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TRANSACTIONS

OF THE

WISCONSIN ACADEMY

SCIENCES, ARTS, AND LETTERS

MADISON, WISCONSIN

1940

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TRANSACTIONS

OF THE

WISCONSIN ACADEMY

OF

SCIENCES, ARTS, AND LETTERS

VOL. XXXII

NATURAE SPECIES RATIOQUE

MADISON, WISCONSIN

1940

OFFICERS OF THE WISCONSIN ACADEMY OF SCIENCES,

ARTS AND LETTERS

President

Paul W. Bout we 11, Beloit College

V ice-Presidents

In Science: Ernest F. Bean, Wisconsin Geological Survey

In the Arts: J. 0. Carbys, Milwaukee

In Letters: Leila Bascom, University of Wisconsin

Secretary- Treasurer

Loyal Durand, Jr., University of Wisconsin

Librarian

Gilbert H. Doane, University of Wisconsin

Curator

Charles E. Brown, State Historical Museum

Council

The President, ex officio

The Vice-Presidents, ex officio

The Secretary-Treasurer, ex officio

The Librarian, ex officio

E. A. Birge, past president

Charles S. Slichter, past president

Louis Kahlenberg, past president

Henry L. Ward, past president

M. A. Brannon, past president

L. J. Cole, past president

Charles E. Allen, past president

Rufus M. Bagg, past president

Chancey Juday, past president

Committee on Publication

The President, ex officio

The Secretary, ex officio

H. A. Schuette, University of Wisconsin

Committee on Library

The Librarian, ex officio

A. L. Barker, Ripon college

Ira A. Edwards, Milwaukee Public Museum

W. S. Marshall, University of Wisconsin

L. E Noland, University of Wisconsin

Committee on Membership

The Secretary, ex officio

E. F. Bean, Geological and Natural History Survey

P. W. Boutwell, Beloit College

W. E. Rogers, Lawrence College

O. L. Kowalke, University of Wisconsin

Correspondence relating to publication in the Transactions or to other Academy business should

be directed to the Secretary, Loyal Durand, Jr., 314 Science Hall, Madison, Wisconsin. Publications

Intended for the Library of the Academy should be sent directly to the Librarian, Gilbert H. Doane.

University of Wisconsin Library, Madison, Wisconsin.

^OC. 7 3

’ CAJ 7 (aJ

Contents

Spread of the Hungarian Partridge in Wisconsin Aldo Leopold . 5

A Wildlife History of Faville Grove, Wisconsin Arthur S. Hawkins . . 29

Spring Flora on Farmer’s Island, Lake Mills, Wisconsin (Appendix to

Faville Grove article). E. B. Moore and Russell Sanford . 67

Notes on Wisconsin Parasitic Fungi. I H. G. Greene . 77

Preliminary Report on the Flora of Wisconsin. XXVII. Lentibulari-

aceae. John W. Thomson . 85

Preliminary Report on the Flora of Wisconsin. XXVIII. Caprifoliaceae.

Dorothy R. Wade and Douglas E. Wade . . . 91

Preliminary Reports on the Flora of Wisconsin. XXIX. Anacardiaceae.

Norman C. Fassett . 103

Preliminary Reports on the Flora of Wisconsin. XXX. Rhamnales.

Richard W. Pohl . 107

A Butterfly Migration in Mexico. Arthur H. Moeck . 113

What is the Red Squirrel? H. W. Mossman . 123

Preliminary List of the Hydracarina of Wisconsin. VI. Ruth

Marshall . 135

Oxygen Consumption of Thyone Briareus (Holothurioidea) as a Func¬

tion of Oxygen Tension and Hydrogen-ion Concentration of the

Surrounding Medium. William A. Hiestand . . . 167

The Fresh-Water Sponges of Wisconsin. James Russell Neidhoefer . . 177

Geology of Washington Island and its Neighbors, Door County, Wis¬

consin. Robert R. Shrock . 199

Rectangular Mudcracks. Robert R. Shrock . . 229

Buried Pre-Cambrian of Wisconsin. F. T. Thwaites . 233

Survey of Pokerville Cave, Blue Mounds, Wisconsin. Alfred C.

Fischer, Arnold C. Mason, and W. S. Twenhofel . . . 243

The Pleistocene of iPiart of Northwestern Wisconsin. John T. Mathie-

SEN . 251

Degree of Pigmentation and the Potential Acid-Base Balance of Honey.

H. A. Schuette, Warren W. Woessner, Ralph E. Triller, and

D. J. Huenink . 273

The Relation of Le Philosophe anglais by the Abbe Prevost to the Re¬

ligious Controversies in France and England during the Early

Eighteenth Century. Berenice Cooper . 279

Variations in the Texts of Eighteen Century Editions of Le Philosophe

anglais. Berenice Cooper . 287

Literary Criticism in the North American Review, 1815-1835. Harry

Hayden Clark . 299

Alkaline Flooding Water in Cranberry Growing. N. E. Stevens, L. M.

Rogers, and H. F. Bain . 351

The Vegetal Cover of the Driftless Cuestaform Hill Land : Pre-

Settlement Record and Post-glacial Evolution. Glenn T. Tre-

WARTHA . 361

The Water Mite Genus Tyrrellia. Ruth Marshall . 383

Proceedings of the Academy . 391

SPREAD OF THE HUNGARIAN PARTRIDGE

IN WISCONSIN

Aldo Leopold

The process of pioneering contains orderly developmental

sequences and recurrent patterns of movement and behavior.

This pioneering pattern, once discovered, makes possible the

interpretation of chains of facts each hitherto standing in iso¬

lation, known but not understood.

In human history the great exponent of this concept was

Frederick Turner.1

In natural history, a worldwide transplantation of animals

into new environments is now taking place. Whether deliberate

or accidental, success or failure, wise or unwise, each such trans¬

plantation offers a chance to observe the pioneering process in

daily detail.

A successful transplantation spreads like ripples from a

cast stone. The rate of spread reflects the resistance of the en¬

vironment. Good records of the rate and manner of spread are,

however, uncommon.

The spread of the pheasant, for example, was confused by

the great number of almost simultaneous plantings.2 That of

the starling, on the other hand, took place unobscured and has

been recorded.3

The spread of the honey bee, like that of the starling, took

place unobscured by plantings, but it was not recorded because

it took place in the wilderness. European black honey bees,

transplanted into New England in 1638, 4 spread westward more

rapidly than European settlers. By 1797 they had passed the

Mississippi. In 1812 we find the hero of Cooper's novel “Oak

Openings"5 gathering wild honey on a commercial scale in south¬

ern Michigan, a region as yet devoid of settlements, and like

the rest of the continent, devoid of native honey bees. The

European bees had arrived long enough in advance of 1812 to

enable the bears to develop a honey-hunting technique.

5

6 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts and Letters

No one mapped the spread of the bee, and probably no one

but the bears possessed the necessary data.

The spread of the European gray (Hungarian) partridge

( Perdix perdix) was, in most states, masked by widespread

plantings.2*6 In a few states, however, these birds were al¬

lowed to spread, without interruption, from single focal points,

notably in the Canadian wheat belt,7 in northern Iowa,8 in south¬

ern Michigan,6 and in southeastern Wisconsin.

This paper attempts to amplify and bring up to date my

preliminary accounts 9>1° of the introduction and spread of the

partridge as a member of the Wisconsin animal community.

Pabst Plantings

The established partridge populations of Wisconsin originate

(with minor exceptions) from a series of plantings made by

Colonel Gustave Pabst of Milwaukee on his farms in Ottawa

Township, Waukesha County, from 1908 to 1929. From this

focal center the partridges spread, without interruption, for

two decades, and with only minor interruptions for a third.

Other plantings were made, but for at least 20 years none was

successful.

Here then we should be able to reconstruct the pattern by

which this pioneering species invaded a new but heretofore in¬

accessible environment. Fig 1 shows the spread contours for

1920, 1930, and 1987, as reconstructed during this study. These

are the “ripples” of the stone cast by Colonel Pabst in 1908.

Walter E. Scott11 has published a history of the Pabst

plantings, but his dates are incomplete. My own previous ac¬

counts lack detail as to numbers planted, and contain errors in

dates. To settle these discrepancies Scott has placed at my dis¬

posal all records available in the Conservation Department,

while Colonel Pabst has loaned me what remains of his corre¬

spondence. The following account combines this authoritative

information with data collected in the field since 1928.

Colonel Pabst’s gamekeeper, Jack Porter, remembers that the

first importation of partridges was made in 1908, two years be¬

fore his employment in 1910. There is no record of the number.

The birds were pinioned and placed inside a 40-acre enclosure

which also contained deer, turkey, guinea hens, and ducks. The

young were not pinioned, and were supposed to fly out. “The

Leopold — Hungarian Partridge in Wisconsin

7

experiment was not a howling success, but ... a few birds

were reared . . . and there were still a few pairs in the en¬

closure when Porter came to me in 1910” (Pabst letter of Oc¬

tober 11, 1937).

It is doubtful whether this initial importation resulted in

any wild coveys. It was followed, however, by a series of four

shipments released directly into the field. Letters from Colonel

Pabst written in 1924, 1925, and 1929 ascribe his first estab¬

lishment of partridges in the wild to these four plantings. The

dates are not given, but each letter mentions four successive

8

Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts and Letters

plantings, made in identical locations, during alternate years,

over a period variously estimated as six to eight years.

There is an anonymous official report,12 published in 1919, of

1,000 partridges planted by Colonel Pabst in 1913, and 1,000 in

1915. Scott's “Conservation History”11 draws its data from this

source. The Pabst correspondence contains the statement that

the first of the series came “about 1910,” and the strong in¬

ference that the last came about 1918. I conclude, therefore, that

1910, 1913, 1915, and 1918 are the probable dates, the first three

being accurate and the last conjectural.

The anonymous report gives some interesting detail: the

500 pairs imported in 1913 were kept confined until March, 1913,

when 100 pairs died of roup. The remainder were then released.

It also records a large shipment in 1914, all of which died en

route. It estimates that a total of 25,000 “Huns” had been turned

out on the Pabst farms. This incredible figure undoubtedly refers

to the wild population which resulted from the Pabst plantings

up to 1919. Palmer13 records only 98,000 imported into the

United States from 1906 to 1911, Yeatter6 records 268,401 im¬

ported from 1900 to 1932. The Biennial Report for 1921-2215 p- 6

states : “About six years ago . . . Gustave Pabst . . . liberated

about 1,200 pairs.” This checks roughly with the summary of

Pabst plantings recorded in Table 3.

The geographic origin of the five Pabst importations be¬

tween 1908 and 1918 is indicated by the following quotations:

“The majority of the birds I received were direct shipments

from what was formerly Bohemia. A Mr. Sonnenschein, a large

landowner there, living in the city of Prague, was one of the

large growers and exporters of Bohemian hops, and from him

the Pabst Brewing Company bought a very large part of their

(hops) requirements. On one of his visits he learned of my im¬

portation of the Hungarian partridge, and from him I bought

probably the largest number of birds” (Pabst letter of Novem¬

ber 11, 1937). “The Hungarians I partly bought from dealers in

this country, largely from the old firm of Wentz and Mackensen,

but the majority of the birds I purchased direct from Bohemia”

(letter of July 30, 1925).

The sixth Pabst planting came in 1927, and was made “to

bring in a new infusion of blood.” It consisted of 27 pairs pur¬

chased through Julius Loewith, Inc., of New York (letter of

Leopold — -Hungarian Partridge in Wisconsin

9

September 5, 1929). Mr. Loewith writes me (September 21,

1937) that all his partridges came from Bohemian estates. His

records are destroyed, but he remembers selling Colonel Pabst

“several lots ... a small lot right after the war.” The “small

lot” may be the 1918 shipment.

The seventh and last Pabst planting was in 1929, and again

consisted of 27 pairs, purchased through Loewith. The purpose

was to bolster a shortage, which, however, “it did not help at

all” (letter of January 14, 1930).

The total number of partridges planted is estimated by

Colonel Pabst in his letters as “five to six thousand” (1925, 1929)

and “six to eight thousand” (1925). The assumed total of his

plantings here used (Tables 1 and 3) is 5,000.

Colonel Pabst was so beset by inquiries about his partridge

enterprise that he devised a “form letter.” Identical verbiage

recurs in many replies to correspondents.

Other Private Plantings

J. W. Foster of Brandon, Fond du Lac County, tells me that

Colonel Pabst presented him with 12 partridges from his “first

importation,” and that he planted these birds near Brandon.

He does not remember the date, but I here assume the Foster

birds were part of the 1910 Pabst shipment. The site is now

occupied by birds which have spread from the south. Mr. Foster

thinks this present population results from his planting, but

my evidence, gathered from other sources, indicates that the

original planting died out about 1912. This is the first of many

instances in which natural spread proved more potent than de¬

sultory plantings.

About 1914 the Sportsman's Club of Independence, Trempea¬

leau County, bought three pairs from the Mackensen Game Farm

and released them just north of Independence. The birds drifted

west and raised at least one covey two years later. They then

disappeared.

In 1922 F. R, Mueller of Waukegan, Illinois, is said to have

released about a dozen “Hungarian pheasants” near Moose Lake,

Sawyer County. It has been impossible to untangle the question

of whether they were partridges or pheasants. This terrain is

entirely unsuitable for either, and the release illustrates the

10 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts and Letters

slight knowledge of partridges and pheasants then prevalent.

The birds of course disappeared.

In 1923, 20 partridges were planted near Hudson, St. Croix

County. The origin is unknown, but some persisted until later

state plantings in 1930. None now survive.

During the period 1925-1931, the Rock Creek Trout Club

in Polk County, after corresponding with Colonel Pabst, propa¬

gated and released a total of about 300 partridges. The birds

were reared by Joseph Burkhart from eggs bought in Alberta.

These plantings did not become established, so the club is now

trying chukars.

The Berlin Izaak Walton League (Green Lake County) im¬

ported 20 partridges in 1929, the shipment being a part of the

state's importation for that year. Later the state supplied addi¬

tional birds, a total of 118 being planted. Four coveys persist,

but there is no indication of active spread.

In 1929 the Milwaukee Izaak Walton League imported 20

pairs for propagation on the Moon Lake Game Farm in Fond

du Lac County, but failing to get any eggs, the birds were turned

loose in 1930. In 1933 the locality was invaded by birds spreading

from the south. There is no intermediate information, so the

question of whether this planting survived must remain un¬

answered.

In 1931 Otto Beyer bought 20 birds and released them on

his shooting preserve near Briggsville, on the border of Columbia

County. They disappeared.

In 1933 the New Lisbon Conservation Club (Juneau County)

bought six birds, which were augmented by 20 state birds and

planted. A covey was seen in 1934 but none persist now. A

previous plant of six birds in 1929 disappeared in 1931.

In general, then, no private plantings except those of Colonel

Pabst show unmistakable evidence of success.

The data on private plantings are segregated in Table 1.

They also are included in a summary by counties (Table 3).

Locations of all plants, both private and state, appear in Fig. 2.

Spread from Illinois and Minnesota

The Pabst plantings coincided with a wave of sportsman-

enthusiasm over partridges which began as early as 1900 on the

Atlantic seaboard, and reached Illinois by 1913. Imported birds,

Leopold — Hungarian Partridge in Wisconsin

11

Fig. 2. Plantings of Hungarian partridge in Wisconsin, also density

of population within the 1937 boundary.

purchased both by private individuals and by the state, were

planted in Illinois10 near the Wisconsin boundary as follows:

100 at Richmond, 1913 ; 100 at Fox Lake, 1918 ; 100 at Wauke¬

gan, 1918. These Illinois plantings were successful and may have

spread into southern Walworth and Kenosha counties before the

arrival of the Pabst birds, but the fact that the spread in Illinois

has always lagged behind the spread in Wisconsin (see receding

boundary, Fig. 1) makes it unlikely that they account for any

great part of the Wisconsin stock. In the aggregate, Wisconsin

probably contributed more birds to Illinois than vice versa.

12

Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts and Letters

A wave of Hungarian planting passed over Iowa8 during the

period 1909-1913, but none became established near the Wis¬

consin boundary.

A persistent effort to establish partridges began in Minne¬

sota in 1926. Some of the heaviest plantings were made near

Winona, opposite Trempealeau County. Partridges drifting or

spreading into Wisconsin from Minnesota are of record in my

notes as follows :

Appeared Disappeared

Near village of Trempealeau 192:8 1930

East of Fountain City, Buffalo Co. 20 in 1928 ?

West of Viroqua, Vernon Co. 40 in 1928 ?

South of Prairie du Chien, in Grant Co. ? ?

Locations of these drift colonies appear as triangles in Fig. 2.

Two coveys of unknown origin appeared in St. Croix and

Pierce counties in 1932 and 1934. These may have arisen from

the Hudson plantings shown in Fig. 2, or they may have drifted

in from Minnesota. They have now disappeared.

Drift colonies from the Minnesota planting also appeared in

the northeastern corner of Iowa.8

All the Wisconsin colonies of Minnesota birds have, in so

far as known, proved ephemeral.

State Game Farm Production and State Plantings

Previous to 1928 the partridge was considered by most

state game farms as impracticable to propagate. In that year

Michigan produced several hundred birds from wild-trapped

stock which had spread into the state from Indiana. Encouraged

by this success, Wallace Grange, Wisconsin’s Superintendent of

Game, in the winter of 1928-29 trapped about 100 partridges near

Oconomowoc. The trapping was done by K. J. MacFarlane. A

dozen of these birds were planted on the site of the present Uni¬

versity Arboretum near Lake Wingra (but never seen since).

The remainder were sent to the Fish Creek Game Farm, Door

County, for propagation.

Fish Creek was the center of partridge propagation until

1931, when the breeding stock was moved to Moon Lake, Fond

du Lac County, and placed in charge of Frank Hopkins, who had

learned game keeping in England and had operated the Moon

Lake Refuge for the Milwaukee chapter of the Izaak Walton

Leopolds— Hungarian Partridge in Wisconsin

13

League since 1926. In 1936 operations were transferred to Poy-

nette, Columbia County, where a new propagating plant had

been built in 1934.

In addition to the initial stock wild-trapped in 1928, an im¬

portation of breeding stock was made in 1929. 14 Hand-reared

stock was borrowed from Michigan in 1931 and Oregon in 1932.

Some was purchased in Manitoba in 1934 and in Wisconsin in

1937.

To reconstruct an accurate record of the state's output of

planting stock is difficult. Records go back only to 1933, recol¬

lections of previous output do not agree, and the Biennial Re¬

ports15 do not always give usable figures. There is also confusion

between the number reared and the number planted. Table 2

attempts to select what seem to be the most dependable figures on

the state's operations.

In Table 3 all known plantings, both state and private, are

arranged by counties. This table is offered with more confidence,

for it consists in large part of data gathered at first hand in the

field from the sportsmen and wardens who made the plantings.

Combining all available records, there appear to have been

planted in Wisconsin to date :

669 partridges propagated by the state at the State Game Farm

224 imported or trapped by the state

5,460 imported or propagated by private persons

6,353

There survive at this writing, in addition to the established

populations within the 1937 spread contour, about 25 scattered

coveys, most of which appear in Fig. 1.

Types of Spread

The years of first arrival recorded in Fig. 1 were accumulated

piecemeal during the past decade. Each figure represents the

year of arrival at the spot marked “X”, and is the outcome of

personal inquiry among local farmers, sportsmen, or wardens.

Such a process of interrogation disclosed a vast disparity in

competence as between observers. Prominent sportsmen some¬

times revealed their inability to distinguish a partridge from a

pheasant. Others had at their fingertips the complete chronology,

size, location, mortality and movement of every covey. The best

14 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts and Letters

information came from those who had conducted winter feed¬

ing operations. Some farmers had partridges in their fields

without knowing it ; others knew of the first outposts miles away.

Many a day’s questioning yielded only discarded data ; again an

hour’s discussion yielded a clear picture of half a county. All

data were accumulated on county maps.

During the summer of 1937 John Beule, one of my students,

mapped the spread in Dodge County and adjoining parts of

Fond du Lac and Sheboygan. His data are incorporated in Fig. 1.

Both my own work and Beule’s support the hypothesis that

the Wisconsin partridge “front” advances by three mechanisms :

(1) By slow yearly overflow into adjacent unoccupied ter¬

ritory. This is the “ripple” type of spread.

(2) By salients suddenly thrust out into unoccupied territory

and then slowly amalgamated with the main front.

(3) By isolated outposts of population thrown far ahead

of the main front. These may enlarge and eventually

coalesce with the main front.

While the long-time trend is one of aggression into new

territory, this trend is the net resultant of many local retreats

and halts as well as advances. Salients or outposts are thrust

out only to encounter bad seasons or adverse range and die.

“Bubbles” or vacant spots are left behind the main advance, and

may not become populated for a decade (for example, most of

Ozaukee County). Some are submarginal range and persist in¬

definitely (for example, Horicon Marsh and parts of the kettle

moraine). Others of marginal quality doubtless disappear and

reform with varying population pressure. But despite these

local defeats, the partridge front has, during the 30 years since

their introduction, advanced steadily across the fertile farm¬

lands eastward to the barrier of Lake Michigan, southward to a

juncture with the Illinois populations, westward into the prairies

of the driftless area, northwestward to the border of the sands,

and northward into the rich clays of the Green Bay region.

What will ultimately halt their advance no man can yet say.

The finer details of spread pattern during the early years are

lost. The outward movement can be depicted only in terms of

crude 10-year contours, such as those for 1920 and 1930 (Fig. 1) .

Leopold — Hungarian Partridge in Wisconsin 15

Some of the more recent spread-phenomena have, however, been

reconstructed in more detail, and are now discussed.

Spread by Salient

Exodus of 1935-36 . About Christmas time during the winter

of 1935-36, Sheboygan and Manitowoc counties, up to that time

unoccupied by partridges, simultaneously received an influx of

“thousands” of these birds. There must have been a wholesale

exodus from the established range to the southward. This sud¬

den invasion represents a northward thrust of 50 miles, a greatei

distance than had been covered by the usual mode of spread

during the preceding 25 years.

It is hard to gather an intelligible account of this extra¬

ordinary movement. No one saw the birds move. No one knows

anything except a few wardens, sportsmen, and farmers, who,

in braving the historic blizzards of that winter to carry grain

to their feeding stations, noticed the presence of the new ar¬

rivals. Their advent was regarded as lucky, but hardly as phe¬

nomenal. In biology, as in history, the greatness of an event

is seldom appreciated by its eye-witnesses.

The 1932 exodus of sharptail grouse into southern Canada

was observed by at least one scientist,16 but no scientific insti¬

tution even knew of this partridge exodus until nearly two years

after the event.

Warden James Edick of Sheboygan says “there were six to

eight coveys of 30 to 75 birds each in the 10-mile stretch of

lakeshore south of town. We put out feed, but they would not

enter our shelters, so we fed them on wind-swept knolls.”

Warden John Egan of Manitowoc gives a similar account. He

tells of one covey which appeared in a lakeshore willow thicket

on the outskirts of the city, and being fed, spent the winter.

Most of the new arrivals appeared on the belt of rich red

soil, about 10 miles wide, which parallels the lake shore. At

least a dozen known coveys survived until 1937. Two coveys

even invaded the sterile gravel hills of the “kettle moraine”

which comprise the western edge of these counties, and some

birds persisted there, for a nesting hen was seen in 1937. By the

fall of 1937, however, the upper half of Manitowoc County ap¬

pears to have died out. During the present winter (1937-38)

four coveys persist in the southeast corner of Manitowoc County.

16 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts and Letters

Sheboygan County is at least sparsely populated over most of

its area, for 135 partridges were reported killed during the 1937

season (Table 5).

During the same winter a similar but smaller salient was

thrust northward up the center of Fond du Lac County, and en¬

countering the south end of Lake Winnebago, moved up its east

shore to the border of Calumet County, a total distance of 20

miles. This salient encountered rich farming soils similar to the

Sheboygan-Manitowoc lake shore belt, and most of the coveys

were represented by nesting birds and broods in 1937.

A third salient was thrust up the Sugar River in Dane

County from Belleville to Verona, a distance of 12 miles. It is

not certain, however, that this occurred at exactly the same time.

It is known that most of the coveys in this salient first appeared

in 1936, that they nested in 1937, and that at least one made a

further advance to the Riley Game Area in September, 1937,

where it persists at this writing (January, 1938).

All three salients have four features in common :

(1) All were thrust northward.

(2) All have, to this date, an extremely thin population.

(3) The first two certainly (and the third probably) took

place during the first onset of killing weather about

Christmas of 1935.

(4) All three were fed after arrival, and thus had a good

chance to survive.

The three salients are unlike in two respects: The Sheboy¬

gan-Manitowoc movement was partly into rich agricultural soil

and partly into poor hill-land, whereas the other two were en¬

tirely into good soil. Those on good soil persist and have even

spread ; that partly on poor soil has lost half its original gains.

It is doubtful whether these sudden winter movements are

selective as to route or destination. They seem to be blind move¬

ments; those stumbling upon poor environment die off and are

forgotten, or perhaps wander until good environment is en¬

countered.

Previous Movements . There is fragmentary evidence that

similar movements have occurred before, some of them into the

identical regions invaded in 1936. Thus a covey appeared south

of Manitowoc about 1932, and may have persisted until over-

Leopold — Hungarian Partridge in Wisconsin

17

ridden by the 1936 exodus. The south half of Washington County

was colonized in 1933, and the adjacent corner of Sheboygan

received two coveys the same year, all persisting. The orienta¬

tion of this thrust was northward. Its date was probably late

fall or winter, for local sportsmen attributed it to the scattering

of partridges within the established range by pheasant hunters.

The impression of blind movement is supported by sporadic

appearances of single birds in localities far removed from in¬

habited range. Thus a single bird was killed by a snowplow in

January, 1937, near Wisconsin Rapids, between Portage and

Wood counties. Another was found dead during the same month

near Reedsburg, in Sauk County.

Depopulation. The invasion of whole counties by “thousands”

of partridges implies depopulation of the region from which the

birds moved. In the case of the 1935-36 exodus, there is histori¬

cal evidence of such depopulation. On the Faville Grove Game

Area in Jefferson County, Hawkins17 recorded a winter decrease

of 50 per cent, despite continuous feeding.

The state kill for 1936, the year following the exodus, shows

a 35 per cent decrease over 1935 (Table 4).

The exact region depopulated is unknown, nor is it possible

to disentangle ordinary starvation loss in situ from loss by

exodus. The only certain thing is that a widespread decrease

within the established range coincided in time with the hard

winter and the exodus to new range.

Spread by Outposts

In 1927 the main western front had just entered Rock

County at Lima Centre near Whitewater. Further south it had

advanced to Delavan in Walworth County. In January 1928

(another hard winter), a covey of 10 partridges was seen near

New Glarus, in Green County, 40 miles west of what was then

the main front. In July, 1929, a single bird was seen near Clarno,

40 miles west of the main front, and in July, 1929, a covey was

seen at Oakley, 30 miles west of the main front. These outposts

must have died, for during the ensuing decade no birds were

seen, and the main front has just reached the sites where out¬

posts appeared in 1928.

These outpost-colonies differ from the salients previously de¬

scribed in that the movement was westward, not northward.

18 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts and Letters

There is probably no real distinction between outposts and

salients ; a salient is a continuous string of outposts.

Open Seasons and Kill; Fluctuations

All spread phenomena should be interpreted in the light of

population density. There are available in Wisconsin three

indices to partridge population status :

Open seasons since 1921. (See Table 4).

Kill records since 1932. (See Table 5) .

Census of the Faville Grove Game Area, Jefferson County,

since 1935.

Open Seasons and Kill . In 1919, 11 years after the first Pabst

planting, the legislature opened Waukesha and Jefferson coun¬

ties for a five-day partridge season with a limit of two birds per

day. This season continued through 1920, but in 1921 the limit

was increased to five. In 1922, 1923, and 1924 the season was

shortened to two days and the bag limit was reduced to four

birds. In 1925 and 1926 the season was closed ; this possibly re¬

flects the “die-off” of the 10-year cycle, which peaked in 1924.

1927 and 1928 were again open, but only in a few townships.

The open area was so small as to induce a severe concentration

of hunters and much annoyance to farmers. Severely localized

open seasons have ever since been abandoned as bad policy.

1929-1930-1931 were again closed. Colonel Pabst definitely

records a scarcity during the winter of 1929-30, and mentions

two wet, cold breeding seasons as the cause.

Since 1932 a season of 4 to 14 days has been allowed yearly in

a slowly enlarging area, which in 1937 included 9 counties. At

least two of these, however, have only a sprinkling of coveys :

Ozaukee and Sheboygan.

Table 4 shows the kill, as reported by licensees and corrected

by the Conservation Department for those not reporting.

Table 5 shows the uncorrected kill by counties, and the per¬

centage of licensees reporting each year. Both tables go back to

1932, the first open partridge year in which reports were re¬

quired.

The formula for correcting the reports seems to have varied

from year to year, hence Table 5 is more reliable than Table 4.

Both tables indicate that 1935 was a year of great abundance,

Leopold — Hungarian Partridge in Wisconsin 19

and that a decrease followed in 1936. This decrease may be

ascribed to the killing winter of 1935-36, and to the exodus of

birds during that winter into closed territory to the northward.

The highest “corrected” kill, 23,252 birds in 1935, repre¬

sents the productivity of six populated counties, with an aggre¬

gate area of 3,300 square miles. This is a kill of seven birds per

square mile. If we assume a fifth of the population to have been

killed, the average density is 35 partridges per square mile, or

one per 18 acres.

If we take the highest uncorrected report for the best county

(Racine, 3,739 in 1933), we get, by the same indirect computa¬

tion, a hypothetical stand of one partridge per 12 acres. The

poorest county in 1936 (Ozaukee, 364) gives one partridge per

85 acres.

In the Canadian wheat belt, in England,19 and in Bohemia,20

densities of one partridge per acre are known, and one per two

acres not uncommon. Sparse populations are apparently char¬

acteristic of all partridge range in the north-central states, and

no game manager has yet succeeded in breaking this dead-level

of mediocrity in abundance.

Faville Grove Census . Arthur S. Hawkins has censused the

partridge population of the Faville Grove Game Area as follows :

The density has fluctuated from 8 to 13 acres per bird. 1936,

as already explained, showed a severe decrease during the win¬

ter, either by exodus or mortality or both. January 1938 showed

an increase over November 1937, evidently by influx.

The combined trend of all Wisconsin evidence (seasons, kill,

and census) shows partridge highs about 1924 and about 1934.

These are the highs of the continental 11-year cycle.

That the Hungarian partridge does respond to the continental

cycle, at least in Canada, has already been suggested by Rowan,21

who recorded a severe decrease beginning in 1934.

20 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts and Letters

The Wisconsin evidence, however, is too fragmentary to be

considered as proof of cyclic behavior.

Conclusions

One may deduce from the foregoing evidence certain char¬

acteristics of the pioneering process in Wisconsin partridge

populations ; and certain requirements for survival, both in na¬

tural spread and in artificial spread by plantings.

Origin . With few and inconclusive exceptions, the 7,000

square miles now constituting the partridge range in Wisconsin

was populated by spread from a single point in Waukesha

County, at which repeated large plantings were made for a de¬

cade. These repeated plantings unwittingly simulated the pro¬

cess of repeated colonization which takes place in nature.

Spread Rate. The longest radius from the point of origin is

102 miles (northeast) in 27 years, or four miles per year on the

average. Single thrusts of 50 miles in a year are recorded in two

instances.

Mechanism . The usual mode of spread is by slow overflow

into vacant territory, but at times advance colonies are thrown

out either in strings (salients), or as isolated outposts, for dis¬

tances up to 50 miles in a year.

Season. The season of slow overflow is unknown, but is be¬

lieved to be early fall. The sudden thrusts seem to occur in early

winter, especially in hard winters. The two hardest winters of

the past decade, 1928-29 and 1935-86, were both accompanied by

outthrusts.

Orientation. The direction of large outthrusts was north¬

ward except in one case, which was westward. This seemingly

northward orientation may be accidental, for Lake Michigan

blocks eastward spread, while the adjacent portions of Illinois

are not vacant, hence southward outthrusts would be obscured.

Selectivity and Soils. The location of outthrusts is not selec¬

tive, for they blindly invade sterile, wooded, marshy, or sandy

terrain. Survival, however, is highly selective, and is confined

to the richest agricultural soils. It is notable that there have

been no survivals, in the sandy regions to the northwest of the

Leopold — Hungarian Partridge in Wisconsin

21

center of spread, although the present boundary abuts on the

sand at several points.

The suitability of the unglaciated prairie of southwestern

Wisconsin is as yet unsettled. Most plantings and drift colonies

in this region have failed, but the steady westward march in

Green County indicates the possibile suitability of uplands in

the whole driftless area.

Density and Fluctuation. Population pressure is doubtless

the propulsive force behind slow spread of the “ripple” type,

but not all sudden outthrusts occur during years of high popula¬

tion. The only area continuously censused (Faville Grove)

showed a lower partridge population during the year of the

exodus (1935-36) than during the previous year (1934-35), and

the annual kill for the state supports this conclusion. The year

1933, however, had a high population and also a considerable

outthrust.

The density on territory acquired by outthrusts is at first

low, and is built up by slow consolidation during the periods

when the exterior boundary remains quiescent.

Even the best stands in Wisconsin are sparser than those of

Canada, England, and Silesia. Low densities are characteristic

of all partridge population in the north-central states.

All partridge populations fluctuate, and in a given locality

fluctuations in reproductive success may be further intensified by

influx or exodus. Fluctuations show some indication of being

cyclic in character.

Spread vs. Plantings. In many instances partridges have

spread naturally over localities in which previous artificial plant¬

ings had failed, and also localities where previous natural out¬

post colonies had been extinguished. Pioneering is evidently a

process which is indefinitely repeated.

We may glean from the foregoing a generalized picture of

the partridge’s “march of empire.” The impulse to venture forth

is born of adversity — either the adversity of too many neighbors,

or the adversity of killing weather. Each adventure is a blind

groping for pastures new, repeated until a favorable year and

a good location happen to coincide and bring success.

22 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts and Letters

Table 1. Private Plantings of Hungarian Partridge

Table 2. Propagation and Plantings of Hungarian Partridge

by the State Conservation Department

192,8 : From Biennial Report 1929-30, p.84, also p.92. Also letter from

K. J. MacFarlane 9-24-37.

1929 : A news release, undated, says 162 birds were imported, 24 be¬

longing to the Berlin I.W.L.A., 138 to the state. Another release

dated Jan. 22, 1930, gives the same figures, but adds that 10 or 12

pairs each were sent to River Falls, Richland Center, Tomah, and

Argyle for planting. The Argyle plant is known (from field

reports) to have been sick. The 1929-30 Biennial Report speaks

of 70 pair (140 birds) stocked between May, 1928, and June,

1930.

1930: Progress Report of May, 1931, says 120 pairs were purchased in

1929-30 and from these 32 birds were produced (and planted?),

Leopold— Hungarian Partridge in Wisconsin

23

presumably in 1930. Letter from W. F. Grimmer says 124 im¬

ported birds were planted Feb., 1930.

1931: 12 pairs borrowed from Michigan as breeders, 40 reared, prob¬

ably none planted.

1932: Field record shows 140 planted in Green County, 1932-36, but

only 20 appear on state record for 1933 or later. Hence it is

assumed that the remaining 120 were planted in 1932. This,

however, may be in error, since in another letter Hopkins says

none were planted in 1932, although 160 were reared.

1933-36: Plants from report by H. B. Kellogg to Walter Scott dated 9-4-37.

1937: No breeding stock was available in spring. Some wild eggs were

reared but lost, and no plantings were made. In September 50

hand-reared birds were purchased, which, with 50 wild-trapped

birds, constitute the stock for 1938.

Table 3. State and Private Plantings of Hungarian Partridge by Counties

24 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts and Letters

1929 40 Imported from

Europe

1929-36 78 Possum Valley

Game Farm

Berlin

I.W.L.A.

W. N. Craw¬

ford & Frank

Chapman

Near Berlin.

4 coveys persis,

Leopold— Hungarian Partridge in Wisconsin

25

This term is here used to describe the over-riding of a planting by the advancing

:ront of established population before the outcome of the plant could be finally

letermined.

This planting appears on the state’s records but cannot be traced on the ground.

The record is probably erroneous.

j

26 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts and Letters

.

* The Conservation Commission issued orders restricting the statutory season of 5 das

to 2, and the statutory bag limit from 5 to 3, during the years 1922-1924. T!

federal bulletins1® erroneously give the bag limit for 1921 as 2 birds instead of i

The seasons for 1922-1924 are edroneously given as 5 days (Sept. 7 to 11) inste^

of 2 days (Sept. 7 and 11).

Leopold — Hungarian Partridge in Wisconsin

27

Table 5. Hungarian Partridge Kill Reports by Counties

(uncorrected figures)

References

1. Turner, Frederick J. The frontier in American history. H. Holt &

Co., New York, 1921.

2. Phillips, John C. Wild birds introduced or transplanted in North

America. U.S.D.A. Tech. Bui. No. 61, April 1928.

3. Cooke, May Thacher. The spread of the European starling in North

America (to 1928). U.S.D.A. Circ. No. 40, November, 1928.

4. Phillips, Everett Franklin. Beekeeping. MacMillan Co., N. Y., 1915,

p. 201.

5. Cooper, James Fennimore. Oak openings.

6. Yeatter, R. E. The Hungarian partridge in the Great Lakes region.

Bui. No. 8, School of Forestry & Conservation, University of

Michigan, Ann Arbor, December, 1934.

7. Leopold, Aldo. Game management. Charles Scribner’s Sons, New

York, 1933, p. 80.

8. Leopold, Aldo. The Hungarian partridge in Iowa. Outdoor America,

February-March, 1933.

9. Leopold, Aldo. Report on a game survey of Wisconsin. Manuscript,

October 1, 1929.

10. Leopold, Aldo. Report on a game survey of the north central states.

Made for the Sporting Arms and Ammunition Manufacturers’

Institute. Madison, Wisconsin, 1931, pp. 100-133.

11. Scott, Walter E. Conservation history. Conservation Bulletin, Wiscon¬

sin Conservation Dept., Vol. II, No. 9, September, 1937, pp. 26-31.

12. Wisconsin Conservationist. Wisconsin Conservation Dept., Vol. I,

No. 2, May, 1919, p. 13.

13. Palmer, T. S. Game as a national resource. U.S.D.A. Bui. No. 1049,

March 14, 1922.

14. Monthly Survey, Wisconsin Conservation Commission, Madison, Wis.

February, 1930, p. 10.

15. Conservation Department Biennial Reports, 1921-22, 1929-30.

16. Snyder, L. L. A study of the sharptail grouse. Univ. of Toronto

Studies, Biol. Series No. 40, Toronto, 1935.

17. Hawkins, Arthur S. Winter feeding at Faville Grove, 19*35-36. Ameri¬

can Midland Naturalist, Vol. 18, No. 3, May, 1937, pp. 417-425.

28 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts and Letters

18. Game laws for 1919 (U..D.A. Farmers’ Bui. No. 1077) and 1920

(Farmers’ Bui. No. 1138). U. S. Biological Survey, Washington.

D. C.

19. Maxwell, Aymer. Partridges and partridge manors. Adam and Charles

Black, London, 1911.

20. Leopold, Aldo. Farm game management in Silesia. American Wild¬

life, Vol. 25, No. 5, September-October, 1936, pp. 67-8, 74-6.

21* Rowan, William. The Hungarian partridge on the Canadian prairie.

Outdoor America, Vol. 3, No. 4, February, 1938, pp. 6-7.

A WILDLIFE HISTORY OF FAVILLE GROVE, WISCONSIN

Arthur S. Hawkins*

Explorers, in their journals, have given us the earliest

written information about Wisconsin wildlife. Much later came

the surveyors, some of whom gave excellent accounts of the vege¬

tation which they found a century ago. During the pioneering

period came letters, newspapers, and in a few cases journals,

some of which refer to the fauna or flora. Luckily the early

pioneers included a few outstanding naturalists. Fortunately,

too, some of the early settlers who appreciated nature are still

alive and can relate what they saw to those who will listen.

Our earliest records, dating back several centuries, came

not from writings, but from animal remains brought to light

by archeological excavations. The wildlife history of Faville

Grove near Lake Mills, Jefferson County, begins with the animal

bones taken from the ruins of ancient Aztalan, oldest known

Indian civilization in Wisconsin. These bones, plus original land

survey notes and such notable natural history publications as

those of Kumlien,1 Hoy,2 Cory,3 and King4 have greatly en¬

riched the background for this paper.

Since 1933 the University of Wisconsin has conducted studies

in wildlife management at Faville Grove. Reports on nesting,5

feeding6-7 rodent damage,8 the trapping of game birds,9 pheasant

movements and survival,10-11 and winter quail mortality12 have

been published. This paper aims to record a background of

ecological history for these reports.

Acknowledgments

Much of the information here set forth is based on the recol¬

lections of early settlers in the Lake Mills area. To the members

of these pioneer families who endured my many hours of ques-

* The author began this study in 1936, while doing graduate work in

game management at the University of Wisconsin. He is indebted to Dr.

T. H. Frison, chief of the Illinois State Natural History Survey, with

which he has been employed as Game Technician since May, 1938, for

permission to complete the study.

29

30 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts and Letters

tioning, I am very grateful. I am especially indebted to Mr.

Stoughton W. Faville, whose activities as a farmer-naturalist

began in the early sixties and without whose patient coopera¬

tion this paper could not have been written. To Mr. John Hooper,

whose journal and recollections date back half a century, to Pro¬

fessor Aldo Leopold under whose direction this study was car¬

ried on, for his critical reading of the manuscript, to Dr. John T.

Curtis and Dr. Norman C. Fassett for their suggestions con¬

cerning the section on plants, and to Dr. A. W. Schorger for

his suggestions concerning the section on animals, I am also

greatly indebted.

Area Studied

This report deals principally with 10 farms (2400 acres) now

within the Faville Grove Wildlife Area. The area lies on the

west bank of the Crawfish River in the towns of Waterloo, Mil¬

ford, and Lake Mills. Events of particular importance, however,

are traced for a larger area, roughly 10 miles in radius.

Changes in the Landscape, 1838-1938

I have attempted to trace the major alterations in the land¬

scape from the days when the first settlers arrived to the pres¬

ent. Most pronounced is the change from no cultivation in 1838

to almost complete cultivation in 1938. Agriculture has modified

every feature of the landscape, as is shown in Table 1. Figures

1 and 2 show the parts of the Faville Grove Area in which these

revisions took place. The most important of them are discussed

in detail under the following captions.

Forests vs. Oak Openings

Reference is made, in the following discussion, to “forests”

and to “openings.” Both were more or less tree-covered. For¬

ests, as the term is here used, means a rather dense stand made

up of numerous tree and shrub species. The closed canopy cast

a shade too dense for sod; hence the ground cover was com¬

posed of numerous herbaceous species. The trees, being crowded,

produced straight and clean boles.

Openings were characterized by scattered trees and little

or no underbrush. A heavy grass sod covered the ground. The

trees had little competition from their neighbors ; hence spread

Hawkins — Faville Grove, Wisconsin

31

Fig. 1. The Faville Grove landscape as it appeared to the first white

settlers when they arrived a century ago.

32 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts and Letters

outward rather than upward. Many gnarled branches covered

the massive boles. Old timers say that in the openings deer

could be easily chased on horseback, but the forest was too dense

to allow hunters to see deer at any distance, much less chase

them on horseback.

The forests near Faville Grove contained elm, ash, basswood,

hickory, black cherry, oaks, soft and hard maple, ironwood,

black walnut and aspen, but the openings had mainly bur, white

and black oaks, a few hickories, and clumps of red cedars on the

gravelly knolls.

A century ago, east of the Crawfish River was a forest ; west

of it an opening (see Fig. 1). Since the maximum width of the

Crawfish River is less than a hundred yards with similar terrain

on both sides, the question arises: Why this difference?

Table 1. Comparison between the 1838 and the

1938 landscape at Faville Grove

* Grazed

** Partially grazed

Fire is at least a partial answer. Large upland prairies lie

to the west of Faville Grove. Periodically those prairies burned,

the fires swept unchecked until stopped by natural barriers. The

Crawfish River flows at right angles to the prevailing westerly

winds of the fire season; hence it formed a natural barrier (see

Fig. 2).

Of the tree species indigenous to this region, only mature

oaks can withstand the heat of a prairie fire. Evidently this

characteristic accounted for the original establishment of oak

openings. The role of fire can be deduced from numerous oak

openings which have been protected against fire. These fire-

protected areas occur in three places, (1) east sides of north-

Hawkins — F aville Grove , Wisconsin

33

Fig. 2. The Faville Grove landscape as it appears today, the result

century of agricultural development.

34 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts and Letters

south streams, (2) “islands” which were never burned because

of surrounding fire barriers, (3) areas which once burned but

have been fire-free for nearly a century.

The forests east of the Crawfish seem to owe their existence

to the fire barrier presented by the river. Dr. John T. Curtis

has found a similar forest along the east banks of the Rock and

Fox rivers. Roth have openings on their west banks.

Farmer's Island (see Fig. 2) and Eagle Island (near Rock

Lake) were forests which lay west of the river, and hence in

the path of prairie fires, but the former was protected by a tam¬

arack swamp, and the latter by a swamp and lake. Roth have

the rich forest plants characteristic of the east bank of the Craw¬

fish. Certain species found east of the river are lacking, how¬

ever. One of these, wahoo ( Euonymus ), is extremely palatable

to deer and rabbits and may have been eliminated by over¬

browsing during heavy concentrations of game after fire had

removed food from the surrounding area. The absence of an¬

other, prickly ash ( Xanthoxylum ) , cannot be explained on

grounds of browsing. A list of plants found on Farmer's Island

in 1937 is given in Appendix A.

In Faville woods (see Fig. 2) and numerous other woods,

open-grown oaks have been swallowed by a thicket of younger

trees, all less than a century old. This young stand consists of

species once uncommon west of the river: red oaks, basswood,

black cherry, elm, and many shrubs.

It may indeed be said that all former oak openings would,

since the cessation of fires, have been swallowed up by young

thickets, were it not for grazing. Grazing, like fire, eliminates

the underbrush, but, unlike fire, also eliminates wild flowers and

encourages noxious weeds.

Prairies

Both low (marsh) and high (upland) prairies are found at

Faville Grove. The high prairie is at present restricted to two

small gravel knolls having a combined area of about an acre. I

am unable to reconstruct its status in 1838, but suspect that all

of the gravelly knolls and most of the uplands were once high

prairie. The low Crawfish prairie (see Fig. 2) is partly wet

meadow and partly dry meadow. There are other meadows

nearby, but these have fewer prairie plants than the Crawfish

prairie.

Hawkins — Faville Grove, Wisconsin

35

The low prairie has receded much less, under clean farming,

than have the oak openings (see Table 1). In Wisconsin most

of the large hay meadows are divided into many small holdings

which are usually some distance from the main farms. The

farmer, knowing that these meadows are a dependable source of

hay during drouths, is reluctant to gamble on higher but more

sporadic returns which might accrue from turning his hay land

into crop land or pasture. Except during dry years, these mea¬

dows are too wet for cropping or pasturing. Result: a sizable

remnant of the low prairie still exists.

The Crawfish prairie has escaped plowing but not modifica¬

tion by other forces. About 1845 a dam was built at Milford

which flooded about one-tenth of the Crawfish prairie. The

other nine-tenths was affected by the higher water table thus

established and many prairie plants were drowned.

Later when land prices rose, the farmers decided that too

much land was being wasted by flooding, so they had the dam

removed. This was about 1883. As the prairie dried out the

grasses and sedges, willows and aspens, which had gained a

foothold after the prairie plants had drowned, spread rather

than retreated. About 1900, according to Mr. Otto Lange, large

willow and aspen thickets dotted the prairie. Some of these

thickets have since been grubbed out.

The most serious damage to the prairie occurs during dry

years when farmers, forgetting that a wet spell will cancel their

efforts, break new prairie sod or pasture their cattle in new

places. Wet springs discourage these optimistic attempts. Wet

summers prevent mowing. Following years when mowing is

impossible, the prairie is burned to remove the dead grass.

What effect has continued mowing on prairie plants? Even

before the dam was removed, mowing was possible on the higher

spots, if the horses were shod with marsh shoes to prevent

miring. At present very little of the prairie is left unmowed

except during wet years. It is reasonable to suppose that mow¬

ing has important effects on plants, but we do not yet know them.

The large permanent pastures which today border the prairie

are Canada thistle nurseries which provide a ready supply of

seed to inoculate newly broken lands. All the plowed lands are

infected, but none of the mowed lands are.

36 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts and Letters

Sometimes the farmer is not satisfied with the native grasses

so he plants red top, bluegrass, timothy or canary grass in the

hay meadows. All of these compete with and often crowd out

the native plants.

What with droughts and wet spells, plo wings and mowings,

the status of the low prairie flora is as unsettled as a writhing

serpent. Constant warfare is being waged between native gras¬

ses and rare wildflowers on one side and introduced and native

weeds on the other. Weather seems to be the umpire of the

battle. The drought years, especially 1936, favored weeds and

such high prairie plants as rattlesnakes master ( Eryngium ),

but the wet summer of 1938 brought immediate gains to most

prairie plants, and losses to Eryngium and weeds.

Following is a list of plants, usually considered to be high

prairie indicators, which were found at Faville Grove in 1938.

A list of plants found on the low Crawfish prairie is given in

Appendix B.

Amorpha canescens

Andropogon furcatus

Andropogon scoparius

Asclepias tuberosa

Bouteloua curtipendula

Tamarack Swamps

Axe and dredge account for the shrinkage of many a tam¬

arack swamp in southern Wisconsin. Unlike cutting, however,

drainage has occasionally created rather than destroyed tam¬

arack swamps. One excellent example of the creation of a tam¬

arack swamp by drainage is the Goose Pond (see Fig. 2). It

is called Goose Pond because it once was a pond and geese once

nested there. In 1854 a railroad company contemplated running

a line through the Goose Pond, but gave up when they “couldn’t

hit bottom.” Mr. Faville remembers that the Goose Pond in 1870

consisted of a ring of open water surrounding a treeless floating

island of sphagnum and heaths.

Tamaracks began to spring up shortly after the pond was

drained about 1870. Today, a dense stand of tamaracks covers

what was once the floating bog. The stand is less dense than

before the drought of 1936, however, for in places maples and

other tree and brush species are encroaching on the tamarack.

Euphorbia corallata

Liatris scariosa

Petalostemum purpureum

Solidago rigida

Tradiscantia canaliculata

Hawkins— Faville Grove , Wisconsin

37

It will be noted (see Figs. 1 and 2) that the remaining tam¬

arack swamps at Faville Grove suffered heavily through cutting

and draining.

Small Water Areas

The general lowering of the water table, already mentioned,

combined with a thorough program of tiling, caused the drying

out of numerous small upland pot-holes. One of these, now called

the Ragweed Patch (see Fig. 2), was wet enough as late as the

Sixties so that a boat was needed to retrieve the many ducks shot

over it. Mr. Faville remembers that pitcher plants once grew

in this area and that ducks nested there. Evidently the ragweed

patch was then a typical acid bog.

Drainage, about 1900, brought a heavy stand of ragweeds

and nettles. The farmer, in an effort to combat these weeds,

burned them. The inevitable result was more and bigger weeds.

The weeds grew so rank that even pheasant and quail would not

use the cover.

Since 1934 this area has been protected from burning. Re¬

sult: goldenrods and asters are replacing the ragweeds and

nettles, and grass and brush are in turn replacing the goldenrods

and asters. Two years ago (1937) 16 pheasants moved in. Last

year 32 pheasants and 25 rabbits were counted. Thus can waste

areas sometimes be made useful by allowing the plant succession

to convert the vegetation from a monotype to a variegated covert.

Miscellaneous Landscape Features

Crawfish River. In 1838 the Crawfish River was narrower,

deeper, and clearer than it is today. A wide fringe of wild rice

(Zizania) bordered the river, which was in places almost choked

by aquatic plants. Water-dwelling animals found an abundance

of excellent foods, and were themselves plentiful.

Evidently the water table was higher than now. A prairie

slough which, during the early years of the present century,

held fish throughout the year now dries out every summer. The

earlier effect on the river level of the dam at Milford has already

been mentioned.

About 1900 the river began to change. The wild rice and

other aquatics and semi-aquatics disappeared, leaving a bare,

muddy stream. Freshets began to cause severe bank erosion.

38 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts and Letters

One farmer recalls cutting three swaths of hay between a certain

willow and the river. This tree now has its exposed roots washed

by the stream. Silting has been severe. In 1870 a boat 70 feet

long by 15 feet wide, sometimes loaded with 200 barrels of

flour, made regular trips up and down the Crawfish. A white

pine pole 22 feet long and S1/^ inches in diameter furnished the

main motive power. There were then places in the river where

the poler was compelled to “bend down” to reach bottom. The

late Mr. William Scribner, who was cabin boy, described all

these details to me. Today the main channel is less than four

feet deep during the summer, and holes over six feet deep are

rare.

Industrial Developments

Having reviewed the changes which have taken place in the

landscape, I shall summarize the economic activities which are

directly responsible for these changes.

Milling . The settlers' first needs were food and shelter.

Both called for the clearing of land. Sawmills sprang up to

satisfy the demand for building materials. Every stream that

could be harnessed had its sawmill during this period. Sawmill

dams restricted fish movements, and this was one of the first

direct effects of settlement on wildlife. Dams also had the in¬

direct effect (by raising the water levels) of markedly altering

both plant and animal populations.

Agriculture . The clearing of the land changed the flora in

favor of light-demanding plants which provide more food and

cover for animals than the plants that tolerate shade. Fences

built around cultivated fields offered places for light-demanding

plants to grow and provided excellent feeding, resting and nest¬

ing places as well as good travel lanes. Entire logs were used for

fences at first, but as the trees became less abundant, rails and

stumps were used. Mr. Faville's farm, like most farms in this

region, still had rail fences in 1880. Mr. Frank Myers told me

that his father's farm in Dodge County, where trees were scarce,

had wire fences as early as 1870.

With the Civil War came a boom in the wheat market. The

incentive of high prices caused farmers to work day and night

to clear more land. Trees were girdled by the wholesale. When

Hawkins — Faville Grove , Wisconsin

39

they died, wheat was planted among the stumps, which presented

no serious obstacle to the harvest, for at this time wheat was cut

with a cradle. The introduction of the stump-puller in the early

seventies permitted complete clearing of the fields.

Dairying, which had been important from the first, soon be¬

came the leading industry. The cultivated and pasture area was

further increased to meet the demands of more livestock. The

advent of the wire fence in the nineties was another step toward

modern clean farming. As Mr. Leopold13 points out, no step in

the history of agriculture was more depressing to upland game

than this. The effect of the motor era and modern agriculture

on plants and animals is too well known to need repeating.

Hunting and Fishing. The family larder was at first heavily

dependent on wild plant and animal foods. Probably killing for

the family larder had little effect on game, but the later market

hunting and commercial fishing had a great effect. Further

heavy losses can be charged to overshooting and overfishing for

sport.

Changes in Plant Life, 1838-1938

Certain plants which were abundant in 1838 are rare or ab¬

sent today. Conversely, some of the plants which are common

today were rare or did not occur in the local flora of a century

ago. A few examples of each case are considered in some detail

below.

Evidently the decline in Wisconsin wildflowers started at an

early date for in 187 6 Thure Kumlien published an article titled

“On the rapid disappearance of Wisconsin wildflowers; a con¬

trast of the present time with 30 years ago.”14

Bluejoint ( Andropogon and Calamagrostis)

These grasses “sold” Faville Grove to the pioneers. Here

was an unlimited supply of good livestock feed free for the

taking, so those moving westward stopped.

The first settlers reported endless acres of “shoulderhigh

bluejoint” (evidently Andropogon furcatus) covering the Craw¬

fish prairie. In 1937 only a few patches of bluejoint remained,

but in 1938, following a wet summer, a marked increase in blue-

joint was noted especially in Andropogon scoparius. The ability

of the latter to come back is shown by a fine stand of this grass

40 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts and Letters

in 1938 on a field which in 1934 produced corn. The Andropogons

have held up better than Calamagrostis.

Wild Rice (Zizania)

The former abundance of this plant, which was once an im¬

portant food source both to man and wildlife, is attested by a

statement of Mr. John McGovern. He says that one winter in

the early eighties, after the ice had formed, he harvested 48 loads

of rice stems from about 10 acres and sold them for $1.00 per

load for livestock bedding. This was in a widespread of the

Crawfish called Mud Lake, near Hubbleton. Twenty-five years

later the rice was gone. Mr. Otto Lange and Mr. John Radke

remember many rice plants which floated down the river and

became lodged at a bend, forming a dam. They blame the carp,

which were well established by 1906, for the destruction of the

rice.

Ginseng and Golden Seal

About 1900, collectors found it profitable to harvest ginseng

( Panax ) and golden seal ( Hydrostis ). Mr. John Hooper kept

careful records of his ginseng hunts from 1904 through 1908

and has given me the use of these records (see Appendix C). In

1937, I looked for ginseng plants in several woods which are

referred to in the table, but found only a half-dozen plants. This

excellent indicator of a rich forest has been largely exterminated

in this region.

Orchids

In 1838 the orchid family was well represented in the flora,

both in species and number of individuals. It still is, but within

the past decade orchids have fared badly and have dwindled in

numbers at an alarming rate (Appendix D). How much of this

decline is due to picking and how much to drought and habitat

changes is a matter for conjecture.

Fringed Gentian (Gentiana crinita) .

Dr. John T. Curtis counted about 100 fringed gentians at the

artesian well on the Crawfish prairie in 1934. None has been

seen since.

Hawkins— Favilie Grove , Wisconsin

41

Scarlet Painted Gup ( Gastilleja coccinea)

Mr. Favilie and several others told me that this showy para¬

sitic plant was formerly common on the uplands at Favilie Grove.

Ten years ago Mr. Bruce Taylor brought Mr. Favilie two

plants, collected near the area. None has been seen since, to my

knowledge.

Berries

Blueberries and cranberries ( Vaccinium) , huckleberries

( Gaylussacia) , strawberries {Frag aria) , and various species of

Rubus were once harvested in quantities by man and beast alike,

according to early settlers at Favilie Grove. Today cranberries

and huckleberries are no longer found; blueberries were almost

exterminated by the drought of 1936 ; strawberries are rare ; and

only Rubus can at present be considered a source of food.

Plants of Gravelly Knolls

Dry gravelly knolls (eskers) are common in this vicinity.

Formerly they had a luxuriant mantle of pasque flowers

(: Anemone patens) and bird's-foot violets {Viola pedata var.

lineariloba) . Within the past 20 years heavy grazing has re¬

moved both from the area. A few bird’s-foot violets are still

found near Hope Lake, and the pasque flower still exists in

small numbers at Springer's Hill, near Favilie Grove.

Weeds

Among the native plants which are considered by many to

be undesirable or weedy, poison ivy {Rhus toxicodendron) heads

the list. Once uncommon west of the river, this plant has over¬

run many of the woods west of the river within the past 20 years.

Perhaps this recent thriftiness is merely part of the succession

between oak openings and the mixed hardwood forest.

Wood nettles (Laportea) are evidently spreading and crowd¬

ing out desirable plants of the rich woodlands in some instances,

but they were a great pest even 35 years ago. I quote from

Mr. Hooper's field notes dated June 12, 1904: “The wood nettles

are growing in profusion in the lower damp part of the woods.”

(When collecting ginseng, Mr. Hooper says that to avoid wood

nettles he wore leather leggings which came above his knees,

and a canvas coat.)

42 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts and Letters

The first weed to bother his crops, according to Mr. Faville,

was the wild morning glory ( Convolvulus sepium) , about 1880.

However, he had heard his uncle speak of killing a patch of Can¬

ada thistle ( Cirsium arvense) about 1868. In 1887, Mr. Faville

made a special trip to Lake Mills to see for himself what the

newly introduced quack grass (Agropyron repens) looked like.

Fifty years later every farm in this region has a serious quack

and thistle problem. Some farmers are beginning to worry about

two weeds which have been introduced recently: creeping jenny

{Convolvulus arvensis) and penny cress (Thlaspi arvense) . The

former has not yet been found at Faville Grove, but several

patches thrive less than two miles away. The latter is now

well established on several farms in the area.

Changes in Animal Life, 1838-1938

As in plants, the general trend in animals has been toward

fewer species and less individuals. Meanwhile a few new species

have been added and in some groups an increase in numbers has

taken place. As in plants, the greatest gains have been made by

“weed” species such as English sparrows, starlings, carp, Nor¬

way rats, and house mice.

Somers identified the bones, antlers, shells, and other hard

parts of animals which he uncovered at Aztalan. His identifi¬

cations are given in Barrett’s Ancient Aztalan.15 Aztalan was

the oldest Indian village known to Wisconsin archeologists. The

inhabitants of Aztalan had the unique habit of cracking bones

for their marrow. This habit, coupled with their characteristic

handiwork, has enabled archeologists to distinguish between

more recent Indian cultures and that of the Azatalans. It is pre¬

sumed that animal parts uncovered with the artifacts of the

Aztalans came from animals indigenous to the region at the time

of the Aztalan culture, several centuries ago.

Part of Somers’ collection is housed in the Wisconsin His¬

torical Library at Madison. It is of great historical value. Un¬

fortunately, Somers’ identifications were made at a time when

reference material was scarce; hence there is some doubt as to

their authenticity. Every effort should be made to have the ma¬

terial which is left re-identified.

Hawkins — Faville Grove , Wisconsin

43

Birds

Somers reports that he found the following bird bones at

Aztalan: wild pigeon, quail, wood duck, black duck, and reed

bird. These species, except pigeon, are all present today, but

since the advent of settlement many species have been lost.

Kumlien and Hollister's Birds of Wisconsin , covering the period

1844-1903, deals largely with observations made in Jefferson

County. No comparable list for the county has since appeared.

Leading ornithologists agree that a few of the records included

in this manuscript are not valid. After discarding these ques¬

tionable records, I have compared the number of species visiting

or breeding in Jefferson County before 1903 with a similar sum¬

mary for the period 1913-1938. My figures for the latter period

come from the work done in neighboring Dane County by Dr.

Schorger.16’17 I have made a few changes in Dr. Schorger’s list

to make it apply specifically to Jefferson County. While crude,

the comparison which follows clearly indicates the downward

trend in both migrants and breeders.

Loss

56

51

1844-1903

316

171

1913-38

260

120

Migrants plus breeders

Breeders only

Of the 13 principal game and shore birds breeding at Faville

Grove since 1838, 4 have been lost, 5 have greatly decreased, 2

have held their own, and 2 have been introduced and become es¬

tablished (see Table 2).

A summary of trends in various species and groups is given

in the following paragraphs.

Quail . Table 3 summarizes available information on the

status of quail in South-eastern Wisconsin during the past cen¬

tury. It presents a picture of alternating abundance and scarcity,

many of the scarce periods following hard winters.

Mr. Elisha Keyes, one of the earliest settlers in the Lake

Mills region, found no quail when he arrived in 1838. In his

memoirs18 he says, “ . . . none at the time, for the reason, as I

supposed, that wolves and foxes destroyed them." There were

undoubtedly some quail in the region when Mr. Keyes arrived,

but evidently they were scarce enough to have escaped his notice.

Dr. Schorger,24 who has scoured the files of early Wisconsin

newspapers and otherwise combed the literature for information

44

Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts and Letters

on the history of native Wisconsin animals, has brought to light

much evidence on fluctuations in quail populations. His findings

show that the general trend of the quail population was upward

until 1855 and downward since. Evidently cultivation, up to a

certain degree, is favorable to quail, but past that point is un¬

favorable.

Table 2. Status of Breeding Game and Shore Birds

at or near Faville Grove, 1838-1938

Species

Quail

Breeding

Status 1838

Uncommon

Breeding

Status 1938

Uncommon

Remarks

Occasional periods of abundance

in between. 1 bird per 40

acres m 1938.

Pheasant

None

Common

First birds seen locally about

1930. 1 bird per 10 acres in

1937.

Ruffed Grouse

Common

None

A single “wanderer” seen in win¬

ter of 1836-37.

Hungarian Partridge

None

Common

First bird seen locally about

1922. 1 bird per 8 acres in

1937.

Prairie Chicken

Abundant

Rare

Steady decline since 1900. 26

birds counted in 1937.

Canada Goose

Irregular

Uncommon

None

Last nested here about 1870.

Mallard

Common

Regular

Uncommon

1 or 2 pairs have attempted to

nest at Faville Grove each of

past 3 years.

Blue-winged Teal

Common

Regular

Uncommon

3 nests found in 1937. (Prob.

about average for recent

years.)

Wood Duck

Common

None

Most common breeding duck in

1880.

Wilson’s Snipe

Common

Irregular

Rare

One nest found in 1936.

W oodcock

Regular

Uncommon

Prob. irreg.

Young birds seen on area in July,

may have been migrants.

U pland Plover

Common

25 birds per section in 1938; 19

nests found in 1937 at Faville

Grove, 25 nests found in 1938.

Passenger Pigeon

Regular

Uncommon

None

Last birds seen locally about

1885.

Hawkins—Faville Grove , Wisconsin

45

Professor Aldo Leopold20 presents evidence of quail scarcity

in Jefferson County in 1903, 1918 and 1923. Mr. Hooper, in his

field notes, dated 1904, says : “ . . . quail hit a fence and was

stunned. A boy picked it up. I suggested, as quail are so scarce,

Table 3. Quail Populations in Southeastern Wisconsin, 1838-1938

1 Prior to 1928 “abundant” and “scarce” are terms which indicate a wide discrepancy

in quail population, bur how wide we do not know. Since 1928 the terms hold a definite

numerical meaning. “Abundant” means a population at Faville Grove of 200 or more quail.

“Scarce” means 100 or less. Schorger’s (24) findings suggest that “abundant” in the sixties

meant many more quail than it does today. In other words, the quail range now has a lower

carrying capacity.

46

Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts and Letters

better let it go.” Mr. Sam Kisow, who began winter-feeding

game birds at Faville Grove in 1928, furnishes reliable data of

relative abundance between 1928 and 1933. Since 1933 careful

censuses have been taken annually.

Prairie Chicken. Once the favorite and most abundant game

bird in this region, the prairie chicken is now on the verge of ex¬

termination (see Table 4). Shortly after 1900 the local farmers

noticed that each winter fewer chickens visited their corn fields.

The first accurate count of 100 birds made in 1933 by Mr. Kisow

represents only a fraction of the numbers of chickens which are

reputed to have used the Crawfish prairie in the “old days.”

Since 1933 the prairie chicken at Faville Grove have had com¬

plete protection and winter feeding, but have nevertheless con¬

tinued to decline. Now that the cycle is on the up-swing, it will

be possible, through censuses, to determine if the prairie chicken

is passing out or merely in the trough of the cycle.*

In addition to the Crawfish prairie flock, the London and the

Waterloo marshes each had a prairie chicken flock in 1937.

Table 4. Prairie Chicken Populations at Faville Grove

Ruffled Grouse. The “partridge” once vied with the prairie

chicken as a favorite among local hunters. Only within the past

10 years has the courtship drumming of this grand bird been

stilled at Faville Grove. The last record for the area was a single

“wanderer” seen several times during the late winter of 1937.

Perhaps a total of a dozen birds still exist at Eagle Island, south

of Rock Lake, and in a tamarack swamp just west of Faville

Grove. These are the last remnants in northwestern Jefferson

County.

* It is with deep regret that I report the passing of the prairie chicken from the Faville

Grove farms. Only two cocks were present on the booming ground during the spring of 1940.

Since spring no prairie chickens have been seen on the Crawfish prairie.

Hawkins — Faville Grove , Wisconsin

47

As late as 1870 ruffed grouse still nested within the limits

of Lake Mills. Mrs. Don Fargo, about that time, found a nest

behind what is now Schultz's funeral home. Lake Mills, last

grouse record was spectacular. About 1894, according to Mr.

Hooper and Mr. K'isow, a ruffed grouse shattered the window

of the Conrad-Engsberg drug store, in the center of town. This

was during the fall “crazy” flight.

Ruffed grouse were still common in 1903-04. In his field notes,

Mr. Hooper writes :

May 16, 1903 — Found partridge nest with 12 eggs.

July 10, 1903 — Saw several broods of partridges.

March 27, 1904 — Partridges are drumming.

September 12, 1904— Saw a few partridges.

December 25, 1904 — Shot partridges.

By 1920 ruffed grouse were becoming scarce ; I estimate that

the count at Faville Grove was less than a dozen birds. The last

stronghold of the ruffed grouse at Faville Grove was on Farm¬

ers' Island, from which they disappeared between 1925 and 1930.

Hungarian Partridge. Col. Gustave Pabst released the first

partridges in Wisconsin in 1910, at his farm near Oconomowoc.

These birds spread out from this and subsequent releases, and

by 1922 had reached Faville Grove, 20 miles away. Once estab¬

lished, the partridges increased until halted by the severe winter

of 1928-29, which killed many birds. The population recovered

rapidly, however, and reached its highest level in 1933. Fewer

partridges were found in 1934, but the real drop came during

the winter of 1935-36, when 50 per cent were winter-killed. A

poor breeding season followed, but winter losses were nil and

the following winter census of 1937-38 showed an excellent stand

of partridges. (See Table 5)

Pheasant. The early spread of the pheasant was slower and

less general than that of the partridge. Pheasants were first

released the same year, and the same place as the partridges

(Pabst Farm in 1910) but had not reached Faville Grove when

the first local pheasant plantings were made in 1929. It is inter¬

esting to note, however, that a few miles south of Faville Grove,

the frontier of advance had already reached the Dane County

line by 1929, but for some reason had missed the northwest

corner of Jefferson County, in which Faville Grove is located.

48 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts and Letters

Table 5. Hungarian Partridge Population at Faville Grove

* The censuses from 1935-38 were taken in December. Fully 50 per

cent of the partridges were winter-killed following the 1935 census.

** This high population apparently came partly from an influx and

resulting concentration.

Mr. Kisow had in his files a receipt for 100 pheasant eggs

purchased from the Moon Lake Game Farm in 1929. Twenty-

one birds were reared, banded with unnumbered spiral chicken

bands, and released a mile west of Faville Grove. In 1930, two

pheasants, banded in this manner, were killed three miles from

the point of release, south of Rock Lake. Two years later the

first pheasant was seen at Faville Grove, on Farmers’ Island;

four years later, the first pheasant appeared at the Goose Pond,

one and one-half miles north of Farmers’ Island; eight years

later, a cock pheasant, evidently banded by Mr. Kisow, was

found dead a mile east of the Goose Pond. Pheasants were by

this time generally distributed throughout the area.

In 1931 the Conservation Department awarded Mr. Kisow

a prize of 25 pheasants for excellence in winter feeding. These

were released a mile west of Faville Grove, and undoubtedly con¬

tributed to the increase shown in Table 6.

About 1931 Mr. Harvey Zibbell released 16 pheasants four

miles east of Faville Grove. These were banded with numbered

aluminum bands, but the only return was one found dead during

the following spring. A complete summary of pheasant releases

made at Faville Grove is given in Table 7.

Between 1935-38 the sportsmen of Lake Mills released over

500 pheasants, and other hunting organizations near Lake Mills

have released as many more; hence it is no longer possible to

Hawkins — Faville Grove, Wisconsin

49

trace the results of original plantings. Most of these pheasants

have been banded, but sportsmen have so far failed to cooperate

wholeheartedly in returning these bands when recovered.

Table 6. Pheasant Populations at Faville Grove

* This is the recorded legal kill. No hunting until 1937. Census came

after the kill, as total population was 115 plus 23, or 138.

Table 7. Pheasant Releases at Faville Grove *

* In addition, 39 wild pheasants were trapped and banded “in place’

in 1936-37, of which 4 bands were recovered from dead birds the following

fall. In 1937-38, 2:9 were banded and 1 recovered.

** Bands recovered from dead birds the following fall.

*** Three Reeves pheasants were seen during hunting season, 1936,

but none since.

Waterfowl. While never so productive as the nearby Horicon

Marsh, the Crawfish marshes once produced many ducks. One

of these, Mud Lake near Hubbleton, was especially important as

a breeding ground. Before 1870, Canada geese nested in some of

50

Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts and Letters

the Crawfish marshes along with at least 8 species of duck. A

few blue-winged teal, mallards and shovellers still breed here.

The Madison State Journal of November 23, 1870, quotes the

Watertown Republican as stating that, “A German hunter re¬

siding on the Crawfish River has taken 2,000 ducks this season/’

according to Dr. Sehorger. As late as the nineties, a few men

still engaged in market hunting. One market hunter, Mr. John

McGovern, who spent most of his 84 years on the shores of

Mud Lake, has recounted some of his experiences. He recalls a

fall about 1883 when he killed over a thousand ducks, and up to

77 in one day. Wood ducks were then the most abundant duck, he

says, with mallards a close second. Other species followed in this

order : widgeon and pintail, blue-winged and green-winged teal,

redheads, “blue bills,” buffleheads, a few canvasbacks, and two

or three Canadian geese each year. Canvasbacks brought as high

as 25 cent each on the market at Watertown, 15 cents more than

mallards.

Mr. McGovern has this to report about nesting: “Redheads

and blue-bills nested at Mud Lake occasionally, but they may

have been cripples, unable to continue north with the flight.”

He found many wood duck nests, some in dead aspen, in holes

made by “large woodpeckers” (probably the pileated wood¬

pecker). The dam at Milford previously mentioned, flooded a

wooded area called Prickly Ash Swamp, thus killing the timber

and creating a very productive nesting area for wood ducks.

When a boy, Mr. McGovern shot a drake wood duck from its

perch beside a nesting cavity in which the hen was incubating.

The next day the hen returned with a new mate, which he also

shot. This continued until “about 12” drakes had been killed at

this one nest. Did this indicate a surplus of non-breeding males

ready to mate as soon as the opportunity was given them ?

Certain lakes and ponds in this region are said to have

consistently attracted certain species of ducks. In the springs of

1936, 1937 and 1938 I made periodic counts of ducks on a dozen

lakes, ponds and marshes near Lake Mills, and along the Craw¬

fish River. I found that in some cases ducks have been forced

to give up their former haunts because of drainage or changes in

food ; in others because the species had become rare throughout

this area. In all cases a noticeable shrinkage in numbers has

taken place.

Hawkins — Faville Grove , Wisconsin

51

Krog’s Pond, near Krogville, is reputed to have been a favor¬

ite stopping-place for redheads. Mr. Julius Cooper tells of shoot¬

ing dozens of redheads from his barn door which over¬

looked the pond. Today Krog’s Pond is farm land. Redheads

also showed preference for a small, unnamed pond on the Alex¬

ander Farm, near Lake Mills, according to old hunters. During

the past three years, I have never seen a redhead on this pond

and in the entire area censused saw less than fifty.

Rock Lake was formerly a favorite stopping-place for lesser

scaups and still attracts fair numbers. On April 18, 1938, I

counted 1,400 scaups in the Lake Mills region, the highest count

in a single day for the census period.

Canvasbacks, en route to Lake Koshkonong, once stopped

regularly at Lake Ripley near Cambridge. Wild celery, their

favorite food, was then plentiful in this lake but has since

become scarce. In recent years a raft of canvasbacks on Ripley

is a rare sight. During the past three years my census figures

total less than forty canvasbacks for all the lakes which I

censused.

If the accounts which I heard are correct, it can be said that

at Hooper’s mill pond fifty years ago, nearly as many ducks were

bagged by hunters in a single day as now stop in an entire year.

Even during the height of the spring migration my total duck

count for the day never exceeded 2,000 individuals. Were it not

for lesser scaups my total count would not have reached a thou¬

sand for “peak” days except for a single occasion — the opening

of the duck season October 1, 1938. On this day, according to

local hunters, more ducks were seen than had greeted the open¬

ing-day shooter for a decade. I estimated that I saw at least 1000

ducks pass over the Crawfish prairie between 7 and 10 a.m.

Most of these were pintails, mallards, blue-winged teal, shovellers

and baldpates. At Faville Grove 30 man hours of hunting yielded

25 ducks killed over 50 acres of water, an extremely high kill

average for an area which during most of the last 10 years has

been without water in the fall. Record September rains in 1938

filled the marshes and this probably accounts for the heavy

duck flight.

Hope Lake, near Cambridge, produced the greatest variety

of species, including a European widgeon seen on April 21, 1937.

Several hundred Canada geese and a few flocks of snow geese

52 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts and Letters

were seen during the census. My only record of a whistling swan

was one which spent several days on Schmidt’s Pond, across the

river from Faville Grove. It was first seen April 9, 1938. Swans

formerly were shot in small numbers on Pock Lake.

Miscellaneous Water Birds. White pelicans were once com¬

mon on Pock Lake, but since 1913, when Mr. Kisow saw “about

a dozen,” none has been seen, to my knowledge. Lesser loons

are now common in spring, but no longer remain to nest. The

general opinion of the local naturalists is that the loons left

when cottages became too plentiful around the lake. One of the

rarest birds seen locally in many years is the Holboell’s grebe.

Dr. Arthur A. Allen recorded the calls of this bird at Hope Lake

on May 18, 1937.

A colony of blue herons have nested for many years in a tam¬

arack swamp bordering London Marsh. Over 100 nests were

counted in 1936, but how many were in actual use could not be

determined.

American egrets since 1930 have been regular visitors to

the Lake Mills region and due to their striking appearance have

been more widely noticed by the public than almost any other

species of bird. It is a matter of record that this species was, at

an early date, fairly common this far north but was nearly ex¬

terminated by plume hunters. Locally there is no evidence that

the egret was ever common in the seventy years prior to 1934.

If the egret had been present it would have been noticed but

Mr. Ben Crump was the only early settler who reported seeing

this bird (about 1875).

In a letter Dr. Schorger writes, “The following note evidently

refers to the American egret. It was published in the Milwaukee

Sentinel August 8, 1878, and sent in by its Watertown correspon¬

dent. 'A flock of white cranes have been rendezvousing in the

river [Rock River] between Sprague’s brickyard and Boomer’s

Dam for the past few days. One of these rare and beautiful

birds fell a victim to the unerring aim of Henry Miller, and is

now in the hands of the taxidermist, Mr. Sherer, for preserva¬

tion.’ ”

Mr. Warner Taylor saw an egret at Mud Lake near Hubble-

ton on May 30, 1925. I saw one on April 29, 1935, and two others

during the same week. These are the only spring records coming

to my attention. Twenty-two egrets were counted on the Craw-

Hawkins— Faville Grove, Wisconsin

53

fish prairie on September 8, 1938. One was still present Oc¬

tober 1, 1938.

Two immature little blue herons were seen with a group of

American egrets at the south end of Rock Lake marsh on

August 3, 1938.

Sandhill cranes once passed over this region regularly dur¬

ing migration and occasionally stopped to feed, but Mr. Hooper,

who has kept bird records, has seen none since 1924. Mr. Fred

Seaver says that cranes once nested in the marsh south of the

Lake Mills depot. The late Mr. M. Neupert told me that cranes

once nested in the large marsh near Deerfield.

A black-backed gull was seen March 1, 1939, on the area

by Mr. Harry Anderson.

Passenger Pigeon. The last great pigeon flight through this

region occurred in 1871, the year of the huge nesting near Wis¬

consin Dells. Dr. Schorger21 in his masterful account of this

nesting has thoroughly covered most of the details that the old

timers related to me about pigeons and states that from the

huge nesting ground near this roost the pigeons travelled great

distances to obtain food. The late Mr. Neupert told me that in

1871 thousands of pigeons descended on a recently-planted corn

field and pulled two or three bushels of seed. Corn is not planted

until after the pigeons are nesting. Did these pigeons come from

the Wisconsin Dells “roost?” If so, it implies a daily feeding

range of at least 50 miles.

I found no evidence that pigeons ever nested in numbers near

Faville Grove, the nearest nesting being at Deerfield, 15 miles

away. A small nesting, at the edge of the Waterloo Marsh, was

recalled by Mr. Neupert, who remembered seeing the eggs.

Mr. Hooper’s father believed that the ground vegetation un¬

der pigeon nesting colonies was altered by the enriching effect of

the guano, dead squabs, and broken branches. He based his

theory on a woods near Deerfield where pigeons nested, and

where ginseng occurred in abundance. Ginseng was not found

in the oak openings west of the Crawfish River, presumably be¬

cause a forest soil is needed. The woods at Deerfield was one of

the few places west of the Crawfish River when ginseng was

found. The conclusion was that the pigeons had enriched the

soil enough for ginseng.

54 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts and Letters

Dr. Schorger told me that according to the Watertown Re¬

publican of February 22, 1882, several flocks of pigeons had at

that time reached Waterloo, 10 miles north of Faville Grove.

This was an extremely early arrival date, and followed a record

mild winter. Within a decade the flights of pigeons through this

region were no more.

Raptors and Vultures . In the past, Mr. Hooper has mounted

the following hawks and owls, taken locally : 3 goshawks, 4 barn

owls, 5 snowy owls, 2 saw-whet owls, and 7 immature bald eagles.

The remainder of this discussion is largely confined to the pres¬

ent status of this group because it has been difficult to obtain

concrete evidence of its former status.

Red-shouldered hawks are rare in this vicinity. One pair,

however, has nested for at least five years in Wollin’s woods just

east of Faville Grove. One or two pairs of red-tailed hawks nest

regularly on or near Faville Grove. Marsh hawks are the most

abundant raptor. Five nests of this species were found in 1936,

2 in 1937, and 4 in 1938. Their greatest abundance, in 1936,

corresponded with a heavy mouse population.

I have also recorded the following hawks seen during migra¬

tion, between 1935 and 1938 : 4 duck hawks, 1 osprey, 1 sharp-

shinned hawk, 6 sparrow hawks, 12 rough-legged hawks (al¬

though only 2 were seen during the winter of 1937-38), 1 bald

eagle adult. Two or three Cooper's hawks have wintered at Fa¬

ville Grove each year.

The only owls which regularly breed at Faville Grove are the

screech and the great horned, the former being the more com¬

mon. At least one great horned owl nest has been found on the

area each of the past three years. Two pairs were believed to

be nesting nearby. Two nests of the short-eared owl were found

on the Crawfish prairie in 1936, and in the same year a nest of

the long-eared owl was found in a tamarack swamp less than a

mile west of the area. My only definite record of a barred owl

concerns one I heard a mile northwest of Faville Grove in 1937.

Also in 1937, I obtained a picture of a saw-whet owl on the area.

Snowy owls have been reported from Faville Grove in 1904

and 1931. On January 10, 1938, Mr. Irven 0. Buss and I saw a

snowy owl in a tree overlooking the ragweed patch.

Short-eared owls were first noticed by Mr. Hooper in 1904

when several appeared in the fall. He reports that they were

Hawkins — Faville Grove , Wisconsin

55

again common in 1908. I found several pairs throughout the

year in 1935 and 1936, but saw only two short-ears, both mi¬

grants, in 1937. Short-eared owls feed chiefly on meadow mice,

which are abundant about every four years. Peaks of mouse

abundance fell in 1904, 1908, and 1936, years in which short¬

eared owls were common. Both mice and owls were scarce in

1937, but in 1938 the mouse population again started upward.

Three owls were seen on September 24, 1938, the most in two

years. Six owls were seen at one time on April 13, 1939 and at

least two pairs remained to nest. Mice were becoming plentiful

again.

Turkey vultures have seldom been seen in Jefferson County.

Mr. Hooper mounted a “buzzard” which was killed at Milford on

April 24, 1903. Dr. John T. Emlen and I saw one at Faville

Grove on April 26, 1935.

In 1939 the following were recorded: a burrowing owl

(male) taken by William Elder April 9 on the Crawfish prairie;

a gray gyrfalcon shot by a hunter near London December 10.

The owl is in the University collection. The gyrfalcon was

mounted by Mr. Hooper and is at the State Game Farm at Poy-

nette.

Invaders . Usually crossbills, grosbeaks, siskins, northern

shrikes, Bohemian waxings, and snowy owls do not winter as far

south as Faville Grove. When they do, I consider them invaders

from the North. Likewise, visits by red-bellied woodpeckers,

and dickcissels, tufted titmice and, until recently cardinals might

be termed invasions from the South or West. There is a third

type of invasion; the permanent occupation of an area by the

exotic English sparrow and the starling.

The field notes and recollections of Mr. Hooper have proved

invaluable in dating these invasions. Thus, he recalls an abund¬

ance of crossbills in 1887. About 1890 evening grosbeaks were

common until apple blossom time. In late March, 1894, Mr.

Hooper watched a red crossbill build a nest on Farmers, Island,

but no eggs were laid. Both white and red crossbills and snowy

owls had been seen the preceding winter. Pine and evening

grosbeaks and snowy owls were recorded in 1903, and during

the following spring, a sapsucker was found nesting near Mil¬

ford, which is south of its normal breeding grounds. Bohemian

waxings appeared in abundance during the winter of 1908, and

56 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts and Letters

a goshawk was killed near Lake Mills. During the 20-year pe¬

riod (1888-1908) northern shrikes were rather common, ac¬

cording to Mr. Hooper. Not until 1931 did northern visitors

again become noticeable. That year evening grosbeaks, Bohemian

waxings and snowy owls were seen. Between 1936 and 1938 I

saw 1 northern shrike, 1 snowy owl, 4 siskins, 6 evening gros¬

beaks, about 70 common red polls, and 3 flocks of snow buntings.

Lapland longspurs were seen throughout each winter in flocks of

several hundred.

Of the southern and western invaders the dickcissel appeared

first. Mr. Hooper collected the first dickcissel he ever saw in

1900. In 1911 he wrote: “Saw first red-bellied woodpecker in

20 years.” The cardinal appeared at Lake Mills in 1918, and

was followed by the tufted titmouse in 1924.

Dickcissels are at present very erratic in their visits. Al¬

though not seen in 1935 they were common in 1936, very scarce

in 1937 and 1938 and fairly common again in 1939. During this

same period I saw neither red-bellied woodpeckers nor titmice in

this region. Cardinals are now present throughout the year. The

present count on the area is about four pairs.

The most pronounced invasion is that of the two exotics, the

English sparrow and the European starling. The sparrow ar¬

rived in 1873, the starling in 1938. In the Watertown Democrat

of May 1, 1873, Dr. Schorger found this note: “Mr. Charles H.

Phillips of Lake Mills has obtained eighteen English Sparrows

from the city of New York, and turned the little strangers loose

on his premises. It is said these birds are famous for their

consumption of worms and noxious insects.” During the se¬

vere winter of 1928-29, Mr. William Coupleman found a dead

starling on his barn floor. He had it mounted. Both sparrows

and starlings have become too numerous and are now pests.

Mammals

Somers found the following mammal bones in the refuse

heaps of ancient Aztalan: bear, raccoon, buffalo, moose, deer,

fox squirrel, wood duck, rabbit (several varieties), and wolf.

Of these, the most questionable is moose. Somers did not

list elk, but Barrett, also working at Aztalan, found tools and

trinkets made from elk bones and antlers. Kumlien found

buffalo remains at Lake Koshkonong, 12 miles away, according

Hawkins — Faville Grove , Wisconsin

57

to Schorger,22 so it is probable that buffalo also occurred at

Faville Grove. Hoy25 interpreted Father Hennepin’s “wild

goats” to be antelopes. These were mentioned in Hennepin’s

logue under the date October 16, 1679, when the explorers were

near Milwaukee. Dr. Schorger’s more thorough studies, however,

seem to invalidate Hoy’s interpretation.

Elk . Frequently the extermination of plants or animals can

be traced directly to the destruction of the habitat by settle¬

ment. Not so the elk, for its demise pre-dated the arrival of the

first settlers. I have seen two elk antlers which were plowed up

at Faville Grove and have heard about others which were un¬

covered in the surrounding country. Dr. Schorger says that the

Watertown Democrat of October 7, 1875, states that a pair of

“gigantic elk horns attached together by a portion of the skull”

were drawn by fishermen from the bottom of Rock Lake, Lake

Mills.

Deer. I could find no records of deer for the 70-year period

between 1867 and 1987, but in 1938 the following item appeared

in the Lake Mills Leader of September 29 :

While working with a team of horses in the cornfield last Wednes¬

day morning, Edwin Wollin, of Wollin Brothers farm at Milford, saw

a 10 point deer and doe mingle with the cattle and run off into the

woods. His attention had been attracted to their presence when the

horses reared and snorted.

Although neither the buck deer or doe have been seen since on

the Wollin farm, tracks have been found in the cornfield to indicate the

animals are feeding there during the night. It is believed the pair

were driven down from Portage due to the extremely high waters

there.

To my knowledge they are the first deer seen in this region

since the spring of 1867 when Mr. Fred Seaver saw two deer

on the west shore of Rock Lake.

Deer became scarce in the openings while they were still com¬

mon in the forests. West of the Crawfish River deer were scarce

by 1855, but two newspaper items found by Dr. Schorger show

that east of the Crawfish deer were still plentiful at that time.

The January 21, 1854, issue of the Watertown Weekly Register

states, “The Rock River woods are full of deer, and the hunters

are bringing them in by sleigh loads.” The Watertown Democrat

of February 5, 1857, states, “Thirty deer have been shot, during

58 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts and Letters

the past winter, by Mr. E. H. Pease in the forest between this

city and the village of Jefferson.”

Bears . One of Mr. McGovern’s earliest recollections is that

of a bear which he saw killed about 1865 by George Bleeker on

the Haseli farm near Waterloo. This is my most recent record.

Mr. Cornelius Cooper told of a bear that was killed on the Madi¬

son road, four miles west of Lake Mills about 1847. Mr. Albert

Aldrich heard his father, who was one of the earliest settlers at

Faville Grove, tell about seeing several bears near his home.

Mr. Neupert recalled that a neighbor had a live bear in a cage,

which he thought was picked up as a cub near Waterloo. Dr.

Schorger found this item in the Watertown Democrat of Sep¬

tember 25, 1856. “Mr. Lewis Krutt killed a black bear in the

town of Lebanon, in this county, last Monday (Sept. 22).” It

weighed 120 pounds. The Democrat of October 6, 1856, states

that a black bear was killed September 26, in a marsh at the edge

of Watertown.

Cougars. From the Watertown Chronicle of February 5,

1851, Dr. Schorger learned that, “Within a week or two past, a

panther has been seen by a number of persons in the woods south

of the village.” The same paper published the information on

December 3, 1851, that a large animal supposed to be a cougar

had been attacking cattle and sheep.” Mr. Hilliard obtained a

glimpse of the animal, and describes it as being “about the

height of a large dog but considerably larger.”

Mr. Neuport gave me a vivid account of a “panther scare”

near Waterloo, about 1860. If panthers were not still present at

this time, they evidently had been recently enough so that peo¬

ple still feared them.

Lynxes. According to the Watertown Democrat of January

30, 1868, “Mr. Robert Entwisle, of Lake Mills, shot a very large

lynx on his farm. It measured four feet long and two feet high.”

Dr. Schorger, who found this record, says that it is usually im¬

possible to separate lynx from bobcat records, from newspaper

accounts.

Bobcats. Most early settlers in this region told of one or

more experiences with bobcats. Farmers’ Island was once a fav¬

orite place for bobcats. My last record is one shot by Mr. Henry

Wollin one mile east of Faville Grove about 1892.

Hawkins — Faville Grove , Wisconsin

59

Otters . In the Waterloo Journal of March 1, 1888, Dr.

Schorger found this reference, “The otter is not entirely extinct

in this part of Wisconsin yet, a very large one having been caught

on the Portland Marsh by trappers, during the past winter ; the

pelt was purchased by F. J. Vick and may be seen at his store.”

The last otters evidently disappeared from the Crawfish about

1883 at the time the dam at Milford was removed. They were

never common. In many years of trapping Mr. McGovern caught

only three. About 1882 an otter was trapped at Mud Lake and

another at Faville Grove.

Beavers . Beavers are not mentioned by the earliest settlers.

Evidently the French and Indian trappers had been too thorough.

Well-preserved remnants of several beaver dams can still be

seen near Milford. Astride one of these dams is an elm tree

estimated to be 100 years old. Hence these beaver dams date

back at least to the early years of the 19th century.

Wolves. Early records seldom differentiate between timber

wolves and coyotes, but some of the early reports, if accurate,

certainly refer to timber wolves.

Wolves were abundant during early settlement days and

made life miserable for farmers who raised sheep. War was de¬

clared on the wolves, and during the period 1860-1900 they be¬

came scarce. Then the wolves came back, but to a lesser extent.

Organized wolf hunting again became a leading sport for sev¬

eral years. A coyote was killed at Faville Grove about 1926. I

have no records since.

Bounty was paid for a “timber wolf” killed a few miles east

of Faville Grove in the spring of 1938. However, it was the

opinion of two of America's outstanding authorities on wolves

that the skull was that of a dog.

Foxes. For many years the hunting of red foxes was a popu¬

lar and profitable sport. Gray foxes were rare until about 1920

when they began to out-number red foxes. At present, gray

foxes are common, but red foxes are extremely rare.

About 1900 a favorite winter sport at Lake Mills was a

“handicap” fox chase. When the ice became solid, a gray fox was

taken out onto the center of Bock Lake and released. Dogs which

had been arranged in handicap style, depending on their speed,

were released after the fox had a good start. The fox usually

60 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts and Letters

reached the land ahead of the dogs, and then climbed the nearest

tree. The sponsor of the chases made good money on entry fees

and still had his fox when the chase ended.

Possums . I have only one early possum record— one taken by

Mr. Eph Wilson about 1880. My next record is 1928, when Mr.

Harry Mason caught a possum near Cambridge. Possums sud¬

denly became common between 1930 and 1936. Mr. Mason killed

over a hundred. More than two dozen possums have been seen

or killed at Faville Grove since 1932. Following the killing win¬

ter of 1936, the possum population slumped, but seems to be re¬

covering again.

Other Mammals. Skunks have had five years of complete pro¬

tection and are now abundant on the Faville Grove area. Musk¬

rats and mink have increased but slightly, and weasels , raccoons,

and badgers not at all. The failure of raccoons and mink to in¬

crease is probably in part due to poaching.

Squirrels and rabbits have clearly responded to protection.

The recent cycle which noticeably lowered the populations of

these species in the surrounding country did not seem to affect

the rabbits and squirrels at Faville Grove.

About 1932 Mr. Peter Dietrich released two pairs of snow-

shoe rabbits in a tamarack swamp on his farm just west of

Faville Grove. Shortly thereafter “giant” rabbits were seen

(and several were killed) on the open Crawfish prairie. It is not

clear whether these were snowshoes which came from Mr.

Dietrich’s original release, or jack rabbits which unaccountably

appeared at this time. Mr. Sam Kisow saw one of these rab¬

bits several times in 1934 on the Crawfish prairie. On Decem¬

ber 29, 1939 Edward Kortendick of Lake Mills killed a jack

rabbit on the west shore of Rock Lake.

Mice and shrews were at the peak of their cycle in 1935 and

early 1936, but lost heavily in late 1936 and were still scarce at

the beginning of 1938. By fall 1938, meadow mice, at least, were

again abundant. By 1939 they were again decreasing.

Fish

According to Somers, the refuse heaps at Aztalan contained

bones of the following fish: pickerel, yellow perch, red horse,

pike, sunfish (several varieties), bullhead, mudsucker.

Hawkins — Faville Grove , Wisconsin

61

Also at Aztalan Barrett found an awl made from the spine of

a sheepshead (A plodinatus) . Green23 found all of these fish ex¬

cept the sheepshead in a recent survey of the Rock River drain¬

age.

Further evidence that the Indians did considerable fishing

is a dam which they built near Milford. This was a V-shaped

pile of stones placed in mid-stream which forced the fish to

pass next to the bank, thereby making them easier to catch.

Considerable labor was involved in building this dam, so it is

safe to conclude that the fishing was good enough to warrant the

trouble taken.

The first settlers counted heavily on fish for food. The red

horse (Moxostoma) was the most important food fish. Keyes, in

his history of Lake Mills, describes a fish rack which caught the

red horse and “pickerel” which were carried over the dam and

left them stranded, high and dry. Mr. Scribner has told me 01

the fever-pitch excitement that accompanied the red horse “run.”

The run coincided with corn planting time, and the flowering of

the wild plum. Farmers from miles around gathered at the dam

in the Crawfish at HubbJeton with wagons and dip nets. Some

used “drive” nets (seines) . Most of the fish were caught at night

and many were the drunken brawls which accompanied the fish¬

ing. Wagons were backed into the stream, the more easily to fill

them. Any kind of fish was taken. The fishermen camped at the

old sawmill during the run. Each year they came with barrels

and salt. The fish were slit down the back, cleaned, and packed

in the brine.

Mr. Albert Aldrich remembers the farmers driving by with

their wagon boxes filled with fish taken during the spring run.

Game fish as well as food fish were abundant. Mr. McGovern,

about 1875, claims to have caught in one winter 525 pounds of

northern pike through the ice at Mud Lake.

The Crawfish River at that time contained northern pike,

perch, a few wall-eyed pike (absent or rare at Mud Lake) , large-

mouth black bass, sunfish, rock bass, a few eels, bullheads, buf¬

falo, and several kinds of suckers. Catfish are reported as ab¬

sent. Carp had not been introduced yet.

Table 8 shows the kinds and numbers of fish found in the

river at present. Carp, catfish and wall-eyed pike, all scarce or

absent in 1875, are now three of the most important fish.

62 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts and Letters

Large catches of fish were also taken from Rock Lake in for¬

mer years. On Labor Day 1937, a creel census supervised by

Mr. Buss showed that at Rock Lake 204 fishermen spent 933

hours fishing but caught only 3 wall-eyed pike, 8 northern pike,

15 black bass, 295 bluegills, 2 crappies, 9 perch, and 62 fish of

other kinds, an average of 1 fish per 2% man-hours of fishing.

Carp. In 1887 Mr. Scribner caught a carp in the Crawfish

River; this is my earliest record. Mr. Hooper recalls that in

1888 his father bought several cans of carp in Madison and re¬

leased them in Hooper’s pond (between Rock Lake and the

Crawfish River) . By 1904 carp were abundant, as shown by Mr.

Hooper’s field notes:

April 25 — Big run of carp. Speared 25. Boys caught and sold three

milk wagons full.

May 13 — Caught 55 carp.

November 8 — Men seining in Crawfish River caught about a ton of

carp in two hauls.

Between 1896 and 1906 carp are reputed to have changed the

entire appearance of the river by eliminating the wild rice and

making the stream muddy. I quote Mr. John Radke : 'The carp

used to feed at the big bend (in the Crawfish) . The rice which

the carp had cleaned out floated down to the big bend and formed

a dam. Above the dam the water was several feet deep but one

could wade below it with boots. The water used to be crystal

clear.”

Some conception of the present status of the carp can be

gathered from Table 8.

Taele 8. Contract Fishing Operations, Crawfish River , 1936-37

* More bullheads (which are not tabulated) than any other fish are

taken by line fishermen.

** '‘Other rough fish” include buffalo and suckers.

Hawkins — Faville Grove , Wisconsin

63

Reptiles

Marsh rattlesnakes ( Sistrurus catenatus) were once fairly

common in the London and Waterloo marshes. About 1850, ac¬

cording to Mr. Faville, 70 or more rattlers were destroyed as

they were coming out of hibernation from a rocky den. The den

was located a mile or two northwest of Faville Grove. Mr.

Faville recalls that his father spoke of rattlers on the homestead

farm, one of which bit a horse. The first settlers were hesitant

about lifting grain bundles because of rattlesnakes. Evidently

these snakes became rare at a very early date, for the only one

Mr. Faville ever saw was pointed by his bird dog while hunting

prairie chickens in the Waterloo marsh. This happened about 65

years ago.

Mr. Schorger found the following news story in the Madison

State Journal : “The Lake Mills Union says Mr. H. Brown, while

at work on the farm of his son near that village, found and killed

seven large rattlesnakes. They were lying under the haycocks in

the meadow.”

While it is difficult to pin down species, the general statement

may be made that both in numbers and species there has been

a great reduction of snakes in this region. During the past four

years at Faville Grove I have seen only two species : the garter

snake (Thamnophis) , which is common, and five individuals of

the milk snake (Lampropeltis) .

The marketing of snapping turtles has been a thriving part-

time business for a few individuals in the past. Competition,

however, has caused over-exploitation of this resource. Consider¬

able evidence is available that snapping turtles have decreased

markedly during the past decade.

Amphibians

Bullfrogs and green frogs were hunted for the market until

recent years and their populations declined accordingly. Bull¬

frogs, which a decade ago were still common, are now rare.

There is a paucity of both species and individuals in sala¬

manders. In four years less than a dozen individuals have been

found despite repeated attempts to collect them. The two species

represented in the collection were both Amby stomas: A tigri-

num and A. maculatum. Necturus maculosus, the mud puppy, is

commonly found in Rock Lake.

64

Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts and Letters

Invertebrates

Clams. Claming once rivaled fishing as an important occu¬

pation on the Crawfish River. Clams, locally called “elephant's

ears," were harvested by the boat load and wash-tub full as late

as 1920. Clam hooks, dredges, and rakes were the tools used in

the harvest. Locally the objective of the harvest was pearls. The

clam shells which in many other places were sold for buttons

were here usually thrown away. What shells were sold brought

from $20 to $75 a ton. After a good haul, the clams were usually

boiled alive so that they could be more easily opened. Occasion¬

ally a bushel of clams produced a pearl or two, but often a boat

load yielded nothing. So-called “slugs" were more commonly

found than pearls and these brought about $5 per ounce, accord¬

ing to Mr. Joe Davis, local jeweler. Mr. Davis says that he

handled almost $800 worth of pearls in August, 1918. Some of

the best pearls brought as high as $35, but one lot of 200 pearls

brought only $200. With a few exceptions people in this vicinity

hunted pearls for fun, not profit.

Between silting and over-exploitation by clam fisherman,

clams have been all but exterminated from the Crawfish River.

Bees. Honey bees, which were introduced from Europe, were

here when the first white settlers arrived. Cravath and others

speak of harvesting honey at an early date.

Bibliography

1. Kumlien, L. and Hollister, N. 1903. The birds of Wisconsin. Nat.

His. Soc., Vol. Ill, Nos. 1, 2 and 3, pp. 1-143.

2. Hoy, P. R. 1853. Notes on the Ornithology of Wisconsin. Trans.

State Agr. Soc., Vol. II, pp. 341-364.

3. Cory, Charles B. 1909. The Birds of Illinois and Wisconsin. Field

Mus. Pub. 131, Zool. Series Vol. IX, pp. 1-766.

4. King, F. H. 1883. Economic Relations of Wisconsin Birds. Geol. of

Wis. Surv. of 1873-79, Vol. I, pp. 444-610.

5. Hawkins, Arthur S. 1937, Hungarian Partridge Nesting Studies at

Faville Grove. Trans. 2d N. A. Wildlife Conf., pp. 481-484.

6. Hawkins, Arthur S. 1937. Winter Feeding at Faville Grove, 1935-36.

Amer. Midland Nat., Vol. 18, No. 3, pp. 417-425.

7. Hawkins, Arthur S. 1937. Winter Feeding at Faville Grove, 1935-37.

Jour. Wildlife Management, Vol. 1, Nos. 3-4, pp. 62-69.

8. Siegler, Hilbert R. 1937. Winter Rodent Damage to Game Cover.

Jour. Mam., Vol. 18, No. 1, pp. 57-61.

9. Game Management Division, University of Wisconsin. 1937. Game

Bird Banding Manual. Mimeographed. 20 pp.

10. Division of Game Management, University of Wisconsin. 1938. Wis¬

consin Pheasant Survival Study (1937-38). Mimeographed. 10 pp.

11. Leopold, Aldo (and others). 1938. Wisconsin Pheasant Movement

Study. Jour. Wildlife Management, Vol. 2, No. 1, pp. 3-12.

Hawkins — Faville Grove , Wisconsin

65

12. Leopold, Aldo. 1937. The Effect of the Winter of 1935-36 on Wis¬

consin Quail. Amer. Midland Nat., Vol. 18, No. 3, pp. 408-416.

13. Leopold, Aldo. 1931. Report on a Game Survey of the North Central

States. Madison, Wis. Pp. 64-66.

14. Kumlien, Thure. 1876. On the rapid disappearance of Wisconsin wild-

flowers : a contrast of the present time with 30 years ago. Wis.

Acad. Sci., Arts and Letters, Vol. 3, pp. 56-57.

15. Barrett, S. A. 1933. Ancient Aztalan. Bui. Bub. Mus. of City of

Milwaukee, Vol. XIII, pp. 1-602.

16. Schorger, A. W. 1929. The Birds of Dane County, Wisconsin. Trans.

Wis. Acad, of Sci., Arts, and Letters, Vol. XXIV, pp. 457-499.

17. Schorger, A. W. 1931. The Birds of Dane County, Wisconsin. Part II.

Trans. Wis. Acad, of Sci., Arts, and Letters, Vol. XXVI, pp. 1-60.

18. Keyes, Elisha. 1888? A Reminiscent History of the Village and

Town of Lake Mills.

19. Cravath, Prosper (and others). 1906. Early Annals of Whitewater,

1837-1867. Whitewater Fed. of Women’s Clubs. Pp. 1-283.

20. Leopold, Aldo. 1929. Game Survey of Wisconsin. Unpublished ms.,

pp. 1-167.

21. Schorger, A. W. 1937. The Great Wisconsin Passenger Pigeon Nest¬

ing of 1871, Proc. Linnaean Soc. of N. Y., No. 48, pp. 1-26.

22. Schorger, A. W. 1937. The Range of the Bison in Wisconsin. Trans.

Wis. Acad, of Sci., Arts, and Letters, Vol. XXX, pp. 117-130.

23. Green, C. Willard. 1935. The Distribution of Wisconsin Fishes. Wis.

Conservation Dept., pp. 1-235.

24. Schorger, A. W. 1939. The Bob-white in Early Wisconsin. Unpub¬

lished ms.

25. Hoy, Dr. P. R. 1377. The Larger Wild Animals that have become

Extinct in Wisconsin. Wis. Acad, of Science, Arts and Letters,

Vol. pp. 255-257.

APPENDIX A

SPRING FLORA ON FARMER'S ISLAND

LAKE MILLS, WISCONSIN

E. B. Moore and Russell Sanford

“Farmer's Island" is located approximately one mile north

of Lake Mills, Wisconsin, on the Faville Grove Wildlife Area. It

consists of a low wooded knoll rising a few feet above the sur¬

rounding bog. The portion included in this survey embraced

about twenty-five acres of unpastured upland woods and a small

part of the adjoining marsh, some of which is grazed.

The flora of the “Island" is principally mesophytic; that

of the surrounding lowlands includes some characteristic bog

species.

Ulmus americana , Prunus serotina, Fraxinus americana,

Acer rubra and Tilia glabra are the most common trees in the

overstory. The forest as a whole consists of a group-wise distri¬

bution of age classes, with the 21-40 year class predominating.

Cordwood has been taken out here and there, recently in the

southwestern part of the area, and the resulting openings are

at present in the herbaceous-shrub stage of succession. The soil

is of the mull type, shows rapid decomposition of litter and a

well-developed humic horizon. Maidenhair fern — a common in¬

dicator of this type — occurs frequently.

The soil of the bog is made up of sedge-peat and supports

various stages of the bog succession. Larix larcina and Rhus

Vernix, a subclimax association, occurs here, as well as thickets

of Comics stolonifera, Populus tremuloides and Salix spp. Dense

stands of Urtica procera in places, indicate the misuse of fire in

the past. On parts of the lowlands, Maianthemum canadense

appears as ground cover, usually under stands of Populus.

The following species were collected and identified:

Pinaceae Cyperaceae

Larix laricina Carex sp.

Juniperus virginiana Carex pennsylvanicum

67

68

Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts and Letters

Araceae

Arisaema triphyllum

Liliaceae

Smilax herbacea, var. pulveru-

lenta

Polygonatum pubescens

Polygonatum biflorum

Maianthemum canadense, var.

interius

Smilacina stellata

Smilacina racemosa

Uvularia grandiflora

Dioscoreaceae

Dioscorea villosa

Salicaceae

Salix sp.

Populus grandidentata

Populus tremuloides

Juglandaceae

Carya ovata

Betulaceae

Betula pumila, var. glanduli-

fera

Corylus americana

Ostrya virginiana

Fagaceae

Quercus alba

Quercus rubra

Quercus ellipsoidalis

Urticaceae

Ulmus americana

Urtica procera

Caryophyllaceae

Stellaria longifolia

Arenaria lateriflora

Ranunculaceae

Ranunculus abortivus

Ranunculus septentrionalis

Ranunculus recurvatus

Thalictrium dioicum

Anemonella thalictroides

Hepatica americana

Caltha palustris

Actaea rubra

Aquilegia canadensis

Anemone quinquefolia

Berberidaceae

Podophyllum peltatum

Caulophyllum thalictroides

Papaveraceae

Sanguinaria canadensis

Cruciferae

Lepidium campestre

Capsella Bursa-pastoris

Erysimum cheiranthoides

Barbarea vulgaris

Cardamine Douglassii

Roripa Armoracia

S&xifragaceae

Saxifraga pennsylvanica

Ribes Cynosbati

Ribes gracile

Ribes amerieanum

Romceae

Pyrus arbutifolia, var. atropur-

purea

Pyrus ioensis

Amelanchier canadensis

Amelanchier humilis

Crataegus sp.

Fragaria virginiana

Fragaria vesca

Potentilla canadensis

iPotentilla norvegica, var. hir-

suta

Rubus pubescens

Rubus occidentalis

Prunus serotina

Prunus virginiana

Prunus amerieanum

Leguminosae

Lathyrus ochroleucus

Vicea americana

Oxalidaceae

Oxalis strict a

Geraniaceae

Geranium maculatum

Anacardiaceae

Rhus Vernix

Rhus toxicodendron

Rhus glabra

Aceraceae

Acer rubra

Vitaceae

Parthenocissus vitacea

Tiliaceae

Tilia glabra

Moore , Sanford — Spring Flora on Farmer's Island 69

Violaceae

Viola cucullata

Viola eriocarpa

Araliaceae

Aralia nudicaulis

Scrophulariaceae

Veronica peregrina

Rubiaceae

Galium Apparine

U mb elli ferae

Osmorhiza Claytoni

Zizea aurea

Sanicula marilandica

Comaceae

Cornus stolonifera

Cornus Baileyi

Cornus alternifolia

Cornus femina

Oleaceae

Fraxinus americana

Polemoniaceae

Polemonium reptans

Caprifoliaceae

Lonicera tatarica

Lonicera dioica

Lonicera prolifera

Viburnum opulus, var. ameri-

canum

Viburnum lentago

Viburnum affine, var. hypomala-

cum

Viburnum affine, var. affine

Sambucus canadensis

Compositae

Taraxicum Officinale

Achillea Millefolium

In addition to the above list, I have collected the following

plants on Farmer's Island. These were identified by Dr. N. C.

Fassett.

Aster puniceus

Barbarea vulgaris

Cerastium vulgatum

Cirsium altissimum

Epilobium coloratum

Erigeron canadensis

Eupatorium maculatum

Eupatorium urticaefolium

Gentiana Andrewsii

Geum canadense

Hypoxis hirsuta

Impatiens biflora

Latuca scariola

Lemna minor

Lobelia siphilitica

Lonicera hirsuta

Lycopus uniflorus

Oenothera sp.

Phlox pilosa var. fulgida

/Polygonum lapathifolium

Polygonum pennsylvanicum

Polygonum sagittatum

Rhamnus alnifolia

Sarracenia purpurea

Spartina pectinata

Spiranthes cernua (1938 only)

Solidago canadensis

Suum suave

APPENDIX B

Plants found during 1936 in Section 19 of the Crawfish

Prairie; collected by A. S. Hawkins and identified by Dr. N. C.

Fassett.

Agropyron repens

Agrostis alba

Alisma Plantago-aquatica

Amorpha canescens

Andropogon furcatus

Andropogon scoparius

Anemone canadensis

Apocynum cannabinum var. gla-

berrimum

Asclepias incarnata

Aster novae-angliae

Aster pilosus

70

Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts and Letters

Betula pumila var. glandulifera

Betula Sandbergi

Brassica juncea

Cacalia tuberosa

Calamagrostis canadensis

Cardamine bulbosa

Cardamine parviflora var. areni-

cola

Cicuta maculata

Cirsuim arvense

Cirsium lanceolatum

Comandra umbellata

Convolvulvus sepium

Cypripedium candidum

Dodecatheon Meadia

Dulichium arundinaceum

Echinochloa crusgalli

Echinochloa Walteri

Eleocharis sp.

Elymus sp.

Epilobium glandulosum var.

adenocolon

Equisetum arvense

Eragrostis sp.

Erigeron philadelphicus

Eriophorum angustifolium

Eryngium aquaticum

Eupatorium perfoliatum

Euphorbia corollata

Galium boreale

Gentiana Andrewsii

Gentiana crinita

Habenaria leucophaea

Helenium autumnale

Helianthus sp.

Heliopsis helianthoides

Heuchera Richardsonii

Hierochloe odorata

Hypoxis hirsuta

Iris virginica Shrevei

Leersia oryzoides

Lepachys pinnata

Lettuca canadensis

Liatris pyconstachya

Lithospermum canescens

Lilium philidelphicum var.

andinum

Lilium michiganense

Lobelia spicata

Lycopus americanus

Lythrum alatum

Matricularia inodora

Mentha arvensis var. canadensis

Mimulus ringens

Nepeta Cataria

Oxalis stricta

Oxypolis rigidior

Panicum capillare

Panicum Scribnerianum

Parietaria pennsylvanica

Parnassia caroliniana

Petalostemum purpureum

Phalaris arundinacea

Phleum pratense

Phlox pilosa

Physostegia virginiana

Poa pratensis

Polygonum pennsylvanicum var.

laevigatum

Polygonum Persicaria

Potentilla norvigica var. hirsuta

Pycnanthemum virginianum

Radicula Nasturtium-aquaticum

Roripa palustris

Rudbeckia hirta

Salix longifolia

Saphonaria officinalis

Scirpus atrovirens

Scirpus validus

Scrophularia marilandica

Senecio aureus

Silphium laciniatum

Silphium terebinthinaceum

Sisyrinchium campestre

Solidago rigida

Sonchus oleraceus

Sorghastrum nutans

Sparganium Eurycarpum

Spartina pectinata

Spiraea alba

Spiranthes cernua

Stachys tenuifolia

Steironema quadriflorum

Tradescantia canaliculata

Valariana edulis

Verbascum Thapsus

Verbascum Blattarii

Verbena hastata

Vernonia fasciculata

Veronica virginica

Viola cucullata

Zizia aurea

Moore, Sanford — Spring Flora on Farmer's Island 71

APPENDIX C

Extracts from the Ginseng Field Notes of Mr. John Hooper,

1904-08 :

72 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts and Letters

Moore , Sanford - — Spring Flora on Farmer's Island 73

1907 _ _

Get. 7 Ginseng turning yellow

1908

May 10 Coining fast

74

Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts and Letters

* Gene is Mr. Hooper’s brother

** This Favilles’ woods is not the one shown in Fig. 2. It is east of the

river. Mr. Hooper refers to this group of woods as the “circuit”

Moore , Sanford— Spring Flora on Farmer's Island

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NOTES ON WISCONSIN PARASITIC FUNGI. I.

H. C. Greene

These notes are a continuation of the series of “Notes on

Parasitic Fungi in Wisconsin” issued periodically by the late

Dr. J. J. Davis, formerly Curator of the Herbarium at the Uni¬

versity of Wisconsin. Unless otherwise noted, all collections

cited were made during the 1938 season.

Plasmopara pygmaea (Ung.) Schroet. var fusca (Pk.)

Davis on Hepatica americana (triloba,) . Dane Co., near Mazo-

manie, July 10. Apparently not uncommon on H. acutlioba, but

seemingly rarely found on H. americana,, the only previous col¬

lection being one by Davis from Laona, Forest Co.

Phyllosticta apocyni Trel. on Apocynum cannabinum.

Dane Co., near Madison, July 3. Reported from LaCrosse Co.

in 1882 by Trelease, but not collected since in Wisconsin on A.

cannabinum . Trelease’s specimen is not in the Herbarium. The

conidia are slightly larger than the 3-4 x 5-7/x specified by Trel¬

ease.

Phyllostica pobophylli (Curt.) Wint. on Podophyllum

peltatum. Dane Co., near Pine Bluff, June 3; Mt. Vernon, June

13. The only earlier Wisconsin collection was made by Davis in

1930 at Big Bend, Waukesha Co.

Septoria silenicola Ell. & Mart, on Silene stellata. Columbia

Co., Gibraltar Rock, June 28. Collected once by Davis at Racine,

Racine Co. in 1889.

Septoria sp. on Linaria canadensis . Iowa Co., near Arena,

June 17. Davis, Notes XVIII, p. 260 (1931) states, “On July 10,

1929 a collection of Peronospora linariae Fckl. on Linaria can¬

adensis was made at Arena. On the dead stems are pale spots

in which are pycnidia with black, rather firm thick walls and

broadly conical ostioles. These pycnidia contain hyaline, lax,

filiform scolecospores 30-50 x i/2- 1^. The appearance suggests

that the death of the host interfered with the normal develop-

77

78 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts and Letters

ment of the sporules. Perhaps this bears relation to Septoria

cymhalariae Sacc. & Speg.” In 1938 similar material was col¬

lected in great abundance. The pycnidia appear well developed

and there is nothing about the spores that suggests abnormality.

If such were the case it would hardly be expected that identical

correspondence with those originally found would occur. Furth¬

ermore, there is a high percentage of germination of the scole-

cospores in tap water, likewise an indication of normality. The

Saccardian description of S. CYMBALARIAE: 'Spots subcircular,

dark brown ; pycnidia gregarious, punctiform, lenticular, broadly

ostiolate, sooty, texture rather firm, parenchymatous; sporules

filfiorm, subflexuose, 20-35 x 2.5-3/x rather obtuse at the ends,

pluriguttulate, septations obscure, hyaline. ... In the French

form pycnidia 50-60/z diam. ; sporules 15-20 x 1-2/x”. Plainly

the spores of the form in question are not those of S. cymbal-

ARIAE.

Dilophospora geranii Schroet. on Geranium maculatum.

Dane Co., Madison, June 9. Collected at Madison in June 1883

by Trelease and at Viroqua, Vernon Co. in May 1930 by Davis.

The spores are borne in definite pycnidia and are very distinc¬

tive. The fungus was formerly wrongly referred to Pestaloz

ZIELLA subsessilis Sacc. & Ell. (Davis' Notes XX, p. 5, 1937).

Piggotia fraxini B.&C. on Fraxinus americana. Dane Co.,

near Blue Mounds, August 11. (A. E. Jenkins & Greene). The

fungus is here amphigenous and localized on large, isolated

circular, dull purplish-green spots which are up to 1 cm. diam.

Colletotrichum sp. on Sanguinaria canadensis. Dane Co.,

near Blue Mounds, August 11. Doubtfully parasitic. No. report

in Seymour's Host Index of Colletotrichum on S. canadensis .

Botrytis sp. on Ranunculus abortivus. Sauk Co., Peewit’s

Nest, May 21. Seemingly parasitic on young leaves, producing

immarginate spots with a water-soaked appearance. The spots

tend to be wedge-shaped, tapering inward from the leaf margin.

Conidiophores hypophyllous, arising from the leaf parenchyma,

sordid yellowish, 2-3 septate, granular, up to 550 x 15/x, several

times branched near the summit ; branches up to 30 x 8^ ; at the

end of each principal branch several ’wrinkled knob-like infla¬

tions, each with numerous minute sterigmata; conidia broadly

Greene — Wisconsin Parasitic Fungi. I.

79

ellipsoidal, smooth, yellowish, 14-21 x 10-14/*, wall about 1/* thick,

densely clustered, capitate on each fertile knob. This should per¬

haps be referred to Botrytis cinerea Pers.

Cercospora dulcamarae (Pk.) Ell. & Ev. on Solanum dul¬

camara. Dane Co., near Mazomanie, July 10. Ellis and Everhart

state: The hyphae form indefinite, subolivaceous, or greenish-

lead-colored patches on the lower surface of the leaf, and also

more sparingly so above but without any distinct spots’. In ref¬

erence to a collection made by Davis at Ellison Bay, Door Co.,

August 1929, he states The spots are dark blue on both surfaces

reminding one of a wood stain’. In the Mazomanie collection the

conidiophores are borne on definitely delimited, arid white spots

with a wide blackish-brown border. On the basis of microscopic

characters the specimen is referred to C. dulcamarae.

Cercospora leptandrae J. J. Davis on Veronica virginica.

Dane Co., Madison, July 23. This distinctive species is based on

a single collection made at Blue River, Grant Co. in 1923. The

occurrence of the identical form in some abundance at Madison

confirms the validity of the species.

Cercospora ziziae Ell. & Ev. on Zizia aurea. Dane Co., Madi¬

son, July 3. The only earlier collections made by Davis at

Racine, Racine Co. some forty years ago.

Additional Hosts

Synchytrium cellulare Davis on Pycnanthemum virgin -

ianum. Dane Co., near Mazomanie, July 10. Summer sporangia

scarce in this material; resting spores abundant. Galls of con¬

siderable size are produced, a fact perhaps correlated with the

moderately thick leaves of P. virginianum. With heavy infesta¬

tion there is much distortion of the host. Seymour does not list

Synchytrium as occurring on Pycnanthemum.

Erysiphe polygoni DC. on Thalictrum revolutum. Collected

at Racine, Racine Co., September 1, 1886 by J. J. Davis. This

record is based on a specimen in Davis’ personal herbarium

labelled ‘Erysiphe communis (Wall.) on Thalictrum cornuti,

Racine, Wis. 9/1/86.’ T. cornuti is a synonym for T. polygamum

which does not occur in Wisconsin. The leaves comprising the

specimen definitely show the glandular-puberulent character of

80 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts and Letters

T. revolutum. In Davis’ Provisional List Thalictrum dasycarpum

is cited as a host for E. polygoni. No specimen of E. polygoni

on T. dasycarpum was to be found in either the Davis or the

University Herbarium and it seems probable that the record is

based on the above-mentioned specimen on T. revolutum . How¬

ever, T. dasycarpum abundantly infested with E. polygoni was

collected by R. I. Evans at Pine Hollow, Sauk Co., June 26, 1938.

Elsinoe veneta (Speg.) Jenkins on Rubies occidentals.

Dane Co., near Blue Mounds, August 11. (A.E. Jenkins &

Greene. Det. by Jenkins). Gloeosporium venetum Speg. is re¬

ported by Davis on Rubus spp. but there seem to be no specimens

on R. occidentals in the Herbarium.

Eocronartium muscicola (P. ex Fr) Fitzp. on Climacium

americanum. Iowa Co., near Ridgeway, R. I. Evans, July 3.

Nothing is reported on this host in Seymour’s Host Index, and

there is apparently no published record of Eocronartium in

Wisconsin.

Phyllosticta trillii Ell. & Ev. on Trillium grandiflorum.

Dane Co., near Blue Mounds, June 3.

Septoria convolvuli Desm. on Convolvulus arvensS. Dane

Co., Madison, June 30.

Septoria verbenae Rob. on Verbena stricta . Dane Co., two

miles east of Blue Mounds, July 5.

Septoria violae Westd. on Viola eriocarpa . Dane Co., near

Mt. Vernon, June 13.

Colletotrichum trillii Tehon on Trillium declinatum.

Dane Co., near Mt. Vernon, July 5. Somewhat dubiously referred

to Tehon’s form. Davis in Notes XX, p.2 (1937), cites a possible

collection of this species on T. recurvatum. The fungus on T.

declinatum seems to be truly parasitic.

Ramularia subrufa Ell. & Holw. on Smilax herbacea var.

pulverulenta. Columbia Co., Gibraltar Rock, June 28. Davis

made collections of R. subrufa on this host, but failed to report

them.

CERCOSPORELLA filiformis J. J. Davis on Thalictrum dasycar¬

pum. Dane Co., near Mazomanie, August 14. Davis described

Greene — Wisconsin Parasitic Fungi. I.

81

C. filiformis from a collection on leaves of Anemone patens var.

Wolfgangiana made at Millston, Jackson Co., in June 1914. Sev¬

eral subsequent collections were made on the same host. On

Anemone the spots are linear, brown, immarginate,1^-! cm. x

1-2 mm., with conidiophores amphigenous. On Thalictrum the

conidiophores are, largely at least, hypophyllous on small (1-3

mm. diam.) circular to ovoid spots which are pale brown with a

dark brown border and plainly visible on both leaf surfaces. The

fungus is referred to C. filiformis on the basis of the distinctive

conidia, the general microscopic habit and the admittedly none

too close host relationship.

Cladosporium nervale Ell. & Dearn. on Euphorbia corollata.

Columbia Co., Highway J, five miles north of Lodi, July 8. This

checks well with C. nervale on Rhus typhina. The parasite is

largely confined to the midrib region.

Cercospora beticola (Ces.) Sacc. on Cycloloma atriplici-

folium. Sauk Co., near Spring Green, July 29, 1935. (J. J. Davis

& Greene). Material was sent to Professor Chupp who made

the determination. Davis' unpublished notes as follows: ‘Spots

definite, circular, pale brown with a narrow purplish border and

often with a white center, 2-3 mm. in diameter; conidiophores

tufted, fuscous, straight or geniculate, sometimes curved, 30-80

x 4/x ; conidia hyaline, straight or somewhat curved, upwardly

attenuate, septate, 65-120 x 3^/

Cercospora smilacis Thiim. on Smilax herbacea var. pul-

verulenta. Dane Co., near Mt. Vernon, August 17. Determined

by Professor Chupp.

Phleospora mori (Lev.) Sacc. on Morus rubra. Dane Co.,

Madison, October 28.

Additional Species

Taphrina SACCHARI Jenkins on Acer saccharinum. Dane Co.,

Madison, June 1904 (collector?). This Taphrina (Jenkins,

A. E., J. Wash. Acad. Sci. 28: 353-8 (1938)) was found by

Jenkins on a specimen in the University of Wisconsin Herbarium

labelled Gloeosporium saccharinum E. & E.

82

Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts and Letters

Mycosphaerella thalictri (Ell. & Ev.) Lindau on Thalic -

trum dasycarpum. Dane Co., near Mazomanie, July 10. Seymour

does not list T. dasycarpum as a host.

Vermicularia coptina Pk. on Coptis trifolia. Juneau Co.,

Rocky Arbor State Park, May 21. Doubtfully parasitic.

Vermicularia hysteriiformis Pk. on Caulophyllum thalict-

roides. Dane Co., near Blue Mounds, August 11. Peck, describ¬

ing V. hysteriiformis, states in part “A species very distinct

from all others by the shape of the perithecia which appear

longer than broad through the epidermis, resembling in this re¬

spect some species of Hysterium”. A fungus which is apparently

Peck’s species was found sparingly on stems and abundantly on

leaves of living blue cohosh. On leaves the acervuli are small and

do not show the hysteriform character, but in type of setae and

conidia are identical with those on the stems. On leaves the acer¬

vuli are amphigenous, scattered, superficial, 40-120 /* diam. on

more or less wedge-shaped, dead, brown areas, the dead areas

frequently with a yellowish margin next to the still living por¬

tions of the leaflet; setae numerous, blackish-brown, septate,

tapering, acute, extremely variable in length, up to 260/* long by

7/z wide at the base; conidia 17-24 x 3-4.5/*, boat-shaped to

falcate, guttulate; conidiophores very short, up to 10 x 3/*, incon¬

spicuous among the numerous setae. The fungus seems to be

definitely parasitic on stems and leaves. On leaflets the dead

areas apparently originate at the margins, progressively involv¬

ing larger areas until the entire leaflet is killed. Comparison of

a specimen of Vermicularia podophylli Ell. & Dearn. on dead

fruit of Podophyllum peltatum with V. hysteriiformis shows

acervuli 100-200/* diam., with setae shorter, less acute and more

uniform in length, 100-125/*. The conidia, however, are very

similar and it seems probable that V. hysteriiformis and V.

podophylli are closely allied if not identical.

Sphaeropsis ellisii Sacc. on Pinus laricio var. austriaca .

Dane Co., Madison, A. J. Riker, September 27. On needle bases.

Melanconium sphaeroideum Lk. on Alnus sp. Sawyer Co.,

near Hayward, E. M. Gilbert, April 20. On twigs; seemingly

parasitic.

Greene — Wisconsin Parasitic Fungi. I.

83

Septoria plantaginea Pass. var. plantaginis-majors

Sacc. on Plantago purshii. Dane Co., near Mazomanie, July 10.

Seymour does not report Septoria on Plantago purshii. Com¬

parison with a specimen on Plantago major, collected at Winni¬

peg, Manitoba shows similar spores (about 30-35 x 1) and

pycnidia but slightly smaller. The pycnidia on P. purshii show

a more pronouncedly rostrate character than do those on P.

major.

Sphaceloma symphoricarpi Barrus & Horsfell on Symphori-

carpos albus var. laevigatus . Dane Co., Madison, August 12 (A.

E. Jenkins & Greene. Det. by Jenkins).

PRELIMINARY REPORTS ON THE FLORA OF

WISCONSIN. XXVII. LENTIBULARIACEAE

John W. Thomson Jr.

The aquatic species of Utricularia, the only representative of

this family in Wisconsin, are characterized by bladders which

function as traps to catch small animal life. In the terrestrial

species these bladders are usually rudimentary or lacking. The

Wisconsin species of the Bladderworts may be identified by the

arrangement of the bladders and the leaves as well as by the

floral characters. The scales on the flowering scapes and the

bracts which subtend the flowers also show characters which

assist in identification.

The maps of distribution included in this report are compiled

from collections in the herbaria of the University of Wisconsin,

the University of Minnesota, the Milwaukee Public Museum, the

Gray Herbarium, The Field Museum of Natural History, Mr.

S. C. Wadmond of Delavan, Wisconsin, and Mr. Newton T. Bobb

of Northland College, Ashland, Wisconsin.

Grateful acknowledgement is made to Dr. N. C. Fassett for

his guidance during the work, to Mr. A. M. Fuller, Dr. F. K.

Butters, Mr. S. C. Wadmond, and Mr. N. T. Bobb for the loan

of the specimens from the various herbaria; and to Mr. C. A.

Weatherby and Dr. J. H. Barnhart for information related to

the distribution of some of the species.

A. Plants without bladders or very rarely with rudimentary, beaked,

bladders; terrestrial on sand, mud or sphagnum bogs; a single stalk

bearing a few flowers at the top; the bract subtending the flowers

connate (Fig. 2), or with an inner pair of lateral bracts (Fig. 6).

B. Bract subtending the flower connate; pedicels long, extending be¬

yond the bract; a number of vertical stems along a creeping stem;

leaves with a few small spineless lobes; flower purple, single and

resupinate . U. resupinata.

BB. Bract subtending the flowers tapering to a sessile base and with

an inner pair of lateral bracts; pedicels very short, not extending

beyond the bracts; leaves entire, rarely seen; flowers yellow, one

to five, not resupinate, spur of the corolla pendant and shorter

than the lower lip. . . TJ. comuta

85

86

Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts and Letters

AA. Plants bladder-bearing, but the bladder-bearing portion sometimes

lost in collecting; aquatic; the bract subtending the flowers peltate

(Fig. 5) , cordate-sessile (Fig. 3), or tapering to a sessile base (Fig. 4).

C. Leaves absent, the bladders borne directly on the tips of the lesser

stems which are whorled; scape scales absent; bracts peltate;

corolla purple; pedicels erect in fruit. . . . U. purpurea.

CC. Leaves present, the bladders borne on the same or separate stems

from the leaves; stems not whorled; scape scales lacking or cord¬

ate-sessile, bracts cordate-sessile or tapering to a sessile base ;

corolla yellow; pedicels erect or recurved in fruit.

D. Ultimate segments of the leaves linear with the tip long-taper-

ing from a definite point on the segment, flattened, midrib

present in the ultimate segments; leaf segments dichotomously

to trichotomously divided; scape scales and bracts cordate-

sessile.

E. Bladders on separate stems from the flattened leaves

(Fig. 1) ; leaves profusely denticulate-spinose (under a

lens) ; spur of corolla appressed to and almost as long as

the lower lip; pedicels ascending in fruit. . U. intermedia.

EE. Bladders on flattened leaves; segments denticulate only at

the tip or occasionally at the sides; spur of corolla short,

almost lacking; pedicels recurving in fruit. . U. minor.

DD. Ultimate segments of the leaves tapering the entire length of

the segment, capillary although sometimes appearing flattened

when pressed, midrib absent; leaflets pinnately or irregularly

divided, dichotomous or single at the base; scape scales lacking

or cordate-sessile; bracts cordate-sessile or tapering to a ses¬

sile base.

F. Plant stout: flowering scape more than 10 cm. high; the

branches long, 3 dm. to over a meter in length, free floating

except sometimes attached at one end; leaves dichotomous

at the base, pinnately divided; bladders abundant; scapes

stout, scaleless or with cordate-sessile scales, bearing 2-20

flowers; pedicels recurved in the fruit.

G. Leaf segments bristly serrulate with elongate spines

(under higher magnifications) ; no cleistogamous flowers

present; scapes 6-20 flowered with 1-5 cordate-sessile

scales ; bracts cordate-sessile .

. U. vulgaris var. americana

GG. Leaves spineless except for the tips of the segments;

cleistogamous flowers present at the base of the scape

and scattered along the stems; scapes 2-5 flowered, lack¬

ing scales; bracts tapering to a sessile base.

. U. geminiscapa

FF. Plant slender; flowering scape less than 10 cm. high; the

bladder-bearing branches very short, a few cm. long; creep¬

ing over mud in shallow water; bladders sparse; leaves

single at the base, sparingly and irregularly divided; scapes

very slender, bearing one or two flowers; bracts clasping

and tapering to a sessile base (Fig. 4) ; pedicels ascending

in fruit . . . U. gibba

Thomson — Flora of Wisconsin. XXVIL

87

dcape

\g pedicel

^ bract

— scapeecate

fU. intermedia

showing parte

used /n trey x/

po/nt of

attachment

2. Connate

bract of U.

resupinafa x0

J Cordafe-

aeasi/e oca/e

ofU./ntermedia

x5

d Met of 'it.

arntfoper/ng

to a sessile

base. x3

CPe/tate

bract of U.

purpurea/8

6. Bract of U.

cornafa tapering

toasessitebax

and with an

inner poirof

lateral bracts.

x8

Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts and Letters

♦ Utricularia purpurea + Utrlcularia geraiaiscapa

• U trlcularia re supina ta m u tricularia miaor

Thomson — Flora of Wisconsin. XXVII.

89

Utricularia resupinata B. D. Greene (Fig. 7, dots) Col¬

lected mainly in the northwestern part of the state.

Utricularia CORNUTA Michx. (Fig. 9) Common across the

northern part of the state and ranging down along Lake Michi¬

gan. One collection in Juneau County near Lyndon Station by

J. J. Davis, June 27, 1936.

Utricularia purpurea Walt. (Fig. 7, cross) Collected but

once in the state in Upper Holly Lake1 near Stone Lake, Sawyer

County, September 4, 1931 by J. H. Steenis (No. 1044, No. 744).

Utricularia intermedia Hayne. (Fig. 11) Common

throughout the state except in the Driftless Area where the

drainage is too complete for Utricularia except along the river

bottoms which have not been much collected.

Utricularia minor L. (Fig. 8, dots) Rare, in the northern

part of the state and southward near Lake Michigan.

Utricularia vulgaris L. var. Americana Gray. (Fig. 12)

The commonest species throughout the state.

Utricularia geminiscapa Benj. U. clandestine of Gray's

Manual. (Fig. 8, cross) Collected but once in the state in pools

in marshes near Sayner, Vilas County, by R. Hoffman, August

25, 1916. The specimen on which this report is based is in the

Gray Herbarium.

Utricularia gibba L. (Fig. 10) Collected in the northwest¬

ern sand barren lakes, at the Dells of the Wisconsin River, in

the Fox River valley, and in Langlade County. One collection

was made in 1894 in Lake Wingra, Dane County, by L. S. Cheney

but this station is doubtless now extinct.

1 For a discussion of Upper Holly Lake see Fassett, Rhodora xxxvi. 350-351 (1934).

PRELIMINARY REPORTS ON THE FLORA OF

WISCONSIN. XXVIII. CAPRIFOLIACEAE

Dorothy R. Wade and Douglas E. Wade

The maps in this report are based on specimens that we have

seen in the following herbaria: University of Wisconsin, Mil¬

waukee Public Museum, Mr. S. C. Wadmond, of Delavan, Wis¬

consin, Mr. and Mrs. F. N. Hamerstrom, Jr., of Madison, Wis¬

consin, and our own. A list of Wisconsin specimens of the

Caprifoliaceae in the University of Minnesota herbarium was

kindly sent to us by Professor Fred K. Butters. We are indebted

to the respective curators for their many courtesies ; and we are

most appreciative of the assistance and advice of Dr. Norman C.

Fassett, University of Wisconsin, in preparing this report.

As the taxonomy of this family is treated adequately in

Dr. Fassett’s “Spring Flora of Wisconsin”, (revised ed. 1938) ;

and in Rosendahl’s and Betters’ “Trees and Shrubs of Minne¬

sota” (1928) we have made no attempt to supply or repeat keys.

Species not included in either of these books are treated in

Gray’s “New Manual of Botany” (7th ed.).

In this report we have given special attention to the food

and cover values of each plant to wildlife in Wisconsin. Out¬

side of our own observations on food habits of various animals,

we have drawn freely from other workers and sources in compil¬

ing these data and have tried to indicate where known the au¬

thority. A list of references on wildlife food habits is appended.

It is hoped that these deviations from the usual type of Pre¬

liminary Reports will prove of some aid to present and future

workers in the wildlife field.

1. Diervilla — Bush Honeysuckle

D. Lonicera Mill. (Map. 1). Generally distributed through¬

out the state, abundant northward and rare southward. Found

at base of or on rocky bluffs, on wooded sandstone bluffs, dry

quartzite ledges, basalt outcrops, gravelly river banks, wooded,

sandy lakeshores, and dry to fresh, rocky woods. Escoll, col-

91

92 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts and Letters

Lonicera canadensis

Lonicera oblongifolia

® Lonicera hirsuta

Wade, Wade — Flora of Wisconsin . XXVIII.

93

lecting in 1917, reported it to be common on burnt over areas in

Price county. Suckers freely and sometimes forms thick clumps.

We do not know its wildlife food values, but suspect that it may

be browsed by deer. However, due to its low habit, it may be

unavailable during winters of heavy snowfall.

2. Lonicera — Honeysuckles

L. CAERULEA var. VILLOSA (Michx.) T. & G. Mountain Fly

Honeysuckle. (Map 2). Rare in deep swamps; confined largely

to the northern counties and in bogs bordering Lake Michigan

southward to Milwaukee county. A small shrub, with blue-

colored berries available June to May. “Generally free from

insects and diseases,” (Van Dersal). We believe that it is too

rare to be of much value to wildlife except locally where abun¬

dant.

L. canadensis Marsh. American Fly Honeysuckle. (Map 3).

Found throughout the northern part of the state and rarely in

bogs south-eastward. Prefers moist, shaded sites. Plas been col¬

lected in rocky, shaded sites, rich woods, and along shaded banks

of streams and lakes. Berry available July to September. We

were unable to find any record of its being utilized by birds or

mammals in Wisconsin.

L. OBLON GIFOLIA (Goldie) Hook. Swamp Fly Honeysuckle.

(Map 4). Rare in swamps northward and eastward. Prefers

moist and fairly open sites. Collected in “wet marshes” near

Sturgeon Bay, Door county. We have no definite records, but

suspect that it may be browsed by deer in Wisconsin. Two

writers (Maynard et al. and Howard) state that it is browsed

by deer in New York and Michigan. Pearce found this species

highly relished by deer in New York State and that it with¬

stood the browsing well.

L. INVOLUCRATA (Richards) Banks. Bearberry Honeysuckle.

(Map 2, circled X). Only station in the state is at Port Wing,

Bayfield county. Involucre purple, flowers yellow, and fruit a

blue-black color. This large shrub prefers moist, shaded sites;

suckers freely and may form large patches. “Fruit known to

have been eaten by four small birds” (Van Dersal). Same

writer says: “Claimed to be poisonous [to stock], but proof is

still lacking.”

94

Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts and Letters

+ Triosteuja perfoliatum var. aurantiacum

Wade, Wade — Flora of Wisconsin. XXVIII.

95

L. hirsuta Eaton. Hairy Honeysuckle. (Map 5). North¬

ward coming south to Blarron, Wood, and Ozaukee counties.

Found in dry thickets, open and rocky woods, occasionally in

open swamps and fresh woods. Fruit known to have been eaten

by two species of birds (Van Dersal) .

L. prolifera (Kirchner) Rehder. L. Sullivantii. Sullivant

Honeysuckle (Map 6). Southern in range, seemingly avoiding

the central sand area, and found northward to Pierce, Columbia,

and Calumet counties. This viney-shrub forms tangles that we

know have been utilized as cover by pheasants, woodcock, and

bob white quail in Walworth county. Forbush says that the ber¬

ries are eaten by bobwhite quail in the New England States. Al¬

though locally abundant in parts of southern Wisconsin, we have

no records of its being used as food by any wildlife species. In

certain pastures in Walworth county, where it was very abun¬

dant, we noticed that it was rarely browsed by livestock or dam¬

aged by mice and rabbits. This corroborates observations made

by Siegler at Lake Mills, Jefferson county.

L. dioica L. Mountain or Limber Honeysuckle. (Map 7).

Throughout the state except northeastward, and rare in the cen¬

tral sand area where it is found only on the richer sites. Var.

GLAUCESCENS (Rydb.) Butters, (Map 8), has the leaves and

corolla with spreading hairs, and occupies the same range as the

type but is found more abundantly in the northeast counties.

Both type and variety prefer some shade, but are found in moist

and dry sites. We have no records of either plant serving as

wildlife food, with the exception that all the honeysuckles are

greatly favored by hummingbirds during the flowering season.

8. Symphoricarpus

S. occidentalis Hook. Wolf berry. (Map 9). This shrub is

abundant in the prairie regions of Minnesota and northwestern

Iowa. Confines itself to the Mississippi and scattered stations

northeastward, eastward and southward. One station, although

in Illinois just west of Rockton along the C. M. and St. Paul R. R.

right of way, collected by S. C. Wadmond, is spotted on the map

for the additional evidence that it may offer to those seeking

prairie relicts. This region near Rockton is of the oak-opening,

prairie type. Has been collected along the river bluffs of the

96

Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts and Letters

Mississippi, in limey open pasture near Prescott, Pierce county,

on alluvial soil, and in rocky, open sites. Fruit has been known

to be taken by pheasants in Nebraska (Swenk) and Iowa (Er-

rington) . The latter writer stated that during the dry summer

of 1934, wolfberry appeared to be very drought resistant. Fruit

is available October to March. Van Dersal, “considers it to be

very palatable to stock and an important browse plant. [Also]

a good honey-producing plant.” We are unaware of any Wis¬

consin wildlife-use records.

S. ALDUS (L.) Blake. S. racemosus. Snowberry. (Map 9,

cross). Rocky banks and bluffs, south to Columbia and Racine

counties. This small stoloniferous shrub has berries available

from August to June. Known to have been eaten by 14 species

of birds, including the ring-necked pheasant, ruffed grouse,

prairie chicken, and sharp-tailed grouse (Van Dersal et al.).

Although this is an imposing list, it is well to keep in mind a

statement made by Errington : “Fruits of fleshy consistency or

those made up largely of digestion-resistant seeds are quite in¬

adequate as winter-emergency foods for pheasants.” It seems

justifiable to extend this statement to the species mentioned

above, so that the wildlife food importance of snowberry and

related plants during the winter will not be over-estimated by

both the wildlife worker and the layman.

S. albus var. pauciflorus (Robbins) Blake. (Map 10).

Like the type, but leaves whitened beneath. Intermediate forms

exist. Found south to Polk, Columbia, and Racine Counties in

rocky woods, and openings. Prefers dry soils. Wildlife value

probably same as type.

4. Linnaea

L. borealis var. AMERICANA L. Twinflower. (Map 11). This

creeping, somewhat woody, evergreen is largely restricted to the

northern counties; rarely southward as far as Dane, Rock (?),

and Milwaukee counties. Found in moist, shady woods, and

occasionally in Sphagnum bogs. Has been collected several times

northward in association with virgin stands of white pine. The

Rock county specimen is labelled “Beloit, June 17, 1884, dry

woods. From Herbarium of F. A. Scheuber”. The fruit (cap-

Wade, Wade — Flora of Wisconsin. XXVIII.

97

sule) has been eaten by ruffed grouse in eastern United States,

but we do not know of any Wisconsin records.

5. Triosteum — Horse Gentian

T. perfoli at u M L. (Map 12). Largely confined to the south¬

ern half of the State, rarely northward. Prefers the heavy soils

and apparently avoids the central sand plains. Found in rich

woods, open thin woods, rocky ridges, and grassy, wooded pas¬

tures. This species has the middle leaves, at least, with their

bases united around the stem. Often found with the variety.

T. perfoliatum var. AURANTIACUM (Bicknell) Wiegand.

(Map 12, crosses). Leaves narrowed at base, not united. Appar¬

ently more northern in range than the type, occupying the same

range in the south. Has been collected in rich sites in Clark and

Wood counties. The variety flowers earlier than the type. A

speciman with three leaves in a whorl was collected by a student

at the University of Wisconsin. Unfortunately we did not see and

were unable to locate the speciman. Professor Fred K. Butters

wrote us concerning this whorled-leaved form as follows : “None

of our Minnesota specimens of Triosteum has whorled leaves,

though I have an impression that at some time I have seen such

plants.” There are no references, to our knowledge, in the lit¬

erature to the whorled-leaved Triosteum, neither are there refer¬

ences to any of the species being utilized as food by vertebrates.

6. Viburnum

V. Opulus var. americanum Ait. American High-bush Cran¬

berry; Pembina. (Map 13). Common throughout the State ex¬

cept in the central sand area. Prefers moist thickets and swamps,

although it has been collected in dry, oak woods. Fruit has been

taken by sharp-tailed grouse, ruffed grouse, pheasants, and card¬

inals (Van Dersal et al). In Walworth county, we observed

pheasants and cardinals taking the fruit as late as December.

In some cases fruit was available until late spring. Edible, and

makes a very delicious jelly.

V. PAUCIFLORUM Raf. Squashberry. (Map 13, cross). Is

more northern in range; found in cold woods north of Lake Su¬

perior. One station found in 1933 at Lehigh, Barron county, by

N. C. Fassett, at the base of a quartzite talus slope in the Bar-

Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts and Letters

Viburnum aceri folium

Viburnum Lentago

Sambucus pub ©ns

Wade, Wade— Flora of Wisconsin, XXVIII. 99

ron Hills. Blossoms in June, fruit ripe in late August and early

September. Although Wisconsin is not included in the records,

Van Dersal writes that the fruit has been eaten by three species

of birds, including the ruffed grouse.

V. acerifoliu M L. Maple-leaved Viburnum. (Map 14). Com¬

mon northward and occasional southward to Richland, Dane and

Walworth counties; seemingly rare in the central sand area, al¬

though it has been collected twice and reported as seen there

in rich woods. In Walworth county we have found it in a bass¬

wood-sugar maple associes at four stations. We do not have

any Wisconsin records for Wildlife use. Hicks of Ohio, reports

that the fruit is eaten by ruffed grouse and that it is available

from August to January.

V. affine Bush var. affine Bush, ex Blake. V . pubescenes

of Gray's Manual. Arrow-wood (Map 15, circles). Leaves not

downy beneath, with petioles 5-12 mm. long; much less common

than the following variety. Throughout the state except rare in

central sand area, where it is has been collected but twice.

V. affine var. hypomalacum Blake. Downy Arrow-wood.

(Map 15). Northwestward, eastward, and southeastward.

Leaves velvety beneath, with petioles 3-7 mm. long. Between the

two above varieties, occur occasional intermediates, with short

petioles and smooth leaves, or with long petioles and leaves downy

beneath. These are indicated by x’s on Map 15. We have ob¬

served cardinals eating the fruits of these intermediate forms in

October and November. Other wildlife uses in Wisconsin have

not been recorded to our knowledge.

V. cassinoides L. Wild Raisin. Map 13, circles). Collected at

two stations in Wisconsin, Marinette and Oconto counties. Drupe

does not persist very long. Has been taken by ruffed grouse,

pheasants, and sharp-tailed grouse in other states. Howard

states that V. cassinoides is common at Hartwick Pines State

Park, Grayling, Michigan, and is heavily browsed by deer. Is

considered an important deer food in Massachusetts (Van Der¬

sal). In spite of heavy annual browsing by deer in the swamp

regions of New York, Pearce found that it persisted.

C. Lentago L. Nannyberry. (Map 16). Throughout the

state. Found in dry and moist woods, open, moist pastures and

100 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts and Letters

bogs. Prefers heavier soils, but found occasionally on gravelly

knolls and in the richer soils of the central sand area. Suckers

freely under the crown. Drupe sometimes persists through the

winter. We have observed that in spite of moderate browsing by

live-stock it does well and fruits heavily. We believe that it would

be a satisfactory “living snow-fence” plant in pasture situations

in southeastern Wisconsin. We have observed pheasants and

Hungarian partridges picking up fallen fruit along open fence-

rows in November. On the E. H. Fabrice Farm, Walworth

county, it was favored by cardinals and exhausted by early De¬

cember. Fruit has been known to be taken by ruffed grouse.

V. prunifolium L. Blackhaw. (Map 5, circled plus sign).

Only one station in Wisconsin, collected by S. C. Wadmond at

Root River, Racine county.

7. Sambucus

S. canadensis L. Common or American Elder. (Map 17).

Common southward, occasional northward. Found in pastures,

clearings, roadsides, open bogs and swamps, along streams and

lakes. During extremely dry summer of 1936, we noticed that

it was heavily browsed by cattle wherever accessible. Van Dersal

states that the fresh leaves, berries, flowers and roots yield

cyanogenetic glucosides, but these break up to form harmless

compounds upon cooking. Browsed by whitetailed deer, and fruit

known to have been taken by 43 species of birds, including ruffed

grouse, pheasants, and bobwhite quail (Van Dersal).

S. pubens Michx. S. racemosa of Gray's Manual. Red-berried

elder (Map 18). Distinctly common northward where it is gen¬

erally ignored by collectors. Rare southward and consequently

taken whenever seen. This will account for the numerous sta¬

tions in the south as contrasted to those northward. Less com¬

mon in the central sand plains than S. canadensis . Favors drier

sites than the preceding species. Found in dry oak woods, at the

base of rocky bluffs, on quartzite cliffs, and occasionally along

sandy river bottoms. Flowers and matures fruit earlier than

S. canadensis. Wildlife value not known. Both elderberry species

are drought resistant and will sprout from roots when tops are

killed back by unfavorable conditions or browsing.

Wade, Wade — Flora of Wisconsin. XXVIII.

101

8. Adoxa

A. Moschatellina L. Moschatel. (Map 2, crosses). Has

been collected at three stations in southwestern Wisconsin. In a

letter, Professor Fred K, Butters wrote: “It is fairly common

in the deep valleys on the Minnesota side of the Mississippi from

Cannon Valley (West of Red Wing) southward to Decorah, Iowa.

It also occurs in the vicinity of Duluth and Thompson, Carlton

county.”

We lack information on wildlife uses.

Wildlife Food Habits References

Beal, F. E. L., 1926. Some common birds useful to the farmed. Farmers’

Bulletin No. 630, U. S. Dept, of Agriculture, Washington.

Bump, G. et al. 1937-1937. [Progress reports of the ruffed grouse investi¬

gation. Annual Reports, Conservation Dept. New York State, Albany.

Cottam, Clarence. 1935. Economic ornithology and correlation of labora¬

tory and field methods. Wildlife research and management leaflet

BS-301. Bureau of Biological Survey, Washington, D. C.

Errington, Paul L. 1937. Emergency values of some winted pheasant

foods. Transactions of the Wisconsin Academy, Vol. 30, pp. 57-68.

(See also otder publications by Errington, and Errington and Hamer-

strom.)

Gigstead, Gilbert. 1937. Habits of Wisconsin pheasants. Wilson Bulletin,

Vol. 49, March, pp. 28-34.

Gross, A. 0. 1930. Progress report of the Wisconsin prairie chicken in¬

vestigation. Wisconsin Conservation Commission Bulletin, Madison.

Hawkins, A. S. 1937. Winter feeding at Faville Grove. (Lake Mills,

Wis.). The Journal of Wildlife Management, Vol. 1, Nos. 3-4, pp.

62-69.

Hicks, Lawrence. See various publications on Ohio wild life food habits.

Howard, William J. 1937. Notes on winter foods of Michigan deer. Jour¬

nal of Mammalogy, Vol. 18, No. 1, pp. 77-80.

Kalmbach, E. R. 1934. Field observations in economic ornithology. Wil¬

son Bulletin, XL VI, June, 1934, pp. 73-90.

Leopold, Aldo. 1935. Wildlife research in Wisconsin. Transactions of the

Wisconsin Academy, Vol. XXIX, pp. 203-208.

Pearce, John. 1937. The effect of deer browsing on certain western Adir¬

ondack forest types. Roosevelt Wildlife Bulletin, Vol. 7, No. 1, Syra¬

cuse, N. Y.

Schmidt, F. J. W. 1936. Winter food of the sharp-tailed grouse and pin¬

nated grouse in Wisconsin. Wilson Bulletin, XLVIII, Sept., pp. 181-203.

Siegler, Hilbert R. 1937. Winter rodent damage to game cover. Journal

of Mammalogy, Vol. 18, No. 1, February, pp. 57-61.

Swenk, M. H. 1930. The food habits of the ring-necked pheasant in cen

tral Nebraska. Research Bulletin 50, College of Agric., University of

Nebraska, Lincoln.

Van Dersal, William R. 1936. Handbook of the native woody plants of

the United States. U. S. D. A. Soil Conservation Service, Washington,

D. C.

PRELIMINARY REPORTS ON THE FLORA OF

WISCONSIN. XXIX. ANACARDIACEAE

Norman C. Fassett

Rhus, our only genus of Anacardiaceae, has recently been

monographed by Dr. F, A. Barkley.1 This monograph has here

been followed in its main features, except for the recognition of

the Poison Ivy and Poison Sumach as constituting a separate

genus in Dr. Barkley's paper. The species of Rhus occurring in

Wisconsin may be recognized as follows :

a. Panicles erect, dense; fruit red, densely

pubescent ; plants non-poisonous . . h

b. Leaves pinnate, with 5-many leaflets . .c

c. Rachis of leaves winged . . . 1. R. copallina.

e. Rachis of leaves not winged . . d

d. Twigs and petioles densely velvety . . e

e. Leaflets toothed . 2. R. typhina.

e. Leaflets deeply cut .............. 2a. R. typhina f . dissecta.

d. Twigs and petioles not velvety . ./

/. Twigs with close hairs; fruits with hairs

1 mm. long . . 3. R, pulvinata.

f. Twigs glabrous or with scattered hairs;

fruits with hairs 0.5 mm. or less long . .g

g. Twigs glabrous; fruits with hairs about

0.2 mm. long . . . . . 4. R. glabra.

g. Twigs sparsely hairy; fruits with hairs

about 0.5 mm. long . 4a. R. glabra var. borealis.

b. Leaves 3-foliolate . . h

h. Terminal leaflet broadest at or below

the middle ............................. _ .5. R. aromatica.

h. Terminal leaflet broadest above the

middle . . . . . .... 6. R. trilobata .

a. Panicles drooping, loose and open; fruit white,

glabrous or nearly so; plants poisonous to

the touch . .i

i. Leaflets 3 ................................... 7. R. Toxicodendron.

i. Leaflets many ...................................... 8. R. Vernix.

1. R. copallina L. Dwarf Sumach. (Map 1). In sandy soil

in a limited area in central Wisconsin, and near Green Bay on

both sides of the Oconto-Brown County line. This range recalls

that of Hypericum Kalmianum 2 in being limited by the beds of

1 Ann. Mo. Bot. Card. xxiv. no. 3 : 265-498 (1937).

3 See McLaughlin, Trans. Wis. Acad. xxvi. 282-285 (1931).

103

104

Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts and Letters

* R. pulvinata

+ R. aroniatlca

• R. trilobata

Fassett— Flora of Wisconsin . XXIX. Anacardiaceae 105

glacial lakes ; the stippeled area on the map indicates Lake Wis¬

consin, to the west, and Lake Oshkosh, to the east. Reference to a

map of the whole range of the species* 3 shows the stations in this

state (not indicated on Barkley’s map) to be some 200 miles to

the northwest of any other localities. This isolation is probably to

be explained as isolation and survival during the later stages of

the Pleistocene in the Driftless Area, and subsequent migration

on the shores of early post-glacial lakes Wisconsin and Oshkosh.

2. R. typhina Torner. Staghorn Sumach. (Map 2), large

and small dots. The large dots represent herbarium specimens,

and the small ones show the range as recorded by L. S. Cheney

in 1897 and 1898.4 In habit this varies from a shrub to a small

tree, and the inflorescence is very variable in size, compactness,

and color of fruits, the latter ranging from bright red almost to

black.

2a. R. TYPHINA f . DISSECTA Rehder. R. typhina var. laciniata

Wood. (Map 2, cross). Barkley treats this as a variety, but it

is of sporadic occurrence and so appears better classified as a

form.

8. R. pulvinata Greene. (Map 2, x). Intermediate between

R. typhina and R. glabra , and probably a hybrid between them.

Since Map 2 was engraved, it has been observed at Roxbury and

at Coon Valley, and is probably not infrequent throughout much

of the state.

4. R, glabra L. Smooth Sumach. (Map 3, dots). Abundant

in the southwestern third of the state, and largely replaced north¬

ward by the next.

4a. R. glabra var. borealis Britton. (Map 3, crosses). A

northern variety reported by Barkley from Ontario, northern

Michigan and northern Minnesota. This replaces the smooth

phase of the species in northern Wisconsin, and has also been

collected (since Map 3 was engraved) in Milwaukee County.

5. R. aromatica Ait. (Map 4, cross). This is included in the

R. canadensis of Gray’s Manual, ed. 7. The only collection in

Wisconsin is one by T. J. Hale, labelled “Platte River, 1861”.

•Barkley, lc., p. 318. The apparent isolation about the head of Lake Michigan becomes

less marked when the map in Deam’s Shrubs of Indiana is consulted.

4 See Trans. Wis. Acad. xxv. 177 (1930).

106 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts and Letters

This is about 150 miles north of the nearest known locality in

Iowa.

6. R. TRILOBATA Nutt. (Map 4, dot). This also is included in

the R. canadensis of Gray’s Manual. It was collected in 1936 on

a sandstone hillside near Durward’s Glen, Sauk County, by G. F.

Sieker. Its occurrence here represents a considerable extension

of range eastward from its nearest known stations in east-cen¬

tral Iowa. It is probable that the isolation of this species and

of the last in south central and southwestern Wisconsin is con¬

nected in some way with lack of glaciation in this region.

7. R. Toxicodendron L. Poison Ivy. (Map 5). Throughout

the state, and of course more abundant than is indicated by the

number of collections in herbaria. Variable in habit, although

the individuals in any region tend to be nearly uniform.

8. R. Vernix L. Poison Sumach. (Map 6). In Sphagnum

bogs and at their margins in the southern half of the state.

The ranges here presented are based on material in the

Herbaria of the Milwaukee Public Museum, of Mr. S. C. Wad-

mond, and of the University of Wisconsin.

PRELIMINARY REPORTS OF THE FLORA OF

WISCONSIN. XXX. RHAMNALES

Richard W. Pohl

The specimens upon which this report is based are deposited

in the herbaria of the University of Wisconsin, the Milwaukee

Public Museum, Ripon College, and of Mr. Samuel C. Wadmond,

of Delavan, Wisconsin. The work was done in cooperation with

the Department of Botany of the Milwaukee Public Museum.

The author wishes to acknowledge the loan of specimens by

Dr. N. C. Fassett and Mr. S. C. Wadmond and to thank Dr. E. S.

McDonough for his guidance and encouragement during the

course of the work.

Rhamnaceae — Buckthorn Family

Rhamnus

R. alnifolia L’Her. Alder Buckthorn. (Fig. 1). Swamps and tam¬

arack bogs, mostly in the glaciated area. The two stations in Richland

County in the Driftless Area are in the Hub City and Sextonville bogs.1

R. cathartica L. Common Buckthorn. (Fig. 2). Cultivated and occa¬

sionally escaping into thin woods in the southeastern part of the state.

While this species ordinarily forms an erect shrub, it occasionally becomes

a small tree. One specimen in the Menomonee River Valley at Wauwatosa

resembles a mature apple tree in form, having several trunks which range

from four to six inches in diameter. Increment borings taken in February,

1939, at the three foot level, showed that the trunks were twenty-nine years

old.

R. lanceolata Pursh. Lance-leaved Buckthorn. (Fig. 3). Hillsides

and limestone ledges, southern Grant County.

R. Frangula L. (Fig. 2). Escaping from cultivation in the Menomonee

River Valley, Wauwatosa, and the Township of Bloomfield, Walworth

County.

CEANOTHUS

C. americanus L. New Jersey Tea. (Fig. 4). Common and widely

distributed in open dry places and thin woods, especially in the southern

half of the state. In southeastern Wisconsin, this species is common in

the Kettle Moraine Area.

C. ovatus Desf. Inland Jersey Tea. (Fig. 5). Less common than the

previous species, and more northern in distribution. On dry soil, in the

open or in thin woods, and on the dunes along Lake Michigan.

1 See Hansen: The Tamarack Bogs of the Driftless Area of Wisconsin. Bulletin Public

Museum Milwaukee, 7:246. 1S33.

107

108 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts and Letters

Rhamnus lanceolate

Ceanothus americanus

Ceanothus ovatus

var. pubescens

Pohl — Flora of Wisconsin . XXX. Rhamnales

109

C. ovatus var. jmbescens T. & G. (Fig. 6). Leaves more or less

brownish-pubescent, especially on the undersides. Intergrades with the

typical form and found in similar situations.

ViTACEAE— Grape Family

Vitis

a. Leaves glaucous or reddish tomentose or

webby beneath

b. Leaves and new growth strongly reddish —

tomentose, at least when young . V. aestivalis

b. Leaves and new growth nearly glabrous;

leaves whitened or glaucous beneath . V. aestivalis ,

var, argentifolia

a. Leaves green on both sides, not tomentose or webby.

b. Leaves, petioles, and young canes glabrous

or nearly so at maturity . V. riparia

b. Leaves, petioles, and young canes

permanently pilose . . . . . V. riparia,

var. syrticola

V. aestivalis Michx. Summer Grape. (Fig. 7). Immature leaves and

young growth ferruginous-tomentose, the tomentum largely disappearing

after maturity. Collected in Wisconsin only at Beloit, Rock County, and

Petrifying Springs, Kenosha County. The common form of this species in

the State is the variety argentifolia:

V. aestivalis , var. argentifolia (Munson) Fernald in Rhodora 38:428.

(1936). Silverleaf Grape. (Fig. 7). V. bioolor Auth., V. argentifolia Mun¬

son, V. Leoontiana House. Young growth nearly glabrous, leaves con¬

spicuously whitened or glaucous beneath. Intermediates between typical

V. aestivalis and this variety are frequently found in Wisconsin. It occurs

in the southern and western counties, north to Trow, Clark County, in the

Black River drainage; Devil’s Lake, and Ripon. Most of the stations for

this variety lie in the drainage basins of rivers tributary to the Mississippi

(Black, Wisconsin, Sugar, Rock, and Des Plaines). On hillsides and in

sheltered valleys, as at Lake Geneva and Devil’s Lake, on a variety of soils

ranging in pH from 4 to 7. Rare and of sporadic occurrence except in the

extreme southwestern part of the State.

The silverleaf grape has in the past been regarded as a distinct species.

Fernald1 in 1936 reduced it to the status of a variety of V. aestivalis. Be¬

cause of the presence in Wisconsin of numerous intermediates between

these two and the occurrence of wide variation among individuals in iso¬

lated colonies (such as that located in sec. 25, Township of Erin, Washing¬

ton County), Fernald’s disposition of this plant has seemed more satis¬

factory and has been accepted in the present paper.

V. cinerea Engelm. This species has been reported once from Wisconsin,

the report being based upon a specimen in the Herbarium of the University

of Wisconsin, collected by J. J. Davis at Wyalusing, June 12, 1913. The

specimen, originally determined as V. bicolor, is a vine tip with three leaves

and several young inflorescences. The sheet bears the notation by L. H.

Bailey, “V. cinerea Engelm. L.H.B. 1934”. The specimen lacks the

marked grayish tomentum which is characteristic of young growths of

V. cinerea. Such slight tomentum which remains on the unexpended leaves^

and axis of the inflorescence is pinkish, not gray. In the hope of finding’

1 Fernald, M. L.: Plants from the Outer Coastal Plain of Virginia. Rhodora 38:428 (1936).

var. argentifolia

Vitis riparia

Parthenoc issue vitacea

forma dubia

X Parthenoc issus quinquefolia

forma hirsuta

Pohl — Flora of Wisconsin . XXX. Rhamnales 111

this species in the State, the author surveyed the Wyalusing area in 1935.

V. aestivalis var. argentifolia was found growing abundantly and to great

size on wooded hills near Wyalusing, but V. diner ea could not be found. In

view of the prevalence of V. aestivalis var. argentifolia in this area, it

seems probable that the Davis specimen represents an atypical form of that

variety.

V. riparia Michx. Frost Grape. (Fig. 8). V. vulpina L. Man. Ed. 7.

Vigorous vine, common in thickets, along fence rows, and in woods, espe¬

cially in the southern half of the State.

V. riparia Michx., var. syrticola (Fernald and Wiegand) Fernald in

Rhodora 41:431 (1939). Dune Grape. (Fig. 9). Petioles, undersides of

leaves, and young canes pilose. Brushland and dry, open situations. Occa¬

sional, with type.

Parthenocissus

a. Inflorescence regularly forking, its main branches equal or nearly so;

tendrils without well developed adhesive disks.

b. Plant nearly glabrous . . . P. vitacea

b. At least the young parts somewhat pubescent . P. vitacea ,

forma dubia

a. Inflorescence paniculate, not regularly forking; tendrils often with

well developed adhesive disks.

b. Plant nearly glabrous . P. quinque folia

b. At least the young parts pubescent; roots often developed at the

nodes . . . . . P. quinque folia,

forma hirsuta

P. vitacea (Knerr) Hitch. Virginia Creeper. (Fig. 10). Psedera vitacea

(Knerr) Greene, Parthenocissus quinque folia var. vitacea (Knerr) Bailey.

Throughout the state, common southward.

P. vitacea, forma dubia (Rehder) Fernald in Rhodora 41:430. (1939).

(Fig. 11). Occasional, often scarcely distinguishable from the type.

P. quinquefolia (L.) Planch. (Fig. 12). Psedera quinquefolia (L.)

Greene. Collected twice, along roadsides in Wood and Clark Counties,

where it probably was an escape. Common in cultivation.

P. quinquefolia , forma hirsuta (Donn) Fernald, in Rhodora 41:429.

(1939). (Fig. 12). Collected once in Wisconsin, at Werley, Grant County.

A BUTTERFLY MIGRATION IN MEXICO

Arthur H. Moeck

On our return trip from Mexico City, in the summer of 1937,

our party passed through a migration of butterflies, — or to be

exact, — through two migrations, one of Libythea bachmani

KirtL, and the other of Catopsilia argante F. I have been an

amateur collector for perhaps ten years, and therefore our sum¬

mer vacation trips have been largely in the nature of collecting

escapades as well as sight-seeing tours. The immense migration

was, of course, a new experience for us, but being from way up

in Wisconsin, such a migration in the semi-desert regions of

Mexico left us with the feeling that we were seeing something

new to us, but something undoubtedly common and well under¬

stood in the region, — much as a distant tourist might watch

with curiosity the unloading of tropical bananas on the wharves

of say New Orleans.

Great was my surprise upon my return home to find that

literature on the subject of butterfly migrations is rather scarce,

that such information as exists is quite often pieced together

from mere fragments of observation, and that the naturalists and

authors involved seem to accept this general field of information

as still largely uncharted from a scientist's point of view. Furth¬

ermore, the field often appears to be filled with numerous con¬

flicting, or at least overlapping, explanations, opinions and hypo¬

theses as to why, from whence, and whither these gay little crea¬

tures fly. Often such an article ends with an appeal to record

or report such observations as have been made, in order that

such record may, in turn become one source of information out

of many from which a fuller, more complete picture may event¬

ually be built. It is not with the feeling that I am an authority

on the subject that I offer my notations, for that I by no means

am. It is rather with the hope that our modest observations, care¬

fully reported, may prove of value as a link in a picture already

partially observed and studied elsewhere, that I herewith present

our experiences, especially as they appear in the light of the

113

114 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts and Letters

multitude of explanations and suggestions offered by the various

observers and students of the phenomenon of butterfly migra¬

tions.

We were traveling leisurely to the northward along the Pan-

American Highway, with our car and house-trailer, stopping

occasionally to do a bit of roadside collecting. About noon, on

August 1, perhaps 75 miles south of Victoria, Tamaulipas, we

first noticed a heavy flight of the Snout Butterfly, Libythea

bachmani Kirtl., headed towards the southeast. This flow lasted

quite heavily till early evening, when we reached Victoria. Hav¬

ing settled ourselves for the night, we decided to spend several

minutes, just about sundown, to collect a few more of the little

migrants. It was then that we first noticed the Large Orange

Sulphurs, Catopsilia argante F., flitting in the same direction in

larger and larger numbers.

When morning came we found that the bachmani migrations

had largely been pushed out of the picture by the immense

swarms of argante . Several hours during the day of August 2

were spent collecting specimens in nearby fields, in and about

Victoria. Early on August 3 we left northward towards Mont¬

errey. We encountered the argante in huge numbers until about

Linares, Nuevo Leon, a distance of nearly one hundred miles

north of Victoria. From there on a few stragglers were still to

be seen, but soon all evidence of a migration began to disappear.

Throughout, the migrations were in a southeasterly direction,

apparently toward the Gulf of Mexico. Dr. Comstock, in his

“Butterflies of California,” tends to imply that in such migra¬

tions butterflies seem to prefer to fly against the wind rather

than with it, as this appears easier for the insect. He says that

only in storms or severe winds do they tend to go with the cur¬

rent.3 It is of interest here that over our entire migration route,

a distance of 150 to 175 miles, both species were soaring with

the wind, a breeze at times hardly noticeable and at other times

quite evident. In this respect we find reference to a L. bachmani

Kirtl. migration in Texas, in 1894, apparently the first bachmani

migration recorded, as going eastward with the wind,8 and an¬

other in the same state in 1916, moving northward, borne by a

mild south breeze.4 Austin H. Clark, United States National Mu¬

seum, refers to different migrations, one Danaus plexippus and

the other Catopsilia eubule, going in opposite directions across

Moeck — A Butterfly Migration in Mexico 115

the same field simultaneously.1 C. B. Williams, Chief Entomolo¬

gist of Rothamsted Experimental Station, Harpenden, England,

points out that an analysis of several hundred records leaves the

“with and against the wind” score about 50-50, 9 making one

wonder whether the wind is a vital factor at all.

That the C. argante especially were soaring with the breeze

rather than flying entirely on their own strength, proved particu¬

larly exasperating at first. Swinging at them head on with the

net, had about the same degree of success as trying to grab a

floating dandelion down with the hand. Invariably the current

created by the net would cause the orange beauty to float side-

wise, over, or under. Finally we discovered that bringing the net

up behind the insect proved more practical.

Some observers have ventured the suggestion that the butter¬

fly migrant tends primarily to fly towards the sun. That a south¬

erly direction seems common in our hemisphere, may appear

true. In the morning the southeasterly route we observed would

coincide with this theory, but no shift of direction was observed

as the sun worked its way from southeast to southwest. Also,

our first migrating C. argante F. were met at about sundown,

moving southeastward, with the sun directly on the western hori¬

zon,— large, clear, bright, and certainly attractive.

The primary cause of such migrations as have been dis¬

cussed, has created quite a bit of observation and speculation.

Food shortage is often mentioned as a basic reason. Dr. Com¬

stock points out that the Painted Lady, Vanessa cardui L., and

the California Tortoise-shell, Vanessa californica Boisd., find

migration a necessity when the food source becomes largely used

up.3 On the other hand, George W. Knight of San Marcos, Texas,

reported the Snout Butterfly in that state moving over and away

from a region where the Hackberry ( Celtis occidentalis) , the

main food plant known to the species, was plentiful in the areas

involved.1 Clark suggests that among the Pierids migration ap¬

pears often as the result of an overcrowding condition, involving

in the main, only males. It is the surplus of young males, he in¬

dicates, escaping the persecution of the older males, which cre¬

ates the migration picture, in some instances a few of the males

later returning, but perhaps more often causing them to just

wander on and on, never to return. He refers to migration as

merely the “end product of the natural process of the elimination

116 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts and Letters

of surplus males”.1 That such an explanation would be a phase

of the general 4 'population pressure theory” often advanced,5

would appear quite evident.

Such a development as Clark suggests would be most natural

when food or breeding conditions have been rather favorable for

several seasons, it might seem. Another combination here pre¬

sents itself. Knight relates that in the Texas Snout migration

of 1894, 8 there had been a severe drought throughout June and

July, followed by several weeks of heavy, warm rains in August,

resulting in a more or less simultaneous issuing of a large num¬

ber of chrysalids, — which would perhaps normally have appeared

over a period of say two or three months. The weather condi¬

tions, therefore, in this instance, appeared to have been the

primary migration causing factor. A similar reference to cli¬

matic conditions has been mentioned in the case of a Monarch

migration in our eastern states.1 It might here be noted again

that a series of favorable seasons, a general food shortage, or a

large, simultaneous emergence due to climatic changes, are in

reality only relative angles of the whole "population pressure”

approach.

What then, in the view of the above mentioned explanations,

were the facts in our observations? Two facts were worthy of

attention in this respect. First, — of perhaps 1000 Catopsilia

argante F. captured, all but perhaps 50 at the most were males.

Second, — while in the average day's collecting else\vhere in

Mexico perhaps 50 per cent of the specimens caught were in

good or excellent condition, nearly all of the argante in this mi¬

gratory flight appeared perfect. The ratio of good specimens

among this same species caught previous to the migration, as

well as several days later, was decidedly poorer. The theory

of young, healthy males "leaving home” would thus appear

plausible. On the other hand, I agree with Mr. Williams,9 that

there was little evidence of "starvation” present in these un¬

marred, apparently robust chaps.

As regards the weather conditions involved, I report the fol¬

lowing facts: Texas, to the northward, had been experiencing

somewhat of a dry spell in places as we passed through to the

south during the first week in July. The last nine days of the

same month we spent at Tamazunchale, San Luis Potosi, about

200 miles south of Victoria. This spot is down in a rich river

Moeck — A Butterfly Migration in Mexico

117

valley of about 500 feet elevation, just at the foot of the 7000

foot climb towards Mexico City. Here, during the so-called tropi¬

cal rainy season, we had not been interrupted once in nine days

of collecting, by a shower worthy of the name. So severe and un¬

expected was the drought that the Mexican farmers seriously

feared for their crops on the hillsides. I know not what were

the weather conditions in the region from whence these Large

Orange Sulphurs came, nor even where the region was, except

that it was probably to the northwest of Victoria. The preceding

drought conditions in the general area, however, seem significant.

There were many variations among the C. argante F. taken.

Most of them were of the variety Seitz calles Catopsilia argante

agarithe Boisd.,7 usually having heavier markings underneath

than does the typical C. argante F. Perhaps 25 of the total I

believed to be Catopsilia argante miniscula Btlr., a dwarfed form,

which Seitz gives as being found near Havana, Cuba. The

female, as is common among Pierids , is dimorphic, with the yel¬

low and the albino variety. All of these, both as to sex and

variations, were on the trail together. One fact, however, re¬

mains to me as very significant. The big, healthy, slender males

led all the others. Practically all the females with their rela¬

tively heavier bodies, and all the dwarfed varieties of either sex,

we found scurrying on behind, during the latter part of the sec¬

ond day.

The ratio of 50 females out of perhaps 1000 caught also

brings up another point of interest. That this ratio, even, may

be abnormally large is further shown plausible by the fact that

of the 50 females, not over 8 or 10 at the most were of the yellow

variety, the rest being albinos. When the migration turned out

to be a male affair in the main, we naturally tended to spot fe¬

males for our catch. The yellow females were difficult to rec¬

ognize ahead of time, hence their ratio to the males may prove

more true to facts. The albinos, of course, could be recognized,

and it is natural that after picking off males for nearly two days,

the net might more readily slip in the direction of the white on-

comer.

Another interesting angle may here be raised. This prepon¬

derance of males, and especially the fact that they led the proces¬

sion, would not coincide, in this instance at least, with the sug-

118 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts and Letters

gestion offered by a few authors that some “nuptial flight” factor

might be involved in those periodic migrations among lepidop-

tera.

As we moved northward among the floating C. argantes,

groups and clusters could be seen about roadside damp spots or

moist stones. This phenomenon increased as we progressed, be¬

ing especially prevalent along the streams we crossed. It seemed

to reach its climax along the Rio Pilon, between Hidalgo, Tamau-

lipas, and Linares, Nuevo Leon. We stopped for an hour or so

to look on. Next to the water’s edge were huge clusters, areas

as large as a table top, with just one compact mass of orange

butterflies side by side, usually with wings folded. Such a

group could easily have contained several thousand. To get a

hundred specimens with a single swing of the net was simple,

but to get five out unbroken was another matter. We tried to

make estimates of how many we were seeing. To guess at the

number of clusters was almost futile, for they seemed to merge

one into another as far as the eye could see up or down stream.

Disturbing a cluster created a huge, golden cloud. It seems quite

possible that the area within view may have contained a million

specimens.

I refer to this river incident since Williams,9 Clark,1 Seitz,7

Holland6 and others occasionally make reference to the gath¬

ering of Pierids about damp spots, and especially as a possible

evidence of an excess number of individuals in the area involved.

It may be noted also that the vast majority about the puddle

spots were male C. argante F. and varieties thereof. There were

a few females, some Terias lisa Bdv. & Lee., Catopsilia eubule L.,

Terias mexicana Bdv., and one or two stray, broken swallowtails.

As regards the Libythea bachmani Kirtl., which preceded the

flood of C. argante F., they were not in as excellent condition as

were the latter, fully one half to two-thirds being battered or

partially faded. It is interesting that one observer refers to a

similar migration of Snout Bjutterflies in Texas, where the in¬

sects soared up as high as the eye could see, literally by the

millions, many having evidently completed their alloted span of

life and dropping from the air in large numbers.1 Our im¬

pression however was that while the Large Orange Sulphur was

soaring high, the Snout seemed to be flying low and with ap¬

parent force. The Sulphur seldom struck an object, as the car,

Moeck — A Butterfly Migration in Mexico

119

the trailer or a building,— rather gracefully floating around it.

The Snout, however, seemed to hit the car and the windshield

head on, much as a swarm of locusts or beetles might. Their ap¬

parent swifter and lower flight than that of C. argante may,

however, be partly an optical illusion, for while the latter with

its large, bright yellow, slowly moving wings was obvious to the

eye a block or more distant and perhaps several hundred feet

up, the smaller Snout with its somber, grey-tan color and rapidly

moving wings was often unnoticed until it dashed by within

the range of perhaps 20 to 30 feet. Is it possible that the Snout

migration preceding that of the larger number of Large Orange

Sulphurs may be comparable to the movements of grasshoppers

before a mower? It was noticeable that the tail end of the one

migration merged into the beginning of the other.

Another interesting fact is that apparently no migration took

place at night. After sundown the procession seemed to halt for

the day. We left Victoria early on August 3, in order to get in

a full day of observation. We had been on the road perhaps an

hour or two, with little evidence of a migration, and we began

to think it was over so far as we were concerned. About eight

o'clock in the morning, however, the air began to fill up again,

and soon the movement was in as full swing as during the pre¬

vious two days. Where they had settled we do not know, for

thinking the migration over, we had failed to look about. They

were not, as we remember, very evident on the sagebrush-like

desert growths about us before they again took to the air. It

was perhaps noon or shortly after, of this third day when we

ran into the masses along the Rio Pilon.

I have been asked how rapidly the C. argante were flying.

My estimate would be perhaps 10 to 15 miles per hour. Their

speed was such, and their direction so consistent, that once one

had missed a swing of the net, it was useless to pursue that par¬

ticular insect any further.

And now finally a few remarks as to the number of butterflies

and the area involved. I shall limit myself to C. argante F. in this

case. They were flying in a fairly continuous stream for two

days of about ten hours each. At any given time there were per¬

haps four or five specimens within the range of the swing of

one's net. We estimated that an area as large as a good sized

room, 25' x 25' x 10', would contain at least 25 specimens, often

120 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts and Letters

many more. As to height, they seemed to soar as high as the

eye could see the little yellow specks, perhaps a distance of sev¬

eral hundred feet, certainly up to one hundred feet in height,

and just as thickly at times as near the ground.

We drove diagonally through the migration, in the main to

the northward, the northwest-southeast stream crossing our

path at an angle of about 45 degrees. Our course, from the point

where we entered the stream to the point where we left it, was

about 100 miles. Sketching these facts on a map before me, I

would deduct that the area wherein we found ourselves within

the migration stream was about 65 miles across, and about 65

miles long. Since 48 hours had elapsed from our time of entry

to our time of exit, involving about twenty hours of flying time

for the insects, we must assume some 20 x 10 (miles per hour) ,

or 200 flying miles of progress in the meantime. Even assum¬

ing that we had entered the beginning of the migration in the

evening of August 1, rather than merely cutting into it, and that

we had witnessed the end on August 3, instead of merely having

gone through it (both assumptions), the migration area would

still involve a territory 65 miles wide by perhaps 250 miles long.

That these figures are within the realm of other recorded

migrations is shown by Clark’s comment that Ellzey in 1888, in

observing a Monarch migration says, “There were an innumer¬

able multitude of them at all heights from say 100 feet to a height

beyond the range of vision except by the aid of a glass.” Again

he quotes Hamilton of New Jersey in 1885, as describing an as¬

semblage for migration with, “ ‘Millions’ is but feebly expressive,

‘Miles of them’ is no exaggeration.” In another instance he tells

us that McGregor in 1924, refers to a migration as, “at least 40

miles wide and . . . passing for three days at a speed of about

six miles an hour.”9 Knight, in Texas, refers to a migration as

“about 100 miles square.”8 Perhaps the most breath taking

description of a migration of butterflies is that of Cureau, in

his “Savage Man in Central Africa”, where he tells us, “I have

seen clouds of butterflies, all of the same species, passing over a

district (in the Congo) for three months at a time, like flakes of

red snow, and in such close array that one could destroy dozens

of them by throwing one’s hat on the ground.”4

I come now to figures my knowledge of mathematics and my

pencil have produced, but which I hesitate to place on paper. If

Moeck — A Butterfly Migration in Mexico 121

we take our estimate that the space of air equal to a good sized

room (25 x25 x10 ) contained at least 25 specimens, and if we

assume that the flight took place mainly within 25 feet of the

ground (which I feel is too conservative), how many specimens

would an area 65 miles by 250 miles contain? I can hardly ac¬

cept the results myself, but we get the astounding figure of over

45 billion specimens.

The immensity of the mass of insects is further indicated by

the numerous complaints which tourists who had come from the

northward made at Tamazunchale the night before our departure

(July 31), telling of motor troubles due to clogged radiators, a

serious problem, with the temperature hanging around 100 de¬

grees Fahrenheit mark. Upon our arrival at Monterrey on Au¬

gust 3, we heard north bound tourists of a few days previous tell

of similar radiator difficulties due to “millions of pests”. A

number of filling station attendants enroute, we were told, had

devised an apparatus whereby with a sort of hose and bellows

they could “blow out” the radiators from within, for their cus¬

tomers. And yet, each of these complaints of fellow tourists, both

of the southbound and of the northbound, referred to the diffi¬

culty as having occurred previous to our arrival in the area, in¬

dicating that possibly the Libythea bachmani Kirtl. flood may

have been more extensive than we thought it to have been. Dead,

but apparently good specimens on and along the concrete high¬

way, were very numerous. As one picked them up, they proved

to be almost baked specimens dropped from some car radiator,

far too brittle for use.

The experience was certainly a novel one for us. At the

height of our collecting we had worked out quite a technique of

having Mrs. Moeck just keep the cyanide jar “ready for action”,

while Miss Alice Hasak (a teacher at Merrill, Wisconsin) and

I pulled them out of the air. Often we took time out, especially

when the two one-quart and the one gallon cyanide jars were

filled. We had to be sure the insects were dead, and they had to

be put into envelopes. In the midst of the migration our 4000

supply of envelopes gave out, but as luck would have it, a Vic¬

toria druggist had an extra 2000 of some Mexican make on hand.

We traveled to Mexico, hoping to collect a few butterflies on

the way, and “we saw a migration.”

122 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts and Letters

References

1. Clark, Austin II.; The Butterflies of the District of Columbia and

Vicinity; Smithsonian Institution, U. S. Nat. Museum, Bulletin 157,

Washington, D. C., 1932.

2. Clark, Austin H.; Who’s Who Among the Butterflies; National Geo¬

graphic Magazine, Washington, D. C., May, 1936.

3. Comstock, Dr. John Adams; Butterflies of California; Los Angeles,

California, 1927.

4. Entomological News, and Proceedings of the Entomological Section of

the Academy of Natural Sciences, of Philadelphia; Vol. XXVIII,

No. 8, October, 1917.

5. Hewes, Laurence Ilsley ; Butterflies — Try and Get Them; National

Geographic Magazine, Washington, D. C., May, 1936.

6. Holland, W. J.; The Butterfly Book; Garden City, New York, 1931.

7. Seitz, Dr. Adalbert; The Macrolepidoptera of the World; Vol. 5,

Stuttgart, 1924.

8. United States Dept, of Agriculture, Division of Entomology; Insect

Life; Vol. VII, Washington, D. C., 1895.

9. Williams, C. B.; Butterfly Travelers; National Geographic Magazine,

Washington, D. C., 1937.

WHAT IS THE RED SQUIRREL?

H. W. Mossman

Department of Anatomy

University of Wisconsin

In the course of some studies on the male and female repro¬

ductive tracts of our native squirrels (Mossman, Lawlah and

Bradley, 1932) it became apparent that the red squirrel, Sciurus

hudsonicus Erxleben, is not properly a member of the genus

Sciurus, perhaps not even of the family Sciuridae. Its reproduc¬

tive tract, either male or female, is much less like that of a

typical member of the genus such as the gray squirrel, Sciurus

carolinensis Gmelin, than are the tracts of such genera as

Glaucomys (flying squirrel) , Tamias (chipmunk), Eutamias

(western chipmunk), Callospermophilus (rock squirrel), Am¬

mo spermophilus (antelope chipmunk), Marmota (wood-chuck),

Citellus (spermophile), Sciurus vulgaris L. (common European

squirrel), Petaurista petaurista (the giant Malasian flying squir¬

rel), and the African genus, Heliosciurus. I have examined very

carefully all the native genera mentioned and also a specimen of

Heliosciurus kindly given to me by Professor E. T. Engle.

Sciurus vulgaris has been very carefully described by Tullberg

(1899) and especially well by Krolling (1921). The male tract

of Petaurista petaurista (Pallas) ( Pteromys niiidus, Desm.)

was described rather superficially by Oudemans (1892). All of

these are fundamentally similar to our gray squirrel and exhibit

the characteristics listed below.

The reproductive tracts of the male Sciuridae mentioned

above are typified by the following features : (1) Seminal vesicles

are slightly branched tubular glands varying in size from very

small ones in the gray squirrel to very large ones in the

spermophile. (2) Prostates are compact tubular glands moder¬

ately large in all species and opening by a single pair of ducts,

either in common with the vasa deferentia and seminal vesicles

as in the gray squirrel and chipmunk, with the vasa deferentia

alone as in the flying squirrel, or independently as in the spermo-

128

124 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts and Letters

phile. (Ducts of Marmota, Callospermophilus, Ammospermo-

philus, Eutamias, Petaurista, and Heliosciurus have not been

studied.) (3) Muscular urethra long, and in some characterized

by regularly arranged value-like folds of its epithelium. (4)

Penile urethra with usually no para-urethral glands and no large

diverticula or true urethral sinuses. (No information on Petaur¬

ista.) (5) Cowper’s glands are large and conspicuous compound

tubular organs each opening by a very broad duct which makes

an almost or altogether complete spiral turn before entering the

bulb of the penis. (6) A marked glandular enlargement of

Cowper’s ducts in the bulb results in the formation of a bulbar

gland distinct in the nature of its epithelium from the Cowper’s

glands themselves. This is least developed in Tamias and best

developed in Citellus where it is a cylindrical body with rounded

ends, placed transversely in the bulb and measuring as much as

20 x 10 mm. in the rutting season. (7) The two enlarged and

modified Cowper’s ducts join with one another in the body of

the bulbar gland. From this common chamber of the gland a

long glandular common duct, the penile duct, drains into the

ventral side of the urethra near the distal end of the penis, either

distal or proximal to its ventral flexure, depending upon the spe¬

cies. (8) The penis is large, ends in an asymmetrical glans, and

always possesses an os penis which is often of very elaborate

form.

The fundamental divergences from this in the male red squir¬

rel are: (1) Cowper’s glands are minute and entirely enclosed

within the sheath of the corpus spongiosum of the bulb, thus

being practically impossible to demonstrate by gross dissection.

(2) There is no bulbar gland. (3) Cowper’s ducts join and drain

into the ventral side of the urethra in the bulb by a non-glandular

common duct not more than 1 or 2 mm. in length. (4) The bulb

is occupied by a large true urethral sinus or diverticulum lined

by stratified epithelium. Alongside of it lie the minute Cowper’s

glands. (5) The penis is very long and ends in a symmetrical

filiform tip containing no os penis or suggestion of one. The fact

of the complete absence of the os has been determined by serial

sections.

The Sciurid female genital tract is much like that of rodents

in general, the uterus being either duplex or bipartite (long

horned bicornate), depending on the species. The uterus is of

M os smart — What is a Red Squirrel ?

125

the duplex type, that is each horn has its own cervix in the

spermophile, woodchuck, and chipmunk. In the chipmunk the

two cervical canals run to near the tip of a slender pointed cer¬

vix, but open separately. In the spermophile and woodchuck the

vaginal openings of the cervical canals are directed somewhat

laterally by a rather heavy and protruding intermediate parti¬

tion which supports the medial tips of the openings. In the fly¬

ing squirrel the cervical canals seem to be separate practically to

the tip of the rather broad folded cervix, but, so far as can be

determined by dissection under a binocular, they open together,

making the uterus a bipartite instead of a duplex type. In the

fox and gray squirrels the uterine canals (probably actually the

cervical portions) unite some distance from the external os mak¬

ing their uteri distinctly bipartite. The uteri are of moderate

length, being longer in the spermophile than in the gray squirrel,

as would be expected from the fact that the spermophile averages

about eight young to a litter whereas the squirrel probably aver¬

ages not more than three or four. The vagina is straight and

also of moderate length. It increases in size, particularly in

breadth and especially at the cephalic end, at the estrus period.

The red squirrel uterus is distinctly of the duplex type, in¬

stead of bipartite like that of the gray and fox squirrel. Yet

the most remarkable difference between this species and the

gray and fox squirrel is that its vagina is coiled. In an immature

female, or one which is sexually inactive, it takes close examin¬

ation to notice anything unusual ; but in a pregnant animal, and

especially in a female that is in heat, the vagina presents a strik¬

ing picture. There is relatively moderate swelling of the vulva

during estrus, a phenomenon which is marked in the female gray

and fox squirrel. When one opens the abdomen, however, he is

astounded to find the uterine end of the vagina projecting out

of the pelvis and extending cephalically often to the level of the

kidneys. This is well cephalic to the ovaries, so that the uteri

extend from the vagina laterally and caudally to the oviducts.

Upon closer examination the vagina is seen to consist of a coiled

and zig-zag tube bound and ensheathed in a thin transparent

coat of smooth muscle and peritoneum. The coiling is mostly

confined to the true vaginal portion, that is the part internal to

the opening of the urethra. The outer portion or urogenital sinus

is only slightly enlarged during heat. In a pregnant animal the

126 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts and Letters

vagina is still much enlarged, but is more flaccid. Apparently the

hypertrophied fibro-muscular wall is undergoing involution at

this time in a manner resulting in enlargement of the vaginal

canal. In sexually inactive or young females the vagina appears

superficially like that of any other rodent of equal size might,

measuring about 30 mm. in length by 2 mm. in width in contrast

to 55 x 12 mm. in an animal in heat. However, close examination

of the inactive vagina reveals its coiled nature. Apparently the

main change at estrus is the hypertrophy of an already coiled

structure.

The adaptation of the two sexes to one another is obvious in

the long thread-like penis of the male which in the non-erected

state in a dead animal measures about 55 mm. in length, whereas

the vaginal tube when uncoiled by cutting the ensheathing layer

of muscle measures at least 100 mm. from vulva to cervices. The

penis of the largest gray squirrel is only about 70 mm. in length

and the vagina of the female in heat about 30 mm. in length by

10 mm. in width. It must be kept in mind that all these measure¬

ments have been made after fixation of the organ, and so, be¬

cause of shrinkage, are less than the fresh specimen would have

shown. The vagina of the female gray seems relatively short,

some of this is due to its heavy muscular wall which undoubtedly

undergoes a great amount of fixation shrinkage.

Some of these peculiarities of the red squirrel have been

known for a long time. Tullberg (1899) and Pocock (1923)

noticed that the glans penis of the red squirrel was symmetrical

and contained no os penis. Pocock on this basis placed the red

squirrel provisionally in a separate sub-family, Tamiasciurinae,

and raised the subgenus Tamiasciurus Trouessart to generic

rank. He did not know of the absence of the typical Cowper’s

glands, bulbar gland and penile duct ; nor of the presence of the

sinus urethrae bulbi. Neither did he observe that the red squir¬

rel’s uterus is duplex while that of Sciurus is bipartite, or that

the former’s vagina is coiled while that of Sciurus is straight.

Howell (1938) recognizes the genus Tamiasciurus.

In spite of these marked divergences in anatomy, the rela¬

tionship of the red squirrel to the Sciuridae as a whole is indi¬

cated by the development of its fetal membranes (Mossman

1937). In fact, so far as its membranes are known, they are

nearer to those of Sciurus than to any other genus. This fact il-

Mossmcm — What is a Red Squirrel ?

127

lustrates the conservative nature of the fetal membranes in gen¬

eral. Apparently the male and female genital tracts are more

subject to modification in the course of evolution than are the

accessory fetal structures.

On the basis of both the male and the female reproductive

tracts of the red squirrel it seems that its removal from the

genus Sciurus is justified and also that it should be placed at least

in a separate sub-family, both of which Pocock has done on the

basis of the glans and os penis alone. He has used the generic

name Tamiasciurus and has placed it in a separate subfamily,

Tamias ciurinae . The details of the reclassification of this animal

will have to be worked out by taxonomists who are familiar with

the other criteria and with the rules of taxonomy. For a discus¬

sion of osteology, dentition, and so forth see Allen (1898) and

Howell (1938). For a detailed description of the male genital

tracts see Mossman, Lawlah and Bradley (1932).

It would be interesting to know how the interrelations of the

whole sciurid group would line up on the basis of anatomy of

the reproductive tracts. I have recently examined males and

females of Sciurus fremonti and find them exactly like the red

squirrel. S. douglasi undoubtedly would fall into the red squirrel

group. In the light of the facts presented here it seems that a

survey of the reproductive tracts of the Sciuridae is necessary

for their proper classification. Whether intergrading forms are

existent, and where, will also be of great interest from the evo¬

lutionary stand-point and also from the point of view of animal

distribution. Perhaps in the Tamiasciurinae we have a group

which has at some period been isolated from other members of

the family and, after diverging from the type, may have again

been freed to extend its range into territories occupied by the

others.

128 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts and Letters

Key to (Plates (Figures 2 to 10)

(So far as possible to BNA has been used and the abbreviations correlated

with it.)

c., cervices

g.a., glandulae anales

g.p., glandula prostatica

g.s,, gestation sac

m.b-c., musculus bulbo-cavernosus

m.i-c., musculus ischio-cavernosus

o. , oviduct

p. , penis

r., ren

s.u., sinus urogenitalis or urinary portion of the vagina

t., testis

u. c., uterine cornu

u. m., urethra muliebris or female urethra

u.,p.m., urethra, pars muscularis

ut., uterus

v. ,ce., vagina, cephalic end

v. s., vesicula seminalis

v.u., vesica urinaria

Plate I

Figure 2. Ventral view of the male reproductive apparatus of the red

squirrel in situ. Full functional activity. ( Slightly retouched). X 1

Figure 3. Ventral view of the female genital tract of the red squirrel

in situ showing the position of the cervical end of the vagina when en¬

larged during the estrus period. This specimen was photographed before

fixation about eight hours after death. 0., indicates the region of the ovary

and oviduct which is well caudal to the cephalic end of the vagina. The

right ovary and oviduct with most of the right uterine horn were removed

for fixation at the time the animal was shot. (Slightly retouched). X 1

Mossman — What is a Red Squirrel ?

129

130 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts and Letters

Plate II

Figures 4, 5 and 6. A series of typical sciurid female genital tracts,

in this case the spermophile ( Citellus 18-lineatus) , showing in figure 4 the

tract of a sexually inactive adult female, in 5 that of an animal in estrus

with the vagina distended by the vaginal plug, and in 6 a pregnant uterus.

Ventral views. X 0.7.

Figures 7, 8 and 9. A parallel series of female genital tracts of the

red squirrel, showing the enormous enlargement of the coiled vagina during

estrus and pregnancy. Figure 7 inactive adult, 8 estrus, and 9 pregnant.

Dorsal views. X 1.

Figure, 10. The vagina of a red squirrel with the uterine horns cut

off and the upper vagina opened to show the two cervices. This specimen

was partly uncoiled to show more distinctly the great length of the vagina

in this species. Dorsal view. X 1.

Mossman — What is a Red Squirrel ?

131

132 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts and Letters

i ' '

Figure 1. Semidiagrammatic sketch of the genital tracts of (a) the

male gray squirrel, Sciurus caroliniensis, and (b) the male red squirrel,

Tamiasciurus hudsonicus, as seen from the left after cutting away the left

leg, left pelvic and abdominal wall, left half of the vertebral column and

back muscles, and all the anterior part of the body with all the alimentary

tract except the rectum. Notice the absence of macroscopically visible

Cowper’s glands and the presence of large anal glands in the red squirrel.

b. bulb, c.pe. crus penis, d.d. ductus deferens, d.g.b-u. ductus glandulae

bulbo-urethralis, g. glans penis, g.a. glandulae anales, g.b-u. glandula bulbo-

urethralis, g.p. glandula prostatica, p. penis, re. rectum, s.p. symphysis

pubis, t. testis, u., p.m. urethra, pars muscularis, u., p.p. urethra pars pros¬

tatica, v.s. vesicula seminalis, v.u. vesica urinaria.

Mossman — What is a Red Squirrel ?

183

134 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts and Letters

Bibliography

Ailen, J. A. 1898. Revision of the Chickarees, or North American Red

Squirrels (Subgenus Tamiasciurus). Bull. Am. Mus. Nat. Hist.,

Vol. 10, Art. 14. pp. 249-298.

Anthony, H. E. 1928. Field-book of North American Mammals. New

York and London. Putnam's.

Disselhorst, R. 1904. Ausfiihrapparat und Anhangsdriisen der mannlichen

Geschlechtsorgane. Oppel’s Lehrbuch d. vergleich. mikrosk. Anat.

Bd. 4. Jena. Fischer.

Howell, Arthur H. 1938. Revision of the North American ground squir¬

rels, with a classification of North American Sciuridae. North Ameri¬

can Fauna. No. 56, U. S. Dept. Agric., Wash., D. C.

Jordan, D. S. 1929. Manual of the vertebrate animals of the northeastern

U. S., inclusive of marine species. 13 ed. Yonkers-on-Hudson.

Krolling, Otto. 1921. Die akzessorischen Geschlechtsdriisen und mann¬

lichen Kopulationsorgane von Sciurus vulgaris. Zeitschr. f. Anat. u.

Entwick. 61, 402-438.

Mossman, H. W., J. W. Lawlah and J. A. Bradley. 1932. The male repro¬

ductive tract of the Sciuridae. Am. Jour. Anat. 51, 89-155.

Mossman, H. W. 1937. Comparative morphogenesis of the fetal mem¬

branes and accessory uterine structures. Contrib. Embry., No. 158,

Carnegie Instit. Wash. Pub. No. 479, 129-246.

Oudemans, J. T. 1892. Die accessorischen Geschlechtsdriisen der Sauge-

tiere. Natuurkundije Verhandelingen van de Hollandsche Maatschappij

der Wetenschappen. 3 de Verz., Deel 5, 2 de Stuk. 1887-1892.

Pocock, R. I. 1923. The classification of the Sciuridae. Zool. Soc. Lond.,

Proc., 1923. 1, 209-246.

Pratt, H. S. 1923. Manual of vertebrate animals of the United States.

Blakiston.

Tullberg, Tycho. 1899. Ueber das System der Nagetiere. Nova Acta

Reg. Soc. Upsala, Ser. 3, Vol. 18, 1899-1900.

PRELIMINARY LIST OF THE HYDRACARINA OF

WISCONSIN

Past VI

Ruth Marshall

Rockford College

Parts I-V of the Preliminary List of the Hydracarina of Wis¬

consin (Marshall, 1931, 1932, 1933, 1934, 1937) recorded eighty

species and varieties representing twenty-four genera. Part VI

adds forty-six species and varieties, of which five are new, in six

genera. This brings the total for the state to 126 species and

varieties and thirty genera. The list is known to be incomplete ;

more intensive collecting, especially at greater depths, and

further study of material on hand, will reveal the presence of

several other genera and more species in the known genera, as

for example in Eylais.

It is interesting to compare the results so far obtained with

lists for areas which have been studied more intensively and for

longer periods. Soar & Williamson (1929) list 247 species and

varieties for the British Isles; Dr. K. Viets (1936) gives 441 for

Germany. Wisconsin has an area of 56,066 sq. mi., about one-

half that of the British Isles and about one third that of Ger¬

many, with a surface much less diversified than that of the two

countries compared.

The water mites considered in this paper are morphologically

the most complex. They are "hard shelled”, that is, the body

wall is more or less heavily chitinized and porous, and there is a

dorsal furrow. The legs bear swimming hairs. The arrange¬

ment of the genera here follows in general the revised classifica¬

tion of Viets (1936).

The genus Albia, Family Axonopsidae, is a small group, with

one species in Wisconsin. The body is flattened, with dorsal and

ventral surface plates. The epimera are approximated, some¬

what removed from the anterior end of the body and partly

joined with the underlying plate ; the first pair are fused medially

135

136 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts and Letters

but a suture separates them from the second pair. The genital

plates are distinct from the epimera and carry many acetabula ;

they are somewhat angular at the outer margins in the female,

rounded in the male and joined at the genital slit.

The genus Midea, Family Mideidae, is a small and rare group

with one species here. The body is oval, arched. The epimera

are united into one group but the sutures are evident except that

the first pair are fused medially; the fourth are somewhat tri¬

angular. The large genital organ lies in a bay bounded by all

of the epimera; in the female there are two lunate plates bear¬

ing small acetabula on either side of a long slit. In the male

there is a basal plate with a complex pattern of fine hairs and

processes (typically) ; the slit is guarded by two delicate valves

bearing acetabula. In the palpi the fourth segment is narrow

and curved. The third leg in the male is modified for a copula-

tory organ, the last segment bearing a large claw.

The genus Mideopsis, Family Mideopsidae, is represented

here by two species. The body is circular, dorso-ventrally com¬

pressed. The first pair of epimera are fused medially; the sec¬

ond are wedge-shaped, distinct; the third and first are partly

fused medially to the basal plate, as is the large fourth pair on

most of its borders. The genital organ, its anterior end within

the bay formed by the fourth epimera, is bordered by hair-bear¬

ing chitin plates, partly fused, which enclose three (rarely four)

large acetabula in a row on each side of the slit. The palpus

has a large papilla bearing two hairs on the concave side of

the elongated fourth segment. The legs are weak.

The genus Krendowskia, Family thienemanniidae , is a very

small group, with one species here. The body is oval, arched,

heavily chitinized. The epimera are in three groups, partly

united with each other and the ventral plate: the first pair are

nearly fused medially; each fourth epimeron is excavated near

the anterior medial border to lodge a large gland pore. The

genital organ lies partly within the bay formed by the fourth

epimera; it has heavy lateral lunar plates with hairs, united at

their tips in the male, and there are six (sometimes eight)

acetabula. The maxillary organ has a short rostrum. The palpi

are stout; the second segment has two long hairs on the medial

proximal side ; the fourth is curved and drawn out distally into

a broad piece against which lies the claw-like fourth.

Marshall — The Hydracarina of Wisconsin

137

The genus Geayia is closely related to Krendowskia, from

which it differs chiefly in having eight (rarely six) genital

acetabula ; a protrusible maxillary organ in two parts ; and smal¬

ler palpi, the first segment of which is very short. It is a small,

rare New World group, with one species here.

The genus Arrenurus , Family Arrenuridae, is the largest

genus of the water mites. The body is elevated, the wall heavy,

with large and regular pores. The dorsal furrow (with few ex¬

ceptions) is closed in the female, open posteriorly in the male.

The body in the female is oval and shows great uniformity; in

the male there is a more or less well developed appendix (cauda) ,

near the end of which there may be developed an accessory sex

organ, the petiole, often with complex hyaline structures. Epi-

mera are in three groups, distinct except for the medial fusion

of the first pair, very uniform. The genital cleft in the female is

flanked by semicircular valves from which extends on either side

a wing-shaped area having many small acetabula. In the male

the genital area is similar but smaller, and lies between the body

and the appendix. The maxillary organ is shield-shaped. The

palpi are stout ; the second segment bears on the inner side char¬

acteristic groups of bristles or hairs, the fourth has a distal

prolongation against which lies the claw-like fifth. The legs

show great uniformity; swimming hairs are abundant on the

last three, while the fourth segment of the last pair in the male

usually bears a spur with a tuft of hairs.

Four sub-genera of Arrenurus, not sharply differentiated, are

recognized: Truncaturus, type A. knauthei , Europe (not repre¬

sented here, Marshall, 1908, in error), appendix a simple ex¬

tension of the body without posterior cleft, no petiole; Mi -

cruracarus (example, A. muttkowskii) , appendix short, usually

narrow, and sheltering a small petiole which may have hyaline

structures; Megaluracarus (example, A. marshallae) , appendix

long, narrow, petiole absent or reduced; Arrenurus (example,

A. americanus) , appendix three-divided, complex, petiole well

developed, usually with complex hayaline structures.

The Arrenuri are very common in Wisconsin, with forty

known species and varieties. Space does not allow for descrip¬

tions of all; reference must be made to the author’s earlier pa¬

pers, especially to The Arrhenuri of the United States (1908).

The following account is limited to descriptions of new species,

138 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts and Letters

additional notes and drawings of previously described species,

especially those in earlier papers, and to data on distribution.

Albia caerulea Mar.

PL II, fig. 10; PI. Ill, fig. 18-21

The original description of this species (Marshall, 1927 :277)

was based upon the study of two individuals thought to be fe¬

males, now recognized as nymphs. The male was later described

(Marshall 1929:319). The true female is now known and here

described. The body is elliptical, 0.725 to 0.80 mm. long in the

male, 0.825 to 1.00 mm. in the female. The color is light blue

with indistinct brown blotches and a pale dorsal Y-shaped mark ;

the eyes are deep red. The dorsal plate is somewhat narrower

and more elongated than the ventral so that it protrudes slightly

at the posterior end, especially in the male. All surfaces are con¬

spicuously papillose ; there is a delicate cuticula, finely lined. In

the epimera the sutures between the plates are unusually dis¬

tinct ; the anterior ends of the first three pairs are rounded. The

genital plates lie close in upon the underlying plate, well back

from the end of the body ; they are distinct, moderately wide and

bear many small indistinct acetabula. Close behind them lies the

excretion organ plate, with the usual flanking papillae and hairs.

The maxillary organ is broad in the center and lies in a broad

bay. The palpi are slender; the long fourth segment bears sev¬

eral fine hairs distally. The legs are much shorter than the body ;

heavy bristles are found on the last three pairs as well as a few

swimming hairs. The nymph closely resembles the adult except

for smaller size and the undeveloped character of the genital

plates.

Collections have been made in Mirror, Green, Benoit, Como

and Jordan lakes, the Madison lakes and three lakes of Vilas

County and in small lakes near Montello, Waupaca, Oxford,

Briggsville and Eagle River; also in Ontario, Indiana, Illinois,

Michigan and Louisiana.

Midea expansa nov. spec.

PL IV, fig. 26-30

The body is elongated, 0.7 0 mm. long in the male. The female

is unknown. The body wall is heavily chitinized, finely porous;

Marshall — The Hydracarina of Wisconsin

139

the cuticula has conspicuous lines. The color is dull yellow with

green blotches. The first three epimera are narrower, the fourth

broader than in the related species. The male genital area lies

entirely within the broad deep bay formed chiefly by the last

epimera pair. The broad basal plate is covered evenly with fine

papillae and hairs. The genital opening is guarded by large

oblong irregularly scalloped valves, each bearing about fifteen

indistinct acetabula ; long fine hairs from the basal plate here ex¬

tend over the valves. In these details of the male genital area the

new species differs conspicuously from the type species, M.

orbiculata (Mull.), widely distributed over Europe, and M.

determina Mar., known only for British Columbia, chiefly in

form and in the lack of appendages on either side of the genital

opening. In the palpi the second and third segments are broader

than the legs; the fourth is long and slim, bent distally, and

bears one long and one short hair on the concave side. The legs

are shorter than the body, stout, increasing in length from first

to fourth, and well provided with bristles. In the first two pairs

the distal segments are expanded, the claws are large, two

pointed, with expanded bases. In the third leg of the male the

last segment is flattened, more elongated than in the related

species and little excavated on the concave side ; on the distal end

is a groove to lodge the large claw; the accessory claw is very

small.

One specimen only is known ; it was found in a small lake in

Vilas County.

Mideopsis orbicularis (Mull.)

PI. II, fig. 15-17

The surface is heavily chitinized, with many fine hairs. Fe¬

males may reach a length of 1.00 mm ; males are a little smaller.

The color is dull yellow with brown blotches and a central T-

shaped light area, often with flecks of color in young adults. The

first epimera are elongate, the anterior end of each drawn out,

with a medial process. The genital organ is broad ; it is some¬

what narrowed in the male, with a broader chitin border. An¬

terior to the genital organ, close in upon the last epimera, are

two large pores, each with a fine hair. The palpi are about as

wide as the short legs and bear several bristles ; the second and

140 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts and Letters

fourth segments are long, the papilla on the latter large and two-

pointed.

This cosmopolitan species is found all over Europe and has

been reported from Mongolia and Siberia. In North America it

was first reported by Koenike from Ontario. Later Wolcott iden¬

tified it in a collection from Oregon. Specimens from Yucatan

reported by the author are found on re-examination to belong to

another species, probably new. Samples from the present collec¬

tions were sent to two European hydracarinologists with re¬

quests for an opinion as to the validity of the identification. In

private correspondance one replied that it “seems not to be iden¬

tical with our European species” ; the other, “that it seems to be

M. orbicularis”. From a third came this reply: “There is no

doubt in my mind that there will be variations between material

from America and Europe and also the East, . . . and that these

are not of sufficient value to cause specific differences”. In the

latter opinion the author is inclined to concur. Specimens as de¬

termined have been found in the Madison and Vilas County lakes

and in Green Lake (to a depth of 10 M.) ; also in Michigan and

California.

Mideopsis americanus nov. spec.

PL I, fig. 1-4

This mite is smaller and more delicate than M . orbicularis .

The body is slightly elongated, the male 0.60 to 0.65 mm. long,

the female, 0.80 to 0.875 mm. or more. The color in young adults

is yellowish with darker blotches and a light dorsal center which

may be reddish or violet, with the ends of the first epimera red,

as are also the outlines of the two following pairs ; older individ¬

uals are duller. The dorsal furrow is somewhat angular in out¬

line. Body pores are large and irregular or branched near the

body edge, finer on other surfaces. Epimera are like those in the

related species with more hairs; but the first pair are broader,

with a similar anterior medial process. The male genital organ

is elliptical; the encircling wall of chitin, wide at the anterior

end, is made up of two lateral curved plates, fused where their

tips meet. In the female the organ is broad, closely resembling

that of the related species, but with wider lateral plates, like¬

wise fused at their tips. The six acetabula are oblong. The char¬

acteristic pair of large pores anterior to the genital organ are

Marshall — The Hydracarina of Wisconsin

141

accompanied by long fine hairs. The palpi are narrower than the

legs; the fourth segment has a heavy convex border and its

papilla is truncated and bears two coarse hairs. The legs are

reddish, shorter than the body, their segments broadened distally,

with abundant bristles ; there are a few swimming hairs on the

first two pairs, several on the third and many on the fourth.

Collections have been made in Twin, Powers, Fox, Neshota,

Mason, Drake, Benoit, Spooner and Green lakes (in the latter

to a depth of 29 M.), and in several waters in Adams and Vilas

counties; also in Illinois, Iowa, Michigan, Indiana, Montana and

British Columbia (in one case from the stomach of a sucker).

Kr endow skia similis Viets

PI. I, fig. 5-9

The species was first described by Viets (1931) from a

single male and designated a subspecies of K. convexa (Ribago) ;

the latter was described from a single specimen found in Chili.

The female of K. similis is now known.

The body is nearly circular, with the anterior end narrowed ;

it measures in the male 0.80 to 0.90 mm., in the female, 1.10 to

1.20 mm. The general color is blue green with brown blotches;

inside of the conspicuous dorsal furrow is a pale yellow area

with a reddish streak. Long fine hairs are abundant on the gen¬

eral surfaces and on the plates. The surface pores are large and

regular; the cuticula is thick, with irregular wavy lines. The

epimera show a fine reticulation; the first pair are elongated,

their medial and posterior borders faintly outlined, and they

form a deep bay for the maxillary organ. The second pair are

wedge-shaped; the third, slightly separated from them, are

clearly outlined. The fourth epimera are rounded posteriorly,

somewhat narrowed in the female; the anterior medial strip

over the gland pore is faintly outlined. The genital organ is

broad in both sexes ; in the male it is enclosed for less than half

its length in the epimeral bay, while the larger female organ is

closer in. The acetabula on the genital valves are elongated;

there are six in both sexes (rarely one is small or wanting.) The

palpi are about as wide as the legs; the second segment has a

bulging outer border and its two long proximal bristles may be

pectinate ; the distal prolongation of the fourth is broadly round¬

ed where it meets the slender curved fifth. The legs are blue-

142 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts and Letters

green, slender, shorter than the body ; all but the first have long

hairs, and bristles on all are moderate in size and number.

Collections have been made in Wingra, Mason, Twin and

Green lakes (in the latter to a depth of 15 M.) , in the Trout Lake

region, and in ponds near Montello and Wisconsin Dells; also in

Michigan, Indiana and Illinois.

Geayia ovata (Wol.)

PI. Ill, fig. 22-25

The species was erected by Wolcott (1900, 1901) as Kren-

dowskia ovata ; but the males and nymphs described belong to

the commoner species, K. similis. The true male is here de¬

scribed. The species is closely related to G. venezuelae Thor.

The body is broad oval, the anterior end slightly elongated;

the length in the two males found is 0.80 mm., in two females,

1.00 mm. The color is greenish brown with dark markings. The

dorsal shield is relatively small. Body pores are conspicuous ; the

thick cuticula has coarse wavy lines ; the epimera show a delicate

reticulation. Hairs on the body and plates are numerous and

long. The three groups of epimera are separated by irregular

rows of pores; the sutures are fairly clear except for the long

median fusion of the first pair which leaves a shallow bay for

the maxillary organ. The free ends of the epimera are well

rounded out; the inner medial angle of the fourth is almost

obliterated where it makes place for the large pore. The large

genital organ is enclosed for about half of its length by the

fourth epimera, broader and closer to the latter in the female;

the chitin wall is heavy, laterally broad, the outer part with fine

hairs. The genital valves bear each four acetabula in both sexes

(Wolcott was in error in giving three for the male), a little

irregularity in size being noted. The maxillary organ forms a

proboscis which can be protruded for over half the body length :

there is a soft proximal part (fig. 23, A) and the elongated hard

maxillary organ proper (fig. 22) which has a rostrum and car¬

ries the small palpi. The legs are short and slender, only the

fourth in the male slightly longer than the body ; all bear numer¬

ous long and short spines, with slight serration, and abundant

swimming hairs on the middle segments of the last three. The

claws are small and weak.

Marshall — The Hydracarina of Wisconsin

143

This species has been found in a small pond near Montello;

also in Michigan.

Arrenurus rotundus Mar.

Found in Lake Mason and Goose Pond and in pools near

Appleton, Madison, Big Spring and Wisconsin Dells.

Arrenurus ovalis Mar.

Found in a pool near Appleton and in Goose Pond; also in

Michigan.

Arrenurus crenellatus Mar.

Found in Mason, Buffalo, Pewaukee, Mirror, Wingra and

four lakes of Vilas County, in ponds near Oxford and Jordan

Lake ; also in Michigan, Maine and New Hampshire.

Arrenurus pseudosetiger Mar.

PI. IV, fig. 31

Found in a pool near Madison and in Silver Lake.

Arrenurus bicaudatus Mar.

PL VI, fig. 51

Found in Neshota, Otter and South Turtle lakes and in a pool

near Wisconsin Dells; also in Indiana, Michigan and Louisiana.

Arrenurus acutus Mar.

Found in Mirror Lake; also in Michigan.

Arrenurus scutulatus Mar.

Found in Buffalo and Green lakes (to a depth of 15 M.) ; also

in Michigan and Indiana.

Arrenurus infundibularis Mar.

Found in Wingra, Green and two lakes of Vilas County, in

ponds near Jordan Lake and Wisconsin Dells, in Wisconsin River

and the Canal at Portage; also in Michigan, Illinois, Indiana,

Missouri and Oregon.

144 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts and Letters

Arrenurus lyriger Mar.

PL IV, fig. 32

Found in Green and Mirror lakes ; also in Michigan, Missouri

and New Hampshire.

Arrenurus muttkowskii nov. spec.

PI. IV, fig. 33-35

The new species belongs to a group of Micruracarus in which

the male dorsal shield is very small, its furrow either closed or

ending in a medial depression of the appendix, the latter some¬

times broader than the body, with a more or less circular pos¬

terior identation over which lies a petiole with a complex hyaline

structure.

A. muttkowskii closely resembles A. lyriger Mar. but the body

is more elongated and the two species differ in the structure of

the hyaline appendage and in other details of the appendix. The

female is unknown. The length in the male is 1.40 mm ; the color

is brick red with greenish blotches. The body is greatly elevated

in the mid-region where there is a low hump on either side of

the dorsal shield; there are two conspicuous anterior median

protuberances and a bulging over each eye. The dorsal shield is

broader than long, with four anterior rounded corners; its fur¬

row is broad posteriorly and opens on the appendix. The epimera

resemble those of the related species; the genital wing-shaped

plates are narrow and extend over the sides of the body as small

welts. The appendix is sharply marked off from the body; its

lateral margins are rounded and its deep medial incision ex¬

pands to form a large perforation. The depressed center of the

appendix bears two pairs of small humps as well as hairs ; these

as well as other details are best understood by reference to fig.

35. The hyaline structure is shorter and less conspicuous than

in A lyriger; it is bulb-shaped, open dorsally to disclose a small

petiole. (This structure does not preserve well and examination

of living material may reveal details not shown here.) In the

palpi, the second segment bears a thick patch of fine hairs. The

fourth leg lacks the spur on the fourth segment.

Three males were found in Lake Mendota by Dr. E. A.

Muttkowski, for whom the new species is named. Specimens

have also been found in Iowa.

Marshall — The Hydracarina of Wisconsin

145

Arrenurus laticaudatus Mar.

Found in Green and Mirror lakes ; also in Michigan, Illinois,

Iowa and Missouri.

Arrenurus birgei Mar.

PI. VI, fig. 50

Found in over twenty bodies of water in the state; also in

eleven other states east of the Plains, in Ontario and in Haiti.

Arrenurus solifer Mar.

Found in Little John Lake (Vilas County) ; also in New

Hampshire and New York.

Arrenurus morrisoni Mar.

Found in Morrison's Pond, Washburn County.

Arrenurus scutuliformis Mar.

PI. V, fig. 37

Found in Green, Twin, Bag Carr, Little John and Plum lakes ;

also in Michigan and Maine.

Arrenurus pseudo conicus Piers.

Found in Lake Wingra and in two lakes of Vilas County.

Arrenurus pseudocylindratus Piers.

Found in Mirror, Mason, Powers and four lakes of Vilas

County and in ponds near Jordan Lake, Portage and Spooner;

also in Michigan, Indiana, New Hampshire, Louisiana and Wy¬

oming.

Arrenurus manubriator Mar.

PI. V, fig. 47 ; PI. VI, fig. 55

Found in Winnebago, Green, Mason, Buffalo, Pewaukee,

Lauderdale, Spooner, and the Madison lakes, three lakes of Vilas

County and a pond near Portage ; also in Illinois, Michigan, In¬

diana, Iowa, Ohio, Massachusetts, Ontario and Mexico.

Arrenurus marshallae Piers.

PI. V, fig. 36

One of the commonest species of water mites in shallow

waters, a few hundred specimens of this Arrenurus have been

146 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts and Letters

secured in some fifty bodies of water in Wisconsin. It has also

been found in nineteen other states east of the Plains and also

in Ontario. The form of the body is very constant ; only a slight

amount of variation in the elevation of the anterior part of the

appendix has been noted. Copulation was observed several times ;

in this state it occurred in August (except in one case), while

other records, chiefly from Illinois, give July.

Arrenurus megalurus Mar.

PL V, fig. 38-40

A re-examination of all collections of this species has been

made in order to clear up certain points relative to its variabil¬

ity, already noted (Marshall, ’03, ’08, *10) . Most of the “in¬

termediate forms” are now referred to a new variety, A. inter¬

medins , to be described next, while A. megalurus remains as a

distinct, though variable species. From its nearest relative, A.

marshallae, it is distinguished in both sexes by a greater de¬

velopment of the dorsal humps, by an unusual posterior pro¬

longation in the female, and by the greater development of the

appendix. In the latter the end is drawn out to form not only

larger lateral processes but also large medial projections which

leave a central indentation (rather than a slight notch as in A.

marshallae) , while the central region is greatly elevated dorsally.

The palpi, not adequately shown in former papers (’03, fig. 2c;

'08, fig. 52), are shown again in fig. 38; on the large elevation of

the second segment, the distal hairs are slightly enlarged and

flattened.

Specimens are usually found with the related species but in

smaller numbers, and the range appears to be more restricted.

A few females of both species, together with unidentified Ar¬

renurus females and specimens of two species of other genera

have been found in the digestive tract of snapping turtles (col¬

lections of K. F. Lagler).

In a collection from New Hampshire, twelve males, the an¬

terior projections resemble small horns, directed outward. In

a collection of eleven males and nine females from Louisiana

already reported (1910) all individuals except one showed this

same character; also, the females had an extreme development

of body humps, while the appendix was only moderately de-

Marshall — The Hydracarina of Wisconsin 147

veloped. It is possible that these specimens should be set apart

as distinct forms.

Dr. 0. Lundblad* reports the species from Haiti. The single

individual, a male (violet!) is not typical: the anterior end is

convex rather than concave, the dorsal -shield is too elongated;

the appendix is too narrow at the base and flaring at the end,

while the central part is too low. It may represent still another

form; but in the case of a species as variable as A. megalurus

a decision should await the study of more material.

Arrenurus megalurus intermedins nov. var.

PL V, fig. 41-44

The name of the new variety indicates its position relative

to A. marshallae and A. megalurus but more closely related to the

latter ; it is erected to include the ‘‘intermediate forms” already

referred to. (Outlines of the body of the male are shown in fig.

2, e and f, Marshall, ’OS.) The entire length is 1.05 to 1.08 mm;

the color, blue green or sometimes brick red. The dorsal humps

on the body are moderate; the dorsal furrow runs over on the

appendix. In epimera and genital areas both sexes agree closely

with the two related species. The central dorsal region of the

appendix is more moderately elevated, the end less developed

medially, the lateral processes smaller than in A. megalurus ,

while there is the same conspicuous indentation. In all of these

characters considerable variation in degree has been found, aside

from differences due to age; even some differences in the two

sides of the same male has been noted. In a few individuals some

variation was seen in the size of the anterior horns, while the

characters of the appendix remained typical.

The female closely resembles the females of the two related

species. The following description is based upon the study of one

individual found in copula (Twin Lakes, July). The body length

is 0.95 mm. The same dorsal humps are present as in A. megal¬

urus but they are smaller and more rounded. The palpi in both

sexes of the two forms are much alike, the second segment, in¬

ner side, having a cushion with fine hairs, the more distal of

which are flattened. The female with undeveloped body humps

found in copula reported by the author (1910:103, fig. 16) is

* Arkiv for Zoologi, No. 13:21-25, 1935.

148 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts and Letters

probably a newly emerged A. intermedins . As mating in May is

apparently unusual, the case is not clear.

The new variety is commonly found in collections with the

A. meg alums but in larger numbers.

Arrenurus pseudo caudatus Piers.

Found in Lake Spooner and in one collection from Michigan.

Arrenurus wardi nov. spec.

PI. VI, fig. 52-54

The new species closely resembles A. parallelatus Mar. from

which it differs chiefly in details of the appendix ; when preser¬

vation is not good the two species may be confused. The length

in the male is 1.10 to 1.18 mm. The female is unknown. The

body, as in the related species, is concave between the eyes, is

both broad and high in the anterior half and bulges again in

the genital region. The dorsal furrow encloses a large obovate

area and runs over on the side of the appendix. The first two

pairs of epimera have acute projecting anterior ends; the other

two pairs are of the usual form, as is also the genital area. The

appendix is nearly as long as the body ; it has a pronounced dor¬

sal hump just anterior to the center and here it is widest. The

end broadens slightly and shows on each side slight scallops, the

central pair being the longest ; here is a small dorsal depression

in which lies a delicate petiole (fig. 52, p), anterior to which is a

lower pair of humps bearing each on the inner side a hair and a

gland opening. Four pairs of long hairs project from the end

of the appendix. The palpi have three short bristles and one

long one on the inner face of the second segment, with two more

long ones on the convex margin. Legs are typical with abundant

swimming hairs and a conspicuous spur on the fourth segment

of the last pair. The new species is dedicated to Dr. H. B. Ward,

in recognition of his interest in the study of the hydracarina.

Collections have been made in Wisconsin in Spooner and

Allequash lakes and in ponds near Montello and Jordan Lake;

also in Illinois and Indiana. A. parallelatus appears to be an east¬

ern form; specimens previously reported by the author for the

three states named are now referred to the new species.

Marshall — The Hydracarina of Wisconsin

149

Arrenurus rectangularis Mar.

PI. II, fig. 14

The palpus is characterized by the possession of four short

stout hairs on the inner surface of the second segment, distally

(fig. 14, from an unpublished drawing of R. H. Wolcott, slightly

altered) .

Specimens have been found in Green Lake (from 7-12 M.) ;

also in Michigan.

Arrenurus semicircularis Piers.

PI. V, fig. 46

Found in Wingra, Lauderdale, Mason, Coma and Little John

lakes and in a pond near Montello; also in Massachusetts, New

Hampshire and Michigan.

Arrenurus cardiacus Mar.

PI. II, fig. 13

Found in Goose Pond and in one collection from Michigan.

Arrenurus longicaudatus Mar.

PL II, fig. 11, 12

A species found first in New Hampshire, it has since been

secured in some numbers from three lakes of Vilas County. (One

male showed a malformation of the appendix, which was also

slightly asymmetrical : the end, instead of flaring out normally,

narrowed to half its width and rounded off, while dorsally there

was developed a conspicuous truncated hump.) The palpus is

now shown (fig. 12) ; the chief bristles are unusually long and

the second segment bears also a group of four small bristles on

the inner side distally.

Both sexes were found, some in copula, so that the female can

now be described. The color is dull orange red; the length is

1.02 mm. The body is oval, slightly depressed between the eyes,

and the posterior end is somewhat drawn out ventrally. The

dorsal shield is nearly elliptical. The genital wings are large and

broaden out laterally.

150 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts and Letters

Arrenurus apetiolatus Piers.

PI. V, fig. 45

In the hundreds of specimens of this species examined great

uniformity in body form has been found ; however, in specimens

from three localities from southern Louisiana the appendix in

some males lacks the posterior indentation and is slimmer than

is typical. These individuals may represent another form or

variety. Copulation has been observed (July). The author has

already reported (1910:104) that this may occur between males

and females of different species of Arrenuri, a fact also known

to Dr. R. H. Wolcott (unpublished notes). Two cases have re¬

cently been re-examined involving males of A. apetiolatus : in

one case normal pairing was followed by pairing with A .

marshallae female; in the second case pairing was with a larger

unidentified female (palpi examined for verification).

Collections have been made in Wingra, Mason, Green, Buffalo,

Spooner, Benoit, Coma, Jordan, Parker, Goose and Crooked

lakes and in ponds near Montello and Wisconsin Dells; also in

several waters in Ontario and in thirteen other states east of the

Plains.

Arrenurus magnicaudatus Mar.

Found in Mason, Spooner, Mirror and Green lakes and Goose

Pond; also in Michigan, Illinois and New Hampshire.

Arrenurus superior Mar.

Found in Mason and Green lakes and ponds in Adams and

Vilas counties ; also in Michigan, New York and New Hampshire.

Arrenurus trifoliatus Mar.

Found in sloughs near Burlington and in ponds in Illinois,

Ohio, Nebraska, Missouri and Louisiana.

Arrenurus reflexus Mar.

Found in Mirror and Beulah lakes and in ponds near Green

and Jordan lakes; also in New Hampshire, Vermont and Ohio.

Arrenurus americanus Mar.

PL VI, fig. 56.

Collections have been made, usually near the surface, in over

thirty bodies of water in Wisconsin ; also in eleven other north

Marshall — The Hydracarina of Wisconsin

151

central and eastern states and in Ontario (in one case from the

bladders of Utricularia) .

Arrenurus americanus major Mar.

The range for this variety seems to be the same as for A.

americanus .

Arrenurus compactilis Mar.

Found in small ponds near Oshkosh, Fond du Lac and Green

Lake and in Lake Spooner; also in New Hampshire, Michigan

and Iowa.

Arrenurus flabellifer Mar.

Found in Buffalo and Green lakes; also in Illinois and Mis¬

souri.

Arrenurus pollictus Mar.

Found in three ponds near Wisconsin Dells.

Arrenurus falcicornis Mar.

PI. VI, fig. 48, 49

A description of the female is now possible ; it is based upon

the study of one individual found in copula. The body is 1.50

mm. long and dull green ; is broad oval, the posterior end slightly

bulging. The fourth epimera are broad, with deeply concave

posterior borders. The wing-shaped genital areas are of about

the same width throughout and the genital valves are broad.

Collections have been made in Mirror, Green, Mukwonago, Buf¬

falo and Lauderdale lakes, in Goose Pond and the Lemonweir

River ; also in Indiana and New York.

Arrenurus laticornis Mar.

Found in Mirror, Buffalo and Jordan lakes and in the rivers

and ponds near Wisconsin Dells; also in Illinois, Missouri and

Iowa.

Arrenurus serratus Mar.

Found in Mendota and in three lakes of Vilas County; also

in Ontario and Saskatchewan (in two cases in fish stomachs),

in depths from 3-10 M.

152 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts and Letters

Bibliography

Titles are limited to papers containing authors’ descriptions of the

species cited and to monographs describing cosmopolitan species.

Marshall, R.

1903. Ten Arrenuri Belonging to the Subgenus Megalurus Thon.

Trans. Wis. Acad. S.A.L., XIV, 1 : 145-172, pi. XIV-XVIII.

1904. A New Arrenurus and Notes on Collections made in 1903.

Trans. Wis. Acad. S.A.L., XIV: 520-526, pi. XL.

1908. The Arrhenuri of the United States.

Trans. Am. Mic. Soc., XXVIII : 85-134, pi. VII-XXII.

1910. New Studies of the Arrhenuri.

Trans. Am. Mic. Soc., XXIX, 2:97-110, pi. I-III.

1919. New Species of Water Mites of the Genus Arrhenurus.

Trans. Am. Mic. Soc., XXXVIII, 4:275-281, pi. XXIX-XXXI.

1921. New Species and Collections of Arrhenuri.

Trans. Am. Mic. Soc., XL:168-176, pi. IX-XI.

1927. Hydracarina of the Douglas Lake Region.

Trans. Am. Mic. Soc., XLVI, 4:268-285, pi. VII-IX.

1929. The Water Mites of Lake Wawasee.

Proc. Ind. Acad. Sci., 38:315-320.

1931. Preliminary List of the Hydracarina of Wisconsin. Part I.

Trans. Wis. Acad. S.A.L., XXVI:311-319, pi. VII, VIII.

1932. Preliminary List of the Hydracarina of Wisconsin. Part II.

Trans. Wis. Acad. S.A.L., XXVII :339-358, pi. VII-X.

1933. Preliminary List of the Hydracarina of Wisconsin. Part III.

Trans. Wis. Acad. S.A.L., XXVIII :37-61, pi. I-VI.

1934. Preliminary List of the Hydracarina of Wisconsin. Part IV.

Trans. Wis. Acad. S.A.L., XXIX :273-297, pi. VI-XI.

1937. Preliminary List of the Hydracarina of Wisconsin. Part V.

Trans. Wis. Acad. S.A.L., XXX:225-251, pi. Ill- VIII.

Soar & Williamson.

1929. The British Hydracarina, Vol. III.

The Ray Society, No. 115. London.

Viets, K .

1931. Ueber einige Gattung und Arten der Axonopsae, Mideopsae

und Arrhenurae (Hydracarina).

Zool. Anz., 93:33-48.

1936. Die Tierwelt Deutschlands und der angrenzenden Meeresteile.

Teil 31, 32, VII :W’assermilben oder Hydracarina. Jena.

Wolcott, R. H.

1900. New Genera and Species of North American Hydrachnidae.

Trans. Am. Mic. Soc., XXI: 177-200, pi. IX-XII.

1901. Description of a New Genus of North American Water Mites,

with Observations on the Classification of the Group.

Trans. Am. Mic. Soc., XXII : 105-117, pi. XXI.

1905. A Review of the Genera of the Water Mites.

Trans. Am. Mier. Soc., XXVI:161-243, pi. XVIII-XXVII.

«oo0“3ascn£»cotoi-i

154

Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts and Letters

Plate I

Mideopsis americanus, dorsal view, young male

“ “ right palpus, outer side, male

“ “ ventral view, female

“ “ genital area, young male

. Krendowskia similis, dorsal view, female

ventral view, male

genital area, female

left palpus, inner side, male

right palpus and maxillary organ

Marshall— The Hydracarina of Wisconsin 155

156

Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts and Letters

Plate II

10. Albia caerulea, ventral view, posterior end, nymph

11. Arrenurus longicaudatus, genital area, female

12. “ “ left palpus

13. “ cardiacus, dorsal view of appendix

14. “ rectangularis, palpus (by Wolcott)

15. Mideopsis orbicularis, dorsal view

16. “ “ right palpus, inner side

17. “ “ ventral view, female

Marshall — The Hydracarina of Wisconsin

157

14

158

Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts and Letters

Plate III

18. Albia caerulea, genital area, male

19. “ “ right palpus, inner side, female

20. “ “ dorsal view, male

21. “ “ ventral view, female

22. Geayia ovata, maxillary organ and palpus, male

23. u “ ventral plates, male; A, part of proboscis

24. “ “ dorsal view

25. “ a genital field, female

Marshall — The Hydracarina of Wisconsin

159

160 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts and Letters

Plate IV

26. Midea expansa, left palpus

27. “ “ dorsal view, male

28. “ “ left leg III, 5, 6, male

29. “ “ genital area, male

30. u “ ventral plates, male

31. Arrenurus pseudosetiger, posterior ventral view, male

32. “ lyriger, left palpus, male

33. “ muttkowskii, posterior ventral view, male

34. " “ left palpus, male

35. “ " dorsal view, male

Marshall-— The Hydracarina of Wisconsin

161

162

Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts and Letters

Plate V

36.

37.

38.

39.

40.

41.

42.

43.

44.

45.

46.

47.

Arrenurus marshallae, dorsal view, male

“ scutuliformis, left palpus, male

c' megalurus, left palpus, male

“ “ dorsal view of appendix

“ “ lateral view of appendix

“ intermedius, dorsal view of appendix

te “ lateral view of appendix

“ “ left palpus, male

“ “ dorsal view, female

“ apetiolatus, lateral view, appendix

4 semicircularis, dorsal view of appendix

“ manubriator, mandible (by Wolcott)

Marshall — The Hydracarina of Wisconsin

163

164

Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts and Letters

Plate VI

48. Arrenurus falcicornis, leg IV, male

49. “ “ posterior ventral area, female

50. “ birgei, dorsal view of appendix

51. “ bicaudatus, right palpus

52. “ wardi, posterior dorsal view of appendix; P, petiole

53. “ “ right palpus

54. “ “ lateral view of appendix

55. “ manubriator, dorsal view of posterior appendix

56. “ americanus, dorsal view of appendix

Marshall — The Hydracarina of Wisconsin

165

OXYGEN CONSUMPTION OF THYONE BRIAREUS (HOLO-

THURIOIDEA) AS A FUNCTION OF OXYGEN

TENSION AND HYDROGEN-ION CON¬

CENTRATION OF THE SUR¬

ROUNDING MEDIUM

William A. Hiestand

Department of Animal Physiology , Purdue University ,

and Marine Biological Laboratory , Woods Hole , Mass.

Investigations of the oxygen consumption of various marine

invertebrates as well as those of unicellular organisms have re¬

sulted for the most part in two types of behavior. Either oxygen

consumption (of whole animals, parts of animals, or single cells)

behaves as a linear or as a hyperbolic function of oxygen ten¬

sion. Tang, (1933) using data collected from many sources, has

shown that if the oxygen consumption is continued to low enough

levels a “critical pressure” will eventually be reached below

which the oxygen consumption is more or less dependent upon

the oxygen tension (oxygen pressure) of the environment. In

some forms, the critical pressure is nearer normal air-water

equilibrium than in others. In Thyone , as will be shown later,

the critical pressure is quite low, being in the neighborhood of

a tension of 0.7 cc. of oxygen per liter. Above this pressure

oxygen consumption is quite uniform, but below, it drops off

very rapidly and practically ceases.

Nomura (1927) reported a hyperbolic relationship between

oxygen consumption and oxygen tension for Caudina , a holothur-

ioidean. He showed that this relationship is one of dependence

of oxygen consumption on oxygen tension since the logarithms

of the values when plotted fall on a straight line, or nearly so.

Nomura allowed a time of 28 hours for the oxygen tension to be

reduced by the respiration of the animal itself which should be

ample time for adaptation, and thus prevent a lag in the oxygen

consumption behind the reduction of oxygen tension. The writer,

in previous experiments with the respiration of the crayfish

(1931) found that the amount of available oxygen (i.e. the

167

168 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts and Letters

volume of the respiratory medium in relation to the size of the

animal, or the length of time allowed for lowering the oxygen

tension) affected the shape of the curve of oxygen consumption

obtained. Thus, if the time be too short, or in other words, the

volume of the environmental medium too small, a dependence of

oxygen consumption upon the oxygen tension of the medium

would appear, which would not be a true picture of the respira¬

tion of the animal. If Nomura's interpretation of his results

is correct, the respiration of Caudina is at all oxygen tensions

dependent upon the oxygen percentage of its environment. This

seems the more remarkable since the respiration of Thyone ,

another holothurioidean, is not dependent upon the oxygen pres¬

sure until a low tension is reached at which respiration prac¬

tically ceases. Evidently Thyone possesses a more efficient respi¬

ratory mechanism than does Caudina since it is better able to

continue its normal oxygen consumption rate at lower oxygen

tensions. Hyman ('29) studied the respiration of two other

echinoderms, the starfish, Patiria , and a sea urchin. She re¬

ported the respiration of both of these forms dependent upon

the oxygen tension of sea water.

The respiration of other forms of invertebrates, e. g.

Eriocheir (Chen, '32), Homarus, Nereis, Limulus, and Callinectes

(Amberson, Mayerson, & Scott, '24) has been reported to be

directly dependent upon the oxygen tension of the surrounding

water. In a recent paper, Bosworth, O’Birien, and Amberson

('36) criticize the earlier results of Amberson, Mayerson, and

Scott. The former state that a rapid reduction in oxygen ten¬

sion causes compensatory movements of the gills of the lobster

comparable to the hyperpnea of land animals. Too rapid reduc¬

tion in oxygen tension of the water therefore causes unreliable

results in determination of oxygen consumption. Kempner ('37)

has shown the respiration of isolated undamaged cells in their

physiological medium to decrease with lowered oxygen tension.

He has likewise demonstrated that respiration of non-nucleated

blood cells and old bacterial cultures does not vary with oxygen

tension. He states that the effect of oxygen tension on respira¬

tion is influenced by changes in pH, carbon dioxide concentration,

salt content, and temperature.

Thyone possesses a “respiratory tree” which in all probability

is a very efficient respiratory aid and possibly accounts to a great

Hiestand—' Oxygen Consumption of Thyione Briar eus 169

extent for the high degree of independence that this echinoderm

exhibits toward oxygen tension. In this connection the work of

Winterstein (1909) should be mentioned. He showed that the

“lungs” of holothurians are respiratory organs which under

normal conditions account for about 50 to 60 percent of the

total oxygen intake. By rendering the respiratory tree useless

(ausschaltung) he was able to determine the reduction of oxy¬

gen intake and noted an increase after 22 hours. He also dem¬

onstrated the part played by anal respiration and that of the

head end. Thus it is apparent that the respiratory system of the

Holothurioidea is well developed as far as respiratory surface

is concerned.

The respiration of invertebrates in general is reduced by

lowering the pH of the surrounding medium. This is also true

for single cells and unicellular organisms. Root (1930) has

shown that increasing the carbon dioxide diminshes the oxygen

consumption of Paramecium and Arbacia eggs. More recently

Tang (1936) has shown that oxygen consumption of Saccha -

romyces Wanching is a function of pH. The effect of pH on the

rate of oxygen consumption is different in different buffer solu¬

tions. In general, it may be .stated that oxygen consumption of

most invertebrates and unicellular organisms is inversely pro¬

portional to the hydrogen ion concentration of the surrounding

medium. However, Hiestand and Hale (1938) as a result of in¬

vestigations with fresh-water molluscs have found an increase in

oxygen consumption with lowered pH in unbuffered water. Pos¬

sibly' the explanation lies in the fact that unbuffered water con¬

stitutes an unnatural environment. Hyman (1924) has shown

that the respiration of Planaria is decreased by acidifying the

water. She also found that acidification of carbonate-free water

had little or no effect upon oxygen consumption, except when the

acidity was produced by carbon dioxide.

Material and Methods

For these experiments Thyone briarem was chosen as a quiet

animal and one that should exhibit a fairly constant respiration

rate. This supposition proved to be a fact. The animals proved

to be excellent experimental forms as their rate of oxygen con¬

sumption under identical conditions was nearly always the same,

even though they had been subjected to environmental condi-

170 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts and Letters

tions of different pH values in the meantime. In fact, no other

invertebrate form used in previous research by the writer has

maintained its integrity to the same degree as Thyone. This is

no doubt due to its inactive nature and its ability to withstand

long periods of inanition without apparent harm.

The results herewith recorded are those of two groups of

three animals each selected for uniform size. The weights rep¬

resent live weights which necessarily include a large amount

of sea water. Since a considerable amount of water can be ex¬

pressed from Thyone by pressure, the weights given do not have

the same significance as dry weights but nevertheless were used

as approaching the live weights more closely. Since the animal

does contain a large percentage of water, no attempt was made

to compute oxygen consumption in terms of body weight. The

weights for each group of 3 animals were as follows :

Group A — total weight: 32.8 gm.

Group B — total weight: 28.2 gm.

The respiratory chamber consisted of a 1000 ml. Erlen-

meyer flask in which the animals were placed. A liter of sea

water of the desired pH value was added and a thick layer of

heavy mineral oil added to the surface to exclude the possibility

of gaseous interchange at the surface. The permeability of this

layer of oil was tested for a period of 24 hours and found to be

negligible. The animal jar was kept in a water bath at a tem¬

perature of 22° C. In order to prevent any layering or stratifica¬

tion of the water a stirring device was added consisting of a

motor-driven, friction-cone controlled stirrer with a small glass

paddle which rotated at approximately 66 times per minute.

The amount of agitation was very slight but sufficient to keep

the water in movement slightly throughout the experiments.

Oxygen determinations were made at intervals by the micro-

Winkler method as described previously (Hiestand, 1931). A

slight modification was used, however, in that the samples were

withdrawn by a sampling pipette of 11 ml. capacity under oil.

Of this sample 10 ml. were used for the determination of dis¬

solved oxygen.

The hydrogen ion concentration of the sea water was changed

by the addition of NaOH or HC1 to cover a range from pH 5.4 to

8.8. Since a precipitation of the salts of sea water occurred

Hiestand — Oxygen Consumption of Thy zone Briar eus 171

above pH 8.8. no attempt was made to raise the pH above this

level. All pH determinations were carried out with color stand¬

ards prepared by the Marine Biological Laboratory.

Results

The accompanying tables and graphs show the effects both

of diminishing oxygen tension and of pH on the rate of oxygen

Table 1.

A-Series:

3 individuals of uniform size.

Total wt : 32.8 gm.

Table 2.

B -Series:

3 individuals of uniform size.

Total wt: 28.2 gm.

172 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts and Letters

consumption. Since the rate of oxygen consumption is uniform

for the tensions encountered in the experiments the results show

primarily the effect of variations in pH upon the respiratory

rate. Separate experiments were conducted to determine the

effect of lower tensions than those met with in these experi¬

ments. They showed a diminished oxygen consumption at very

low tensions.

Table 3.

Rate of 02 consumption by Thyone at various pH values.

TIME IKJ HOURS (OXYGEN CONSUMPTION)

Fig. 1. Graphs showing oxygen consumption of series A individuals

at pH ranges from 6.4 to 8.2. (Table 1)

Hiestandr— Oxygen Consumption of Thyione Briareus 173

Time in hours (Oxygen consumption!

Fig. 2. Graphs showing oxygen consumption of series B individuals

at pH ranges from 5.4 to 8.8. (Table 2)

Fig. 3. Graphs showing relationship of oxygen consumption per hour

to pH value of sea water. (Table 3.)

174 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts and Letters

Discussion

It is clear from the above results that oxygen consumption

in Thyone is unaffected by variations in oxygen tension of the

water from that of normal air-water equilibrium to approxim¬

ately one-seventh normal saturation.

Variations of the pH of sea water cause marked variations

of the rate of oxygen consumption. This relationship of oxygen

consumption and hydrogen ions is an inverse one, i.e. less oxy¬

gen is used in sea water of low pH values than at high ones, or

it may be stated otherwise that oxygen consumption is propor¬

tional to hydroxyl-ion concentration. Figure 3 indicates that

the relationship of oxygen consumption to pH is quite exact,

since a “straight-line” relationship can be seen to exist over the

range of values from pH 5.4 to 8.8.

Because of the ability of Thyone to continue its consump¬

tion of oxygen at a uniform rate until a low tension of oxygen

is reached, one may conclude that it possesses an efficient respira¬

tory system. Morphologically it is well known that the sea cu¬

cumbers have a respiratory tree which probably is a successful

organ for gaseous exchange. In view of the fact that Thyone

does respire quite uniformly over such a wide range of tensions,

one is at a loss to explain the results reported by Nomura (1927)

for Caudina chilensis , another holothurioidean, which results

tend to show a dependence of oxygen consumption on oxygen

tension. As previously mentioned, Nomura plotted the log¬

arithms of the curve he obtained and showed a straight line

(or nearly so) indicating an exponential type of curve.

Conclusions

Thyone briareus , a holothurioidean, respires at a uniform

rate in sea water of a given hydrogen-ion concentration until

the oxygen tension of the water reaches a level approximately

one-seventh that of water normally saturated with atmospheric

air. Below this critical level oxygen consumption is abruptly

lessened.

The respiration of Thyone is inversely proportional to the

pH value of sea water between pH 5.4 and 8.8.

Hiestand — Oxygen Consumption of Thyione Briar eus 175

Literature Cited

Amberson, W. R., Mayer son, H. S., & Scott , W. J., 1924 The influence of

oxygen tension upon metabolic rate in invertebrates. J. Gen. Physiol.

7:171-176,

Boswortli, M. W., O'Brien, Helen. & Amberson, W. R., 1936 Determination

of the respiratory quotient in marine animals. J. Cell. Comp. Physiol.

0:77-87.

Chen, T. Y., 1932 The effect of oxygen tension on the oxygen consumption

of the Chinese fresh-water crab, Eriocheir sinensis. Chin. J. Physiol.

6: 1-12.

Hiestand , W. A., 1931 The influence of varying tensions of oxygen upon

the respiratory metabolism of certain aquatic insects and the crayfish.

Physiol. Zool. 4:246-270.

. . . , and Hale, Doris M., 1938 Respiration studies with fresh¬

water molluscs. II. Oxygen consumption in relation to hydrogen-ion

concentration. Proc. Indiana Acad. Sci. 47:293-298.

Hyman, L. H., 1925 On the action of certain substances on oxygen con¬

sumption: VI. The action of acids. Biol. Bull. 40:288-322.

. . , 1929 The effect of oxygen tension on oxygen consumption in

Planaria and some echinoderms. Physiol. Zool. 2:505-534.

Kempner, W., 1937 Effect cf oxygen tension on cellular metabolism. J. Cell.

Comp. /Pihysiol. 10:339-363.

Nomura, S., 1927 The influence of oxygen tension on oxygen consumption

in Caudina. Sci. Reports Tohoku Imp. Univ. 4th ser. 2:133-138.

Root, W. S., 1930 The influence of carbon dioxide upon the oxygen con¬

sumption of Paramecium and the eggs of Arbacia. Biol. Bull. 50:48-62.

Tang, P. S., 1933 On the rate of oxygen consumption by tissues and lower

organisms as a function of oxygen tension. Quart. Rev. Biol. 5:160-

274.

. . 1936 Studies on the kinetics of cell respiration. I. The rate

of oxygen consumption by Saccharomyces Wanching as a function of

pH. J. Cell. Comp. Physiol. 7:475.

Winterstein, H., 1909 Ueber die Atmung der Holothurien. Arch, di Fisio-

logia 7:33-40.

Spongilla lacustris (Linnaeus) 1745

Key to Plate I

Colonies large and branching. Fingers SO centimeters long, 0.3-0.5 centi¬

meters in diameter.

Collected : Island Lake, 7 /15 /37

Plate I

Spongilla lacustris (Linnaeus) 1745

Key to Plate II

Gemmule (Photograph)

The gemmule is 519 microns in diameter

Spicules (Camera lucida drawings)

Fig. 1— Megascleres 377.6 microns long

16 microns wide

Fig. 2— -Gemmule spicule 249 microns long

Fig. 3 — Megascleres

Fig. 4— Microscieres

Fig. 5 — Microscieres

Fig. 6 — -Microscieres

Spongilla Fragilis Leidy 1851

Key to Plate IV

Gemmule (photograph)

The gemmule is 456 microns in diameter

Spicules (camera lucida drawings)

1. Megascleres 208

2. Gemmule Spicule

3. Gemmule Spicule

4. Megascleres

5. Megascleres

6. Gemmule Spicule

microns long

8 microns wide

76.8 microns long

6.4 microns wide

51.2 microns long

4.8 microns wide

214.4 microns long

8.8 microns wide

75.2 microns long

8.2 microns wide

75.2 microns long

4.9 microns wide

(malformed)

s

— — — —

%

Plate II Plate IV

Spongilla Fragilis Leidy 1851

Key to Plate III

Left — Rugose form showing prominent oseula. Colony 16 centimeters

long.

Collected: Rice Creek, 8/6/36

Middle — Smooth form showing the same type of Oseula. 23 centimeters

long.

Collected: Clear Lake, 8/11/37

Right — Form between Rugose and smooth forms showing prominent oscu-

la. 17 centimeters long.

Collected: Island Lake, 7/29/37

Plate III

Spongilla igloviformis Potts 1887

Key to Plate V

Left — A colony 16 centimeters long

Middle — A colony 20 centimeters long

Right — A colony 20 centimeters long

Collected: Helmet Lake, 7/30/37

>

Plate

Spongilla igloviformis Potts 1887

Key to Plate VI

Gemmule (photograph)

The gemmule is 275 microns in diameter

Spicules (camera lucida drawings)

Ephydatia fluviatilis (Auctorum)

Key to Plate VIII

Gemmule (Photograph)

The gemmule is 344 microns in diameter

Spicules (camera lucida drawings)

1. Megascleres

2. Gemmule birotulate rotules

3. Megascleres

4. Gemmule birotulates

(shaft length)

Plate VI Plate VIII

Ephydatia fluviatilis (Auctorum)

Key to Plate VII

Obtained through the courtesy of Mr. Blaire Coursen, Chicago, Illinois.

Colony 5.2 centimeters long.

Ephydatia exeretti (Mills) 1884

Key to Plate IX

Colonies vary in length from 1.5-2. 3 centimeters long; 4 millimeters wide.

Collected: Malby Lake, 8/15/37

Plate IX Plate VII

Ephydatia exeretti (Mills) 1884

Key to Plate X

Gemmule (photograph)

The gemmule is 556 microns in diameter

Spicules (camera lucida drawings)

1. Microscleres 9.0 microns long

0.6 microns wide

2. Megascleres 196.8 microns long; 182.4 microns long

2.0 microns wide; 1.8 microns wide

3. Microscleres 10.5 microns long

0.7 microns wide

4. Gemmule birotulate 140.8 microns long

3.0 microns wide

5. Gemmule birotulates (rotule diameters) 22.4 microns

16.0 microns

6. Gemmule birotulate (shaft length) 128 microns

Ephydatia mulleri (Lieberkuhn) 1856

Key to Plate XIII

Gemmule (Photograph)

The gemmule is 531 microns in diameter

Spicules (camera lucida drawings)

1. Megascleres 172.8 microns long

6.4 microns wide

2. Gemmule birotulate 16 microns long

3.2 microns wide (shaft)

3. Gemmule birotulate (malformed) 14.1 microns long

4. Gemmule birotulate (shaft length) 8.2 microns long

5. Megascleres 192 microns long

10.4 microns wide

6. Gemmule birotulate rotules 17.6 microns in diameter

19.2 microns in diameter

23.9 microns in diameter

7. Gemmule birotulate showing irregular serration and deep dentation

8. Gemmule birotulate rotule 18.8 microns in diameter

Plate X Plate XIII

Ephydatia mulleri (Lieberkuhn) 1856

Key to Plate XI

This is a very large colony. It is 23 centimeters long, 10 centimeters wide,

with lobes 4.5 centimeters high. This is the lake form.

Collected: Island Lake, 8/24/37

Ephydatia mulleri (Lieberkuhn) 1856

Key to Plate XII

This is the river form of E. mulleri showing the comparatively smooth

surface. The colony is 11 centimeters long.

Collected : Circle Lily River, 7 /28 /36

Plate XII

Ephydatia crateriformis (Potts) 1882

Key to Plate XIV

Gemmule. From Potts (1887)

Section of chitinous coat of gemmule, supporting-b, hooked birotulates

with very long shafts: whose positions, normally radial, are, in this

species, frequently twisted or confused.

Gemmule diameter 0.013 inches.

Spicules. From Potts (1887)

From Crowe’s Mill, Brandywine Creek, Pennsylvania : a, a, slender,

microspined skeleton spicules; b,b,b,b, mature gemmule birotulates with

short hooked rays; c,d,e,e, supposed immature forms.

Meas. Skeleton spicules 0.01 by 0.0004 inches. Length of birotulate

spicules 0.0025 inches. Diameter of rotules 0.0004 inches; of shaft

0.00015 inches.

Tubella pennsylvanica Potts 1882

Key to Plate XXII

Gemmule (photograph)

The gemmule is 387 microns in diameter

Spicules (camera lucida drawings)

1. Megascleres 192 microns long

12.8 microns wide

2. Gemmule birotulates 16 microns long

19.2 microns large rotule diameter

4 microns small rotule diameter

8 microns shaft length

3. Megascleres 142 microns long

10 microns wide

Plate XIV Plate XXII

Heteromeyenia ryderi Potts 1882

Key to Plate XV

This specimen obtained through the courtesy of Dr. M. E. Jewell, Thornton

Junior College, Harvey, Illinois. It is 7 centimeters long and 2 centimeters

in diameter.

Collected: Outlet of Little Mamie, August, 1936.

Heteromeyenia argyrosperma Potts 1880

Key to Plate XVII

Colony is small and branched. The branches are of varying length and

width. The fingers 0.3-0. 6 centimeters wide. There is also a thin encrust¬

ing form of this same species.

Collected: Island Lake, 8/9/37

Carterius tubisperma Mills 1881

Key to Plate XXIII

Sponge growing in loose patches writh numerous small papillae on the sur¬

face. 1-1.5 centimeters in thickness, (lateral view)

Collected: Island Lake, 7/22/37

Plate XV Plate XVII Plate XXIII

Heteromeyenia ryderi Potts 1882

Key to Plate XVI

Gemmule ( photograph)

The gemmule is 354 microns in diameter

Sipcules (camera lucida drawings)

1. Megascleres 206.8 microns long

8.5 microns wide

2. Gemmule birotulate 46 microns long

4 microns wide

3. Gemmule birotulate (shaft length) 25.6 microns

4. Megascleres 292.4 microns long

14.3 microns wide

5. Gemmule birotulate (rotule diameter) 19.2 microns

6. Gemmule birotulate rotule 20.8 microns in diameter

7. Gemmule birotulate 57.6 microns long

8.0 microns wide

8. Gemmule birotulate 52.8 microns long

8.2 microns (length of rotule ray)

Heteromeyenia argyrosperma Potts 1880

Key to Plate XVIII

Gemmule (photograph)

The gemmule diameter is 954 microns.

Spicules (camera lucida drawings)

1. Megascleres 277.2 microns long

8.8 microns wide

9.0 microns wide

6. Megascleres 257.4 microns long

^=^=4

rO

Xi

Plate XVI Plate XVIII

Heteromeyenia repens Potts 1880

Key to Plate XIX

Colony small and much branched. Branches 0.2-0. 3 centimeters wide.

Collected: Island Lake, 8/10/37

Carterius tenosperma Potts 1880

Key to Plate XXVI

Colony very small. 15 millimeters long, 5 millimeters wide, and 3 milli¬

meters thick.

Collected: Spider Lake, Spider Lake Township. 7/12/36

Plate XIX Plate XXVI

Heteromeyenia repens Potts 1880

Key to Plate XX

Gemmule (photograph)

The gemmule is 493 microns in diameter

Spicules (camera lucida drawings)

1. Megascleres 277.2 microns long

9.1 microns wide

2. Microscleres 80 microns long

3.3 microns wide

3. Microscleres 90 microns long

3.5 microns wide

Carterius tubisperma Mills 1881

Key to Plate XXIV

Gemmule (photograph)

The gemmule is 424 microns in diameter

Spicules (camera lucida drawings)

1. Megascleres 208 microns long

8.6 microns wide

2. Foraminal tubule showing the three tendrils. 199 microns long.

3. Megascleres 192 microns long

6.5 microns wide

4. Microscleres 86.4 microns long

3.5 microns wide

7. Microscleres (malformed) 76.8 microns long

4.4 microns wide

Plate XX Plate XXIV

Tubella pennsylvanica Potts 1882

Key to Plate XXI

Large Colony. 41 centimeters long; 2 centimeters wide, 0.2-0. 5 centimeters

thick.

Collected: Helmet Lake, 7/30/37

Small Colony. This was a thin creeping form covering the whole under¬

side of a log 14 feet long. It varies in thickness from 0.05-0.2 centi¬

meters.

Collected: Mud Lake, Spider Lake Township, 8/3/37

Plate XXI

Carterius latitentia Potts 1881

Key to Plate XXV

Gemmule. From Potts (1887)

Partial section of chitinous coat, bearing crust, and birotulate spic-

ules-b; and extended into a foraminal tubule shorter than that of

either of the previous species (C. tubisperma and C. step anowii),

surrounded and terminated by one or two long and broad, ribbon-like

cirrous appendages-d. No gemmule diameter given.

Spicules. From Potts (1887)

From Chester Creek, Pennsylvania; -a, a, skeleton spicules; b,b,b,b,

gemmule birotulates, variable in length; d,d, face of rotules; c, spined

dermals. Maas. Skeleton spicules 0.0111 by 0.00045 inches. Length of

dermal spicules 0.0038 inches. Birotulates 0.0019 by 0.00015 inches.

Diameter of disc 0.001 inches.

Carterius tenosperma Potts 1880

Key to Plate XXVII

Gemmule (photograph)

The gemmule is 424 microns in diameter

Spicules (camera lucida drawings)

1. Foraminal tubule, showing branched twisted tendrils. 63 microns long

2. Megascleres 291 microns long

11 microns wide

3. Megascleres (malformed) 192 microns long

4. Microscleres 110 microns long

6.5 microns wide

5. Megascleres (malformed) 179 microns long

6. Megascleres (malformed) 290 microns long

10.2 microns wide

7. Gemmule birotulate 108 microns long

7.0 microns wide

8. Gemmule birotulate 86 microns long

6.8 microns wide

Plate XXV • Plate XXVII

THE FRESH-WATER SPONGES OF WISCONSIN*

By

James Russell Nexdhoefer

From the Biological Laboratory of Marquette University,

under the direction of Rev. Paul L. Carroll, S. J., St. Louis Uni¬

versity.

I. INTRODUCTION

The fresh-water sponges were observed but not recognized as

animals at a very early period. The early investigators thought

they were plants; later workers, colonial protozoa. In 1696,

Leonard Plukenet first made public mention of them ; and later,

in 1745, Linnaeus described them as Spongia and made mention

of their “globuli”. After Linnaeus the term Spongia changed

many times until, in 1816, Lamarck introduced the generic name

Spongilla.

Not until the perfection of the microscope, were the greatest

strides toward the systematic classification of these animals

made. Grant (1826), and later Meyen (1839), published works

on the sponges, the latter describing the “globuli” of Linnaeus

as “sphaerulae”, stating that they were similar to the winter

bodies of the polyps. H. J. Carter of England, in 1859, applied

the term “statoblast” to these little bodies, shown to be repro¬

ductive bodies in 1842 by John Hogg. Then Johnston (1842) and

later Bowerbank (1863) published their work on the sponges.

A sexual method of reproduction was sought after and found

in 1856 by Lieberkuhn who figured both the spermatozoa and the

ova of Spongilla.

The greater amount of knowledge of the fresh-water porifera

was obtained during the last 60 years. The most important con¬

tributor was Dr. Edward Potts who did extensive work from

1880 until his death. Carter, in England, published his well

known work on the fresh-water sponges in 1881. In 1887,

Potts published his monograph “Contributions towards a Sy-

177

178 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts and Letters

nopsis of Fresh-Water Sponges with Descriptions of Those

Named by Other Authors from all Parts of the World”. This

work is a true classic in the field. In it Potts gave the “statoblast”

of Carter its name, Gemmule. Potts and his co-worker, Henry

Mills of Buffalo, N. Y., made a careful survey of the Eastern

States, Florida, and a few of the states west of the Alleghenies.

A. H. McKay of Halifax and B. W. Thomas of Chicago collected

in their respective areas. Through all of these workers, to¬

gether with Carter, most of the fresh-water forms of the United

States were described.

One great defect in the work of these men and several sub¬

sequent workers, however, was the failure to recognize Ephydatia

fluviatilis (Auctorum) and Ephydatia mulleri (Lieburkiihn) as

distinct species. Specimens of both species were designated as

Meyenia fluviatilis (Auctorum) leading many into the error of

describing their varieties as distinct species.

After 1910 such workers as Annandale (1911), N. Gist Gee,

(1932) of Peking, China, Marcus Old (1932) of Pennsylvania,

Frank Smith (1921) of Michigan, and Minna E. Jewell (1935)

of Illinois, together with several other workers in their various

sections of the country have identified many species of sponges

and recorded much valuable data concerning them. The first

four worked in the field of Taxonomy, Dr. Jewell in the field

of Ecology. Smith (1921) listed twelve species as indigenous

to Wisconsin. Jewell, in 1935, listed one new species, Ephydatia

everetti (Mills), for the state. The collections of the author in¬

cluded twelve species, one of which, Car terms tenosperma Potts

is a new report for the state, (Neidhoefer 1938). Two species

were not found by the author in the region studied, Ephydatia

crateriformis Potts, and Carterius latitentia Potts, Smith being

the only one to have ever reported them from the state.

II. MATERIAL AND METHODS

1. Collection Methods

Collection methods for sponges are very simple. A canoe or

a rubber inflated boat is used since they can easily be trans¬

ported and handled. The sponges are gathered in shallow water

by merely picking them up, or in deeper water, by diving, or

by the use of a long-handled garden rake.

Neidhoefer— Fresh-Water Sponges of Wisconsin 179

2. Fixation Methods

One of two fixation methods is used depending upon the type

of sponge. The large firm specimens* such as Ephydatia mulieri

(Lieberkuhn) . are hung in a warm* dry shaded place. They dry

very rapidly and are then placed in individual containers. The

smaller* more fragile specimens* as Tubella pennsylvanica

(Potts)* are preserved in a 20% formalin solution.

3. Technique Methods

For rapid identification of the sponge* a small portion of the

sponge is placed on a slide together with two drops of concen¬

trated nitric acid. The slide is then heated over an alcohol lamp

until dry and then a drop of balsam and a cover glass are added.

In making permanent microscopic mounts of spicules* a

slightly different procedure is followed. A small portion* four

or five cubic centimeters, of the sponge is placed in the bottom of

the test tube. About ten cubic centimeters of concentrated nitric

acid are then added and the mixture heated to boiling. The test

tube is then set aside and allowed to stand for about two days.

The nitric acid in the test tube is then diluted by adding enough

distilled water to fill the test tube. It is then allowed to stand for

another day with frequent agitation. At the end of this time the

supernatant liquid is drawn off and the spicules are washed in

several changes of distilled water, 95% alcohol is then added

and finally absolute alcohol. The absolute alcohol containing the

spicules is agitated and then the liquid is drawn into a pipette.

Three or four drops of the liquid are placed on a No. 1 cover

glass. The absolute alcohol is burned off of the cover glass leav¬

ing the silicon spicules adhering to it. A drop of thin balsam

is then placed on the middle of the slide and the cover glass is

inverted and set on it. In this manner a slide free from debris

is obtained.

In preparing permanent mounts of gemmules* a slightly dif¬

ferent method is used. The gemmules are taken out of the sponge

body either by dissection under a binocular microscope or by al¬

lowing the sponge to stand in concentrated nitric acid until

the gemmules can be seen in the sponge body or floating in the

liquid. The latter method is preferable as there is less chance of

damaging the gem mule or its appendages. The gemmules are

then put into a test tube containing concentrated nitric acid and

180 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts and Letters

allowed to remian in it until they have an orange or yellow,

transparent appearance. They are then washed in several

changes of distilled water until all of the nitric acid has been

removed. Next they are transferred to 95% alcohol and then

absolute alcohol, after which they are run into xylol and mounted

on depression slides in heavy balsam. It is necessary to have

gemmules present in order to definitely classify the sponge.

4. Water Analysis Methods

The hydrogen ion concentration of the water was taken by

the LaMotte colorimetric method. The oxygen content of the

water was determined by the Winkler method for dissolved

oxygen. The bound carbon dioxide content of the water was

found by use of the methyl orange titration method.

III. ECOLOGY

1. Physical Factors

In considering the relation of the sponge to its habitat one

character to note is the amount of light received by the animal.

The limiting factor of the light, most naturally, will be the trans¬

parency (table 1) or the color (table 2) of the water, which in

turn is limited by the amount of dissolved organic matter in it.

It was found by Jewell (1935) and confirmed by the author that

all but two of the forms are light positive to a greater or lesser

degree ; namely, Tubelia pennsylvanica Potts and Spongilla

igloviformis Potts. These two prefer light of low intensity and

when found in transparent waters were collected from the under

side of their support or imbedded in the organic deposits on the

bottom. Sponges are commonly found in depths up to seven feet,

but a specimen of Ephydatia mulleri (Leberkuhn) was taken

by the author at a depth of twelve feet from Rice Creek, Vilas

County, in August 1936.

2. Chemical Factors

The most important factors, chemically speaking, when work¬

ing with any aquatic forms are the oxygen content, the carbon

dioxide content (free or bound) and the hydrogen concentration

of the water. In working with the sponges it is found, as shall

be pointed out, that the first two of these factors are of little

Neidhoefer— Fresh-Water Sponges of Wisconsin 181

Table 1

Distribution of sponges with reference to the transparency of the water*

* Jewell, M. E., An Ecological Study of the Fresh-water Sponges of North¬

ern Wisconsin. Ecol. Mono. 1935, 5:461-504.

importance, while the silicon dioxide content of the water plays

an important role in their development. Jewell (1935) did ex¬

tensive work on aU of these factors. She found that neither

the oxygen content (table 4) nor the free carbon dioxide content

(table 5) could be regarded as influential factors in the distribu¬

tion of the fresh-water sponges. Birge and Juday (1930), work¬

ing on the lakes of Northeastern Wisconsin, found that even the

“hardest” of the lake waters was in reality “soft.” The bound

carbon dioxide content (table 6) was found by Jewell (1935)

to be a restricting factor for certain forms. She found also that

the hydrogen ion concentration (table 7) was a limiting factor

for a few species. The writer, in work done in the summers of

1936 and 1937, found similar conditions to hold true in several

lakes not studied by Jewell. Welch (1935) and Jewell (1935)

182 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts and Letters

state that an adequate supply of silicon is necessary to the fresh¬

water sponges for the manufacture of their spicules and the

development of their silicious skeleton. The silicon dioxide con¬

tent of the water (table 8), a definite limiting factor, does cause

a great variation in the size, shape and number of spicules, and,

consequently, in the firmness of the sponge body. Spongilla

lacustris (Linnaeus) was found in the greatest variety of habitat

It may be concluded that the most important limiting factor in

fresh-water sponge distribution and growth are bound carbon

dioxide, silicon dioxide, and hydrogen ion concentration.

Table 3

Distribution of Sponges with reference to Total Organic Content

of the water*

* Jewell, M. E., An Ecological Study of the Fresh-water Sponges of North¬

ern Wisconsin. Ecol. Mono. 1935, 5:461-504.

Neidhoefer— Fresh-Water Sponges of Wisconsin 183

Table 5

Distribution of Sponges with reference to free carbon dioxide

in the water*

184 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts and Letters

Table 8

Distribution of Sponges with reference to the silicon dioxide

of the water*

Silicon dioxide as mgrris. per liter

Sponge 0-trace 0.25-0.4 0.45-0.8 0.9-1.5 1.6-5.5 4.6-8 over 8

* Jewell, M. E., An Ecological Study of the Fresh-water Sponges of North¬

ern Wisconsin. Ecol. Mono. 1925, 5:461-504.

IV. TAXONOMY

1. Distribution of the species in the various states.

Table number 9 shows the distribution of the known

species of fresh-water sponges throughout the various states

in which they have been located. The data for this chart was

gathered from Carter (1881), Potts (1887), Annandale

(1909), Smith (1921), and Jewell (1935), and arranged in

its present form by the author. It will be noted that Carterius

tenosperma Potts, recently described by Neidhoefer (1938),

is given its place with the other Wisconsin species.

2. Distribution of the Wisconsin species.

Table number 10 shows the distribution of the known

species of fresh-water sponges that have been found in Wis¬

consin. The shaded counties indicate the locality in which

Smith (1921), Jewell (1935) and the author have found the

various species.

3. Classification of the Wisconsin species.

The following key to the classification of the fresh-water

sponges was developed by the author hoping to somewhat

clarify and simplify their taxonomy. It was prepared after

a careful study of the keyes on sponges found in Pratt

(1935), Ward and Whipple (1918), and Potts (1887), and is

based solely on the spicule and gemmule characteristics.

Neidhoefer— Fresh-Water Sponges of Wisconsin 185

Table 9

Spongilla fragilis — Me., N.Y., N.J., Pa., Fla., Mich., O., Ind., Ky., Wis.,

Minn., Ill., la., Kan., Tex., Mont., Wy., Colo.

Spongilla lacustris — Mass., N.Y., N.J., Pa., Md., Fla., Mich., 0., Wis., Minn.,

Ill., la., Kan., Mont., Wy., Colo., Wash., Mo.

Spongilla igloviformis — -Mass., N.J., Mich., Wis.

Spongilla aspinosa — N.J., Va., Mich.

Spongilla heterosclerifera — N.Y.

Spongilla wagneri —

Ephydatia mulleri— -Mass., N.Y., N.J., Pa., Md., Va., Mich., 0., Ind., Wis.,

Ill., la., Colo.

Ephydatia fluviatilis — Pa., Fla., Mich., 0., Ind., Wis., Ill., Colo.

Ephydatia crateriformis — N.Y., Pa., Md., Mich., O., Ind., Wis., Ill., Tex.

Ephydatia everetti — -Mass., Wis.

Ephydatia baileyi — N.Y.

Ephydatia millsii — Fla,

Ephydatia snbtilis— Fla.

Ephydatia subdivisa — Fla.

Ephydatia robusta — Calif.

Heteromeyenia argyrosperma— ■ -Me., N.J., Pa., Va., Mich., Ind., Wis., Ill.,

Calif.

Heteromeyenia repens — N.Y., N.J., Pa., Mich., Ind., Wis., Ill.

Heteromeyenia ryderi— N.H., Mass., N.Y., N.J., Pa., Va., Fla., Mich., Ind.,

Wis., la., Ga.

Carterius latitentia— N.Y., Pa., O., Ind., Wis., Ill.

Carterius tenosperma — -N.Y., N.J., Pa., 0., Wis.

Carterins tubisperma — Mass., N.Y., N.J., Mich., 0., Ind., Wis., Ill., Ia.,

Kan., Calif.

Asteromeyenia radiospiculata— 0., Ill.

Asteromeyenia plumosa— La., Tex.

Trochospongilla leidyi — N.J., Pa., 0., Ky., Ill., La.

Trochospongilla horrida — Ill., Tex.

Tubella pennsylvanica — Me., Mass., N.J., Pa., Fla., Mich., O., Wis., Conn.

KEY TO THE KNOWN WISCONSIN SPONGILLINAE

Ai(A2) Gemmule without tendrils on the foraminal tubule or

foraminal opening _ _ _ _ _ Bx

Bi('Bg) No birotulates present ______ Spongilla Lamarck Cx

Ci (C2) Skeletal spicules smooth ____________________ D1

Di(D2) Dermal spicules pointed and spined Spongilla

lacustris (Linnaeus) 1745.

D2 No true dermals present; spined, subcylindrical acer-

ates present.

Spongilla fragilis Leidy 1851.

C2 Skeletal spicules spined

Spongilla igloviformis Potts 1887.

B2 Birotulates present _ _ _ _ _______________ _ Ci

Ci (C2) Rotules serrate or dentate _ _ ,_ _ D,

186 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts and Letters

Di(D2) Gemmule producing one type of birotulate.

Ephydatia Lamouroux _ _ _ _ _ Ei

Ei(E2) Skeleton spicules smooth _ „ _ Fi

Fi(Fa) No dermal spicules present

Ephydatia fluviatilis (auctorum)

F2 Dermal spicules minute birotulates

Ephydatia everetti (Mills) 1884.

E2 Skeleton spicules spined _ _ _ _ _ F1

Fi(F2) Rotules well developed, having a well defined

shaft not, or slightly, longer than the rotule

diameter.

Ephydatia mulleri (Lieberkuhn)

F2 Birotulates imperfectly formed, having long,

spined shafts, the spines being longer and more

abundant towards the ends. The rotules are formed

by three to six incurved hooks.

Ephydatia crateriformis. (Potts) 1882.

D2 Gemmules producing two types of Birotulates

Heteromeyenia Potts _ E*

Ei(E2) Dermal spicules wanting _ _ _ Fj

Fi(F2) Small birotulates having large flat serrated

rotules nearly as great in diameter as the length

of the shaft; large birotulates having 3 to 6 in¬

curved hooks for the rotules.

Heteromeyenia ryderi Potts 1882.

F2 Small birotulates similar in appearance to large

birotulates but more abundantly spined.

Heteromeyenia argyrosperma Potts 1880.

E2 Dermal spicules present, spined; Rotules with in¬

curved rays.

Heteromeyenia repens . Potts 1880.

C2 Rotules entire, proximal rotule being much larger than

distal, (collar-button shaped)

Tubella pennsylvanica Potts 1882.

A2 Gemmules with tendrils on the foraminal tubule. Carterius

Potts _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ Bi

Bi(B2) Foraminal tubule %-l the diameter of the gemmule

body ; 4-6 short tendrils present ; birotulates with a smooth

shaft, or very sparsely spined.

Carterius tubisperma Mills 1881.

N eidhoefer— Fresh-Water Sponges of Wisconsin 187

B2(B3) Foraminal tubule the diameter of the gemmule

body; 1-2 long tendrils present; Bjirotulates with a stout

shaft bearing numerous long spines; Rotules deeply cut.

(Suggests genus Ephydatia)

Carterius latitenta Potts 1881.

B3 Foraminal tubule less than % the diameter of the gemmule

body, 3-5 very long, twisted, branched tendrils present.

Birotulates similar to the first species but more irregular

and abundantly spined.

Carterius tenosperma Potts 1880.

Spongilla lacustris (Linnaeus) 1745

The sponge (Plate I) is found in a widely varying habitat.

In hard, clear running water the specimens found were large, of

firm body, and of a bright green color. Those found in conditions

varying from hard, running water to soft bog lakes decreased

in size and virility. Some specimens in standing water of a low

carbonate and silicate content were almost as soft as an algal

mass and of a muddy brown color. It was found attached to

twigs, stones or to the bottom itself.

It is a branched form with long green fingers sometimes

reaching eighteen inches in length and three quarters of an inch

in diameter. It was found in most cases where there was an

abundant supply of sunlight. The gemmules (Plate II) are

abundant throughout the body of the sponge and are dark yellow

or brown in color. The foraminal aperature is hypostomal.

The megascleres (figs. 1, 3) are long, smooth shafted spicules

of variable length and thickness, being either straight or slightly

curved. The microscleres (figs. 4, 5, 6) are small, slender, slightly

curved, abundantly microspined amphioxi. The latter are very

numerous in the sponge body. The gemmule spicules (fig. 2)

are rather short, nearly straight or curved rods with pointed or

rounded ends and varying degrees of spination. The commonest

type is curved and abundantly macrospined.

Spongilla fragilis Leidy 1851

The sponge (plate III) is found in a widely varying habitat,

but prefers waters of a moderately high carbon content. It is

a light positive form of a rather firm body. It is an encrusting

188 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts and Letters

form found growing on twigs, roots, rocks, or any other suitable

place for it to hold on.

It is an unbranched form varying in color from a bright

green in direct sunlight to a very pale yellow in partially shaded

areas. The body varies from a relatively smooth surface to a

rough one, containing many very prominent oscula. Specimens

vary in size from small patches the size of a dollar to colonies as

long as eighteen inches and one and one-half inches in thickness.

The gemmules (plate IV) , varying in color from yellow to orange

to brown, are found in groups in one or more pavement layers

at the base of the sponge. The foraminal tubule is short and

slightly curved.

The megascleres (figs. 1, 4) are long smooth amphioxi. They

vary greatly in shape and size in a single specimen. Globular

swellings along the axis are frequent, and occasionally axial

canals can be observed. Malformations are frequent (fig. 5).

Microscleres are wanting. The gemmule spicules (figs. 2, 8, 6)

are short, spined acerates.

Spongilla igloviformis Potts 1887

The sponge (plate V) is found in a rather limited habitat.

It prefers water of dark color and high organic content, of low

pH, low silicate, and low carbonate content. It has a rather soft

body and could easily be mistaken for an alga by an inexpe¬

rienced observer.

It is a thin encrusting form found growing on the roots of

bog bushes or old sumberged logs. The largest specimen collected

was seventeen inches long but scarcely more than one-quarter

of an inch in thickness. The gemmules (plate VI) are small and

abundant, being located basally. The foraminal aperature can

not be seen since the gemmule is surrounded by a thick crust of

spicules.

The megascleres (figs. 1, 4, 5) are abundantly macrospined,

straight or slightly curved amphioxi with occasional canals.

Malformations are occasionally observed (fig. 1). Dermal

spicules are wanting. The gemmule spicules are large and simi¬

lar in appearance to the megascleres. They are straight or

slightly curved abundantly macrospined amphioxi.

Neidhoefer— Fresh-Water Sponges of Wisconsin 189

Ephydatia fluviatilis (Auctorum)

The sponge (plate VII) is found in running or fresh stand¬

ing water. It has a firm body. Specimens were kept in a

healthy condition for six months in a well balanced aquarium in

the laboratory.

It is a flat, thin, encrusting form growing in large patches

on logs, rocks, piles, or on the bottom. Old (1931) states that he

observed a patch of this animal encrusting on the gravel cov¬

ering an area of 400 square feet. It is smooth or slightly rugose

with very prominent oscula. The color varies from a yellow to

a green depending upon the amount of sunlight. The gemmules

(plate VIII) are numerous and are located either basally or

throughout the sponge body. Foramenal aperature hypostomal,

and partially concealed.

The megascleres (figs. 1, 3) are smooth long shafted am-

phioxi of variable length. The Microscleres are wanting. The

gemmule spicules (figs. 2, 4) are typical birotulates. Their

shafts are longer than the diameter of the rotules, bearing, fre¬

quently, a few macrospines. Margins of the rotules serrate to

dentate.

Ephydatia everetti (Mills) 1884

The sponge (plate IX) is found in dark bog water, preferring

acid waters of a low silicate and carbonate content. The sponge

body is small, delicate, rather soft and is found attached to

Fontinalis in from six inches to three feet of water.

It is a finely branched, almost filamentous form of a brilliant

green color. A filament may be as large as an eighth of an inch

in diameter and three inches long. The gemmules (plate X) are

very large, brown in color, and found in the fingers. They are

very scarce, several colonies being examined, many times, before

one gemmule is found.

The megascleres (fig. 2) are long smooth very thin shafted

amphioxi. The microscleres (figs. 1, 3) are minute birotulates

with smooth shafts. Their rotules are minute consisting of sev¬

eral incurved rays. The gemmules birotulates (figs. 4, 5, 6) have

very much the same shape as the dermal spicules (microscleres)

with the exception that they are larger and have a longer, heavier

shaft.

190 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts and Letters

Ephydatia mulleri (Lieberkuhn) 1856

The sponge (plates XI-XII) is found in a somewhat limited

habitat. It is a light positive form preferring alkaline waters of

a high carbonate and silicate content. It has a firm body found

attached to twigs, rocks, or piles or to the bottom itself if the bed

is not too sandy.

It is an encrusting form of variable shape and color depend¬

ing upon the current and the amount of light received by the

animal. Forms found in swift running water vary from smooth

to rough, with heavy thumb-like projections on the surface.

Patches may cover several square feet. Those found in slow

running water or in standing water form very beautiful colonies

with large rugose or lobate processes. The gemmules (plate

XIII) are very numerous, comparatively small, yellow to brown

in color, and located basally in the sponge. The foraminal open¬

ing is inconspicuous.

The megascleres (figs. 1, 3) are large, robust amphioxi, mi-

crospined except at the tips. The microscleres are wanting. The

gemmule birotulates (figs. 2, 4, 6, 7, 8) have a shaft equal to or

less than the diameter of the rotules. It is either smooth, or

rarely possessing a few macrospines. The rotules are irregularly

deeply serate or dentate.

Ephydatia crateriformis (Potts) 1882

The sponge is described by Potts (1887) and later by Old

(1982) as a small fragile form. It is found encrusting on rocks,

or submerged timber. It has the appearance of a thin grey

film, occasionally branched, with numerous gemmules (plate

XIV) white to yellow in color, showing easily through the thin

dermis of the animal.

The megascleres (figs, a, a) are long amphioxi microspined

except at the tips. The microscleres or dermal spicules are said

by Old (1932) to be wanting. Potts (1887) says that there may

be dermal spicules present. The gemmule birotulates (figs, b, c,

d, e) are long and cylindrical. They are macrospined toward the

tips, and bear from three to six incurved rays.

Heteromeyenia ryderi Potts 1882

The sponge (plate XV) is rather rare. It was collected by

Jewell (1935) from a seepage lake and from running water.

Neidhoefer— Fresh-Water Sponges of Wisconsin 191

In the former case the specimen was poorly developed. In either

case, the water was of low pH concentration, as well as low

silicate and carbonate content.

The body of the sponge is rather firm, and has much the

appearance of S. fragilis. The color varies from a yellow-brown

to a green. The gemmules are numerous (plate XVI), very

small, white or slightly yellow and are found free in the sponge

body or basally. The foramina is very short and inconspicuous.

The megascleres (figs. 1, 4) are long microspined amphioxi

of variable length. The microscleres are wanting. The gemmule

birotulates are of two types. The small ones (figs. 2, 3, 5, 6)

have a shaft longer than the diameter of their discoidal rotule.

The edges of the rotule are finely serrated. Those of the second

class (figs. 7, 8) have longer shafts, smooth or occasionally spars¬

ely macrospined, with the rotules in the form of three to six

incurved hooks.

Heteromeyenia argyrosperma Potts 1880

The sponge (plate XVII) has a rather limited habitat, pre¬

ferring the running water of streams to any other. It has a

moderately firm to loose body varying from yellowbrown to

pale green in color. It is an encrusting form found growing on

rocks, twigs, piles, or in the debris at the bottom. It is either

relatively smooth or has very short projections or filaments hori¬

zontal or parallel to the substratum. The gemmules (plate

XVIII) are large, yellow white in color, and distributed through¬

out the body of the sponge.

The megascleres (figs. 1, 6) are long sparsely microspined

amphioxi of variable length. The dermal spicules or microscleres

are wanting. The gemmule birotulates are of two classes de¬

pending upon the length of their shaft and the degree of spina-

tion. The smaller birotulates (figs. 2, 5) have a short, frequently

macrospined, shaft and from two to five short, irregular incurved

rays. The larger class (figs. 3, 4) have a long, sparsely macro¬

spined shaft and from three to six long, claw-like, incurved rays.

Heteromeyenia repens Potts 1880

The sponge (plate XIX) seems to be able to tolerate a variety

of habitat. It was collected from lakes and streams varying

192 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts and Letters

from seepage lakes, to streams, to moderately hard lakes. It

tolerates a wide carbonate, silicate, and pH variation.

The sponge body is rather soft and small. It is smooth,

rugose, or branched and is found encrusting on twigs, leaves

or other organic detritus of the bottom. It was pale brown to

green in color and was collected from somewhat shaded areas.

The rather numerous gemmules (plate XX) are large and of a

yellow or white color. They are located throughout the sponge

body. The foraminal aperature is inconspicuous.

The megascleres (figs. 1, 6) are long, smooth or very sparsely

microspined straight or slightly curved amphioxi. The micro-

scleres are smaller, abundantly macrospined, and slightly curved.

The spines are the longest toward the center of the shaft. The

gemmule birotulates are of two types, the types differing only in

length of the shafts and the angle with which the rays of the

rotule meet the shaft. The smaller of the two types (fig. 5) has

a short shaft, smooth, or sparsely macospined, and has the

slender, recurved rays entering the shafts at a greater angle

than the larger spicules. The larger of the two has a long shaft,

smooth or sparsely macrospined with the slender, recurved rays

entering at a smaller angle than the previously mentioned type.

The smaller spicules are about two-thirds to three-fourths the

length of the larger.

Tubella pennsylvanica Potts 1882

The sponge (plate XXI) prefers a habitat acidic in reaction,

of low silicate and low carbonate content. It is a light negative

form prefering dark waters of high organic content. When

found in other than seepage lakes, it is always found in some bay

of flowage region where the chemical conditions will vary from

the natural condition of the main body of water due to the large

amount of organic material present.

The sponge body is very thin and slimy, having much the

appearance of a plasmodium. It is grey or flesh colored, with

gemmules (plate XXII) distributed in groups along the sub¬

stratum. They are very small, orange to yellow in color, and

quite numerous.

The megascleres (figs. 1, 3) are large, robust, abundantly

microspined amphioxi of variable length. Microscleres are want¬

ing. The gemmule birotulates (fig. 2) are small and have a char-

Neidhoefer— Fresh-Water Sponges of Wisconsin 193

acteristic collar button shape. The large rotule is proximal to

the gemmule body while the small rotule is distal.

Carterius tubisperma Mills 1881

The sponge (plate XXIII) prefers running water. It favors

alkaline waters of high silicate and carbonate content, transpar¬

ent, with low organic content. It is found encrusting on rocks,

piles, twigs, or to the bottom itself.

The sponge body is rather soft and seldom if ever smooth.

It is covered with small papilla like projections. The color varies

from a brown to a pale green. The gemmules (plate XXIV) are

numerous, located in the basal portion of the sponge. They are

yellow or yellow brown and are characterized by having a very

prominent foraminal tubule (fig. 2) varying in length from one-

half to once the diameter of the gemmule body. It is terminated

by a foraminal disc surrounded by four to six long tendrils.

The megascleres (figs. 1, 3) are long smooth or slightly mi-

crospined, straight or slightly curved amphioxi. The microsclers

(figs. 4, 7) are smaller, abundantly macrospined amphioxi, the

spines being the longest in the middle. The gemmule birotulates

are of two classes, resembling very much those of H. repens.

The smaller type (fig. 6) have a smooth shaft terminated by

rotules composed of three to five recurved rays. The larger type

(fig. 5) has a longer, thinner shaft, usually smooth, terminated

by from three to five incurved rays.

Carterius latitentia Potts 1881

Potts (1887) describes this sponge prefering running water.

He found this sponge growing profusely on the rocks a short

distance under the surface of the water. It was a rather thin,

soft encrusting form, of a green to a brown color. The brown

gemmules were laid down in a pavement layer on the substratum

on which the sponge was encrusting. Upon the degeneration of

the sponge body the filiform appendages of the gemmules could

easily be seen.

The gemmules are characterized by a foraminal tubule (plate

XXV) one-third to one-half the diameter of the gemmule body

bearing one cirrous, long, thread-like appendage coming from

the edge of the foraminal disc.

194 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts and Letters

The megascleres (figs, a, a) are long, heavy shafted amphioxi,

sparsely microspined except at the tips. The microscleres (figs,

c, c) are smaller amphioxi abundantly microspined, being

straight or slightly curved. The Gemmule birotulates (figs, b, b,

b) are of two principle classes. The smaller class has a short

shaft terminated by rotules bearing deeply cut rays, occasionally

incurved. The larger type have a long shaft, smooth or sparsely

macrospined, bearing rotules similar to those of the above men¬

tioned birotulates.

Carterius tenosperma Potts 1880

In her work on the sponges of Wisconsin, Jewell (1985) does

not mention this species as indigenous to the state. The author

reported the sponge, Neidhoefer (1938), as new to the state

of Wisconsin.

The sponge (plate XXVI) was collected in Spider Lake, Vilas

County, in July, 1936. A mass of the sponge, 15 mm. x 3 mm.,

growing on the underside of a root of a dead tree, was found

close to shore in about five inches of water. In this locality the

bottom consists of fine gravel ; plant life is abundant ; and direct

sunlight is permanently available. The water is alkaline and rich

in silicate and carbonate.

The pale green specimen grew in an encrusting, elongated,

irregular mass. The body was soft and was covered by a thin

film of slime characteristic of the genus. The gemmules (plate

XXVII) are rather numerous and located basally. They are

brown in color and characterized by a foraminal tubule (fig. 1)

equal in length to one-sixth to one-quarter the length of the

diameter of the gemmule body bearing numerous branched,

twisted tendrils.

The megascleres are long shafted amphioxi, microspined ex¬

cept at the tips. They vary in length and robustness. The micro¬

scleres are smaller, short, thick shafted amphioxi, abundantly

macrospined, the spines being the longest in the middle. The

gemmule birotulates are of two classes, which differ only in

length. The shafts are abundantly macrospined bearing ir¬

regular rotules composed of three to five incurved rays.

Neidhoefer— Fresh-Water Sponges of Wisconsin 195

V. SUMMARY AND CONCLUSION

There are in the United States twenty-six species of Spongil-

linae widely distributed throughout the various states as indi¬

cated by Table 9. Fourteen of these species have been reported

by various workers as indigenous to Wisconsin ; eleven of these

species have been gathered and identified by the author, two

species have not as yet been added to the author’s collection, one

species is being reported by the author for the first time.

The material for this investigation was prepared in several

ways. The gross specimens were fixed in a preserving fluid or

dried ; the microscopic specimens of gemmules and spicules were

prepared by a modified nitric acid technique. It can be safely

said that 750 spicule slides and 200 gemmule slides were pre¬

pared and examined before selecting material for the camera

lucida drawings and the microphotographs.

It was observed that the most important physical factors are

water transparency and water color, while the most important

chemical factors are bound carbon dioxide content, silicon dioxide

content, and hydrogen ion concentration.

The body of this work consists of the description and classi¬

fication of the fourteen reported species. This was facilitated by

taking a photograph of the entire sponge, a microphotograph of

the gemmule, and camera lucida drawings of the spicules. A

taxonomic key, modified by the author after various workers,

summarizes the specific characteristics of this group of sponges.

VI. GLOSSARY

1. Acerate (acer, sharp). Spicule with pointed ends.

2. Acuminate (acuo, sharpen). Same as acerate.

3. Amphidisc (amphi, both; discus, round). Same as a birotulate.

4. Amphioxi (amphi, both; oxeos, sharp). Spicules pointed at both ends.

5. Birotulate (bis, twice; rotula, wheel). Spicules secreted by the gem-

mules of certain genera.

6. Dentate (dentatus, tooth-like). Tooth-like margins of rotules of cer¬

tain genera.

7. Dermal Spicules (derma, skin). Spicules secreted by the dermal cells.

8. Foraminal aperature (foramina, orifice or short passage). Opening in

gemmule through which young sponge escapes,

9. Foraminal tubule (tubus, tube). Projection of the gemmule wall bear¬

ing the foraminal aperature.

10. Gemmule (gemmula, a little bud). The asexual reproductive element

formed in the sponge body. Comparable to the statoblast of the

Bryozoa.

11. Macroscleres (mackros, large; skleros, hard). Skeleton spicules of

the sponge. Largest of the sponge spicules.

196 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts and Letters

12. Macrospined (mackros, large; spina, spine). The large spines found

on the spicules.

13. Megascieres (megalos, large; skleros, hard). Same as the macro-

scleres.

14. Microscleres (Mickros, small; skleros, hard). Same as the dermal

spicules.

15. Microspmed (mickros, small; spina, spine). Small or minute spines

found on the spicules.

16. Porifera (porus, a pore; ferre, to bear). Sessile, aquatic, diploblastic,

pore-bearing animals called sponges.

17. Osculum (osculum, mouth or opening). Prominent pores found in the

sponge body.

18. Plasmodium (plasma, form; oida, like to) multinculeate, amoeboid

body of mycetozoa.

19. Rotule (rotula, wheel). One of the wheel-like ends of a birotulate

spicule.

20. Serrate (serratus, saw). The saw-like margin of the rotules of some

genera.

21. Skeletal spicule (skleros, hard). The same as the macroscleres.

22. Spicule (spiculum, a needle). A small needle-shaped, silicious body

secreted by the sponge.

23. Stellate (stella, star). The shape of the rotules of certain genera.

24. Zoochlorella (zoon, animal; chloro, green). Chlorosymbionts living

in the sponge body.

25. Zoophyte (zoon, animal; phyton, plant). A plant-like animal; a col¬

ony of animals resembling a plant.

VII. BIBLOGRAPHY

1. Annandale, N., 1909. Fresh Water Sponges in the Collection of the

United States Natural Museum. Part II. Specimens from North

and South America. Proc. U.S. Nat. Mus., 37:401-406.

2 . 1911. Fresh Water Sponges in the Collection of the

United States Natural Museum. Part V. A New Genus Proposed

with Heteromeyenia radiospiculata Mills at type. Idem, 40:593-

594.

3. Birge, E. A. and Juday, C., 1932. Solar Radiation and Inland Lakes.

Trans. Wis. Acad. Sci. Arts, and Lett. 27:523-562.

4. Bowerbank, J. S., 1863. A Monograph of the Spongillidae. Proc.

Zool. Soc. London, 1863, pp. 440-472.

5. Carter, H. J., F. R. S. Sc., 1881. History and Classification of the

Known Species of Spongilla. Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist. ser. 5, 7:77-104.

6 . 1885a. On a Variety of Fresh Water Sponge Meyenia

fluviatilis. Idem, (5) 15:453-456.

7. Delage, Yves, and Herouard, Ed,, 1899. Spongiares. “Traite de

Zoologie Concrete” Tome II, lre Partie. pp. 175-179.

8. Gee, N. Gist., and Wu, C. F., 1927a. Chinese Fresh Water Sponges.

Pek. Nat. Hist. Bull. 2:1-14.

9. Gee, N. Gist., 1932. Genus Trochospongilla of the Fresh Water

Sponges. Pek. Nat. Hist. Bull. 6:1-32.

10. Jewell, M. E., 1935. An Ecological Study of the Fresh-water Sponges

of Northern Wisconsin. Ecol. Mon. 5:461-504.

11. Juday, C., and Birge, E. A., 1930. The Highland Lake District of

North-eastern Wisconsin and the Trout Lake Limnological Lab¬

oratory. Trans. Wis. Acad. Sci. Arts, and Lett. 25:337-352.

12. Neidhoefer, J. R., 1938. Carterius tenosperma P'otts, A Species of

Fresh-water Sponge New to Wisconsin. Trans. Amer. Micro. Soc.

No. 1 LVII: 82-84.

Neidhoefer— Fresh-Water Sponges of Wisconsin 197

IS. Old, Marcus., 1932 a. Taxonomic Distribution of the Fresh-water

Sponges (Spongillidae) of Michigan. Pap. Mich. Acad. Sci. Arts,

and Lett. 15 :439-447.

14 . 1935. Porifera. Subfamily 1. Spongillinae. Pratt’s

“Manual of Common Invertebrate Animals”, Philadelphia, 86-89.

14. bOLD, Marcus C., 1936. Additional North American Fresh-Water

Sponge Records. Trans. Amer. Micr. Soc., Vol. LV., No. 1, pp.

11-13.

15. Potts, Edward, 1887. Fresh-water Sponges. A Monograph. Phil.

Acad. Nat. Sci., 39 :157-279.

16 . 1918. The Sponges (iPOrifera). In W’ard and Whipple,

“Fresh-water Biology”, New York, 301-315.

17. Smith, Frank. 1921. Data on the Distribution of Michigan Fresh¬

water Sponges. Pap. Mich. Acad. Sci. Arts , and Lett. 1:418-421.

18. Smith, Frank. 1921a. Distribution of the Fresh-water Sponges of

North America. III. Nat. Hist. Surv. Bull. 14:9-22.

19. Welch, P. S., 1935. “Limnology”, New York, 1-394.

TABLE X

COUNTIES OF COLLECTION

Barron, Brown, Buffalo, Chippewa, Dodge, Fond du Lac, Green Lake,

Iron, Jackson, Jefferson, Kenosha, La Crosse, Manitowoc, Milwaukee, Mon¬

roe, Oneida, Outagamie, Ozaukee, Polk, Portage, Racine, Sawyer, Shawano,

Sheboygan, Trempealeau, Vilas, Washington, Waukesha, Waupaca, Win¬

nebago.

GEOLOGY OF WASHINGTON ISLAND AND ITS

NEIGHBORS, DOOR COUNTY, WISCONSIN

Robert R. Shrock

Massachusetts Institute of Technology. Assisted in the field by

J. H. R. Havaiid

Geological Settings of the Islands

Location . — Door Peninsula, the long finger-like extension of

northeastern Wisconsin that separates Green Bay from Lake

Michigan, is carried northward across the entrance to the bay

by a string of islands that ends at the Michigan mainland. The

boundary between Wisconsin and Michigan passes eastward be¬

tween Rock Island on the south and St. Martin on the north.

This report will deal exclusively with the islands lying south of

the boundary in Door County, Wisconsin.

Geographic relations. — The islands from north to south are

Rock, Washington (with little Hog Island [Fig. 1] about one-

half mile off the eastern shore and several small sand bars and

islets in Detroit Harbor), Detroit, Plum, and Pilot (Plate 1).

In area they rank as follows: Washington, about 23 square

miles; Rock, about IV2 square miles; Detroit, about 1% square

miles; Plum, about % of a square mile; and Pilot, only a few

acres.

A “submarine” cable connects Rock to St. Martin on the

north and to Washington on the south, Washington and Pilot to

Plum, where the Coast Guard Station for the area is situated,

and Plum to the mainland of Door Peninsula. Mail comes to

Gills Rock at the tip of the peninsula, via Ellison Bay, and is

delivered by boat to the several islands.

An automobile and passenger ferry makes several trips daily

between Gills Rock and Detroit Harbor on Washington Island,

depending on the weather and season of the year. Local motor

boats must be hired if one wishes to visit Detroit, Plum, Pilot, or

Rock islands. In cold winters, the water about and between the

199

200 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts and Letters

Fig. 1. Sketch map of Hog Island and a portion of Washington Island

adjoining.

Plate 1. Geologic map of Washington Island and environs with a geologic

cross-section.

Flate 1. Geologic map of Washington Island and environs with a geologic

cross-section.

Plate 2. Chart showing the glacial lake history of the Washington Island

region.

T THE PRESENT

.AKE MICHIGAN AT

F WASHINGTON- ISLAND AREA AS IT WOULD APPEAR

WITH WATER LEVEL IN LAKE MICHIGAN AT

575 A T.

istory of the Washington Island

Plate 3. Generalized geological column, and stratigraphical sections, of

Washington Island. Correlations with Michigan formations are

shown at the left of the chart.

1934

C. LATE ALGONQUIN — EARLY NIPISSING B LATE MIDDLE ALGONQUIN A. EARLY MIDDLE ALGONQUIN

60l' LEVEL 63l' LEVEL 65l' LEVEL

Plate 4. Diagrammatic sketch maps showing the geological history of

Little Lake.

LITTLE

LAKE

W*TOTO”,5?T’"^^ B

-■■■ 2 3 O'— - - —

:le

-KE

1)4

105

OSS SECTIONS OF D

,;onquin

Jf

A

LEGEND

A. EARLY MIDDLE ALGONQUIN

651" LEVEL

M

iring the geological history of

Shrock — Geology of Washington Island

201

islands freezes to sufficient thickness that automobiles can be

driven from the mainland to the islands. This is not always a

safe practice, however, for thin ice and open water have taken

their toll, along with wind and storm, in Deaths Door.

Niagara Escarpment. — One of the most spectacular surface

features in eastern Wisconsin is the Niagara Escarpment or

“The Ledge” as it is called locally. It is a steep, westward-facing

cliff that rises out of the glacial drift a few miles south of Wau¬

kesha and increases in height northward until it stands over 100

feet above the northern end of Lake Winnebago at High Cliff.

It then dies out for a short distance, but soon appears as a low

bluff east of Green Bay, and clinging to the eastern shore of the

bay it increases steadily in height until it culminates in the bold,

precipitous cliffs at Eagle Point Park near Ephraim and at

Ellison Bay near the northern end of the peninsula. The cliffs

at their greatest height rise over 150 feet above the waters of

Green Bay.

Northward from the tip of Door Peninsula, the escarpment

base becomes submerged beneath at least 140 feet of water ; yet

because of increased height it still rises well over 140 feet above

water in Boyer Bluff, at the northwestern tip of Washington

Island, and in the precipitous, triple-notched cliff at Pottawatomi

Point, Rock Island (Plates 1 and 6).

The Niagara escarpment may be traced quite easily on the

U. S. War Dept. Chart No. 715 ( Entrance to Green Bay, Lake

Michigan) by following the soundings. It is interrupted at

Deaths Door Passage (Porte des Morts Passage) by the deep

water in a transverse subaqueous valley, but it continues along

the western side of Plum Island, thence due north along the west¬

ern shore of Washington Island to Boyer Bluff, where it turns

abruptly eastward to follow the northern shore almost to Rock

Island. Then it makes a second right angle turn, this time to the

northward, and maintains that direction along the western

shore of Rock Island to Pottawatomi Point. Here it is again in¬

terrupted by a deep, transverse valley, which is now occupied by

the Rock Island Passage, and it does not appear again until St.

Martin Island in Michigan is reached.

If the waters of Green Bay and Lake Michigan were lowered

200 feet, the archipelago across the entrance to the bay would

then appear as a rather narrow, serrated ridge with a pre-

202 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts and Letters

cipitous cliff — the Niagara Escarpment — along the west side,

and a rather steep, eastward slope along the opposite side. Be¬

fore the glaciers overrode this part of Wisconsin and Michigan,

therefore, there seem to have been two major valleys with num¬

erous tributaries bounding the ridge just mentioned. The deep

channels now occupied by Deaths Door and Rock Island passages

were apparently sites where the tributaries of the two major

valleys had been approaching each other by headward erosion

and had already lowered the ridge considerably below its summit.

Glacial history — The glaciers, coming from the north and

northeast and feeling their way southward, first sent great lobes

along the two valleys and then finally rode bodily over the inter¬

vening ridge, grinding down, smoothing off, and grooving large

areas of solid rock and leaving large boulders of igneous rocks

not native to this part of Wisconsin on the highest parts of Wash¬

ington and Rock islands. The lobes must have deepened the

valleys many tens of feet, perhaps in the case of the Lake Michi¬

gan valley hundreds of feet, and the last to advance along them

left a series of crescentic ridges of morainal material at the

south ends of the depressions now occupied by the bay and the

lake. The main lobe, which followed the eastern valley, deep¬

ened it far below what the pre-glacial stream could have done,

and as a result the present bottom of Lake Michigan is in some

places as deep as 289 feet below sea level. In contrast, the deep¬

est point in Green Bay is 437 feet above sea level.*

The last sheet of ice to advance upon Washington Island

left a thick morainic blanket of bouldery till over the north¬

western quarter of the island. As it melted back, the escaping

waters collected in the deepened basins occupying the former

river valleys and the Great Lakes came into existence. At an

early stage the ancestor of present Green Bay and Lake Michi¬

gan, called glacial Lake Algonquin, was considerably larger

than those two bodies of water are today and also 90-100 feet

deeper. At this time the island group under discussion was re¬

duced to a few small islets (Plate 2). This old level is indicated

at several places on Washington and Rock islands by caves and

benches cut by the waves, and possibly by some of the higher

beach remnants (Compare Plates 1 and 5).

“College Physiography”, R. S. Tarr and L. Martin, The Macmillan Co., 1921, p. 326.

Shrock — Geology of Washington Island

203

After a period of unknown length, the water level fell some

30 feet to approximately 650' A. T., and remained at that general

elevation long enough for benches and caves to be cut and for

cobble ridges to be formed. Again the water level fell, this time

about 20 feet to approximately 630' A. T., and the same features

came into existence as before, except at a lower elevation and

around the increasingly larger island. Finally, water level

dropped about 30 feet, to an approximate elevation of 600'

A. T., and glacial Lake Algonquin came to an end.

The 600-foot stage appears to have persisted for a consider¬

able length of time, judging from the extensive rock benches and

caves that were eroded into the resistant dolomites, and the wide¬

spread, dolomite cobble deposits that were made and deposited

on the benches and in the caves. These shore features are well

developed at many points on Washington Island, as well as on

Rock Island, and some of them are indicated on Plates 1 and 5.

This old level, which marks the closing stage of Lake Algonquin,

also marks the highest level of the next lake, which has been

named glacial Lake Nipissing. Hereafter, therefore, the 600-

foot stages will be referred to as the Nipissing stage ; the others

at higher elevations as Algonquin stages. (Plate II).

From the 600-foot stage the water apparently fell about to its

present level of 580' ± A. T., or approximately 100 feet lower

than at the beginning of Lake Algonquin.

Plate 2 has been constructed to show the shore lines at the

various stages of lakes Algonquin and Nipissing, the present ap¬

proximate shore line (at elevation 578.50' A. T.), and the shore

line as it would appear if water level were to fall another

feet to elevation 575' A. T. It is interesting to note that in the

last condition Rock and Detroit islands would be joined to

Washington, but deep water would still separate this superisland

from Plum and Pilot islands, and the latter would also remain

separated from Door Peninsula.

During the long period of time that has elapsed since the

glacial ice melted off the continent and the enlarged Great Lakes

gradually shrank to their present outlines, the earth's crust has

been slowly readjusting itself to the unloading that took place

with the removal of the ice. One way in which this readjustment

has become obvious is in the gentle tilting of the beaches of the

older stages; hence, the present elevations of the Algonquin

204 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts and Letters

stages as marked on Rock Island are somewhat higher than

the same appear on Washington Island and farther south along

the Green Bay and Lake Michigan shores. The Nipissing level,

on the other hand, appears essentially horizontal. For a full

discussion of this very interesting aspect of the early history of

Green Bay and Lake Michigan, the reader is referred to the Wis¬

consin Geological Survey reports by Goldthwait and Martin.

General geological sequence . — All of the stratified rocks ex¬

posed in the Washington Island region are dolomites belonging

to the Niagaran division of the Silurian period. They make a

great tablet which is inclined to the eastward with an average

slope of about 30-40 feet to the mile, hence the eroded western

edge of the tablet is very steep (Niagara Escarpment), whereas

the eastern backslope is rather gentle. The strata are subdi¬

vided into a number of formations and these in turn, into mem¬

bers.

Fossils are not common in most of the rocks, and the un¬

initiated would soon conclude that they were absent, but many

beds do contain a few and certain layers are quite full of them.

In fact, some of the beds are so fossiliferous that they have been

designated the “coral beds”. A few of the common fossils are

illustrated in Fig. 12.

The youngest geological deposits belong to the Pleistocene

glacial period and consist of glacial drift and boulders, beach

gravels, and beach and dune sand. They are scattered irregularly

over the islands and vary considerably in thickness (Plate 1).

Washington Island

General surface features. — Washington Island is roughly

rectangular in shape, with a maximum length of 6% miles, and

average width of about 5 miles, and an area of approximately

23 square miles. Except for the cliffed western edge and the

high backbone of the island, the general surface is gently rolling.

There are few streams and these are short, because the natural

lakeward slope of most of the island allows easy drainage with¬

out much concentration along stream channels.

Washington Island is essentially a large, differentially sculp¬

tured block of dolomite tipped gently to the southeast so that

the individual beds or layers in the block, when followed for a

Shrock — Geology of Washington Island

205

few hundred feet, are seen to descend in a general southeasterly

direction at the rate of about 30-40 feet per mile. When these

beds are examined extensively and in detail, however, they often

show local irregularities which sometimes reverse the regional

dip for short distances. A few exposures showing the dip of the

beds may be cited in support of the general statement just made.

In the low cliff along the western shore northwest of the

ferry landing the coralline strata dip gently to the southeast.

Beds which outcrop at lake level in the N.E. % of Sec. 34, T.

34 N., R. 29 E., also outcrop at the same level at Washington

Harbor settlement, in the S.E. Cor. of Sec. 24, T. 34 N., R. 29 E.,

and a line drawn through these two points would trend in a

northeasterly direction, at right angles to the regional dip, and

would indicate the strike of the beds. Essentially the same di¬

rection of strike may be obtained by comparing sections 9 and

11 on Plate 3. Because of the southeasterly dip, successively

older or lower strata are found at water level as one traverses

northward along the western shore of the island, until at the tip

of Boyer Bluff, the oldest rocks visible on Washington Island

lie at water level.

Along the western shore at Pearse Camp (Plate 3) there is

some local irregularity of structure, with dips varying from

18 to 53 feet per mile to the south and southeast within short dis¬

tances. There is a low dome with maximum relief of perhaps 4

feet just south of the camp.

Local irregularities are again apparent in the vicinity of the

rocky platform at the northeastern corner of the island, where

for short distances the dip is northeasterly instead of south¬

easterly, as at Arnold Wickman’s cottage in the S.W. Cor. of

Sec. 34, T. 34 N., R. 30 E.

The most conspicuous topographic feature of Washington

Island is the high cliff along the western shore which rises pre-

ciptously out of Green Bjay. It begins at the southwestern corner

of the island as a low, cobble-covered bluff about 15-20 feet

high, and northward becomes increasingly higher until it cul¬

minates in the bold face of Boyer Bluff at the northwestern ex¬

tremity of the island, where the highest point is over 140 feet

above the bay (Figs 4, 11). A second prominent topographic

feature on Washington Island is a high, rounded, double ridge in

the central part, which is locally referred to as “The Mountain”.

206 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts and Letters

This twin ridge, which really consists of three ridges if the lower

and westernmost one is included, is roughly stream-lined in

a general north-south direction, presenting two high, rounded

cliffs to the north and a long and broad, gently descending, ir¬

regular backslope to the southeast (Plate 5). The cliffs rise

about 100 feet above the flat lowland to the north and about

160 feet above the level of Green Bay.

The backslope of the cuesta is fairly broad and slopes gently

to the southeastern tip of the island where it continues under the

water of Lake Michigan. One could walk on the same kind of

dolomite, with occasional interruptions because of soil, gravel

or vegetation, from the peak of “The Mountain” to the south¬

eastern tip (See geologic cross-section on Plate 1), and if he

could follow the same bedding surface all the way, he would

descend about 160 feet in 8 miles, or at the rate of about 20 feet

per mile. On the backslope of the eastern ridge are very prom¬

inent outcrops of the marble-like Racine dolomite which caps the

hill, and the surface is in some places deeply corroded along

prominent, enlarged joints, so that it resembles a giant pave¬

ment laid with huge rhombic blocks. (Fig. 10).

The glaciers which came from the north must have ripped

away many tons of rock from the steep, northern faces of “The

Mountain”, and a lobe gouged out a typical U-shaped glacial

valley between the two ridges. Down the backslope at several

places the dolomite is smoothed and striated, and numerous

grooves show that the general direction of ice movement was

southerly. At the crossroads, where Secs. 5, 6, 7, and 8 corner

(Plate 1), well preserved grooves show bearings that vary from

N-S to N 15° W., and at the S. W. Cor. Sec. 31, T. 34 N., R. 30

E., similar markings vary from N-S to N 15° E.

STRATIGRAPHICAL SEQUENCE

The strata exposed on Washington Island total about 300

feet in thickness and belong entirely to the Silurian system ex¬

cept for the surficial gravels, sands, and silts that are of glacial

or Pleistocene age. A generalized stratigraphical column is

shown on Plate 3 and will be described in detail on the following

pages. This generalized column is a composite sequence based on

a number of scattered exposures as indicated on the index map

of Plate 3. It has been subdivided into numbered units so that

R.30E.

T

34

N

/

0

i >

SCALE OF MILES

»

me , i . .

3

Plate 5. Rock benches and ancient shore lines on Washington and Rock-

Islands, showing approximate shore lines of glacial lakes Nipis-

sing (600' A.T.) and Algonquin (6S0'J, 650 't and 670-680 ' t ) .

Plate 6. Geological cross-section of Pottawatomi Point, Rock Island,

showing stratigraphical column and evidences of ancient lake

levels.

S8L-URIA8M — niagaran /pleistocene:,

ni iPjoint, Rock Island,

idences of ancient lake

SILURIAN — NIAGARAN PLEISTOCENE

Shrock — Geology of Washington Island 207

specific beds may be referred to easily. The names of the larger

subdivisions (Racine; Manistique, consisting of the Cordell and

Schoolcraft dolomites; and Burnt Bluff, consisting of the Hen¬

dricks and Byron dolomites) are those now in general use among

geologists, but they are not in all instances the designations

used by the earlier Wisconsin geologists. For this reason, the

newer and older names are correlated in the chart below so that

their equivalents may be determined at a glance. Racine and

Byron are old Wisconsin names; Burnt Bluff, Manistique, Hen¬

dricks, and Schoolcraft are names that have been proposed for

Michigan formations, that are well exposed in the Green Bay

region.

Table 1. Chart showing new and old names for

beds exposed in the Washington Island area

In the following detailed description of the numerous units

of the generalized column, the unit will be referred to by the

number which appears on Plate 3.

Cen ozoic — Quaternary — (Pleistocene

29. Beach ridges and veneer of well rounded igneous, metamorphic,

and dolomite cobbles and pebbles, sometimes containing fresh¬

water clam shells and marking the ancient shore lines of glacial

lakes Algonquin and Nipissing. (0'-10').

28. Glacial drift occurring at various places in hummocky moraines,

irregular hillocks, and as a veneer of variable thickness. Numer¬

ous large igneous boulders are scattered over the island, even on

the highest points. (O' -50' + ).

Paleozoic— -Silurian- — Racine Formation

27. Gray, bluish-gray and greenish-gray, tough, dense, marble-like

dolomite in thick beds with inclined joints. The rock breaks into

large boulder-like masses. There are many peculiar, concentri¬

cally ribbed structures which may be cf organic origin, and a few

corals and trilobites. Well exposed on “The Mountain”, and also

on Pilot Island. (40' + ) .

Manistique Formation — Cordell dolomite

26. Dark gray, thin- and uneven-bedded, somewhat saccharoidal dolo¬

mite full of corals and other fossils which are often silicified, and

containing numerous chert nodules and lenses in the lower half.

208 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts and Letters

Well exposed at the base of “The Mountain”, along the eastern

shore at several places, and on Rock and Plum islands. (45' + )

Manistique Formation — Schoolcraft dolomite

25. Buff-gray, uneven-bedded, somewhat saccharoidal dolomite with

considerable chert and numerous silicified corals and brachiopods

(Pentamerus) . Exposed just north of “The Mountain”, in Wash¬

ington Harbor, and along the shore northwest of the ferrv landing

(8'-f-).

24. Buff-gray, fairly thick- and uneven-bedded, saccharoidal dolomite

full of well preserved specimens of Pentamerus , many of which

are silicified. In places the rock is a veritable coquina. The lower

IV2' weathers into nodular layers that are less fossiliferous. Ex¬

posed on top of Boyer Bluff and on the flat north of “The Moun¬

tain”. (5' + ).

23. Sequence of variable lithology, exposed near the top of Boyer

Bluff just below the light tower, in descending order:

1'. Gray, dense, hard and tough dolomite containing some

silicified corals.

!%'• Gray, dense, crystalline dolomite containing corals and

weathering to buff, porous, sugary rock.

2% . Massive, buff dolomite full of silicified corals and weath¬

ering with a rough and ragged surface.

3'. Light buff, uneven-bedded, nodular and platy dolomite

with a few chert nodules in the upper half.

1'. Brown, hard and tough, blocky dolomite.

9 '..Total

22. Gray-buff, soft, uneven-textured, saccharoidal dolomite full of

white and gray-brown chert nodules and containing some poorly

preserved pentameroid brachiopods. The chert is in nodules and

discontinuous layers l"-2" thick. The rock breaks with shattery

fracture into angular fragments. This unit is believed to repre¬

sent the lowest horizon of Pentamerus , except for occasional speci¬

mens, and is taken, therefore, as the base of the Schoolcraft dolo¬

mite. (3').

Burnt Bluff Formation — Hendricks dolomite

21. Buff, saccharoidal dolomite with uneven texture, tending to break

with shattery fracture into nodular and irregular fragments.

(1%').

20. Similar to unit 21, but somewhat less shattered and with many

minute tubes ramifying the basal layers. The bedding is some¬

what lenticular and uneven. (5^').

19. Buff, massive, finely saccharoidal dolomite in two thick beds which

split into thin laminae 14 "-14" thick on protracted weathering.

The upper 3' bed is dark-brown to gray, dense dolomite which

weathers to a sugary condition. (5%').

18. Buff, massive bed of uneven-textured, granular dolomite which

weathers with rounded and smooth surfaces into loose, buff, dolo¬

mite sand. f3').

17. Gray-buff, massive, uneven-bedded dolomite which shatters on

weathering into interwedging, lenticular masses, platy chips, and

flakes. Beds of this rock alternate with one-foot layers of dense,

gray dolomite which does not split on weathering. Partly ex¬

posed in Boyer Bluff and at the top of the Washington Harbor

section. This unit is believed to mark the base of the Hendricks

dolomite because the underlying strata possess the typical, blocky,

semi-lithographic even-bedded character of the Byron dolomite.

(10').

Shrock — Geology of Washington Island

209

Burnt Bluff Formation — Byron dolomite

16. Gray, fine-grained, even-bedded, blocky fracturing, hard and tough

dolomite separating along smooth surfaces into beds from 6" to 1'

thick. Exposed in the E % of Sec. 34, T. 34 N., R. 29 E., in the

Washington Harbor section, and elsewhere on the island. (16').

15. Buff, massive, uneven-bedded, fairly hard and tough dolomite

which weathers readily to cream-colored, dolomitic sand. The rock

breaks into small chunks of irregular shape because of poor and

irregular jointing, and hence contrasts with the blocky beds above

and below. It has a buff color which also contrasts with the gray-

white of the contiguous strata. There is commonly a slight inden¬

tation in cliffs where the unit is exposed because of its ease of

weatheri ng. ( 6 % ' ) .

14. Gray, dense, blocky fracturing, uneven-bedded dolomite similar to

unit 16. The joints are not at right angles, hence the blocks have

wedge shapes. The upper 3' are somewhat massive and tend to

have lighter color. The basal one-foot bed is dark-gray, somewhat

saccharoidal rock with many small, flattened cavities disposed hori¬

zontally, weathering easily with a horizontally grooved surface.

O').

13. Light brown (white-weathering) , hard, tough, semi-conchoidally

fracturing dolomite separating into even beds from 6" to 1' thick

along smooth bedding surfaces. The smooth joints are at nearly

right angles, hence the beds break into cubical or prismatic blocks.

(sy2f).

12. Buff, fossiliferous dolomite of sugary texture with upper 3' to 5'

even-bedded and lower part unevenly bedded. The rock weathers

to a harsh, dolomite sand resembling ashes. Corals are abundant

throughout the unit. The separation planes in much of the unit

are very bumpy and the beds of unequal thickness. In some sec¬

tions, cavities a few inches across are present, apparently the

result of solution, and some of the corals are partly silicified. In

addition to corals ( Favosites chiefly), there are stromatoporoids,

brachiopods, and gastropods. This important coral horizon is ex¬

posed at several places at or just above water level in Green Bay

(Fig. 3). (10%').

11. Gray to light brown ( white- weathering ) , hard and tough, brittle,

dense, conchoidally fracturing dolomite in even-bedded layers 3"-8"

thick. The rock first separates into cubical and prismatic blocks

and then after considerable weathering these split into thin lami¬

nae (%"-%" thick). There are a few mud cracks and ripple

marks on some of the separation surfaces. The base of this unit

is strongly marked by a very bumpy surface along which it sep¬

arates from the underlying strata, though this relation is some¬

times interrupted by a thin unit of laminated, carbonaceous shaly

dolomite. (16').

10. This unit is of interest because it may be marked by a foot or less

of dark colored, horizontally streaked, crinkly laminated, argil¬

laceous and somewhat carbonaceous dolomite; or this thin shaly

unit may disappear, in which case its place is represented by the

very bumpy surface separating units 9 and 11. (O'-l'-f).

9. Gray to white-weathering, blocky, semi-lithographic, conchoidally

fracturing dolomite in even beds from 6" to 2' thick or wavy, un¬

even beds of variable thickness. The rock weathers with a hori¬

zontally grooved surface and often develops scattered holes which

owe their origin to solution of crinoid fragments. Mud cracks

and ripple marks are common throughout, and small tubes ramify

some of the beds. (8 %' ).

210 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts and Letters

8. Rock is similar to unit 9 except that it is somewhat shaly, banded

and laminated, and the bedding is billowy. (1%').

7. Gray, massive dolomite full of large holes and always conspicuous

in a weathered cliff.

This unit can be traced from Pearse Camp (Plate 3) to and

beyond Jacobson’s Camp, being from 4 to 6 feet above water level.

The rock is brown, has finely crystalline texture and semi-con-

choidal fracture. Stratification is lacking, though the bed does

tend to become slightly banded at the top on weathering.

Numerous cavities are present and the bed thickens and thins

so that the upper and lower surfaces undulate gently. Overlying

and underlying beds thicken and thin in conformity or bend up

and down.

The cavities are generally flattened, average 2"-6" long and 3"

thick and are often mainly spongy masses of dolomite. Many are

partly filled with a reticulose mass of finely crystalline dolomite.

In some instances, spongy masses occur in the bulges of the bed,

but more often they occur where the bed is somewhat constricted.

The origin of the cavities is not apparent. Some may be algal;

others seem almost certainly the result of solution. (1%').

6. A massive layer of dolomite with a rippled upper surface, undulat¬

ing in conformity with the variations in thickness of unit 7, and a

very bumpy lower surface which fits over the uneven surface of

unit 5. There are numerous current ripple marks which are about

an inch apart and have a general northeasterly trend with the

water moving from the southwest. (!%').

5. White, gray or brown, dense, semi-lithographic dolomite in a single

massive bed with a very uneven upper surface. The relief on this

surface is as much as a foot locally and there is no definite pattern

to the irregularities. The unit is always conspicuous and just

south of Pearse Camp it dips southeasterly at about 53 feet per

mile. <l'-2').

4. Gray to light brown, fine-grained, blocky dolomite with same gen¬

eral characters as unit 9. (7').

3. Conglomeratic dolomite. This unit has a 6 "-8" layer of gray, semi-

lithographic dolomite at the top and base, and between is massive,

very uneven-textured, cavernous dolomite in which a thin (6"-f)

conglomeratic layer is commonly present. The lower bounding bed

contains a few chert nodules, and undulates considerably in

adjusting itself to the very uneven surface of the underlying unit.

(2'-3').

2. Gray to white- weathering, even- and fairly thin-bedded (l'-f

thick), blocky, semi-lithographic, conchoidally fracturing dolomite.

Some coarsely textured parts weather out causing small holes to

develop, and the entire unit weathers with horizontal grooving into

iron-stained, dolomite sand. The lower 2' of rock shows some

black, shaly, crinkled laminae alternating with a few thin dolomite

layers. (94').

1. Gray, dense, blocky dolomite separating, along slightly uneven

surfaces, into fairly thin layers (2"~12" thick). Shale films sep¬

arate many of the layers. This unit is at least 8' thick, and

probably is somewhat thicker for in September, 1934, it could be

seen under w*ater for some distance out from shore. Normally

probably not over half of the thickness can be seen above water.

<8' + ).

Shrock — Geology of Washington Island 211

It should be noted that the Boyer Bluff section has a total

thickness of approximately 150 feet and that the complete col¬

umn for Washington Island totals slightly over 250 feet.

SHORE LINE

General features —The rather smooth shore line of Washing¬

ton Island is broken by four prominent indentations: Detroit

Harbor on the south; West Bay on the west; and Washington

and Jackson harbors on the north. A small village is present in

each of the indentations. Detroit Harbor is the largest of the

settlements and has a good-sized hotel, the post office for the

island, schools, and numerous other buildings.

Along most of the south shore a narrow zone of beach gravel

gives way inland to dune sand and this in turn merges into the

wooded hinterland. Along the western shore a cobble beach

reaches from the ferry landing to Boyer Bluff with few breaks.

The cobbles are predominantly dolomitic and of local origin,

though there are some igneous and metamorphic cobbles and

boulders of glacial origin. Back from the shore the beach ends

in sand, as around West Bay, or against a rocky cliff topped by

a veneer of ancient beach cobbles. The lowest of these ancient

beaches is at an approximate elevation of 600' A. T., or about 15

to 20 feet above present water level in Green Bay, and is con¬

sidered the Nipissing level. It is of interest to reflect that rocky

platforms and cobble ridges, in all essential characters exactly

like the ancient ones, may be seen in the process of formation at

many points along the present western shore of Washington

Island (Fig. 11).

The northern shore is margined with a cobble beach and is

wooded along much of its extent. There is considerable sand op¬

posite Rock Island and also along the eastern shore south of

the cobble-veneered platform at the northeastern corner of the

island.

The eastern shore varies from rocky cliffs to low terraces

of gravel and sand (Plate 1). At several places the Nipissing

level may be identified by rock benches and cobble ridges.

The materials along the present beach consist of the fol¬

lowing :

1. Large blocks and slabs of dolomite recently fallen from a cliff

or torn from the exposed rock along the shore by waves and

winter ice. (Fig. 4).

212 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts and Letters

2. Roundstones of dolomite ranging in size from that of an apple

to that of a basketball or large pumpkin. These are the cobbles

of future beach ridges.

4.

3. Small rounded cobbles, and a few boulders and pebbles of

granite, basalt and metamorphic rock.

Gravel consisting of angular and rounded pebbles of dolomite,

often piled in windrows a foot or so above water level. Ridges

of such material that are now from 5 to 8 feet above the water

(elevation 585' -f A, T.) are thought to have been deposited

during some past stage of unusually high water as in 1929,

when the level reached 582.25' A. T. during the summer.

5. Beach sand, almost certainly of glacial origin, occurs at a few

places and usually forms a strip parallel to the shore, though

it may also reach inland for some distance (Plate 1).

Along rocky shores there are overhanging cliffs, stair-stepped

rocky platforms a few feet above or below water level, and colo-

naded cliffs, with square or prismatic columns marked off by

prominent, smooth, vertical joints (Fig. 4). Caves have been

quarried out of some of the cliffs by waves and winter ice, and

these may be seen at several levels. (Fig. 11) .

Little Lake. — Little Lake, one of the choicest beauty spots on

Washington Island, lies in a shallow bowl of forest and meadow-

land and is separated from Green Bay by only a narrow strip

of bed rock and cobbles (Plate 4). It lies in the extreme north¬

western corner of the island on the peninsula which separates

Washington Harbor from Green Bay, in Sec. 23, T. 34 N., R. 29

E. It is roughly r-shaped, with an area of about 130 acres, and

its longitudinal center line bears generally northeasterly. By

hand level the water surface was found to be six feet higher

than Green Bay. Since the normal level of Green Bay is about

581 feet above sea level, the level of Little Lake would be about

587 feet. It should be pointed out, however, that the water level

of the lake rises and falls in response to that in the bay, for in

September, 1934, with the water at 578' A.T. in the latter, the

lake surface stood at 584' A.T. This low water condition was

made obvious by the piers which were much too high for water

level and in the rowboat harbors where the former shallow bot¬

toms were high and dry.

According to Mr. Jacobson, who has a camp at the south end

of the lake, the maximum depth that has been found in the lake

is about 15 feet. He also stated that the bottom is covered to a

large extent with mud full of decaying organic matter, and this

Shrock — Geology of Washington Island

213

condition is further suggested by the tangle of weeds and grasses

which fringe the shore. There are scattered boulders on the dry

bottoms of the small harbors, and along the shore in general,

and such are also very likely buried in the bottom muds.

The region around Little Lake is heavily wooded with ever¬

greens and deciduous trees, and there is considerable under¬

brush. At the north end the lake fades into a marsh, and this in

turn gives way to a narrow band of meadowland that extends

northward to the heavily wooded slope rising toward the sum¬

mit of Boyer Bluff (Plate 1) .

A low bluff of Byron dolomite extends along the shore of

Green Bay north and south of the lake, but disappears where

Little Lake most nearly approaches the bay. In this gap an

18-foot, flat-topped ridge of dolomite cobbles holds back the

waters of the lake from flowing into the bay. The top of this

low bluff averages 15 to 18 feet above the bay (elevation =

595' ± A. T.) and is nearly always a flat bench veneered with

beach cobbles of dolomite, representing the shore deposits of

Lake Nipissing.

The east side of the lake basin is bordered by a low, double-

stepped escarpment extending in a general northeasterly direc¬

tion. The lower bench, which has an approximate elevation of

600' + A.T., represents the Nipissing level and the higher, which

varies somewhat in elevation (624' 630' A.T.), is believed to

represent the 630-foot Algonquin stage. There are a few small

caves in the lower escarpment. (Plate 5).

These two benches are without cobbles, but they are veneered

with talus and soil. Apparently disintegration and decomposi¬

tion have provided enough debris to cover the old beach cobbles,

if any ever were present. Several small caves, similar to those

that may be seen along the nearby Green Bay shore line, are

present in the lower cliff and were probably cut at a time when

the storm waves and winter ice of Green Bay could make their

effects felt along this old shore.

Present geographical and geological relations indicate that

Little Lake is of fairly recent origin, probably dating from

sometime during the Lake Nipissing stage. In the early middle

Algonquin, when the water level stood at 650' ± A.T., the Boyer

Bluff Peninsula was transected by a wide channel as shown on

Plates 2B, 4A, and 5. As the water level fell to a lower stage

214 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts and Letters

of 630' dt A.T. this channel was destroyed by the emergence of

the land, but a deep embayment still persisted on the Green Bay

side. Finally, when the waters fell still further to 600' =±,

marking the close of the Algonquin and the beginning of the

Nipissing stage, this embayment shrank considerably in size

but still remained as a prominent indentation, open to the storm

waves and probably the winter ice of the bay to the west. It was

at this time, apparently, that the caves and rock bench were cut

along the eastern side of the lake basin.

Shortly after the beginning of the Nipissing stage, how¬

ever, it is believed that the storm waves, which must have thund¬

ered on the beaches even as they do today, and the powerful

winter ice, that shoved with great force against the shore,

gradually built a ridge of beach cobbles and talus across the

mouth of the small bay and, thus blocked, the bay became the

basin of Little Lake. The cobble ridge which acts as a dam aver¬

ages about 250 feet in width and stands at an average elevation

of about 596' A.T., or about 15 feet above the average level of

Green Bay. It would appear, therefore, that the lake came into

existence not long after the beginning of Nipissing time.

Once cut off from the bay, the lake basin began to receive

clay, silt, and organic materials from the surrounding slopes,

and it is believed that these fine deposits gradually filled the

voids between the coarser particles of the cobble ridge, ultimately

sealing off the waters of the lake and thereby making it possible

for the latter to maintain a level 6 feet higher than that of the

bay. At the present time Little Lake appears to be fed by springs

and the runoff from the surrounding slopes, hence in years of

heavy rainfall the level will rise, as will that of Green Bay,

whereas in years of drought it will fall.

Little Lake, then, appears to have been formed by the block¬

ing of a preexisting bay of somewhat larger size, and this is

further borne out by the presence of the old beach lines and

wave-cut caves along the east side of the present lake basin.

Rock Island

GENERAL STATEMENT

Rock Island is the last and northernmost of the Wisconsin

islands stringing across the entrance to Green Bay (Plate 1).

Shrock — Geology of Washington Island

215

It has an area of slightly over 1% square miles and is roughly

rectangular in outline with a low, narrow southwestern point

reaching toward Washington Island. The western side of the

island rises precipitously out of Green Bay to a maximum height

of over 170 feet, the interior is quite rough with parts standing

from 100 to 200 feet above water, and the northern, eastern, and

southern shores show only low cliffs of dolomite bordered by

cobbles and beach gravel, or by sand. Nearly all of the island is

wooded, hence the best exposures are along the shore line where

the waves and winter ice are always actively quarrying away the

thin-bedded and well jointed rock.

There are said to be many deer on the island but we failed to

see any, probably because of the noise we made while traversing

the woods. Along the western or Green Bay shore, however, we

counted six deer skeletons, apparently representing animals that

had plunged over the precipice south of Pottawatomi Point dur¬

ing the previous winter. We were told that many animals meet

death every winter in this manner when fleeing from dogs. The

deer are known to cross back and forth from Rock to Washing¬

ton island on the winter ice.

There is a lighthouse at the northwestern corner of the

island, on top of Pottawatomi Point, and a family lives here

throughout the year. The government owns a small area in the

immediate vicinity of the light, but the remainder of the island

belongs to C. H. Thordarson, a Chicago manufacturer.

THORDARSON CAMP

Mr. C. H. Thordarson has built a very beautiful group of

buildings on the southwestern point of Rock Island, taking ad¬

vantage of the local materials for building purposes and of the

natural configuration of the surface in landscaping his camp.

Most of the buildings, which include a large boathouse, a green¬

house, and numerous cottages, are constructed of rounded dolo¬

mite pebbles and cobbles laid in successive courses. The masonry

is of the highest order and the architecture blends harmoniously

with the landscaped surroundings. (Fig. 6).

The ancient beach ridges of dolomite cobbles have been pre¬

served and utilized in the landscaping of the grounds ; sand from

nearby dunes has been utilized to some extent ; cobble stones and

glacial boulders have gone into the walls of the buildings and

216 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts and Letters

into the fences ; and the bedrock of the island has been used for

foundations and in other ways. The Thordarson Camp is an ex¬

cellent example of how effectively local materials and surface fea¬

tures may serve the builder and designer.

TRAVERSE OF THE SHORE LINE

West shore. — A traverse of the west shore shows a low bluff

12 to 15 feet high just north of the Thordarson Camp increasing

in height northward to its culmniation in Pottawatomi Point,

where there is a sheer precipice over 60 feet high, broken only by

a narrow, wave-cut bench at about 24 feet above water level

(602' A. T.). The beds undulate considerably along the shore

for some distance north of the camp, but by the time Potta¬

watomi Point is reached the dip has flattened out and changed

to a slight easterly inclination of about 20 feet per mile. This

gentle easterly dip may be traced along the northern shore

of the island, and distinctive beds which appear 35 to 40 feet

above water in the cliff below the lighthouse descend to water

level along the eastern shore in a distance of about IV2 miles.

Pottawatomi Point. — Pottawatomi Point is a bold, precipi¬

tous cliff at the northwest corner of Rock Island. It is sur¬

mounted by a lighthouse which stands on a prominent rock

bench about 140 feet above Green Bay. The light is cared for

by a family which lives in the lighthouse during the entire year,

and is in telephonic connection with the Wisconsin mainland.

The profile of the point is shown on Plate 6 and is very in¬

teresting because of the excellent preservation of the rock

benches and cobble ridges marking the several levels of Lake

Algonquin and the highest stage of Lake Nipissing. Apparently

the waves cut a very prominent cave when the water stood at

the highest Algonquin level (671' -681' A.T.), but this feature

is now almost completely concealed by talus. It is of further

interest to note that the several benches are somewhat higher

than contemporaneous ones along the Washington Island shore.

This is due to the fact that the land surface was tilted slightly

to the southward after the Algonquin benches were cut.

A careful section was measured at Pottawatomi Point and

is described in detail below. It starts along the steep shore be¬

low the lighthouse and continues upward along the wooden

Shrock — Geology of Washington Island

217

steps leading to the higher benches, thence up another stairway

to the flat on which the lighthouse stands, and finally up the

slope behind and south of the house, by way of the old quarry, to

the highest point along the western shore. (Plate 6).

Geological Section of Pottawatomi Point ,

Rock Island , September 6, 1984.*

CENOZOIC — Quaternary — Pleistocene

27. Glacial drift containing large boulders of igneous rock and found

on the high point a short distance south of the lighthouse. Thick¬

ness not over a few feet, though possibly greater in other parts of

the island.

Paleozoic — Silurian ( N iagaran ) — Manistique (Schoolcraft) and Burnt

Bluff (Hendricks) formations [contact not clear].

26. Buff, uneven-bedded, nodular, sugary dolomite once burned for

lime and exposed in the upper part of the old quarry face. (5').

25. Buff, soft and granular, somewhat laminated dolomite exposed in

the quarry, in the cellar of a small building just east of the light¬

house, and in the top of the bluff on which the lighthouse stands

(Plate 6). The basal 1% feet are uneven-bedded and cherty.

(10').

24. Gray, even-bedded, blocky dolomite exposed in the cellar wall.

(3%').

23. Buff, gray, nodular dolomite. (2').

22. Covered. (3').

21. White- weathering, massive, fine-grained dolomite fracturing con-

choidally into smooth slabs and exposed in the cliff below the

lighthouse. (4').

20. Buff or gray, massive, granular dolomite in layers 6"-18" thick

and weathering to a dolomite sand. (5%').

19. Brown, massive, sugary dolomite containing corals and breaking

into irregular layers. This unit forms a prominent bulge in the

bluff. (6').

18. Light brown, lithographic dolomite in 3" layers, fracturing con¬

choid ally and containing many silicified corals ( Favosites ). (3').

17. Gray to buff, even- and fairly thin-bedded, finely crystalline dolo¬

mite fracturing irregularly throughout, and splitting into platy

chips in the basal part. (6').

Burnt Bluff Formation— Byron dolomite

16. Gray, even-bedded, dense, blocky dolomite exposed in prominent

caves below the lighthouse, and extending down to the 651-foot

bench presumably, though the basal part of this unit and the

underlying covered interval are now concealed by talus. (9').

15. Covered by talus and cobbles of dolomite. Ancient beach gravel.

(32'). (See Plate 6).

14. Light gray, lithographic, blocky dolomite that is thin-laminated in

the upper few feet at the top of the bench but otherwise in beds

averaging 6"-12" thick. Exposed at top of wooden ladder. (S').

• The section as shown on Plate 6 has been subdivided into numerous units which are not

numbered because of the lack of space. The same units are numbered in this descriptive

section.

218

Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts and Letters

13. Black, carbonaceous, crinkly laminated dolomite (1').

12. Gray, even- and fairly thin-bedded (6"-12"), semi-lithographic,

blocky dolomite with some lamination and horizontal streaking.

The laminae are crinkly and in some layers resemble crude cross¬

lamination. The beds show mud cracks and ripple marks and the

impressions of curved crinoid stems. A few fossils are present

( Conularia , Haby sites and Phragmoceras) . (23').

11. Gray, semi-lithographic, irregularly fracturing, uneven-bedded

dolomite shattering into interfingering wedges on weathering. This

unit is always prominent in a weathered cliff because of the irreg¬

ular bedding. (2').

10. Light gray, even-bedded, blocky dolomite breaking conchoidally

into platy slabs and weathering to a mottled, bluish-yellow pat¬

tern. (6^').

9. Dark gray, thin-laminated dolomite becoming streaked and rotten

on weathering (5 V2 ' ) .

8. Gray, massive, dolomite conglomerate which on weathered sur¬

faces shows flat, laminated dolomite pebbles in a gray, crystalline

matrix of dolomite. (2' + ).

7. Gray, semi -lithographic, even-bedded, blocky dolomite. (2').

6. Dark gray, laminated, shaly dolomite splitting into paper-thin

sheets. ( V2 ' ) .

5. Gray to blue, marble-like, cavernous dolomite full of holes a foot

or more across, which are lined with radially directed calcite

crystals. The lower 14" is brown streaked. (S').

4. One massive bed of gray, semi-lithographic dolomite breaking into

conchoidally fractured blocks. The upper foot tends to become

laminated on weathering. (4J/2').

3. Gray, even-bedded, blocky, semi-lithographic dolomite with a band

of brown-gray, chert nodules about a foot thick, 5 feet above the

base. The upper foot is massive, angular fracturing dolomite more

like the overlying rock. The unit as a whole becomes horizontally

grooved on weathered surfaces. (8%').

2. Gray, thin-bedded (2"-6"), argillaceous, lithographic dolomite

which shatters into rounded fragments with marked conchoidal

fracture. Extensive weathering reduces the rock to small chips.

(6').

1. Covered by talus from the cliff, but probably same as unit 2. The

base of this unit is at water level in Green Bay on September 6,

1934. (iy2').

The contact between the Hendricks member of the Burnt

Bluff formation and the Schoolcraft member of the Manistique

formation could not be determined because the pentameroid bed

marking the base of the latter could not be found. It may be

assumed, however, that the Hendricks has about the same thick¬

ness here as in Boyer Bluff on Washington Island, hence the

base of the Schoolcraft dolomite (as well as the base of the

Manistique formation) should be at an approximate elevation

of 727' db A. T., or somewhere in the wall of the old quarry

(Plate 6).

Shrock— Geology of Washington Island

219

East shore . — There is a low cliff of Byron dolomite along the

east shore of Rock Island and at places it is veneered with beach

cobbles representing the Nipissing level (Plate 5). This cliff,

varying from 12 to 20 feet high, swings westward near the

southeastern corner of the island and continues nearly to the

Thordarson Camp near which it is lost beneath the well de¬

veloped cobble terrace.

The following section was measured near the southeastern

corner of Rock Island where a low, 18-foot, cobble-strewn, rock

bench rises above a narrow rocky platform reaching out to the

water line (Fig. 5). The strata dip gently to the northeast.

Section in southeastern corner of Rock Island,

in the S.E. Cor. of Sec. 23

Cenozoic — Quaternary— Pleistocene

4. At the top of the rock bench there is a veneer of dolomite beach

cobbles which are believed to mark the shore line of glacial Lake

Nipissing. The lowest of these cobbles are 13' 9" above lake level

(1934), and the highest slightly over 17%' above. (4'-5').

Paleozoic — Silurian — Burnt Bluff Formation — Byron dolomite

3. Gray, even-bedded, blocky dolomite = unit 12 of the Pottawatomi

Point section. (10' ) .

2. Gray, uneven-bedded dolomite shattering upon weathering into thin

wedges = unit 11 of Pottawatomi section. (2').

1. Gray, blocky dolomite with billowy bedding surfaces that are mud-

cracked, ripple-marked and pitted with many tiny depressions that

may be raindrop impressions (Fig. 7). This unit, which is equiv¬

alent to unit 10 of the Pottawatomi section, extends to water

level in Lake Michigan (September, 1934). (53/£ ' ).

South shore. — A traverse from the east shore to the Thor¬

darson Camp crossed the highest point on the island and here

silicified corals belonging to the Cordell dolomite were found on

several high mounds. While only a few feet of the coralline beds

were actually seen, because of the heavy growth of trees and

underbrush, there must be approximately 40 feet of them in the

higher parts of the island. So far as observed, none of the

marble-like Racine seems to be present. It is of interest to note

here that glacial boulders were found on top of the highest ridge

at an elevation of approximately 790 feet above sea level, show¬

ing that the glaciers passed over Rock Island.

In the summer of 1934 a long, narrow sand bar extended

southward from the Thordarson Camp toward Washington

Island, and was separated from a similar extension from the op-

220 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts and Letters

posite shore by a narrow ship channel. This sandy point stood

only a foot or so above water level and probably becomes partly

submerged when the lake level rises to its average elevation of

581' A.T. There is a rather broad belt of sand along the entire

southern shore of Rock Island as shown on Plate 1. Were water

level to drop to 575' A.T. it is probable that Rock and Washing¬

ton islands would be connected by a broad sand bar unless the

narrow ship channel were deepened and kept open. (Plate 2F).

Detroit Island

Detroit Island lies due south of Washington Island, from

which it is separated by shallow Detroit Harbor and to which

in times of unusually low water it actually may be attached by

sand and gravel bars (Plates 1 and 2F). It is a long, narrow,

gravel-bordered, wooded island trending in a northwesterly di¬

rection across Secs. 24 and 25, T. 83 N., R. 29 E., and Secs. 30

and 31, T. 83 N., R. 80 E. Its total length is over 31/g miles and

its greatest width is about one-half mile. Its total area probably

does not exceed 1% square miles. The highest point is a rounded

knob in the northern half of the island, rising over 70 feet above

the water, and there is also a low knob of about 20 feet in height

in the southern half (Plate 5). The remainder of the island

stands only a few feet above water, is covered by gravel and

sand, and passes gently outward under the water to form a shal¬

low platform that extends both eastward and westward for many

yards.

Detroit Island is little visited, according to the inhabitants

of neighboring Detroit Harbor, because the shallowness of the

water around its borders makes landing even a small boat a

rather difficult task. If the water level in Lake Michigan were

to fall to about 575' A. T., it is apparent from Plate 2F that De¬

troit Island would be attached to Washington Island as a long

peninsula.

Plum Island

Plum Island lies about midway between the end of Door

Peninsula and Detroit Island, and is a low-lying mass of gravel-

covered Cordell dolomite about three-fourths of a square mile

in area. The elliptical rock core of the island rises slightly more

than 30 feet above water and is mantled with glacial and lacus-

Shrock— Geology of Washington Island

221

trine gravel which supports a good stand of trees. Except along

the south shore, the island has a narrow gravel beach, largely

composed of dolomite pebbles, cobbles, and boulders and rising

from 5 to 10 feet above water level. Inland this gravel is piled

against low cliffs of cherty, coralline dolomite rising 10 to 15

feet above the lake. This last relation is well exhibited just south

of the Coast Guard Station, near the southeast point of the island,

and near the range light in the southwestern corner of the island.

The rock of the island belongs to the fossiliferous part of the

Cordell dolomite and is best exposed along the eastern and south¬

ern shores where low, undercut cliffs, 10 to 15 feet high, form

a ragged shore line. It consists of thin (2"-4"), irregular beds of

richly coralline dolomite which alternate with thin bands of

chert. Many of the former have their surfaces covered with

well preserved specimens of Favosites , Halysites , ArachnophyU

lum , Theda , and Heliolites; Syringopora and Glathrodictyon

from 6" to over 24" across ; brachiopods of the genera Pentamerus

and Atrypa; gastropods; and numerous straight-shelled cepha-

lopods. There are some excellent exposures of coralline dolomite

about 100 yards south of the Coast Guard buildings. A rapid

transit of the middle part of the island showed poor exposures

of Cordell coralline beds heavily mantled by gravel and glacial

boulders.

Judging from the cobbles that mantle the 10-20 foot rock

bench, Plum Island was very likely a small, low-lying island or

a shoal area during the later part of the Algonquin and the earlier

part of the Nipissing stages. It probably appeared as a small

island early in the latter stage (Plate 2D).

Pilot Island

Pilot Island is a small, rocky mass of Racine dolomite lying

south of Detroit Island, southeast of Plum Island, and about 3

miles east of the tip of Door Peninsula (Plate 1). The island is

elliptical in shape and several hundred yards long. There is a

prominent rocky point at the southeastern extremity of the

island, and in September, 1934, this could be seen extending un¬

der water for several hundred yards to the eastward as a shal¬

low shelf. At the time of the writer's visit the inner part of this

point was above water (Fig. 8). A few evergreens help to

222 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts and Letters

set off the six buildings that are present: a lighthouse and five

supplementary buildings (Fig. 9).

Pilot island is composed entirely of rock and except for a

few small coves has no cobbles along the shore. In a few places,

however, there are occasional large boulders of local dolomite

and a few glacial cobbles of granite and basalt. The surface of

the island is bare except for a few evergreens, but no glacial

grooves could be found. The highest point on the island was

found to be 12 feet above the lake, or at an elevation of 590' +

A.T. It would appear, therefore, that the waters of early Nipis-

sing time washed across the island, and that the island did not

emerge until water level had fallen to around 590' A.T.

The rock is gray, fairly even-textured, marble-like dolomite

which breaks up into great blocks outlined by prominent inclined

joints and irregular separation surfaces. It contains the same

concentrically ribbed structures that were seen on the south¬

eastern point of Washington Island and on “The Mountain”, and

appears to lie at about the same stratigraphic horizon as the

rocks at those points do. There is some suggestion of a very

gentle southeasterly dip, but the irregularity of the separation

surfaces makes this uncertain.

Fish Island and Fisherman Shoal

The recent lake chart of the Washington Island region (U. S.

War Dept., Lake Survey, Chart No. 715, Entrance to Green Bay

Lake Michigan, 1935), with the plane of reference at 578.50 feet

above sea level, shows an extensive, northeasterly trending shoal

area about three miles off the south-eastern corner of Rock

Island. This area, about three miles long and three-fourths of a

mile wide, lies less than 30 feet under water and is surrounded

on all sides by at least 90 feet of water. It is a submerged, flat-

topped pedestal, therefore, and the map shows a tiny island

at each extremity.

The northeastern island, named Fish Island on the chart,

is surrounded by a flat, submerged platform of about forty acres

in area, which is nowhere over 4 feet under water. The south¬

western island is unnamed but the submerged platform, similar

in size and depth to that at the opposite end of the shoal, above

which the tiny island rises, is designated Fisherman Shoal.

Fig. 2. Rock fences east of “The Mountain” on Washington Island.

Fig. 3. Reef mound on rocky platform at the northeast corner of Wash¬

ington Island.

Fig. 4. Profile view of Boyer Bluff. Fig. 5. Low cliff of Byron dolomite near the southeast

corner of Rock Island.

Fig. 6. View of Thordarson Camp, looking south.

Fig. 7. Pitted bedding surface in the Byron dolomite near the southeast

corner of Rock Island.

]

Fig 8. Rocky eastern shore of Pilot Island.

Fig. 9. Lighthouse and adjacent buildings on Pilot Island,

Fig. 10. Weathered Racine dolomite on “The Mountain”, Washington

Island.

Fig. 11. Diagrammatic geological cross-section of Boyer Bluff.

Shrock — Geology of Washington Island 223

Fossils Found on the Islands

GENERAL STATEMENT

Well preserved fossils may be obtained at a number of places

in the Washington Island region, and since some readers may

wish to collect and identify the specimens they collect, a few

of the more common genera are illustrated in Fig. 12. In order

to determine the different species of a single genus, as for ex¬

ample of Favosites which is represented by a number of forms,

it will be necessary to consult numerous articles, pamphlets and

other sources, but such investigation lies beyond the scope of

this brief consideration. Many of the species, however, may be

found described and illustrated in Volume 4 of the Geology of

Wisconsin.

The common genera illustrated in Fig. 12 will be described

very briefly so that the amateur collector may have some infor¬

mation about his specimens. Corals are by far the most common

of the fossils and will be described first, followed by brachiopods,

mollusks, trilobites, and possible plant fossils.

CORALS

1. A rachnophyllum (also called Strombodes). — This coral

consists of large, shallow, five- or six-sided basins, in which

the individual organisms sat, bound together into flat, laminar

expansions. Some of these colonial masses are a foot or more

across.

2. Cladopora. — Specimens of this genus look like small twigs

or a coarse network of interlacing ribbons with pitted surfaces.

An individual organism lived in each of the pits and the entire

colony probably looked like a tiny bush on the sea bottom.

3. Cup corals. — -These small, cornucopia- or horn-shaped

corals are common but good specimens are hard to get out of the

rock. Most of them are less than 4 inches long. Close examin¬

ation reveals that the inside of the cone, which usually is filled

with hardened mud, is divided into many small compartments

by radially directed partitions (these partitions are sometimes

called septa) . The little coral sat on top of the cone and built it

and the partitions on the under side of it. Most of the specimens

belong to the genus Zaphrentis.

224 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts and Letters

1. ARACHNOPHYLLUM

^ w% *

fo° <&%<>?'

00^0/

& HELtOLITES

5. HALYSITES

4. FAVOSITES

7 STROMATOPOROID

ft THECIA

ft SYRINGOPORA

10. ATRYPA

II. PENTAMERUS

13. CEPHALOPODS

12. GASTROPOD

14. TRILOBiTE

Fig. 12. Fossils found in the Washington Island region.

Shrock — Geology of Washington Island

225

4. Favosites. — This is the well known “honeycomb coral”,

so named because the colony is made of many five- and six-sided

prisms which give it the appearance of a honeycomb. The fossil

is often shaped like a cabbage head and is often as much as

6 inches or even a foot across. The individual tubes are divided

into many small apartments by transverse floors (sometimes

called tabulae ). In life each tube was occupied by one tiny or¬

ganism which as it grew upward built one of the little floors un¬

der itself.

5. Halysites. — This genus has long been called the “chain

coral” because, when the colony is seen in cross-section, the small,

elliptical tubes in which the organisms lived resemble links in a

small chain. The individual tubes are usually from Vs to % of

an inch across and are arranged much like the posts in a com¬

plex stockade or corral. The colonies are usually only a few

inches across but in some instances may measure several feet

across.

6. Heliolites . — This little coral usually occurs as a small

nodular head a few inches across, whose surface is pitted with

many tiny holes which are really the ends of the tubes in which

the organisms lived. In some cases the tubes became filled with

material that was more resistant than the coral rock around and

so the weathered coral looks as though many tiny pegs had been

stuck into it. The pegs will not be connected by cross-bars, how¬

ever, and this characteristic will help to distinguish it from

Syringopora.

7. Stromatoporoids. These are ancient animals, no longer

living, which are believed to have been close relatives of the

corals. They built large stony masses shaped like huge cabbage

heads, which are composed of many thin laminae arranged in a

concentric fashion somewhat like the leaves in a head of cab¬

bage. It is believed that thousands of tiny organisms sat on the

surface of a single stony mass and gradually built it upward

by precipitating calcium carbonate from the surrounding water.

Many of the heads reach a foot or two in greatest dimension,

though they more commonly are only inches across.

8. Syringopora. — This is the “organ pipe coral”, so called

because when seen from the side the many little tubes of the

226 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts and Letters

colony have the appearance of pipes in an organ. These tubes

may sometimes weather out and then the surface will look like a

large pin cushion stuck full of huge needles, except that the

tubes will be connected at intervals by tiny cross-bars. Colonies

of this genus often attain diameters of several feet.

9. Theda.— Some beds of the Cordell dolomite are covered

with small, wafer-like masses which have many pits on their sur¬

faces. These little pits are really the ends of short tubes in which

the tiny coral organisms lived. The individuals of this genus

built flat colonies, however, instead of the usual domed ones that

are so common in most of the other corals that have been de¬

scribed above.

BRACHIOPODS

10. Atrypa. — This is a small, double- valued shell an inch or

less across, which has an oval shape, with one end somewhat

pointed, and a surface covered with numerous, herring-bone

ribs or ridges which radiate from the pointed end. The animal

that made this shell lived on the inside and attached itself and

shell to the sea bottom by the pointed end. These shells are not

common and are hard to get out of the rock.

11. Pentamerus. — Silicified fillings of this brachiopod shell

are quite common in the Schoolcraft dolomite and sparingly

in the overlying Cordell beds. These fillings, often composed of

white chert, are conspicuous because of their shape and the pe¬

culiar structure of the pointed end. In these fossils the original

shell has long since disappeared and only the internal filling is

left.

MOLLUSKS

12. Gastropods. — A few fossil snail shells are scattered

through the Schoolcraft and Cordell dolomites, but they are not

common and usually can not be removed from the rock with

very much success. They are difficult to identify because as a

rule they are not well preserved.

13. Cephatopods. — Straight-shelled cephalopods are very

commonly mistaken for fossilized vertebrae or backbones, or for

fossilized snakes, but it should be emphasized that these animals

were not yet in existence when the fossil shells were made. The

Shro ck — Geology of Washington Island 227

shell is a long, slowly expanding cone which is divided into a

number of compartments by curved* transverse partitions. Usu¬

ally the shell is seen in longitudinal section* since it will as a rule

come to rest in a flat position on the bedding plane, and so the

division of the shell into a series of compartments is remindful

of vertebrae. In some of the shells there is a complicated struc¬

ture along the axis and this, in longitudinal section, has the ap¬

pearance of a string of large beads. As a rule these cephalopod

shells can not be specifically or even generically identified with

much success except by an expert* hence no generic names will

be given here.

TRILOBITES

14. Goldins,— Trilobites* which bear some resemblance to

crabs and crayfish* have long since died out but they seem to

have been present in small numbers during the time that the

Racine dolomite was being deposited on the sea bottom, for a few

fragments of their shells have been preserved. One of these,

Goldins , had a large tail piece or “flipper” which is illustrated in

Fig. 12. These pieces may be found if diligently sought for in

the Racine dolomite at the southeast corner of Washington

Island.

Possible Plant Fossils

So far nothing has been said about the peculiar, concen¬

trically ribbed structures that are so common in the Racine

dolomite where it outcrops in the Washington Island region.

It is believed that these interesting structures may possibly have

been formed by lime-secreting, one-celled plants known as algae.

These lowly plants are able to precipitate calcium carbonate out

of salt waters and build thin layers of the material under them¬

selves, and they may have constructed the fossils that are be¬

ing discussed, though there is no way of being sure about it.

RECTANGULAR MUDCRACKS

Robert R. Shrock

Massachusetts Institute of Technology

Abstract

Rectangular mudcracks occur on the same bedding surface

with polygonal and irregular types in the thin-bedded, semi-

lithographic Byron dolomite of Middle Silurian age in north¬

eastern Wisconsin. The arrangement of these cracks is so regu¬

lar that the surface resembles a pavement composed of rectangu¬

lar blocks. Besides mudcracks, the Byron dolomite contains wave

and current ripple marks and numerous rill marks which indi¬

cate that the original muds were deposited in shallow water, and

the fauna of brachiopods, cephalopods, and trilobites shows that

the water was marine. The way in which these unusual mud¬

cracks formed is not apparent, but their wide spacing over parts

of the surface strongly suggests that they resulted from rather

rapid desiccation. They may have been caused by differential

desiccation of a layer of mud of fairly uniform thickness, or

by the drying out of a mud layer overlying a rippled surface.

Introduction

Many writers have described mudcracks and discussed the

modes of formation,1 but none seems to have mentioned the

rectangular type which is here described. A brief note, there¬

fore, seems warranted.

Occurrence and Nature

The Byron dolomite in which the mudcracks occur is a gray,

thin- and even-bedded, semi-lithographic dolomite of Middle

Silurian age, outcropping along the Niagara Escarpment in

northeastern Wisconsin. The rock separates into thin and

1 Kindle, E. M., Some factors affecting the development of mud-cracks. Jour. Geol., vol. 25,

1917, pp. 135-144; Twenhofel, W. H., et al., Treatise on Sedimentation, 2nd. ed., Williams and

Wilkins, 1932, pp. 685-692.

229

230 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences f Arts and Letters

■

smooth-surfaced beds which range from a few inches to less

than one-fourth of an inch in thickness. The surfaces of the

layers frequently show well preserved current and wave ripple

marks, rill marks, mudcracks of several kinds, and some other

features indicative of shallow water deposition. The fauna,

which includes graptolites, brachiopods, cephalopods, and tri-

lobites, shows that the water from which the calcareous muds

settled was marine.

The bedding surface which preserves the rectangular mud-

cracks is exposed in the floor of the Chilton County road ma¬

terials quarry about IV2 miles south of Chilton, in the N. W. %

Sec. 30, T. 18 N., R. 20 E. (Fig. IE). It is billowy with low,

rounded domes 10 to 20 feet in diameter and intervening shallow

basins of somewhat smaller size. This condition may be a re¬

flection of mounds of porous, granular dolomite like those in the

immediately underlying strata a short distance west and north¬

west of the quarry. The bedding surface as a whole dips east¬

ward about 3% feet in 100 feet.

Rectangular mudcracks change laterally into irregular or

regularly polygonal types (Figs. 1A, D), and there seems to be

no obvious relation between the configuration of the bedding

surface and the kind of mudcrack developed.

The cracks are now only partly filled and they appear as

narrow, shallow grooves one-half inch to over an inch in width

and usually less than one-half inch deep. Originally, however,

they were completely filled with calcareous material similar to

the bed in which they occur, for the upper parts of these fillings

still remain in some places as strap-like ribbons. So far as ob¬

served, there does not seem to have been a shale film between the

mudcracked layer and the overlying bed.

The cracks themselves are of two kinds : one continuous and

presumably older; the other discontinuous. The former extend

in a general north-south direction for many feet, tend to be

roughly parallel and slightly sinuous, especially on the gentle

slopes of the rounded domes, and divide the surface into narrow

strips from 3 to 8 inches in width. The latter, disposed approx¬

imately at right angles, may be straight or curved, do not com¬

monly transect more than one strip, and divide the strips into

segments from 3 to 18 inches in length. Together, these two

types of cracks divide the bedding surface into rectangular poly-

Shrock— Rectangular Mudcracks

231

gons, which have the appearance of paving blocks laid in parallel

rows (Figs. 1A-B, D, F), or elongated, irregular blocks which

lack rectangularity but exhibit the same linear arrangement in

north-south rows (Figs. 1A, C). In general, the irregular blocks

tend to be somewhat larger than the rectangular ones, reaching

widths of 16 inches and lengths of over 20 inches.

Some of the floor in the south part of the quarry is divided

into regular, five-, six-, and seven-sided polygons a foot or more

in diameter, which themselves are further cracked throughout

so as to consist of many small polygonal blocks averaging about

one-fourth of an inch in diameter. Fairly large polygonal mud-

cracks are also present in the northern end of the quarry floor.

Conditions of Formation

So far as observed, no type of mudcrack is limited to any

definite part of the gently undulating surface, and, even though

the areas of rectangular mudcracks are now fairly flat, it does

not follow necessarily that they were so at the time of formation.

The continuous cracks nearly always trend in a general north-

south direction, regardless of the configuration of the bedding

surface. Two suggestions may be offered in explanation of how

the rectangular mudcracks formed, but neither is very satis¬

factory.

Kindle2 found experimentally that muds which dried out

differentially or zonally developed ribbon-shaped polygons dis¬

posed approximately at right angles to the front of the retreating

water. He did not, however, mention any development of trans¬

verse cracks and his photograph shows none. Twenhofel3 re¬

peated the experiment, using a larger vessel, and concluded that

the results “only partly supported the generalization” that differ¬

ential or zonal desiccation produces parallel mudcracks. The

Wisconsin mudcracks could have been formed in this way, for

the undulating nature of the bedding surface (assuming of

course that this condition was original) would have caused dif¬

ferential withdrawal of the water and consequent zonal desic¬

cation of the mud. Whether they were formed in this manner,

however, can not be stated with certainty.

2 Op. cit., pp. 138-139.

3 Op. tit., p. 690.

232 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts and Letters

It may be suggested, also, that the rectangular and elongated,

irregular mudcracks overlie buried, rippled surfaces, in which

case the crests of the ripple marks would influence the position

of the continuous cracks. This suggestion, however, has little

in its favor other than the fact that the more prominent cracks

are aligned in a general north-south direction, presumably the

approximate trend of the ancient Silurian seashore on the west.

Whatever the mode of formation, however, it appears likely

that the mudcracks resulted from rapid desiccation, as several

investigators have found experimentally that rapid drying pro¬

duces much more widely spaced cracks, hence larger polygons,

than slow drying.

Figs. 1A-D, F. Mudcracks in the Byron dolomite near Chilton, Wisconsin.

Photographs by W. L. Wilgus and the author, 1931. (All except ID

are retouched slightly, and in each the rule represents seven inches).

A, D. Photographs of a part of the quarry floor, showing rec¬

tangular mudcracks changing laterally into irregular types (Fig.

ID has been left untouched).

B, F. Rectangular mudcracks showing prominently developed,

north-south trending cracks.

C, Irregular blocks outlined by prominent continuous cracks and

curved transverse cracks.

BURIED PRE-CAMBRIAN OF WISCONSIN

F. T. Thwaites

During the eight years which have elapsed since the publi¬

cation of the original paper on the “Buried pre-Cambrian of

Wisconsin”1 a considerable amount of new information has

been acquired by the Wisconsin Geological Survey. The map

here shown shows corrections from data available at the end

of October, 1939.

Of special note is the Hustisford well which demonstrated an

extension of the Waterloo quartzite range at a remarkably shal¬

low depth of only 268 feet. It is, therefore, possible that in east¬

ern Wisconsin there may be drift-covered areas of pre-Cambrian

quartzite which are not yet known. Another important record

is that on the Hanson farm near Brothertown, which disclosed

a pronounced elevation in the completely concealed Fond du Lac

range. As is the case in much of Hartford, quartzite was en¬

countered exactly at the bottom of the Platte ville dolomite.

Fig. 2 shows subsurface conditions at Hartford. It may be

postulated that marine erosion was the cause of these platforms

which are similar to the crests of so many of the Baraboo Bluffs.2

A prolonged stillstand in the relations of sea and land would

allow wave planation of islands, leaving a far more perfectly flat

surface than is conceivable by weathering and stream erosion on

a rock so extremely obdurate both to mechanical and chemical

attack.

At Brandon a considerable amount of quartzite bowlder

conglomerate made it difficult to determine the exact top of

undisturbed quartzite. The Wisconsin Power and Light Com¬

pany well at Ripon failed to find pre-Cambrian or any sign of

its nearby presence, at an elevation only about 300 feet higher

than the inferred contact at Brandon. There certainly are a

number of buried monadnocks in that vicinity.

1 Thwaites, F.T., Buried pre-Cambrian of Wisconsin: Geol. Soc. America, Bull., vol. 42,

pp. 719-750. 1931.

* Thwaites, F.T., Physiography of the Baraboo district, Wisconsin: Kansas Geol. Soc., Ninth

Annual Field Conference, Guidebook, pp. 395-404. 1935.

233

234 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts and Letters

Attention should be directed to the ill-advised "oil tests” at

De Forest, Cambria, Black Creek, and Friendship. Such explor¬

ations are without any doubt wasted effort, for the large amount

of subsurface data already available in Wisconsin gives no en¬

couragement with respect to oil and natural gas, especially in

the Cambrian and pre-Cambrian. All these tests were drilled

in complete disregard of advice from the Wisconsin Geological

Survey.

A large number of deep wells have also been drilled which

failed to reach the pre-Cambrian hard rocks. Among these

may be mentioned the following which are bottomed below sea

level: Monroe at 683 feet, Campbellsport at 272, Waukesha at

Fig. X. Contour map of surface of buried pre-Cambrian of Wisconsin.

F. T. Thwaites. 1939. Contour interval 100 feet.

Thwaites — Buried Pre-Cambrian of Wisconsin 235

1099, Kewaunee at 1110, and Burlington at 1140. Of these, only

the first necessitated any change in contouring of the probable

surface of the pre-Cambrian.

The deep oil test near Irene, Illinois, (not shown on map) in¬

dicates a more rapid southward inclination at the top of the pre-

Cambrian than was formerly thought.

Fig. 2. Buried pre-Cambrian quartzite at Hartford, Wisconsin, showing

level top, possibly due to wave planation.

Table 1

Well records showing nature of concealed pre-Cambrian rocks in Wisconsin ;

samples have been examined by geologists .

236

Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts and Letters

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Thwaites — Buried Pre-Cambrian of Wisconsin

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8 Data from files of C. K. L,eith.

b Moses Strong: Geology of the Mississippi region. Geology of Wisconsin, vol. 4, 1882, pp. 60-61, 520.

e 0. U. Stromme: Geology of Madison and parts of adjacent townships. Unpublished thesis, library of University of Wisconsin. 1907.

d I. A. Dapham: Ann. Rep. for 1874. Geology of Wisconsin, vol. 2, 1877, p. 50.

240 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts and Letters

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241

Table 2

Well records showing concealed pre-Cambrian rocks in and near Wisconsin which appear

to be authentic reports

242

Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts and Letters

* Record furnished by Chicago & Northwestern Ry. Co,

b Record furnished by \V. G. Kirchoffer.

c Samuel Weidman: Pre-Cambrian igneous rocks of Fox River valley, Wisconsin. Wisconsin Geol. and

Nat. Hist. Survey, Bull. 3, 1898, p. 33.

d Record obtained by writer; sample of gneiss received January 20, 1931.

8 W. C. Alden: Quaternary geology of southeastern Wisconsin. U. S. Geol. Survey, Prof. Paper 106, 1918,

pp. 71, 110.

f R. C. Allen: Relative to an extension of the Menominee iron range. Michigan Geol. and Biol. Survey,

Pub. 18, 1914, p. 163.

6 R. A. Smith: Results of deep borings. Michigan Geol. and Biol. Survey, Pub. 24, 1917, pp. 214-215.

h R. B. Newcombe: Oil and gas development in Michigan. Michigan Geol. Survey, Pub. 37, 1928, p. 282.

1 C. W. Hall et al: Geology and underground waters of southern Minnesota. U. S. Geol. Survey, Water

Supply Paper 256, 1911. Other records from Samuel Weidman and A. R. Schultz: Underground and

surface water supplies of Wisconsin. Wisconsin Geol. and Nat. Hist. Survey, Bull. 35, 1915.

SURVEY OF POKERVILLE CAVE, BLUE MOUNDS,

WISCONSIN

Alfred G. Fischer, Arnold C. Mason, and W. S. Twenhofel

A cut one half mile west of the village of Blue Mounds, Wis¬

consin, in the SE % of Sec. 1, T6N, R5E, a few hundred feet west

of the lowa-Dane county line, made during highway grading

on U. S. Route 18 in the spring of 1938, exposed a cave of which

previous record is unknown. This was termed Pokerville Cave

by the inhabitants. The cave has been kept open for use as a

drain for the road cut. The entrance is at an elevation of ap¬

proximately 1280 feet above sea level, and is one mile southeast

of Blue Mounds, the highest elevation (1716 feet above sea level)

in southern Wisconsin. The surrounding area is located on the

gentle southern slopes of Military Ridge, and is moderately

dissected by the headwaters of the East Branch of the Pecaton-

ica River, one such valley lying north and east of the hill in

which the cave is located, and another west. A local relief of 100

to 200 feet is common, but the vicinity of the cave the valleys that

bound the hill in which the cave is situated are less than 100

feet deep.

The cave is entirely formed in the Galena formation of the

Ordovician system. Locally this formation is about 190 feet

thick. Its base in the Blue Mounds area is about 1210 feet and

its top 1400 feet above sea level. The underlying Platte ville

dolomite is about 60 feet thick ; and overlying, but eroded away

except on the Mounds, is the Maquoketa shale with a thickness

of about 200 feet. The strata have a dip of less than one degree

t r the south.

The Galena formation is composed of dolomite which acquires

a characteristic honeycombed appearance on weathering. The

approximate chemical composition according to an analysis by

Daniels is as follows :

243

244 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts and Letters

Fischer , et al — Pokerville Cave, Blue Mounds

245

The analysis does not include any flint nodules or shaly portions,

which are not uncommon. Excepting these, the rock is almost

entirely composed of soluble minerals.

The Pokerville Cave is approximately 500 feet long (see Fig.

1). There are five levels, and three passages on the first or main

level. Entered from the road cut, the main passage veers slightly

toward the west, then trends north. From its mid-point a nar¬

row branch leads northeast. A branch near the entrance trends

west and then south. This is termed the west branch. The main

passage averages 6 feet wide and its ceiling averages 7 feet high

above shelves which serve as footing levels. The main passage

has a remarkably level ceiling. Below the footing shelves it nar¬

rows downward to a deep constricted channel, irregularly filled

with rock debris. This channel averages 1% feet in width and

10 to 15 feet in depth, and exhibits entrenched undercutting

meanders or curves.

The north or far end of the main passage and the entire

northeast lateral branch are floored by silt and their termina¬

tions are only a few feet beneath the surface. Underground ham¬

mer strokes at the end of the main passage are easily heard at

the surface. Hand level surveying indicates 4 feet of intervening

rock and soil. No sinkholes or other surface indications of the

presence of a cave are evident. The main passage terminates

suddenly by the silt deposit rising to the ceiling, but the lateral

branch, floored with silt, becomes so constricted that it was not

surveyed, or followed to its end.

Except where it joins the main passage, the west branch is

floored with silt. About 50 feet from this junction, the silt com¬

pletely fills this branch. On the south side of the west branch

near this termination there begins a constricted, twisting tribu¬

tary which trends eastward for 20 feet and then pierces a cham¬

ber whose floor (second level) is 8 feet lower and also lies 8 feet

below the footing level of the main passage. This chamber is un-

246 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts and Letters

derlain by another, whose floor (third level) is an additional 12

feet lower. Both chambers extend in part under Highway 18.

They are formed along a joint, which directly connects them with

the west branch near its junction with the main passage. This

joint extends to the depth of the floor of the third level, but

large rocks are wedged in it at the elevation of the second level.

Nearly a year after the cave was opened, members of the

Hoofers Club of the University of Wisconsin discovered a series

of passages at still lower levels. Breaking through dripstone de¬

posits at the bottom of the third level chamber near its south

end, they discovered a parallel north-south passage offset about

4 feet to the east and extending south beyond the highway.

Its roof is approximately at the elevation of the third level, but

its floor, forming a fourth level, averages 9 feet lower. Much

of this passage is so narrow that ingress is possible only by turn¬

ing sideways. At the time visited, in the spring of 1939, the

walls were coated with mud, so that surveying by Brunton com¬

pass, hand level and tape, was abandoned, and this lower sec¬

tion was merely explored. Fresh mud and straw were plastered

on the roof and sides of this lower section. A 10° east dip of

the beds between the third and fourth levels indicates localized

movement between the joint surfaces which controlled the for¬

mation of these passages.

About 30 feet to the south of its entrance the passage be¬

comes dual, but on different levels, and both turn to the east,

then unite to form a narrow passage in the form of an arc that

swings to the southwest . The floor of the narrow passage drops

15 feet to form a fifth level, on which a small stream was flowing

at the time visited. About 30 feet from the east turn, the fifth

level widens to form a small chamber. On the south side of

this chamber a higher lying, small gallery leads about 50 feet to

the southwest, and descends into another chamber which contains

a higher chimney. The floor of the latter chamber corresponds

to the fifth level, and the chimney's height of approximately 45

feet brings its roof near the surface.

Dripstone is rare or wanting in the cave except in the second,

third and fifth levels. The chambers on these levels contain num¬

erous stalagmites and stalactites. The outer portions of these

are quite impure.

Fischer , et al—Pokerville Cave , Blue Mounds 247

Relatively few joints are observable in the cave. An in¬

sufficient number was observed to establish the existence of a

definite joint pattern. The trend of many of the passages sug¬

gests, however, development in accordance with sets of joints.

The cave is not very large and its attractive parts are not

easily accessible. Like most other Wisconsin caves, it is probably

not of commercial value.

Views on Cave Formation

Caves in limestone or dolomite are mainly formed through

solution by water containing carbon dioxide or organic acids.

The solvent action of carbonic acid has long been recognized, and

Murray and Love,2 and Howard and David,3 have shown organic

acids such as butyric and propionic acid to be one to ten times as

effective. These acids are formed by bacterial action on decaying

vegetation, and must be important factors in solution in regions

of abundant plant growth.

The character of the underground circulation dissolving out

and enlarging caves has long been a subject of controversy.

Many writers have avoided reference to the water table level,

but some4 consider the solution to have been done by vadose

waters. Gardner,5 believing the majority of caves to have been

so formed, stresses the formation of caves on the up-dip side of

the entrenched stream receiving the subterranean drainage.

Matson6 realized there is some sub-water table circulation

and Davis7 explained reticulated cave systems by sub-water

table circulation, and he considers the fact that the higher water

table level under hills, as compared with the lower level de¬

termined by streams in adjacent valleys, forms a hydrostatic

head causing, in general, a movement of subsurface water down¬

ward beneath hills and upwards in valley areas of less hydro¬

static pressure.

Rretz8 recently reaffirmed Davis’ theories, concluding “that

the caves or crevices in the Galena formation beneath the Du¬

buque region were dissolved out along the joints while below

the water table, that no direction of concentration of flow of

dissolving water is recorded, and that almost no alteration (other

than clay and sand filling) has occurred in the caves since air

entered them as the water table was lowered.”

248 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts and Letters

In a reply to Davis, Swinnerton9 stressed the lateral move¬

ment of water upon reaching the water table, believing reticu¬

lated passages could be formed by fluctuations in this level.

It is difficult to see how vadose waters, impelled by gravita¬

tion, would move laterally except upon meeting a bed impervious

because of lack of jointing, shaly character, or saturation with

water. This has been pointed out in identical words by Lobeck10

and by Weller:11 “Water which finds its way into the joints of

the rock descends until its downward progress is brought to a

stop. This may be the result of one or two causes : First, a bed,

such as shale or a massive limestone layer which is impervious to

water may be encountered ; or second, the ground water table, or

the depth at which all the openings in the rock are filled with

water, may be reached. In either case, when the downward

movement of the water is brought to a stop, lateral movement

begins and channels are dissolved along the bedding planes or in

porous layers in the limestone. At the surface of the ground

water table, the greatest tendency for motion of the water is

in a lateral direction. Slow circulation, however, also takes place

downward and outward below the ground water table.”

Field examples indicate that underground streams may pro¬

duce caves above, at, or below the water table. A vadose stream

forms Falling Springs near Stolle, Ill., the discharge occurring

150 feet high on a vertical river bluff of the Mississippi River.

At Big Spring, Mo., a series of horizontal cave openings, each

at slightly lower elevation, indicates the adaptation of a large

water table level stream to the downcutting of the Current River

into which the spring discharges. Deep seated circulation is

found at Bennett Spring, Mo. The exit of this spring descends

20 feet vertically, then slants at 40 or 50 degrees southwestward,

opposite to the dip. The sounded depth is below that of the

Niangua River, one and one-half miles away, which drains the

area.

Geologic History of Pokerville Cave

Pokerville Cave is thought to have been formed by vadose

waters and its geologic history is believed to have been some¬

what as follows: The cave had its origin subsequent to the re¬

moval of the overlying Maquoketa shale, but before development

to their present depths of the tributary valleys that bound the

Fischer , et al — Pokerville Cave , Mounds 249

hill in which the cave is situated. As there are no associated

massive or shaly beds, except in the lowest levels, study of the

cave suggests the horizontal main passage to have been made

by a laterally moving water table stream whose early exit was

by way of the channel intersected by the road cut. The north¬

east lateral was a minor tributary, and the west branch formed

another tributary.

Subsequent to a lowering of the water table of the area, seep¬

age along the joint defining the immediately lower chamber

caused its enlargement. This diverted the cave's stream near the

junction of the west branch and the main passage, and as a

vadose stream it then eroded the deep constricted channel in the

main passage. The undercutting of the entrenched meanders

was caused by the greater erosion on the outside of curves where

the water has its greatest movement. The horizontal roof of the

main passage was formed by falling of portions of unsupported

weak strata which left an overlying stronger bed spanning the

passage width. Accumulation of talus partially filled the con¬

stricted channel. The second level chamber was enlarged suffi¬

ciently to intersect the minor tributary on the south side of the

west branch.

The constricted channels of the lower levels were probably

similarly formed by vadose streams, causing entrenchment with¬

out lateral widening. The fifth level is near the elevation of the

base of the Galena formation, locally about 1210 feet above sea

level.

Dripstone deposition took place mainly in the second, third,

and fifth level chambers, and in a few isolated places in the main

passage. Vertical channels have brought increasing quantities of

silt and even plant matter as the outside surface has been worn

nearer to the cave level. The outer portions of dripstone deposits

generally have more impurities than the center. As the valley

to the northeast became eroded to its present depth it may have

intersected the main passage and the northeast branch (both

first level) in the two previously mentioned places where silt has

filled the passages. It is possible however that neither passage

extended as far as the present valley, but terminated beneath

surface sinkholes now disappeared.

250 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts and Letters

Bearing of the Cave on the Physiographic History of

the Region

Attempts have been made to correlate the physiographic his¬

tory of a region to that expressed by cave levels. The elevation

of the entrance of Pokerville Cave, 1280 feet, is approximately at

the level of the Dodgeville peneplain postulated by Trowbridge,12

which in later cycles became dissected by stream rejuvenation.

The lowering of the water table in the cave may possibly be

associated therewith. However, lowering may occur long after

conditions make such possible, so that correlation is not certain.

The nearby presence of Blue Mounds cave, approximately 100

feet higher, suggests that the lower cave was not excavated dur¬

ing a period of extensive baseleveling in which the water table

was relatively fixed at a particular elevation.

Bibliography

1. E. G. Lange: Original Work on the Caves of the Driftless Area of

Southwestern Wisconsin, unpublished Ph. B. thesis , University of

Wisconsin, Madison, Wisconsin, 1909.

2. A. N. Murray and W. W\ Love: Action of Organic Acids upon Lime¬

stones. Bull Amer. Assoc. Petrol. Geol. vol. 13, 1929, pp. 1467-75.

3. W. V. Howard and Max W. David: Development of Porosity in Lime¬

stones, Bull. Amer. Assoc. Petrol. Geol. vol. 20, 1936, pp. 1389-1412.

4. W. H. Hobbs: Earth Features and their Meaning, MacMillan Co.,

New York, 1931.

5. J. H. Gardner: Origin and Development of Limestone Caverns, Geol.

Soc. Am. Bull., vol. 46, pp. 1255-74, 1935.

6. G. C. Matson: Water Resources of the Blue Grass Region, U. S. Geol.

Survey, Water-Supply Paper 233, 1909.

7. W. M. Davis: Origin of Limestone Caverns, Geol. Soc. Am., Bull.,

vol. 41, 1930, pp. 475-628.

8. J. H. Bretz: Caves in the Galena Formation, Jour. Geol., vol. 46, 1938,

pp. 828-841.

9. A. C. Swinnerton: Changes of Base Level Indicated by Caves in Ken¬

tucky and Bermuda, Geol. Soc. Am., Bull., vol. 40, 1929, pp. 663-94.

10. A. K. Lobeck: The Geology and Physiography of the Mammoth Cave

National Park, Ky. Geol. Survey, 1928.

11. J. M. Weller: Geology of Edmonson County, Kentucky, Geol. Survey,

vol. 38, 1927.

12. A. C. Trowbridge: The Erosional History of the Driftless Area, Iovja

Univ. Studies, 1st ser., no. 40, Studies in Natural History, vol. 9,

1921.

THE PLEISTOCENE OF PART OF NORTHWESTERN

WISCONSIN

John T. Mathiesen

Introduction

The area embraced in this report involves slightly less than

a thousand square miles, including all but the northwestern

corner of Barron County, three Federal townships each in Rusk

and Chippewa Counties, slightly more than one township in

Dunn County, and approximately ten sections in Washburn

County. The general location of the area and its relation to the

rest of the state may be seen in Fig. 1. Included are parts of

three of the commonly accepted physiographic regions of Wis¬

consin (Martin, p. 34), and practically the entire area lies within

the geographic subdivision known as the Northwest Dairy Re¬

gion (Durand, Strain).

General Geology

Except in the northeastern part of the area, where the pre-

Cambrian basement reaches the surface as the Keweenawan

quartzite of the Barron Hills, and in the extreme southwestern

corner near Reeve, where a small amount of Lower Magnesian

dolomite is still preserved, the entire region is floored by Cam¬

brian sediments, including, in descending order, the Trempea¬

leau, Franconia, Dresbach, Eau Claire, and Mt. Simon forma¬

tions. The beds dip gently toward the west, very much as does

the ancient peneplain surface below (Thwaites, 1930, p. 32),

and although varying considerably in detailed composition and

character, they may all be thought of as relatively soft sand¬

stones and shales which range from a few feet to several hun¬

dred feet in thickness. The quartzite is in general much more

resistant than the standstones, but it, too, varies quite markedly

both in hardness and appearance.

Glacial drift of several ages is universally present over the

area in greater or less amount and in numerous forms.

251

252 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts and Letters

Disregarding the effects of glaciation, the landforms of Bar¬

ron County and adjacent regions reflect the results of differ¬

ential erosion upon more or less flat-lying sedimentary strata of

slightly diverse character, and, in part, upon older and harder

crystalline formations. Consequently, the most prominent topo¬

graphic feature are the Barron Hills (locally known as the Blue

Hills), Fig. 2. These rise to an elevation of over 1650 feet

within the area, and to over 1750 feet not far to the northeast in

Sawyer County (Martin, Plate I). Relief in the range locally

exceeds four hundred feet. The hills present a rugged appear¬

ance, with bold talus slopes, and their rough upland character

is continued northward and southeastward in belts of moraine

and sandstone outliers.

Surrounding this section on the west and southwest are

stretches of nearly level outwash plain, interspersed here and

there by sandstone or drift hills. This roughly crescentic low¬

land is replaced on the northwest by heavily drift-covered up¬

lands broken by smaller patches of outwash, and on the south¬

west by dissected sandstone hills. The hill land is most thor¬

oughly eroded along the major stream valleys, which are filled to

considerable depths by outwash and alluvium. The local relief

here may attain values of 250 feet or more, and the landscape

reminds one strongly of the Driftless Area of southwestern Wis¬

consin. Elevations above sea level drop to less than a thousand

feet in the Red Cedar valley south of Sand Creek.

Lakes are abundant in the eastern, northern, and western

portions where the drift is deepest and youngest, but are by no

means absent in the central part and may even be found in the

south. A more thorough discussion of their origins will be made

in later connections.

Sources of Data

and Field Procedure

Previous to the summer of 1937, when the field observations

upon which this paper is based were made, base maps on a scale

of one inch to two miles were secured from the State Highway

Commission, and from these and certain other maps, such as

those of the Mineral Land Survey and the Land Economic In¬

ventory of Wisconsin, township base maps on a scale of one inch

to one mile were constructed. Railroads and railroad elevations

Mathiesen — Pleistocene of Part of Wisconsin

253

Fig. 2. Contour map of the field area.

were then plotted from profiles furnished by the previously

mentioned lines, the datum planes being subsequently checked

against bench marks established by the United States Geological

Survey in the near-by Chippewa Falls quadrangle and modified

accordingly. Locations of numerous gravel pits and quarries

were secured from the road materials maps of the Wisconsin

Geological and Natural History Survey. Several hundred farm

well records were obtained from the field notes of Weidman and

his associates, and a number of deeper well logs from Mr. F. T.

Thwaites. Maps for sixty townships were originally prepared,

but time permitted the use of only thirty-two of these in the field.

The elevations of most road crossings and of many other

critical points were determined barometrically by Lahee’s

method, using a Paulin instrument and working from known

254 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts and Letters

railway elevations. The writer feels that the results thus

achieved are in general correct within ten feet, although greater

errors must inevitably occur occasionally when any barometric

system is used. The hand level was also employed in certain in¬

stances, and a Brunton compass was used to plot the more ir¬

regular roads determine the direction of striae, etc.

The Pre-Wisconsin Drift

General Character and Distribution

That portion of the area south of the limit of First Wisconsin

Drift (Fig. 3) shows at first sight so little evidence of glaciation

Probable LjmiHa of Middle Wisconsin. Ice ■■ —

Probable LimH of louuan ( FirjiH Wia.^ Tee — *~-.-

T.36.H.

T.35N.

T53N.

T32N.

151 N.

Fig. 3. Morainic systems and drift borders of the field area.

Mathiesen — Pleistocene of Part of Wisconsin

255

that it might well be thought of as part of the Driftless Area.

Closer inspection, however, reveals the facts that erratic boulders

are common and that considerable deposits of weathered till and

old eroded outwash at high levels are not lacking. The drift cor¬

responds to that called the “First Drift” by Weidman in his

report on the geology of north central Wisconsin (1916, p. 434),

and has variously been stated by him and other writers to be of

Xllinoian, Kansan, or even Nebraskan age (Antevs, p. 644;

T'hwaites, 1937, pp. 95-97). Certain it is that the ice which laid

down these deposits far antedated that which left such abundant

traces to the northeast, north, and northwest ; but much detailed

investigation remains to be done in this and near-by regions

before any conclusive statements in regard to age can be made.

The advanced erosion and mature topography would perhaps in¬

dicate Kansan or even earlier ; yet these features might well be

the result of sharp pre-glacial relief, an originally sparse drift

cover, and subsequent rapid erosion upon the weak sandstone.

Because of the thinness of the drift, observed cuts show few fea¬

tures which might not well be Illinoian. In this report it shall

be considered only as pre-Wisconsin, the Iowan being considered

the earliest Wisconsin.

Although there is a general accordance of the Knox (Hart-

land) and Auburn soils as mapped by Weidman (1914, Plate I)

and the distribution of pre-Iowan drift as shown in this report,

the latter extends somewhat further north and not as far east as

the former. The differences are not great, however, and further

discussion of the will be defered until the limits Wisconsin drift

are described.

Topography and Drainage

The physical landscape of the old drift region is essentially

a sandstone upland intricately carved into a region of steep¬

sided valleys separated by more level or rolling interfluves,

grading toward the northeast and east into a multitude of de¬

tached hills or outliers, many conical in shape. The several Cam¬

brian escarpments determined elsewhere in the state are not

here well-defined, and before any such determinations can be

made, if ever, the stratigraphy must be worked out in detail.

At present the number of deep well records and field observa¬

tions are too few to make cross-sectional reconstructions of any

value.

256 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts and Letters

The valleys of the Hay and Red Cedar rivers and of many

of the lesser streams are filled to considerable depths with glacial

outwash and valley alluvium, most of which is rather fresh and

young. The deposition of alluvium has gone on up to the pres¬

ent. Scattered remnants of older, higher, eroded terraces may be

found, but are not as prominent as those in the regions of

younger drift further north. Sand dunes are locally conspicu¬

ous ; these, together with abandoned meanders and blocked minor

tributaries, have in places formed small ponds and marshy tracts.

Character of Drift and Soils

The glacial materials of this section (excepting fluvial de¬

posits) are so thin that no soil profile developed in drift alone

was observed to extend much below the A horizon, and any indi¬

cation of age determined by profile change is most difficult to ob¬

tain. Well records and exposures seem to show an average thick¬

ness of drift, exclusive of valley deposits, of no more than three

feet, dwindling to little or nothing on steeper slopes. Forty-six

farm well records collected within the section give an average

depth, of drift of fifteen feet; it must be added, however, that

most of these were from valley farms, so that the figure arrived

at is not a fair indication of conditions on the uplands, where

drills more often than not strike bedrock practically at the sur¬

face. A thin covering of loess is general over large areas. Thus it

is evident that the soils, though notably modified by glacial in¬

fluences, derive their character in large part from the under¬

lying sandstones, shales, and greensands, or from aqueous and

aeolian materials.

In his report on the soils of this part of the state, Weidman,

as has previously been indicated, mentions two types of upland

soils within the area here termed old drift, the Auburn Loam

and the Knox (Hartland) Silt loam. Of the first he says : “Sandy

and silty loams; hilly and sloping uplands; forest trees mainly

light growth of hardwood trees with some pine”, and of the

second: “Silt loam (loess soil) ; undulating slopes and uplands;

forest trees, mainly dense hardwoods mixed with some white

pine.” The two actually merge gradationally one into the other,

the Auburn locally containing a goodly amount of the loess char¬

acteristic of the Knox, but the prevailing steeper slopes of the

former have led to greater erosion and the inclusion of more

sandy material in the upper soil.

Fig. 1. The glacial lobes and major drift borders of Wisconsin, showing

also the location of the field area to the rest of the state.

Mathiesen — Pleistocene of Part of Wisconsin

257

The level, sandy valley soils were classed by Weidman as

Plainfield (Sterling) Sand and Plainfield (Chetek) Sandy Loam.

The former is described as : “Light sandy soil ; level valley bot¬

tom land; forest trees mainly jack pine”, the latter: “Sandy

loam, with gravel or sand subsoil ; level valley bottom land ; forest

trees, dense jack pine with some scrub oak.” This sandy loam

phase is more extensive in regions further north. All of the

abovementioned soils are lumped together as Boone Fine Sandy

Loam in A.R. Whitson's more recent Soils of Wisconsin (p. 108) .

The drift contains large amounts of sandstone, greenstone,

gabbro, quartzite, granite, and trap, and lesser amounts of other

materials. The quartzite, according to Weidman, is of the Bar¬

ron Hills variety, at least to a large extent ; it and gabbro make

up a majority of the larger boulders.

That the older drift or drifts of this section must also under¬

lie the adjacent younger formations is certain, and although

no clear evidence of this was observed in field exposures, a

number of well sections indicate such a condition. As an example

may be cited a log noted by F. T. Thwaites in SE-SW Sec. 30,

T. 34N., R. 14W., well within the Cary drift :

258 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts and Letters

The writer feels that at present, at least, no justification ex¬

ists for using more specific terms than the “old drift” and “older

drift” employed above.

The First Wisconsin or Iowan Drift

General Character and Distribution

The zone of First Wisconsin or Iowan drift (Fig. 3) corre¬

sponds quite closely to the southern part of the Colby soil area

of Barron County south of Barron and east of Range 15 West.

The “Third Drift” of Weidman included this section and a con¬

siderable area surrounding it in all directions except south. In

his Geology of North Central Wisconsin , Weidman states this

formations to be somewhat older than the “Wisconsin”, but defi¬

nitely younger than the deposits further south ; in his field notes

concerning the area he writes time and again of its probable

Iowan age. Yet, upon evidence not clear to this writer, he later

came to consider it Illinoian and certainly pre-Wisconsin in

age, and this belief became the basis for subsequent soils classi¬

fications and glacial boundaries. The matter is further compli¬

cated by confusion of the terms “older drift”, “pre-Wisconsin”,

“pre-Iowan” and the like in the literature, for the general ac¬

ceptance of the Iowan as earliest Wisconsin is a relatively re¬

cent event.

In the opinion of the writer, the freshness of the materials,

the relative abundance of youthful glacial landforms, and the

weight of contributory evidence in adjacent sections date the

drift in question beyond serious doubt as Iowan.

Topography and Drainage

Topographically, this section is essentially a northward ex-

tention of that to the south, but one more profoundly affected

by glacial influences. The similarity decreases with the increase

of drift from south to north, but almost everywhere the marked

influence of bedrock control upon landforms is apparent. That

such a condition persists despite the comparative youth of the

drift is due (a) to the fact that the original amount of glacial

debris was not great, being laid down near the thin outer margin

of a waning sheet of ice, (b) to the fact that this drift mantled

an already rough and dissected terrain, and (c) to the fact that

Mathiesen — Pleistocene of Part of Wisconsin

259

erosion has been operative somewhat longer than in the regions

of more recent Wisconsin drift.

The uplands are broadly rolling or undulating and generally

well-drained. The local relief, which normally ranges from 50

to 100 feet, in places exceeds 150 feet along the major streams

where dissection is furthest advanced, especially in the vicinity

of the Hay River and its tributaries. Bedrock outcrops at many

points in the steeper valleys and less commonly on the uplands.

The young glacial forms scattered throughout the zone, while

not as abundant or widespread as in the region of younger Wis¬

consin drift, are most striking in their occurrance within an

area so seemingly mature at first glance, and in their appearance

of excellent preservation. Obviously pitted outwash and morainic

features exist primarily in two types of locations: on upland

divides, where erosion has been ineffective, and in protected

valleys, where the original concentrations were greatest. Yet

they are by no means confined to such places ; indeed, the most

striking of all are to be found in Township 33 North, Range 13

West, a short distance southeast of Arland. Here morainic knobs

and sags rest precariously upon the steep slopes of a valley,

strongly pitted outwash still remains in the valley of the Hay

River, and a small lake perches upon a narrow divide between

a steep-gradient tributary of the Hay and a north-flowing branch

of the Yellow River.

The two major streams draining this section are again the

Hay and the Red Cedar, each supplied with many tributaries.

Although both valleys contain large amounts of outwash, that

of the Red Cedar is wider than that of the Hay, for in much of

its course it flows east of the upland proper in broad outwash

plains and lowlands. A rather well-developed system of terrace

levels may be discerned in the young sediments of the Red

Cedar and are also present, though less marked, along the Hay.

The lowest of these parallels the rather narrow present flood-

plain in strips varying from a few feet to several hundred yards

in width. The feature is locally broken and discontinuous, and

rises to an Average height of eight to ten feet above the normal

valley bottom. Rising in turn from five to ten feet above this

level is the outwash plain proper, which varies greatly in width.

It contains pitted tracts, and is furrowed here and there by old

260 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts and Letters

drainage lines. This plain is but a continuation of the great

outwash sheets within the region of later Wisconsin drift.

Still another level might be included with these ; it consists of

isolated patches of older, eroded outwash, rising twenty feet

or more above the major plain, and more often than not pre¬

served within tributary valleys or in narrow bands roughly

parallel to the younger outwash. Portions are till-covered.

Character of Drift and Soils

In spite of the fact that the drift of this section is much

younger and uniformly thicker than that further south, deep

glacial soil profiles are rarely observed, for road cuts are few

except in the more rugged, bedrock-controlled portions ; the soils

developed under such conditions resemble the old drift types in

many respects, being greatly influenced by the underlying sand¬

stone. But boulders are definitely more numerous, and where-

ever considerable sections in drift occur the materials appear

nearly as fresh, unaltered, and undecomposed as those well

within the post-Iowan drift. This fact is especially evident in

the morainic patches and the drift-covered uplands, which as¬

sume progressively stronger characteristics of youth north of

Hillsdale.

No distinct, sharp differences exist between B and C horizons.

Except where sands and gravels predominate, the soil is rather

dense and compact, containing large amounts of clay and silt

at all depths, but especially near the surface, where a thin loessial

accumulation may generally be found. Below a shallow gray-

brown A horizon the drift is almost invariably reddish in color ;

it is probable that this coloration is at least in part primary,

and thus not necessarily an indication of great age and extensive

oxidization (similar factors relating to the younger drifts will

be discussed in later connections).

Instances of an older drift below the Iowan were rarely ob¬

served in the field, but indications of such a situation gleaned

from well records are many although inconclusive (see page

257). Such must often be the case, and the surface till no

doubt consists to a marked degree of re-worked older material.

That certain high, partially eroded, and deeply weathered gravel

terrace remnants antedate Iowan time is certain. Many of these

terraces display contorted bedding and are capped by fresh

Mathiesen — Pleistocene of Part of Wisconsin

261

till; yet their originally level surface has not been completely

obliverated.

The upland soils of this section were grouped with the so-

called Colby by Weidman, who defined the type as : “Silt loams,

with some stone ; gently sloping well-drained land ; forest trees,

dense hardwoods, hemlock and pine.” The description is an apt

one, by and large, although detailed mapping would rule out

morainic spots, old outwash, and similar local variants. This

classification has been retained by the later soils survey (Whit¬

son, 1927, Plate I), which, however, considers the outwash soils

mapped by Weidman as Plainfield (Chetek) and Rice Lake Sands

a part of the Boone Series (see page 257) . These valley soils are

not markedly different from those discussed in connection with

the old drift, except that coarser gravels are somewhat more

abundant and fine sandy stretches with dune somewhat less so.

The average depth of drift in 169 farm wells is about 31 feet,

those of the northern half averaging nearly twice as much as

those in the southern.

The distribution of moraines and associated features deemed

Iowan in this report would suggest that the ice of the period ad¬

vanced from a direction slightly west of north. Striae trending

S2oE are well developed in parts of the Barron Hills and prob¬

ably correspond to this movement. It is also notable that the

quartzite erratics so common in both the older drift and the

later Wisconsin are rare in the Iowan section, as might be ex¬

pected if the ice moved in the direction stated, for the Barron

Hills unquestionably contributed much of the material of this

type.

Borders of the Iowan Drift

No well-defined, continuous morainic system separates the

Iowan from the older drift; indeed, a definite demarkation is

frequently impossible. The occurance of low morainic ridges in

place and rather clear-cut changes in topography, however, make

possible the location of a generalized border as shown in (Fig.

3). In many ways the change of soils types between the two

sections is more striking than landform differences; hence the

southern border of Colby soil is nearly coincident with the limits

of Iowan drift.

262 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts and Letters

The borders between Iowan and later Wisconsin or Cary

drifts are on the whole, though not everywhere, much more

obvious.

Resemblance to Iowan Drift Outside the Area

Although there is no areal connection between the First Wis¬

consin of northwestern Wisconsin and the type locality of this

formation in northeastern Iowa, the topographic expressions of

both are very similar. In each case the landforms strike a sort

of mean between constructional and erosional forms, with the

latter generally predominating. Distinct terminal moraines are

mutually lacking, so that clear-cut separations of Iowran from

adjacent older drifts cannot readily be made on topographic

bases (Alden, 1915). A further bond may be found in the direc¬

tion of ice advance, which appears to have been somewhat east

of south in Iowa as in northwestern Wisconsin, as shown by the

trend of the drift border and the direction of striae in the Barron

Hills, which, as mentioned on page 261, are probably to be cor¬

related with this movement.

The Third Wisconsin or Cary Drift

General Character and Distribution

The previously accepted limits of Wisconsin drift are in¬

dicated on Fig. 1. It will be seen that a reentrant angle in the

endmoraines has its apex in the northeastern corner of the field

area near Brill. The area of this reentrant as mapped by Weid-

man was considerably reduced by Leverett (1929, Plate I), who

proposed a southwestward extention of the Chippewa lobe (Fig.

1), and suggested that the drift immediately to the south was

probably Illinoian rather than Iowan as stated in this report.

The writer proposes to further reduce the area of pre-Cary

drift by extentions of both the Chippewa and Superior lobes,

thus to include practically all of the supposedly old-drift Colby

soils not previously discussed as Iowan. It is felt that the sedi¬

ments and topography of the portions involved prove their youth

and general relationships as here set forth, although further re¬

finements and more detailed correlations remain to be made

locally.

Mathiesen — Pleistocene of Part of Wisconsin

263

Topography and Drainage

The area of younger drift includes a great variety of land-

forms, ranging from the talus slopes of the Barron Hills to table-

flat, sandy outwash ; local relief varies from a foot or two to sev¬

eral hundred ; drainage is practically non-existant in some parts,

exceedingly well-developed in others. The parts will therefore

be considered more or less individually as: (a) the moraines,

(b) the ground moraine, (c) the rock-controlled ground moraine,

a special type of which is the Barron Hills, and (d) the several

kinds of outwash.

The Moraines

The most prominent moraines are : that of the Superior lobe

on the west, which trends northeast from the vicinity of Turtle

Lake, and that of the Chippewa lobe on the east which runs

slightly west of north from the southeastern corner of the area.

The two meet but a short distance north of Brill. Chamberlin

early considered these part of his “Kettle Range” of the “Second

Glacial Epoch” (vol. 1, pp. 382-385; vol. 2, pp. 205-215). They

were thought of by Weidman, and are shown on most maps, as

the endmoraines of Wisconsin ice in northwestern Wisconsin.

Both have been correlated as Third (Cary) Wisconsin, and are

nearly contemporaneous in age. They are characteristically

young, rugged moraines, a veritable maze of kames, crevasse

fillings, kettles, till ridges, and like forms. Lakes and marshes

of all sizes abound, and drainage is most irregular. Local relief

may exceed two hundred feet, and elevations rise from eleven

hundred feet to over sixteen hundred feet where the main Chip¬

pewa moraine climbs the Barron Hills. The borders of the

moraines are irregular ; the Barron Hills, for instance, cause an

indentation to the east very similar to that at Baraboo (Martin,

p. 121) ; and the gradations of terminal moraine into outwash

or ground moraine are limitless.

A second set of moraines, in general paralleling those men¬

tioned above, are also shown in Fig. 3. Although not as continu¬

ous and somewhat less conspicuous, they are equally youthful and

complex in form, albeit on a smaller scale. Weidman repeatedly

recognized them in his field notes, but any mention of them in the

literature is lacking, except indirectly in connection with the

264 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts and Letters

extra-morainal Wisconsin drift delimited by Leverett (1929,

Plate I). The distribution of these moraines is indicated in

Fig. 3.

The abovementioned double morainic system bears a strong

resemblance to the situation in southeastern Wisconsin near

Darien, at the reentrant between the Michigan and Green Bay

lobes which forms the base of the famed Kettle Interlobate

Moraine (Alden, 1904, 1918; Martin, pp. 253-264). It is indeed

probable that the age relationships between the terminal and

recessional moraines of the two areas may be somewhat com¬

parable, the indistinct and broken morainic patches stretching

northwest from Barron toward Rice Lake representing interlob-

at accumulations. A distinct interlobate moraine extends from

the morainic junction near Brill northward to the Bayfield

Peninsula (Fig. 1).

Separating the smaller terminal or “Outer” moraines from

the larger recessional “Inner” moraines (Fig. 3) are large areas

of outwash, some of which is highly pitted, ground moraine and

patches of thinly-covered bedrock hills. The relief of the Inner

moraines is normally less than that of the Outer, but the topo¬

graphy is essentially similar. Needless to say, the Inner moraines

vary considerably in ruggedness from place to place, being in

places merely gentle swells, hardly distinguishable from the

adjacent ground moraine, in others broken and relatively rough

belts, as, for instance, just east and southeast of Clayton. Being

surrounded by areas of excellent agricultural possibilities, they

were cleared and in part put under cultivation long ago, and

therefore do not resemble the large moraines as much today as

they must certainly have done in years gone by.

Materials and Soils of the Moraines

Weidman (1914) designated the soils of the Inner or sup¬

posedly terminal, Wisconsin moraines as Chelsea Loams :

“Sandy and silt loams with some stone; hilly uneven land con¬

taining some swamps and ponds; forest of dense hardwoods

and pine.” This classification included the Barron Hills, certain

rugged phases of the ground moraine, and areas of highly pitted

outwash as well as the moraines proper. The later soils survey

groups these into the Kennan Series, and locally, as in the Barron

Hills, the “Rough Land Series”. In any event, the description

Mathiesen — Pleistocene of Part of Wisconsin 265

given by Weidman fits in general; the soils are young, quite

unaltered, and normally bouldery, though by and large somewhat

less so than many of the Cary moraines of eastern Wisconsin;

they are subject to the wide variety of drainage conditions

characteristic of the land forms involved.

The drift of both the western and eastern moraines, Inner

and Outer, is dominantly red or reddish in color, that of the

former tending to be slightly more so than that of the latter.

Since both lobes advanced from regions of iron-bearing rocks in

the Lake Superior district and the bedrock of the area itself

contains much iron, this is but to be expected. Furthermore,

there is unquestionably an admixture of older, reworked drift

(see page 257). The eastern moraines contain a higher content

of quartzitic material, derived in large part from the Barron

Hills. The less prominent Outer moraines present drift char¬

acteristics very similar to those of the Inner moraines ; yet they

are shown to be part of the Colby area on all published soils

maps.

Comparative Age of the Moraines

In summary it may be said that the youth of the Outer

moraines is amply attested by their topographic forms, by the

freshness of the materials, and by the widespread presence of

pitted outwash behind them. (Thwaites, 1926, pp. 308-319)

Proof that they date from Cary time rather than Second Wiscon¬

sin or Tazewell time lies in the facts that their lobation corre¬

sponds directly to that the great Inner moraines, and that the

reentrant junctions near Barron and Brill are essentially com¬

ponent parts of a continuous interlobate system.

The Ground Moraine

Separating the Outer moraines from the Inner are, as has

previously been indicated, extensive areas of outwash and till

plain. The latter varies from one or two to more than two hun¬

dred feet in thickness ; a well in NE-SE Section 3, Township 34

North, Range 12 West, for example, showed 230 feet or drift,

and records of over one hundred feet are common.1 The surface

is generally rolling and well-drained (especially since the in¬

troduction of agriculture) ; a region by the large excellently

1 367 wells in post-Iowan areas indicate an average depth of drift of 64 feet, all landform

types included.

266 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts and Letters

suited for agriculture. Smaller areas are nearly as level as out-

wash, which indeed occurs in close association with them. This

section, with minor exceptions, was mapped as Colby by Weid-

man (see page 261), the classification being retained by the later

soil survey (Weidman, 1914, pp. 43-45; Whitson, pp. 144-154).

The description fits the true ground moraine well, but is obvious¬

ly inappropriate for the morainic features previously discussed

as well as for a number of included areas of outwash, nearly

drift-free hills, and the like. Undrained depressions, marshes,

and even small lakes occur, but are by no means as common as in

the moraines and pitted outwash.

Materials and Soils of the Ground Moraine

Although the drift of the Cary ground moraine is on the av¬

erage thicker than that of the Iowan, the topographies of the

two types are similar in certain respects. It may be noted that,

although Colby soils are thought characteristically to be devel¬

oped upon old drift, a large area behind the Wisconsin endmor-

aine in the central part of the state has long been considered

Colby; however, the latter area is principally underlain by

granites and other crystaline rocks, whereas the Barron County

Colby rests largely upon sandstones and older drift (Whitson,

p. 144). Indeed the variety of parent materials and landforms

upon which Colby soils are said to have developed is so great

that a revised classification, and of course more detailed differ¬

entiation by mapping, seems necessary.

The Cary ground moraine locally contains considerable

amounts of stone and boulders, but the handicap which this may

present to farming is offset by its other, good qualities. The drift,

like that of the moraines, is predominantly red, with a rather

compact, clayey matrix containing variable amounts of sand.

It locally displays rather poor sub-soil drainage. There is no

well-marked difference between B and C horizons, and the lighter,

gray-brown. A horizon is everywhere shallow.

The writer is convinced that the red coloration of the soil is

not a secondary phenomenon indicative of advanced weathering,

but a primary feature, for the following reasons: (a) the color

is characteristic of all horizons except in part the uppermost,

(b) the same color is found in the obviously young moraines,

(c) the sources of drift, reddish, ferrugenous rocks and old

Mathiesen — Pleistocene of Part of Wisconsin

267

drift, would tend to impart such color. Striking evidence of

primary coloration was observed at Reeve, where a cellar be¬

ing dug exposed a fresh section about eight feet deep in red,

clayey, and apparently oxidized till. Near the bottom a layer of

fresh sand containing bits of kaolin was encountered. About

midway between the top and the bottom was found a large ball

of fresh, unaltered sand, probably a mass ploughed up into by

the ice while frozen. Several smaller bodies of similar nature

were observed scattered elsewhere throughout the cut. It seems

unlikely that these masses could escape alteration entirely if

the surrounding materials had been subjected to prolonged

weathering since deposition.

Rock-Controlled Ground Moraine

Locally, as along the main streams, the pre-Wisconsin relief

was so great subsequent erosion has been so much accelerated

that the bedrock is but thinly mantled with drift or actually ex¬

posed. Rock-controlled landforms also prevail in certain peri¬

pheral zones and isolated hills where only slight amounts of drift

were deposited. The soils in such places as well as the topo¬

graphy are influenced to such an extent by the inclusion of non¬

glacial material as to resemble in many ways the Iowan drift to

the south Weidman (1914, Plate I) mapped these in part as

Colby, in part as Auburn soils.

The Barron Hills

The character of this section has previously been mentioned

in brief. Where heavily burdened by drift, the old, underlying

topography is not particularly evident, but west of the eastern

Inner moraine the drift is thinner and the marginal valleys cut

in quartzite form conspicuous, gorge-like features, bringing to

mind the Devils Lake region. Certain of them appear to wind in

deeply-entrenched meanders ; this is especially true of the valley

of Rock Creek, on the south side of the range. The uplands, on

the other hand, are gently rolling, with broad, old-looking valleys.

Soils in the Barron Hills are extremely rocky, attaining even

passable utility only locally on the uplands. Agricultural oc-

cupance has, because of this fact and because of the sharp land-

forms, been limited, and much of the area remains in dense sec-

268 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts and Letters

ond-growth forest and brush, some of which is exploited for cord

and pulp wood.

The Problem of the Talus Slopes

The fact that talus slopes exist in the western parts of the :

Barron Hills has long and reasonably been held as evidence that

this section was not covered by Wisconsin ice. Paradoxically,

the moraines and outwash immediately to the west appear be¬

yond question to be of Cary age, according to both Leverett

(1929, Plate I) and this writer. Since the Barron Hills, and

especially the valleys within them in which the debris is found,

are hardly prominent enough to have formed a nunatak, the

ice must indeed have covered them, though possibly in a much-

thinned condition. It would therefore seem that either the ice

was too thin or burdened to remove all the talus, or talus from

this formation forms more rapidly than has been supposed ; per¬

haps a combination of both factors is responsible. It is inter¬

esting to note that talus is at present confined almost exclusively

to southerly slopes, where freezing, thawing, and hence me¬

chanical disintegration is most intense. The eastern part of the

range is so heavily covered with drift that the amount of talus

still in situ beneath it cannot be determined.

The Outwash

About half of the area separating the Cary terminal and

recessional moraines is occupied by extensive outwash plains

of varying aspect. The glacio-fluvial material was contributed

by both lobes, but the largest portion is concentrated on the east-

central side of the field area in the lowland between the main

sandstone uplands and the crystaline and morainic sections. The

bulk of the outwash is moderately pitted or very gently undulat¬

ing, while some practically flat, unpitted plain may be found

scattered here and there. Bordering upon or contiguous with the

moraines are more local areas of intensely pitted outwash; the

largest and best developed of these is that in Township 36 North,

Range 10 West, about Red Cedar Lake. Where strongly pitted

outwash and moraine occur in close proximity, separation of

the two in mapping may be difficult, especially if the terrain is

densely wooded ; the areas shown as moraine on Plate III there¬

fore include numerous smaller patches of assorted material

Mathiesen — Pleistocene of Part of Wisconsin

269

which, although outwash per se, constitute integral parts of the

morainic system as a whole. Sharp and topographically distinct

divisions, such as that in the northeastern part of Township 31

North, Range 9 West, are relatively rare. Further complications

are introduced when a plain, especially if pitted, has been dis¬

sected into a maze of interstream remnants by glacial and post¬

glacial waters; such is the case in the west-central portions of

Township 35 North, Range 12 West, the plain in this instance

being part of the interlobate morainic and outwash system.

Although altitudinal variations within the plains are mainly

the result of a delta or fan-like structure, such as that evident

between Rice Lake and Red Cedar Lake, a series of riverine ter¬

races essentially like that of the Iowan Area (see page 259) is

also present in the youngest area, for, as might be expected, the

latest outwash deposition in each took place concurrently. The

series includes the old high-level, partially till-covered outwash

remnants, which are perhaps best developed in the southern parts

of Townships 34 North, Ranges 12 and 13 West, from whence

they extend southward some distance into the Iowan section.

Being weathered, eroded, and overridden, the remnants would

appear to be pre-Iowan. It seems that Iowan outwash is either

scarce or largely obscured by Cary detritus. According to Lev-

erett (1930, p. 21), Iowan ice developed little outwash in south¬

eastern Minnesota and northeastern Iowa.

The highly pitted outwash in the northwest corner of Town¬

ship 32 North, Range 10 West displays two distinct levels, the

one from fifty to seventy feet higher than the other. In sections

10, 11, 14 and 15 of Township 31 North, Range 9 West is a

singular patch of level outwash, bounded by steep slopes, sur¬

rounded by rolling round moraine, and more than 100 feet above

the nearest main outwash level.

Perhaps the most remarkable “two story” plain is that near

Brill, just south of the juncture between the two Inner moraines.

The western moraines rests upon a terrace some thirty feet

higher than that on the east, which is split in twain by the south¬

flowing Brill River (also refered to as Long Lake Stream) . Both

levels are moderately pitted, the separation between the two is

abrupt and escarpment-like, and the lower level rises gradually

east of the river to a highly pitted zone, which in turn merges

270 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts and Letters

with the moraine. Downstream the terraces become less and

less distinct, finally ceasing to be distinguishable.

An explanation of the situation might be that the break be¬

tween the two levels is a constructional or ice-margin feature;

i.e., the eastern lobe once stood further west than the present |

moraine would suggest, and outwash from both this and the west¬

ern lobe built up before it. The shape and face of the low es¬

carpment would not rule out this explanation, and by it the

pitting of both levels and their confluence to the south are made

possible. The depression formed upon recession of the ice served

to localize drainage, a factor which would in a measure tend to

preserve the differentiation. Lastly, this hypothesis is in accord

with the concept of a progressively retreating interlobate re¬

entrant.

Drainage Channels and Lakes

The great glacial drainage channels traversing the plains,

some now occupied by underfit streams, others by ill-drained

swamp land, are conspicuous elements of the landscape, and may

in most cases be traced to breaks in the moraines or to glacial

valleys extending far back into them. Many are today the sites

of chains of minor lakes and swamps, while the intramorainal

valleys with which they connect may be occupied by large bodies

of water, formed in part by drift dams, in part by the melt¬

ing of residual ice blocks preserved in the valleys. Red Cedar,

Vermillion, and Turtle Lakes appear to be features of this type.

It should be mentioned that the distribution of certain reces¬

sional moraines, lakes, and drainage courses indicate that they

outline pre-glacial, or at least pre-Wisconsin, valleys in many

instances. The eastern Inner moraine dips almost to obscurity

in an east-west depression just south of the Barron Hills, a

basin which serves as a locus of present drainage, carried large

quantities of glacial melt waters, and appears to have been of

prime importance in the old drainage system of the crystaline

area.

The countless kettle-holes of the plains proper also form lake

and marsh basins. Sharply-defined, undrained, and unfilled fea¬

tures of this type are well-nigh conclusive evidence of recency.

Resulting from the melting of isolated, stagnant ice-blocks, num¬

erous and large kettle-holes probably cannot be formed in areas

Mathiesen — Pleistocene of Part of Wisconsin

271

not just previously occupied by the parent glacier. The abun¬

dance of these forms twenty miles and more beyond the major

moraines establishes the latter as recessional.

Rice and Chetek Lakes, originally agglomerations of small

lakes and marshes within ancient channels, owe their present

form and size to artificial damming during logging days, with the

resultant merging of the small lakes. An interesting outcome of

this in the case of Lake Chetek (especially the northwest arm,

known as Prairie Lake) has been the formation of floating

islands as the marsh bottom tore loose with the rise of water

level. These “bogs” drift aimlessly with the wind, attain the

size of a city block, and support a low growth of brush and tam¬

arack. Slowly breaking up, many have taken root anew along

shore, or have been artificially anchored to prevent damage to

boat houses and bridges.

A small lake in Section 2, Township 32 North, Range 11 West

displays a mode of origin different from the others. At one time

the Red Cedar apparently joined the Chetek River near the

present location of this small lake; it then shifted to a more

direct southerly course, part of the abandoned meander subse¬

quently becoming an integral part of the Chetek River, the na¬

tural levee of which thereafter blocked off the remaining, or

northern, part to form the present lake and marsh basin.

Outwash Materials and soils

The composition of the outwash varies from fine sand to

coarse gravel, depending upon the distances from points of

origin in the moraines, or upon a multitude of local conditions.

The extent to which profile development has progressed appears

to depend to a considerable extent upon the porosity of the drift.

As a rule no marked differences between B and C horizons are

to be seen, although instances of good development of the former

are not uncommon. The A horizon tends to be shallow, podsolic

where originally covered by coniferous forest, dark and well-

supplied with organic material where evolved beneath grasses.

Weidman (1914, Plate I, pp. 58-65) divided the outwash soils

into the Plainfield (Chetek) type (see page 257) and the Rice

Lake Loams. The latter contains somewhat more silt and less

coarse material than the former, and was originally forested by

dense white pine and hardwood or, locally, covered by grasses,

272 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts and Letters

rather than by the oak and jack pine vegetation so character¬

istic of the former. The Rice Lake soil has proven itself to be

of very good agricultural use, and supports a large number of

normally productive farms. The later Soils Survey (1927) makes

the Rice Lake variety a part of the all-inclusive Boone Series.

Relatively small areas of peaty or marsh-border soils are abun¬

dant.

Eskers

Although no attempt has been made to describe in detail the

numerous eskers and crevasse fillings of the moraines and deeply

pitted outwash, mention might be made of a prominent esker

which runs in a generally northeasterly direction through sec¬

tions 16, 20, 21 and 29 of Township 35 North, Range 12 West.

Portions of this feature are buried by outwash, but its true

ridge-like character may be discerned in places.

Bibliography

ALDEN, W. C. & M. M. LEIGHTON. 1915. The Iowan Drift . . . ., la.

Prof. Paper 84

1918. Quaternary Geology of Southeastern Wisconsin, U.S.G.S. Prof.

Paper 106

ALDEN, W. C. & W. M. LEIGHTON. 1915. The Iowan Drift. . . ., Ia.

Geol. Survey Bull. 26, pp. 49-212

ANTE VS, ERNST. 1929. Maps of the Pleistocene Glaciations , Bull. Geol.

Soc. Amer. v. 40, pp. 621-720

CHAMBERLAIN, T. C. 1880. Geology of Wisconsin, vols. 1 & 2, Madison,

Wis.

DURAND, LOYAL. 1926. The Geographic Regions of Wisconsin , Wis.

Dept. Agric. and Markets Bull. 90

LEVERETT, FRANK. 1929. Moraines and Shorelines of the Lake Su -

perior Basin , U. S. Geol. Sur. Prof. Paper 154A

1930. Problems of the Glacialist, Pan- Amer. Geologist vol. 53, pp. 1-22

MARTIN, LAWRENCE. 1932. The Physical Geography of Wisconsin, Wis.

Geol. & Nat. Hist. Sur. Bull. 36

STRAIN, WARREN. 1937. Geography of the Northwest Dairy Region

of Wisconsin Trans. Wis. Acad. Arts, Letters & Sci., vol. 30, pp. 179-

202

THWAITES, F. T. The Origin and Significance of Pitted Outwash Jour.

Geol., vol. 84, pp. 308-819

1982. The Buried pre-Cambrian of Wisconsin , Bull. Geol. Soc. Amer.

vol. 42, pp. 719-750

1987. Outline of Glacial Geology Ann Arbor, Mich.

WEIDMAN, SAMUEL. 1907. Geology of North Central Wisconsin, Wis.

Geol. & Nat. Hist. Surv. Bull. 16

1914. Soil Survey of the South Part of Northwestern Wisconsin, Wis.

Geol. & Nat. Hist. Surv. Bull. 23

WHITSON. A. R. 1927. Soils of Wisconsin , Wis. Geol. & Nat. Hist.

Surv.

DEGREE OF PIGMENTATION AND THE POTENTIAL

ACID-BASE BALANCE OF HONEY

H. A. Schuette, Warren W. Woessner, Ralph E. Triller

and D. J. Huenink

Department of Chemistry , University of Wisconsin,

Madison

Some 26 years ago Sherman and Gettler C12) in reporting

on the inorganic constituents of foods offered a simple method

for computing the balance of the acid-forming and base-forming

elements from the data obtained in a mineral analysis of the

substance in question. Since honey was not among the large list

examined by them it remained unclassified in this respect until

Lothrop (’36), taking advantage of a simple titrimetric method

which had been suggested previously by Davidson and Le Clerc

C35), assigned it to the so-called alkaline ash group of foods.

The mineral analysis of honey having become an object in

itself in this Laboratory, there have been obtained data whose

interpretation along the above lines leads to confirmation of the

former's findings not only with respect to this fact but also to

the suggestion that there apparently exists a relationship be¬

tween degree of pigmentation of this food and its acid-base bal¬

ance. The approach to these conclusions, simplified by the de¬

velopment of more rapid techniques than were available in

their time, is the same as was used by Sherman and Gettler ('12) .

Experimental

The group of 20 honeys which had been brought together for

this study represented almost as many of the popular floral

sources which are associated with this food. For this reason the

lot is deemed to represent an average cross section of consumer

preference with respect to honey. It included various species of

clover honeys from the north central and the eastern States, sage

and orange blossom honeys from California, alfalfa honeys from

Colorado and neighboring States, buckwheat honey mixtures

273

274 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts and Letters

from Wisconsin and New York, and some which are typical of

southern bee pastures, particularly Georgia.

As a necessary prelude to analysis, dry incineration was used

in all instances except in the case of samples intended for sulfur

determinations; those were oxidized with nitric and perchloric

acids. Retention of the phosphorus was insured by the addr

tion of magnesium nitrate to the sample before ignition. Chlorine

losses were prevented by the use of the sodium carbonate.

The optimum conditions for the determination of each ele¬

ment were first established by preliminary experiment and re¬

covery trials. No procedure was used unless it proved to be

simple, rapid, accurate, and adaptable to the problem in hand.

Gravimetric procedures were used for the determination of

the base-forming elements. Calcium was precipitated with oxalic

acid, after which magnesium was removed with 8-hydroxyquino-

line. Potassium was combined with hexanitrodiphenylamine

(“dipicrylamine”) to form an insoluble complex and, similarly,

from a separate solution, sodium was removed by means of

uranyl zinc acetate.

Sulfur and chlorine were determined volumetrically ; the

former by direct titration with barium chloride solution in the

presence of tetrahydroxyquinone as internal indicator, the lat¬

ter with silver nitrate solution. Phosphorus was determined

colorimetrically through the medium of the blue color produced

by the action of stannous chloride upon a sulphuric acid solution

of its ammonium molybdate complex.

Data (Table 1) on each of the honeys analyzed have not been

made part of this summary because degree of pigmentation1

was primarily the point of departure involved in this study.

Therefore, only averages for the honeys in each color classifica¬

tion have been recorded. Parenthetically, it might be remarked

that this course is consistent with the present merchandizing

practice for a statement of floral source is not a condition in¬

volved in the lawful, interstate sale of honey. Next, all data were

more or less arbitrarily grouped again into two large divisions,

light and dark, as typifying, in a qualitative sense the most ob¬

vious color differences. By this scheme of division, then, the

1 This expression is used here in the sense conveyed by the terminology of the United States

grading rules (Sechrist, E. L., 1925. The color grading of honey. U. S. Dept. Agric. Circ. 3 64,

p. 5) according to which intensity of color increases with numerical values on the Pfund scale.

Schuette, et al — Acid-Base of Honey

275

light-honey group includes those whose predominating floral

sources are orange blossoms, alfalfa, cotton bloom and several

species of clover, respectively. Similarly, the members of the

dark-honey group had their origins in white sage, gallberry,

tupelo, Mexican clover, thistle, buckwheat and late-blooming

flowers.

Conclusions

That one may expect to find distinct differences in the acid-

base balance of honeys which on the one hand are deeply pig¬

mented and on the other less so, is evident from the data ob¬

tained in this study of a group which, because of different geo¬

graphical origins and the variety of floral sources involved, may

very well be deemed to represent consumer preference as to this

natural, unrefined food. Although qualitatively in agreement

with those of Lothrop (’36), yet quantitatively the base values

which were found represent a lower order of magnitude than

those which were reported by him. If these data are plotted, a

smooth curve will be obtained which in spite of its regularity,

however, is not deemed to have any mathematical significance.

It is evident, also, that those factors which are contributive

to the flavor of honey bear little, if any, direct relationship to

those which make for its acid-base balance. In the latter re¬

spect, the delicately flavored types of honey fall below those

whose principal non-saccharine characteristic is a deep color

and a not-so-delicate taste. It is, indeed, an interesting observa¬

tion that the buckwheat honeys of the northern States and most

of those typical of the South possess a greater potential acid-

base balance than do those honeys whose predominating floral

sources are the various species of clover, alfalfa, orange blos¬

soms, etc.

Summary

Distinct differences in the acid-base balance of honeys which,

on the one hand, are deeply pigmented and, on the other, less so,

may be expected in any group of them in which a variety of

floral nectar sources is involved. The change is progressive,

proceeding, for example, from the delicately flavored water-

white and white clover, alfalfa and orange blossom honeys

276

Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts and Letters

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Schuette, et al — Acid-Base of Honey

277

through the deeper pigmented light amber and amber wild aster,

gallberry, tupelo gum products to the dark, or buckwheat hon¬

eys.

Honey belongs to the alkaline-ash group of foods. This fact

was deduced from a computation of the balance of acid-forming

and base-forming elements from data obtained in making min¬

eral analyses of a wide variety of honeys. Average minima and

maxima in mgs. per kg. found for the elements in question are :

calcium 47 to 63 ; magnesium 18 to 38 ; sodium 13 to 31 ; potas¬

sium 117 to 769; sulfur 54 to 101; chlorine 50 to 216 phosphorus

(phosphate anion considered dibalent) 32 to 54. The average

base balance of the light honeys (water white and white) was

found to be 1 ml. N solution per kg. ; for the dark (light amber

and amber) 9.4 ml.

Literature

Davidson, J., and J. A. Le Clerc, 1935. A new method for the determination

of the acid-base balance in food materials. J. Biol. Chem., vol. 108,

p. 337.

Lothrop, R. E., 1936. The potential alkalinity of honey: Its acid-base bal¬

ance as a food. J. Nutrition, vol. 11, p. 511.

Sherman, H. C., and A. 0. Gettler, 1912. The balance of acid forming and

base forming elements in foods and its relation to ammonia metabolism.

J. Biol. Chem., vol. 11, p. 823.

The Relation of Le Philosophe anglais

by

the Abbe Prevost

to

the Religious Controversies in France and England

during the

Early Eighteenth Century1 * 3

Berenice Cooper

State Teachers College

Superior, Wisconsin

The novel Le Philosophe anglais by the Abbe Prevost merits

consideration as a part of the history of thought in France and

in England from 1730 to 1740 both because of its theme and be¬

cause of its bibliographical history. It is the purpose of this pa¬

per to discuss the relation of the theme of the novel to the phil¬

osophical and religious controversies of the early eighteenth

century.

Le Philosophe anglais , which Prevost represented to be the

memoirs of Mr. Cleveland,1 natural son of Oliver Cromwell,

relates the search of the hero for a philosophy of life which will

enable him to bear sorrow with equanimity and which can re¬

concile the apparent conflicts and oppositions of existence. The

story begins with the presentation of views resembling neo-

Stoicism and Deism; then Cleveland, disillusioned with philos¬

ophy and natural religion because they fail him completely in

time of sorrow, examines critically both Catholic and Protestant

1 The writer wishes to make grateful acknowledgement to the American Association for the

Advancement of Science and the Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters for the assistance

of the Grant-in-Aid for Research for 1937-38.

3 The book was apparently accepted at first as the genuine memoirs of Cleveland, for it was

so reviewed in a magazine devoted exclusively to nonfiction, Historic Litteraria, II, No. IX (March,

1731), 285-92. Professor George Sherbum, in reviewing Mysie Robertson’s edition of Prevost’s

Memoires et avantures <Pun homme de quality, gives evidence for Prevost’s publishing an English

translation before the French edition in order to substantiate his claims, made in the preface to the

book, that he was translating a manuscript received in London from Cleveland’s son. See Modern

Philology, XXV (1927), 246-8, for discussion of this evidence.

279

280 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts and Letters

dogma. After failing to find peace of mind in either faith and

experiencing no satisfaction through a period of association

with a group of French philosophes, he is finally converted to a

religion which the author does not identify with any church.

A brief summary of the philosophy in which Cleveland was

educated by his mother and which he accepted as a guide in

his early life will show some of its resemblances to the neo-

Stoicism of the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries.

This philosophy is described as moral philosophy which has

as its aims truth and happiness attained through the subjugation

of the passions by the reason. The story of the genesis of this

philosophy through the experiences of Elizabeth Cleveland is

told in terms of the conflict between reason and the passions

which destroy peace of mind. Ambition, Elizabeth's dominant

passion, leads her to become the mistress of Charles I. Her

wounded pride, when her royal lover discards her, makes her the

victim of Cromwell, who recognizes the political usefulness to

him of Charles' former mistress. When Cromwell's selfish inter¬

ests are served, he, too, discards Elizabeth, who renounces slav¬

ery to love and ambition for a life of solitude and the study of

ancient and modern philosophers.3 From her reading, she form¬

ulates a set of maxims which become the foundation of her peace

of mind and a textbook for her son. As he studies science and

history, he evalutes what he reads in the light of these maxims

compiled by his mother.4

News of Cromwell's rise to power upsets the composure of

Elizabeth by reawakening some of her former worldly ambition.

She tells her son about his father and urges the boy to seek the

recognition and preferment which is his right as Cromwell's

son. Young Cleveland, judging his father by the principles of

honor and virtue, detests Cromwell; yet the lad recognizes in

himself a natural feeling of filial affection and a desire to see

his father which oppose the dictates of reason.5 After several

years, the mother's worldly wisdom prevails,6 but the result of

the interview is that the two must flee from Cromwell's ven¬

geance to hide for years in Romney Caverns. They agree in pre¬

ferring this solitude to the hatred and malice of mankind.7

3 Le Philosophe anglais (Rouen: Racine, 1785), I, i, 6.

4 Ibid., pp. 8-9.

*Ibid., pp. 9-11.

9 Ibid., p. 12.

7 Ibid., pp. 42-3.

Cooper — Le Philosophe anglais

281

Cleveland concludes that men voluntarily bring misery upon

themselves, for nature intended them to be happy, but their pas¬

sions destroy their peace of mind. Elizabeth tells her son that

she can never attain the philosophic calm which is possible for

him, because the passions of which she was a victim in early life

have introduced desires which are in opposition to those natural

and right inclinations that in his case are unspoiled by violent

passions and have been fortified by education in the right princi¬

ples.* 8

This resume of the philosophy of Cleveland's early life will

serve to indicate that it is based upon the conflict in man's na¬

ture between reason and good inclinations on the one side and

weak and selfish passions on the other. In Cleveland's case there

has been introduced a conflict between the maxims dictated by

reason and filial affection springing from the good inclinations.

But at the revelation of the full extent of Cromwell's villany,

reason approves hatred9 and the conflict is temporarily resolved.

After his mother's death, Cleveland’s many adventures take

him to America where he becomes absolute ruler of a tribe of

Indians to whom he teaches a religion which inspires the savages

with respect for his authority.10 This religion strongly resembles

Deism in its principles: (1) belief in a Supreme Being, (2)

submission to his will, (3) punishment for sin, (4) no religious

ceremonies except a brief prayer repeated in general assembly

twice a week and in the homes daily.11 Cleveland states later in

the narrative that such beliefs with emphasis upon just and

virtuous conduct formed the essence of his religion at this period

of his life.12 Although he seldom uses the word religion when

speaking of his earlier views, but refers to them as his former

principles or as his philosophy,13 his conversations with Minister

C. and with Lord Clarendon make clear that he has always ac¬

cepted the principles of natural religion.14

This combination of moral philosophy and natural religion

has met Cleveland's need until he becomes convinced that his

wife, Fanny, has eloped with his good friend, Gelin. Up to this

time he has prided himself on his ability to control his passions

s Ibid,, pp. 43-4.

8 Ibid., p. IS.

10 Ibid., Ill, iv, 158.

11 Ibid., pp. 159-65.

12 Ibid., V, vii, 4-7.

13 Ibid., IV, vii, 145-6, 162.

11 Ibid., V, vii, 4; VIII, xv, 201.

282 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts and Letters

by his reason,15 but this tragedy makes him a helpless victim of

his wounded affections.16

It is out of his despair following this sorrow that Cleve¬

land denounces philosophy as a weak and impotent phantom

and finds that his reason approves suicide, but natural affection

for his little sons frustrates the intent he had thought reasonable,

to kill them as well as himself.17 To please his anxious friends,

he consents to listen to the arguments for revealed religion as

presented first by the Protestant, Minister C. ; then by the

Jansenist, Father le Bane; and finally by the Jesuit, Father

Ruel.18

The views of the first two he characterizes as sad and re¬

pulsive.19 The casuistry of the Jesuit, although it diverts him,

brings neither intellectual nor spiritual satisfaction.20 The nar¬

row dogmatism of each group, their attempts at coercion, their

persecution of those of dissenting faith offend his standards of

justice and tolerance. Their arguments are unconvincing.21 In

fact a very weak case for revealed religion is presented in the

narrative of Cleveland's conversations with Minister C., Father

le Bane, and Father Ruel.22 The greatest defects in all three re¬

ligions are emphasized in the characterization of these represen¬

tatives: dogmatism, intolerance, narrow sectarianism, overzeal

for making converts, interference with personal liberty, and

lack of logical support for arguments. The Jesuits are presented

as they are characterized by their enemies: sly; crafty, am¬

bitious, and even unscrupulous casuists ; but neither Protestants

nor Jansenists are placed in a more favorable light.

The fourth volume leaves Cleveland disillusioned both with

his former principles and with orthodox religion, Protestant and

Catholic.

In the continuation volumes, which were not published until

1738-39, 23 the chief interest lies in the steps leading to the con-

™Ibid., II, iii, 12-25; IV, viii, 3, 2C, 47.

» Ibid., IV, vii, 2, 8-9, 44.

” Ibid., 167-79.

19 Ibid., V, vii, 2, 8-9, 44.

1S Ibid., VIII, xv, 205.

20 Ibid., V, vii, 16, 19, 22, 58.

21 Ibid., vii, 119, 187.

22 Ibid., vii, 8, 12, 57.

23 Prevosts life up to the year 1734 is a record of conflict between the call of the world and

that of holy orders. In 1713 he became a novitiate in the Society of Jesus at Paris, from which

he twice ran away, returning each time to receive the forgiveness of the order. In 1720 he was a

novice in the Benedictine Order at St. Maur; in 1721 he took the vows of the order at the Abbey

of Jumieges with a mental reservation which, he says, could authorize him to break those vows.

Sainte-Beauve says ( Portraits of the eighteenth century. New York: Putnam, 1905, p. 11) that

Cooper — Le Philosophe anglais

283

version of Cleveland and in the principles of the religion which

he finally accepts.

His happiness is almost completely restored by the discovery

of Fanny's innocence and by a perfect reconciliation with her,

but even yet something is lacking for intellectual and spiritual

satisfaction. Companionship with a group of French philosophes

fails to advance him further in his quest for peace of mind.24

He realizes that another disaster to his loved ones would destroy

a happiness attained by reunion with his wife.25 He has ob¬

served upon the death of his daughter that his wife finds in the

Roman Catholic faith a strength to meet sorrow.26 He notes

Lord Clarendon's remarkable self-control when grief comes to

him,27 and so it is to this friend he turns for help. According

to his appeal to Lord Clarendon, Cleveland makes two principal

demands from a system of thought which can bring him peace

of mind : that it enable him to conquer grief, or at least bring

consolation for it, and that it provide a philosophy which recon¬

ciles the inconsistencies and cruelties of life.28

How, then, do Cleveland's new views meet these two de¬

mands? The desire for a consolation which balances, if it does

not remedy, the effects of sorrow is satisfied by making celestial

things the objects of one's desires, by viewing the objects of one's

affections in this world as temporal goods relating to and leading

to the celestial and the eternal, and by a faith in a happy future

state which compensates for the losses and sorrows of this

world.29 Reconciliation of the inconsistencies and cruelties of

life is effected by their relation to ultimate perfection.30

Cleveland now ranks spiritual and worldly desires and his

duties in an order resembling that of the neo-Platonic scale of

Prevost’s letters during the period 1721-27 show a conflict between a desire for the world and

a desire for the cloister. In 1728 he left the Benedictine Order before receiving Papal permission

and as a result became Prevost d’Exile, living in England and Holland from 1728-34, until a pardon

from the Pope allowed him to re-enter the Benedictine Order. The year 1734 divides a period of

turmoil and spiritual conflict from one of apparent peace of mind. It is significant that the first

volumes of Le Philosophe anglais were published at the climax of the conflict and that the concluding

volumes were published after the adjustment to ecclesiastical life had been made. The evidence

presented up to this time by biographers of Prevost (See Henry Harrisse, L’Abbe PrSvost, Paris:

Levy, 1896, and V. Schroeder, U Ajbbi Privost, Paris: Hachette, 1898) shows that the years

1734-63 were spent in performing the duties of ecclesiastical life, principally as aumonier to Prince

Conti, and in the scholarly pursuits of study, translating, and creative writing. There is one

slight exception to this statement: in 1741 there was some difficulty about an article in a Gazitte

a la main which resulted in Prevost’s being an exile in Brussels for about a year.

24 Le Philosophe anglais, VII, xiv, 53-70.

« Ibid., VII, xiii, 136-7.

M Ibid., VIII, xv, 187.

27 Ibid., pp. 192-9.

28 Ibid., p. 203.

20 Ibid., p. 215.

30 Ibtd., p. 214.

284 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts and Letters

Being: (1) love of God and desire for celestial things, (2) the

duties of religion, (8) love for his wife, (4) the duties of society,

(5) the study of the Bible and of nature, (6) the moderate use

of pleasure.31

As a result he is able to bring order out of the confusion

which has tortured him. Philosophy is no longer opposed to re¬

ligion for it merely anticipates the ideal of the tranquil mind

which it could not attain without the inner grace which only re¬

ligion gives.32 Natural religion is no longer opposed to revealed,

for to the enlightened mind the order of nature is related to

God as is the order of grace,33 and the study of nature is ranked

with the study of the Bible as a means of growth. There is no

opposition between the life of the senses and the life of the

spirit : natural desires for the temporal goods of this world, for

harmless amusements, for the society of fellow-creatures, and

for the pleasures of love are not in conflict with the love of God

and of spiritual goods. The relation is of a lower order to a

higher in the same system.34

Such a system of thought opposes asceticism as well as ex¬

cessive indulgence. Cleveland condemns withdrawal from so¬

ciety as a cowardly running away from combat.35 The view

found in many of the books of piety that love of creatures draws

man away from God he censures as a fanaticism that wounds

religion as well as nature.36 Those who ignore the manner in

which the laws of nature and of religion are related will not

approve, he says, but his view is that all lawful desires are en¬

nobled by their contribution to a higher objective. Christianity

sanctifies innocent passion and by teaching the temporal char¬

acter of the life of the senses intensifies the desire for eternal

happiness.37

In spite of the evidences of Jansenistic influences in Pre-

vost’s novels which have been presented in studies by Harrisse,

Hazard, Pauli and others,38 it is obvious that these views in

Le Philosophe anglais are diametrically opposed to those of Port

Royal. They have much more in common with the point of view

of the seventeenth century Cambridge Platonists and the lati-

33 Ibid., pp. 213-4.

32 Ibid., p. 215.

33 Ibid.., pp. 213-4.

34 Ibid., p. 212-15.

™ Ibid., p. 212.

33 Ibid., p. 213.

37 Ibid., pp. 214-5.

Cooper — Le Philo sophe anglais

285

tudinarianism of the Anglican divines in the seventeenth and

eighteenth centuries. Perhaps Prevost’s exile in England may

have been responsible for some influence of the theology of the

Anglican church upon the religious views expressed in Le PhiL

osophe anglais .

Although there is an unauthenicated story that Chancellor

d’Aguesseau refused to allow the printing of Le Philosophe

anglais in France unless Cleveland were made a Catholic in the

concluding volume,39 there is no mention of the Catholic doc¬

trine or of the Catholic church in connection with his conversion.

Furthermore, he is converted by Lord Clarendon, whose name

could not be very pleasant to Catholic ears and whose Protestant¬

ism is emphasized in the narrative. Prevost is definite enough

about the religion of other characters: Cecile is converted to

Catholicism on her deathbed ;40 Fanny adopts the Catholic faith ;41

the repentant Gelin becomes a Jesuit.42 But in the summary of

Cleveland’s religious ideas there is no mention of entering into

communion with any church.

Throughout the story Prevost has satirized narrow sectar¬

ianism in both Protestants and Catholics. One of the stumbling

blocks in the way of Cleveland’s conversion was the hatred and

the intolerance among the religious sects with whom he came

in contact. In a passage omitted in a number of editions after

1750 he laments that religion should be confined within the nar¬

row limits of creeds. Wherever matters of religious controversy

enter the narrative, they are presented with an objective ap¬

praisal of the weaknesses of each group. Dogmatism, narrow

sectarianism, and persecution are satirized without favor to

Protestants, Jansenists, or Jesuits. No sect is presented as show¬

ing the moderation, justice, tolerance, and respect for reason

which are Cleveland’s standards for true religion. The conver-

38 Henri Harrisse, La Vie Monaslique de I’abbe Prlvost (Paris: Le Clerc, 1903), pp. 25-9,

49-50; Paul Hazard, “Jansenisme,” Etudes critiques sur Manon Lescaut (Chicago: University of

Chicago Press, 1924), pp. 47-69; Eugene Lasserre, Manon Lescaut de Vabbi Prevost (Paris:

Societe Fran^aise d’Editions Litteraires et Techniques, 1930) pp. 90-118; Andre de Maricourt,

Ce bon oboe Provost (Paris: Hachette, 1932), pp. 101-09. Franz Pauli, Die Philosophischen

Grundanschauungen in den Romanen des Abbi Privost, im besonderen Manon Lescaut (Marburg:

Ebel, 1912), pp. 13-92. It must be noted that Le Philosophe anglais presents later evidence of

Prevost's own attitude than does Manon, and, as both Hazard and Lassere have pointed out, Pre¬

vost revised a passage on grace in the later edition of Manon. In another paper I have tried to

show that the conclusions in these studies rest upon a somewhat superficial and incomplete idea of

Jansenism.

33 Harrisse, L’abbS Prevost, pp. 269-70.

40 Le Philosophe anglais, VIII, xv, 174.

41 Ibid., VII, xii, 165.

42 Ibid., VIII, xv, 226-7.

286 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts and Letters

sion of Cleveland to a religion unidentified with any church or

sect is consistent, therefore, with the point of view throughout

the narrative.

Religion of any particular sect or dogma, as it has been

presented to Cleveland, satisfies neither his need for a philosophy

that explains the frightful contradictions of existence nor for

a faith that brings comfort, if not a remedy, for grief.

True religion, Cleveland seems to conclude, must recognize

man both as a creature of reason and as a creature of strong

affections, or desires toward God and toward fellow-creatures.

Philosophy failed because it tried to subordinate all desires to

reason. Grief caused by loss of loved ones can not be cured

through reason but through meeting the need for love. Dogmatic

and sectarian religion failed to satisfy both reason and love, but

true religion recognizes both love and reason. Love is of many

degrees from the highest, that of love of God and of celestial

things, to the lowest order, that of love of sensual pleasures;

between these two extremes fall love of wife and love of friends.

Reason is satisfied because the system corresponds with the facts

learned through experience, that true peace of mind comes only

through meeting both needs of human nature.

Thus, the religion which Cleveland finally accepts resolves

for him the conflicts arising from a philosophy which failed to

take into account love as well as reason.

Variations in the Texts

of

Eighteenth Century Editions

of

Le Philosophe anglais 1

Berenice Cooper

Superior State Teachers College

Le Philosophe anglais by the Abbe Prevost concerns matters

of religious controversy in the early eighteenth century in Eng¬

land and in France. The first four volumes, published in 1731,

tell the story of the disillusionment of the hero with neo-Stoic

philosophy and sectarian religion. The last four volumes, pub¬

lished in 1738-39, give the story of the hero's conversion to a

Christian faith which reconciles the conflicts within his own

nature and the opposition between philosophy and religion.2

The publication of the first four volumes in 1731 and of a

spurious fifth volume in 1734 provoked attacks from the Jesuits

because of the satire of their order in these volumes. The ensu¬

ing controversies between the author and the Jesuits are related

to two interesting bibliographical problems: the authorship of

the spurious fifth volume and the textual variations in later

eighteenth century editions. It is to the second of these two prob¬

lems that the present paper is devoted.

A comparison of those editions of Le Philosophe anglais

which are available in the United States reveals textual differ¬

ences which appear to be related closely to the religious con¬

troversies of the eighteenth century. Of the fourteen editions of

the French text which the writer of this paper has examined,

there are six which do not follow the prevailing text, the one

finally adopted in the 1783 and in the 1810 Paris editions of

1 The writer wishes to express her appreciation to the American Association for the Advance¬

ment of Science and the Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters for the grant-in-aid for

Research for the year of 1938-35.

2 The point of view of the novel on matters of religious controversy has been discussed in an

earlier paper, “The Relation of Le Philosophe Anglais to Religious Controversies of the Early

Eighteenth Century,” which was read before the Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters

in April, 1938. A paper on the problem of the spurious fifth volume is being prepared.

287

288 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts and Letters

Prevost’s complete works. Four of these six agree in omitting

certain passages concerned with the Roman Catholic church and

particularly with the Jesuits.3 Two editions, that of London

1788 and that of Paris 1788, are special condensed versions found

in a sort of “Reader's Digest" series of popular romances: the

London edition is condensed by omissions ; the Paris, by retelling

the narrative in the third person.

When compared with the predominating text the editions of

1757, 1778, 1781, and 1785 reveal three types of textual differ¬

ences: omissions, revisions, and substitutions. In order to pre¬

sent graphically the omissions, the predominating text is quoted

with the passages omitted from the 1757, 1778, 1781, and 1785

editions in italics.

Je ne connoissois cet Ordre que de nom, ou s’il m’etoit arrive

quelquefois d’en entendre parler plus particulierement, ce n’avoit

point ete d’une maniere qui m’en eut fait prendre une idee avan-

tageuse ,4

Je lui raeontai, dans toutes ses circonstances, l’entretien que j’avois

eu avec le J. . . . Elle en fit le jugement que j’ai deja rapporte;

et malgre le peu de disposition que je me sentois a faire Fessai de

sa methode, elle m’y engagea par ses instances. Que risques-vous?

me dit-elle. Quand vous ne prendriez la chose que sur le pied d’un

amusement, c’est tou jours une diversion considerable que vous

ferez a vos chagrins. Vous ne sauriez croire comhien ces gens-ld

sont comiques. J’y consentis.6

Si le J . . . avoit deja forme quelque projet digne de son zele, sur

les premieres lumieres qu’il avoit pu tirer de ma froideur et de

mon embarras, lorsque je m’etois rencontre avec lui chez M. de

R . . . Feclaircissement qu’il regut de Madame Lallin le fit agir

par un noveau motif. Peut-etre avoit-il eu quelque affection pour

moi jusqu’alors; mais il crut trouver quelque chose de si offensant

pour lui dans ma conduite, qu’il n’ecouta plus que le ressentiment

de la haine et le desir de se venger. Je ne puis attribuer a une autre

cause les exces auxquels il se porta aus si-tot .... Trois conquetes

de cette importance eussent flatte extremement sa vanite; car rien

n'etoit alors plus a la mode parmi les gens d’Eglise, que la charite ,

et le zele pour la conversion de leurs Freres errans; c'est le nom

qu’ils donnoient aux Protestants .6

a Comparison of fourteen editions of Le Philosophe anglais

Amsterdam et Leipzig:

Arkstee et Merkus, 1744 4v Amsterdam: RyckhoS, 1757

1744 8v 1778

London: Valliant, 1777 Rouen: Dumesnil, 1781 Londres,

Paris: Serpente, 1783 Rouen: Racine, 1785 Paris,

* Le Philosophe anglais, (Utrecht: Neaulme, 1736) V. vi, 139-40.

s Ibid., 150.

0 Ibid., vii, 266.

1788

Cooper— Le Philosophe anglais

289

In addition to deleting* the phrases and sentences just indicated, these

four Amsterdam-Rouen editions also omit from the account of Cleveland’s

conversion the following paragraph:

Je tremble neanmoins que ce ne soit faire tort a la Religion que

d’en resserrer les elemens dans des bornes si etroites. Mon respect

qui croit tous les jours pour elle, avec ma reconnoissance, m’oblige

de prevenir par cette reflexion le reproche auquel je pourrois rn’at-

tendre, d’avoir donne moins d’entendue a mes eclaircissemens qu’

a mes doutes. Mais au fond n’est-ce pas rendre un temoignage

glorieux a la verite, que de reconnoitre avec quel empire elle nous a

sounds? Et lorsque par d’autres raisons 1* on est force de sup-

primer une partie de ses progres, peut-on mieux dissiper les nuages

dont on a eu le malheur de Tobscurcir, qu’en se faisant honneur

de avoir embrassee sans interet et sans contraite? D’ailleurs, la

principale objection qui m’avoit refroidi si long- terns, et que j’avois

meme renouvellee au Comte, se trouvoit fort heureusement detruite

par quelques-uns de ses principes. Si la diversity des Religions est

un obstacle qui arrete la Raison dans le choix, c’est a la Raison

fiere et orgueilleuse a le craindre. Celle qui cherche a s’eclaircir,

avec cette humble defiance que sa foiblesse naturelle est capable de

lui inspirer, n’a point a redouter d’ obstacles, puisque dans les prin¬

cipes de la doctrine que j’adoptois, elle est dirigee par un secours

interieur, que supplee a ses lumieres. Mon experience meme suf-

fisoit done pour ruiner un malheureux sophisme. J’ajoute, que,

n’etant encore qu’a l’entree de la Foi, je ne pouvois etre arrete par

la concurrence de quelques Religions monstrueuses qui sont 1’op-

probre de la Raison; et quand mon objection auroit eu quelque

force, ce ne pouvroit etre qu’a l’egard des differentes sectes qui

partagent le Christianisme.7 8 9

It will be observed that the content of the passages struck out

has to do with the disparagement of the character of the Jesuits,

with the intolerance of the Roman Catholic church toward Prot¬

estants and their over zeal to convert them, and with criticism

of narrow sectarianism.

The content of the text revised is similar in nature to that of

the deleted passages. A comparison of the passages revised can

be presented most easily by placing the passages from the pre¬

dominating texts and that of the 1778, 1781, and 1785 editions

in parallel columns.

Text of Eight Agreeing Editions Revisions of 1757, 3778, 1781, 1785

.... en lui faisant entendre qu’il . . . . et avoir employe les discours

avoit a l’entretenir dhine affaire ou les plus insinuans.*

le salut eternel de son ame etoit

interesse.*

7 Le Philosophe anglais (Amsterdam et Paris: Serpen te, 1783), IV, xv, 430. Reference cannot

be made to the Utrecht, 1739 edition because volume VIII is missing in the only 1739 edition

available for this study.

8 Le Phil Ang., (Utrecht, 1736) v, vii, 263.

9 Ibid, (Rouen, 1785) V, vii, 118.

290 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts and Letters

Madame Lallin, qui ne croyoit pou-

voir deguiser la verite sans crime

a son Pere Confesseur, demeura fort

embarassee. J’ai su depuis d’elle-

meme, que la voyant dans le doute

de ce qu’elle avoit a repondre, il

leva tous ses scrupules par ce di-

lemme. Ce que vous craignez de me

dire blesse la Religion, ou ne la

blesse point. S’il la blesse, vous ne

pouvez me le cacher, sans vous ren-

dre digne de Tenter. S’il ne la blesse

pas, vous assurez la paix de votre

conscience, en vous ouvrant a votre

Confesseur; et vous savez que vous

ne courez aucun risque, puisque cela

demeure cache sous le secret de la

Confession. Elle repondit apres cela

sans balancer a toutes les questions

qu’il lui fit.10

.... eviter la persecution qui les

menaeoit.12

Le service qu’il m’avoit rendu lui

faisoit compter aussi que j’en serois

plus dispose a Tecouter et qu’il pour-

roit m’amener tot ou tard a la Re¬

ligion Romaine.14

Madame Lallin, qui ne s’attendoit

pas a une pareille question, demeura

fort interdite ; mais le P. profitant

de son embarras, et la voyant dans

le doute de ce qu’elle avoit a re¬

pondre, la determina si bien par

tous les motif de Religion qu’il crut

propres a l’alarmer, qu’elle lui de-

couvrit enfin tout ce qu’il voulut

s$avoir.u

prevenir l’orage dont elles etoient

menacees.13

II comptoit aussi qu’il pourroit

m’amener tot ou tard a la Religion

Romaine.15

The content of these revised passages concerns three topics :

the casuistry practiced by the Jesuit in getting Mrs. Lallin to

betray to him a secret, the persecution of the Protestants in

France, and the zeal of the Jesuit to convert Cleveland to the

Roman Catholic faith. The Jesuit’s intent is to use the secret

learned through the confessional to keep Cleveland in France, for

he believes that he can convert him. He has tried to persuade the

archbishop to put Cecile in a convent and Cleveland in the

Bastile so that Cleveland will become a Catholic in order to get

his freedom and to marry Cecile. The archbiship, however, fears

to act until the king and the Duchess return, for Cleveland had

appealed to them when forcible methods were used by Father le

Bane and his bishop.

The treatment of these passages, as well as the content of the

omissions, suggest a desire on an editor’s part to tone down

10 Ibid, (Utrecht, 1736) V, vii, 264.

™Ibid, (Rouen, 1785) Vi, vii, 118.

12 Ibid, (Utrecht, 1736) V, vii, 266.

13 Ibid, (Rouen, 1785) V, vii, 119.

14 Ibid, (Utrecht, 1736) V, vii, 266-267.

15 Ibid, (Rouen, 1785) V, vii, 119.

Cooper— Le Philosophe anglais

291

Provost’s satire and irony in respect to the character of the

Jesuits and the intolerance of the Catholic church.

Both deletions and revisions are arguments for ecclesiastical

censorship. A detailed comparison of texts reveals also substi¬

tutions of one word for another, or insertions of words within a

phrase which are in some respects of little significance ; in others

these changes serve to corroborate the conclusion suggested by

the omission and substitutions, that changes in text have been

made for the purpose of avoiding offense to ecclesiastical author¬

ity.

Words Used in Eight Agreeing16 Substitutions in 1757, 1778, 1781,

Editions

1785

le P.

la Pratique aisee de la Devotion

Direeteur

a avouer

son pro jet

d’avaneer

cela

ce dernier pro jet

son perfide eonfesseur

le Jesuit, or le J .

La Devotion aisee

eonfesseur

a eonfesseur

sa vengeance

de procurer

embrasser la Religion Romaine

ce pro jet

son eonfesseur

The substitution of “le P.” for “le Jesuit” in every instance

where it is used in these passages is probably designed to take

attention from the charges of having satirized the Jesuit order.17

Whether the change in title of the book La Devotion aisee makes

it less satirical may be a matter for difference of opinion. The

changes of “sa vengeance” to “son project” and perhaps one or

two of the other word changes are consistent with an intent to

avoid charges of malicious satire of the Jesuits or implied criti¬

cism of Catholic zeal.

Harrisse lists no edition of Le Philosophe anglais between

1744 and 1757, and this study has resulted so far in discovering

no edition between these two dates. As far as present evidence

indicates, the 1757 Amsterdam edition of Ryckhoff was the first

to delete and to revise passages and to substitute other words

and phrases for those in the original text. This censored text,

which was followed until the original text was restored in the

1783 Paris edition of Serpente, suggests a number of problems

related to the religious controversies of the period and to the

censorship exerted by ecclesiastical authorities.

10 The passages in which these word changes occur are found in Utrecht, 1736, V, vii, ISO-271.

w Prevost asks in his preface to the continuation of 1738-39 that any one into whose hand

an earlier text may fall, erase all the letters except the initial one from the word Jesuit.

292 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts and Letters

In the first place, we may note that all the censored texts ex¬

amined in this study were published either in Amsterdam or in

Rouen; the one, a city in a Protestant country in which were

published many books, periodicals, and newspapers suppressed

in France; the other, a city which, according to Bachman,18

headed the list of those provincial cities which carried on a

flourishing business in the printing of forbidden works.

It seems a pecular fact that an edition apparently censored

so as to be less offensive to the Roman Catholic church and to

the Jesuits should appear in cities which were often the printing

centers of forbidden books.

A second fact of interest is that the Rouen texts were based

upon the Amsterdam text. This relation may indicate a business

connection between the two publishing houses.

The 1785 Rouen edition of Racine contains, in the official per¬

mission for publication, the stipulation that the Amsterdam text

of 1778 is to be followed, and the comparison made in this study

shows that they do agree page for page, line for line. Further¬

more, the Rouen 1781 edition of Dumesnil contains in its official

permission a similar stipulation that the text is to be that of

the Amsterdam 1766. It has not been possible up to this time to

examine the 1766 edition, but since the 1781, based upon it,

agrees with the 1757, the 1778 and the 1785 editions, it seems

justifiable to conclude that there are at least five of these edi¬

tions of Amsterdam and Rouen agreeing in text.

In seeking to discover the reason for these censored texts

we may consider several hypotheses. Since so many of the

passages concern the Jesuits, one may well look first for evi¬

dence of their reactions to Le Philosophe anglais , and then con¬

sider whether they could have exerted the necessary pressure

to produce the censored edition.

As evidence of the resentment of the Jesuits to certain

sages in Le Philosophe anglais , we have PrevosFs letter ad¬

dressed to the order and existing only in manuscript until Har-

risse published it in 1896. 19 It is apparent from this document

that the order had resented not only Prevost’s attacks in the

first four volumes of Le Philosophe anglais but also his comments

on Pere Daniel and Loyola contained in the notes to his transla-

18 Albert Bachman, Censorship in France from 1715 to 1750 , (New York: Columbia Uni¬

versity, 1934) p. 44.

18 L’Abbi Privost, pp. 239-244.

pas-

Cooper — he Philosophe anglais

293

tion of de Thou’s VHistoire universelle. Furthermore the Jesuits

refused to accept his repudiation of the fifth volume of 1734 and

found in its style and its calumnious portraits of the Jesuits evi¬

dence that it was by the author of the first four volumes.20

Without entering into a detailed discussion here regarding

these controversies21 with the Jesuits, one should note that the

point pertinent to the problem of the censorship of the 1757

edition is that Prevost had provoked the wrath of the Jesuits

and that, through articles in the July and November issues of

the Journal de Trevoux, they made charges which he answered in

the unpublished letter.

In spite of Prevost’s protests that he respected the Jesuits

and that he was not the author of the fifth volume of 1734, the

matter of the treatment of the order was still a live enough issue

in 1738 for him to make further defenses of his attitude in the

preface to the continuation volumes. The plot, he said, had de¬

manded the introduction of a wicked ecclesiastic and nothing

would add interest to the book so much as the contrast of one

bad member in an order so celebrated for its merit and repu¬

tation. True to a good eighteenth century precedent, he requested

that those into whose hands the manuscript might fall would

erase from the word Jesuit all letters except the initial “J”. In

conclusion he mentioned the complimentary description of the

Jesuit college of Louis-le-grand in the last volumes.22

This evidence of bitter controversies with the Jesuits makes

it seem entirely plausible that they would attempt to use their

influence to have the offensive passages removed. It was during

the middle of the century that they were growing in power and

influence, but the difficulty of attributing the censorship of the

1757 edition to the Jesuits influence is that they would have

little influence and no power over the Amsterdam press.

A study of the nature of the changes made in the text sug¬

gests, however, that they are the work of an editor eager to

avoid giving offense to authorities rather than the work of a

member of the Jesuit order, for there seems to be a care exerted

not to mutliate the story and to keep the essential character of

the Jesuit unchanged, but to modify the keenness of the satire.

20 Harrisse cites as evidence Memoir es de Trevoux, juillet 1735, p. 2386.

21 A good summary of these controversies is given by Harrisse in his L’Abbi Prevost, pp. 238-

244, and by Hazard in his “Jansenisme” in Etudes Critique sur Manon Lescaut, pp. 59-65.

22 Le Philosopkc anglais (Utrecht. Neaulme, 1738, 91) VI, “Preface'’, i-iv.

294 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts and Letters

In view of the friendlier relations between Holland and France

after the beginning of the Seven Years War and the drawing

away from England at the same time, it is possible that Ryckhoff

found it a good business policy to produce an edition acceptable

to French authorities.

A third place to seek for a solution for a Dutch publisher's

printing this censored edition is in the religion of Ryckhoff. If

one could discover him to be a Catholic, that fact would explain

his own interest in toning down these passages.

Until more evidence is found, however, the reason for the

censorship of the Amsterdam-Rouen texts is merely a subject

for interesting speculations.

In addition to these censored editions, we have two other

types of editions, the condensed versions of London and Paris.

The London edition of 1788, for which no publisher is given,

is a condensed version shortened by omissions. In some places

the text is abbreviated to the extent of omitting passages of

thirty pages or more in length. Frequently five or six pages are

cut out. The cutting is done with some care, too, for short

phrases which would be inconsistent on account of previously

deleted passages have been struck out and proper transitions are

inserted wherever the omissions make such additions necessary

for coherence. When the extensive deletion of all religious dis¬

cussions was first noted, a connection with the history of re¬

ligious controversy seemed plausible.

A laborious examination of the content of the passages

omitted shows, however, that they are of several definite kinds.

Nearly all of them can be classified under one of these heads:

philosophical or religious discussions, narrative or exposition re¬

garding the conflict between reason and feeling, distinctly senti¬

mental comments or reflections by Cleveland, anticipations of

later events in the story often in a fatalistic tone, and omissions

of matter not germane to the main narrative. There are some

omissions for which it is difficult to find any principle of classi¬

fication, but the majority suggests a definite editorial purpose:

either to remove from the story matter of which the editor did

not approve or which he felt would not interest the reader, or to

condense. Evidently the work was done upon the basis of definite

principles, but not merely to avoid offending the church.

Cooper — Le Philosophe anglais

295

Since the title page of volume I of this edition bears the words

‘'Collection de Roman”, the editorial principle may have been

merely to condense a long novel by omitting that material which

would not appeal to readers looking for an entertainment. Cer¬

tainly, as a story to divert the mind, Le Philosophe anglais has

enough of melodramatic adventure to satisfy those in quest of

vicarious thrills. If the omissions are on the basis of making

the book a more entertaining novel, it is easy to explain the

omission of long philosophical and religious discussions ; but this

theory does not account for the omissions of such passages

as Cleveland's tirade over Fanny's unfaithfulness, or the whole

incest story, which appear to be the stuff to catch the interest of

a sensation-loving reader.

The following list of omitted passages,23 classified as to the

general nature of content, will serve to demonstrate that the

cutting has been done upon the basis of a definite editorial policy

toward certain types of passages. Although there are a few

omissions which seem merely to shorten the narrative, the gen¬

eral policy has been to delete philosophical and religious dis¬

cussions, analyses of the conflict between reason and passion,

and introspective discussions of the power of the sentiments.

23 The references in the list of passages are to the 178S edition.

Omitted Passages of Philosophical and Religious Discussions

Neo- Stoicism of Cleveland’s mother L, i,

Religion taught to Abaquis III, v,

Reference of Neo-Stoicism IV, vii,

Re-examination of philosophy IV, vii,

Condensation of conversation with

Minister C. V, vii,

Condensation of conversation with

Pere Bane

Condensation of conversation with

Jesuit

Discussion of philosophy with Count

Clarendon VII, xii,

Clarendon’s discussion with Pere Recteur

Description of the religion of the

Nopandes VIII, xiv,

Cleveland’s comment on strength

Fanny receives from religion xv,

Conversion of Cecile

Conversion of Cleveland

6-7; 8-9; 43-47; 48-49

150-56

52

141-42; 143-67

5-8

10-15

52-58; 66-67

134-42

163-67; 180-89

19-24

187-88

173-77

193-215

Omitted Passages Treating Conflict between Reason and Natural Feeling

Cleveland also has a heart II, iii, 1, 2

Cleveland a man of sensibility III, iv, 62-63; 69

Struggle to concentrate on studies

when Fanny in same room IV, vii, 86-92

296 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts and Letters

Wild ravings after Fanny’s elopement

Philosophy powerless to comfort him

when love is denied

Love, a disorder of the reason

Struggle against power of love

128; 130; 133

V, vii, 33; 34; 35

109-10; 110-11

115-16; 149

Omitted Passages Distinctly Sentimental in Content

(Pleasure in writing of sorrows

Gratitude to Mrs. Riding

Reflections upon mother’s death

Reflections upon Axminster’s fate

Analysis of love for Fanny

Musing on leaving England and on

influence of his mother

Great love for Fanny

Extravagant statements about his

happiness

Lament over misfortunes

I, i,

2-3

41

49-52

67

104-10

ii,

116-17

140-41

Misunderstanding of Fanny’s tears

Beautiful friendship with half-brother

Tirade against Fanny’s unfaithfulness

Beginning of love for Ce$ile

More of love for Ce^ile

Death of Duchess Henrietta; sadness

Ravings against Fanny

Illness from wounds

Introspection on reactions to sorrows

Love of Duke of Monmouth

Sentiment in Mrs. Riding’s

story of adventurers

Mrs. Riding nourishes Cecile with

her blood.

Don Thadeo’s mad love

Incest story

Happiness not in worldly pleasures

Fanny discusses Cecile’s mood

More sentimentality: vanity of pleasure;

great sorrows paralyze sensibilities

in,

IV, vii,

151

V, vii,

171

31-2; 113;

121-23

110

116-17

29

65

85; 88-89; 115-16

159^60; 161

172-73

180-84

191; 200

VII, xii, 191-92; xiv, 121-23

vii,

211-12

xn,

VIII, xiv,

219; 220-22

39

44-52; 154-62

76-77

78-79

xv, 169

Omitted Passages Anticipating Later Events, Often in Fatalistic Vein

Obliged to punish Mou severely III, v, 141

Fanny really faithful and Cleveland

innocent of crime v, 146-147

Trip to get Mrs. Lallin unfortunate

decision by Providence IV, viii,v94

New evils to come — great happiness

snatched away V, viii, 159-60

Not destined for happiness VIII, xv, 184

Omitted Passages Which Merely Shorten Narrative

Story of gullibility of Cleveland

upon first experience with

life in French city I, ii, 126-31

Incidents from story of colony on

St. Helena III, v, 142-43; 170-71; 182-83;

190; iv, 12-13

IV, vii, 55-78

Story of General Lambert

Cooper — Le Philosophe anglais

297

Comment on affairs at French court

V, vii, 75-76

viii, 135

Visit to Mme. Laliin and Mrs. Bridge

to Chaillot to see Fanny

Comment when Gelin reveals himself

in attempting to kill Cleveland

150-51

Complimentary reports about Fanny by

one of the nuns.

206-11

The simplest conclusion to draw regarding the reason for

omitting so many long passages in the 1788 edition of Le Philos¬

ophe anglais is that the editor wished to condense an overly long

novel and did so by striking out passages which, in his judgment,

were of least interest to the novel-reader and of no value in

advancing the plot. If this be the case, the editor was a person

with a very superficial view of the plot of Le Philosophe anglais ,

for shorn of such passages as those stressing the neo-Stoic phil¬

osophy in which Cleveland was educated, those relating his des¬

pair when this philosophy fails him, and those giving the story

of his conversion, the novel becomes merely a series of melodra¬

matic adventures strung on the biographical thread. With these

passages retained, the story is one of inner conflict resolved by

the conversion of the hero to religion. Prevost’s own statement

in his defense of the book in Pour et Contre 24 and in the pre¬

face to the continuation volumes of 1788-39 makes clear that such

was the theme he had chosen.

Since the bibliographical history of Le Philosophe anglais is

closely involved with religious controversies of the earlier eigh¬

teenth century, one might consider, as another reason for these

omissions, that the bitter religious controversies of later date,

such as the violent anti-catholic riots in London in 1780, might

cause a prudent editor to delete from a novel by a Catholic abbe

passages which might in any way touch upon matters of religious

differences. Such a theory would account for the omission of

passages from the arguments with the three ecclesiastics and

from the story of Cleveland’s conversion. Again, as in the case of

the Amsterdam-Rouen editions, there is the possibility of a con¬

nection between a good business policy and the history of re¬

ligious conflicts.

The Paris edition of 1788 has no bearing upon our present

discussion, for it is merely a version condensed by being retold

in the third person and published as one in a series of popular

* IV, 36.

298 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts and Letters

romances retold in the Bibliotheque universelle des Romans,

issued monthly.

From the preceding comparison of the texts of eighteenth

century editions of Le Philosophe anglais, these tentative con¬

clusions may be drawn.

1. Passages concerning the Catholic church and especially

the Jesuits were deleted from at least five eighteenth cen¬

tury texts.

2. These censored editions, agreeing in deletions and re¬

visions, were published in Amsterdam and in Rouen.

3. There are three theories, each fairly plausible, but with¬

out satisfactory proof, for the censorship of these edi¬

tions : the influence of the Jesuits, the religion of the pub¬

lisher, and the business interests of the publisher.

4. Of the three theories that of the business interests of the

publisher seems to be the most plausible explanation.

5. The content of passages omitted from the condensed Lon¬

don edition of 1788 suggests two editorial policies: to

cater to the taste of the average reader and to avoid

offending readers through the treatment of controversial

subjects. Either or both reasons are consistent with busi¬

ness interests.

Whatever explanation may be established by further evidence

one fact remains unaffected : Le Philosophe anglais was a work

of sufficient importance to merit the minute attention of those

who were engaged in the religious controversies of the eighteenth

century.

LITERARY CRITICISM IN THE NORTH AMERICAN

REVIEW , 1815-1835

Harry Hayden Clark

Before a satisfactory history of American literary criticism

can be written, an immense amount of spade-work and inventory¬

ing will have to be done, especially in the magazines. As a be¬

ginning in this direction, the present paper seeks to provide an

chronological bibliography of critical essays which appeared in

the North American Review (the major critical journal of the

period) from its founding in 1815 to 1836, the eve of Transcen¬

dentalism which was then ushered in by Emerson's Nature .

Fairly full summaries have been provided, the key phrases being

quoted with page-references, and the essays have been numbered

for convenient reference below.

On the whole, it is hoped that a study of the material pre¬

sented will justify a revision of the generally accepted opinion

of the North American Review , which may be illustrated in the

words of George E. DeMille : “In spite, however, of their admir¬

ation for Byron, Scott, and Wordsworth, the fathers of the re¬

view were by no means Romantic in their literary doctrines.

They are indeed a clear illustration of the late survival of the

Eighteenth Century in America.”1 A careful study of all the

evidence shows, however, that, granting a reactionary element,

the Review embodied a rather surprising number of articles

setting forth romantic ideas. The personality of Emerson and

the beauty with which he expressed his ideas, together with the

absence of any one comparable personality in New England

during the 1815-36 period seems to have led most readers to

look upon his ideas as sharply original and very different from

those to be found in the North American Review of the decade

preceeding. It may seem startling, but the evidence now pre¬

sented warrants the view that, although Emerson surely had

many other sources, he could have found practically all his early

1 Literary Criticism in America, New York, 1931, P. 23.

299

300 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts and Letters

Transcendental and romantic ideas in the very pages of the

Review he is supposed to have so sharply departed from. Indeed,

it may well be that the reception accorded Emerson is partly ac¬

counted for by the fact that many New Englanders had been

gradually but steadily moving in his direction, and that the

Review had done much to acquaint its readers with the ideas to

which he was to give the prestige of his impressive personality.

In 1819 he liked the Review so much that he urged his brother

to subscribe for it ; in 1822 he said it “grows better and travels

further” ; in 1823 he wrote, “The last N. A. Review ... is full

of wit and literature of which the Idol (Edward Everett) wrote

six articles.”2 Indeed, it is not strange that he should have ad¬

mired it, for two of the leading editors were his old Harvard

teachers for whom he had profound respect — Edward T. Chan-

ning (who taught Emerson rhetoric and to whom many of his

ideas about style and literature [see No. 14 following] may be

traced) and Edward Everett, his “Idol” who taught him Greek

and inspired him with his eloquence. Transcendental ideas ap¬

pear in the discussion of Gerando’s work on Plato (No. 106 fol¬

lowing), in essays on Madame de Stael and her introduction of

German thinkers (Nos. 66, 84, 43, 200), in a panegyric on Cousin

(No. 193; see also 55), in numerous essays on German thinkers

(especially Nos. 114, 19, 117), in essays on Coleridge (Nos. 218,

224; see also 36, 229 and 47), on Wordsworth (No. 109; see also

No. 47), and on Carlyle (No. 231; see also No. 229).

Another issue which was vigorously debated in the Review

was the question whether American literature ought to be dis¬

tinctively “national” or “universal” in appeal and without con¬

scious departure from European standards. For nationalism see

Nos. 1, 3, 4, 7, 8, 14, 29, 39, 42, 45, 46, 53, 64, 74, 75, 76, 91, 92,

108, 114, 119, 120, 121, 127, 146, 159, 166, 175, 183, 186, 189, 192,

194, 223, 226. For aspects of the counter-argument for universal-

ism and respect for European traditionalism, see Nos. 17, 33, 34,

41, 48, 51, 57, 61, 67, 70, 80, 107, 112, 128, 134, 140, 144, 150,

151, 155, 165, 166, 171, 174, 205. Faith in progress is expressed

in Nos. 141, 160, 168, 184, 222 ; it is questioned in Nos. 140, 158,

188, 221.

2 Emerson followed the North American Review closely, even to ascertaining the authorship

of many of the anonymous articles. See his Letters, edited by Rusk, I, 27, 41, 81, 110, 113, 123,

131, 142, 149, 168, 219, 287, 291, 292, 345, 419, 433.

Clark — Criticism in North American Review

301

For aspects of the romantic point of view, consult Nos. 10,

12, 14, 23, 27, 29, 36, 38, 43, 45, 47, 50, 52, 56, 57, 66, 69, 75,

97, 102, 109, 118, 122, 152, 160, 184, 194, 198, 207, 213, 219, 224,

225. It is possible that the general notion that the Review was

primarily hostile to romanticism and transcendentalism, primar¬

ily the advocate of a reactionary neo-classicism, has been sug¬

gested (among the moderns who have read it at all) by the ex¬

treme truculency of the Peabody brothers/W.B.O., and O.W.B.,

— see Nos. 174, 158, 190, etc.

The editors of the Review were as follows : William Tudor,

1815-17; Jared Sparks, 1817-18; E. T. Channing, 1818-19; Ed¬

ward Everett, 1820-23; Jared Sparks, 1824-30; A. H. Everett,

1830-35. Contemporary judgment of the quality of the Review

may be found in the rival Knickerbocker Magazine , (V, 465,

May, 1835) :

“In every respect the North American Review is an honor to

the country. In politics it is liberal and impartial. We hail it as

the sole exponent, in its peculiar sphere, of our national mind,

character, and progress; and are proud to see it sent abroad

. . . as an evidence of indigenous talent, high moral worth, and

republican feeling.”

Summaries

1815

1. William Tudor, “The United States and England,” I, 61-91.

(May, 1815).

A review of a pamphlet entitled, “The United States and Eng¬

land, being a reply to the criticism on Inchiquin’s Letters, contained

in the Quarterly Review for January, 1814.” Maintains that English

reviews and writers have a “disposition to think themselves infal¬

lible” and give a “vehement misrepresentation” of our character

(62-3). Denies the reliability of such writers on America as Weld,

Parkinson, Moore, and Gobbet. Quotes at length from the pamphlet

reviewed to show the deficiency of American literature is mainly due

to the constant demand here for an active life in fighting Indians,

the struggle for existence, the Revolution, and the turmoil of the

French Revolution (83-7). Ends with a plea for better relations

between the two countries; “there is nothing essentially conflicting

in the permanent interests of the two nations” (88). Suggests we

“exchange a few individuals annually” as a means of disseminating

knowledge of “the true state of things in the countries of each other”

(89). (For orientation see Jane L. M'esick, The English Traveller

in America , 1785-1835. New York, 1922.)

302 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts and Letters

2. William Tudor, “Miss Huntley's Poems, ’y I, 111-121 (May,

1815).

A favorable review of Moral Pieces in Prose and Verse by Miss

Huntley (Mrs. Sigourney), in which Tudor reveals himself as a

transitional figure, veering from a liking for neo-classical “freedom

and facility” of style, “correctness and harmony” of matter, and

freedom from “false taste” (119-120), to a liking for the “exquisitely

beautiful and pathetick” and “sublime” of early romantic sentiment

and melancholy. Tudor is also a nationalist; the American scene is

an unopened “rich and various” (120) source for literature, con¬

sisting of the frontier and the French and Indian Wars, the Indians

themselves, a great variety of people, and finally a great “magni¬

ficence of the scenery” (121).

3. William Tudor, “The Lord of the Isles," (Scott), I, 275-284

(July, 1815).

A review favorable to Scott in which Tudor expresses his “rev¬

erence for the old school of poetry” and the “versification of Dryden

and Pope,” but believes Scott will live by “the freshness, energy,

relief and transparency of his description” and “the vigour and en¬

thusiasm of some of his sentiments” (275).

4. Walter Charming, “American Language and Literature,"

I, 307-314 (Sept., 1815).

Channing is an extreme nationalist. He gives two reasons for

America’s backwardness in literature: (a) the possession of the

same “language with a nation, totally unlike it in almost every

relation”; and (b) America's reliance on English literature rather

than on “a laborious independent exertion of its own intellectual

powers” (307-8). He discusses the first statement at length here

and the second in a later article (see no. 8 below). The English

language is fitted to the climatic, social, political, literary, and

religious conditions of England. These conditions are utterly dif¬

ferent in America, and the English language therefore is not a fit

vehicle for an American literature based on these conditions. Ends

with an expression of the noble savage ideal : the only original liter¬

ature in America is the “oral literature of the aborigines”; it uses

languages fitted to American conditions (313).

5. William Tudor, “. . . a memoir on the present state of the

English language in the United States of America . . .

by John Pickering," I, 386-9 (Sept., 1815).

Tudor is a purist, attacking the idea of an American language.

He advocates instead “sound respect for the great standard authors

of the language” and for English critics who point out American

peculiarities. He is a nationalist nevertheless; our language is to be

an improved “second edition” (387) of the language which has begun

to decay in England.

6. William Tudor, “Guy Mannering," I, 403-436 (Sept., 1815),

Takes the position of Scott for granted, and merely summarizes

the plot for his readers. Dislikes the use of dialect and Scott’s

invention of new words.

Clark — -Criticism in North American Review

803

7. William Tudor, “An Address delivered to the Phi Beta

Kappa Society, &c.,” II, 13-32 (Nov., 1815).

Summarizes the materials from which a national literature can

be created. These are: the Revolution, the events prior to 1750

(which constitute our antiquity), the French and Indian Wars, the

natural scenery including native animals, and, above all, the Indians.

In this respect the Five Nations are comparable to the Greeks “in

the heroick ages” and the epic materials of Homer (19).

8. Walter Channing, “Reflections on the literary delinquency

of America,” II, 33-43 (Nov., 1815).

Our literary delinquency is due to the habit of depending on

English literature in the period of our political infancy (see the

companion article No. 4 above). The remedy is “a vigorous assertion

of our own minds” to discover our character, by a national history

stressing American peculiarities and perhaps a history of our poetry.

9. Horace Holley, “On the pleasure derived from witnessing

scenes of distress,” II, 59-67 (Nov., 1815).

Approaches a psychological study of the phenomenon, but seems

to be within the sentimental traditional of the later 18th century,

rather than the great tradition of Aristotle. The “cultivated and

benevolent take delight in the emotions excited by the well wrought

scenes of distress” invented by the “muse of Tragedy, or the genius of

Romance” (60). (Particularly affecting are “the disinterested senti¬

ments of afflicted virtue” (67).

10. William Tudor, “The Queen’s Wake : a legendary poem, by

James Hogg/’ II, 103-109 (Nov., 1815).

Hogg has “the delicacy, purity, and feeling” attributed to shep¬

herds by the ancient poets (104). Dislikes the resurrection of “obso¬

lete, unintelligible, and barbarous terms” by Hogg and other Scotch

writers. Ends praising “romantick tales and ballads founded on

local superstitions” which lend themselves to “fancy and originality”

(109).

11. William Tudor, “Latin Classicks,” II, 129-130.

Cicero can be “safely entrusted to youth and innocence” because

he contains “no wild metaphysicks” to pervert the mind nor “licen¬

tious sentiments” to corrupt the morals. Moreover he is an advocate

of “freedom and republican government” (130).

1816

12. Willard Phillips, “Cowper’s Poems,” II, 233-241 (Jan.,

1816).

Defines the nature of criticism. Exalts historical criticism in

the place of criticism based on rules and standards. “In matters of

taste, every man’s opinion must be right in respect to himself;” it is

folly to try “to reason men into pleasure or disgust. To judge rightly

of others,” therefore, we must “transfuse ourselves into, and become

identified with them” (235). Doesn’t agree with Cowper’s ideas, but

304 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts and Letters

he is “animated by the glow of benevolence” and is a poet of second

rank.

13. Walter Channing, “On the Fine Arts,” III, 194-201 (July,

1816).

The fine arts are highly developed in America, but due to the

youthfulness of our country and the lack of public taste many artists

go to Europe. The only solution is to establish an academy of fine

arts for the double purpose of instructing our artists and improving

public taste (197).

14. Edward T. Channing, “On Models in Literature,” III, 202-

209 (July, 1816).

In many ways Channing foreshadows Emerson, who was actu¬

ally his pupil at Harvard. He quotes Wordsworth and upholds the

romantic doctrine of genius and originality. To set up rules and

models “comes in the way of nature, and reduces all her irregulari¬

ties, . . . her endless change, into straightness, smoothness, and har¬

mony” (203). Learning and especially the study of the “classicks”

(206) result in an “acquiescing and unproductive” mind (205).

Makes a strong plea for a native literature. “Its charm is its native¬

ness” in spite of its rudeness (207). When a nation through luxury

comes into its Augustan age, its only hope is to turn back to its

Elizabethan age. (See Channing’s Lectures (On Rhetoric) Read

Before the Seniors of Harvard College. Boston, 1856.)

15. Willard Phillips, “Rhoda,” III, 216-218 (July, 1816).

States his preference for the realistic novel of manners, based on

daily “occurrences and observations”, to the Gothic novel based on

“superhuman characters and preternatural incidents” (217). The

former shows more maturity, “requires greater progress in the arts,”

demands “greater skill” from the artist, and shows “improved sus¬

ceptibility and taste” in the public (217).

16. William Tudor, “The Story of Rimini, a poem, by Leigh

Hunt,” III, 272-283 (July, 1816).

Tudor is here strongly neo-classical; taste and judgment are

based on certain fixed standards (273). There are three schools

of poetry in our language: Chaucer to Milton, Dryden to Johnson,

and the contemporary age. The latter is a chaos of undisciplined

and unchastened inspiration.

17. F. C. Gray, “An Address pronounced before the Society of

B. K. . . . ,” III, 289-305 (Sept., 1816).

The American man of letters is too ignorant of the world. He

must study all history, including philosophy, oratory and poetry, as

well as the history of New England (293). Gives three reasons for

the deficiency of America: freedom of opportunity draws talent into

other fields ; the Indians, the Revolution, and the Constitution exacted

all our best efforts ; and our language brings in English competition.

Concludes that America cannot equal Europe without first under¬

going a long strenuous period of study.

Clark — Criticism in North American Review

305

18. Sidney Willard, “A Vocabulary, or collection of words and

phrases which have been supposed to be peculiar to the

United States of America ... By John Pickering/' III,

355-362 (Sept., 1816).

A purist view of language. American writers must make a

diligent study of the English language to “avoid improprieties and

barbarisms” (358). Mentions Dryden as a pure writer. Native

American words should be admitted only “with caution” (357).

1817

19. Edward Everett, “Goethe’s Life — by himself,” IV, 217-262

(Jan., 1817).

A summary with translated excerpts of Goethe’s autobiography;

its purpose is to increase American interest in the great German

(261). Everett attacks Goldsmith’s Vicar of Wakefield as a too

realistic picture of life (249) and says Goldsmith himself proves

“the original inspiration of Genius” (260). Yet Everett says that

“the elements of poetry” are drawn from the conflict of the spirit of

man with the “inexorable conditions of destiny” (2,61). A notable

review, introducing Goethe to America. (See No. 109 following.)

20. Jared Sparks, “Augustan Age of Italian Literature,” IV,

309-327 (March, 1817).

Main object is to acquaint Americans with Italian literature

which has not “attracted the attention it deserves” (315). Takes

the position that the “progress of literature” was the cause of the

Reformation, and shows some intimacy with and adherence to neo¬

classical literary principles.

21. William Tudor, “A new volume of poems, by Lord Byron,

. . .” IV, 369 (March, 1817).

Byron is one of the “most signal instances of the perversity of

genius, that the world has ever known.” Accuses Byron and Sterne

of exploiting sentiment for the vulgar.

22. Franklin Dexter, “Airs of Palestine; a Poem; by John

Pierpont, Esq.,” IV, 408-420 (March, 1817).

Justifies our lack of a literature; our “increasing population, pe¬

culiar form of government, and the republican doctrine of rotation

in office” demand all our talent (408). Dexter is a neo-classicist;

he regrets that the heroic couplet, used in this poem, has gone out of

fashion in the present age of “ballad-mongers and song-wrights”

(411).

23. Edward T. Channing, “Memoir of the early life of William

Cowper, Esq. written by himself . . . ,” V, 48-55 (May,

1817).

Romantic in temper, Channing has only praise for Cowper.

He brings the “humblest reader to visit nature with his heart” (53),

and has become a popular poet “without sparing a single fault” or

departing “from a pure native taste” (54).

306 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts and Letters

24. Willard Phillips, “Poems by Lord Byron,” V, 98-110 (May,

1817).

Phillips is a romanticist and a thoughtful critic. Refuses to

judge Byron by the rules (by which “little minds fancy they can

comprehend great things”). Poetry is most “easily and accurately

estimated by its effects” and, of all the arts, it “can least endure

the fetters of a system, as its vital principles are novelty and inven¬

tion” (107). He attacks the “monotonous cadences of Pope” but

thinks Byron’s verse could be improved (108).

25. Willard Phillips, “The Village; a Poem,” V, 224-226 (July,

1817).

The poem’s chief merit is that it keeps up the practice of the

art in America. It indicates no “bold strokes of genius” (226) but

some “talents”, and might better, since it is mostly descriptive, have

been done “in plain prose” (225).

26. Franklin Dexter, “Sancho, or the Proverbialist,” V, 239-

244 (July, 1817).

A conservative and neo-classicist, Dexter deplores the extensive

diffusion of literature and learning; books must now be gauged “to

the taste of the lowest capacity” which is that of “sentimental

chambermaids or romantick cooks” (240). A few “gentlemen au¬

thors” remain, but the demands of philanthropy are greater than

those of literature.

27. J. G. Palfrey, “Tales of My Landlord,” V, 257-286 (July,

1817).

Defends the novel on the grounds that it: (1) is a good vehicle

of morality; (2) gives a “more vivid impression of reality” (259)

than history; (3) suits the general level of capacities and should be

used by “men of abilities” instead of by sentimentalists and liberti¬

nes; and (4) is an instrument of culture destined to do much to

determine the “character of the age” (260). One of the glories of our

age is the transfer of romance of a high order from the castle to

“the cottage and workshop”, (261) and the leading light of this

movement is Scott.

28. Samuel Gilman, “The Faery Queen of Spencer,” V, 301-309

(Sept., 1817).

Gilman, who made the translation of the satires of Boileau

which appeared in the various numbers of the Review at this time,

leans toward neo-classic literary principles. The Elizabethan age

is the result of three streams, the classics of antiquity, the romances

of the Middle Ages, and the translation of the Scriptures, which

contributed respectively, reason, fancy, and elevated morality.

“Taste” was embarrassed by the union, but “genius”, “loftier pas¬

sions”, and the “expression of god-like sentiments” were richer fruits.

Lauds Spenser and laments the decline of allegory.

29. R. H. Dana, Sr., “The Sylphs of the Seasons, with other

poems. By W. Allston,” V, 365-389 (Sept, 1817).

Gives three reasons for our slowness in literature: dependence

on England makes us forget “what is well done here” and leads

Clark — Criticism in North American Review

307

us to distrust “our own judgment and taste”; and finally our mate¬

rialism is creating a contempt for intellectual endeavor (366). A

disciple of Coleridge, Dana hails the romantic movement as the re¬

turn to “true taste.” Poetry is now freed from “its narrow views

of material nature” (368) and, on a much larger scale, from narrow

views “on the human level.” This “enlarged philosophy” brings the

common within the domain of poetical. Praises Allston as a romantic.

30. Edward T. Channing, “Lalla Rookh, an oriental Romance.

By Thomas Moore,” VI, 1-25 (Nov., 1817).

Unsympathetic to Moore but not to romanticism (an “age of

firm and healthy poetry”). There is a “natural alliance between

genius and purity” which makes Moore’s transgressions inconsistent.

His ingenious fancy is artificial and ornamental; it is not a “poeti¬

cal embodying of thought” (5).

1818

31. Willard Phillips, “Harrington, a Tale, and Ormond, a Tale,

by Maria Edgeworth,” VI, 153-178 (Jan., 1818).

A favorable review praising the author’s realism (she “discrimi¬

nates between the real and the seeming”) (154) and her “moral

wholesomeness”. Attacks the novel of the past; on the one hand, the

“sentimental deliriums of romance” and, on the other, “false views

of life” in Fielding, Smollett, and Madame de Stael. Especially

vicious are those which represent “chance as the arbitress of the

world” at the expense of virtue and prudence (155). Miss Edge-

worth has reformed “the novel-sick mind” of all this (156).

32. “Magnalia Christi Americana. ... By

the reverend and learned Cotton Mather . . . 1702,” VI,

255-272.

In this “efeminate period” with its “restless . . . novelty-seek¬

ing” “a fair perusal of Mather’s Magnalia is an achievement not to

be slighted” (255-6). In general defends Mather; his “faults were

those of his age” (257) ; and though it is inaccurate his history is

the best on the “state of society and manners” of the time (272).

33. Levi Frisbie, “Well’s Edition of Tacitus,” VI, 324-331

(March, 1818).

Frisbie believes there are great advantages to be derived from

the “study of the classicks”, especially for “our rising literature”

(324). They help “discipline” the mind, enable us to acquire “copi¬

ousness of expression,” and give a knowledge of life in ancient times

which is at least as valuable as that of geography and natural sci¬

ence.

34. Willard Phillips, “Letters from the South” (Paulding), VI,

368-382 (March, 1818).

A very sane review, unfavorable to Paulding, who thought that

we could develop a superior literature by relying on a race of origi¬

nal geniuses and by substituting the study of belle-lettres for mathe¬

matics in our colleges. Phillip’s reply is that of the uni ver sail st;

we must read and study “night and day the most distinguished

308 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts and Letters

authors in literature and science, both in the ancient and modern lan¬

guages” (373). Says the insistence on complete independence from

Europe by men like him has led America into useless “novelties” ;

we should learn to imitate “judiciously” as all great nations have

done.

35. F. W. Winthrop, “Beauty,” VII, 1-25 (May, 1818).

An attack on the theories of beauty which Jeffrey expressed in

the Encyclopedia Britanica. Denies Jeffrey’s contention that there

are general laws of beauty based on the “theory of associations”

(22) ; or upon the rules of the critics. The standard of beauty of a

work of art is “its effect on us, as individuals” (23) . To avoid eccen¬

tric decisions, however, we should conform ourselves to the universal

which is “the material and intelligent universe” (“the beauties and

moral influences of nature” and the “pleasing or grand or impressive

in her scenery”) (24).

36. R. H. Dana, Sr., “Edgeworth’s Readings on Poetry,” VII,

69-86 (May, 1818).

A sane critical attack on a book of poetry for children based on

neo-classical literary principles. The Edgeworths want to make of

children “little matter-of-fact men and unbreeched philosophers”,

and by their passion for clarifying, the strong passions are cut off

and the children “are scarcely allowed to feel” (72). It would be

better for children to be left “to the workings of nature” ; they must

“first have imagination, a poetical sense, and the unnumbered and

defineless connexions and feelings, which make up that wonder of

creation, ... a poet, before they can understand his character and

works” (76). Poetry is as necessary to society as “well ordered

industry” ; Coleridge is “the most tasteful and acute of criticks”.

37. Willard Phillips, “Godwin’s Mandeville,” VII, 92-105 (May,

1818).

An impartial, clear-minded review. Godwin abounds in “ab¬

surdities, and distortions and misconceptions” but he probably has

not “done much absolute mischief to mankind” (95). These “agita¬

tions” are “greatly salutary” in themselves unless they cause a fun¬

damental subversion. Admits Godwin’s capacity for knowledge and

reflection, but notes that this is nullified by a tendency to pursue an

“eccentick course with more energy, the further it carries him from

nature” (97). His novels are philosophical “dissertations” the actors

of which are “certain principles and opinions and passions” (104).

38. Edward T. Channing, “Rob Roy,” VII, 149-184 (July,

1818).

Great admiration for Scott by a romantic critic. Stresses the

naturalness and reality of the novels on Scotch life and the “singular

intimacy with men in the practical, common pursuits” (155). Scott

conveys truth “without the formality and limitations of history”

(150). He teaches by a “large philosophy” based on “the union

between life and poetry” “established by nature” herself (155).

39. W. C. Bryant, “Essay on American Poetry,” VII, 198-211

(July, 1818).

A just and rational estimate of Solyman Brown’s extreme lit¬

erary nationalism. Our literature has suffered equally from “un-

Clark — Criticism in North American Review

309

merited contumely” abroad and “pompous pretensions” at home.

We must teach the prospective poet that “only the productions of

genius, taste, and diligence” are acceptable at the “bar of criticism”

(199). Condemns our early poets for imitating 18th century diction,

versification, and lack of imagination (206).

40. S. Gilman, “Eustaphieve’s Demetrius,” VII, 258-268 (July,

1818).

A dull review of a dull subject. Gilman is a neo-classicist and

uses the review to admire this foreigner’s grasp of the English lan¬

guage and to notice instances of “violated syntax” and “un-English

phrases” (259).

41. J. T. Kirkland, “Literary Institutions — University,” VII,

270-278 (July, 1818).

Supports the thesis that universalism is the only way to a true

nationalism. Wants to set up one or more large universities like

those of Europe devoted to the study of all that “is worth knowing.”

This will create “a literary profession” which in turn will formulate

the diverse elements of our life into a true “national spirit” (276).

42. Andrews Norton, “Dr. Franklin,” VII, 289-323 (Sept.,

1818).

A review of Franklin’s memoirs and letters, somewhat depreca¬

tory. Norton thinks “very differently” from those who hold up

Franklin’s character as a model for imitation (302). He was a man

of this world distinguished by “his zeal and talents for being useful”

£318), but his “mind was defective in the higher class of conceptions

and feelings” (320). Acknowledges his fame in literature and sci¬

ence. Norton is a nationalist. “We are in advance of the rest of

the civilized world” (312). Our greatest need is for a literature

growing out of and perpetuating American life and ideals. “There

is but one thing wanting — ENCOURAGEMENT” (322).

43. Andrew Ritchie, “Madame de StaeFs French Revolution,”

VIII, 26-63 (Dec., 1818).

Ritchie opposes the ideals of the Revolution, but attributes its

cause to the corruptions of the Old Regime. He leans toward roman¬

ticism; Madame de Stael is “the finest genius in France” (43). Her

style is one of “very rare energy and beauty” (57) ; her chief fault

is an “aspiring desire to be always original, brilliant, discriminating”

(59). Notes her distinction between genius and talent, but disagrees

with her denial of genius to Mirabeau (60).

44. Willard Phillips, “Women ; or, Pour et Centre” (By Ma-

turin), VIII, 118-134 (Dec., 1818).

A very favorable review by a romantic critic. Maturin’s chief

merit is the “fertility, splendour, and terrible grandeur of his imagi¬

nations” (133) . He should not rely on the “common and obvious”

for his material, as in this novel, but should rely on his own “imagi¬

nation” (134).

310 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts and Letters

45. Edward T. Channing, “Battle of Niagara” (John Neal),

VIII, 142-156 (Dec., 1818).

Channing* is a romantic critic, but is fully aware of the falsity

of Neal’s romanticism. His defects are fancifulness, unreality, in¬

definite topics, unwillingness to call things by their right names,

poverty of expression, and uniformity of tone. Attacks Neal’s ele¬

vated diction in describing American scenery; our poets will never

do it justice till they “paint it as it is” and not in “general terms”1

and “grand and swelling phrases” (144). The chief business of the

critic is to save our poetry from being “a bad imitation of popular

authors abroad”, and the way is to insist on “originality” (156).

46. John Knapp, “National Poetry,” VIII, 169-176 (Dec.,

1818).

A mine of material for a national poetry lies unopened in our

early history. Such a literature based on traditions and fables,

fabulous as well as authentic, is more permanent than one based on

imagination alone. Stresses the Revolution, the frontier, and espe¬

cially the Indians and external nature, as sources of literature (175).

Americans are “inspired with some peculiar moral graces, by their

grand and lovely landscapes” (174).

1819

47. R. H. Dana, Sr., “Hazlitt’s English Poets,” VIII, 276-322

(March, 1819).

A review by a romantic critic, attacking Hazlitt as desultory

and biased. Agrees with Hazlitt’s admiration for the early English

poets; next to “studying nature itself” the poetic ideal can best be

found by studying their works (256). Disagrees with Hazlitt’s praise

of Pope and the neo-classic poets; they wrote rather for well-

dressed “ladies and gentlemen, than for the man of sentiment and

genius alone in his study” (297). Defends the romantic poets against

Hazlitt, and gives high praise to Wordsworth. “He brings right

thoughts and pure wishes into our minds and hearts, clears our dim

imaginations, and the poetry of our being becomes its truth” (319).

Dana underrates Hazlitt as a critic, but correctly diagnoses his

weakness as being too “full of himself to have a sincere love and

interest for what is abstractly good and great” (321). “Mr. Cole¬

ridge’s critique upon Mr. Wordsworth contains more of philosophy,

subtile analysis, and good taste, than does any other criticism upon

him, or, indeed, upon any other man whom we can call to mind.

In fact, our better criticism owes its birth to that.”

48. J. C. Gray, “Dante,” VIII, 322-347 (March, 1819).

Gray is a classicist and a universalist who believes that Dante

is too little known outside Italy. Thinks the “union of sententious¬

ness, majesty and liveliness” of Dante can be be represented by

English “heroic rhyme” (325). Dante has the “first and highest

merit of a poet, originality” (334). Says that Dante’s “extraordi¬

nary share of classical learning” is a great aid to the man of genius

(340). Dante most resembles Shakespeare as “the poet of nature”;

Milton is the poet “of the invisible world”, and Cowper “that of

Christian morality” (342).

Clark- — Criticism in North American Review

311

49. Levi Frisbie, “Smith's Theory of Moral Sentiments," VIII,

371-396 (March, 1819).

Disagrees with Smith’s theory. His theory for the solution of

the moral problem, like those who “resolve all virtue into self-love,

or benevolence, or regard to utility, or the sense of justice,” seems

to be right only because it sometimes coincides with the internal

laws of rectitude implanted in the heart of man by “the great Author

of all.” Rectitude, therefore, is “not founded exclusively in sym¬

pathy, or self-love, or benevolence; but is that principle which con¬

trols and directs them all. It is in the moral, what attraction is in

the natural world; it regulates and guides the whole system of our

affections and powers, preserves each in its proper sphere and due

subordination to the rest, and conducts man to the proper end of his

being” (396).

50. Franklin Dexter, “Hogg’s Works," IX, 1-23 (June, 1819).

A favorable, sympathetic review. Discusses at length the rela¬

tive importance of genius and education in literary creation and de¬

cides that poetry “is eminently the work of genius” (4). Yet train¬

ing is almost equally necessary; for that reason we cannot expect

the “highest efforts” from men like Hogg (5). Considers also the

problem of the personality as a poetic factor: “No matter what be

the subject, poetry is an appeal from heart to heart, and we cannot

but answer it with our sympathy” (6).

51. W. Loring, “Milman’s Samor," IX, 26-35 (June, 1819).

Unfavorable. Considers the problem of genius versus learning

and decides that there may be either “work of genius, self-depend¬

ent,” with other factors as auxiliaries, or of “taste and learning,

using them as principals” (26-7). Milman must not intrude in “the

province of genius.” Loring is a universalist and attacks national¬

ism (34).

52. Edward T. Channing, “The Life of Charles Brockden

Brown . . . By William Dunlap," IX, 58-77 (June, 1819).

Favorable to Brown. Analyzes the difference between realistic

and romantic fiction. The former makes “the fable subservient to

the developing of national character, or of the manners, usages,

prejudices and condition of particular classes” (65). But America

is not ready for realistic fiction because the social classes are not yet

well defined and established (66). Brown was wise to write romantic

fiction; he uses American settings but our chief interest is not

“dependent upon the conviction that we ever saw the place or the

man” (69).

53. G. C. Verplanck, “Lambrechtsen’s New Netherlands," IX,

77-91 (June, 1819).

Favors the development of a distinct national literature. The

“great interests both of philosophy and of taste are much promoted

by the distinct cultivation of each nation’s peculiar literature” (78).

54. John Pickering, “Wyttenbach on Classical Education,” 192-

206, 413- 426 (June, Sept., 1819).

Strongly advocates the study of both classical poetry and prose.

312 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts and Letters

55. A. H. Everett, “History of Intellectual Philosophy,” XXIX,

67-123 (July, 1829).

The first few pages, a review of Cousin’s works, attack Cousin’s

New Platonism as a “repulsive system” attempting to identify the

Supreme Mind with the material universe “and thus deny its per¬

sonal and separate existence” (71). The bulk of the article com¬

pletes Everett’s survey of the History of Philosophy begun in an

earlier article (see XVIII, 234-66). Everett is a thorough Lockeian:

he pays tribute to Newton and Locke for stating clearly for the first

time all the knowledge that had been discovered since Bacon and

Descartes rediscovered the inductive method of Aristotle (78-9). The

“Essay on the Human Understanding” is “the textbook of the noblest

branch of human learning” (79). He attacks Berkeley, the Scotch

school, and German transcendentalism as modern departures from

the true way of Locke (91). He denies any notion of innate ideas

(92). Says the material world is susceptible of “perfectly rigorous

demonstration” (93). With the exception of Kant, all idealists have

been “persons in whose minds imagination seemed to predominate

over the other faculties” (108). Concludes that “idealism, historically

viewed, presents itself as an unsubstantial dream, which charms the

infantile period of intellectual philosophy” (109) : gives a point by

point analysis of the weaknesses of idealism. (For orientation of

Everett’s position, see Merle Curti, “The great Mr. Locke : America’s

Philosopher, 1783-1861,” The Huntington Library Bulletin, No. 11,

April, 1937, pp. 107-152; and for further analysis and praise of

Cousin’s as “the only possible philosophy” see M?rs. Minot’s article,

“Cousin’s Philosophy,” NAR, XXXV, 19-36, July, 1832.)

56. Edward T. Charming, “Greenland and Other Poems, By

James Montgomery,” IX, 276-288 (Sept., 1819).

Montgomery has little talent. Speaking of criticism, Channing

says it is not possible to kill a writer or make him live; all that

criticism can do about poor writers and bad taste in the reader is

to “put them both to school” (279). Believes in romantic principles;

a poet has something more to do “than secure an approving public;”

(281) his first object is “to awaken the imagination, to make men

feel, to breathe the spirit of poetry into them” (281).

57. R. H. Dana, Sr., “The Sketch Book,” IX, 322-356 (Sept,

1819).

Very good critical article, favorable to Irving. Begins with a

general criticism of nationalism in American literature. His own

policy is to notice any American book of merit, but he examines it

“without any home feelings” (323). America is too young to equal

Europe; our universal talent for action is inconsistent with -in

“abstract, ideal, reflective cast of mind” (324). Denies the decay of

learning in Europe; all society has gone forward, but “great minds

have always reasoned and felt very much as they do now” (325). Out¬

lines a two-fold plan for America : development of American schools

and scholarship and the formation of a professional class of men of

genius. Labels as faults Irving’s neo-classical characteristics, but

predicts that “he will always be a standard author amongst us”

(356).

Clark— Criticism in North American Review

313

58. W. C. Bryant, “On the Use of Trisyllabic Feet in lambic

Verse,” IX, 426-31 (Sept., 1819).

The refusal of the neo-classical writers to allow such substitu¬

tions causes a “frequent sacrifice of beauty of expression, and variety

and vivacity of numbers.” The principle is “not incompatible with

the principles of English versification, nor displeasing to an unper¬

verted taste”; it is not entirely an innovation but our “ancient

birthright” found in Shakespeare and Milton. It ought to be re¬

claimed. (A brief but important essay paving the way for the more

liberal and flexible prosodic practise of Romanticism.)

1820

59. Edward Everett, “Memoirs of Professor de Rossi,” X,

1-14 (Jan., 1820).

First pages devoted to pointing out the necessity of scholarship

in America. Our civil and political freedom gives us no immunities

from “intellectual laws.” We must labor and study and not hope to

take “a single step by force of genius, which has been taken in

the old world by the dint of labor” (2).

60. Edward Evprett, “Mississippian Scenery : a poem dq-

scriptive of the interior of North America. By Charles

Mead,” X, 14-19 (Jan, 1820).

Says he ridicules this attempt to make poetry out of a prose

subject because of the number of like performances “of late gaining

upon us”. Poetry has a “beautiful secret of unity” and every word

sets an “image before you”; prose cannot do this.

61. T. Parsons, “Comparative merits of the earlier and later

English Writers,” X, 19-33 (Jan, 1820).

An excellent essay by a romantic critic who believes in uni¬

versal literary values. Prefers the “vigor and originality” of 17th

century prose to the “excessive refinement” of 18th century prose

(21). The two essentials of good writing are “strength and refine¬

ment” (25). Says the Edinburgh Review is shaking the hold which

the prose of Addison and Steele had on England and is awakening

“the slumbering intellect of Great Britain” (27) . Looks for the de¬

velopment of a national literature in America. The most effectual

means of attaining this object is “study of the classics, in the first

place, and next, of the English writers of the middle of the 17th cen¬

tury” (30).

62. Edward Everett, “University of Virginia and University

Education,” X, 115-137 (Jan, 1820) .

Thinks more room should be given to the study of the classics

(120) and less to science (126). We need professional schools for

advanced study on the model of the continental European schools

(125) . Laments that the “government of America is the only gov¬

ernment in the civilized world, that has never founded a literary

institution” (137).

314 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts and Letters

63. Alexander H. Everett, “Geoffroy on Dramatic Literature,”

X, 291-316 (April, 1820).

A review of Geoffrey’s collection of articles on French drama.

Defends the thesis that the theater is not harmful to public morals.

Discusses at length French drama in order to increase American

interest and gives high praise to Voltaire.

64. Edward Everett, “An appeal from the judgments of Great

Britain respecting the United States ... By Robert

Walsh,” X, 334-371 (April, 1820).

Contains a section in defense of the English language in Amer¬

ica against “the hostilities of the British reviews” (362).

65. Edward Everett, “Canova and his Works,” X, 372-386

(April, 1820).

Everett is a true classicist. Art was at a low ebb in the middle

of the 18th century, but Winckelmann's interest in antiquity purified

“public taste of the absurd notions that had corrupted it” (372).

The new English school of sculpture enjoins the closest possible

imitation of nature and adherence to historical truth, but these are

not just principles of art. “Nature is to be imitated, only in her

noble, select, and pleasing parts, and historical truth adhered to no

farther than it adds to the beauty, grandeur, and charm of the work;

provided that the deviation be not such as to shock our judgments”

(385-6).

66. T. Parsons, “Life and Writings of Madame de Stael,” XI,

124-140 (July, 1820).

Madame de Stael is “the greatest female that has ever written”

(139). Yet Corinne is a bad novel and the best of her books is that

on the French Revolution. Advocates the cultural freedom of wom¬

en (125). The doctrine of perfectibility put forth in her work is

“directly opposed to all right reason and tolerably fair argument”

(130).

67. A. M. Fisher, “On the Priority of Greek Studies,’’ XI, 209-

218 (July, 1820).

Regrets that in the midst of our success in science, “compara¬

tively few among us have pursued the track which leads to distinc¬

tion in classical learning” (209). Greek should be studied before

Latin. The road to eminence in literature “lies through Greek alone”

(214).

68. Edward Everett, “Anastasius ; or Memoirs of a Greek. . .”

By Thomas Hope, XI, 271-306 (Oct., 1820).

A great progress of taste has been made in the novel, which has

now “grown into a vehicle of history, poetry, ethics, and eloquence”

(272). This novel is not of the “highest order”. Defines the posi¬

tion of the critic: he is absolutely free and executes his charge “as

seemeth him good”. His function is to spread the reputation of good

books and check the circulation of bad ones (277).

C lark — Criticism in North American Review

315

69. W. C. Bryant, “Percy's Masque, a Drama, in five acts"

(James A. Hillhouse), XI, 884-393 (Oct., 1820).

Tragedy is the most difficult of all “poetical composition” (385),

yet he expresses the romantic notion that “tragedy is a noble province

of poetry” and “proud would be the triumph of him who, at this day,

should overcome its difficulties” (386). Attacks the diction of trag¬

edies for the last hundred years as “too florid and stately, and too

far removed from the common idiom of our tongue.” Such a lan¬

guage is “not the dialect of feeling” (392).

70. John C. Gray, “Study of the Classics," XI, 413-423 (Oct.,

1820).

An article of first importance by a classicist. Recommends the

study of the classics in conjunction with “the finest English writers.”

The chief reason for the study of the classics is “to correct the bad

taste, which, more than any thing else, has checked the growth of

American literature” (414). Shakespeare and Franklin are brought

forward as proofs that the classics are not necessary. A “thorough

knowledge of the classics could never have encumbered” the genius

of Shakespeare and might have prevented his faults (418). Franklin

accepted as a pattern “the classic Addison.” Thinks society has

gained little “from studious astronomers” (419). Cites the devotion

of the New England forefathers to the classics; they “saw the con¬

nexion between one kind of useful knowledge and another” (423).

1821

71. Alexander H. Everett, “Private Life of Voltaire," XII, 38-

60 (Jan., 1821).

No voluminous writer has ever written in proportion “to the

extent of his works less that will finally be overlooked and forgotten

than Voltaire” (51). His tragedies are his best work because he had

been “tempered in the fiery furnace of adversity” (52). Candide is

the “sharpest satire that ever was composed” (59).

72. Sidney Willard, “Swedenborgianism," XII, 89-111 (Jan.,

1821).

Distrusts the supernaturalism of Swedenborg; he gave “too

ready admission to impressions” (90). His doctrines do not “de¬

velop a single point of morals before unknown, or make any dis¬

putable questions in morality more clear” (93).

73. Edward Everett, “The History of Grecian Art," XII, 178-

198 (Jan., 1821).

Dislikes the architecture of St. Peter’s as the source of the

“superficial theatrical character” of modern taste (184). Next to

the Grecian”, the old Gothic is “the most pure and noble” architecture

(185). Our great insensibility to the beauty of Greek architecture,

along with the want of insight into the whole ancient character,

constitute the great defect “in our education in this country” (187).

316 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts and Letters

74. Alexander H. Everett, “Literary History of the Eighteenth

Century,” XII, 246-268 (April, 1821).

Attacks the noble savage ideal of Rousseau (250). Montes¬

quieu’s Spirit of Laws is “deficient in perspicuity” (252). Attacks

the religious theories of Helvetius, Diderot, and Holbach (256).

American booksellers and printers are to blame for the backward¬

ness of our literature because they republish foreign books.

75. J. G. Palfrey, “Yamoyden, a tale of the wars of King Philip,

in six cantos. By the late Rev. James W., Eastburn, A. M.

and his friend” XII, 466-488 (April, 1821).

Praises this Gothic romance for “the very happy use which the

writers have made of their reading in the antiquities of the Indians”

(477). Glad to see that somebody has found out “the unequalled

fitness of our early history for the purposes” of fiction; no country

or age has “such capacities in this view as New England in its early

day”; there is no “element of the sublime, the wonderful, the pic¬

turesque and the pathetic, which is not to be found here” (480).

Stresses especially the “powerful action” developed by the stern

puritans “coming into conflict with the relentless wilderness”. De¬

fends puritan character against the charge of being a “lifeless,

unpoetical monotony” (481). Practically predicts Hawthorne when

he concludes that the first first-rate writer of fiction in this country

“will lay his scene here” (484).

76. Edward Everett, “England and America,” XIII, 20-47

July, 1821).

Answer to an essay in the New London Monthly Magazine sneer¬

ing at American complaints against the English press. The English

public is “a too willing patron of abuse of America” (22). Ameri¬

cans are not super-patriots in literature; Barlow’s Columbiad has

always been regarded “as a total failure” (29). Defends the Eng¬

lish language in America; it is better “spoken here than in Eng¬

land” (30). We are firmly anchored “to the rock of English litera¬

ture” (32) and are not starting a new language.

77. Edward Everett, “Marino Faliero ... by Lord Byron,”

XIII, 227-246 (July, 1821).

Objects to certain romantic excesses. Byron’s hero is too old

for such violent passions; the style is too harsh; the romantic poets

have gone too far in reacting from Pope’s regularity (240). The

historical drama of Shakespeare is superior to the French in meth¬

od; Byron is wrong in following the latter (230). Strongly objects

to basing a play wholly on love; the best acting cannot keep a love

scene from degenerating into disgust (243). The drama should have

a wider range of themes; America happily has no fixed associations

in this regard.

78. Willard Phillips, “Bryant’s Poems,” XIII, 380-384 (Oct.,

1821).

Recognizes Bryant as a true poet. Praises the “strain of pure

and high sentiment”, the “subtle and ever varying beauties of na¬

ture”, and the natural diction.

Clark — Criticism in North American Review

817

79. Edward Everett, “Valerius, a Roman Story,” XIII, 898-417

(Oct., 1821).

Hopes that the best genius of the age will not go into novel-

writing, but fears that it will. Following Kenilworth , imitators are

springing up everywhere (393).

80. W. H. Prescott, ‘'Byron's Letter on Pope,” XIII, 450-473

(Oct., 1821).

A discussion by a semi-romantic critic of neo-classicism and

romanticism by means of an analysis of Pope and Byron. Decides

that images drawn frcm nature are more poetical than those drawn

from art (451). Dislikes “the puling affectations” of the Cockney

School (which may have a bad effect on America) and the “mysti¬

cism” and “unmeaning strain of sentiment” in the Lake poets; re¬

grets that these have discredited “the perspicuous, direct, and manly

flow of thought and expression” of Pope (467-8). Disagrees with

Byron’s high opinion of Pope; he lacks the “power of awakening

the most sublime and tender emotions so requisite to the perfection

of poetry” (469); his versification has the “great and obvious de¬

fect” of faultlessness (471).

81. John C. Gray, “An Oration . . . before the Society of Phi

Beta Kappa, at Cambridge, Aug. 30, 1821,” XIII, 478-490

(Oct., 1821).

Refutes the idea that writing in the English language is a great

disadvantage to the development of American literature, (a) In the

English classics we possess “numerous striking and chaste models of

style” (481). (b) We have the benefit of English criticism (482).

Yet we should not be too deferent towards English critics; the

greatest progress will be made when we ourselves develop “a spirit

of enlightened and liberal yet exact and fearless criticism” (483).

(c) Our writers have an “unequalled sphere of celebrity and useful¬

ness” opened to them (484).

1822

82. Edward Everett, “PercivaFs Poems,” XIV, 1-15 (Jan.,

1822).

Insists on high standards ; “Pretty good poetry is no poetry at

all” (3). A critic must have a sixth sense to distinguish the pre¬

mature good poet from the mediocre. Denies that adverse criticism

harms a poet of merit ; it matures him. Sees no cause why the

American critic should encourage the “multitude of indifferent poeti¬

cal essays which are made among us” (6) . Percival has some “gen¬

uine poetical talent” (7).

83. John C. Gray, “Fairfax's Tasso,” XIV, 87-101 (Jan., 1822).

Fairfax, an Elizabethan translator, is at last being given his

merited place. Strictly literal translations are usually not “faith¬

ful”. Tasso excels by the “majestic brevity” (89) of his style and the

sustained interest of his story.

318 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts and Letters

84. Alexander H. Everett, “Posthumous works of Madame de

Stael,” XIV, 101-128 (Jan., 1822).

Her great merit is “poetical coloring of the language” (104).

She lacked the power of invention and was not a poet. “Philosophy,

and not poetry, was her proper department . . .” (108).

85. Edward Everett, “Aristophanes and Socrates,” XIV, 273-

296 (April, 1822).

Defends Socrates against the calumnies of Aristophanes in The

Clouds e. Condemns the latter’s vulgarity. Praises German scholar¬

ship but says it is too prone to develop wild theories.

86. W. H. Prescott, “Essay Writing,” XIV, 319-350 (April,

1822).

Attempts an impartial analysis of all English prose styles. 17th

century prose had “unprecedented vigor of original genius”, but

lacked good taste which only comes with “long cultivation” (323-4).

With the Restoration a simple, conversational, and idiomatic style

developed and is due to the influence of France, the rise of the study

of criticism, and chiefly the peculiar character of the Queen Anne

intellect, especially Addison (326). By Johnson’s Rambler in 1750

English prose had been carried “to a point which it cannot hope to

surpass in the gracefulness of Melmoth, and the Attic simplicity of

Hume” (327). The imposing style of Johnson and the simple style

of Addison represent the two extremes of English prose beyond

which it cannot go without bombast on one side and feebleness on

the other (328). Thinks the last half of the century is “the Augus¬

tan age of English fine writing.” Present-day English prose is in

some danger of degeneracy from the ornamented and highly arti¬

ficial style of Stewart, the mystical, indefinite phraseology of Cole¬

ridge, and the corrupt taste for notoriety in the Cockney School

(331). The two styles today are those of the Edinburgh and Quar¬

terly Reviews, with the purpose of instructing, and The Sketch Book

with the purpose of pleasing (333). American prose will be highly

developed by liberal institutions, but we must set the example of a

“pure, perspicuous, classical composition” without “extravagance or

affectation” (350).

87. Edward Everett, “Academy of Language and Belles Let-

tres,” XIV, 350-359 (April, 1822).

Favors a more active and more closely organized literary society

than the one he writes about.

88. Alexander H. Everett, “Life of Jean Jacques Rousseau,”

XV, 1-21 (July, 1822).

Refutes the claim that all literary men are morbid (9). Rous¬

seau’s philosophical opinions are gaining ground with the raise of the

liberal spirit of the world, but his politics will not bear examina¬

tion (21).

89. James Marsh, “Present Literature of Italy’’ ; “Ancient and

Modern Poetry,” XV, 94-131 (July, 1822) .

A very important critical essay by a disciple of Coleridge, de¬

voted to a defense of the Middle Ages and the subjective spirit of

Clark — - Criticism in North American Review

319

modern poetry. Condemns adherence to rules and slavish imitation

of the ancients. Thinks that the principles for each specific art form

was developed by the Greeks from the “unchangeable laws of the

human mind”, and are thus permanent (103-4). But the spirit,

which constitutes the elements of literature, has changed. It is seen

in the principle cf unity. The unsophisticated Greek derived the

principle from the form and character of the external world. The

modern mind, turned from the living world inward upon the soul,

sees unity as a “predominating spirit or sentiment” (105-7). This

great change from ancient to modern times is the result of one main

and two minor factors; the main cause is the introspection and

spirituality of the “Christian religion” (109) ; the minor causes are

the “profoundly supernatural” religious and introspective character

of the inhabitants of northern Europe (116-7) and the Middle Ages

which were a union of the other two factors in specific cultural and

religious forms (118). Thinks the Middle Ages are undervalued

today (124-5).

90. Edward Everett, “Sismondi’s Julia Severa,” XV, 163-177

(July, 1822).

This is another attempt to “make grave truths attractive, by the

form in which they are delivered”; such a form is very ancient and

hence acceptable. The merit of this novel is its antiquarianism. But

the author should study Scott to discover the “wonderful chemistry”

by which “a strong human interest of character and incident” is

breathed into “the manners of ages past” (166).

91. Edward Everett, “Bracebridge Hall, or the Humorists,”

XV, 204-224 (July, 1822).

Americans are much better informed of the state of literature

in England than the English are about American literature. This

“inexcusable ignorance is no ground for the diligent abuse, which

has been heaped on our press” (208). Condemns Irving for not

revealing his work “as an American production” rather than trying

to engraft himself on “the English stock” (214). Irving’s book is

equal to anything “the present age of English literature has produced

in this department” (209).

92. W. H. Gardiner, “The Spy,” XV, 250-282 (July, 1822).

Attacks the position of E. T. Channing (see no. 52 above) that

the novel is unsuited to the classless society of America. We have

the same classes as England with a “greater variety of character”.

Disapproves of the Gothic romance as a genre foreign to our soil,

but asserts that no nation has “more abundant matter of romantic

interest than ours” (254). Cites as fruitful the times just succeed¬

ing the first settlement, the era of Indian wars, and the Revolution

(255). Cooper has inventiveness, the chief characterstic of genius,

and is the first “distinguished American novel writer” (281).

93. Alexander H. Everett, “Anecdotes of Morellet and his Con¬

temporaries,” XV, 319-340 (Oct., 1822).

Tells anecdotes from the lives of various French writers with

the purpose of exciting American interest.

320 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts and Letters

94. J. C. Gray, “Arden's Translation of the Tristia,” XV, 348-

351 (Oct., 1822).

Confirms Dryden’s theory of translation and says that Pope’s

Homer is superior to Cowper’s. Glad to see the classics made avail¬

able to the American public, but thinks Ovid’s Tristia not worth

translation.

1823

95. Edward Everett, “Essays by a Virginian,” XVI, 45-58

(Jan., 1823).

American literature is held back by the number of bad English

and American books produced. Thinks true scholarship should ap¬

pear before the public more often. Classical education is best fitted

to the “essential condition of our natures” and at the same time

deals directly “with the finest intellectual processes” (52-3).

96. S. Gilman, “Clio ... by James G. Percival,” XVI, 102-123

(Jan., 1823).

Judges Percival and the romantic poets by strict neo-classical

principles. Their unpopularity is due to their “abstracted and un¬

social” poetry. Writers like Southey are failures because of their

“inability” to write according to “the natural inclinations and prin¬

ciples of taste implanted in the general mind” (106).

97. W. H. Prescott, “The French and English Tragedy," XVI,

124-156 (Jan., 1823).

As a romanticist Prescott favors English drama. The great

defect of the French is a great passion for rules and hence a “want

of deep and genuine sensibility” (12:5). It is due, not to Greek

models, but to two elements of their national character, a desire for

outward perfection of art and a keen perception of the ridiculous.

English drama, under happier influences, developed directly from

popular character, and its underlying principle was veracity (130).

French drama leaves the heart unsatisfied; it shows that “faultless¬

ness is one thing and perfection another”; it is “the triumph of art

and not of nature” (141). In the present century English poetry is

“breaking through the chilling atmosphere of French criticism” back

to the “old English feeling and freedom” of the national ballad. The

“animating principle” of “egotism” in the poets and the high spirit

of speculation in the age prevent the development of the drama

today; if it should have any, it will be from “Scott, exhibiting the

drama of real life” (147).

98. N. L. Frothingham, “Grillparzer’s Golden Fleece,” XVI,

283-299 (April, 1823).

Laments the meagerness of contemporary English drama, but

says that the Germans “are destined to produce most finished

specimens of dramatic poetry” (285). They have studied both

Shakespeare and the Greeks, and their “rich, powerful language has

a flexibility” fitted to the most “delicate” and “difficult achieve¬

ments” (285).

Clark — Criticism in North American Review

321

99. Edward Everett, “The Life of Francis Bacon ... By

Mr. Mallet,” XVI, 300-387 (April, 1823).

“Baconian philosophy has becomeo synomymous with true phi¬

losophy. Defends the character of Bacon; he was “a mild, mod¬

erate, conscientious man, estimated by all parties, but unwilling to

sell himself to either,” and therefore hated by both (310).

100. T. Parsons, “Moore's Loves of the Angels,” XVI, 353-365

(April, 1823).

Parsons is here mildly romantic and praises the intuitional ele¬

ment in literature, but thinks that Moored genius is “cramped and

polluted” by his “depraved, licentious tastes” (354).

101. Alexander H. Everett, “Life and Writings of Schiller . . .

By Henry Doering,” XVI, 397-425 (April, 1823).

Genius and taste are only different operations of the same

agents and demand the “union of experience and sensibility” (400).

Schiller relied on “the abundance of his own wealth,” which is the

“true sign of real genius” (401). Attacks the attempt to represent

the “most contradictory moral qualities as existing together” in the

same individual (402). Inadequately understands “romantic” as

meaning “fictitious” in contrast to “historical and natural” (421).

Hence claims that Schiller’s work is more like English tragedy of

the 18th century than Shakespeare (408).

102. George Bancroft, “Schiller's Minor Poems,” XVII, 268-287

(Oct., 1823).

As a romanticist Bancroft praises Schiller highly. He is “dis¬

tinguished for his genius,” “the purity of his taste,” “the perfection

of his style” (268), his constant “fever of imagination,” his optimistic

view of human nature, his reverence for religion and the domestic

relations (269), his veneration for the classics, his personification of

nature, and love for the antique.

103. Edward Everett, “The Works of Maria Edgeworth,” XVII,

383-389 (Oct., 1823).

In reaction against the licentiousness of Fielding and Smollett,

Fanny Burney invented the “safe reading” type of novel which

Miss Edgeworth writes. Thinks the public is tiring of Scott. Miss

Edgeworth is inferior to Scott but “inferior to him alone” (385).

1824

104. Willard Phillips, “Confessions of an English Opium-Eater,”

by De Quincey XVIII, 90-98 (Jan., 1824).

Possesses a “strain of original and philosophical thinking” but

often sinks into an “obscure sort of metaphysical and mystical pros¬

ing, and becomes very formally dull and dry” (92).

105. George Bancroft, “Buttman’s Greek Grammar,” XVIII, 99-

106 (Jan., 1824).

Strongly recommends the study of the Greek classics, especially

Homer, Herodotus, and Plutarch. Homer’s works present a mirror

of “the purest qualities of our nature” (105).

322 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts and Letters

106. Alexander H. Everett, “The History of Philosophy,” XVIII,

234-66 (April, 1824).

A review of that part of Gerando’s work on classical philosophy

up to Cicero. Discusses particularly the theory of knowledge. “Plato

and Aristotle are “the two first names in the intellectual science of

all time” (246) . Asserts that Locks sprang from Aristotle, and Kant

from Plato (252), — the “distinction taken by Kant between purely

rational and empirical (experimental) notions” resembles that of

Plato (2153). Gerando exalts Plato, but Everett says that it would

not be difficult to prove “the author’s preference is unjust” (247).

The chief error of Plato was the notion that “ideas are innate and

have an existence in our minds , independently of perception, a prop¬

osition, which, in its obvious and literal sense, is quite absurd” (252).

Gives an accurate exposition of the various types of philosophy.

Praises Cicero’s concreteness and, like a neo-classicist, sees the Mid¬

dle Ages as a “gulf of ignorance and barbarism” (265). (Although

Everett takes an unfavorable view, this exposition of Gerando’s

Platonism, with its Kantian analogies, may have led Emerson [Jour¬

nals, II, 283, Letters , /, 291] to Gerando, to whom he was consider¬

ably indebted.)

107. George Bancroft, “Jacob’s Greek Reader,” XVIII, 280-

284 (April, 1824).

A strong plea for universality in American literature. We

should search through “the literary stores of all nations,” and select

whatever will impart the most knowledge or best fit our need (283).

There is but “one republic of letters, and that republic should pursue

but one policy, the advancement of truth and science, of free and

familiar intellectual intercourse of all parts of the world with each

other, a commerce of minds, limited by no resticting prejudices, and

checked by no unworthy jealousies or partialities” (284).

108. Willard Phillips, “The Pilot, a Tale of the Sea,” XVIII,

314-329 (April, 1824).

Our literature like our territory is still mostly “uncultivated and

wild”, and Cooper has done a yeoman’s task in trying to subdue ic

(314). In choosing American actors, incidents, and frequent histori¬

cal allusions, Cooper has “made the story strike deep into the feel¬

ings of American readers” (328).

109. F. W. P. Greenwood, “The Miscellanious Poems of William

Wordsworth,” XVIII, 356-371 (April, 1824) .

An appreciative but judicious critical essay of very high ex¬

cellence. Gives three reasons for Wordsworth’s unpopularity in

America: (a) incapacity of the mass to appreciate his most refined

beauties; (b) defects of his own such as, pushing his theory of

humble life “too far” and following the train of his thought to the

point of vagueness; and (c) the unfair notices in the Edinburgh

Review on which “nineteen out of twenty” formed their opinion.

Wordsworth’s beauties are: (a) the great principles that “nothing

is beneath a poet’s regard, which has to do with the mind and

heart of man”; (b) a diction taken from “nature and life” as the

vehicle for real passion; and (c) the glory of his “intimate con¬

verse . . . with Nature,” resulting in a closer union between the

“universe and the heart of man” (366).

Clark — Criticism in North American Review

323

110. W. C. Bryant, “The Ruins of Paestum, and other Poems/

XIX, 42-49 (July, 1824).

Praises Pickering’s poems as an indication of the rise of a truly

American literature. Thinks his inverted and diffuse style, imitated

from Thomson’s Seasons , is a defect, as is the “elaborate magni¬

ficence” of the diction. Advocates careful revision before coming

before the public. Disapproves of the use of weak syllables or un¬

accented words and the addition of extra syllables in blank verse.

111. C. Cushing, “Boccaccio's Decameron," XIX, 68-88 (July,

1824) .

Commends Boccaccio’s prose style, his classicism, his elevation

of the street tale into a new literary type, and panorama of life

displayed. Excuses his licentiousness on the basis of contemporary

taste.

112. George Bancroft, “Value of Classical Learning," XIX, 125-

137 (July, 1824).

Lists the reasons why classical literature should be studied in

America: (a) Classical remains cover the continent of Europe but

we can know Greek and Roman genius only through their literature,

(b) They favor free institutions, (c) It is the “common property

of mankind”, (d) They exert a strong influence for a high national

character, (e) Because in a free country there should be no limits

on free inquiry, (f) Classical is “the best.” The Greeks remain in

the gloom of the ages “stars of changeless and unequalled brilliancy”

(132).

113. W. H. Gardiner, “The Wilderness," [James McHenry]

XIX, 209-223 (July, 1824).

Most people have the mistaken idea that the “Americanism of

an American novel” is a facsimile of American peculiarities. Actu¬

ally the typical American novel, like the present one, is an imagi¬

nary tale parading under American names with an Indian or two,

and passes for American “simply because it is not English” (210).

114. George Bancroft, “Life and Genius of Goethe," XIX, 303-

325 (Oct., 1824).

Says we should approach the literature of a great nation “with

respect.” “The literature of each nation is national,” and the true

critic must see it from that point of view. Goethe’s genius can no

longer be disputed. Holds the romantic doctrine that where the

critic and the multitude are at variance in judgments, the multitude

is right and the critic wrong (806). Stresses the importance of

explaining Goethe’s works by the conditioning factors in his life.

Americans dislike his morbid imagination and his disregard for

social conventions. Asserts the superiority of Greek sanity to the

morbidity of the romantics. (On Goethe see also no. 19)

115. W. H. Prescott, “Italian Narrative Poetry," XIX, 337-389

(Oct., 1824).

Discusses the influence of the Italians on the Elizabethan and

Romantic periods in contrast to the distrust of the Neo-classicists.

324 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts and Letters

Stresses the broadening of intellectual activity in the present age

(340). Says that the transplanting of romantic fiction from Nor¬

mandy and England to Italy at the end of the 15th century caused

the rise of Italian narrative poetry (342). Attributes the differ¬

ences between Italian and English literature to differences of climate

(345). Italian literature is devoted too “exclusively to purposes of

mere amusement” (385), due to the Italian peculiarity of being

“sensible to beauty , independent of every other quality” (387). Eng¬

lish literature is far superior by its moral and philosophical gravity.

Writes special critiques on Politan, Pulci, Boiardo, Berni, Ariosto,

Tasso, Tassoni, and Fortiguerra.

1825

116. Alexander H. Everett, “Lord Byron,” XX, 1-47 (Jan.,

1826).

Byron has genius of the highest order; he “rose far above any

English poet who has lived since the time of Pope.” He has two

great defects: “an occasional extravagance of thought and language

as respects substance, and a want of care and finish in versification.”

Everett looks at Byron from the eyes of a confirmed neo-classicist.

He looks on the age of “Pope as the point of perfection” in poetry

and on the present as the “declining age” (14). Condemns the

immorality of Byron; in the manner of Plato, he says his works

should be given the merit of art, then removed “forever from the

public view” (43).

117. George Bancroft, “Writings of Herder,” XX, 138-149

(Jan., 1825).

Herder seems to be Bancroft’s ideal of the man of taste. Praises

his detachment; he could well “estimate the excellence of others”

and could enter upon “the study of a foreign work, as if he had been

of the country” (138-9). He possessed a “delicate perception of the

beautiful” and a true “love of learning.” His knowledge was wide,

and in matters of taste he never reasoned coldly, but “communicated

his ideas and sentiments with all that warmth, in which they existed

in his mind” (141). Eleven years before Emerson’s first book, Ban¬

croft says Kant “as a metaphysician, has had perhaps no rival among

his countrymen but Fichte” (141). “The influence of Herder on his

age was wide, and entirely beneficial to the best interests of our

race; he has been extensively read and admired, and always with

results beneficial to morals and sentiments of philanthrophy . . .

(He) was a blessing and an honor to his age” (144). (For orienta¬

tion see 0. W. Long, Literary Pioneers , Cambridge, 1933).

118. Jared Sparks, “Escalala, an American Tale. By Samuel

B. Beach,” XX, 210-214 (Jan., 1825).

Denies that the Indian theme is a good one for literature.

Sparks, as a historian, saw that the Indian had been grossly mis¬

represented (210). Actually there is “little of the romantic and of

the truly poetical in the native Indian character” (211). There are

no shades of character beyond “generosity, contempt of danger, pa¬

tience under suffering, revenge, and cruelty.” Predicts however that

the exploits of the Iroquois and the Mohawk will be soon “committed

to the numbers of ever enduring song” (212).

Clark— Criticism in North American Review

325

119. W. C. Bryant, “Redwood, a Tale” (Mrs. Sedgwick), XX,

245-272 (April, 1825).

Maintains that there “is a strong love of romance inherent in

the human mind” which the writer can rely on to fill “up the outline

he gives with bright colors and deep shades of its own.” Stresses

the “fertility of our country, and its history, in the materials of

romance.” Great variety of character (which is the basis of fiction)

has developed from our equalitarian institutions, from the variety of

our religious denominations, from cur geographical situation, and

from the immigration of foreign peoples who bring their old world

culture and combine it in various ways with the new.

120. Jared Sparks, “Professor Everett's Orations,” XX, 417-

440 (April, 1825).

The thesis involved is the relation of free government to the

development of the arts and sciences; the two men differ on several

points. Sparks says that freedom is requisite to development and

laughs at the dire predictions about America’s future in the Edin¬

burgh Review (422). Everett held that our new form of civil society

would be a strong motive to political action only. Sparks thinks it

will cause a healthy intellectual rivalry like that of the “ancient

Grecian states” (425). Everett argued that free institutions did not

withdraw talented men from the field of literature; Sparks, that

there is “great consumption, and even waste of talents” (427).

Everett held our novel political organization affects our literature,

Sparks, that literature flourishes as well under one form of govern¬

ment as another (432). Everett thought our common language aided

our rising literature, but Sparks again disagrees: literature grows

out of a nation’s “peculiarities” and must have “modes of expression

and forms of language equally varied and peculiar” (437).

121. Jared Sparks, “Recent American Novels,” XXI, 78-104

(July, 1825).

Says a new school of American fiction, imitating Scott, has arisen

and is gaining “favor with the graver part of the community” to

such an extent that the old restrictions are being taken off (79). The

critic must exercise “strict surveillance’ ’ over the new novels in order

to counteract their “pernicious influences” and give direction to their

force (83). The Waverley type of novel being written has three

characteristics: the use of historical material, real scenery, and

dialogue to carry the incident (81). Praises Scott but fears that his

imitators will copy such weaknesses as careless composition and the

use of obsolete or foreign words and idioms.

122. W. H. Prescott, “Da Ponte's Observations,” XXI, 189-217

(July, 1825).

Da Ponte, an Italian, objected to Prescott’s criticisms of Italian

literature (see no. 115 above). This is Prescott’s reply. Denies

that Marini influenced Donne (194). Says French style precieux

came from Italy and the English metaphysical school of Cowley

came from the French. But the metaphysical conceits can be traced

back to early English literature (306). Denies that the Waverley

novels were vulgar and deficient in thought; the novel may convey

“solid instruction, in its details of life, of human character, and of

passion” (208). Condemns neo-classical literary criticism and says

326 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts and Letters

the new “science of general literary criticism and history” recognizes

the “wants of different nations and ages”; a few general principles

of beauty are deduced from “local beauties peculiar to each”, but a

difference of taste “is now admired as a beautiful variety in the

order of nature” (215).

123. Jared Sparks, “Brainard’s Poems," XXI, 217-224 (July,

1825).

Sparks attacks the extremes of romantic poetry. Its besetting

sins are “eccentricity and haste, a vehement desire to think and talk

as nobody ever though or talked before, and to make the largest

drafts on the bounty of the Muse in the shortest space of time.” Poets

are not satisfied to write as Virgil, Milton, and Pope have written.

124. Andrews Norton, “Lord Byron’s Character and Writings,”

XXI, 300-359 (Oct., 1825).

A strong attack on Byron. As a satirist Byron was inferior to

Pope; he lacked truth and “just principles of taste and moral judg¬

ment” (314). His poetry has not “much tendency to raise and

improve mankind, much moral beauty, or much that could be agree¬

able to our higher and purer feelings” (327). The most striking

aspects of his poetry belongs to the age. Admits the “false taste”

of 18th century poetry, but thinks the romantic reaction has gone

too far — “the unalterable principles of taste, founded in the nature

of man, and the eternal truths of morality and religion, have, like¬

wise, been neglected or outraged, as antiquated prejudices” (349).

Even Wordsworth, in his dislike for artificial poetry, has “cari¬

catured the simplicity of nature” (350).

125. F. W. P. Greenwood, “Pinckney's Poems," XXI, 369-376

(Oct., 1825).

Commends successful imitation. “Genius catches the thought

and spirit of kindred genius, and gives them a fair and well pro¬

portioned body of its own.” Pinckney successfully imitated a poem

of Goethe. Dislikes his obscurity and his imitation of Byron — “we

have already had too much of Byron” (376).

126. Edward Everett, “Orphic Poetry," XXI, 388-397 (Oct.,

1825).

Shows a keen interest in and a wide knowledge of classical an¬

tiquity. His purpose is to awaken American interest.

1826

127. F. W. P. Greenwood, “Hillhouse’s Hadad, a Dramatic

Poem," XXII, 13-27 (Jan., 1826).

Though a romanticist (see no. 109 above), Greenwood here shows

his neo-classical roots, by praising Hillhouse for observing “all the

proprieties of place, time, and character” (25) and his “habit of

correctness” (26). Defends his own literary nationalism. Says that

he is not “blind to the miserable stuff” constantly “thrown off by

the presses of our country,” that he hails “with infinitely more de¬

light, a good work which is produced by native genius, than one of

equal quality” from abroad, and that when he thinks a work is good

he will “be sure to say so” (27).

Clark— Criticism in North American Review

327

128. J. C. Gray, “Demosthenes,” XXII, 34-52 (Jan. 1826).

Thinks that no works could be read “to more advantage by the

rising orators of our country, than those of Demosthenes.” They

would do “much to correct the two most prominent faults of Ameri¬

can oratory,” “excessive prolixity” and “fondness for unnatural and

meretricious ornament” which lead to offenses against classical sim¬

plicity (48) . This fault “infects in some degree every branch of our

literature’'’ and is due to our lack of “assiduous culture” (49).

Nothing will correct our false impressions like “the frequent con¬

templation of the severe beauty of Attic eloquence” (49).

130. John Everett, “Mellen’s Ode,” XXII, 209-212 (Jan., 1826).

Our writers make two errors. They attempt “to render each

passage equally brilliant in execution, whatever is the character of

the sentiment expressed”. They suppose that originality is to be

acquired by study and “make the absurd attempt to say in a manner

no one else would have said, what no one else whold have thought”

(211).

131. A. Lamson, “ Poem delivered before the Conn. Alpha of the

Phi Beta Kappa Society, Sept. 13, 1825 by James G. Per-

cival,” XXII, 317-333 (April, 1826).

Attacks Percival’s romantic idea that since “certain Forms”

(Platonic ideas) are diffused through nature the mind knows spon¬

taneously, without search for truth. There is no “instantaneous con¬

sent to the true principles of taste” and it “might easily be shown,

that the sublime and the beautiful, both in nature and art, require

time and cultivation” (319). Denies also the true poet does not

receive due recognition (325). Attacks Percival’s “excessive dif¬

fuseness” and “superabundance of images” (327). Ends with an

attack on the disregard for the laws of metrical composition in Per-

cival and other American poets. Ridicule of “sing song” verse has

led many to “think that prosaic lines are beautiful, and that a breach

of established rules is better than the observance” (332).

132. Sidney Willard, “Milton on Christian Doctrine,” XXII,

364-373 (April, 1826).

Recognizes that the discovery of this document will lead to a

more complete understanding of Milton.

133. J. C. Gray, “The Rebels,” (Lydia M. Child), XXII, 400-408

(April, 1826).

Praises this sentimental novel highly but objects to its profusion

of incidents, its want of method, and faulty characterization.

134. A. Lamson, “Miscellaneous Poems selected from the U. S.

Literary Gazette,” XXII, 432-443 (April, 1826).

Lamson is a universalist ; unmerited praise of American works

will “be injurious to the cause of letters among us”; our writers

should “aspire to rival the richest strains” of England (432). Lam¬

son is also a romanticist and praises spirit of the age as one of “deep,

earnest thought” but attacks current style as rapid, hasty, abrupt,

and unfinished (433). Praises Bryant highly as a poet of “rare

gifts” and recognizes Longfellow (now nineteen) as having the

“poetic feeling and imagery” of a true poet (438-9).

328 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts and Letters

135. W. H. Prescott, “The Songs of Scotland, Ancient and Mod¬

ern,” XXIII, 124-142 (July, 1826).

The editor of the poems laments that the modernization of Scot¬

tish society and the untimely decay of superstition will ruin Scottish

poetry. Prescott denies this antiquarian theory. The principal dif¬

ference between a rude and a civilised age, as regards “poetical fic¬

tion, is, that the latter requires more skill and plausibility in work¬

ing up the materiel than the former”. Thinks also that there are very

few today “who have not enough of superstitious feeling lurking

in their bosoms for all the purposes of poetical interest” (137).

136. George Bancroft, “Classical Learning and (Prof.) Wolf,”

XXIII, 142-150 (July, 1826).

Defends the thesis that the classics will give an opportunity for

the mental and contemplative life of America to unfold, since the

active life is already highly developed.

137. W. H. Gardiner, “Cooper’s Novels,” XXIII, 150-197 (July,

1826).

A review of The Last of the Mohicans and The Pioneers , chiefly

the former; see also his review of The Spy , no. 92 above. Very high

praise for Cooper; he has “great powers of invention” (151) and

has the “same sort of magical authority over the spirit of romance,

which belongs in common to Scott, Radcliffe, Walpole, and . . .

Brown”. His great excellence is the vividness of his action, the rapid¬

ity of his incidents, and the invention of machinery to take the place

of mythological divinities of the ancient epic. His great weakness is

the delineation of female character (163). Glad to see that Cooper

has discovered the possibility of the Indian in romance; the visionary

character of his Indians is due to his following Heckewelder, “whose

work is a mere eulogium” of virtues (166). Thinks Natty Bumppo

“deserves to be ranked in the first class of the creations of genius”

(172), but Cooper overdoes the supernatural and surprise-escape

element (191).

138. Sidney Willard, “Gould’s Edition of Vergil,” XXIII, 220-

224 (July, 1826).

Welcomes this new American edition of Vergil and praises its

accuracy — the first American book to be free of errors. The time has

“come when we must rely on our own presses to supply the demand

for such books” and we have “many scholars among us qualified” for

editing such works (223).

139. A. Lamson, “Works of Mrs. Barbauld,” XXIII, 368-385

(Oct., 1826).

Thinks the rise of women writers has aided in “rescuing fiction

from the service of corruption and profligacy, and converting it into

a powerful agent in correcting the moral judgments” (369). Rejects

extreme romanticism with its “wild fervor and extravagance.” We

are in no danger of “famishing over a scanty, cold, and superficial

literature, but of being disgusted or surfeited with mawkishness of

feeling, wordy insipidity, and the rant of ‘maudlin eloquence’ ” (373).

Says Mrs. Barbauld has taken one of the best of models— -Addison.

Clark — - Criticism in North American Review

329

1827

140. W. P. Mason, “The Merry Tales of the Wise Men of

Gotham,” (by J. K. Paulding) XXIV, 37-55 (Jan., 1827).

Mason is a universalist and comes out for dependence on tradi¬

tion when discussing the ancient-modern controversy, he “froward

spirit1” which led Americans to the Revolution “carried them on t&

still greater extravagancies, and they began to pretend that they

were as wise as their ancestors” (88). They at last openly “assert,

that there was no science, art, invention, or discovery of any con¬

sequence which had not originated, within the last fifty years” (39).

Praises Paulding for satirizing three fields of modern achievement,

the woman machine, common law, and phrenology. Mason adds a

fourth, “the novel science of inversion or transposition”; in educa¬

tion this has taken the place of the classics and what was previously

applied to the head is now applied to the heels (55). Shows his

indebtedness to the satire of Swift. The discovery of Milton’s essay

and other ancient works makes us doubt “whether the great march

of mind in our day, may not, after all, have been in a circle” (55).

141. Edward Everett, “Phi Beta Kappa Orations,” XXIV, 129-

141 (Jan., 1827).

A review of orations by Justice Joseph Story and James A. Hill-

house; discusses several controversial critical doctrines from the

viewpoint of tradition and universality, (a) Ancients vs. moderns:

It is well to “consider the evils, which are incident to the growth and

diffusion of great improvements” (129) ; in spite of brilliant im¬

provements, inventions, and discoveries, there is no “vast difference”

between the moral and social character of modern and ancient men

(130). Thinks that “the superior activity of the social principle”

(the oral expression of literature to large audiences) in ancient life

was destroyed by the invention of printing and that this was a great

loss (130). (b) Advocates forming a literary society to remedy the

division between spoken and written literature in modern life (132).

(c) Study of the classics: no other study or system of studies has

been suggested which serves a better purpose than the study of lan¬

guages (137). (d) Classicism and romanticism: says the clear

distinction made between the two by continental critics has never

been wholly accepted in England and America and is still open to

question (137). (e) Problem of imitation: it is well for the epic

writer to cast about to choose the best school and then all its laws,

but “the poet of epic genius is a school to himself” (140). There is

but one school which genius must adhere to; it is “the school of

Nature” and in this “Shakespeare is most uniformly the master.”

142. George Bancroft, “Greek Lexicography,” XXIV, 142-156

(Jan., 1827).

A review of (Pickering’s Greek Lexicon. Praises highly the

editions of the classics being put out by the University Press at

Cambridge (146). If a man has but time to learn one language,

thinks he should learn Greek. Attacks those “who are governed by

an undiscriminating and impotent hatred of classical learning”

(155).

330 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts and Letters

143. Edward Everett, “Russian Tales; from the French of

Count Xavier de Maistre,” XXIV, 188-193 (Jan., 1827).

Discusses the supremacy of genius in literature. A tale such as

these admits of but two possible treatments: it must be told in its

pure Doric simplicity or it must “be transfigured, by some Shake¬

spearian power, beyond the reach of any common genius” (191). In

this case, “nature herself is outdone by the genius of her great lord,

selecting, combining, and ennobling her most lovely features” (192).

144. George Bancroft, “Mrs. Hemans Poems,” XXIV, 443-463

(April, 1827).

Deals at length with the problem of morality in literature. The

country has made great moral progress in late years; it is seen in

the more general diffusion of intelligence and the higher standard of

learning, the spirit of healthy action in all classes, diminished crime,

the general security of property, the increase of Sabbath schools, the

philanthrophy, and the “active and compassionate benevolence, which

does not allow itself to consider any class so vicious ... as to have

forfeited its claim to humane attention” (443). America has no

advocates for the theory which regards beauty as “something inde¬

pendent of moral effect” (444) ; cites Shakespeare as proof. An

immoral literature is “the greatest evil, with which a nation can be

cursed”; it is worse than “national poverty” (446). Says it is ulti¬

mately a question of the universal vs. the transitory. Says his

morality is based on intercourse “with the great minds that light up

the gloom of the ages, and share in the best impulses of human

nature.” Rejects “a too delicate sensibility” to nature and “sullen

misanthropy” of solitude; the external world provides not the “sub-

limest themes”, it is “mind, and mind only, which can exhibit the

highest beauty” (447-8). Ends with the contention the loss of re¬

ligion would put “an end to the magic of poetry” (460).

145. F. W. P. Greenwood, “Milton's English Prose Works,”

XXV, 73-89 (July, 1827).

Praises Milton as a social reformer of great value to Americans.

His prose works are “fit manuals for a free people” (73). They

bring us into intimate contact with the man and his life; in this he

is superior to Shakespeare about whom we know nothing (74).

Until we know Milton’s prose, we cannot know “the whole power of

our mother tongue” (75).

146. W. H. Prescott, “Novel Writing,” XXV, 183-203 (July,

1827).

The novel is peculiarly suited to English genius for two reasons :

the most ample materials are found in a country whose political in¬

stitutions “allow an entire freedom of social intercourse, and con¬

sequently a perfect display of character”; and in expressing his own

sentiments the author is restricted by no “other power than public

opinion” (187). Spain is unsuited for the novel because it has but

two great classes, and Italy because foreign despotism and love of

pleasure has kept them from the scientific analysis “of the moral

phenomena of our nature” which is the basis of English fiction (188).

The French are deficient in the novel because of conventional forms

of good breeding, narrow principles of criticism, deficiency of humor,

and unfavorable regulation of intercourse between the sexes (190).

Clark — Criticism in North American Revieiv

331

Characterization is the great talent of English writers from the

time of Chaucer. The novel is the successor to the drama of Shake¬

speare; and Scott, who worked a revolution in American as in Eng¬

lish fiction, is the logical successor of Shakespeare (193).

147. Alexander H. Everett, “Who Wrote Gil Bias?” XXV, 278-

307 (Oct, 1827).

A review of two works on the subject by two Spanish priests,

having mostly a technical interest. Their excessive patriotism seems

ridiculous until we recall “the somewhat excessive movements of

indignation into which we have been occasionally betrayed” by the

remarks of “meddling foreigners” on the weaknesses of our charac¬

ter (279).

148. Jared Sparks, “Bowrings Servian Popular Poetry,” XXV,

352-367 (Oct, 1827).

Shows the broadening range of American literary interests.

Bowring had published anthologies of Russian, Pblish, Batavian,

Ancient Spanish, and Finnish literature.

1828

149. Edward Everett, “Select Specimens of the Theatre of the

Hindus,” XXVI, 111-126 (Jan., 1828).

The purpose of the review is to create American interest in

Hindu literature.

150. W. B. O. Peabody, “Specimens of Polish Poets ... By

John Bowring,” XXVI, 146-157 (Jan., 1828).

Looks to literature to create a spirit of internationalism in the

world. Both commerce and science have failed to create this spirit

as had been expected. But when a land is “lighted up by the uni¬

versal fire of poetic imagination in all its valleys and hills, it is no

longer foreign, nor its people strangers to any other. We know and

share their sentiments and feelings, and cannot feel at enmity with

them” (147). That is the purpose of Bowring’s translations.

151. Franklin Dexter, “Academies of Arts; a Discourse de¬

livered on Thursday, May 3, 1827, . . . before the National

Academy of Design on its First Anniversary. By Samuel

F. B. Morse,” XXVI, 207-224 (Jan., 1828).

Morse defended three theses: the practice of buying old masters

neglects living American artists; only professional artists and not

critics should belong to American academies; and the American

artist after studying abroad finds his own country so far behind him

in taste that he starves from neglected merit. Dexter denies all

three. Our taste in art is not “of national origin. We have hitherto

learned, and must long be content to learn, from older countries”

(209). Restricting the academies to professed artists only will lead to

a school formed on principles other than those of nature, and “there

is but one nature, and there can be but one true way of painting”

(211). Artists cannot live independent of the critics and should seek

to use the academies to diffuse good taste in America (212). Neither

332 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts and Letters

are the old masters a hindrance to American art; to patronize second

rate American art because it is art “would improve neither the taste

of the public, nor the skill of the artists’' (214). Does not want “to

see the American system . . . extended to literature or the arts”;

a taste for art cannot “grow without care and cultivation” (216).

Not hopeful of the future of American literature and art; ours is

an age of utility and reason; and in “this cultivation of the reason,

the imagination loses its power” (218). Modern artists are most

deficient in substance; what they need most is “cultivation of the

mind”; there is a difference “between poetry, and mere musical

verse” (221).

152. W. C. Bryant, “Dana’s Poems,” XXVI, 239-247 (Jan.,

1828).

Dana is “a man of genius, who possesses the essential qualities

of a poet.” Bryant praises the romantic qualities of literature; men

of genius are free to “exert their powers in their own way” ; sadness

“is oftentimes as wholesome as mirth” (241) ; Dana’s poetry is

“simple and severe in its style, and free from that perpetual desire

to be glittering and imaginative” (242).

153. E. Wigglesworth, “Cadalso’s Moorish Letters,” XXVI, 248-

258 (Jan., 1828).

Praises the genre as being that of Goldsmith’s Citizen of the

World. Maintains that the language and literature of Spain is pe¬

culiarly interesting to America because of “our connexion with

Spanish America” (257).

154. F. W. P. Greenwood, “Hope Leslie” (Catherine M. Sedg¬

wick), XXVI, 403-420 (April, 1828).

Hails the influence of women in literature as “almost sure to be

powerful and good.” The most deadly poison is the “poison of pas-

sion” communicated through books of amusement, and in this woman

is “largely administering the healing potion” (410). Many have

asserted the richness of the American scene, but only a “few attempts

were made, and one or two of them were not entire failures” (412).

Mrs. Sedgwick’s novels are among the successes.

155. G. Mellen, “The Red Rover,” XXVII, 139-154 (July, 1828).

Attacks the idea that the American scene provides a rich field

for American writers; our novelists “have made their works too

purely of the soil” (140). (a) There is not enough in the “character

and life” of the Indians “to furnish the staple of a novel” (141).

(b) The taste of the age has changed; romanticism has been re¬

placed by realism, the demand for “real life” and “allegiance to com¬

mon sense”; and thus the Indian theme no longer suits, (c) Early

American society has no sects, classes, and no lore to satisfy popular

taste (143). Americans, however, do not have to rely on the Ameri¬

can scene; we belong to the “English school of civilization” and

what belongs to England “belongs as well to us” (143).

156. G. H. Bode, “German Universities,” XXVII, 317-337 (Oct.,

1828).

The German universities rightly regard their critical and his¬

torical knowledge of the classics as the “basis of all solid improve-

Clark — Criticism in North American Review

333

ment” and its absence would be severely felt and would “produce a

violent change in the literary world” (333).

157. W. H. Prescott, “Histoire de la Vie et des Ouvrages de

Moliere, par J. Taschereau,” XXVII, 372-402 (Oct., 1828).

Notes the excellence of the French in “narrative, ever since the

times of the fabliaux and the old Norman romances.” It is due partly

to the fitness of the language for prose and partly to the intellectual

character of the writers (373). Defends Moliere from the attacks of

Schlegel (whose theory however reasonable in its first principles led

him into an exaggerated “admiration of the Romantic models”), and

compares him to Shakespeare. Each man attained complete success

in his own way. Prescott shows real critical breadth and knowledge.

1829

158. W. B. 0. Peabody, “The Decline of Poetry,” XXVIII, 1-18

Jan., 1829).

A review of L. Hunt’s Lord Byron and his Contemporaries ,

Thinks the whole intellectual life of the Western world including

poetry is declining. Lists the causes: (a) modern practicality; (b)

rise of humanitarianism; (c) poets have looked backward to old

glories instead of forward to new improvements; (d) the false

esthetic principles of modern poets who have departed from the good

old way of Milton, Dryden, and Pope into general chaos; (e) the want

of high and pure morality in modern poets; (f) romantic love for

rough versification and “affected vagueness and obscurity”; (g)

modern poetry is adapted to youthful taste and is “founded on the

excessive passions of youth, or romantic sentiments.” Peabody is a

complete neo-classicist. Thinks little of Byron “is likely to endure”

(13). Entirely disagrees with Wordsworth’s theory of poetry being

found in the heart of the common man and with his theory of dic¬

tion (15). In general the age “has afforded all sorts of extrava¬

gance” (14) ; its great fault is “affected originality” and in the end

Pope will be “found nearer to truth and nature than his opposers”

(18).

159. Henry Wheaton, “Scandinavian Mythology' , Poetry, and

History,” XXVIII, 18-37 (Jan., 1829) .

Notes the movement in European countries toward “cultivation

of their own native literature, language, and history.” Exclusive

devotion to classical models, especially those of French literature,

“have ceased to be the order of the day” (18).

160. Alexander H. Everett, “Irving's Life of Columbus,"

XXVIII, 103-134 (Jan., 1829).

Our progress in “polite literature and poetry” has not until

recently kept pace with our progress in science, metaphysics, and

government; the cause was the urgent demand “for talent in the

various walks of active life” (105). Finally after rapid material

progress, the preparation of the public for literature, and the galling

sneers of foreign critics, Irving appeared and established American

literature (109-110). Testifies to the great importance of literature

in life; “the literature of one age determines in a great degree the

history of the next” (112). Makes the romantic distinction that

334 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts and Letters

rhyme and rhythm are not the peculiar features of verse and that

Irving’s prose is sometimes poetical (114). Makes also the tran¬

scendental distinction between reason and Imagination: Irving “con¬

fines himself to plain matter of fact.” But “the universe is not less

worthy of being studied as an expression of the pure and glorious

ideas or images that dwell eternally in the Supreme mind, than when

viewed merely as a pleasing and varied panorama; ... it even ac¬

quires, in the former case, a sublimity and beauty, of which it is

not susceptible in the latter” (115).

161. A. S. Packard, “College Education,” XXVIII, 294-311

(April, 1829).

A review of Two Reports by the Faculty of Amherst proposing

to change the curriculum to fit popular demands. Notes the great

controversy over the practical vs. the cultural; the “zeal for reform

is not tempered with sufficient caution and discrimination” (299).

The reforms made in Europe cannot be made here because we have

nothing to correspond with the European university (299). The

great complaint is the classics. Says he has “no overweening ven¬

eration for ancient usage” but that a classical education “is in the

highest degree important” to high success in literature or the pro¬

fessions (304).

162. C. Cushing, “Ancient and Modern History,” XXVIII, 312-

340 (April, 1829).

A review of Gibbon’s History. Dislikes Gibbon’s hostility to

Christianity, but his work is “among the great classics of our lan¬

guage” (313). Discusses the nature of taste: “we judge of beauty

by a certain sympathetic intelligence, whether implanted in our

bosoms by nature or introduced there by Education,” and “when re¬

fined by cultivation, it constitutes correct and exquisite taste” (314).

Lists the causes of beauty in the classics: (a) the mechanism of the

classic languages; (b) the limited means of publication strangled

mediocrity; (c) the subserviency of our taste to the ancients — it was

theirs “to invent, to conceive, to utter the first coinage of the fancy,

undimmed, bright, fresh from the mint of inspiration; ours to imi¬

tate, embellish, arrange, and reproduce the images and ideas” ;

and (d) the taste, fashions, and feelings of the people, and the nature

of their public institutions comes nearest “to accounting for the

superiority of the Greeks and Romans” (317-8). Thinks science

may repress the “spirit and exuberance of fancy” but will compen¬

sate “by the bestowment of still greater benefits, having peculiar in¬

fluence upon the certainty of history” (332).

163. T. Walker, “Pollock’s Course of Time,” XXVIII, 340-354

(April, 1829).

Praises Milton but attacks Byron, particularly the Byronic hero.

Thinks “these heroes are fast ceasing to be favorites in the fashion¬

able world; and Byron himself begins to be judged by the qualities

of his heart, as they are displayed in his works” (349).

164. John Pickering, “Elementary Instruction,” XXVIII, 489-

503 (April, 1829).

Reaffirms the need for the study of the classics. The “very

treasures of knowledge” transmitted by Greeks and Romans “con-

Clark— Criticism in North American Review

335

stitute a considerable portion of our education; and these we must

study, if for no other reason than because those nations produced

men of genius, and happened to live before us on this globe” (491).

165. T. Sedgwick, “De Beranger's Life and Writings,” XXIX,

123-138 (July, 1829).

Asserts the need of a knowledge of foreign literature, which has

“but of late years . . . been diffused among us.” Though the “rapid

increase of wealth” and the “general advance of cultivation” has

made knowledge of foreign languages no longer a rarity, we are still

conversant with but a small “part of them” (123). But it is an evil

“that time will correct, and which it is even now rapidly correcting”

(12,4).

166. E. Peabody, “American Poems,” XXIX, 226-241 (July,

1829).

Review of two obscure women poets. The review is a re-assertion

of the old Puritan poetic ideal-very largely the ideal which under¬

lies the poetry of the New England renaissance. Poetry is made up

of two main elements: it must have the power of “enchanting us

away from the present and the real, into an ideal world” and it must

deal “with man’s higher and better nature” (221). The poet cannot

paint perfection nor set forth everything as abstract truth, but he

must “advance men towards perfection” (222) and loosen the mind

“from its vassalage to sense” (223). Poetry springs from the “in¬

most and holiest sanctuary of truth,” from the soul of the poet;

therefore the poet must have genius; “It is no common man, but

one more loftily endowed and dwelling apart,— a prophet of the living

God alone” (225). Defines the qualifications of the poet after the

manner of Milton: “he must strive earnestly to purify his imagina¬

tion; to fill his mind with noble desires and motives; to shut out

every debasing influence; to divest himself of every selfish, local, or

party prejudice; to become, in truth and in deed a citizen of the

world” (226). Comes out for the kind of nationalism which depends

on self-reliance. Poetry must spring “from the writer’s own heart”

(227-8) ; therefore, the great imitation and “too great admiration of

the English writers of the present day” is the great “deadening in¬

fluence upon our poetry” (230-1). Thinks also that the “concentrating

power of the imagination” cannot exist in connection with imitation.

But imitation of the Bacons, Miltons, Taylors, and Shakespeares is

helpful.

167. T. Walker, “Popular Education,” XXIX, 241-258 (July,

1829).

Outlines a system of education for the lower classes of the type

being established in England by the utilitarian reformers like

Brougham (who was attacked by Newman).

168. W. H. Prescott, “Irving's Conquest of Granada,” XXIX,

293-314 (Oct., 1829).

Discusses at length the history of historical writings. The class¬

ical histories sought “less to instruct than to amuse”; they were

written in the comparative infancy of the world and possessed a

“finer sense of beauty than the moderns.” We live in the prime of

civilization; the imagination has been blunted, but the reason has

matured; the modern mind has been schooled successively by the

336 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts and Letters

classics and Christian doctrine and “a new standard of moral excel¬

lence was formed.” Thus practicality and the intellectual and physi¬

cal sciences were given new values ; poetry lost much but philosophy

gained more (296-7). Analyzes the contributions of Voltaire, Mon¬

tesquieu, and Gibbon to the writing of history. Irving was wise not

to write philosophical history (306).

169. G. B. Cheever, “Authorship of Junius' Letters," XXIX,

315-340 (Oct., 1829).

Presents the evidence. Notes how keen and effective his satire

was in the political field; also the advantage of his anonymity.

170. A. Negris, “Modern Greek Literature," XXIX, 340-361

(Oct., 1829).

The article has no critical value except to show a wide range of

interest.

171. S. A. Eliot, “Specimens of American Poetry, with Critical

and Biographical Notices. ... By Samuel Kettell," XXIX,

487-496 (Oct, 1829).

Condemns the extreme nationalism of Kettel’s anthology which

was founded on the principle that everything published among us

has value. But would like to see an anthology containing only those

writers who “give an idea of the dignity, grace, purity, and sub¬

limity, which may be found among our authors, ... a collection un¬

contaminated by the bad taste, the dullness, or the bombast, displayed

by too many who are called writers of poetry” (492).

1830

172. F. W. P. Greenwood, “Dana's Thoughts on the Soul," XXX,

274-279 (Jan, 1830).

Praises Dana’s “excellence of truth, of purity, of moral eleva¬

tion and moral purpose” (277). Laments that America has no long

poems of worth; we want some of our poets to show us that their

genius is “vigorous and broad enough for a sustained flight” (279).

173. O. Dewey, “Diffusion of Knowledge," XXX, 293-313

(April, 1830).

Advocates practical and scienctific education as the best type of

knowledge for America.

174. W. B. O. Peabody, “Sprague's Poems," XXX, 313-323

(April, 1830).

Ridicules literary nationalism; we have established the prin¬

ciple that “praise was due to well-meant exertion”. Our denial of

genius is reaching absurd lengths. The result of denying the need

for training in creative writers is that our writers “fall into direct

and servile imitation, and that not of the best models” (315). A great

proportion of our poetry is of an imitative kind ; due to the fact that

no one adopts poetry as a serious pursuit. He is confident, however,

“that the way of Milton and Pope, by which we mean the way of

thoughtfulness, care, and labor, will triumph at last.” Genius “is as

Clark — Criticism in North American Review

337

much a matter of cultivation as of nature”; a “taste for the beauty

and grandeur of the visible world is formed by meditation”, and

“acquaintance with the heart is not intuitive” and is “not to be

acquired in an hour” (318).

175. Alexander H. Everett, “Tone of British Criticism,” XXXI,

16-66 (July, 1830).

A point by point refutation of an article entitled “American

Literature” (in Edinburgh Review , no. 99), attacking American

writers and literature. The “influence of national pride and jeal¬

ousy” is the cause of the attack of the English periodicals on Amer¬

ica. The English writer said that Irving, Brown, Cooper, and Chan-

ning were the only ones ever heard of in England; Everett adds

several others. The English writer charged that even these four

lacked originality and got their material from England. Everett

denies this; Irving’s best works are those in which he drew “his

inspiration wholly from American sources.” Thinks this malicious¬

ness is bad criticism.

176. W. B. 0. Peabody, “Villemain's Miscellanies,” XXXI, 94-

110 (July, 1830).

Defends the position of the critic against the author. Says that

Villemain held the qualifications of a critic to be “perfect impar¬

tiality”, “earnest wishes to promote the success of others”, “a union

of correct principles with exalted sentiments”, and “delicate and

unperverted taste” (96). Defends Pope against Villemain; it is

“his unquestioned praise, that he carried the sustained harmony and

sweetness of English versification to a degree of excellence unknown

before.” Neither Chaucer, Sidney, Dr. Donne, nor “even the good

genius of Shakespeare” can equal him in this (109).

177. W. B. O. Peabody, “Moore's Life of Byron,” XXXI, 167-

199 (July, 1830).

Thinks it was needless to bring Byron again before the public;

his position had already been decided; he was given “a place among

the great” but no one “claimed for him a place among the good”

(167-8). Refutes Moore’s charge that Byron was killed by public

opinion (172). Also denies Moore’s claim that misery is the parent

of poetry. “Poetry is the work, not of circumstances, but of mind;

of disciplined and powerful mind; which so far from being the sport

of circumstances, makes them bend to its power” (181).

178. G. B. Cheever, “Lowth's Hebrew Poetry,” XXXI, 337-379

(Oct., 1830).

Seems to prophesy Whitman when he says that the “English

language seems to be the best adapted of all modern tongues” for

translating the parallelistic structure of the sacred poets (362).

179. W. B. O. Peabody, “Studies in Poetry by G. B. Cheever,”

XXXI, 442-460 (Oct., 1830).

Notes again the decline of poetry in his own day. Maintains

that the “spirit of poetry is still present with him who meditates at

eventide ; with the worshipper of nature in her solitary places ; with

the contemplative” (443). The great cause of the decline is “the

influence of perverted taste” which hourly welcomes “inferior classes

338 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts and Letters

of romances, tales, and novels” (444). Gives a review of English

literature: Dismisses Chaucer; praises Spenser; Shakespeare “looked

upon man and nature without looking beyond them to the God of

all”; Donne and his group are the Malvolios of English literature”;

dislikes the Restoration but likes Milton very much; gives special

praise to the age of Pope.

1831

180. G. S. Hillard, “Clarence,” (by Mrs. Sedgwick) , XXXII, 73-

95 (Jan., 1831).

Mrs. Sedgwick’s chief merit is a “high and pure tone of moral

and religious feeling, without which genius is a fatal curse” (77).

Objects to the novel as “unnatural and improbable”; it is too much

like some of “Mrs. Radcliffe’s wild creations” (85). Thinks the

“web of life in our Western world is too coarse to bear the embroid¬

ery of romance” (94).

181. H. W. Longfellow, “Origin and Progress of the French

Language,” XXXII, 277-317 (April, 1831).

Chiefly a discussion of philological matters, but has some critical

dicta. Notes the “great influence that poetry exerts over a lan¬

guage, and the great tendency it has to soften and enrich it” (301).

Progress in a language does not mean changes in orthography but

“its approximation to a perfect medium of thought” (307). The

merits of French are “ease, vivacity, perspicuity and directness.” It

is particularly suited to colloquial elegance, genteel comedy, con¬

versational ease, the antithesis of epigram, the spirited ease in songs,

and the simple pathos of the ballad. But in the “higher walks of

tragic and epic poetry it but feebly seconds the high-aspiring mind”

(316).

182. W. B. 0. Peabody, “Waverley Novels,” XXXII, 386-421

(April, 1831).

Says some regret that Scott gained so great a reputation merely

by amusing the world; replies that, like the parables of Scripture,

the novel is “onty an extended figure, which illustrates the truth and

deepens its impression” (388). Examines the various criticisms of

Scott: (a) Some object to the connection “between fact and fable”

in the historical form, but history gives an air of truth which pure

fiction can never have, (b) Many object to his lack of plot, but

history cannot be subjected to the critical demand for unity, (c)

His heroes are called inefficient and uninteresting, but when we

appeal “from criticisms to nature” Scott is nearer to common men,

though far from the traditional hero, (d) Many object to the same¬

ness of his characters, but he drew from nature and there is “same¬

ness in nature”, (e) Others say that historical romances decrease

the interest in history, but the opposite is true. Lists Scott’s quali¬

fications: good sense, his education, the circumstances of the time

augmented his particular tastes, and the habits of his early life.

Predicts that Scott’s type of novel will decline, but that the novel as

a literary form will “embrace all that man ever did” (403). Scott,

Maria Edgeworth, and Richardson surpass Fielding.

C lark — Criticism in North American Review

339

183. 0. W. B. Peabody, “The Water-Witch,” XXXII, 508-523

(April, 1831).

Defends Cooper from the charge of being an imitator of Scott.

The qualifications of a novelist are power of description and the

ability to portray character. Cooper has the first in a high degree

but lacks “knowledge of human nature”; his characters do not have

a proper degree of distinctness, individuality, and variety. Gives

high praise to Cooper’s “description of American scenery, and of a

variety of incidents and circumstances, which could be found in no

other country” (521).

184. W. II. Prescott, “Poetry and Romance of the Italians,”

XXXIII, 29-81 (July, 1831).

Compares Dante and Milton; both are sublime to the highest

degree, but “Milton is an ideal poet and delights in generalization,

while Dante is the most literal of artists” (33). It was fortunate

that the Divine Comedy was a subject which enabled Dante “to ex¬

hibit the peculiar genius of Christianity, and of modern institutions,

and to demonstrate their immense superiority for poetical purposes

over those of antiquity.” It showed that at last barbarism had re¬

ceded from the earth (34). Contends that the difference in society

from age to age requires new and peculiar forms of expression;’

hence moderns cannot write by ancient rules. Notes the change of

meaning in religion, love, honor; love of country was once the per¬

vading feeling, but now the individual comes first (46). Maintains

that the freedom of the political and social institutions of England

and America have encouraged expansion of intellect and peculiari¬

ties of temper and have made them the best theatre of all time for

the study of character (59). The drama and the novel are the

staples for this “scientific dissection of character” (75). Prescott

had a very wide knowledge of Italian literature itself.

185. George Bancroft, “Harvard University,” XXXIII, 216-266

(July, 1831).

The Harvard library should be enlarged so it will attract men

of ability and fondness for intellectual research. This is one of the

“'chief hindrances at present to the rapid progress of American

literature, the want of a point of union, a common arena, where

accomplished minds are jostled in close proximity” (223).

186. Alexander H. Everett, “American Poets,” XXXIII, 297-

324 (Oct., 1831).

A review of G. B. Cheever’s American Common-Place Book of

Poetry. Praises the anthology because it was made “with great

taste” and “a strict regard to the higher moral considerations”

(397). Thinks the present generation of English poets are no greater

than the present generation of American poets. Denies that the

spirit of poetry is disappearing from the earth; it is one of the

essentials of our nature and will live as “long as man preserves his

present constitution” (298). Poetry arises whenever the other aspects

of life are reinvigorated: poetry is the “instinctive spontaneous

expression of feelings awakened by the real action and passion of

life” and great periods of poetical activity coincide with great ac¬

tivity in other fields (299). Cheever ranked Dana as the foremost

American poet; Everett disagrees and gives the place to Bryant.

340 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts and Letters

Dana imitated “the worst efforts of the worst of all models, Words¬

worth” (302).

187. H. Wheaton, “Anglo-Saxon Language and Literature/'

XXXIII, 325-350 (Oct., 1831).

The English was greatly enriched by Norman, French, and

Latin, but “its sturdiest roots are to be looked for and found in the

Anglo-Saxon” (325). Hence Anglo-Saxon is “essential to a com¬

plete knowledge of modern English” (326).

188. Alexander H. Everett, “American Library of Useful

Knowledge," XXXIII, 515-530 (Oct., 1831).

Laments the encroachments of physical science on moral science.

The glory of the modern world “lies in the cultivation of physical

science, and its application to the useful arts.” Moral science has

not kept pace and to this might be traced some of “the practical

defects in the social and political condition of the nations of Christ¬

endom” (530).

1832

189. H. W. Longfellow, “Sidney's Defence of Poetry," XXXIV,

56-78 (Jan., 1832).

This is Longfellow's defence of poetry. The “spirit of the age

is clamorous for utility”; we glory in the extent of our territory and

the magnificence of our nature but “the true glory of a nation is

moral and intellectual preeminence” (59). Then asserts (five years

before Emerson’s American Scholar) the intellectual independence

of America. In forming our new literature “we should make it as

original, characteristic, and national as possible” (69).

190. W. B. O. Peabody, “Croker's Boswell," XXXIV, 91-119

(Jan., 1832).

Peabody greatly admires the neo-classical writers. Johnson had

a mind “of the very first order” (100). Praises Johnson’s ideal of

style — “to think clearly and then to express the thought in the most

direct and natural manner” (102). Condemns the “obscure and

shadowy style” of such works as Bulwer’s Pelham (102).

191. D. L. Child, “Authorship of Junius," XXXIV, 316-363

(April, 1832).

A survey of the evidence and a review of five American books

on the subject.

192. W. J. Snelling, “Bryant's Poems," XXXIV, 502-514 (April,

1832).

Hails Bryant’s first volume as the “best volume of American

poetry that has yet appeared” (512). “Bryant is not a first-rate

poet; but he has great power, and is original in his way”. Likes

his powers of observation and vividness; his simplicity and natural¬

ness; and the fact that he is “never carried out of sight of common

sense by his imagination” (505). The publication of this volume is

an important event for American literature. There has been “too

Clark — Criticism in North American Review

341

much looking abroad for examples and models”; we have had “no

standard of excellence of our own”; we hardly dare “judge favor¬

ably of an American work”; but Bryant has taken the only proper

“way to answer the sneers of foreigners” (512). Stresses the need for

careful preparation and learning before America can have a litera¬

ture. This has been the “pernicious error” of American literature

and sets at naught our “boundless profusion” of material (513).

Ends urging treatment of American materials.

193. Mrs. W. Minot, “Cousin’s Philosophy,” XXXV, 19-36 (July,

1832).

A review favorable to Cousin, voicing many of the main tran¬

scendental ideas which Emerson was to begin to express six years

later. Makes the distinction between two kinds of reason: (tran¬

scendental) “Reason is absolute, universal, devine; human reason is

imperfect, because it is enveloped in a finite nature” (25). Defines

the “finite” as the “something not ourselves” (25). The foundation

of all things lies in three ideas— “unity, multiplicity, and cause”

(26). “The world of ideas is hid in the world of facts”; it is the

mission of the philosopher to distinguish these ideas and to connect

each particular fact “with some general law” (30). History, the

compendium not only of human nature but of the universe, is “the

result of the necessary operation of wise and beneficent laws, or¬

dained by an infinitely perfect Being” and is not only beautiful “but

highly moral” (29-30). Asserts also the doctrine that “great men

bear the stamp, and afford the truest specimen of their age” (32).

Praises Cousin’s eclecticism highly: it “is not only the best, the true,

but the only possible philosophy” (33). Ends with a plea which

predicts Emerson. The “evils of a speculative and visionary mind”

are not those which the present day needs to guard against. The

calculation of interest and the division of labor are every where

chaining down men’s minds to a point” and speculative philosophy

should be welcomed as the call which “may rouse us to a sense of

the grand features and broad principles of humanity” (36). (For

orientation consult William Girard, “Du Transcendantalisme con-

sidere essentiellement dans sa definition et ses origines frangaises,”

University of California Publications in Modern Philosophy , IV,

Oct. 18, 1916; W. L. Leighton, French Philosophers and N.E. Tran¬

scendentalism, Charlottesville, Va., 1908; H. M. Jones, America and

French Culture, Chapel Hill, N. C., 192,7, pp. 464-67 and passim.)

194. W. H. Prescott, “English Literature of the Nineteenth Cen¬

tury,” XXXV, 165-195 (July, 1832).

Prescott’s most important essay. Refuses to discuss whether

Pope was a poet or not; his poetry was that “of philosophy, criti¬

cism, and satire” (167). Dislikes Dr. Johnson as “equally destitute

of imagination and taste” (170). The 18th century was a time of

“sluggish calm in which the minds of men seemed to repose”; the

American and French Revolutions were tempests “which are occa¬

sionally sent to clear the moral atmosphere, and renovate the face

of society” (170-1). Cowper is “the morning star of our modern

poetry” but the three great modern poets are Scott, Wordsworth, and

Byron; Scott is the poet of the long-neglected English minstrelsy;

Wordsworth, the poet who attempts to “reconcile man with himself

and his destiny” (thinks Wordsworth’s muse was shipwrecked by

his theory of low and rustic life) ; and Byron, the poet of the pas-

842 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts and Letters

sions (178). Modern criticism: criticism can almost be “reckoned

an invention” like creative literature; critical journals have replaced

the old periodical essays, but the two great English journals follow

rather than guide “public opinion” (188). Thinks criticism has had

a salutary effect in America (184). Notes that the novel has re¬

placed the drama: the “novel of character is only a development of

the drama in a more expanded form,” and is better suited to the

“practical, business-like spirit of the times,” the need for “accurate

and philosophic analysis of character,” and the “ habits of reading”

acquired by the public (186). Prefers Scott to Fielding and Smollett,

but the “utility” of Miss Edgeworth’s novels is most “characteristic

... of the present age” (187-8). Literary prospects of America:

competition with England has stinulated us and foreign importations

have raised our capacity for literature. But ends with an assertion

of our literary independence : American literature must “spring

from native seed” and the poet “must study the volume which nature

herself has unrolled before him” (194-5).

195. Alexander H. Everett, “Irving's Alhambra/' XXXV, 265-

282 (Oct., 1832).

Praises Irving’s style but thinks that “high and deep things,

whether of philosophy or feeling, are in a great measure foreign to

him” (276). Welcomes the fact that Irving expects in the future to

live in America; “the time is not very distant” when the value of

domestic will greatly exceed that of foreign readers.

196. H. W. Longfellow, “History of the Italian Language and

Dialects," XXXV, 283-342 (Oct., 1832).

Discusses at great length the rise of Italian literature and the

leading characteristics of contemporary Italian dialects. Thinks

“the study of languages, philosophically pursued, to be one of the

most important which can occupy the human mind.” The elements

of language lie deep among the elements of thought and each follows

the changes in the other closely ; therefore, “the language of a nation

is the external symbol of its character and its mind” (283). Dante,

Petrarch, and Boccaccio were giants who fixed “the uncertain foun¬

dations of their nationai language and literature.” It is always the

“high prerogative of genius to give transcendent value to whatever

it touches” (295).

1833

197. W. B. 0. Peabody, “Lord Byron’s Conversations on Re¬

ligion,” XXXVI, 152-188 (Jan., 1833) .

Byron “was entirely destitute of what is called character, — that

is, of all fixed principles of thought and action.” One of the. won¬

ders of his poetical power is that it “could sustain itself in its

flights upon its light and inconstant wing” (153).

198. 0. W. Bw Peabody, “Sir Walter Scott," XXXVI, 289-315

(April, 1833).

Scott is free of the “moral disease, which very frequently be¬

sets superior genius”; “excessive sensibility” was never designed

for the soul. Scott is the great reformer in poetry and romance.

The clarity of his mind set forth everything in the broad light of

Clark— Criticism in North American Revieiv

343

truth. “Men saw, that he had led them back to Nature” (2,92-3),

from the paralysis of the 18th century (302). Scott’s novels sup¬

plied what those of Richardson, Fielding, and Smollett lacked (307).

Scott is far above all contemporary writers ; in the “whole literature

of England” Shakespeare is the only one to whom he can be com¬

pared (312).

199. H. W. Longfellow, “Spanish Language and Literature/’

XXXVI, 316-344 (April, 1833).

A companion essay to his studies on the Italian and French

languages (see nos. 196 and 181 above). Mainly philology.

200. Mme. C. de la Barca, “Madame de Stael,” XXXVII, 1-20

(July, 1833).

“Time is the touchstone of genius” ; the “public voice never fails

to become correct in its judgments” when freed from prejudice and

adulation (2). Compares the Germans to the French of Madame de

Stacks time; “while the French materialized mind, they spiritual¬

ized matter.” Thus, while “one of these schools of philosophy ren¬

ders us unworthy of heaven, the other unfits us for earth. But the

German philosophy at least is the faithful ally of religion” (14).

Likes Madame de Stael’s distinction between religion and enthusiam,

but there is no longer any need to fear enthusiasm. “The day of

romance has long since gone by. That of machinery has succeeded”

(17).

201. G. Mellen, “Works of Mrs. Child,” XXXVII, 138-164 (July,

1833).

She has written the best and most useful books (138). Says he

is a stern unbeliever “in Indian tales. We are tired of them” (139).

Favors the education of women as giving the life of “man its moral

tone” (144). Favors literature with a moral purpose from which

morals can be as easily “deduced, as laid down ” (163). High hope

for the future of American literature; “Genius is not slumbering in

our land” (163).

202. A. S. Packard, “Homer,” XXXVII, 340-374 (Oct., 1833).

We see in Homer the “true test of transcendent genius.” Hails

the classical editions of the American press “as indicating the com¬

mencement of a new era in the classical literature of our country”

(374).

203. H. W. Longfellow, “Old English Romances,” XXXVII, 374-

419 (Oct., 1833).

Says the 17th century prose writers are “rare models of that

direct and forcible style which has its origin in direct and forcible

thinking” (375). Praises the “land of old romance” (378). Fiction

vs. truth: “Men do net love truth less, in seeming to love fiction

more”; they love fiction because it “resembles truth” (380). It sat¬

isfies the desire for “intellectual excitement” (381).

204. Alexander H. Everett, “Fidler’s Observations on the U. S.,”

XXXVII, 273-314 (Oct., 1833).

A defense of American character against an unjust attack. Says

that the Americans are more English than the English themselves.

344 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts and Letters

Americans display the same qualities of the common stock “in a

fuller state of development” ; and the main one is “a bold and lofty

spirit of independence” (308).

205. W. B. 0. Peabody, “Miss Leslie’s Pencil Sketches,”

XXXVII, 466-494 (Oct., 1833).

Attacks romantic melancholy, primitivism, and misanthropy.

Only he who gives kind representations and inspires kind feelings

can be called a “philosophical historian of the universal human

heart” (470).

206. Mme. C. de la Barca, “Dante,” XXXVII, 506-536 (Oct.,

1833) .

Looks unfavorably on the Middle Ages; it was an age of “bar¬

barism, wilder and more ferocious than that of the earliest ages of

Greece.” No period “could be less favorable to genius” (507). Dante

arose in spite of the time. His example shows that misfortune “is

the best school for genius” (511). Science is injurious to art: “In

proportion as knowledge is more generally diffused, the imagination

becomes less susceptible, and it would seem that as science advances

art recedes” (536). (Compare Macaulay’s development of the same

thesis in his essay on Milton, 1825) .

1834

207. A. P. Peabody, “Life of Cowper,” XXXVIII, 1-32 (Jan.,

1834) .

Favorable to Cowper; points to “the healthy action of his pow¬

erful intellect and the daily beauty of his unclouded life” (19). His

change “in the style of English versification, though it seemed wild

and lawless at the time, was a great improvement ... on the arti¬

ficial elegance in the measure of Pope” (27). Praises the humani-

tarianism of The Task ; it opened the eyes of thousands to “tradi¬

tional abuses” (29). There is no danger, as many claim, that poetry

is in danger of disappearing; we merely live in an age following

“a period of great intellectual excitement.” We want someone with

“the spirit and power of Cowper” to speak in a voice which “shall

compel the world to listen” and in a voice, too, that “religion and

virtue, as well as literary taste, can hear with applause”. We are

“confident that such an one will appear” (32).

208. A. H. Everett, “Early Literature of Modern Europe,”

XXXVIII, 158-177 (Jan., 1834).

Literature is the expression of the social and political condition

of a nation itself, but it is still an open matter whether learning and

the arts flourish better under liberal or despotic governments (159).

Thinks Italian literature is first in value and that England, France,

and Germany rival her only in history and moral philosophy (165).

Dislikes the allegory of Spencer; “in the Faerie Queene . . . the

observations of the author upon actual life (for to this, after all,

the substance of poetry reduces itself) became unintelligible, and

lose their effect in consequence of the precise circumstance by which

he probably intended to heighten it, of their being wrapped up in

a cloud of allegory” (171). This accounts for the superiority of

Shakespeare and Scott (171-2). Everett is a romanticist; the influ-

Clark — Criticism in North American Review

345

ence of French poetry on English poetry “gave it, for at least a

century, a new and false direction” (176). With the romantic move¬

ment “the slumbering genius of the country” awoke and “having

taken in the main a right direction, promises to pursue a long and

successful career on both sides of the Atlantic” (176).

209. Alexander H. Everett, “Men and Manners in America by

T. Hamilton,” XXXVIII, 210-270 (Jan., 1834).

A refutation of an unjust and indiscriminate attack on America.

One section is in defense of New England. Everett claims that “in¬

tellectual eminence” accompanied by “high moral qualities” operates

to the highest good of a community (241).

210. E. Wrigglesworth, “Navarrete’s Life of Cervantes,”

XXXVIII, 277-307 (April, 1834).

A summary with translated excerpts from the untranslated life

by Navarrete.

211. Alexander H. Everett, “Early Literature of France,”

XXXVIII, 358-381 (April, 1834).

A review of M. Villemain’s Cours de Litterature Frangaise

(1828), discussing general characteristics of the period. No “arti¬

ficial encouragement can ever create genius,” but thinks the patron¬

age of Louis XIV “had a considerable effect in producing the French

school of literature” (381).

212. Francis Parkman, Sr., “Memoir of John Cotton, by John

Norton,” XXXVIII, 486-501 (April, 1834).

Expresses the kind of sympathy for the early Puritans that was

soon to be expressed by Emerson, Thoreau, Lowell, and others.

Cotton was one of “eminent men of his time” (492). Praises his

political liberalism; thinks the mingling of the politician with the

pastor was entirely in harmony with the spirit of the time and the

needs of the people (496-7). High praise for the “sound learning”

of the ministry and for “the martyr-like spirit” of the Pilgrim

Fathers. “Their history is one of continually fresh, as it is of ex¬

haustless interest” (500).

213. G. H. Calvert, “Life of Schiller,” XXXIX, 1-30 (July,

1834).

Though romantic in theory, Calvert refuses to recognize any

transcendental element in poetry. Kant is a “metaphysical illusion”

(18) ; it is a mistake “to regard genius and common sense as incom¬

patible.” Genius is only the “original intensity of power in a mental

faculty” and intuition is only the extra-efficiency of common sense

(1-2). Poetical genius is “intense susceptibility to the beautiful”;

all men possess it but “the degree in which it is possessed distin¬

guishes the poet” (2). Besides this poetical superiority the poet

must “perceive more vividly and feel more acutely than common

men. Then will his mind spontaneously pour out its materials” (3).

He also must be rich in knowledge and skilled in the uses of it by

action; or, in other words, “to give life and substance to his poetry,

the poet must be and do as other men: the man is the basis of the

poet” (4).

346 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts and Letters

214. A. Urquhart, “Roman Literature/’ XXXIX, 57-68 (July,

1834).

Hails the “daily extending progress of sound classical informa¬

tion.” The study of Roman literature not only leads to good taste

(for it has models of “all that is elegant in expression and lofty in

sentiment”), but also to the “practical exercise of the moral powers”

(58-9). The latter will result from their “sublime and disinterested

tone of national character” (60) and their “severe adherence to the

strictest rules of discipline and personal restraint” (61). The effects

of these will lead to “the ascending progress of masculine literary

refinement” (62).

215. 0. W. B. Peabody, “Life and Writings of Crabbe by his

son,” XXXIX, 135-166 (July, 1834).

Takes the middle of the road in regard to Crabbe’s realism:

“Life is a sphere, of which the pastoral poets saw only the brilliant

side, while Crabbe . . . was familiar only with the dark one. . . .

We doubt whether either can produce a happy moral influence”

(147). However, he praises Crabbe as a moralist and reformer,

and especially for accurately “copying from nature” and drawing his

themes from common life. There is much that is unpoetical in com¬

mon life, but the materials of poetry are “more abundant in a

lowly, than in an elevated sphere; for feeling is there unfettered by

those conventional restraints, which operate like a law on natural

freedom” (154).

216. W. B. 0. Peabody, “Helen by M. Edgeworth,” XXXIX, 167-

200 (July, 1834).

An excessively favorable review. The high moral character of

this writer and Scott “is indeed a blessing to the world” (167).

Delivers a violent attack on the immorality of Disraeli’s Vivian Grey

(168).

217. Mme. C. de la Barca, “The Italian Drama,” XXXIX, 329-

370 (Oct., 1834).

Attacks modern literature for separating “the useful from the

beautiful.” The art of the Greeks on the other hand was “employed

with a moral and political view” (330). Praises Greek drama very

highly; quotes the German critic, Schlegel. The point of the essay

seems to be that Italian drama has the opportunity to become the

logical successor of Greek drama.

218. R. C. Waterston, “Coleridge’s Poems,” XXXIX, 437-458

(Oct., 1834).

Highly favorable. The characteristics of Coleridge’s poetry are

versatility, inimitable mastery of language, condensation, originality,

picturesqueness, graphic delineation, and distinct and vivid descrip¬

tion. His poetry draws not mere pictures, but embodies also the

indwelling life; it is filled with universal benevolence and a deep

religious spirit (441-2). The first law of the mind is to conceive, to

form images, to create. The second great law is association (452).

Love is the great principle of the moral universe: God is love; the

mind of man is a portion of the universe; and love is the connecting

link between (452). Coleridge saved mindkind from materialism.

Clark — Criticism in North American Review

347

His works are “universal” and belong “to all men of all ages”. [One

of the best critical essays on poetry to date in the Review.']

1835

G. W. Green, “Petrarch,” XL, 1-26 (Jan., 1835).

A good essay favorable to Petrareh; analyzes the poems and

translates illustrative excerpts. Greene is a romanticist; it is “use¬

less to scan the poetry of passion with the cold eye of unimpassioned

reason. Our moments of truest poetic feeling are those of deepest

excitement”; an excitement which “speaks in low tones to the softer

senses of our nature, and stirs with a gentle touch the deep sources

of passion.” And the language of this excitement “flows naturally

and freely from the depths of the soul” (17).

P. Benjamin, “Sheridan Knowles,” XL, 141-150 (Jan.,

1835).

A favorable review. Laments the blindness and insensibility of

men to contemporary genius.

W. B. 0. Peabody, “Life and Correspondence of Hannah

More,” XL, 151-170 (Jan., 1835).

A favorable review showing a wide knowledge of 18th century

writers. High praise for her religious and reforming zeal. Attacks

the 18th century idea that education is “cultivation of the intellect

alone”; the same idea exists today in the idea that “knowledge of a

few sciences” will raise society (164). Tone is however favorable

to the 18th century.

Alexander H. Everett, “Character of Jefferson,” XL, 170-

232 (Jan., 1835).

Everett is defending the character of Jefferson. The writer of

the work reviewed claimed that the French Revolution was a retro¬

gression in the general movement of reform in Western Europe and

that Jefferson’s support of it was likewise an indication of essential

evil. Everett disagrees; the genius of Reform “in his progress over

Europe and America, took three giant steps before he fixed his foot

at the fourth upon the firm foundation whence he was to shake the

world. These three steps were the Reformation and the British and

American revolutions. The French revolution was the fourth and

last” (189).

0. W. B. Peabody, “Calavar : or the Knight of the Con¬

quest; a Romance of Mexico,” XL, 232-259 (Jan., 1835).

The novel shows that “this hemisphere abounds in materials for

romance” (232). Thinks the greatest reward for ambition in Amer¬

ica lies in “doing, for our own hemisphere and our own country, what

the mighty minstrel and novelist of Scotland has accomplished for

his own” (259). Likens artistic creation to a “chemical process” by

which the historical novelist gives “fulness of reality and truth” to

his work (255).

G. B. Cheever, “Coleridge,” XL, 299-351 (April, 1835).

A review of The Friend and one of the best essays in the North

American Review. Cheever is a thorough transcendentalist. De-

348 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts and Letters

fends the nobility of Coleridge’s character; it was ever his delight

to discover and “acknowledge ability and excellence in others” (301) .

The Biographia “will remain a master-piece of philosophical criti¬

cism, coeval with the English language” (307). Says that “ours is

an age of sense, in opposition to an age of spirit; an age of common

sense, in which all things and knowledges are sensualized to all. The

speculative reason is forgotten in the enthronement of the practical

understanding of man” (311). Coleridge rescues us from this by

directing all things “towards general principles” (310). Says that

“many of the ripest and most practical scholars, that ever lived,

have been |Pflatonists” (321). Thus maintains that essentially “Cole¬

ridge’s principles are clear” (322). True philosophy will simplify

all knowledge by submitting all to “one comprehensive idea” (328).

Coleridge’s philosophy does that; it asserts “the evil of permitting

the mere understanding to usurp the dominion of the pure reason”

(329). It is “the office of reason to behold absolute principles; and

spiritual intuitions are its vrorld of action, especially if it be at one

with faith. It is the office of the understanding to behold those prin¬

ciples acting in sense, and to follow them thus developed. The face

of reason is turned towards God and the spiritual world; the face of

the understanding points to the senses, and the world of material

existence” (333). And thus the system of Locke and other mechani¬

cal systems based only on understanding are erroneous (336). Ends

with high praise for Coleridge’s poetry “as a luminous commentary

on his philosophy” (343). “To Wordsworth and Coleridge, the latter

the greatest philosopher and highest poetical genius, the other the

most philosophic poet of modern times, the age is indebted in obliga¬

tions, which it is difficult adequately measure or acknowledge.

If to exert an almost magic power over minds of the noblest struc¬

ture, and brightest promise; if to turn the hearts of the young with

keen and animated gaze to the unveiled countenance of truth; if

to awaken and call forth their best energies of intellect; if to form

thm to habits of thought and meditation if to rescue them from the

baneful influence of that materialism, which has lain with a weight

like death upon universal science ... if to direct and reprove the

usurpations of the understanding; if to lead them to the contempla¬

tion of law in nature, and to the insight of principles in their own

being, and to a reverential acknowledgement of the universal pres¬

ence of the dread ground of all being; — if all this can constitute a

claim to admiration and love, surely these venerable men may de¬

mand it.”

(Note that this keen recognition of

the merits of Transcendentalism appeared a year before Emerson’s

Nature).

225. G. H. Devereux, “The Last Days of Pompeii,” XL, 447-457

(April, 1835).

Favorable to Bulwer. Says there is “something in the idea of

antiquity which fastens deeply upon human sympathies” (447).

Thinks that authors should be “careful to set the mark upon every

exhibition of erroneous and ill regulated feeling of guileful and

specious reasoning”, for “vice will double its evil effects, by losing

all its grossness” (454-5). Says it is the fashion to underrate the

moderns writers by comparing them to the Queen Anne writers. Does

not believe the moderns are “inferior”; it is merely that a great

change has come in the last fifty years. “Thought is now become

introspective and inculcates common truths, more through the tastes

Clark— Criticism in North American Review

349

and passions and sentiments, than in moral points and antithetic

dogmas” (457).

226. Edward Everett, “A Tour on the Prairies,” XLI, 1-28

(July, 1835).

The review gives Everett the opportunity to assert the intellec¬

tual independence of America. Irving is “the best living writer of

English” (1) ; says he desires to “make a national matter of our

countryman’s merit” (2). Everett maintains the power of literary

creation comes entirely “from within” (12) ; hence all surroundings

“ equally serve the purpose of the man of genius” (13). Thus he

comes to the assertion that he hopes “for nothing so ardently, as that

the literature of the country should be the indigenous growth of the

soil; indigenous in its topics, associations and spirit. — not for patri¬

otic reasons merely, but on principles of art and taste” (14).

227. C. C. Felton, “Dunlap's History of the Arts,” XLI, 146-170

(July, 1835).

At one point discusses the present “state of American art” (169)

We have many earnest devotees, some artists of exalted genius, sev¬

eral academies and frequent exhibitions, and an admiring public.

“But it must be confessed, that a large proportion of the works of

our artists, like a majority of our literary productions, are of an

ephemeral character.” Our artists are not willing enough to make

“a laborious study of the principles which lie at the foundation of

all art ... by careful literary culture” (169-70).

228. H. R. Cleveland, “Classic Mythology,” XLI, 327-348 (Oct.,

1835).

Maintains that the study of mythology is very important. It is

“the key to ancient art”, particularly to “the spirit of ancient art”

(340-1). Of more importance is “the connexion of the mythology

with classic literature” (341) ; it explains much of the difference

between ancient and modern tragedy. But chiefly it helps make

“known to us our own nature” (346).

229. Edward Everett, “Dr. Channing,” XLI, 366-406 (Oct.,

1835).

Says that the works of Irving and Channing are the proper

answer to Sydney Smith’s question, “who reads an American book?”

(366). They are “not excelled in their respective departments by

any living English or American writers” (370). Says Coleridge is

hailed, “especially on this side of the Atlantic,” as the greatest man

of the age; thinks he has very slender claims to such distinction.

The corner-stone of his system is a “supposed distinction between

Reason and Understanding . . . which we consider as wholly imagi¬

nary” (371) ; he got all his ideas from Germany and Kant and is

not original. Carlyle is “the most profound and original of the living

English philosophical writers” (372).

230. W. B. O. Peabody, “Mrs. Sigourney and Miss Gould,” XLI,

430-454 (Oct., 1835).

A ministerial eulogy of what female writers are doing for the

morality and virtue of the human race.

350 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts and Letters

231. Alexander H. Everett, “Thomas Carlyle,” XLI, 454-482

(Oct., 1835).

A favorable review summarizing Sartor Resartus in its first

English periodical form. The book “contains, under a quaint and

singular form, a great deal of deep thought, sound principle, and

fine writing” (481). It will be recalled that Emerson was to see an

edition of Sartor (the first edition in book form) through the Boston

press in 1836, reading proof sheets while at work on his own Nature.

For an acute study of Emerson’s debt to Carlyle see F. T. Thompson’s

Emerson and Carlyle,” Studies in Philology, XXIV, 438-53 (July,

1927.)

It is a pleasure to acknowledge gratefully that this work was

supported in part by a grant from the Research Fund of the Uni¬

versity of Wisconsin.

ALKALINE FLOODING WATER IN

CRANBERRY GROWING

N. E. Stevens, L. M. Rogers, and H. F. Bain

i

Introduction

For the past fifteen years the Wisconsin Department of Agri¬

culture and Markets has maintained a field investigator1 who

specialized in cranberry problems. Although the work was de¬

voted chiefly to the control of insects and diseases of the cran¬

berry, the nature of the industry and the interests of the grow¬

ers made it inevitable that some attention should be given to

many phases indirectly related to the main problem. The pres¬

ent paper discusses one of these, the apparent relation between

the use of alkaline flooding water and certain cultural problems.

In view of the importance of the subject and the fact that there

is little prospect of the relationship being experimentally studied

within a reasonable time, it seems desirable to record our opin¬

ions and the evidence on which they are based in order that they

may be available to cranberry growers and to later investigators.

We fully realize that experimental work may invalidate some or

all of our conclusions and regret our inability to carry out such

experimental work ourselves.

Until such experiments are made, however, we are strongly

of the opinion that anyone considering the development of new

cranberry marshes will do well to have the water analyzed and

not undertake development if it shows a pH much above 7 or

more than 25 parts per million of bound carbon dioxide.

In response to the natural question as to why the relation

between cultural problems and the alkalinity of flooding water

has not been noted by other investigators if it is as important as

the writers believe, it is necessary only to point out that the

greater amount of the investigation of cranberry problems has

been done in the eastern states, particularly in Massachusetts,

and that nowhere in Massachuetts or New Jersey, or on Long

1 Bain, 1926-28; Rogers, 1929-36; Stevens, 1937-40.

351

352 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts and Letters

Island, New York, has any cranberry property been found which

uses even slightly alkaline water.

It is our conviction that the use of alkaline water in flooding

cranberry marshes greatly increases the difficulties of producing

profitable crops of berries.

That the difficulties tend to become greater as the alkalinity

of the water is higher.

That the effects are, to a certain extent, cumulative, being

more evident and more serious in older marshes, after alkaline

water as been used for a number of years.

That the effects of alkaline water are evidenced in some or ail

of the following ways.

Different and sometimes more serious weeds.

Excess vine growth.

Overgrowth and absorption of flower buds.

Excess leaf drop, not fully controllable by

known methods.

Abnormally small crops over a period of years.

That when a certain degree of alkalinity is passed, profitable

cultivation of cranberries over a long period becomes impossible

by any methods now known.

These opinions rest on our study of the history of the cran¬

berry industry in Wisconsin and on the known record and pres¬

ent condition of certain marshes in that state. They can thus be

defended only by stating the evidence, as we understand it, in

some detail.

The Importance op Water in Cranberry Culture

As is well known to all interested in the industry, flowage

water in large amounts is essential to intensive cranberry cul¬

ture by modern methods. As pointed out by Bain (2 p.12), the

severe climate of Wisconsin has resulted in marsh construction

being dominated by the water systems. In 1929 he found that

in the Cranmoor district there were on the average 7 acres of

reservoir to one acre of vines, a ratio considered fairly typical

of conditions throughout the state. However, this extensive de¬

velopment of flooding systems is relatively recent.

a Bain, H. F. Cranberry Industry in Wisconsin.

Wis. Dept, of Agriculture, Bulletin 96: 1-15. 1929.

Stevens , et al — Flooding Water in Cranberry Growing 353

Sources of Flooding Water

At the time of the survey on which the 1929 publication was

based, only 8 Wisconsin marshes obtained water directly from

streams or natural lakes. This number has been increased some¬

what since that time, but flooding water for cranberry marshes

in Wisconsin still comes predominantly from artificial reser¬

voirs, many of which are, of course, fed to some extent from

streams.

Comparison of the sketch map3 of the larger Wisconsin lakes

with the map2 of the locations of cultivated cranberry marshes,

shows how small a part of the cultivated cranberry acreage is to

be found in the great lake districts of the state.

The foregoing should not be interpreted as meaning that

lakes should be considered as a unit as regards their suitability

for flooding cranberry marshes. Actually, as the careful work

of various Wisconsin agencies has demonstrated, they show a

wide variation in many respects. As regards alkalinity, the

characteristic discussed in this paper, lakes within the state

differ very widely. Each lake should, therefore, be tested and

studied separately, but certain general statements may be made

which are of interest in connection with the history of the cran¬

berry industry in Wisconsin. Birge and Juday (3 p.76) state

that all of the lakes in the southeastern part of the state, except

Devil's Lake, have very hard water, ranging from an average of

about 60 to nearly 100 parts per million bound carbon dioxide.

The lakes in northeastern Wisconsin show a wide variation in

hardness, but Juday, Birge, and Meloche4 point out a distinction

which may be of considerable practical usefulness in cranberry

culture. They distinguish between seepage lakes and drainage

lakes. By seepage lakes they mean those lakes which do not

have an inlet or an outlet. They receive water through precipi¬

tation on their surface and from the surface drainage of limited

basins. Any gain or loss to the ground water takes place through

the process of seepage ; hence they have been designated as seep¬

age lakes. In general seepage lakes are characterized by very

soft water (4 p.5). Those bodies of water which have temporary

3 Birge, E. A. and Chancey Juday. “The Inland Lakes of Wisconsin” Wisconsin Geo¬

logical & Natural History Survey. Bui. 22. 1911.

4 Juday, C., E. A. Birge, and V. W. Melche. “The Carbon Dioxide and hydrogen ion

content of the lake waters of Northeastern Wisconsin”. Trans. Wis. Acad. Sci. 29: 1-82.

1935

354 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts and Letters

or permanent outlets have been called drainage lakes. Some of

them show characteristics much like those of the seepage lakes

because they have no inlets and their outlets possess water only

for a brief period each year and sometimes only at intervals of

several years.

Types of Water and Their Distribution

Wherever possible throughout this paper we have expressed

the condition of the water used on the various marshes in two

ways — pH (hydrogen-ion concentration) and in parts per mil¬

lion of bound carbon dioxide. It is possible that if we understood

conditions better some other measurable character such as mg.

of calcium per liter might more accurately express the differ¬

ences from the point of view of cranberry culture. pH is, how¬

ever, generally used in describing the acidity of agricultural

soils, and the Wisconsin Geological and Natural History Survey,

the Wisconsin State Planning Board and at least some units of

the Federal Bureau of Agricultural Economics, all express hard¬

ness of water in parts per million of bound carbon dioxide. The

following table is that used by Professor Juday to indicate the

“nature” of the water in relation to its bound carbon dioxide

content.

0- 5 parts per million of bound carbon dioxide yields

a very soft water (V.S.)

5-10 parts per million of bound carbon dioxide yields

a soft water (S.)

10-20 parts per million of bound carbon dioxide yields

a medium water (M.)

20-30 parts per million of bound carbon dioxide yields

a medium hard water (M.H.)

Over 30 parts per million of bound carbon dioxide

yields a hard water (H.)

There is, of course, some relation between the pH (hydrogen-

ion concentration) and the bound carbon dioxide content. On

the basis of observations made in 499 Wisconsin lakes, the writ¬

ers already quoted4 found that in drainage lakes (those which

have an outlet) the neutral points in the pH scale, 7.0, often

comes at or near the dividing line between soft and medium

Stevens , et al — Flooding Water in Cranberry Growing 355

water, i.e., at about 10 parts per million of bound carbon dioxide.

Our own rather limited observations indicate that water in cran¬

berry reservoirs may sometimes have a considerably higher

bound carbon dioxide content, with a pH close to 7.0.

The pH of lake water varies from time to time. In a study

of the pH of surface samples from 245 Wisconsin lakes in dif¬

ferent years, Juday, Birge, and Meloche (4 p.49) found that in

222 of them, or 90 per cent of the total number, the difference

did not exceed 1.4 pH units in the various years, but in six lakes

the annual difference exceeded 2 pH units. They also report

(4 p.50) that in certain lakes the summer pH was lower than

that of the spring, in others the pH of samples taken in summer

was higher than that of those taken in the spring, while in 9

cases the spring and summer readings were the same. There

was even a difference between readings taken in a single lake on

the same day. For example, they note that at Trout Lake on

August 15, 1933, the readings taken during the daytime fell

between 7.5 and 7.7, but were somewhat lower in the evening,

or pH 7.2 to 7.3. Likewise the differences between surface and

bottom waters varied from zero to 2.6 units.

Annual variations in bound carbon dioxide were small in

seepage lakes whereas in the drainage lakes they varied from

less than 2 to as much as 8.5 parts per million (4 p.65). The

differences between the bound carbon dioxide content of surface

and bottom waters varied from zero to 13.3 parts per million.

Bound carbon dioxide thus constitutes a somewhat less variable

characteristic by which differences may be measured, but from

the above information it is evident that a cranberry grower who

is interested in obtaining reliable information regarding the

nature of his water supply should not be satisfied with a single

test if he finds the water near the border line, but should obtain

a series of readings at intervals. In general, however, fluctua¬

tions are least in early spring and late fall, which are thus the

most favorable times for comparing one water source with an¬

other.

The water used in flooding Wisconsin cranberry marshes

ranges from pH 5.2 to pH 8.6, and from less than 8 to more than

60 parts per million of bound carbon dioxide. The greater num¬

ber of marshes, more than 50 of them, are found in the group

having water with pH 7 or less, that is neutral or somewhat acid

356 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts and Letters

water. This includes all those in the Mather and Cranmoor dis¬

tricts, as well as a number of those in the northern part of the

state.

There is a small number of marshes in the northern part of

the state with flooding water from 7.2 to almost 8.2, and a still

smaller group, chiefly in the southeastern quarter of the state,

with flooding water which at times may test as high as pH 8.4

or even pH 8.6.

Specific Cultural Problems Possibly Related to the Use of

Alkaline Water

The following observations relate specifically to the three or

four marshes in the state which are known to have flooding

water which sometimes tests as alkaline as pH 8.4 or 8.6. These

marshes have been observed closely over a period of ten or twelve

years and have never during this time produced a really satis¬

factory crop of fruit, even though they have had adequate frost

protection and no unusual losses from insects and disease. As

already stated, we have no proof that this condition is due to the

alkalinity of the flooding water, but there are certain pathologi¬

cal conditions which are observed on these marshes, not often

found on those with acid water.

In general, the effect one gets from observing such a marsh

is that the vines are constantly over-fertilized and over-stimu¬

lated. Vegetative growth is much too abundant and many of the

berries actually produced are abnormally large. Growth in the

spring is unusually vigorous and rapid and is frequently associ¬

ated with a condition that we have come to call 'flower bud ab¬

sorption'. This is a condition in which uprights develop from

fruit buds on which the blossom buds have aborted and fail to

grow away from enclosing bud scales, although growth of the

upright proceeds normally in other respects. The general ap¬

pearance suggests frost injury, but repeated observations have

convinced us it is not due to frost in these cases and may be asso¬

ciated with water. At any rate, this condition is much more

common on marshes with alkaline water.

On such marshes in the fall fruit buds tend to overgrow, that

is, develop beyond the point normal for the resting period, and

are thus more subject to injury, frequently to complete killing,

during the winter submergence. In addition to this killing of

Stevens , et al— Flooding Water in Cranberry Growing 357

flower buds, other types of winter injury, the wellknown leaf

drop' and even death of vines is more common and more difficult

to control on marshes having extremely alkaline water.

Whether the abnormalities noted are due to alkaline water

or soil is, of course, not proved, but they are certainly associated

with it. One theory is that they are, at least in part, the result

of excess nitrogen due to the action of bacteria which grow best

in alkaline soil. Weed problems appear to be somewhat differ¬

ent and indeed to be somewhat aggravated on these marshes

with alkaline water as compared to the usual marsh. Some

species of weeds not serious on the more acid marshes cause

difficulty on them, and in addition they have their share of many

troublesome cranberry weed species. The general impression

one gets here, as in the case of the cranberry vines themselves,

is that the soil is extremely fertile and favorable to plant growth.

While such extreme conditions as those noted above are not

to be found on marshes with slightly alkaline water (pH 7.2-

7.8), and some of these under good management produce good

crops and pay good dividends, the general management prob¬

lems seem to be aggravated even here.

History op the Industry of Relation to Flooding Water

In spite of some inevitable conflict in statements as to the

exact dates, areas and yields, it is possible from the publications

of the Wisconsin State Horticultural Society and the Wisconsin

Cranberry Growers Association to reconstruct a fairly consistent

and adequate history of the cranberry industry in the state.

Some knowledge of this history seems necessary to an under¬

standing of the general problem here discussed.

Unquestionaly cranberries were picked and sold in large

quantities from wild vines before there was any attempt at culti¬

vation. The earliest record of actual cultivation found thus far is

in connection with a paper on cranberry culture presented be¬

fore the Horticultural Society in 1876 by Mr. H. Floyd of Berlin.

In discussing this paper a Mr. Peffer is quoted (5 p.145) as say¬

ing that “he had cultivated cranberries since 1853 ; found that

they grew readily from cuttings, even on clay soil ; had found

difficulty in the frost heaving the ground and covering the vines

with muck where he scalped the marshes." How extensive Mr.

Peffer's plantings were is not known, but there is little doubt

358 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts and Letters

that the earliest general improvement of marshes was in the

region of which Berlin was the commercial and shipping center.

E. W. Daniels, writing in 1878 (5 p.140) states that in 1860 he

purchased land near Aurora ville for cranberry growing, but soon

abandoned it to the state. A few years later (1865 seems to be

the most probable date) H. S. Sackett purchased a tract of land

two miles from Berlin and built dams for flooding the marsh.

Sackett is reported to have had a very profitable crop in 1868

and the Carey Brothers a large and profitable one in 1872. The

earliest report (1878) of the 1872 crop states that it was over

6000 barrels for the Carey marsh itself and 14,400 for the Ber¬

lin area, with a maximum price in Berlin of $11.00 a barrel.

Later accounts naturally indicate a somewhat larger yield.

Independent accounts by Hitchcock in 1875 (p. 126-128) and

Daniels in 1878 (p. 140-143) are in substantial agreement that

there were in the Berlin area at this time over 1000 acres of

more or less improved marshes under the ownership of the

Careys, Sackett, Walters, Rounds, and Company, and Mason

(later Spencer) and others. These marshes, while containing

only wild vines, were not unimproved. Mr. Sackett had no canals

but held the water from rainfall and spring freshets. Rounds

and Company had 10 miles of ditches and Spencer 8 miles. The

Carey’s had “fifteen miles of ditch” and a canal one and one-

fourth miles long from their mill-pond6 at Auroraville built at a

cost of $7,800.

The importance of an adequate water supply and of adequate

control of the water for winter protection and insect control is

emphasized in detail by H. Floyd of Berlin 1876 (p. 64-68), and

C. S. Whittier of Camp Douglas in 1877 (p. 53-59).

It was undoubtedly the large profits made during the early

1870’s in the Berlin area that led to the expansion of the indus¬

try in Wisconsin and particularly to the establishment of marshes

in Wood County and the Mather- Warrens district, estimated in

1875 (p. 126) to comprise 2500 acres of newly improved

marshes. It is probably unnecessary to add that an acre of cran¬

berries at that time did not mean what it does today, but merely

wild vines with more or less improvement in the way of ditches

and dikes.

0 Throughout this portion of the paper, page references are to the publications of the

Wisconsin State Horticultural Society for the years indicated.

Stevens , et al — Flooding Water in Cranberry Growing 359

The present importance of the Wood County and the Mather-

War rens Districts in Wisconsin is evident from the fact that

they still comprise 75 per cent of the total acreage. Here are

located most of the oldest marshes in the state, many of them in

successful operation under the direct descendants of the men

who first improved them.

In the Berlin area, on the other hand, at the present time

there is but one commercial marsh. The decline of the Berlin

area has, of course, not been continuous. There were some good

crops in this area within the last thirty-five years.

While there may be many factors concerned with the decline

of cranberry growing in the Berlin area and its persistence on a

profitable basis in Wood, Juneau, and Monroe counties, in spite

of such hazards as the drought and fires of 1894 and 1895, and

the great drought and winter killing of 1932 and 1934, it is cer¬

tainly true that the water used in constantly increasing amounts

to supplement that held from the rain came in Wood County and

those west and south from such streams as Hemlock Creek, the

Lemon weir River and later from the Wisconsin River, all some¬

what acid, whereas the sources of flooding water in Waushara

county, such as the Fox River and Willow Creek, are decidedly

alkaline.

It seems highly probable that a casual relation exists between

the type of flooding water used and the success of the industry

in the Wood County area, and its decline in the Berlin area. It

is not, however, necessary to assume such a relation in order to

recognize the possibility that present methods of cranberry cul¬

ture may be unsuited to marshes using alkaline water. Present

cultural methods have been developed from the experience of

growers in the areas longest occupied and it is a fact that during

the intensive development of the industry from 1900 until the

present time, the successful growers in the central area have

had no experience with the use of alkaline water in flooding.

Neither have those in Massachusetts or New Jersey since so far

as can be learned no alkaline water is used for flooding in either

of these states.

Naturally, the more widely scattered marshes in the northern

part of Wisconsin have yielded as yet much less information on

this problem. For one thing they are all young compared to

fl The water in this pond tests at various seasons from pH 7.6 to pH 8.6

360 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts and Letters

those further south, few if any are over 30 years old, and if alka¬

line flooding water has any effect, it is probably cumulative.

Moreover, they do not represent a single type of water, but a

wide range of types. It is, however, true that those northern

Wisconsin marshes, which during the past decade have proved

so outstandingly prolific, have used for flooding, water derived

from what Birge and Juday designate as “seepage lakes” char¬

acterized by very soft water.

Significance of the Above Observations

For the immediate future it seems clear that in planting

commercial cranberry marshes, those locations having only alka¬

line flooding water should be avoided. It is, of course, entirely

possible that the correlation above described is not casual. Yet

the chances of its being important are so great that it seems

unwise for any individual to risk the large investment usually

necessary for starting a new marsh in the face of this addi¬

tional possible handicap.

It is admitted that we have not even observational evidence

bearing on the question of the possibility of growing cranberries

with alkaline flooding water on the highly acid peat soil associ¬

ated with native stands of “brown bush” chamaedaphne calycu-

lata (L) Moench. The experiment might well succeed, at least

for a time, but on the other hand, might be expensive for any

individual to attempt. Obviously, when time and facilities can

be made available, this whole subject should be studied experi¬

mentally, though adequate experiments might take many years.

It is probably unnecessary to add that many factors other

than a suitable water supply must be considered in selecting a

suitable location for a cranberry marsh. This factor is empha¬

sized here because in the past it has been so largely neglected.

THE VEGETAL COVER OF THE DRIFTLESS CUESTAFORM HILL LAND:*

PRE-SETTLEMENT RECORD AND POSTGLACIAL

EVOLUTION

Glenn T. Trewartha

Department of Geography, University of Wisconsin

Pre-settlement Record

As the first white settlers found it, the flora of the Driftless

Hill Land, both in types of plants and in the patterns of their

distribution, showed predominantly the effects of Pleistocene

glaciation. Two of the major plant formations of North Amer¬

ica, the broadleaved or Alleghenian forest entering from the

southeast, and the prairie entering from the southwest, were

well represented, although the former was dominant. A third

type, the northern coniferous and mixed forest, occupied a much

smaller area and was concentrated along the northern and north¬

eastern margins. These three great plant formations are not

to be thought of as fitting together in the form of broad wedges

bounded by relatively simple lines. On the contrary their zones

of contact exhibit a complicated mosaic pattern with numerous

peninsulas and outliers.

The vegetation maps of the Driftless Hill Land (Figs. 2 and

3) have been constructed from data compiled from the notebooks

of the original government surveyors. For the region under

analysis these surveys varied in time from 1832 for southwest¬

ern Wisconsin to 1855 in parts of Minnesota and northwestern

Wisconsin. The source materials are available in the land offices

of the state capitols of the four states represented in the Drift¬

less Hill Land.

For each government township of 36 square miles the gov¬

ernment surveyor first established the four boundaries of the

* The region here designated as the Driftless Cuestaform Hill Land refers to that part of the

inner basin of the Upper Mississippi unmantled by recent till sheets, where the local relief usually

exceeds 250 feet. It is not identical with the well known Driftless Area although that region is

largely included within its borders (Fig. 1).

Aid in completing this study has been received from research assistants subsidized by the

University of Wisconsin, and from N. Y. A. students.

361

362 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts and Letters

land unit by a linear traverse of 24 miles around its perimeter.

This is known as the outer survey. Subsequently 60 miles of

linear traverse inside of the township established the boundaries

of the individual sections. For each mile of traverse, or one side

of a section, the surveyor entered at the end of his notes com¬

ments concerning the lay of the land and the nature of the vege¬

tation cover, even specifying the principal tree types, and often

indicating the density of stand. A synthesis of these, as well as

other data, was included in a colored sketch map of the town¬

ship prepared by the surveyor and included in his notebook.

When the notebooks were forwarded to the General Land Office

in Washington D. C. engineers there prepared from the field

notes township maps, scale two inches to a mile, on which certain

major vegetation boundaries were indicated. Volumes contain¬

ing copies of these original General Land Office plats are like¬

wise available at the state land offices.

To facilitate copying the information from the surveyors'

books, mimeographed work sheets were prepared each having

on it the outline and section grid of one civil township, scale one

inch to a mile. On the section lines of these sheets, by use of a

digit and letter system of recording, were placed the data on

native vegetation taken from the surveyors' notebooks and maps.

Significant summary remarks by the surveyor concerning vege¬

tation, surface configuration, settlements, etc., were noted on the

back of each sheet. In the digit-letter legend placed on a section

line, the first digit always indicated the primary form of vege¬

tation, viz., woodland, grassland, brush, and swamp. Succeeding

digits or letters represented particular species, usually trees,

within the primary formation. These were arranged in order of

importance. The completed work sheets were then fitted to¬

gether into county units and boundary lines drawn around areas

having similar vegetation characteristics. These areal subdivi¬

sions in simplified form and with slightly smoothed boundaries

were later transferred to a map of the Driftless Hill Land, scale

about 1/500, 000.1 Due to the fact that the different surveyors

were not equally proficient and careful in observing and record¬

ing the plant cover, the data for different townships are not of

3 Credit is due Robert Amaden, a graduate student in geography at the University of Wis¬

consin, for supervising the clerical work associated with collecting and plotting the data, and for

constructing the manuscript map for Fig. 1.

Trewartha— Vegetal Cover of Driftless Hill Land 363

uniform quality and therefore are not strictly comparable. This

fact is borne out by the discrepancies to be observed along the

margins of adjacent townships surveyed by different men.

An attempt was made to construct a map showing quanti¬

tatively by isarithms the dominance of particular tree species in

various parts of the Driftless Hill Land. Recordings were made

by quarter townships of the number of times particular trees

were mentioned by the surveyor, on the assumption that the

number of mentionings was directly proportional to the preva¬

lence of the tree. The technique was unsuccessful and had to be

abandoned, probably because the method required a degree of

accuracy not inherent in the data, or because the above assump¬

tion concerning relationship between tree numbers and mention¬

ings by the surveyor is incorrect. As finally developed the tech¬

nique employed was less strictly precise and did not lend itself

to drawing of isarithms, since numerical recordings were not

made by unit areas. Instead, boundary lines were drawn around

areas, irregular in outline and size, within which a certain com¬

bination of trees was dominant. Trees not mentioned on at least

one fourth of the section-line traverses were usually omitted.

The multitude of small areas representing slightly contrasting

associations of trees finally required a considerable amount of

combining and simplifying in the published map.

Fig. 2 showing distribution of the principal plant formations,

together with certain major types of forest, indicates that the

Driftless Hill Land is a part of the most northwestern extension

of the Alleghenian hardwood forest. The western margin of the

Driftless Hill Land’s rough terrain fairly well coincides with the

transition from hardwood forest on the east to prairie farther

west. Within the hardwood area proper the larger prairies

coincided with the crests of the broader rolling interfluves and

adjacent upper portions of the bordering river bluffs. The latter

sites have been facetiously labeled “goat prairies” by a botany

graduate student engaged in a field study of them. This coinci¬

dence of prairie with the more extensive upland surfaces is suf¬

ficient to explain the relatively higher percentage of grassland,

(1) south of the Wisconsin River, and (2) north of the Chip¬

pewa, in Wisconsin. On its northern and northeastern margins

the hardwood forest gradually gives way to a mixed forest in

364 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts and Letters

which conifers are prominent. This boundary as well is roughly

coincident with that of the Driftless Hill Land. On the north

the shift from hardwood to mixed coniferous-hardwood forest

would seem normal for the latitude and largely climatically in¬

duced. The eastern vegetation boundary appears to be edaphic

Trewartha — Vegetal Cover of Driftless Hill Land 365

in origin, conifers becoming more prominent on the sandy soils

of the Cambrian Plain. Extensive areas of brush, and smaller

ones of pure conifers, are conspicuous in the transition belt.

Figure 3 presents a more detailed analysis of woodland com¬

binations and their distribution, more especially the deciduous

forest. Within the hardwood forest the fact of oak dominance

is most striking. On over one half of the total hardwood area

oaks were the only trees mentioned by the surveyors. Where

other species were present oak usually remained the most promi¬

nent tree. Only on some of the more extensive river bottoms,

and in the oak-maple-linden-elm forest of Pierce, St. Croix, and

Dunn Counties did oak recede from first position and, very occa¬

sionally, drop out of the woodland combination completely. From

the standpoint of the vegetational history of the region it is very

noteworthy that so much of the oak area was described as thin

and scattered timber. Such a cover probably represented an

intermediate stage in the evolution from prairie to woodland or

vice versa. By some it was even spoken of as prairie rather than

woodland. Thus certain early settlers in the lead region south

of the Wisconsin River in Wisconsin and northwestern Illinois

described it more than a century ago as a prairie land of which

not more than one tenth was forested. Obviously much of the

area designated on Fig. 3 as thin and scattered oak was con¬

sidered by the settlers more prairie than forest.

Although the hardwood forest of the west central states is

often labeled oak-hickory, the latter tree was not conspicuous in

the Driftless Hill Land. Along the southern border of the re¬

gion, in Illinois, there was the most extensive area of oak-hickory

forest, and smaller scattered areas were present elsewhere.

Much more extensive were the areas in which maple,2 linden,

elm, aspen, and ash were prominent trees. One such large area

centered on Richland County, Wisconsin, just north of the Wis¬

consin River and extended out to the west, north, and east into

Crawford, Vernon, Monroe, Juneau and Sauk counties. In this

region, other than oak, sugar maple, linden, and elm were very

prominent. Since maple as well as sugar tree was mentioned by

the surveyors, one would infer that soft maple was likewise pres-

2 One cannot be certain at all times from the surveyors’ notes what is meant by maple. In

a large number of cases hard maple is designated as sugar tree, and where this is the case maple

is understood to mean soft maple. But there are good reasons for believing that the term maple

as recorded by some surveyors was used to include both the hard and soft varieties.

366 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts and Letters

ent. Somewhat isolated from the larger unit just described, was

a neighboring subarea located principally on the Baraboo quart¬

zite monadnock, within the Driftless Area, but extending up to

the Wisconsin end moraine.

Other relatively conspicuous centers of the above noted wood¬

land combination were in, (1) Clayton and Fayette counties,

Iowa, (2) northwestern Wisconsin in Pierce, eastern St. Croix,

and western Dunn and Pepin counties, (3) south central Grant

County, Wisconsin, and (4) Stephenson County, Illinois, and

adjacent southwestern Green County, Wisconsin. There were

other smaller widely scattered areas. In the northernmost of

the centers mentioned, maple, especially sugar maple, appears

to have been more prominent than oak. There is no striking

coincidence between the areas of maple-linden-elm prominence

and particular features of physical environment. The reasons

for these “islands” in the midst of what is largely an oak wood¬

land is not clear. It has been intimated that they may have been

relics of a more extensive forest that found refuge in the Drift¬

less Area during one or more of the periods of glacial advance.

It may or may not be significant that in Iowa and in Sauk County

(Wis.) the maple-linden-elm forest extended out to the Wiscon¬

sin moraine but not much, if any, beyond it.

A much less conspicuous hardwood combination was one in

which aspen was associated with oak either as the first or second

tree in importance. This type was usually in close juxtaposition

to another somewhat different combination in which elm was

either first or second in rank, with varying amounts of linden,

ash, maple, and aspen. Forests with such tree combinations had

principal centers in Wisconsin in (1) western Polk and adjacent

parts of St. Croix counties, (2) northwestern Buffalo county,

and (3) eastern Richland county.

Since the mixed hardwood-coniferous forest largely lay be¬

yond the borders of the Driftless Hill Land, less attention has

been given to its analysis. Assuming the surveyor’s observa¬

tions to be a correct representation of cover, the mixed forest

appears to have been composed of numerous contrasting com¬

binations of species, most of the combinations covering no very

extensive areas. With even the dominant trees varying within

relatively small areas, it is not easy to subdivide the mixed for-

Trewartha — Vegetal Cover of Driftless Hill Land 367

est into a relatively few groups each covering an area of some

magnitude. In part the numerous tree combinations reflect the

variety of regolith and drainage characteristics within the

mixed-forest area.

Bordering the deciduous forest on the north and northeast

in Barron, Polk, Chippewa, Eau Claire and Clark counties was

a mixed forest in which white pine, birch, maple and oak appear

to have been the dominant trees. Jack (black) pine, yellow

pine, tamarack, hemlock, linden and aspen appear however in a

variety of combinations. Within this forest it was the white

pine and hemlock that were the most desirable timber trees and

it was these that were early removed by the lumber companies.

Farther south in Jackson, Monroe, Juneau, and Adams counties

where the soils are more sandy, and extensive swamps preva¬

lent, the less valuable forest contained more scrub oak, jack pine,

and tamarack, although white pine remained one of the most

widely dispersed species.

In their broader patterns of distribution the major soil types

of the Driftless Hill Land, as recognized and mapped by the

United States Department of Agriculture, roughly coincide with

the principal vegetation and regolith combinations. Figure 4

was compiled chiefly from data in the state and federal county

soil bulletins. Because of the discordance between federal and

state soil terminology, harmonizing the published materials of

different dates from the two sources required considerable ad¬

justments and interpolations.

Postglacial Vegetation Changes in the Upper Mississippi

Valley — Great Lakes Region

The vegetal cover of a region is dynamic, not static. The

present-day distribution of floras depends not only upon the

contemporary physical environment, but upon their earlier de¬

velopmental history as well. Thus the pre-settlement vegetation

mantle of the Driftless Hill Land, as of every other region, was

the result of repeated advances and retreats of diverse floristic

elements induced by environmental change or representing nor¬

mal plant successions. The vegetation maps (Figs. 2 and 3)

therefore represent only one stage in a long developmental his¬

tory that is still continuing. In most instances, however, current

368 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts and Letters

advances and retreats of floras are too slow to permit of observ¬

ing them first hand, so that conclusions must be drawn from

historical and other indirect evidence. Three of the most valu¬

able types of contemporary evidence concerning vegetation mi¬

grations are: (1) the successional relations of the species near

the margins of their ranges, (2) the presence of relic species, or

relic plant colonies, in unique edaphic environments, and (3)

the floral stratigraphy and pollen profiles of peat bogs.

Up to the present time no comprehensive study of the vege-

tational history of the Driftless Area has been made and only

such a study will reveal whether, as some suggest, that region

may have been ecologically unique in the northern Middle West.

At no period of glacial advance was the Driftless Area an island

entirely surrounded by ice, and therefore completely cut off from

nonglacial regions farther to the south. Such isolation however

was practically complete during the Kansan stage of glaciation,

while during the Nebraskan and the first Wisconsin stages the

Driftless Area was the northern end of a bulbous peninsula

much constricted farther south. At other times of ice advance

it was part of a broader peninsula or deep enclave thrust into

the ice front. Not once, but several times, therefore, the Drift¬

less Area would appear to have experienced a type of peri-

glacial climate perhaps unique on this earth, and one in which

the degree of refrigeration seemingly should have been more

intense and long continued than in the broad unglaciated region

lying south of the general ice front. At the same time however

it at least was not overridden by ice with consequent annihila¬

tion of plant life, and so in spite of its refrigeration, may have

served as a temporary refuge for certain sorely pressed floral

types retreating before the advancing glaciers.

Such a region as the Driftless Hill Land permits of some inter¬

esting speculation relative to the effects of its marked periglacial

climates upon vegetational forms. Occasional and very inci¬

dental observations within the Driftless Area of loess resting

upon residual regolith with no intervening humus layer are sug¬

gestive. A careful and systematic study of a large numer of

loess profiles might yield significant information concerning the

character of interglacial, intraglacial, and postglacial climates

and floras. Fernald points out that the Driftless Area has a con-

DRIFTLESS HILL LAND

ORIGINAL NATIVE VEGETATION'

CONIFERS

MIXED WOODLAND

BRUSH

MARSH

! -j

NATIVE REGOLITH (Denominator)

In places additions of older drift, outwash, or loess

0 10 20 30 40 MILES

-43*

- 1_.

20 30 40 MILES

DRIFTLESS HILL LAND

HARDWOOD FOREST TYPES

OAK.MAPLE.LIN DEN.ELM

45°

OAK (Thin Stand)

OAK (Denser Stand)

OAK, ASPEN, LINDEN.ELM

OAK, HICKORY

RIVER BOTTOM WOODLAN )

(Oak,Elm,Soft Maple,Willow)

Ash

Trewartha— Vegetal Cover of Driftless Hill Land B69

siderable number of remarkable endemics and is a definite center

for plants of a limited range which were able to survive there

during Wisconsin glaciation, but after the last retreat of the ice

withdrew to more hospitable locations.3 Fassett has discovered

that within the Middle West a number of relics are confined to

the Driftless Area, while others less confined, center on it in a

significant manner.4 Thus the Aconite (Monkshood) of the

Middle West is isolated within the Driftless Area5 or close to its

margins and appears to have been saved from extermination by

the asylum offered during ice advance by this unglaciated spot.

Being conservative, the plant has not advanced any distance

into glaciated territory since the retreat of the ice. Miner's

Lettuce (Montia Chamissoi) grows only in our western moun¬

tains and on two hillsides of the Driftless Area. The Jack Oak

(Quercus ellipsiodalis) appears to have survived glaciation in

the Driftless Area and during post-Pleistocene times has spread

out from that center in all directions. This by no means ex¬

hausts the list of endemics but it at least suggests a line of evi¬

dence that appears somewhat contradictory to that suggested by

the loess profiles. Too little data are at hand however upon

which to make a judgement. A more thorough analysis of the

several kinds of evidence will be necessary in order to establish

the nature of the interglacial and post-glacial floras of this

unique region.

With the data that are available one can do little better than

assume that the Driftless Area experienced, in different degrees

perhaps, a great many of the large-scale vegetation changes

characteristic of the Upper Mississippi-Great Lakes region dur¬

ing post-Pleistocene times. As a general theory it is assumed

that with the advance of the continental ice climatic changes

were induced along its front that led tundra, conifers, and broad-

leaf forests to retreat ahead of it and then follow back in its

wake as it melted. What the specific changes of climate were

that produced continental glaciation, and in turn were generated

by it beyond the ice front, is not clear. There is some evidence

to show that the ice advanced over standing and probably living

3 Fernald, M. L. Persistence of Plants in Unglaciated Areas of Boreal North America,

Mem. Am. Acad. Arts and Sci. IS, 3, pp. 241-342 (317-318).

4 Fassett, Norman D. Man and the Wisconsin Flora, (unpublished manuscript, Madison,

1939).

5 See papers by Hansen; numbers 16, 17, 18 in bibliography.

370 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts and Letters

forests in which the annual rings showed a marked decrease in

rate of growth only during the last 12 years before death oc¬

curred.6 On the other hand in certain Florida peat bog deposits,

buried diatoms have been found that belong to a well known

group characteristic of bogs and glacial lakes in Canada, north¬

eastern United States, and northern Europe. Many of these

ancient forms at present occur no farther south than New Eng¬

land. By some paleo-eeologists this has been taken as indicating

that the diatoms were deposited during the climax of Wisconsin

glaciation, when the cooling effects of the ice were extended as

far south as Florida. Paleo-ecologists in Europe have evidence

that treeless tundra bordered the Riss (third glaciation) and

Wurm (fourth glaciation) ice in belts 100 to 450 kilometers

wide.7 It is difficult to understand how the northern one-half

to two-thirds of the North American continent could have been

covered with ice without producing a marked refrigerating

effect upon the lands to the south, and more especially upon such

an engulfed region as the Driftless Area. Still, the evidence is

not entirely corroborative and the whole problem of the climatic

effects of continental glaciation beyond the ice front warrants

a careful analysis of the numerous peat deposits south of glacial

limits.

Sears8 outlines four important stages through which hypoth¬

esis concerning post-glacial climates and vegetation changes

have passed :

1. Vegetation retreated southward before the advancing gla¬

ciers and later, with the melting of the ice, returned to a rela¬

tively stable equilibrium.

2. The Blytt-Sernander hypothesis assumed a series of cli¬

matic fluctuations involving both temperature and precipitation.

Five periods are recognized: pre-boreal, boreal, Atlantic, sub-

boreal, and sub-Atlantic, of which the first, second, and third are

continental or dry in character. The fourth or Atlantic period

was thought of as warm and humid and represented a climatic

optimum, while the sub-Atlantic period represented a return to

6 Wilson, L. R. The Two Creeks Forest Bed, Manitowoc, Wisconsin, Wis. Acad. Sci., Arts,

and Letters, 27, 1932, pp. 31-46.

. . . Further Fossil Studies of the Two Creeks Forest Bed, Manitowoc, Wisconsin, Bull. Torrey

Botan. Club, 63, June 1936, pp. 317-325.

7 Sears, Paul B. G’acial and Post-glacial Vegetation, Botan. Rec., I, 1935, pp. 37-51.

8 Op. cit, pp. 43-44.

Trewartha— Vegetal Cover of Driftless Hill Land 371

more humid conditions. In this country, Sears has been the

principal protagonist of the Blytt-Sernander hypothesis as ap¬

plied to conditions in North America.

3. The Anderson hypothesis denied the reality of the second

dry, or sub-boreal, period in the Blytt-Sernander scheme and

instead maintained that a gradual climatic deterioration, from

the Atlantic period down to the present time, has taken place.

4. According to Von Post three major subdivisions of post¬

glacial climate are to be recognized: (1) a period of increasing

warmth, (2) a period of maximum temperature, and (3) a pe¬

riod of decreasing temperature. Smaller fluctuations in one or

more of the climatic elements may have occurred within these

principal periods, but they are extremely difficult to recognize.

Sears, although not discarding the Blytt-Sernander hypothesis,

admits that this simpler one has considerable merit in that it is

broad enough to permit of modification and refinement, and yet

does no violence to facts as they are at present known.

Geothermal measurements in the deep copper mines of Calu¬

met, Michigan, tend to corroborate the Von Post hypothesis of

post-glacial climatic changes. These measurements suggest that

the last glacial retreat was followed, perhaps after several thous¬

and years, by a period distinctly warmer than the present. This

in turn was succeeded by a slightly cooler climate persisting

until rather recent times.9

Evidence from Analysis of Modern Floras

Based entirely upon a study of present-day floras, Gleason10

has presented a broad outline of post-glacial vegetation changes

in middle western United States. (1) At the time of greatest

advance of Wisconsin ice the associated semiarid climate re¬

sulted in a narrow and interrupted strip of coniferous forest

bordering the front of the ice, and broadening northward in the

Driftless Area where some shelter was provided by the deep

valleys. Belies of this boreal vegetation are still to be found in

the Driftless Area coincident with such edaphically dry sites as

rocky hill slopes, sand and gravel terraces, and exposures of

® Hotchkiss, W. O. and L. R. Ingersoll. Postglacial Time Calculations from Recent Geo¬

thermal Measurements in the Calumet Copper Mines. Jour. Geol. 42, 1934, pp. 113-122.

10 Gleason, Henry Allen. The Vegetational History of the Middle West, Annals of the Associa¬

tion of American Geographers, XII, 1922, pp. 39-85.

372 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts and Letters

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sandstone. The subhumid conditions may have caused vegeta-

tional belts to shift as much as 400 miles eastward from what

they are at present so that western Illinois was perhaps exclu¬

sively prairie. (2) The mild dry xerothermic period of early

post-Wisconsin led to a northward expansion of the coniferous

forest and a further extension eastward of the prairies in the

form of a wedge (Prairie Peninsula) between the northward

Trewartha — V egetal Cover of Driftless Hill Land 373

expanding conifers on the north and the deciduous forests to the

south. It was at this time that the prairies moved into southern

and western Wisconsin occupying the exposed uplands where

the warm dessicating winds in summer, the cold dry winds of

winter, and the deficient snow cover were adverse to mainten¬

ance of forest. (3) A retardation and eventual stop of the

advance of the prairie upon the northward retreating conifers,

followed by an advance of the southeastern deciduous forest to

the north and west upon the Prairie Peninsula, resulted from a

climatic change in the direction of increased rainfall. The de¬

ciduous forest advance was participated in by two successional

series, a xerarch series chiefly oak and hickory on the uplands,

and a hydrarch series (oak, elm, ash, walnut, maple, cottonwood,

and others), along the valleys. Gradually the xerarch forests of

the bluffs encroached laterally upon the interfluve upland prai¬

ries, more and more isolating the prairie colonies. Such was the

condition in the Driftless Hill Land when the Indian appeared.

Simultaneously with increase in moisture and the advance of the

deciduous forest, changes took place in the prairie flora. The

xerophytic western species withdrew from the eastern prairie

extension, or left relic colonies behind in distinctly xerophytic

habitats. Thus developed an eastern peninsula of the prairie

distinct from that of the western plains. (4) With the advent

of the Indian came the introduction of a new element in the

vegetational environment, viz: the prairie fire. Through the

destruction of the young seedlings on the margins of the forest,

and the more susceptible mature trees as well, the previous ad¬

vance of the deciduous forest was turned into a retreat. Gradu¬

ally the forest was pushed back toward the bluffs and the area

of prairie expanded. By this means there came into existence

the open park-like condition known as the “oak openings”, and

in places the so-called barrens, characterized by a sparse growth

of hazel brush, scrub oak, and wild plum. (5) The arrival of

white settlers and the subsequent development of agriculture

gradually reduced the effectiveness of forest fires as a factor in

vegetation distribution. Once more, therefore, the deciduous

forests began their advance, along the stream courses and at

right angles to them, and have continued down to the present

time except as thwarted by cultivation and pasturage.

374 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts and Letters

The Driftless Area east of the Mississippi gives one the im¬

pression of being densely forested at the present time, yet the

first settlers of a century and more ago spoke of it as dominantly

prairie. Chandler, a resident of Galena, Illinois, during the third

decade of the 19th century, estimated that only one tenth of the

lead region in the Driftless Area of what is now southwestern

Wisconsin and northwestern Illinois was covered with timber11

Estimates by other eyewitnesses ranged from 10 to 20 percent.12

This same mining area was described by Keating (1823) as

“presenting the waved appearance of a somewhat ruffled ocean ;

it is covered with a dry short grass”, above which rose the higher

knobs visible 30 miles away. These same knobs are now con¬

cealed by forest.13 “ — the country is still prairie with tufts of

inferior timber”, according to Col. Charles Whittlesey writing

in 1832. 14 Except along the Mississippi most of the timber in

the lead area was so small as to make it unfit for construction

of large buildings and large importations of lumber are reported

at Galena as early as 1842.

Evidence from Peat Bogs

The most recent and perhaps discriminating method for

tracing post-glacial changes in vegetation and climate is by sta¬

tistical analysis of pollen blown from adjacent trees and other

plants, that has been preserved in the organic sediments of peat

bogs. The idea was originated by G. Lagerheim of Sweden dur¬

ing the first decade of the last century, while credit for develop¬

ment of working methods goes to L. Von Post of the Geological

Survey of that country.15 Much successful work of a paleo-

ecological nature has been done in Europe following this method,

less in the United States. Indeed in the latter region it is all

confined to the period since 1930, and most of it to the last 5

years.

A cylindrical type of borer is used to obtain samples of peat

at intervals of six inches to a foot throughout the different levels

u Chandler, R. W. Map of the United States Lead Mines on the Upper Mississippi, Galena,

1829, Copy in Wis. Hist. Lib. See notes on margin of map.

12 Miners Journal, Sept. 13, 1828; Wis. Hist. Colls., XI, p. 400.

13 Keating, William H„ Narrative in Expedition to the Source of the St. Peter’s River— per¬

formed in 1823 — etc. Philadelphia, 1924.

14 Wis. Hist. Colls., I, pp. 64-85.

15 Von Post, L., Problems and Working-lines in the Postarctic Forest History of Europe. Proc.

5th Int. Bot. Congress, Cambridge, 1934, pp. 48-54.

T rewart ha— Vegetal Cover of Driftless Hill Land 375

of the bog. Several slightly different methods are employed for

treating the samples in preparing them for microscopic exam¬

ination, the purpose of which is to free the pollen grains from

the peat fibers. One hundred fifty to 200 pollen grains are usually

counted and identified for each level sampled. Contrasts in size,

shape, markings, etc., are employed in identifying the pollen

species.

Analysis of the botanical literature reveals that at least 75

to 80 bogs in northcentral and northeastern United States and

adjacent Canada have been studied by the pollen-profile method.

For purpose of regional analysis these bogs have been located on

376 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts and Letters

a map (Fig. 5). Due to different methods of sampling and

microscopic analysis, the profile data for the different bogs are

not entirely comparable, so that correlations between bogs is

Table I

Percentages of Principle Pollens for Four Driftless Area Bogs

(Data from Hansen)

Trewartha— Vegetal Cover of Driftless Hill Land 377

difficult and generalizations are somewhat provisional in char¬

acter. In spite of this weakness of the data, however, certain

general inferences can be made. Without much chance of re¬

buttal, there appears to be a distinct regional pattern in the

pollen profiles.16 In the following paragraphs are summarized

some of the more important generalizations which can be made

from a study of eastern North American pollen profiles (Fig. 6),

more especially those of four bogs located within the Driftless

Area.

There is little or no evidence of tundra in the bottom strata

of North American peat profiles. According to Sears this does

not necessarily preclude a tundra stage, for the basins in the till

plain in which peat eventually accumulated may have been filled

with detached ice blocks until the northward advancing conifer¬

ous forest had surrounded them. Or the tundra period may have

been followed by such dry climate as to prevent peat formation.

It seems unlikely however that bog basins within the Driftless

Area could have been occupied by ice during, or at least long

after, glaciation and yet there is an entire absence of tundra pol¬

len in the lower strata of all four Driftless Area bogs studied.17

In spite of direct evidence being absent, many paleo-botanists are

still of the opinion that the ice front was bordered by a tundra

zone, possibly a much narrower one than in Europe.

At the bottoms of practically all of the bog profiles (except

those not possessing older strata) in northeastern United States

and southeastern Canada, and south as far as north central Illi¬

nois, central Indiana, and central Ohio, pollens of subarctic coni¬

fers, chiefly fir and spruce, dominate. This is not so clearly the

case in the profiles from the four Driftless Area bogs. Only the

most northern one shows a strong preponderance of fir and

spruce at the lowest level. In Hub City Bog fir and spruce are

the most important species but pine is likewise strong (Table I) .

Mormon Coulee Bog shows pine with the highest percentage at

the lowest level although fir and spruce are likewise prominent,

while in the fourth bog pine is the only important conifer and

deciduous species likewise show high percentages. These data

la Sears, Paul B. Types of North American Pollen Profiles, Ecology 16, 1935, pp. 488-499.

. . . Climatic Interpretation of Potglacial Pollen Deposits in North America; Bull. Am.

j Meteorological Soc., 1938, pp. 177-185.

X1 Hansen, Henry P. Postglacial Vegetation of the Driftless Area of Wisconsin, Am. Midland

; Nat., 21, 1939, pp. 752-762.

378 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts and Letters

may indicate that an initial forest of fir and spruce was already

waning and being replaced by a pine-deciduous forest in the

region of the three most southerly bogs when their first strata

were laid down. Another suggestion is that these three bogs

were relatively late in point of origin and consequently do not so

clearly indicate the existence of this earlier forest.

Other types of pollen replace fir and spruce in the upper two-

thirds or three-fourths of the characteristic profile for north¬

eastern United States. It is in this part of the generalized pro¬

file that evidences of regional differentiation become more

marked, profiles of different bogs show greater variability, and

interpretations of the data by different workers are less in agree¬

ment. In northern Wisconsin and Minnesota the decline of fir

and spruce pollen is followed by an increase in pine and later by

hardwoods, chiefly oak, although pine remains dominant. The

crest of oak coincides with the low point for spruce and fir.

Toward the top of the profile as hardwoods wane, spruce and fir

show an increase (Fig. 6).

Farther south in the present deciduous area (Northcentral

Illinois, southern and western Wisconsin, central Indiana, and

Ohio) after the early spruce-fir dominance there is a rapid in¬

crease in pine followed shortly by an equally rapid increase in

oak and other hardwoods. The upper three-fifths of the profile

is dominantly of this latter type with a small percentage of pine

persisting. Significantly, perhaps, pine shows a slight increase

at the extreme top of the profile. A grassland complex, begin¬

ning about half way up the profile, comes to a crest and dies out

again some distance below the top (Fig. 6). Profiles from the

Driftless Area show a larger proportion of pine than is indicated

in the more generalized pattern described above.

Typical of the northeastern states and adjacent parts of

Canada is a profile which resembles that of northern Wisconsin

and Minnesota in its succession of spruce-fir and pine and in the

dominance of conifers, but differs in that spruce-fir remains

more important and pine less important throughout. Oak shows

a crest as it does in the northern lake states, while hardwoods

other than oak are relatively more important, and are more im¬

portant than pine near the top of the profile (Fig. 8).

Trewartha — Vegetal Cover of Driftless Hill Land 379

It will be useful now to turn to the interpretations of these

pollen profiles. In all probability the climatic change associated

with glacial retreat was of a greater degree than any that have

occurred subsequently. The replacement of fir and spruce by

pine is taken by some as evidence that the climate was becoming

drier and perhaps warmer, and of pine by oak as indicating a

warm maximum. The increase of spruce-fir in the upper parts

of the northern profiles contemporaneous with the disappearance

of oak, and in the northeastern states with the increase of more

northerly hardwoods, suggests a waning of the warm-dry maxi¬

mum. Other workers, although admitting that the replacement

of spruce-fir by pine suggests a waning of the glacial climates,

believe that all changes above the coniferous level are purely the

result of local succession and do not require a postulation of cli¬

matic change. The increase in spruce toward the top of the pro¬

files may be the result of increased filling of the basins and their

invasion by black spruce.18

The profile of the central deciduous area with its shift from

an early spruce-fir and pine forest to a later dominance of hard¬

woods, especially oak, suggests an increase in temperature which

reached a xeric climax with the grassland crest. The subsequent

decline of grass and slight increase in pine suggests a return to

cooler and moister conditions. Some workers, on the other hand,

think the evidence for climatic change, after the shift from coni¬

ferous to deciduous forest, is dubious.

It becomes fairly obvious that there are two points of view

regarding pollen profiles and their interpretation. One group,

following the lead of Sears, sees in the record for eastern North

America “certain remarkably consistent, fairly synchronous, and

long-time trends — which are difficult to explain on the basis of

purely local changes.” This group strongly favors a climatic

interpretation and one that involves a number of significant

climatic variations within postglacial times. Within the second

group of workers are those who would ascribe all postglacial

vegetation changes to purely normal local succession, and others

who admit of a postglacial warming resulting in a shift from

coniferous to deciduous forest, but see little in the pollen record

18 Wilson, L. R. The Postglacial History of Vegetation in Northwestern Wisconsin. Rhodora,

40, 1938, pp. 137-175.

. . . . . . The Use of Microfossils as a Means of Studving Paleoclimatic Conditions in

Northwestern Wisconsin. Bull. Am Met. Soc. 19, 1938, pp. 176-187.

380 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts and Letters

to require postulation of climatic fluctuations since that major

change.

Bibliography

(Starred references deal specifically with bogs of the Driftless Area)

1 — Adams, Charles C. Postglacial origin and migrations of the life of

the northeastern United States. Journal of Geography, I, 1902,

pp. 303-310, 352-357.

2— Artist, Russell C. Stratigraphy and preliminary pollen analysis of

a Lake County, Illinois, bog, Butler Univ. Bot. Stud., Ill,

pp. 191-198.

3— Auer, Vaino. Peat bogs in southeastern Canada. Canadian Geol.

Survey, Memoir 162.

4 — Barnett, Jean. Pollen study of Cranberry Pond near Emporia, Madi¬

son County, Indiana, Butler Univ. Bot. Stud. IV, 1937, Paper 5,

pp. 55-64.

5 — Bowman, P. W. Study of a peat bog near Matamek River, Quebec,

Canada, by the method of pollen analysis. Ecology, 12, 1931,

pp. 694-708.

6— — Cooper, W. S. and H. Foote. Reconstruction of a late Pleistocene

biotic community in Minneapolis, Minnesota, Ecology, 13, 1932,

pp. 63-72.

7 — Dachnowski, Alfred. Peat deposits of Ohio. Geol. Surv. of Ohio,

Fourth Series, Bull. 16, pp. 209-219.

8 — Draper, P. A comparison of pollen spectra of old and young bogs

in the Erie Basin. Proc. Oklahoma Acad. Sci. 9, 1929, pp. 50-53.

9— Erdtmann, G. Pollen statistics: a new research method in paleo-

ecology, Science, 73, 1931, pp. 399-400.

10— — Fernald, M. L. Persistence of plants in unglaciated areas of boreal

America. Memoirs Am. Acad. Arts, and Sci., 15, 3, pp. 241-342.

11 — Friesner, Roy C. Indiana as a critical botanical area. Ind. Acad.

of Sci. 46, 1937, pp. 28-45.

12— Fuller, G. D. Pollen analysis and postglacial vegetation. Bot. Gaz¬

ette, 87, 1930, pp. 560-662.

13 — •. ....... Postglacial vegetation of the Lake Michigan region. Ecol¬

ogy, 16, 1935, pp. 473-487.

14 — Gleason, H. A. The vegetation history of the Middle West. Ann.

Assoc. Am. Geog., 12, 1922, pp. 39-85.

1 5— — Hanna, G. D. Diatoms of the Florida peat deposits. Annual Reports

of the Florida State Geol. Sur., 1933, pp. 23-24, 65-96.

*16 — Hansen, Henry P. The Tamarack bogs of the Driftless Area of

Wisconsin. Bull. Public Museum of the City of Milwaukee, Vol. 7,

No. 2, 1933, pp. 231-304.

*17 — . . Pollen analysis of two Wisconsin bogs of different age.

Ecology, 18, 1937, pp. 136-148.

*18 — . ....... Postglacial vegetation of the Driftless Area of Wisconsin. *

The Am. Midland Naturalist, 21, 1939, pp. 752-762.

19— -Hotchkiss, W. O., and L. R. Ingersoll. Postglacial time calculations

from recent geothermal measurements in the Calumet copper

mines. Journ. Geol. 42, 1934, pp. 113-122.

20 — Houdek, Paul King. Pollen Statistics for two Indiana bogs. Proc.

Ind. Acad, of Sci. 42, 1932, pp. 73-77.

Trewartha — Vegetal Cover of Driftless Hill Land 381

21 — . Pollen statistics for two bogs in southwestern Michigan.

Mich. Acad. Sci., Arts, and Letters, 20, 1934, pp. 49-56.

22 — Howell, John W. A fossil pollen study of Kokomo Bog, Howard

County, Indiana. Butler Univ. Bot. Stud., IV, 1938, No. 9,

pp. 117-127.

23. — Janson, Elsie, and Elizabeth Halfert. A pollen analysis of a bog in

northern Ontario. Mich. Acad. Sci., Arts and Letters, 22, 1936,

pp. 95-98.

24 — Lane, Geo. A preliminary pollen analysis of the east McCulloch peat.

Ohio Journal. Sci., 31, 1931, pp. 165-177.

25— Lewis, I. F., and E. C. Cocke. Pollen analysis of Dismal Swamp

peat. Journ. Elisha Michell Soc., 45, 1929, pp. 37-58.

26 — Lindsey, Alva J. Preliminary pollen analysis of the Merrillville

White Pine Bog. Butler Univ. Bot. Stud., II, 1932, pp. 179-182.

27— Otto, James H. Forest succession in the southern limits of early

Wisconsin glaciation as indicated by a pollen spectrum from

Bacon’s Swamp, Marion County, Indiana. Butler Univ. Bot.

Stud., IV, 1938, pp. 93-116.

28— Potzger, J. E. Succession of forests as indicated by fossil pollen

from a northern Michigan bog. Science, 75, 1932, p. 366.

29 — Prettyman, Robert, L. Fossil pollen analysis of Fox Prairie Bog,

Hamilton County, Indiana. Butler Univ. Bot. Stud. IV, 1937, pp.

33-42.

30 — Richards, Ruth Rebekah. A pollen profile of Otterbein Bog, Warren

County, Indiana. Butler Univ. Bot. Stud. IV, 1938, pp. 128-140.

31— Sears, Paul B. A record of postglacial climate in North America.

Ohio Jour. Sci., 30, 1930, pp. 205-217.

32 — . Pollen analysis of Mud Lake Bog in Ohio. Ecology, 12,

1931, pp. 650-655.

33— — . Postglacial climate in eastern North America. Ecology,

13, 1932, pp. 1-6.

34 — . and Glenn C. Couch. Microfossils in an Arkansas peat and

their significance. Ohio Jour. Sci., 32, 1932, pp. 63-68.

35— . and Elsie Janson. The Rate of peat growth in the Erie

Basin. Ecology, 14, 1933, pp. 348-355.

36 — . ....... Climatic change as a factor in forrest succession. Journ.

of Forestry 31, 1933, pp. 934-942.

37 — . Types of North American pollen profiles. Ecology, 16,

1935, pp. 488-499.

38— . Glacial and postglacial vegetation. Botan. Rev., 1, 1935,

pp. 37-51.

39 — . Climatic Interpretation of postglacial pollen deposits in

North America. Bull. Am. Meteorological Soc., 19, 1938, pp.

177-185.

40 — Smith, William M. Pollen spectrum of Lake Cicotte Bog, Cass Coun¬

ty, Indiana. Butler Univ. Bot. Stud., IV, 1937, pp. 43-54.

41 — Transeau, Edgar Nelson. The Prairie Peninsula. Ecology 16, 1935,

pp. 423-437.

42 — Truman, H. V. Fossil evidence of two prairie invasions of Wisconsin.

Trans. Wis. Acad. Sci., Arts, and Letters, 30, 1937, pp. 36-42.

43 — Voss, John. Comparative study of a Wisconsin and an Illinois bog.

Trans. Ill. Acad, of Sci., 24 (2), 1931, pp. 130-136.

382 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts and Letters

44 — . Pleistocene forests of central Illinois. Bot. Gazette 94,

1933, pp. 808-814.

45 — . Postglacial migrations of forests in Illinois, Wisconsin,

and Minnesota. Bot. Gazette, 96, 1934, pp. 3-43.

46 — . Comparative study of bogs on Cary and Tazewell drift in

Illinois. Ecology, 18, 1937, pp. 119-135.

47 — Wilson, L. It. The Two Creeks forest bed, Manitowoc County, Wis¬

consin. Trans. Wis. Acad. Sci., Arts, and Letters, 27, 1932,

pp. 31-46.

48 — . and E. F. Galloway. Microfossil succession in a bog m

northern Wisconsin. Ecology, 18, 1937, pp. 113-118.

49 — . The Nipissing flora of the Apostle Islands region. Bull.

Torrey Bot. Club 62, 1935, pp. 533-535.

50 — . Further fossil studies of the Two Creeks forest bed, Mani¬

towoc County, Wisconsin. Bull. Torrey Bot. Club, 63, 1936, pp.

317-325.

51 — . The postglacial history of vegetation in northwestern Wis¬

consin. Rhodora, 40, 1938, pp. 137-175.

52 — . The use of microfossils as a means of studying paleoeli-

matic conditions in northwestern Wisconsin. Bull. Am. Meteoro¬

logical Soc., 19, 1938, pp. 168, 186-187.

Madison, Wisconsin,

November, 1939.

THE WATER MITE GENUS TYRRELLIA

Ruth Marshall

Rockford College

The genus Tyrrellia , of the hydracarina, was erected by Dr.

Koenike (1895), with one species, T. circularis Koen., the de¬

scriptions being based upon the study of females (two?) found

near Ottawa, Ontario. Generic characters given were as follows :

general surface covered with fine points as in Hydryphantes,

plates and appendages porous; a dorsal shield; mouth at the

end of the maxillary organ in the center of a small disk; palpi

pointed, the second segment with a “chitinstift” on the con¬

cave side; epimera in four groups close together, 3rd and 4th

placed diagonally, the latter strongly expanded laterally; legs

without swimming hairs, claws simple, leg IV attached to the

corner of its epimera ; genital area lying in a bay formed by the

epimera, the two plates carrying large acetabula.

From the study of abundant material now available to the

author, it appears that certain characters first given as specific,

together with some others, may now be considered as generic.

These are the following: a posterior dorsal shield (occasionally

two) as well as one or two anterior ones; palpi with distinctive

4th segment (see fig. 4, 15) ; epimeral groups nearly approximate

in the male, the anterior group with a thin posterior prolongation

(see fig. 9) ; legs shorter than the body, with heavy bristles, I,

II very stout, III slender, IV with a curved 5th segment, distal

ends of all segments expanded; genital plates as well as 2nd

palpal segment as in Limnesia, the former bearing six large

acetabula and surmounted by a curved bar. To these characters

may be added, as far as the genus is known : short stout anten-

nary bristles ; a double eye on each side in a small capsule, ap¬

pearing single ; several gland-hair plates and a single conspicuous

plate with a large opening below each eye.

This is the only genus known for the Family Tyrrelliidae

Viets, and no representatives are known outside of North

America.

883

384 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts and Letters

The late R. H. Wolcott made several collections of Tyrrellia

(Ward & Whipple, Fresh Water Biology, 1918:869) : “a sluggish,

dark brown mite of medium size averaging 1.20 mm. in length,

known from Canada and found abundantly some years since at

Reed’s Lake, near Grand Rapids, Michigan, where it was picked

up singly with the pipette in the debris at the margin of the

water in close proximity; very rare in Birge net hauls at the

same place; two species taken, one apparently the same as

T. circularis Koenike, previously described.” The second species

proves to be T . ovalis Mar. To these collections is now added

one specimen from a thermal spring in California. The species

will now be discussed with the results of the study of the ma¬

terial now in the author’s collection.

Tyrrellia circularis Koen.

PI. I, fig. 1-4; PI. II, fig. 14

A total of 36 individuals was found in the Wolcott collections,

consisting of old and young adults, found in the vicinity of Grand

Rapids, Michigan, in the “summers” of ’93, ’95, ’96, ’97. Both

sexes were present and so the description of the male can be

given, as well as some revision of Koenike’s detailed description.

Largest females averaged 1.40 mm. in length, 1.20 mm. in width ;

males are smaller. The anterior end is slightly bulging. The two

shields of the dorsal surface are variable in size and shape ; the

larger anterior one usually broadly pyriform. (The structures

shown by Koenike as k, fig. 38, were not found.) The smaller

ventral shield is very variable in size and form, sometimes

slightly asymmetrical, only occasionally with a small posterior

cleft ; in one case two small plates were present and in another,

a young male, the single plate was much enlarged and the end

greatly prolonged. The several pairs of hair plates and the open¬

ing of a large gland below each eye were found as shown by

Koenike. The epimera, shown diagrammatically in the original

description (fig. 37), are given in the present paper in more

detail (fig. 2, 3) and are more accurately drawn; in the male

there is only a slight separation of the three groups. The genital

plates in the two sexes are much alike, but broader and smaller

in the male; genital acetabula are oblong in mature adults, the

two posterior close together. The palpi are stouter in the male

(fig. 4) ; on the very stout second segment the “Chitinstift” of

Marshall— Water Mite Genus Tyrrellia

386 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts and Letters

the concave side is set in a larger papilla than is shown in

Koenike’s fig. 36. The fourth palpal segment, especially charac¬

teristic of the genus, has a long curved hair midway on the con¬

cave side ; distal to this are five or six fine hairs set in a shallow

groove. The legs conform closely to the original detailed de¬

scription.

Tyrrellia circularis monensis nov. var.

PI. I, fig. 5-7; PL II, fig. 15

The single specimen, a male, which represents this form, was

found by Dr. C. T. Brues, Aug. 26, 1930, on Paoha Island in

Mona Lake, California, in “a large warm spring . . . several

hundred feet inland and well above the level of the lake” (#150,

sp. grav. 1.0045, pH 8.3, temp. 32.8° C.). This specimen, quite

mature, resembles T. circularis so closely, although occupying an

unusual habitat and far from the known range of the other repre¬

sentatives of the genus, as to be best considered a variety. The

body, 1.10 mm. in length, is slightly narrower than in T. cir¬

cularis; the surface shows the same fine points and the same

number of gland openings and hair plates, while the two dorsal

shields, anterior and posterior, are similar in shape but larger.

As these shields have been found to be variable in the two known

species of the genus, it may be inferred that they will prove to be

so here when more specimens are found. The epimera are rela¬

tively larger in the new variety and show some small differences

in proportions ; the 1st pair are more nearly united medially, with

narrower posterior ends, while the 4th are wider. The genital

plates are more elongated and consequently the acetabula are

more separated than in the parent species. The palpi show the

characteristic structures of the 2nd and 4th segments, the latter

with a very bulging outer border. The legs show the characters

of the genus.

Tyrrellia ovalis Mar.

PI. II, fig. 8-13

The original description (Marshall, 1932) was based upon

the study of three females taken in May (Madison, Wis.) ; these

specimens are now seen to be very young adults. In the Wolcott

collection a single individual, also taken in May (near North

Marshall — Water Mite Genus Tyrrellia 387

388 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts and Letters

Baltimore, Mich.) , is likewise a very young adult ; but other speci-

mess, over 100, collected in the same localities as T. circularis

(and the same years), in “July” and “summer”, consisted of ma¬

ture adults of both sexes, although they are of different ages (a

few months and one year?). It is apparent that the original de¬

scription should now be revised and an account of the male added.

The body is a little larger and more elongated than in T.

circularis (oldest females, 1.63 mm. long), with the same slightly

bulging anterior end ; the fine points on the surface are slightly

more rousded, the hair plates of the dorsal gland openings simi-

larily placed. The epimera are very much alike in the two species

but a little heavier, with the 4th pair a little broader in T. ovalis.

(In one female the right 3rd together with leg III were missing !)

Genital plates of mature adults, where the acetabula are fully de¬

veloped, larger and more elongated than in the young, are also

very much alike in the two species : anteriorly they are a little

broader in T. ovalis, with acetabula slightly smaller, the two

posterior a little separated. Palpi and maxillary organ are almost

identical in the two species, as are also the legs. Males are diffi¬

cult to recognize, since the 3rd and 4th epimera are barely ap¬

proximated; the genital plates are a little broader than in the

female and the palpi are stouter.

The two species are chiefly distinguished by the dorsal

shields: in T. ovalis there is a pair of small oblong anterior

plates, well separated, quite uniform in all specimens; posterior

to these lies another plate, usually of about the same size and

shape as the anterior but very variable, frequently slightly asym¬

metrical. In the original description it was stated that there

were two very small posterior plates; this is now known to be

exceptional (but in one specimen four very small plates were

present.)

Bibliography

1932. Brues, C. T.,

Further Studies on the Fauna of North America Hot Springs.

Proc. Am. Acad. Arts & Sciences, Vol. 67. No. 7.

1895. Koenike, F.

Nordamerikanische Hydrachniden.

Abd. naturwissen. Ver. Bremen. Bd. XIII, 2:198-201.

1932. Marshall, R.

Marshall — Water Mite Genus Tyrrellia

389

Preliminary list of the Hydracarina of Wisconsin. Part II.

Trans. Wis. Acad. S.A.L. Vol. 27:342-343.

Explanation of the Plates

Plate I

1. Tyrrellia circularis, dorsal view

2. Tyrrellia circularis, ventral plates, male

3. Tyrrellia circularis, ventral plates, female

4. Tyrrellia circularis, left palpus, male

5. Tyrrellia circularis monensis, dorsal view

6. Tyrrellia circularis monensis, ventral plates, male

7. Tyrrellia circularis monensis, leg I, left

Plate II

8. Tyrrellia ovalis, genital plates and epimera III, IV, right,

female

9. Tyrrellia ovalis, epimera I, II, female

10. Tyrrellia ovalis, genital area, male

11. Tyrrellia ovalis, dorsal view

12. Tyrrellia ovalis, maxillary organ and right palpus, female

13. Tyrrellia ovalis, leg III, left

14. Tyrrellia circularis, leg IV, right

15. Tyrrellia circularis monensis, right palpus, male

PROCEEDINGS OF THE ACADEMY

SIXTY-EIGHTH ANNUAL MEETING

The sixty-eighth annual meeting of the Wisconsin Academy of Sciences,

Arts, and Letters was held jointly with the meetings of the Wisconsin

Archeological Society and the Wisconsin Museums Conference at Ripon

College on Friday and Saturday, April 8 and 9, 1938. A total of ap¬

proximately 200 persons, exclusive of students of Ripon College, attended

sessions on Friday afternoon and Saturday morning. A banquet for mem¬

bers and guests was held in the College Dining Room on Friday evening,

and was attended by 65 persons. The President and Faculty of Ripon

College entertained members and guests of the societies at a tea in the

Faculty Club Room of the Lane Library Building on Friday afternoon.

The following program of papers, lectures and special events was

presented.

Friday morning. Secretary Loyal Durand Jr. of the Academy spoke

before the college assembly of Ripon College, telling of the work and

aims of the three organizations, and extending an invitation to the student

body to attend the various sessions.

Academy Section

Friday Afternoon

Grace J. Calder. Milwaukee-Downer College. The Composition of

Carlyle’s Past and Present— A Study of Two Manuscripts; Amelia C. Ford.

Milwaukee-Downer College. An Eighteenth Century Mark Hanna; Paul W.

Boutwell. Beloit College. Conditions Affecting the Bromination of Omega

Phenyl Substituted Fatty Acids; John C. Sauer and Paul W. Boutwell.

Beloit College. The Composition of Bayberry Wax and the Preparation of

Myristic and Palmitic Acids; A. L. Barker. Ripon College. Early Science

Teaching in Ripon College; Rufus M. Bagg. Lawrence College. The

Study of a Wisconsin Swamp; Louise Wipf and D. C. Cooper. University

of Wisconsin. Chromosome Numbers in Nodules and Root Tips of Certain

Leguminous Plants; M. A. Brannon and A. F. Bartsch. University of Wis¬

consin. Algae and Growth Substances; Aldo Leopold. University of Wis¬

consin. Spread of the Hungarian Partridge in Wisconsin; Eric R. Miller.

U. S. Weather Bureau, Madison. Influence of Temperature and Sunshine on

Fuel Consumption in the Heating of Buildings; Edward Kremers. Univer¬

sity of Wisconsin. Christ as Apothecary; Henry A. Schuette. University of

Wisconsin. “Death in the Pot.”

The Annual Business meeting of the Academy was held in Ingram

Hall immediately following the presentation of papers. After the business

meeting the group adjourned to Lane Library for the tea.

391

392 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts and Letters

Archeological-Museum Section

Friday Afternoon

W. E. Haseltine. Ripon. Collecting Dreams; George Pasco. Ripon. Indian

Mounds of Lake Pucka way; Nile G. Behncke. Oshkosh. Painted Pottery

from Winnebago County; John G. Gregory. Milwaukee. Cultural Pioneering

in Wisconsin; Alexander G. Guth. Milwaukee. Historic American Building

Survey; A. P. Kannenberg. Oshkosh. Prehistoric Pottery Ladles from Win¬

nebago County; Dorothy M. Brown. Madison. Wisconsin Lost Treasure

Tales; Robert B. Hartman. Milwaukee. Totem Poles and Totemism; S. M.

Pedrick. Ripon. (Introduced by J. F. Groves) Comments on Ripon History;

Rev. Elizabeth Wilson. Appleton. The Rediscovery of Smithfield.

Friday Evening

Address by President Silas Evans of Ripon College, “The Spirit and

Method of the Scholar.”

Academy Section

Saturday Morning

A group of nine papers, arranged by Professor Norman C. Fassett of

the Department of Botany, University of Wisconsin, was presented under

the heading of The Plant Conservation Section. These nine were as fol¬

lows: R. M. Tryon, Jr. University of Wisconsin. (Introduced by N. C.

Fassett). Additions to the Fern Flora of Wisconsin; C. H. Pratt. Ripon.

(Introduced by J. F. Groves). Ramblings of an Amateur Botanist; Norman

C. Fassett. University of Wisconsin. The Pfrairie in Wisconsin; Elizabeth

Chavannes. University of Wisconsin. (Introduced by N. C. Fassett). Forest

Invasion of a “Goat Prairie,”; John W. Thomson. University of Wisconsin.

Dynamics of Some Prairie Plants in Central Wisconsin; George H. Conant.

Ripon. Prairie Flora of a Gravel Knoll; Arthur S. Hawkins. University of

Wisconsin. (Introduced by Aldo Leopold). A Century of Wildlife History at

Faville Grove; George F. Sieker. Milwaukee. The Ridges Sanctuary of

Bailey’s Harbor, A Representative of a New Conservation Movement;

Albert M. Fuller. Milwaukee Public Museum. The Ecological Exhibits of

the Milwaukee Public Museum in Relationship to the Establishment of

Plant Sanctuaries in Wisconsin.

Seven additional papers completed the Saturday morning session of

the Academy. These included : Arthur H. Moeck. Milwaukee Entomological

Society. A Butterfly Migration in Mexico; T. E. B. Pope. Milwaukee Public

Museum. Landlocked Salmon in Wisconsin; Berenice Cooper. Superior State

Teachers College. The Relation of the Abbe Prevost’s he Philosophe anglais

to Eighteenth Century Religious Controversy in England and France;

F. T. Thwaites and E. F. Bean. University of Wisconsin. Map of the Sur¬

face of the Buried pre-Cambrian of Wisconsin; William H. Twenhofel.

University of Wisconsin. Pine Bluff in the Baraboo Basin, A Probable

Nunatak During the Ice Age; John T. Mathiesen. University of Wisconsin.

Proceedings of the Academy

393

Glacial Drifts in Northwestern Wisconsin; H. A. Schuette and Warren W.

Woessner. University of Wisconsin. The Potential Acid-Base Balance of

Honey.

Archeological-Museum Section

Saturday Morning

Zida C. Ivey. Fort Atkinson. Etiquette for Gentlemen, 1848; W. E.

Dickenson. Kenosha. The First Year (Kenosha Historical and Art Mu¬

seum) ; George Overton. Butte des Morts. Early Training Posts in Winne¬

bago County; Albert H. Griffith. Fisk. Abraham Lincoln Memorablia;

Albert O. Barton. Madison. Some Ceresco Letters; Gregg Montgomery.

Waunakee. Stories of the French Canadian “Pea Soupers” (Lumberjack

Lore) ; H. G. Boeckelman. New Orleans. Archeo-Conchology in the Union of

Soviet Socialistic Republics; Charles E. Brown. Madison. A large Notched

Copper Point.

TREASURER’S REPORT

April 8, 1938

Balance in Treasury, April 8, 1937 . $607.98

Received by R. R. Shrock, and turned over to

Loyal Durand Jr., June 2, 1937 — total . 945.75

RECEIPTS

Cash on hand in bank, June 2, 1937 . $945.75

Receipts from dues, interest, sale of publications and

sale of reprints to authors . 917.03

Grant-in-aid of research from A. A. A. S . 125.00

$1,987.78

DISBURSEMENTS

Secretary, R. R. Shrock . $100.00

Secretary, Loyal Durand Jr . 100.00

Grant-in-aid of research . . . 125.00

Postage . 28.20

Cost of reprints from Volume 30 . . . . . 350.50

Balance for printing of Volume 30 . 130.77

Reprint deposit for Volume 31 . 52.00

Cost of plates in Volume 31 . 4.27

Safety box . . . . . . 3.30

Speaker’s expenses, 1937 meeting . 21.63

Ledger sheets . 2.80

Picture framing of past presidents for Academy

Room in State Historical Society Building . 20.00

Balance April 8, 1938

$1,049.31

$938.47

PROCEEDINGS OF THE ACADEMY

SIXTY-NINTH ANNUAL MEETING

The sixty-ninth annual meeting of the Wisconsin Academy of Sciences,

Arts, and Letters was held at Madison on Friday and Saturday, March 31

and April 1, 1939. Meetings were held in Science Hall on the University of

Wisconsin campus, and the annual dinner Friday evening was served at the

University Club. Approximately 200 members and guests attended the

meetings, and 83 were present at the banquet. The program of papers which

was presented was as follows:

Friday afternoon: Ruth Marshall. Rockford College. Preliminary List

of the Hydracarina of Wisconsin. Part VI; Chancey Juday. University of

Wisconsin. The Annual Energy Budget of an Inland Lake; Willard A. Van

Engel. (Introduced by Chancey Juday). University of Wisconsin. Age and

Growth of the Northern Pike, Esox lucius Linnaeus, in Wisconsin; David G.

Frey, Hubert Pedracine, and Lawrence Vike. (Introduced by Chancey

Juday). University of Wisconsin. Results of a Summer Creel Census of

Lakes Waubesa and Kegonsa; William A. Hiestand. Purdue University.

Oxygen Consumption of Thy one briar eus (Holothurioidea) as a function

of Oxygen Tension and Hydrogen-ion Concentration. (By title) ; B. M.

Duggar. University of Wisconsin. Aspects of Inactivation and Aging in the

Virus of Tobacco Ring-spot and Common Mosaic; Irven C. Buss. University

of Wisconsin. (Introduced by Aldo Leopold). The Upland Plover at Faville

Grove, Wiscosin; Berenice Cooper. State Teachers College, Superior, Wis¬

consin. Eighteenth Century Censorship of Le Philosophe anglais ; Edward

Kremers. University of Wisconsin. The Literary Pharmacopoeia of Scott;

Rufus M. Bagg. Lawrence College. Six Miles Under the Sea (A Walk from

London to New York on the Bottom of the Sea).

The annual business meeting was held on Friday afternoon, March 31,

at 4:30 o'clock. The treasurer reported on the state of the Academy’s

finances. Grants-in-aid for Research for the year 1939-1940 were made to

Berenice Cooper, State Teachers College, Superior, $50 for continuance of

her work on Le Philosophe anglais, and to John T. Curtis, instructor in

Botany, University of Wisconsin, $50 for field expenses in connection with

the study of Wisconsin ladyslippers.

The nominating committee, consisting of Charles E. Allen, Leonard R.

Ingersoll, and Helen C. White, presented their report for officers for 1939-

1942. The slate was elected unanimously, as follows :

President: Paul W. Boutwell, Beloit College

Vice Presidents

In Science: Ernest F. Bean, Wisconsin Geological and Natural

History Survey

In Arts: J. O. Carbys, Milwaukee

In Letters: Leila Bascom, University of Wisconsin Extension

Division

Secretary-Treasurer: Loyal Durand, Jr., University of Wisconsin

394

Proceedings of the Academy

395

Librarian: Gilbert H. Doane, University of Wisconsin

Curator: Charles E. Brown, State Historical Museum

The annual dinner was held on Friday evening. Following the dinner,

members and guests of the Academy were addressed by Mr. A. William

Schorger of Madison on the subject The Passenger Pigeon: A Chapter in

Extinction.

Saturday Morning

Richard W. Pohl. Milwaukee Public Museum. (Introduced by Kenneth

W. MacArthur). Preliminary Reports on the Flora of Wisconsin: Rhamna-

ceae, Vitaceae; Wilfred F. Horner, Marquette University. (Introduced by

Paul F. Carroll, S. J.). Microscopic Anatomy of Lebistes Reticulatus; J. W.

Thomson, Jr. University of Wisconsin. Plant Succession on Abandoned

Fields in Juneau County, Wisconsin; James R. Neidhoefer. Marquette Uni¬

versity. Preliminary Report on the Histology of the Fresh Water Sponges of

Wisconsin; Charles G. Wilber. Marquette University. Histology of the Paro-

toid of Bufo a americanus, the Common Wisconsin Toad; W. H. Twenhofel

and V. E. McKelvey. University of Wisconsin. Sediments of Devils Lake;

W. H. Twenhofel and W. A. Broughton. University of Wisconsin. Sedi¬

ments of Crystal Lake; Alfred Fischer, Arnold C. Mason, and W. S.

Twenhofel. University of Wisconsin. Survey of Cave West of Blue Mounds;

Eric R. Miller. United States Weather Bureau. Snowstorm of October 22,

1938, in Northern Wisconsin; V. C. Finch. University of Wisconsin. The

Determination of Average Slopes; J. R. Whitaker. University of Wiscon¬

sin. The Distribution of Dairying in Ontario; Glenn T. Trewartha. (In¬

troduced by Loyal Durand, Jr.). University of Wisconsin. A Second Period

of Destructive Occupance in the Driftless Hill Land; Loyal Durand, Jr.

University of Wisconsin. The Southeastern Cheese Region of Wisconsin.

Saturday Afternoon

A special session of Wisconsin Geography Teachers and those interested

in the problems of geography was held in conjunction with the Academy

meetings. Short addresses were made by: Leavelva Bradbury, State Teach¬

ers College, Oshkosh; Forrest R. Polk, President of State Teachers College,

Oshkosh; Glenn T. Trewartha, University of Wisconsin; Loyal Durand, Jr.,

University of Wisconsin; Luther Zellmer, State Teachers College, Platte-

ville; Charles F. Watson, State Teachers College, Stevens Point; Louise

Mears, State Teachers College, Milwaukee; V. C. Finch, University of Wis¬

consin; and J. Russell Whitaker, University of Wisconsin.

TREASURER’S REPORT

April 1, 1939

RECEIPTS

Carried forward in Treasury, April 9, 1938 . $1,049.31

Total receipts, April 11, 1938 — March 30, 1939 . 806.04

$1,855.35

396 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts and Letters

Less $57.75 for sale of publications to the State of

Texas (Texas not honoring vouchers at present) . 57.75

Net receipts . $1,797.60

DISBURSEMENTS

Secretary . $ 200.00

E. A. Birge for Volume 31, Transactions . 400.00

Grant-in-aid of research . 100.00

Deposit with University of Wisconsin for J. J. Davis reprints .... 48.73

Postage . 22.50

Printing . 31.25

$ 802.48

Balance on hand, March 30, 1939 . $ 995.12

Loyal Durand Jr.

Secretary-Treasurer.

PROCEEDINGS OF THE ACADEMY

SEVENTIETH ANNUAL MEETING

The seventieth annual meeting of the Wisconsin Academy of Sciences,

Arts and Letters was held in conjunction with the annual meetings of the

Wisconsin Archeological Society and the Wisconsin Museums Conference

at the State Teachers College, Oshkosh, on Friday and Saturday, March 29

and 30, 1940. More than 150 members and guests attended the two-day

meeting, and 54 were in attendance at the annual dinner on Friday evening

the 29th. In addition, the Academy welcomed several hundred students of

the Teachers College at the meetings, and a group of one hundred joined the

members following the banquet to hear the annual address given by Dr.

Ernest F. Bean.

Hosts to the three societies were jointly the Teachers College and the

Oshkosh Public Museum. Mr. Ralph N. Buckstaff of the Museum, a member

of each of the societies, extended the invitation to meet at Oshkosh, and

President Forrest R. Polk placed the facilities of the Little Theater on the

College grounds at the disposal of the organizations.

The Friday morning sessions were given to the Museum group, while

members of all groups presented papers at the ensuing sessions. The

Oshkosh Public Museum entertained the members of the three organizations

at a tea late Friday afternoon in the Museum building. The annual din¬

ner was held in the Athearn Hotel.

The program of papers which was presented follows:

Friday morning: Ralph N. Buckstaff. Oshkosh. A Painted and Incised

Winnebago Pottery Vessel; Gerald C. Stowe. Douglas County Historical

Museum, Superior. The David F. Barry Sioux Indian Collection; Marvel

Ings. University of Wisconsin. The Place of the Museum in the Community;

Louise Phelps Kellogg. Wisconsin Historical Society. The Milwaukee Art

and Travel Class; Harry Dankoler. Sturgeon Bay. The Door County His¬

torical Museum; C. W. English. Portage. The Indian Agency House Mu-

Proceedings of the Academy

397

seum; Robert B. Hartman. Milwaukee. Alaska, Another Melting Pot; Albert

H. Griffith. Omro. Abraham Lincoln.

Friday afternoon: Zida C. Ivey. Fort Atkinson. The Lee and Lawton

Collections of the Fort Atkinson Museum; George H. Overton. Butte des

Mortes. Indian Trade Areas; Charles E. Brown. State Historical Museum.

The Ringeisen Fluted Stone Axe; George L. Pasco. Ripon. Upper Fox River

Valley Native Copper Implements; Otto L. Kowalke. University of Wiscon¬

sin. Highest Abandoned Beach Ridges in Northern Door County, Wisconsin;

Arthur P. Kannenberg. Oshkosh Public Museum. Pre-Columbian Lead

Objects of Winnebago County; Ella S. Colbo. Racine. The Colonel Hans

Heg Memorial Museum; Zida C. Ivey. Fort Atkinson. The Octagon House

Museum, Watertown; (Presented for the Watertown Historical Museum.);

Mary Jane Overton. Buttes des Mortes. Suggestions of a Young Archeolo¬

gist; Arthur Beatty. University of Wisconsin. Wordsworth and the New

Democracy.

Following the afternoon session the members adjourned to the Osh¬

kosh Public Museum Building at Algoma Boulevard and West Algoma

Street for the tea, and a tour of the Museum.

Friday evening: Annual dinner at the Athearn Hotel, followed by the

annual lecture given by Dr. E. F. Bean, State Geologist of Wisconsin, on

the subject “The Geology of the Fox River — Lake Winnebago Region/’

Saturday morning: Harold R. Bullock. Oshkosh. The Lasley Point

Mounds; Dorothy Moulding Brown. Madison. Wisconsin Indian Corn Origin

Myths; Gerald C. Stowe. Superior. Plants Used by the Chippewa Indians;

Robert R. Jones. Wild Rose. County Fair Museum Exhibits; Phebe J.

Lookaround. Shawano. Streamlining Indian Lore; Edward Kremers. Uni¬

versity of Wisconsin. The Significance of the number 4 in Science; Berenice

Cooper. State Teachers College, Superior. An Eighteenth Century Dictator¬

ship; Casimir D. Zdanowicz. University of Wisconsin. Samuel Chappuzeau

and his “Europe Vivante” 1666-1671; J. F. Groves. Ripon College. Tempera¬

ture Reactions; H. V. B. Kline, Jr. University of Wisconsin. (Introduced

by Loyal Durand, Jr.). The Development of the Urban Settlements on Lake

Michigan; Kenneth Bertrand. Oklahoma State College. The Eastern Lake

Shore Red Clay Dairy Region of Wisconsin; Loyal Durand, Jr. University

of Wisconsin. Rib Lake— one of the Wisconsin Lumber Mill Towns ;

Arthur D. Hasler. University of Wisconsin. Application of the Dropping

Mercury Electrode Apparatus to Respiration Studies in Fish. (By title) ;

Ruth Marshall. Rockford College. The Genus TYRRELLIA of the Water

Mites.

The grant-in-aid of research, made possible by the allotment of $100.

from the American Association for the Advancement of Science, was

awarded to Professor Harry Hayden Clark of the University of Wisconsin.

TREASURER’S REPORT

March 29, 1940

RECEIPTS

Cash on hand, March 30, 1939 ....... . . . . . $ 995.12

Grant-in-aid of research from A.A.A.S. . . . . . . 100.00

398 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts and Letters

Receipts from dues, interest, sale of publications,

sale of reprints to authors . 776.13

$1,871.25

DISBURSEMENTS

Secretary . $ 200.00

Printing . 7.00

Postage .....; . 23.00

Safety Box . 3.30

Lantern operator for 1939 meeting . 4.00

Grant-in-aid of research . 100.00

$ 337.30

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