lower, and has one short, round tooth and a second very tiny
one between this and the fang. The ridge on the lower mar¬
gin is not bifid, having only a point at one comer. The ster¬
num is oval, truncated in front. The first coxse are separated
by the width of the labium, which is longer than wide. The
first and second legs have three pairs of spines under the tibia
and two pairs under the metatarsus but lack lateral spines,
while the posterior legs have three circles on the metatarsi.
In R. mutilla , the type species, the relative length of the legs
is 4132, the fourth pair being much the longest. The metatarsi
are much longer than the tarsi, especially in the third and
fourth pairs.
This genus seems to belong near Hasarius .
Booseveltia mutilla sp. nov.
9. Length 10 mm. Legs 4132, femur of the first thickened,
otherwise slender.
This species looks like some hymencpterous insect and is
said by Mr. Shelford to mimic a Mutilla.
Our example is somewhat damaged. The ground color of
the cephalothorax is dark, the upper surface being covered
with yellowish-red hairs which run down to form bands on the
sides and thoracic part. The clypeus is edged with white and
has a coppery red spot under each of the middle eyes. The
Beckham — The AUidae of Borneo. 615
abdomen is marked by transverse oands of black and yellow,
the yellow parts seeming to have been covered by red hairs.
The palpi are covered with beautiful white scales which have
iridescent pink reflections, and have, under the tarsus, a bunch
of dark hairs. The falces are dark and iridescent, the upper
surface being covered with short black bristles. The legs are
dark and are marked with double longitudinal lines of white
scales, most distinct on the femora of the third and fourth
pairs. On the first and second legs these lines widen toward
the end and cover the tarsi.
One female, from Kuching.
Go a jar a gen. nov.
The cephalothorax is rather high and very wide, — much
wider than the quadrangle of the eyes. The sides are nowhere
parallel, their widest point being in the middle of the thoracic
part. The cephalic part is slightly convex, but not inclined,
and the upper surface of the thoracic is nearly on a level with it
for two-thirds of its length, there being a very gradual fall
from the dorsal eyes. The quadrangle is a little wider in
front than behind, is one-fourth wider than long, and occupies
less than two-fifths of the cephalothorax. The front middle
eyes are subtouching and are twice as large as the laterals,
which are well separated from them. The four form a straight
row The second row is a little nearer the first than the third,
and the third is much narrower than the cephalothorax. The
falces project and are stout and convex. The upper margin
bears two teeth, one much larger than the other, and the lower
has a truncated ridge, without any teeth, like that of the falx
of Euryattus Bleekeri Dol. The sternum is rounded, nearly as
wide as long, truncated in front and having a blunt point be¬
hind. The coxae are separated by the width of the labium,
which is plainly longer than wide. The maxillae are narrow
at the base and very wide at the extremity. The first leg has
the patella and tibia long and stout, and the metatarsus long and
slender. The tibia has three very small spines on the posterior
margin, and four stout ones on the) anterior. The metatarsus
616 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts , and Letters.
has a small spine near the base, on the posterior border, and a
very tiny one near the distal end. The tibia of the second has
three on the anterior and two on the posterior margin, and the
metatarsus has two pairs, without laterals. The posterior legs
have a few weak spines.
This genus is much like Thianitara E. S'., one of the group
of Unidentati, in the spinal armature. It seems to be most
nearly related to Servaea.
Goajara crassipes sp. nov.
$. Length 8.2 mm. Legs 1342, first pair darkest and stout¬
est, without long hairs but with heavy spines on the tibia.
Under alcohol the general color is reddish-brown. The ceph-
alothorax has a central longitudinal white band from front to
back, and wide white bands on the sides, while the slender,
tapering abdomen has, on each side of the middle, white bands
running from base to apex and approaching each other behind.
Outside of these are two bands somewhat darker than the
brown in the middle of the dorsum, and still lower down the
sides are covered with white hairs. When dry, the spaces be¬
tween the white bands on the cephalothorax show red hairs
which grow thick around the eyes. The white bands on the
sides, which are marked, just above the margin, by a jet black
line, pass forward as far as the outer edges of the front middle
eyes, and there end abruptly, leaving the wide clypeus bare.
This appearance is, perhaps, due to the rubbing of the Hairs in
our specimen. In the abdomen the middle brown region seems
to have been covered with yellow hairs. The first leg is deep
reddish-brown, the metatarsus and tarsus being a little lighter-
colored than the other joints. The femur has black streaks in
front and behind, and seems to have been covered with short
white hairs. On the front face of the metatarsus, near the
base, is a round black spot. The other legs are light brown,
all the tarsi being short. The palpus is pale yellow excepting
the tarsus, which is brown. The falces are red-brown. The
brown venter is marked by four lines of white spots, like chains
Peel'll am — The Attidae of Borneo.
617
of beads. The sternum, coxae and maxillae are light yellow,
but the labium is brown.
One male, from Sarawak.
Vmlima gen. nov.
The cephalothorax rises to a ridge at the dorsal eyes, the
cephalic part being strongly inclined, and the thoracic falling
abruptly. In the cephalic part the sides are almost vertical,
rounding out a little beyond the eyes of the second row, but the
third row is wider than the cephalothorax, projecting beyond
it, as the sides slope inward. The thoracic part is narrower
than the cephalic. The quadrangle of the eyes occupies more
than half of the cephalothorax, is nearly twice as wide behind
as it is long, and is wider behind than in front. The front
eyes are moderately large, in a row that is curved downward,
all separated, the middle nearly twice as large as the lateral.
The second row is a very little nearer the first than the third.
The dorsal eyes are on tubercles. The sternum is very nar¬
row and is three times as long as wide. The front coxae are
separated by less than the width of the labium, which is a
little longer than wide. The falces are rather short and are
moderately stout. They have a compound tooth on the lower,
and two teeth on the upper margin.
In the type species, V. mJasmei , the first and second legs
have, besides lateral spines, three pairs under the tibia and
two pairs irnder the metatarsus). The posterior legs have many
strong spines.
This genus belongs to the Harmochirese, and resembles
Harmochirus , which, however, has the front row of eyes curved
upward, the quadrangle only one-fifth wider than long, and
much enlarged first legs. It is also near Simaethula , but dif¬
fers in having the lip but little longer than wide, the maxillae
normal, and the posterior legs strongly spined.
Vadlima masinei sp. nov.
S. Length 5.5 mm. Legs 1342, first and second pairs a little
the stoutest.
The cephalothorax is dark reddish-brown, with the cephalic
618 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts , and Letters.
plate lighter than the rest. The lower margin is black, and
above this is a wide bright band of snow-white hairs, around
the sides and back and across the clypeus. Higher up is a
band of red hairs which borders the cephalic plate, surrounds
all the eyes, and forms a crescent just behind the dorsal eyes.
The few hairs that are left on the cephalic plate, in our speci¬
men, are white. The falces are reddish-brown with long white
hairs. The palpus is pale except the tarsus, which is tinged
with red. The abdomen is broken and rubbed. There is a
tuft of white hairs in front, and it seems to have been white in
the middle and at the end, with yellowish sides. The first and
second legs are reddish-brown with black hairs on the femur
and tibia and white hairs on the patella. The first has a very
light short fringe of black hairs under the patella, tibia and
metatarsus. The other legs are lighter-colored and have a
band of black and a band of white hairs on the femur.
A single male.
UNIDENTATI.
Afiola gen. nov.
This genus is near Pseudamycus , but the slope in both di¬
rections from the dorsal eyes is not so steep as in that genus.
The cephalotkorax is wider behind than in front and a little
wider below than above. The quadrangle of the eyes is one-
fourth wider than long, occupies a little less than one-half of
the cephalothorax, and is slightly wider behind than in front.
The first row is straight, the lateral being separated from the
middle eyes and two-thirds as large. The second row is half¬
way between the others. The dorsal eyes are large, and are
placed on tubercles, so that a depression separates them from
the eyes of the second row. The third row is a little narrower
than the cephalothorax. The front coxae ar separated by only
the width of the labium, which is a little longer than wide.
The maxillae have a sharp point at the outer side. The sternum
is rather narrow and is truncated in front. The falces are
vertical, wide and short, with one stout tooth on the lower
margin, and two, close together, on the upper. The tarsus of
Pechham — The Attidae of Borneo.
619
the palpus is about as long as the patella and tibia together.
The first and second legs have the tibiae armed with 3-3 spines
and laterals, and the metatarsi with 2-2 and laterals. The
third and fourth legs have many long spines.
The type of this genus is A. henjarei.
Pseudamycus has no lateral spines on the metatarsi, has the
quadrangle of the eyes wider in front, and the lateral eyes of
the first row less than two-thirds as large as the middle eyes.
Afiola henjarei sp. nov.
This is a large spider with a dark cephalothorax. The first
leg is deep reddish-brown with a black fringe under the patella,
tibia and metatarsus.
$. Length 9 mm. Legs 1324, first pair much stouter than
the others.
The cephalothorax is dark reddish-brown. There is a wide
central snow-white band from the first row of eyes to the poste¬
rior end, and on each side of this are bands of red hairs. The
sides, in our specimen, are rubbed, but seem to have had bands
of red and white hairs. The hairs under the eyes of the first
row are white. The falces are dark red with short white hairs
on the front faces. The palpi are reddish with black and
white hairs. The abdomen, under alcohol, is light yellow
with a thin growth of black hairs over it. When dry it seems
to have had a band of white hairs down the middle, with red
hairs on each side and white hairs lower down. The venter
is light-colored, with two longitudinal rows of yellow spots.
The legs are tinged with red, the tarsi being lighter than the
other joints, and the third and fourth pairs paler than the
first and second. The front face of the femur of the first is
smooth and black. F rom below, all the coxae, trochanters and
femora are lighter-colored than the other joints, and the coxae
and trochanters of the first and second, and the femora of the
four pairs (especially of the second and third), have dark,
longitudinal bands on the anterior and posterior borders. From
above, these longitudinal streaks are visible on the second,
38— S. & A.
'620 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts , and Letters.
third and fourth pairs. The first leg, and the second, in a
much slighter degree, have black fringes under the patella,
tibia and metatarsus. The tarsus of the first is pale, except a
reddish spot at tfie end.
This, species is distinguished from Palpelius arbor eus , which
it resembles, by having the metatarsus of the first leg dark,
with a black fringe throughout its length. In arboreu s this
joint is pale, and has no fringe.
One male.
Bathippus Shelf or dii sp. nov.
This is a slender, long-legged species, with a metallic hand
on the abdomen. The first leg has a ridge of hairs above the
femur, and a fringe below the patella.
$. Length 8 mm. Legs 3142, toe third longer than the sec¬
ond and fourth by the tarsus and metatarsus. The metatar.,
sus of the third is very long.
The cephalothorax is high, the cephalic part being nearly
level, while the thoracic falls in a rounded slope from the
third row of eyes. The sides are widely rounded out in the
thoracic part. The quadrangle of the eyes occupies one-half
of the cephalothorax, is less than one-fifth wider than long,
and is wider in front than behind. The first row is curved
up, the eyes being large and subtouching, the lateral further
back than the middle and more than half as large. The second
row is halfway between the others. The dorsal eyes are on
black tubercles and form a row narrower than the cephalo¬
thorax. The clypeus is only a line. The falces are long,
oblique and divergent, the fang being nearly as long as the
falx. There is a short apophysis near the distal end and a
small tooth at the proximal end above. The lower side has one
tooth near the distal end. The sternum is oval and wide with
a projection behind, and is slightly truncated in front. The
front coxa? are widely separated. The labium is but little
longer than wide, and is only one-third as long as the max-
illse. The patella of the first leg is as wide as long and is
rounded above. The third leg is enlarged at the junction of
the tibia and metatarsus.
Beckham — The Attidae of Borneo.
621
The first leg, besides lateral spines, has 4-4 under the tibia
snd 3-3 under the metatarsus ; the second, besides laterals,
has 3-3 under the tibia and 2-2 under the metatarsus.
Our specimen is rubbed. The cephalothorax is reddish-
brown with a wide pale streak, probably once covered with
white hairs, over the middle of the thoracic part, and small
black tubercles in the eye-region. There are patches of white
hairs under the eyes on the sides as well as under the lateral
eyes on the face, and a few white hairs appear on the middle
of the cephalic part and over the first row of eyes. The abdo¬
men had, evidently, a brilliant metallic band down the middle
and seems to have been white on the sides. The falces are red¬
dish-brown with darkened edges. The legs are reddish-brown
with the proximal part of the femoral joints pale. The first
and second have also a pale region at the proximal end of the
tibia. The femur in the first has a ridge of black hairs above,
which extends, though diminished in length, over the patella.
The patella, in both first and second legs, is enlarged and flat¬
tened, with the front face slightly metallic, and a tuft of long
black hairs below. The palpus is long, and has the tibia
longer than the tarsus, with a straight apophysis at the distal
end. It is pale except the tarsus, which is tinged with red.
The venter is dark. The coxae and sternum are pale, and the
long maxillae are brown with a fringe of black hairs on their
inner edges.
This species is most easily distinguished from B. manicatus
E. S. by the apophyses on the falces.
One male.
Bathippus sedatus sp. nov.
The male is dark, the legs brightly tinged with red, the front
face of the femur of the first black. The female has two dark
streaks on the thorax.
Length, <3 '6.3 mm., ? 6.7 mm. Legs, $ 3124, first and third
nearly equal; third longer than fourth by nearly the tarsus
and metatarsus; ? 3142.
The shape of the cephalothorax is like that of B. Shelf ordii.
The quadrangle of the eyes occupies more than half of the
622 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts , and Letters.
cephalothoi^x, is one-fifth wider than long, and is very slightly
wider in front than behind. The front eyes are large and
form a plainly curved row. They are close together in the
male, separated in the female. The middle are less than twice
as large as the lateral. The second row is halfway between
the others. The third row is narrower than the cephalothorax.
The clypeus is narrow. The male falces are long, horizontal
and divergent, with long, curved fangs. On the upper side is
a long, pointed apophysis at the proximal end, and a short, stout
one at the distal end. The under side has a small tooth near
the middle and a very long, wide, blunt ridge, much longer than
it is high, at the distal end. In the female the falces are
vertical, with one conical tooth in the middle of the lower mar¬
gin, and two, nearer the base, on the upper side. The sternum
is slightly truncated in front. The coxae of the first pair are
widely separated. The labium is wider than long and is one-
third as long as the maxillae,
The spines are very long. Both first and second legs, be¬
sides laterals, have 3-3 under the tibia and 2-2 under the meta¬
tarsus.
There is a slight enlargement in the third leg, at the junc¬
tion of the tibia and metatarsus, but the patella of the first,
unlike that of B. Shelf or dii, is normal.
B. manicatus E. S. from Borneo has one conical tooth at
the base of the upper margin of the falx, while the lower side
has one at the distal end, and also a long, pointed apophysis
about three times its own width from the insertion of the fang.
The third leg has the junction of the tibia and metatarsus en¬
larged, and the patella of the first is plainly longer than wide, j
The first and second legs, besides lateral spines, have 3-3 under
the tibia and 2-2 under the metatarsus.
Our specimens are rubbed. The male has the cephalothorax
reddish-yellow with a wide white band over the middle of the
thorax and a large white spot over the first row of eyes. The
eyes of the second and third rows are on black tubercles. The
hairs around the eyes are red. The sides are bare. The ab¬
domen is brightly iridescent on the back and is marked on the
PecJcham — The Attidae of Borneo.
623
side? by transverse bands of black and yellow, the yellow bands
I being formed by hairs. The falces are red, deepening to black
at the edges. The palpi are white with reddish tarsi. The
first leg has the femur and patella almost entirely black, the
other joints being dark except a‘ clear red region at the proxi¬
mal end of the tibia. The other legs are red, excepting a pale
region at the proximal end of the femora and a black band on
the front face of the femur of the second. The mouth parts
are dark brown, and the maxilla? have black hairs along the
inner edges.
In the female the cephalothorax is reddish-yellow with small
black tubercles at the sides of the eye-region and two dark
bands extending from the dorsal eyes to the posterior margin.
Low down on each side, on the thoracic part, are two dark
points, extending a little way up from the margin. These
points, and the dark bands on the upper thoracic part, were
probably covered with black hairs. The hairs around the bor¬
der of the cephalic plate are bright red, but the sides of the
cephalic part are rubbed bare. The lower half of the ring
around the front eyes is white, while the upper part is red.
The abdomen has a bright iridescent band down the middle.
The sides seem to have been covered with alternate transverse
bands of black and yellow hairs. The spinnerets are black.
The legs are yellow, slightly tinged with red. The palpus is
pale with some thick, light brown hairs on the tarsus.
One male and one female, from Mt. Pennissata.
Bathippus serenus sp. nov.
This is a yellow species with four pairs of black spots on the
abdomen.
?. Length 6.7 mm. Legs 3142, nearly equal in stoutness.
The cephalothorax and eyes are like those of B. Shelf ordii.
The clypeus is one-third as wide as the middle eyes of the
first row. The falces project a little and are long and very
stout. The sternum is broadly truncated in front and has a
narrow projection behind. The front coxse are widely sep¬
arated. The labium is broader than long. The spines are
624 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts, and Letters.
long and slender, the first and second legs having, besides lat¬
eral spines, 3-3 nnder the tibia and 2-2 under the metatarsus.
The cephalothorax is yellow with black tubercles at the sides
of the eye-region. The hairs on the cephalic plate and around
the eyes of the second and third rows are yellow with an in¬
termingling of red, and those around the front eyes and on. the
clypeus are white. The abdomen is light yellow with an iri¬
descent band down the middle, on the edges of which, in front,
are dark streaks, and, further back, four pairs of black spots.
The sides are covered with glistening yellow hairs, with a little
red near the dark spots. The spinnerets are jet black. The
clypeus, falces, palpi and legs are yellow, the legs tinged with
red. The mouth parts are yellow, the maxillae with black hairs
on the inner edges.
One female.
Eucfasmia olivacea sp. nov.
This is a dark olive-green species, beautifully marked with
white, and having bushy white hairs on the falces.
S. Length 5 mm. Legs 1342, first pair much the longest.
The cephalothorax is rather long and moderately high, con¬
vex above, inclined forward from the second row of eyes and
falling very slightly behind the dorsal eyes through two-thirds
of the thoracic part, after which the descent is steep. It is
widest in the middle, rounding gently in front and behind.
The quadrangle of the eyes is a little wider in front than be¬
hind, occupies one-half of the cephalothorax and is one-
fourth wider than long. The front eyes form a very slightly
curved row, the lateral being half as large as the middle and
a little separated from them. The second row is nearer the
first than the third, and the third is narrower than the cephalo¬
thorax. There are no tubercles nor depressions. The sternum
is rounded, truncated in front, and is nearly as wide as long.
The cox£e are separated by the width of the labium, which is
longer than wide. The falces are stout and projecting, with
long white hairs. The lower margin has one stout tooth, the
upper two, one larger than the other. The spinal armature
PecJcham — The Attidae of Borneo.
625
is 3-3, with laterals, for the tibiae and 2-2, with laterals, for
the metatarsi of the first and second legs. The third and
fourth legs have many strong spines. There is a very slight
fringe of light hairs on the femoral joints, most pronounced
on those of the first pair.
The cephalothorax and abdomen have a covering of olive-
green hairs marked with a pattern in brilliant white. On the
lower sides of the cephalothorax are white hands which do not
meet behind, but which end in oblique bars projecting up¬
ward. The space between the eyes of the second and third
row is occupied by a white hand which passes outward and
backward around the dorsal eyes, narrowing as it goes. An¬
other short white band begins a little within the end of this
one, and extends a short distance backward on the thoracic
slope.. Between and a little back of the eyes of the third row
is a central white spot. The front faces of the falces are
thickly covered with long, bushy, projecting white hairs, and
there are shorter white hairs on the clypeus. The green ab¬
domen has a black band low down on the front end, and back
of this a wide, brilliant white band extending on the sides to
the middle. Back of this, on the sides, are oblique white bars.
On the front part of the dorsum are two abbreviated longitu¬
dinal white bands, and back of the middle is a transverse white
band, broken in the middle. Around the posterior end is a
white ring. The legs are dark with conspicuous oblique white
bands. The palpus is dark brown with black hairs.
Eugasmia coronata E. S. ( Ergane covonata E. S’, and Plexip-
pus sannio V. Hass.) has a prominent shoulder on the falx
which distinguishes it from other species. E. sannio Th.
(Plexippiis sannio Th. and Rpmrius sannio Th.), Eugasmia
(Enis) barbata Karseh. and E. olivacea resemble each other,
but differ in their palpi and to some extent in their marking,
sannio and olivacea having on each side of the cephalothorax
two white bands, the lower ones occupying one-third of the
height, the upper ones narrower, not meeting behind, while
in barbata the bands are of nearly equal width, the upper ones
meetirg. Barbata is also distinct by the shape of the fang,
626 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences Arts and Letters.
which, is widened, with a shoulder on the outer side at the
proximal end.
Of oiivacea wTe have a single male!, from Sarawak.
Erasinus gracilis sp. nov.
In this species the cephalothorax is dark with white marks,
the abdomen pale brown, and the legs light yellowish.
6. Length 5.5 mm. Legs 3214, about equal in thickness.
The cephalic part is high and convex, not inclined. The
thoracic falls steeply from the dorsal eyes. The sides are
nearly vertical in front but widen a little in the thoracic part.
The quadrangle of the eyes occupies more than half the cephalo¬
thorax, is only one-fifth wider than long and is plainly wider
in front than behind. The first row is straight, with the lat¬
eral scarcely half as large as the middle eyes, and a little sep¬
arated from them. The second row is halfway between the
others, with a depression on the sides, behind. The third
row is about as wide as the cephalothorax. The sternum is
long, oval, truncated in front. The first coxse are separated
by fully the width of the lip, which is wider than long. The
f aloes are directed obliquely forward. The upper margin has
two teeth, the larger one being near the insertion of the fang.
In the first and second legs the spines are 3-3 on the tibia and
2-2 on the metatarsus, both joints having laterals. The meta¬
tarsus of the third has two circles and that of the fourth three
circles. The tarsus of the palpus is elongated, exceeding the
patella and tibia together, and has a long, black, whiplike
apophysis which passes under the tibial apophysis. The bulb
is cone-shaped with its base at the cup of the tarsus.
The cephalothorax is darker than the abdomen. There is
not much left on our single specimen, but the cephalic part
and the entire abdomen seem to have been covered with golden
iridescent scales. There is a white band on each side in
front, a white spot between the dorsal eyes, and a wide, some¬
what crescent-shaped white band halfway down the thoracic
slope. The falces are reddish-brown, and the legs pale yellow,
lighter than the palpus.
One male, from Sarawak.
Beckham — The Attidae of Borneo .
627
Hyllus nebulosus sp. nov.
?. Length 11 mm. Legs 3412, nearly equal in thickness.
The quadrangle of the eyes is equally wide in front and be¬
hind, is one-third wider than long, and occupies two-fifths of
the cephalothorax. The first row is bent slightly downward,
the middle being twice as large as the lateral eves which are
a little separated from them. The second row is in front df
the middle, and the third is a very little narrower than the
cephalothorax. The sternum is oval, not truncated. The front
coxa} are separated by about the width of the labium, which
is longer than wide. The falces are long, strong and vertical.
The tibial spines on the first and second legs are 3-3 with
small laterals, the metatarsal 2-2 without laterals, and there are
small patellary spines. The third and fourth legs have nu¬
merous spines, those on the patellse being larger than in the
first and second.
The general color effect is brown. The whole cephalothorax
is covered with mixed red and yellow hairs, which produce a
mottled appearance. There are indistinct yellowish bands on
the middle of the thorax, and around and below the eyes. The
clypeus has long white hairs, and there are yellowish hairs on
the falces. The abdomens of our specimens are rubbed. The
dorsum seems to have been covered with brown hairs, and has
a central longitudinal angular band, whitish, edged behind with
black. On the sides are three or four indistinct whitish spots,
faintly outlined in black.
The femoral joints of the first and second legs are yellow
excepting a dark ring at the distal end, while those of the
third and fourth have dark rings at both ends and are yellow
in the middle. The other parts of the legs are light and dark
brown, with many short yellowish hairs. The palpus is light
brown with black and white hairs.
Two females, from Biidi.
628 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts, a/nd Letters .
l
Hyllus pulcherrimus sp. nov.
In this species the first legs are iridescent blue with white
scales. The male has the abdomen metallic green, while in the
female it is marked with red, green, black and white.
Length, $ 11 mm., $ 14.5 mm. Legs, $ 1432, first pair very
much longer than the others, through the elongation of the
femur, tibia and metatarsus; $ 1432.
In all of our specimens the cephalothorax is rubbed. The
eye-region is iridescent blue. The sides have wide white bands,
not meeting behind, narrowing in front, and stopping in a
line with the second row of eyes. One specimen has a central
white band on the thoracic part and some white hairs on the
eye-region. Another has some green scales near the dorsal
eyes. In the male the abdomen is brilliant metallic green,
with some whitish bands low on the sides. The legs are irides¬
cent blue with patches of white scales, those on the upper sur¬
face arranged in a slender longitudinal line. The joints of the
first are much elongated, and the tarsus is as stout as the meta¬
tarsus. There is a black and white fringe which begins with
some thin hairs under the patella, grows heavier under the
tibia, is thickest and longest under the metatarsus, and which
extends, though much diminished, to the end of the tarsus. The
palpi are bronze-colored, with longitudinal lines of white scales.
The falces are stout, vertical and parallel. They are irides¬
cent, with white hairs. In the female the abdomen has an
elaborate pattern. Around the front end and passing on to the
sides is a white band. Parallel with this, but higher up on
each side, is a short white band edged with velvety black, which
ends in a rounded knob, and further back, in a line with this,
are two white spots. Just back of the white basal band is a
curved band of glistening green scales which runs backward
and ends in a point on each side, and down the middle of the
back is a band of the same green scales which is edged with
white bands or spots. The spaces around these markings are
filled in with rich dark red hairs. The legs are like those of
the male, excepting that the first pair is not elongated. The
Peckham- — The Attidae of Borneo.
629
first and second pairs have a circle of white hairs at the proxi¬
mal end of the tarsus. The palpus has on each joint a patch
of brilliant orange-red hairs. The falces are reddish-brown
with white hairs.
H. giganteus , 11. pterygodes and H. naerii all have the falces
projecting and divergent in the males. H. lacertosus C. 3L
has them vertical.
Margaromma spatiosa sp. nov.
$. Length 5.5 mm. Legs 1243, first and second stoutest.
The cephalothorax is moderately high and is nearly fiat
above, from the first row of eyes through half of the thoracic
part, and there falls steeply. The sides are parallel from the
middle of the cephalic to the middle of the thoracic part, nar¬
rowing in front and behind. They widen out below. The
quadrangle of the eyes occupies about half of the cephalothorax,
is one-fifth wider than long, and is about equally wide in front
and behind. The front eyes are moderately large, near to¬
gether, and form a slightly curved row, the middle being less
than twice as large as the lateral. The second row is a little
nearer the first than the third, and the third row is plainly
narrower than the cephalothorax. The sternum is oval and
truncated in front. The coxae are separated by the width of
the labium, which is about as wide as long. The falces are
strong and projecting, the upper margin having two small
rounded teeth close together while the lower margin is un¬
armed, On the first leg the spines are 3-3, with laterals, on
the tibia, 2-2, without laterals, on the metatarsus. The second
leg has three uniserial spines and laterals on the tibia and 2-2
with small laterals on the metatarsus. The metatarsal spines
on the first pair are exceedingly long, reaching almost the end
of the tarsus. In all the legs the tibiae and patellae differ but
little in length.
Our specimen is badly rubbed. It is a stout spider, with
the cephalothorax larger and darker-colored than the abdomen.
The eye-region is black with red hairs around the eyes. The
anterior thoracic part has the integument reddish. There are
white bands around the sides and behind, and under the lateral
630 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts , and Letters.
eyes are white hairs growing with their tips toward the
middle of the clypeus. The abdomen is of a medium brown
color, much lighter than the cephalo thorax, and shows a few
white and red hairs. The falses are iridescent green and very
rugose. The legs and palpi are light brown, the legs having
the femoral joints darkened. The first leg is darker than the
others, which show alternate light and dark bands. They all
have a good many long and short white hairs.
While this species does not entirely agree with Simon7s de¬
scription of the genus Margaromma, it closely resembles Key-
serling’si type, M. funesta. We have one male, from Sarawak.
Orsima formica sp. nov.
$. Length 6.5 mm. Legs 1432. $. Length 7 mm. Legs
4132, femur of the first slightly thickened in both sexes.
The cephalo thorax is rather high, with the cephalic plate
nearly level. The thoracic part falls steeply in the female, but
in the male rounds off in a longer, more gradual slope. It is
a little wider in the thoracic than in the cephalic part and is
slightly narrower above than below. The quadrangle of the
eyes occupies nearly half of the cephalo thorax, is one-third
wider than long, and is a little wider behind than in front. The
front eyes are close together in a straight row, the middle be¬
ing twice as large as the lateral. The second row is halfway
between the others. The dorsal eyes stand out prominently
and form a row about as wide as the cephalothorax. The ster¬
num is rounded behind, truncated in front. The first coxae
are separated by the width of the labium, which is a little
longer than wide. The clypeus is narrow. The falces are
vertical and rather long. The lower margin has one tooth, and
the upper two, one large and one small. The legs are slender.
The first and second, besides lateral spines, have 3-3 under
the tibia and 2-2 under the metatarsus.. The spines on the
posterior legs are very weak. In the male the abdomen is
strongly constricted behind the middle and is wider behind
this point than in front of it. The spinnerets are long.
The coloring is very brilliant. In the male there is a wide
Pechham — The Attidae of Borneo.
631
bright band, of iridescent green extending from the front eyes
to the posterior margin and occupying the entire upper sur¬
face. The sides of the thoracic part are black, but those of
the cephalic are covered with iridescent pinkish scales, which
extend across the clypeus. All around the lower margin of
the cephalothorax is a narrow band of silvery white. The ab¬
domen has a covering of silvery iridescent scales, with two
transverse bands of deep coppery red, one in front of and one
behind the constriction. From the front one, two curved
bands of the same red color extend forward, partly enclosing
a circular spot of the iridescent scales. The sternum and
venter are also covered with iridescence. The faices are light
yellowish. The palpi are dark, covered with shining scales,
as is also the femur of the first leg. The tibia and metatarsus
of the fourth are black in the middle with pale extremities.
Otherwise the legs are pale yellow with black streaks in front
and behind.
The coloring of the female is similar, excepting that a trans¬
verse band of white iridescent scales, coming up from below,
crosses the abdomen behind the middle, taking the place of the
constriction in the male. The femur of the first leg is not
darkened, the palpi, as well as the legs, being pale yellow with
black streaks in front and behind.
Three males from Kuching and one female from Sarawak.
Mr. Shelford says that this species mimics an ant. Its form is
certainly antdike, although its coloring is gorgeous and strik¬
ing. Although it has but two, instead of three, pairs of met¬
atarsal spines, it agrees very well with Simon’s description of
the genus Orsima which heretofore has had but one represen¬
tative, 0. constricta from Congo.
Pseudamycus E. S.
The cephalothorax is high and slopes rather steeply in both
directions from the dorsal eyes. The sides are sometimes
nearly vertical and parallel, sometimes widened out below and
behind. The quadrangle of the eyes occupies half or nearly
half of the cephalothorax, is one-third wider than long in front
and is plainly wider in front than behind. The front ejyes are
632 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts , and Letters.
all large, the middle being twice or nearly twice as large as the
lateral. They form a straight row. The eyes of the second
row vary in position. The dorsal eyes are large and are placed
on tubercles. They form a row which is nearly as wide as the
cephalothorax at that place. The sternum is oval, truncated
in front. The coxae of the first pair of legs are separated by
more than the width of the labium, which is longer than wide.
The falces are nearly vertical and about as wide as the first
row of eyes. The spines are long and strong, the first and
second legs having three pairs besides lateral spines under the
tibia and two pairs under the metatarsus. The posterior legs
have many spines.
The type species, P. albomaculatus Van Hassett, has the rel¬
ative length of the legs in the male 1324, the first being much
the longest.
Pseudamycus sylvestris sp. nov.
$. Length 10 mm. Legs 3412, fourth pair not so stout as
the others.
The thorax falls steeply from the high cephalic plate, the
sides being almost vertical and parallel. The sternum is rather
narrow for Pseudamycus. Tlhe first row of eyes is bent down.
The falx has one tooth on the lower and one on the upper mar¬
gin. On the first and second legs the tibia has, besides lateral
spines, 3-3, while the metatarsus has 2-2 without laterals. On
the third and fourth legs the spines are numerous and strong.
Our specimens are badly rubbed. The cephalothorax i3
yellow. The eyes are placed on large black tubercles and have
yellowish-white hairs around them. On the clypeus are long
white hairs. The integument of the abdomen is pale with a
pattern formed of dark streaks. On the pale parts are
some white hairs. The falces are smooth, of a reddish color
with white hairs. The legs are pale, tinged with red, the
tibia of the first being darkened at the distal end.
We have one female.
Pechham — The Attidae of Borneo.
633
Pseudamycus amabilis sp. nov.
This is a large and distinctly marked female. The legs
are yellow, the cephalothorax reddish-yellow with red and yel¬
low hairs on the eye-region. The abdomen has a wide! light
hand down the middle. The anterior sides have dark streaks
on a light ground, and the posterior sides are dark brown, each
marked with a conspicuous white or yellow band.
$. Length 9 mm. Legs 3124, first and second pairs a little
the stoutest.
The cephalothorax slopes rather steeply in both directions
from the dorsal eyes and is wider in the thoracic than in the
cephalic part. The lateral eyes of the first row are more than
half as large as the middle eyes and are a little separated from
them. The eyes of the second row are about halfway between
the lateral and the dorsal eyes and are separated from the latter
by a deep depression. The falx has one tooth on the lower
margin and opposite to this, on the upper margin, two teeth,
close together.
The spines are long. The tibiae of the first and second leg's
have 3-3 with laterals, and the metatarsi have 2-2 without
laterals. On the third and fourth legs they are numerous and
strong.
In our specimens the sides of the cephalothorax are rubbed
bare, but all the eyes are surrounded by yellow hairs, which
also grow thickly on the cephalic square. A band of bright
red hairs runs along the side of the cephalic plate from the lat¬
eral to the dorsal eye, and there is a red patch behind the dor¬
sal eye. The hairs on the clypeus are white. The faloes are
reddish, the palpi pale and the legs yellow. The abdomen has
a band of yellow hairs down the middle which has a brown
streak in the middle, in front. The anterior sides are marked
with lines of yellow and brown hairs. The posterior sides are
covered with dark brown hairs marked with a pair of white
or bright yellow bands, and, further back, a pair of yellow bars.
The venter Is lighficolored, with a large dark patch in the
middle, upon which are two longitudinal lines of white spots.
We have four females from Sarawak.
634 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts , and Letters.
Palpelius arboreus sp. nov.
This is a medium-sized dark species with a black fringe
linder the patella and tibia of the first leg.
A Length 6.8 mm. Legs 1342, first and second a little the
stoutest.
The sides of the cephalothorax are nearly parallel, the wid¬
est point being just behind the dorsal eyes from which the
thoracic part falls steeply. The front eyes form a straight
row, the lateral being more than half as large as the middle
eyes, and separated from them. The second row is nearer the
third than the first. The third row is scarcely narrower than
the cephalothorax.
The tibia of the palpus is about as long as the tarsus. The
falx has one tooth on the lower margin. The upper margin
has two, one longer than the other, not quite opposite the one
below. The spines are long, the first and second legs having
3-3 under the tibia and 2-2 under the metatarsus, besides lat¬
eral spines on both joints. The third and fourth legs have
strong and numerous spines, there being a circle of five on
each metatarsus.
Our specimens are somewhat rubbed. The cephalothorax
is dark, the cephalic plate being black, with patches of red
hairs along the sides, white hairs on the middle, and rings of
red hairs around the front eyes. There is a tuft of long white
hairs on the middle of the clypeus. The abdomen, which,
under alcohol, is pale with brown chevrons, when dry shows a
covering of yellow hairs and a good many dark brown streaks
which form indistinct transverse bands. Low down on each
side, at the posterior end, is a large spot of red hairs. The
falces are dark red. The palpus is reddish with a pale spot at
the end of the tarsus. The legs are light brown and have the
patella and tibia, in the first and second pairs, darkened and
bearing a fringe of black hairs below. We have two males.
Palpelius albofasciatus sp. nov.
A medium-sized species with a conspicuous transverse white
band, edged with black, on the abdomen.
Pechham — The Attidae of Borneo. 635
$. Length 7 mm. Legs 3412, first and second thickened.
The cephalothorax is large and high and convex. The ceph¬
alic part slopes a little forward; the thoracic rounds off grad¬
ually in the first third and then drops steeply. The sides are
nearly parallel through the middle part, widening somewhat
behind the dorsal eyes, and are a little wider below than above.
The quadrangle of the eyes is one-fourth wider than long, is
equally wide in front and behind and occupies nearly half of
the cephalothorax. The front eyes are subtouching and form
a row that is plainly curved down. The middle are fully twice
as large as the lateral. The second row is a little nearer the
first than the third, and the third is slightly narrower than the
cephalothorax. Between the eyes of the second and third rows
is a distinct groove. The falces are vertical and rather stout,
with one tooth on the upper and one on the lower margin. The
sternum is rather pointed behind, wider and rounded in front.
The abdomen is narrower than the cephalothorax and is pointed
behind. The first and second legs are without lateral spines,
the tibia having 3-3 below, and the metatarsus 2-2. There
are numerous spines on the third and fourth, the metatarsus
of the third having two, and that of the fourth three circles.
The cephalothorax is red-brown, with the eyes on black tu¬
bercles. Judging from our specimen, the eyes are surrounded
with red hairs. White hairs grow over the cephalic sides and
upward in an oblique bar between the eyes of the second and
third rows. There are long white hairs on the clypeus and on
the brown falces. The front end of the abdomen is covered
with white hairs. 'Behind the middle there is a wide trans¬
verse white band deeply edged with black, and back of this are
alternate black and white chevrons. The legs are barred with
brown and black, the first and second pairs being the darkest.
The black parts seem to have borne black, and the brown parts
white hairs. The palpi are barred with lighter and darker
brown.
One female, from Sarawak.
39— S. & A.
636 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts , and Letters.
Palpelius nemoralis sp. hoy.
This is a large species with the first and second legs stoutest,
bearing fringes.
$. Length 10 mm. Legs 1324.
The cephalothorax is highest at the dorsal eyes. The cephalic
part is strongly inclined, and the thoracic falls steeply. The
sides are sometimes nearly parallel, sometimes rounded, but
always a little widest in the thoracic part. The quadrangle of
the eyes occupies about one-half of the cephalothorax, is one-
third or one-fourth wider than long, and is equally wide in
front and behind. The front eyes are large and are close to¬
gether, forming a row that is a little curved downward. The
middle are less than twice as large as the lateral. The second
row is about halfway between the others. The third row is
narrower than the cephalothorax, the eyes being on large black
tubercles. The sternum is oval and rather narrow, and is
truncated in front. The front coxse are separated by the
width of the labium, which is but little longer than wide. The
falces are long, stout and projecting, and have one tooth on the
lower margin, and two, one larger than the other, on the upper
margin. The first and second legs have, besides lateral spines,
8-3 under the tibia and 2-2 under the metatarsus. The third
and fourth legs have numerous spines. The tarsus of the
palpus is about as long as the tibia and patella together.
The cephalothorax is dark brown with a white line around
the margin, and bright yellow hairs on the sides. The hairs
around the eyes are bright red. Our specimens are rubbed
and have no hairs left on the cephalic plate. Those on the
dark red clypeus and falces are white. The abdomen has a
thin covering of bright yellow hairs on a dark brown ground.
On each side, at the posterior end, is a spot of red hairs. The
legs are dark reddish-brown with pale tarsi. The first leg,
which is darker than the others1, has a thick black fringe un¬
der the patella, tibia and tarsus, which is repeated, in a less
degree, on the second leg. The palpus is pale excepting the
tarsus, which is red.
We have a light and a dark variety of this species.
Peclcham — The Attidae of Borneo.
637
Pancorius fasciatus sp. nov.
$. Length. 8.5 mm. Legs 1342, first a little the stoutest.
The cephalothorax is high and convex, rounding up from
the first to the third row of eyes, and then down, in an equal
degree, through two-thirds of the thoracic part, when the de¬
scent becomes steeper. The sides are widely rounded, as in
males of Thyene the widest point being behind the dorsal
eyes. The cephalothorax is plainly narrower above than be¬
low. The quadrangle of the eyes occupies less than two-fifths
of the cephalothorax, is one-fourth wider than long, and is
slightly wider in front than behind. The front eyes are large
and close together, the middle being nearly twice as large as
the lateral. This row is curved upward. The cephalothorax
is depressed behind the eyes of the second row, which is half¬
way between the others. The third row is plainly narrower
than the cephalothorax, the eyes being elevated. The sternum
is rounded, not much longer than wide, and truncated in front.
The coxse of the first legs are separated by more than the width
of the labium, which is longer than wide. The maxillse have
long apophyses at the outer comers. The falces are vertical
and very wide, with long, strong fangs. They have one tooth
on the upper and one on the lower margin. The armature
of the first and second legs is 3-3 on the tibia and 2-2 on the
metatarsus, with stout, large lateral spines on both joints, those
on the metatarsus being so low down as almost to form a third
inferior pair.
The specimen which we have shows a black iridescent ceph¬
alic plate, and a thoracic part of reddish-brown. Yellowish-
white hairs form a band down the middle of the thoracic part,
and a few hairs of the same color are left around the eyes.
Long white hairs border the edge of the clypeus and are scat¬
tered over the falces. The sides of the abdomen are dark and
seem to have been covered with deep yellow hairs. Down the
middle is a wide band of pale yellow hairs, which is somewhat
arrow-shaped in front, and is outlined on the sides with black.
The legs are reddish-brown, the tarsi lighter in color than the
638 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts-, and Letters.
other joints, covered with short white hairs and having a thin
uneven fringe of brown hairs on the tibia of the first.
One male.
The spine on the falx distinguishes the males of protervus,
curtus, dentichelis and born&ensis from fasciatus.
Pancorius animosus sp. nov.
This species has the cephalic plate red with a white centra]
band.
?. Length 8.5 mm. Legs 3412, first and second pairs a little
the stoutest.
The cephalothorax is rather high with the cephalic part
plainly inclined forward. The thoracic part has a horse-shoe
shaped part which falls a little from the dorsal eyes, and be¬
yond this the descent is steeper. The sides are parallel and
nearly vertical, widening very slightly below the eyes and then
curving inward, so that the lower margin of the cephalic and
of the anterior thoracic part is not visible from above. The
quadrangle of the eyes occupies two-fifths of the cephalothorax,
is one-fourth wider than long and is very slightly wider in
front than behind. The front eyes are rather large, close to¬
gether, in a row that is bent downward, the middle being less
than twice as large as the lateral. The eyes of the second row
are a little nearer the lateral than the dorsal eyes and are
placed behind large black tubercles which rise between them
and the lateral eyes. The third row is nearljy as wide as the
cephalothorax. The sternum is longer than wide and is trun¬
cated in front. The front coxse are separated by the width
of the labium, which is a very little longer than wide. The
falces are vertical and stout with a single tooth on the lower
margin, and two opposite, one larger than the other, on the
upper margin.
In the first and second legs the tibiae have 3-3 spines, and
the metatarsi 2-2. Lateral spines are found on the tibiae but
are lacking on the metatarsi.
Our specimen is damaged. The cephalothorax is reddish-
brown with a black band around the lower margin and black
tubercles on the eye-region. The cephalic plate is covered with
Peclckam — The Attidae of Borneo. 639
red hairs except for a central white band. Between the eyes
of the second and third rows are patches of white hairs, and
lower down on the sides are wide white hands which meet be¬
hind. The hairs around the eyes of the first row arei red, ex¬
cepting at the inner edges of the middle eyes, where they are
white. The clypeus is narrow and has long white hairs at
the edge. The face has lines of red and white hairs under
the lateral eyes. The falces are reddish with white hairs.
The abdomen is badly damaged, but shows a dark band around
the front end with a white band above it, and some white hairs
behind. The legs are banded with dark and light brown, the
femur and tibia being darker than the other joints, especially
in the first and second legs. They have a good many white
hairs. The palpi are brown with black and white hairs.
A single female.
Telamonia resplendens sp. nov.
$. Length 4.5 mm. Legs 4312. first pair stoutest.
The cephalothorax is high, with the cephalic part level and
the thoracic falling steeply from the dorsal eyes. The sides
are vertical in front, but widen out a little below1 in the thoracic
part. The quadrangle of the eyes occupies more than half of
the cephalothorax. The front eyes are close together in a
straight row, the middle being twice as large* as the lateral.
The second row is a little in front of the middle. The third
is as wide as the cephalothorax, with the eyes projecting. The
clypeus is two-thirds as wide as the middle eyes. The falx
has a single tooth on the lower margin. The lateral and in¬
ferior spines on the first and second legs are all long. The
tibia of the first has four pairs, and the metatarsus three pairs ;
the tibia 'of the second three pairs, and the metatarsus two
pairs.
The cephalothorax is covered with very brilliant dark blue
scales. There are wide white bands low down on the sides of
the thoracic part, and some white hairs over the eyes and on
the clypeus. The abdomen is light brown with two dark
streaks on the dorsum and a dark curved band on each side,
and between these bands are bright iridescent scales. The
640 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts, and Letters .
palpus has bright scales on the tibia, and the femoral joints of
all the legs are more or less iridescent. The color of the legs
is light brown, the first having a dark streak down each side.
One female.
Telamonia crisi at a sp. nov.
A handsome species with wide white bands and a central
white spot on the thorax, and a transverse white band between
two black bands on the abdomen. Over the middle eyes of the
first row are tufts of black hairs.
8. Length 5.9 mm. Legs 1432, first pair stoutest, darkest
and much the longest.
The cephalothorax and eyes are like those of T. annulipes ,
excepting that the front row is more plainly curved, with the
lateral a little separated from the middle eyes. The sternum
is truncated in front.
Our specimen is rubbed but still shows handsome markings.
The cephalothorax is dark-colored, with black tubercles in the
eye-region. The cephalic plate is covered with bluish irides¬
cent scales, but in the middle, over the first row of eyes, is a
large spot of white iridescent scales ; on each side of this, pro¬
jecting obliquely over the middle eyes, is a tuft of black hairs,
which shows conspicuously from in front. The white irides¬
cent scales appear also in patches between the eyes of the sec¬
ond and third rows, in a central spot on the thorax, and in
wide bands which begin under the dorsal eyes and meet be¬
hind. Above these bands is a wide black band and below them
is the black margin. The front, sides and face are dark, with
a line of white hairs on the edge of the clypeus, which is one-
half as wide as the middle eyes. The abdomen has a covering
of golden yellow hairs with a darkened region in front. Across
the middle is a tiansverse band of white iridescent scales bor¬
dered in front and behind by a black band. At the posterior
end are three black spots, one in the middle and one on each
side. In front of the side spots are patches of the white scales.
The palpi are white, covered with white iridescent scales, ex¬
cepting the tarsi, which are dark with dark hairs. The legs are
PecJcham — The Attidae of Borneo. 641
brown, with light-colored metatarsi and tarsi, and a pale region
at the proximal end of the femur in the third and fourth.
They are almost entirely covered with white iridescent scales.
The femur and patella of the first leg are somewhat thickened.
The falces are dark brown, making a contrast with the white
palpi. They are vertical, and in the first half they are par¬
allel, but in the second they diverge widely. The fang is long.
There is one tooth on the lower margin, and one on the upper.
We have one male from Manila, which is described here be¬
cause of its resemblance to T. annulipes.
Telamonia annulipes sp. nov.
A beautiful yellow species marked with spots of iridescent
white outlined in black.
$. Length 6.5 mm. Legs 1432, first pair plainly stoutest.
The cephalic part is nearly level. The thoracic falls in a
long, rounded slope from the third row of eyes. The sides
widen out in the thoracic part. The quadrangle of the eyes
occupies less than one-half of the cephalothorax, is about one-
fifth wider than long, and is a little wider in front than be¬
hind. The front eyes are near together and moderately large,
and form a slightly curved row. The middle are less than
twice as large as the lateral. The second row is halfway be¬
tween the others. The third row is not as wide as the ceph¬
alothorax. The sternum is wfide in front and narrow behind,
not truncated. The front coxae are separated by the width of
the labium^ which is much longer than wide. The falces are
broad, flattened and nearly vertical, with a long, pointed tooth
below. The upper margin has several very fine teeth.
The spines of the first legs are 3-3 under the tibiae and 2-2
under the metatarsi, besides lateral spines on both joints. The
proximal pair on the metatarsus of the first is very stout.
The cephalothorax is yellowish-brown with darker eye-region
and black tubercles for the eyes. The cephalic plate has a
covering of blue iridescent scales. There are white iridescent
scales in a patch above the first row of eyes, behind the dorsal
eyes, and in a wide band on the sides and back of the thoracic
part. Above and below this white band are black bands. In
642 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts , and Letters.
our specimen the sides of the . cephalic part are rubbed bare,
the white band beginning abruptly at the dorsal eyes. There
is a line of white hairs at the edge of the clypeus which is
one-third as wide as the middle eyes. The abdomen has a cov¬
ering of silky golden hairs. At the front end is a' large patch
of iridescent white scales with a dark band in front of it and
two black spots behind. Two transverse bands of these white
scales cross the dorsum further back, one in the middle, which
is edged behind by two black crescents, and one at the posterior
end, which is broken, just in front of the spinnerets, by a
large, round black spot. The falces are brown. The palpus
is white with white hairs, except the tarsus, which is dark with
black hairs. The legs have alternate rings of dark hairs and
white iridescent scales. The first leg has the femur and pa¬
tella dark, the tibia and metatarsus white with dark rings at
the end, and the tarsus white.
We have one male.
Taivula gen. nov.
The widest point of the cephalothorax is at the dorsal eyes,
the sides in front being slightly rounded while behind they
contract sharply. The highest point is also at the dorsal eyes,
the slope in both directions being rather steep, that behind be¬
coming more abrupt after the first third* The quadrangle of
the eyes occupies half of the cephalothorax, is one-fourth wider
than long, and is slightly wider behind than in front. The
anterior eyes are large, the middle close together, the lateral
slightly separated from them and about half as large. This
row is slightly curved downward. The second row is halfway
between the others, and the third is nearly as wide as the ceph¬
alothorax., The sternum is narrow and is truncated. The
front coxse are separated by less than the width of the labium,
which is plainly longer than wide. The falces bulge out in
front. There is a single tooth on the lower margin, while the
upper has two teeth, near together.
In the female of the type species, T. invisitata , the relative
length of the legs is 3412. The first and second legs have, be-
PecJcham — The Attidae of Borneo.
643
sides lateral spines, three pairs under the tibia and two pairs
under the metatarsus, and the third and fourth legs have many
spines.
Taivala is most like Pseudamycus and Afiola , but is distin¬
guished from these genera by having the quadrangle of the
eyes wider behind than in front and by the shape of the ceph-
alothorax.
Taivala invisitata sp. nov.
The cephalothorax is dark reddish-brown, with light yellow
hairs on the sides and thorax and reddish-yellow hairs on the
eye-region. A narrow band of yellowish- white hairs begins
between the eyes of the second and third rows, curves outward
around the dorsal eye and runs back on the thorax to meet the
one on the opposite side, and directly behind the dorsal eye,
in the darker region thus enclosed, is a white dot. From the
meeting point of the two hands, a streak of the same color
passes forward, in the middle line, as far as the dorsal eyes,
and in some specimens there is a suggestion that this bifurcates
and joins the one between the eyes of the second and third
rows, forming a circle around the dorsal eye. On the side,
below the hand, at the end of the cephalic part, are two short,
oblique, whitish rays. It may be that perfect specimens would
show a still more elaborate pattern. There are white hairs on
the clypeus and on the front faces of the dark red falces. The
palpi are light-colored with a dark spot at the beginning of
each joint, this giving a barred appearance. . The legs are light
brown with darker bars, which are more distinct in some speci¬
mens than in others. The ground color of the abdomen is
made up. of streaks of red and black. A white band crosses
in front and passes on to the sides, where it is more or less
broken, ending in a pure white spot. Down the middle is a
broken white band consisting of two somewhat triangular white
figures and, behind these, two transverse white bands.
Several females. Sarawak.
644 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts , and Letters.
Taupoa gen. nov.
The cephalothorax is high and slopes steeply in both direo
tions from the dorsal eyes. In front it is no wider than the
first row of eyes, but at the second row it begins to widen.
The widest point is behind, the dorsal eyes. The quadrangle
of the eyes occupies more than half of the cephalothorax, is
wider than long by only the width of the lateral eyes', and is
a little wider in front than behind. The front eyes are large
and all close together in a slightly curved row. The lateral
are more than half as large as the middle eyes, and are placed
much further back. The lateral and dorsal eyes are on tuber¬
cles. The eyes of the second row are very small and are about
halfway between the others. The third row is scarcely nar¬
rower than the cephalothorax at that place. The sternum is
wide and very much rounded. The front coxse are separated
by plainly more than the width of the labium, which is a little
longer than wide. The falces are small and vertical with a
conical tooth on the lower margin and two teeth, near together,
one larger than the other, on the superior margin. The type
species has the relative length of the legs 3214, the third pair
plainly longest. The first and second legs have, besides lateral
spines, three pairs under the tibia and two under the meta¬
tarsus. One of the posterior lateral spines on the tibia in
both first and second legs is so low down as to be nearly in a
line with the inferior spines. The posterior pairs have many
strong spines. Although this genus belongs to the Unidentatiy
in appearance it approaches Lyssomanes.
Taupoa mira sp. nov.
This is a delicate, light-colored species of medium size, the
abdomen being brilliantly iridescent.
$. Length 7 mm. Legs 3214, first, second and fourth pairs
nearly equal, first and second a little the stoutest.
Our specimens are rubbed. The cephalothorax is yellow
with the eyes on black tubercles. The sides are bare, but the
eve-square seems to have been covered with bright red hairs.
Beckham— The Attidae of Borneo. 645
The hairs around the eyes are snow-white with an intermin¬
gling of bright red. The clypeus is wide and retreating, with
white hairs. The abdomen is covered with silky golden hairs
and brilliantly iridescent white hairs, the pattern, unfortu¬
nately, being indistinct. There seems to have been a wide
white band down the middle, and two transverse white bands.
The anterior sides are golden. On each side, between the
transverse white bands, is a dark bar covered with golden
hairs, and at the posterior end, on each side, is an abbreviated
dark band running longitudinally, also covered with golden
hairs. The spinnerets are dark-colored. The under surface
is light with a dark streak down the middle of the venter.
The falces are small and yellow, the palpi white, the legs
yellow.
Two females.
Viciria concolor sp. nov.
This male, under alcohol, is of a general light brown color,
ihe legs being tinged with red. There are no marked contrasts
excepting the black eye-tubercles. The first and second legs
are fringed.
$. Length 10 mm. Legs 1324, long, nearly equal in thickness.
The front eyes form a straight row, the middle being fully
twice as large as the lateral, which are a little separated from
them. The small eyes are placed on the same tubercle with
the laterals, and are nearer to them than to the dorsals. The
third row is plainly narrower than the cephalothorax. The
clypeus is one-third as wide as the large middle eyes. The
falces project and are rather long and stout, with one tooth
on the lower, and two on the upper margin, the one nearer the
fang being the larger. The tarsus of the palpus has a spine
which is directed toward the tibial apophysis. The spinal ar¬
mature of the first and second legs is 3-3, with laterals, on
the tibia, and 2-2, with laterals, on the metatarsus. The poste¬
rior legs have numerous spines.
Our single specimen is rubbed nearly bare. The cephalo¬
thorax is of a pale yellowish-brown color, the eyes placed on
646 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts, and Letters >
black tubercles and having left around them some white and
red hairs., The clypeus is bare. The abdomen seems to have
been covered with silvery-white and golden scales, but no pat¬
tern is distinguishable. The legs are reddish-brown, the first
pair darkest, with a short dark fringe under the patella and
double brown fringes on the tibia and metatarsus. That on
the tibia is short above, and at the proximal end below, in¬
creasing in length to the extremity. The metatarsus has the
proximal end bare. The upper fringe is short, and the lower
one increases in length from the middle of the joint to the ex¬
tremity. These fringes are repeated on the second leg. The
falces are yellowish. The palpus has the femur and patella
pale, and the other joints reddish.
One male, from Sarawak.
V. petulans, which resembles this species in size and in the
fringing of the legs, lacks the tarsal spine on the palpns and
has, under alcohol, a dark band between two white bands on
the abdomen. Arrogans has the first metatarsus white, not
fringed. Miranda has no fringe on the second leg. Paludosa
is marked with black and white.
Viciria arrogans sp. nov.
The female is yellow, the male brown, both with the cephalic
square white bordered with red, and1 a white herring-bone
stripe edged with red on the abdomen. The male has the tibia
of the first leg dark and heavily fringed above and below, while
the metatarsus is all white, without dark hairs.
Length, 6 9 mm., $ 9.5 mm. Legs, $ 3142, $ 3412, first and
second pairs stoutest.
The first row of eyes is a little bent downward, the middle
ones being not quite twice as large as the laterals, which are
separated from them. The second row is nearer the first than
the third, and the third row is plainly narrower than the ceph-
alothorax at that place. The clypeus is narrow in the male
and wide in the female. The falx, in both sexes, has one tooth
on the lower, and two, close together, on the upper margin.
The spinal armature is rather peculiar, the tibia of the first
Beckham — The Attidae of Borneo.
647
leg having 3-3 and laterals, the tibia of the second 2-3 and
laterals, while the metatarsus in both first and second has 2-2
without laterals. The third and fourth legs have many strong
spines.
In the palpus of the male the tarsus is about as long as the
tibia and patella together. The tarsal spine found in miranda,
concolor and paludosa is lacking in arrogans.
In the male, the cephalothorax has a black edge, above which
is a band which shades from brown up to red. Above this,
the sides and) thoracic part are yellow, covered! with white
hairs. The cephalic square is covered with white or light yel¬
low hairs, and is bordered by a red band which includes all
the eyes. The red color runs back over the middle of the
thoracic part separating the two white bands. The clvpeus
is covered with long white hairs. The abdomen is dark brown
on the sides, and has, on the dorsum, a white or light yellow
herring-bone stripe edged with bright red. The amount of
color in the legs varies. Usually the first and second legs
have the femur, patella and tibia red or reddish-brown, with
red and black hairs. The tibia of the first, and, in a less de¬
gree, that of the second, have thick fringes of black hairs above
and below. The metatarsus and tarsus are pure white. The
third and fourth legs are much lighter, and have the metatarsus
much longer than the tarsus. In the third the femur and pa¬
tella are from light to dark brown, the tibia has the proximal
half light and the distal half darker, while the metatarsus and
tarsus are light. The fourth leg is light with a longitudinal
black band on the posterior side of the femur. The palpi are
red or reddish with red and black hairs. The falces, which
project, are dark reddish-brown. The under surface is very
striking. The venter and sternum are dark; the mouth-parts
are light or dark brown; and the coxae are white with inky-
black bands along their front faces. In one specimen these
bands, on the third and fourth legs, are on the under surface.
In the female, the body, legs and palpi are light yellow with
a scattering of long white hairs. The cephalic plate is covered
with white hairs and is bordered by a band of bright red hairs
which includes the eyes. The clypeus Has a narrow snow-
648 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts , and Letters,
white band across the upper part, while below it is yellow and
bare, of a deeper color than the light yellow falces. The yel¬
low abdomen has a longitudinal band of bright red on the
dorsum, upon which is a herring-bone stripe of pure white
hairs. The under surface is yellow, the cephalothorax lighter
than the abdomen.
Vicirijj miranda sp. nov.
The legs are long and slender. The tibia and metatarsus
of the first are dark-colored and fringed. The palpus has the
tarsus about as long as the femur, and nearly twice as long as
the tibia and patella together.
$. Length 7.5 mm. Legs 3124, long, first and second pairs
a little the stoutest.
The face is rather broad, the front eyes being close together
in a straight row, the middle fully twice as large as the lateral.
The second row is nearer the first than the third, and the third
is narrower than the cephalothorax. The clypeus is one-third
as wide as the middle eyes. The falx has one tooth on the
lower margin and two, close together, one larger than the other,
on the upper. The spines are long, the first and second legs
having 3-3 under the tibia and 2-2 under the metatarsus, be¬
sides laterals. On the third and fourth legs they are nu¬
merous.
Like V, paludosa , this species has a tarsal spine on the
palpus which nearly touches the tibial apophysis.
Our single specimen is badly rubbed and the abdomen is
damaged. The cephalothorax is reddish-yellow with light yel¬
low hairs around the side eyes and red hairs above the front
row. The clypeus and falces are dark. The abdomen is pale
yellow! The legs are rather light-colored, the first and second
darkest. The first, second and third have a black band on the
front face of the femur, which is especially wide on the sec¬
ond. The tarsus is white in the first pair, brownish in the
others. There is a fringe of black hairs on the distal half
of the tibia of the first Teg, and through nearly the whole length
of the metatarsus. That on the metatarsus is double, although
PecJchafn — The Aitidae of Borneo.
649
the upper part is not so extended as the lower, which is lack¬
ing only at the proximal end. There is no fringe on the sec¬
ond leg. The palpus is very long and slender. The tarsus
is reddish, the other joints pale with a black streak below.
Vicir 'a lucida sp. nov.
A pale female, with the metatarsus in the third and fourth
legs only a little longer than the tarsus. The cephalothorax
is yellow with the eyes on black spots, while the abdomen is
light-colored, with two slender, longitudinal dark bands con¬
verging at the spinnerets.
?. Length 8.5 mm. Legs 3412, not differing much in thick¬
ness.
The front eyes are scarcely separated from each other and
form a straight row, the middle being twice as large as the
lateral. The second row is nearer the first than the third,
and the third is very little narrower than the cephalothorax at
that place. The falx has one tooth on the lower, and two,
close together, on the upper margin. In the first and second
legs the tibia has, besides lateral spines, 3-3, below, and the
metatarsus has 2-2 without laterals.
Our specimens are both rubbed, so that a complete color de¬
scription is impossible. The yellow cephalothorax seems to
have had the cephalic plate covered with light yellow hairs.
The eyes are on black spots, and touches of bright red appear
in front of the dorsal eyes. The clypeus is two-thirds as wide
as the middle eyes and has upon it some white hairs. The
abdomen seems to have been covered with white hairs, and has
two dark longitudinal band», or lines, converging toward the
spinnerets. The falces, palpi and legs are yellow. The un¬
der surface is yellow, with from one to three dark longitudinal
bands on the venter, and a black bar on each side just in front
of the spinnerets.
This species is much like V. moesta, being most easily dis¬
tinguished by the shorter metatarsus of the third and fourth
legs. It has no dark spot on the cephalic plate, the cephalo¬
thorax is narrower at the third row of eyes, and the venter has
dark bands.
650 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts , and Letters.
Viciria paludosa sp. nov.
A small, slender male, marked with black and. white bands
on the cephalothorax. The first leg is not fringed. The pal¬
pus is short, the tarsus being about equal to the patella and
tibia and nearly as wide as long.
6. Length 7.5 mm. Legs 3412, not very long, nearly equal
in thickness.
The face is narrow., The front eyes are close together in a
straight row, the middle being fully twice as large as the lat¬
eral. The second row is nearer the first than the third. The
third is plainly narrower than the cephalothorax at that place.
The clypeus is one-third as wide as the 'middle eyes. The falx
has one tooth on the lower and one on the upper margin. The
spines are long, the tibia having 3-3 and the metatarsus 2-2 in
both first and second legs, besides lateral spines.
The palpus, like that of V. miranda, has a tarsal spine
above the apex of the apophysis on the tibia.
Our single specimen is somewhat rubbed. The cephalo¬
thorax has a white longitudinal band on the cephalic plate, the
region on each side being bare., A broad black band extends
entirely around the lower sides and back, and above this is a
broad white band. On the thorax, just behind the dorsal eyes,
is another black band. There are long white hairs on the cly¬
peus. The falces are reddish-brown. The abdomen has snow-
white hairs in front, and a white herring-bone stripe down the
middle with a dark band on each side. The venter is brown
with two white spots in front, a dark streak down the middle^
and white spots on the sides. The legs are light, the first
and second pairs tinged with red. The femoral joints are
banded longitudinally in front and behind with black. There
are no fringes. The palpus is reddish.
a
Viciria petulans sp. nov.
The cephalothorax has the sides and cephalic plate covered
with white hairs, the latter being bordered with red. The ab¬
domen has a brown band, darkest at the edges. The tibia of
Beckham- — The Attidae of Borneo.
651
the first leg is lightly fringed, and the metatarsus, which is
white at the proximal end, is dark at the distal end, with black
hairs.
Length 9-11 mm. Legs 3142, first and second pairs a little
the stoutest.
The front eyes are close together in a straight row, the mid¬
dle being twice as large as the lateral. The second row is
nearer the first than the third. The third is plainly narrower
than the cephalothorax. The clypeus is narrow. The falx
has one tooth on the lower, and two, close together, one larger
than the other, on the upper margin. The spines are long, the
first and second legs having, besides laterals, 3-3 under the
tibiae and 2-2 under the metatarsi.
The palpus has the tarsus about as long as the femur and
about twice as long as the patella and tibia together. The
femur has three stout hairs. There is no tarsal spine.
Under alcohol the cephalothorax appears pale with a dark
line on the margin, and with black spots around the eyes and
in the middle of the cephalic plate. When dry, the cephalic
part is seen to be covered with white hairs, bordered by a band
of red hairs. The rings around the front eyes are red above
and white below, and the hairs on the clypeus are long and
white. Just under the lateral eyes the hairs are white, and
below these there is a patch of red hairs. There are wide
white bands around the sides of the cephalothorax, separated
behind by a black band which passes upward from the margin
of the posterior thoracic part. Under alcohol the abdomen is
white with a brown band, darkened at the edges, down the
middle. When dry the sides are seen to be covered with white
hairs. The central band is also covered with white hairs ex¬
cept at the edges, where there are lines of black hairs. The
falces are usually dark reddish-brown with a pale region near
the insertion, but are sometimes all yellow. The palpus is
pale, excepting the tarsus, which is dark reddish-brown. The
first and second legs are darker than the third and fourth, be¬
ing tinged with reddish-brown. They have light double fringes
of black hairs on the tibia, and more distinct black fringes,
40— S. & A.
652 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts, and Letters.
also double, at the darkened end of the metatarsus, the prox¬
imal end of the metatarsus and the tarsus being white. In
the third and fourth legs the metatarsus is much longer than
the tarsus. The venter is dark. The sternum is sometimes
all pale, but is usually pale in the posterior third and inky-
black in front. Looked at from below, the coxae, trochanters and
femora are pale, with an iridescent black streak along the front
side. From above, a similar black streak is visible along the
back sides of the same joints.
The males of V. petulans and V. arrogans may be distin¬
guished by the metatarsi of the first legs, which in the former
species are darkened and fringed at the distal end, while in
arrogans they are pure white. In petulans, the femur, patella
and tibia of the palpus are pale, while in arrogans these joints
nre reddish-brown.
Viciria moesta sp. nov.
A white female, with the metatarsus in the third and fourth
legs nearly twice as long as the tarsus. The cephalothorax is
very pale yellow, with the eyes on black spots and a dark spot
in the middle of the cephalic square, while the abdomen is
white, with two slender, longitudinal reddish bands converg¬
ing toward the spinnerets.
$. Length 9 mm. Legs 4312, first and second a little the
stoutest.
The front row is straight, with the middle eyes slightly sep¬
arated from each other and more widely from the laterals,
which are about half as large. The second row is nearer ..the
first than the third, and the third is plainly narrower than the
cephalothorax at that place. The falx has one tooth on the
lower margin and two, near together, on the upper.
In the first and second legs, the tibine have 3-3 spines with
laterals, and the metatarsi 2-2 without laterals. The third
and fourth legs have many spines.
In our specimens the sides of the cephalothorax are rubbed
bare. The color is very pale, with dark red or black spots
around the eyes and in the middle of the cephalic plate, which
PecJckam — The Attidae of Borneo.
653
is covered with white hairs. There are long white hairs on
the clypeus, which is two-thirds as wide as the middle eyes of
the first row. The abdomen is white, covered with snow-white
hairs, and has two slender lines of red or brown, separated in
front but united at the spinnerets. The falces are yellow
with some short white hairs. The palpi and legs are white
with white hairs and black spines. The venter is white with
a transverse black bar in front of the spinnerets.
This species is most easily distinguished from V. lucida by
the greater length of the metatarsus in the third and fourth
legs. It differs also in the dark spot on the cephalic plate, the
greater width of the cephalothorax at the third row of eyes, and
the white venter.
AN INVESTIGATION INTO THE BREAKING OF WATCH
MAINSPRINGS IN GREATER NUMBERS IN THE
WARM MONTHS OF THE YEAR THAN IN THE
COLD MONTHS.
RICHARD G. NORTON.
(With Plate XXXV).
In looking over my watch-repairing1 record, I find that for
a period of ten years, from January 1, 1880, to January 1,
1890, nearly twice as many mainsprings were broken during
the months of April, May, June, July, August and September
as were broken during the months of January, February,
March, October, November and December. For another pe¬
riod of ten years, from June 10, 1893, to June 10, 1903, the
record shows a total of i693 springs broken, of which 449 broke
during the warm months of April, May, June, July, August
and September, and 244 broke during the cold months.
It is supposed by many persons that mainsprings break in
greater numbers during electrical storms than at other times;
but I have good reason to think that electricity has little or no
influence in the matter, since clock springs would be expected
to break from the same cause. There are as many clock springs
in use as watch springs, and probably more, and I am sure
that during my practice of repairing watches and clocks not
more than a dozen clock springs have broken to one hundred
watch springs. In fact, there have been. periods of a year dur¬
ing which I have not had occasion to replace a broken clock
spring.
It is a well-known fact that platers of watch cases remove the
steel springs from the cases before placing the cases in potas-
Trans. Wis. Acad., Vol. XV.
Plate XXXY.
Curve showing relative numbers of watch mainsprings broken during the vari¬
ous months of the year.
The numbers for each month, based upon records covering the decade from
June 10, 1893, to June 10, 1903, are as follows:
January, 37.
February, 36.
March, 51.
April, 46.
May, 89.
June, 88.
July, 94.
August, 65.
September, 67.
October, 55.
November, 35.
December, 30.
Norton — Breaking of Watch Mainsprings. 655
sium cyanide solution; otherwise the springs would break as
soon as they were used, if they did not do so while still in the
solution.
Some twenty years ago I had two clock movements, each of
which had two springs. The springs were under stress and
had been for several weeks. I dipped the movements, with
the springs wound up, into a weak solution of potassium cyanide
for a few minutes ; upon removing them from the solution, one
spring broke while in my hand, another in a few minutes, the
third within fifteen minutes, and the fourth the next day. The
springs were of good quality, polished and blued. The bluing
was not effaced.
We know that leather and hoofs of animals, as also prussiate
of potassium, bound around iron which is then subjected to a
given heat and while hot plunged into water, will case-harden
the iron and convert its surface into a kind of steel. We also
know that upon filing the surface of a block of tool steel and
then rubbing the surface with the hand, the surface becomes
hardened so that upon filing the steel again the file does not
‘‘bite” readily.
The facts above mentioned incline me to think that during
excessively warm and sultry weather there emanate from the hu¬
man body certain substances which have an effect upon the al¬
ready hardened steel similar to that cited above — possibly some
subtle emanation not yet discovered — and of a kind that is less
active in the cold months.
Assuming this cause to be eliminated, the springs, in the
nature of things, would break, but not in greater number in any
one month than in another.
The two decades mentioned would seem to be a fairly good
basis upon to reason.
The diagram accompanying this paper shows the number
of springs broken during each month for the ten years from
June 10, 1893, to June 10, 1903.
WISCONSIN’S QUARTZITE IMPLEMENTS.
CHARLES E. BROWN.
(With Plates XXXVI and XXXVII).
Not the least interesting of Wisconsin’s prehistoric imple¬
ments are her quartzites, and it is therefore strange that in
her archaeological literature they should have been so utterly
neglected. It is because the author believes them worthy of
greater attention on the part of local students that this modest
contribution is offered.
On the subject of Wisconsin’s rich store of native copper
implements and ornaments, their authorship, manufacture and
functions, volumes of matter good, bad and indifferent have
been written, and largely, perhaps, in consequence of the great
interest in these, the study of other classes of aboriginal arti¬
facts, none the less interesting and worthy of investigation, and
some of them peculiar to this region, has been retarded.
This, however, is not altogether unfortunate, since it leaves
to the student of the present day, when careful and painstak¬
ing research conducted according to enlightened and scientific
methods is becoming the rule, an opportunity to solve, unham¬
pered by previously constructed and illy substantiated theories,
the problems of their origin, purpose, workmanship and dis¬
tribution.
Wisconsin’s quartzite implements are certainly worthy of at¬
tention. Examples are to be seen today in every one of sev¬
eral hundred local, public and private cabinets.. The E. M.
Benedict, H. P. Hamilton, the Logan museum, and others of
the larger Wisconsin collections, are already rich in specimens
of this material, the Benedict and Logan museum collections
Trans. Wis. Acad., Vol. XV. Plate XXXVI.
Broivn — Wisconsin’s Quartzite Implements. 657
perhaps particularly so. The late F. S. Perkins of Burling¬
ton is known to have taken a great interest in them and to have
possessed in the several collections assembled during his life¬
time many fine examples.
The great beauty of many of these aboriginal artifacts must
be seen to be appreciated. Xo description or ordinary illus¬
tration can convey an adequate conception of the beauty of the
material or of the artistic excellence of the workmanship of
many of them. What agate and obsidian implements are to
the West, our quartzites are to Wisconsin. We have thus
perhaps but little reason to covet the idols of our neighbors.
The range of color is broad, from white to dark bluish gray,
from light through various shades of brown to a rich orange,
and from pinkish to a bright carmine. Those of a light brown¬
ish color, the “maple sugar” color of some collectors, are per¬
haps the most common and widely distributed. A small num¬
ber are of chocolate brown, brick red, dark purplish or inter¬
mediate shades of color. Xot infrequently one implement ex¬
hibits several shades of color in the shape of bands or clouds.
Like other stone implements, they present all grades of work¬
manship and finish. Some, perhaps the majority, are of or¬
dinary workmanship, while others are finely or exquisitely
chipped, and occasionally are found specimens whose surfaces
have been smoothed and the traces of the ancient Hint chipper’s
art thus wholly or partly obliterated.
THE IMPLEMENTS.
Among the very large number of specimens examined by the
author in various Wisconsin collections, arrow and spear points
and knives far outnumber all other classes of quartzite imple¬
ments. The number of quartzite drills and scrapers which
have come to his notice is comparatively small. Among the
arrow and spear points, the variety of form appears to be al¬
most, if not quite, as great as among the flint implements, not
a few of even the more graceful types being successfully imi¬
tated in this refractory material. Several of the forms re¬
ferred to below are figured in Plate XXXVI.
658 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts, and Letters .
A considerable number of small triangular points have in the
past been collected from an aboriginal village site located near
the outlet of Wind lake, in Racine county. Some of these,
in the writer’s possession, are delicate marvels of aboriginal
workmanship, and do not exceed half an inch in size. Among
them are a few of pentagonal shape. All are of a light brownish
quartzite. Others have come from various sites in the Fox
river valley, the Wisconsin valley and the Lake Michigan shore
region. From certain sites on the shores of Lakes Buffalo and
Winneconne, hundreds have been collected. Small triangular
points with serrated edges are apparently of rare occurrence.
Triangular points of larger sizes are also found. A few of
these have indented bases. A series of five of these of a dark
grayish color, possibly of the Portland quartzite, were found
by the writer accompanying a burial on the extensive Two
Rivers sites. One of the largest of these triangular points, in
the Benedict cabinet at Waupaca, of the same material as the
foregoing, measures 7% inches in length and 3 y2 inches
across the indented base. In the Vogel collection at Milwau¬
kee are several fine, large-sized triangular points.
The stemmed forms of arrow and spear points are the most
numerous. Many of these are rudely, some very well made.
A small number have the shoulder produced to form a barb.
Some fine examples of the stemmed forms in variously col¬
ored material are in the Logan museum at Beloit, in the
Benedict collection, and in the H R. Denison collection at
Milwaukee. A particularly large point from Keyesville,
Richland county, in the possession of Rev. J. G. Lanrer, meas¬
ures nearly 7% inches in length and over 2% inches across
the extreme width of its broad blade. Specimens with bev¬
eled edges are of very uncommon occurrence.
The stemless or leaf-shaped foims are likewise quite nu¬
merous. The precise function of many of these is not always
readily ascertained. Many, of crude workmanship, are evi¬
dently simply blank forms awaiting conversion into service¬
able implements. Quite a number are doubtless knives, and
some may have served as projectile points. They range in
size from l1/^ inches to over 6 inches. One beautiful ex-
Trans. Wis. Acad., Vol. XV
Plate XXXVII.
Brown — Wisconsin s Quartzite Implements. 659
ample in the Schuette cabinet at Manitowoc, found in that
city, is pointed at the extremities, 8% inches in length and
2% inches in breadth at its middle.
Long, slender blades with straight or rounded, or more
rarely indented, bases, occur in various Wisconsin cabinets.
Some of these are remarkable examples of the aboriginal
stone-worker’s art. One of these, in the Laurer collection, is
8% inches in length and less than % inch in width at its
middle. It comes from Monroe county. An example from
"Waupaca, in the Benedict- collection, is 8% inches in length.
What is perhaps the finest quartzite ceremonial as yet ob¬
tained in Wisconsin (Plate XXXVII, Fig. 2) is in the Elkey
collection in the Logan museum at Beloit. Both extremities
of this piece are nearly square, the sides curving gradually
to meet them. It is 8% inches in length, less than 2 inches
in width at the squared ends, and 3 inches in width at the
middle. It is finely chipped, semi-transparent at the edges,
and of a grayish color, clouded at one extremity with orange.
It comes from Dykesville, Kewaunee county.
A specimen from Brookfield, Waukesha county, of opaque,
grayish-white quartzite, formerly in the W. II. Ellsworth col¬
lection, was diamond-shaped in outline. It measured 6%
inches in length and 1% inches in width at the middle. A
knife of whitish quartzite (Plate XXXVII, Eig. 1), 7%
inches in length, comes from Clifton, Monroe county. One
edge of this specimen is nearly straight, the other broadly
curved. It measures nearly 3 inches across its middle. Speci¬
mens similar in outline have been obtained from other locali¬
ties. Rarely there is seen, among the smaller of these stem¬
less quartzites, a style of point from either side of the sur¬
face of which, from the base upward, a long narrow flake has
been struck, presumably to allow of the better attachment of
a wooden shaft or haft.
From the banks of the Wisconsin river near Richland City
•was obtained a large semi-circular knife or scraper. This im¬
plement measures nearly 4% inches across its straight edge.
Quartzite discs are of infrequent occurrence in collections..
One of these, of ochre-colored quartzite, measuring nearly
660 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts , and Letters.
five inches in diameter, comes from Waupaca county. A
smaller disc of a grayish color is in the Logan museum. The
locality is Whitestovm, Vernon county.
Several quartzite celts or hatchets, from Cedarburg and
Boltonville, are in the Ellsworth collection, now in Beloit col¬
lege. Their surfaces are roughly chipped. The largest meas¬
ures about 4% inches in length. The existence of several
quartzite hammers or club-heads has been reported, but none
of these have been examined by the writer.
Discoidals or “tchunkee” stones of this material are occa¬
sionally obtained from local village sites. These are very
symmetrical in form and smoothly polished. A fine speci¬
men in the Benedict collection, of a light brownish color,
measures 3 y2 inches across its face and one inch in thickness.
The depressions on either face are of a nearly uniform depth
of % inch and extend to within about inch of the circum¬
ference, leaving a narrow rim. A somewhat smaller speci¬
men of the same type, from the township of Moundville in
Columbia county, is in the Logan museum. In the S. D.
Mitchell collection at Green Lake is another fine example.
Excelling all of these in point of excellence of workmanship,
is a discoidal now deposited in Milwaukee-Downer college by
the Wisconsin Archaeological Society. This specimen is prob¬
ably the one described and figured in Lapham’s “Antiqui¬
ties of Wisconsin” (Fig. 58), although the illustration given
of it there is poor. It measures about 3% inches across the
face of the disc and 1% inches in thickness. The cups are
conical and connected at their apices, thus giving a perfora¬
tion through the center. This is the only quartzite discoidal
known to the author, which possesses this feature. It was
found at Milwaukee. The material is of a light brownish
color.
THE MATERIAL.
The following brief notes as to the nature and occurrence
of quartzite in Wisconsin, condensed by the author, are ex¬
tracted from the report of Dr. E. It. Buckley, formerly assis-
Brown — Wisconsin s Quartzite Implements. 661
tant geologist of the state, in “The Building and Ornamental
Stones of Wisconsin” (Bull. Wis. Survey, Eo. 4).
“Originally it was a sandstone, formed through aqueous
deposition, which later became cemented through metamorphie
agencies. It is composed essentially of quartz (grains), and
the cementing material is silica. Iron oxide is often present,
imparting to the rock a red or brown color. Frequently other
very subordinate constituents are associated with the quartz.
The color varies through white, gray, red, blue or brown.
Quartzite is one of the hardest and most durable, and an ex¬
ceedingly refractory stone, and is worked only with the great¬
est difficulty.
“Quartzite is quite widely distributed, in isolated areas,
throughout that portion of the state largely underlain by sedi¬
mentary rocks. It is all of pre-Cambrian age, and thought
to be mainly Upper Huronian, although in some instances
there is no reliable information on this point. Eumerous
outcrops of quartzite occur in Sauk county, some thirteen dis¬
tinct areas having been mapped. Together they constitute
what are known as the Baraboo bluffs. Extensive outcrops
are found in Barron county, near Bice Lake, in Jefferson
county, near Waterloo, and in Dodge county, near Portland.
“Other large mounds of quartzite occur in Juneau county,
near Eecedah, and in the central portion of Chippewa county,
T, 32, B. 7 W. Besides the above mentioned areas, quartzite
outcrops in many places in the great northern crystalline area,
but the outlines of these areas have not yet been determined.”
In a recent letter, Dr. Buckley has very kindly furnished
the following additional information:
“The quartzite in the Baraboo bluffs varies in color, but is
chiefly of a pinkish or reddish tint. That at Bice Lake is fre¬
quently almost white, although this is also mainly stained
with iron oxide. That at Waterloo and Portland is slightly
colored, although the tinting is much lighter than at Baraboo.
The Eecedah quartzite is also tinted. Host of the quartzite
near Wausau and Mosinee is either white or transparent and
glassy. Some of this, however, is also tinted a light reddish
or pinkish color.
662 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts , and Letters.
“In the western and southwestern parts of the state — at
Arcadia, for example — there ?re layers of quartzite in the
Potsdam sandstone which have a “maple sugar” color and ap¬
pearance. I have found arrowheads in these parts of the
state which resemble the quartzite referred to, and I have
been led to believe that these were the sources of much of the
material from which they were made.”
T. C. Chamberlin mentions that many boulders of bluish-
gray flinty quartzite found in the eastern sections of the town¬
ship of Deerfield, Dane county, have evidently come from
mounds of Archaean quartzite that rise through the St. Peters
sandstone in Portland township, in Dodge county. Some of
the Mosinee hills quartzite he reports as stained with yellow,
translucent in thin pieces and very brittle (Geology of Wis¬
consin, vol. 2.)
REMARKS.
Associated with other aboriginal workshop refuse, on many
as yet uninvestigated Wisconsin village and camp sites, chips,
flakes and blanks of quartzite are to be found. At various
places along the shores of Lake Buffalo, in Marquette county,
such evidences and quartzite implements are reported to have
been formerly quite abundant. Of the latter, one Montello
collector is known to have possessed hundreds of examples.
Publius V. Lawson of Menasha, the well known student
of archaeology, in a recent letter says: — “I have found chips
oi quartzite and cores or stock blocks from which implements
had been or might have been made. Quartzite implements
are found on the shore of Lake Winnebago at Brighton Beach,
at Little Lake Butte des Morts at Winneconne, and in the
township of Poygan, in Winnebago county. I have trian¬
gular points from Aztalan, the shell heaps of Little Butte des
Morts, and from Bear lake, in Waupaca county.”
An attempt is now being made by Wisconsin students to
locate, in the Baraboo ranges and elsewhere, the quarry aites
from which the raw material was obtained by the aborigines,
and where it was probably “roughed out” into forms conve-
663
Brown — Wisconsin s Quartzite Implements,.
nient for transportation to the village and workshop sites.
When this is accomplished, a more complete study will he pos¬
sible of the methods of manufacture and of the distribution
of these implements within the bounds of the state.
Quartzite implements are widely distributed throughout
Wisconsin, and while it is probable that the greater frequency
of their occurrence in certain localities than in others is due
to the absence of other suitable and more easily worked ma¬
terials, it is probably equally true that the aboriginal inhabi¬
tants of other parts of the state appreciated the durability and
beauty of quartzite, and that trades were conducted and ex¬
tended journeys made for the purpose of securing it.
To what extent Wisconsin quartzites, either as blank forms
or as finished implements, may have reached surrounding
states in the course of aboriginal trade, we do not know. With
the great supply at hand it would appear to have been un¬
necessary for our aborigines to import any of this material
from Ohio or elsewhere.
THE GROWTH AND ORGANIZATION OF THE STARCH
GRAIN.
K. H. DENXISTOX.
(With Plates XXXVIII-XL.)
INTRODUCTION.
Perhaps no subject was more studied by the earlier investi¬
gators of the plant cell than the starch grains and the plastids
with which they are associated, and sonic of the first data
which were established as to the organization of the cell were
worked out in this connection. In more recent years the nu¬
cleus and its functions have claimed an excessive share of the
attention of cytologists, and the recent summaries of our knowl¬
edge of starch and plastids show little advance beyond the
discoveries of Schimper and Schmitz. Visible stages in the
process of starch formation are still unknown, with the excep¬
tion of one or two discoveries to be mentioned later.
The main steps by which our present views of starch and
plastids were developed may be briefly summarized as follows:
Our real knowledge of starch formation and the function of
the chlorophyl bodies dates from the work of Sachs in 1862
(31, p. 365). In this paper Sachs advanced the doctrine that
the starch in the chlorophyl grains is the first visible product
of assimilation, a doctrine which has stood to the present time
for the chromatophore without pyrenoids. This is the cur¬
rent statement of the textbooks. Timberlake, however (39, p.
624), has found that in Hydrodictyon the starch grains are
formed from segments of the pyrenoids, so that in this case
the starch is not the first visible product of assimilation.
Denniston — Growth and Organization of the Starch Grain. 665
Various theories were held by the earlier writers as to the
nature and manner of origin of the chloroplasts or chlorophyl-
bearing bodies of the cell. Mulder believed that they form
from starch grains. Von Mohl thought that they have their
origin in the cytoplasm. Schimper (34, p. 6) first developed
the conception that the chloroplasts are permanent cell organs
and arise only by the division of pre-existing similar bodies.
He studied especially Hyacinthus, Daphne and Torenia, three
plants widely separated systematically, and found chromato-
phores in the embryo-sac and egg cell of each. He also found
chromatophores in the egg cells of the moss Atrichum and of
the liverwort Anthoceros. On these observations he bases his
doctrine that the chloroplasts are permanent cell organs and
never arise de novo from the cytoplasm. Schimper also devel¬
oped the doctrine that chlorophyl bodies, leucoplasts and chro¬
moplasts are all homologous structures and proposed the term
“plastid” to include them all (34, p. 30). He also believed that
the leucoplasts and chloroplasts are capable of further meta¬
morphoses into other sorts of plastids, but that the chromoplasts
are fixed, as a rule, although he claims to have found the red
and yellow chromoplasts in the carrot becoming green on expo¬
sure to light.
Schmitz (37) described the presence of chloroplasts in both
the egg cells and spores of the Algae and agrees with Schimper
that they are permanent cell structures for these plants. Von
Mohl, in 1837, discovered that the chlorophyl grains can be
separated into two substances, a green material soluble in al¬
cohol and ether, and a colorless proteid which determines the
form of the grain. Sprengel and Meyen believed the chlo¬
rophyl grains to be little vesicles. Hageli was a supporter of
the latter theory and thought that he could distinguish in the
chloroplast a whitish membrane with green contents.
In more recent times the vesicular theory has had but few
supporters, and Von Mohl’s theory as elaborated by S'achs is
the one generally accented. According to this latter view, the
chlorophyl grain is composed of a ground mass of colloidal
consistency which in its chemical composition is probably a
proteid. In this the green substance is imbedded.
666 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences Arts, and Letters.
Pringsheim concluded that the proteid of the chlorophyl
grain consists of a spongy reticulum, which he called the
“stroma.” This stroma is saturated with a green solution con¬
sisting of an oil, in which the cholorophyl is dissolved. Prings-
heim’s. results have been supported by those of Schmitz and
Meyer, who were of the opinion that the stroma consists, not
of a homogeneous plasmatic body, but of a porous, spongy
mass. Meyer has also found dark-colored grains imbedded in
the stroma, which he calls “grana.” Schimper concluded that
the chloroplasts consist of a colorless stroma containing nu¬
merous vacuoles filled with the green chlorophyl in solution.
ISTageli, in 1846 (23, p. 143), was the first to observe the
leucoplasts. He described them as vesicles filled with starch.
Schimper, in 1880 (35, p. 881), described the leucoplasts as
specialized colorless organs of the cytoplasm which he called
“starch formers.” In a later paper he gave them the name
“leucoplasts.” According to Schimper, the earliest mention
of chromoplasts is by linger in 1846. Yon Mohl (20, p. 361),
in 1851, mentions the yellow crescent-shaped color bodies
found in the yellow leaves of Strelitzia. Schimper (34, p.
2), in 1885, found evidence that they are homologous with the
chloroplasts and may arise from the same rudiments in the
egg<
The leucoplast has been termed by many physiologists a cell
organ. We also consider a plant cell from one of the higher
plants as a unit of structure of an organ of the plant. The
higher plants are made up of tissues and organs, and from this
standpoint the cell is the unit which cannot be sub-divided
into units comparable to cells. But the cell is also an organ¬
ism, and we may properly speak of those parts of the cell which
have a permanent existence and perform a special function
as cell organs. These are not homologous, however, with the
organs of the higher plants, nor is the organization of the cell
directly comparable to that of a plant part. From this stand¬
point we may call plastids and vacuoles cell organs. Verworn
(41, p. 58) has proposed to call them “organoids,” but there
seems to be slight justification for calling them organ-like
bodies when they belong to a morphologically different class.
Denniston — Growth and Organization of the Starch Grain. 667
The plastid, in the formation of the starch grain, shows
several points of resemblance to the plasma membrane in the
formation of the cell wall. Both are plastic proteid bodies
from which carbohydrates are formed. The carbohydrates in
each case show a similar stratified structure, the starch grains
being formed of laminae which are laid down upon the surface
of the grain much as the cellulose layers are deposited in form¬
ing the cell wall. There is, however, probably no great signifi¬
cance to be attached to this similarity.
THE STRUCTURE OF THE STARCH GRAIN AS INDICATED BY ITS
STAINING. REACTIONS.
F ritzsche (11, p. 129), in 1834, in the case of the potato
starch grain, first noted the presence of concentric layers which
completely surround what he called a spherical space. This
space is usually located at one end of the grain. He believed
the appearance of light and dark layers is caused by the vary¬
ing water content, and that the density of layers deposited by
day is different from that deposited by night. The outside
layer is of special density according to F ritzsche, due to
its becoming infiltrated with a large amount of proteid sub¬
stance.
Von Mohl (21, p. 45) believed as did F ritzsche, that starch
grains consist of superimposed layers of varying density, but
composed of the same substance. He found no cavity in the
center in fresh grains, but noted that one is developed on dry¬
ing. FTageli (24, p, 18) also thought that the layers of the
starch grain are due to differences in density as a result of
varying water content. He believed that the layers are closed
vesicles, and that they form, not one outside the other, but one
inside the other.
Schimper (36, p. 192) believed that the young starch grains
are composed of a homogeneous dense substance. The grains
increase in size, and a weakly refractive region de¬
velops in the middle. This is the hilum. The forma¬
tion of the hilum causes a reduction in the strain on the sur¬
rounding starch, with the result that a loose layer forms between
two denser ones.
41— S. & A.
668 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts , and Letters.
Strasburger (38, p. 147) considered the weakly refracting
layers as limiting lines or adhesion surfaces between lamellar
complexes. Meyer (18, p. 107), holdiiig that the grains are
composed of crystalline units, explained the light and dark
layers by the assumption that where there are many and large
pore canals between the trichites the layers are loose, and that
where the trichites a.re more closely packed the layers are dense.
He observed also that, when grains are dried at 20° C over
sulphuric acid in a vacuum, scarcely a trace of lamination re¬
mains.
Suiter (32, p. 6) found that the starch grains show alter¬
nate light and dark blue layers with E lemming’s triple stain.
He concluded, since the aniline dyes are so easily removed from
the stained starch grains, that staining is merely a process of
imbibition of the coloring matter between the particles of
starch substance. The layers taking the dark violet stain he
supposes to be loose and watery, the less refractive layers of
the unstained grain.
Meyer (18, p. 149) stained with methyl violet and then ap¬
plied a very dilute solution of calcium nitrate, with the re¬
sult that a large part of the stain was precipitated as a gran¬
ular mass in what he holds to be the loose layers. Neither
Meyer nor Salter furnished satisfactory evidence as to whether
it is the dark or light layers of the unstained grain which take
the deepest color in staining.
Eischer (7, p. 81) carried these precipitation experiments
somewhat further by using picric acid as a precipitant instead
of calcium nitrate. He allowed a drop of the dilute aqueous
stain to dry on the section, then added a few drops of picric
acid solution and washed with water. He found that the fol¬
lowing stains were not at all taken up by the grain: nigrosin,
Hessian purple, diamond red, carmin, anilin blue, cyanin and
Congo red. The following gave a uniform coloration of the
starch substance: acid fuchsin, corallin, eosin, crooein, tropae-
olin, Martin’s yellow and haematoxylin. The following gave
fine-grained precipitates in the watery zones : fushsin, safranin,
methyl blue, methylen blue, indigo carmin, indulin, methyl
violet and gentian violet; the latter in the form of large crys-
Denniston — Growth and Organization of the Starch Grain. 669
talline grains. Radial crystal needles were formed by Bis¬
marck brown, chrysodin, malachite green, brilliant green and
thionin. Fischer says that it was plainly to be seen that the
precipitates were not in the denser substance of the grain, but
in the watery zones. The periphery always remains unaf¬
fected.
This peripheral layer of the starch grain has already been
described in a preliminary paper (5), and is discussed further
below; its staining capacity, form and constancy seem to indi¬
cate that it is different in composition from the layers inside.
The following experiment gives strong evidence that the
Violet stain passes through the orange layer readily but is not
absorbed by it. In microtome sections, as already described,
the staining of a large eccentric Ganna grain may be watched
under the microscope by allowing a solution of gentian violet
to run under the cover. The layers inside this peripheral
layer begin to absorb the stain at once, but the outer layer is
not at all affected. The violet stain passes through the outer
layer without being fixed. Of the layers inside, some are
stained a deep violet, others take up only a small amount of
stain and appear pale violet in color. This phenomenon is
quite inconsistent with the view held by Salter that the outer
layer is merely denser starch.
Rarely, in large Ganna starch grains, we find the peripher¬
al orange-stained layer followed toward the inside by a narrow
dark violet layer, broadest at the posterior end (see PL
XXXIX, Fig. 3,6). Next toward the inside of the grain
there is a layer which is stained in some cases orange and ini
others pale violet. This layer is fairly broad and is contin¬
uous around the hilum. The remaining layers of the grain,
with the exception of those immediately surrounding the hilum,
are incomplete.
Oftentimes in the same material, a dark crescent-shaped
line appears in the middle of a broad orange peripheral layer
and at the posterior end of the grain (see Fig 38). The
orange material between this line and the inner violet layers
usually shows a faint violet color though still predominantly
orange. This appears to be the beginning of a violet layer,
670 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts , and Letters.
since, in a somewhat later stage, the whole of the region be¬
tween the dark violet line and the violet starch layer takes the
violet stain and becomes the outermost violet layer of the grain.
The dark violet line in but few instances was seen to pass
around the hilum, but as the sides of the grain are approached
the line becomes narrower and finally disappears. As has been
pointed out, the peripheral layer stained by orange is trans¬
formed in the growth of the grain into violet-staining layers.
This may be due to a condensation of the carbohydrate mate¬
rial, brought about by the abstraction of water, or to ' a more
deeply seated chemical change. It is possible that this orange-
staining substance is already carbohydrate material, which has
been brought inside the leucoplast and which is then trans¬
formed by the addition of water into starch and gains the capa¬
city to fix the violet stain. This would seem to be a more
natural assumption than that starch can show such a variable
reaction to the same stains, as assumed by Salter.
In the development of the cell plate in root tips, the equa¬
torial zone was found by Timberlake (40, p. 97) to become
filled with a substance that stains strongly With the orange of
the triple stain. This substance appears to be entirely homo¬
geneous and with ruthenium red or iron haematoxylin appears
colorless while the cell wall is stained. Timberlake says:
“The similarity of this substance to that of the cell wall, to¬
gether with its presence in the region of the spindle in which
the cell wall appears later, I have taken to signify the presence
of a carbohydrate substance destined for the formation of the
new cell wall.”
In the germinating seeds of Coix lacryma, the walls of the
endosperm cells disappear after the young plant has attained
some size, and are apparently used to nourish the growing
plant. These walls, while in process of solution, take the or¬
ange stain when the triple stain is used.
Preparations which I have studied show that the cellulin
bodies in the cells of Saprolegnia , which are carbohydrate in
nature, take a bright orange when stained by the triple stain.
TSToll (27) has shown that these bodies in the Siphoneae are
Denniston — Growth and Organization of the Starch Grain. 671
used to plug up holes in the walls of living cells, caused by
wounds.
Thus, in a number of cases, we have a transition substance
either in the formation or solution of carbohydrates, which
shows a strong affinity for the orange stain. In the case of
the starch grain and in the cell wall this substance appears to
he a stage in the formation of still more complex compounds.
We find the very young starch grains either staining en¬
tirely orange or showing a large proportion of orange. We
find an outer layer of orange material in the older grains, and
by following the course of development of the starch grain, we
are led to believe that the orange-staining substance in young
and old grains is identical.
ISTewcombe (26, p. 49) has shown that the enzyme which dis¬
solves starch in a number of plants is likewise able to dissolve
cell membranes. As mentioned above, the cell walls of the
endosperm of a germinating seed of Coix lacryma take a
bright orange while in process of solution, probably by an en¬
zyme action. In these cells the starch grains are also much
corroded and show orange-stained borders of the corrosive
channels.
It is quite possible that the substance first formed from
starch by the action of diastase is the same that is present in
the orange layer in the formation of the grain. The evidence
certainly favors the view that the orange layer is a viscid
mother substance, similar to that assumed by Mikosch, which
becomes more and more concentrated by additions from with¬
out, until layers of starch form in its interior which first be¬
come visible in the dark blue line above referred to.
In the young grains, starch is deposited equally all round,
but soon the grain shows an eccentric growth, the mother sub¬
stance being formed more abundantly at one end. The plastid,
however, continues its function of transferring carbohydrate
material to the mother substance inside, which is too Viscid to
allow the additions from the thicker part to diffuse readily to
the mother substance at the opposite end of the grain, under
the thinner part of the plastid. In this manner, the mother
substance under the thicker part of the plastid soon becomes
672 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts , and Letters.
saturated, and it is on this side that the thick portions of the
starch layers are deposited. This assumption is in harmony
with the fact that, when the eccentric layers begin to form,
they are simply thinner on the anterior end^ then they become
incomplete, and finally are laid down on the posterior end only.
The question as to the existence of a specially defined outer
layer of the starch grain was early raised and has been dis¬
cussed by various authors. Fritzsche (11, p. 138), in 1834,
was one of the first to point out that the peripheral part of
certain varieties of starch grains shows a somewhat different
reaction to stains than the central portions, and supposed it to
be due to the presence of certain foreign matters, in this layer
which render it more resistant.
Fageli (24, p. 186]^ in a paper published in 1847, held
that the outer part of the starch grain is composed of cellulose.
This, however, was soon disproved. Criiger (4, p. 41), in
1854, described a layer between the protoplasm and the starch
grain which “does not stain with iodine, nor does it stain
brown as readily as the surrounding protoplasm!7 As he
makes no mention of the plastid in other connections, it is pos¬
sible that this is what he saw, and his figures bear out this
view.
In 1885, Mikosch suggested the existence of an intermediate
region between the grain and the plastid, which is filled with
the so-called “mother substance” for the grain. Mikosch’ s
conception agrees well with what I have described below as the
specially differentiated peripheral layer. Meyer (18, p. 149)
denies the existence of such a mother substance and says that
normal starch grains do not possess a specially differentiated
outer layer, but that he found such a layer in a few cases in
starch from a potato.
Such a layer is described by Salter (32, p. 40), who believes
that it is composed of starch but that it is denser than the re¬
mainder of the grain. This density is due, according to
Salter, to the fact that the loose layers become much thinner
at the periphery of the grain, hence the peripheral portion of
the grain is made up chiefly of the dense layers which join and
run around the hiliun in large eccentric grains such as those
Denniston — Growth and Organization of the Starch Grain. 673
of Ganna and potato. Salter’s drawings in a number of cases
show this peripheral portion of the grain stained bright orange,
bnt he does not attribute this to a difference in composition
between this and the inner blue-stained portion.
I have found a peripheral layer present in some cases and
not in others, and have further undertaken to determine the
conditions under which it occurs, as discussed below. The
method of proving, by the use of Flemming’s triple stain, that
a differentiated peripheral layer is present in certain grains
and perhaps at certain stages in the development of all starch
grains, has been described in detail, but without figures, in a
previous paper (5).
The method is in brief as follows: A series of slides was
prepared by exposing for different lengths of time to the vari¬
ous stains. In every case, the slides were exposed to the safra-
nin for five minutes; after washing in water, six slides were
exposed to gentian violet for five minutes each, then treated
with orange for the following different lengths of time: one
minute, five minutes, ten minutes, twenty minutes, sixty min¬
utes and three hours. It was found that with the exposure to
orange for one minute, the peripheral layer is stained a pale
violet. The inner layers are stained a dark violet. With the
exposure to orange for five minutes, a peripheral orange layer
is plainly differentiated, extending entirely around the violet
portion of the grain This orange-staining peripheral layer
appears in all the other preparations in this series. Where
the exposure to the orange is for sixty or one hundred minutes,
the layers inside still show a pale violet color. Where the ex¬
posure to orange is for three hours, the grain becomes orange
in color, except for a few layers midway between the hilum
and the posterior end of the grain which remain violet.
It is seen from this series of slides that when once the grain
is stained violet, a long exposure to orange is necessary to re¬
move the violet from any of the grain but the layer in question,
while but a few minutes suffice to remove all traces of violet
from this layer and to replace iti by orange. This seems to in¬
dicate that differences either of a chemical or physical nature
exist between the body of the starch grain and the outer layer.
674 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts , and Letters.
I have studied most fully by this method the large eccen¬
tric grains of Canna and of potato, which show the orange layer
most sharply if the starch from rhizomes of growing plants
of Canna or from ordinary fairly grown potatoes Is studied.
In the Canna grains, the orange zone extends around the inner
violet-stained layers as a complete layer, usually fairly uniform
in thickness (PL XXXIX, Pig. 37), or sometimes somewhat
broader at the posterior end of the grain (PL XXXVIII, Pig.
1). Sections cut from any given portion of the rhizome of
Canna usually contain starch grains which show a certain uni¬
formity in staining and differ slightly from those in other re¬
gions, but in most cases a peripheral orange layer is present on
a large proportion of the grains, whether the sections are taken
from regions nearer to or more remote from the growing point.
A rhizome of Canna which had lain dormant through the
winter, but from which a strong shoot was growing at the time
the preparation was made, showed, almost invariably, starch
grains with orange-staining peripheral layers. The outer starch
layers of these grains showed slight corrosion, and no doubt
these grains were being used for the development of the shoot.
The small grains, which show their laminae distinctly, show
this peripheral layer with great uniformity. In certain prepa¬
rations, the large grains do not show an orange layer, while the
smaller grains in the same preparation show the layer dis¬
tinctly.
In other material it was impossible to demonstrate a dif¬
ferentiated peripheral layer, either on the large or small
grains, and it seems fair to assume that these have been in a
growing condition.
The starch grains in the stem of Pellionia Daveauana are
large and of the eccentric type. In the outer part of the cor¬
tex, the grains are not so large and are enclosed in relatively
large chloroplasts (Pl. XXXVIII, Pigs. 17-20). The grains
nearer the center of the stem are large, and the chloroplasts are
extended as thin membranes somewhat thicker at the posterior
side of the grain. When treated with the triple stain, a periph¬
eral orange-stained layer is clearly differentiated. The
Denniston — Growth and Organization of the Starch Grain. 675
layers of starch, in the body of the grain are violet in color and
fairly uniform in shade.
In the parenchyma cells of the fleshy rootstocks of Dief-
fenhachia seguina, large starch, grains are present. They are
elongated in form, with the hilnm close to one end. In many
of these grains, the effect of a change in position of the plastid
is shown. In these grains the laminae are in two series which
are often at nearly right angles to each other (Tig. 32). When
stained with the triple stain, an orange layer is differentiated
at the periphery and the interior layers are stained violet.
The starch grains in the parenchyma of the false bnlb of
Pliajus grandiflorus are large, and the hilum is situated near
one end, often in a small projecting tip. The leucoplast in
these grains is often distended by a linear crystal of calcium
oxalate. A peripheral orange layer is differentiated by the
triple stain.
The starch grains of wheat, barley and rye are lenticular
in form with a central hilnm. Both in material which has
been fixed and in fresh material, an orange-staining peripheral
layer may be demonstrated by the use of the triple stain.
The starch grains from Zea mays are polygonal or rounded
in form, with a distinct central hilum and concentric layers.
The leucoplast is demonstrated with difficulty, but an orange-
staining peripheral layer is present on many of the grains.
In the endosperm of the seeds of Coix lacryma fobi, the
starch grains have a polygonal form. The hilum is central,
and the grains with but few exceptions show a broad orange-
staining peripheral layer. In the germinating seeds of this
plant, the cellulose cell walls are stained orange with the trip¬
le stain. It is probable that the cellulose of the cell wall
is modified in some way to make it available for the use of the
growing plant in germination. A similar orange-staining sub¬
stance is produced in the formation of the cell walls, as shown
by Timberlake.
Of seven different commercial starches prepared as chemi¬
cally pure starch by Eli Lilly & Co., two showed the peripheral
layer in nearly all the grains; these were potato and tapioca
starch. In wheat, bean, corn and oat starches, peripheral lay-
676 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts , and Letters i
ers were found in a few grains. The pea starch showed no dif¬
ferentially stained peripheral layer in any case. It is quite
possible in the case of these chemically pure starches that the
method of preparation might remove in some cases any periph¬
eral transition layer.
A short treatment with iodine in aqueous solution, in the
case of Ganna starch, leaves the peripheral layer perfectly
white, while the inner parts of the grain stain blue. If the io¬
dine acts for some time, the peripheral layer gradually acquires
a blue color. With iron haematoxylin, in starch grains of Can -
na\j potato and wheat, this layer does not stain, while the rest
of the grain is colored in each case. With Correns’ silver ni¬
trate precipitation method, these starches show no precipitate
in this peripheral region. These differences in staining
qualities certainly show that either chemical or physical differ¬
ences exist between the body of the starch grain and this outer
layer, and as this iayer is present especially in young grains
and in grains in the process of solution, it may be properly
called a transition layer.
If the exact conditions and stage of growth from which the
starch was taken could be ascertained in every case, the expla¬
nation of the presence or absence of a transition layer might be
at once apparent. If the orange-staining peripheral layer is a
transition substance, then we should expect to find it on starch
grains from parts of plants which are not fully developed or
where storage of starch is going on, such as growing tubers
and rhizomes and unripe seeds and fruits, and an examination
of the facts leads us to believe that such is the case. As noted
above, in the rhizome of Canna the starch grains were proba¬
bly still in an actively growing condition. The Comma rhi¬
zome was from a growing plant, and the starch grains were
probably still immature.
The potato was one taken from the bin, and the condition
of the plant, at the time the tuber was gathered is, of course,
unknown; but of a number of potatoes which were apparently
mature, none were found in which the starch grains did not
show the peripheral layer in the majority of cases. It may be
Denniston — Growth and Organization of the Starch Grain . 677
that in such watery tubers the peripheral layer never passes
into typical starch.
In the cases of Phajus :J Dieffenbachia and Pellionia , the
plants from which the starch preparations were made were ac¬
tively growing. In the commercial starches, the method of
cleaning and preparing will certainly have much to do with the
presence or absence of any peripheral portion of the grain, as
well as the relative maturity of the parts of the plant from
which the starch was taken.
In the case of pea starch, no peripheral layer could he dem¬
onstrated, and it is possible that the starch matures more
rapidly in this plant than in the others studied. Bean
starch showed but few grains with an outer differentiated
layer. These were grains of small size and probably imma¬
ture.
In preparations of Ganna which show the starch grains
to be partially dissolved by natural corrosion by diastase, an
orange layer appears quite constantly at the periphery of the
portion of the grain remaining. The width of this orange
layer is usually quite uniform although but a fragment of the
laminated grain may remain inside. The structure and ap¬
pearance of these corroded grains will be more fully discussed
below. The fact that we have orange-staining layers in grains
in process of solution as well as in grains in process of forma¬
tion throws further light on the nature of this material as a
transition substance.
The appearance of the so-called strata or concentric layers
of the starch grain as seen when mounted in water has been
variously characterized by different authors. Strasburger de¬
scribes the layers as appearing to contain varying amounts of
water, and as separated by dark limiting lines. Meyer dis¬
cusses the varying appearances obtained by focusing through
the grain with low and high magnifications, but gets no new
data as to the composition of the layers. Salter uses the
terms “dense” and “lax” to describe the layers of the starch
grain.
I have naturally found the median optical section of the
grain the most favorable for study, and my descriptions are
678 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts , and Letters.
based on the appearance of the strata as so seen. In this case
t bey are of course approximately at right angles to tbe plane of
tbe slide and appear sharply defined.
Tbe starch grains in tbe rhizome of Ganna have been
found to be specially favorable for comparative studies of tbe
unstained and the stained grains. The attempt has been suc¬
cessfully made to identify a layer or series of layers in an un¬
stained grain and then in the same grain to determine success¬
ively the effect of different stains on these same layers. The
material was fixed in Flemming’s weaker solution and) imbed¬
ded in paraffin. Microtome sections 10 ^ in thickness were
used. The sections were fixed to the slide and the paraffin re¬
moved by xylol, the xylol removed by absolute alcohol, and the
sections were then mounted and examined in water.
I selected a large grain from a slide prepared in this
manner. At the posterior end of the grain there appeared
two broad, highly refractive layers (PL XL, Fig. 42 A, a and
b). These are broadest in the middle line of the grain and
thin out gradually to the sides. Between these layers there is
a layer (1) which has the appearance of being an open water
space It is thickest at the median line and tapers gradually
to the sides. Toward the hilum from b there is a dark,
slightly refractive layer separated from b by a dark line. This
layer appears to be divided, the inner poition being paler in
color. The remaining layers of the grain appear but faintly^
with the exception of those immediately surrounding the hi¬
lum, which are fairly distinct. The appearance of this grain
as just described is that seen in median optical section. If
the focus is raised or lowered we may get the appearance of
light layers where there were dark layers and vice versa. This
is due of course to the curvature of the layers, a change in
focus bringing into view the next inner or outer layer which
may be different in refractive index.
The grain above described, mounted in water, is magnified
980 diameters and drawn by the aid of a camera lucida. If
now the grain is kept under observation and a dilute aqueous
solution of iodine drawn under the cover by placing drops of
the solution at one side and filter paper at the other, the grain
Denniston — Growth and Organization of the Starch Grain. 679
will slowly take on the characteristic bine color. In a short
time the whole grain is colored uniformly a deep1, dark blue,
but it is noticed that certain layers take the blue color more
readily than others. The outer part of the refractive layer a
is the first to show the iodine reaction, and in this it is follow¬
ed by the inner part of the same layer. These two parts of
the layer a thus become clearly differentiated, and the inner
part (a-", Fig. 42 B) takes the darker stain.
Layer b takes on the blue color but slowly and remains for
some time the lightest layer in the grain. It shows a marked
contrast to the two darker layers a" and c. Layer c stains
readily and in a short time becomes the most deeply stained
layer in the grain.
Although layers a and b are the first to show the effect of
iodine, it appears to enter gradually around the peripheral
portion of the grain until the whole grain is colored a dark
blue. As a result of treating with iodine, the open region 1
disappears and between a11 and b a dark line appears. There
is also a dark line between b and c.
If we now wash out the iodine by drawing alcohol under the
cover glass, we shall get the following results : When the wash¬
ing out is partially complete, it is seen to have been removed
first of all at the periphery of the grain. The grain is kept
constantly under observation, a drop of 95 per cent alcohol be¬
ing placed at one edge of the cover and drawn through by a
piece of filter paper at the opposite side. The layer a of the
unstained grain is now seen still more clearly to be composed of
two layers, the outer one becomes colorless and the inner one a
medium blue The crack-like region 1} which appeared as a
dark line in the grain stained with iodine, still appears as a
dark line. This region is probably filled with an aqueous
solution in the unstained grain, and closes up when iodine is
applied.
Layer b of the unstained grain, which colored but slightly
in iodine, shows two regions when alcohol is applied, an outer
pale blue region and an inner darker region. The dark line 2
which is present at the inner border of b in water and in
iodine, does not change in appearance with the alcohol.
680 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts , and Letters.
Layer c} which takes a dark blue color in iodine, becomes
pale blue when alcohol is used. The washing out of the
iodine by alcohol causes a slight shrinkage in the grain, most
noticeable at the hilum. If now this same grain is kept under
observation and stained by gentian violet followed by orange
G, some further interesting data are obtained. Here again the
stains are applied at one edge of the cover and drawn through
by means of filter paper. The gentian violet is allowed to re¬
main five minutes ; it is then washed out by water, and orange
G is applied and allowed to remain three minutes. This is
washed out by absolute alcohol, and the preparation is cleared
by clove oil. During the time of this process there is no change
in the position of the grain, and a third drawing was made
of the same portion of the grain showing the appearance of
the strata when stained by the gentian violet and orange.
(Dig. 42 C). Around the entire periphery of the grain there
appears an orange layer (cb). This corresponds approximate¬
ly with the pale blue layer a? of the grain stained with iodine.
The next layer a“ is pale blue and! corresponds with a“. Follow¬
ing this layer there is a thin pale blue layer. This is layer 1
of the grain treated with iodine. The pale blue layer b of the
grain stained with iodine is split up into two layers, V, a dark
blue layer, and b“ , paler in color, in the grain stained with
gentian violet.
The dark line 2 appears as a narrow, very pale blue layer.
The dark blue layer c appears in the same position as the dark
blue layer c of the grain stained with iodine.
The results of this staining experiment are summarized in
the following table:
Starch grain represented in Plate XL, Figure A2.
Denniston — Growth and Organization of the Starch Grain. 681
We find thus that layers which appear single when mounted
in water may be really double or perhaps even made up of a
number of layers. The differentiation of the parts in such a
case is not sufficient to enable one to make them optically dis¬
tinguishable as individual layers when the grain is mounted in
water. That, none the less, considerable difference exists be¬
tween these parts is shown when the grain is stained.
The regions of the dark lines 1 and 2, marking the surfaces
of a, b and c, swell somewhat in the treatment with gentian vio¬
let and orange and stain a pale blue color. It is probable that
these are thin spaces filled with watery solutions which are
relatively slightly refractive.
When gentian violet and orange are used after iodine, the
spaces apparently open slightly and seem to contain some
starch which is stained a pale blue. It is further noteworthy
that although the layer c is not so refractive as b in water, it
stains fully as darkly as the darker portion of b. The view i-s
thus on the whole confirmed that the cause of the difference in
appearance of the layers in grains mounted in water is due to
their difference in density which in turn results from differ¬
ences in composition, the layers which contain the largest pro¬
portion of starch and the smallest proportion of water being
the more highly refractive.
A second grain (Fig. 43) from the same Ganna material
was treated in the same manner as the grain just described.
Drawings were made of identical portions of the outer layers
of the grain as they appear with the different reagents:
Fig. 43 A shows the grain mounted in water; B shows the
gram treated with iodine, the drawing having been made be¬
fore the grain was completely darkened by the re¬
agent ; C shows the iodine partly washed out by the alcohol ;
D shows the layers stained by gentian violet and orange. The
following table explains the appearance of the layers when
treated with the different reagents:
682 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts, and Letters.
Starch grain represented in Plate XL , Figure 43.
In this grain there is an outer refractive region which has
the appearance of a single layer when the grain is mounted in
water. This outer region is similar to the region a in the grain
represented in Figure 42. In both grains it consists of two
layers which are differentiated by iodine or by gentian violet
and orange. When iodine is washed out of this region, it is
removed from a first and then gradually from the outer part
of a", so that the sharp line separating the two layers disap¬
pears.
The dark line 1 which separates a“ from b becomes
broader in iodine, and is no longer dark, but swells somewhat
and stains a pale blue. It becomes broader by the contraction of
the layers a' and b and stains less deeply, probably because it
contains less starch than these layers. This layer stains less
intensely with gentian violet than a‘ and b, which bears out
the assumption that it contains less starch.
Layer b shows the same reactions to stains as a". The
dark line 2 shows the same characteristics as 1. It does not
Denniston — Growth and Organization of the Starch Grain. 683
appear as a dark line except in water, and in its place there ap¬
pears a layer which is pale bine in iodine and in gentian violet
and which probably contains very little starch material. This
layer appears to swell when iodine or alcohol is applied, due no
doubt to the contraction of adjacent layers.
Layer c is less refractive in water than either a or h and
probably contains less starch material. In iodine and also in
gentian violet it contracts considerably and takes a pale color
with both these reagents.
From the study of grains such as the above it is plain that
the ordinary conception, that the visible elements of the
grain consist of denser layers of starch alternating with more
watery layers, must be extended to include the appearance of
sharp lines marking the boundaries of the highly refractive
layers and also spaces which are practically open crevices be¬
tween the layers and which may become wider or narrower
with the contraction or expansion of the denser layers or of
the entire grain.
The grain of Figure 42 shows the existence of crevices most
clearly. Such a crevice appears conspicuously between a and
b when the grain is mounted in water. It closes up and ap¬
pears as a dark line when the grain is mounted in iodine solu¬
tion, and as a narrow light blue layer in gentian violet. Sim¬
ilar crevices exist at 2 in the same grain and at 1 and 2 in the
grain of Figure 43, although the latter are narrower. Such crev¬
ices are most sharply distinguished from the starch layers by
the readiness with which they change their width on the appli¬
cation of reagents toi the grain. Their width is apparently
entirely determined by the swelling power of the adjacent
layers, and it is to be noted that the inner layers of the grain
appear to be less dense than the posterior layers ; they contract
noticeably when alcohol or iodine is applied.
The refractive layers also vary in thickness and density. The
thicker layers do not all color with the same intensity with
iodine or with gentian violet. It is also clear that those layers
which take the deepest color are in general the densest layers.
42— S. & A.
684 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters.
They are highly refractive in water, and the stains are removed
from them with greater difficulty than; from the layers which
are not so dense.
ANALYSIS OF STRUCTURE BY CORROSION AND SOLUTION.
Blocks of starch-bearing tissues were taken from a rhizome
of Canna in a region which had recently produced a vigorous
shoot. The material was fixed, imbedded and sectioned in the
ordinary way and Flemming’s triple stain was used.
Many of the large eccentric grains were found still enclosed
by pjastids and invariably showed corrosion. Where the
plastid is thickest the corrosion of the grain appears the great¬
est in exrent, and frequently the broader posterior end of the
grain beneath the thicker part of the plastid is reduced to a
mere point (Fig. 39). Occasionally grains appear in which
solution has taken place at both ends more strongly than in the
middle. In such cases a spindle-shaped grain results. Fre¬
quently the anterior end is reduced to a point and takes the
orange stain (Fig. 30).
In these large eccentric grains from Caima, the corrosion
in the plastid seems to be upon the surface of the grain only,
andj all the layers of the grain which reach the surface seem to
suffer from the action of the diastase in nearly the same degree.
A slight difference in the rapidity of solution in certain la}rers
is noticed, however, in some preparations. The pale violet lay¬
ers are acted upon with the greatest rapidity. The ends of the
dark violet layers project farther on the corroded margin than
do the ends of the light layers (Fig. 39).
The appearance of these corrosion channels in the wheat
starch is similar to that of the figures which Groldschmidt has
described as forming in CaC03 spheres when treated with HC1,
as will be noted further below.
Starch grains artificially corroded by solutions of diastase
are more favorable material for making observations on the be¬
havior of the different layers of grain. If slides with sections
of starch-bearing tissues are placed in a tube of diastase solu¬
tion, to which a few drops of chloroform are added to prevent
bacterial growths, the corrosion usually takes place in two or
Denniston — Growth and Organization of the Starch Grain. 685
three days if the temperature isi kept at about 40° C. The
principal difficulty in the use of this method lies in the loss of
sections in the diastase, but usually a sufficient number remain
to give a few corrosion figures.
The large eccentric grains of Ganna (PL XXXVIII, Pig.
28), treated in this manner for two days, show a strongly mark¬
ed peripheral orange layer except for one or two small areas,
usually on the posterior end. The conspicuous outer dense lay¬
ers have been dissolved in a number of spots, but remain fairly
intact. Considerable substance has been removed from the in¬
terior of the grain, and parts remaining in the interior of the
grain quite generally take the orange stain (Figs. 26, 27).
In some cases, the inner portions of the Ganna grain have been
completely dissolved and there remains only a shell made up of
parts of the outer violet layers (Fig. 29).
The highly refractive layers in the unstained grain contain,
as we have seen, a relatively small amount of water, and these
are the layers which would naturally be expected to: be most re¬
sistant to the action of diastase. We have found that in some
cases the refractive layers of the unstained grain are not homo¬
geneous but consist of a number of layers. Some of these com¬
ponent layers take a deeper and some a paler color. Evidence
of the same condition is found in corroded grains, and in every
case the parts which are stained most deeply with gentian vio¬
let are least acted upon by the diastase.
In oval starch grains from germinating wheat and barley
which are enclosed by the plastid and which show the effect of
diastase action, the corrosion 'does not take place evenly around
the periphery, but peculiar pits and canals are formed begin¬
ning at the periphery and extending irregularly into the cen¬
ter of the grain.
In the later stages of corrosion there seems to be a tendency
on the part of the corrosion channels to follow concentric lines
in the interior of the grain. An effort was made to learn
which layers were most attacked but without success. The in¬
terior of the grain takes an almost uniform stain after diastase
action has gone on for some time. In the earlier stages of
diastase action, however, in certain wheat grains in which the
686 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts , and Letters.
corrosion channels have penetrated but a few layers, there ap¬
pear irregularities along the walls of the channels ; but no good
evidence could be secured as to whether the light or the dark
layers were more susceptible to diastase action.
A noticeable fact in connection with these corroded grains
is that the portions of the layers bordering directly on the
corrosion channels show a margin of orange-stained material
which blends gradually into the violet of the unaffected por¬
tions.
Hrabbe’s observations led him to believe that the sub¬
stance of the starch grain is removed, molecule by molecule, and
that there is no general penetration of the grain. He used
iodine as a stain and found that the parts of the grain remain¬
ing showed no difference in staining properties from the intact
grain. His results, when compared with the conditions ob¬
served in Figure 28? show how little reliance can be placed on
observations of corroded grains in water, even when stained
with iodine.
Flemming’s triple stain shows the borders of the corrosion
channels plainly differentiated in corroded Canna grains; the
material bordering the canal takes the orange stain. Iodine
is not a good differential stain, and does not show slight dif¬
ferences either in the composition or the structure of the
starch grains. "Whether or not there is a penetration of dias¬
tase in all cases beneath the surface of the corrosion canals,
there is plainly, in the case of Canna starch, a transition layer
in all surfaces which are being corroded. The presence of
orange-stained material over the entire corrosion surfaces of
the grains suggests very strongly that a substance is found at
the time of solution of the grain similar to that present on
the surface of grains which are being formed.
The experiment was tried of crushing large Canna grains
which had previously been stained by the triple stain. The
crushing was effected by pressing on the cover of a freshly
made slide with an eraser before the balsam had hardened. A
number of deep radial cracks running from the surface in¬
ward are formed in this way. This fact probably has no sig¬
nificance in determining the finer structure of the starch
Denniston — Growth and Organization of the Starch Grain. 687
grain, as substances which we know are not formed of radially
placed elements show radial cracks when crushed in this way.
The experiment was next tried of crushing the unstained
grains and then staining with gentian Violet and orange ; it was
found that much of the inner portion of the grain takes the
orange stain, only a few layers at the outside taking the violet.
The natural inference drawn from the result of the above
experiments is that the orange does not stain the inner parts of
the intact starch grain because it does not reach them, hut on
the other hand it must not be supposed that the orange layer
at the outside of the grain is simply the effect of the washing
in of the orange. On some of the crushed grains which stain
orange in the interior there is a peripheral orange layer, and
on others there is not. It is to he remembered, also-, that the
width of the orange layer does not vary proportionally to the
length of time through which the orange is allowed to act on
the grain. If the grain is stained for five minutes each in
violet and orange, the orange peripheral layer is differentiat¬
ed when present, and there is no essential change in appearance
though the time of the exposure to orange he doubled.
The appearance of the orange-staining material in the in¬
terior of the grain seems to indicate that this portion of the
grain is also somewhat different in composition from the periph¬
eral violet layers, and it is quite probable that we have in
the interior of mature starch grains a change taking place
which results at the same time in a loss of laminated structure.
The exact nature of this change is difficult to determine ex¬
perimentally, but it may well be a change from a less to> a more
soluble condition ; if we can accept Meyer’s conclusion that the
starch grain is made up of amylose and amylo dextrine, it is
possible that this portion of the grain contains a larger propor¬
tion of the more soluble amylodextrine. Fischer (10) has
found that this portion of the grain is in a semi-fluid condition
in grains soaked in water.
In a preparation made from a grain of wheat which has be¬
gun to germinate, the starch grains are more or less corroded.
Often the starch grains will be corroded in such a way that
they will appear as if cut off on one or more edges (Figs. 40,
688 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences Arts , and Letters.
41), and on these corroded surfaces there appears an orange-
staining area in which no lamination whatever is present, com¬
parable in this respect to the orange-stained central portion of
the mature Canna grains already mentioned. Where the outer
starch layers are still intact, no additional orange-staining
substance appears. This appears to he a further hit of evi¬
dence that the inner portion of mature starch grains has un¬
dergone some change.
SWELLING AND SOLUTION.
If starch grains are treated with various reagents, they
swell and give some very curious and interesting figures. It
is a question whether the swelling caused by such reagents as
potassium hydroxide, acetic acid, chromic acid, chloral hy¬
drate or hot water is due to imbibition of the reagent between
the particles of starch substance or to molecular changes in the
particles themselves.
Potato starch grains treated with chromic acid (15%) show
at first a slight enlargement of the hilum crack; then the for¬
mation of fine radiating cracks, arranged like the barbs of a
feather, beginning at the hilum and extending to near the pos¬
terior end of the grain. Frequently this area of radiating
lines runs part way toward the opposite end of the grain from
the hilum and then divides, forming a V -shaped figure.
This area spreads and draws toward the margin, and an open¬
ing is formed in the central part of the grain. Further, the
grain continually increases in size till the outer layers are rup¬
tured. This usually takes place at a point near the hilum.
The whole interior of the grain is dissolved out, and the layers
at the posterior end and extending part way down the sides are
all that remain. The limits of these layers show very sharply,
and in some of them fine radial lines appear.
If a potato starch grain is treated with potassium hydroxide
(10%), a crack forms, beginning at the hilum and extending
toward the posterior end of the grain (PI. XL, Figs 44-50).
X arrow radiating cracks gradually extend from the central
crack toward the periphery. The hilum crack enlarges, and at
Denniston — Growth and Organization of the Starch Grain. 689
the same time the layers at the anterior end of the grain begin
to push out.
When once this swelling of the anterior part of the grain
commences, it proceeds rapidly (Fig. 45). The crack at the
hilum continues to enlarge, forming a large cavity in this por¬
tion of the grain (Figs. 46, 47). The size of the anterior
part of the grain soon considerably exceeds that of the poste¬
rior part. When the anterior part of the grain has swollen
considerably, a peculiar invagination takes place beginning at
the outside at a point near the hilum (Figs 48-50). This
infolding appears to relieve the tension caused by the formation
of a large internal cavity. The posterior portion of the grain
is the last to swell, and if the grain is stained by the triple
stain this unswollen portion takes a faint violet color and the
swollen portion an orange color. Undoubtedly this swelling of
the grains is caused by the absorption of water in the layers.
The parts immediately sur rounding the hilum take up the
water most readily and are the first to swell. The outer layers
of the grain are thinnest at the anterior end of the grain, and
it is at this end that the stretching is greatest. The crack
which begins at the hilum extends through the central part
of the grain toward the posterior end and evidently follows
the direction of the most readily absorptive material. The
layers at the posterior end of the grain are less easily penetra¬
ble by the water and maintain their form for a longer time
than the inner portions.
Krabbe is of the opinion that the streaming motions which
take place when a crystal of alum is brought into contact with
a solvent also play an important part in the solution of starch
grains by diastase.
More recently, Goldschmidt (12, p. 656) obtained corrosion
figures on spheres of calcium carbonate subjected to- the ac¬
tion of strong acids, which in their earliest stages show a
strong resemblance to those formed in the wheat starch grain as
the result of diastase action. The figures which appear in
the calcite crystals take the form at first of hemispherical
hollows ; these Goldschmidt attempts to explain by the supposi¬
tion of the presence of molecular streams directed toward the
690 Wisconsin Acad&my of Sciences , Arts , and Letters.
crystal in a line perpendicular to its surface and of returning
streams wliich pass in the opposite direction carrying portions
of the crystal in solution.
It seems quite possible to explain the small hemispherical
depressions which appear in the early stages of solution by
diastase in the same way, as the result of molecular streams
between the solid and the solvent. But it is only the figures
formed at the beginning of the corrosion of the starch grain
that may thus be accounted for. The later stages in corro¬
sion. in which the canals penetrate more deeply into the grain,
and which in some oases follow concentric lines, are explained
by the fact that certain layers in the interior of the grain are
more readily acted upon than others by the diastase solution,
and in this way the solution follows the easily soluble layer
as the path of least resistance. In the wheat starch grain, it
could not be determined which layers of the unstained grain,
the highly refractive or the slightly refractive, form the solu¬
tion paths, as the diastase causes the grain to take a fairly ho¬
mogeneous stain.
THE DEVELOPMENT OF THE STARCH GRAIN.
Regarding the development of the starch grain, three gener¬
al views have been held. The first, that the outside of the
starch grain is the part first formed, later growth taking place
toward the center, was proposed by Munter (22, pi 194) in
1845. He treated the starch grains from the rhizome of
Gloriosa superba L. with sulphuric acid, and because water ap¬
pears to be drawn out from the central layers and a large crack
is formed in the hilum region, he concluded that the central
layers are softer and more watery, and therefore younger, than
the outer layers. A similar conclusion was reached by Walpers
in 1851 (45, p. 905), in his studies on arrow-root starch. Har-
tig, in 1855 (14, p. 905), examined the starch of Canna and
potato and came to a somewhat similar conclusion, that the
growth is from the outside toward the center. Hageli (24), in
1858, proposed the theory of growth by intussusception for all
organic structures including the starch grain. This meant to
Denniston — Growth and Organization of the Starch Grain. 691
him that all growth takes place in the interior of the grain,
and that it proceeds from the surface inward.
The third view, which is universally accepted at the present
day, is that the starch grain grows by the addition of concen¬
tric layers. ITitzsehe (11), in 1834, noted that the outer layers
were more resistant to acids and alkalies than the inner
and did not consider that the last layers formed need necessa¬
rily he less resistant. Cruger (4), ,in 1854, made the highly
interesting suggestion that a layer of substance between the
grain and the plastid is a starch-forming substance. This view
is strikingly in harmony with the facts brought out on mate¬
rial carefully fixed and stained by modern cytological methods
as described in this paper.
The question of the permanence of the plastid about the
entire grain is closely associated with that of its method of
growth. Schimper (35, 36), in 1880 and 1881, studied the
starch in the cortical parenchyma of the stem of Philodendron
grandifolium and the medullary parenchyma of Peperomia
stenocarpa and concludes that these grains are invariably
found at first enclosed entirely by plastids ; but the material
of the plastids is soon broken through and the starch grains
project freely into the protoplasm. This conclusion of
S chimp erJs is probably incorrect and due to the fact that on
large starch grains the plastid becomes so thin on the anterior
portion of the grain as to be visible only with difficulty. In a
later paper, Schimper finds that when starch formation is
most active the plastid may disappear to an almost invisible
remnant and may again regain its former size when starch for¬
mation ceases, but he did not change his views as to the ability
of the starch grain to project freely into the surrounding pro¬
toplasm.
He states that in the large eccentric grains of Dieffen *
bachia the growing end is the one upon which the plastid is
fastened, and that when a portion of the starch grain projects
freely into the cytoplasm and conies in contact with a second
plastid an addition of layers may be made at that point also.
In this way he accounts for the peculiar branched grains found
so commonly in this plant. It seems quite probable that the
692 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts , and Letters.
regions in which the plastid is thicker are all parts of one
plastid and not separate plastids, as Schimper supposed.
The fact that after a starch grain is partially dissolved
in the plastid, leaving an irregular and corroded outline, new
layers are added filling up the depressions in the corroded sur¬
face, is offered as further evidence by Schimper (36, p. 187)
in favor of the theory of external growth. It was found that
in the development of the storage starch grains of Dolichos
lafolab , periods of solution were followed by periods of growth
of the grain in the plastid. After a period of solution, the
outline of the remnant of the starch grain is very irregular,
but the new layers added fill up the depressions and form reg¬
ular layers around the corroded fragment.
Salter describes in considerable detail the development of
a potato starch grain. There first appears, when the grain is
stained with the triple stain, a rounded white body in the cen¬
ter of the plastid. In this body there soon appears a dark
violet dot at the center. A narrow pale violet zone is next
seen surrounding the center point. This zone darkens in color
at the margin and becomes the first lax lamina, eccentricity
being already indicated by the fact that it makes its appear¬
ance first on the side turned toward the thicker part of the leu-
coplast. The second lamina appears in the same manner as
did the first, the peripheral portion remaining colorless.
I have examined starch grains from a potato for the stages
in growth and find that while the first appearance, that is of
the colorless body in the plastid, is as Salter describes, there
appears to be no eccentricity of the grain shown when the first
violet layer forms, and indeed several violet layers usually
form before there is any tendency toward eccentricity (PI.
XXXVIII, Fig. 14). Later in the development, the plastid
collects more at one side of the grain and eccentric layers are
formed.
In suitable Canna material stained by the triple stain of
Flemming, we find the different stages in the development of a
starch grain very clearly shown (Figs. 2-5). Certain of these
show no signs of lamination, others no larger in size show one
or two pale violet circles but no broad violet layers (Fig. 3).
Denniston — Growth and Organization of the Starch Grain. 693'
Still other grains show a pale violet region at the center
(Fig. 9). Slightly larger grains show a central dark violet re¬
gion, surrounded by a pale violet layer, and this in turn by an
orange-stained peripheral layer (Fig. 5). The early violet
layers appear to he made up of starch substance distinct from
the orange-staining material of which the young grain is com¬
posed. As the grain enlarges, more violet layers form and the
orange peripheral layer retains a -fairly uniform thickness
around the grain (Figs. 10-12, 34).
Frequently young grains of Ganna appear which are stained
entirely orange with the exception of one or two minute dots
(Fig. 16). These dots are no doubt the beginnings of regions
which will later take the violet stain. A grain in a neighbor¬
ing cell (Fig. 15) is enclosed by a plastid. The grain is
stained orange, but with a small violekstained region at the
center which is evidently made up of two parts, each with its
own hilum.
A small grain which has an eccentric position in the leuco-
plast, but which has not as yet any eccentric layers, is often
present (Fig. 13). A concentric grain of C'anna often shows a
thin leucoplast, a broad orange layer and a pale violet central
region (Fig. 14).
In many large grains the leucoplast can be traced entirely
around the periphery (Fig. 33) ; in others (Fig 31) but a
remnant of it remains.
Certain grains show the effects of solution in the plastid
and subsequent growth, with a shifting of the plastid (Fig. 32).
The layers in the corroded portion show the effect of corrosion
most strongly at the posterior end of that portion of the grain.
With a period of renewed growth, the plastid shifts its position
and the new layers are put down at an angle of about 45° to
the old. Probably the plastid remains as a membrane around
the grain, but the layers appear to be deposited only where the
plastid is thickest.
In the concentric starch grains found in the seed of Goix
lachryma , the small grains stain completely orange and show
the plastid as a layer of uniform width at the periphery;
694 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts , and Letters .
slightly larger grains show the central portion of the grain
stained violet and the peripheral portion orange.
In the chloroplasts in the central portion of the leaf of
Pellionia daveauana , several assimilation starch grains are
found if the leaf is examined at the close of a bright day
(Figs. 21, 22, 24). They vary in number from one to four
in a plastid, and quite commonly the plastid is stretched to a
th'in membrane at certain points. In form, the grains are
round, oval or lens-shaped. These grains show no lamination
whatever, but a faint crack is present in the middle of the
grain. Chloroplasts front leaves of the same plant, if examin¬
ed the following morning, show that in many cases the starch
grains have been entirely removed (Fig. 25) ; in other cases,
slender remnants of the starch grains remain. These remnants
show the effects of solution equally on all parts of the surface
(Fig. 23).
In all the above cases the grain begins as a more or less
strongly orange-stained body, which may well represent a mass
of the same transition substance which is found as a peripher¬
al layer in the later stages of growth.
CONCLUSIONS.
A specially differentiated orange-staining layer is present
on the periphery of the starch grains from the following plant
parts: rhizomes of Ganna and Dieffenbmhia, stem of Pellio¬
nia, tuber of potato, false bulb of Phajus , kernels of wheat,
barley, rye and corn, and seeds of Coix.
In all these cases it is probable that the grains were
either growing or being dissolved away at the time the prepara¬
tions were made. A notable case described above was that of
the starch from a rhizome of Ganna, which had lain dormant
through the winter, but from which a vigorous shoot was grow¬
ing at the time the material was fixed. This starch showed an
orange-staining peripheral layer on nearly every grain. In
this case, the outer layers A the starch grain were slightly
corroded, and the starch was evidently being used for the de¬
velopment of the shoot. Starch from the rhizomes of mature
Denniston — Growth and Organization of the Starch Grain. 695
Ganna plants show the peripheral layer equally well, and at
this time the grains were probably in a growing condition.
As noted, starch grains from the rhizomes of Dieffenbachifi
and the false bulbs of Phajus , which show the peripheral layer,
were from plants which were presumably actively storing
starch.
The germinating grains of wheat, barley, rye and corn and
the seeds of Coix show starch grains which have the orange-
stained layer at the periphery, and this is clearly a corrosion
layer. Thus we find this layer present both in starch grains
which are growing and in those which are being used up, and
the evidence is strong that it is a transition substance laid
down as a continuous layer between the plastid and the starch
strata.
In the case of all the above starches, the orange-stained
zone is not due simply to the washing in of the orange stain;
this is the only region stained by the ordinary exposures to
orange, and a much longer exposure does not stain the layers of
starch adjacent to this peripheral layer. Further evidence that
there is a differentiated peripheral layer is obtained by the
careful use of the ordinary iodine staining, using a dilute solu¬
tion of iodine in water. A peripheral layer remains unstained
while the inner layers are colored violet.
The facts show clearly enough that there is a transition
layer present between the plastid and the starch grain, and that
this layer differs characteristically in its staining reactions
from the starch of the inner layers. I am of the opinion also
that this difference in staining reaction is evidence that the
peripheral layer is chemically different from the layers be¬
neath.
I have, in a preliminary paper (5), advanced the hypothesis
that this peripheral layer is a viscid mother substance which
becomes more and more concentrated by additions from with¬
out until layers of starch are laid down on its inner surface.
Where the plastid surrounds the starch grain as a layer uni¬
form in thickness, we may suppose that the material in the
peripheral layer is of the same density at every point, this den¬
sity increasing by the addition of fresh material till a layer
696 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts , and Letters.
of starch of uniform thickness is crystallized; if, on the other
hand, the plastid is thicker on one part of the grain, more
material will be added to the peripheral layer at that part,
and if we consider the mother substance of this layer to be too
viscid to allow the added material to spread readily to the op¬
posite end of the grain, the thicker parts of the layer will be
deposited at the part of the grain where the plastid is thickest.
All available evidence seems to favor this hypothesis as an ex¬
planation of the peripheral layer and the method of growth
of the grain.
Although in many cases it is impossible to discover the
plastid on the starch grain in thin sections, it is probable that
it remains on the grain through the stages of growth and solu¬
tion. It is exceedingly thin and oftentimes is removed in the
preparation of the slide.
Salter claims to have found plastids on all the grains of
Pellionia , but on the material from the potato he was unable
to find the plastid in every case.
By a careful series of observations on the same grain
treated successively with different reagents, I have convinced
myself that in addition to more or less dense layers of starch,
there are sharp lines, as shown in Figure 43, 1 and 2, which
mark the boundaries of highly refractive layers, and also
spaces or open water-filled crevices which widen or become
more narrow with the swelling and contraction of the adjacent
dense layers.
The layers which take the deepest color with gentian violet
and iodine are in general the densest layers. They are highly
refractive when mounted in water, and stains are removed
from them with difficulty. In the case of precipitates formed
in the grain, of course the conditions are just the opposite of
those in ordinary staining, and, as described above, there is no
question that the zones of granules, formed by precipitating
methyl violet with calcium nitrate or with picric acid, lie in
the more open watery strata and in the crevices between the
denser strata of the grain.
Meyer holds that the loose and not the dense layers take the
deepest stains, and this view has since been accepted by Sal-
Denniston — Growth and Organization of the Starch Grain. 697
ter. It seems to me natural that the parts of the grain
which contain the most solid starch substance would he the
ones which are most deeply colored, and the evidence from Fig¬
ures 42 and 43 is very convincing that this is the case. This
is also evidence that the stains are not simply held mechanical¬
ly between the particles of starch but that they enter into com¬
bination with the latter.
In old grains of Ganna it is often impossible to differentiate
layers at the organic center of the grain, the material in this
region often appearing as a homogeneous mass. If such grains
be crushed so that radial cracks extend through the dense pe¬
ripheral layers, and if these crushed grains are then stained
with gentian violet and orange, it will be found that the entire
interior mass of the grain which does not show stratification
is also bright orange in color. The staining confirms the ob¬
servation that the central region of old grains may have been
altered characteristically in its nature. In corroded grains,
this central portion is often stained orange after the peripheral
layers have been penetrated by corrosion channels; or, where
corrosion has continued, the central mass may be entirely re¬
moved before the peripheral layers show much alteration.
As noted above, if a potato starch grain is treated with a
10 per cent potassium hydroxide solution, the region surround¬
ing the hilum becomes granular in appearance and is the first
portion of the grain to swell. The outer starch layers are the
last to be affected, showing that they are, no doubt, the most
resistant layers of the grain.
From these facts, it seems probable that the central portion
of old starch grains has been so modified that it is different in
composition from the more peripheral layers. It may be a
transition substance similar to that produced by the action of
diastase in corroding the grains, as noted further below.
Fischer finds that the material from this region can be
squeezed out as a fluid mass from grains mounted in water.
As just noted, it was found that where large eccentric grains
such as those of the Ganna or the potato are subjected to the
action of diastase, channels are formed passing through the
outer dense layers more or less distinctly, but when the inte-
698 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts , and Letters.
rior of the grain is reached the corrosion is more general, with
the result that the interior is dissolved out.
Diastase acts somewhat differently in the grains of wheat
and barley; in these grains, channels are often formed run¬
ning from the periphery to the center. These channels later
spread along certain of the concentric layers, probably the less
dense, although this could not be definitely determined.
Salter, on the other hand, is of the opinion that, because
young starch grains are stained with difficulty by the ordinary
stains and fake up the orange of the triple stain, they are dense
and homogeneous starch masses. For the same reasons, he is
of the opinion that the peripheral layer of older starch grains
is the densest layer in the grains. His reasons do not appear
to be well founded. The orange stain combines readily with
the material formed in the corrosion of the starch grain and
also, as found by Timberlake, with the substance formed in the
manufacture of the cell plate. These are transition substances,
and it is but natural to suppose that the orange-staining pe¬
ripheral layer of the starch grain is a third transition substance.
There is small doubt that this layer differs in chemical compo¬
sition from the violet starch layers, and all the evidence seems
to indicate that it is not a dense layer, but rather a loose
layer of transitory nature.
Denniston — Growth and Organization of the Starch Gra/in. 699/
BIBLIOGRAPHY.
A fairly complete bibliography up to 1895 is given by Meyer (18).
1. Buetschli, O. : Uber den feineren Bau der Starkekorner.
Verh. N atur.-hist. Med . Verein Heidelberg, N. F., v.
2. - Uber die Flerstellung kiinstlicher Starkekorner oder
von Sphaerokrystallen der Starke. Verh. N atur.-hist.
Med. Verem Heidelberg, v. — 1897.
3. - : Untersuchungen uber Amylose nnd Amyloseartige
Korper. Verh. Natur.-hist. Med. Verein Heidelberg,
vii.
4. Cruger: Westindische Fragmente, III. Bot. Zeit. — *
1854.
5. Denniston, R. H. : The structure of tbe starch grain.
Trans. Wis. Acad. Sci., Arts and Letters , xiv. — 1904.
6. Ewart: Assimilatory inhibition. Journ. Linn. Soc.,
xxxi. — 1895.
7. Fischer, H. : Uber Inulin, nebst Bemerkungen liber den
Ban der geschichteten Starkekorner. Cohns Beitr ,
zur Biol, der Pflanzen, viii. — 1902.
8. - : Uber Starke und Inulin. Beih. zum. Bot. Cen-
tralbl., xii. — 1902.
9. - : Microphotogr ainme von Inulinsphaeriten and
Starkekorner. Ber. Deutsch. Bot. Ges., xxi. — 1903.
10. - : Uber Starkekorner nnd ihr Verhalten gegen F arb~
stoffe. Beih. zum. Bot. Centralbl., xviii. — 1905.
11. Fritzsche : Uber das Amylum. Ann. Physih und
Chemie. — 1834.
12. Goldschmidt, V.;: Zur Mechanik des Losungsprocess.
Zeitschr. f. Krystallographie und Mineralogie, xxxviii.
—1904.
13. Gruess: Uber das Eindringen von Substanzen besonders
Diastase in Starkekorner. Jahrb. f. w\iss. Bot. — 1895.
14. Hartig, T. : Uber den Bau des Starkemehls. Bot. Zeit.
—1855.
15. Kraemer, H. : On the continuity of protoplasm. Proc .
Amer. Phil. Soc., xli. — 1902.
43— S. & A.
700 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts , and Letters.
16. Kraemer, H. : The structure of the starch grain. Bot.
Gaz.— 1902.
17. - : Further observations on the structure of the
starch grain. Bot. Gaz. — 1905.
18. Meyer: TTntersuchungen iiber die Starkekomer.
19. Mikosch: fiber die Entstehung der Chlorophyllkomer.
Sitzungsber. Wiener Akad — 1885.
20. Mohe: Vermischte Schriften.
21. - : The vegetable cell (Trans, by Henfrey.)
22. Munter: fiber das Amylum der Gloriosa superba L.
Bot. Zeit. — 1845.
23'. Yaegeli, C. : The utricular structures in cells. Boy. Soc.
Bept. on Botany. — 1849.
24. - : Die Starkekomer. — 1858.
25. - : Das Wachstum der Starkekomer durch Intus¬
susception. Bot. Zeit. — 1881.
26. Uewcombe, F. C. : Cellulose enzymes. Ann. of Bot. —
1899.
27. Pole, F. : Die geformte Proteine im Zellsafte von Der-
besia. Ber. Deutsch. Bot. Ges., xvii.
28. Purjewitsch, K. : fiber die Wabenstructur der pflanz-
lichen organischen Korper. Ber. Deutsch . Bot. Ges.f
xv. — 1897.
29. Podewaed and Katteix: fiber natiirliche und kiinstli-
che Starkekomer. Zeitschr. f. Phyaik. Chemie , xxxiii.
30. Po tiiert, Y7. : Einige Bemerkungen zu Arthur Meyer?s
Untersuchungen iiber die Starkekomer. Ber. Deutsch.
Bot. Ges. — 1897.
31. Sachs, J. : fiber den Einfluss des Lichtes auf die Bil-
dung des Amylum s in den Chlorophyllkomer. Bot.
Zeit.— 1862.
32. Saeter: Contributions to a fuller knowledge of starch
grains.
33. - : Zur naheren Kenntniss der Starkekomer. Jahrb .
f. wiss. Bot., xxxii. — 1898.
34. Schimper, W. : Untersuchungen iiber die Chlorophyll-
komer. Jahrb. f. wiss. Bot. — 1885.
Denniston — Growth and Organization of the Starch Grain. 701
35. S'chimper, W. : Untersuchungen iiber die Entstehung der
Starkekbrner. Bot. Zeit. — 1880.
36. - : TJntersuchungen iiber das Wachsthnm der Starke-
korner. Bot. Zeit. — 1881.
37. Schmitz: Die Chromatophoren der Algen. Verh, na-
turw. Yer. preuss. Bheinlande und Westfalen — 1883.
38. Strasburger^ E. : tiber den Bau nnd das Wachsthum
der Zellhaute.
39. Timberlake, H. G. : Starch formation in Hydrodic-
tyon. Ann. Bot., xv.
40. - : Development and function of the cell plate in
higher plants. Bot. Gaz., xxx.— 1900.
41. Verworn, ML : General physiology (Trans, by Lee).
42. Warpers: ISTachtrag zu dem Aufsatze liber Arrow-root.
Bot. Zeit. — 1851.
43. Winkler: Untersuchungen iiber die Starkebildung in
den verschiedenartigen Chromatophoren. Jahrb. f. wiss.
Bot., xxxii. — =1898.
702 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts , and Letters.
EXPLANATION OF FIGURES.
All figures (except Figs. 44-50) were drawn with the aid of the Abbe
camera lucida.
AH figures (except Figs. 17-25, 32) are from the rhizome of Canna.
The figures in Plates XXXVIII and XL have a uniform magnification
of 875 diameters, unless otherwise mentioned. Figures in Plate XXXIX
are magnified 1,220 diameters.
ABBREVIATIONS.
Staining Reactions:
V =very light violet.
Vi=pale violet.
V2— violet.
V3— dark violet.
V^mvery dark violet.
O =pale orange.
Qi=orange.
02=dark orange.
1 rzrleucoplast.
c =chloroplast.
Dennidon — Growth and Organization of the Starch Grain. 708
PLATE XXXVIII.
704 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts , and Letters.
Fig. l.
Figs. 2-5.
Figs. 6-8.
Fig. 9.
Figs. 10, 11.
Fig. 12.
Fig. 13.
Fig. 14.
Fig. 1-5.
Fig. 16.
Figs. 17-20.
Figs. 21, '22, 24.
Figs. 23, 25.
Figs. 26-29.
Fig. 30.
Fig. 31.
Fig. 32.
Fig. 33.
Fig. 34.
EXPLANATION OF PLATE XXXVIII.
Typical grain from a rhizome of Ganna.
Series showing development of grain of eccentric form.
Young grains before formation of violet-staining por¬
tion.
Young grains showing violet portion at center.
Young grains showing formation of eccentric violet-
staining layers.
Eccentric grain in leucoplast.
Small grain in leucoplast.
Young grain with leucoplast as thin uniform layer
around the periphery.
Young grain with two hila.
Young grains with two hila each.
Development of eccentric grain in chloroplast in stem
of Pellionia Daveauana.
Chloroplast in leaf of Pellionia Daveauana , fixed at
the close of a bright day and containing large as¬
similation starch grains (x 1,750).
Chloroplasts from same plant, fixed after ten hours in
darkness. Fig. 23 shows remnants of starch grains
remaining. Fig. 25 shows the plastid completely
freed from starch.
Starch grains artificially corroded by diastase.
Corrosion of grain in the plastid. The anterior end
of the grain is reduced to a point and takes the
orange stain.
Compound grain showing orange-stained peripheral
layer and portion of leucoplast.
Grain from Dieffenbacliia seguina showing the effects
of solution and subsequent growth in a new direc¬
tion, caused by shifting of plastid.
Large grain showing leucoplast and orange-stained
peripheral layer surrounding violet portions of the
grain.
Grain showing broad orange layer.
Trans. Wis. Acad., Vol. XV.
Plate XXXVIII.
R. H. Denniston del.
Denniston — Growth and Organization of the Starch Grain. 705
PLATE XXXIX.
706 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts , and Letters.
EXPLANATION OF PLATE XXXIX.
Fig. 35. Grain showing orange layer divided at posterior por¬
tion of grain by narrow violet layer. Grain sur¬
rounded by thin leucoplast.
Fig. 36. Outer violet layer completely surrounding violet por¬
tions of the grain.
Fig. 37. Grain showing thin leucoplast entirely surrounding
grain and broad orange peripheral layer.
Fig. 38. Grain showing leucoplast as thin layer on periphery;
a broad orange layer, separated from a pale orange
layer at the posterior end of the grain by a crescent¬
shaped band of violet-staining starch.
Fig. 39. Grain showing the effect of normal corrosion in the
plastid.
Figs. 40, 41. Corroded grains from germinating wrheat.
Trans. Wis. Acad., Vol. XV.
Plate XXXIX.
R. H. Denniston del.
Denniston — Growth and Organization of the Starch Grain. 707
PLATE XL.
708 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts , and Letters.
EXPLANATION OF PLATE XL.
Fig. 42.
Fig. 43.
Figs. 44-50.
Figs. 51, 52.
A. Grain mounted in water.
B. Same grain stained with dilute iodine water.
C. Same grain stained with gentian violet and orange G.
Grain showing appearance of layers when mounted suc¬
cessively in water, iodine water, alcohol and Flem¬
ming’s triple stain.
Canna grain showing successive stages in the action of
10% potassium hydroxide.
Grain showing surface and edge views.
Trans. Wis. Acad., Vol. XV.
Plate XL.
R. H. Denniston del.
TABLE ILLUSTRATING THE PROGRESS OF ROTATION
IN OFFICE TO 1835.
CARL RUSSELL FISH.
The development of the spoils system was in part a response
to a popular demand for rotation in office. In early colonial
days, when office was a burden, it was felt to be but just that
no one be called upon to serve continuously. At the time of the
Revolution, it was feared that continuous office-holding would
create a class imbued with undemocratic feelings; that a peri¬
odic return of the office-holders to the level of the people was
necessary for the orthodoxy of the former and the safety of the
latter. Finally came the mid-nineteenth century attitude, that
the offices were prizes and that no one should be allowed to en¬
joy the monopoly for any long period.
This idea of rotation i,n office paved the way for the use of
offices for political purposes, but was quite distinct from it,
antedated it (in America), and, unlike it, found expression in
legislation. The following table is intended, not as a graphic
illustration, but as a condensed reference table of such legis¬
lation.
The table is arranged chronologically by states. It ia
divided by a double line into two parts, one treating of elective ,
and one of appointive offices. In the case of elective offices, ro¬
tation was obtained either by providing that the officer should
hold so many years and then be ineligible for so many — which
is indicated in the table by x — y ; or by providing that he could
hold so many years out of a given number — which is indicated
by x: y ; or by providing that he could serve so many years
and not again — which is indicated by x. In the case of the
appointive offices, rotation was obtained sometimes by one of
Elective. II Appointive
710 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts, and Letters .
Fish — Rotation in Office.
711
ico-rn
tH OO
com ^ mir
co" coco
oo to
. .
ZD "4 J
icoioOH^ cmooio co oo a* c^Q o o cm
I rH CM CO CO CO rHrHCMl tH t-H W CM CM CM
)oooox;oooo oooooo oo oo ooooco oo oo oo
T3 ^ je
a a a
712 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts , and Letters.
these methods, hut more often the idea of rotation was satis¬
fied by simply putting a limit to the term of office, instead of
leaving the tenure to the pleasure of the appointing officer.
That this simple limitation of term was in large measure due
to the popular belief in rotation is shown in the author’s
“Civil Service and the Patronage,” pp. 83-86.
Where the simple date is given, the change indicated was
constitutional; where the date is proceded by L, the change
was effected by ordinary legislation. Each line, from left to
right, is made complete by ditto marks, and where they are
not given the provision of earlier date lapsed or was repealed.
Offices have been grouped in some cases where functions were
similar and titles only differed. All such cases are indicated
by the addition of etc.
The table shows the early rise of the idea and its steady de¬
velopment up to 1835, when it became absorbed by the domi¬
nating practice of using the offices as ammunition in party
warfare. It shows also that while in some states it existed as
a tenet of theoretical democracy, as for instance in South
Carolina,, which was the most comprehensive and steady-going
disciple of rotation in legislation and yet did not debase its
civil service to political uses; in others, as Pennsylvania and
Hew York, rotation in legislation served as the handmaid of
the growing spoils system, by allowing political changes with¬
out an alarming resort to actual removal.
THE INDIVIDUALITY AND VARIATION OF THE
PYLORIC CAECA OF THE CENTRARCHIDAE.
ROSWELL HILL JOHNSON.
(With Plates XLI-XLV and two Text-figures.)
The object of this contribution is to establish that the py¬
loric caeca of the Centrarchidae are not similar, as generally
assumed, but have individuality, and to describe their varia¬
tion.
With the exception of eleven Micropterus dolomieu and
eight Micropterus salmoides , all the fish were taken from Lakes
Mendota, Monona, Wingra and Waubesa. These lakes are
near Madison, Wisconsin, and are in connection with each
other. The nineteen bass were from Round lake, Langlade
county, Wisconsin. Record was kept of the localities, but as
110 significant differences have appeared, the fish of the differ¬
ent. localities will be considered together.
The family Centrarchidae has three American sub-families,
each of which is represented by species used in this investiga¬
tion — the Lepominae, C entrarchinae and Micropterinae. Jor¬
dan and Evermann state that the family has five to ten caeca.
Of the Lepominae, the largest of the three sub-families,
three species were investigated, Lepomis pallidus (blue gill),
Ambloplites rupestris{ (rock bass) and Eupomotis gibbosus
(sun fish).
Lepomis pallidus Mitchill.
This species has 6-9 caeca, with a mode of 7 and a mean of
7.4323 ± .0294. The frequencies are given in Text-figure 1.
The variation measured by the standard deviation was .6882 ±
.0270. This is very high, as shown by the coefficient
of variation obtained by dividing the standard deviation by the
714 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts , and Letters.
mean and multiplying by 100, which gave 8.9905. A correla¬
tion table of length of animal with number of caeca showed
that the number did not increase with age. The position of
the caeca with reference to the other viscera is shown in Plat©
XLI, Figures 1 to 8. This position determined two intervals in
the circle of caeca. One bread interval, at one side of which
the ductus choledochus enters the intestine, is caused by the
stomach (Plate XLI, Fig, 7). The other interval on the
right is caused by a loop of the intestine, the presence of which
is constant. The first I propose to> call the gastric interval,
and the interval on the right the enteric interval. Between
these two intervals there is normally but one caecum. This I
will call the pollical cue cum, from the analogy of its position
relative to the other caeca with that of the thumb relative to
the fingers. This caecum is seen from the right side extending
parallel to, and dorsal of, the intestine. Very rarely, the polli¬
cal caecum is replaced by two caeca. This occurred four times
in 229 individuals. One case is represented in Plate XLI,
Figures 3, 4 and 5. Barely the pollical caecum, instead of ap¬
pearing dorsal of the intestine, is turned under the loop of the
intestine so as not to be seen from the side.
Although the relative lengths of the caeca in no two individ¬
uals agree, by averaging many individuals a definite relation of
the lengths of the caeca of the different positions is shown.
The length of the caeca is expressed in percentage of the length
of the longest caecum in the individual. This was neces¬
sary, because in much of the material the total length of the
animal was unobtainable. The lengths are graphically shown
in Plate XLIV, Figure 1, when there are seven caeca, and in
Plate XLIY, Figure 2, when there are eight caeca. There is
a regular diminution in length from the stomach towards the
ventral side on each side. A cause of this diminution is prob¬
ably to be found in the fact that the plane of their bases is not
at right angles to the long axis of the fish, but inclines, with dor¬
sal caeca arising more cephalad. Since they all project cau-
dad, those which arise nearer the back will have more space in
which to grow before meeting an obstacle. This cause may be
Johnson — Pyloric Caeca of the Centrarchidae. 715
inadequate, however, to account for all the difference, which
is considerable in Lepomis.
Frequently a change in curvature in the caeca may be ob¬
served between caecum IV and caecum V, numbering the caeca
from the gastric interval down the right side and up the left
(the pollical caecum thus being caecum I). More rarely this
change occurs between III and IV, or between V and VI.
This change in curvature (Plate XLI, Fig. 3) is the result of
the pressure of the pyloric portion of the stomach against the
body wall. This forces the caeca to curve around the pyloric
portion on each side.
A branched caecum was found in three of 229 individuals
(Plate XLIII, Figs. 2, 5 and 6). This is important, in view
of the fact that another of the species examined, Micropterus
salmoides, has its caeca normally branched.
An average of twenty-one cases shows the longest caecum to
be 15.0 per cent of the length of the fish. The length of the
intestine from pylorus to anus is shown to be 1.14 times the
length of the body in six cases. The length of the abdomen
may be inferred by the length of the vent from the cephalic
end of the fish. An average of eight cases showed this to be
44.4 per cent. These figures are compared with those of the
other species in Table I.
Table I.
Ambloplites rupestris Fafinosque.
Jordan and Evermann say of this species, “Caeca 7”. The
specimens examined, however, showed a mode of 8 and a range
of 6-9. It thus has the same range as the previous species, but
with a mode one higher. The frequencies are shown and com¬
pared with the other species in Text-figure 1. The vari-
44— S. & A.
716 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts , and Letters.
ability seemis about the same. Plate XLI, Figures 9 to 11,
show the arrangement of the viscera to be essentially similar.
The caeca are not as long, however, the longest averaging 13.1
per cent in sixteen cases. The abdomen is longer, the vent be¬
ing 46.4 per cent of the length from the cephalic end in four¬
teen cases. The length of the intestine is 1.02 times the length
of the fish as found in five cases. The food is dominantly
crayfish of a considerable size
The relative lengths of the caeca show the longest to be those
adjoining the gastric interval as before, but the shortest caecum
is farther to the left than in Lepomis (Plate XLIY, Fig. 5).
Text-Figure 1.
The distribution of frequencies of the number of caeca in the several
species.
Lepominae :
Lepomis pallidus — Continuous line beginning at 5.
Ambloplites rupestris — Broken line beginning at 5.
Eupomotis gibbosus — Line beginning at 4.
Centrarchinae :
Pomoxis sparoides — Line beginning at 7.
Mieropterinae:
Micropterus salmoides — Line beginning at 8.
Micropterus dolomieu — Line beginning at 10.
Ordinate — Number of specimens.
Abscissa — Number of caeca.
Johnson — Pyloric Caeca of the Centrarchidae. 717
Eupomotis gibbosus Linnaeus.
The number of caeca in this species is the least of those
studied, the mode being 6 and the range 5-8 (Text-figure 1).
The variability seems equally great. The relation of the vis¬
cera is as before (Plate XLI, Pig. 12, Plate XLII, Pig. 18).
The length of the longest caecum is about the same as in the
rock bass, 13.1 per cent of the total length in ten cases. The
intestine is 1.21 times the total length of the body in eight cases,
being longer than in the rock bass. This is probably the result of
the considerable quantity of plant food eaten by this species.
The length to vent is 40.0 per cent of the length in eight cases.
The relative lengths of the caeca indicated in Plate XLIV,
Figures 3 and 4, show a very decided reduction of the left side
in comparison with the right. This is partly due to the fre¬
quent occurrence in this species of much reduced caeca, which
are sometimes smaller in diameter as well as shorter.
One specimen of this species hewn in Plate XLII, Pigures
14, 15 and 16, was abnormal in the extraordinary arrangement
of the viscera. The caeca were yet so typical as to suggest
that some of their individuality is preformed rather than
epigenetic from the pressure of other viscera, although the
latter influence is clearly very strong in determining many of
the conditions here described.
This species is the last of the Lepominae described. The
sub-family has a range of 5-9, which will doubtless be extend¬
ed when more species are examined.
Pomoxis sparoides Lacepede.
There are only three American species in the sub-family
Centrarehinae, of which this alone was available. The caeca
are far more numerous than those of the Lepominae, the mode
being 9 and the range 8-11. With this increase comes very
naturally an increase in the number of cases (16 out of 69)
where two caeca replace the pollical caecum. The intestine
and caeca are very slender (Plate XLII, Pigs. 17, 18). An
average of ten gave 15.2 per cent of the total length. The ab¬
domen is very high and short, the vent being only 40.0 per
718 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts , and Letters.
cent of the length from the cephalic end of the body in four¬
teen cases. The intestine, which is far shorter than in the
'other species, is but 62.5 per cent of the length, the average of
ten cases. This may result from the large part of the food of
this species consisting of plankton. The short intestine goes
with long caeca in this species.
The arrangement of the viscera differs somewhat from that
in the Lepominae. The slender caeca are not spread out on the
side of the stomach, but are characteristically bent ventral, then
dorsal. This different position is doubtless the cause of the
relative lengths of the caeca being so different from the type
seen in the Lepominae. Plate XLIV, Pigure 6, shows that
caecum IV is longer than its neighbors, and that the left caeca
lack the characteristic shortness observed in the other species
Two cases of fused caeca were found (Plate XLIII, Fig.
7). In Figure 7 there were two lumina extending to the
base. Since such fusions were not found in the other species,
it seems possible that one other case of apparent branched
caeca seen in this species represented a case of fusion.
Both of the two species of the Micropterinae occur in the
lakes of Madison.
Micropterus dolomieu Laeepede.
This species has the largest number of caeca of all the species
examined. Gunther says of the caeca, “14 or more.” The
range was found to be 11-15 and the mode 13. The loop of
the intestine passing the pylorus does not produce an interval,
but the caeca are so pressed from their natural position that
its position is evident after removal of the intestine. The
number of caeca between the gastric interval and the loop of
the intestine is two to four, most often three. This is to be
expected, owing to the larger number of caeca. The relative
lengths of the caeca are shown in Plate XLIV, Figure 9.
As in Pomoxis , there is an increase in length from I to III.
The differences in length are less, owing to the length being
longer in proportion to the diameter of the intestine, which as
stated above I believe to be a cause of the difference in length.
Branching was met with once, as shown in Plate XLIII, Fig¬
ure 9.
Johnson — Pyloric Caeca of the Centrarchidae. 719
Micropterus salmoides Lacepede.
The relation of the viscera of the wide-mouthed black bass
is shown in Plate XLII, Figures 22-25. It has the caeca
branched. Holbrook says of these: “There are eleven primi¬
tive caecal appendages, which soon divide into two or three
others so that as many as twenty-eight may at times be
counted.” The bases of these branched caeca varied from 9-
13. The mode was 10-11. (Text-figure 1). Text-figure 2
shows the distribution of branches to each tip. The mode was
2, mean 2.7346 ± .0267. The standard deviation was .9166 ±
1 8 -3 4 5 6 7 6 9 0
Text-Figure 2.
Frequency polygon of the numbers of tips to o35 caeca in 51 indi¬
viduals of Micropterus salmoides.
Ordinate — Number of specimens.
Abscissa — Number of tips to each caecum.
.0177, and the coefficient of variation extraordinarily high,
33.5186. This high variability may indicate that the branched
condition is relatively new and not yet fixed. This seems
likely, because this is the only species of the genus having
branched caeca. The distribution of these tips according to
the position of the several bases is shown in Plate XLIV,
Figure 8, where the numbers are averaged in individuals hav¬
ing ten bases. The greatest branching takes place where there
720 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts , and Letters.
is most space, that is to the left of the main portion of the
stomach.
The caeca were measured to the tip of the longest branch.
The result shown in Plate XLIV, Figure 7 , differs from M.
dolomieu only in having X shorter than IX. The branching
is nearly always bifurcating, as shown in Plate XLIII, Figures
1 and 4, where some much-branched caeca are drawn. The
few cases where the caeca apparently branch into three
(Plate XLIII, Fig. 8) doubtless arise from the close ap¬
proximation of two points of bifurcation.
The primary bifurcation is near the base of the caeca with a
mode of 9 per cent of the length to the end of each tip from
the base. Its position is not apparently greatly altered if
there is further branching distal or not. The secondary bifur¬
cation is most frequently 15-17 per cent from the base. The
tertiary and quaternary bifurcations are too irregular to fall
into a regular frequency polygon. As a whole, however, the
branching is distinctly near the base of the caeca.
The caeca in this species are very slender and pointed in
comparison with M. dolomieu , where they are thick and round¬
ed. The food is fish, while that of M. dolomieu is primarily
crayfish,. The enteric interval is replaced by a deflection in
the line of caeca as in the previous species. There are usually
two caeca between the two intervals.
SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS.
1. The pyloric caeca of the six species of Centrarchidae
found in the vicinity of Madison, Wisconsin, are high¬
ly variable in number. The ranges overlapped, making
a range for the order of 6-15.
2. A loop of the intestine causes an interval between caeca,
which, with the other interval formed by the stomach,
separates a few caeca from the rest’. In the Leppminae,
where the caeca were less than nine in number, but¬
ene caecum has this position
3. The lengths of the several caeca have a characteristic rela¬
tion for each species.
Johnson — Pyloric Caeca of the C entrarchidae. 721
4. The branching of the caeca, which is normal in Microp-
terus salmoides, was investigated quantitatively. Cases
of fused or branching caeca were found in the other
five species, although normally their caeca are un¬
branched.
Anatomical Laboratory , University of Wisconsin.
722 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts, and Letters.
BIBLIOGRAPHY.
Gunther, 1859:
Catalogue of the fishes in the British Museum, vol. i,
p. 252.
Holbrook, 1855:
Ichthyology of South Carolina, p. 25.
Jordan and Evermann, 1896:
The fishes of TTorth and Middle America. Bull. U. S.
Nat. Mus., no. 47, vol. i, p. 990.
Johnson — Pyloric Caeca of the Centrarchidae.
PLATE XLI.
724 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts , and Letters.
EXPLANATION OF PLATE XLI.
In this and the following plate, the caeca are coarsely stippled and
the liver is faintly stippled. Parts hidden by the liver are drawn as if
the liver were transparent. All the figures are one-half life-size.
The following abbreviations will be used for this and the following
plate :
S — stomach.
I — intestines.
O — oesophagus.
Sp — spleen.
A — anus.
T — testis.
Ov — ovary.
Arrangement of viscera in Lepomis pallidus, specimen a:
Fig. 1. Right view.
Fig. 2. Dorsal view.
Arrangement of viscera in Lepomis pallidus , specimen b. This speci¬
men was abnormal in having two pollical caeca.
Fig. 3. Left view.
Fig. 4. Right view.
Fig. 5. Cephalic view, with liver removed.
Disposition of the caeca of the specimen of Lepomis pallidus repre¬
sented in Figures 3-5, with the liver removed:
Fig. 6. Caudal view.
Fig. 7. Caudal view with stomach removed and caeca somewhat
displaced to the side.
Fig. 8. Cranial view, with stomach removed.
Viscera of Ambloplites rupestris:
Fig. 9. Right view.
Fig. 10. Left view.
Fig. 11. Ventral view.
Viscera of Eupomotis gU)bosus:
Fig. 12. Left view.
Trans. Wis. Acad., Vol. XV.
Plate XLI.
Johnson-
■Pyloric Caeca of the Centrarchidae. 725
PLATE XLII.
726 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts, and Letters v
EXPLANATION OP PLATE XLII.
Viscera of Eupomotis gibbosus:
Pig. 13. Right view.
A case with abnormal arrangement of viscera in Eupomotis gibbosus i
Fig. 14. Right view.
Fig. 15. Left view.
Fig. 16. Cephalic view of pyloric region with intestine cut.
Viscera of Pomoxis sparoides:
Fig. 17. Right view.
Fig. 18. Left view.
Viscera of Micropterus dolomieu:
Fig. 19. Right view.
Fig. 20. Left view.
Fig. 21. Cephalic view, liver removed.
Viscera of Micropterus salmoides:
Fig. 22. Right view.
Fig. 23. Left view.
Fig. 24. Cephalic view.
Fig. 25. Cephalic view, liver removed and intestine cut close to
the pylorus.
Trans. Wis. Acad., Vol. XV.
Plate XLII.
PLATE XLIII,
728 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts , and Letters .
EXPLANATION OF PLATE XLIII.
Figs. 1 and 4.
Figs. 2 and 5.
Fig. 3.
Fig. 6.
Fig. 7.
Fig. 8.
Fig. 9.
Much-branched caeca of Micropterus salmoides, to
show bifurcation.
Abnormally branched caeca in Lepomis pallidus.
The caeca of a specimen of Eupomotis gibbosus
to show an abortive caecum.
Abnormally branched caecum in Lepomis pallidus.
Fused caeca in Pomoxis sparoides.
Unusual branching of a caecum of Micropterus
salmoides.
Abnormally branched caecum in Micropterus do-
lomieu.
Trans. WIs. Acad., Voh XV.
Plate XLIII.
Johnson — Pyloric Caeca of the Centrarchidae.
729
PLATE XLIV.
730 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts , and Letters.
EXPLANATION OF PLATE XLIV.
Fig. 3. Diagram to show the average relative lengths of the
caeca of Eupomotis gibbosus in specimens having six
caeca.
Relative length of caeca in specimens having seven caeca:
Fig. 1. Lepomis pallidus.
Fig. 4. Eupomotis gibbosus.
Relative lengths of caeca in specimens having eight caeca:
Fig. 2. Lepomis pallidus.
Fig. 5. Ambloplites rupestris.
Fig. 6. Relative lengths of the caeca of Pomoxis sparoides in
specimens having nine caeca.
Fig. 7. Relative lengths of caeca of Micropterus salmoides hav¬
ing ten caeca.
Fig. 8. Average number of tips to the caeca of the several posi¬
tions in Micropterus salmoides.
Fig. 9. Relative lengths of caeca of Micropterus dolomieu hav¬
ing thirteen caeca.
Trans. Wis. Acad., Yol. XV.
Plate XLIV.
100
Johnson — Pyloric Caeca of the C entrarchidae
PLATE XLY.
732 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts , and Letters .
EXPLANATION OF PLATE XLV.
Micropterus salmoides.
Frequency polygon to show distance to the point of bifurcation from
the base expressed in percentage of the length of the caeca.
— - Primary bifurcation.
. — 'Secondary bifurcation.
— . — . — . — Tertiary bifurcation.
Ordinate — Number of cases.
Abscissa — Position of bifurcation.
Trans. Wis. Acad., Vol. XV.
Plate XLV.
NUCLEAR STRUCTURE AND SPORE FORMATION IN
MICROSPHAERA ALNI.
M. C. SANDS.
(With Plate XL VI.)
INTRODUCTION.
The literature on the development of the ascus and its cy¬
tology has been recently and fully reviewed (4, 13), and I
shall refer only to such very recent papers as touch upon the
points with which I have been specially concerned.
Faull (5) describes for Hydnobolites , Neotiella , Sordaria
and some other species, a method of spore formation which he
considers ^essentially different 'from that described ’for ithle
Aacomycetes by Harper (9, 11). He finds the central body
by no moans a permanent feature of the cell. In Sordaria ,
certain of the resting nuclei show centers, but in the
other species centers with asters appear only at the time of
division, disappearing in resting stages. Faull believes that
the spindles are strictly intranuclear in origin, the spindle
poles being the centers from which the long astral rays extend.
In the last division Faull finds the same persistence and sub¬
sequent bending of the astral rays as has often been described
for spore formation, but attaches no importance to the rays or
their activity as far as spore formation is concerned.
The first indication of spore formation, according to Faull,
is the appearance of a specialized layer of cytoplasm beginning
just around the center and developing progressively outward
and around the nucleus until it encloses the cytoplasm of the
future spore. He compares this limiting layer to the hyaline
zones found in the cleavage stages of the protospores of Pilot-
734 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters.
olus (12). It thins out from the center, stains differently
from the cytoplasm, but is never clearly definable — “a hya¬
line zone, structureless or very finely granular.” Two plasma
membranes develop simultaneously on the site of the limiting
layer, one about the spore-plasm, the other lining the cavity in
which the spore lies. This produces no visible change in the
limiting layer, although he thinks it probable that the plasma
.membranes result from a cleavage of the zone.
'.The nucleus “grows down into the center of the spore,”
forming a beak. Just what Faull means here by “growth” is
very uncertain, especially as there is no mention of an in¬
crease in the size of the nucleus. Harper (11) has suggested
several possible methods of beak formation, and seems to re¬
gard the activity of the astral rays, in bending down and ex¬
erting a pressure on the nucleus, as the most plausible. When
the exospore is formed, the nucleus resumes its spherical shape
by withdrawing its beak and with it the center and aster, and
in this behavior Faull sees conclusive evidence that the rays
take no part in the formation of the spore membrane.
Faulks figures of the beaked nucleus with its center and as¬
ter all within the spore membrane are very much like the po¬
lar or part polar views of spore formation which I have seen
in Microsphaera , where spore delimitation is certainly accom¬
plished by means of the astral rays. I shall discuss the signifi¬
cance of such polar views further on. Faull, however, re¬
gards these figures as proof that the spores are not delimited
by the fusion of kinoplasmic fibers, and leaves the question
without accounting in any way for the persistence and bend¬
ing of the rays during the process of spore formation.
Maire’s latest paper (19) describes the nuclear divisions in
a number of asci, the mitoses in all of which vary only in mi¬
nor details from those in Galactinia succosa. In this fungus,
Maire (15, 19) finds that the asci arise from a filament of
binucleated cells which itself arises from a large multinucle-
ated hypha.
The nuclei of the binucleated cells show conjugate division
as in the rusts (2, 3), cross walls are put in, and
thus rows of “synkaryons” are formed. The end cell of each
Sands — Spore Formation in Microsphaera Alni. 735
tow becomes an ascns in which the two nuclei fuse. In the
absence of observations concerning the origin of the entire as-
cocarp, it is as yet premature to> draw conclusions as regards
the significance of the fusion in the ascus in this case; how¬
ever, one cannot avoid a suspicion that possibly antheridial and
oogonial nuclei are formed but do not fuse in the oogonium^
remaining separate and passing by conjugate division through
the asoogenous cells until they reach the ascus where the fu¬
sion occurs. The process in this case would then at least be
conspicuously similar ' to that in the rusts as described by
Blackman (2) and Christman (3).
The first of the three nuclear divisions in the ascus is des¬
ignated as heterotypic, being characterized by synapsis and a
double longitudinal division of the chromosomes. The second
division, in which eight protochromosomes appear which later
form four double chromosomes, he regards as homoeotypic, and
the last division as typic. Thus Maire agrees with the view
many times expressed that the ascus is a spore mother-cell com¬
parable to the spore mother-cell of a moss or fern.
The achromatic part of the division figures has both an in¬
tranuclear and an extranuclear origin. The center appears on
the interior of the nucleus but against its membrane, at the
summit of an intranuclear aster. The center divides, the two-
halves move in opposite directions, and a spindle is formed be*
tween them on which the chromosomes are arranged. Radia¬
tions are meanwhile formed in the cytoplasm about the elon¬
gating nucleus as a center, which become more prominent at
its two ends and finally, form the polar asters of the completed
spindle. The asters and spindle are thus of different and in¬
dependent origin. The eight nuclei become beaked, and Maire
holds that spore formation is effected in the manner described
by Harper.
Guilliermond (7, 8) has also investigated Pustulariw vesictdo-
sa and Galactinia succosa , studied by Maire, as well as Peziza
Catnius , P. rutilans and Aleuria cerea , and he corroborates
many of Maine’s observations, differing from him, however,
736 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts , and Letters.
particularly as to the number of chromosomes and the method
of their separation in the metaphases.
He accepts Ma ire’s designation of the three divisions in the
ascus as heterotypic, homoeotypic and typic. The first divi¬
sion is always preceded by synapsis and further characterized
by a double longitudinal splitting of the chromosomes, distin¬
guishing features of the heterotypic division. However, he
holds that the half -chromosomes resulting from the second
longitudinal splitting do not separate completely in the meta¬
phase, as described by Maire, but reach the poles as V’s or IPs
as in the Phanerogams (1).
Guilliermond (8) frequently alludes to the difficulty of de¬
termining exactly how the chromosomes divide and the halves
separate, and when one considers their minute size it is not
surprising that the two investigators disagree as to the details
of the processes, or that the figures are not at all convincing.
However, Maire’ s previously stated hypothesis that the As-
comycetes have but four chromosomes (li6), and his later at¬
tempts to prove the doctrine, may possibly have influenced his
account of the separation of the half-chromosomes in the meta-
phases, as well as liis interpretation of the protochromo¬
somes in the prophases of the first and second divisions.
Peziza Catnius and Peziza rutilans have sixteen chromo¬
somes, Galactinia has four, but in Pustularia vesiculosa Guil¬
liermond still holds that eight chromosomes are present, as
against Maire’s view that there are four.
As regards the origin of the center, Guilliermond agrees
with Maire (14, 19, 8). The first indication of the formation
of the karyokinetic figure is the appearance of a center just
within the nuclear membrane, with abundant fibers extending
in toward the chromosomes. Both the figure and the descrip¬
tion of this stage suggest the possibility that he had before him
only one-half of a spindle which was really in the equatorial
plate stage, and whose other pole should appear in the next
section. The center divides and the spindle is formed in the
usual way. The polar asters are faint and at times cannot be
seen, except in the third division, where they are always
Sands — Spore Formation in Microspha&ra Alni. 737
strongly developed, and later are active in the formation of the
spores.
Harper has recently extended his studies on the mildews to
Phyllactinia (13) and finds there that the development of the
ascogonium from a fertilized egg, the budding out of the ascog-
enous hyphae, and the origin of the asci are essentially the
same as in Frysiphe and Sphaerotheca (11, 10).
In Phyllactinia , the nuclei in every stage throughout the
life history of the fungus show central bodies, and furthermore
the chromatin is always oriented on the center. The center is
described as a disc-shaped body lying on the periphery of the
nucleus, or in a flight depression of the nuclear membrane.
The chromatin is always attached to the center, hut its exact
arrangement cannot be made out in the vegetative hyphae and
young ascogone as clearly as in the larger nuclei of the ascog-
enous hyphae and asci, where the number of strands which
radiate from the center into the nuclear cavity can be counted.
In the fusing nuclei of the asous, the centers fuse into one,
and the eight chromatin strands of each nucleus combine in
such a way as to form exactly eight strands in the fusion nu¬
cleus.
The nuclear fusion is followed immediately by synapsis, in
which the chromatin is drawn up in a mass against the central
body. The chromatin emerges from the synaptic condition in
the form of a spirern with eight distinct strands attached to
the central body,. Each strand of the spirern forms one of the
eight chromosomes, which are still connected with the center
by means of the linin threads.
The central body divides and the two daughter centers in
migrating apart to form the spindle poles separate the fibers
which connect the chromosomes with the center, so that each
chromosome is seen to be attached to both centers. This con¬
tinuous connection of the central body with the chromatin
strands, and later with the chromosomes themselves, is fur¬
ther used as evidence that the chromosomes are permanent
structures of the nucleus.
Here for the first time the fact has been established that
there is a permanent connection between the center and chro-
738 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts , and Letters.
mosomes. The nucleus is thus shown to be a polarized structure
throughout the life history of the fungus, unipolar in the rest¬
ing condition and becoming bipolar in division.
The process of spore formation in Phyllactinia is the same
as in Erysiphe b and, as is so frequently found in the mildews,
only two nuclei are enclosed in spores, the remaining six de¬
generating.
OBSERVATIONS.
The mildews offer especially favorable material for the
study of nuclear fusions, nuclear divisions and the very pecu¬
liar process of free cell formation which characterizes the as¬
cus, and the following study was undertaken for the purpose
of extending our knowledge of the group by an account of the
development of the ascus and spore formation in the genus
Microsphaera. I have not undertaken to work over the earlier
stages in the formation of the perithecium, but have directed
my attention mainly to the question of the persistence of the
centers during the processes of nuclear fusion and nuclear divis¬
ion, and to the process of spore formation in the ascus. I have,
however, observed incidentally certain stages in the develop¬
ment of the perithecium bearing on the account given by !Ne-
ger of the structure of the mature ascocarp and its ecological
adaptations, and shall describe these observations in connection
with my account of the structure of the nuclei in the ascogo-
nium and ascogenous hyphae from which are formed the nuclei
that subsequently fuse in the young asci.
As is everywhere commonly observed in this country, Micro¬
sphaera alni DC. grows in great, abundance on Syringa
vulgaris — the common lilac — covering the leaves with a white
cobwebby mycelium dotted with the dark specklike fruit bod¬
ies, and furnishes an abundance of material in all stages of de¬
velopment for cytological study. The fungus shows a radial
growth, so that infected spots may have nearly all stages, from
mature perithecia in the center to the youngest fruits on the
periphery.
Small squares of leaf covered with the mycelium and peri-
thecia were fixed in Flemming’s stronger solution of ehrom-
osmic-aeetic acid, Flemming’s weaker solution, and Flem-
Sands — Spore Formation in Microsphaera Alni. 739
ruing’ s weaker solution diluted one-half with water. Flem¬
ming’s weaker solution gave in general the best results, al¬
though the younger stages fix well in the diluted solution.
The material was collected in September and October 1904
and 1905. Sections were cut 5/x and lOg thick and stained
with Flemming’s triple stain.
I shall describe the structure and the development of the as-
cocarp from the time when the ascogonium is completely en¬
veloped by the perithecial hyphae, leaving the earlier stages
for description later.
The young ascogonium appears as a relatively large single
cell, somewhat elongated and curved, surrounded by the first
hyphal envelop. This stage, in which two nuclei are present,
is of frequent occurrence. The nuclei lie in the long axis of
the ascogone and invariably show distinct centers and a single
nucleole.
With the triple stain the centers are usually violet or dark
red, and are easily distinguished from the dark blue chroma¬
tin or from the blue gray membrane of the nucleus. The nu¬
cleole is always a bright red, the nuclear sap is clear and un¬
stained, while the cytoplasm varies from gray to a faint orange
color.
The chromatin at this stage often forms a spindle-shaped
mass between the central body and the red nucleole. Chro¬
matic strands cannot be made out, but the chromatin appears
rather evenly granular, though plainly connected with the
central body (Fig. 4).
The ascogone grows both in diameter and length, its nuclei
divide, and later cell division occurs, so that a multicellular or¬
gan is formed consisting of four or five cells. During the
growth of the ascogone, the envelop becomes more complex,
one or two layers of cells being formed about the first layer.
The ascogone, being hemmed in on all sides by its envelop,
curves and turns about as it grows, apparently expanding in
whatever direction it finds least resistance, so that a much bent
structure results. From just what cell or cells the ascogenous
hyphae arise I have not been able to determine. It appears
that many ascogenous hyphae bud out at about the same time.
740 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters.
These develop into multinncleated branches of the ascogone.
The nuclei, however, are soon separated by cell walls, except
in certain cases in which two nuclei are included in a single
cell. These binucleated cells will later become the asci.
Before the young asci are formed, the perithecium begins
to show some differentiation in its hyphal layers. There is an
outer layer of wide-lumened cells, already showing some thick¬
ening in their walls, on the upper side of the perithecium.
Within are two or three layers of thin-walled cells, smaller
and more densely filled with protoplasm. The inmost layer
of these is especially active ; it grows and sends branches in to¬
ward the center of the fruit body, crowding against the as-
cogenous hyphae, intertwining among them and becoming di¬
vided to form the so-called “nurse cells.” The nurse cells are
uninucieated or multinucleated, and are thus seen to have
been formed from centripetal branches which are at first mul¬
tinucleated but are later cut up into smaller cells. This in¬
growth of the perithecial cells is practically the same as de¬
scribed by Harper for Erysiphe communis (11). Certain
binucleated cells of the ascogenous hyphae are meanwhile de¬
veloping into asci. With their growth, the nurse cells are
crowded back and flattened between the asci and the perithe¬
cial wall. Tangential sections of half -grown perithecia show
these thin-walled cells as polygonal plates with two or more
nuclei.
The young asci when first recognizable are little larger than
the other cells of the ascogenous hyphae. They present very
irregular forms, probably due to the crowded condition within
the perithecium at this time, but soon round out their angles,
growing at the expense of the surrounding cells which they
push back. The two nuclei in the young asci, although ly¬
ing very close together, at first show no tendency to fuse.
They have well-defined centers to which the chromatin is at¬
tached, the strands extending back into the nuclear cavity in a
typical cone (Fig. 5). The nucleole often lies near the nu¬
clear membrane opposite the center. This antipodal relation
of center and nucleole is very common throughout the nuclei
of Microsphaera.
Sands — Spore Formation in Microsphaera Alni. 741
The asciis grows rapidly, at first mainly in the region far¬
thest from the nuclei, so that these come to lie in the smaller
end of the cell. The nuclei also increase in size, but not in
proportion to the growth of the ascus. When the ascus has
reached about one-third its mature size, the nuclei come in
contact preparatory to fusion. They are sometimes elon¬
gated and may lie one a little above the other, or in any other
position. Finally the walls between break down, and fusion
occurs. A late stage in the fusion of the nuclei is shown in
Figure 7. The two centers with their respective chromatin
systems are still separate. (The one on the left is cut
through). The nucleoli have already fused into one large nu¬
cleolus. The ascus at this stage is about half-grown. It is
well rounded out except where it presses against an adjoining
ascus. The fusion nucleus is about the size of the average
primary nucleus.
The most frequent and conspicuous stage foimd in Micro¬
sphaera is that of the primary nucleus. It persists from the
time of the relatively early fusion in the young ascus, until
the ascus has reached its full development. It grows very lit¬
tle after fusion is complete. There is an abundance of chro¬
matin, which readily stains a dense blue. This is at first ar¬
ranged in irregular strands which occasionally appear double,
and always cross and interweave in a tangled net. A large
nucleolus is always present, most frequently slightly flattened
against the nuclear membrane. The center is most difficult of
demonstration, partly because the chromatin stains so heavily
and is so abundant as to hide the center. Moreover, metachrm
matic bodies are particularly abundant at this stage, espe¬
cially in cases of poor fixation. These bodies occur just out¬
side the nucleus, often at a point where two or more chromatin
strands touch the nuclear membrane, and may obscure the
central body. Faull believes that these metachromatic bodies
are normal cell products, since they are always present about
the primary nucleus but disappear in later stages. However,
this disappearance may indicate merely that fixation is more
perfect at these later stages.
742 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts , and Letters.
At a later stage, the chromatin appears much reduced in
volume and lies massed in a hall against one side of the nu¬
clear membrane. From this apparently synaptic mass thin
chromatin strands again extend into the nuclear cavity..
Finally there appears a well developed spirem plainly oriented
on the central body (Fig. 6). In the uninucleated stage, it is
only where the chromatin is pretty well washed out that the
center appears as such. It is then a very dark, disc-shaped
body pressed close against the nuclear membrane.
The perithecium has now grown to its full size, and has as
many cell layers as when fully ripe. The outer layer of cells
begins to show a differentiation into an upper and an under
region, which is due to a thickening of the walls on the upper
surface while the cells on the under side remain thin-walled
and contain normal protoplasm and nuclei. The cell lumen is
diminished by the thickening of the walls and is .almost emp¬
ty of protoplasm, while even at this stage the walls contain
a brown pigment and are hard and brittle. Neger (21) first
pointed out this differentiation, and described the thin flexi¬
ble walls of the lower cells as caving in when the perithecium
is dried out, and bulging out as the cells absorb moisture and
become turgid. This alternate drying and swelling of the cells
would loosen the perithecium from its mycelium. A second¬
ary mycelium, such as is found in Phyllactinia (13), springs
also from these lower living cells, and intertwines with the
original mycelium covering the leaf.
The transition cells in the equatorial region, midway be¬
tween the upper and under halves of the outer layer of the per-
itheeial wall, give rise by the extension of their cell walls to
the appendages. These grow out in a circle about the middle
of the perithecium and are directed upward from the leaf sur- ,
face.
The primary nucleus of the ascus undergoes three successive
divisions, giving rise to two, four, and finally to eight nuclei,
all of which form spores.
I find in an early prophase of the first division two centers
about 90° apart, each with a large aster of long, fine rays, and
a broad brush of fibers extending into the nucleus (Fig. 8).,
Sands — Spore Formation in Microsphaera Alni. 743
The two centers with their asters probably originate here as
elsewhere from the division of the single central body of the
resting lindens, and of a single aster developed earlier in the
prophase. The two sets of fibers meet below the center of the
nucleus, where they cross and interlace; some of the fibers ap¬
pear to be continuous from one center to the other. At the nu¬
clear membrane, where the broad centers are attached to the
intranuclear bundles of fibers, there is a conspicuous non-stain¬
ing region. Some of the peripheral fibers can be traced to the
disc, but most of them fade abruptly just before reaching the
-central body, leaving an apparent space (Fig. 81. The so-
called “achromatic” fibers at this stage stain quite as densely
as the chromatic parts of the nucleus, so that the chromosomes
cannot be clearly distinguished. I have not found the later
stages of this division.
The binucleated stage of the ascus following the first divi¬
sion is easily distinguished from the binucleated condition be¬
fore fusion, both by the mature size of the ascus, and by the
older appearance of the whole perithecium. The two* outer
cell layers on the upper side of the perithecium have thick
brown walls, and the appendages have nearly reached their fi¬
nal length.
A resting nucleus at this stage has a prominent center to
which the chromatin is plainly attached; the center is always
readily seen as a little cap just outside of, and closely pressed
against, the nuclear membrane.
One of the most common division figures in my material is
the equatorial plate stage of the second division. The spindle
usually lies transversely in the ascus, with eight chromosomes
arranged on the equatorial plate. The asters are inconspicu¬
ous, with fine, delicate rays that fade into the cytoplasm. Bie-
tween the centers and the spindle poles, light areas are found
as in the first division. The four nuclei resulting from this
division do not differ from those of the two-nucleated stage,
except that they are somewhat smaller (Fig. 11).
The third division is ushered in by a division of the center.
Most frequently the centers are far apart-— 100° or 120° —
when the asters and spindle fibers are well developed. The as-
744 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts , and Letters.
ters are particularly striking; their rays are like short, stiff
bristles, and densely stained. There is the same colorless space
between the center and the darkly-stained spindle fibers as in.
the two preceding divisions (Fig. 10). This whole stage of
spindle formation bears a very close resemblance to the same
stage in Erysiphe (6).
There are eight chromosomes on the equatorial plate and
many more in the metaphases. The astral rays grow longer
and become much finer, and, as the spindle often lies close to
the ascus wall, they may be seen bending away from the wall
toward the interior of the ascus. A small light zone still ap¬
pears at each pole of the completed spindle.
The process of spore formation in Microsphaera alni is en¬
tirely like that described by Harper in detail for Erysiphe
communis (11), and more recently for Phyllactinia suffulta
(13), and corroborated by various authors (8, 19) for many
other Ascomycetes.
The eight nuclei formed by the third division retain their
asters ; from these there continue to grow out long, fine threads
which become more numerous. From the beginning the asters
are turned toward the periphery of the ascus (Fig. 12). With
the growth of the asters the nuclei become beaked. The cen¬
ter is situated at the summit of the beak, and from it chroma¬
tin strands run back into the nuclear cavity. During the proc¬
ess of beak formation, the nucleus with its aster shifts its po¬
sition, so that it lies a little farther in from the ascus wall (Fig.
12). At this time the rays next the nucleus begin to curve
back about it; more bend over in the same way, until a cone-
shaped opening is formed in the midst of the aster. This
folding back continues until the majority of the fibers lie in
one plane, which forms a hemispherical covering over the
beaked nucleus. Some of the fibers bend further, pass below
this surface, and are finally enclosed within the spore (Figs.
13> 15)*
As yet there is no differentiation of the protoplasm within
the ascus; the fibers continue to grow in length, cutting
through a homogeneous cytoplasm. That the lateral fusion
of the rays begins early, as is shown by the plasmolysis of the
Sands — Spore Formation in Microsphaera Alni. 745
upper end of the spore in shrunken material, has been pointed
out by Harper (13). This shrinkage of the upper end of the
spore often occurs long before the spore-plasm is delimited
and when there is no sign of a hyaline zone or of any othei
differentiation in the cytoplasm to indicate the position of the
future spore membrane. The cytoplasm facing the cleft made
by the shrinkage is ragged and without a definite boundary,
while the end of the spore is smoothly rounded off and has a
continuous outline.
The fusion of the rays progresses slowlv toward the interior
of the ascus, following the longer fibers which have grown past
the nucleus and are now converging toward a point opposite
the central body and some distance below the nucleus. These
advance fibers mark the path of the plasma membrane, passing
into its composition as the fusion progresses. These stages
look like Faull’s figures of the hyaline zone, but the fibers al¬
ways stain blue and do not increase in thickness.
The cleft formed by the shrinkage either of the spore or of
the surrounding epiplasm narrows from the center outward
along the plasma membrane which covers the upper part of
the spore-plasm. When the epiplasm is shrunken, it is thick¬
ened at its inner edge simulating a membrane, so that at first
glance it suggests two plasma membranes developing from the
center outward, such as Faull describes. Closer scrutiny,
however, proves the absence of a membrane on the surface of
the epiplasm facing the opening. This cleft, of course, may
almost surround the spore, or it may only cap it, according to
the stage of development of the plasma membrane of the spore.
The kinoplasmic fibers finally meet at a point below the nu¬
cleus, having cut through the cytoplasm so as exactly to enclose
an ellipsoidal mass of protoplasm, in the upper end of which
lies the nucleus, still attached by its center to the new
plasma membrane (Figs. 13, 14). The beak has been greatly
elongated, but is still traversed by chromatin strands con¬
nected to the centrosome. Sometimes the nucleus is swung
to one side and lies against the plasma membrane of the spore
(Fig- 14)-
After the fibers have completely fused, so that the spore-
746 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts , and Letters.
plasm is actually separated from tlie epiplasm, the center
breaks away from the plasma membrane and the beak of the
nucleus is slowly drawn in. There remain traces of the fibers
which did not take part in the fusion, but these soon disappear
(Fig. 15). While resuming its normal spherical shape, the
nucleus moves down into the center of the spore mass and lies
there in a resting condition, the chromatin in an irregular re¬
ticulum .always oriented on the large center (Fig. 16).
Between the spore membrane and the surrounding proto¬
plasm, a space appears in which the spore wall is finally de¬
posited. The epiplasm is often thickened along this space, but
still has no limiting membrane. The spore wall is at first
a faint blue line (Fig. 16), but when completed it is a thick,
dense coat, and the epiplasm is no longer drawn back from it.
With the ripening of the spores the perithecium reaches its
maturity. The dark, thick walls of the cells on the upper sur¬
face have become so hard and brittle that they invariably break
in sectioning, while the cells on the under side retain their thin
walls and appear in normal living condition. How much this
differentiation is due to the drying out of the upper exposed
surface of the fruit body, while the lower cells are protected
from too great loss of moisture, could only be estimated by
comparison with other mildews ; however, Erysiphe and Phyl-
lactinia give np evidence on this point, and FT eger’s view (21,
22) as to the functional difference may be accepted for the
present. The appendages grow to great length and branch
profusely at their extremities. They contain protoplasm and
a large elongated nucleus which iies just below the dichoto-
mously branched end. The walls, though thin and transpar¬
ent-, are very brittle.
GENERAL CONCLUSIONS.
All the stages in the life history of Microsphaera thus far
studied show that the central body is a permanent structure of
the nucleus, and that it is present not only as a definitely dif¬
ferentiated body, but also as a point of -attachment for the chro¬
matin.
The central body is nowhere more easily demonstrated than
Sands — Spore Formation in Microsphaera Alni. 747
in the nuclei of the vegetative mycelium (Figs. 1-3) ; it is con¬
spicuous in the ascogone (Fig. 4) and ascogenous hyphae, and,
with the exception of the primary nucleus where it is some¬
times obscured by the abundant chromatin content, it is a
prominent feature of the nuclei of the ascus, both in the rest¬
ing condition and in division. Finally, it is present during
spore formation and in the resting spores.
The chromatin is in every case plainly connected with the
central body, either by direct contact or attached by means of
kinoplasmic fibers. In the larger nuclei the central body lies
at the apex of a cone of chromatin strands, while in the small¬
er nuclei, although the chromatin is plainly attached to the cen¬
ter, the strands cannot be made out, and it appears evenly gran¬
ular.
The center is always an extranuclear body, and my obser¬
vations differ radically from those of Maire and Guilliermond
on this point. In polar and oblique views it may, to be sure,
appear to be within the nuclear membrane, and I am inclined
to suspect that, as some of their figures seem to suggest, the in¬
tranuclear centers described by Maire and Guilliermond may
be accounted for in this way, or the centers may have been
actually drawn into the interior of the nucleus as a result of
poor fixation. Their descriptions of spindle formation, by the
division and migration of the centers and the differentiation
of spindle fibers, agree with the process observed in Micro¬
sphaera, and it is to be noted that when the spindle is complete
the centers at the poles are described by them as on or very
near the nuclear membrane. However, Maire’s description of
the formation (of the polar aster from cytoplasmic fibers which
radiate from the nucleus is entirely different from anything I
have found in Microsphaera , where the asters consist of kino¬
plasmic rays formed about the central body just before divi¬
sion occurs.
The synaptic mass, as described by these authors, has no such
definite position in the nucleus as in Microsphaera. The pres¬
ence of the central body, which is in continuous connection
46— S. & A.
748 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts, and Letters.
with the chromatin, locates a polar region where the chromatin
must aggregate when contracted.
Maire’s further attempt! to bring the divisions of the nuclei
of the aseus into harmony with the latest views regarding re¬
duction division in the higher plants has led to his adoption
not only of the fusion of two spirems, as described by Allen
(1) for Lilium , but also the pairing of protochromosomes to
form the real chromosomes, comparable to the formation of
Strasburger’s zygosomes (23).
It is also plain in Microsphaera that the delimitation of the
spores is accomplished by the activity of the astral rays which
persist from the third nuclear division. As described, the
growth and increase in number of the astral rays is accompa¬
nied by the formation of a beak on the polar end of the nucleus
(Fig. 12). At the same time, the nucleus and aster move
away from the aseus wall toward the interior of the ascus.
The fibers bend down around the nucleus and grow in a curved
line toward a point directly below the nucleus, where they fi¬
nally meet. Lateral fusion of the rays begins at the polar re¬
gion and progresses outward toward the base of the spore,
forming a complete membrane about the ovoid mass of proto¬
plasm, which, with the enclosed nucleus, forms the ascospore.
The motion of the fibers through the cytoplasm cannot be due
to crowding resulting from an outward movement of the nuclei
toward the wall as Faull suggests, for at this time in Micro -
sphaera the nucleus and the aster move in from the ascus wall.
His other hypothesis that the “centrosome is a dynamic center
and the rays an expression of cytoplasmic activity controlled
by the nucleus,” causing the rays “to turn toward the bulk of
cytoplasm which lies centrad of the centrosome,” is based
on a confusion of two entirely separate views of the centro-
some, first as a dynamic center, and second as a center of meta¬
bolic activity. It seems probable, however, that the rays
are something more than cytoplasmic particles arranged along
lines of force, since, as described above, after they have begun
to fuse they can be separated from the cytoplasm by plasmo ly¬
sis. Faullk further argument that the bending of the rays
throws them further apart rather than brings them closer to-
Sands — Spore Formation in Microsphaera Alni. 749
getter, so that fusion is impossible, shows that he is here
thinking not of adjacent but of opposite rays. The rays which
fuse, of course, are those going to the same side of the future
spore.
The figures of the beaked nucleus with its aster within the
plasma membrane of the spore, which F anil regards as con¬
clusive evidence that the rays take no part in forming the
spores, may be explained, as noted, as polar views of spore
formation by astral rays. This can be readily seen by com¬
paring Faull’s figures (5, Figs. 27, 28, 29, 34, 35) with an ob¬
lique view of a spore of Phyllactinia during the formation of
the plasma membrane as described by Harper (13, PL 7, Fig.
81). Further, the mildews regularly show the presence of
more or less numerous rays which lie inside the plane of fu¬
sion and so exist as free, separate fibers within the plasma
membrane after the spore is delimited, but this, of course, is
no evidence that the plasma membrane was not formed by the
fusion of other rays of the original aster. In some cases the
plasma membrane retains a ribbed appearance such as Moves
(20) describes in the formation of the “ Schwanzmanchette”
in the spermatogenesis of the guinea pig. Traces of the fibers
may persist even after the nuclear beak is withdrawn1 (Fig.
15). Faull assumes that the enclosed rays are either the en¬
tire original aster or are newly formed, a conclusion which is^
of course, unjustified. His figures of this stage (5, Figs. 26,.
30, 31) agree entirely with the same stages in Microsphaera
(Figs. 13, 14, 15). That the rays do actually fuse is proved
by plasmolysis such as is found in shrunken material where
the spore is pulled away from the cytoplasm. A careful study
of Faulks paper leads inevitably to the conclusion that the ap¬
parent disagreement of his conception of spore formation with
that here described is due not so much to a difference in the
figures actually observed, as to a failure on his part to analyze
carefully the results of his observations.
Finally, it may be noted that the stages studied give no evi¬
dence of the existence of a series of “synkaryons” in Micro¬
sphaera 9 such as Maire describes for Galactinia succosa (14,
750 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts , and Letters .
19). In the perithecium the nurse cells may have two or more
nuclei, while the binucleated cells of the ascogenous hvphae be¬
come the asci.
BIBLIOGRAPHY.
1. Allen, C. E. : Nuclear division in the pollen mother-
cells of Lilium canadense. Ann . Bot ., xix: 189. 1905.
2. Blackman, V. H. : On the fertilization, alternation of
generations and general cytology of the Uredineae.
Ann. Bot., xviii: 323. 1904.
3. Christman, A. H. : Sexual reproduction in the rusts.
Bot. Gaz ., xix: 207. 1905.
4. Dangeard, P. A. : Recherches sur le developpement du
perithece chez les Ascomycetes. Le Botaniste , 9e ser.
1904.
5. Eaull, J. H. : Development of the ascus and spore for¬
mation in Ascomycetes. Proc. Boston Soc. Nat. Hist.,
xxxii: 77. 1905.
6. Guilliermond, A.: Contribution a h etude cytologique
des Ascomycetes. C. R . de VAcad. des Sci ., 1903.
7. - : Sur la karyokinese de Peziza rutilans. C. R. de
la Soc. de Biol., lvi : 412. 1904.
8. - : Remarques sur la karyokinese des Ascomycetes.
Annales Mycologici, iii: 343. 1905.
9. Harper, R. A. : Beitrage zur Kenntniss der Xemteil-
ung und Sporenbildung im Ascus. Ber. d. Deutsch .
Bot. Gesell. xiii: i67. 1895.
10. - : Die Entwicklung des Peritheeiums bei Sphae -
rotheca castagnei. Ber. d. Deutsch. Bot. Gesell., xiii:
475. 1895.
11. - : Kemteilung und freie Zellbildung im Ascus.
Jahrb. f. wiss. Bot., xxx: 249. 1897.
12. - : Cell division in sporangia and asci. Ann. Bot.,
xiii: 476. 1899.
13. - : Sexual reproduction and the organization of the
nucleus in certain mildews. Carnegie Inst, of Wash¬
ington , Pub. 37. 1905.
14. Maire, R. : Recherches cytologiques sur le Galactinid sue -
cosa. C. R. de VAcad. des Sci., cxxxvii: 769. 1903.
Sands — Spore Formation in Microsphaera Alni. 751
15. - : La formation des asques chez les Pezizes et
revolution nucleaire des Ascomvcetes. G. R. de la Soc .
de Biol., lv: 1401. 1903.
16. - : Bemarques sur la cytologie de quelques Ascomyce-
tes. C . R. de la Soc. de Biol., lvi : 86. 1904.
17. - : Sur les divisions nucleaires dans 1’asque de la
morille et de quelques autres Ascomycetes. G. R. de la
Soc. de Biol., lvi : 822. 1904.
18. - : La mitose heterotypique et la signification des
protochromosomes chez les Basidiomycetes. G. R. de
la Soc. de Biol., lviii: 726. 1905.
19. - 3 Becherches cytologiques sur quelques Ascomy¬
cetes. Annales Mycologici , iii: 123. 1905.
20. Meves, F. : Ueber Struktur und Histogenese der Samen-
faden des Meerschweinchens. Arch. f. mihr . Anat., liv:
329. 1899.
21. FTeger,, F. W. : Beitrage zur Biologie der Erysipheen.
Flora , Ixxxviii : 333. 1901.
22. - : Neue Beobachtungen fiber das spontane Freiwer-
den der Erysipheenfruchtkorper. Gentralbl. f. Baht.
Parasii. u. Infeht., x: 570. 1903.
23. Strasburgeb, E. : liber Beduktionsteilung. Sitzungs-
ber. d. Eon. Preuss. Acad. d. Wiss., Halbbd. i: 587.
1904.
752 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts , and Letters .
Figs. 1,2.
Fig. 3.
Fig. 4.
Fig. 5.
Fig. 6.
Fig. 7.
Fig. 8.
Fig. 9.
Fig. 10.
Fig. 11.
Fig. 12.
Fig. 13.
Fig. 14.
Fig. 15.
Fig. 16.
EXPLANATION OF PLATE XLVI.
Vegetative cells. Nuclei showing relation of chromatin and
centers.
Hyphal cell from the mycelium, showing nucleus with central
body.
Young ascogone showing one nucleus with its center, and one
of the cells of the hyphal envelop.
Young ascus, with two nuclei before fusion.
Primary nucleus, spirem stage.
Late stage in fusion of the two nuclei; centers and chromatin
systems still separate. Ascus about one-half mature size.
Spindle formation, first division of primary nucleus.
Spindle, second division.
Formation of spindles in third division.
Four-nucleated stage, two of the nuclei showing chromatin
oriented on the central bodies.
Eight-nucleated stage, showing the persistent asters and the
folding over of the rays.
Stage in spore formation; two spores completely delimited;
traces of the rays remain.
Spore formation, showing extreme lengthening of nuclear beak.
Nucleus resuming spherical form by withdrawal of beak. Traces
of astral rays.
Complete spores, wall being deposited.
Trans. Wis. Acad., Vol. XV.
v \
,£§ ST*
- A #
2 3 > J- 4
M. C. Sands del.
«*
CYTOLOGICAL STUDIES ON CERATIOMYXA.
EDGAR W. OLIVE.
(With Plate XLVII.)
Ceratiomyxa lias long remained the sole representative of
the Exosporeae among the Myxomycetes. The following in¬
vestigation seeks to add certain cytological details to the ad¬
mirably clear and fairly complete description of the develop¬
ment of the fructification of this organism by Famintzin and
Woronin in 1873. The present preliminary study has led to
the interesting discovery that the nuclear divisions which re¬
sult in the formation of the four-nucleated spores are appar¬
ently reduction divisions. Consequently, while convinced that
a sexual fusion occurs somewhere in the life cycle of Ceratio¬
myxa, I have not yet been able, however, to solve the problem
as to where such a fusion occurs.1
As pointed out by Famintzin and Woronin, Ceratiomyxa
was first described and figured by Micheli in 17291, and later
by many other observers. Its life history and affinities were
not understood, however, until the investigation of the Russian
i Since this article went to press, the fusion of the nuclei in pairs
was found to take place toward the close of the cleavage stage; this
was followed almost immediately by synapsis. A paper on the subject
was read at the December meeting of the A. A. A. S., which was sum¬
marized later in Science (Olive, ’07). The view was therein expressed
that the conditions in Ceratiomyxa are somewhat similar to those in
the rusts, in that the three morphological stages of the sexual cycle
are similarly spaced; i. e., the cell fusions in both organisms are far
removed from the final nuclear and chromatin fusions. A little later,
Jahn (’07) published an account of nuclear fusions and division in
Ceratiomyxa, which differs widely from that described by the writer.
Jahn finds nuclear fusions as well as reduction divisions occurring at
a much earlier stage than I. The two later divisions in the young spore
he apparently regards merely as vegetative divisions. The shrunken,
synapsis-like condition described ip, the present paper Jahn apparently
has not seen.
754 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts , and Letters.
authors above referred to. Famintzin and Woronin in their
classic on this organism have traced its development with ad¬
mirable completeness from the very first appearance of the
minute plasmodial masses to the formation of the mature fruc¬
tification. They were not able, however, to follow the earlier
vegetative development within the woody tissues of the sub¬
stratum. But they supplement their observations on the for¬
mation of the fructification with figures showing the peculiar
germination of the spores, and the final formation of young
myxamoebae and of larger amoeboid masses which they re¬
gard as young plasmodia.
I will review in some detail Famintzin and Woronin’s ac¬
count of the development of Ceratiomyxa hydnoides, since,
with one or two exceptions, it agrees substantially with my
own observations, at least so far as I have been able to carry
them.
Minute, cushion-like masses of fructifying protoplasm first
appear at points on the surface of the dead wood in which the
organism has passed its vegetative existence. As these plasmo¬
dial masses .increase in size by the addition of more protoplasm
from beneath, the upper surface of each becomes more or less
regularly papillated. With still further growth outward from
the substratum, these papillae push out into long finger-like
projections, which may remain simple or which may during
their development become branched. The authors next ob¬
served that, as these projections grow outward, the protoplasm
in each streams gradually to the surface, so that quite early in
its development two distinct substances were noted — an inner
transparent, jelly-like substance, and an outer meshwork of ac¬
tively streaming, opaque protoplasm. Even the base of the
fructification, as well as the middle core, is finally entirely de¬
serted by the upward streaming, peripheral protoplasm. The
outer thin zone of protoplasm is next represented as forming a
more or less compact, thimble-shaped mass (“gleich dieken
Schicht,” p. 3), with irregular lacunae, and in this condition
it becomes cut up by simultaneous cleavage into a multitude of
uninucleated segments. When viewed now from the surface,
the segments present an epithelium-like appearance of closely-
Olive — Cytologiml Studies on Ceratiomyxa. 755
set polygonal pieces. Viewed sidewise, they are at first much
flattened, with a level outer surface. Soon, however, each uni-
nucleated protoplast, now independent in its further move¬
ment, arches' outward, becomes cylindrical, and finally is dif¬
ferentiated into a constricted stalk portion and a spherical
swollen end. At first, the stalk as well as the spherical end is
filled with protoplasm ; but later, all the protoplasm appears to
move out into the rounded end, leaving the stalk as a slender,
apparently empty filament, two to five times as long as the
spore. The end portion, which is destined to become the spore,
finally cuts itself off sharply from the stalk, and changes from
a globular to an oval form.
According to Famintzin and Woronin, the development of
Ceratiomyxa takes place at definite times of the day and night.
They state that the plasmodium first appears on the surface at
about three o’clock in the morning. From that time on
it grows rapidly, and by evening of the same day the fructifi¬
cation reaches its full size. The formation of the superficial
plasma-zone wTas observed about eight or nine o’clock p. m. ;
the cutting up into segments about midnight; the first begin¬
ning of the formation of the spore-bearing structures about one
to 1 :30 o’clock a. m. In the early morning hours, they noted
mature spores. Thus only about 24 to 26 hours are required
for the complete formation of the fructification.
Their account of the germination of the spores of Ceratio¬
myxa shows interesting deviations from the usual type of ger¬
mination seen in other Myxomycetes. According to these au¬
thors, the germination in Ceratiomyxa takes place after the
spores have stood about thirty hours in water in which a bit
of dead wood has been soaked. The naked protoplasmic con¬
tents of the spore remain for some time in one spot, showing
slight amoeboid movements. It then proceeds to divide by con¬
striction, first into two like parts, then into four, then into eight.
In about an hour after casting off the spore wall, there are
thus formed from each spore eight swarm-spores. After swarm¬
ing for some time, these lose their cilia and become myxamoe-
bae. The formation of plasmodia, and the further vegetative de-
756 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts , and Letters.
velopment, as mentioned above, were not followed out by Fa-
mintzin and Woronin.
Lister, in bis monograph (’94), added one point of interest
concerning the mature spores of Ceratiomyxa, in that he show¬
ed that each contains four “nucleus-like bodies.’7 Famintzin
and Woronin had already shown that there was but one nucleus
in each newly-formed segment; and even in the young stalked
structure (see their Figs. 15, 16, PL 2; Fig. 12, PI. 3), they
figure but one.
Jahn (’05) has quite recently asserted that these two succes¬
sive divisions in the young spore of Ceratiomyxa occur just
after the stalk is fully formed. Jahn has also studied the
later division, which occurs during the germination of the
spore to form the eight swarm-spores.
The most of the material used in this investigation was fix¬
ed in various, chromic-acetic-osmic acid mixtures, and sections
were stained either withl the triple stain, or with iron-alum-
haematoxylin. I am indebted to Miss A. F. Dean for some
of the later stages of spore formation. The work has been
done for the most part at intervals during the past three years
while serving at Bonn and at Madison as a research assistant
of the Carnegie Institution of Washington.
A longitudinal section through a young fructification is
shown in Figure 1. )This is the youngest stage which I have
succeeded in obtaining, and it represents a mass of protoplasm
about 175/X--200/A in thickness above the substratum. At this
early stage, when the plasmodium has only just begun to creep
out as rounded jelly-like masses, we see that it is made up of
a very dense protoplasmic meshwork. As shown in the draw¬
ing, dejp, narrow furrows cut into the outer surface ; while the
inner portion appears to be full of irregular lacunae, which
contain a slimy substance. Numerous nuclei also are seen,
scattered irregularly throughout the protoplasm.
From the dense reticulum making up the cushion-like mass
shown in section in Figure 1, there are now sent up finger-like
projections, which are destined finally to bear on their surface
the exogenous spores. Figure 2 shows a cross section of one of
these cylindrical outgrowths, when in a half mature condition.
Olive — Cytologiaal Studies on Cemthmyxa. 757
'Such a section is from an outgrowth fixed at about a similar
stage of development to those shown in Famintzin and Woro-
nin’s Figures 6 and 8, in which the strands of protoplasm are
seen to branch intricately and to anastomose and to form a loose
reticulum. Figure 2 shows clearly that the protoplasmic por¬
tion now occupies a peripheral position, while a poorly stain¬
ing material, apparently of a gelatinous, slimy nature, fills the
center of the cylinder and the interstices between the plasmo-
dial strands. In Figure 3 is shown a highly magnified portion
of a plasmodium in a somewhat advanced stage of develop¬
ment, with four strands of protoplasm imbedded in a jelly-like,
slimy matrix. Figure 10 shows a stage near the completion
of the development of the sporiferous outgrowth, which has
now grown to a few millimeters in height. The figure repre¬
sents a median longitudinal section through the tip of one of
the cylindrical projections. Obviously the protoplasm has now
crept entirely to the periphery and has been cut up into num¬
berless minute pieces — the young spores, or “protospores,” as
they may be termed (Harper ’991) — each of which contains at
this stage, as was shown by the Russian authors, a single nu¬
cleus. The middle portion of the section is filled with a form¬
less substance — the gelatinous axis.
It is made quite apparent by a comparison of Figures 1, 2
and 10 that, as these structures develop, the jelly-like substance
becomes enormously increased in amount; while, on the other
hand, the granular protoplasm comes to occupy only a relative¬
ly small part of the fructification. Indeed, the whole axis of
the mature sporophore is formed of slime — a dead substance
apparently excreted and left behind by the protoplasm in its
upward and peripheral movement.
A further point of special interest brought out by a compar¬
ison of successive stages is the fact that while at first the retic¬
ulum forms a dense mass on the substratum, with thick
strands and relatively small lacunae, later the reticulum be¬
comes loose and expanded, the anastomosing strands small and
the interprotoplasmic spaces relatively large. Such a phenome¬
non is unique among Myxomycetes ; for the formation of spo¬
rangia and aethalia is apparently attended with a continued
758 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts , and Letters.
contraction of the protoplasmic reticulum, and not by a grad¬
ual expansion of the meshwork, as in Ceratiomyxa.
The cleavage which has taken place to form the uninucleated
cells shown in Figure 10 requires here a special discussion. It
will he remembered that, as the cylindrical sporophores grow
both in length and breadth, the protoplasmic meshwork in each
creeps gradually to the surface, there to form, according to
Famintzin and Woronin, a superficial zone of equal thickness,
composed of more or less compact protoplasm, with small, ir¬
regular lacunae. They state that in this condition a simulta¬
neous cleavage into uninucleated segments occurs. But their
one figure illustrating the process (Fig. 11, PI. 2) does not ap¬
pear to warrant such an unqualified conclusion, since, while the
upper portion of the sporophore is shown to be completely cut
up, the lower part, on the other hand, still contains some pro¬
toplasm in process of division. In my own preparations, also,
there is abundant evidence to warrant the conclusion that the
cutting up of the protoplasm of a sporophore is not simultane¬
ous, but is a progressive process. But the phenomenon in this
instance undoubtedly takes place very rapidly, and probably
in much less time, comparatively, than in the case of the thick
masses of spore-plasm in the aethalia of Fuligo and in other
forms.
In Figure 4 is shown a four-nucleated fragment undergoing
cleavage. Surface furrows have begun to1 cut the mass into uni¬
nucleated pieces. Hear this mass in the preparation are other
fragments of varying size, which are also partially cut up ;
while in still other neighboring localities, in the same section,
cleavage is already complete, resulting in a multitude of round¬
ed. uninucleated cells, two of which are shown in Figures 8
and 9. Obviously the protoplasm in one part of a sporophore
may be thus in a more advanced state of cleavage than in an¬
other part. Other instances point unmistakably to this conclu¬
sion. For example, in many sections the sporophores show
some rounded, uninucleated fragments, apparently attached to
the surface of the slimy axis ; while immediately beneath these
rounded cells occur irregular strands of protoplasm, imbedded
in the slime. It is plain that only a part of the protoplasm
Olive — Cytologioal Studies on Cemtmnyxa. 759
has in this case reached the surface. Undoubtedly in these in¬
stances certain strands have reached the surface and have been
at once cut up, while still other strands continue for a time
their creeping movements, finally to reach the surface. Such
observations clearly differ markedly from those of Famintzin
and Woronin, who concluded that just before cleavage the pro¬
toplasm forms over the surface of the sporophore a more or
less compact, thin layer, of equal thickness. Again, spherical,
multinucleated masses, containing a varying number of nuclei,
often occur. Probably in such instances certain strands
reached the surface and ceased their streaming movement,
then became cut up into pieces of irregular size, which at once
proceeded to round up. I have not yet seen how such frag¬
ments are still further cut up into uninucleated pieces. Possi¬
bly creeping may again be resumed before cleavage occurs ; or,
it may be that cleavage furrows cut directly into the spherical
mass.
Figure 5 illustrates the final constriction of a binucleated
fragment of the plasmodium. Such a method of simple con¬
striction is apparently of common occurrence, since I have ob¬
served quite frequently chains of several such Amoebeirlike
cells connected thus by means of slender isthmuses. Such a
phenomenon is obviously the result of the cleavage of an ex¬
tremely thin strand or filament of protoplasm, which has been
drawn out to a filament only one nucleus thick. When Figure
5 is compared with Figure 4, one might at first come to the
erroneous conclusion that here are represented two quite dis¬
similar methods of cleavage. But in reality these figures show
entire similarity in the essentials of the process. In the in¬
stance illustrated in Figure 4, the protoplasmic strand is sim¬
ply thicker at the time of cleavage than that shown in Figure 5.
Such a thick strand could obviously result either from the fail¬
ure to creep out to the extreme degree of attenuation ; or from
the massing, or piling up in places of the proto¬
plasm of a filament. Further, creeping movements appear to
be in progress in the late stage of cleavage shown in Figure 5,
as evidenced by the two cells separating, or pulling apart, after
the manner of a dividing Amoeba. In some cases, the attenu-
760 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts, and Letters.
ated strand connecting the dividing cells persists nntil it be¬
comes stretched out to a length equal to two or three times the
diameter of the cells. But in such a thick strand as that
shown in Figure 4, the narrow cleavage furrows indicate
that the creeping movements have, on the other hand, appar¬
ently ceased entirely. I have no evidence as to whether or not
the furrows in such instances become broader during the later
stages of the process, thus evidencing the resumption of the
creeping movements before cleavage is finished.
It is apparent from the above description that cleavage oc¬
curs at the end of a comparatively long period of active up¬
ward movement of the fructifying reticulum. During this
period of growth, the strands become in general more and more
attenuated, and at the same time the whole reticulum moves
to the periphery of the sporophore. Cleavage therefore occurs
at the culmination of the upward growth of the sporophore;
apparently only when the strands, either in a state of extreme
attenuation (Fig. 5) or in thicker masses (Fig. 4), have
reached the periphery of the gelatinous axis which forms the
slimy, watery substratum through which the protoplasm has
crept.
As stated above, cleavage may be at a given moment more
advanced in one part of a sporophore than in another part.
The process sometimes varies similarly in a group of sporo-
phores, although, in general, contiguous sporophores are usual¬
ly at about the same stage of maturity; while those farthest
separated in the group are, on the other hand, apt to differ
widely in their degree of advancement.
Although poorly stained in the preparation, the nuclei shown
in the uninucleated cells of Figure 10 appear to be, when ex¬
amined closely with high power, strikingly large and conspicu¬
ous. Such a condition is much better shown in Figures 6-0.
In the preparation from which Figures 6-9 were drawn, hun¬
dreds of similar rounded cells lie in each section of the series,
although there are also a few multinucleated fragments, such
as are shown in Figure 4, which have not yet been completely
cut up. Such a preparation represents the condition of the
protoplasm near the close of cleavage; while in Figure 10,
Olive — Cytological Studies on C eratiormyxd. 7,61
cleavage is already completed. It was the occurrence of these
large cells, with their large, conspicuous nuclei, which first
struck my attention some years ago and which led to this study.
The chromatin of the majority of such nuclei appears contract¬
ed, as shown in Figures 7-91, and lying eccentrically in the large
nuclear cavity. Such a phenomenon at once recalls the condition
which has been characterized as synapsis. Frequently the mass
can he seen to be joined to the nuclear membrane by means of
a slender connection (Fig. 7), thus showing, presumably,
its polarized character. In the binucleated cell shown in Fig¬
ure 7, both of the nuclei appear to be in early synapsis. A
similar condition obtains in the four-nucleated mass illustra¬
ted in Figure 4. From a comparison of these figures, we note
that this synaptic condition begins either near the close of
cleavage (see Figs. 4 and 7), or at about the time cleavage is
completed (Figs. 8 and 9). There is as yet no indication of
shrinkage of the chromatin seen in the uninucleated cell
shown in Figure 6, which represents the condition of a few
cells scattered here and there among those figured in Figures
8 and 9, but I am inclined to think that this indicates a stage
immediately preceding synapsis.
Should these figures indeed truly represent, as I firmly be¬
lieve, a synaptic state of the nuclei, we must conclude that this
condition lasts only a comparatively short time; this being
quite at variance with the long period which is said to characr
terize synapsis in certain plants (Allen, ?05). Famintzin and
Woronin state that from the beginning of the uninucleated con¬
dition up to the formation of mature spores takes only about
five to six hours. Since part of this time, as we shall now see,
must be given up to the two nuclear divisions which take place
in the developing spore? it is obvious that only a few hours at
best are left for the nuclei to pass completely through the con¬
dition resembling synapsis.
That this peculiar condition of the nuclei, which lasts
through nearly the whole of the subsequent spore formation, is
a natural phenomenon and not an artifact is indicated by the
two divisions which closely follow. First, however, attention
should be called to the fact that, in Ceratiomyxa, the division
762 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts , and Letters.
of the nuclei does not take place before spore formation, as has
been described for other Myxomycetes, but rather after the
event. I have never been able, in fact, to find any sign of nu¬
clear division in the active fructifying plasmodium of this
form previous to cleavage. After the short period of rest fol¬
lowing cleavage, the large nucleus of each protospore proceeds
to divide twice in rapid succession (Figs. 11-14). These
divisions are not, according to my interpretation, of the nature
of an intrasporal germination, but they are similar rather to
the double division seen in spore mother-cells. These two suc¬
cessive divisions, occurring as they do in this place, immediate¬
ly following the condition so closely resembling synapsis, fur¬
nish, to my mind, convincing evidence that we have here to do
with a reduction division, following a true synapsis. The im¬
portant bearing of these facts I hope to take up later ; we may,
however^ simply observe in passing that, in my opinion, these
phenomena clearly establish a nuclear fusion somewhere in
the preceding life history of Ceratiomyxa. It should be here
noted, in fact, that Prowazek (?04) has recently figured sec¬
tions of the plasmodium of Physarum psittacium , in which
he shows the nuclei fusing in pairs, but he does not explain
whether this takes place in the vegetative or in the fructifying
plasmodium.
After cleavage is completed, each uninucleated cell continues
its creeping movement, acting now as an independent Amoeba.
The cells lie at first closely pressed together^ presenting from
the surface view a honeycomb-like appearance. The creeping
movement from now on is outward and at right angles from
the moist, slimy surface of the sporophore on which the cells
rest. Arching outward, each Amoeba- like cell soon forms a
spherical, swollen end, borne on a slender stalk. All of the
protoplasm appears finally to move out into the rounded end,
leaving the stalk as a long, gelatinous filament, attached to the
slimy substratum (Fig. 13). Somewhere near the close of
the growth of the stalk, the single nucleus divides twice, as
has been described above, so that the mature resting spore con¬
tains four nuclei (Fig. 15).
The mature fructification of Ceratiomyxa hydnoides is thus
Olive — Cytological Studies on Ceratiomyxa . 763
seen to possess a very peculiar structure. All of tile protoplasm
has now migrated to the ends of numberless long, slender stalks
where it normally passes through a resting period as minute
oval four-nucleated spores. Nothing but slime remains in the
conspicuous supporting structures of the sporophore — the base,
the main axis and the slender stalks. It is true that other
organisms — other members of the Mycetozoa, the Labyrinthu-
leae, and the Myxobacteriaceae — employ slime as an impor¬
tant element in building up their fruit bodies, but none, so far
as known, use such an inert substance in their fructifications
so extensively or so successfully as does Ceratiomyxa.
GENERAL DISCUSSION.
It has been noted above that the process of cleavage in the
plasmodium of Ceratiomyxa differs in an important respect
from the cleavage described for other forms. Harper (’00)
has pointed out that, while the division of the nuclei in Trichia
and other genera is already completed before spore forma¬
tion begins, in Fuligo , on the other hand, nuclear division
proceeds simultaneously with the process of cleavage. Cerar
tiomyxa , as we have already noticed, presents still a third
condition, in that cleavage is completed before nuclear divi¬
sion begins. From this fact result the four-nucleated spores
of Ceratiomyxa ; whereas in all other Myxomycetes, as far as is
known, the spores are uninucleated. Cell division in Cera
tiomyxa thus precedes nuclear division. Lister (’03) came to
the conclusion that, “leaving aside the question of the sclero-
tium, whenever cell division occurs in the life history of the
Mycetozoa the nuclei divide by karyokinesis” (p. 54-1). Since
Ceratiomyxa reverses the usual order for Myxomycetes, by
having cell division precede , instead of follow, nuclear division,
it is evident that Lister’s statement will not hold. Harper
(’99, ’00), Timberlake (’02), and recently Swingle (’03) have
shown also for certain sporangia that nuclear division neither
determines nor is in any way connected with cell division, and
the writer has recently extended this discovery to certain fil
amentous fungi (’06). The considerable number of cases now
47— S. & A.
764: Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts , ancl Letters .
known, where a coenocytic protoplast undergoes cell division
without any immediately preceding nuclear division, shows
conclusively, as pointed out by Harper, that there is, at least
in such instances, no direct correlation between nuclear and
cell division. In uninucleated cells, on the other hand, partic¬
ularly those of higher plants and animals, a very close connec¬
tion between the two processes has usually been assumed.
The habit of cutting up the plasmodium thus into uninuclea¬
ted spore mother-cells, before the nuclear divisions take place,
makes Ceratwmyxa an especially favorable form of indica¬
ting the general significance of the nuclear changes. In other
forms in wThich cleavage occurs after, or simultaneously with,
nuclear division, it would appear exceedingly difficult, if not
indeed impossible, to determine whether each nucleus of the
plasmodium divides but twice as do the nuclei of Ceratiomyxa.
The stage resembling synapsis should, however, be much easier
to find in such plasmodial masses, and this condition, when
found, will probably have to serve as the only indication that a
reduction division in connection with spore formation takes
place in these Mvxomycetes as well.
Another feature of special interest in the development of the
fructification of Ceratiomyxa is the continued increase of pro¬
toplasmic surface during the growth of the sporophore above
the surface of the substratum. In Fuligo , on the other hand,
there takes place, during the development of the aethalium, a
continued contraction of the protoplasmic reticulum and a re¬
duction of surface area. In both cases there must be, of course,
as in other fructifying conditions, a decrease in total vol¬
ume of the protoplasm, a shrinkage due to loss of water.
IB ut the accompaniment, in Ceratiomyxa , of this decrease in
volume by a gradual increase in surface exposure is, so far as
I am aware, absolutely unique for fructifying structures, ex¬
cept in the later condition of cleavage. This phenomenon in
Ceratiomyxa must not be confused, however, with cleavage, a*
will be shown later.
A comparison of the conditions in Fidigo and Ceratiomyxa
should make clear this striking difference between the two. The
cake-like mass forming the young aethalium of Fuligo is made
Olive — Cytological Studies on Ceratiomyxa. 7 65
up of a relatively dense, contracted reticulum, in which the
strands are thick and the interprotoplasmic spaces minute
(Harper, ’00, p. 221). In the development of this form into a
mature fructification, the protoplasmic reticulum continues to
contract so that the superficial strands are withdrawn toward
the center. In Ceratiomyxa we have a similar heaping up of
the plasmodium which has crept to the surface, thus forming
a tiny cake or cushion of whitish protoplasm. This mass is
seen to be made up, as in Fuligo at a similar stage, of a
dense reticulum. Obviously in both cases the plasmodium in
this condition results from an aggregation, or condensation,
of the vegetative reticulum. Sections of this early stage ~n
Ceratiomyxa (Fig. 1) show irregular lacunae filled with
slime, and deep surface furrows which separate the thick
strands. Such sections, as will he readily noticed, hear a super¬
ficial resemblance to the illustrations of cleavage in the sporan¬
gia of Pilobolus (Harper, ’99, Figs. 14-15), Fuligo (Har
per, ’00, Fig. 1) and Phycomyces (Swingle, ’03, Fig. 21).
But the surface furrows of the actively creeping plasmodium
of Ceratiomyxa are certainly very different in origin and func¬
tion from the cleavage furrows which cut into the quiescent
masses of spore-plasm of sporangia.
Following the heaping up of the plasmodium on the surface
of the substratum comes the further creeping out from each
mass of one to several cylindrical sporophores. As shown ’n
sections (Figs. 2-3), and even more clearly in Famintzin
and Woronin’s Plate I, Figures 4-8, the reticulum at this
stage, although forming a much finer meshwork, has been
greatly expanded as compared with the appearance in the ses¬
sile, compact mass on the surface. The spinning out of the
protoplasmic meshwork into finer and finer strands and the
consequent increase of the reticulation results obviously from
the continued creeping out of the plasmodium to form the pe¬
ripheral network, which finally spreads in a thin layer over the
surface of the cylindrical sporophore. The strands in many
instances ultimately become so attenuated as to he only one
nucleus thick. It is clear that such an attenuation of
the strands composing the fibrous network must he ae-
766 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts 9 and Letters.
companied by a great increase of surface area of the protoplasm.
A minute, compact, rounded mass, sessile on the substratum,
obviously exposes in its contracted reticulum much less surface
than the same plasmodium when later it has crept upward and
has become spread in a fine, attenuated network over the entire
surface of the cylindrical sporophore. Fuligo apparently ceases
its creeping movements with the compact, sessile mass and forma
its spores endogenously; Ceratiomyxa , on the other hand, sim¬
ilarly heaps up on the substratum, but afterward resumes its
upward creeping, and finally forms its spores exogenously.
This peculiar increase of exposed surface of the fructifying
protoplasm of Ceratiomyxa seemingly places the fructification
at a disadvantage in one respect. Increased surface wTould
apparently allow increased absorption of water from the
watery, gelatinous matrix in which the protoplasmic network
is imbedded, and thus counteract to a certain extent the general
contraction and condensation of the mass as a whole, which is
characteristic for such fructifying bodies (Harper, ’00, p.
249). Hut it must be remembered that the plasmodial net¬
work is constantly creeping upward, away from the moist sub¬
stratum, and also peripherally, away from the moist, gelati¬
nous axis of the sporophore. The peripheral position of tne
attenuated strands would doubtless thus be of advantage for n-
creased evaporation, rather than for increased absorption of
water. We may indeed readily imagine that loss of water and
general shrinkage of the protoplasm go on faster in the case of
such a fine network than from the compact fructification of
Fuligo .
Apparently as long as the growth of the visible part of the
sporophore of Ceratiomyxa endures, the increase of protoplas¬
mic surface continues. I have not traced back the condition
of the vegetative reticulum as it exists in the pores of the wood.
While it is indeed probable that the reticulum in this early
condition may resemble closely certain expanded stages of the
fructifying protoplasm, I doubt, judging from the conditions
in ordinary plasmodia, that these early stages ever attain the
degree of attenuation found in the advanced sporophores. At
Olive — Cytological Studies on Ceratiomyxa. 767
any rate, from the dense reticulum as it has just appeared on
the substratum to the full-grown sporophore, the development
is undoubtedly as stated above. The culmination of this
gradual attenuation of the protoplasmic network is apparent¬
ly reached just before cleavage. As mentioned above, some of
the strands have now become so thin that they are only one nu¬
cleus thick. I believe, in fact, that the majority of the strands
become thus attenuated. I cannot therefore agree with the con¬
ception of Famintzin and Woronin that the network finally
forms a single, more or less fused film, with minute lacunar
openings spread in a thin layer of equal thickness over the
whole surface of the sporophore. The strands rather appear
to retain to a great extent their individuality, as well as their
attenuated character, although in some cases they apparently
become fused with other neighboring strands, or become
massed in places.
Cleavage finally sets in, and in a very short time the fine
protoplasmic meshwork is divided into numberless rounded,
uninucleated cells. Famintzin and Woronin state that this
process takes place simultaneously over the whole sporophore.
While I too believe that cleavage is, in this instance, a very
rapid process, yet the method of development in some cases
prevents the acceptance of the idea that the phenomenon is
simultaneous. The protoplasm does not all appear to reach the
surface of the sporophore at the same time. Some strands
may frequently be seen to be elongated and evidently in a con¬
dition of movement, near regions which have already under¬
gone cleavage, as evidenced by the presence of rounded uni¬
nucleated cells. Cleavage in Ceratiomyxa , as in other multi-
nucleated masses in which the phenomenon has been carefully
followed, is rather a progressive process, as explained above, al¬
though the progressive feature seems to be much less easy to
demonstrate in Ceratiomyxa than in Fuhgo.
Cleavage obviously at once increases enormously the surface
area of the protoplasm. Whereas before we had a finely drawn
out, anastomosing reticulum, spread out over the surface of the
cylindrical sporophore, cleavage now cuts up this reticulum
into numberless uninucleated cells. The question may here
768 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts, and Letters.
be asked, Is the gradual attenuation of the strands in the pro¬
toplasmic meshwork of the forming sporophore of the nature
of a cleavage ? It is true that the phenomenon is accompa¬
nied throughout by a gradual increase of exposed surface,
therein resembling the process of cleavage. But the plasmo-
dial reticulum throughout the whole creeping movement re¬
mains a connected whole; there is no cutting apart or pulling
apart of portions of the protoplasm until cleavage proper sets
in. The gradual attenuation of the strands is not, therefore, a
true cleavage, but the process accomplishes, partially, the same
end as cleavage. The final cleavage in Ceratiomyxa is con¬
sequently much abbreviated as compared with the phenomenon
in Fuligo and other sporangia. The cleavage stage in Fuligo
may in fact be said to correspond to cleavage plus the inter¬
polated active period of attenuation in Ceratiomyxa.
During the period in Fuligo when the cake-like, sessile mass
is undergoing cleavage, the protoplasm, as evidenced by
general appearances, seems to be more or less quiescent. The
phenomenon in general appears to take place, in fact, during
a more or less quiescent stage. But almost incessant creep¬
ing movements, on the other hand, seem to characterize the
fructifying protoplasm of Ceratiomyxa. The plasmodium
piles up on the substratum and begins to form at certain points
papillae. As these papillae grow out to form the cylindrical
sporophores, the protoplasmic meshwork in each apparently
undergoes incessant upward movement, creeping finally to
the surface of the gelatinous structure. Cleavage now takes
place, and even in this condition, at least in such late stages of
the process as are shown in Figure 5, the creeping movements
have not appeared to cease entirely, for the cells seem to pull
apart after the manner of a dividing Amoeba.
It is well known, however, that the Amoeba and other uni¬
cellular organisms, when ready to divide, withdraw their pseu¬
dopodia, and, at least at the beginning of the process, cease their
active movements ; and this is probably the case also in Cera¬
tiomyxa. Undoubtedly such masses as are shown in Figure
4 remain more or less quiescent during cleavage, as evidenced
by the appearance of the narrow furrows which cut into the
Olive — Cytological Studies on Ceratiomyxa. 769
fragment. As was mentioned above, the protoplasm in such
instances has apparently become massed in places on the sur¬
face of the sporophore, instead of becoming drawn out into
narrow strands as seems usually to be the case. Finally, the
uninucleated segments themselves continue the outward move¬
ment, with probably little if any interruption, as single, inde¬
pendent, amoeboid cells until each forms finally a stalked rest¬
ing spore.
Ho advance has been made in this study in the problem as
to what forces initiate and direct the process of cleavage in
Ceratiomyxa. I can therefore add nothing definite to the view
that cleavage results probably from tensions produced by con¬
tractions due to loss of water (Harper, ?Q0) ; or to the idea
that the phenomenon comes from local contractions in the cy¬
toplasm (Swingle, ?03).
A comparison of various low organisms with respect to their
use of mucus, or slime, in building up their fructifications is of
some interest. Those four groups of organisms — the Myxomy-
cetes, Acrasieae, Labyrinthuleae and Myxobacteriaceae — -
which unite in colonies to form their fungusdike fructifica¬
tions, excrete in some cases large quantities of slime, which
may be utilized in various wmys to assist in raising the fruit-
body above the substratum.
It will be remembered that in the fructification of Ceratio¬
myxa, the entire supporting structures of the sporophore — the
base, the main axis and the numberless stalks borne on the sur¬
face — are ‘wholly composed of a gelatinous, slimy sub¬
stance. Ho protoplasm is left in these regions, since all
of the living material migrates to the tips of the slender
stalks. Some of this slimy substance may be seen in the
lacunae and furrow's of the young fructifying reticulum
(Fig. 1). As the plasmodium creeps upward, slime is grad¬
ually added to the mass left behind on the substratum
(Figs. 2, 3, 10). The slimy matrix in which the creeping
reticulum is enclosed, and the slimy central axis, wThich is
finally entirely deserted by the protoplasm, thus serve as
a semi-solid substratum on which the climbing movements
take place. Even the amoeboid cells formed finally by
770 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts, and Letters.
cleavage on the periphery of the sporophore, after they have be¬
come erected at right angles to the surface on which they rest,
at last cut themselves off entirely from the long gelatinous
stalks by means of which they have crept outward. The lat¬
ter phenomenon is quite similar to the formation of the simple
fructification of Sappinia, a genus of dung-inhabiting amoebae
(see Olive, 702). During the fructifying stage of this organism,
the amoebae seek drier situations, hence each erects itself at
right angles to the moist substratum, thus forming a stalked,
pear-shaped body. In some instances, the stalk, as in Ceratio -
myxa , is entirely deserted by the protoplasm, which thus
forms an oval spore on the end of the slender gelatinous sup¬
port.
Other members of the Mycetozoa apparently do not utilize
slime so extensively or so successfully as does Ceraiiomyxa. In
the majority of forms with stalked sporangia, the stalks are
apparently hollow and composed mainly of dried slime. In
Arcyria , the tubular stalks are filled with rounded, spore-like
cells (see MacBride, 799) ; apparently in this instance some of
the ascending protoplasm failed to reach the summit before
the maturity of the sporangium.
In the higher Myxobacteriaceae, according to Thaxter (’92),
the stalk of the fructification is likewise a tubular gelatinous
structure, and the fructifying mass ascends this tube as through
an open funnel. Besides serving thus as a supporting struc¬
ture for the ascent, as well as to bear the final resting bodies,
the excreted slime is also utilized by the cyst-forming group of
these organisms as a protecting medium to enclose the mass of
encysted bacterial rods.
The sessile fructifications of the simpler members of the
Acrasieae (Olive, ’02), like the simpler Myxobacteriaceae, em¬
ploy slime only as an intrasporal medium for holding in a
mass the sorus of spores ; while in some of the more highly dif¬
ferentiated fructifications, it serves in addition as a gelatinous
stalk to support the globular sorus of spores at its top. Like¬
wise in Diplophrys , a member of the Labyrinthuleae, the sorus
is upheld by a gelatinous stalk. In the higher representatives
of the Acrasieae, for example in Dictyostelium and Polysphovr
Olive — Oytological Studies on C eratiomyxa. 771
dylium, a still more complicated method of raising the spores
above the substratum has been evolved. Certain cells in the
center of the mass become vacuolated and otherwise modified
to form a supporting column. As the colony ascends this stalk,
the latter grows in height by the addition of more modified
cells on the top of the column. The ascending colony leaves
behind a mucous substance which thus forms a thin, slimy
sheath, which encloses and greatly strengthens the parenchym¬
atous stalk, as well as provides a cementing substance to bind
the expanded base of the stalk fast to the substratum.
SUMMARY OF CONCLUSIONS.
The principal points brought out in the foregoing paper
may be summarized as follows :
1. Sexual reproduction is without doubt present in Ceratw-
myxa , since there occurs in connection with spore formation
what appears to be a reduction division of the nuclei. A stage
resembling synapsis, in wThich the chromatin lies in a shrunken
mass at one side of the large nuclear cavity, is followed after
a short period by two rapidly recurring nuclear divisions. The
young spores, or more properly speaking, the spore mother-cells,
contain thus at first but one large nucleus ; while the mature rest¬
ing spores, as a result of the subsequent double division, come
to contain four smaller nuclei. This indication of a reduction
division at the time of spore formation is made the basis of
the conclusion that, in addition to the multiple cell-fusions to
form the plasmodium, there must occur necessarily a union,
probably in pairs, of the nuclei, somewhere in the previous
life-history of the organism.
2. The cleavage of the plasmodium of C eratiomyxa to form
spores is a progressive process, and not simultaneous, as
maintained by Famintzin and Woronin, since the attenuated
reticulum, which spreads in a thin, delicate network over the
surface of the cylindrical sporophore, is first cut up into mul-
tinucleated segments which later are still further cut up into
uninucleated cells. By the time cleavage sets in, the strands of
the reticulum generally appear to have become greatly atten¬
uated, so as to show frequently only one nucleus in optical cross
772 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts , and Letters .
section ; in still other instances, however, they appear to form
small masses of varying size and shape on the surface of the
sporophore, and in this condition are cut up by means of sur¬
face furrows. The close resemblance of the process of cleavage
in this form to simple constriction, such, for example, as takes
place in Amoeba or in certain algae and fungi, is particularly
apparent in the method of cleavage of a thin, filamentous
strand of the plasmodium, in wThich furrows come in from op¬
posite sides, midway betwen the nuclei, and constrict the fila¬
ment into uninucleated pieces.
LITERATURE CITED.
Allen., C. E., ’05 : Endear division in the pollen mother-
cells of Lilium canadense. Ann. Bot ., xix: 189.
Eamintzin, A., and Woronin, M., ’73: Ueber zwei neue
Eormen von Schleimpilzen : Ceratium hydnoides und Ce-
ratium p oroides'. Mem. acad. imp. sci. St. P etersbourg
xx : 1.
Harper, B. A., ’99 : Cell division in sporangia and asci.
Ann. Bot., xiii : 467.
- , ’00 : Cell and nuclear division in Fuligo varians.
Bot. Gaz ., xxx : 217.
Jaiin, E., ’05 : Myxomycetenstudien, IV. Die Keimung der
Sporen. Ber. deut. bot. Ges., xxiii: 489.
— - -, ’07 : Myxomycetenstudien, VI. Ilernverschmelzung-
en und Beduktionsteilungen. Ber. de'ut. bot. -Ges., xxv :
23.
Lister, A., ’93 : On the division of nuclei in the Mycetozoa.
Linn. Soc. Jour., xxxix: 529.
- , ’94: Mycetozoa. London.
MacBride, T. IL, ’99: ETorth American slime-moulds. Hew
York.
Olive. E. W., ’02 : Monograph of the Acrasieae. Proc. Bos¬
ton Soc. Nat. Hist., xxx: 451.
' — - «, ’06: Huclear and cell division of Empusa. Bot..
Gaz., xli: 229.
Olive — Cytological Studies on Cemtiomyxa. 773
- - , ’07 : Evidences of sexual reproduction in the slime-
molds. Science , E*. S.? xxv: 266.
Prowazek, J.? ’04: Kernveranderung in Myxomycetenplas-
modien. Oesterr. hot. Zeitschr ., liv: 278.
Swingle, D. B.? ’03: Formation of the spores in the spo¬
rangia of Rhizopus nigricans and of Phycomyces nitens .
U. /S'. Dept . Agric ., Bur. Pit. Ind., Bull. 37.
Thaxtee, B., ’92 : On the Myxobacteriaceae, a new order of
Schizomycetes. Bot. Gaz ., xvii: 389.
Timbereake, H. G., ’02 : Development and structure of the
swarm-spores of Hydrodidyon. Trans. Wis. Acad. Sci .,
Arts and Letters, xiii: 486.
774 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts , and Letters.
EXPLANATION OF PLATE XLVII.
Fig.
Fit
The drawings were made with the aid of an Abbe camera lucida, to¬
gether with the Zeiss 2 mm. apochromatic objective N. A. 1.30, com¬
bined with various compensating oculars.
A young fructification, showing in section the protoplasmic
reticulum (X 250).
Cross section of a half mature cylindrical outgrowth,
showing sections of the irregularly anastomosing and
branching strands of peripheral protoplasm, and the
central axis of slime (X 250).
A small portion of a developing fructification, showing
cross sections of four strands of peripheral protoplasm,
imbedded in a jelly-like matrix (X 1000).
Cleavage in a four-nucleated fragment of plasmodium.
The nuclei appear to be entering synapsis ( X 1500 ) .
Cleavage of two-nucleated fragment (X 1500).
A young spore showing the nucleus in a pre-synaptic con¬
dition (X 1500).
A rare condition, in which the fragment is binucleated
with both nuclei in synapsis (X 1500).
Young spores, each with its nucleus in synapsis (X 1500).
Longitudinal section through the tip of an older, almost
mature outgrowth. The protoplasm is now in a thin,
peripheral, thimble-shaped layer, and has been entirely
cut up into small cuboidal or oblong segments, each
with a single, comparatively large nucleus. The slime
in the middle appears somewhat fibrous in the prepara¬
tion (X 250).
The first division which immediately follows synapsis
(X 2250 and 1500).
A young spore on its stalk, with the two nuclei entering
upon the second division (X 1500).
Tne second division following synapsis (X 1500).
A mature spore, showing the four nuclei, stained with
methyl green (X 1500).
Fis
Fig.
Fig.
Fig.
Fig.
Figs.
Fig.
8, 9.
10.
Figs. 11, V.
Fig.
Fig.
Fig.
13.
14.
15.
Plate XLVII
Trans. Wis. Acad
E. W. Olive, del.
MYCOLOGICAL NARRATIVE OF A BRIEF JOURNEY
THROUGH THE PACIFIC NORTHWEST.
J. J. DAVIS.
In July 1905 I mad© a hasty journey to the north Pacific
coast. The trip was primarily a business one, with the meet¬
ing of the American Medical Association and the Lewis and
Clark Exposition at Portland as additional incentives. As I
was to make a few short stops on the way, I took a few sheets
and driers, a couple of pieces of stiff binder’s board and a bit
of twine, and improvised a press that was light and packed
readily into my traveling bag. I found this to answer my pur¬
pose admirably while it did not add to my impedimenta.
At Portland I met Mr. M. M. Gorman and profited much
from his kindness and knowledge of the local botanical field.
Mr. Thomas Howell, author of the “Elora of the Horth Pa¬
cific States,” kindly looked over my small collection and iden¬
tified the hosts. Specimens of the forms that I was unable
to determine after my return wTere submitted to my friend,
Mr. C. L. Shear, of the Bureau of Plant Industry, who exam¬
ined them with the facilities which the city of Washington
affords.
Leaving Bacine on the first day of July, the first stop was
made at Missoula, Montana, on the third, where I found it
necessary to remain over night to make train connections.
As there was still daylight, I walked out to the buildings of the
University of Montana on the edge of the city. Finding no
one about the laboratories, I scaled the back fence and spent
a few minutes on the steep side of the foothill beyond. Here
I found Puccinia ptumbaria Pk. Ill on Collomia gracilis and
Gilia ( bolanderi ?) ; Puccinia menthae Pers. var. americana
Burr. I, II, III on Monarda scahra; Sphaerotheca humuli (DC )
776 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts , and Letters.
Burr, on Collomia ( linearis, ?) ; and a smut on a depauperate
grass which Dr. G. P. Clinton identified as Ustilago mulfordi-
ana E. & E. on Festuca tenella. The next day, an enjoyable
ride over the Bitter Boot mountains brought me to Wallace,
Idaho. A short walk up one of the gulches that debouch
into the little valley that affords scant room for the town
showed Septoria cerastii Bob. & Desm. on Cerastium arvense ;
Septoria rubi West, on Rubus parviflorus; Septoria grossulariae
(Lib.) West, on Ribes cereum — the distinctions between this
species and Septoria ribis Desm. are not clear to me; Septoria
silenicola Sacc. on Silene menziesii; and Septoria salicifoliae
(Trel.) E. & E. on Spiraea ( corymbosa? ). The latter fungus was
quite abundant on the Spiraea leaves, and the sporules are
longer than in Wisconsin specimens on Spiraea salicifolia,
having a maximum length of at least 100 microns. Here also
was found a fungus on the leaves of Ranunculus lyalli that
seems to be the same as that which occurs in Wisconsin on
Ranunculus abortivus and is referred to Septocylindrium ra¬
nunculi Pk. ; also Puccinia cirsii Lasch. II on Cnicus edulis,
and Puccinia recedens Syd. on Senecio balsamitae.
The evening of July 5th found me in Spokane, Washington.
The next morning, finding that I had an hour to spare, I took a
street car to the end of the line, where I had ten minutes be¬
tween cars. The herbal flora consisted mostly of three species
of Lupinus, and each species yielded a fungal parasite. On
one was found Phyllostica ferax E. & E. The second lupine
had curled and partially dried leaves, giving the appearance
of having been scorched. The leaves were so hairy that I
did not see the fungus at the time, but on examining them
after my return home I found it to be the same that I had col¬
lected on Lupinus stiversi in California in 1895 and that was
described as Ovularia (?) globifera E. & E. (Bull. Torr. Bot.
Club , xxiv: 471 — 1897). I am indebted to Dr. Earlow for the
information that the herbarium name Tuber culina lupini Earl.
(Bull. Iowa Agric. Coll., 1886) was applied to the same plant,
but that it is really an Hadrotrichum and probably H. lupini
E. & E. (Bull. Torr . Bot. Club , xxvii: 59 — 1900). Under
the rule of priority it becomes necessary to use the name
Davis — Journey Through the Pacific Northwest. 777
hadrotrichum globiferum (E. & E.) n. comb., Tuberculina
lupini receiving no description. On the leaves of the third
species of Lupinus was a Ramularia from which the following
notes were made: Spots pallid with a brown border, roundish,
4-7 mm. in diameter; hypfhes amphigenous, tufted, straight or
slightly flexuose, hyaline, 20-40 x 3%-5 microns; conidia
hyaline, cylindrical, obtuse, becoming 1-3 septate, 25-55 x 4-6
microns. I have placed this in my herbarium as ramularia
LUPINI 11. sp.
In the afternoon I inquired for a suitable collecting ground
and was referred to a park. Getting off the street car, I
looked at the park on one side and a steep hillside on the
other and chose the latter. Here I found, on July 6th, on a
narrow-leaved species of Agropyrum, what I had often searched
for in vain, the perithecia of Erysiphe graminis DC. The
asci were fully formed, but not, of course, the ascospores. I
found also Erysiphe cicjioracearum DC. (?) on Galium apa-
rine , much infested with Ampelomyces quisqualis Ces. ; Plirag-
midium subcorticium (Schrank) Wint. in its different stages
on Rosa fendleriana ; Puccinia crepidis acuminatae Syd. on
Crepis acuminata ; and Uromyces eriogoni Ell. &; Hark. II
on Eriogonum heracleoides. On the latter host was also a Ram-
ulariu(?) forming minute white tufts from tubercular bases
on reddish-brown spots 5-8 mm. in diameter. The hyphse are
30-40 x 3 microns, but the material is too scanty and imma¬
ture to warrant a description. Here also were found on Smi-
lacina rac&mosa specimens from which the following notes were
made: Spots pale yellow or whitish with a narrow reddish-
brown border, round to oblong, mostly 5-10 mm. in diameter;
hyphae forming white tufts on the lower surface of the spots,
10-16 x 3 microns; conidia hyaline, cylindrical, continuous,
catenulate, 18-30 x 3 microns. An immature Phyllosticta ( ?)
is sometimes found on the upper surface of the spots. I have
placed this in the herbarium as Bamularia smilacinae n. sp.
Because of the aseptate conidia this would be placed by some
authors in Ovularia. Here also Puccinia balsamorrhizae Pk.
Ill occurred in abundance on Balsamorrhiza deltoideu.
The next stop was made at Horth Yakima, Washington,
778 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts , and Letters.
where a delayed train gave me an hour to spend in a moist lo¬
cality on the edge of the city. The leaves of the aspen were
here found to be spotted by a fungus which gave the follow¬
ing notes: Spots roundish angular, determinate, immarginate,
dark brown above, much paler beneath, mostly 3-6 mm. in di¬
ameter; acervuli innate, about 75 microns in diameter; sporules
straight or somewhat curved, 35-55 x 2-3 microns. On leaves
of Populus tremuloides. FTorth Yakima, Washington, July
8, 1905. At first I took this to be an undescribed Cylindro-
sporvum f but on re-examination concluded that it is a Septoria
in which the perithecia are not well developed and referred it
to Septoria musiva Pk.
Aecidium clematidis DO. was found on Clematis ligustici-
folia ; ErysipKe polygoni DC. was abundant on Polyg¬
onum aviculare , as was Actinonema rosfxe (Lib.) Fr. on
Rosa fendleriana. On Ribes tenuiflorum there was a Cer-
cospora regarding which these notes were made : Spots
wood-color, oval, determinate, 5-10 mm. in diameter, longer,
paler and less angular than those of Cercospora ribicola
E. & E. ; hyphae tufted, amphigenous but more abundant be¬
neath, 20-35 x 3-5 microns; conidia 70-100 x 5-6 microns. To
the description of Cercospora ribicola E. & E. is appended the
statement, “well characterized by its red-brown spots and
sphaeriaefonn tufts of hyphae,” well shown in Fungi Colum¬
biana 1714. As remarked above, the color of the spots is
quite different in these specimens on Ribes tenuiflorum , while
the hyphal tufts are of quite ordinary size. Mr. Shear in¬
forms me, however, that he finds specimens of Cercospora ri¬
bicola E. & E. in the herbarium at Washington that he does
not think distinct from mine. Perhaps difference in host ac¬
counts for the difference in characters.
ISTo further opportunities for collecting were found until
Portland was reached, when I was introduced to Macleay
park by Mr, GormaA. Macleay park is a canyon that has
been preserved in its natural condition through the enterprise
of the nature lovers of Portland and which reflects credit on
their zeal and sagacity. After having made one or two short
incursions, I spent half of my last day in Portland in ascend-
Daivis — Journey Through the Pacific Northwest. 779
ing it from end to end and collected specimens of the follow¬
ing fungi: Sphaerotheca mors-uvae (Sehw.) B. & C. on the
leaves (veins) and petioles of Ribes bracteosum and in small
quantity on a single leaf of Leptaxis menziesfii; Septogloeum
nuttalii Hark, on Osmaronia cerasiformis. This was very
abundant in the upper part of the park and beyond. It re¬
minds one of Cylindrosporium padi Karst. On Spiraea arum
cus occurred a C Crcospoxa having the following characters:
Spots pale brown, indefinite, inconspicuous; hyphae hypophyl-
lous, clustered, brown, 20-30 x 3-6 microns ; conidia subclavate-
cylindrical, 60-150 x 3-4 microns. This is perhaps to be re¬
ferred to Cercospora rubigo Cke. & Hark., with specimens
of which it has not been compared. On leaves of Ranunculus
greenei was a parasite of which these notes have been made:
Spots round to oval or angular, yellow and indefinite becoming
brown with age, white with the dense growth of hyphae and
conidia beneath, 1-5 mm. in diameter ; hyphae densely fascicu¬
late from a tubercular base, rather lax, hyaline, 25-40xl%-2l4
microns; conidia fusiform, nucleolate, 12-16 x 3 microns. Mr.
Shear informs me that this agrees with Ramularia aequivoca
(Ces.) Sacc. as figured in pungi Italian i9 Plate 994. There was
found also Phragmidium rubi-idaei (Pers.) Wint. II and III
on Rubus parviflorus; Septoria corylina Pk. on Corylus- calir
fornica ; Puccinia hydrophylli Pk. & Clint, on Hydrophyl-
lum virginicum; Puccinia violate (Schum.) DC. II and III on
Viola glabella; Gloeosporium ribis (Lib.) Mont. & Desm. on
Ribes bracteosum , with sporules longer and narrower than usual
(16-24 x 4-6 microns); Sphaerotheca humuti (DO). Burr, on
Rubus ursinus; Puccinia asari Kze. on Asarum caudatum ;
Ovularia vancouveriae E. & E. on V ancouveria hexandra;
Melampsoiii bigelowii Thurn. II on Salix flawescens; Micro-
sphaera alni (Wallr.) Wint. on Vicia americana. On Ribes
bracteasum was a fungus yielding the following notes: Spots
reddish-brown above with a narrow dark border, paler be¬
neath, round or angular, 3-8 mm. in diameter, sometimes con¬
fluent; hyphae hypophyllous, sub-hyaline, continuous, straight
or somewhat flexuose, forming minute gray or brownish-gray
48— S. & A.
780 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts , and Letters.
tufts; conidia hyaline, contiguous, cylindrical, 20-40 x S’
microns. J label this cercospora coaeescens n. sp. Pos¬
sibly material of greater maturity would show longer and sep¬
tate conidia. On the leaves of Bromus breviaristatus was a
Uredo which has not yet been identified. Returning from the
park, Cercospora montana Speg. on EpiloVium angustifolium,
and Coleosporium maSae Cke. II on Madia* sativa were found
on the roadside. Then a continuous journey home, and July
16 th found me in Racine.
STUDIES ON SOME LAKES IN THE ROCKY AND
SIERRA NEVADA MOUNTAINS.
CHANCEY JTTDAY.
(With Plates XLVIII-L).
Many beautiful bodies of water which vary in size from
mere pools or tarns to bodies of considerable size, are found in
the higher portions of the R-ocky mountains in Colorado and
of the Sierra Nevada mountains in California. From some
high vantage point, a dozen or more of these mountain “gems”
may often be seen dotting the landscape below. The climatic
conditions to which these lakes and lakelets are subject make
them very interesting objects for study from a biological stand¬
point. During the summers of 1902, 1903 and 1904, some in¬
vestigations were made on a few of these lakes for the United
States Bureau of Fisheries, It is the purpose to present here
a brief account of some of the results of the investigation,
TWIN LAKES,, COLORADO.
These two beautiful sheets of water are situated in the
southern part of Lake county^ Colorado, on the west side of
the valley of the Arkansas river. They lie in the highest part
of the Rocky mountains of Colorado. A short distance to the
west of them are three mountain peaks whose altitudes range
from 4,371 to 4,395 meters, while the lakes themselves are
2,800 meters above sea level. They lie a short distance below
the mouth of Lake Creek canyon, and the basins which they
occupy were doubtless scooped out by the glacier which at one
time flowed down this canyon. As the glacier receded, two
782 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts , and Letters.
terminal moraines were formed, one of which maintains the
water in Lower Twin lake, and another, about 200 meters
wide in its narrowest place, which maintains the water in Up¬
per Twin lake. The lakes are entirely surrounded by morain¬
al detritus with no bed rock exposed except for a short distance
along the north side of Lower lake.
Upper lake at its usual stage about midsummer has an area
of about 192 hectares, and Lower lake about 582. The max¬
imum depth of the former was found to be 25 meters, and of
the latter 22.5 meters. Both size and depth, however, are sub¬
ject to considerable variations, as the lakes are now used as a
storage reservoir by the Twin Lakes Reservoir company. The
dam maintained in the outlet makes it possible to raise the
water of the lakes about 7.8 meters above extreme low water
mark. While the maximum depth of Lower lake is only 2.5
meters less than that of Upper, its average depth is much less,
since most of the eastern portion of Lower lake is comparative¬
ly shallow (see Plate L). In the shallower portions of both
lakes, the bottom is sandy and gravelly for the most part, with
pebbles and boulders of various sizes in some places. In the
deeper water, the bottom consists of a marly deposit.
The principal affluent is Lake creek, which flows into the
west end of Upper lake from Lake Creek canyon. About a
dozen other streams of various sizes contribute their quota of
water to the lakes.
As might be expected, the climatic conditions at the altitude
of the lakes, 2,800 meters, are such as to give them an alpine
character. Records obtained from Mr. Charles L. Willis
show that for four years Upper lake was entirely covered with
ice for 138 to 149 days each winter. Mr. John J. Hartman
reported that Lower lake was completely covered with ice for
142 to 155 days each winter during the five years that he had
made observations on it. The maximum thickness of ice on
Upper lake for the winter 1902-3 was 71 centimeters, and on
Lower lake 86 centimeters.
Several sets of temperature observations were made on these
two lakes during the months of July and August, both in 1902
and in 1903. In general, the temperature conditions during
Trans. Wis. Acad., Vol. XV.
Plate XLVIII.
Temperature curves for Upper Twin lake, Colorado.
A. July 14, 1903.
B. August 28, 1903.
- r-r-r./* -A-rW-IX
Qg 1 QAO
Trans. Wis. Acad., Vol. XV.
Plate XLTX.
6°C. 8 10 12 14 16 18
Temperature curves for Lower Twin lake, Colorado.
A. July 16, 1903.
B. August 28, 1903.
{
Vol. XV
^yorographic map
or
TWIN LAKES
- COLORADO -
— CHANCEY JUOAY —
From gowmmenl surveys and surveys and
soundings made dunng the summers of ieoe
and 1903 for the U S. Bureau of Fisheries.
NORTH BAY
Juday — Studies on Some Mountain Lakes. 783
the Rummer were found to be similar to those that have been
observed in lakes of corresponding size and depth at much low¬
er altitudes, that is, the same three regions were noticeable.
There was an upper stratum of water, or superthermocline re¬
gion, whose temperature increased materially during the sum¬
mer, a bottom stratum, or subthermoeline, whose temperature
changed very little during the summer, and a more or less dis¬
tinct transition zone or thermocline between these two strata.
The thermocline region is always characterized by a consider¬
able change in the temperature of the water within a compara¬
tively thin stratum. This stratum was found to be from three
to four meters thick in these lakes, and the water in the lower
portion of it was about 5°C. colder than that in the upper por¬
tion. The decrease in temperature with increasing depth both
above and below this region was much more gradual. This
transition zone was not nearly so pronounced, however, in these
lakes in late summer as has been found by the writer in lakes
in southeastern Wisconsin and northern Indiana, but it agrees
very closely with this zone in the latter lakes when their upper
stratum of water has a corresponding temperature early in
the summer. During these observations, westerly winds blew
with considerable regularity, beginning usually about 10 a. m.
and lasting till late in the afternoon. As a result of this, the
water of the superthermocline region was kept pretty thorough¬
ly stirred up so that its temperature was tolerably uniform.
This produced a fairly distinct thermocline. The su¬
perthermocline was considerably thicker in Lower than
in Upper lake. This was due to the fact that the wind was
more effective in disturbing the upper water of the former be¬
cause of its much larger size. On August 7, 1903, for in¬
stance, this upper stratum was eight meters thick in the former
and only three meters in the latter lake. Plates XLVIII and
XLIX show the results of three sets of temperature observa¬
tions on each lake.
During both summers the temperature of Lower lake was
somewhat higher than that of Upper. Most of the affluents
flow into the latter lake, and it was found that the water of all
except one was colder than the surface water of Upper lake, so
784 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts , and Letters.
that these affluents would help somewhat in keeping down the
temperature of this lake. As stated above, also, the average
depth of Lower lake is considerably less than that of Upper,
so that the latter has a greater mass of water in proportion to
its area. In the shallower parts of Lower lake the sun will be
more effective in warming the water, for the light that is not
absorbed by the water will be changed to heat when it reaches
the bottom, and most of this heat will be absorbed by the
stratum of water above. Where the water is deep, the light
will pass to a much greater depth, and thus the sun’s energy
will be distributed through a much larger quantity of water.
In 1902, the surface water in Upper lake reached a maximum
of 16.6° on August 4th, remained practically the same for ten
days, and then gradually decreased. In 1903, a maximum of
16.1° was noted on August 7th. The highest temperature noted
for Lower lake in 1903 was 17° on August 7th.
The transparency of the water varied somewhat. Both sum¬
mers it was found that a Secchi’s disk just disappeared from
view at a depth of about 5.5 meters in July, and the water
gradually became more transparent as the season advanced,
reaching a maximum of nine meters about the middle of Au¬
gust. The lower degree of transparency early in the season was
due to the fact that the snow on the surrounding mountains was
melting rapidly, and as a result of this, the affluents were
bringing large quantities of roily water into the lakes. As
summer advanced, the streams became smaller and their waters
were clear.
AQUATIC VEGETATION.
The larger aquatic plants consisted chiefly of Potamogeton.
Three different species and one variety were found. They oc¬
curred in considerable abundance in both lakes. The following
were noted:
Potamogeton nuttallii Ch. & Schl.
Potamogeton perfolvatus] L.
Potamogeton perfoliaius richardsonii Bennett.
Potamogeton praelongus Wulf.
One or two species of Car ex were found in the pools of the
Juday — Studies on Some Mountain Lakes.
785
swampy meadow west of Upper lake and in a few places along
the edges of the lakes. Also Batrachium trichopbyllum grew
in some of the pools of the swampy meadow as well as in a
few places in the lake.
There was a comparatively small amount of phytoplankton.
It consisted chiefly of diatoms, such as Fragilaria , Asterionel-
la and Melosira. A small portion of it was made up of Pro -
toccoccus and Staurastrum.
ZOOPLANKTON FORMS.
The following animal forms were found in the plankton of
the lakes:
Rotifera.
Anurea cochlearis G >sse.
Anurea aculeata Ehr.
Notholca longispina Kell.
Triarthra longiseta Ehr.
Polyarthra sp.
Asplanchna sp.
Copepoda.
Diaptomus judayi Marsh. Cyclops albidus Jurine.
Cyclops pulchellus Koch. Cyclops viridis americanus Marsh.
Cyclops serrulatus Fischer.
Cladocera.
Vaphnia hyalina richardi Burckhardt.
Latona setifera O. E. Muller.
Drepanothrix dentata Euren.
Eurycercus lamellatus O. E. M.
Qamptocercus rectirostris bisermtus Schoedler.
Alona affinis O. E. M.
Alona guttata Sars.
Graptoleberis testudinaria Eischer.
Pleuroxus procurvatus Birge.
Chydorus sphaericus O. E. M.
The following Cladocera were obtained from pools in the
swampy meadow west of Upper lake : —
Daphnia pulex DeGeer.
ScapJioleberis mucronata O. E. M.
786 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts , and Letters.
Simocephalus vetulus O. F. M.
Geriodaphnia pulchella Sars.
Eurycercus lamellatus 0. F. M.
Gamptocercus rectirostris biserratus Schoedler.
Pleuroxus procurvatus Birgo.
Some plankton material was collected in a small lake on tli©
side of Mount Elbert. This lakelet has an altitude of about
3,000 meters. The Cladocera were represented by Daphnia
pulex , Simocephalus vetulus , Pleuroxus procurvatus and GJiy-
dorus sphaericus.
Also some material was obtained from Willis lake, which is
a tarn near the head of Willis gulch, a little southwest of Twin
lakes. This lakelet is situated at an altitude of about 3,660
meters. The water was very cold. Gammarus was plentiful,
and the Cladocera were represented by two forms, Macrothrix
hirsuticornis Norman and Brady and Eurycercus lamellatus
O. F. M. *
The plankton observations on the two lakes were few in
number and consisted only of vertical hauls. In 1902, the
observations on Upper lake consisted of two series of catches
in July and four in August. A single set of catches was made
on Lower lake in 1902. In 1903, three sets of catches were
made on each lake. The observations covered such a brief
period of time each year that they give only a very fragmen¬
tary notion of the plankton life of the lakes. Likewise, the
vertical haul method is by no means a satisfactory one, so that
both of these factors must be taken into consideration in the
following results. The following table shows the number of
thousands of individuals per square meter of surface. Hence,
to determine the number of individuals per square meter,
these figures must be multiplied by a thousand. With the ex¬
ception of a few figures for the rotifers, the numbers repre¬
sent averages of either two or three hauls. The rotifers were
not counted in all the catches, so that, in a few instances, the
numbers given for them represent the individuals of a single
catch.
Juday — Studies on Some Mountain Lakes . 787
With respect to vertical distribution, Anurea cochlearis ,
Notholca longispina and Asplanchna were confined to the up¬
per ten meters. Anurea aculeata and Triarthra longiseta
rarely occurred in the upper ten meters, being found almost
entirely below this stratum. Polyarthra was rather evenly
distributed throughout the entire depth of both lakes.
There was no diurnal movement of Diaptomus, Cyclops
and Nauplii, DapJinia hyalina showed a diurnal movement
of half a meter in July and one meter in August.
The phytoplankton made up a comparatively small portion
of the total plankton and remained practically uniform in
quantity during the two periods of these observations. The
Crustacea made up by far the greater bulk of the total plank¬
ton.
FOOD OF THE TROUT.
Six species of trout are found in the lakes, and specimens
of all except one species were' obtained for the purpose of
studying their food. In all, 394 stomachs were obtained, of
which 24 were empty, leaving 370 for study. An examina¬
tion of the contents of these was made in order to determine
what the trout had been feeding on, as well as to determine the
relative amounts of the various elements of the food. Only
a very general classification of the stomach contents was at-
788 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts , and Letters.
tempted, so that, inj all, the constituents were grouped under
twenty-two different heads. Chironomus and Simulium were
noted separately from the other Diptera because they were rep¬
resented chiefly by their aquatic larvae. The term “insect
fragments” includes all fragments that were too small to be
identified positively. The other terms used in the table be¬
low are self-explanatory.
In recording the contents of a stomach, the relative amount
of food it contained was noted, that is, whether it was well
filled or contained but little. Then the various constituents
were sorted out, and the percentage of the entire quantity
which each element constituted was carefully estimated.
The specimens from which the stomachs were obtained were
of various sizes. Twenty-five were so small, not exceeding
three centimeters in length, that it was impossible to identify
them, so they are given in a separate column in the tabula¬
tions. Likewise a number of small brook trout ( Salvelinus
fontinalis ), ranging in length from 2.5 to 5 centimeters were
obtained, and their food differed so much from that of the
larger specimens of brook trout that they have been given in
a separate column also. The majority of the other specimens
from which stomachs were obtained were from 15 to 40 centi¬
meters long.
The following table shows the average per cent of the dif¬
ferent elements constituting the stomach contents of all the
specimens of each species. The averages are based on the
following numbers of food-containing stomachs: — land-locked
salmon ( Salmo sebago ), 19; greenback trout (S. stomias ),
64; rainbow trout (S. shasta), 106; small brook trout (Sal-
velinus fontinalis), 29; large brook trout, 126; fry, 25.
Juday — Studies o?i Some Mountain Lakes. 789
Of the twenty-two items which appear in the table, all ex¬
cept one (sand and gravel) may be regarded as sources of
nourishment. While much of the vegetable debris had no
food value and was probably taken very largely by accident,
still in a- considerable number of cases it consisted of digesti¬
ble material and was present in such quantities as to indicate
that it had been eaten purposely.
It will be noted that there was considerable difference in the
diet of the various species of trout. The landlocked salmon
had partaken of 12 out of the 22 items of food; the green¬
back trout of 12 ; the rainbow trout 17 ; small brook trout 10 ;
and large brook trout 16. These four species differed very
widely also in the relative amoimt of fish consumed. The
landlocked salmon had partaken most freely of this kind of
food, fish remains constituting an average of more than a
third of the stomach contents. The rainbow trout ranked
second in this respect, while the brook trout had eaten most
sparingly of this kind of food. All the fish remains that could
be positively identified, however, wTere found to be young suck¬
ers ( Catostomus commersonii. )
Insects played a very important role as an article of food.
With the exception of the small brook trout and the fry, by far
the greater part of the insect material found in the specimens
790 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts, emd Letters.
consisted of non-aquatic forms. Both adult aquatic insects
and aquatic larvae of insects were important factors in the
food of the small brook trout and the fry.
Thirty-three specimens in all had eaten Crustacea. Of
this number, twenty-six had eaten only Daphnias, one only
Copepods, four both Daphnias and Copepods, and two only
Gammari. The stomach of a greenback trout 30 centime¬
ters long contained about 4,500 Daphnias ; another contained
2,250; and the stomach of a rainbow trout 38 centimeters long
also contained about 1,300 Daphnias. A little more than six¬
teen per cent of the specimens examined which belonged to
these two species of trout had eaten Daphnias , the number eat¬
en in each case varying from about 50 or 75 to 4,500. It is
evident that they were very important factors in the destruc¬
tion of the Daphnia population of the lakes, for the lakes were
well stocked with both of these trout, and the above figures rep¬
resent only the number of Daphnias consumed by each trout
at a single meal.
Two Mackinaw trout ( Cristivomer namaycush ) were ob¬
tained. One of the sp ecimens was 75 centimeter s long, a ad
its stomach contained a trout 17.5 centimeters long and a few
insect fragments. The stomach of the other specimen was
empty.
LAKE TAHOE.
Lake Tahoe lies in eastern California and western Nevada.
The boundary line between the two states passes through it in
a north-south direction near its eastern shore, so that a little
more than two-thirds of its area lies in California. The
thirty-ninth parallel of latitude crosses the southern end of the
lake.
The lake occupies an elevated valley between two ranges of
the Sierra Nevada mountains. Its surface is about 1,900
meters above sea-level. The greatest length is about 36 kilo¬
meters and greatest width 20 kilometers. Its area is about
500 square kilometers. Comparatively few soundings have
been made in the deeper water, and the greatest known depth
is 500 meters. The lake is surrounded by an amphitheater of
Juday — Studies on Some Mountain Lakes. 791
snow-clad mountains. Affluents are numerous, especially dur¬
ing the early part of the summer when the snow is melting
rapidly. The largest of the affluents is the Upper Truckee
river. The outlet of the lake is known as the Truckee river.
Ko attempt was made to get temperatures in the deeper
water. On June 27, 1904, the temperature of the surface
water was 16° C. and of the bottom water where the depth
was only 130 meters, 4.9°. In September 1873, LeConte
found the temperature of the surfa.ee water to be 19.4° and of
the bottom water at a depth of 460 meters 4°. The winters
in this region are usually pretty severe, so that the air prob¬
ably remains far below the freezing point for a considerable
period each year. Uot withstanding this fact, however, ice
never forms on the lake except in the shallow bays.
The water is very transparent. A S'ecchi’s disk just dis¬
appeared from view at a depth of 20 meters. Later in the
season, however, when the greater portion of the snow has dis¬
appeared and the affluents are no longer bringing vast quan¬
tities of roily water into the lake, the transparency is said to
he much greater, white objects being easily seen at a depth of
more than 30 meters.
The larger, shallow-water forms of aquatic plants were
found to be comparatively scarce. In the more favorable lo¬
calities such forms as Scirpus, Batrackium, Potamogeton and
Carex were noted. Diatoms constituted the chief portion of
the phytoplankton.
ZOOPLANKTON FORMS.
Copepods made up at least three-quarters of the bulk of the
plankton. The limnetic members of this group' were Epi-
schura nevadensis and a species of Diaptomus. The following
Cladocera were noted: —
Daphnia pulex pulicaria U orbes.
Daphnia hyalina rickardi Burckhardt.
Simocepkalus serrulatus Koch. •
Ilyocryptus acutifrons Sars.
Eurycercus. lamellatus O. F. Muller.
Acroperus karpae Baird.
792 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts , and Letters.
Alona afjinis Ley dig.
Chydorus sphaericus 0. F. M.
Epischura and Diaptomus showed a diurnal movement of
one and a half meters, Daphnia hyalina at least twelve meters^
and D. pulex fifteen meters.
THE TROUT.
The Tahoe trout ( Salmo henshawi) was the one most gener¬
ally caught by the fishermen. The second in point of numbers
obtained was the silver trout ( Salmo tahoCnsis). The former
was caught chiefly in the western and southern portions of the
lake, while the latter was found chiefly in the northeastern por¬
tion. The stomachs of a do<zen Tahoe trout were obtained for a
study of their contents, but only three of them contained food
material of any consequence. The other nine contained only in¬
sect fragments that were too small to be identified. Each of
two stomachs, from trout that were 40 centimeters long, con¬
tained from 50 to 75 Daphnias and fragments of Chironomid
pupae and adult Chironomus. The third stomach, from a male
38 centimeters long, contained over 1,700 Daphnias , about
two-thirds of which were Daphnia pulex and the remainder
D. hyalina. Four Tahoe trout were obtained from some small
lakes lying south of Lake Tahoe. One of these specimens was
25 centimeters long, and the other three about 18 centimeters
each. The stomach of the largest one contained the elytra of
two beetles and fragments of 25 or 30 ants. One of the other
three contained 32 damsel-fly nymphs; another 6 damsel-fly
nymphs, 4 water tigers (larval Dytiscidae), and many Chir¬
onomid larvae; the third contained 4 water tigers and many
Chironomid larvae. No specimens of the silver trout were ob¬
tained for a study of their food.
HOCKETT HAKES.
These small lakes are situated in the southern part of the
High Sierras, in the valley of the South fork of the Kaweah
river. Some plankton material was obtained from two of
these lakelets on July 16, 1904. The following Crustacea were
found in this material:
juday — Studies on Some Mountain Lakes.
793
Diaptomus signicauda Lilljeborg.
Cyclops serrulatus mop t anus Brady.
Cyclops albidus Jurine.
Diaphanosoma leuchtenbergianum Fischer.
Daphnia longispina 0. F. Miiller.
Scapholeberis piucronata 0. F. M.
Simocephalus< serrulatus O. F. M3.
Cerio daphnia pulchella Sars.
Streblocerus serricaudatus Fischer.
Eurycercus lamellatus O. F. M.
Alona affinis Leydig.
Chydorus sphaericus 0. F. M.
Polyphemus pediculus Linnaeus.
THE DETERMINATION OF THE VALUE OF THE RIGHT
OF WAY OF WISCONSIN RAILROADS AS MADE
IN THE APPRAISAL OF 1903.
ERNEST BROWN SKINNER.
INTRODUCTION.
In 1903, the Wisconsin legislature passed an act providing
for the taxation of the franchises and property of railroad com¬
panies by the ad valorem method in place of the tax upon gross
earnings which had been collected during the years immediately
preceding 1903. For the purpose of administering this law,
the members of the tax commission, serving as a state board
of assessment, were required to ascertain and make a formal
determination of the “true cash value” of such property and
franchises. As one of the things deemed needful to aid the
board in arriving at a final result, it was determined to make
an actual inventory and appraisal of the physical property
used by each railroad company in operating its road, apart
from any considerations of earning power or other general fac¬
tors affecting the commercial value of the road in its entirety
as a chartered going concern.
This appraisal, the second of its kind attempted in this coun¬
try,1 was begun in the early summer of 1903 and completed
by the end of the year. The work was divided into three
parts: (1) The appraisal of the right of way; (2) the
appraisal of the roadbed, ties, rails and structures; (3) the
iAn appraisal of the physical property of the railroads was made in
Michigan a few months before the Wisconsin appraisal was undertaken.
Skinner — Appraisal of Railroad Property. 795
appraisal of the rolling stock. The writer was for some months
in charge of the appraisal of the right of way, and although
other duties made it necessary to place the work in other hands
before it was completed, he followed the progress of the work
with great interest until the final results were handed in. It
is the method of determining the value of the right of way
alone that is here discussed.2
The appiaisers were directed, in the first place, to find the
cost of reproduction of the physical property of a given rail¬
road by assuming the entire road to he eliminated and its right
of way, yards, station and terminal grounds to be “occupied by
just such woodlands, waste lands, farms, industries and resi¬
dences as those now existing in and on the adjoining country
and property.” In the second place, they were directed to find
the present value of this physical property, and “present value”
was understood to mean the cost of reproduction less an
amount covering all items of depreciation whatever. The mat¬
ter of depreciation does not, of course, enter into the deter¬
mination of the value of the right of way, since the right of
way is practically the only item among all the things that go to
make up the physical property of a railroad that suffers no de¬
preciation. But the fact that it was cost of reproduction that
was required must be kept clearly in mind in order to under¬
stand the significance of the results obtained.
Only the acre value of the right of Way was determined by
the land inspectors. The determination of the acreage was
made by men, other than the land inspectors, who had at their
disposal blue prints furnished by the officers of the various
roads showing the exact situation of the lands used for right of
2 The force employed in determining the value of the right of way
was organized early in July 1903, with the writer as chief land inspect¬
or, Mr. John Marston, Jr., as engineer inspector, and a corps of ten
assistants. This force of men worked under the direct supervision of
Mr. W. D. Taylor, then professor of railway engineering in the Uni¬
versity of Wisconsin, now chief engineer of the Chicago and Alton
railway, who, as engineer for the state board of assessment, drew up
the admirable and comprehensive plan under which the work was
done.
49'— S. & A.
796 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts, and Letters.
way. The areas of all irregularly shaped pieces were deter¬
mined by planimeter measurements.
The range of methods available was somewhat restricted by
the state hoard of assessment when it decided that the appraisal
should he based on sales of land! near the right of, way made
within the five-year period ending June 30, 1903. The instruc¬
tions upon this point issued by the engineer of the board and
approved by the board in June 1903 are as follows:
“In this appraisal the value of the land for other purposes
must be determined as accurately as is reasonably possible,
the average value, at the various county seats, as shown by the
records of the transfers of property for the five-year period
ending June 30, 1902, in the section traversed by the road, and
by consultation with disinterested, reliable local real estate
and business men, bank cashiers, etc.”
The problem set before the men charged with the
duty of appraising the right of way of the various
roads was, therefore, to carry out as economically as pos¬
sible under the circumstances the plan outlined by the
board. As a matter of fact, the carrying out of this plan,
which was so clearly outlined and which is a model of its kind,
was attended by many practical difficulties.
In what follows, it is proposed to discuss briefly the plan out¬
lined for the appraisal of the right of way of the railroads and
the problems that arose in carrying out the plan, and finally
to make a brief criticism of the methods employed.
THE RATIO OF RIGHT OF WAY VALUE TO ORDINARY VALUE.
Before going on to describe the actual methods employed in
making the appraisal, it is advisable to take up in some detail
another matter which was the occasion of long and earnest dis¬
cussion between the representatives of the various roads and
the representatives of the state board of assessment. It is,
namely, the relation between the value of the land for ordinary
purposes and its value as railroad right of way. It may well
be doubted whether the land occupied by the right of way is
more valuable than the land belonging to the farm or the lot
Skinner — Appraisal of Railroad Property. 797
from which it was taken, simply because it has been put to a
different use. But when the appraisal is made to determine
the cost of reproduction, the matter is quite different. It is true
that the price paid by the railroad company building through
an ordinarily well-settled region is very considerably in excess
of the value of the land for other purposes — in some cases
several times this value. Without assuming to settle the more
difficult question, the term a right of way value’7 will in what
follows be used as synonymous with the cost of reproduction.
This being the case , the ' Wight of way value” will necessarily
differ very materially from the ordinary value.
Some of the reasons why the right of way value thus defined
differs from the ordinary value are as follows :
1. The shape of the right of way makes it impossible to pur¬
chase land for right of way at the same price for which the land
could be purchased were it purchased simply as city lots or as
quarter-sections of farm land.
2. There are frequently consequential damages to farms
and to other property across which the railroad runs. For ex¬
ample, the road may cut off a relatively small corner of a farm,,
which cannot be reached except by crossing the track, or it may
cut off a part of a city lot which is too small to build upon eco¬
nomically. In both cases, the railroad must pay not only full
value for the land actually needed, but practically full value*
for the portion whose value is decreased. It may be also that
valuable improvements must be destroyed before the road can
be built. The idea of taxing any corporation upon the value
of improvements that were destroyed seems repugnant to our
sense of justice. It must be remembered, however, that the
appraisal was primarily for the purpose of finding the cost of’
reproduction of the road. Such being the case, every item en¬
tering into the first cost must be taken into account.
3. It is usually known before the right of way is bought
that the road will probably be built, and there is usually a
marked tendency on the part of property owners to ask excess¬
ive prices, knowing that the railroad company must have the
land.
798 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts, and Letters.
4. Frequently property owners refuse to sell at a reason¬
able price, and it becomes necessary to resort to condemnation
proceedings wbicb not only add greatly to the immediate cost
of the land but involve costly delays. For this reason, it is
sometimes more economical to give a stubborn land owner
many times the value of his property rather than to resort to
legal process.
Fortunately, it was possible to investigate the relation of
Tight of way to ordinary value for three lines of road built
within the state during the five-year period, by different com¬
panies and under widely different conditions. These lines are
as follows: (1) A branch of the Chicago, Milwaukee and
-St. Paul railway about 32 miles in length, extending from
Janesville, Pock county, to the southeast and leaving the state
near the southwest comer of the town of Bloomfield in Wal¬
worth county; (2) a branch of the Chicago and North west¬
ern railway 93.7 miles long, extending from Princeton, Green
Lake county, to Marshfield, Wood county; (3) a branch of the
Chicago, St. Paul, Minneapolis and Omaha railway, 28 miles
long and extending from Chippewa Falls, Chippewa county, to
Holcombe, in the same county.3
The first of these lines was built through a fine agricultural
district which was already well supplied with railroad facili¬
ties ; it cut nearly every farm it touched at such an angle as to
damage the farm seriously, and moreover some of the contract¬
ors were already on the ground before all the right of way had
been secured. In short, the case could scarcely have been
more unfavorable for the railroad company.
The second line named was built through a region occupied
by farms of much less value than the first, and, for a consider¬
able portion of its length, remote from existing railroads.
However, that portion lying between Grand Bapids and Marsh¬
field lies alongside the Wisconsin Central railroad so closely
3 This line extends some 2'5 miles beyond Holcombe to Hannibal,
Taylor county, but owing to the extremely small number of sales of
land along the line between Holcombe and Hannibal no attempt was
made to determine the ratio for this portion of the line.
Skinner — Appraisal of Railroad Property. 799
that the two rights of way over most of this distance are prac¬
tically a single strip of land.
The third line extends into a region which was throughout
its whole length without convenient transportation facilities*
At the time the right of way was purchased, there was still
much valuable timber along the line, and most of the district
already gave promise of becoming a rich agricultural district.
Of the three cases mentioned, this line was unquestionably the
most favorable to the company building the road.
A careful man4 was set to work upon these lines to deter¬
mine the relation existing between the ordinary value and the
right of way value. The method used to determine the market
value of adjacent property was exactly the same as that describ¬
ed in detail below for the determination of the value
of the right of way for all lines in the state, and in all
three cases extra care was taken to prevent errors creeping in¬
to the work. The amounts paid for the pieces of right of way
and their acreage were determined from the offices of the reg¬
isters of deeds in the counties through which the lines run, and
the acreage was carefully checked by comparison with the maps
in the offices of the several companies.
In order to place the results of these investigations beyond
all question, Mr. H. E. Brandt was directed to secure data re¬
garding the cost of the right of way of a branch of the Chicago*
and Northwestern built from Dixon, Illinois, to Peoria, Illi¬
nois, in the year 1900. This line, which is about 41 miles long,
runs nearly due north and south through some of the best
farming land in the state. The right of way was purchased
under conditions favorable to the company. The methods em¬
ployed in this investigation were substantially the same as
those employed in the other three cases. However, for a part
of this line the sales of land near the right of way were so few
that it was deemed advisable to determine the ordinary value
of the right of way indirectly. To obtain this value through
one township in each of the counties of Stark and Marshall,
4 This work was done by Mr. C. M. Larson, a recent graduate of the
civil engineering course in the University of Wisconsin, and under the
direct supervision of Mr. W. D. Taylor, engineer of the board.
800 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, md Letters.
thirty-two transfers, representing a value of $399,937 in Stark
county, and twenty-one transfers, representing a value of
$224,421 in Marshall county, were examined. The ratio of
the assessed value to the selling price of the land described in
the transfers was found to be .77 iin the one case and .79 in
the other. The market value of the land lying near the right
of way was then found by means of the assessed value and
these ratios. Had the market value been determined directly,
the ratio of the right of way value to the ordinary or market
value would have been 2.71.
The main results of the investigations in these four cases are
given in the following table:
Table showing data concerning transfers of land on and near rights
of way of roads built in Wisconsin and Illinois , between 1898
and 1903.
* Record not preserved.
In each case, the ratio was computed separately for each
township through which the road passes, or for at most two ad¬
joining townships. For the first-named piece of road, the sales
are remarkably evenly distributed along the line of the road,
and the ratio is quite uniform throughout its whole extent. In
the case of the Chicago and Horth western, the sales are much
denser at some points than at others, being notably dense along
the 15 miles of road between Marshfield and the village of
Vesper^ and again through township 21 north, range 8 east.
The ratio varies greatly also, the lowest value being 1.37, found
Skinner — Appraisal of Railroad Property . ! 801
in township 21 north, range 9 east, and the highest being 6. 27,
found in townships 22 and 23 north, range 5 east. These
two extremes are found in two districts in which the
number of transfers of farm land is very small. This may
indicate, as one might expect, that at least part of the fluctua¬
tion in the ratio is due to the fact that the number of sales
does not give sufficient data upon which to base accurate con¬
clusions. In the first case, there were thirteen sales, aggrega¬
ting 1,044 acres and distributed along about six and one-half
miles of road, and the average value of the land was deter¬
mined to be $24.6,6 per acre. In the second case, there were
twenty-one sales, aggregating 1,429. 6fl acres and dis¬
tributed along about seven and three-quarters miles of
road, and the average value of the land was de¬
termined to be $12.36 per acre. On the other hand,
that this fluctuation is not wholly due to lack of suf¬
ficient data is shown from the fact that along the nine miles
of road adjoining the section just mentioned to the northwest
there were one hundred and five sales aggregating 9,049.50
acres for which the average price was determined to be $12.61
per acre. For this district the ratio was determined to be
1.54. The character of the land is quite similar in the two
districts, being mostly new lands upon which the value of the
improvements is small. This fact would seem to indicate that
the determination of the market value of the farm lands may
be, after all, not much less accurate in the region of sparse sales.
In the third case, the ninety sales, though at no point dense,
were quite evenly distributed along the line. The land is, for
the most part, new, and the value of improvements would con¬
stitute a relatively small part of the value.
In determining the results presented in the foregoing table,
no account was taken of the cost of purchasing the right of way.
The salary and expenses of a competent right of way man
would certainly range from $1.00 to $5.00 per acre according
to the character of the land purchased.5
s By the Michigan board of appraisal this amount is put at figures
ranging from $1.00 to $8/50 per acre according to location and value.
M. E. Cooley: Instructions as to right of way, adopted January 9, 1901.
802 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts , and Letters.
The addition of each dollar per acre for this charge would in¬
crease the ratio in the first three oases as follows :
Chicago, Milwaukee and St. Paul, Janesville to state line,
.019. i
Chicago and Northwestern, Princeton to Marshfield, .09.
Chicago, St. Paul,, Minneapolis and Omaha, Chippewa Palls
to Holcombe, .10.
It must be admitted that where the line is constructed by a
company whose business is of sufficient magnitude to keep
right of way men employed regularly, the cost of securing the
right of way would be materially diminished, but it cannot be
wholly eliminated. I
The amount of land donated to the railroad companies does
not seem to be large enough to have made any great difference
in the foregoing figures. Just how much, would be a matter
very difficult for the roads themselves to determine, but the
officials of the three companies that have built these lines are
agreed in saying that the amount of land donated was rela¬
tively small.
It is possible to put a partial check upon the figures of the
state board for one of the lines — that of the Chicago, St. Paul,
Minneapolis and Omaha an Chippewa county — since the fig¬
ures in the appraisal sheets of this road show the “actual a-
mount of money disbursed for this realty.”6 The total num¬
ber of acres in this right of way is 408.54, and
the total cost to the railway company was $15,998.10, making
the average price per acre $39.18, as opposed to $42.50, the
figure determined by the state appraiser from the records of
the sales used. Using the same ordinary value as has been
used in the table on page 800, we should have a ratio of 3.61
instead of 4.01 as there given. The difference is considerable,
but the lower (and probably more accurate) figure is yet far
above that finally adopted by the engineer of the board,
e For this information and for other helpful suggestions, I am in¬
debted to Mr. T. A. Polleys, tax commissioner for this road, who has
done much valuable work in collecting data in this and other states.
Skinner — Appraisal of Railroad Property. 803
namely 2.5. In view of the foregoing facts, this ratio seems to
he quite low enough.7
There is in this state no example of a right of way recently
purchased through a city of considerable size. After due con¬
sideration and comparison of previous appraisals, the ratios
adopted by the engineer of the state board of assessment were
1.331/3 for right of way 100 feet wide or less, and 1.10 for
right of way more than 100 feet wide. The figures adopted in
the Michigan appraisal were 200 per cent of the ordinary value
for cities with a population of more than 3,000, and 225 per
cent of the ordinary value for cities and villages with a pop¬
ulation of less than 3,000, plus $8.50 per acre for severance
charges.8 1
That the figures used in the Wisconsin appraisal are rather
too low than too high, was borne out by the results that came
to light in the investigation that was carried out by Mr. Brandt
on the Dixon-Peoria branch of the Chicago and Northwestern,
about one mile of which lies in the city of Peoria. The mar¬
ket value of this right of way was determined by the same
method that had already been used in Wisconsin and which
is described on page 808. This value was determined from
254 transfers, representing a value of $535,472, all made be¬
tween July 1, 1900, and March 31, 1901. The assessed value
of this property was found to be 80 per cent of the aggregate
sale price. Using this figure as a basis, the ordinary value of
the right of way was determined to be $1,120 per acre. The
records showed that the railway company had paid $3,096 per
7 It was argued by the representatives of some of the roads that the
methods employed to find the ordinary value of the farm lands ad¬
jacent to the railroad right of way gave too low a value, and conse¬
quently made the ratio of the right of way value to the ordinary value
too high. It must not he forgotten, however, that this would have
little influence upon the right of way value as deduced from the ordi¬
nary value, since after all the right of way value is the fixed quantity
in the equation by which the ratio is determined. It matters little
whether the ratio be low or high, provided the ordinary value be deter¬
mined in the same manner throughout the state and the ratio is rea¬
sonable with respect to the ordinary value so determined.
8M. E. Cooley: Instructions relative to right of way, 1901.
804 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts , and Letters.
acre. The ratio is then 2.76. The width of this right of
way varies from 150 to 385 feet.
The determination of this ratio of right of way value to or¬
dinary value has been discussed at length for two reasons:
First, because of the far-reaching effect of the use of such
a ratio, and second, because the methods used were precisely
the methods used in the determination of the right of way for
all roads in the state.
H I |
i
METHODS EMPLOYED.
Might of Way Through Farm Lands.
As we have already seen, the state board of assessment re¬
quired that the appraisal should be based upon actual sales of
land situated near the right of way Without special facili¬
ties for obtaining data from such sales, the method would be
practically impossible. However, in the state of Wisconsin,
the register of deeds in each county is required to transmit
annually to the secretary of state a report of all sales of real
estate made in the county during the year for which the con¬
sideration was not merely nominal. These reports contain
(1) a brief but accurate description of the property, (2) the
date of sale, (3) the consideration, and, in the case of farm
lands, the number of acres transferred. The existence of these
reports made fairly simple a piece of work which otherwise
could hardly have been completed in a reasonable time and at
a reasonable expense. By means of them, it was possible to
obtain in the office of the secretary of state in a few weeks in¬
formation which it would have taken the same force as many
months to collect had the men been obliged to go to the offices
of the registers of deeds in the various counties. The trans¬
fers are usually arranged by towns, the boundaries of which in
a general way coincide with the boundaries of the government
townships.
Skinner — Appraisal of Railroad Property. 805
In the first place, the best maps to be obtained were secured.®
With the help of these maps, lists of sections lying in strips
approximately two miles wide with the railways through the
center were made out and arranged so far as possible in the or¬
der of their numbers. A clerk then scanned the registers’ re¬
ports covering that particular region and made a record of
■each sale that had taken place within the two-mile-wide strip
and recorded in his notebook a brief description of the parcel,
its acreage, the consideration and the last previous assessment.9 10
The rates for a particular section of road were ar¬
ranged by years, so that from them it was an easy
matter to determine the average price for any one
year or for the five-year period. This acreage for the
five-year period was then recorded as the “average sale price”
for the land. The inspectors were then sent into the field to col¬
lect data in the way of opinions from men actually familiar
with the land lying along the line of the road, and to judge
from personal inspection the value of the right of wTav. Finally,
the names of many reliable business men, farmers, etc., liv¬
ing along the line of road were obtained, and to these a
printed form was sent which they were asked to return to the
office of the board of assessment with their estimate of the acre
value of the right of way through a certain section. From
these data, the inspector, after weighing all the evidence at
hand, put down what was in his opinion the ordinary value
per acre of the right of way along the line. Where sharp dif-
9 Considerable difficulty was experienced in securing sufficiently ac¬
curate maps. The railroad commissioner’s map of Wisconsin is excel¬
lent, but it is too small. The difficulty was even greater in the case
of the small towns. In September 1903, the writer saw in the office
of one of the registers a recorded plat for an incorporated village which
was a mere rough pencil sketch; and so far as he could learn, no other
existed.
loThese assessments were not used in the case of the farm lands
except to assist the inspector in discovering whether the consideration
was the true one, and for this purpose rarely. For example, when the
assessed value far exceeded the consideration, this fact was ordinarily
accepted as prima facie evidence that the consideration was not the
true one. So it usually proved when the full information concerning
the transfer was obtained.
806 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts , and Letters.
ferences in value existed, the road was divided into shorter sec¬
tions, so that estimates could he made more accurately. These
last figure^, increased by 150 per cent, are the figures that ap¬
pear in the appraisal as giving the cost per acre of the right of
way on the supposition that the road were completely elimina¬
ted and the company obliged to purchase it anew.
Right of Way through Villages and Small Cities.
The methods employed to determine the value of the right
of way through villages and small cities were in the main the
same as those employed to determine the right of way through
farm lands. All transfers of land located within one block of
the right of way, where the recorded consideration was not
merely nominal, and which had taken place during the five-year
period, were examined. The acreage of this property was de¬
termined by increasing its dimensions by one-half the width
of all streets fronting it, and from this acreage the price per
acre was obtained by dividing the aggregate of the considera¬
tions by the total acreage. The property was then viewed by
the inspector, and estimates were obtained from persons fa¬
miliar with the situation. From these data., the inspector made
an estimate of the value of the land adjacent to the right of
way, giving to the various elements such weight as in his judg¬
ment the circumstances seemed to demand. This estimate,
increased by the percentage as agreed upon, was taken to be
the acre value of the right of way. No account was taken of the
existence of villages with populations of less than 500, since
the amount of right of way within their borders is relatively
small and is in most cases contiguous to land which, although
it may be platted, is really farm land.
Very great difficulty was encountered in this part of the
work. It was difficult to obtain the dimensions of the lots
accurately. In many cases, the number of transfers of prop¬
erty near the right of way was too small to furnish sufficient
data upon which to* base safe conclusions. In many other cases,,
the value of adjacent land varied greatly owing to the distri¬
bution of improved property. This difficulty was at least
partially overcome by dividing the right of way through the
Skinner — Appraisal of Railroad Property. 807
village or city into smaller sections, so that a relatively large
number of sales of property of a given class would not deter¬
mine the acre value for the whole right of way through the cor¬
porate limits. The field inspectors were directed to note care¬
fully the physical conditions in such cases.
The most serious difficulty, however, arose from the fact that
the recorded consideration includes, of course, the value of the
improvements upon the property, and in most cases the value
of the improvements far exceeds the value of the naked realty.
The only method of solving the problem thus presented that
seemed at all feasible was to find from the later assessment
rolls the assessed value of the improvements11 and to separate
the consideration into two parts having the same ratio that the
assessment upon land bore to that upon the improvements.
This was unsatisfactory at best, the effect being, in cases where
the consideration was the true one, to increase the value of the
land, since there is a strong tendency on the part of assessors
to place the greater part of the assessment upon the land.12
In cases where the recorded consideration differed from the
true consideration, the method would lead to serious errors.
The evidence turned in by persons who were asked to esti¬
mate values contiguous to a railroad right of way through a
small city was of very doubtful value. This is clearly shown
by the figures given by three of the most reliable real estate
men of the city of Madison for the acre value of the land
contiguous to the right of way of the Illinois Central railroad
through the city. These estimates were approximately $1,000,
$2,000 and $3,000 per acre. As a matter of fact, the value as
determined by sales was not far from the middle figure.
With the best efforts of the appraisers, this part of the work
remained the most unsatisfactory of all that was undertaken.
Fortunately, its relative importance was such that it could not
ii For a number of years, the city of Milwaukee has required its as¬
sessors to assess the land and improvements separately. Since the
year 1900, this has been done for all real property in the state.
i2lt would be difficult to prove this statement, but to one who has
examined many such assessments the evidence seems almost conclu¬
sive.
808 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts , and Letters.
seriously affect the total result, though it must he admitted that
the chance for error in the individual towns is very consider¬
able.
The total value of all the right of way in the state was finally
placed at about $25,500,000. Of this amount, $2,977,941, or
less than 12 per cent, is given as the value of right of way
through cities and villages with populations of less than 10,000.
The average price of right of way through these cities and vil¬
lages was found to be $421 per acre, which would be $80 to
$100 for an ordinary building lot. This value would not seem
to be excessive when one considers that the towns were all above
500 population and that care was taken to omit from consider¬
ation all towns where the road does not run into the town.
Right of Way through Larger Cities.
For the larger cities, the scarcity of sales near the right of
way and the high value of the property involved made it neces¬
sary to seek for some method different from the one just
described. The method used was devised by Mr. John Marston,
Jr., engineer inspector for the state board of assessment, who
was placed in charge of the work for the larger cities of the
lake counties and the Fox river valley. The method was as
follows :
The assessed value of all the land, exclusive of improve¬
ments,13 lying within one block of the right of way was deter¬
mined for both sides of the road. This was reduced to assessed
value per acre for sections not exceeding two blocks in length.
The arithmetic mean of the figures on the two sides of the right
of way was then taken and the result used as a sort of “assessed
value of the right of way.” The aggregate of the considera-
i3With the exception of the city of Milwaukee, the assessed value of
the land had to be of date 1900 or later, as prior to that date the
values of the land and of the improvements were not separated by the
assessors. Some confusion and doubtless considerable inaccuracy
arose from the fact that for some cities the assessments for the years
1900, 1901 and 1902 differed sharply, owing to the efforts of the state
board of assessment to have all real property of the state assessed
at something like its full value.
Skinner- — Appraisal of Railroad Property. 809
tions for all sales for the city or for the ward in a single year
was obtained. This figure was compared with the aggregate
assessments on the same property for the same year. The re¬
sult of this comparison gave a so-called “ratio of assessed to
true value” for the city or for the ward as the case might be.14
Finally, the assessed value of the right of way was divided by
the ratio of assessed to true value, as determined from trans¬
fers in the city or in the ward. This result was taken as the true
value of the right of way. To obtain the cost of reproduction,
the true value was increased by 10 or 3 3% per cent, according
as the width of the right of way did or did not exceed one hun¬
dred feet.
It will be seen at once that in using the method just describ¬
ed, all error arising from the imperfect determination of the
ratio of the value of the land to the value of improvements
from the consideration, which includes both, has been elimi¬
nated. The method, which, from a theoretical standpoint, leaves
little to be desired, was not without serious shortcomings when
the practical application came to be made. By far the most im¬
portant source of error is to be found in the determination of
the ratio of assessed to true value of the real estate of a given
city. This difficulty was increased by the fact that during the
five-year period which the state board requires to be taken inr
to consideration, the assessments had been very materially in¬
creased throughout the state. In several cases, it was found
better to base the ratio on the sales of a single year and the cor¬
responding assessments on the same property, even though the
number of sales was thereby greatly diminished. For most of
the cities, the sales and assessments for the year ending Sep¬
tember 1901 were used. The determination of this impor¬
tant ratio will be taken up in a later paragraph.
Another difficulty arose from the fact that in many places
the right of way occupies a peculiar location with respect to
adjacent property. A conspicuous example of this sort is the
case of the Chicago and Northwestern railway along the lake
i*It must be carefully borne in mind that wherever the term “as¬
sessed value” is used it refers to the local assessment.
810 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters.
front north of the passenger station in the city of Milwaukee.
For nearly a half-mile, the track runs over made land along the
lake shore under a bluff forty to fifty feet high. For a part
of this distance, the land on top of the bluff is occupied by
Juneau park, and for the remainder, by the most expensive res¬
idence property in the city, worth $100 to $200 a front foot.
With land on top of the bluff worth $50,000 per acre and up¬
ward, and the lake on the other side, it as difficult to say what
the right of way lying between is worth.15
THE APPRAISAL BY THE RAILROADS THEMSELVES.
At the request of the state board of assessment, most of the
larger roads of the state made an inventory of their own prop¬
erty at the same time that the work was going forward under
direction of the board. The following roads turned in ap¬
praisals for their right of way: Chicago and Northwest¬
ern; Chicago, Milwaukee and St. Paul; Chicago, St.
Paul, Minneapolis and Omaha ; Duluth, South Shore
and Atlantic; Eastern Bailway of Minnesota; Green
Bay and Western; Minneapolis, St. Paul and Sault Ste.
Marie; Wisconsin and Michigan, and Wisconsin Central. The
methods followed by the various roads were not given in all
cases, and for those that were given the differences were not
enough to warrant a description for each road. In order,
however, to make a comparison of results, it is necessary to
describe some of these methods.
Of the various appraisals of right of way made by the rail¬
way companies, that employed by the Wisconsin Central for
a portion of its appraisal was probably as carefully done as
any and may be- taken as typical. This appraisal was made
by a careful right of way man who has been in the employ of
the road for many years and who is familiar with the line
throughout its whole length in the state. Careful inquiry was
made in person of responsible men familiar with land values
i5 The situation for this particular piece of road was aptly put by an
Irish appraiser employed by the railway company who, when directed
to obtain the right of way value by comparison with “lands similarly
situated,” reported that “there is no land similarly situated.”
Skinner — Appraisal of Railroad Property. 811
in their respective localities, and the average of these opinions
and that of the appraiser were taken into consideration in
making up a final estimate of value.
In the counties of Waukesha, Fond du Lac, Manitowoc,
Waupaca, Portage, Wood and Pricey which best represent the
most valuable right of way of the company, the most compe¬
tent men obtainable in each locality were hired and sent out
with instructions to make a personal canvass from farm to farm
and lot to lot abutting the company’s right of way. These
agents first asked the owner of adjoining property what price
he would be willing to pay for the right of way in its natural
state, then what price he would be willing to place upon his
own property exclusive of improvements , and finally the price
at which he would sell a strip of land through his holding for
railway purposes. The appraiser was required to give his opin¬
ion of the average valuation of the adjacent property for the
preceding five years without improvements. In addition to
all these items, the assessed valuation of the property for the
last preceding assessment was noted on the blank furnished the
appraiser. The appraiser’s valuation for the five-year period,
increased by amounts varying with the different localities, but
on the whole less than the percentage determined by the engi¬
neer of the state board, was taken as the value of land for right
of way purposes.16
Methods similar to the above were employed by other roads,
though none of them carried out the work with such detail as
that employed by the Wisconsin Central company in the coun¬
ties mentioned above. Several of the roads, notably the Chicago
and Northwestern, refused to recognize the principle of an
added increment for right of way purposes, and consequently
their figures represent what has been called the ordinary
value. Others adopted the principle, but allowed the applica¬
tion of it to depend upon the character of the land and the
16 I am indebted to Mr. George A. Kingsley, tax commissioner for the
Wisconsin Central Railway, under whose immediate supervision the
valuation for his company was made, for a detailed statement of the
methods employed.
50— S. & A.
812 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts , and Letters.
local circumstances, so that in the returns as finally made to
the state it is impossible to give percentages.
For the appraisal of the value of a right of way through city
property, the work done by the officials of the Chicago and
Northwestern railway in the city of Milwaukee may be taken
as an example. In this work, representative pieces of property
were selected in each block lying near the company’s right of
Way, and their market value was carefully estimated by two to
four men familiar with land values in the vicinity. The aver¬
age of these estimates was taken as the market value. The
market value so determined was compared with the assessed
value. The assessed value of the property adjacent to the right
of way was then obtained, and the market value was found,
assuming that the ratio of assessed to market value for all the
property adjoining the right of way was the same as that for
the representative piece of property.17
The first results obtained for some of the more important
cities by the two methods, differing only in slight details, are
interesting. The following table will show how great the dif¬
ferences were.
Table showing comparison of results obtained by stale appraiser
and the Chicago and Northwestern Railway company for the “ or¬
dinary value ” of the latter's right of way through the principal
cities of Wisconsin.
As will be seen, the difference in the city of Milwaukee was
more than $4,000 per acre, or, in round numbers,, about 20
per cent of the state appraiser’s figure. For the 170 acres
it For this information, which does not appear in the company’s re¬
ports, I am indebted to Mr. C. D. Cleveland, land commissioner for the
•Chicago and Northwestern Railway company.
Skinner — Appi'disal of Railrmd Property. \ 813
occupied by the railway company, the total difference was more
than $700,000. Subsequent conferences between representa¬
tives of the state and of the railway company served to di¬
minish this difference somewhat, but by a relatively small
amount. This difference was still further increased when the
percentages for right of way value were added. The final
figure adopted by 'the state appraisers was $22,775 per acre,
making a total of $3,859,009 for the city.
Further comparison will be found in the following table,18
which gives the total value of the right of way for eight large
roads of the state.
Table shovnng comparison of results reached by the state appraiser
and the railroad companies for the value of their rights of way
through Wisconsin.
At first glance, this table would seem to show nothing except
possibly the utter unreliability of all figures obtained. How¬
ever, if it be remembered that the officials of the Chicago and
isi am indebted to Professor W. D. Taylor, engineer for the state
board of assessment, under whose supervision the data for this table
were brought into final form, for permission to use his results.
814 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts , and Letters.
Northwestern road consistently refused to increase their right
of way value above the market value, one very large difference
is removed at once. The value of the right of way of this road
through farm lands is approximately $1,286,285, according to
the estimate of the appraisers for the road*. If this figure he
increased by 150 per cent, the percentage of difference would
be changed to 11.2, and the percentage of totals in the right of
way columns to 15.4, without materially affecting the percent¬
ages for the column for all the items.
The Green Bay and Western road was very low in all its
estimates, as is shown in the column for all items. It is also
possible that its estimate of the value of its right of way is the
estimated ordinary value without any added increment. If
this be true, a large part of the difference would disappear in
this case also.
The great difference in the case of the Puluth, South Shore
and Atlantic is not so easily explained. This road runs for
most of its length through land that was formerly covered with
a heavy growth of pine, and it is possible that many of the con¬
siderations recorded give the value of the land with the timber
standing, and it may be with the value of saw mills located
upon it added, while the figures given by the road indicate the
present value of the land with timber cut off. Assuming the
right of way to be 100 feet wide, the road’s figures would be
about $15.00 per acre, while those given by the state apprais¬
er would be nearly $70.00 per acre. It is quite certain that
outside the ' city of Superior the market value of the right of
way for the road would probably not exceed one-fifth of this
sum, so that $45 per acre or $550 per mile would be a liberal
estimate for the cost of reproducing the right of
way outside the city of Superior. If the state’s esti¬
mate of this right of way is too high, it is just as certain that
the road’s estimate is much ‘too low, if one assumes that the cost
of reproduction is the thing required, for this estimate would
bring the market value of the land below $8.00 per acre for the
whole line.
Further comment upon the table seems unnecessary. It
SJcinner — Appraisal of Railroad Property. 815
must be regretted that the figures on both sides cannot be pre¬
sented so as to compare market values, since in that case there
would be a common basis for the comparison.
THE SO- CALLED RATIO OF ASSESSED TO TRUE VALUE OF REAL
ESTATE.
The use of the ratio of the locally assessed value to the true
value of real property in connection with the determination of
the ordinary or market value of right of way in Milwaukee and
other cities in the eastern part of the state has already been
noted. This ratio has played such an important part in the
appraisal, and the use of it for this and other purposes has
been so vigorously ' attacked by the railway officials, that it de¬
serves some notice here. The question as it has come up is not
upon the use of the ratio, but on the possibility of determining
it accurately from the considerations as recorded in warranty
deeds conveying the property sold. In what follows, reference
will be made largely to the determination of this ratio for the
city of Milwaukee, since it is for this city that its importance
is greatest. The ad valorem law of 1903, changing the basis
of railway taxation in Wisconsin, directed that the state board
of assessment should make a formal determination of the ‘True
cash value” of all railway property in the state. The tax com¬
mission had already made free use of the reports of sales of real
estate in connection with their work in determining the value
of real property in the gtate. The validity of this method of de¬
termining the value of the larger part of the general property
of the state became at once a fundamentally important question
to the railway companies, since, by the law of 1903, their prop¬
erty was to be valued “in like manner as other property of the
state.” The prime question at issue was the accuracy of the
determination of the value of the real property of the state;
the determination of the relation of assessed to true value was
only incidental, though it was used later in several ways.
Early in the year, the matter was taken up for the railroads
by a committee consisting of Messrs. Frank P. Crandon, A. S.
Dudley and W. W. Baldwin, tax commissioners for the Chi-
816 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts, and Letters.
cago and Northwestern, Chicago, Milwaukee and St. Paul and
Chicago, Burlington and Quincy roads respectively. This
committee employed Mr. Thomas H. Brown, formerly tax
commissioner for the city of Milwaukee, to sift the reports of
the register of deeds in several counties and to ascertain if pos¬
sible how far these reports of sales could be made a basis for
the determination of the ratio of assessed to true value. Mr.
Brown and his assistants spent several months working with
the records of sales for the year, going over the data in the of¬
fices of the various registers, and rejecting all sales where it
appeared from the deed that the consideration as recorded did
not express the true consideration, or where for any
reason the consideration could not be compared with
the assessment of the year in which the deed was
given. The results of these investigations have been
privately printed in a pamphlet of 190 pages, entitled
“An analysis of the reports of land sales made by the regis¬
ters of deeds to the secretary of state, showing the unreliability
of these reports as a basis for determining the true value of
real estate in Wisconsin.” The committee’s conclusions may
be given briefly as follows: (1) Owing to the fact that in
so many cases the recorded consideration does not represent the
actual sale price, no accurate determination of this ratio is pos¬
sible from the reports of the registers to the secretary of state.
(2) By carefully sifting the data and by securing informa¬
tion from the parties to the sales, the committee concludes that
Milwaukee real estate was, in 1902, assessed at about 52 per
cent of its true value.”19
Using the average of the five-year period, Mr. Marston ob¬
tained a value of 56 per cent, using the registers’ reports and
making no attempt to sift data except to throw out such sales
as were on the face of the record not available.
In the summer of 1904, the state board of assessment commis¬
sioned Professor T. S. Adams to undertake an investigation
is Subsequent investigations by agents of tbe tax commission have
brought to light a very considerable number of omissions and inaccu¬
racies in Mr. Brown’s work — enough, it would seem, seriously to affect
the value of his conclusions.
Skinner — Appraisal of Railroad Property . 8 IT
covering the counties of Barron, Dane, Ozaukee and Milwau¬
kee, to ascertain whether the reports of the registers of those
counties for the years 1898-1902 contain data of sufficient ac¬
curacy to justify their use in determining the ratio of assessed
to true value. Professor Adams’ report has not been pub¬
lished, but through his courtesy and with the permission of the
state tax commission the writer is permitted to refer to some
results arrived at and to add some comments of his own based
upon observations taken during the progress of the work.
Under Professor Adams’s direction, every deed referred to
in the registers’ reports was read, and every restriction, reserva¬
tion and condition was noted upon a card designed to contain
all data relating to the transfer. The existence of mortgages was
also carefully noted. After the deeds had been read, the assess¬
ments of the property for two or three years were copied upon
the same card, and finally men were sent into the field to find
the parties to the sale and verify all data found as well as to
obtain pertinent data not contained in the record.
The result of this careful sifting is shown in the following
table, which gives the figures originally given by the tax com¬
mission and the figures found by Professor Adams. The re¬
sults give in every case the average of the ratios for each year
for the five-year period 1898-1903', expressed as a percentages
Table showing ratios of assessed to “ true value ” according to meth¬
ods of tax commission and according to work
done by Professor Adams.
818 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts, and Letters.
The relatively small differences in the figures go far to con¬
firm the commission in its methods and show that on the whole
the result of “sifting” the data increases the valuation of the
right of way, since the lower ratio gives the higher valuation.
Some of the reasons that tend to invalidate the data con¬
tained in the registers’ reports may he noted briefly :
1. The deed may contain some restriction placed upon the
property or its maintenance in the future.
2. The consideration may be purposely misstated.
3. The number of cases for which the recorded considera¬
tion is merely nominal, that is one dollar and other considera¬
tions, may be so large that the remainder do not furnish a suf¬
ficient body of data upon which to base safe conclusions. In
the city of Milwaukee, the number of “dollar” sales is about 85
per cent of the whole number of conveyances. It is very much
smaller in other parts of the state.
4. Improvements may have been placed upon the property
or removed from it between the date of sale and the date of the
assessment with which it is compared.
5. The deed may be given in fulfillment of a land contract,
in which case the assessment is compared with a sale price of
much earlier date.
6. The grantee may assume a mortgage outstanding against
the property, which mortgage needs to be added to the recorded
consideration to obtain the true consideration.
7. The consideration may include personal property of con¬
siderable value.
It must be admitted that these considerations would seem to
cast grave doubt upon the usefulness of the registers’ reports.
Nevertheless, after most careful examination of all data,
the results obtained by Professor Adams seem to show
that for long-settled farming communities and for cit¬
ies in which real estate movements are not measur¬
ably affected by speculation, data obtained from the reg¬
isters’ reports will give results very close to the truth, while
even in such a city as Milwaukee, where during the last ten
years real estate has been subject to violent fluctuations owing
to the existence of a multitude of purely speculative ventures,
Skinner — Appraisal of Bmlroiad Property. 819
fairly accurate results may be obtained by sifting the data care¬
fully. With these conclusions, Mr. T. A. Polleys, tax commis¬
sioner for the Chicago, St. Paul, Minneapolis and Omaha rail¬
way, who has examined the matter carefully in several counties
of Wisconsin and in some counties in Minnesota and Nebras¬
ka, is in substantial agreement.
It may be noted in passing that in the discussion of this
ratio the representatives of the railways had no thought of ap¬
plying the ratio to the determination of right of way values,
but rather to enable them to compare valuations made on their
property with valuations made on other property in
the state. Curiously enough, it works in diametrically op¬
posite lirections when applied to these two purposes. A low
valuation upon contiguous real estate would entitle the road
to the same low valuation, but when applied to finding the
market value of the right of way as described above, would in¬
crease that value very greatly as the ratio diminished.
I
COST OF THE APPRAISAE, AND TIME REQUIRED.
I
No accurate statement of the cost of any particular part of
the appraisal can be made, since many of the men employed
worked on several parts of it. The cost, therefore, can only be
estimated.
The work was done by twelve men, with salaries per month
as follows :
1 chief inspector . $160 00
1 engineer inspector . 275 00
1 inspector . 160 00
1 inspector . . . . 140 00
1 Inspector . . 125 00
7 assistants . . . . 80 00
Making a total pay roll of $1,435 per month. In addition,
the men were allowed traveling expenses but rot hotel bills
while away from Madison. Had the work been pushed for¬
ward with the whole twelve men, the work could easily have
been accomplished in four months, making the total cost, includ-
820 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters.
ipg traveling expenses, something more than $6,000. The total
cost of reproduction of all right of way as estimated by the
state is $25,051,728-, as compared with a total of all items of
$201,206,300. It will be noted therefore that the appraisal of
the right of way was a relatively large item in the whole ex¬
pense, which amounted to about $25,000. The cost of the ap¬
praisal of the right of way was thus about one-fourth of the
cost of the whole appraisal, while the value of the right of way
was found to be about one-eighth of the total physical value of
the roads appraised. It must be noted, however, that in the
determination of the value of the right of way less assistance
was received from the roads themselves than in the determina¬
tion of other parts of the physical value.
CRITICISMS AND SUGGESTIONS.
I
In the opinion of the writer, the most serious sources of er¬
ror in the results obtained for right of way value by the method
used by the appraisers lie in the facts that for the limited areas
considered the number of the land sales is subject to such great
variations, and that it is practically impossible in these sales to
find the true consideration for the land stripped of all improve¬
ments. The experience of the inspectors proved conclusively
that information from local business or professional men other¬
wise than by personal interview is extremely difficult to obtain
and when obtained is of very doubtful value. Moreover, per¬
sonal interviews with any considerable number of men in each
locality require a large amount of time and expense.
It would seem wise, then, to lay more emphasis on local as¬
sessments. Under present methods employed in Wisconsin, it
would be an easy matter to find the assessed value of all farms
within one mile of the right of way through farm lands or
within one block of the line through urban1 property.
The ratio of assessed to true value could then be determined
by taking into account all sales over larger units of area. The
unit should not be less than a government township for farm
lands or a ward for city property. Where special local condi¬
tions render this method useless (and the number of such cases
Skinner — Appraisal of Railroad Property. . 821
would be relatively small), a small committee comprising per¬
haps a chief inspector, the local assessor and one or two men
familiar with local conditions could make a special determina¬
tion of the value at small cost. This would be carrying out
for the whole state, with slight modifications, the plan adopted
by Mr. Marston for the city of Milwaukee.
It ought not to be difficult to arrange for local assessors to
turn in to some county or city official their estimate of the
right of way as compared with that of adjacent property, and
for such official in turn to forward the estimates to the state
board of assessment. By the state board, these figures could be
treated exactly as the assessments on any other real estate.
It seems likely, however, that under any scheme that may be
devised the cost of the appraisal will be relatively high as com¬
pared with the value of the right of way as an element in the
value of the railroad property. Bor, after all, the relation of
the value of the right of way to the earning capacity of the
road, either present or prospective, is ordinarily exceedingly
small, and it is precisely the ability of a road to bring in re¬
turns that has more to do with its value to investors than any
or all other factors. Nevertheless, while it may be true that
for purposes of taxation the value of the physical property
of a railroad is less important than some other factors, it must
be noted that in problems involving an equitable adjustment of
rates it is a factor of great importance. It is probably
true, also, that for most roads the value of the right of way
will constitute in the future a relatively larger part of the phvs-
ioal value. This fact is at once evident when one considers
the sharp advance that has taken place in the value of farm
lands in the middle West in the last twenty years and the great
increase that is taking place in the area covered by our cities.
Bor reasons similar to the foregoing, it is desirable that the
right of way should be appraised certainly as often as other
parts of the physical property and probably oftener. In any
case, the appraisal should be made often enough so that the ap¬
praised value can be adjusted to the fluctuations in the value
of contiguous real estate. Under normal conditions, there will
822 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts , ancZ Letters.
be an increase and not a decrease. As an example, the valua¬
tion of the farms of Dane county, Wisconsin, increased from
$26,373,804 as given in the census of 1890 to $38,869,830 as
given by the census of 1900. Again, during the decade ending
with 1905, the city of Madison in this same county has extend¬
ed its corporate limits so that some four miles of right of way
has been brought into the city, and during the same period the
value of the land contiguous to these four miles of right of way
has increased in value from 100 to 1,000 per cent or even more.
It would seem only fair, then, that in the decade 1890-1900 the
valuation of all right of way through farm lands in Dane coun¬
ty should be increased by nearly fifty per cent, and the valua¬
tion of the four miles taken into the city of Madison in the dec¬
ade 1895-1905 should be increased to keep pace with the value
of several hundred acres of land that has been changed from
acre property to city lots. These two cases are doubtless ex¬
treme, but many such occur. It is altogether probable that
valuations taken at ten-year intervals would give sufficiently
accurate adjustment for all practical purposes.
In conclusion, I have to thank the members of the Wisconsin
tax commission, Messrs. H. S. Gilson, George C. Curtis, Jr., and
Hils P. Haugen, not onlv for their courteous permission to use
much of the material contained in this paper, but for valuable
suggestions as well. i
JACOB WYMPFFLINGER’S “TUTSCHLAND.”
E. K. J. H. VOSS.
It is a strange fact, but nevertheless a fact, that the Modem
High German literary language is not the natural development
and the continuation of the language which the classic writers
of the twelfth and thirteenth centuries used, but that it de¬
veloped out of the language of the Middle East of Germany
rather than out of that of the South. A glance at a Middle
High German dictionary will easily prove this.
We know a great deal about the older Germanic dialects,
and also about the twelfth and thirteenth centuries, during^
which German literature reached its first climax. But the
transition period from Middle High German to Modem High
German, that is the literature of the fourteenth and fifteenth
centuries, has been neglected until recently by Germanists and
is in a good many respects an unknown quantity to us still.
This period alone, however, can throw the necessary light upon
the history and development of our Modem High German liter¬
ary language.
Since the days when this stupendous task became distinctly
clear to those interested in the solution of this most wonderful
and interesting phenomenon, a great deal of painstaking work
has been done. But at times the hope of ever seing this task
accomplished and the problem solved must have been a very
faint one indeed. Recently, however, a sister institution of
this academy, the Royal Academy of Sciences at Berlin*
5l—i S. & A.
824 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts, and Letters.
founded by Leibniz in 17 00, has taken hold of this problem in
a way that guarantees its final solution.
It succeeded in getting the German emperor interested in
this work, and when in 1900 the Royal Academy celebrated its
bicentennial, his Majesty augmented this illustrious body of
scholars by providing for three new members for the especial
study of the German language and literature from an his¬
torical point of view. In order to create a broad and safe
foundation for this work, a special German Commission was
founded in the summer of 1903, to which belong, besides the
three Germmists of the Academy, Professors Schmidt, Bur-
dach and Roethe, also Professors Diels, Koser and Dilthey.1
This commission has mapped out for its work the following
program :
Pirst: To publish and edit, mostly for the first time, im¬
portant German texts of the Middle Ages. So far, five volumes
have been published: aFriedrich von Sehwaben,” edited by
Jellinek; “Rudolfs von Ems Willehalm von Orlens,” edited
by V. Junk; “Die Lehrgedichte der Melker Handschrift,”
edited by A. Leitzmann; and “Volks- und Gesellschaftslieder
des XVten and XVIten Jahrhunderts,” edited by Arthur
Kopp.
Second: To catalog all literary monuments written or
printed in German up to the sixteenth century, wherever found.
Third : To investigate the history of the Modern High Ger¬
man literary language from 1300 up to Goethe’s death. For
the present, four volumes are in preparation, relating to the
origin and development of the written language of the four¬
teenth and fifteenth centuries.
In addition to this, the Commission is also in charge of an
exhaustive study of all German dialects. The compilation of
a Rheno-Franconian dialect dictionary is already under way.2
It is also the aim of this Commission to furnish us with critical
1 To this commission have been added as non-academic members
Professors Franck in Bonn and Seuffert in Graz.
2 This work has been entrusted to Professor Franck of Bonn.
Foss — Jacob W ympfjlingers Tutschland. 825
editions of the works of the great writers of the second classical
period of German literature, like Wieland, Klopstock, Winckel-
niann, Justus Moeser and Hamann.3 The Commission reports
from time to time in the proceedings of the Royal Academy,
and has just issued a special announcement of the work to he
done and the manner in which it is to proceed.4 This report,
which was submitted to the Modern Philological Society of
Germany at its last meeting in Hamburg, calls for the co-opera¬
tion of all scholars and learned societies in this national and
patriotic work, which, when accomplished, will be a lasting
monument to German scholarship. For all this is only pre¬
paratory to a “Thesaurus linguae Germanicae ” which some day
shall take the place of the great German dictionary begun by
the brothers Jacob and Wilhelm Grimm. The dream of this
Commission is the final establishment of a permanent Germanic
Institute, the members of which shall devote all their time and
energy to anything related to Germanic life and culture.
Being myself interested in the transition period from Middle
to Modern High German, I collected during my last stay in
Germany (1902-1903) some material as an illustration of the
German language in the different parts of Germany at the be¬
ginning of the sixteenth century. From this I offer the fol¬
lowing as a contribution to the study of Early Modern High
German. It has, of course, not only linguistic value, but will
no doubt he welcome to any one interested in the history of
those days.
3 A critical edition of Wieland’s works is being prepared by Bern-
hard Seuffert. Cf. his “Prolegomena zu einer Wieland Ausgabe.” Ber¬
lin, Reimer.
4 “Generalbericht ueber die Gruendung imd bisherige Taetigkeit der
deutschen Kommission.” Berlin, 1905.
826 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts, and Letters .
INTRODUCTORY.
The question whether Strasburg and the Alsace belong by
right to Trance or to Germany is an old one. It was raised
long before the Franco-Prussian war, after which the disputed
territory became again part of the German empire. In 1501,
the famous humanist Jacob Wimpfeling published a treatise
in Latin in honor of the city of Strasburg,5 in which he proved,
as he thought, by the hand of history, that Strasburg always
had been a German city.
It was not unnatural that this treatise should call forth op¬
position at a time when the kings of France were stretching
out their hands towards the crown of the Holy Homan Empire
(of the German nation). Besides, it was not very difficult
to reject some of the rather unfounded historical proofs of
Wimpfeling, who, e. g., claimed Pipin as a German simply be¬
cause his name had become proverbial. The opposition re¬
marked that with the same right King Solomon or Croesus
might be claimed as a German. The chief attack upon Wim-
pfeling’s “Germania” came from a man about half his age who
had even enjoyed his hospitality, but who had set aside every¬
thing (so it appeared to Wimpfeling at least) for the sake of
notoriety, and who attacked the older man in a most unmerci¬
ful manner. I refer to Thomas Murner’s “Germania nova,”
published at Strasburg in 1502 and republished by Charles
Schmidt together with the first part of Wimpfeling’s “Ger¬
mania” in 1874.
Wimpfeling of course replied to this,6 but not in a very
5 Cf. Goedeke, “Grundriss,” vol. 2, p. 409. “Germania Jacobi
Wimpffelingii ad Rempnblicam Argentinensem,” 1501.
6 “Declaratio Jacobi Wimpfelingii ad mitigandum adversarium,” s. L
et a. 4 Bl.
Foss — Jacob Wymp filing er’s Tutschland. 827
effective nor convincing manner. Finally, friends came to his
rescue 7 and saved as much as possible of his reputation as a
thorough, conscientious and truth-loving scholar. His patriot¬
ism had no doubt carried him a little too far in this matter.
But we must also remember that in this same pamphlet he is
pleading for a cause which was very dear to his humanistic
heart, namely the establishment of a higher school of learning
for the glory of Strasburg. Viewed from this standpoint, his
enthusiasm is praiseworthy, but at the same time it becomes
easier also to understand the opposition of the friars in this
matter,8 who feared that their prospects for the future might
be endangered if the education of the Strasburg youth should
pass out of their hands.
Wimpfeling announced, at the same time that his “Germania”
appeared in Latin, that a German edition would also be printed.
USTo doubt he was thinking of a larger public than the members
of the Strasburg Common Council to whom he dedicated his
treatise. This German “Germania,” however, was not issued
during his lifetime. Probably he became disgusted with the
whole affair and in his discouragement desisted from furnish¬
ing any further material for an attack upon his person. To¬
wards the middle of the seventeenth century, after Opitz had
jirepared the ground by his “Aristarchus sive de contemptu
linguae Teutonicae,” at a time when a new interest in the
study of the German language was aroused, when Schottel
published his “Teutsche Sprachkunst” (1641) and his “La-
mentatio Germaniae expiranfis” (1640), when Lauremberg
stirred up the German conscience in his “Scherzgedichte,”
when the “Teutsche Haupt und lleldensprache” was eulogized
all over Germany, another patriot of Strasburg, Job. Mich.
Moscherosch, whose name is connected by some scholars with
the “Unartig teutscher Sprachverderber” that appeared in
1643, brought to light this German edition of Wimpfeling’s
^“Defensio Germaniae Jacobi Wympfelingii guam frater Thomas
Murner impugnavit.”
8Cf. “Germania von Jacob Wimpfeling.” uebersetzt u. erlaeutert von
Ernst Martin. Strassburg, 1885.
828 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts , and Letters.
“Germania” : — “Tutschland Jacob Wympfflingers von S'lett-
stadt, zu Ere der Statt Straszburg vnd des Rinstroms, Jetzo
nach 147 Jahren zum Truck gegeben durch Hansz Michel Mo-
scherosch, Straszburg, 1648.”
It appeared in the same year that the treaties of Muenster
and Osnabrueck were signed and a war was terminated which
had almost ruined Germany. The student of history will
readily see that Moscherosch had probably more than one rea¬
son to call attention to this defense of Strasburg and the Al¬
sace in 1648, one hundred and forty-seven years after Wim-
pfeling wrote it. He explains at length in his introductory re¬
marks what prompted him to publish the essay at this time and
calls special attention to the fact that it is an exact reproduc¬
tion of the original essay by Wimpfeling.
This reprint follows the original at the Royal Library at
Berlin (Rh. 4902). Obsolete words have been explained in the
footnotes.
Tutschland
Jacob Wy mpfflmgers von Slettstadt
zu Ere
Der Statt Straszburg
vnd
des Rinstroms
Jetzo nach 147 Jahren zum Truck gegeben
durch
Hansz MicLel Moscherosch
Getruckt zn Straszbnrg bey Johann Philipp Miilben vnd
Josias Staedeln,
1648.
830 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters.
Des H. Roem. Reichs
F reyer Stat Straszbnrg
Wol-Edelgebornen, Gestrengen, Edelen, Ehrenvesten, Fhrsich-
tigen vnd Hochweisen
Herren Raethen den Ein-vnd-Zwantzigen :
Meinen Genaedigen Gebieteten Herren
GEnaedige Gebietete Herren. Dieweil eines jeden Ehrli-
chen Manns schuldigkeit dahien gehet, dasz er all seine
Sinne vnd Gedanken, all sein Yermoegen vnd Absehen zn Rubm
vnd Rettnng des V atterlands verwende ; Alsz werde desto weni-
ger Misdentens zn befahren baben, wann icb gegenwertiges
Bnechlein, so vor 147 Jabren gescbrieben worden, bey jetzigen
zeiten berfnergesncbt7 zn Lob vnd Ehre vnseres Reinstroms,
dnrcb offentlicben Tmck an tag gebe. Zwar gestebe icb gar
gem? dasz, dergleicben sacben anszznfnebren vnd zn verfecbten,
meiner geringscbaetzigen vnd macbtlosen bevbnelffe nicbt von
noetben geweszt: In erwegnng, von hoben orten biezn einige
Gelegenbeiten vnd ersprieszlicbe Mittel ber zn lioifen: Ynd
wolte GOtt, dasz von jeglicbeni solcbes nur alsz wobl gescbeben,
alsz billig es gescbeben sollen, ancb jederweilen gescbeben koen-
nen, so waere man klagens vnd gefabr desto mebr genebriget
gewesen. Dann wie von anbeging her je vnd alle w eg Leutte
gefnnden worden, die es mit jbrem Yatterland nicht auffrecht
nocb redlicb gemeynet; also sind biengegen je vnd alle weg
anfirecbtc redlicbe Maenner berfuer getreten, die vber solcbe
TJntreu geseufftzet vnd gejammert baben. Ynder disen ist ancb
der erste Yerfasser dieses Werckleins Herr Jacob Wimpfflinger ;
Foss — Jacob Wympfflinger’s Tutschland. 831
Er schreibet treulich vnd ein£aeltich, redet offenhertzich vnd
recht von dor sache; Vnd siehet man hierausz, beneben dem
hauptzweck, wie vor nun vergangenen anderhalbhundert Jah-
ren, die Worte so deutlicb vnd klar, so rund vnd satt, die Rede
so kurtz vnd kembafft gesetzt, das Gemueth aber so auffrichtig,
so Teutscb vnd tbaetig geweszt ; da biengegen beutigs tags vile
des hoben lioeflicben Redens sicb befleissigen, in der That aber
so leiden wenig guts vnnd dem V atterland vortraeglicbes er-
weisen. Darumb dann icb des Verfassers wort so fleissig in ob-
acbt tfezogen, dasz auch meines Wissens oder Willens nicbt
ein buchstabe davon nocb dazu getban worden. Vnd obscbon
nach allerseits vorgegangenen weltbekandten aenderungen der
Zeiten, des Stands vnd Wesens, an jetzo etlicbes baette moegen
auszgelassen, oder ja, wie icb micb berede, merckliclien ver-
bessert werden; so bab docb, ausz jezt erzebltem, es vil lieber
bliben, vnd dem Verfasser, alsz einem Teutsclien Mann, icb
seine Mejnung, seine Art vnd redlicbes Abseben vngetraebet9
lassen wollen. Man siehet auch ausz dieser vor anderthalbhun-
dert Jabren im Obern Elsasz geweszten Mund-art, wie die
Spracben von jahren zu jabren, alsz die Kleidungen vnd
Muentzen, der wechselung vnderworffen ; so gar, dasz ein vn-
fern entsessener Landsmann in vilen Worten ohne erlaeuterung
ansteben, vnd sie kuemmerlicben wirde errathen moegen. Was
solte dann wunder seyn, wann vnsere Teutsche Haubtspracbe,
seitbero bey nahe drey Tausendt Acbtbundert vnd Euenfftzig
Jabren, von der Hebraiscben [deren sie vor alien andern spra-
eben an alter vnd gleicbbeit alleinig zugethan, vnd minder
nicbt alsz eine Mund-art derselbigen zu achten war} durch bey-
wobnen vnd Handlungen so vieler von Babbel entwicbener
Voelcker vnd Zungen, nunmehr so feme abgekommen. Wann
aber dises gantze Wercklein obn meine schlecbte recbte Vor-
sorge, wo nicbt gar in das Feuer, jedoch sonder alien zweiffel zu
anderem vngueltigem gebraucb waere verwendet worden ; wie
dann dergleichen vil berrlicbe vortreffliche Buecber vnd Ge-
schrifften allerband (in dem der vnsinnig-rasend Poefel vnd
9 Unchanged. Cf. Grimm, “Worterbuch,” vol. 2, p. 1361.
832 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters.
Bauem vor liundert Jabren, bey fuergegangenen aenderungen
der Religion, vnder dem vorwandt der Moencb — vnd Mesz-
buecher, vnd vnder dem scbein der Guelt-, Jabr- vnd Saal-
bueeher,10 weldhen sie die einige vrsacb all jbres Leids vnd
Jammers zugeschriben batten, mit vollem grimm gewuetbet
vnd getobet) im Eeuer vnd Wasser zu scbeittern vnd zn
grunde gegangen, zu staub vnd aschen verbrandt worden, davon
in ewigkeit einiger bucbstabe nicbt mebr zu erstatten, vnnd wir
deren mit vnwiderbringlicbem nacbtheil vnd schaden ermanglen
muessen : so soil ja billicb, was ausz soicber gefabr nocb vberig
vnd errettet gebliben, oder docb nicht gar zertruemmert wor¬
den, gleicbsam es gefunden waere, desto boeher vnd waertber?
so gering es aucb vor etlicben augen scbeinen moechte, gehalten
werden: Aldieweil noeh immerzu etwas anzeigimgen Alt-Teut-
scber Auffricbtigkeit, aucb Bericbt fuergeloffener dinge vnd
baendel darausz zu erlernen vnnd zu erforscben an band kom-
men.
E. G. bab icb aber dises Wercklein, wie es ist, ausz onder-
tbaeniger scbuldigkeit zuscbreiben sollen: vnd, dieweil ja Herr
Wimpfflinger selbst, obscbon Er dises Teutscbe nicbt zum
Truck gebracbt, gleicbwol eben solcben ruebmlicben Willen zu-
voran gebabt, demselben zu volge, beid dises getruckte, sodan
aucb seine Handscbriift vnd Original oder erste Abfassung
binderbringen wollen. In geborsamlicher zuversicbt, E. G. sicb
dieses alles wobl belieben lassen, vnd micb zu bestendiger bober
gewogenheit so fuerterhin genaedig werden empfohFn baben.
Die der Allerboecbste in Anstellungen mit beilsamen Rabt-
scblaegen besegnen, in verricbtungen mit Glueckseligkeit ausz-
ruesten, aucb bey fridfertiger Regirung vnd gesundem froe-
licbem Alter allergenaedigst fristen wolle. Straszburg den 23.
Cbristmonats im Jahre 1648.
E. G.
Underthaenig geborsamer Diener
IT. M. Moscherosch.
io Cf. Stehmeller-Frommann, “Bayerisches Worterbuch,” vol. 2, p„
251. Salluech, Verzeichnis aller an eine Corporation gemachten Schen-
kungen und der daraus fliessenden Renten.
V oss — Jacob Wympfflinger’s Tuischland.
833
Den Groszmaecktigen, Edelen,
Meyster vnd Ratk,
der loeblicken Statt Straszburg,
winsckt Jacobus Wimpfling von S'letstat,
Sellikeit vnd Merung des gemey-
nen Rutzes.
VII sint die do vermeynen, O jr Hocbberiemten Rathskerren,
vwer Stat Straszburg, vnd andere Stett vff disem gestaden
des Kins gegen der Sunnen Ridergang gelegen, etwan gewesen
sin in handen der Kuenige von Eranckrick, dadurck werden
dann zu zitten bewegt die gemelten Kuenige, zu widerfordrung
derselben Land, die dock allwegen, von zitten des Reisers Julij
vnd Octaviani , bisz vff diesen tag, dem Roemscken, vnd nit dem
Erantzoesiscken Rick verwant gewesen vnd vesteklick angekan-
gen kaben: Als dann Ludwig der Delpkin, Caroli des sibenden
Kuenigs von Eranckrich erstgebomer Sun, do er Helvetiam,
so man nembt das Elsasz, In dem Jor Ckristi Tusent, Vier-
kundert, Viertzig vnd Vier, vberfiel: vnder andem sins Zu gs
vrsacken ouck diese fuerkielt, naemlick dasz er erobem vnd
zu kanden bringen wolt die Gerecktigkeit des Husz von Eranck-
rick, so sick bisz an Rin (als er seit) vszstrecken wer, vnd vsz
eolcker vrsack vnderstund er vwer Stat Straszburg zu belegeren.
Diese Irrung ist erwacksen vsz vnwissenkeit der alten His-
torien oder gesckribenen Gesckickten, vnd wurt solcks waenen
der Frantzosen bevestigt, dasz ouck wir selbs, solcks faelscklick
wor sin vermeynen, vnd dasz vil vsz den vnsern mer dem
E ranckrickscken, dann dem Ro^mscken oder Tuetscken Rich
834 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts , and Letters.
geneigt sint. Dann von den vnsem werden zu zitten zu den
Eranckrichschen Kuenigen Bottschaften gesant, die halb Erantr
(A) zosen sint,wann dieselben frnentlich von denFrantzosen ent-
pfangen werden, so pflegen sie denselben liebkosen vnd verguen-
stigen, In hoffnung ob die Kuenig von F ranckrich dise vnsere
Land gewynnen, dasz dann sie vnder derselben Oberkeit etwas
Eren oder Wuerden erfolgen wirden, welches doch, so lang die
Roemsche Adler hie herschen werden, sie besorgen nit moegen
erlangen.
Aber ich verhoff, zu lieb vwer Statt vnd gemeynen ISTutzee
(ob Gk>tt will) moegen anzeig thun, zum ersten mit worglaeu-
biger vermutigung, darnoch mit glaubwuerdigen Gezuegen, zum
letsten mit den bewertsten Geschichtschribern, dasz vwer Stat
vnd die andern Stett des Rhins, den Frantzosen nie vnderworf-
fen gewesen sint.
Darumb woellen Ir Fuersichtigen vnd Vernunff twisen Her-
ren Meister vnd Rat, dise myn vngeschickte arbeit, mit ge-
neigtem gemiet entpfahen vnd mich vch lossen bevolhen sin.
Datum vsz dem Kloster des H. Sant Wilhelmen, in vwerer
Vorstatt, vff den xiiij. Tag Octobris M. CCCCC. im Ersten.
DAS ERST BITCH.
Dasz die Frantzosen nit sygen Roemsch Kuenig gewesen.
KUnt sig alien Tuetschen, dasz von der Zitt Julij des er¬
sten Keisers, bisz vfT die zitt des Allerdurchlichtigsten
vnser Kuenigs Maximiliani, kein Frantzosz ye dem Roemschen
Rich vorgewesen sey. Man ;lesz das Hamenbuch der Roem-
schen Kuenig, so linden wir in demselben, antweders Latiner
oder Kriechen, oder Tuetschen, aber gantz kein Frantzosen, es
sig dann, dasz derselb von sym vrsprung, geburt, vnd vaetter-
lichem Blut ein Tuetsch gewesen sig.
Voss — Jacob Wymp filing er’s Tutschland.
835
Was Lands die RoGmsche Ku€nig gewesen sigen.
Amlich baben die Boemschen Keiser jren Vrsprung ge-
1 ^ haben vsz Italien, vsz Tbracia, vsz Arabia, vsz Hnngern,
Wyndscben Landen, bisz vff Carolum den Grossen, der ein
Tuetscber gewesen ist vnd von demselben, bisz vff vnser zitt, ba-
ben regnirt vsz den aller Edelsten Tnetscben Gescbleebten, von
S’acbsen, Beiem? Oestericb, Swaben, Habspurg, Lntzelburg,
Nassau, vnd sind nit einen (wan icb glicbwol von dem Kuenig
Clodoveo anfoh) Frantzosen ye Boemsch Kinig gewesen sin,
dann allein die so Tuetscb geborn, noebmals vszgetrieben vnd
abgetilckt baben etlicb vnnnetz V ranckricbscb Kinig, vnd sie
von dem Kich vnd Adel des Lands Franckricb, vsz Baebstlicber
gewaltsamy, in derselben StuI wnnderbarlicben erboebt worden
sint.
Dasz, zwischen Franckrich void dem Ryn, Tuetsche Land ein
mittel sint.
JUlins der Keiser, nocb dem er das Land Krankricb be-
zwungen, bat er die mit namen vnderscbeiden, vnd Galliam
(das so wir jetzt Franckricb nennen) gebeissen, von Kidergang
bisz zu dem Bin, dann er wolt die Land mit scbiffricben Waa-
sern vnderscbeiden : vnd bat nit geacbtet, dasz in mittel zwiscben
dem recbten Franckricb vnd dem Bin gelegen syg die Hobe-
strasz vnd das gebuerg des Wasicben, dnrcb welcbe dasselb toil
Tuetscbes Landes, so anstosz des Bins ist, von dem Franckricb-
scben Land bett docb gemoecbt vnderscbeiden werden.
Ein Vermutigung, die Erste.
S der Hobenstrasz, so Australia genembt wurt, ist Pipirms
V (Aij) des Grossen Caroli Yatter (als Blondus als ancb
Robertus Ganguinus scbreiben) bnertig gewesen. Dasz aber
Pipinus nit sig ein Frantzos gewesen, vermut icb damsz, dasz
836 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts , and Letters.
von Jugent vff icli ingedenck bin, desselben Kamen in yeder-
mans Ked, onch der Kinder gewesen vnd nock sin, dann es
wart brockt gar nok in ein taeglicks Sprickwort, wann etlick
zanckenden mit einander redten, dasz sie sprocken, dn magst
das oder das ding nit tun oder zu wegen bringen, wann du
glick werst als wisz als Kuenig Pipis. Deszkalb ick nit glou-
ben kan, dasz die vnsern so dick vnd gemeinsamklick einen
Kamen eins Frantzosen, sunder eins Tu&tscken in iren Leffzen
geuebt kaben.
Die andere Vermutigung.
Ber Carolus der Grosz, Pipin' s Sun, es sig dasz er in dem
A Scklosz Ingelnkeim, oder in eym dork by Guelckem, oder
den Luetueckern geboren sig, ist er dock Tuetsck gewesen, dann
er auck Buecker in Tuetscker Zungen gedickt kat, kat auck den
zwoelff Monet en vnd den Winden Tuetscke Kamen vffgesetzt,
welcker ding ick selbst vast alt vnd offenbar anzeigung geseken
kab. Er kat auck sinen Suenen vnd Doecktem nit Welsck
sunder Tuetscke Kamen geben, als do sint Hymeltrut, Hilte-
gart, Adelkeit: so dock dieselben Kanien by vns etwas ver-
etentlickkeit kaben, vnd by andern Sprocken fuer vnerkant
oder vszlendisck gekalten werden, darusz folgt, dasz nit vsz
Welscken Eltern, sunder von Tuetscken solck ISTamen erf unden
sint, vnd den Kindem vffgesetzt worden.
Die driite Vermutigung.
C^Arolus der Grosz kat in Tuetscken Landen jensit Bkins
^ nit allein gemeinklick sin wonung gekaben, sunder ouch
doselbs Kloester vnd Kircken gestifft, Stett vnd Sckloesser ge-
buwen, welckes niemans gloubt, ist auck nit licktlick zu glou-
ben, durck einen Frantzosen gesckeken sin. Dann Carolus der
Grosz kat im Binckow vnd zu Frankfort gestifft vnd vffgerickt
Kircken, zu Selgenstatt lyt ein siner Doeckter begraben, in
Franckenlant ein S'losz, die vsz sym IST amen Carlesburg, vnd
Foss — Jacob Wympfflinger’s Tutschland. 837
©in Stat, die Carlesstatt, bisz vff disen Tag genembt ist, ge-
buwen. Es ist onch vil Kloestern in Swaben, vnd im Land zu
F rancken gelegen, durch den grossen Carle vnd sin Kind gut*
tat geschehen, als von den Tuetschen: dann die Frantzosen bet-
ten ir Gut oder Kichtum, in die Tuetschen, vber Kinlaender,
so verr von iren Landen nit vszgedeilt: vnd zum letsten bat
der Grosz Carle ein erlich Begrepnisz Im in Tuetschen Landen
erwoelt.
Die vierde Vermutigung.
ES ist nit glouplich dasz die Frantzosen jensitt Kins in Tuet-
schen Landen S'tett oder Buerg gebuwen, HerschaiTt vnd
Oberkeit ye geban baben: dann die Swoben, Beyern vnd Fran¬
cken, die docli stantbaift Luet sirit, betten solcbs nit gemoeckt
lyden? dasz Luet vsz Franckricb vber Bin zu Inen kaement vnd
vber sie berscbten, do sie docb weder J ulius nocb Augustus ye
bat gemoecbt bezwingen. Aber die vber Binscben F rancken, so
gegen der Sunnen vffgang gelegen, vnder dem Bistum Wurtz-
burg? haben in Franckricb regiert. Dann nocb dem ein
Kuenig vsz Franckricb vnnuetz zu dem Kicb erfunden, durch
ein Babst abgesetzt, ward Pipinus des Grossen Carles Vatter,
welcber dann zu zitten ein Fuerweser vnd Hofmeister des
Kuenig von Franckricb was, an desselben Statt gesetzt als
das in dem Decret 15. 9. 5. cap. alius gescbriben stat, ouch
andere Historien manigfaltlich anzeigen : Domit bewert
wuerd, wor sin den sprucb des wisen Mans Peel. 10 Eim sinn-
richen Knecbt werden die Fryen dienen. Deszbalben baben an-
gefangen die Tuetscben zu herschen vber die Frantzosen, (Aiij)
vnd nit die Frantzosen vber die Tuetscben, jo die Tuetscben,
die eygentlieb Francken genembt werden moegen, dann solcn
Tuetscbland ist etwan Francia genembt worden, als dan der
beilig Hieronymus sebribt in dem Leben Hilarionis , darzu
stymbt Lupoldus vnd Eneas: darumb soltten die Welscben nit
Francken, sunder billicber, vsz Francken geboren, genant wer-
838 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts , and Letters.
den. Dasz aber die 1ST amen der Land dick gewon sint, ver-
wandelt zu werden, ist ein Gezueg 11 Aulus Gellius im xiij.
Buch am sechsten Capittel, vnd ouch Blondus.
Der erste GezuGg.
IJSTnocentius der dritt, in dem Capittel venerabilem, de
Electio. seit, wie das Poemsch Pich von den Kriechen vff
die Tuetschen verwent syg, in die Person des Grossen Carles,
darusz lutter bewert wurt, dasz derselb ein Tn^scber gewesen
sig: dann ist das Pich vff die Tuetschen verwent, vnd zum
ersten in die Person des Grossen Carles, so musz der Grosz
Carle ein Tuetscher gewesen sin.
Der ander Gezueg.
DEr Keiser spricht, dasz die Agrippiner, das sint die Kofell-
ner in nider Tuetscbland, sigen des Italianschen Peek-
tens, als dann die gesebribne Pecbt baben, in l. 1. ff.12 de Cen-
sibus.
Der dritt Gezueg.
AMmianns Marcellinus sebribt, dasz der Agrippiner Koelln
sig ein namhafft St at in Tuetschen Landen : deszglicben
sagt er ouch von Trier, das er nembt ein kostlich Bebusung
der Euersten. Witter spriebt er also: vnd in dem ersten Tuet-
sehen Land, on andere Stett, sint Mentz, Wurms, Spir vnd
Straszburg.
Der vierd Gezueg.
VRbanus der ander, Babst, in dem Concilio zn Claremont ,
erzeblt in siner Ped, dasz der Grosz Carle ein Tuetscher
gewesen sig.
ii Zeuge — authority.
12 First book (liber 1.)
Voss — Jacob Wymp jfting er’s Tutschland.
839
Der fuenfft Gezueg.
EYeas Sylvius in siner Euro pa spricht, wiewol Carolus ,
der F rantzosen Kick vberkmnmen hab, sig er dock ©in
Tuetscker gewesen, in Tuetsckland gekoren vnd erzogen, vnd
dasz sin Sitz gemeintlick zn Ack gewesen syg, das do ein Tn®t-
scke Stat ist.
Der sechste Gezueg.
M Arcus Antkonius Sabellicus in der Gesckickt der Vene-
dyer, gekillt13 ouck vff ein semlick meynung.
Der sibend Gezueg.
COrnelius Tacitus von der gelegenkeit Tuetscker Land, setzt
vnder die Tuetscken Tribotes das sint die Straszburger,
Nemetes das sint Spirer, Vangiones sint Wormser, Vbios das
sint die Koellner nun genant werden.
Ynd ist dock derselb Cornelius alt, dann er vnder Vespah
siano von der gelegenkeit Tuetscklands gesckriben kat: vnd
Franciscus Petrarcha sprickfc, das gantz Kkintal sin das aed-
licker teil Tuetsck Landes.
Die History Suetonii, in dem Leben Augusti.
NAck dem Augustus bezwang, zum teil durck sick selbs,
zum teil durck sin gekeisz Cantabriam, Aquitanien, Hun-
gem, Dalmaciam, mit gantzen Windescken Landen, desglicken
Allgow vnd Beiem, auck die Salassern die Inwoner der Alpen
gesweigt, vnd den Inbruck der Dacier, durck niderlag dryer
jrer Fuersten, mit eyner grossen menige, vnd die Tuetscken
vber das Wasser die Albe getreib, vsz welckem die Swob vnd
i3 To confirm. Cf. “Bayerisches Worterbuch,” vol. 1, p. 1081, sub
hellen.
52— S. & A.
840 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts , and Letters.
Gellerseben, die sicb ergaben, bat er gefiert in Gallium (die
dann also von Julio dem Keiser gebeissen was) vnd in die
naecbston Land an dem Bin gesetzt. Solcbs seit Suetonius,
den die Italen grosz balten, den die Frantzosen nit moegen ver-
werffen, den ouch all Voelcker acbten worbafft sin.
Darumb von den gezitten dock, Augusti Octaviani , sint vff
disem vnserm S'taden des Rbins, vff welchem vwer loblicbe
Stat gelegen ist, Tnetscben gewesen, vnd nit Frantzosen, da-
rumb oucb dis Land, Tuetscbland, durcb Inwonung der Tuet-
scben, vnd nit Gallia, oder Franckricbscb Land, genennt wer-
den soil.
Dollar knmbt, dasz die Roemer, als sie zum ersten mit vber-
windung der Tnetscben, so disem vnserm Gestaden allernaecbst
gelegen, nocbmols vber den Ellin sicb detten, vnd salien, dasz
die vber Rinscben Luett, mit wildekeit des Gemiets, geradig-
keit des Libs, mit scboener farb, Gestalt, Sitten vnd Gewon-
beit zu leben, als die, so vff disem vnserm Staden wonten, sich
bielten vnd verglicbten, do acbten sie dieselben, vnd nembten
sie Germanos, das 1st, unser Birieder. Aber wiszlicb ist das
die Tu^scben sint den recbten Frantzosen weder an farb des
Hors, nocb Angesicht, nocb Zung,14 nocb Gemiet, nocb Sitten
glicb, Jo oucb die Tuetscben sint gewont mit geradekeit irs
Libs, aber die Frantzosen allein durcb viele irs V olcks den sigk
zu gewynnen, als dann spricbt Vegecius. Darumb gar billig,
dis vwer Statt, vnd das gantz Land Elsasz (das, als Eneas in
Europa scbribt, Helvetia gebeissen ist) bat ergriffen die Bo^-
sche frybeit, vnd bescbirmbt oucb sicb selbs, mit sperrung zu
fallen in die verargwaenigte Dienstbarkeit der F rantzosen, in
welcbe etlicb balb Frantzoesiscbe Bottscbafften (nit sag icb
Verraetter irs Yatterlands) so zu zitten die vngeborsamkeit
der Ro^scben Kron vfffuebren sint, ein freud betten, vcb moe-
gen bingetrengt werden, als dann etwan Peter von Hagenbacb
dise Land vnderstand vnd begert zuzufuebren in den Gewalt
Carle des Hertzogen von Burgundy.
14 Speech, language, tongue.
Foss — Jacob Wympfflinger’s Tutschland.
841
Entschuldigung der Gilgen 15 halb in dev Myntz .16
Ich will beduncken etlichen Yynd vwer Statt, oder Yeil-
i V I trager des Yatterlands bereit sin wider vnz zn baellen,
als ob die Gilg, so vff vwer Myntz zn schlagen gewon ist, ein
anzeigung sin soli einer alten Ynderworfflichkeit deren F rantzo-
gen : dem icb also geantwortet, dasz so dn widerbyllst der Gilgen
halb, ist ein Murmel des Yolcks, vnd in dem Piefelvolck (so gar
offt betrogen wurt) genebt, Zeig mir aber ein History, Zeig mir
einen Gezuegen, wnerdig des Glonbens vnd der Worheit, dasz
die Gilg durch diser vrsach willen syg in der Myntz vnser
Stat, als ob sie vff jr trieg ein alte Herschafft oder Oberkeit
der Frantzosen, als ich dir mit bewaerlichsten Gezuegen vnd
Historienbeschriber, die vnwidersprechlich sint, angezeigt hab,
vnser Statt Straszbnrg, zu keinen zitten, den Frantzosen vnder-
worffen gewesen sin.
Ein Knenig von Franckrich hat dryg Gilgen, vnser Statt
allein eine, ein Kucnig von Franckrich fiert sin Gilgen in den
Panem 17 vnd Schilten, vnser Statt die ir in den Pfemningen :
Dann sie hat gar vast ein ander Stritt Paner, naemlich ein
rote Strosz dnrchgezogen vnd zerdeilende ein wiszscbinende
Felt, welche (als ich von eim gar alten gehoert hab) bedu®t
ein gross vergiessnng des Bints, so vor zitten vsz Totschlag
der Menschen in diser Stat, antweders dnrch des Glonbens,
oder des Eoemschen Bichs willen geschehen, vergossen, vnd
dnrch die Strossen diser Stat als ein Bach oder Wasser ge-
flossensig. Ynd wannir (als du vermeynst) ein Kn'enig von (B)
Franckrich, zn gedaechtnisz einer vormals gehabten Oberkeit,
diser Stat die Gilg verlossen hett, warnm hat er sie nit mer,
in das Paner vmbznfnehren, dann vff die Myntz zn slagen
angesehen. Es ist onch das Zeichen der Myntz nit so alt, dasz
es sich zn denen zitten vergliche, in welchen dn vermeynst, die
is Lilies.
16 Coins.
17 Banner.
842 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts , and Letters .
Eranckrichschen Kuenig geherschet haben vber dise Stat, dann
dise Stat bat vormals ander bildnis in der Myntz gebrncbt als
Engel, Adler Vettich,18 welcber nocb huet by tag vil vorhan-
den sint, by den Liepbabern der alten Myntz. Wie, ob ein
Koemscher Keiser, der diser Stat nun langst Gewalt geben bat
zu myntzen, nit ouch gemoecbt bab zulossen, ein Zeicben zn
slagen nocb jrein gef alien ? als dann oucb die Eoemscbe Xeiser,
vil Edlen in Tuetscben Landen, etlicben eyne, etlicben vil Gil-
gen fuer Jr Ritterlicb Woppen vnd scbilt verlueben baben.
Docb, wie den sacben sig, so ist mir genug, angezeigt baben
(als icb verboff) dasz dise Land, von den Zitten des Keisers
Augusti die Tuetscben, vnd nit die Erantzosen inbands gebebt
baben: vnd dasz Carlus der Grosz, der allervnueberwindtligst
Keiser, nit ein Erantzos, sunder ein Tuetscber gewesen, wiewol
(wie vor geseit ist) er vber die Erantzosen geberscbet bat, von
Welches Durcbluecbtigkeit vnd groszmaecbtigen Gescbicbten
wir Tuetscben vns billig beriemen moegen. Dann als das
wore Geslebt Caroli vrsprung von den Tuetscben gebaben, als
ist es ouch in Tuetschen Landen bliben bisz vff disen tag, in
dryen Allerdurcbluecbtigsten Geslebten, Beyern, Saxen, vnd
Oesterich Aber by den Erantzosen bat, nocb abgang des
Kuenig Ludwigs, der Kuenig Lotbarij Sun was, das Geslebt
des Grossen Caroli nun langst vffgeho^t vnd abgangen, vnd ist
Eranckricb kumen vff einen Houbtman, genant Hugo Cay-
ucius oder Zscbappeler, den das gemeyn Volck, eins Metzigers 19
Sun gewesen sin? sagen.
is wings,
is Butcher.
Voss — Jacob Wymp filing er’s Tutschland.
843
DAS ANDER BUCH.
Yon der Einheltikeit.
DJewile nun mit dem allerbilligsten Rekten (domit wir iock
ouck vnsers langen Gewur 20 vnd Besitz geswigen) Jr
Y ernunff twisen Herren Meyster vnd Ratt, das Erantzoesisck
Jock vnd Dienstkarkeit wol moegen absckittelen, So bin ick in
guter hoffnung, dasz vwer Statt, Wider aller andem, wer iock
die sigen, Yyndsckaift, Zusatz, vnd Y ffrukr, selliklick wol moeg
bestan, insunders so ich ackt, dieselbe vwer Stat gerehtiklich
vnd fuersiktlick durck vck regiert ze werden: dann ick koff
dasz vnder vwern Rattsfruenden, vnder den Edeln, vnder den
Eunfftzeken Gbuwkerren, vnder den Drytzeken Kriegskerren,
ouck den andem Meyster vnd Sckoefien des Yolcks vnd Ge-
rneyn, Einhaellikeit gekalten werd, Durck welcke, kleine ding
gruenen vnd vkwacksen, so durck vnkaeUikeit ouck die maeck-
tigsten ding zerstroewt vnd zerruetet werden: Als wan vnder
vck nit synt Partkien, nit Ankaeng, nit Widerwertigkeit, nit
keimlick kTyd, welcke wo sie vberkangk nemen, ist es gesekeken
vnd vszgerickt, vmb Kuenigrick, vmb Stett vnd alien offnen
ETutz: Aber ick vberslag in niir selbs dasz vsz lieb des ge-
meynen klutzes, jr all Einkaellikeit vnd gantze Liebe zusamen
tragen vnd gegen einander kaben.
Von Lieb des gemeynen Nutzes.
DAnn ein vffseken vnd Lieb des gemeynen Rutzes,21 ist ein
band, zu bekalfftung oder vffentkalt einer Statt, solcks
ist vck nott zu kaben, so offt vnd dick jr zusamen berieft, vnd
in den Ratt kumen, dasz ir, vwer eigne Gesckaeffdt vergessende,
allein sorgen die gemeinen kaendel. (Bij. )
20 Cf. “Bayerisches Worterbuch,” vol. 2, p. 971. Ghewere — justa pos-
sessio. Eines' Gutes in geruwiger bessesse vnd gewerde sein.
2i Common weal.
844 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts , and Letters.
A7 on FuersichtiJceit des Kriegs.
DArusz erwechszt, dasz Prof and 22 vnd die S'chatzkammer
vdwachsen, vnd die beharr-ader des Kriegs (das ist
bar gelt) gemert wurt ; dann on Gelt vnd Prof and moegen die
Krieg nit beharret werden, als das vermutigt werden mag von
vilen, die vsz anreitzung jrer smeichler sich zu kriegen bald
vberreden liessen, wo nit Koch, Keller, Seckelmeister vnd
Spichermeister mit iren Raetten vnd beklagung solchs binder-
ten vnd darwider werent.
V on vermydung zuvil Stoltziheit.
DOcli soil man sicli weder von gemeynen noeli eigenen
Scbaetzen vnd Rich turn vberheben, dann vsz solchem be-
riemen, vermaert die Torbeit sicb selbs, Hocbfart streckt jr
bom vff ; Demut wurt vndergetruckt, Gott wurt erznernt, Kyd
vnd Widerwertikeit der vszlaendigen vffbewegt, vnd zum lets-
ten, vabt an 23 ze swancken oder abgon der gemeyn Kutz.
Von Fruentschafft der Nochgeburen.
DAnn es ist vast nutz zu heil den Bnrgern vnd Stetten,
Kocbburen baben, es sygen gemeyne V oelcker, oder
Puersten die wol gynnend 24 sint, dann es ist im Sp rich wort,
mit Kocbburen ricbt man die Scbneren vff. Der Puersten
fmentschafft ist zu suchen vnd anzenemen, aber docb nit gantz
in derselben allein soil die lioffnung der sicberbeit vnd des
beils gesetzt werden, oucb nit zu vesteklicb darufF sicb zu
laenen, von wegen der grossen vile der Smeichler die dann
die Durchlichtigsten vnd allersaenfftmuetigsten Fuersten ver-
fueren, vnd sie licbtlicb vberreden, die Stett des Richs sigen
22 Provisions.
23 Begins.
24 Well meaning.
Foss — Jacob Wympfflingers Tutschland. 845
zu vil Rich, man soell sie angriffen vnd bekriegen vnd das ir
naemen, dasz also durch roub vnd nom 25 die rich werden moe-
gen, die das ir mit Fuellen, Spiel, Bulschafft, Liederiicheit,
Hofiern, Mutwill, Stechen20 vnd Durnieren, oder sonst vp-
peklich verton habeni. Dise Smeichler vnd sanffttrabende vynd
sagen den Fuersten nit, dasz die Stett sigen die hochschinenden
Glyder des Richs, das sie sigen die edeln Doechter der heiligen
Cristenheit, vnd ein vffenthalt des gantzen Yatterlands, ouch
ein sunder zuflucht der Fuersten: by welchen Stetten (wo not
geschieht) Gelt vnd Prof and (ouch etwan zu entlehend) vff-
brocht werden moegen: Sie sagen den Fuersten nit, dasz in
den grossen Stetten des Richs, beider gesleht Menschen funden
werden, die vsz reinikeit irs Lebens, vnd heilikeit irs Waesens,
Got (von dem alle Yberwuentnisz kumbt) angenaem sint.
Gar vil anders achtet der allerfromst vnd sighafftigst Fuerst
von Beiem, Idertzog Fry derich Pfaltzgrave by Ryn, des yetzi-
gen Hertzog Philipsen Yatter Bruder, dan derselb die fruent-
schafft der Stett gar hoch achtet, als er ouch nit klein fruecht
vnd bystant von inen hat entpfangen, dann er wust dasz Bur¬
ger vnd das Yolck nit durch des Fuersten willen, sunder den
Fuersten durch des Yolcks vnd Burger willen erwoelt sint,
vnd dasz er ouch den Stetten des Richs pflichtig wafcr, batt er
kein zwifel an, so die wile er ein Fuerst des Richs was, so dio
wile vnd er ouch ein Cristliclier Fuerst, der zu nutz vnd friden
der Cristen sich zu flissen verbunden was: vnd wiewol er kein
Stat des Richs veraehtet, so seit man doeh das er vfft gespro-
chen hat, er sig mit einer gutten vnd starcken Muren vmbzogen
vnd bewart, so lang er von Yffgang, Yierenberg, vom Oster-
wind vnd Mittemtag Straszburg, von Yidergang Spyr vnd
Wurms, von Mittemacht Koelln, ihm wol woellen hoffen
moecht: ein vernueniftig vnd redlich Yrtheil, eins allerfuer-
sichtigsten vnd vffrehtigsten fuersten,, fuerwor, den durch sin
fuersihtikeit die smelichler nit moechten betriegen, vnd dem,
durch siner Gerehtikeit vnd Andacht willen, alle Roeuber
25 Capture.
26 Sport.
846 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters.
haessig waren, von dem sie ouch allenthalben abgetilckt wur-
den. (Biij.)
Von der Gerehtikeit gegen den Vszlaendigen.
ABer soldier Blut sugenden aeglen27 strick mag ein Stat
nit basz entrynnen, dann so sie Gerehtikeit vnd BillicheB
lieb hat, vnd gantz niemans gewalt geschehen leszt, domit die
V If setzer vnd begierigsten des froembden guts, so etwan ein
vrsach zu kriegen von eim Zun zebrechen vnderstan, kein farb
noch schin, einer redlichen klag haben moegen, deshalb es ett-
wan not ist, pacientz, Gedult, nit woellen wissen, gut Wort
geben, vnd SenfftmuHikeit zu halten gegen den vszlendigen
oder froembden, die etwan gern sehen vnd begertend dasz inen
ein smoch oder gewalt geschaeh, domit vsz kleinem wider-
triesz,28 oder vsz entpfangenem schaden eins Pfennings, sie mit
jrem anhang ein gantze Stat vnd Vatterlanl verwuesten moech-
ten: dardurch dann die herlichen Land vnd grossen Stett, zu
widerwoer vnd * ; zu beschirmen, vast mercklichen swaeren
kosten zu u . . rengt werden, vnd sint doch von den aller-
ye-jih ■■i'er. ■ ' ,uet.8ii keinen gewyn dargegen wartten, es sig dan
; einen grossen gewyn sin, eim schaentlichen
- sdhen Buben sinen schoebigen 29 Kopff abzehowen.
Von der Behaeblicheit*° zu der gemeynen Schatzkammer.
ES soil ouch ein yeder F uerwaeser oder Pflaeger des gemey¬
nen Schatzs ihm nit mynder lossen leit sin, soli ouch nit
mynder sich hietten, von der gemeynen Schatzkammer Goldt
oder Silber vszgeschittet oder verliederlicht ze werden, dann ob
er vsz sym eigenen S’eckel zu verderplicheit sins V aHterlichen
Erbs, oder zu mynderung sins eigenen Guts, zu vffenthalt sins
27 Leech.
28 Grievance.
29 cf. “Bayerisches Worterbuch,” vol. 2. p. 354, sub scliebig, worthless.
39 Economy.
Foss — Jacob Wympfflinger's Tutschland. 847
Lebens, etwas vszgeben geno^igt wuerd. Es soil ouch ein yeg-
licher gedencken vnd in sym gemiet ihm fuersetzen, als ob in
eym yeden Gescbaefft einer Statt, do man ettwas anslagen*1
oder ratten sol, sin eigene sack gebandelt wuerd: also dasz
er nit mynder vk gemeynen offenen Nutz vnd Ere der Stat,
dann als ob sin selbs, siner Kind, vnd alles sins Geslekts sack
gekandelt wuerd: jo so vil mer soil eim yeden der gemeyn
Nutz anmuetiger vnd begirlicker sin, so vil an solckem gemey-
nen Nutz, Heil vnd Vffentkalt mer vnd vil Menseken kangt:
dann ein yeglicks Gut, so vil es gemeiner ist, so vil ist es
Heiligar, so vil ist es auck Goettlicker, dann an dem ist die
lutere Lieb, an dem wurt die veste Truw zu dem gemeynen
JSTutz bewaert, do von dann allermeyst keil vnd zunemens kan-
gend ist. Solcke Dapferkeit, solcke Stantkafftikeit, solcke
Erumkeit, solcke Truw, solcke V ff rektikeit zu dem gemeynen
ISTutz, kat die alten Koemer vffbrackt, vnd sie nock jrem Tod
vndoetlick vnd durckluecktig gemackt, dann sie gloubten durck
ein soleks inen ein gewisse Statt by Gott in dem Hymel be*
racktet 32 sin ; dargegen denen, die zu zerstoerlickeit des ge¬
meynen Nutzs vnablaeszlick betrugnusz geuebt ketten, ackten
sie den weg zu dem Angesickt Gots verscklossen sin.
Von der GerehtiJceit in der Stat.
ES ist ouek nit genug, dasz ein Stat gerekt sig gegen den
froembden, jo ist ouck not dasz inwendig den Muren,
zwiscken den Mittburgem die Gerektikeit der scknur nock ge-
kalten werd, das nit die gewalttigen den myndern, dasz nit
die Richen den Armen, dasz nit die Edelen den gemeynen
Man, in einicken weg, nit allein nit vndertrucken, sunder ouck
nit zu versmoken oder verackten vnderstandent, vnd dasz kein
Stadt den andem zu vertrucken oder zu myndern suck.
si Propose.
32 Martin translates: bereitet — prepared; berachtet, berechtet — enti¬
tled to.
848 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts , and Letters .
Von dryer hand Stadt, 33 so in eyner Stat notturfftig sint .
DA1STN" noch dem zu gezier des Richs, zu Ere des Euersten-
thums, zu fuertraefflicheit einer Stat, dryg Staedt not¬
turfftig sint, der Geistlich, der Ritterlich, vnd der Burgerlich,
eo haltten sich alle ding wol, wann ieder in sym Stadt fridlicli
vnd geruwlich lebt, vnd durch den andern nit wurt durch Yn-
gerehtikeit geletzt. Aber der Hellsch Hunt, der Tuefel (durcb
welchs Hassz willen der dot ingangen ist in den vmbkreisz
der Erden) der den Eriden vnd Einikeit mit hoechstem nyd
verfolgt, der hoert nit vff zwiscben den Menscken diser dryer
Staedt zu saegen,34 Ynbaellikeit, Yffsatz, heimlich Yyntschafft,
mit fuerkalten vnd vberreden, dem einen, als ob die andern
zwen Staedt zu vil guts betten, in mossen, dasz niemans sich
sins wesens ader Stadts beniegen 35 loszt, sunder sucht dem
andern ze schaden, also entspringt dann Hassz, also murmeln,
also hinder redung, also ein begirlicheit froembdes Gutes taeg-
lich im Rich, in F uerstenthuemen, vnd in den Stetten : die Rit-
termaessigen vnd die Burger murmeln wider die Geistlichen
dasz sie muessig gangent, dasz sie nit arbeiten mit der Hend
vnd naemen doch in grosse Guellten vnd meinen die Geist¬
lichen besitzen on arbeit grosz Gut, darumb murmeln sie vnd
sint inen nydig, vnd will sie beduncken der Geistlich Stadt
gantz vnnuetz sin. Dargegen etlich Edlen, dura^chten36 bey-
de Staedt, den Buergerlichen vnd den Geistlichen mit hassz vnd
verachtung, vnd in gegenwart der maechtigen, oder vnder jnen
selbs hoeren sie nit vff zu murmelen, wider das Glueck, Ruw,
vnd Richtum beyder Staedt. Diser Hassz, disz murmelen
verderbt alien gemeynen nutz der Christenheit, zerstroewt Tuet-
sche Land, vertruckt die Priesterschafft, macht vngeruewig37
die Stett, vnd schafft der Tuercken ^md Heiden Macht gemert
33 Estates, classes.
34 To sow.
35 To be satisfied with.
36 Persecute.
37 Unsafe, unruly.
Foss — Jacob Wympfflinger’s Tutschland. 849
2u werden. Solche zweytracht zwischen den Menschen vnd
Parthien des gemeynen Waesens,38 ist glich als in eym mensch-
lichen Lib, wann desselben Glyder sich selbs vnder einander
zerzerten, nagten, zerryssen. Aber kuntlich soil yederman ^in,
dasz diese Staedt alle in eim gemeynen Regiment zu sin, glich
als an eym Lib vil glider, notturfftig sint : Der Geistlich Stadt
als die Ougen : der Ritterlich Stadt als das Hertz oder Magen :
der Burgerlich Stadt als die Hend: deszhalb der Burgerlich
wider den Geistlichen Stadt nit murmelen soli, als ob derselb
fry wer von der arbeit der Llende, dann er hat ein ander
Ampt, naemlich sin heilige Opffer, Gebett, Gesang, Sacra-
menten, Kunst, Lehr, Ratt, Danckwuerckung gegen Goit-t zu
volbr ingen, vnd geschiklich zu machen zu guten Wercken,
durch welche wir zu dem end, zu dem wir geschaffen sint,
kumen moegon : welches Ampt dieweil der Geistlich nit moecht
volbringen, wann er ouch mit sinen Henden zu wercken ge~
zwungen wer, S'o ist not, dasz der Ritterlich vnd Burgerlich
Stadt, zu vffenthalten, vnd mit iren Guellten zu hilff kum, ouch
den Zehenden vnd nottwendige nutzlicheit hantreich. Des
Ritterlichen Stadts Ampt ist, die Beschirmung an sich ze
nemen, Eriden machen vnd Ruw. Der Buergerlich Stadt soil
hehilfflich sin vnd darbieten die ir handreichung des Gelts.
Vnd wann dann also yeglicher ein vffsehen hat vff sein Ampt,
vndertruckende das hellsch gifft vnd inblasung des Tuefels, so
moegen alle ding fridlich vnd vffreht in offenem waesen ge*
regirt werden. Es mag ouch also der Geisitlich Stadt in siner
bluest39 beston, wann den so Geistlich werden woellen, oder
durch Liebe Gotts in eyn Kloster gohn, ir angebuerlich toil
oder vaetterlich Erb nit abgeschlagen wur.t: wann der Letst
will der Priester oder Burger nit verhindert: wann erbern
Erowen vnd Wittwen nit wider iren willen Yoegt geben wer¬
den: wann mit Zoellen, Vngaelten, Schatzungen vnd vnzim-
lichen Erforderungen, on verwilligung vnd zulasz eines Bapsts,
die Priesterschafft nit beswaert, sunder die geistliche Eryheit
38 Commonwealth.
39 Floss, bloom.
850 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts , and Letters.
gantz vnzerbrochlich gehalten wurt: So die gaben zn den
Spittalen der Armen, vnd zu den Gebuwen (C) vnd gezierd der
Kirch en von den miltten Kristgloeubigen dargeben, nit werden
in ander gebruch verkert: wann Dottschleg, Eebruch, Dieb-
stal, vnd andere grosse myszhaendel mit dapferer Busz gestrofft
werden, dann Stroff ist ein meisterin vnd vffenthalt40 des Eri-
dens: Dann was ist nuetz, vszwendig streng ze sin, wann
man vbel lebt im Husz ? dann ob glich wol vil Stett erfochten,
vil Yoelcker gestrofft, vil Eich mit der hant erobert wurden,
es wer dann dasz an Gericht vnd Eeht zimlich ampt vnd scham-
hafftikeit bestont, so mag der Huff der eroberten ding, wann
er glich wol an den Hymel reicht, kein bestaendigen sitz be
hallten, als spricht der nammhafft vnd aller Historien zn-
samen leser Valerius.
Von Fuersiehtilceit.A1
Nit mvnder ist nochmols Enersiehtikeit zn heil einer Statt
als notturdtig, als do ist die Gerehtikeit, es sig dann
dasz der Meister Plato falsch geschriben, oder dasz Salomon
gelogen hab.
Etliche eins fuersiehtigen Rattsherrn Eigenschafft.
ZV Fuersiehtikeit eins Eattsherren oder Meyster geho^rt,
dasz er wiss dasz er trag die Person der Statt, vnd dasz
er schnldig sig derselben Wuerde vnd Ere vffenthaltten, die Ge-
satz zu handthaben, die Eecht vszzeteilen, vnd zu gedencken,
dasz dieselben sinem vertruwen bevolhen sygen, Kunst vnd
Wiszheit nit zu verahten, Goettlich vnd menschliche Gesatz
zu ervorschen, nit vff sin eigen Houbt sich zu verlossen, Ge¬
bruch der andern Stett zu wissen, in Staedtlichen vnd Bur-
gerlichen dingen die Gelertten der Eeht zu fragen: Aber in
40 Preserver.
41 Wisdom, prudence.
Voss — Jacob Wymp filing er’s Tutschland . 851
den haendeln dar durch Gott erzuernt, der naelist Mensch be-
leidigt, die bruederlich Lieb gemyndert, die Conscientz ver-
wundet, vnd die Sele verderben mag, soli er Gelerten der hei-
ligen Geschrifft rattsfragen: Heimliche Raet soli er baelen,
vnd niemer brecben verswigene ding, das 1st das allerbest vnd
sicberst bandt der verhandelten dingen. Von den Fuersten
soil er ersamlich vnd maeszlich reden: by dem Roemschen
Stull vnd Keiserlicher Majestat soil er allzit getruw Frund
baben : Gest vnd zukumend Luet soli er frn€ntlicli entpfo-
ben: eym yeden (ouch den froembden) Reht42 sprechen, vnd
das andertbeil oucb boeren, keinen libtlicb anfallen, oder bald
glouben schuldig zesin, ouch nit bald in Gefengnisz oder zu
dem Tod zegeben: synen Vyndt nit zu vast voercbten oucb
nit zu vil verahten: den Gelertten vnd den Edeln, die dem
gemeynen ISTutz, ioch oucb vmb soldt dienen, vorgeben: vnd
die Kunst, oucb den Adel, so bocb scbetzen, dasz sie sygen ein
Ere der Statt vnd des Ratts : dann die Ere wurt dem zugeleit,
der sie eim andern erbuet.
Von Jaerlichen GeschieJden. 43
ES stott ouch eim Fuersiehtigen Ratt zu, dasz er alles das,
so wuerdig ist der Gedaehtnisz, so in der Statt, in dem
Land, im ganzen Rich geschieht, eigentlich in Cronickbiecher,
vhzeschriben bevelhe, vnd also durch vffzeichung der geschrifft
zu erkantnisz der nochkumenden zu behaltten, domit die Vas¬
ter solchs kunt trigen iren Suenen, vnd dasz. ander Geschieht
solche ding vermerck: solchs will mich beduncken vast dienen
vnd nutz sin, zu Ere, zu Fruht, zu anreitzung das gemiet der
Jugent, zu vermutigung kuenfftiger zufaell, zu eym fundament
einer kunfftigen Betrahtung, zu behaltnisz der Gerehtikeit, zu
verwerffen der Vngerehten gedat, vnd klag der nochvolgenden44
Welt, zu erzelen eim yeden oder sinen Vorfaren angehengte
42()riginal: Rept (misprint).
43 Yearbooks, annals, chronicles.
44 Original: nochvolgengen (misprint).
852 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts , and Letters.
Guttat oder Dienst, zu besehirmung der Eryheit, zu hanthabung
der, Privilegien von Baebsten vnd Keisern gegeben, zu Kriegen
vnd zn Friden des gemevnen Hutzes.
Lin mittliden mit den groben Vngelertten.
ES ist zn verwundern vnd fuerwor zn erbarmen, dasz ett-
lich gemeyn Volck also erblendt ist, dasz sie solcbs so
sie nit knennent, als do sint all aedelich frye Xunst, Historien,
Keiserlich Gesatzde so zn Latin geschriben sint, nit mynder
dann der Tnefel die zeicben des beiligen Xruetzes ver dam-
men, verahten, verfluchen, vnd von der Lehr derselben wen-
den sie ab, sie myszratten vnd verfneren vil Yaetter, dasz sie
ir Suen nit geben zn Knnst der Wiszheit, der gescbribenen
Behten, zn gutten Sitten, zn Historien, oder zn der beiligen
Geschrifft. Solch basser vnd verabter aller gutter Knenst
moechiten ettwan basz vrteiln vber Geiszfaell vnd Swynen bnet;
dann vber die edelsten Bikcher vnd aller kostbarlicbsten Ge-
scbrifften. Solclie Vynd, sprieb icb (o ir Fnersichtigen Batts-
berrn vergunnend der Eren vweren Kindern) sie baben lieber
sicb selbs vnd ir eigene Ere, dann das beil vwers gemeynen
FTutzs, oder das vffgond vnd znnaeinen vwer Statt.
Die Nutzbarkeit
der Latinischen sproch.
WEr es nit waeger,45 wer es nit erlicber, wer es nit loblicber
dasz vwer Suen, die doeh gut scbarf vernunfft baben,
nocb die wile sie iung, on bartt, vnd vnder fren Horen weren,
wuerden zu den Latinischen Buechern getbon, in welchen sie
die alleredelste sproch lertten, domit sie die froembden Bott-
schafften, Bischoef, Cardinal, vnd wo nott wurd sin, den Babst
selbs ansprecben vnd mi.t im reden moecbten ouch die Priester,
45 Better.
Toss — Jacob Wympfflinger’s Tutscliland. 853
so sie miteinander redten, die Evangelisch Historien, vnd an-
ders so in gottlichen aemptern gelesen wurt, verston, vnd eym
Priester antwurtten, vnd, nocli gewonheit aller Walhen, mit
demselbigen vor dem Alttar ire Conscientz reinigen moech-
ten. Ich sprich die Latinischen Buecher, in welch en Wisz-
heit, Gerehtikeit, Lieb zu Gottsdiensten, Euersiehtikeit, ein
sellig Regiment eins gemeynen Yutzs, die redlichen Keiser-
liche Gesatzde, Historien vnd Geschihte der altten, gut Sit-
ten, die schinbaren Tugenden, die vrsachen der Yatuer lichen
ding, die maessignng vnd Gebuerlicheit der scharffsclinidenden
geschribenen Rehten, die Ritterlichen knnst vnd bereitschafft
zn kriegen vsz sngen moechten : vnd dasz, so sie zn Mann war¬
den, die Bottschafften vnd Gesanten in der versamelung des
Bichs verston moechten : oder dasz sie doch in iren eigenen
haendeln die Latinischen Redner verston vnd begriffen, ouch
worlich wissen moechten, ob die Latinischen Grabgeschrifften,
so Jnen oder den Jren gemacht wuerden, gebresten hetten, dasz
nit, fuer ein Yesten oder Strengen,46 ein Wolgeborner vff ein
Grabstein gehowen wnerd: Onch dasz sie knnten die vmbge-
schrifft der Myntzen lesen: vnd inen nit verborgen wer, v/a -
rumm die Ivloester Sant Johanns viid Sant Y iclaus in vndis,
das ist zwischen den Wassern, genembt weren vnd nit vnschick-
lich dieselben, zu den ILnnden, in duetscher Sprach nanten,
dann also sint, vsz vnwissenheit der Latinischen Sproch, vil
namen der Stett verkert vnd vbel verstanden worden : als dann
die betrogen werden, die die letsten end in Hispanien gesehen
haben, so das Latin nembt Finis terrae, vnd wann sie har wider
kuminen, beriemen sie sich, sie sigen zu dem Finstern Ster-
nen47 gewesen, vnd verstont nit, dasz Finis terrae heiszt, zu
end der Welt: als ist ouch in den Alpen ein Flecken, genant
Inter lacus , das ist zwischen den Seen, nembt man hinder
Lappus47: als ist die Kirch Sant Peters zwischen Molszheim
vnd Sultz genant Domus Petri, aber die Ungelertten nennen
46 Refers to the way of addressing people according to their position
in life.
47 Polk etymologies.
854 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts , and Letters.
das Donpfiertren,47a So doch verr48 von der Latinischen Sproch,
mit welclier sie zum ersten gen ant sint, entfrembt worden.
Von einer VaehtsckulAQ darinn die Kind , noch dem sie die
ersten RuckwercJc der Buckstablicken Geschrifft
ergriffen, gelert wuerden , anzesehen .
ICh sprich, wer nit waeger vnd besser, vwer Suen, die zu
vnzitten vsz den Bintlichen Schulen genomen werden, so
sie noch hum die ersten Buchstaben lesen kuennent, dasz die-
selben ioch ein fuenff jaerig zit, oder doch dry Jor lang, in
ettlich Schulen gesendet vnd gegeben wurden den fryen Buen~
sten ? Welches ouch in vwer Statt on alien kosten des ge-
meynen Nntzs, wann allein ein Husz dazu gefryet wer? vffge-
richt werden moecht: disz wer besser, dasz sie also in irem
Vatterland, by iren Fruenden, mit kleinem kosten, mit kurtzer
doch nutzlicher anwisung, geschickt werden moechten noch-
mols zu den hohen Schulen, oder villiht gen Bom, zu evm
geistlichen Stadt, zu eim ampt eins Botarien oder Schribers,
zu froembder wandelung der Kouiimansch atz noch, zu dienst
eins Cardinals, jo zum letsten, Batt ze geben in dem Batt:
fuerwor besser wer es, dann dasz vsz zuvil nochlossung, (ich
gethar50 nit sagen Versumnisz) irer Eltter vnd Verwanten sie
gelossen werden, Vogeln, Prassen, Muessiggon Spielen, Hor
pflantzen, mit boeser beider gesleht Gesellschaft zerstoert, ver
fiert vnd verderpt werden. Ynd domit man nit gedenck, dasz
disz diene zu schaden vnd abbruch der andern Schulen in den
Birchen vnd Kloestern, will ichs also gemevnt haben: dann
in dise nuwe Vaehtschul soltten nit on vnderscheidt alle Bind
vffgenomen werden, sunder allein die Jhenen, die ettlich Jor
ander Schulen vorhin gesucht hetten, vnd die in dieselben
47a Folk etymology.
48 Far.
49 Higher school of learning,
so Dare.
Foss — Jacob Wympfflinger’s Tutschland. 855
fuerter nit gon wuerden, sunder verlossen werden, muessig vnd
in mutwill hie vmb zegen, vnd verderbt zu werden, oder die
zu andern froembder Stett schnlen mit grossem kosten der
Eruend geschickt, oder zu vil frueg zu den Hohensehulen geleit
werden, in welchen, die wile sie noch nit gantz Latinisch vnd
Grammatici sint, deshalb nit haben ein vest grund vnd fun¬
dament , vohen51 sie an zu hoeren die hohe Kunst Aristotelis,
oder die Keiserlichen Keht, vnd bliben also all© ir zitt des
Lebens vngeschickt, dasz sie niemer by den Gelertten vner-
schrocken reden kuennen, durch vnwissenheit der rehten Latini-
schen Buchstaben, vnd durch mangel des woren grunds der
Latinisclien Zungen.
Also mag vsz solchem ansehen cine nuwe Vaehtschule gar
kein schaden den Schuelen des Mynsters oder ander Stifften
erwachsen, dann myns Gemuets nit ist, einichem Menschen zu
schaden, oder yemans beleidigen woellen, vnd gar vil mynder
die Schulmeister, myn sunder guten Fruend vnd woltaeter.
Es ist ouch nit zu besorgen, dasz vsz einer solchen Vaehtschul
die zall der Pfaffen vester gemert werd: dann in diser Schul
wurd man allein leren die Geschrifften der Wolredenheit, die
Sittlichen buecher, tok1 die Historien oder Geschihten, welche
nit allein eim Geistlichen, sunder gar vil mer zu eim Bugger-
lichen, zu eim Bitterlichen, zu eim Kattshersohen stadt nutz
ze sin geachtet werden moegen : vnd wie wer ihm, wann glich-
wol vsz diser heilbaren vffsatzung oder ansehung, mer dann
bisz bar, vwer Statt Kind zu der Geistlichkeit geschickt go
macht warden ? fuerwor es ging dardureh einr Statt weder
an Eren noch an nutz etwas ab, wann die Pfru^nden, so von
Keisern, von Bischoefen, so von Edeln vnd von Burgern in
diser Statt etwan gestifft vnd begabt sint, vwer Kind vnd
Kindskind nochmols vberka^en, nit mynders dann dasz vsz
andern Stetten vnd Landen, io froembden Zungen geboren,
wir biszhar gesehn haben, sich darzu dissen vnd schicken, vnd
darusz leben, vnd iren Fruenden vnd Yerwanten ouch diensten
i Begin.
53— S. & A.
856 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts , and Letters.
darmit. woltun vnd nutz sin. Vnd domit ni,t zu besorgen wer
dasz die Jungen so in diser nuwen V aebtscbul durch vsser-
welte Meyster zu leren gesetzt, des Gesaengs gantz vngeuebt
bliben wurden, moeh(t(en sie an eym Fueroben das Gesang des
mornigen Tags vbersingen, vnd lihtlich vff einen Sontag oder
andere Fuertag zu eyni gebruch vnd vebung des Gesangs zu
vberkumen, in der naebsten Kircben by solcbem Husz zu dem
Fronampt52 zu singen die Meyster mit den Scbulern zusamen
kumen.
Ein Ebenbild der Fuersten
vnd ander Stett.
j Cb bitt vcb, aller Erentvesten Battsberrn vnd Magistrate^
I volgen nocb Phillippo dem Kuenig von Macedonien, vol-
gen noch vil mer den AUervnueberwindtlicbsten Keisern, vol-
gen nocb den edeln Fuersten, Grafen, Herren, Bittern
vnd Knecbten, deren icb vil erkant bab, jo oucb vil erlicber
S’tett duetscber Land Fuersiebte Burger, die ir Kinder zu der
beilsamen Ler der Gescbrifft zugeeignet baben, volgen mer
denselben nocb, vnd veraliten die dorecbten anscbleg der nyde-
scben Menscben, vnd geben oucb vwer Suen zu lernung vnd
vnderwisung der guten Kuensten, dasz sie die edelen Ge-
scbrifften lernen, zu gezierd jrer Selen, zu vffwacbsung der
Tugenden, zu vwerm Trost, zu beil vwerer St at vnd des ge-
meynen Kutzes, vnd zu lob vnd ere vwers gantzen geslehts, zxl
erfarend die Erkantnisz \ir selbs^i vnd der vndoetlicbkeit53 der
Selen, zu bevestigung des Gloubens, zu bestaetigung des Gots-
dienst, zu ewigem Leben mit vcb libtlicber zu erfolgen.
52 Mass.
53 Immortality.
Toss — Jacob Wymp filing er’s Tutschland.
857
Von schaden des Muessiggonds
vnd Vngeleryheit.
WAs werden doch vwer S'uen tun, so sie aller Geschrifft
vnwissend sint, vorusz so sie nit der Bitter scbaift noch-
gondt oder die kein Kouffmanscbatz, oder ander gewerb hant
tieren? Icb spricb, was werden oder kunnent sie anders tnn
alle zitt jrs Lebens, dann anliangen dem Muessiggon, dem
Spiel, dem Scbloff, dem Zeren vnd Fuellen, als weren sie ge-
boren allein korn zu essen, scbambaffte Doebter vnd erber€
Frowen anzevebten vnd zn beflecken, dann welcbe snend ist zu
deren dasz muessiggon nit anreitzt? Nit sollen waenen vwer
Sucn, das sie von Gott in dise Welt gesetzt sygen, dasz sie
allein dem Jagen, allein dem Yogeln anhangen, vnd dasz sie
sigen Knecbtsknecbt, das ist, der Falcken vnd Habicb diener,
so sie dieselben Vogel mit vermnedigung der Arm, vnd vorbt
zu bescbissen der kleider, tragend sint : nit volgen vwere Suen
den scbnoeden vnd allerburiscbten Lueten, die sie von Ler der
Gescbrifft vnzittlicb abzuzieben vnderston: welcbe beimlicbe
Vynd sint jrer Eren, welcbe fuerwor sint Widorsaecber einer
gantzen Stat, vnd ein gifft des Vatterlands, nyder der Tugen-
den, fruend der lastern, gruender des muessiggonds, anreitzer
der geylikeit,54 stupfer der vnluterkeit, vnlydlicbeit der J*u-
gent anzuender, verlierer der Selen, scbiffbrecber des Heils,
verderber der Knaben, vnd des Gemeynen nutzes zerstoerer, die
fuerwor nit wissen, was Frubt, was Lust, was Ergetzlicheit,
was Eren vsz erkantnisz der Latiniscben Gescbrifft vnd Buch-
staben entspring. Icb bitt verzieben mir, aller Fuersiebtigsten
Herrn die Baet, vnd ir aller Erbersten Burger, dann ich
winscli, icb beger, vnd bab liep (als icb von mynen i ungen
Joren allzit liep gebept ban) den nutz vwer Kind, vnd das
beil vwers Gemeynen nutzes, oucb das vffwacbsen vwer Statt,
gar vil mer dann dise groben vngelertten verkoerer. Dann icb
54 Voluptuousness.
858 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts , and Letters .
sorg, dasz nit villiht vwer allersynnrichsten Suen, wann sie
die Geschrifft nit leren, villiht nochmols sie vnder oder zwi-
sehen den Gelerten vnd vernuen:fftigen, in iren eigenen oder
vwer gemeynen Stat haendeln, als die stummen by sitzend wer-
den vnd on fraht anfohen zn beklagen den verlust jrer zitt,
vnd die schamlieh vnwissenheit, vnd villiht nochmols jrer
Eltern oder Erund boez vnd hinlaessig versumnisz scheltten
werden: dann solches klagen, solches beweynen hab ich von
Durchluehtiger, Wolgeborner vnd Edeln Lnet kind gehoert,
vnd me dann einist mit inen ein mittliden gehaben. (D.)
Von dem Gotsdienst.
ZVm letsten (welches doch dz aller billichst ist) soli ein Wi¬
ser Ratt, der do hofft den Gemeynen nntz saelliklich zu
regieren, sorg vnd vffsehen haben vor alien dingen vff den
Gottsdienst, vnd die behalttung der Goettlichen Gebott nit ver-
sumen, dann Gott wil nit veraht sin von den menschen, vnd
wider die Goettlichen Gesatz vnmilttlich handeln blibt' nit vn-
gestrofft, alle ding noch dem Gottsdienst zn setzen, hat die
Statt Rom allzit gehaltten, vnd hatten die Roemer keinen Zwi-
fel sie wurden Regierer aller zittlichen ding, wann sie dem
Goettlichen gewalt wol vnd vesteklich dienten: deshalb sollen
wir naemen ein bispil von den Heiden vnd Appgoetteryern,
vnd vns flissen dem woren Gott sin Ere ze geben: so doch
die selben als sie noch nit mit dem woren Glonben erluehtet
waren, iren falschen Goettern znm hissigsten solch Ere erbot-
ten haben: Vnd ist kein zwifel, der Barmhertzig Gott werd
zu merung, znnemung vnd bewarung vwers Gemeynen nntzes
so lang wachen, als lang ir von der geflissensten Ere sins
Gottsdienst vnd behaltung siner Gebott vwer ongen nit wer¬
den abkoeren. Aber dem Gottsdienst gehoert zu, das oberst
Opffer, das ist, Mesz zu hoeren, Psalmen vnd Lobgesang ge-
sungen werden, Gott danckwuerkung zu sagen nit vnderwegen
Foss — Jacob Wympfflinger’s Tuischland. 859
zu lossen vmb sin Goetliche guttat vnd sigk so er vns ver-
lueht: als ir alle Jor von vberwintnisz des Burgunders, ouch
wider den Ertbydem55 vff Sant Luxtag loblich haltten.
Yon eim Cantzelprediger.
ZV deni Gottsdienst gehoert ouch Predig zu suchen, vnd
ein Prediger, der die Worheit seit, gedulteklichen liden
vnd beschirmen, vnd vorvsz einen Weltlichen Gelertten der
Goettlichen Geschrifft der mit zymlichem soldt versehen sig,
domit er stanthafftlich vnd vnerschrocklich, was die Worheit
ist, o^ich reden geduerr,56 ist waeger, dann ob sie vsz dem
Opfer oder deni Bettel vffenthalten57 werden soltten. Vnd
solt in sunders dise Statt zu Hochgelertten der H. Geschrifft
geneigt sin, als sie vor zitten gehebt hatt, durch die Straszburg
erluehtet vnd vast namhafit worden ist, als do gewesen sint
Thomas vnd Viviens welcher namen vnd Vatterland in alien
Schulen wittberiemmt sint, durch ir hohen Ler willen der na-
turliohen Kunst vnd ouch heiligen Geschrifft, deszglich ouch
durch ir scharpfe vnd nutzlich schriben, so sie vsz iren adelich-
sten Vernunfften, zu ewigwaerendem Lob irs Vatterlands, den
aSTochkuninien verlossen haben. Aber gelert vnd erbers wesens
Theologos der Goettlichen Geschrilft Lerer, ouch fridsamklich
der Geistlichen Keht gelertten moeht vwer Statt on alien
kosten lihtlich zu ewigen zitten haben, wann inhalt der schoe-
nen lieplich vnd heiligen brief, so Johannes Keisersperg, der
Wisest vwer Prediger, zu dem Durchluehtigen Senfftmuetigstem
vwerm Bischof vsz Cristlicher Lieb nun langest diser sachen
halb zugeschickt, in ein fruhtbarlich Werck yemer vollzogen
werden moeht.
55 Earthquake.
56 Dare.
To support.
860 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts , and Letters .
Was durch Lieb willen des Gots-
diensts zu straffen sig.
Vch geboert zu dem Gotsdienst, das murmeln, das vfi vnd
ab spatzieren, dz Gescbwaetz, das Scbrygen oder bu*len
der Bild58 by den Orgeln in dem allerheiligsten Tempel. In-
sunders diewile der Gotsdienst gebaltten wurt nit zu lyden,
nocb der Heiligen Tag gebannenden Obent vnd abstinentz der
beiligen Vasten; in den offnen Huesem, von den starcken vnd
muessig gonden, zu ergernisz yederman oefflicb zu breeben,
die taeglicben fuellerigen vff den Stuben, mit eym verbottenen
Gesatzde, als die Boemer getbon baben, abzestellen, Losz-
werffen, Aberglouben, Gotslaesterung, vnd verbottene Spiel die
gar kum on Gotslaesttern gesebeben morgen: menscblicbe Ge-
satzde, Gebrucb vnd Gewonbeiten dem naturlicben oder Go^t-
licben Bebt widerwertig, in keinen weg zu tulden: offene Ee-
breeber zu grossen Eren nit bruchen: die altten vnd krancken
Burger (durcb vertribung der starcken Bettler) mit dem Al-
musen vifenthalten. Oucb sunst zu merung vnd zunaemen des
Gotsdiensts so dient nit vbel darzu, wann ir rebtlicb vnd aller
billiebst zuriebtent vnd begerten vsz einem sicberen vnd vesten
Baebstlicben Gewalt, mit vwers Hocbwuerdigen vnd Durcb-
luecbtigen Bischofs, oucb der wolgebornen Herren des Capitels
der boben Stifft, desglieb der andern Wuerdigen StifPten vn-
wandelbarer verwilligung, dasz ein yeder mit einer in vwer Stat
Dumbern-Bfrunden (nocb gestalt der Person) nun binfuer me,
sicb beniegen liesz, als dann zu Basel, zu Spir, zu Wurtzburg,
zu Babenberg vnd in ettlicben andern Stetten in Tuetscben
Landen, in welcben Biscboefflicb Stuel sint, erberlieb imd beylb
klicb gebaltten wurt: dann also moecbten vil vwer Kind vnd
Kindskind gar libtlich versorgt werden, vnd der Goettlich
Dienst wuerd gemeret, dem Letsten willen der Stifftern der
58 ? Martin renders this passage: “Das Schreien oder Heulen aus
dem Bilde unter der Orgel.”
Foss — Jacob Wympfftingers Tutschland. 861
Pfrunden gescliae]i genug, den Selen der Abgestorbenen mo®Kt
.fruhtbarlicher geholffen werden, vnd vwer lieben Kind vnd
Kindskind dientten Gott, vnd wurden mit vcb gefuerdert zu
Hymel, welche snnst mit vile der Pfrunden beswaert, denen
sie nit moegen genug thun, so sie wider billickkeit, wider
inbildung rebter vernunfft, wider briederlicbe Lieb, wider das
grueszlich verbietten Babst Johans des xxij, besitzend, ver-
diffet in die Hell, mit ewigen Pinen gekruetzigt werden. Wer
wer doch so fraevel,59 wer wer ein so grosser des gerechten
Gots, des Bischoefflichen vnd vwers gewalts verahter, der ein
so heilig vffsetzung der Goettlichen Ere, heiles der abgescheide-
nen Selen, vnd so zu merung der Euersehung viler Menschen
von dem Heiligen Stul zu Kom bevestiget, ouch durch eins
Bischofs vnd Capittels, vnd vwer Groszmaehtikeit mit ewiger
vnd starker hanthabung bewart, yemer vnderstuend zu brechen
oder darwider kummen ? Ich hab hertzlich vnd on alle vorht
vnd schamen vwer allerwachenste Euersiehtigkeit, Wisen,
Lieben Herrn, ermant von denen dingen, die zu merung des
Gotsdiensts gehoeren, vnd hab mich verlossen vnd vertnrwt
vff vwer angeborne, vnd von vwer Groszvaettern in vch ge-
gossene Tugend vnd Erberkeit: dann vwer Vorfaren haben
vsz lieb des Gotsdiensts Kirchen, Tempel, Spittal, Kloesteiv
Pfruenden vffgericht, den Gotsdienst im Mynster, vorusz in
vnser Erowen Cappel, morgens vnd obends vffgesetzt, die zal
der Diener Gots gemert, die heiligen Stet mit kostbarlichen
Klein oten geziert, die Pfarrkirchen (die doch alter sint dann
die Kloester Bettelsorden haben sie liep gehabt, die Juden
vertriben, die heilige Boemsche Kirch vnd Baebstlichen Stu6!
haben sie als wore Cristen allzit geeret, vnd ir Botten vnd Ge-
santen guGtlich empfangen ^md fruentlich gehalten, vnd domit
sie dem lsTochvolger Santi Petri vnd dem S'tatth alter Christ-i
entfor60 geben, haben sie zu eyner beschirmung des Baebst-
lichen Stuls, eynen Meyster der Kaetzer, genant Eriderich
59 Wicked.
60 Cf. Bayerisches Worterbuch, vol. 1, p. 847; enpfor geben, to honor,
give reverence. Martin translates: “aus Riicksicht auf.”
862 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts , and Letters .
Tunawer, welcher von der Vergabung des Keisers Constantini
vbel reden was, mit dejn Euer, vnd ettwan vil, beider gesleht,
sin nachfolger, ein teil zn dem tod, ettlich zn verswoerung des
Lands verurteilt vnd verdampt, in dem Jor m. occclviii.
Deshalb nit vnbillicb die Koemsch Kirch vnd der heilig Yah
ter der Bapst, vwerm Gemeynen nutz geneigt, guenstig, vnd
was ir billicher ding begaeren, oder harnoch yemer begeren
werden, wurt er vch on widersprechen, zu ewigen zitten be-
stendig verluehen vnd zulossen.
Von den guten Bur gem.
En gnten Burgen gehoert zu, zu vil ligenden oder ander
Gueter nit zu begeren, den wueher diehen, den Ge-
meynen nutz lieb haben, sin mittburger nit verahten, die Ober-
keit zu eren, Y ffrur zu wenden, Kircben vnd Geistlicheit zu
eren, die Ere Gottes zu meren, den armen Lueten senfftmuetig
sin, billichs vnd glichs Kehten mit andern Burgern zu leben,
nit zu vil zu verwuerffiich oder vndertrucklich sich haltten, ouch
nit zu vil harfuer brechen in eym Gemeynen nutz, woellen das
so fridlich vnd ersamldich ist, iren Gemaheln vnzertrent an-
zehangen, mit einer Erowen sich beniegen ze lossen, von svnem
Gebluet kein Erowr ze nemen, vnd nit allein durch Schoen oder
Bichtum, sunder mer durch Ere vnd Tugend willen ein IIusz-
frow zu erwoelen, vnd nit in zu vil J ungen Joren zu der Ee
zegriffen oder sich vermyschen, vnd mer zu kaltter dan zu
warmer zitt mit siner Huszfrowen vnderstan ze kvnden : ein
gut waesen irer Eefrowen tulden, das boez vndertrucken : Gut
waesen oder eigenschafft heisz ich, Scham, Milttikeit vnd
Barmhertzikeit ; Boesz eigenschafft der Erow'en sint, dasz sie
gemeynlich on mosz oder vngezempt ir lidlicheit nochvolgen,
dz sie sint klappereht vnd zaenkesch vnd vnstanthafftig, des¬
halb sollen sie von den Mannen regiert vnd gehaltten werden
zu der maessikcit, zu Stillswigung ^md zu Stanthafftikeit. Zu
der Maessikeit gehoert Kuescheit, Schamheit, abbruch an Essen,
Foss — Jacob Wympfflinger’s Tutschland. 863
vnd nichterkeit des Wins, dann es zymbt sich dasz sie kiFsch
sygen, nit allein dasz sie iren Eemannen truw halten, sunder
ouch dasz von inen nit Kind vsz Eebruch entpfangen zu
froembdem vaetterlichem Erb kummen, welchs doch der groesz-
ten suend vnd laster eine ist, vnd das ouch bv den Bichtvaet-
tern zwifelhafttig ist: Ich setz ouch darzu S’chamheit, dann
es it nit genug Kuescheit durch welche die Erowen nit froemb-
der Mann sich gebruchen sollen, sunder sollen sie ouch Ersam
vnd Schamhafft sin, dasz sie von alien zeichen vnd wortten,
die etwas Ynerberkeit oder Ergernisz vff jnen tragen, mit dem
hoehsten flisz gesehen werden sich ze hietten. Dann es ist nit
genug dasz kein froembder Sun in des Mans Erbgut kumm,
sunder gehoert ouch zu der heiligen Ee, dasz der Yatter von
synem Kind ettwas wissenheit, oder ioch ein gut zuversicht
hab dasz er sin syg. Zu solcher Kuescheit, S'chammheit, Yei-
swigenheit, Abbruch vnd Kichterkeit, sollen die myttelmaessi-
gen Burger durch sich selbs, aber die hoehern an Adel, Waesen
oder Gut, sollen ir Eewiber durch frum erbere Erowen, die
eins guten Lymuts sint, ermanen lossen. Es stat ouch eym
Eeman zu ma.esziich vnd bescheidlich zu gebruchen eeliche
werck, vnd vffmercken haben, der zitt, der stat, der ersamen
rnosz, vnd vermO'eglicheit oder gesuntheit des Libs. Es soli
ouch ein yeder Eeman sin Eefrow noch syner vermoeglichkeit
vnd noch gestalt sins Stands mit bekleidung vnd Libs narungen
ersamklich haltten, vnd gegen ir siesse fruentlich vnd tugent-
1 icher wise mit senffter Bed vnd manung sich erzeigen; Aber
zu denen die do hochfertig vnd Kaerren sint, ist eins hertte*
ren anfarens nott: zu demuetigen vnd vernuenfften sint senffte
vnd frukitliche wort genugsam. Die Mann sollen ir Erowen
liep haben als ir mitgesellen, nit als ir Dienstmaegde, vor
yferen61 sollen sie sich hueten, doch sollen sie ouch lugen62
dasz sie nit durch die Yinger sehen, vnd die hanthab eim an-
dern zu bietten gesehen werden.
61 Jealousy.
62 see to it, take care.
864 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts , and Letters.
Von Anwisung der Kind.
DJe Elttem sollen lugen dasz die Kind von irer Jugent in
dem Glouben, in guten Sitten, in fryen Ku^sten vn-
derwisen werden, dasz sie nit ewiklicb bungerig vnd durfftig
bliben, als dann Sant Augustinus von dem selligen Leben
spricht, deren gemuet ze sin, die in keinen Kunsten gelert sint,
vnd nitzet von dem Brunnen guter Ler geschoeppffd baben.
Die Kind sollen ermant werden, dasz sie nit in ir Bed, Gesicbt
oder Gehoerd suenden: ir vnvollkummenbeit der zungen,63 ett-
licber Bucbstaben balb, sollen sie vsz kunst vnd vernunfft vnder-
ston zu meystern, glicb als Demosthenes getbon bat. Sie sol-
ion in Spisz vnd Dranck nit vberdretten; in arbeit, lidlicbeit
des gemu^s vnd des Libs sollen sie sicb ueben, dasz in Krieg-
scben vnd Burgerliclien gescliaefften ir gescbicklicheit erfun-
den werd : Gott sollen sie eren, Gott sollen sie voerbten : dann
was mag yemans vnder den Menscben beilig geabtet werden,
dem die Gottbeit verabtlicb ist: den Goettlicben Kamen sollen
sie nit verfluchen, vnd sollen nit libtlicb gelossen werden by
Gott sweren, by ir Seelen, by ir Truwen, by dem Eid, dann
dardurcb gewonen sie Meyeidt64 zu tun, gefuVt vsz empsikeit
des swerens, in verabtung der Truwen vnd des Eids, als die
Walben duent by irem Glouben \md Truwen zu sweren in alien
dingen. Die Eltern sollent ir Kind leren, dasz sie, Yatter vnd
Mutter, Priesterseh aflt_Ynd die Alten eren, vor inen vffstan-
den, niemans uebel reden, niemans verspotten, nieman verah-
ten; ouch niemans mit sckelttwortten oder Trowwortten65 be-
ieidigen: Gotslaesterung, Diebstal, Luegen, Kouben bassen:
niemans zu suenden bilff geben, boesz Gesellscbafft flieben,
fru^tlicbeit vnd Redsam sin leren: verberttigung irs eignen
Willens vnd fuernaemen sieb abtuegend: vil geswaetzd vnd
muessiggon flieben, dasz sie buszlicb, demuetig vnd senfFt sigen :
63 Impediments of speech.
64 False oath.
65 Threat.
Foss — Jacob Wympffiinger’s Tutschland.
865
Hochfart verabten, vnd scbampern bildung66 sich entzieben:
ersam Gesellscbafft sucben, dapptferkeit der Sitten, vnd maessi-
keit der Red liep haben : Jr boffnung in die Richtum gar nit
setzen, dasz sie sich bald zu Tngenden vnd guter Gewonheit be-
reitten: Vnkusch vnd Hor pflantzen67 vermyden, gewonen die
betriepten beweglicheiten des Gemuets zn stillen: Ir Leben
sollen sie vsz andern bessern: die so sie stroffen gedulteklick
vhme^cken : Euer ir Spiel die Historien; fuer ir Prassen, er-
sam Ergetzlicheit ; fner ir muessiggon sollen sie fner sich nae-
men die Lere der Gescbrifft, dasz sie also by den Eroembden, by
den Fuersten, in den Versamlungen des Ricbs, vor froembden
Rednern, inen selbs lob, iren Fruenden ergetzlicheit, vnd dem
Gemeynen nutz zn Straszburg Ere vnd VfPung68 zu ewigen
zitten zu geberen.
Von ziehung der Doehter.
Die Elttern sollen ouch sich flissen jre Doehter von vmb-
sweitfen, vnd daratfter loutfen, von vil swaetzen, von
muessiggon verhietten: wiewol sie Rich oder Edel sint, sollen
sie sie doch zum werck der bent gewaenen, domit sie die Geyi-
heit vnd boese Anvechtung vberwinden moegen: man soil sie
beissen bispel naemen von den Doebtern Octaviani Augusti
vnd des grossen Carles, deren der ein der allermaecbtigst by
den Latiniscben, der ander der groeszest by den Tu^scben Kei-
sern gewesen ist, welcbe ir Doubter zu den Eroewlicben wercken
getlion baben: dann inen beiden was . vnverborgen die vnstaeti-
keit des Gluecks, vnd der Laster zufaell, denen Muessikeit an-
reitzung gibt, vnd die vile, oucb groesse derselben. Io vil mer
sollen sie nocbfolgen der allerheiligsten Jungfrowen vnd Mut¬
ter Gottes, welcbe der beilig Jeronimus bezuegt mit webendem
werck in dem Tempel vmbgangen sin. Sig oucb ein Exem-
es Coarse, indecent.
67 Martin renders “horpflantzen” by Eitelkeit, vanity.
68 Middle High German afenunge — respect. Vffung not to be found in
Sanders, Schmeller.
866 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts , and Letters.
pel, die durchluehtigste Hertzogin vsz dem Blut von Bevern
Margarita, ein allerschamhafftigste huszfrow Pfaltzgrav Phi-
lipsen, zc. welche von den uebungen Fro^wlicher wnerckungen,
so mit Zettlen,69 Weben, Wollen, Syden, keygen, Sydensticken,
vnd derglichen kuntlich ist, so lang sie gelebt hatt, nie abge-
standen sin, mit allem irem F rowenzymmer, so dardurch mucs-
sikeit vnd anreitzung des fieisches vberwinderin gewesen sint.
Nit sollen sich schamen oder verdrosz hoben die Burgers vnd
Bittersdoehter, dasz sie solcbs tuegen, so die Mutter Gotts, so
die Keiserynen, so der Keiser vnd Fue'rsten Frowen vnd Dor¬
ter sie verstont flisseklich getbon haben.
Es ist witter ein ampt der Elttern die ire Kind reht vnd
Cristlicb liep baben, die ouch verhoffen mit inen ewiklich in
dem kuenfftigen Leben sich zu froewen, dasz sie ir Kind in
den zarten Joren, so sie noch menschlicher bloedikeit kein wis-
sen, ouch die bruenstikeit des fieisches vnd anreitzung der Welt
noch nit versucht haben, weder mit senfften worten, noch mit
trowen anzebewegen, oder zwingen, in ein her ter Leben, oder
zu einem engern w eg des Lebens, dann Christus vnser Gesatzd-
geber vns vffgestezt oder gebotten hatt. Dann diewile Vatter
vnd Mutter vsz menschlicher bloedikeit die Gebott Gottes, die
doch liht sint, kum volkummentlich erfuellt haben, so ist es
von vaetterlicher Miltekelt froiembde zu ahten, ir Kind, so noch
zart sind, vorusz wider iren willen vnd gefallen, mit groessern
Geluebden, Kaeten, Geistlicheiten vnd Vffsatzungen zu ver-
knippfen, vnd nuetzt anders gedenken, weder wie sie von iren
Kinden entledigt werden, vnd dasz sie fuerbasz kein, oder gar
wenig sorg haben muessen fuer.ir Kind zu ziehen: vnd hant
wenig acht noch sorg, ob sie in den guten Geschrifften, ob sie
im fundament der Ler grammatica > ob sie in guten Sitten,
ob sie in Tugenden, ob sie in Gottes vorht, ob sie in behaltung
der Gebott Gottes, on boesz Exempel taeglich zunaemen vnd
wachsen: Dann ein beschorner Kopf vnd Kutten machen nie-
mans sellig, der nit ouch die Gebott des Herren halttend ist.
69 Cf. Schmeller, Bayerisches Worterbuch, vol. 2, p. 1160. Probably
refers to the “Zetteln,” i. e. spreading out of the flax.
Voss— -Jacob Wympfflinger’s Tutschland. 867
Deszbalb gar vnwiszlicb (als icb scbetz) werden die vnscbul-
digen Doebterle etwan ingestossen, an die ort, die knm dryg
scbritt yom Frowenbusz70 stont: die Eltteren die solcbs du^t,
moegen gealit werden, inen lieber sin, dasz sie baben Doebter
die Huerlin sygen, dann das sie der andern Kind miterben
weren : vnd so sie des irdescben vnd zittlichen Guts halben
scbad zu empfoben besorgen, oder ir Kind nit gern nider zu
der Ee versorgen, fallen sie selbs vnd die Selen irer Kind in
grosser en scbaden, vnd in einen ewigen flecken des gantzen
Geslebts.
Der Edelen vnd Buergers 8uen ,, ivarin sie vnderwisen werden
sollen.
ABer die Suen, welche nocb weicb vnd zart, vnd deshalb
zu der Kittery, zu Kouffmanscbatz, zu eim Gemevnen
nutz regieren nocb nit genugsam gescbickt sint, wer das nutz-
licbst, sie werden vnderwisen Latiniscb sprocb ze reden, dasz
sie verston moebten die Historien Valerii vnd Salustii: ein
gut Kegiment eins Huses oder Stat, vsz Egidio: gut Sitten
vsz Vergerio: oder die vffgewacbsnen Jugent relit ze leben vsz
Seneca: die andern Tugenden vsz Tullio: Kriegskunst vsz
Vegetio: ein Zug ordnen vsz Front one: Buwerck vsz Victru-
vio: Burenwerck vnd Ackergang vsz Varrone, Palladio vnd
Petro von Bononia: welcbe alle, vnd gar vil groessere, moebten
in einer sundern Yaebtscbul, wie wir vorgeseit baben, so darzu
in diser Stat angeseben wuerd, mit wenig kosten, mit libter
arbeitt, in kurtzer zitt domit. oucb die Kind in diser vwer Stat
bliben, vnd by iren Elttern oder Eruenden wontten, gelert wer¬
den, mit eym geringen vnd nutzbarlichen w eg vnd anwisung,
so man den Mey stern fuergeben wuerd, welcben oucb sie mit
allem flisz bebalten, vnd von dem nit abwicben geduersten, sol-
ten sie by iren eiden versprecben. Ynd solcbe Latiniscb Yaebt-
70 House of prostitution.
868 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts , and Letters.
meister71 solten erberlich Gelert sin, in der Kunst des Wol-
redens, der Historien, vnd der Sittlichen kunst, ouch an irem
Leben vnd Sitten bewaert, Senfftmuetig, Dappfer, nit geneygt
zu slagen: als dann dise edele Stat nit zwiflen soli, sie zu
alien zitten wol finden wurt: diewile dock so vil Hoherschulen
in Tuetschen Landen sint, in welchen geschickte Mann wol
f unden werden moegen: das wer besser, erlicher, nutzlicher,
loblicher, vwern Suenen, iren Eruenden, vnd einer Statt, dann
dasz sie noch nit, oder gar kum, irs Alters fuenfzehn dor ha-
bend, verlossen werden dn Muessikeit ze leben, alle lihtferikeit
in Kleidung, in Worten, mit dem II or, 72 vnd in allem wesen
an sich ze nemen, zu ligen in den S'cherhuesem (nit getar ich
sagen in den Yogelkeffigen vnd pferchel der Huren) oder in
den offnen Winhuesern, by dem Spiel vnd Fuellen, vnd in Lib,
an Sel, an Gut, an Ere vndergon vnd verderben, als die vieh,
die des buchs vnd fleischs kneht sint: In welchen gar kum
einige fusztritt der Tugenden erschint: domit also ein guter
vnd vnerfarner Juengling, der zu keiner guten Ler angewisen
wurt, vnd nit by den loblichen Buchstaben der Geschrifft vli-
gezogen wurt, lebt als ein Yieh, stirbt als ein Yieh, der weder
im selbs nutz, noch sym Gesleht erlich, noch vwerm Gemeynen
nutz fruhtbar gewesen ist : von welchem, so er gestirbt, nuctzt
worlich gesprochen oder geschriben werden mag, dann dasz er
ein guter Zergesell vnd Prasser (Eij.) gewesen ist, er hatt ge-
spilt, getruncken, vnd ist ein grosser Buler gewesen.
71 Schoolmasters.
72 Cf. note 67.
Toss — Jacob W ymp filing er’ s Tutschland.
869
Durch zivey ding wurt Straszburg
sellig , deren eins Doctor Johannes Keisersperg,
vwer allerwisester vnd redlichster Prediger, dick
an siner Predig bestymbt.
WAnn vwere Suen (denen doch die "Natnr vemunfft geben
hatt) in den Joren, so sie noch zn Kouffmanschatz, zu
Ritterschaft, zu der Ee alters halb noch nit geschickt sint? zu Ler
der Geschrifft gethon vnd geben wuerden : vnd die taeglich zerung
vif den offnen Stuben gemyndert wuerden, domit nit die frum-
men Burger, vnd insunders die Handwercksluet, ir vnwider-
bringlich zitt, vnd das Gelt in Spielbretten verlieren : vnd so vil
zerung vnd kostens ein yeder fuer sin person vff einen Tag da0-
ten, so vil sie fuer sich selbst, fuer narung ir Huszfrowen vnd
Kind in zweyen tagen zu husz genug haben moehten ; dann so
hofft ich, dasz v^ver Gemeiner nutz fuer alle andere Stett
Tuetscker land sellig wuerd: jo ein gezierd Tuetsches landes,
vnd ein kron des Richs wurd es billig geheissen, deren keins
ander Stat oder Gemeine, wer die were, lihtlich sich gedu^rst
vnderston zu verglichen.
Die Ybertraeffung der Statt
Straszburg.
DAnn fuerwor was zu Burgerlicher Sellikeit gehoert, in den
dingen wurt vwer Statt gesehen groeszlich vbertreffend,
vnd fuer alle andere Stet vberfliessen, mit Kirchen, Kappeln,
TTeiltumen, Spittaln, Kloestern, mit eyner durchschinbarsten
Thumkirchen, mit herrlichen Stifften, Liberien der Buecher,
ATannen in alien Kuensten hochgelert, mit S'chulen der Bru0-
der des Bettelordens, Buwmeistern, vertribung der Juden,
870 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts , and Letters.
ko€stlichen Gebuewen, scho'men Gassen ynd Planen,73 mil
Zynnen, Graben, Tuern, Zwingolf,, Bollwerken, Schuetten,74
Allmenden,75 Yorstetten, Wartten, Stritgewoeren, Woffen, Eos-
sen, Geschuetzde, Buechern, Huten,76 Adel, Bitterschaft, Ysz-
bund77 der Handwerckkunst, Gescbicklicbeit der Yernunfft,
mit anfang vnd vrsprung der Trucker j (wie wol dieselb zu
Mentz volkuminen worden) mit gesuntheit vnd guete des
Luffts, mit zuwegen senffter wind, mit wunderbarer vile der
Wasser, mit gemeiner Fryheit zu Jagen vnd Yogelen, mit ge
nurhtsamkeit der Erd, mit lebenden Vischen, Weiden, Matten,
Gerten, Ouwen, Vischetzen /8 Wigern,79 zam Yieb, Wilttprett,
Gefuegels, Korn, Win, Fruebt, Eicbtum, Pfennigturn, Kouff-
manschatz, Zoellen, Yngelten,80 Gewerffen,81 eim vszbuendigen
scboenen Yischmerckt, Bergen, Schloessern, Land vnd Lu%
Stett vnd Doerffer, zc.
In welchen weg Gott vnd sine Mutter
dise Stat beschirmen werden .
SOlcber ding alter, wann dise vwer Stat nit zu vnzimlicher
wollust, sunder zu ersamer irer hanthabung sich ge-
bruchend ist, vnd GOtt, (von dem sie diese ding alle entpfangen
hat) danck saget, mit andacht vnd behaltung des Gottsdiensts
vnd siner Gebotten, so wurt GOtt vber vwren Gemeynen nuiz
ein wachender Hueter, vnd vch genaedig sin, vnd sin allermil-
teste Mutter, vnser Frow, wurt vch ihren Sun lihtlicher ver-
suent machen: dann diese Mutter bittet nit fuer die, so dem
73 Squares.
74 Moat.
75 Grimm, Worterbuch, vol. 1, p. 237.
76 Guard?
77 Model.
78 Vischetz — Fischwaid, Fischfang, pis'catio.
79 Lat. vivarium, Weiher.
so Bayerisches Worterbuch, vol. 1, p. 907 : vectigal pro vino, etc., rev¬
enues.
si Ibid., vol. 2, p. 995; das Gewerf-Unterhandlung, Vertrag= valu¬
able treaties, privileges.
Foss — Jacob Wympfflinger’s Tutschland.
871
willen irs Suns wider wertig sint, vnd sin Gebot verabten. Da-
rumb, vtf dasz ir den Sun vnd die Mutter, die vwer sunder
beschirmerin ist, entpfinden vcb erboert zu baben, so woellen
vwere Suen zu der Ler vnd zu den Tugenden tun, von den
toedlichen Wolluesten, die mit dem zergenglicben Lib ver-
gon werden, vnd von dem Fuellen woellen vch selbs vnd vwere
Kind entziehen: baben liep Erberkeit, Huezbaeblicbeit82 vnd
Sendtnruetikeit, die Goetlicben gesatzde vnderston zu vollzieben,
so wurt die Mutter des Herren das Volck vnd vwer Stat vn-
der iren Armen vnd irem Euerbitten beschirmen, als ir dann
solcbs in vwern grossen Briefsigel mit diesem Vers ingegraben
baben:
J wig f row bitt din Kint dasz es das Volk behiet vnd die Stall,
Amen.
Ller Erentvebsten Herren, Meister vnd Raet, dise ding
bab icb vwer dapfersten Euersiebtikeitten vbergobi oder
zugeeignet, mit vwerm allerbillichsten vrteil, oucb verboenmg
vnd dissigsten bewaerung der wolgelerten vwTern mitbruedern
vnd Suenen, Herrn Jacob Merscbwin, oucb Sebastiani Brant*
zu stroden vnderworffen : ^md soil das vwer Wiszbeit nit in
solcbem gemuet vermercken, als ob icb vcb, Allerfuersiebtiste
Herren, zu leren vnderstand, (welcbs doch wer mjn allergroeste
Dorbeit) sunder dasz ir vermercken vnd erkennen myn gaentz-
licb vertruwen, \md inbruenstig begird vnd geneigten Willen
gegen vwer Stat Gemevnen nutz: desbalb verbofft, verlossend
mich vff vwere guetikeit, ir wuerden nit fuer uebel nemen, dasz
icb vwerm getruwen Burger Jobanni Prysz, dise vwer Stat Lob
vnd Erybeit zu erluebten,vszzespreiten,vnd durcb sinen Druck8*
vszlossen gon, nit bab gewoelt versagen. Dasz icb aber von eim
guten Regiment, von Einbaellikeit, von Gerebtikeit, von Euer-
sb'btikeit, vnd andern Tugenden gescbriben bab, ist worlich
durcb mich nit in meinung gescbeben, dasz icb vwern Aller-
82 ibid., vol. 1, p. 1032; haushabig, wirtschaftlich, economical, frngaL
83 This refers of course only to the Latin edition of his Germania.
54— S. & A.
872 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts , and Letters .
fiPrsiehtigsten Ratt oder Regiment deshalb mangel liaben
gloub; sunder hab ich, in eyner gemeyn erzalt, in willen dise
ding alien Stetten vnd Gemeinen nottuerfftig sin ze erzeigen:
Pesglichen ouch wern Kinden vnd Kindskinden, die villi ht
disz in iren zartten Joren lesen werden, domit sie beflnden,
nock dem sie vffgewachsen vnd zu Mann worden sint, inen kei-
nen schaden darusz erwacbsen sin.
E LT D E
Caspar Hedio,
Doctor im Muenster zu Straszburg
im vierten theil seiner vszerlesnen Clironick. am 722. blat.
JAcob Wimpfling ward geboren zu Scbletstatt 1449. Er ist
wie Erasmus scbribt von Jugent vff wol erzogen worden
in guten Kuensten : Erstlich zu Scbletstatt vnder Ludwig Dri-
genberg dem Schulmeister, Hochmahls zu Eryburg vnd Hey
delberg hat er in H.Geschrifft vnd in Geistlichen Rechten gestu
diert, auch andere Disciplin nit ohnwissend gewesen. Zu Spir
was er ein zitlang in dem Thumstift Prediger: Hochmals zu
Heydelberg hat er in H. Geschriflt gelesen, fuernemlicb in dem
H. Lerer Hieronymo. Mit Buechlein, die er in den Truck
lassen vszgehn, hat er die Jugend vnderwisen, vnd die Priester-
schafft zu der Gottselikevt vnd Kuescheyt ermant. Es hat in
ouch nit beschwert vsz liebe zur Gottselikeyt, dasz er etlicher
•Tun gen ("von denen grosse hoflnung was) Pedagog vnd Schul-
meyster worden, deren fuernemster ist Jacob Sturm vnder den
Edeln, der mit Leer, Gottsellikeyt, Eromkeyt, Weiszheit, vnd
Yerstand war Edel: des truen vnd guten Raedten nit allein
Toss — Jacob Wympfftinger’s Tutschland . 873
*
die herlich Stat Straszburg, sonder gantz Tuejtschland vil schul-
dig ist. Ouch hat der gut Mann Wimphling nit moegen dem
neid etlicher onruewigen entgehn, von wegen dasz er etwan
fry geredt hat. Gen Rom ward er citirt (eyn Mann vnvermoeg-
lich Alters halb, vnd dasz er gebrochen was) durch anschickung
der Augustiner Muench, dorumb dasz er geschriben hett in sinen
Buechern, Augustinus were kein Mn®nch gewesen, oder vff das
wenigst keyn solcherMuench,wie yetzund die Augustiner Muench
sind, den sie vff Taflen vnd Buecher molen, mit eynem langen
Bart in eyner schwarzen Kutten, vnd mit einem lederin Guer-
tel : : dorausz im wurde vil ein groesser onrug entstanden sein.
wo nit Pabst Julius, vff freundlich vnd trulich vnderhandlung
des Hochgelehrten Conradi Peutingers zu Augspurg, vnd Ja¬
cobi Spiegel Keysers Maxmiliani Secretari, der des WimpfLings
Seir.7es.ter Sun was, das fewr by zit geloescht ha% mit frolock
ung aller frommer Maenner. Vber andere Widerwertikeiteu
in denen dises Manns Tugend sich geuebt, hat in hoch bekuem-
mert disc klaegliche trennung der Kirchen zu disen zitten, vud
in gar onlustig gemacht zu leben. Hat sich in seinem Alter
zu Schletstatt by siner S'chwester Magdalena gehalten, ist by
acluzig J a hr alt. worden, vnd offt dise Wort gebetten: Du mil
ter Jesus bisz gnaedig mir armen Suender, der ich des Ge-
meynen nutzens, Einikeit der Cristen, der II. Geschrilft, vnd
dasz die Jugend recht vferzogen, ein Liephaber bin.
1st gestorben den 16. Wintermonats 1528.
AN ORDINANCE OF THE CITY OF NUREMBERG,
ADOPTED IN THE YEAR 1562.
E. K. J. H. VOSS.
The following is offered here, aside from its linguistic value,
as a contribution to the study of city government and sanitary
conditions in one of the foremost German cities in the latter
half of the sixteenth century, at a time when Europe was swept
once more by that terrible scourge, the Black Death.
The original is in the library at Wolfenbuettel. Eor the
translation I am indebted to Miss Haffner, the present holder
of the F. W. Allis Graduate Scholarship in German philology.
Of the city ordinances of Nuremberg up to the year 1478
we have an excellent collection in the Bibliothek des Literari-
schen Vereins in Stuttgart, volume 63. ( Number ger Poli-
zeiordnungen aus dem 13. bis 15. Jahrhundert, hrg. von Jo¬
seph Baader, Stuttgart, 1861.)
Ams Erbern Ratbs
der
Stadt Nuermberg
Verne wete Gesetz vnd Ordnung,
In gegenwertigen sterbsleufften
Disz M. D. L. XII.
Jars auffgericbt.
876 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts , and Letters.
NAch dem der Allmeclitige Gott, durch das vielfeltig suendc-
lich vbertreten, So ye lenger ye mer, mit schendtlichen,
hoch streflichen Gottslestern, Fluchen, Fuellerey, vnzucht, vn-
billicben beBchAv'erungen, wider die liebe desi nechsten, vnd
andern mer, vor Got hochstrefflichen lasztem, von den Men-
schen, j ungen vnd alten, schier teglich, on alle scham vnd
zucbt geuebt wirdt, Abermals znm hoechsten verursacht, vnd be-
wegt worden, seinen billicben Zorn, vber nns auszugiessen, vnd
solch suendtlicb leben, mit seiner Ruten, der Pestilentziscben
seuch, auch wie zubesorgen, mit Krieg vnd teurung zustraffen
vnd heim zusuchen, So wil ein Erber Rathe, ausz Vetter lichem
gutem gemn% alle jre Burger, Jnwoner Arnd zugewandten,
allhie gantz getrewlich erinnert vnd vermanet haben, von
solchen jren suenden abzustehen, vnd sich mit demu'etigem
hertzen, Auch andeehtigem gepeit zu Got keren, vngezweylfelter
hoffnung, sein Allinechtigkeyt werde sich alsdann zu Barm-
hertzigkeyt beAvegen, Amd solchen fuergefasten zorn, Amange-
sehen wie hoch er darzu verursacht Avorden, wider gnedigklich
fallen lassen.
Daneben aber, dieweyl dannocht bey Begirung diser be¬
ech werlichen kranckheyt, auch nit vnzeytlich, das FT atuerliche
mittel gesucht, dardurch solchem vnlust, zuAror im anfang,
sovil menschlich vnd moeglich, begegnet, oder doch zum wenig-
sten ein teyl desselben abgeschnitten, vnd fuerkummen werden
moecht, So hat ein Erbar Bathe derselben mittel etlich fuer
nuetz vnd notwendig bedacht, auch in nachvolgende Ordnung
bringen lassen, Welch e alien Burgern vnd hausz genossen, all¬
hie durch jre Ha.ubtleuet, in deren Haubtmansohafften sie ge-
sessen, vberantwort Averden sollen, Damit sich niemandt ey-
nichs vnwissens zu entschuldigen haben koende.
Vnd erstlich, Als dise kranckheyt, ohne zweiffel ausz ver-
hengknusz Gottes, nit Avenig durch vergiiftung des luffts, Auch
dieselbig vergiiftung nit den geringsten teyl, ausz vbelm boe-
An Ordinance of the City of Nuremberg . 877
sem geschmack erwechst, So lest ein Erbar Rathe, alle jre
Burger vnd Jmvoner gantz getrewlich warnen vnd ermanen,
Das sie den Harm vnd ander vnsauberkeyt, so vil jmmer
mueglich, auff die gemeinen Gassen vnd strassen nit schuetten,
Sunder solchs alles in das Wasser ider Pegnitz oder Visch-
bachs tragen, oder sunst dermassen damit handeln lassen, da-
mits einem yeden selbs, vnd auch andern leuten, zu wenigsten
besehwerden gelange, sunderlieh aber darinn betrachten woel-
len, das der geschmack des Harms von krancken oder ver-
gifften personen, zu disem gebrechen, vor andern dingen, nit
wenig fuerderung gibt.
Znm Andern, So ist eins Erbern Paths ernstlicher beuelch
vnd maynung, Das eynicher Barbirer, Bader oder Wundt-
arzt alhie hinfuero, vnd so lang dise sterbleufft weren, gar
keyn gepluet, so von den menschen gelassen wirdet, weder bey
tag oder nacht, in die heimlich gemach noch auff die gemeynen
Gassen nider schuetten, lauften noch kummen lassen, Sunder
solch gepluet sol, alles on mittel, vnd nyendert anderst wohin,
dann allein in die Pegnitz oder Vischbach zu tragen vnd zu-
schuetten geschafft werden, bey peen von einer yeden vberfaren
fart, Zwey pfunt Hewer heller, vnnachleszlich zubezalen.
Zum Dritteii, Dieweyl auch von den Mysten so alhie in den
Gassen hin vnnd wider, etwas lang ligen bleyben, vil boez und
vbels geschmacks entspringt, der sunderlieh diser zeyt also
zugedulden, nit allein beschwerlich, Sunder auch geferlich vnd
nachteylig, So setzt ein Erber Rathe, im selben dise masz Das
eynicher Mvst lenger nit, dann zwen tag also aufP der Gassen
ligen bleiben, Sunder in solcher zeyt hinweek vnd hinausz go
fuert, J n sunderkevt aber gar kein Mist mitten inn die Gassen,
nider geschuett oder gelegt werden, Jm fall aber das solchs
durch vemant, wer der were, nit beschehen, vnd also verlast
wuerde, das derselbig Myst, alsdann zu sampt verwuerckung
der gestezten peen, einem Pfundt Houi, einem yeden preysz
vnd frev sein soil, den seines gefallens week zufueren.
Zum Vierdten, Auch sol man die Schwein vberal hie in
der Statt, in disen sterbsleufften, fuerderlich vnd jnnerhalb
878 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts , and Letters.
zehen tagen, nach verkuendigung dieser Ordnung, bey eins Er-
baren Raths straffe, aus der Stat thun, Dieweil derselbig Myst
Ynd gestanck sehr schedlich, vnnd dieser krancklieyt fuerder-
lich ist.
Zum Euenfften, Each deni dnrch ein Ordenlich gut Regi¬
ment, vnd vorgeende fuersebung nottuerfftiger Preseruatif
Tnd Ertzney, gar vil Menschen, wo sie sich dero gebrauchen,
vor diser kranckheyt errettet, vnd behalten werden moechten,
So hat ein Erber Rathe, alien jren verwandten zu gut, inn
alien Appotecken alhie, vil guter Ertzney vnd Euersehung, inn
disen leuefften nutzbar vnd erspriesslich, Desgleychen zu recht-
fertigung vnd reinigung des Luffts inn den Heusslichen wo-
nungen, etlich gut Pulver vnd Berauchung zumachen verordnet,
die einenl yeden, so deren nottuerfftig, Auch so yemandt mit
diser kranckheyt behafftet wuerd, fuer ein Remedium vnd Artz-
ney, vmb zymlichen werd sollen mitgeteylt werden, Welches
alles, ein yeder daselbst zu seiner notturfft suchen mag, damit
auch ein yedes welchs die kranckheyt begreyffen wuerde, keyns
wegs lang verziehen sol.
Zum Sechsten, Als auch bey einer solchen grossen menig
V olcks allhie, in disen sterbleufften, die vergifften md krancken
Personen, nit allemal vor den ges unden erkendt, vnd also zu
stundt abgesuendert werden moegen, darumb dann auch ein
vergifTter, vnd mit diser kranckheyt beladner Mensch, etwo
vil gesundte auch vergifften mag, vnd also darauss volgt, das
die grosse V ersamblungen der Menschen zu soldier Zeyt etwas
ferlich vnd sorgklich, So lest ein Erber Rathe, hiemit menig-
klich guter vnd getrewer Meynung warnen, Welcher sich mit
diser kranckheyt angriffen befindt, oder damit beladen gewest,
vnd widerumb zu gesundtheyt kummen, das dann derselbig
sich auffs wenigst ein Monat lang aller Kirchen, des Rathauss,
der Beder, auch anderer gemeinschafften vnd versamlungen
der Menschen enthalten, vnd andere vor nachteyl vnd beschwe-
rung verhueten soli.
Zum Sibenden, Damit auch solch vergifftung anderer per¬
sonen etlicher massen fuerkummen werden moeg, So hat ein
An Ordinance of the City of Nuremberg . 879
Erber Rathe das new gebawt Lasaret bey Sant Sebastian vor
der Stat gelegen, mit alter nottuerfftigen fuersehung zum besten
zurichten, darueber auch Yerwalter vnd andere personen, so
vil von noeten, verordnen lassen, den krancken personen, so
hienein kummen, oder gebracht werden, alle Geystliche vnd
Leybliche hander eychung, on eynichen jren kosten, nachteyl
oder schaden, mitzutheyln, Ynd 1st hierauff eins Raths gantz
Yetterliche vnd wolmeynende ermannng, das ein yeder Haus3-
vatter sich selbs erinnern, auch wol erwegen vnd bedencken
sol, auss was Christlichen guten vrsachen vnnd bewegungen,
dise des Lazarets verordnung ersitlich fuergenummen, zu was
nutz vnd gutem sie auch bishero bey gemeyner Burgerschafft
gereycht, vnd darumb, ob yemandt in seim Hauss mit diser
krauckheyt begriffen wirdt, solche krancke personen fuerderlich
in das hemelt Lazaret verschaffen woell, damit er vnd ander
sein Haussgesindt, davon nit auch vergifftet, vnd solchen
krancken personen dannocht auch nottuerf¥tiger wartung wider-
faren moege, wie dann ein Erber Rathe, inn solchem der-
massen verordnung vnd fuersehung gethan, das jrs versehens
niemandt an gepuerlicher hilff, guttem Rate, vnd anderer not-
turfft, so vil zu seel vnd leyb dienstlich, vnd mer Sdann einem,
bey disen leuflten, villeicht inn einem Hausz widerfaren mag,
eynicher mangel erscheynen, darfuer es ein yeder gewiszlich
halten, vnd daran kein zweyffel tragen soli.
Zum Achten, Hat ein Erber Rathe, nit fuer ein geringe fuer-
sehung bewoegen, die Kleyder, Pethgewandt, vnd anders, das
zu diser v erg iff ten vnd krancken Person gebrauch gedient, ohn
Mittel von stat zu thun, in bedacht, das zuuor durch solche
kleidung vnd andere gebreuchliche ding der krancken, die Ge-
sunden gar leychtlich vergifftet werden, vnd darumb fuer der
fuernemlichsten mittel vnd Remedien eines verordnet, ernstlich
gebietend vnd beuelhendt, das zu zeyten diser sterbleufft, vnd
bis sich dieselben zu besserung richten, kein Pethgewand, Kley-
dung, oder anders, darauff krancke personen gelegen seyen, das
sie auch gobraucht oder beruert haben, auff dem Sewmarckt
oder andern orten, keyns wegs, heymlich oder offentlich, ver-
880 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts , and Letters.
kaufft, sunder als bald von dannen an andere ende vnd ort
gethan, vnd in ander gesundter person gebreuch, nit mer be-
wendet werden. Desgleichen, das auch das Leynen dinglach 1
der krancken person, allhie inn der Sftlat an keinem ort ge-
wascben oder geseubert, Sunder soldi waschen vor der Stadt,,
vnd nyendert anderstwo, dann beyni auszflus der Pegniitz be-
schehen, mit demselben aber des Yischbachs aller ding inn
vnd ausserbalb der Stadt, gantz vnd gar versehont, vnnd der-
gleycben ainglach nicbts darinn gewaschen werden soil, bey
peen zeben' gulden Peiniseb vnnaebleszlicb zu bezalen, oder
aber wer es nit vermoecbt, mit dem Leyb zuuerpuessen, Dar-
nach wiss sich ein yetlicber zuricbten, sicb vnd die semen
vor ferligkeyt vnd scbaden zu bewaren, aucb vor soldier strad
zuuerbueten.
Zum Yeundten, Auff das aucb soldi yetztgemelt vergidten
der gesunden personen, desto statlicber verbuetet werden moeg,
So ist eins Erbern Paths getrewe ermanung, das ein yeder
Haussvatter alien seinen baussgenossen vnd zugewandten stat-
licli ansagen vnd befelben soil zu den krancken personen in
jre Heuser, nocb das Lazaretb nit zugeen, desgleycben aucb
nicht dabey zu sein, wann die Todten vergraben werden, Vnd
sunderlich, so acbt aucb ein Erber Rathe, das in Idisen sterbs-
leuefften, so vil Leut mit den Leychen pflegen zugeben, gar nicbt
nuetz oder gut, Sunder besser sein, das solcbs auffs engst ein-
gezogen, Desgleycben aucb das sicli die Handtwercker diser
zeit des Leycbtragens enthalten, vnd solcbs, biss sicbs etwo
wider zu besserung schicken wirdet, bey den darzu verord-
neten personen vnd Tragern bleyben lassen solten, durcb
welcbs alles als dann allentlialben vil ferligkeyt verhuetet wer¬
den mag.
Yber solcbs alles, So bat aucli ein Erber Pat, he mit dem hin-
ausstragen der krancken vnd verstorbenen Desgleycben aucb
mit bestellung etlicber Mann vnd AVeybs person, die zu der
krancken wartung, alibi e in der Statt zugebrauchen dienst
iDinglach vgl. dinglich, Bayerisches Worterbuch, vol. 1, p. 52L
Weisszeug. Grimm, Wb. II, 1175.
An Ordinance of the City of Nuremberg. 881
lich, auch sunst ander mer nuetzliche gute ordnung vnd fuer-
sehung bedacht. Derhalb sicli ein yeder, dem .soldier gestalt
etwas von no® ten, der krancken Treger ha lb, im Spital, vnnd
von wegen der war tong vnd Leichentreger bey den Kirch-
nern beder Pfarren, auch den vier geordenten dienern, so das
Wochenlich Allmusen, vmbzutragen pflegen, nottuerfftigs guts
bescheyds erholen mag, Guter zuuersicht, vermittelst Go€tt-
licher hilff (dem fuernemlich hierinn vertrawt, vnd in sein
Goettliche barmhertzigkeyt verhofft werden sol) disen vnlust
etlicher massen damit zuringern.
Decretum in Senatu den
26. Januarij. 1562.
A LAW AND ORDINANCE OF THE HONORABLE COUNCIL OF
NUREMBERG, RENEWED IN THE PRESENT TIME OF PESTI¬
LENCE, IN THE YEAR MDLXII.
Inasmuch as God Almighty, provoked in the highest degree
by manifold sinful and ever-increasing transgressions of His
law, shameful and enormous acts of sacrilege, blasphemies, de¬
baucheries, prostitutions, unjust offenses against the rights of
fellow citizens and other crimes of surpassing wickedness,
practiced almost daily by young and old without shame or re¬
straint, has been moved to allow His righteous wrath to de¬
scend upon us, to punish this sinful manner of life with the
rod of pestilence, and to visit war and famine upon the city,
the Honorable Council in a spirit of fatherly solicitude ear¬
nestly admonishes and enjoins all burghers, inhabitants and de¬
pendents to desist from such wickedness, and to turn with a
devout heart and humble prayer to God, in the confident hope
that His Omnipotence will be moved to pity, and, unmindful
of His great provocation, will mercifully stay His intended
wrath.
882 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters.
As, however, in addition, natural and timely means should
be sought for the control of this grievous disease, in order that
the affliction may be at once, to a degree at least, allayed and
anticipated, so far as human resources can accomplish it, tHe
Honorable Council has deemed the measures which it has
caused to be set forth in the following ordinance advisable and
necessary.- This order shall be made known to all burghers
and tenants^ in the city through the heads of the districts in
which they dwell, in order that no one may plead ignorance as
an excuse.
In the first place, since the pestilence, although doubtless a
visitation of God, is caused in great measure by pollution of
the air, and this pollution in no small degree by foul and of¬
fensive odors; the Honorable Council earnestly warns and ad¬
monishes each burgher and inhabitant, not to throw urine and
other refuse, as far as this is possible, upon the public streets
and highways, but to carry all such refuse to the Pegnitz2 3 or
the Vischbach, or to dispose of it in such a way that it may
cause least annoyance to himself and to others, and to be espe¬
cially mindful of the fact that the urine of diseased or infected
persons is, before all other causes, promotive of this disease.
In the second place, it is the earnest command and admoni¬
tion of the Honorable Council, that from now on, as long as
this time of mortality lasts, no barber, cupper or surgeon of
this city shall throw, pour or cause to be thrown any blood
drawn from human beings into the private closet or upon the
public streets, either by day or by night, but shall cause ail
such blood at once to be carried to, and emptied into the waters
of the Pegnitz or the Vischbach on pain of the irremissible
payment of two pounds of “Heuer Heller/7 8
In the third place, since from the manure which is allowed to
remain for a considerable time in various places on the streets,
foul and offensive odors arise, which at this time are not only
2 The Pegnitz flows through Nuremberg and divides at several points
into two distinct arms. The Vischbach is a tributary of the Pegnitz.
3 Two hundred forty heller made one pound.
An Ordinance of the City of Nuremberg . 883
annoying, but also dangerous and injurious, the Honorable
Council decrees that no manure be allowed to remain longer
than two days upon the streets, but that it shall be carried
away within this time, and especially that no manure be
thrown or deposited in the middle of the public streets. In
case that any person, whoever he may be, does not obey this
regulation, the manure together with the forfeited penalty,
one pound “Novi,” shall be the reward of any person who
shall be pleased to carry it away.
In the fourth place, all swine, wherever they may be within
the city, shall during this time of pestilence, from now on, and
within the ten days following the proclamation of this ordi¬
nance, be removed from the city on pain of punishment by the
Honorable Council, for the reason that the manure and offen¬
sive odor of these animals is highly injurious and promotive of
this disease.
In the fifth place, since through strict regulations and the
necessary preservatives and medicines many people, if they
use these, may be saved from this disease and preserved, the
Honorable Council has ordered for the benefit of the citizens
under its protection that there be provided in all dispensaries
much good medicine and preventives, useful and salutary in
these times; and furthermore to purify and rectify the air m
the houses some good powders and fumigants, which will be
sold at a moderate charge to all in need ; also for any one who
may he afflicted with the disease a sufficient remedy and medi¬
cine, all of which things any one may seek there as he needs
them, and that likewise everything that might overcome the
disease would not long be lacking.
In the sixth place, since with so great a number of people,
in these times of pestilence, the infected and diseased cannot
always be distinguished and at once separated from the healthy,
and therefore an infected and diseased person may infect
many that are healthy, and as from this follows that great con¬
gregations of people at this time are dangerous and unsafe,
the Honorable Council, in the best and most sincere intention,
884 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts , and Letters .
warns herewith that any one who feels himself attacked with
this disease, or has been infected with it and has recovered,
should avoid for at least a month all churches, the City Hall,
the baths, and other congregations and meetings of the people,
and protect others from affliction and injury.
In the seventh place, in order that such infection of other
persons may be in some degree prevented, the Honorable Coun¬
cil with the greatest forethought has equipped in the best man¬
ner possible the newly built hospital situated near St. Sebas¬
tian before the city. In addition, the Honorable Council has
given the necessary orders to the superintendent and other per¬
sons connected with the hospital to supply to the sick, who come
thither or are brought, all spiritual and physical assistance with¬
out charge, disadvantage or injury to them, and it is further¬
more the fatherly and well-meaning admonition of the Council
that every head of a family should bear in mind, weigh and
consider upon what good Christian grounds and motives this
hospital ordinance was in the first place established and what
benefit and advantage it has thus far given to the citizens, and
therefore when any one in his house be attacked with this dis¬
ease, that he should take such a sick person to the aforesaid
hospital, so that he and his family and servants might not
likewise be infected, and that such sick person may receive
moreover the necessary care, since the Honorable Council has
made an order and provision of such a kind through its
fault no one would lack due help, good advice and other neces¬
sities as much as is good for soul and body, and more than one
might obtain in these times in a private house. Of this every¬
body shoud be sure, and have no doubt of the wisdom of the
Council.
In the eighth place, the Honorable Council has deemed it
not an unimportant provision to remove at once from the city
the garments, bed clothing and other clothing which has been
used by the infected and sick persons, in consideration that
such clothing and other things used by the sick might easily in¬
fect the healthy, and therefore has decreed and urgently or-
An Ordinance of the City of Nuremberg. 885
dered as tlie best means and remedy in these times of pesti¬
lence, and until conditions improve, no bed clothing, garments
or other things upon which the sick have lain, or which they
have used and touched, shall by any means be sold secretly or
publicly on the Sewmarket or other places, but shall be put
.away and destroyed at once, and shall not be given to other
healthy persons for use. In the same way, the linen bed¬
clothing of the sick persons shall not be washed and cleaned
in the city in any place, but sucti washing shall be done outside
of the city, and nowhere else but in the outflowing current of
the Pegnitz. But the Vischbaeh within and without the city
shall not at all be used for this, and such linen shall not be
washed in it, on pain of the irremissible payment of ten gul¬
den “Rhenish,” and any one who should not be able to pay this
fine shall suffer bodily punishment. Let every one keep this
especially in mind, to preserve himself and his from danger,
and thus protect himself from such punishment,.
In the ninth place, in order to avoid such infection of healthy
persons all the more effectively, the Honorable Council admon¬
ishes earnestly that every head of a family shall emphatically
inform and order his family and tenants not' to go to sick
people in their houses or in the hospital, and likewise not to be
present when the dead are buried, and especially is it the opin¬
ion of the Honorable Council that it is in these times of mor¬
tality an entirely bad and useless custom that so many people
accompany the corpse, and that it were better to hold the fu¬
neral in the most simple manner ; also that the artisans should
refrain from carrying the bodies of the dead,4 but that this
should be done, until conditions improve, by the persons and
carriers appointed by the city for that purpose, through all of
which much danger might then be avoided everywhere.
In addition to this, the Honorable Council, aside from the
provisions made for the carrying away of the sick and the
_ _ j ■
4 This was the special privilege of certain guilds and no doubt they
were loath to give it up on account of the remuneration connected with
it. Poor Schiller, by the way, was escorted to the grave in this1 man¬
ner, by the shoemakers’ guild of Weimar in 1805.
886 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters .
dead and the appointment of certain men and women who are
especially fitted for the nursing of the sick to he employed
here in the city, has considered a great many other useful regu¬
lations and provisions. On that account, everyone who has in
this respect need of a man for carrying the sick, or of the serv¬
ice of the hospital, or of some one to nurse the sick or to carry
away the dead, may get the needed good information from the
sextons of both parishes, also from the four appointed officials
whose duty it is to distribute the weekly alms, in the confident
hope of mitigating therewith in some measure this terrible
affliction with the help of God, in whom above all we shall
trust and in whose divine mercy we place our hope.
Decreed in the Senate on this 26th day of January 1562.
THE ACADEMY: ITS PAST AND FUTURE.
J. J. DAVIS.
(Address of the Retiring President, Delivered February 8, 1906.)
The constitution of the Academy prescribes that the retiring
president shall give an address ; and this though he have no
message to deliver, no art of speech with which to please. And
yet, perfunctory though it he, it should he an easy task to ad¬
dress the Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts and Letters.
Lor, if one chooses to be cold and formal and precise, even tech¬
nical, science will justify him. Or, if he chooses to unfold the
wings of fancy or deck his arrow with more feathers than are
needed to direct its flight, surely art and letters will justify
him there. But do not fear; it is not my purpose to attempt
either of these courses, but rather to cast a brief backward
glance and peer for a moment into the dark-enveloped future.
The Academy might be said to have had its inception in a
letter written by Hon. John W. Hoyt and addressed to various
residents of Wisconsin who he thought might be interested in
the formation of such an organization. The replies were of
such a character as to lead him to circulate a call for a meeting
which was signed by many of the men who were making the
history of Wisconsin at that time. The meeting was held in
this city in February 1870, and the organization of the Wis¬
consin Academy of Sciences, Arts and Letters was effected.
The first meeting for the reading of papers was held the follow¬
ing July. The first paper published was “On the classification
of the sciences,” by Bev. A. O. Wright of Waterloo, whose
name appears frequently in the earlier Transactions as a con-
55 — S. & A.
888 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts , and Letters.
tributbr to the geology of Wisconsin. The second paper was
“On the importance of more attention to the preservation and
culture of the forest trees of Wisconsin,” by P. Engelmann of
Milwaukee. During the discussion of this paper, Mr. J. G.
Knapp of Madison stated that with the methods of lumbering
then in vogue the white pine forests of Michigan and Wiscon¬
sin would be destroyed in twenty-five years. And they were.
The third paper was “On the Coniferae of the Kocky
Mountain region and their adaptation to the soil and
climate of Wisconsin,” also by Pw Engelmann of Mil¬
waukee. As I read these papers, I fell to wondering what
would be the added wealth of Wisconsin had their admonitions
been heeded, and her magnificent coniferous forests were now
in existence yielding their yearly crops. And then I thought
of the wide prairies stretching away to the South and West
that were partitioned with fences made of pine boards and dot¬
ted with houses and barns and granaries, with villages and
towns, built of pine lumber from the North, made cheap by de¬
structive methods of lumbering. It was not the only time that
Wisconsin got the short end of the bargain.
But before attempting any review, however brief, of the
work accomplished by the Academy, it would seem desirable to
have some conception of its aims and objects. Let me then
state, as clearly and succinctly as I may, the ideas, as I appre¬
hend them, that were operative in the minds of those who
founded this Academy and those who have carried on its work.
Wisconsin is one of the major states of the Union, extending as
it does from the Great Lakes to the Great Kiver, from the pine
forests to the prairies, dotted and1 lined with lakes and rivers
that discharge their waters into two of the great drainage chan¬
nels of the North American continent, that of the St. Lawrence
and that of the Mississippi ; a state of much geological interest,
of mineral richness), covered with a varied and fertile soil, with
an abundant vegetation, teeming with many and diverse forms
of animal life, bearing upon its surface much evidence of pre¬
historic human habitation, and the present abiding place and
home of a composite and self-governing people. Now, it seems
Davis, — The Academy: Its Past and Future .
889
that the geology and the mineralogy, the botany, the zoology,
the anthropology, etc., of Wisconsin should be investigated, elu¬
cidated and made known. This seems to be a duty : a duty to
the state, a duty to the nation, a duty to science. But it can¬
not be done by legislative enactment nor altogether by official
commission, much as it may be aided by official investigation,
encouragement, assistance and direction ; but it must rather be
done, in large part, by the volunteer efforts of loyal sons and
daughters of Wisconsin working each in his or her more or
less restricted field. I take it to be one of the functions of
the Academy to find, encourage and assist those who have the
willingness and the ability to aid in this work as well as to bind
together the workers in the various fields. And, withal, Wis¬
consin should do its full share in the general upbuilding of
science and in the investigation of those phenomena that do
not vary locally but are the same the world around or the uni¬
verse through.
But knowing is not all ; there is something beyond, something
higher — -that wide sense of relationships, that fine sense of
harmonies that we may call feeling. At its best, this is based
upon knowings The shepherd, gazing upon the starry heavens,
feels, but the astronomer, looking upon the same objects, feels,
C take it, more widely, more deeply, more truly. He who
mows but does not feel may be a bad citizen ; he who feels but
does not know may be fully as dangerous ; he who both knows
md feels is the ideal citizen. The promotion, then, of know¬
ing and feeling, of knowledge and culture, of the sciences, the
arts and letters, is the work of the Academy — a work worthy of
its best endeavors and worthy as well of the earnest co-opera¬
tion of the state, as such, and of its individuals.
The papers presented to the Academy are submitted to a
publication committee, and those deemed worthy are printed
in its Transactions ; the test of worthiness being whether they
are actual, original contributions to knowledge. I have looked
over the Transactions and have attempted some classification of
these contributions. I do not vouch for the absolute accuracy
of the figures that I have obtained. It is doubtful if they are
S90 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts , and Letters .
accurate ; it is probable that they are not ; but they are at least
approximately correct, which is sufficient for my purpose. In
classifying these contributions, probably no two persons would
get exactly the same results,^ and I am quite sure that I should
not get the same results in successive attempts. I avoided this
difficulty very easily, however, by going over them but once. Re¬
membering the respect and interest with which man views his
kind, I first divided the papers into those relating to man and
those relating to the remainder of the universe. In the first
or humanistic class there are 130 papers, in the second or
naturalistic class, 155, or about 45 per cent and 55 per cent re¬
spectively. The humanistic class is quite heterogeneous, for in
it are included such diverse subjects as literature, art, social
and political science, engineering and anthropology. Social
and political science with 56 papers is the largest division in
this class or in either class. Man is so far a social being that
the inter-relations of individuals in the society and the state oc¬
cupy much of his attention. The next largest division of this
class is letters, with 39 papers. I must confess that I placed
some papers in this division because I did not know where else
to place them. I am glad that the writers will never
know what disposition I made of their contributions in
this classification. Hex t comes anthropology, with 25
papers. The papers in this division have characteristics of
both the humanistic and naturalistic classes and unite them.
In this respect, engineering, with eight papers, is a cognate di¬
vision. The remaining division of the humanistic class is art,
with two papers. In the naturalistic class, zoology is the
largest division by a bare plurality of one, its close competitor
being geology. In the earlier Transactions geology easily led,
but of late years zoology has been creeping up, until now it has
49 papers to 48 in geology. In making these counts, I was
struck by the irregular or remittent growth in the number of
papers in a given division Sometimes they would increase
rapidly, and then for a time remain almost stationary while
another division would take a spurt. On examination, these
periods of growth would usually be found to be due to the ac-
Davis — The Academy: Its Past and Future .
891
tivity of one or two members. I realized more than before
the impress which a single active and zealous worker can make
on the Transactions of a body like this. The next division in
the naturalistic class is botany, with 23 papers. Then follow
chemistry with 17, physics with nine, mathematics with six
and astronomy with three.
Let me recapitulate the relative proportions of all these di¬
visions, using percentages in whole numbers.
Per cent.
Mathematics .
Astronomy .
Physics . . .
Chemistry .
Geology .
Zoology .
Botany .
Anthropology .
Engineering . .......
Social and Political Science
Letters . . . .
Art . .
2
1
. 3
6
17
17
8
9
3
20
13
« 0.7
In the earlier years of my membership in the Academy, I
was distressed by the lack of relationship between the papers;
the absence of cohesion among them; of working plan or sys¬
tem. I now view with more equanimity the doing by each of
the work which he finds at his hand. The fare may indeed
be somewhat like that at the picnic when there is an over-abun¬
dance of cake and a scant supply of sandwiches, a superfluity of
pickles and a shortage of pie, but each article will at least be of
the best quality that the contributor can furnish. I feel, how¬
ever, no less keenly now than then the need of a systematic,
scientific study of our state, but look for the accomplishment
of that work to the Wisconsin Geological and Natural History
Survey, which I believe will be of much aid and honor to the
state and which should and doubtless will receive the contin¬
uous assistance and support of the Academy. It is not my pur¬
pose to attempt any critical review of the work which the Acad-
892 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts , and Letters.
emy has done. It would tax the powers of a much deeper and
better-rounded man than I am to appraise at their true value
all these papers, but I do know that they contain much of value
to be found nowhere else. The desire to make some mention
of those who have contributed most largely to the value of the
Transactions is a strong one, but many of them are still living,
some of them are here tonight, and I refrain.
So much for the past. Let us have done with it and face the
future. What science has done for us is an oft-told tale. How
it has increased the productiveness of the earth; how it has
added to our necessities, our comforts, our luxuries; how it
has abridged time and space; how it has made the physical
world smaller and the world of mind larger, I will not rehearse.
Suffice it here to say that in field or office or shop, on train or
ship, in health or sickness, in peace or war, scientific knowl¬
edge is becoming the condition of success, of progress, and in
the world-family the influence of a nation is proportionate to
the scientific knowledge possessed by its people. We sometimes
hear of man’s mastery of nature, of his dominance over nature.
I confess that I do not quite like the terms. A boy is said to
have mastered the multiplication table when he has learned the
products of the various numbers by each other, but no amount
of such mastery can change by one jot the product of any two
numbers. By no degree of mastery can he make the product
of 4 by 5 either more or less than 20. Neither can man dom¬
inate nature. It would be nearer the truth to say that he
learns how to be dominated by nature. And such knowledge
influences his almost every act. No address is quite complete
without a quotation, and so I ofier this from Emerson: “Nature
is vast and strong, but as soon as man knows himself as its in¬
terpreter, knows that nature and he are from one source and
that he when humble and obedient is nearer to the source, then
all things fly into place.”
But I am straying from my subject. The question is : How
can the Academy, how can Wisconsin keep pace? The scien¬
tific activity of the day is great, and much work is required to
keep abreast of it. To whom shall we look to do this work?
Davis — The Academy: Its Past and Future. 893
We think first of the teachers of science in our educational in¬
stitutions as being best fitted by capacity, education and facili¬
ties for research, and we think of them first also because in the
past they have done most of the best work. But teaching, if
well done, exhausts time and energy> and time and energy are
what are needed for research. We might say that the compe¬
tent researcher should be spared the exhaustion of teaching
and be allowed to give all his time to research. But that would
be a short-sighted policy, for it is necessary that a certain num¬
ber, at least, of the students should be taught research, and re¬
search can be taught successfully only by one who is himself
doing research. A compromise policy seems necessary: The
research-djoer and teacher to be spared elementary and didac¬
tic teaching and to take only those students who are ready, and
perhaps I ought to add, willing, to do research. I believe some
of our higher educational institutions are now following this
policy, and I think the Academy should encourage its spread.
And then there are the younger teachers, equipped with educa¬
tion, enthusiasm, energy and stamina ; with how much of hope
the Academy looks upon them !
Another class toward whom we may, I think, look hopefully
are the advanced and graduate students. Under the policy
just referred to, the capable and eager student, under the tute¬
lage of the wise researcher, may produce results of much value.
Some of these students will become teachers and producers;
some, I am sorry to say, will become teachers and non-produ¬
cers. Many will pass into business and professions where their
opportunities for scientific work will be curtailed but not lost.
To each, if he but will, is given opportunity to add in some
measure to scientific knowledge, and the collected results of
numerous minor observations are often greater than any one
person, whatever his labors or ability, could obtain. So also
observations through a series of years will bring results obtain¬
able in no other way. The old Scotch saying that “mony a
mickle makes a muckle” holds as well in science as elsewhere.
Uo well-informed and right-minded person considers his edu¬
cation completed while his powers remain. Well taught in-
894 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts , and Letters .
deed is he who leaves the college knowing how to educate him¬
self. Scientific observation and experiment have an educa¬
tional value that should commend them to those who have learn¬
ed that lesson and who can thus aid science while they improve
their powers. The influence of the study of nature upon char¬
acter I believe to be considerable. Contact with nature tends
to preserve the primal qualities that, characterize those of whom
it was said “of such are the kingdom of Heaven,” as well as to
preserve something of the physical freshness and buoyancy of
youth.
Research as a profession, aside from teaching, is as yet but
little known in Wisconsin ; but it will doubtless increase, and
no matter toward what economic ends it may be directed, it
will add new facts, open new fields, and contribute to the ad¬
vancement of science. We have all known, now and then, men
and women who had special aptitudes in certain departments
of science, but who were unable to use them for the advance¬
ment of science because of lack of education. We may well
believe that with the more general spread of education a larg¬
er number of those so gifted will be able to use their gifts in
the furtherance of science. The material development of our
state has been such as to bring, here and there, large fortunes,
and we see from time to time young men and! young women
coming upon the field of life for whom the necessities and lux¬
uries are provided for the present and the future. The at¬
tempts of many of the members of this class to adapt them¬
selves to their condition have been pitiful. To many such, the
work in which the Academy is engaged offers the opportunity
for a useful and happy life. Most of them have been sent to
college. May we not look to our institutions of higher educa¬
tion to give to some of these an enthusiasm, a purpose, that will
carry them across the calm and languorous seas of ease, not de¬
tained by the fair isles of luxury or driven from their course by
the storms of excitement, on and on to islands and archipelagoes
and perchance continents as yet uncharted on the map of hu¬
man knowledge ? Theodore Roosevelt is reported to have said
that he who does not need to devote his time and energies to the
Davis — The Academy: Its Past and Future . 895
support of his family should give them to the state. But not
necessarily, I take it, to statecraft. He who devotes them suc¬
cessfully to the furtherance of science, or of art, or of letters,
gives them to all states. There is much need here in Wisconsin
of investigation in physical and biological science. And then
there is social and political science. Human society is not
the only society, nor is it the oldest. From the older animal
societies we learn that social progress has come through differ¬
entiation of function, and that this has been followed by differ¬
entiation of structure. The development of our society, of our
state and nation, with its attendant complexities and differen¬
tiations, without sacrifice of those ideals of equality of oppor¬
tunity and liberty of action that are so dear to every Ameri¬
can, calls for the fullest exercise of the scientific spirit and the
scientific method. I
The contributions to letters that are found in the Transac¬
tions of the Acadiemy are mostly in the domain of history,
which in its methods of research and exposition is allied to
science, and in philosophy — that mental gymnasium where the
intellect strives and strains, and that strengthens a strong
mind but may cripple a weak one. That division of letters that
in its qualities of imagination and depiction is allied to art finds
little representation. I will not presume to attempt to fore¬
cast letters in the Academy. Were I to do so, I would parallel
to a considerable extent what I have been saying of science.
As to art, we can only say that Wisconsin is young; that it
is in the vegetative stage, laying up stores of nutriment and
energy that later will bring forth the flower. Might we carry
the comparison further, and say that as the blossom so often
comes but with the decline of vegetative activity, so art reaches
its fullest development but when the vigor of a civilization is
waning, and that it epitomizes the characteristics of that civil¬
ization and carries them on to succeeding civilizations? — The
foundations of the Acaldemy are laid wide and deep, and to
whoever builds worthily upon them cornea encouragement, sym¬
pathy, aid. The call is for workers in the sciences, in the arts,
in letters, that through their labors may come a greater human¬
ity.
896 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts , and Letters .
And some dream dreams ; dream of a time when man, hav¬
ing pierced the heavens with their massive spheres and titanie
forces, having wrested its secrets from the infinitesimal, having
searched long and diligently and patiently the dead and the
quick, having thought deeply and felt much, will come to a
knowledge of the Purpose and will touch the strands, yea, with
knowing fingers will feed the loom wherein the future is ever
being woven from the past.
JAMES DAVIE BUTLER
MEMORIAL ADDRESSES.
JAMES DAVIE BUTLER.
By the death of James Davie Butler, at his home in Mad¬
ison, on the twentieth of November 1905, the Academy lost
one of its earliest, and in some regards one of its most notable
members. Born in Rutland, Vermont, on the fifteenth of
March 1815, a scion of one of the oldest of New England
families,1 he passed hence at the ripe age of ninety years and
eight months, to the last displaying a vigorous interest in the
things for which this institution stands.
Prepared for college both at Rutland and at Wesleyan sem¬
inary, in Wilbraham, Massachusetts, he was graduated in 1836
from Middlebury (Vermont) college, as the salutatorian of
his class; his oration being on “The Poetical Merit of the
Iliad.”2 Young Butler — it is difficult for those of the present
generation to imagine our patriarchal friend as a youth — then
studied for a year at Yale Theological seminary, tutored for
five terms at Middlebury, and in 1840 completed his theologi¬
cal studies at Andover, where his commencement oration was
on “Chrysostom as a Preacher.”3 After two years as an Ab¬
bott resident — an early sort of fellowship at Andover — Butler
1 See Butler’s “Butleriana, genealogica et biographica; or Genealogi¬
cal Notes concerning Mary Butler and her Descendants,” etc. (Albany,
N. Y., 1888.) Mary Butler was living in Boston in 1635. The author’s
autobiography is on pp. 56-61.
2 Published in the American Quarterly Register, February 1837, pp.
235-237.
3 Published as “Life of John Chrysostom” in Bibliotheca Sacra, vol. 1,
pp. 669-702.
,898 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters .
accompanied Prof. Edwards A. Park of that institution upon
a prolonged European tour, then somewhat of a novel under¬
taking for Americans, involving many hardships as well as a
considerable expenditure of time.
The travelers left New York during the last week of June
1842, in a sailing packet for Hamburg, where they arrived
■early in August after an ocean voyage of forty-seven days. To¬
gether they made a leisurely survey of Germany ; but then sep¬
arated, “in order to be forced to speak German altogether.”
Butler continued his journey through Austria, Italy, Switzer¬
land and France — being for several months in residence as a
.student at the University of Jena — and then went to England
;and Scotland, reaching America towards the close of 1843.
While abroad, he corresponded for the New York Observer ,
and after returning delivered in or near New England several
hundred popular lectures upon his extended travels.
He was soon engaged as supply in Congregational pulpits,
first at West Newbury, Massachusetts, and next at Burlington,
Vermont; but after six months in each parish became a pro¬
fessor and acting president at Norwich (Vermont) university.
Holding this chair for but two years, during which he frequent¬
ly supplied pulpits, he returned definitely to the ministry (Oc¬
tober 1847), being successively pastor of Congregational parish¬
es in the Vermont town of Wells Biver and the Massachusetts
town of South Danvers (now Peabody) ; and then taking a sud¬
den move westward to assume charge (November 18, 1852) of
the First Congregational church in Cincinnati. In January
1855 we find him professor of Greek in Wabash college, at
Orawfordsville, Indiana ; and at the close of the college year in
1858 accepting a call to the then starveling University of Wis¬
consin, as professor of ancient languages and literature. It
was not long before the people of Madison — in those days a
rustic town of six thousand souls — began to recognize the abili¬
ties of the stranger, then in his forty-fourth year, as is evident
from an item in the Wisconsin State Journal for the second of
December : “Prof. Butler, who has recently become connected
with the State University, is an eloquent and brilliant lecturer,
Memorial Address — James Davie Butler .
899-
possessing a sharp wit, and a graphic power of description,”
For nearly forty-seven years thereafter his voice was probably
more often heard in this community, on platform and in pulpit,,
than that of any other of its citizens. In 1862, his alma mater
conferred upon him the honorary degree of LL. D., and there¬
after our friend was universally known by his well-deserved
title.
In the reorganization of the University in 1867, incident to
the coming of President Chadbourne,4 Dr. Butler withdrew
from its service, never returning to the professorial career.
Freedom from teaching cares was at once taken advantage of
by a trip to Europe, this time through Denmark, Bussia, Tur¬
key, Greece, Palestine, Egypt, Sicily, Spain, Holland and Bel-
gium, besides countries in which he had formerly toured. Fol¬
lowing his home-coming, in the autumn of 1868, after an ab¬
sence of fifteen months, our now well-seasoned traveler spent
the winter in a lecture tour, crossed the American continent by
the newly-opened railroad to the Pacific (May 1869), visited
numerous western military posts, and penetrated into the then
almost inaccessible Yosemite — where, when lost on Mount Bro¬
derick, he was rescued by John Muir, the celebrated natural¬
ist, who had been his pupil at Madison. This adventure con¬
cluded, he took passage in a sailing sloop to the Hawaiian is¬
lands.
For somewhat over four years thereafter, he was in the em¬
ploy of the land department of the Burlington & Missouri
Piver Pailroad company, then pushing westward from Bur¬
lington far in advance of settlement. His services consisted
in editing various booklets designed to encourage immigration,,
publications appearing in many forms and in numerous lan¬
guages and circulating by the millions. While engaged in
gathering material for this purpose, our peripatetic friend
journeyed extensively through the trans-Missouri country ,,
with which he became so familiar that in later days he was en¬
abled to review Coues’ reprint of Biddle’s “Lewis and Clark”
from the point of view of a geographical expert.
4 See Thwaites, “History of the University of Wisconsin” (Madison,
1900), p. 90.
900 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters.
In 1878 and 1884, he was again in Europe, in each pro¬
tracted journey being accompanied by one of his two daughters.
In 1883, he entered Portland by the first Northern Pacific
train. During this period and thereafter, Dr. Butler was al¬
most annually upon some interesting and usually prolonged
tour — to Mexico, Cuba, Canada and other outlying Ameri¬
can lands, and in the course of his several trips intimately vis¬
ited each of the United States. In his seventy-sixth year, the
indefatigable savant, the Wanderlust still strongly possessing
him, rounded out his long career of studious travel by journey¬
ing alone around the globe. Leaving home in July 1890, he
visited Japan, China and India, in each of which he tarried
long, and through the portal of the Suez Canal revisited his be¬
loved Europe, this time venturing as far as North Cape. He
reached Madison in September 1891, after a variety of quite
unusual experiences, which furnished him with a large fund
of aneodlote and lecture material through the fourteen happy
years that still lay before him.
On the twenty-first of April 1845, while teaching at Nor¬
wich, Professor Butler married Anna, daughter of Joshua
Bates, for many years president of his alma mater, Middlebury
college. Their family life was ideal. Mrs. Butler, a woman
of great strength and originality of character, died at Madison
in 1892, leaving four children, who survive their father:
James D., Henry S., and Miss Anna Butler of Superior, and
Mrs. Benjamin W. Snow of Madison.
Following the career of a scholar, Professor Butler practi¬
cally took no part in public affairs ; but he was an active mem¬
ber of several learned societies, before whose meetings he fre¬
quently appeared and to whose publications he regularly con¬
tributed. The American Antiquarian society early claimed
him (1854) as an associate; he belonged also to the New Eng¬
land Historic Genealogical society, and was a corresponding
member of the Massachusetts Historical society; from 1867
until 1900, he served as a curator of the Wisconsin Historical
society, and during the last decade of that term as one of its
vice-presidents ; he was one of the oldest members of this Acad-
Memorial Address — James Davie Butler . 901
emy, also one of the founders of the Madison Literary club,
and for both prepared a long line of notable papers.
As a lecturer, he entertained and instructed two generations
of men. His range covered a singularly wide variety of sub¬
jects in literature, art, history, antiquities, numismatics, classi¬
cal study, philology, travel, pedagogics, religion and philosophy.
Among his favorite travel topics were: “The Architecture of
St. Peters/7 “The Ceremonies of Holy Week/7 “Naples and
its Neighborhood/7 “Visits to Pompeii/7 “Alpine Hambies/7
“Provincial German Life77 and “European Peculiarities.77
The most notable and often-repeated of his early published
addresses were: “Commonplace Books: Why and How
Kept/7 “Incentives to Mental Culture among Teachers77 and
“How Dead Languages make Live Men.77 His many addresses
at historical celebrations — as at the Rutland (Vermont) cen¬
tennial in 1870, and at the Marietta (Ohio) centenary in
1888, on which latter occasion he was Wisconsin’s representa¬
tive — were vigorous and suggestive. His two addresses before
the Vermont Historical society, in 1846 (“Deficiencies in our
History77) and 1848 (“The Battle of Bennington77) were the
first publications of that body. Space is lacking to cite all of
his papers, for his interests were many and his pen busy; but
it is proper to mention especially his monographic study on
“The Portraits of Columbus77 (1882), claimed to be the first
English treatise on that subject, his “Prehistoric Wisconsin77
(1876), and his “Once Used Words in Shakespeare77 (1886),
as specimen chips from his kaleidoscopic workshop.5
During his long career of literary activity, Dr. Butler was
the author of but one book — the genealogy of his family, al¬
ready cited6. His most important publications usually
5 For a more detailed record, see the accompanying bibliography.
The library of the Wisconsin Historical society possesses two volumes,
backed Butleriana, into which have been bound practically a complete
collection, arranged by himself, of Dr. Butler’s published writings,
illustrated by several family portraits and photographs of his home
library.
« See ante, p. 897, note 1.
902 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters .
took the form of individual pamphlets, and of separates from
the transactions of learned societies. He also issued scores of
leaflets hearing upon special occasions; many of these were
poems of much merit — for although without pretense in this
art, he was nevertheless a facile and clever versifier. He wrote
much for Lippincotfs Magazine, Bihliotfieqa Sacra, the Maga-
zine of American History and the American Historical Re¬
view. To the London Notes and Queries, an antiquaiian jour¬
nal quite after his own heart, he in some years contributed
more frequently than any other correspondent. From the
founding of the Hew York Nation (1865) until shortly before
his death he was a constant and much valued contributor, and
for that journal reviewed many important books, especially in
the fields of western history and of world travel; his articles
appearing in its columns numbered! over two hundred. Dr.
Butler’s somewhat peculiar form of literary expression has been
aptly characterized in an appreciative editorial in the Nation:
“His saturation with the language of Scripture, of Shake¬
speare and of the Greek authors oozed up in his writings, giv¬
ing a characteristic quaintness to his style; sometimes, no
doubt, too redundantly.”7
His contributions were frequently seen, either originally or
reproduced, in the columns of the Madison press. This fact,
added to a well-grounded reputation for general scholarship, as
well as for the possession of a surprisingly varied fund of un¬
usual knowledge — a reputation that grew with his advancing
years — resulted in Dr. Butler’s name being probably more of¬
ten mentioned by all classes of our people than that of any
other of our local celebrities. i
Although retiring from the pulpit over a half-century before
his death, he was until a few years ago in frequent demand
throughout the Horthwest as a supply preacher, almost annual¬
ly served as chaplain at university commencements and other
public occasions in Madison, and was a legislative chaplain up
to his ninetieth birthday. Upon the afternoon of that anniver¬
sary, the members of the state senate of Wisconsin honored
i Nation, November SO, 190o, pp. 438, 439.
Memorial Address — James Davie Butler .
903
him with a tribute of roses and formally called upon him at his
home, where, amid a concourse of friends and with a vigor ap¬
parently good for several years to come, he was holding his cus¬
tomary birthday reception.
Small and wiry of frame, Dr. Butler was gifted with un¬
usual vitality, having sprung from a healthful and long-lived
ancestry. This inherited tendency he still further cultivated
by rigid and persistent physical training, and throughout the
course of his travels won much repute as a, pedestrian and swim¬
mer. His manner was genial and democratic ; he had a quaint
and often merry wit, tempered by shrewd wisdom ; his conver¬
sation, essays and lectures sparkled with apt quotations from
Shakespeare, Milton, Dante and the classic philosophers — for
he had a marvelous memory, which he was fond of exercising
— and his rich equipment of curious information never failed
to interest his companions.
A man of such charming disposition, with an unending fund
of material for cultivated conversation, could not fail to attract
friends. His extensive travels and his varied tastes threw him
into intimate association with men and women of many nation¬
alities. It was one of his keenest pleasures to conduct with
them a protracted and animated correspondence ; and so ubiqui¬
tous were his movements, that during at least a half-century of
3 .is life each of his frier ds, whether in America or abroad,
might well expect Dr. Butler to knock at their doors and be
welcomed any day in the year.
It was, however, in the library of the Wisconsin Historical
society that his presence was most actively felt. Morning
after morning, through each long winter season — at was chiefly
in the summer that he was a bird of passage — he might be seen
nestled in some alcove, beside a table piled high with books,
cheerfully oblivious to the world about him. Such was his
practice up to the last summer of his life, when through in¬
creasing feebleness his visits gradually grew less frequent, and
we saw his light gently fade from our midst, as a candle sink¬
ing low into its socket.
Ho library assistant so gifted with prophecy as to foretell
what line of authorities he might on his arrival be seeking.
56— S. & A.
904 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts , and Letters .
One morning, possibly a vexed text in Shakespeare absorbed
bis interest ; another, a stray scrap of American history ; a gen¬
ealogical puzzle, next day, or mayhap a bit of English folk-lore,
or the significance of a Cornish place-name; perhaps a curious
Yorkshire custom in the days of Queen Bess; the genesis of a
Hebrew proverb ; a new theory as to the central chamber of the
Great Pyramid; an archaeological “find” just reported by
cable from Delphi; an inquiry into the composition of Raph¬
ael’ s pigments ; the higher criticism of the Bible ; the latest cen¬
sus bulletins on race amalgamation in America ; or a new-found
portrait of Columbus. Yesterday, he was perhaps reviewing for
the Nation a globe-trotter’s log-book; today, he has been crit¬
icising for that journal a new edition of Lewis and Clark’s
tour across the continent, and revealing the fact that he is fa¬
miliar with almost every river bendi upon their route; tomor¬
row^ he may be discussing in its columns the antiquity of chain¬
ed libraries, the origin of slang, or the meaning of a debated
line in Dante or Horace. Perhaps a stranger wandered into
the library with an old coin whose history he would have un¬
raveled ; our savant would turn with alacrity from his research¬
es far afield and good-naturedly spend an hour with the inquir¬
er, giving him what he sought, for make-weight throwing in a
quaintly-phased homily on the science of numismatics, that
broadened the visitor’s mental horizon. And herein we have
two of the chief est characteristics of our revered friend:
breadth of scholastic taste, and winsome courtesy.
Dr. Butler’s literary output was not so large as might be ex¬
pected from one persistently leading a scholar’s life, and who
for probably forty years seemed quite undisturbed by a con¬
cern for material cares ; and that output was rather suggestive
than creative, seldom rising above the level of the review arti¬
cle, the club paper, or the minor monograph. This was disap¬
pointing to his friends, who continually were expecting more
important and lasting products from his ever busy workshop.
But he seemed deliberately to have set out in life determined
not to be a specialist ; to wear for himself no ruts in which to
live and move ; to maintain only a philosopher’s interest in the
Memorial Address — James Davie Butler.
905
best that travel, art, literature, the humanities, bring to man;
to reap and serenely to enjoy the fruits, so far as one mind
may, of universal knowledge. Looking only tio his personal
happiness, probably he chose his course wisely; but in our
strenuous American life, this serenity is at least unusual — in
the environment of an older civilization, doubtless it would have
awakened no surprise. Certain it is, that in our university
town the mere presence of this gentle scholar — eager always to
drink of the fount of learning, an “intellectual” of the purest
type — has for well nigh a half-century been in many ways a
joyous inspiration to us all.
He reminded one of a bee flitting from flower to flower of
differing species, resting here and there, briefly or at length as
fancy dictated, but from each blossom gathering some measure
of honey for his store. As for his uniform kindliness of tem¬
per, his fair, frank estimate of men and things, they charmed
every one. To our “grand old man” age brought no narrow¬
ness of view, no tendency to cynicism, no crabbedness of soul;
to the last he was mellow, open-hearted, joyfully responsive to
the best impulses of his day. He lived and died a Christian,
his every fibre imbued with an unquestioning childlike faith.
He has left to us a fragrant memory that will long endure.
Reuben Gold Thwaites.
906 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts , and Letters.
List of Writings by James Davie Butler, LL.D.
[This does not include articles in newspapers, of which he wrote hun¬
dreds — over two hundred for The Nation alone. In the preparation of
this list, the writer has had the cooperation of Mr. Isaac S. Bradley of
the Wisconsin Historical library.]
Homer. Poetical merit of the Iliad. [Commencement oration at Middle-
bury college, 1836].
American Quarterly Register , vol. 9, pp. 235-237. 1837.
Life of John Chrysostom.
Bibliotheca Sacra , vol. 1, pp. 669-702. 1844.
Deficiencies in our history. An address delivered before the Vermont
Historical and Antiquarian society, at Montpelier, October 16, 1846.
Montpelier, 1846. 36 p. O.
The Butler family.
New England Historical and Genealogical Register , vol. 1, pp. 167-170. 1847.
Sermon at Norwich, Vermont, February 22, 1848, during the obsequies
of Truman B. Ransom, colonel of the ninth regiment. Hanover,
[1848]. 20 p. O.
Discourses at Norwich, Vermont, during the obsequies of Truman B .
Ransom, colonel of the New-England regiment, February twenty-
second, 1848. I. A sermon by Rev. James Davie Butler. II. A
eulogy, by General Frederick W. Hopkins. Hanover and Windsor,
1848. 32 p. O.
Same , reprinted by Norwich University Alumni association, 1905 . 31 p. O.
An address delivered in the representatives’ hall, in Montpelier, October
20, 1848 [on the battle of Bennington]. Published by order of the
legislature. Burlington, 1849. 40 p. O.
Addresses on the battle of Bennington, and the life and services of Col.
Seth Warner; delivered before the legislature of Vermont, in
Montpelier, October 20, 1848, by James Davie Butler and George
Frederick Houghton. Published by order of the legislature. Bur'
lington, 1849. 99 p. O.
Dr. Butler’s address covers pp. 5-40.
Memorial Address — James Davie Butler .
907
A descriptive guide to the Connecticut and Passumpsic Rivers railroad,
and White mountains, with notices of the region adjoining. Also,
route from the White mountains to Lake Champlain and Saratoga
springs. Newbury, Vt., [1849]. 12 p. Fe.
Remarks at the dinner of the semi-centennial celebration of Middlebury
college, Vermont, August 1850. 8 p. O.
From Proceedings semi-centennial celebration of Middlebury college , 1850, pp.
125-131.
Farewell discourse delivered before the Second Congregational church
and society in Danvers, Mass., July 18, 1852. Salem, 1852.
23 p. O.
Incentives to mental culture among teachers. Boston, 1853. 33 p. D.
The characteristics of a college. Extracts from the address of Prof. J. D.
Butler, of Wabash college, before the State Teachers’ association.
In Indiana School Journal , Indianapolis, vol. 3, pp. 41-45. 1858.
Armsmear: the home, the arm, and the armory of Samuel Colt. A me¬
morial. New York, 1866. 399 p. Q.
Chapters on the Colt revolver, the armory, and the submarine battery, mostly con¬
tributed by Dr. Butler.
Scenes in the life of Christ, and the Catholic hierarchy of the United
States. Chicago, [1866]. 12 p. O.
Descriptive of three engravings. Same, in German, Chicago, 1866. 16 p. T.
Ibrahim of Stamboul.
Riverside Magazine , vol. 2, pp. 332-334. 1868. : >’3
Syrian Sabbath-schools. My visit to Hasbeyeh.
In The Sunday School Scholar , Chicago, May 1870, pp. 65-67. O.
Addresses at the centennial celebration of the settlement of Rutland, Vt.,
October 5, 1870.
Centennial celebration of the settlement of Rutland , Vt.. Rutland, 1870, pp. 46-69,
89-93.
Greater Britain. [A review of Dilke’s Greater Britain.]
In Lakeside Reviewer , March 1872, pp. 248-250.
Nebraska. Its characteristics and prospects, n. p. 1873. 40 p. O.
The naming of America. Madison, 1874. 19 p. O.
From Transactions Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts and Letters , vol. 2, pp.
203-219. 1873-74.
Poematia. Blood drops, birthday lines, and other verses of society.
Madison, 1874. 18 p. O.
908 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts, and Letters .
Catalogue of coins and medals, ancient and modern, from the collection
of James L. Hill. Madison, 1874. 18 p. O.
How dead languages make live men. A defense of classical studies.
A paper read before the National Educational association, at
Detroit, August, 1874. Worcester, Mass., 1874. 20 p. O.
Reprinted from Proceedings National Educational Association , 1874, pp. 187-204.
General Stark’s horse lost at Bennington. Remarks at a meeting of the
New England Historic Genealogical society, June 7, 1876.
New England Hist, and Oen. Register , vol. 30, pp. 366-367. 1876.
Historical sketch of the State Historical society of Wisconsin.
In Historical Sketch of Education in Wisconsin , 1876, pp. 113-117.
Pre-historic Wisconsin. Annual address before the Wisconsin State His¬
torical society in the assembly chamber, February 18, 1876. 22 p. O.
From Wisconsin Historical Collections , vol. 7, pp. 80-101. 1876.
Westphalia medal, 1648. Report on a Holland medal found in Buffalo
county, Wisconsin.
Ibid , vol. 7, pp. 102-110. 1876.
Copper tools found in the state of Wisconsin.
Transactions Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts and Letters , vol. 3, pp. 99-104 .
1875-76.
Governmental patronage of knowledge.
Bibliotheca Sacra , vol. 34, pp. 88-138. 1877.
A September scamper. Nebraska after three years absence,
n. p. [1877.] 32 p. D.
The copper age in Wisconsin.
Proceedings American Antiquarian Society , April 25, 1877, pp. 57-63.
The uses of refuse; let the tramps be marching on.
Transactions Wisconsin State Agricultural Society, vol. 16, pp. 369-372. 1877-78.
American pre-revolutionary bibliography. Andover, 1879. 33 p. O.
From Bibliotheca Sacra, vol. 36, pp. 72-104. 1879.
Early historic relics of the Northwest.
Wisconsin Historical Collections, vol. 8, pp. 195-206. 1879, vol. 9, pp. 97-129.
Cheap fuel for the prairies. The Mennonite grass burner; or, The prairie
pioneer’s pet. [1879.] 8 p. O.
The hapax legomena in Shakespeare. 14 p. O.
From Transactions Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts and Letters, y ol. 5, pp
161-174. 1877-81. Also in LippincotVs Magazine, vol. 26, pp. 742-747. 1880.
Memorial Address — James Davie Butler.
909
First French foot-prints beyond the lakes; or, What brought the French
so early into the Northwest. 56 p. O.
From Transactions Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts and Letters, vol. 5, pp.
85-145. 1877-81.
Aboriginal use of copper in war and peace.
American Antiquarian , vol. 3, pp. 33-35. 1880-81.
Shakespeare among the Indians, early in the history of the West.
Ibid., pp. 101-104.
French foot-prints in northwestern Wisconsin.
Ibid , pp. 244-246.
Letter to the inhabitants of Rutland county, Vt. Read at the centennial
celebration, March 4, 1881.
Rutland County Historical Society Publications, vol. 1, pp. 61-68. 1882.
Address at the Barron county [Wis.] fair.
Transactions Wisconsin State Agricultural Society, vol. 50, pp. 421-434. 1881-82.
Mediaeval German schools.
Bibliotheca Sacra, vol. 39, pp. 401-417. 1882.
Address on the life and character of Hon. C. C. Washburn, LL. D.
Memorial addresses on the life and character of Hon. C. C. Washburn, before the
State Historical Society, i882, pp. 32-36.
Portraits of Columbus. A monograph. Madison, 1883. 23 p. O.j
From Wisconsin Historical Collections, vol. 9, pp. 76-96. 1882.
Portraits of Columbus.
LippincotVs Magazine, v ol. 31, pp. 264-270. 1883. O.
The school life of Walafried Strabo. Translated by Prof. J. D. Butler.
Bibliotheca Sacra, vol. 40, pp. 152-172. 1883.
Commonplace books; why and how kept. 1887. 48 p. O.
Also in Bibliotheca Sacra, vol. 41, pp. 478-505. 1884.
The once-used words in Shakespeare. Read before the New York Shakes¬
peare society, April 22, 1886. New York, 1886,. 31 p. D.
Portraits of Columbus in Havana.
American Antiquarian, vol. 9, pp. 354-356. 1887.
Our revolutionary thunder.
Magazine of American History, vol. 18, pp. 203-205. 1887.
Alexander Mitchell, the financier. Address delivered before the State
Historical society of Wisconsin, January 5, 1888. 24 p. O.
From Proceedings of thirty- fifth annual meeting of the society, 1888; also, in
abridged form, in Wisconsin Historical Collections, vol, 11, pp. 435-450. 1888.
910 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters.
Butleriana, genealogica et biographica; or, Genealogical notes concerning
Mary Butler and her descendants, as well as the Bates, Harris,
Sigourney, and other families, with which they have intermarried.
Albany, 1888. 162 p. O.
French fortifications near the mouth of the Wisconsin.
Wisconsin Historical Collections , vol . 10, pp. 54-63. 1888.
Tay-cho-pe-rah; the four lake country. First white foot- prints there.
Tbid., pp. 64-89.
The French two-barred cross.
American Antiquarian, vol. 10, pp. 44-45. 1888.
Wisconsin at the Marietta centennial. Address at Marietta, Ohio, July
16, 1888. 14 p. O.
From Report of Commissioners of National Centennial Celebration, 1S88.
In the beginning. [Address at the annual banquet of the Wisconsin
Alumni association, 1889.] 4 p. O.
An early decade of Wisconsin university. 8 p. O.
From The Badger, 1890. Madison, 1889. pp. 81-89.
A day at Delphi.
la Report Archaeological Institute of America , Wisconsin society, Madison, 1890,
pp. 10-14.
William Francis Allen. Portrait. 1890. 3 p. O.
From Transactions Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts and Letters , vol. 8,
pp. 439-441. 1888-91.
Daniel Steele Durrie. Memorial sketch.
Proceedings Wisconsin Historical Society, 1892, pp. 73-81.
Light on Etruscan darkness.
American Antiquarian, vol. 14, pp. 106-107. 1892.
The Gill lineage.
From New England Hist, and Oen. Register , vol. 46, pp. 212-215. 1892. 3 p. O.
Address at the third annual banquet of the trustees of the Missouri Botan¬
ical garden [on the memory of Henry Shaw] . 7 p. O.
From Fourth Annual Report of Missouri Botanical Garden, pp. 37-43. 1893.
Pre-historic pottery — middle Mississippi valley.
Proceedings Wisconsin Historical Society, 1893, pp. 70-73.
Early shipping on Lake Superior. 12 p. O.
From Proceedings Wisconsin Historical Society , 1894, pp. 85-96.
The new found journal of Charles Floyd, a sergeant under captains Lewis
and Clark. Worcester, Mass., 1894. 30 p. O.
From Proceedings American Antiquarian Society, April 25, 1894.
Memorial Address — James Davie Butler .
911
Phases of witticism.
Transactions Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts and Letters , vol. 10, pp. 41-60.
1894-95.
British convicts shipped to American colonies. 1896. 33 p. O.
From American Historical Review , vol. 2, pp. 12-33. 1896.
George P. Delaplaine and Simeon Mills. Memorial sketches.
Transactions Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts and Letters , vol. 11, pp. 523-
526. 1896-97.
Codfish: its place in American history.
Id ., vol. 11, pp. 261-273. 1896-97.
Dante, his quotations and his originality: the greatest imitator and the
greatest original.
Id., vol. 11, pp. 149-164. 1896-97.
Father Samuel Mazzuchelli.
Wisconsin Historical Collections , vol. 14, pp. 155-161. 1898.
Household words; their etymology.
Transactions Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts and Letters , vol. 13, pp.366-
383. 1900-01.
Memorial prayer at the Madison obsequies [of President McKinley], Sep¬
tember 19, 1901.
Personal names: their significance and historical origin.
Transactions Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts and Letters , vol. 13, pp. 475-
485. 1902.
Brewster autograph in Wisconsin. Worcester, Mass., 1902. 6 p. O.
From Proceedings American Antiquarian Society , vol. 15, pp. 103-106. 1902.
The vocabulary of Shakespeare.
Transactions Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts and Letters, vol. 14, pp. 40-
55. 1903.
Our club’s characteristics. [Read before the Madison Literary club at its
25th anniversary, 1903.] 7 p. D.
Response to the birthday greeting of the Wisconsin senate, March 15>
1905. 12 p. D.
‘912 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts, and Letters.
DAVID BOWER FRAUKEHBURGER
Ho member of the faculty ever had a larger acquaintance
.among the student body than had Professor Erankenburger,
and no member of the faculty was ever better liked. And no
member of the faculty was ever more overworked, or ever vol¬
untarily assumed the tasks that he did.
The lot of the instructional force in public speaking is far
easier in these degenerate days than it was when forensic ora¬
tory flourished with a vigor that was almost violence ; when the
joint debater was a bigger hero than the football man now;
when even each sophomore semi-public of the four literary so¬
cieties in turn could draw audiences of eight hundred — more
than the joint debates do now; when twice in each of the three
terms ,in a year the best senior and junior orator, the best
sophomore essayist and the best freshman declaimer
.appeared before the assembled University. Assembly hall
(that is what the miscalled Library hall was called
for years after its erection and ought to be called
now, unless some man is to be commemorated in its title) was
ever resounding to glowing periods of practicing debaters and
orators, and Professor Erankenburger was there working with
them, throwing himself into the thought of their production,
amplifying it, interpreting it, supplying the appropriate gest¬
ure. Then our semi-publics alone made a force of thirty-two
men to be given rehearsals, and each got at least two.
Sixty-four rehearsals there, anyway, and the debaters usually
got three or four. And before these rehearsals, the written mat¬
ter had been gone over with the writer himself, and gone over
again when the corrections had been incorporated. Hight after
night, along toward eleven or twelve, the owls of the student
body would see a light in Assembly hall, hear a cavernous voice
reverberating through its emptiness. A rehearsal, and Profes¬
sor Frankenburger there to hear it.
In the morning, he heard his full complement of classes; in
the afternoon, he heard essays read, which he took home and
DAVID BOWER FRANKENBURGER
Memorial Address — David Bower Franlcenburger. 913
corrected. Dreary things, those essays. Then there was the
college paper to supervise, and the annual. This meant seeing
the editors and talking with them constantly, over and above
the task of correction. As the most courtly man on the faculty
— I believe his colleagues will all concede this- — he was in con¬
stant requisition as master of ceremonies. All social functions
of the University, as such, were under his supervision. He
presided at the debates, arranged the commencement exercises
and supervised them. And we must not forget the correcting of
some twenty commencement day orations, and the drilling of
the speakers, and the correcting of the class-day literary pro¬
ductions and the drilling of the performers. And on top of all
this, literary people in town were always asking the professor
to correct and criticise their manuscripts, and he was always
doing it. ;
We students used to wonder how he could do it all. We
used to say it was a shame that one man should work so hard,
should give the best in him so willingly and unselfishly. It
was something we often talked about. And as we ceased to be
students and talked as men, and as other people gradually real¬
ized what a burden he was carrying uncomplainingly, cheerful¬
ly — with never other than a smile and a gracious word, never
out of temper after a late night with a stuffy oration in dim
Assembly hall, always the same courtly gentleman of the old
school — some of the burden was lifted from him. He was given
assistants, a number of them. Yet he still remained one of the
hardest-working men on the faculty, and his old students will
believe that his last years of illness were the result of his un¬
ceasing and unselfish labor. He still gave to various literary
activities in the city the same aid and encouragement he ever
did. Even in his vacations, the city was demanding something
of him. It was too much.
I have called him the most courtly member of the faculty.
And yet he was a farmer lad. There was that other courtly
man with the manners of a born aristocrat — a born aristocrat^
mind you, not a money-made, self-made aristocrat — President
Adams, a Vermont farmer boy who sawed wood, husked corn
914 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts, and Letters .
and wore shabby clothes in his student days at Michigan.
These two fanner boys were the most courtly members of our
faculty, men with the grand air, with distinguished manners,
high-bred, bred on the farm. They used to say that a Hew
England farmer’s daughter could march from the farm to a
salon and no one would ever suspect she had been anywhere
else. S’ome of our American farmer boys also stand as types
of elegance, have the savoir ftaire, an innate and perfect adapt¬
ability which they got somewhere, from some strain in their
composition.
Perhaps in Professor Frankenburger it was the blood of that
politest of nations, the French, or that other politest of nations,
the Irish — for despite his good German name, he had French,
Irish, Scotch and English in his make-up — a good mixture of
strong and vigorous races. The first American Erankenburger
came to this country as a youth in 1760, and was a soldier in
the Revolutionary war. The name is plainly German and indi¬
cates that this first ancestor was of that ancient German stock,
erroneously known as Pennsylvania Dutch. Dutch it is not.
There is more French in it than Dutch, for a very considerable
French element was incorporated in it from two diverse sour*
ces, Protestant refugees from France itself and Catholic Aca-
dians after that unfortunate people were dispersed through the
colonies by the English.
After the Revolution, the ancestor settled near the boundary
of the three states of Virginia, Maryland and Pennsylvania, re¬
siding now in one state, now in another. In the natural min¬
gling of blood that makes the name of any family that has been
here three generations no indication of the predominant strain,
the original German blood was mingled with the blood of other
nationalities.
Professor F rankenburger’s immediate family came to Wis¬
consin in 1855, settling on a farm in Green county, which was
largely settled by Pennsylvanians. For nine years the boy
worked on the farm, attending the district school in winter. He
prepared for college at Milton academy, and at the age of twen¬
ty-one entered the University of Wisconsin, graduating in
AMOS ARNOLD KNOWLTON
Memorial Address — Amos Arnold Knowlton.
915
1869. His graduation from the law school in 18 71 was fol¬
lowed by seven years’ successful practice of his profession in
Milwaukee.
In 1879, he accepted the chair of rhetoric and oratory under
the impression that in a professor’s chair he would find leisure
for a literary career. While in college, and in the ten years suc¬
ceeding graduation, he had often courted the muses. In the
decade between 1870 and 1880 he was often called upon to en¬
liven with verse the gatherings of the alumni. Among his best
poems are “My Old Home,” “The Bells of Bethlehem,” “Our
Welcome Home.”
Wardon A. Cuktis.
AMOS ARNOLD KNOWLTON.
Among the members of the Academy who passed away dur¬
ing the last year was Amos Arnold Knowlton, who died at his
home in Madison, April 14, 1906. t
He had been very ill for the last half-dozen years. Obliged
to give up his university teachings in 1900 on account of a se¬
vere attack of nervous prostration, he had been unable since
that time to do any regular work, and in spite of every effort
to regain his health, neither rest nor medical care nor change of
climate had availed to improve his condition or even to alleviate
his sufferings. He spent several seasons with his brother, J ohn
Boper, of Chico, California, but for nearly two years had been
at his home in Madison, gradually succumbing to the influence
of the disease and the sufferings which were slowly undermin¬
ing his health. During all these years, in spite of bodily suf¬
fering and depression of spirits — even to the last, during the
few moments when it was still possible for him to receive the
occasional visits of a friend — he retained unchanged the same
lovable qualities of character that had endeared him to so many
in earlier days. He still greeted all his friends with the same
genial smile and kindly words and with the same cheery ring
916 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts, and Letters .
in his voice, even when he was so feeble that he was able to
speak only with painful effort. His friends will always re¬
member him as one of the most kindly and genial of men, as
one whose fine personality, impulsive, generous and sympathet¬
ic in the highest degree, was so winning and lovable that no
one could know him, however briefly, without liking him, or
know him intimately without feeling a deep and abiding affec¬
tion for him.
Although the engrossing nature of his work had left him but
little time and opportunity to share very actively in the work
of the Academy, and although he consequently had but limited
acquaintance among those members who were not likewise his
colleagues, all those who had known him personally felt very
deeply the loss of the courageous and cheery spirit whom death
had taken from them.
The ideals of Professor Knowlton were above all those of
the teacher. As in the case of all those who have a special vo¬
cation for teaching, his interest lay not simply in the work of
his students, but in the students themselves. He was intensely
human and sympathetic. For him literature and life were in¬
timately and inseparably bound up together. He was not sat¬
isfied to give mere knowledge to his students ; he gave himself
also, and in the most liberal measure. The subtle penetration
of all his work, of all that he said and did, with his own person¬
ality, his ready sympathy, his playful wit and his large and
human outlook, so free from all narrowness, pedantry and ex¬
clusiveness, gave to his teaching a stamp of validity and a pow¬
er to impress itself on the fresh young minds around him, that
was eminently and permanently educative. He made unro-
mitting efforts to come into personal relations with every one
whom he taught, and almost invariably a new student was for
him a new friend. He took the most lively interest in all their
concerns, and was ever ready to give them his ripest thought
and his best counsel, to help and guide as well as to instruct
them. He was therefore a universal favorite, esteemed and be¬
loved by a multitude of youthful spirits, and in this disinterest¬
ed return he found alike the great incentive and the satisfying
recompense of all his unwearying efforts as a teacher.
HERMAN FREDERICK LUEDERS
Memorial Address — Herman Frederick Lueders. 917
He was born in Boston in 1859. An orphan at the age of
five years, he was adopted by the Knowlton family of Tam-
worth, Hew Hampshire. Here he spent his boyhood on the
farm. He graduated from Phillips Exeter academy in 1882,
and from Bowdoin college in 1886, in which year he married.
He taught in a preparatory school at Providence, Bhodie Island,
until 1888, after which he studied two years at the University
of Leipsic. He was connected as instructor and as assistant
professor with the English department of the University of
Wisconsin from 1890 till 1900.
William F. Giese.
HERMAN FREDERICK LUEDERS.
Herman Frederick Lueders was bom in Sauk City, Wiscon¬
sin, September 24, 1861. His childhood was passed quietly
at home helping his father in the gardening business. He did
not go to school, but with a natural thirst for knowledge ap¬
plied himself diligently to his tasks at every opportunity.
With the exception of a little assistance given him by his father
and an elder brother, he received no instruction up to the time
he entered the university.
While he was still a child, he set his heart upon a university
education, but circumstances conspired against him, and the
possibility of realizing it seemed more remote as he grew into
manhood. When the prospect was darkest, the encouraging in¬
fluence of a friend came to the rescue. By strictest economy
and self-denial, and by saving all the money he earned on the
neighboring farms during harvest and threshing time, he ac¬
cumulated sufficient means to enter the University of Wiscon¬
sin at Madison in the autumn of 1884. Here he found that
the actual expenses far exceeded the figures given him, and not
willing to contract a large debt, he determined by extra effort
to shorten his course if possible. He succeeded — his health
918 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts, and Letters .
paying dearly for it — and finished a four years’ course in
three, taking the degree of B. S. with honors ,in 1887.
In the same year, he secured a position as teacher of German
at the high school in West Bend, remaining there one year.
He was then offered the position of teacher of science and Ger¬
man at the Byan high school, Appleton, which he accepted and
held for three years. During this time, he was twice offered
the principalship of the school, but not feeling that his ambi¬
tions lay in that direction, he declined. In 1892, he entered
Harvard university to take a post-graduate course and do spe¬
cial work in botany, his chosen specialty. In the spring of the
following year, he was taken seriously ill and was compelled to
return to his home in Sauk City. Although he recovered dur¬
ing the summer, he did not resume his work at Harvard, for
the circumstances at home in which his family lived made it
necessary for him to be near them. In 1894, with his health
only partially restored, he accepted the position of principal of
the high school at Sauk City, continuing for two years, when
broken health again compelled him to resign and seek other em¬
ployment.
He had always regarded the farmers’ life as ideal, partly for
its independence and self-sufficiency and partly for the leisure
it afforded in which to pursue other lines of work. It was then
the realization of a fond ambition when he purchased a small
tract of land near his father’s, established bachelor’s quarters
thereon, and began the scientific development of his agricultur¬
al venture. It was successful from every standpoint, and
among other pleasures and advantages it gave him the oppor¬
tunity to pursue his literary aspirations, in which direction he
had great ability.
In August 1899', he was married to Miss Edith Silverfriend,
a former fellow teacher of Appleton. Conditions were now all
favorable for his happiness and welfare, and the influence of
his life expanded in many new directions. But again the shad¬
ow of ill-health — his Nemesis — enveloped him. The effects
of earlv privation, self-sacrifice and overwork had still to be
reckoned with. They could not be overcome. On July 2,
Memorial Address — Herman Frederick Lueders. 919
1904, after much suffering, he succumbed, the immediate cause
being tuberculosis.
Ilis love for botany was no doubt inherited, as his father was
keenly interested in the science and was a successful gardener.
When Herman was still a child, he invested a part of his sav¬
ings in a copy of Gray’s “Manual,” and during the open sea¬
son, he spent every leisure hour in roaming over the hills and
through the marshes in the neighborhood of his home, and on
Sunday he would make long excursions up and down the river
in search of new specimens. His collection finally numbered
4,000 native species.
It was while doing special work at Harvard that his atten¬
tion was directed to the study of caoutchouc. Some men of
wealth who were interested in the rubber industry and who
hoped to profit by some new discoveries pertaining to the struc¬
ture of, and impurities in, commercial rubber, arranged with
the university to pursue these investigations and founded a
fellowship for this purpose. It was offered to Mr. Lueders
and he accepted. It was decided that, inasmuch as only dried
specimens were available for study in the laboratory, this re¬
search should be carried on in the tropics, in the home of the
rubber plant. The botanical gardens at Buitenzorg, Java,
were selected as the most favorable location, and Mr. Lueders
began his preparations for the journey. It was a fearful blow
to him to be taken very ill at this time and to be compelled to
give up this interesting project. The opportunity was held
open to him for a year, but as his physical condition did not
materially improve, he was finally forced to abandon the idea.
Among his published contributions to science were the fol¬
lowing :
Concerning the structure of caoutchouc: American Journal
of Science, vol. 46. August 1893.
The vegetation of the town Prairie du Sac. Transactions
of the Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters, vol.
10, p. 510. 1895.
Ploral structure of some Gramineae: Transactions of the
Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts , and Letters, vol. 11, p.
109. 1896.
57— S. & A.
920 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts, and Letters.
He was a devoted student of literature and political econ¬
omy and lectured on these subjects quite frequently during the
last years of his life.
His chief claims to distinction were his lofty character and
his uncompromising devotion to principle. The patience and
stoicism with which he bore pain and misfortune were remark¬
able, and the cheerful spirit with which he sacrificed his time,
his labor and his health for his pupils, his family and others,
will never he forgotten by those who knew him, for similar
manifestations of unselfishness are seldom seen. Taken as he*
was in his prime, the world lost at once a profound thinker, a
true teacher and one whose place was in the foremost ranks of
God’s nobility.
Edith Lueders.
JOHET LEMDRUM MITCHELL.
A name which had stood in the list of life members of the
Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters for more
than thirty years was removed from that place by the death of
John Lendrum Mitchell, which occurred at Meadowmere, his
country residence near Milwaukee, on the 29th of June 1904,
in the sixty-second year of his age.
He was the son of Alexander Mitchell, a commanding figure
in the material development of the Northwest, who was one of
the incorporators of this Academy. His mother was Martha
(Reed) Mitchell. He was born in Milwaukee, October 19,
1842. Of Scotch lineage on the one side and Yankee lineage
on the other, he possessed characteristics reflecting both,
though he never exerted himself in the direction of money-
making. Eor that he had not the incentive which comes from
need.
His early education was obtained in the public schools of
Milwaukee. Thence he was sent to the military school at
John Lendrum Mitchell.
Memorial Address — John Lendrum Mitchell. 921
Hampton, Connecticut, and afterward spent six years in Eng¬
land, Germany and Switzerland, devoting part of this time to
study at Dresden, Munich and Geneva. The outbreak of the
Civil war brought him home at the age of nineteen. He assist¬
ed in raising Company I, Twenty-fourth Wisconsin Volunteer
Infantry, of which he was made second lieutenant when it was
mustered into the service. Later, he was promoted to a first
lieutenancy and transferred to Company E of the same regi¬
ment. At different times he was assigned to duty on the
staffs of Generals Sills and Rousseau, and was made ordnance
officer of division. Among the engagements in which he par¬
ticipated were those of Perryville, Murfreesboro, otherwise
known as Stone River, _ and Hoover’s Gap. He also took part
in the campaign about Chattanooga. Meantime his eyesight
became seriously impaired. Incapacitated for further ser¬
vice, and threatened with total blindness, he resigned his com¬
mission and returned to Milwaukee.
A natural fondness for country life and the belief that out¬
door occupation would repair his shattered health led him to
make his home upon his beautiful farm of four hundred acres
in the town of Greenfield. Here he carried out numerous ex¬
periments in improved agriculture and engaged extensively in
the raising of blooded stock. His intelligent interest in pro¬
gressive farming was recognized in his election to the presiden¬
cy of the Wisconsin State Agricultural society and of the
Northwestern Trotting Horse Breeders’ association. His
large and comfortable residence contained a well-selected col¬
lection of books in several languages, and some of the choic¬
est paintings by American and European artists of the closing
years of the nineteenth century.
Mr. Mitchell was greatly interested! in the phase of amateur
athletics developed by the revival of Scottish games which be¬
gan in Milwaukee in 1867 under the auspices of St. Andrew’s
society. He was a liberal patron of the society for many years
and was twice elected to< its presidency.
In politics, Mr. Mitchell was a democrat. He served as a
member of the state senate in 1872-3 and again in 1876-7. In
1890, he was elected representative in congress and was re-elect-
922 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts, and Letters.
ed in 1892, but resigned to accept the seat in the senate of the
United States for the term beginning on the 4th of March
1893, and ending in 1899. He was a member of the demo¬
cratic state central committee for several years, represented
Wisconsin on the democratic national committee from 1888 to
1892, and in the latter yeai* was chairman of the democratic
national congressional committee.
As a legislator, Mr. Mitchell was useful and conscientious
rather than showy. He made no' pretense to the gift of ora¬
tory, but when he spoke he commanded attention by reason of
his mastery of facts and his candid and practical methods in
dealing with public problems. His theory of government in¬
clined him to be a strict party man. Where party issues were
not involved, he was conservatively progressive. He enjoyed
the confidence and esteem of his fellow senators of all shades
of political opinion.
In 1886, he was appointed a member of the board of mana¬
gers of the national homes for disabled volunteer soldiers, and
was elected president of the board in 1895. In his capacity of
resident manager of the home at Milwaukee, he endeared him¬
self to the inmates of that institution by his constant and vigi¬
lant solicitude for their welfare. A touching spectacle at his
funeral was the presence of a body of seven hundred veterans
from the home, who had assembled to pay the final tribute of
respect to their dead friend.
His interest in public education was manifested in many
ways. In 1884-5, he was president of the Milwaukee board of
school commissioners. In 1887, he placed with the superin¬
tendent of schools an order to supply at his expense free text¬
books to the children of parents too poor to purchase them, thus
originating a worthy charity which he and others following
him maintained until the expense was assumed by the city.
He was conspicuous in bringing about the establishment of
the short course in agriculture at the University of Wiscon¬
sin, and instituted at a considerable outlay twenty scholarships
for poor boys.
Shortly after his retirement from the United States senate
in 1899, Mr. Mitchell went to Europe accompanied by his
Memorial Address — John Lendrum Mitchell .
923
family, his object being to supervise tbe education of bis child¬
ren. On this occasion, be spent more than three years abroad.
At tbe time of bis death, Mr. Mitchell was president of tbe
Central Investment company — tbe corporation which owns tbe
Mitchell building and tbe Chamber of Commerce building —
vice-president of tbe Marine National bank, director of the
Northwestern National Insurance company, director of tbe
Northwestern Trotting association, and a member of tbe Mil¬
waukee chamber of commerce. He was also a member of the
Milwaukee Bankers’ club, of tbe Loyal Legion and of numer¬
ous other social and fraternal organizations.
Mr. Mitchell was twice married. His first wife was Bianca
Cogswell. Cf seven children by this union, but one son
reached maturity and is still living. In 1878, Mr. Mitchell
married Harriet Danforth Becker, who, with seven children,
survived him.
Born to great wealth, Mr. Mitchell had no illusions on the
subject of money tending to disqualify him for citizenship in
a republic. He instinctively despised vulgar display, yet his
expenditures were liberal. His enthusiasms were not sordid.
By habits of studious application, which were formed early
and never relaxed, he acquired a copious knowledge of many
subjects, ranging from agriculture to art. He loved study for
its own sake, as was illustrated when toward the close of his
life he enrolled himself with his young daughter as a student
at a Trench university, going through a course in Trench lan¬
guage and literature and at the end being rewarded with a di¬
ploma for proficiency.
He is remembered as a man of kindly nature, liberal intel¬
lectual attainments, and a lively sense of public duty.
John Goadby Gregory.
924 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters.
NATHANIEL SOUTHGATE SHALER.
Of the lives of but few men is it so true that cold recital of
facts utterly fails to portray what the man was or what his
presence meant to the community of which he was a part. Per¬
haps no teacher has in recent years so indelibly impressed him¬
self upon the lives of college men as did Dean Shaler. It
would be necessary to secure a composite of the memory pic¬
tures of literally thousands of students in order adequately to
present the characteristics of this truly remarkable man to one
who had never known him. Since in college training the spirit
of teaching counts for quite as much as its subject matter, a
biographical sketch of Professor Shaler, however brief ^ should
deal as much with the characteristic habits of the man and with
the incidents growing out of his contact with students, as with
his scientific attainments and the honors which came to him
through them, important as these were.
Professor Shaler was just past sixty-five years of age at the
time of his death on the tenth of April 1906. Though a Ken¬
tuckian by birth, he was educated at the Lawrence Scientific
school of Harvard university; and upon completion of his
course in 1862, he hurried to Kentucky in order to enlist in the
Union army. He was commissioned captain of an artillery com¬
pany afterwards well known as “ Shaler’ s Battery.” A particu¬
larly active service throughout the war for the Union brought
him often into positions of danger and thus contributed not a
little to the fund of reminiscences for which he became famous.
While in college, he had come under the instruction of Pro¬
fessor Louis Agassiz, and his natural love for science had thus
been greatly stimulated. Returning from the war broken in
health, he became instructor in paleontology at Harvard uni¬
versity, and with unusual rapidity was advanced to the full
rank of professor. Professor Agassiz, as is well known, did
not accept the then new doctrine of evolution, and it is char¬
acteristic of Professor Shaler both that he was one of the first
to accept the new doctrine, and further, that he had the temer-
NATHANIEL SOUTHGATE SHALER
Memorial Address — Nathaniel Southgate Shaler. 925
ity to preach it under the very eyes of the man who had been
called the “Pop© of American science,”
In 1891, Professor Shaler became the dean of the Lawrence
Scientific school, a position which he held until his death.
During these fifteen years, the school not only increased rapid¬
ly in numbers, but advanced quite as much in the quality of
the work done. Yet it could hardly have been on this account
that by a common impulse the flags upon city buildings and
students’ clubhouses were hung at half-mast and that the shops
in “Old Cambridge” were closed, upon the afternoon of Pro¬
fessor Shaler’ s funeral. Such a tribute has not been paid to
any other professor of the university within the past genera¬
tion. It was rather because each student felt that the dean
had taken an interest in him personally and had seen to it that
he was squarely dealt with. It has been said that during the
last fifteen years, while Professor Shaler was dean, not a stu¬
dent was ill but the dean paid him a call to see that he received
proper care, and those more seriously ill received daily visits.
It seems also to have been Professor Shaler’s custom to look in¬
to the justice’s court and to inform himself concerning stu¬
dents arrested for pranks of one sort or another. Many a
young scapegrace found guilty of sign-stealing or other petty
offense, has had to thank the opportune word of the thin, wiry
man with the gray pompadour for a clemency which otherwise
could not have been procured.
The personality of Professor Shaler was a most striking
one. Tall and spare — lanky — his strong features, piercing
but kindly eyes, and his shock of iron-gray hair, made him
conspicuous in any assembly. He always wore a soft slouch
hat and was often heard to say that he would as soon wear an
iron pot as a top hat upon his head. He was accustomed to
walk with his stick tucked under his arm and his hands deep
in the pockets of his coat. Indefatigable as a walker, he took
the Indian gait with swinging pelvis whenever he desired to
hasten. Some one has happily described his laugh as one of
many stops. His lectures were garnished with good stories
admirably told, and it was a perhaps unconscious habit for his
926 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters.
eye to twinkle and his lingers to be pushed through his shock
of hair when the laugh was really due. The language of his
lectures was clear and forceful, with many expressive words of
his own coining ; and if the lectures themselves made the course
an over-easy one, they seldom failed to interest, and no work
in the university was more popular than the beginning course
in geology officially known as “Natural History 4.” His
written letters had an air of distinction and were notably free
from emendations or blemishes, but they could be read only by
one who had mastered his personal set of hieroglyphics.
To shoulder the responsibilities of the deanship of the Law¬
rence school and to conduct his classes in geology and paleon¬
tology, with the additional burdens which his personal interest
in the students imposed upon him, would seem to require all
the time of a busy man. Yet these were but a part of the activ¬
ities of this versatile man who was accustomed to work six¬
teen hours in the day. A very much larger circle came into
touch with Professor Shaler through his published writings.
Possessed of a good literary style, he was the best known pop¬
ular writer in America upon scientific subjects. The range
of his writings was as great as their volume, for they treated
almost as much of the humanities as of the sciences. Some
twenty-five or thirty volumes, besides unnumbered magazine
articles and scientific papers, are left as evidence of the wide
range of his thought and his amazing capacity for work.
Plis reader was more frequently the person of general cul¬
ture than the specialist in his chosen field; though he publish¬
ed longer or shorter papers in the Keports of the United States
Geological survey, the Bulletin of the Geological Society of
America^, etc. “The Story of Our Continent/7 “The Inter¬
pretation of Nature/7 “Illustrations of the Earth’s Surface/7
“Sea and Land77, “American Highways/7 “Domesticated Ani¬
mals/7 “The United States of America/7 “Kentucky, a Pioneer
Commonwealth/7 “The Individual/7 “A Study of Life and
Death/7 “The Citizen/7 “The Neighbor/7 and “Man and the
Earth/7 are book titles which indicate the fields where he wrote
with greatest success. His system of philosophy is outlined in
STEPHEN VAUGHN SHIPMAN
Memorial Address — Stephen Vaughn Shipman. 927
the works last mentioned!. When past sixty he wrote the Phi
Beta Kappa poem and also a five-act drama in blank verse is¬
sued in five volumes and entitled “Elizabeth of England/’ to
prove that prolonged scientific study does not unfit a man for
literary activities. \
The more strictly scientific side of Professor Shaler’s activ¬
ities may perhaps he best indicated by the offices which he
held. Between 1862 and 1879, he was director of the Geo¬
logical survey of Kentucky. Erom 1884 to 1890, he was geol¬
ogist in charge of the Atlantic division of the United States
Geological survey. He was at different times one of the Mas¬
sachusetts commissioners upon the topographic atlas of the
state, upon state highways, upon agriculture, and upon the ex¬
termination of the gipsy moth. In 1895 he was elected pres¬
ident of the Geological Society of America. He was a mem¬
ber of the National Academy of Sciences.
The place of Professor Shaler is one not likely soon to be
filled, since the peculiar gifts which he possessed are seldom
all realized in one man. His loss is one to the country at large
as well as to his own community.
William Herbert Hobbs.
STEPHEN VAUGHN SHIPMAN.
The following sketch is taken almost verbatim from a me¬
morial address prepared for the Illinois commandery of the
Loyal Legion by Kev. Samuel E allows, John M. Van Osdal
and Obed W. Wallis.
Stephen Vaughn Shipman was born at Montrose, Pennsyl¬
vania, January 26, 1825, and received his education in the
academy at that place. For several years he worked at the print¬
ing business, which was abandoned on account of failing health.
He next gave his attention to the study of architecture and was
associated with his father, who was a builder and contractor
928 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts, and Letters.
at Montrose, afterward at Pittsburg and finally at Philadel¬
phia. Before leaving his native state, he had designed and super¬
intended the erection of numerous public and private buildings.
He moved to Chicago in 1854, but in the following year took
up his residence at Madison, Wisconsin, with which city he
afterward became prominently identified.
In 1857, he was appointed architect of the Central Wiscon¬
sin state hospital for the insane at Madison, and superintended
its construction until the commencement of the Civil war. In
July 1861, he entered the First Wisconsin cavalry regiment as
first lieutenant of Co. G, and was soon detailed as its adjutant.
He was successively promoted captain of Co. E, senior major
of his regiment, and then became lieutenant-colonel and colonel
of U. S. volunteers by brevet. He was wounded May 2, and Sep¬
tember 26, 1862, at Cape Girardeau, and again severely, April
24, 1863, in a desperate engagement with overwhelming num¬
bers of the Confederates in General Marmadiuke’s command,
at White Water river, Missouri, which crippled him for life.
Here he was captured as a prisoner of war ; he was released on
parole, and exchanged December 11, 1863.
He recovered sufficiently from his wounds to re-enter the
field with his regiment, and participated in the numerous en¬
gagements of that command in Kentucky, Tennessee, Alabama
and Georgia, ending at Macon, with Wilson’s cavalry corps, at
the end of the war.
He was then detailed to collect the plans and report on the
condition of the extensive Confederate public buildings at Ma¬
con and Augusta, and to gather up the records of the military
posts, hospitals, etc., in Georgia and western South Carolina.
He was ordered to report with them and other rebel archives,
including the complete recordls of the provisional Confederate
Congress held at Montgomery, Alabama, to the Secretary of
War, at Washington. Here he remained until mustered out
by special order of the War department on December 6, 1865.
His military record was an honor to Wisconsin and the nation.
From official reports and contemporaneous newspapers, it was
demonstrated that Colonel Shipman was one of the most
Memorial Address, — Stephen Vaughn Shipman . 929
efficient, gallant and dashing soldiers commissioned by the Bad¬
ger state. Three horses were killed under him in battle, and
he bore upon his body till his death the scars of many hard-
fought engagements.
His famous cavalry charge, when surrounded and cut off
from retreat while defending the bridge at the crossing on the
White Water river, made through the attacking lines of the
vastly superior force of the rebel General Marmaduke, in his
celebrated raid on St. Louis, was pronounced one of the most
brilliant of the war. By it he saved his whole command ex¬
cept fourteen killed] and wounded. This splendid deed won
the surprise and admiration of the enemy, and Colonel Ship-
man was ever afterward held by his fellow officers as a model,
soldierly example. His heroic dash confirmed the maxim that
cavalry should never surrender.
On returning home, he was elected city treasurer of Madison
without opposition. He also resumed his profession of archi¬
tect, and completed the hospital for the insane on the banks of
Lake Mendota. His design for the rotunda and dome of the
state capitol was adopted, and he received the appointment of
architect for that structure and completed the building. He
was supervising architect of the United States courthouse and
post office at Madison to its final completion. He designed
and superintended the construction of the northern state hospi¬
tal for the insane at Oshkosh, Wisconsin, and was architect of
the Iowa state hospital for the insane at Independence. He al¬
so designed and superintended the construction of the Northern
Illinois state hospital for the insane at Elgin; and later re¬
built, with important additions and improvements, the Missou¬
ri state lunatic asylum, at St. Joseph. He rebuilt portions of
the state prison at Waupun; designed and superintended the
soldiers’ orphans’ home school; the Park hotel, the Eirst Na¬
tional Bank building, and many other edifices at Madison, and
throughout the state of Wisconsin.
He re-established an office in Chicago in 1870, and in the
following year was one of the sufferers by the great fire.
When he resumed business, his hands were full of commissions
930 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts , and Letters.
which he carried out with the professional skill and care for
which he was noted.
The following are some of the edifices that were erected by
him in Chicago: The Williams building, occupied by Edson
Keith & Co.; the Presbyterian hospital; the first Academy of
Music (which he rebuilt twice) ; the Gaff building, one of the
early tall buildings; and a large number of the finest mercan¬
tile and manufacturing buildings, many private and public hos¬
pitals, courthouses, schools, churches, banks and residences
throughout Chicago and the Northwest, among them the Bur¬
lington opera house at Burlington, Iowa, a noble structure.
Colonel Shipman was intimately connected with literary
studies and work. He was one of the charter members of the
Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts and Letters, and at his
death was a corresponding member of that society. He was
elected its first secretary of the department of sciences, embrac¬
ing the mathematical, physical, anthropological, natural and
social sciences. He was connected with the State Historical
society of Wisconsin since 1855 as a member and curator, and
was its recording secretary until his removal to Chicago. He
was made a life member and served as honorary vice-president
for Illinois, until, by a revision of the constitution of the socie¬
ty, that office for Illinois, as for all the other states, was dis¬
continued.
He was a corresponding member of the New England His¬
toric Genealogical society, and an honorary member of the
Bradford (Pennsylvania) Historical society. He was a fellow
of the American Institute of Architects ; and was twice elected
president of the Chicago chapter of that institute. He was a
member of the Western Association of Architects until its in¬
corporation with the National Institute; and also of other
learned societies.
He was an active member and officer of the Masonic order,
and was a past commander of the Knights Templar.
His name appears in Allibone’s “Dictionary of Authors,” as
the author of the “Shipman Family Genealogy.”
Colonel Shipman was married at Harrisburg, Pennsylvania,,
CHARLES FREDERICK A. ZIMMERMAN
Memorial Address — Chwdes i F. A. Zimmerman. 931
November 4, 1850, to Cornelia, daughter of Hon. E. S. Good¬
rich, then secretary of state under Governor William Bigler.
Of this marriage were horn Annie, wife of Hon. E. S. Tomlin,
of Los Angeles, California, who died March 19. 1897 ; Bose
W., now wife of J. K. Anderson, Milwaukee, Wis. ; Charles
Goodrich, M. D., now of Ely, Minnesota ; William V., of Ban¬
gor, Michigan; and Cornelia, of Chicago. Mrs. Shipman died
at Madison, February 27, 1870. Colonel Shipman was mar¬
ried again at Chicago, in 1880, to Mrs. Mary Townsend Tow¬
ers, who survives him.
Colonel Shipman was a most distinguished example of the
power of the mind over the body and of its triumph over out¬
ward circumstances. From the hour he received his last serious
wound, not a day passed but he experienced pain. Yet uncom¬
plainingly and with marked success he carried on his varied
and important work for forty years.
CHABLES EBEDEBICK A. ZIMMEBMAN.
There was universal regret and deep sorrow in Milwaukee
on the 20th of June 190;6, upon the announcement of the sud¬
den death of Professor C. E. A. Zimmerman, one of the fore¬
most educators in the state, a veritable general of division;
and the regrets will not soon cease; the sorrow is permanent.
Mr. Zimmerman was bom near Stettin, Prussia, July 21,
1848, and came to Milwaukee at the age of eight years, going
through the district and what is now known as the high school,
and then graduating from the Platteville Normal school. He
adopted teaching as a profession twenty-five years ago. For
more than seventeen years, he had been principal of the seven¬
teenth district school, Milwaukee. It would be difficult to find
a flaw in his record as principal, teacher, citizen and patriot
during those seventeen years. He centered his thought, his
heart, his very life upon the work in hand, and the work he did
932 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts, and Letters.
during that long term will live longer than I dare to mention.
Every pupil felt his influence and greatly to the benefit of each
boy and girl, young woman and young man.
There was nothing superficial in his work; there was an
earnestness, a devotion to dfuty, a desire to' bring substantial
and lasting results that ought to be witnessed in every one who
adopts that high calling. It was superb. Hundreds of high
type men and women, people of broadened minds, patriotic
people, educated people, genuine lovers of their country, give
this fallen soldier credit for what they are. I Mr. Zimmerman
was one of the earliest of Milwaukee principals to introduce
the custom of patriotic services in the public schools. He not
only held interesting services on the Friday before Memorial
day, but had them on Washington’s birthday, Lincoln’s birth¬
day, and on other occasions. He realized that the surest way
to make good American citizens was to fill the hearts of the
boys and girls with love for the country and the country’s
beautiful emblem.
The value of such a teacher as Mr. Zimmerman proved him¬
self to be cannot be overestimated. The loss of such a teacher
cannot be overestimated. There may be no towering
monument at his grave, but he builded a monument a thou¬
sand times more telling than marble could make, in the build¬
ing of character, as a real teacher and a genuine educator.
He never ceased to be a student. There were few if any
better read men in the city. He had a ready reading knowledge
of four languages, and books formed one of the great interests
of his life. He could not resist the desire to own many and
good books, and his private library furnishes splendid testi¬
mony to the wide range of his interests and to his discriminat¬
ing taste. For a number of years previous to his death he had
taken correspondence courses under the direction of the Illinois
Wesleyan university. He had earned in this way the de¬
gree of A. M., and in a short time would have completed the
work required for the Ph. D. degree. There was no official
position in Wisconsin, outside of the judiciary, which he
would not have graced. He was modest, retiring, gentle, lov-
Memorial Address — GTinrd.es F. A. Zimmerman . 933
able. No one could know him without admiring him. He
was a firm believer in educating the people. Hisi own six
children were well educated. They all passed through his
own school^ graduating with honors. The three sons, Oliver
Brunner, Clarence Irving and James Garfield, and one of the
daughters, Viola May, were graduates of the University of
Wisconsin. Oliver B. was a teacher in the College of Engi¬
neering for five years after graduation. One daughter is mar¬
ried, and Lillian, the youngest, is studying art. Mr. Zimmer¬
man was married to Elizabeth Brunner, July 28, 1870. She
was educated in the public schools and the Normal school at
Platt eville, and was a most worthy companion of a noble man.
E. B. Wolcott Post, some of whose members had been called
upon to participate in the patriotic exercises of the seventeenth
district school during the past fifteen years, adopted resolutions
manifesting the deep sorrow its members felt at the loss of
their friend and the good friend of education and the coun¬
try. Dr. James C. Hodgins, pastor of the church of which
Mr. Zimmerman was a member^ in writing to Mrs. Zimmer¬
man, said: — •
“Your dear husband will always dwell in my memory as
a perfect type of the simple-minded, pure-hearted scholar. He
loved the truth as every reverent soul does, and he was so un¬
selfish, so eager to be of noble use in God’s world. What a
blessed memory he leaves to you and his children ! To think
of such men makes the kingdom of God seem near.”
And another friend wrote: —
“There are many men who have received more notoriety
during their lives, but there are few who have done more for
the fundamental welfare of society than this kind, great-heart¬
ed teacher.”
J. A. Wateous, Lieut.-Col. U. S. A^my.
WISCONSIN ACADEMY OF SCIENCES, ARTS, AND
LETTERS.
LIST OF OFFICERS AND MEMBERS, CORRECTED TO
AUGUST 1, 1907.
OFFICERS.
President ,
Louis Kahlenberg, University of Wisconsin, Madison.
Vice-President of Sciences ,
Ermine C. Case, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, Mich.
Vice-President of Arts ,
Charles H. Chandler, Eipon College, Eipon.
Vice-President of Letters ,
Henry E. Legler, Madison.
Secretary ,
Charles E. Allen, University of Wisconsin, Madison.
Treasurer,
Eollin H. Denniston, University of Wisconsin, Madison.
Librarian,
Walter M. Smith,, University of Wisconsin, Madison.
Curator ,
Charles E. Brown, Milwaukee.
Council,
The President, Vice-Presidents, Secretary, Treasurer, and
Past Presidents retaining their residence in Wisconsin.
Officers.
935
Committee on Publication.
Louis Kahlenberg, Madison, President .
Charles E. Allen, Madison, Secretary.
Ernest B. Skinner, Madison.
Committee on Library.
Walter M. Smith, Madison, Librarian.
Herbert J. Farley, Appleton,
George W. Peckham, Milwaukee.
GeoIrge Wagner, Madison.
Committee on Membership.
Charles E. Allen, Madison, Secretary.
Harriet B. Merrill, Milwaukee.
Dana C. Munro, Madison.
Lewis A. Youtz, Appleton.
Past Presidents.
Honorable John W. Hoyt, M. D., LL. D., Washington, D.
C. , 1870-75.
Dr. P. E. Hoy, M. D.,* 1876-78.
President A. L. Chapin, D. D.,* 1879-81.
Professor Poland D. Irving, Ph. D.,* 1882-84.
Professor Thomas C. Chamberlin, Ph. D., Sc. D., LL. D.,
Chicago, Ill., 1885-87.
Professor William F. Allen,** 1888-89.
Professor Edward A. Birge, Ph. D., Sc. D., LL. D., Mad¬
ison, 1889-90.
Librarian George W. Peckham, LL. D., Milwaukee, 1891-
93.
President Charles E. Van Hise, Ph. D., LL. D., Madison,
1894-96.
Professor C. Dwight Marsh, A. M., Ph. D., Washington,
D. C., 1897-99.
Professor Charles S. Slighter, M. S'., Madison, 1900-
1902.
Dr. John J. Davis, M. D., Eacine 1903-1905.
♦Deceased. **Deceased December 9, 1889. Professor Birge elected
to fill unexpired term.
58— S. & A.
936 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts, and Letters .
HONORARY MEMBERS.
Agassiz, Alexander,
Harvard University, Cambridge, Mass.
A. B., S. B., LL. D. (Harvard). Director of the Museum of Compara¬
tive Zoology Emeritus, and Director of the University Museum,
Harvard University.
Chamberlin, Thomas Chrowder, Hyde Park Hotel,
Chicago, Ill.
A. B. (Beloit) ; Ph. D. (Wisconsin, Michigan) ; LL. D. (Michigan, Be¬
loit, Columbian, Wisconsin) ; Sc. D. (Illinois). Head of Geological
Department and Director of Walker Museum, University of
Chicago ; Geologist in Charge of Pleistocene Work, U. S.
Geological Survey ; Consulting Geologist, Wisconsin
Natural History Survey ; Geological Commis¬
sioner, Illinois Geological Survey ; Editor,
Journal of Geology .
Gilman, Daniel Coit, 614 Park Av., Baltimore, Md.
A. B., A. M. (Yale) ; LL. D. (Yale, Harvard, William and Mary, Prince¬
ton, St. Johns, Columbia, North Carolina, Toronto, Wisconsin,
Clark). President Emeritus, Johns Hopkins Univer¬
sity.
Harris, William Torrey, 1360 Yale St., N. W.,
Washington, D. C.
A. M. (Yale) ; Ph. D. (Brown, Jena) ; LL. D. (Missouri, Yale, Prince¬
ton, Pennsylvania). Officier de l’lnstruction Publique, France;
Editor, Journal of Speculative Philosophy ; Editor-in-
Chief, Webster’s International Dictionary of the
English Language.
Whitman, Charles Otis, University of Chicago, Chicago, Ill.
A. B., A. M. (Bowdoin) ; Ph. D. (Leipzig) ; LL. D. (Nebraska). Head
Professor of Zoology, University of Chicago ; Director of Marine
Biological Laboratory, Woods Holl, Mass.
Life Members.
937
LIFE MEMBERS.
Barnes, Charles Reid1, University of Chicago, Chicago, Ill.
A. B., A. M., Ph. D. (Hanover). Professor of Plant Physiology, Uni¬
versity of Chicago.
Birge, Edward Asahel, 744 Langdon St., Madison.
A. B., A. M. (Williams) ; Ph. D. (Harvard) ; Sc. D. (Western Univer¬
sity of Pennsylvania) ; LL. D. (Williams). Professor of Zoology and
Dean of the College of Letters and Science, University of Wis¬
consin ; Secretary of Commissioners of Fisheries, Wisconsin ;
Director and Superintendent, Wisconsin Geological and Natural
History Survey ; Member, Wisconsin State Board of For¬
estry ; President, Board of Directors, Madison Free Library.
Davis, John Jefferson, 504 Monument Square, Racine.
B. S. (Illinois) ; M. D. (Hahnemann). Physician.
Flint, Albert Stowell,^ 450 Charter St., Madison.
A. B. (Harvard) ; A. M. (Cincinnati). Astronomer, Washburn Observ¬
atory, University of Wisconsin.
Hobbs, William Herbert,
1405 Hill St., Ann Arbor, Mich.
B. S. (Worcester Polytechnic Institute) ; A. M., Ph. D. (Johns Hop¬
kins). Professor of Geology, University of Michigan.
Hoyt, John Wesley, The Victoria, Washington, D. C.
A. M. (Ohio Wesleyan) ; M. D. (Cincinnati) ; LL. D. (Missouri). Chair¬
man of the National Committee of Four Hundred to Promote
the Establishment of the University of the United
States.
Marsh, Charles Dwight,
3525 10th St., U. W., Washington, D. C.
A. B., A. M. (Amherst) ; Ph. D. (Chicago). Expert in Bureau of Plant
Industry, United States Department of Agriculture.
Peckiiam, George Williams, 646 Marshall St., Milwaukee.
LL. D. (Wisconsin). Librarian, Public Library.
Sharp, Frank Chapman, 27 Mendota Court, Madison,
A. B. (Amherst) ; Ph. D. (Berlin). Professor of Philosophy, Univer¬
sity of Wisconsin.
938 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts, and Letters .
Skinner, Ernest Brown, 210 Lathrop St., Madison.
A. B. (Ohio) ; Ph. D. (Chicago). Assistant Professor of Mathematics,
University of Wisconsin.
Slighter, CKarles Sumner, 636 Frances St, Madison.
B. S., M. S. (Northwestern). Professor of Applied Mathematics, Uni¬
versity of Wisconsin ; Consulting Engineer.
Van Cleef, Frank Louis, 39 Fort Greene Place,
Brooklyn, H. Y.
A. B. (Oberlin, Harvard) ; Ph. D. (Bonn). Expert in Office of Commis¬
sioner of Records, Kings County.
Van Hise, Charles Richard, 772 Langdon St., Madison.
B. Met. E., B. S., M. S., Ph. D. (Wisconsin) ; LL. D. (Chicago, Yale).
President, University of Wisconsin; Geologist in Charge of Divi¬
sion of Pre-Cambrian and Metamorphic Geology, United States
Geological Survey ; President, Board of Commissioners,
Wisconsin Geological and Natural History Survey ;
President, Wisconsin State Board of Forestry.
ACTIVE MEMBERS.
Allen, Bennet Mills, 710 Conklin Place, Madison.
Ph. B. (De Pauw) ; Ph. D. (Chicago). Instructor in Anatomy, Uni¬
versity of Wisconsin.
Allen, Charles Elmer, 810 West Johnson St., Madison.
B. S., Ph. D. (Wisconsin). Associate Professor of Botany, University
of Wisconsin.
Allen, Florence Eliza, 1212 West Johnson St., Madison.
B. L., M. L., Ph. D. (Wisconsin). Instructor in Mathematics, Univer¬
sity of Wisconsin.
Allen, Ruth Florence, 450 Charter St., Madison.
A. B., A. M. (Wisconsin). Assistant in Botany, University of Wis¬
consin.
Armstrong, Mary, Wauwatosa.
B. S'. (Wisconsin). Teacher of Science, Wauwatosa High School.
Arzberger, Emil Godfrey, 224 Brooks St., Madison.
Ph. B. (Wisconsin). Assistant in Botany, University of Wisconsin.
Active Members.
939
Baetz, Henry, 2820 Highland Boulevard, Milwaukee.
Ex-Treasurer, State of Wisconsin. Retired.
Bardeen, Charles Russell, 625 Mendota Court, Madison.
A. B. (Harvard); M. D. (Johns Hopkins). Professor of Anatomy, and
Dean of the College of Medicine, University of Wisconsin.
Barnett, Janies Duff, Herman, Okla.
A. B. (Emporia) ; Ph. D. (Wisconsin). Instructor in Political Science,
University of Oklahoma.
Bartlett, James L., 615 State St., Madison.
B. S. (Massachusetts Agricultural and Boston). Observer, United
States Weather Bureau.
Beatty, Arthur, 1822 Jackson St., Madison.
A. B. (Toronto) ; Ph. D. (Columbia). Assistant Professor of English,
University of Wisconsin.
Beebe, Murray Charles, 211 Langdlon St., Madison.
B. S. (Wisconsin). Associate Professor of Electrical Engineering,
University of Wisconsin.
Benner, Raymond Calvin, Tucson, Arizona.
B. S. (Minnesota) ; A. M. (Wisconsin). Instructor in Chemistry, Uni-
' versity of Arizona.
Bennett, William Chase, 936 Hackett Av., Milwaukee.
B. S. (Wisconsin) ; M. D. (Rush). Professor of Embryology, Wiscon¬
sin Coillege of Physicians and Surgeons ; Registrar of Vital
Statistics, Milwaukee Health Department.
Blackstone, Dodge Pierce, 921 Wisconsin St., Berlin.
A. B., A. M., C. E. (Union).
Blair, Emma Helen, 131 W. Gorham St., Madison.
B. S., A. M. (Ripon). Editor of “The Philippines, 1493-1898.”
Blare, William Phipps, Mill Rock, Hew Haven, Conn.,
and Tucson, Arizona.
A. M. (Dartmouth) ; Ph. B. (Yale). Professor Emeritus of Geology
and Mining. University of Arizona ; Director, Arizona School
of Mines ; State Geologist, Arizona ; Consulting Engi¬
neer and Mine Manager.
940 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters.
Bleyer, Willard Grosvenor, 625 Langdon St., Madison.
B. L., M. L., Ph. D. (Wisconsin). Assistant Professor of English,
University of Wisconsin.
Bones, Katharine Herkimer, Box 49, Route 4, Racine.
Ph. B. (Chicago). Teacher of English and Sciences, Genoa Junction
High Schooil.
Bradley, Harold Cornelius, 701 Langdon St., Madison.
A. B. (California) ; Ph. D. (Yale). Assistant Professor of Physio¬
logical Chemistry, University of Wisconsin.
Brandel, Irving Walter, University Station, Seattle, Wash.
Ph. G.. M. S., Ph. D. (Wisconsin). Assistant Professor of Pharmacy,
University of Washington.
Braun, Adolph R., 735 Eighth St., Milwaukee.
Graduate of National German-American Teachers' Seminary, Mil¬
waukee. Teacher of German, Milwaukee Public Schools.
B|rinckley, William Joshua, 505 John St., Appletom
A. B. (Salina); B. S., A. M. (De Pauw); Ph. D. (Austin). Professor
of Biology, Lawrence University.
Brittingham, Thomas Evans,
640 Uortli Henry St., Madison.
Lumber Manufacturer.
Brown, Charles E., 1214 Chestnut St., Milwaukee.
Secretary and Curator, Wisconsin Archaeological Society.
Brown, Charles Kewton, 271 Langdon St., Madison.
LL. B. '(Wisconsin). Lawyer.
Brown, Eugene Anson, 152 East Johnson St., Madison.
M. D. (Hahnemann). Physician and Surgeon; Secretary of Board
of Federal Pension Examiners, Madison District.
Browne, Edward Everts, Waupaca.
B. L., LL. B. (Wisconsin). District Attorney, Waupaca County;
State Senator, 21st Senatorial District ; Vice-President,
Wisconsin State Bar Association.
Active Members.
941
Brues, Charles Thomas, Milwaukee.
B. S., M. S. (Texas). Curator of Invertebrate Zoology, Milwaukee
Public Museum.
Buehler, Henry Andrew, Holla, Mo.
B. S. (Wisconsin). Geologist, Federal! Lead Company.
Burgess, Arthur Joseph, 1102 Grand Av., Milwaukee.
M. D. (Harvard). Physician; Professor of Gynecology and Clinical
Gynecology, Wisconsin College of Physicians and Surgeons.
Burgess, Charles Frederick, 1609 Adams S't., Madison.
B. S., E. E. (Wisconsin). Professor of Applied Electrochemistry,
University of Wisconsin.
Burke, John F., 904 Pabst Building, Milwaukee.
Burnett, Earle Smead, 1913 Madison St., Madison.
B. S. (Wisconsin). Research Assistant in Mechanical Engineering,
University of Wisconsin.
Cairns, William B., 2010 Madison St,, Madison.
A. B., Ph. D. (Wisconsin). Assistant Professor of American Liter¬
ature, University of Wisconsin.
Carrier, Wilbur Oscar, Waukesha.
A. B., A. M. (Albion) ; D. D. (Ripon). President, Carroll College.
Case, Ermine C., Ann Arbor, Mich.
Ph. D. (Chicago). Assistant Professor of Geology, University of Mich¬
igan.
Chandler, Charles Henry, Bipon.
A. B., A. M. (Dartmouth). Professor Emeritus of Mathematics and
Astronomy, Ripon College.
Chandler, Elwyn Francis, University, FT. D.
A. B.. A. M. (Ripon). Professor of Mathematics, University of
North Dakota; Assistant Engineer, United States Geological
Survey.
Chapin, Bobert Coit, 7099 College Ay., Beloit.
A. B., A. M. (Beloit)1; D. B. (Yale). Professor of Political Economy
and Secretary of the Faculty, Beloit College.
942 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts, and Letters.
Cheney, Lellen Sterling, Barron.
B. S., M. S. (Wisconsin). Farmer.
Christman, Arthur Henry, Menomonee Falls.
B. S. (Wisconsin).
Clas, Alfred Charles, 640 Van Buren St., Milwaukee.
Architect (Ferry & Clas), 419 Broadway, Milwaukee; Member, Board of
Park Commissioners ; Director, Merchants’ and Manufacturers’
Association, Milwaukee; Director, Milwaukee In¬
dustrial Exposition.
Clawson, Arthur Brooks, 431 Lake St., Madison.
A. B. (Michigan). Assistant in Zoology, University of Wisconsin.
Coffin, Victor, 22 Mendota Court, Madison.
Ph. D. (Cornell). Assistant Professor of European History, Univer¬
sity of Wisconsin.
Comstock, George Cary, Observatory Hill, Madison.
Ph. B. (Michigan) ; LL. B. (Wisconsin) ; Sc. D. (Michigan) ; LL. D. (Il¬
linois) ; Professor of Astronomy, Director of Washburn Observa¬
tory and Director of Graduate School, University of Wis¬
consin ; Secretary, Astronomical and Astrophysical So¬
ciety of America.
Congdon, Bussell T., 129 Beacon St., Boston, Mass.
A. B. (Ripon). Student, Harvard Medical School.
Crosby, Henry A., 453 Van Bnren St., Milwaukee.
Clerk, Loan Department, Northwestern Mutual Life Insurance Com¬
pany ; Vice-President, Wisconsin Archaeological Society ; Di¬
rector, The Century Corporation.
Culver, Garry Eugene, 1103 Main St., Stevens Point.
A. M. (Denison). Professor of Physical Science, State Normal School.
Daniells, William Willard, 515 Horth Carroll St., Madison.
M. S., Sc. D. (Michigan Agricultural). Professor Emeritus of Chem¬
istry, University of Wisconsin.
Dean, Alletta F., Madison.
Ph. B., Ph. M. (Wisconsin). Instructor in Biology, Madison High
School.
Active Members.
943
Dearborn, Walter Eenno, 218 West Gilman St., Madison.
A. B., A. M. (Wesleyan) ; Ph. D. (Columbia). Assistant Professor of
Education, University of Wisconsin.
Dennis, Alfred Lewis Pinneo, 518 Wisconsin Av., Madison.
A. B. (Princeton) ; Ph. D. (Columbia). Professor of European His¬
tory, University of Wisconsin.
Denniston, Rollin Henry, Science Hall, Madison.
Ph. G., B. S., Ph. D. (Wisconsin). Assistant Professor of Botany,
University of Wisconsin.
Dernehl, Paul Herman, 942 Second St., Milwaukee.
B. S. (Wisconsin). Student, Johns Hopkins University Medical
School.
Desmond, Humphrey L, 395 East Water St., Milwaukee.
B. L. (Wisconsin) ; A. M. (Notre Dame). Lawyer.
Dietrich, Otto, 730 Grand Av., Milwaukee.
Ph. D. (Halle). Director, Milwaukee University School.
Dodge, Robert Elkin Heil, 15 W. Gorham St., Madison.
A. B., A. M. (Harvard), Assistant Professor of English, University
of Wisconsin.
Dowling, Linnaeus Wayland, 234 Breese Terrace, Madison.
Ph. D. (Clark). Assistant Professor of Mathematics, University of
Wisconsin.
Downes, Robert Hugh, 53 West Algoma St., Oshkosh.
B. L. (Wisconsin).
Dresden, Benjamin Mack, 229 Hew York Av., Oshkosh.
Ph. B. (Baldwin) ; A. M. (Wooster). Instructor in German and Di¬
rector of Summer Session, State Normal School.
Dudley, William H., Platteville.
Instructor in Biology, State Normal School.
Duval, Edmund Pendleton Randolph,
214 Brooks Si., Madison.
B. S. (Texas) ; A. M. (Harvard). Instructor in Mathematics, Uni¬
versity of Wisconsin.
Elliott, Edward Charles, 407 Wisconsin Av., Madison.
B. S'., A. M. (Nebraska) ; Ph. D. (Columbia). Associate Professor
of Education, University of Wisconsin.
944 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts, and Letters .
Ellsworth, William H., 3302 Wells St., Milwaukee.
President, Ellsworth and Thayer Manufacturing Company.
Ely, Richard Theodore, 237 Prospect Av., Madison.
A. B., A. M. (Columbia) ; Ph. D. (Heidelberg) ; LL. D. (Hobart). Pro¬
fessor of Political Economy, University of Wisconsin ; Presi¬
dent, American Association for Labor Legislation.
Erickson, Erank Morton, 529 Woodside Av.,, Ripon.
A. B. (Wabash) ; A. M. (Chicago). Professor of Greek, Ripon College.
Erlanger, Joseph, 301 Johnson Court, Madison.
B. S. (California) ; M. D. (Johns Hopkins). Professor of Physio-logy,
University of Wisconsin.
Ealge, Louis, Manitowoc.
B. S. (Wisconsin); M. D. (Rush). Physician; Vice-President, Wiscon¬
sin Archaeological Society.
Earley, John Herbert, 637 Du-rkee St., Appleton.
M. S. (Lawrence). Instructor in Philosophy, Lawrence University.
Eenneman, Hevin Melancthon, Cincinnati, O.
A. B. (Heidelberg) ; A. M., Ph. D. (Chicago). Professor of Geology,
University of Cincinnati.
Eepw'ry, George Bowman, 19 Woodland Court, Milwaukee.
Architect (Ferry and Clas).
Einger, William, 297 12th St., Milwaukee.
Insurance, Loans and Real Estate Broker.
Einkler, Adolph, 612 Commerce St., Milwaukee.
Assistant Manager, Albert Trostel and Sons ; President, Board of
Trustees, National German- American Teachers’ Seminary ; Pres¬
ident, German-English Academy.
Eischer, Richard, 119 East Johnson St., Madison.
Ph. C., B. S. (Michigan) ; Ph. D. (Marburg). Assistant Professor of
the Theory and Practice of Pharmacy, University of Wis¬
consin ; State Chemist, Wisconsin.
Active Members.
945
Fish, Carl Russell, 625 Mendota Court, Madison.
A. B. (Brown)'; A. M., Ph. D. (Harvard). Associate Professor of
American History, University of Wisconsin.
Fling, Harry R., 601 Jackson St., Oshkosh.
A. B. (Bowdoin) ; Professor of Biology, State Normal School.
Folkmar, Daniel, 368 Cass St., Milwaukee.
A. B., A. M. (Western); S. D. (Brussels); D. O. (Paris).
Frost, William Dodge, 310 Bruen St., Madison.
B. S., M. S. (Minnesota); Ph. D. (Wisconsin). Associate Professor
of Bacteriology, University of Wisconsin.
Gay, Lucy Maria, 216 North Pinckney St., Madison.
B. L. (Wisconsin). Assistant Professor of Romance Languages, Uni¬
versity of Wisconsin.
Giese, William Frederick, 2022 Jefferson St., Madison.
A. B., A. M. (Harvard). Associate Professor of Romance Languages,
University of Wisconsin.
Gilbert, Edward Martinius, Superior.
A. B. (Wisconsin). Instructor in Botany, State Normal School.
Gilmore, Eugene Allen, 1607 Adams St., Madison.
A. B. (De Pauw) ; LL. B. (Harvard). Professor of Law, University
of Wisconsin.
Goddard, Henry FT., 501 College Ay., Waukesha.
Ph. B. (Michigan). Professor of Biology. Carroll College.
Gordon, Mrs. George, 1144 Humboldt Ay., Milwaukee.
Graenicher, Sigmund, 551 Seventh Si., Milwaukee.
Ph. D. (Basel) ; M. D. (Miinchen). Physician.
Gregory, John Goadby, 717 Jefferson St., Milwaukee.
Associate Editor, Evening Wisconsin.
Griffith, Edward Merriam,
205 South Hamilton St., Madison.
State Forester ; Member, Wisconsin State Park Commission ; Lecturer
in Forestry, University of Wisconsin.
946 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts, and Letters.
Haase, Ewald, 621 Earwell Av., Milwaukee.
Secretary, Milwaukee Gas Light Company.
Haberstich, Felicie M., Milwaukee.
Diploma, Academy of Neuchatel ; A. M. (Coates). Professor of
French and Head of Johnston Hall, Milwaukee-Downer College.
Haertel, Martin Henry, 1104 West Johnson St., Madison.
Ph. B. (Chicago) ; Ph. D. (Wisconsin). Instructor in German, Uni¬
versity of Wisconsin.
Haessler, Lnise,
Whittier Hall, 1230 Amsterdam Av., Hew York, H. Y.
A. B. (Chicago). Instructor in German, Normal College of the City of
New York.
Hall, Edward Bennington, Madison.
B. S. (Drury). Assistant Geologist, Wisconsin Geological and Nat¬
ural! History Survey.
Hancock, Edward Lee, La Eayette, Ind.
B. S., M. S. (Wisconsin). Assistant Professor of Applied Mechanics,
Purdue University.
Hardenberg, Christian Bernhardus, Philadelphia, Pa.
A. B., A. M. (Wisconsin). Harrison Fellow in Zoology, University of
Pennsylvania.
Harper, Robert Ahner, 444 Charter St., Madison.
A. B. (Oberlin) ; Ph. D. (Bonn). Professor of Botany, University of
Wisconsin.
Harwood, Mary Corinthia, 121 Thorn S’t., Ripon.
B. L., M. L. (Lawrence). Professor of French and German and Dean
of Women, Ripon College.
Hillyer, Homer Winthrop, Farmington, Conn.
B. S. (Wisconsin) ; Ph. D. (Johns Hopkins).
Hohlfeld, Alexander Rudolph, 621 Frances St., Madison.
Ph. D. (Leipzig). Professor of German, University of Wisconsin;
Member of Executive Council, Modern Language Association
of America; Member of Board of Administration, Na¬
tional German-American Teachers’ Seminary,
Milwaukee.
Active Members .
947
Hollister, Albert Henry, 17 Langdon St., Madison.
Pharmacist.
Holmes, Samuel Jackson, 133 East Gorham St., Madison.
B. S'., M. S. (California) ; Ph. D. (Chicago). Assistant Professor of
Zoology, University of Wisconsin.
Hubbard, Erank Gaylord,
277 Langdon St., Madison.
A. B. (Williams) ; Ph. D. (Johns Hopkins). Professor of the English
Language, University of Wisconsin.
Hutton, Andrew J.,
Box 378, Waukesha.
Superintendent, Wisconsin Industrial School for Boys.
Hyer, Erank S., 307 Division St., Stevens Point.
Institute Conductor, State Normal School.
Jana, Ashutosh,
Birulia, Haria P. 0., District of Midnapur, India.
Vidyaranya. Physician ; Librarian. Medinapur Scientific Library.
J astro w, Joseph,
222 Langdon St., Madison.
A. B., A. M. (Pennsylvania) ; Ph. D. (Johns Hopkins). Professor of
Psychology, University of Wisconsin.
Johnson, Arden Richard,
308 Mills St., Madison.
B. S. (Wisconsin). Assistant in Organic Chemistry, University of
Wisconsin.
Johnson, Warren Seymour, Milwaukee Club, Milwaukee.
Mechanical Engineer.
Jones, James Lloyd, Hillside.
Dairyman and Farmer ; Regent, University of Wisconsin.
Juday, Chancey,
610 Lake St., Madison.
A. M. (Indiana). Biologist, Wisconsin Geological and Natural His¬
tory Survey.
Kahlenberg, Louis,
234 Lathrop St., Madison.
B. S., M. S. (Wisconsin) ; Ph. D. (Leipzig). Professor of Chemistry,
University of Wisconsin; Vice-President, American Elec¬
trochemical Society ; Councilor-at-!arge, American
Chemical Society.
948 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts, and Letters .
Kimball, Mather Dean, 900 Summit Av., Milwaukee.
A.„B., A. M. (Northwestern).
Kind, John Louis, The Irving, Sterling Court, Madison.
A. B., A. M. (Nebraska) ; Ph. D. (Columbia). Instructor in German,
University of Wisconsin.
King, Franklin Hiram, 1540 University Av., Madison.
Koelker, William E.2 422 Forth Henry St., Madison.
Ph. D. (Berlin). Instructor in Organic Chemistry, University of Wis¬
consin.
Kremers, Edward, 1720 Jackson St., Madison.
Ph. G., B. S. (Wisconsin) ; Ph. D. (Gottingen). Director of Course
in Pharmacy and Professor of Pharmaceutical Chemistry, Uni¬
versity of Wisconsin.
Krueger, Henry, 385 27th Av., Milwaukee.
Principal, Twelfth District School, No. 1.
Kuhn, Harry, Toledo, Ohio.
Clerk, with Franc, Heyn and Company.
Kutchin, Mrs. Harriet Lehmann,
804 Chestnut St., Missoula, Mont.
A. B. (Ripon) ; A. M. (Northwestern). Engaged in zoological research.
Laird, Arthur Gordon, 21 Mendota Court, Madison.
Ph. D. (Cornell). Assistant Professor of Greek and Comparative Phi¬
lology, University of Wisconsin.
Lamb, Francis Jones, 212 Forth Carroll St., Madison.
Lawyer.
Lannerd, Willard, 1750 Grand Av., Kacine.
B. S'. (Purdue). Instructor in Science and Mathematics, Racine High
School.
Legler, Henry E., 215 Forth Pinckney St., Madison.
Secretary, Wisconsin Free Library Commission ; Secretary of Univer¬
sity Extension, University of Wisconsin.
Active Members.
949
Leith, Charles Kenneth, 240 Langdon St., Madison.
B. S., Ph. D. (Wisconsin). Professor of Geology, University of Wis¬
consin ; Non-resident Professor of Structural and Metamorphic
Geology, University of Chicago ; Assistant Geologist,
United States Geological Survey.
Lenher, Victor, 158 Summit Av., Madison.
Ph. D. (Pennsylvania). Professor of Chemistry, University of Wiscon¬
sin.
Libby, Orin Grant, 409 South Sixth St., Grand Forks, FT. D.
B. L., M. L., Ph. D. (Wisconsin). Professor of History, University of
North Dakota ; Secretary, State Historical Society of North Dakota.
Lighty, William Henry, 1610 Madison St., Madison.
Ph. B. (Cornell). Secretary of Correspondence Work, University of
Wisconsin.
Ldoyd- Jones, Thomas K., Menomonie.
B. S. (Wisconsin). Principal, Menomonie High School.
Lutman, Benjamin Franklin, 310 Brnen St., Madison.
A. B. (Missouri) ; A. M. (Wisconsin). Fellow in Botany, University
of Wisconsin.
March, Herman William, 625 Langdon St., Madison.
A. B., A. M. (Michigan). Instructor in Mathematics, University of
Wisconsin.
Marks, Solon, 6 Prospect Av., Milwaukee.
M. D. (Rush). Professor Emeritus of Fractures and Dislocations and
Military Surgery, Wisconsin College of Physicians and Sur¬
geons.
Marquette, William George, 542 West Johnson St., Madison.
Ph. G. (Northwestern) ; B. S., Ph. D. (Wisconsin). Instructor in
Botany, University of Wisconsin.
Marshald, Ruth, Appleton.
M. S. (Wisconsin). Teacher, Appleton High School.
Marshadd, William Stanley, 116 East Gorham St., Madison.
B. S. (Swarthmore) ; Ph. D. (Leipzig). Associate Professor of Ento¬
mology, University of Wisconsin.
950 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts, and Letters.
Marston, Oliver Jones, 234 Elm St., Bipon.
A. B., A. M. (Greer). Professor of History and Political Economy,
Ripon College.
Maurer, Edward Bose, 215 Prospect Av., Madison.
B. C. E. (Wisconsin). Professor of Mechanics, University of Wisconsin.
Me Oil vary, Evander Bradley,
1902 Arlington Place, Madison.
A. B. (Davidson) ; A. M. (Princeton) ; Ph. D. (California). Professor
of Philosophy, University of Wisconsin.
McKenna, Maurice, 114 Third St.;, Fond du Lac.
Lawyer ; President, Bar Association of Fond du Lac County.
McKenny, Charles, 2444 Prairie St., Milwaukee.
B. S. (Michigan Agricultural) ; A. B.. A. M. (Olivet). President,
State Normal School.
McLeod, Andrew Fridley, 313 Mills St., Madison.
Ph. D. Instructor in Soils, University of Wisconsin.
McMinn, Amelia, 172 21st St., Milwaukee.
B. S. (Wisconsin). Instructor in Biology, Milwaukee West Side High
School.
Meachem, John Goldesbrough, Jr., 745 College Av., Bacine.
M. D. (Rush). Physician.
Merrill, Harriet Bell,
Milwaukee Public Museum, Milwaukee.
B. S., M. S. (Wisconsin). Lecturer to Milwaukee Schools.
Merrill, J. A., Superior.
B. S. (Harvard). Director of Science Courses, State Normal School.
Merrill, Mrs. Sherburne S., 3355 Grand Av., Milwaukee.
First Vice-President, Wisconsin Humane Society ; Second Vice-Presi¬
dent, Woman’s Club of Wisconsin ; President, Public School
Art League.
Metzdorf, William, St. Francis.
Professor of Natural Sciences, St. Francis Seminary.
Active Members .
951
Meyer, Balthasar Henry, 1937 Arlington*, Place, Madison.
B. I j., Ph. D. (Wisconsin). Professor of Political Economy, Univer¬
sity of Wisconsin ; Member, Wisconsin State Railroad Commission.
Miller, William Snow, 422 North Henry St., Madison.
M. D. (Yale). Associate Professor of Anatomy, University of Wiscon¬
sin.
Mitchell, Irving N., 2921 Cedar St, Milwaukee.
Ph. B. (Michigan). Professor of Biology, State Normal School.
Monroe, C. E., 436 Jackson St, Milwaukee.
Moody, Seth Enoch, 919 West Johnson St., Madison.
B. S. (Dartmouth) ; M. S., Ph. D. (Yale). Instructor in Analytical
Chemistry, University of Wisconsin.
Morris, William Augustus Pringle, Howard Piace, Madison.
A. B. (Hamilton). Lawyer.
Munro, Dana Carleton, 630 Frances St., Madison.
A. B., A. M. (Brown). Professor of European History, University
of Wisconsin.
Nader, John, 302 West Main St., Madison.
Architect and Civil Engineer.
Neidig, William Jonathan, 435 Hawthorne Place, Madison.
A. B. Instructor in English, University of Wisconsin.
Neilson, Walter Hopper, 114 Garfield Av., Milwaukee.
M. D. (Rush). Dean of the Medical Faculty and Professor of the
Principles and Practice of Medicine and Clinical Medicine,
Milwaukee Medical College.
Nichols, Susie Percival, Shelbyville, Kentucky.
B. S. (Cornell) ; Ph. D. (Wisconsin).
Nicholson, Dexter Putnam, 534 John St., Appleton.
B. S., M. S. (Lawrence). Professor of Geology, Lawrence University.
Norton, Kichard Greenleaf, 117 West Mifflin St., Madison.
Mechanician.
59— S. & A.
952 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts, and Letters.
Noyes, George Henry, 204 Prospect Av., Milwaukee.
A. B., LL. B., LL. D. (Wisconsin). Lawyer; General Counsel, North¬
western Mutual Life Insurance Company.
Olin, John Myers, 762 Langdion St.,. Madison.
A. B., A. M. (Williams); LL. B. (Wisconsin). Lawyer; Professor
of Law, University of Wisconsin.
Olive, Edgar William, Brookings, S. 33.
B. S‘„ M. S. (Wabash) ; A. M., Ph. D. (Harvard). Professor of Botany,
South Dakota Agricultural College.
O’Shea, M. Vincent, 140 Langdon St., Madison.
B. L. (Cornell). Professor of the Science and Art of Education, Uni¬
versity of Wisconsin.
Otis, Daniel Henry, 1717 Madison St., Madison.
M. S. (Kansas Agricultural). Assistant to the Dean of the College
of Agriculture and Associate Professor of Animal Nutrition,
University of Wisconsin.
Overton, James Bertram, 512 Wisconsin Av., Madison.
Ph. B. (Michigan) ; Ph. D. (Chicago). Assistant Professor of Botany,
University of “Wisconsin.
Owen, Edward Thomas, 614 State St., Madison.
A. B., Ph. D. (Yale). Professor of French and Linguistics, Univer¬
sity of Wisconsin.
Paetow, Louis John, 972 Ninth St, Milwaukee.
B. L. (Wisconsin) ; Ph. D. (Pennsylvania). Instructor in History,
University of Wisconsin.
Parker, Fletcher Andrew, 14 W. Gilman St., Madison.
Professor Emeritus of Music, University of Wisconsin ; Vice-President,
Music Teachers’ National Association.
Parkinson, John Barber, 516 Wisconsin Av., Madison.
A. B., A. M. (Wisconsin). Vice-President and Professor Emeritus of
Constitutional and International Law, University of Wisconsin.
Patterson, David Leslie, 621 Frances St., Madison.
B. S. (Pennsylvania State College). Instructor in History, Univer¬
sity of Wisconsin.
Active Members.
953
Patzer, Otto, Seattle, Wash.
B. L. , M. h., Ph. D. (Wisconsin). Assistant Professor of French,
University of Washington.
Pauly, Hugo Albert, 536 29th St., Milwaukee.
B. S. (Wisconsin). Superintendent of Schools, Milwaukee County.
Peabody, Arthur, 630 Prances St., Madison.
B. S. (Illinois). Supervising Architect, University of Wisconsin.
Pence, William David, 212 West Gilman St., Madison.
C. E. (Illinois). Professor of Railway Engineering, University of Wis¬
consin ; Engineer, Wisconsin State Board of Assessment and
Wisconsin State Railroad Commission.
Peppell, S’. V., 1538 Horth High St., Columbus, Ohio.
Chemical Engineer.
Pereles, James Madlison, 529 Astor St., Milwaukee.
LL. B. (Wisconsin). Lawyer; President, Milwaukee Public Library;
Chairman, Wisconsin Free Library Commission ; President,
Citizens’ Trust Company.
Pereles, Jennie W. (Mrs. J. M.), 529 Astor St., Milwaukee.
Secretary, Milwaukee Flower Mission and Mission Kindergarten.
Pereles, Hellie W. (Mrs. T. J.), 535 Astor St., Milwaukee.
Pereles, Thomas Jefferson, 535 Astor St., Milwaukee.
LL. B. (Wisconsin). Lawyer; Vice-President, Citizens’ Trust Com¬
pany.
Perisho, Ell wood Chappelle, Vermillion, S. D.
B. S., M. S. (Earlham) ; M. S. (Chicago). Professor of Geology, Uni¬
versity of South Dakota ; State Geologist, South Dakota.
Philler, Hugo, Waukesha.
M. D. (Greifswald). Physician; Health Commissioner, City of
Waukesha.
Phillips, James David, 444 Charter St., Madison.
B. S. (Illinois). Professor of Drawing, University of Wisconsin.
954 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts , and Letters.
Plantz, Samuel, 545 Union St., Appleton.
A. M. (Lawrence) ; Ph. D. (Boston) ; D. D. (Albion) ; LL. D. (Baker).
President, Lawrence University.
Porter, William, 785 College Av., Beloit.
A. B., A. M., D. D. (Williams). Professor Emeritus of Latin, Beloit
College.
Post, Harriet L., 1182 Humboldt Av., Milwaukee.
M. D. (Woman’s Medical College of New York Infirmary). Instructor
in Biology, East Side High School.
Pretts, William Walter, Platteville.
B. S. (Wisconsin) ; M. D. (Northwestern). Physician and Surgeom;
Commissioner of Health.
Pringle, Ralph W., Appleton.
A. B. (Harvard) ; M. S. (St. Lawrence). Principal, Appleton High
School.
Puls, Arthur John, Wells Building, Milwaukee.
B. L>. (Wisconsin); M. D. (Heidelberg). Physician; Regent, University
of Wisconsin.
Putney, Frank Howell, 215 Wisconsin Av., Waukesha.
Lawyer ; President, Waukesha Malleable Iron Company ; President,
Waukesha Gas and Electric Company ; President, Waukesha
Springs Sanitarium ; Vice-President, Waukesha Na¬
tional Bank.
Reed, George Matthew, Columbia, Mo.
A. B. (Geneva); A. M., Ph. D. (Wisconsin). Assistant Professor of
Botany, University of Missouri.
Regan, Katherine Patricia, 123 Korth Butler St., Madison.
B. L. (Wisconsin). Assistant Principal, Fond du Lac High School.
Reul, Matilda E., 138 First St., Baraboo.
B. S., M. S. (Wisconsin).
Rice, Ole S., Deerfield.
B. S. (Wisconsin). Principal, Deerfield High School.
Active Members .
955
Robinson, Henry Douglas, Racine.
A. B., A. M. (Racine) ; D. D. Warden of the Grammar School, Racine
College.
Roeseler, John Samuel, 316 Arlington St., Waukesha.
B. L. (Wisconsin). Principal, State Industrial School for Boys.
Rogers, Augustus J., 318 Ogden Av., Milwaukee.
Ph. B. (Cornell). Principal, South Division High School.
Rohde, Hugo William, 635 Second S’t., Milwaukee.
B. S. (Wisconsin). Chemist, with Industrial Chemical Institute.
Ruenzel, Henry Gottlieb, 733 Third St., Milwaukee.
Ph. G. (Wisconsin). Pharmacist; Member, State Board of Pharmacy.
Russell, Harry Luman, 1532 University Av., Madison.
B. S., M. S. (Wisconsin) ; Ph. D. (Johns Hopkins). Dean, College of
Agriculture, University of Wisconsin ; Director, State Hygienic
Laboratory.
Sage, Adolphus H., 130 Elm St., Oshkosh.
B. S. (Cornell). Teacher of Physics, State Normal School.
Salmon, Edward Payson, 618 Church St., Beloit.
A. M. (Beloit). Congregational Minister; Second Vice-President, Board
of Trustees, Beloit College.
Sanborn, John Bell, 8 West Gilman St., Madison.
B. L., M. L.} Ph. D. (Wisconsin). Lawyer; Treasurer, Wisconsin
State Bar Association.
Sandsten, Emil Peter, 221 Brooks St., Madison.
B. S., M. S. (Minnesota) ; Ph. D. (Cornell). Professor of Horticulture,
University of Wisconsin.
Sanford, Albert Hart, 1052 Clark St., Stevens Point.
B. L. (Wisconsin) ; A. B. (Harvard). Instructor in History and Civica,
State Normal School.
Schinner, Augustin E., 628 Bay St., Superior.
D. D. Bishop.
956 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters.
Scillundt, Herman, Columbia, Mo.
B. S., M. S., Ph. D. (Wisconsin). Assistant Professor of Physical
Chemistry, University of Missouri.
Scott, Winfield G., 1109 Park Av., Racine.
Director, Private Testing Laboratory.
Seifert, Paul A., Gotham.
Ac. De. (Academy of Forestry, Tharandt, Saxony). Taxidermist.
Sessinghaus, Gustavus, Farrington, Mo.
M. E. (Columbia) ; M. S. (Wisconsin). Mining Engineer.
Severson, Henry P., Winneconne.
Sheldon, Hina Mary, 421 Watson St., Ripon.
A. B. (Ripon) ; Fellow in English, Ripon College.
Shephard, William Henry,
1623 Aldrich Av. H., Minneapolis, Minn.
Ph. B., A. M. (Wisconsin). Instructor in History, Central High
School.
Sherman, Helen, 176 Mason St., Milwaukee.
B. S., A. M. (Wisconsin). Teacher of Science, Milwaukee East Di¬
vision High School.
Sherman, Lewis, 176 Mason St-., Milwaukee.
B. S., A. M. (Union) ; M. D. (New York). Physician and Pharmacist.
SiEKEte, William Christian, 251 Seventeenth St., Milwaukee.
B. S. (Wisconsin). Secretary and Treasurer, Manthey-Sieker Com¬
pany.
Slaughter, Moses Stephen, 633 Prances St., Madison.
A. B., A. M. (De Pauw) ; Ph. D. (Johns Hopkins). Professor of
Latin, University of Wisconsin.
Small, Maurice H., 190 Lincoln Av., Oshkosh.
A. B. (Colby). Professor of Psychology and Pedagogy, State Normal
School.
Smith, Edwin Raymond, 1029 University Av., Madison.
A. B. (Illinois). Instructor in Mathematics, University of Wisconsin.
Active Members.
957
Smith, Erasmus Gilbert, 649 Harrison Av., Beloit.
A. B., A. M. (Amlierst) ; A. M., Ph. D. (Gottingen). Professor of
Chemistry, Beloit College.
Smith, Hugh Allison, 1804 Madison St., Madison.
A. B., A. M. (Missouri). Professor of Romance Languages, Univer¬
sity of Wisconsin.
Smith, Leonard Sewell, 939 University Av., Madison.
B. C. E., C. E. (Wisconsin). Associate Professor of Topographic and
Geodetic Engineering, University of Wisconsin ; Engineer State
Levee Commission ; In Charge of Hydrography, Wis¬
consin Geological and Natural History Sur¬
vey ; Hydrographer, United States
Geological Survey.
Smith, Walter McMynn, 112 Langdon St., Madison.
A. B. (Wisconsin). Librarian, University of Wisconsin.
Smythe, Sidney T., Delafield.
A. B., A. M. (St. Stephen’s) ; B. D. (Nashotah) ; D. D.. Ph. D.
(Hobart). President, St. John’s Military Academy’; Member,
Committee on Canons, Protestant Episcopal Church.
Snow, Benjamin Warner, 135 West Gilman St., Madison.
Ph. D. (Berlin). Professor of Physics, University of Wisconsin.
Sparling, Samuel Edward, 505 North Carroll St., Madison.
A. B. (Indiana) ; Ph. D. (Wisconsin). Assistant Professor of Politi¬
cal Science, University of Wisconsin ; Member, National Munici¬
pal League ; Member, Committee on Administration, Amer¬
ican Political Science Association ; Editor, The Mu¬
nicipality; Secretary, League of Wisconsin Mu¬
nicipalities.
Squier, George Hull, Trempealeau.
Dairyman.
Starr, William J., 135 Marston Av., Eau Claire.
LL. B. (Columbia). Member, Board of Commissioners of Fisheries,
Wisconsin ; President, Eau O’a'ire Public Library.
Stoddart, Charles William, 102 Spooner Av., Madison.
A. B., A. M. (Columbia). Assistant Professor of Soils, University of
Wisconsin.
958 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters.
Stout, Arlow Burdette, 224 Brooks St., Madison.
Student, University of Wisconsin.
Talbert, George A., 1060 Main St., Stevens Point.
B. S., M. S. (Ohio Wesleyan). Instructor in Biology, State Normal
School.
Tawney, Guy Allen, 717 Chapin St., Beloit.
A. B., A. M. (Princeton) ; Ph. D. (Leipzig). Professor of Mental Sci¬
ence and Philosophy, Beloit College.
Taylor, Albert Hoyt, Science Hall, Madison.
B. S. (Northwestern). Assistant Professor of Physics, University of
Wisconsin.
Teller, Edgar Eugene, 165 27th St., Milwaukee.
President, Wisconsin Natural History Society.
Thomas, Edward Kirby, Superior.
B. L. (Wisconsin).
Thorkelson, Halsten Joseph Berford,
311 Charter St., Madison.
B. S., M. E. (Wisconsin). Assistant Professor of Steam Engineering,
University of Wisconsin.
Thwaites, Reuben Gold, 260 Langdion St., Madison.
LL. D. (Wisconsin). Secretary and Superintendent, State Historical
Society of Wisconsin ; Chairman, Wisconsin Free Library Com¬
mission.
Tibbals, Charles Austin, Jr., 515 Horth Henry St., Madison.
A. B. (Wisconsin). Instructor in Chemistry and Assaying, Univer¬
sity of Wisconsin.
Titus, Winifred, Milwaukee.
B. S., M. S. (Wisconsin). Professor of Chemistry, Milwaukee-Downer
College.
Torelle, Ellen, 1 Milwaukee.
Ph. B., A. M. (Minnesota). Dean and Professor of Biology, Mil¬
waukee-Downer College.
Active Members.
959
Turneaure, Frederick Eugene, 166 Prospect Av., Madison.
C. E. (Cornell). Professor of Engineering and Dean of the College
of Engineering, University of Wisconsin.
Turner, Frederick Jackson, 629 Frances St., Madison.
A. B., A. M. (Wisconsin) ; Ph. D. (Johns Hopkins). Professor of
American History, University of Wisconsin ; Member of
Council, American Historical Association.
Tyler, Abram Pay, 920 College Av., Beloit.
A. G. O. (American Guild of Organists). Professor of Music and
College Organist, Beloit College.
Uihlein, August, 332 Galena St., Milwaukee.
President, Second Ward Savings Bank ; Secretary, Joseph Schlitz
Brewing Company.
Updike, Eugene Grover, 148 Langdon St., Madison.
B. S., M. S., D. D. (Lawrence). Pastor, First Congregational Church,
Madison.
Van Vleck, Edward Burr, 504 Wisconsin Av., Madison.
A. B., A. M. (Wesleyan) ; Ph. D. (Gottingen). Professor of Mathe¬
matics, University of Wisconsin ; Editor, Transactions of the
| American, Mathematical Society.
Viebahn, Charles Frederick, 703 Western Av., Watertown.
Superintendent of Schools and Principal of High School.
Vogel, Guido Charles, 583 Cass St., Milwaukee.
B. S. (Wisconsin).
Vorhies, Charles Taylor, 818 West Johnson St, Madison.
B. S. (Iowa Wesleyan). Assistant in Zoology, University of Wisconsin.
Voss, Ernst Karl Johann Heinrich,
218 West Gilman St., Madison.
Ph. D. (Leipzig). Professor of German Philology, University of Wis¬
consin ; Vice-President, Germanic Museum Association.
Wadmond, Samuel C.,
Delavan,
960 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts , and Letters .
Wagner, George, 1901 Jefferson St., Madison,
Ph. C. (Michigan) ; A. B. (Kansas) ; A. M. (Michigan). Instructor
in Zoology, University of Wisconsin.
Ward, Henry Levi, Milwaukee Public Museum, Milwaukee.
Director, Milwaukee Public Museum ; Vice-President, Wisconsin Natural
History Society.
Watson, Walter S., Whitewater,
Ph. B., M. S'. (Wesley). Professor of Biology and German, State
Normail School.
Watts, Oliver Patterson, 313 Johnson Court, Madison.
A. B. (Bowdoin) ; Ph. D. (Wisconsin). Instructor in Chemical Engi¬
neering, University of Wisconsin.
Weidman, Samuel, 410 North Henry St., Madison.
B. S., Ph. D. (Wisconsin). Geologist, Wisconsin Geological and
Natural History Survey.
West, George A., 97 Wisconsin St, Milwaukee.
Lawyer ; Trustee, Milwaukee Public Museum.
Whitcomb, Annabell Cook (Mrs. Henry P.),
721 Pranklin St., Milwaukee.
President, Board of Directors, Boys’ Busy Life Club.
Whitson, Andrew Eobinson, 1920 Arlington Place, Madison,
B. S. (Chicago). Professor of Soils and Drainage, University of Wis¬
consin ; Expert in Irrigation, United States Department of
Agriculture.
Wilson, Wilford M.,
Linculin Hall, Cornell University, Ithaca, N. Y.
Section Director, United States Department of Agriculture, Climate
and Crop Service of the Weather Bureau.
Wingate, Uranus 0. B.,
Hotel Aberdeen, Grand Av., Milwaukee.
M. D. (Dartmouth). Professor of Nervous and Mental Diseases, Wis¬
consin College of Physicians and Surgeons.
Corresponding Members.
961
Winslow, John Bradley, 131 Langdon St., Madison.
A. B., A. M. (Racine) ; LL. B., LL. D. (Wisconsin). Justice, Su¬
preme Court of Wisconsin ; President, Board of Visitors,
University of Wisconsin ; Trustee, Racine College.
Winteirbotham, John Miller, State Capitol, Madison.
LL. B. (Wisconsin). Secretary, Wisconsin State Railroad Commission.
Wolff, Henry Charles, 1035 University Av., Madison.
B. S., M. S. (Wisconsin). Instructor in Mathematics, University of
Wisconsin.
Woll, Fritz Wilhelm, 424 Charter St., Madison.
B. S., Ph. B. (Christiania) ; M. S'., Ph. D. (Wisconsin). Professor of
Agricultural Chemistry and Chemist to the Agricultural Ex¬
periment Station, University of Wisconsin.
Wright, Clement Blake Bergin, 284 Martin St.; Milwaukee.
A. B., A. M. (Toronto) ; B. D. (Nashotah) ; Ph. D. (Kansas City) ;
Clergyman ; Canon, Milwaukee Cathedral ; Secretary, Diocese
of Milwaukee ; Librarian, Diocesan Library) ; Exam¬
ining Chaplain ; Editor, Church Times.
Youtz, Lewis Adidison, Appleton.
Ph. B., M. S. (Simpson) ; Ph. D. (Columbia). Professor of Chemistry,
Lawrence University.
Zimmerman, Oliver Brunner, 201 Kelley St., Charles City, la.
B. S., M. E. (Wisconsin). Mechanical Engineer, with Hart-Parr
Company ; Honorary Vice-President, Wisconsin Audubon So¬
ciety.
CORRESPONDING MEMBERS.
Abbott, Charles Conrad^, Trenton, FT. J.
M. D. (Pennsylvania-).
Armsby, Henry Prentiss, State College, Pa.
B. S. (Worcester Polytechnic) ; Ph. B., Ph. D. (Yale) ; LL. D. (Wis¬
consin). Director of Experiment Station; Expert in Animal
Nutrition, United States Department of Agriculture.
Bascom, John, Park St, Williamstown, Mass.
A. B., A. M. (Williams) ; D. D. (Iowa) ; LL. D. (Amherst, Williams,
Wisconsin). Greylock Commissioner.
962 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts, and Letters,
Bennett, Charles Edwin, 1 Grove Place, Ithaca, N. Y.
A. B., Litt. D. (Brown). Professor of Latin Language and Litera¬
ture, Cornell University.
Bridge, Norman, Auditorium Building, Los Angeles, Cal.
A. M. (Lake Forest) ; M. D. (Northwestern, Rush). Emeritus Pro¬
fessor of Medicine, Rush Medicail College.
Buckley, Ernest Robertson, Holla, Mo.
B. S., Ph. D. (Wisconsin). State Geologist and Director of the Mis¬
souri Bureau of Geology and Mines.
Caverno, Charles, Lombard, Ill.
A. B., A. M. (Dartmouth) ; LL. D. (Colorado). Clergyman, retired.
Coulter, John Merle, University of Chicago, Chicago, Ill.
A. B., A. M., Ph. D. (Hanover) ; Ph. D. (Indiana). Head Professor
of Botany, University of Chicago.
Crooker, Joseph Henry,
820 South St., Roslindale, Boston, Mass.
D. D. (St. Lawrence, Nashville). Minister, Unitarian Church.
Davis, Floyd,
317 Iowa Loan and Trust Building, Des Moines, Iowa.
Ph. B., C. E., E. M. (Missouri) ; Ph. D. (Miami). Analytical and
Consulting Chemist.
Eaton, Edward Dwight, St. Johnsbury, Vermont.
A. B., A. M. (Beloit) ; B. D. (Yale) ; LL. D. (Wisconsin) ; D. D.
(Northwestern, Yale). Pastor, North Congregational Church,
St. Johnsbury.
Eckels, William Alexander, Oxford, Ohio.
A. B., A. M. (Dickinson) ; Ph. D. (Johns Hopkins). Professor of
Greek, Miami University.
Eallows, Samuel, 967 West Monroe Av., Chicago, Ill.
A. B., A. M., LL. D. (Wisconsin) ; D. D. (Lawrence, Marietta).
Presiding Bishop, Reformed Episcopal Church ; President,
Board of Managers, Illinois State Reformatory.
Corresponding Members.
963
Hendrickson, George Lincoln,
5609 Monroe Av., Chicago, Ill.
A. B. (Johns Hopkins) ; L. H. D. (Western Reserve),
Latin, University of Chicago.
Professor of
Higley, William Kerr,
Ph. M. (Michigan).
Lincoln Park, Chicago, Ill.
Secretary, Chicago Academy of Sciences ; Ed¬
itor, Birds and Nature.
Hodge, Clifton Fremont, 3 Charlotte St., Worcester, Mass.
A. B. (Ripon) ; Ph. D. (Johns Hopkins). Professor of Physiology and
Neurology, and Professor of Biology in the Collegiate De¬
partment, Clark University.
Holden, Edward Singleton, \
United States Military Academy, West Point, FT. Y.
B. S., A. M. (Washington) ; S. D. (Pacific) ; LL. D. (Wisconsin, Co¬
lumbia). Astronomer.
Holland, Frederic May,
A. B. (Harvard).
Main St., Concord, Mass.
Retired Clergyman.
Hoskins, Leamder Miller, 365 Lincoln Av., Palo Alto, Cal.
M. S., C. E. (Wisconsin). Professor of Applied Mathematics, Leland
Stanford Jr. University.
Iddings, Joseph Paxson, 5730 Woodlawn Av., Chicago, Ill.
Ph. B. (Yale). Professor of Petrology, University of Chicago; Geolo¬
gist, United States Geological Survey.
Kinley, David,
Urbana, Ill.
A. B. (Yale) ; Ph. D. (Wisconsin). Dean of the Graduate School and
Professor of Economics, University of Illinois.
Leverett, Frank,
Ann Arbor, Mich.
B. Sc. (Iowa Agricultural). Geologist, United States Gedlogical Sur¬
vey.
Lurton, Freeman Ellsworth,
Fergus Falls, Minn.
B. S'., M. S. (Carleton) ; A. M. (Upper Iowa) ; Ph. D. (Gale). Super¬
intendent of Public Schools ; Member, Board of Directors,
Fergus Falls Public Library.
964 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts , and Letters .
Luther George Elmer,
262 South College Ay., Grand Rapids, Mich.
Cashier, Peoples’ Savings Bank ; Treasurer, Historical Society of Grand
Rapids.
Marx, Charles David, Palo Alto, Cal.
B. C. E. (Cornell) ; C. E. (Karlsruhe). Professor of Civil Engineering,
Leland Stanford Jr. University.
McClumpha, Charles Elint,
180 East Main St., Amsterdam, H. Y.
A. B., A. M. (Princeton) ; Ph. D. (Leipzig).
Moorehouse, George Wilton,
2069 East 96th St., Cleveland, O.
B. L., M. L. (Wisconsin) ; M. D. (Harvard). Physician to the Dis¬
pensary of Lakeside Hospital and Western Reserve University.
Hehrling, Henry, Palm Cottage Experiment Garden,
Gotha, Orange County, Fla.
Peet, Stephen Denison, 438 57th St., Chicago, Ill.
A. M., Ph. D. (Beloit). Clergyman; Editor, American Antiquarian
and Oriental Journal.
Potter, William Bleecker, 1225 Spruce St., St. Louis, Mo.
A. B., A. M., M. E., Sc. D. (Columbia). Mining Engineer and Metal¬
lurgist.
Power, Frederick Belding, 535 Warren St.., Hudson, FT. Y.
Ph. G. (Philadelphia College of Pharmacy) ; Ph. D. (Strassburg).
Director of Wellcome Chemical Research Laboratories, London,
England.
Salisbury, Rollin D., University of Chicago, Chicago, I1L
A. M., LL. D. (Beloit). Professor of Geographic Geology, Head of
the Department of Geography and Dean of the Graduate School
of Science, University of Chicago ; Geologist, United States
Geological Survey and State Geological Survey of New
Jersey.
Sawyer, Wesley Caleb, 725 Ashury St., San Jose, Cal.
A. B., A. M. (Harvard) ; A. M., Ph. D. (Gbttingen). Professor of
French and German and Lecturer on Teutonic Myth6!ogy, Uni¬
versity of the Pacific.
Corresponding Members.
965
Stone, Ormond, University Station, Charlottesville, Va.
A. M. (Chicago). Director of the Leander McCormick Observatory and
Professor of Practical Astronomy, University of Virginia.
Tolman, Albert Harris, 5407 Woodlawn Av., Chicago, III.
A. B. (Williar. ; Ph. D. (Strassburg). Assistant Professor of Eng¬
lish Literature, Ur' "rsity of Chicago.
Tolman, Herbert Cushing, Hashville, Tenn.
A. B., Ph. D. (Yale) ; D. D. (Nashville). Professor of Greek, Vander¬
bilt University ; Canon, All Saints’ Cathedral.
Townley, Sidney Dean, Ukiah, Cal.
B. S., M. S. (Wisconsin) ; Sc. D. (Michigan). Astronomer in Charge
of International Latitude Observatory ; Lecturer in Astronomy,
University of California ; Editor of Publications, Astro¬
nomical Society of the Pacific.
Trelease, William, Botanical Garden, St. Louis, Mo.
B. S. (Cornell) ; S. D. (Harvard) ; LL. D. (Wisconsin, Missouri,
Washington University). Director of Missouri Botanical Garden
and Henry Shaw School of Botany ; Engelmann Professor of
Botany, Washington University ; Vice-President, Academy
of Science of St. Louis ; Secretary, The Round Table,
St. Louis ; Honorary President, Engelmann Botan¬
ical Club, St. Louis ; Chairman, City Plans
Committee, Civic League, St. Louis.
Van de Warker, Ely, 404 Fayette Park, Syracuse, H. Y.
M. D. (Albany Medical and Union). Surgeon, Central New York Hos¬
pital for Women ; Consulting Physician, St. Ann’s Maternity Hos¬
pital ; Senior Surgeon, Women’s and Children’s Hospital ;
Commissioner of Education, Syracuse.
Verrill, Addison Emery, 86 Wh alley Av., Hew Haven, Conn.
B. S. (Harvard) ; A. M. (Yale). Professor of Zoology, Yale Uni¬
versity ; Curator of Zoology, Yale University Museum ; Presi¬
dent, Connecticut Academy of Arts and Sciences.
Win c hell. Hew ton Horace,
113 State St., Minneapolis, Minn.
A. M. (Michigan). Geologist and Archaeologist.
Young, Albert Adams,
531 South Claremont Av., Chicago, Ill.
A. B., A. M. (Dartmouth) ; B. D. (Andover). Clergyman.
966 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts , and Letters.
MEMBERS DECEASED
Information of whose decease has been received since the issue
of Volume XIV.
Andrews, Edmund, January 1904, at Chicago, I1L
A. B., A. M., ML D., LL. D. (Michigan). Professor of Clinical Sur¬
gery, Northwestern University ; Surgeon, Mercy Hospital ;
Consulting Surgeon, Michael Reese Hospital and Il¬
linois Hospital for Women and Children.
Butler, J ames Davie, November 20, 1905, at Madison.
A. B., A. M., LL. D. (Middlebury). Minister and Teacher.
Frankenburger, David Bower,
February 6, 1906, at Madison.
Ph. B., LL. B., A. M. (Wisconsin). Professor of Rhetoric and Ora¬
tory, University of Wisconsin.
Halsey, Rufus H., July 25, 1907, at Gogebic, Mich.
A. B. (Williams). President, State Normal School, Oshkosh.
Knowlton, Amos Arnold, April 14, 1906, at Madison.
A. B., A. M. (Bowdoin).
Lueders, Herman Frederick, July 2, 1904, at Sauk City.
B. S. (Wisconsin).
S haler, Nathaniel Southgate,
April 10, 1906, at Cambridge, Mass.
B. S., S'. D., LL. D. (Harvard). Professor of Geology, Harvard Uni¬
versity ; Dean of the Lawrence Scientific School.
Shipman, Stephen Vaughn,
November 12, 1905, at Chicago, Ill.
Architect.
Zimmerman, Charles Frederick A.,
June 20, 1906, at Milwaukee.
Ph. B. (Illinois Wesleyan) ; A. M. (Charles City). Principal, Sev¬
enteenth District School.
LIST OF EXCHANGES
OF THE
WISCONSIN ACADEMY OF SCIENCES, ARTS, AND
LETTERS.
GEORGE WAGNER.
The following list contains the names of all the organiza¬
tions and publications with which the Wisconsin Academy has
exchange relations at this date, July 1, 1907. The- organiza¬
tions marked with an asterisk are those whose publications are
received through the Wisconsin Geological and Natural His¬
tory survey. They do not, however, in any way represent the
full extent of cooperation between the Academy and the Sur¬
vey. It is only by such cooperation that we are enabled t>
arrange exchanges with many societies, and to receive the en¬
tire publications of others. In such cooperation, moreover,
the University of Wisconsin also has taken a prominent part.
It is highly desirable that those who may use this list should
submit the names of any organizations not found therein,
which they know to publish material of scientific value.
It should also be remembered that the Academy owns many
sets of publications of organizations now defunct or no longer
publishing, and whose names therefore are not to be found in
this list.
60— S. & A.
968 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts , cmd Letters,
NORTH AMERICA.
UNITED STATES.
Albany, N. Y.
New York State Library.
Ann Arbor, Mich.
Michigan Academy of Sciences.
Austin, Tex.
Texas Academy of Science.
Baltimore, Md.
Johns Hopkins University.
Beloit, Wis.
Library of Beloit College.
Berkeley, Cal.
University of California.
Boston, Mass.
American Academy of Arts and Sciences.
Boston Society of Natural History.
Massachusetts Institute of Technology.
Psyche, an Entomological Journal.
Brooklyn, N. Y.
Brooklyn Institute of Arts and Sciences.
New York Entomological Society.
Buffalo, N. Y.
Buffalo Society of Natural Sciences.
Cambridge, Mass.
American Ornithological Union.
Library of Harvard University.
*Museum of Comparative Zoology, Harvard University.
Champaign, Ill.
Illinois State Laboratory of Natural History.
Chapel Hill, N. C.
The Elisha Mitchell Scientific Society.
List of Exchanges .
969
Chicago, Ill.
Chicago Academy of Sciences.
Field Columbian Museum.
John Crerar Library.
Journal of Geology, University of Chicago.
Cincinnati, 0.
Cincinnati Society of Natural History.
Lloyd Museum and Library.
Cold Spring Harbor, N. Y.
Station for Experimental Evolution.
Colorado Springs, Colo.
Colorado College Scientific Society.
Columbia, Mo.
University of Missouri.
Columbus, 0.
*Geological Survey of Ohio.
Mycological Bulletin.
Ohio Academy of Sciences.
Ohio Archaeological and Historical Society.
Ohio State University.
Davenport, Iowa.
Davenport Academy of Natural Science.
Denver, Colo.
The Colorado Scientific Society.
Des Moines, Iowa.
Iowa Academy of Sciences.
Granville, 0.
Denison University.
Hartford, Conn.
*State Geological and Natural History Survey of Connecticut.
Indianapolis, Ind.
*Geological Survey of Indiana.
Indiana Academy of Science.
Iowa City, Iowa,
State University of Iowa, Natural History Laboratory.
970 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts, and Letters .
Ithaca, N. Y.
Cornell University.
Joliet, Ill.
Fern Bulletin.
Lawrence, Kan.
University of Kansas.
Lincoln, Neb.
Nebraska Academy of Sciences.
University of Nebraska.
Medford, Mass.
Tufts College.
Milwaukee, Wis.
Public Library.
Public Museum.
Wisconsin Archaeological Society.
Wisconsin Natural History Society.
Minneapolis, Minn.
♦Geological and Natural History Survey.
Minnesota Academy of Natural Science.
Montgomery, Ala.
♦Geological Survey of Alabama.
New Brighton, N. Y.
Natural Science Association of Staten Island.
New Haven, Conn.
Connecticut Academy of Arts and Sciences.
New York, N. Y.
American Geographical Society.
American Museum of Natural History.
Apotheker Zeitung.
Columbia University, School of Mines.
Linnean Society.
New York Academy of Sciences.
New York Botanical Garden.
Northfield, Minn.
Goodsell Observatory.
List of Exchanges .
Oberlin, 0.
Wilson Bulletin.
Pasadena, Cal.
Cooper Ornithological Club.
Philadelphia, Pa.
Academy of Natural Science.
American Philosophical Society.
Association of Engineering Societies.
Franklin Institute.
Philadelphia Commercial Museum.
University of Pennsylvania.
Pittsburg, Pa.
Carnegie Museum.
Portland, Me.
Portland Society of Natural History.
Poughkeepsie, N. Y.
Vassar Brothers Institute.
Providence, R. I.
Roger Williams Park Museum.
Ripon, Wis.
Ripon College.
Rochester, N. Y.
Rochester Academy of Sciences.
Rolla, Mo.
^Missouri Geological Survey.
Salem, Mass.
Essex Institute.
St. Louis, Mo.
Academy of Science of St. Louis .
Missouri Botanical Garden.
San Francisco, Cal.
California Academy of Sciences.
Sioux City, Iowa.
Academy of Sciences and Letters.
972 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts , and Letters.
Syracuse, N. Y.
Zoological Laboratory, Syracuse University.
Topeka, Kan.
Kansas Academy of Sciences.
Trenton, N. J.
^Geological Survey of New Jersey.
Washington, D. C.
Bureau of Ethnology.
Department of Agriculture.
Entomological Society of Washington.
National Academy of Sciences.
National Geographical Society.
Philosophical Society of Washington.
Smithsonian Institution.
United States Geological Survey.
United States National Museum.
United States Weather Bureau.
Washington Academy of Sciences.
Worcester, Mass.
American Antiquarian Society.
Worcester Natural History Society.
BRITISH AMERICA.
Guelph, Ont.
Wellington Field Naturalists’ Club.
Halifax, N. S.
Nova Scotian Institute of Science.
Hamilton, Ont.
Hamilton Scientific Association.
London, Ont.
Entomological Society of Ontario.
Montreal, Que.
McGill University Library.
Natural History Society.
Ottawa, Ont.
Literary and Scientific Society.
Ottawa Field Naturalists’ Club.
Royal Society of Canada.
List of Exchanges .
973
St. Johns, N. B.
Natural History Society of New Brunswick.
Toronto, Ont.
Astronomical and Physical Society.
Canadian Institute.
Winnipeg, Man.
Manitoba Historical and Scientific Society.
MEXICO.
Mexico.
*Instituto Geologico de Mexico.
Museo Nacional.
Sociedad Cientifica “Antonio Alzate.”
Sociedad Farmaceutica Mexicana.
*Sociedad Geologica Mexicana.
Sociedad Mexicana de Historia Natural.
Tacnbaya.
Observatorio Astronomico Nacional.
Toluca.
Institute Cientifico y Literario “Porfirio Diaz.”
SOUTH AMERICA.
Buenos Aires, Argentina.
Institute Geografico Argentino.
Museo Nacional de Buenos Aires.
Sociedad Cientifica Argentina.
Cordoba, Argentina.
Academia Nacional de Ciencias.
Oficina Meteorologica Argentina.
La Plata, Argentina.
Direccion General de Estadistica de la Provincia de Buenos Aires.
Lima, Peru.
Revista de Ciencias.
Sociedad Geografica.
Montevideo, Uruguay.
Museo Nacional.
974 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters .
Para, Brazil.
Museu Goldi.
Rio de Janeiro, Brazil.
Institute) Historico Geographico y Ethnographico.
Museo Nacional.
San Paulo, Brazil.
Sociedade Scientifica.
Museu Paulista.
Santiago, Chile.
Deutscher Wissenschaftlicher Verein.
Sociedad Cientifica de Chile.
AFRICA.
Bone, Algeria.
Acad4mie d’Hippone. Soci6t6 de Recherche Scientifique et d’ Ac-
climatation.
Cairo, Egypt.
Institut Egyptien.
Cape Town, South Africa.
*Geological Commission of South Africa.
South African Philosophical Society.
Grahamstown, South Africa. ”
Albany Museum.
Pietermaritzburg, Natal.
Geological Survey of Natal and Zululand.
Government Museum of Natal.
ASIA AND AUSTRALASIA.
Adelaide, South Australia.
Royal Geographical Society.
Batavia, Java.
Koninklijke Naturkundige Vereeniging in Nederlandsch-Indie.
List of Exchanges .
975
Brisbane, Queensland.
^Geological Survey of Queensland.
Queensland Museum.
Royal Geographical Society of Australasia, Queensland Branch.
Royal Society of Queensland.
Buitenzorg, Java.
Departement de P Agriculture. (Formerly ’s Lands Plantentuin.)
Calcutta, British India.
Asiatic Society of Bengal.
Geological Survey of India.
Indian Museum.
Colombo, Ceylon.
Government of Ceylon.
Madras, British India.
Agri-Horticultural Society.
Government Central Museum and Library.
Manila, P. I.
*Government Bureau of Sciences.
^Government Ethnological Survey.
Melbourne, Victoria.
Field Naturalists’ Club.
Geological Society of Australasia.
Royal Geographical Society of Australasia, Victorian Branch.
Royal Society of Victoria.
New Plymouth, New Zealand.
Polynesian Society.
Peradeniya, Ceylon.
Royal Botanic Gardens.
Perth, West Australia.
Geographical Society of West Australia.
Geological Survey of West Australia.
Saharanpur, British India.
Government Botanical Garden.
Sapporo, Japan.
Sapporo Natural History Society.
Shanghai, China.
Royal Asiatic Society, China Branch.
976 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, rnd Letters .
Singapore, Straits Settlements.
Royal Asiatic Society, Straits Branch.
Sydney, New South Wales.
Australian Association for the Advancement of Science.
Australian Museum.
Geological Survey of New South Wales.
Linnean Society of New South Wales.
Royal Society of New South Wales.
Tokyo, Japan.
Anthropological Society.
Asiatic Society of Japan.
College of Agriculture, Imperial University.
College of Science, Imperial University.
Department of Natural History, Imperial Museum.
Deutsche Gesellschaft fur Natur- und Volkerkunde Ostasiens.
*Imperial Geological Survey.
Tokyo Botanical Society.
Tokyo Geographical Society.
Tokyo Zoological Society.
Wellington, New Zealand.
New Zealand Institute.
^Colonial Museum and Geological Survey Department.
EUROPE.
AUSTRO-HUNGARY.
Agram (Zagreb).
Kroatische Naturwissenschaftliche Gesellschaft.
Sudslavische Akademie der Wissenschaften und Kiinste.
Briinn.
Naturforschender Verein.
Budapest.
Geologische Gesellschaft fur Ungarn. (Magyarhoni Foldtani Tarsu-
lat.)
K. Ungar. Geologische Anstalt. (Magyar Kiralyi Foldtani Intezet.)
Magyar Namzeti Museum. (Hungarian National Museum.)
Magyar Terme&zettudomanyi Tarsulat. (Royal Hungarian Society
of Natural Sciences.)
Magyar Tudomanyos Akademia. (Hungarian Academy of Sciences.)
Society Hongroise de Geographie.
Statistisches Bureau der Haupt- und Residenzstadt.
List of Exchanges .
977
Graz.
Naturwissenschaffclicher Verein fur Steiermark.
Hermannstadt.
Siebenbiirgischer Verein fiir Naturwissenschaften.
Verein fiir Siebenbiirgische Landeskunde.
Innsbruck.
Naturwissenschaftlich-Medizinischer Verein.
Tiroler Landes-Museum, Ferdinandeum.
Klagenfurth.
Naturhistorisches Landes-Museum in Karnten.
Klausenburg.
Medizinisch-Naturwissenschaftliche Section des Siebenbiirgischen
Museum-Vereins.
Krakau.
Akademija Umiejetnosic (Academy of Sciences).
Leipa.
Nord-Bohmischer Excursions-Ciub.
Lemberg.
Sevcenko Gesellschaft der Wissenschaften.
Linz.
Verein fiir Naturkunde.
Paskau.
Wiener Entomologische Zeitung.
Prag.
*Comitd fur Naturwissenschaftliche Landesdurchforschung.
K. Bohmische Gesellschaft der Wissenschaften (Krai. Ceske
Spolecnosti Nauk).
Naturwissenschaftlicher Verein “Lotos.”
Societas Entomologica Bohemiae.
Keichenberg.
Verein der Naturfreunde.
Trencsin.
Naturwissenschaftlicher Verein des Trencsiner Comitates.
Trieste.
K.K. Astronomisch-Meteorologisches Observatorium (I. R. Osserva-
torio Marittimo).
978 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts, and Letters.
Wien.
Allgemeine Chemiker und Techniker Zeitung.
Kaiserliche Akademie der Wissenschaften.
K. K. Gartenbau Gesellschaft.
K. K. Geologische Reichsanstalt.
K. K. Naturhistorisches Hof Museum.
K. K. Universitats Bibliothek.
K. K. Zoologische-Botanische Gesellschaft.
Section fiir Naturkunde des Oesterreichischen Touristen-Vereins.
Wissenschaftlicher Club.
BELGIUM.
Anvers.
*Societe Royale de Geographie .
Vlaamsch Natuur- en Geneeskundig Congres.
Bruxelles.
Academic Royale des Sciences, des Lettres et des Beaux- Arts de
Belgique.
Musee Royale d’Histoire Naturelle de Belgique.
Musee du Congo.
*Soci6te Royale Beige de Geographie.
Societe Beige de Geologie, de Paleontologie et d’Hydrologie.
Society Beige de Microscopie.
Societe Entomologique de Belgique.
Society Royale Zoologique et Malacologique de Belgique.
Societe Royale de Botanique de Belgique.
Liege.
Society Geologique de Belgique.
Society Royale des Sciences.
Louvain.
Universite Catholique.
Mons.
Societe des Sciences, des Arts et des Lettres du Hainaut.
Tongres.
Societe Scientifique et Litteraire du Limbourg.
DENMARK.
Kjobenhavn (Copenhagen).
Botaniske Forening.
Commissionen for Ledelsen af de Geologiske og Geographiske
Undersogelse i Greenland.
*Danske Geologiske Forening .
Entomologiske Forening.
Kongelige Danske Videnskabernes Selskab.
List of Exchanges.
979
FRANCE.
Amiens.
Society Linneenne du Nord de la France.
Angers.
Societe Linneenne de Maine-et-Loire.
Societe Nationale d’ Agriculture, Science et Arts.
Annecy.
Societe Florimontane.
Arras.
Academie des Sciences. Lettres et Arts.
Besangon.
Academie des Sciences, Belles-Lettres et Arts .
*Societe d’Emulation du Doubs.
Beziers.
Societe d’Etudede3 Sciences Naturelle3 de Beziers.
Bordeaux.
Academie Nationale des Sciences, Belles-Lettres et Arts.
Societe Linneennne de Bordeaux (Societe de Medecine de Bor¬
deaux).
Bourg.
Societe d’Emulation et Agriculture (Lettres, Sciences et Arts) de
l’Ain.
Caen.
Academie Nationale des Sciences, Arts et Belles-Lettres.
Chalon-sur-Saone.
Societe des Sciences Naturelles de Saone-et-Loire.
Chambery.
Societe d’Histoire Naturelle de Savoie.
Charleville.
Societe d’Histoire Naturelle des Ardennes.
Cherbourg.
Societe Academique de Cherbourg.
Societe Nationale des Sciences Naturelles et Mathematiques de
Cherbourg.
Dijon.
Academie des Sciences, Arts et Belles-Lettres de Dijon.
980 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts , and Letters .
Douai.
Union Geographique du Nord de la France.
Draguignan.
*Societe des Etudes Scientifiques et Archeologiques.
Grenoble.
Academie Delphinale.
*Soci6te de Statistique, des Sciences Naturelles, et des Arts Indus-
triels du Departement de l’Isere.
*Laboratoire de Geologie de la Faculte des Sciences.
Gueret.
Societe des Sciences Naturelles et Archeologiques de la Creuse.
La Rochelle.
Academie des Belles-Lettres, Sciences et Arts de la Rochelle.
Le Havre.
*Societe Nationale Havraise d’Etudes Diverses.
Le Mans.
Societe d’Agriculture, Sciences et Arts de la Sarthe.
Lille.
Societe Geologique du Nord.
Lyon.
Academie des Sciences, Belles-Lettres et Arts de Lyon.
Societe Botanique deLyon.
Macon.
Societe d’Histoire Naturelle.
Marseille.
Museum d’Histoire Naturelle.
Societe Scientifique Industrielle.
Montpellier.
Academie des Sciences et Lettres de Montpellier.
Nancy.
Academie de Stanislas.
Societe des Sciences.
Nantes.
Society Academique de Loire-Inferieure.
*Societe des Sciences Naturelles de 1 ’Quest de la France.
List of Exchanges .
Nimes.
Societe d’Etudes de^ Sciences Naturelle.
Paris.
Feuilles des Jeunes Naturalistes.
Observatoire Meteorologique du Mont Blanc.
Service de la Statistique Municipale.
Societe Entomologique de France.
Societe d’Ethnographie.
Society Fran chaise de Physique.
Societe Philomathique.
Rheims.
Societe d’ Etude des Sciences Naturelles.
Rennes.
Bibliotheque Universitaire.
Ronen.
Societe des Amis des Sciences Naturelles.
Societe Normandede Geographie.
Toulon.
Societe Academique du Var.
Toulouse.
Societe d’Histoire Naturelle.
Universite.
Tours.
Societe d’Agriculture, Sciences, Arts et Belles-Lettres.
GERMANY.
Altona-Bahrenfeld.
Entomologischer Verein fiir Hamburg- Altona.
Annaberg.
Annaberg-Buchholzer Verein fiir Naturkunde.
Augsburg.
Naturwissenschaftlicher Verein fiir Schwaben und Neuburg*.
Bamberg.
Naturforschende Gesellschaft.
981
982 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts , and Letters.
Berlin.
Apotheker-Zeitung.
Berliner Entomologischer Verein.
Botanischer Verein der Provinz Brandenburg.
Deutsche Geologische Gesellschaft.
Gesellschaft fiir Erdkunde.
Gesellschaft Naturforschender Freunde.
Koniglich Preussische Akademie der Wissenschaften.
Koniglich Preussische Geologische Landesanstalt.
Zoologisches Museum.
Bonn.
* Mineralogisch.es Museum und Institut der Universitat.
Naturhistorischer Verein der Preussischen Rheinlande, Westfalens,
und des Regierungsbezirks Osnabriick.
Niederrheinische Gesellschaft fiir Natur- und Heilkunde.
Braunschweig.
Verein fiir Naturwissenschaften.
Bremen.
Naturwissenschaftlicher Verein.
Breslau.
Schlesische Gesellschaft fiir Vaterlandische Kultur.
Verein fiir Schlesische Insektenkunde.
Chemnitz.
Naturwissenschaftliche Gesellschaft.
Colmar.
Naturhistorische Gesellschaft.
Danzig.
Naturforschende Gesellschaft.
Donaueschingen.
Verein fiir Geschichte und Naturgeschichte der Baar.
Dresden.
Gesellschaft fiir Natur- und Heilkunde.
Konigliches Mineralogisch-Geologisch und Prahistorisches Museum.
Naturwissenschaftliche Gesellschaft “Isis.”
Verein fiir Erdkunde.
Diirkheim a. H.
Pollichia, Naturwissenschaftlicher Verein der Rheinpfaiz.
Diisseldorf.
Naturwissenschaftlicher Verein.
List of Exchanges.
983
Elberfeld.
Naturwissenschaftlicher Verein von Elberfeld und Barmen.
Emden.
Naturforschende Gesellschaft.
Erfurt.
Akademie Gemeinniitziger Wissenschaften.
Erlangen.
Physikalisch-Medizinische Societat.
Frankfurt a. M.
Deutsche Malakozoologische Gesellschaft.
*Neue Zoologische Gesellschaft.
Physikalischer Verein.
Senkenbergisehe Naturforschende Gesellschaft.
Frankfurt a. 0.
Naturwissenschaftlicher Verein.
Freiburg i. Br.
Badischer Botanischer Verein.
Naturforschende Gesellschaft.
Gera.
*Deutscher Verein zum Schutze der Vogelwelt.
Gesellschaft der Freunde der Naturwissenschaften.
Giessen.
Oberhessische Gesellschaft fur Natur- und Heilkunde.
Gorlitz.
Naturforschende Gesellschaft.
Gottingen.
Konigliche Gesellschaft der Wissenschaften.
Greifswald.
Geographische Gesellschaft.
Naturwissenschaftlicher Verein von Neuvorpommern und Rugen.
Halle a. S.
*Kaiserliche Leopoldinisch-Carolinische Deutsche Akademie der Na-
turforscher.
Naturforschende Gesellschaft.
Naturwissenschaftlicher Verein fur Sachsen und Thilringen.
61— S. & A.
984 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters .
Hamburg.
Naturwissenschaftlicher Verein.
Verein fur Naturwissenschaftliche Unterhaltung.
Hanau.
Wetterauische Gesellschaft fur die Gesammte Naturkunde.
Hannover.
Deutscher Seefischerei-Verein.
Naturhistorische Gesellschaft.
Heidelberg.
Naturhistorisch-Medizinischer Verein.
Husum.
Zeitschrift fur Wissenschaftliche Insektenbiologie.
Jena.
*Geographische Gesellschaft fur Thtiringen.
Universitats-Bibliothek.
Karlsruhe.
Naturwissenschaftlicher Verein.
Kassel.
Verein fur Erdkunde.
Verein ftir Naturkunde.
Kiel.
Mineralogisches Institut der Universitat .
Naturwissenschaftlicher Verein fur Schleswig-Holstein.
Universitats-Bibliothek .
Konigsberg.
Botanischer Verein .
Konigliche Physikalisch-Oekonomische Gesellschaft.
Universitats-Bibliothek .
Landshut.
Naturwissenschaftlicher Verein.
Leipzig.
Insektenborse (Entomologisches Wochenblatt.)
Koniglich Sachsische Gesellschaft der Wissenschaften*
Naturforschende Gesellschaft.
Verein fur Erdkunde.
*Zeitschrift fur Gewasserkunde.
Liibeck.
Geographische Gesellschaft.
List of Exchanges .
985
Liineburg.
Naturwissenschaftlicher Verein.
Magdeburg.
*Museum ftir Natur- undHeimatkunde.
Naturwissenschaftlicher Verein.
Marburg.
Gesellschaft zur Beforderung der Gesammten Natur wissenschaf-
ten.
Universitats-Bibliothek.
Metz.
Academie de Metz.
Societe d’Histoire Naturelle.
Munchen.
Koniglich Bayerische Akademie der Wissenschaften.
Munster.
Pro vinzial -Verein fur Wissenschaften und Kunst.
Niirnberg.
Naturhistorische Gesellschaft.
Offenbach.
Verein fur Naturkunde.
Osnabriick.
Naturwissenschaftlicher Verein.
Regensburg.
Historischer Verein fur die Oberpfalz.
Konigliche Bayrische Botanische Gesellschaft.
Naturwissenschaftlicher Verein.
Rostock.
Grossherzogliche Mecklenburgische Geologische Landes-Anstalt.
Verein der Freunde der Naturgeschichte in Mecklenburg.
Stettin.
Gesellschaft fur Volker- und Erdkunde.
Strassburg.
Kaiserliche Universitats- und Landes-Bibliothek.
Kommission fur die Geologische Landes-Untersuchung von
Elsass-Lothringen.
986 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts , and Letters .
Stuttgart.
Kosmos, Gesellschaft der Naturfreunde.
Mathematisch-Naturwissenschaftlicher Verein.
Thorn.
Copernicus Verein fur Wissenschaft und Kunst.
Ulm.
Verein fur Mathematik und Naturwissenschaften.
Weimar.
Thliringischer Botanischer Verein.
Wernigerode.
Naturwissenschaftlicher Verein.
Wiesbaden.
Verein fiir Naturkunde.
Wurzburg.
Physikalisch-Medizinische Gesellschaft .
ENGLAND AND WALES.
Barrow-in-Furness.
Naturalists’ Field Club.
Birmingham.
Birmingham Midland Institute Scientific Society J
Birmingham Natural History and Philosophical Society.
Cambridge.
Cambridge Philosophical Society.
Canterbury.
*East Kent Scientific and Natural History Society.
Cardiff.
Cardiff Naturalists’ Society.
Chester.
Chester Natural Science Society.
Guernsey.
Guernsey Society of Natural Science and Local Research, Guille
Alles Library.
Kew.
Royal Herbarium.
List of Exchanges.
987
Leeds.
Leeds Geological Association.
Leeds Philosophical and Literary Society.
Yorkshire Geological and Polytechnic Society.
Yorkshire Naturalists’ Union.
Liverpool.
Liverpool Biological Society.
Liverpool Geographical Society.
Liverpool Geological Association.
Liverpool Geological Society.
London.
British Museum, Natural History Division.
Geological Society of London.
*Geological Survey of the United Kingdom.
Quiekett Microscopical Club.
Royal Botanic Society.
Royal Institution of Great Britain.
Royal Society of London.
Society for the Encouragement of Art, Manufactures and Commerce.
South London Entomological and Natural History Society.
Manchester.
Literary and Philosophical Society.
Manchester Field Naturalists’ and Archaeologists’ Society.
Manchester Geological Society.
Manchester Geographical Society.
Manchester Microscopical Society.
Marlborough.
Marlborough College Natural History Society.
Newcastle.
Literary and Philosophical Society.
*North of England Institute of Mining and Mechanical Engineers.
Norwich.
Norfolk and Norwich Naturalists’ Society.
Penzance.
Penzance Natural History and Antiquarian Society.
*Royal Geological Society of Cornwall.
Preston.
Preston Scientific Society.
Sheffield.
Literary and Philosophical Society.
988 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts , and Letters .
Southport.
Southport Society of Natural Sciences.
Watford.
Hertfordshire Natural History Society and Field Club.
Wellington College, S. E. R.
Wellington College Natural History Society.
York.
Yorkshire Philosophical Society.
IRELAND.
Belfast.
Belfast Naturalists’ Field Club.
Natural History and Philosophical Society.
Dublin.
Department of Agriculture and Technical Instruction.
Royal Dublin Society.
Royal Irish Academy.
SCOTLAND.
Dumfries.
Dumfriesshire and Galloway Natural History and Antiquarian So
ciety.
Edinburgh.
Edinburgh Geological Society.
Royal Botanical Society.
Royal Physical Society.
Royal Society of Edinburgh.
Scottish Microscopical Society.
Glasgow.
Glasgow Geological Society.
Natural History Society of Glasgow.
Perth.
Perthshire Society of Natural Science.
ITALY.
Acireale.
Accademia di Scienze, Lettere, ed Arti degli Zelanti.
Bergamo.
Ateneo di Scienze, Lettere ed Arti.
List of Exchanges.
989
Bologna.
Accademia delle Scienze dell’ Istituto di Bologna.
Brescia.
Ateneo di Brescia.
Catania.
Accademia Gioenia di Scienze Naturali.
Firenze (Florence).
Reale Istituto di Studi Superiori.
Societa Entomologica Italiana.
Reale Stazione di Entomologia Agraria.
Lncca.
Reale Accademia Lucchese di Scienze, Lettere, ed Arti.
Milano.
Fondazione Scientifica Cagnola.
Reale Istituto Lombardo di Scienze e Lettere.
Societa Italiana di Esplorazioni Geografiche e Commerciali.
Societa Italiana di Scienze Naturali.
Modena.
Reale Accademia di Scienze, Lettere, ed Arti.
Societa di Naturalisti in Modena.
Napoli.
Museo Zoologies. Universita di Napoli.
Reale Orto Botanico.
Societa di Naturalisti.
Padova.
Accademia Scientifica Veneto-Trentina-Istriana.
Rivista di Mineralogia e Cristallografia Italiana.
Palermo.
Circolo Matematico di Palermo.
II Naturalisto Siciliano.
Reale Accademia Palermitana di Scienze, Lettere, e Belle-Arti.
Societa di Scienze Naturali ed Economiche.
Perugia.
Istituto Umbro di Scienze e Lettere.
Pisa.
Societa Toscana di Scienze Naturali.
990 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts , and Letters,
Roma.
British and American Archaeological Society.
Pontificia Accademia Romana dei Nuovi Lincei.
Reale Accademia dei Lincei.
Reale Comitato Geologico d’ltalia.
Societa Italiana della Scienze.
Societa Zoologica Italiana.
Siena.
*Reale Accademia dei Fisiocritici.
Rivista Italiana di Scienze Naturali.
Torino.
Accademia Reale delle Scienze.
*Museo di Zoologia ed Anatomia Comparata della Reale Universita.
Udine.
Accademia di Udine.
Verona.
Accademia d’Agricoltura, Commercio, ed Arti di Verona.
LUXEMBURG.
Luxemburg.
Fauna, Verein Luxemburger Naturfreunde.
Institut Luxembourgeois: Section des Sciences Naturelles et
Mathematiques.
Societe Botanique du Grand- Duche.
NETHERLANDS.
Amsterdam.
Koninklijke Akademie van Wetenschappen. (Royal Academy of
Sciences.)
Delft.
Commission Geodesique Neerlandaise.
s’Gravenhage (Hague).
*K. Zoologisch-Botanische Genootschap.
Groningen.
Central Bureau voor de Kennis van de Provincie .
Natuurkundig Genootschap .
Haarlem.
Fondaticn de P. Teyler van der Hulst. (Teyler Stichting.)
Hollandsche Maatschappij van Wetenschappen .
Koloniaal Museum.
List of Exchanges .
991
Helder.
Nederlandsche Dierkundige Vereeniging.
Leiden.
Rijks Geologisch en Mineralogisch Museum.
Middelburg.
Zeeuwsch Genootschap van Wetenschappen.
Rotterdam.
Bataafsch Genootschap der Proefondtervindelijke Wijsbegeerte.
(Batavian Society of Experimental Philosophy.)
Utrecht.
Provinciaal Utrechtsch Genootschap van Kunsten en Weten¬
schappen.
NORWAY.
Bergen.
Bergens Museum.
Christiania.
Norske Gradmaalings Commission.
Norske Meteorologiske Institut.
Universitet.
Videnskabs Selskab.
Nyt Magazin for Naturvidenskaberne .
Stavanger.
Stavanger Museum.
Trondhjem.
Kongelige Norske Videnskabernes Selskab.
Tromso.
Tromso Museum.
PORTUGAL.
Coimbra.
Sociedade Broteriana .
Lisboa.
Collegio S . Fiel .
Commissao dos Trabalhos Geologicos de Portugal.
Porto.
Accademia Poly technica .
992 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts , and Letters .
ROUMANIA.
Bukarest.
Academia Romana.
Institutul Meteorologic al Romaniei.
RUSSIA.
Dorpat (Jurjew).
Naturforscher Gesellschaft an der Universitat.
Ekaterinburg'.
Uralian Society of Friends of Natural Science.
Helsingfors.
*Finlands Geologiska Undersokning.
Finska Vetenskaps Societet.
Societas pro Fauna et Flora Fennica.
Kazan.
Society of Naturalists of the Imperial University.
Kharkof.
Society of Naturalists at the Imperial University of Kharkof.
Societe Imperiale des Sciences Physico-Chimiques.
Kief.
Society of Naturalists.
Moskva.
Imper. Moskofskoie Obshchestvo Iestestvo-Ispytatelei. (Moscow
Imperial Society of Naturalists.)
Odessa.
Club Alpin de Crimee.
Riga.
Obshchestvo Iestestvo-Ispytatelei. (Society of Naturalists.)
Sankt Peterburg.
Geologicheskii Komitet. (Geological Committee.)
Glavnaia Fizicheskaia Observatoria. (Central Physical Observa¬
tory.)
Imper. Akademia Nauk. (Imperial Academy of Sciences.)
Impel*. Sankt Peterburgskii Botanicheskii Sad. (Imperial Botani¬
cal Garden.)
Imper. Sankt-Peterburgskoie Mineralogicheskoie Obshchestvo. (Im¬
perial Mineralogical Society.)
Institut Imperial de Medecine Exp6rimentale.
Sankt-Peterburgskoie Obshchestvo ^Iestestvo Ispytatelei. (St.
Petersburg Society of Naturalists.)
Section G^ologique du Cabinet de sa Majeste.
List of Exchanges.
993
SPAIN.
Barcelona.
Real Academia de Oiencias y Artes.
Institucio Catalana d’Historia Natural.
Madrid.
Comision de Mapa Geologica de Espaha.
Real Academia de la Historia.
Real Academia de Oiencias Exactas, Fisicas, y Naturales.
Sociedad Espanolade Historia Natural.
Zaragoza.
*Sociedad Aragonesade Oiencias Naturales.
SWEDEN.
Goeteborg.
Kongliga Vetenskaps och Vitterhets Samhallet. (Royal Society of
Sciences and Belles-Lettres.)
Lund.
Kongliga Universitet.
Stockholm.
Bergeanske Botaniska Tradgard (Hortus Bergianum.)
Entomologiska Forening.
Geologiska Foreningen.
Geologiska Undersokning.
Historiska Museum.
Kongliga Svenska Vetenskaps Akademien.
Kongliga Vitterhets, Historie och Antiquitets Akademien.
Universitets Biblioteket.
Upsala.
^Geological Institution of the University.
Kongliga Universitet.
Kongliga Vetenskaps Societeten.
Universitets Astronomiska Observatoriet.
SWITZERLAND.
Aarau.
Naturforschende Gesellschaft.
Basel.
Naturforschende Gesellschaft.
994 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts , and Letters .
Bern.
*Geographische Gesellschaft.
Naturforschende Gesellschaft (Soci4t6 des Sciences Naturelles.)
*Schweizerische Entomologische Gesellschaft.
Schweizerische Naturforschende Gesellschaft. (Societe Helvetique
des Sciences Nafr^lles.)
Chur.
Naturforschende Gesellschaft Graubiindens.
Frauenfeld.
Thurgauische Naturforschende Gesellschaft.
Freiburg.
Societe Fribourgeoise des Sciences Naturelles.
Geneva.
Conservatoire et Jardin Botanique.
Societe Botanique de Geneve.
Societe de Geographie.
Societe de Physique et d’Histoire Naturelle.
Lausanne.
Institut Agricole de Lausanne.
Societe Vaudoise des Sciences Naturelles.
Neuchatel.
Societe des Sciences Naturelles.
St. Gallen.
Naturhistorische Gesellschaft.
Naturwissenschaftliche Gesellschaft .
Zurich.
Naturforschende Gesellschaft.
Schweizerische Botanische Gesellschaft.
PROCEEDINGS OF THE ACADEMY.
THIRTY-FIFTH ANNUAL MEETING.
Milwaukee, Wisconsin, December 28-29, 1904.
The meetings of the Academy were held in Room B3 of the
State Normal School building. The following program was
carried out with slight changes in the order of the papers as
noted below:
Wednesday, December 28.
Morning Session , 10:30 o’clock.
Reports of officers and general business.
Reading of papers.
1. Charles Kendall Adams — His place in three universi¬
ties. James Davie Butler.
2. The .specific capacity of wells. C. S. S'lichter. (By
title. )
3. The concept of motion. J. H. Farley.
4. The present status of the Wisconsin Industrial School
for Boys — Its mechanism and methods. J. S. Roes-
eler.
5. The determination of the value of the right of way for
Wisconsin railroads. E. B. Skinner.
Afternoon Session , 2:00 o'clock.
6. A contribution to the chemistry of the tellur ates. E.
B. Hutchins , Jr. (By title.)
7. On the electrical conductivity of vapors. F. L. Shinn.
(By title.)
996 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts, and Letters.
8. On the evolution of hydrogen during the action of so¬
dium on mercury. Louis Kahlenberg and Herman
Schlundt.
9. On the measurement of osmotic pressures. Louis Kah-
lenberg.
10. On classification of carbon compounds, II. Edward
Kremers.
11. Some examples of fault networks. William H. Hobbs.
12. The relations of the Andrenine bees to the entomoph-
ilous flora of Milwaukee county. Sigmund Grae-
nicher.
Thursday, December 29.
Morning Session, 9:30 o’clock.
General business.
Reading of papers.
13. The Russulas of Madison and vicinity. R. II. Dennis-
ton.
14. Infection experiments with Erysiphe graminis. George
M. Reed. (By title.)
15. The fungi of Milwaukee county and vicinity. Valen¬
tine Fernekes and C. E. Brown. (By title.)
16. Spore formation in Cordyceps herculea Schw. R. A.
Harper.
17. The nature and origin of the binucleated cells in cer¬
tain Basidiomycetes. Susie P. Nichols. (Presented
by R. A. Harper.)
18. Observations on the wintering of the grain rusts in
Wisconsin. A. H. Christman.
19. Soil bacteria in the vicinity of Madison. W. I). Frost
and E. V. McComb.
Memorial address — John Lendrum Mitchell. John G.
Gregory.
Proceedings .
997
Afternoon Session , 2:30 o’ clock.
20. The viability of Bacterium diphtheriae. W. D. Frost ,
C. G. Davies and H. F. Helmhoh.
21. The Attidae of Borneo. George W. and Elizabeth G.
Peckham . (By title.)
22. Experiments with caddis-fly larvae. W. S. Marshall.
23. Notes on the behavior of Physa ancillaria. George
Wagner.
24. The psychology of linguistic development in the indi¬
vidual. M. V. O’Shea.
25. The fluted stone axes of Wisconsin. C. E. Brown.
26. The Greek and Persian armies at Thermopylae. A. G.
Baird. (By title.)
During the year 1904, the Academy has, suffered the loss of
three valuable members. The members deceased are:
Captain Erederick Pabst, president of the Pabst Brewing
company, who died January 1, 1904, at his home in Milwau¬
kee.
John I. Jegi, professor of physiology and psychology in the
State Normal school at Milwaukee and a vice-president of the
Academy, who died January 7, 1904.
John Lendrum Mitchell, ex-TTnited States senator for Wis¬
consin and a life member of the Academy, who died at his
country home near Milwaukee, June 30, 1904.
A detailed account of the sessions is herewith given:
Wednesday, December 28.
Morning Session.
The Academy was called to order at 10:30 by President
Davis. The secretary announced that the minutes of the last
meeting had been published in the Transactions. The read¬
ing of these minutes was therefore dispensed with. The re¬
port of the secretary, which is published below, was then read.
The secretary reported that one serious obstacle in the way
998 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts , and Letters.
of the prompt publication of the Transactions is the fact that
all the copy for a part must be in the hands of the printers
before an order for the printing may be issued. The Trans¬
actions could also be made more valuable if they could be is¬
sued in series, the articles in each series having to do with a
single subject or with a set of allied subjects. He therefore
recommended the appointment of a committee to consider the
advisability of changing the form of the Transactions and to
secure, if possible, such action from the printing commissioners
or from the state legislature as will enable the secretary to
carry out any changes that may seem desirable.
Dr. Birge moved that a committee as recommended by the
secretary be appointed. The motion was carried, and the
president appointed the following members: C. B. Van Hise,
G. W. Beckham, E. A. Birge. At the request of the members
present, President J. J. Davis was added to the committee.
The report of the membership committee was presented by
the secretary. Upon the recommendation of the committee,
the following-named persons were elected to active member¬
ship :
Florence Eliza Allen, Madison.
Charles Bussell Bardeen, Madison.
Charles Frederick Burgess, Madison.
Wilbur Oscar Carrier, Waukesha.
Alletta E. Dean, Madison.
Bollin Henry Denniston, Madison.
Benjamin Mack Dresden, Oshkosh.
William H. Ellsworth, Milwaukee.
ISTevin Melancthon Eenneman, Madison.
Valentine Eernekes, Milwaukee.
Harry B. Fling, Oshkosh.
Arthur Dudley Samuel Gillett, Superior.
Andrew J. Hutton, Waukesha.
Prank S. Hyer, Stevens Point.
Hugo Philler, Waukesha.
James David Phillips, Madison.
Arthur Banum, Madison.
Proceedings .
999
Adolphus H. Sage, Oshkosh.
Maurice H. Small, Oshkosh.
E. Kirby Thomas, Superior.
Halsten Joseph Berford Thorkelson, Madison.
In the absence of Dr. J. D. Butler, portions of his paper on
the late President Adams were read by the secretary.
Professor Parley’s paper was discussed by Messrs. Birge and
Skinner.
Principal Boeseler’s paper was discussed by Messrs. Kre
mers, Birge, Wagner and others.
The reading of paper Ho. 5 was postponed, owing to the
lateness of the hour.
Afternoon Session.
Owing to the absence of the authors, papers 8 and 9 were
read by title.
Ho. 11 was discussed at length by President Van Hise and
Ho. 12 by Dean Birge.
The amendment to the first clause of Article VII of the con¬
stitution as proposed at the last meeting was then taken up
and voted by the Academy. This amendment changes Clause 1
of Article VII to read as follows:
“The annual meeting of the Academy shall be held at such
time and place as the council may designate.”
On motion it was voted to appoint a committee of three to
nominate a candidate for vice-president to fill the unexpired
term of John I. Jegi, deceased, and a curator to fill the unex¬
pired term of E. C. Perisho, who has removed from the state.
The president appointed Messrs. Peckham, Hobbs and Birge
as such committee.
A very pleasant feature of the meeting was the dinner at
the Hotel Pfister on Wednesday evening. The attendance,
though not large, was quite representative. After the dinner,
an hour was spent in discussing informally the needs of the
Academy. The two subjects which received most attention
were the improvement of the Academy library, and desired
changes in the form of the published Transactions. This dis-
62 — S. & A.
1000 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters,
cussion was of such importance that the matters were taken up
in subsequent meetings and action taken which it is hoped will
materially increase the efficiency of the Academy.
Thursday, December 29.
M\orning Session.
The committee to nominate candidates for a vice-president
and curator to fill out the unexpired terms of Messrs. Jegi, de¬
ceased, and Perisho, removed from the state, reported the
names of Henry E. Legler for vice-president and Charles E.
Brown for curator. These gentlemen were elected to the re¬
spective offices by vote of the Academy.
The secretary announced that the treasurer’s report had
been received. The report, which was read by the secretary,
showed total receipts of $357.72, including a balance of
$121.52 from last year, and disbursements, including $32.60
cash on hand, of $357.72. There were unpaid bills amounting
to $50.00. During the year, two additional bonds of $100
each were purchased, increasing the permanent fund to
$1816.40.
The treasurer recommended that a safety deposit box in one
of the Madison banks be rented for the use of the Academy.
He also at this time tendered his resignation to the Academy
and asked that a successor be appointed to fill out the unexpired
term.
The report was accepted and ordered filed. Messrs. Hobbs,
Wagner and Marshall were appointed a committee to audit the
accounts of the treasurer. This committee was authorized to
report to the council, as the treasurer did not submit vouchers
with his report and it would not be possible to audit his ac¬
counts during the present meeting.
It was moved and carried that the resignation of the treas¬
urer be accepted and that a committee to nominate a successor
be appointed. The president appointed Mjessrfs. Peckham^
Hobbs and Harper.
Proceedings.
1001
The condition of the library was then taken np for consid¬
eration. After a lengthy discussion, it was voted to appoint
a special committee on exchanges, whose chairman shall he
known as director of exchanges. The chair appointed Messrs.
Wagner chairman, Kremers and Hobbs.
It was further voted that the sum of $500.00, or so much
thereof as may he legally appropriated from the funds of the
Academy, he placed at the disposal of the committee to assist
in the prosecution of its work.
The reading of papers was then resumed. Ho. 13 was dis¬
cussed by Messrs. Harper, Brown and Sherman. Dr. Dennis-
ton indicated his desire to extend his investigations upon the
Russulas and asked for the cooperation of other interested per¬
sons in helping him to secure specimens from other localities.
Hos. 14 and 15 were read by title.
Hos.. 16 and 17 were then presented by Professor Harper,
and the two. papers, dealing with closely allied subjects, were
discussed together. Messrs. Densmore, Pauly and Marshall
took part in the discussion.
In the absence of the author, Ho. 18 was presented by Pro¬
fessor Harper. This paper touched upon certain important
economic questions.
Ho. 1$ was read by Professor Prost.
Mr. John G. Gregory then gave an address in memory of
the late Senator John L. Mitchell, who had been a life mem¬
ber of the Academy for more than thirty years.
Paper Ho. 5, which was omitted from its proper place owing
to lack of time, was then read. This paper was discussed by
Messrs. Gregory, Marshall, Harper, Wagner, Parley and
others.
Afternoon Session.
The Academy was called to order at 2 :30 by President
Davis with seventeen members present.
Paper Ho. 20 was read by Professor Prost and discussed by
Messrs. Davis, Birge and others.
Ho. 21 was read by title.
1002 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters.
'No. 22 was illustrated by a number of specimens showing
bow the caddis-fly repairs its bouse. Tbe paper was discussed
by Dr. Birge.
Ho. 23 was discussed by Messrs. Harper, Earley, Birge and
others, some of whom were apparently ready to take issue with
the author in his view that it is possible to separate wholly
matters of animal psychology from the methods of human psy¬
chology.
Ho. 24 was omitted, owing to the detention of the author by
the snow blockade.
Ho. 25 was discussed by Messrs. Marshall and Wagner.
Ho. 26 was read by, title.
The committee to nominate a candidate to fill the unexpired
term of the treasurer, who had resigned, reported the nomina¬
tion of Dr. B. H. Denniston of the University of Wisconsin.
By vote, the secretary was authorized to cast the ballot of the
Academy for Mr. Denniston. The ballot cast, Mr. Denniston
was declared elected to serve until the next regular election of
officers.
It was voted that the treasurer be authorized to rent a safety
deposit box for the safe-keeping of the funds belonging to the
Academy.
On motion of Mr. Marshall, the thanks of the Academy were
voted to Mr. William B. Sell, railway manager for the State
Teachers’ association, for his courtesy in signing railroad cer¬
tificates for the members, and to the authorities of the State
Hormal school for their kindness in providing a room for the
meetings of the Academy.
The Academy adjourned sine die.
E. B. Skimer,
Secretary.
Proceedings .
1003
THIRTY-SIXTH ANNUAL MEETING.
Madison Wisconsin, February 8-9, 1906.
The Academy met in the lecture room of the Historical Li¬
brary building. The following program was carried out:
Thursday, February 8.
Morning Session , 9:30 o'clock.
Reports of officers and committees, and general business..
Reading of papers.
1. An investigation into the cause of the breaking of watch
springs in greater numbers during the warm months
of the year. Richard G. Norton.
2. The limitations of a general method of approximation in
hydrodynamics. C. S. Slichter.
3. A fundamental existence theorem for linear homogeneous
differential equations. C. S. Slichter.
4. The climate of Madison. (By title.) James L. Blart-
lett.
5. The influence of soil temperature on the occurrence of
frost. A. R. Whitson.
6. The luminosity of the brightest stars. George C. Com¬
stock.
7. Hybrid parts of speech. (By title.) Edward T. Owen.
8. The supernatural elements in the English and Scottish
ballads. (By title.) Nina M. Sheldon.
9. English dramatic origins : — A protological study.
Arthur Beatty.
10. A study of moral standards. F. C. Sharp.
Memorial Address— J ames Davie Butler. Reuben G.
Thwaites.
1004 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts , and Letters .
Afternoon Session , 2:30 o'clock.
Reading of papers.
11. Wisconsin’s quartzite implements. Charles E. Brown.
12. The period of anarchy in Illinois, 1782-90. Arthur
C. Boggess.
13. The occupation of government land in Oklahoma terri¬
tory. Solon J . Buck.
14. Life in the beguinages before the Reformation. (By
title.) J. F. Dilworth.
15. A Nuremberg city ordinance of the year 1562, issued
during the time of the black death. E. K. J. H.
Voss.
16. Alexander and the Council of Worms. (By title.)
D. L. Patterson.
17. The Children’s Crusade. D. C. Munro.
18. Suspension of habeas corpus in the Civil War. (By
title.) Gr. C. Sellery.
19. Problems of colonization as illustrated in the province
of Georgia. Ulrich B. Phillips.
20. Table .illustrating the progress of rotation in office*
(By title.) C. B. Fish.
21. Causes affecting the westward movement of settlement
prior to 1850. William V. Pooley.
Thursday Evening.
6 o’clock: The Academy dinner for members and their
friends, at Keeley’s Annex.
8 o’clock: Address of the retiring president, Dr. John J *
Davis — “The Academy — Its past and its future.”
Proceedings .
1005
Friday, February 9.
Morning Session , 9:30 o'clock.
Election of officers and general business.
Beading of papers.
22. Note on the nature of the hydrocarbons occurring in
Wisconsin oil rock. (Preliminary notice.) W. F .
Koelker.
23. On the differences of potential between manganese and
lead peroxides and various aqueous and non-aqueous
solutions. Louis Kohlenberg and Alonzo S. Mc¬
Daniel.
24. Nitrogen from the atmosphere and its use in the an¬
nealing of brass wire. L. A. Youtz.
25. Nitroselenic acid. V. Lenher.
26. Effect of desiccation on Bacillus* dysenteriae Shiga.
W. D. Frosty B. Whitman and R. E. Miltenberger.
27. A note on the ehemotaxis of Oxytricha aeruginosa.
George Wagner.
28. Some points in the natural history of the spoon-bill cat¬
fish. George Wagner.
29. Variations of the brachial and sciatic plexus of the
frog. G. A. Talbert.
30. Cerebral localization from a clinical study. G. A. Tal¬
bert.
31. Comparative studies on the trophi of Scarabaeidae.
(Preliminary notice.) 0. B. Hardenberg.
32. The gases of Wisconsin lakes. E. A. Birge and V.
Lenher .
Afternoon Session , 2:30 o'clock.
Reading of papers.
33. Wave-rolled snowballs. E. C. Caoe.
34. The mesothelium of the pleural cavity. W. S. Milr
ler.
35. An additional driftless area in Wisconsin. S. Weid-
man.
1006 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts , and Letters .
36. Notes on a few parasitic fungi of the Pacific [North¬
west. J. J. Davis.
37. Gasteromycetes of Wisconsin. R. H. Denniston.
38. The life history of Coleochaete. C. E. Allen.
39. Infection experiments with the mildew on the cucurbits.
George M. Reed.
40. The nature of the variation of the spore number in
the ascus. R. A. Harper.
41. Polar organization in the cells of Ispetes. W. Mar¬
quette.
42. Cell and nuclear division in Basidiobolus. E. W. Ol¬
ive.
43. On the permanence of the chromosomes in the calla and
the elm. J. B. Overton.
44. Spore formation in the primary uredo. A. H. Christ¬
man.
45. The origin of the sex cells of Chrysemys. B. M. Al¬
len.
Items of business were transacted as follows : —
Thursday, February 8.
Morning Session .
The meeting was called to order by President J. J. Davis.
The secretary’s report, which appears below, was read.
The report of the treasurer was read by Mr. Denniston.
Messrs. Slichter, Chandler and Wagner were appointed a com¬
mittee to audit the accounts of the treasurer. The reports of the
treasurer and of the auditing committee appear in full in an¬
other place in this volume.
The librarian made a verbal report, with the understanding
that a written report would be submitted in time for publica¬
tion at the end of Volume XV of the Transactions.
The report of the committee on membership was then read.
The committee recommended the following-named persons
for active membership :
Bennet Mills Allen, Madison,
James D. Barnett, [Norman, Oklahoma,
Proceedings .
1007
James L. Bartlett, Madison,
Murray Charles Beebe, Madison,
Raymond C. Benner, Madison,
Charles Preston Cary, Madison,
Arthur Henry Christman, Menomonie,
Arthur B. Clawson, Madison,
Edward Charles Elliott, Madison,
Edward Merriam Griffith, Madison,
Ewald Haase, Milwaukee,
Christian B. Hardenberg, Madison,
Samuel Jackson Holmes, Madison,
William F. Koelker, Madison,
Willard Lannerd, Racine,
Benjamin E. Lutman, Madison,
William George Marquette, Madison,
Evander Bradley McGilvary, Madison,
Charles McKenny, Milwaukee,
Susie Percival Nichols, Clinton, N. Y.,
Edgar William Olive, Madison,
James Bertram Overton, Madison,
George Matthew Reed, Madison,
Henry Douglas Robinson, Racine,
Emil Peter Sandsten, Madison,
Henry P. Severson, Winneconne,
Nina M. Sheldon, Ripon,
Hugh Allison Smithy Madison,
Charles William Stoddart, Madison,
Winifred Titus, Milwaukee,
Charles Taylor Vorhies, Madison.
The secretary was ordered to cast the ballot of the Academy
for these persons, and they were declared elected, to be enrolled
as members upon payment of the customary initiation fee.
The committee further recommended that the following
active members be transferred to the list of corresponding
members :
Ernest Robertson Buckley, state geologist and director of
the Missouri Bureau of Mines and Geology, and author of
many .important memoirs on geological subjects.
1008 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts , and Letters .
Edward Dwight Eaton, pastor of the Congregational church
at St. J ohnsbury, Vermont, for many years president of Be¬
loit college and an educator of known ability and wide reputa¬
tion in this state.
Ilenry Nehrling, of Gotha, Orange county, Florida, former¬
ly curator of the Milwaukee Public museum and author of
“Birds of North America/’ an important ornithological work.
The exchange committee appointed last year presented an
extended report through its chairman, George Wagner. The
report appears in full on another page. The committee an¬
nounced that through its efforts there had been added to tire
library 1,102 volumes and 518 parts of volumes. It presented
several recommendations and asked that further consideration
of the report be made a special order for Friday morning. It
was so ordered.
The secretary presented invitations from various societies
and academies to send representatives to celebrations as fol¬
lows:
From the American Philosophical Society, to send delegates
to the celebration of the two-hundredth anniversary of the birth
of Benjamin Franklin, to be held at the University of Penn¬
sylvania, April 17-20, 1906.
From the St. Louis Academy of Science, to send a dele¬
gate to a dinner commemorating the fiftieth anniversary of the
foundation of the academy, to be given in St. Louis, March 10,
1906.
From the Boyal Geographical Society of Australasia, to
send a delegate to the celebration of the twenty-first anniver¬
sary of the founding of the society.
These invitations were referred to the council with power
to choose delegates.
The president announced the following committee on nomi¬
nation of officers: Messrs. C. R. Van Hise, E. A. Birge,
George W. Peckham, Samuel Plantz and E. B. Skinner.
It was voted to put the hour of meeting for the afternoon
session at four o’clock to enable the members to attend the fu¬
neral of the late Professor D. B. Frankenburger.
Proceedings .
1009
The papers on the program for the morning session were
then read, with the exception of Nos. 4 and 5. As the authors
of these two papers were both absent, the papers were read by
title.
Afternoon Session.
The Academy was called to order at four o’clock, President
Davis in the chair. In the absence of Mr. C. E. Brown, the
paper on “Wisconsin quartzites” was read by the secretary.
Owing to the lateness of the hour, papers numbered 14, 16
and 18 were read by title.
Thursday Evening.
At six o’clock, a number of members of the Academy, with
invited guests, assembled at Keeley’s Annex for the dinner
given by the Madison members to the visiting members. Thirty-
three members, five of them from out of town, and nine guests,
were present. After justice had been done to the excellent
dinner furnished by Mine Host Keelev, the tables were cleared
away and the audience seated to listen to the admirable address
of the retiring president on “The Academy — its past and its
future.”
Friday, February 9.
Morning Session.
The Academy was called to order by the president with
about thirty-five members present.
The committee on the nomination of officers reported as fol¬
lows:
President, Louis Kahlenberg, Madison;
Vice Presidents: Charles H. Chandler, Ripon,
Henry E. Legler, Madison,
E. C. Case, Milwaukee;
Secretary, Charles E. Allen, Madison;
Treasurer, Rollin H. Denniston, Madison;
Librarian, Walter M. Smith, Madison;
Curator, Charles E. Brown, Milwaukee.
1010 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters.
Publication Committee: The president and secretary ex
officio, E. B. Skinner.
Library Committee: The librarian ex officio , Herbert J.
Earley, George W. Peckham, Hiram D. Densmore, George
Wagner.
Committee on Membership: The secretary ex officio, B.
H. Halsey, Harriet B. Merrill, D. C. Munro, L. A. Youtz.
By vote of the Academy, the secretary was directed to cast
the ballot of the Academy for the persons named. The ballot
■cast, the persons named in the committee’s report were declared
elected for the ensuing term of three years.
The council recommended to the Academy that Dr. John J.
Davis, retiring president, and E. B. Skinner, retiring secre¬
tary, be elected to life membership in the Academy in view of
their services to the Academy. Dr. Birge was directed to cast
the ballot of the Academy for these two gentlemen. The ballot
cast, they were declared elected life members.
The auditing committee reported that they had examined
the accounts of the treasurer and had found them correct in
every respect. They recommended that the treasurer open an
account with the permanent fund, and that when such account
should be opened the treasurer should report to the present au¬
diting committee. This feature of the report was sanctioned
by the Academy.
The council reported the selection of Hon. John W. Hoyt
and C. Dwight Marsh, both of Washington, D. C., as dele¬
gates to attend the Eranklin celebration at the University of
Pennsylvania, April 17-20, 1906. They also named Dr. Er¬
nest R. Buckley of Rolla, Missouri, as delegate to the dinner
commemorating the fiftieth anniversary of the founding of the
St. Louis Academy of Science at St. Louis, March 10, 1906.
Ho delegate was named to attend the celebration of the
twenty-first anniversary of the founding of the Royal Geograph¬
ical Society of Australasia..
The report of the exchange committee was then taken up as
a special order. The following recommendations of the com¬
mittee were adopted by vote of the Academy:
Proceedings .
1011
A. That the exchange committee he authorized to dispose
of the duplicates and separata in the Academy library, in such
manner and to snch an extent as may appear advantageous to
the Academy, and to carry out such exchanges with the Univer¬
sity libraries and the State Historical society as may appear
similarly advantageous.
B. That there be appropriated from the funds of the Acad¬
emy two hundred dollars, or such part thereof as may in the
opinion of the secretary and treasurer be available, for the
work of this committee and the purchase of needed volumes
or parts of volumes; provided, that no part of this sum shall
be taken from the principal of the invested fimds of the Acad¬
emy.
C. That this committee be further allowed to use any sums
for this work that may be realized by the sale of duplicates in
the Academy library.
The reading of papers was then resumed, the first two papers
being those of Professor Case of Milwaukee on “Wave-rolled
snowballs,” and of Professors Birge and Lenher on “Gases of
Wisconsin lakes.” Professor Case made a brief report on
the occurrence along the shore of Lake Michigan, after a re¬
cent storm, of great numbers of snowballs which had been
rolled up by the waves.
Professors Birge and Lenher reported on the occurrence of
various gases that had been found in the waters of a number of
Wisconsin lakes. This work is still in progress and will be
more fully reported at a later time. The paper was discussed
by Messrs. Harper, Kahlenberg and Slichter.
As Professor Talbert wished to leave on a forenoon train,
his two papers were next taken up.
The remainder of the program was carried out as printed.
Afternoon Session .
The Academy was called to order by President Davis at
2:30.
The secretary read a letter from Mr. Charles E. Brown of
Milwaukee, secretary of the Wisconsin Archaeological Society,
1012 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts , and Letters.
transmitting the greetings of that society to the Academy and
asking that the Academy co-operate with the society in the
work of saving to posterity the archaeological treasures of the
state.
The remaining papers were read in their order. About
thirty members were present.
The business of the Academy all transacted, the Academy
ndjourned S'ine die.
E. B. Skinner,
Secretary.
REPORTS OF THE SECRETARY.
Report of the Secretary,, December 28, 1904.
The proceedings of the meeting for 1903 have been publish¬
ed in Part 2 of Volume XIV of the Transactions of the Acad¬
emy. At the end of this volume is also published a roster of
members whose names were on the books of the Academy
March 1, 1904. This roster contains 258 names, as follows:
Honorary 'members . . 6
Life members . . . . 12
Active members . . . . . . 196
Corresponding members . ., . 44
Of the 196 persons named as active members, some five or
six have since been dropped for non-payment of dues, leaving
the present active membership about 190. The treasurer will
give a more detailed report regarding the membership of the
Academy.
The publication of Part 2 of Volume XIV of the Transac¬
tions of the Academy has already been noted. This part contains
thirteen articles by as many authors and is illustrated by 22
plates. Besides the thirteen articles noted, the part contains
addresses in memory of the following deceased members: —
Charles Kendall Adams, George McKendree Steele, John But¬
ler Johnson, Samuel Dexter Hastings, Hamilton Greenwood
Timberlake, Prederick Pabst and John I. Jegi.
It is a matter of great satisfaction to the secretary to be
able to report the continuance of the liberal policy of the
state printing commissioners in the matter of illustrations for
papers published in the Transactions. Hot only have they al¬
lowed the Academy to select the engraver to do their work, but
1014 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts , and Letters.
they have allowed the printing of the plates to he done by the
engraver when so desired. This policy will enable the Acad¬
emy to secure the best obtainable illustrations for papers of¬
fered to it.
The most serious obstacle now in the way of making the
Transactions a first-class medium of publication for papers of¬
fered to it, lies in the form in which they are issued and the
ruling of the printing commissioners which requires that all
the copy for a part shall be in the hands of the printer before
work may be begun. This ruling, and the fact that the state
printer usually takes his own time for the printing, has been the
cause of the most vexatious delays and has been in some cases
the cause of the loss of some excellent material which otherwise
would have been given to the Academy. This delay might be
obviated and the appearance of the Transactions much im¬
proved if a ruling could be secured from the printing commis¬
sioners allowing the Academy to receive a permit to have its
papers printed as soon as they are presented. Separates could
then be issued within a reasonable time and either the matter
stereotyped for later printing or the whole two thousand cop¬
ies printed and distributed as a numbered part of the volume.
In this connection, the secretary would also recommend that
the form of the Transactions be so changed that one of the two
parts shall be devoted to papers in science and mathematics,
and the other, separately paged, to letters, the term letters to in¬
clude language, history, political economy, political science and
allied subjects. If this were done, it would be necessary under
the present law to keep each part open for two years and to
complete the two parts simultaneously. It may be that an act
of the state legislature will be required to make these changes.
I recommend, therefore, that a committee of three members
be appointed whose duty it shall be to try to secure such ruling
from the printing commissioners and, if need be, such action
from the legislature, as will enable the Academy to secure the
prompt printing of papers offered for publication and to
change the form of the Transactions by the establishment of
one or more fairly homogeneous series or parts as may seem
Report of the Secretary.
1015
best. The secretary should he authorized to put into effect
such changes as the committee may he able to secure in the
publication of Volume XV.
Respectfully submitted,
E. B. Skinner,
Secretary.
Report oi the Secretary, February 8, 1906.
At the last meeting of the Academy, the number of active
members reported was 196 ; of the members elected at that
meeting, 13 have accepted by paying the initiation fee. Dur¬
ing the year, 16 members have been dropped for non-payment
of dues, two have resigned, and two have died, making a total
of 20 names that have been taken from the roll. The present
active membership its therefore 189. Of the 44 corresponding
members reported last year, one has died. The present mem¬
bership of the Academy is as follows:
Honorary members, . 6
Life members, . . . . . 12
Active members, ....... . . ■ . 189
Corresponding members, . . . 43
_ _ :
Total, . 250
The following members have died since the last meeting:
Colonel Stephen Vaughn Shipman, who died at his home in
Chicago, November 12, 1905. Colonel Shipman was an archi¬
tect by profession, a soldier in the Civil war, and is known to
Madison people as the architect of the government building in
this city and of the dome of the present capitol. He was a
charter member of the Academy and was made a correspond¬
ing member December 30, 1879.
James Davie Butler, who became a member of the Academy
February 10, 1874, died at his home in Madison November 20,
1905. Fitting tribute will be paid to his memory at this ses¬
sion.
63— S. & A.
1016 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts , and Letters .
David Bower F rankenburger, professor of rhetoric and ora¬
tory in the University of Wisconsin and a member of the Acad¬
emy since 1879 or 1880, died at his home in this city Febru¬
ary 6, 1906.
The secretary regrets to report that plans instituted a year
ago to diminish the delay in the publication of the Transac¬
tions have not been carried out. The committee appointed at
that time planned to have the Transactions appear in series
and arranged with the printing commissioners to publish parts
of approximately 100 pages each, thinking that in this way
material could be published as fast as received. As a matter
of fact, however, the copy came into the hands of the secretary
practically all at one time, so that it was impossible to
publish part and hold back part. Most of the copy
was in the printer’s hands by May 1st and some separates were
out shortly after August 1st, but the first part is yet in the
hands of the printer. Doubtless the volume of state printing
to be done during the past few months has been very great,
but the secretary feels that the Transactions have been unrea¬
sonably delayed. At the same time, there seems to be little hope
of improvement so long as the present state printer holds his
office.
Your secretary is pleased to report the continuance of the
•liberal policy of the printing commissioners in the matter of
furnishing first-class engravings for the Transactions. He
feels warranted in saying that he believes that the commission¬
ers will furnish suitable illustrations for any paper that may
be offered, no matter what may be the cost, provided only that
the paper is of sufficient value to warrant the expenditure.
At present the income of the Academy exceeds the necessary
expenditures by something more than $100 annually. I dare
express the hope that in the future the income may be so in¬
creased through increased membership that it will be possible
to strengthen the library materially by filling gaps that now
exist and which can only be filled by purchases. It is also de¬
sirable that as the work of the secretary increases the office re¬
ceive a larger compensation. To this end, it would seem most
Report of the Secretary.
1017
desirable that for the present the interest-bearing funds of the
Academy be increased as rapidly as the circumstances will per¬
mit.
In conclusion, the secretary desires in this, his last report,
to thank the members of the Academy for their kindness and
assistance in carrying on the work of the Academy as it has
been shown in many ways.
E. B. Skinner,
Secretary.
REPORTS OF THE TREASURER.
Report of the Treasurer, December 28, 1904.
General Fund.
Receipts.
Balance on hand, December 24, 1903 . $121 52
Received from dues . 139 00
Received from Transactions sold . 7 20
Received from interest on permanent fund . 90 00
Total receipts . $357 72
Disbursements.
Vouchers
Nos.
1, 2. Postage . $13 30
3, 7, 8, 9, 10. Printing and paper . 18 42
4. Drafting . 1 80
5. Mailing Transactions . 14 60
11. Secretary’s fund . 75 00
6. Bonds for permanent fund . 202 00
Cash on hand . 32 60
Total disbursements . $357 72
Permanent Fund.
Permanent fund, December 24, 1903 . $1,614 40
Investment in Madison street improvement bonds . 202 00
Total investment in permanent fund . $1,816 40
There are unpaid bills to the amount of some $50.00, but the
cash on hand with dues collected at the present meeting will be
enough to meet the obligations. The expenditures of the Acad¬
emy are now so much less than the receipts, including the in¬
terest on the permanent fund, that it should be possible to in¬
vest in the permanent fund at least $100.00 each year. Your
treasurer here suggests that he be authorized to rent a safety
deposit box in one of the Madison banks for the keeping of the
Report of the Treasurer .
1019
bonds belonging to the Academy and now kept in a safety de¬
posit box belonging to one of its members.
Your treasurer asks for an auditing committee to examine
the accounts for 1904.
He also at this time tenders bis resignation from tbe office
of treasurer, and asks tbat a successor be elected to fill out tbe
unexpired term.
H. W. Hillyer,
Treasurer.
We, the auditing committee, have examined the above ac¬
count with vouchers and find the same correct.
William H. Hobbs,
William S. Marshall,
George Wagner.
Report of the Treasurer, January 1, 1906.
Receipts.
Balance in treasury, January 1, 1905 . $32 60
Received for dues and separates, January 1, 1905, to Janu¬
ary 1, 1906 . 190 81
Interest on investment to April 1, 19Q£ . 99 12
Total receipts . $322 53
Disbursements.
Postage and supplies for treasurer . $5 52
Printing . 68 05
Supplies for librarian . 6 10
Clerical services (mailing Transactions) . 19 60
Journals, etc. (George Wagner) . 34 79
Expenses of secretary, 1905 . . 75 00
Total disbursements . 209 06
Balance on hand . $113 47
The Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters has
a permanent fund in the form of seventeen Madison city street
improvement bonds of the denomination of $100 each and
1020 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts , and Letters .
bearing 6 per cent interest. The cost of these bonds, including
premiums paid, was $1,816.40, but the face value is $1,700,
and this latter amount is the one that should appear in the
statement of the permanent fund.
R. H. Denniston,
Treasurer.
The committee appointed to audit the accounts of the Treas¬
urer have examined the books and vouchers and find the state¬
ment of receipts and expenditures correct as given in attached
report of the Treasurer.
The committee has not been able to determine the correct
amount in the permanent fund. We recommend that the Treas¬
urer open an account with the permanent fund and that the
present committee be instructed to audit the said account when
opened in the books.
Chas. S. Seichter,
Chas. H. Chandler,
George Wagner.
REPORT OF THE LIBRARIAN.
February 8, 1906.
The larger part of the work of the library, especially as re¬
gards extension of its exchange relations, has been done the
past two years by the exchange committee under the efficient
chairmanship of Mr. George Wagner. For his valuable services
in this work, Mr. Wagner deserves the hearty thanks of all
members of the Academy.
The ordinary routine work connected with the library has
been performed as heretofore. The librarian regrets, however,
that great press of library work in other directions has pre¬
vented him from giving much personal attention to the library.
It is hoped soon to take up the work of recataloging the li¬
brary, thus rendering it more accessible to all members and
other students. Volumes are of course loaned to members on
demand, and are sent to members outside of Madison when¬
ever requested.
The full amount of binding allowed by the state appropria¬
tion has been done by the state printer. In the limited amount
of binding now possible, preference has of course been given to
those publications in most demand. There remain, however,
many hundred volumes which should be bound as soon as funds
can be secured for the purpose. With the constantly increas¬
ing use of the library, the need for increased provision for
binding becomes more imperative.
Walter M. Smith,
Librarian .
REPORT OF THE EXCHANGE COMMITTEE.
February 8, 1906.
At the last annual meeting of this Academy, a committee
was appointed for the purpose of extending the exchange ser¬
vice of its library, securing such volumes as might he missing
from its sets of publications and otherwise extending the use¬
fulness of the library. This committee herewith presents the
report of its labors.
1. It seemed to us that the most pressing necessity was that
of completing, so far as possible, such partial sets of periodic¬
als as we already possessed. Preliminary to this, it xvas nec¬
essary to determine just wThat we owned, and (a much more
difficult task) just what we did not oxvn. In this work, the la¬
bors bestowed on our collections by our librarian aided us im¬
mensely. Nevertheless, it was a task that required several
months of leisure moments. The result was, in a crude way,
a card index to our library, and this formed the basis of our
remaining work. Thanks to the financial support of the Geo¬
logical and natural History Survey, we were enabled to em¬
ploy a typewriter to write, from set forms, letters to the various
societies, requesting such parts of their publications as we
lacked. ]\fr. Kelly, the man employed, gave thorough satis¬
faction, but unfortunately was forced to quit the work at the
end of the summer on account of other duties. Since then, no
one has been employed, although many dozens of letters have
been written.
Report of the Exchange Committee.
1023
The response to these letters was unexpectedly liberal.
Through them, the Academy has added to its library :
Complete volumes . . . . 1,102
Parts of volumes . ........ 518
Maps • . . . . h; . . . . 5
Through these acquisitions, it has been possible to complete:
Sets of publications . . . 37
Volumes, hitherto incomplete . 81
And this does not express the whole result, for there are yet
thirty societies that have sent notice of volumes forwarded,
where the volumes have not as yet arrived (due to method of
shipment through international exchange service). The re¬
sults from these must therefore be held for a future report.
ISTot half of the work possible along this line has been done
as yet. Even with adequate help and facilities, many ques¬
tions continuously arise that need long searching in bibliograph¬
ic fields for their solution. We have made it a rule, but sel¬
dom broken, never to communicate with a society until we have
ascertained fully the extent of its publications. If the Acad¬
emy sees fit to continue this work, there is every reason to be¬
lieve that it will be fully as fruitful this coming year as in the
one just past.
2. In establishing this committee, the Academy made appro¬
priations for its use in purchasing volumes not otherwise ob¬
tainable. Sentiment on this matter subsequently developed
in such a way as to make it seem best not to spend any con¬
siderable amount of this, until the Academy would be able
once more to consider the question. The purchases have there¬
fore been restricted to a few cases where unusual opportunities
were offered; the purchases were:
Rendiconti, Circolo Matematico di Palermo, 7 volumes.
1 volume, Crustacea of Norway.
6 volumes, Proceedings of the Royal Society (at less than
50 cents apiece, bound).
1 volume, Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy.
1 part, Bulletin of the Museum of Comparative Zoology.
1024 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts , and Letters .
It is to be hoped that the Academy may see fit to provide for
the completion of one or two of our most important sets, such
as the Proceedings of the Royal Society and the publications
of the Leipzig Academy, as well as for the acquiring of smaller
lots where such are offered at very advantageous prices.
3. The work of filling gaps has left so far but little time
for the soliciting of new exchanges. We have, however, inci¬
dentally, chiefly at the request of individual members of the
Academy, made arrangements with seventeen organizations,
not previously on our list, for an exchange, and from all of
these we have received publications. Thirteen others, who
have accepted exchange but have so far sent nothing, are re¬
served for a future rejport. There remains much to be done
in this line, but in order to prevent placing ourselves under
obligations to societies whose publications are absolutely worth¬
less, a cautious progress is necessary.
4. In all our work, we have constantly been impressed with
the desirability of a different kind of exchange between our
library and the other two libraries that share this palace with
it. There is much in our library in the way of odd volumes and
partial sets, which would find better place on our neighbors’
shelves. University dissertations, for example, we can never
hope to possess in such numbers as to make our collection use¬
ful; what we own of them will, however, greatly enhance the
value of the university collection. The University, on the other
hand, owns many rare volumes and partial sets of society pub¬
lications which would in many cases complete or nearly com¬
plete our sets. The same holds true of our relations to the
Historical society. Both of these libraries have already re¬
peatedly turned over to us valuable works, more appropriate
to our collection than to theirs. They have also aided us
most liberally in allowing us to offer their publications together
with our own to such larger societies whose publishing activi¬
ties made such a course advisable. In that way we have sev¬
eral times been able to get more complete returns than would
otherwise have been possible. It may be mentioned here that
the Geological and Natural History survey has also, and per-
Report of the Exchange Committee .
1025
haps more than the others, aided ns here. The astronomical
observatory also has offered ns its aid, though hitherto we have
not needed to take advantage of the liberality of its director.
5. We have looked upon it as part of our work, with the
permission and hearty cooperation of the superintendent of
the state survey, to correlate the exchange lists of the two or¬
ganizations, and thus prevent the sending out of needless ma¬
terial and the receipt of equally needless duplicates. In the
course of this work, we have incorporated the material received
by the survey into the Academy library, where the law says
it shall go. This has made a most valuable addition. Our
records concerning this are complete, but at present not in such
shape as to allow us to state the number of volumes so acquired.
There must be several hundred, however, beside many which
are duplicates of what we previously possessed.
6. During our work, we have also been forced to scan pretty
carefully the duplicates owned by the Academy, the separata
and the small collection of individual works. These contain
much that is of no further use to the Academy, but which
could probably be disposed of with some return in cash. Doing
this would enable us to make useful additions to our collection,
and at the same time to release from encumbrance valued shelf-
room needed badly for expansion.
In view of the facts recited, we beg to close our report with
the following recommendations :
A. That the exchange committee be authorized to dispose
of the duplicates and separata in the Academy library, in such
manner and to such an extent as may appear advantageous to
the Academy, and to carry out such exchanges with the Uni¬
versity libraries and the State Historical society as may appear
similarly advantageous.
B. That there be appropriated from the funds of the Acad¬
emy $200, or such part thereof as may in the opinion of the
secretary and treasurer be available, for the work of this com¬
mittee and the purchase of needed volumes or parts of volumes ;
provided, that no part of this sum shall be taken from the prin¬
cipal of the invested funds of the Academy.
1026 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts, and Letters.
C. That this committee he further allowed to use sums for
this work that may be realized by the sale of duplicates in the
Academy library.
D. That these recommendations be made a special order
for the business session tomorrow morning.
Professor Hobbs’ absence in Europe prevents his signing
this report. The chairman feels confident that he would con¬
cur with all the above recommendations.
George Wagner,
Edward Kremers.
EXTRACTS FROM THE CHARTER.
An Acfr to incorporate the Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and
Letters.
The people of the state of Wisconsin, represented in senate and assem¬
bly, do enact as follows:
Section 1. Lucius Fairchild, Nelson Dewey, John W. Hoyt, Increase
A. Lapham, * * ** at present being members and officers of an
association known as “The Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and
Letters,” located at the city of Madison, together with their future as¬
sociates and successors forever, are hereby created a body corporate
by the name and style of the “Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts,
and Letters,” and by that name shall have perpetual succession; shall
be capable in law of contracting and being contracted with, of suing
and being sued, of pleading and being impleaded in all courts of com¬
petent jurisdiction; and may do and perform such acts as are usually
performed by like corporate bodies.
Section 2. The general objects of the Academy shall be to encour¬
age investigation and disseminate correct views in the various depart¬
ments of science, literature, and the arts. Among the specific objects
of the Academy shall be embraced the following:
1. Researches and investigations in the various departments of the
material, metaphysical, ethical, ethnological, and social sciences.
2. A progressive and thorough scientific survey of the state with a
view of determining its mineral, agricultural, and other resources.
3. The advancement of the useful arts, through the applications of
science, and by the encouragement of original invention.
4. The encouragement of the fine arts, by means of honors and prizes
awarded to artists for original works of superior merit.
o. The formation of scientific, economic, and art museums.
6. The encouragement of philological and historical research, the
collection and preservation of historic records, and the formation of a
general library.
1 Here follow the names of forty others. Sections 5, 6, 8 and 9 are omitted
here as of no present interest. For the charter in full see Transactions , vol.
viii, p. xi, or earlier volumes.
1028 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts , and Letters.
7. The diffusion of knowledge by the publication of original con¬
tributions to science, literature, and the arts.
Section 3. Said Academy may have a common seal and alter the
same at pleasure; may ordain and enforce such constitution, regula¬
tions, and by-laws as may be necessary, and alter the same at pleasure;
may receive and hold real and personal property, and may use and dis¬
pose of the same at pleasure; provided, that it shall not divert any do¬
nation or bequest from the uses and objects proposed by the donor, and
that none of the property acquired by it shall, in any manner, be alien¬
ated other than in the way of exchange of duplicate specimens, books,
and other effects, with similar institutions and in the manner specified
in the next section of this act, without the consent of the legislature.
Section 4. It shall be the duty of the said Academy, so far as the
same may be done without detriment to its own collections, to furnish,
at the discretion of its officers, duplicate typical specimens of objects
in natural history to the University of Wisconsin, and to the other
schools and colleges of the state.
Section 7. Any existing society or institution having like objects
embraced by said Academy, may be constituted a department thereof,
or be otherwise connected therewith, on terms mutually satisfactory
to the governing bodies of the said Academy and such other society
or institution.
Approved March 16, 1870.
EXTRACTS FROM THE WISCONSIN STATUTES.
STATUTES OF 1898.
TRANSACTIONS OP THE ACADEMY.
Section 341. There shall be printed by the state printer biennially
in pamphlet form two thousand copies of the transactions of the Wis¬
consin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters, uniform in style with
the volumes heretofore printed for said society.
Note.— Under a ruling of the printing commissioners of the state of Wiscon¬
sin, made in response to a presentation by a committee of the Academy ap¬
pointed December 29, 1897, each volume of the Transactions may be issued in
two consecutive parts; so that a publication may thus be issued each year cov¬
ering the papers accepted after the previous annual meeting. The Academy
allows each author one hundred separate reprints of his paper from the Trans¬
actions without expense, except a small charge for printed covers when desired.
Additional copies are charged for at the actual cost of printing and binding.
OF THE DISTRIBUTION OF PUBLIC DOCUMENTS.
Section 365. The transactions of the Wisconsin Academy of Sci¬
ences, Arts, and Letters shall be distributed as follows: One copy to
each member of the legislature, one copy to the librarian of each state
institution; one hundred copies to the State Agricultural Society; one
hundred copies to the State Historical Society; one hundred copies to
the State University, and the remainder to said Academy.
Section 366. In the distribution of books or other packages, if such
packages are too large or would cost too much to be sent by mail,
they shall be sent by express or freight, and the accounts for such
express or freight charges, properly certified to, shall be paid out of
the state treasury.
STATUTES OF 1901.
CHAPTER 447.
BINDING OF EXCHANGES.
Section 1. SOction 341 of the revised statutes of 1898 is hereby
amended by adding thereto the following: The secretary of state may
authorize the state printer to bind in suitable binding all periodicals
and other exchanges which the Society shall hereafter receive, at a
cost not exceeding one hundred and fifty dollars per annum. The
secretary of state shall audit the accounts for such binding.
CONSTITUTION
OF THE WISCONSIN ACADEMY OF SCIENCES, ARTS, AND
LETTERS. ‘
[As amended at various regular meetings.]
Article I. — Name and Location.
This association shall be known as the Wisconsin Academy of Sci¬
ences, Arts, and Letters, and shall he located at the city of Madison.
Article II. — Object.
The object of the Academy shall be the promotion of sciences, arts,
and letters in the state of Wisconsin. Among the special objects shall
be the publication of the results of investigation and the formation
of a library.
Article III. — Membership.
The Academy shall include four classes of members, viz.: life mem¬
bers, honorary members, corresponding members, and active members,
to be elected by ballot.
1. Life members shall be elected on account of special services ren¬
dered the Academy. Life membership in the Academy may also be
obtained by the payment of one hundred dollars and election by the
Academy. Life members shall be allowed to vote and to hold office.
2. Honorary members shall be elected by the Academy and shall be
men who have rendered conspicuous services to science, arts, or letters.
3. Corresponding members shall be elected from those who have been
active members of the Academy, but have removed from the state. By
special vote of the Academy men of attainments in science or letters
may be elected corresponding members. They shall have no vote in
the meetings of the Academy.
4. Active members snail be elected by the Academy or the council
and shall enter upon membership on the payment of an initiation fee
of two dollars which shall include the first annual assessment of one
dollar. The annual assessment shall be omitted for the president,
secretary, treasurer, and librarian during their term of office.
Constitution.
1031
Article IV. — Officers.
The officers of the Academy shall be a president, a vice-president for
each of the three departments, sciences, arts, and letters, a secretary, a
librarian, a treasurer, and a custodian. These officers shall be chosen
by ballot, on recommendation of the committee on nomination of offi¬
cers, by the Academy at an annual meeting and shall hold office for
three years. Their duties shall be those usually performed by officers
thus named in scientific societies. It shall be one of the duties of the
president to prepare an address which shall be delivered before the
Academy at the annual meeting at which his term of office expires.
Article V. — Council.
The council of the Academy shall be entrusted with the manage-
ment of its affairs during the intervals between regular meetings, and
shall consist of the president, the three vice-presidents, the secretary,
the treasurer, the librarian, and the past presidents who retain their
residence in Wisconsin. Three members of the council shall consti¬
tute a quorum for the transaction of business, provided the secretary
and one of the presiding officers be included in the number.
Article VI. — Committees.
The standing committees of the Academy shall be a committee on
publication, a library committee, and a committee on the nomination
of members. These committees shall be elected at the annual meeting
of the Academy in the same manner as the other officers of the Acad¬
emy, and shall hold office for the same term.
1. The committee on publication shall consist of the president and
secretary and a third member elected by the Academy. They shall
determine the matter which shall be printed in the publications of the
Academy. They may at their discretion refer papers of a doubtful
character to specialists for their opinion as to scientific value and
relevancy.
2. The library committee shall consist of five members, of which the
librarian shall be ex officio chairman, and of which a majority shall
not be from the same city.
3. The committee on nomination of members shall consist of five
members, one of whom shall be the secretary of the Academy.
Article VII. — Meetings.
The annual meeting of the Academy shall be held at such time and
place as the council may designate; but all regular meetings for the
64— S. & A.
1032 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters.
election of the board of officers shall be held at Madison. Summer
field meetings shall be held at such times and places as the Academy
or the council may decide. Special meetings may be called by the
council.
Article VIII. — Publications.
The regular publication of the Academy shall be known as its
Transactions, and shall include suitable papers, a record of its pro¬
ceedings, and any other matter pertaining to the Academy. This shall
be printed by the state as provided in the statutes of Wisconsin. All
members of the Academy shall receive gratis the current issues of
its Transactions.
Article IX. — Amendments.
Amendments to this constitution may be made at any annual meet¬
ing by a vote of three-fourths of all the members present; provided,
that the amendment has been proposed by five members, and that no¬
tice has been sent to all the members at least one month before the
meeting.
RESOLUTIONS
REGULATIVE OF THE PROCEEDINGS OF THE ACADEMY.
THE TRANSACTIONS OF THE ACADEMY.
[. By the Academy, December 28, 1882.]
2. The secretary of the Academy shall be charged with the special
duty of overseeing and editing the publication of future volumes of
the Transactions.
3. The Transactions of the Academy hereafter published shall con¬
tain: (a) a list of officers and members of the Academy; (b) the
charter, by-laws and constitution of the Academy as amended to date;
(c) the proceedings of the meetings; and (d) such papers as are duly
certified in writing to the secretary as accepted for publication in ac¬
cordance with the following regulations, and no other.
6. In deciding as to the papers to be selected for publication, the
committee shall have special regard to their value as genuine, original
contributions to the knowledge of the subject discussed.
9. The -sub-committee on publication shall be charged with insisting
upon the correction of errors in grammar, phraseology, etc., on the
part of authors, and shall call the attention of authors to any other
points in their papers which in their judgment appear to need revision,
{By the Academy, June 2, 1892.]
The secretary was given authority to allow as much as ten dollars
for the illustrations of a paper when the contribution was of sufficient
value to warrant it. A larger amount than this might be allowed by
the committee on publication.
[By the Academy, December 29, 1896.]
The secretary was directed to add to the date of publication as
printed on the outside of author’s separates the words, “Issued in ad¬
vance of general publication.”
1034 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters.
FEES OF LIFE MEMBERS.
[By the Academy, July 19, 1870.]
Resolved, That the fees from members for life be set apart as a per¬
manent endowment fund to be invested in Wisconsin state bonds, or
other equally safe securities, and that the proceeds of said fund, only,
be used for the general purposes of the Academy.
ANNUAL DUES.
[By the Academy , December 29, 1892.]
Resolved, That the secretary and treasurer be instructed to strike
from the list of active members of the Academy the names of all who
are in arrears in the payment of annual dues, except in those cases
where, in their judgment, it is desirable to retain such members for a
longer time.
ARREARS OF ANNUAL DUES.
[By the Council, December 29, 1897.]
Resolved, That the treasurer be requested to send out the notices of
annual dues as soon as possible after each annual meeting and to ex¬
tend the notice to the second or third time writhin a period of four
months where required.
SECRETARY’S EXPENSES.
[By the Academy, December 27, 1902.1
Resolved, That the Academy hereby appropriates the sum of seventy-
five dollars per annum as an allowance for secretary’s expenses, for
which a single voucher shall be required.
ERRATA.
P. 382, line 8, for “Minnesota” read “Indiana.”
P. 402, note 1, line 6 from bottom, for “arm” read “armed”; for “at-
tendate for” read “appendix or.”
P. 404, line 2 (below the heading), for “district” read “distinct.”
P. 463, line 8, for “regment” read “segment.”
P. 539, line 1 (below the heading) should read: “The common fall
and winter squashes, as the Hubbard,”
INDEX
Page
Barnett, James D.: The state administration of taxation in
Wisconsin . 163
Beatty, Arthur: The St. George, or mummers’, plays: A study
in the protology of the drama . 273
Brown, Charles E.: Wisconsin’s quartzite implements (with
Plates XXXVI and XXXVII) . 656
Buck, Solon J.: The settlement of Oklahoma (with Plates IX-
XIV) . 325
Christman, A. H.: Observations on the wintering of grain rusts 98
- : The nature and development of the primary uredospore
(with Plate XXIX) . 517
Curtis, Wardon A.: Memorial address — David Bower Franken-
burger (with portrait) . 912
Davis, J. J.: Mycological narrative of a brief journey through
the Pacific Northwest . 775
- - : The Academy: Its past and future . 887
Denniston, R. H.: The Russulas of Madison and vicinity . 71
- - The growth and organization of the starch grain (with
Plates XXXVm-XL) . 664
Fallows, Samuel, and others: Memorial address — Stephen
Vaughn Shipman (with portrait) . 927
Fish, Carl Russell: Table illustrating the progress of rota¬
tion in office to 1835 . 709
Giese, William F.: Memorial address — Amos Arnold Knowlton
(with portrait) . 915
Graenicher, S.: The relations of the Andrenine bees to the
entomophilous flora of Milwaukee county . 89
Gregory, John Goadby: Memorial address — John Lendrum
Mitchell (with portrait) . 920
Hardenberg, C. B.: Comparative studies in the trophi of the
Scarabaeidae (with Plates XXX-XXXIV) . 548
Index.
Pace
Hobbs, William Herbert: The correlation of fracture systems
and the evidences of planetary dislocations within the
earth’s crust (with Plate III) . 15
- : Memorial address — Nathaniel Southgate Shaler (with
portrait) . 924
Johnson, Roswell Hill: The individuality and variation of the
pyloric caeca of the Centrarchidae (with Plates XLI-XLV
and two text-figures) . 713
Juday, Chancey: Studies on some lakes in the Rocky and
Sierra Nevada mountains (with Plates XLVIII-L) . 781
Kahlenberg, Louis: On the nature of the process of osmosis
and osmotic pressure with observations concerning dialysis
(with seven text-figures) . 209
Lueders, Edith: Memorial address — Herman Frederick Lueders
(with portrait) . 917
Marsh, C. Dwight: A revision of the North American species of
Diaptomus (with Plates XV-XXVIII) . 381
Marshall, William S.: The reproductive organs of the female
maia moth, Hemileuca maia (Drury) (with Plates I and II) 1
Nichols, Susie Percival: The nature and origin of the binucle-
ated cells in some Basidiomycetes (with Plates IV-VI) . 30
Norton, Richard G.: An investigation into the breaking of
watch mainsprings in greater numbers in the warm months
of the year than in the cold months (with Plate XXXV) .... 654
Olive, Edgar W.: Notes on the occurrence of Oscillatoria pro-
lifica (Greville) Gomont in the ice of Pine lake, Waukesha
county, Wisconsin . 124
- : Cytological studies on Geratiomyxa (with Plate XLVII).. . 753
O’Shea, M. V.: The parts of speech in the child’s linguistic de¬
velopment . 178
Peckham, George W., and Peckham, Elizabeth G. : The Attidae
of Borneo . 603
Reed, George M.: Infection experiments with Erysiphe graminis
DC . 135
- : Infection experiments with the mildew on cucurbits, Ery¬
siphe cichoracearum DC . 527
Sands, M. C.: Nuclear structure and spore formation in Micro-
sphaera alni (with Plate XLVI) . 733
Skinner, Ernest Brown: The determination of the value of the
right of way of Wisconsin railroads as made in the appraisal
of 1903 . 794
Thwaites, Reuben Gold: Memorial address — James Davie But¬
ler (with portrait) . 897
Index.
Page
Vobi-iies, C. T.: Habits and anatomy of the larva of the caddis-
fly, Platyphylax designatus Walker (with Plates YII and
VIII) . 108
Voss, E. K. J. H.: Jacob Wympfflinger’s “Tutschland” . 823
- : An ordinance of the city of Nuremberg, adopted in the
year 1562 . 874
Wagner, George: List of exchanges of the Wisconsin Academy
of Sciences, Arts, and Letters . 967
Watrous, J. A.: Memorial address — Charles Frederick A. Zim¬
merman (with portrait) . 931
Officers and members of the Academy . 934
Proceedings of the Academy . 995
Report of the Exchange Committee . 1022
Report of the Librarian . 1021
Reports of the Secretary . 1013
Reports of the Treasurer . 1018
Rules and regulations concerning the Academy . 1027
4 f\?)
It 51