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TRANSACTIONS
r; j.. ,
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OF THE
WISCONSIN ACADEMY
OF
SCIENCES, ARTS AND LETTERS
VOL. XXXIV
MADISON, WISCONSIN
1942
TRANSACTIONS
OF THE
WISCONSIN ACADEMY
OF
*
SCIENCES, ARTS AND LETTERS
VOL. XXXIV
NATURAE SPECIES RATIOQUE
MADISON, WISCONSIN
1942
OFFICERS OF THE WISCONSIN ACADEMY OF SCIENCES,
ARTS AND LETTERS
President
A. W. Sehorger, Madison
Vice-Presidents
In Science: W. N. Steil, Marquette University
In Arts: Ralph Euckstaff, Oshkosh
In Letters : Berenice Cooper, Superior State Teachers College
Secretary-Treasurer
Loyal Durand Jr., University of Wisconsin
Librarian
Gilbert H. Doane, University of Wisconsin
Curator
Charles E. Brown, State Historical Museum
Council
The President
The Vice-Presidents
The Secretary-Treasurer
The Librarian
E. A. Birge, past president
Charles S. Slichter, past president
Henry L. Ward, past president
L. J. Cole, past president
Charles E. Allen, past president
Rufus M. Bagg, past president
Chancey Juday, past president
Paul W. Boutwell, past president
Committee on Publication
The President
The Secretary-Treasurer
L. E. Noland, University of Wisconsin
Committee on Library
The Librarian
A. L. Barker, Ripon College
Ira A. Edwards, Milwaukee Public Museum
W. S. Marshall, University of Wisconsin
0. L. Kowalke, University of Wisconsin
Committee on Membership
The Secretary-Treasurer
E. F. Bean, Wisconsin Geological Survey
P. W. Boutwell, Beloit College
. E. Rogers, Lawrence College
W. Sehorger, Madison
- <£~ k C- Tv?
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TABLE OF CONTENTS
Page
Birds of the University of Wisconsin Arboretum, Harry G. Anderson,
William S. Feeney, Theodore M. Sperry, and John Catenhusen. 5
Extinct and Endangered Mammals and Birds of the Upper Great Lakes
Region. A. W. Schorger . . . 23
Mutations in Minks. Max Shackelford . . . . . 45
Rural Agglomerated Settlements in the Eastern Lake Shore Red Clay
Dairy Region of Wisconsin. Kenneth Bertrand . . . 47
The Nature of Two Associated Wisconsin Soils as Influenced by Post-
Glacial Erosion, Topography, and Substratum. Lewis Nelson _ 63
Factors Influencing Injury to Cranberry Plants During Flooding. Neil E.
Stevens and Noel F. Thompson. . 73
Notes on Wisconsin Parasitic Fungi. II. H. C. Greene. . . . . 83
Cats with Abnormally Arranged Viscera. Harold R. Wolfe . 99
The Summer Standing Crop of Plants and Animals in Four Wisconsin
Lakes. Chancey Juday . . . . . . . 103
The Growth, Food, Distribution and Relative Abundance of the Fishes of
Lake Geneva, Wisconsin, in 1941. Merlin N. Nelson and Arthur D.
Hasler . 137
Study of the Rooted Aquatic Vegetation of Weber Lake, Vilas County,
Wisconsin. J. E. Potzger and Willard A. Van Engel. . 149
Limnological Observations on Three Lakes in Eastern Vilas County,
Wisconsin. Thomas H. Flanigon . 167
Microfossil Studies of Three Northcentral Wisconsin Bogs. L. R. Wilson,
and R. M. Webster . 177
A Photoelectric Method for Determination of pH. John Rae and V. W.
Meloche . 195
Samuel Chappuzeau and His “European Vivante,” 1666-71. Casimir D.
Zdanowicz . 213
Margaret Ashmun: Wisconsin Author, and Educator. Julia Grace
Wales . . . 221
An Eighteenth Century Dictatorship. Berenice Cooper . .231
The Vogue of Macaulay in America. Harry Hayden Clark . 237
Proceedings of the Academy . 293
Constitution of the Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts and Letters. . .301
Correspondence relating to publication in the Transactions or to other Academy business
should be directed to the Secretary, Loyal Durand Jr., 318 Science Hall, Madison, Wisconsin.
Publications intended for the Library of the Academy should be sent directly to the Librarian,
Gilbert H. Doane, University of Wisconsin Library, Madison, Wisconsin.
BIRDS OF THE UNIVERSITY OF
WISCONSIN ARBORETUM
Harry G. Anderson William S. Feeney
Theodore M. Sperry and John Catenhusen
This paper records for the information of the bird students,
the birds seen on the University of Wisconsin Arboretum between
1933 and 1941. Most of the data were obtained by the authors
incidental to other tasks on the area. Some data were contributed
by other ornithologists or were obtained from the literature.
The Arboretum is situated on the shore of Lake Wingra in
the outskirts of Madison, Wisconsin. Its boundaries and position
are shown on the map. Its 1137 acres include diverse habitats for
birds: open water, marshland, wet meadows, old fields, woody
thickets, and woodland.
Seasonal Distribution
The observer of birds on the Arboretum may expect to find,
during the various months of the year, about the following num¬
bers of species :
Birds occurring on the Arboretum may be grouped according
to the seasons during which they are present.
1. Birds 'present yearlong:
Mallard
Red-tailed Hawk
Bob white
Ring-necked Pheasant
Screech Owl
Great Horned Owl
Blue Jay
* Present only in the winter.
1 Journal Paper Number 5, University of Wisconsin Arboretum. Harry G. Anderson of
the Department of Zoology studied birds on the Arboretum from 1933-1936 ; William S. Feeney
of the National Park Service from 1936-1940 ; Theodore M. Sperry of the National Park
Service from 1936-1941. John Catenhusen, Arboretum Biologist since July, 1941, edited this
paper and contributed incidental observations.
Barrel Owl (Occasional in the winter)
Long-eared Owl*
Short-eared Owl*
Red-headed Woodpecker (Uncommon
in the Winter)
Hairy Woodpecker
Downy Woodpecker
5
6 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts and Letters
2. Birds breeding further north, but wintering here
Old Squaw* Purple Finch
3. Bh'ds breeding further north, wintering further south, here only in
migration:
* Irregular in occurrence, present only during some winters.
Anderson , et. al. — Birds of the Wisconsin Arboretum
7
Semi-palmated Plover
Black-bellied Plover
Ruddy Turnstone
Wilson’s Snipe*
Black-throated Blue Warbler
Myrtle Warbler
Black-throated Green Warbler
Cerulean Warbler
Blackburnian Warbler
Chestnut-sided Warbler
Bay-breasted Warbler
Black-poll Warbler
Pine Warbler
Palm Warbler
Northern Water-Thrush
Grinnell’s Water-Thrush
Louisiana Water-Thrush
Nashville Warbler
Northern Parula Warbler
Magnolia Warbler
Cape May Warbler
Mourning Warbler
Wilson’s Warbler
Canada Warbler
Rusty Blackbird
Leconte’s Sparrow
Clay-colored Sparrow
Harris’s Sparrow
White-crowned Sparrow
Gambel’s Sparrow
White-throated Sparrow
Fox Sparrow
Lincoln’s Sparrow
4. Birds breeding here or in the immediate vicinity but wintering further
south :
* Occasional in winter.
8
Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts and Letters
Chimney Swift
Ruby-throated Hummingbird
Belted Kingfisher
Flicker
Eastern Kingbird
Arkansas Kingbird
Crested Flycatcher
Phoebe
Alder Flycatcher
Least Flycatcher
Wood Pewee
Prairie Horned Lark*
Tree Swallow
Bank Swallow
Rough-winged Swallow
Purple Martin
Bronzed Grackle
Cowbird
Scarlet Tanager
Rose-breasted Grosbeak
Indigo Bunting
Dickcissel
Towhee
Savannah Sparrow
Grasshopper Sparrow
Henslow’s Sparrow
Vesper Sparrow
Chipping Sparrow
Field Sparrow
Swamp Sparrow
Song Sparrow*
Breeding Birds
Approximately 90 species of birds have been recorded as
breeders on the Arboretum. They are listed under the months
during which they have been observed to nest. The list includes
the species observed to breed by the authors since 1983, plus a
few species of exceptional interest observed by other ornithol¬
ogists during the past decade. Birds that breed in the immediate
vicinity, but have not been observed to breed on the Arboretum,
are not included in this list, but are recorded under Lists 1 and 4.
February
Great Horned Owl
March
Mallard
Prairie Horned Lark
Crow
April
Blue-winged Teal
Red-tailed Hawk
Red-shouldered Hawk
Bobwhite
Ring-necked Pheasant
Killdeer
Woodcock
Mourning Dove
Screech Owl
Long-eared Owl
Northern Flicker
* Occasional in winter.
April (continued)
Phoebe
White-breasted Nuthatch
May
Green Heron
American Bittern
Cooper’s Hawk
Marsh Hawk
Virginia Rail
Sora Rail
Florida Gallinule
American Coot
Spotted Sandpiper
Short-eared Owl
Belted Kingfisher
Ruby-throated Hummingbird
Red -headed Woodpecker
Hairy Woodpecker
Anderson , et. al. — Birds of the Wisconsin Arboretum
9
May (continued)
Downy Woodpecker
Kingbird
Tree Swallow
Blue Jay
Black-capped Chickadee
House Wren
Long-billed Marsh Wren
Short-billed Marsh Wren
Catbird
Brown Thrasher
Starling
Yellow- throated Vireo
Red-eyed Vireo
Warbling Vireo
Yellow Warbler
Ovenbird
Northern Yellow-throat
Redstart
English Sparrow
Eastern Meadowlark
Western Meadowlark
Red-winged Blackbird
Baltimore Oriole
Cardinal
Rose-breasted Grosbeak
Indigo Bunting
Towhee
May (continued)
Savannah Sparrow
Chipping Sparrow
Field Sparrow
Swamp Sparrow
Song Sparrow
June
Least Bittern
Wilson’s Phalarope (4)
Black Tern
Yellow-billed Cuckoo
Black-billed Cuckoo
Nighthawk
Whippoorwill
Crested Flycatcher
Alder Flycatcher
Least Flycatcher
Wood Pewee
Wood Thrush
Blue-gray Gnatcatcher (Schorger,
unpublished journal, 1924)
Bell’s Vireo (5)
Bobolink
Dickcissel
Eastern Goldfinch
Grasshopper Sparrow
Henslow’s Sparrow
During the breeding seasons of 1934 to 1936, six census areas
(fig. 1) totalling 150 acres, were intensively studied, and all sing¬
ing males and as many nests as possible were recorded. The
average number of breeding pairs for the three seasons was
found to be :
Red-winged Blackbird . . 40 pairs
Long-billed Marsh Wren 34 pairs
Yellow Warbler ....... 20 pairs
Catbird . 18 pairs
Northern Yellow-throat. 21 pairs
Cowbird . . 15 pairs
Goldfinch . 14 pairs
English Sparrow . . . 10 pairs
Swamp Sparrow . 15 pairs
Song Sparrow ......... 45 pairs
Red-eyed Vireo . 10 pairs
Field Sparrow . 17 pairs
Warbling Vireo . . 5 pairs
Robin . 18 pairs
Mourning Dove . 6 pairs
Pheasant . 30 pairs
Bobwhite . 10 pairs
Flicker . 8 pairs
Blue Jay. . 8 pairs
Cardinal . . 3 pairs
American Bittern . 4 pairs
Indigo Bunting . 7 pairs
Crow . 4 pairs
Woodcock . . 8 pairs
Bluebird . 4 pairs
Total . 370 pairs
Average per acre . 2.5 pairs
10 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts and Letters
The density of nests varied with the habitat, ranging from
.45 nests per acre on old fields to 2.80 per acre on marshes.
Migration
This list gives the earliest arrival date and the latest departure
date recorded during the period 1938 to 1941 for each migrant
species. It also includes species of irregular movement, with re¬
marks on their Arboretum status. It excludes all birds recorded
under Lists 1 and 2.
The order is the order of spring arrival. Species showing an
arrival date in the spring and a departure date in the fall are
breeders, while species showing arrival and departure dates for
Anderson , et. al — Birds of the Wisconsin Arboretum 11
both spring and fall occur here only as transient visitors. In the
case of migrants which breed farther north but winter here, the
fall arrival date appears under the fall column and the spring
departure date appears under the spring column.
The relative abundance of each species is indicated by the
following abbreviations : C «= common ; FC = fairly common ;
U — uncommon ; R — rare.
12
Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts and Letters
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Anderson, et. al. — Birds of the Wisconsin Arboretum 19
20 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts and Letters
Introduced Species
English Sparrow
This species was introduced at Fort Howard (near Green
Bay) and Sheboygan in 1875 as well as in the East. It has long
since become an abundant resident. On the Arboretum it pre¬
fers the area occupied by the Civilian Conservation Corps
buildings.
Starling
The starling was introduced in New York City in 1890. It
was first observed in Dane County in 1928. It is now a permanent
resident, though less common in winter than in the other seasons
of the year.
Chukar Partridge
No chukar partridges have been planted on the Arboretum,
but numerous releases have been made in Dane County. Two
birds drifted to the Arboretum and remained throughout the
spring and summer of 1940.
Ring-necked Pheasant
The first release of these birds (number unknown) was made
in 1923-1924 by Frank Schultz of the Izaak Walton League. Ed
Lloyd planted eight in 1925. S. H. Chase released 14 at his resi¬
dence in 1927. A census taken during the winter of 1929-1930
by Paul Errington showed six to be present. In 1932 J. G. Dick¬
son planted 22, while Frank Schultz released 26 in 1933, after
which no more plantings were made. Yearly censuses have dis¬
closed a considerable increase :
Hungarian Partridge
Four pairs of Hungarian partridges were released near the
present headquarters by Frank Schultz and W. W. Cook in 1929.
They were seen a short time later at Professor George Wagner's
residence in Wingra Park. None has been observed since.
Anderson , et. al. — Birds of the Wisconsin Arboretum 21
Species Recorded Previous to This Study
Wood Duck
This species was at one time quite numerous on Lake Wingra.
W. H. Chase (3), hunting in this region from 1873-1896, killed
161. During this period wood duck comprised 11 per cent of his
bag. He killed his last wood duck in 1894.
Ruffed Grouse
W. H. Chase (3) considered this grouse a common resident of
the Lake Wingra area and bagged 94 birds between the years
1873-1894.
A. R. Cahn (2) reported that ruffed grouse were still common
in the Wingra woods in 1915.
Pinnated Grouse
A. R. Cahn (2) refers to the prairie chicken as being “very
common, probably nesting” in 1915. A. W. Schorger found a
nest in one of the Lake Wingra marshes on April 26, 1914 (5).
S. H. Chase remembers hearing “chickens” booming in the marsh
up to 1931. The last record was three birds seen on December 8,
1936, during a pheasant census.
Passenger Pigeon
W. H. Chase (3) recorded this extinct bird as late as 1888,
bagging four in that year.
Bell’s Vireo
Two records are known for the Arboretum region. A. W.
Schorger (5) collected a specimen in the Lake Wingra area on
July 3, 1914, and Warner Taylor (6) found a nesting pair on
June 9, 1922.
Publications Helpful in the Study of Arboretum Birds
The bird student should own and carry with him a good manual. One
such is :
Peterson, Roger Tory.
1939. A field guide to the birds. 167 pp. Houghton Mifflin Company,
New York.
22
Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts and Letters
The bird student may find a full account of the life histories of birds in
the following publications which are available in libraries :
Roberts, Thomas S.
1932. The birds of Minnesota. 2 vols., 1512 pp. The University of
Minnesota Press, Minneapolis, Minnesota.
Barrows, Walter B.
1912. Michigan bird life. 822 pp. Wynkoop Hallenbeck Crawford
Company, Lansing, Michigan. (Out of print.)
The bird student may consult the following check lists in libraries:
Schorger, A. W.
1929 and 1931. Birds of Dane County, Wisconsin. Transactions of
the Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts and Letters, 24:457-499,
26:1-60.
Barger, N. R. et al.
1942. Wisconsin birds — a preliminary check list with migration
charts. The Wisconsin Society of Ornithology, Madison, Wisconsin.
The following periodical deals with Wisconsin ornithology:
The Passenger Pigeon. Monthly bulletin of the Wisconsin Society of
Ornithology, Madison, Wisconsin.
Literature on Arboretum Birds
1. Anderson, Harry G.
1936. 166 pp. Avifauna of the Arboretum of the University of Wis¬
consin. A thesis submitted for the degree of bachelor of arts.
University of Wisconsin, Madison, Wisconsin.
2. Cahn, A. R.
1915. An ecological survey of the Wingra springs region. Bulletin of
the Wisconsin Natural History Society, 13:123-177.
3. Leopold, Aldo.
1937. The Chase journal: an early record of Wisconsin wildlife.
Transactions of the Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts and
Letters, 31:69-76.
4. Main, John S.
1940. The Auk, 57:424.
5. Schorger, A. W.
1929 and 1931. Birds of Dane County, Wisconsin. Transactions of the
Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts and Letters, 24:457-499,
26:1-60.
6. Taylor, Warner.
1922. The Auk, 39:575.
EXTINCT AND ENDANGERED MAMMALS AND BIRDS
OF THE UPPER GREAT LAKES REGION
A. W. SCHORGER
The early French voyageurs called the Chippewa River Bon
Secours (Good Succor) since in its valley game could be obtained
without fail and in abundance. Subject to seasonal wanderings,
the prairies and oak openings contained large herds of deer, elk,
and bison. The black bear was common in all the wooded areas,
while moose and caribou were to be found towards Lake Superior.
Fur-bearing animals were abundant. Game-birds, though numer¬
ous, were seldom molested since the ball required to secure a
sharp-tailed grouse could fell a deer as readily.
The advent of settlement initiated vast changes in the flora
and fauna, and the end is not yet. The attitude towards conserva¬
tion must be realistic. Agriculture is incompatible with great
herds of elk and bison, and darkening flocks of pigeons. Whether
a more satisfactory compromise than the present could have been
reached by a premeditated plan is conjectural.
Today, among the mammals, the native stock of the bison, elk,
and cougar is extinct. The restoration of the bison and cougar
is impractical. The same may be said of the elk except for a few
special areas.
In the preservation of most species two factors loom large.
The obvious one is a favorable habitat. The other, a population
“reservoir” from which a species can draw recruits, is more often
overlooked. The reservoirs no longer exist and the remnants
live precariously.
The elk actually flourished only in the oak openings and on
the prairies. Today we try to preserve the elk in unsuitable
environments. The elk placed on Grand Island have disappeared,
while those introduced into the northern portion of the southern
peninsula of Michigan appear to be stationary in numbers. In
Wisconsin, the elk did not receive permanent protection until
1913, long after the native stock was exterminated. In 1917,
forty-one elk from the Yellowstone National Park were placed
on the state game farm in Vilas County. Approximately one-half
23
24 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts and Letters
of the animals died following release, yet in 1924 it was thought
that the drove had increased to 75. At the present time there are
possibly 35 elk in Vilas and Oneida Counties. The elk received
permanent protection in Minnesota in 1890, again too late to
save the native stock. In 1935, twenty-seven elk, obtained orig¬
inally from Jackson’s Hole, were released in the northwestern
part of Minnesota. Now there are about 90 elk ranging that area.
The caribou was never numerous in Wisconsin and Michigan.
The small population that did exist was maintained unquestion¬
ably by infiltrations from Ontario and Minnesota. The latter
state alone has sufficient muskeg country to perpetuate the spe¬
cies. The various species of reindeer moss ( Cladonia ) appear
to be essential winter foods for this animal in the wild. Recently
ten caribou trapped in Saskatchewan were brought to Minnesota
for eventual release in an attempt to secure a natural increase of
the native residue represented by three cows. In view of the fact
that Canadian caribou no longer wander into the region, the
experiment will be watched with interest.
The moose received permanent protection in Wisconsin in
1907 and in Minnesota in 1922. No native stock exists in Wiscon¬
sin or in Michigan except on Isle Royale. Minnesota is in an
enviable position. The moose is still sufficiently numerous that
there is no apparent danger of a serious decrease. The difficulties
in introduction are great. Eighteen moose trapped on Isle Royale
in the winter of 1935-36 were liberated along the Escanaba River
in the spring of 1936. A bull moose injured in transport was not
released until a year later. The bull and four cows eventually
wandered southward into Florence County, Wisconsin. In the
fall of 1937, the bull was found shot, and in the fall of 1939, a
cow met a similar fate. At times, an adequate public respect for
game seems distant. All the painstaking and costly efforts to
perpetuate a species can be annulled in a brief time by a few
thoughtless individuals. There is hope that the moose can be
restored permanently on some of the state and national forests,
but the wandering habit of the animal provides another difficulty
with which to cope.
The timber wolf exists in sufficient numbers that there is no
immediate danger of extinction. Cessation of trapping could
increase the population readily. Fortunately it is possible to
exercise complete control on the national forests. Elsewhere,
Schorger— Extinct and Endangered Mammals and Birds 25
where there is damage to stock, the coyote and timber wolf de¬
cline together. Deer are sufficiently numerous so that only under
exceptional conditions will it be necessary to control the timber
wolf on this account, should the point be reached where its
existance is endangered.
The restoration of the fur-bearing mammals, the fisher and
the marten, is an especially difficult problem. They were pro¬
tected permanently in Minnesota in 1933 and in Wisconsin in
1921. The intervening years offer no hope of a substantial in¬
crease in their numbers in the sections where a few individuals
presumably still exist. The introduction of Canadian stock into
the national forests would be an experiment well worth the effort.
Many attempts have been made by states and private indi¬
viduals to restock the north central states with wild turkeys. All
have been failures. Habitats suitable for restoration no longer
exist. Hatchery stock, aside from a pronounced tendency to end
up in a barnyard with domesticated turkeys, is seldom sufficiently
hardy. Experience teaches that it is necessary to start with wild,
trapped birds. The expense involved and the slender chances of
success scarcely justify the effort.
Man by a single plowing permanently destroyed the virgin
prairie. All the knowledge of prairie ecology acquired during the
past century is insufficient to enable him to restore it should
there be the will. With the destruction of the prairie, the prairie
chicken was forced northward into what was formerly ultra¬
marginal territory. What with drainage and drought even this
territory is being made distinctly less favorable through the
growth of brush. Judicious burning and flooding appear to be
essential if the prairie chicken is to be preserved. Whether the
disease cycle is recent in the history of the species and whether
it is becoming more or less severe in its effects are still unknown
factors. The serious study that has been given to the prairie
chicken should eventually bear fruit provided that “patient
money” continues to be available.
The complete disappearance of breeding sandhill cranes would
create a deplorable gap in our fauna. Whoever has heard the
sonorous cries of a flock of cranes circling high overhead will
never forget the experience. The few cranes that remain are a
tribute to the thoughtfulness of landowners. If left unmolested
by man, especially the poacher, there is no doubt but that the
sandhill crane would multiply satisfactorily. It is known that
26 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts and Letters
this bird requires large areas of grasslands and marshes with
pools of water, but it will be a sad commentary on our civiliza¬
tion if we must resort to management.
The vast environmental changes produced by man have re¬
duced many species to remnants. Conservation since its inception
under the mantle of game laws has been a continual compromise
with the hunter and the poacher. The zealous attempts of a few
to preserve our residual fauna for future generations is being
rewarded by the gradual development of a public conscience.
When the great majority of the people realize that a spruce
grouse has more aesthetic than culinary value, that a fisher in
the wilderness is as deserving of preservation as a squirrel in the
park, then the aims of conservation can be achieved.
Marten ( Maries americana americana Turton)
The marten, or American sable, occurred originally in all the
timbered areas of Minnesota, Wisconsin, and Michigan. It had
a decided preference for conifers and even penetrated the strip
of pine timber that ran along the shore of Lake Michigan, in
Illinois and Indiana.
The virtual extinction of the marten was due to the demands
of the fur trade coupled with the ease with which it could be
trapped. A bloody bait was irresistible. A Vermont trapper who
plied his trade on the Black River, Wisconsin, in 1866, had a
cruel but effective procedure. A hole was bored into the base of
a tree and filled with the livers of red squirrels. “Around this
hole would be driven a row of nails sharpened at the end and so
turned and bent that while the marten could get his head through
to reach the liver it was impossible to withdraw it, on account
of the sharpened nails.”1
The marten population is subject to violent fluctuations,
passing through an 8 to 10-year cycle. No adequate explanation
of this phenomenon has been advanced unless it be the fluctua¬
tions in number of its main food, rabbits. Another important
food was the red squirrel. The cutting of the virgin coniferous
forests, destroying habitat and food supply simultaneously, was
a factor in the decline.
The marten appears to have been much more numerous than
its relative, the fisher, judging from the returns of trappers and
traders. This is shown in the following table :
Schorger — Extinct and Endangered Mammals and Birds 27
The place that the marten held in the fur trade may be judged
from the- fact that the skins were sorted into fourteen grades
depending on color and quality.8
A shipment of furs from Chippewa Falls, Wisconsin, in 1871,
stated to have been one of the largest ever sent from the place,
contained but 60 marten skins. Preferential trapping could not
have been an important factor for in trade a fisher skin was
valued at one and one-half to twice as much as the marten. By
1920 the marten was close to extinction in Wisconsin. Trappers,
for the season 1919-20, reported taking but 21 marten, and during
the last legal season, 1920-21, none. The last known capture for the
state is the one shipped from Maple, Douglas County, in 1925. 9
During the past few years I have made special inquiry at the
Apostle Islands regarding the marten. In 1934, a fisherman
from Madeline Island stated that a Frenchman spent a winter
on Outer Island during the World War and trapped several
marten. No later report was obtained. It is difficult to explain
the presence of marten on islands such as Outer and Isle Royale,
except by crossing on the ice.
The decline in Minnesota was almost as rapid. Errington10
spent seven months, in the fall and spring of 1920-21, north and
east of Red Lake. His trapping grounds were in Beltrami and
Koochiching Counties. There were no marten left at that time.
According to Surber,11 the species still existed in southern Bel¬
trami County up to the spring of 1918. W. J. Breckenridge12
informs me that while there is no positive evidence of its existence
in Minnesota, trappers and wardens report that a few marten
remain in the Superior Forest and in the Chippewa National
Forest near Leech Lake. A few were trapped the winter
of 1939-40 in Ontario just north of Lake Saganaga, one being
obtained for the Museum of Natural History, University of
Minnesota.
* Collected from five posts in Minnesota.
28 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts and Letters
The marten declined in Michigan as rapidly as it did in Wis¬
consin. Very recently W. E. Scott of the Wisconsin Conservation
Department obtained the important information that the marten
is not extinct. W. R. Spellum, taxidermist and collector of
Viroqua, wrote that on November 27, 1939 while hunting in
southeastern Sawyer County he saw a marten catch and eat a
red squirrel; and on November 29, watched it attempt to catch
a ruffed grouse.
Fisher ( Martes pennanti pennanti Erxleben)
The fisher had much the same range as the marten. While
never as numerous as the marten it was far more common than
the latter in the hardwood timber. Returns from trading posts
located on Lake Superior show but few fisher skins. In mixed
conifers and hardwoods, especially along the river valleys, both
mammals were once fairly common. Anderson,13 who spent the
winter of 1806-07 fifty miles above the mouth of the Minnesota
River, mentions that both fisher and marten were trapped occa¬
sionally. Bunnell,14 coming to the present site of La Crosse in
1842, found fisher “numerous” in the big timber of the Mississippi
bottoms. While the occurrence of the marten in southern Wis¬
consin is conjectural, there are definite statements of the occur¬
rence of the fisher in Milwaukee and Jefferson Counties as late
as 1852 ;15 and it was formerly numerous in Sauk County.16
A gradual change in the numerical status of the marten and
fisher took place as the coniferous timber was cut and replaced
by the growth of hardwoods. In the season 1917-18, Wisconsin
trappers reported the capture of 559 fisher* and only 48 marten.
There is then a surprisingly rapid decline to 3 fisher for 1920-21,
the last legal season.17
Two fisher were trapped at Huron Mountain, Michigan, dur¬
ing the winter of 1930-31. Leopold18 states that sign was found
there along the Salmon Trout River about 1936. The fisher is
reported to exist still in Michigan and Wisconsin ; however the
only positive statement for the entire area is that of Manweiler19
who mentions it as part of the present fauna of the “Big Bog”
in Minnesota.
* This figure must be accepted with reservation. The otter, though on the protected
list at this time, was taken frequently and reported as “fisher”.
Schorger — Extinct and Endangered Mammals and Birds 29
Wolverine ( Gulo luscus Linn.)
The wolverine is the imp of the forest. In view of all the
traits attributed to it by the French-Canadians, it is surprising
that they did not give to it the name enfan du diable (child of
the devil) rather than to the wild cat. There is ample evidence
of its malicious destruction of property but it is doubtful if it
should carry the name glutton. Its appetite is sharp but no more
so than that of the wolf and several other animals. Schoolcraft,20
while in Minnesota in 1820, seems to have discussed this subject
for he states: “The Indians said there was no animal in their
country deserving this name [glutton] ; the only animal they
knew deserving of it, was the horse, which was eating all the
time.”
The wolverine was a rare animal south of Lake Superior.
Doty, 21 in 1820, stated specifically that it did not occur at the
head of Lake Superior but was to be found in the vicinity of
Leech and Sandy Lakes in Minnesota. Michigan has been on the
defensive as to its right to be called the wolverine state. Recently
there was found a clear description of the capture of a specimen
near Marquette in February, I860.22
The most circumstantial account of the occurrence of the
animal in Wisconsin relates the capture of “a large wolverine
or glutton” by Charles Carron on Big Rib River in the spring
of 1870. This stream rises in the eastern part of Taylor County
and enters the Wisconsin at Wausau, so that the animal was
taken most probably in Marathon County. The rarity of the
animal was recognized and it was placed on exhibition in Stevens
Point.23 Hoy24 states that it is occasionally taken in the timber
and that one was secured in La Crosse County in 1870. The Mil¬
waukee Public Museum, according to Cory,25 contains two speci¬
mens labeled “Wisconsin,” but lacking dates and localities. There
are other and more recent reports, but some without doubt are
due to confusion with the badger.
The wolverine was much more abundant in Minnesota where it
persisted longer. Cory25 quotes E. G. Kingsford to the effect that
about 1895 to 1897 it was quite common in northern Minnesota.
Surber26 likewise states that it was quite common up to about
1897. The last acceptable record is for northern St. Louis County
where one was taken in 1918.27 There is always the possibility
that the wolverine will enter Minnesota from Canada.
30 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts and Letters
Timber Wolf ( Canis lycaon Schreber)
The timber wolf ranged formerly throughout the entire tim¬
bered areas of Wisconsin, Minnesota, and Michigan and was not
uncommon in the prairie regions of these states. It lived mainly
on deer and rabbits. Decrease in the food supply coupled with
poisoning and trapping has reduced its numbers to the point
where extinction has been feared. Its smaller relative the coyote
or brush wolf ( Canis latrans latrans Say) is much more adapt¬
able to changed conditions and is in no danger of extermination.
Ranging widely, it is occasionally reported from even the oldest
communities.
Under primitive conditions, Seton estimated that there was
one timber wolf to two and one-half square miles. There are in¬
sufficient data to furnish a satisfactory estimate of the original
population in Wisconsin. The state, in 1865, paid bounties on
only 225 “wolves,” mainly from the southern counties. Those
reporting the highest individual numbers were Lafayette, Grant,
and Dane. This is a small number compared with the 1,587 wolves
submitted for bounty during the season 1938-39. Trappers' re¬
turns for the same period show the taking of 65 timber wolves.
The report of 0. L. Coleman on the control of predators in
Wisconsin, November, 1930, states that of the wolves presented
for bounty only two percent were timber wolves while trappers
take as high as 20 percent. The difference may be due to a
greater effort on the part of trappers in the wildest regions to
take timber wolves. W. E. Scott, to whom I am indebted for the
recent data on wolves, estimates the timber wolf population of
Wisconsin at 150 to 200.
The decline of the timber wolf in Wisconsin has been gradual.
Quarles,28 who settled on the prairies of Kenosha County in 1837,
wrote two years later of the prairie wolf and mentions that there
are “some of the large kind.” The black phase, once fairly com¬
mon, is now reported rarely. Timber wolves were killed in Dane
and Waukesha Counties in 1871 and one as late as 1880 in Jeffer¬
son County. At the present time it is confined to about twelve
of the northernmost Wisconsin counties.
The timber wolf was considered common in Gogebic and
Ontonagon Counties, Michigan, in 1920.29 The present state of
the species in the Upper Peninsula parallels that in northern
Wisconsin.
Schorger — Extinct and Endangered Mammals and Birds 31
In Minnesota, Herrick 30 mentions that wolves were especially
numerous in Wright County in the winter of 1884-85. More
recently, Surber31 reports the timber wolf as still fairly common
in the remote sections of the northern third of the state. It was
found occasionally in Pine County as late as 1918. The species
will always be in a favored position in Minnesota due to potential
immigration from Canada. The timber wolves of northern Wis¬
consin and Upper Michigan are virtually isolated.
Cougar ( Felis concolor couguar Kerr)
The cougar, commonly known as panther, was the largest
member of our cat family. The reputation that it bore as a
dangerous animal was without foundation as frequently a small
dog would cause it to take refuge in a tree. The popular nomen¬
clature, e.g. catamount, of the early narratives renders it difficult
to decide if the cougar was intended always. The chief prey of
the cougar was the deer, so that it occurred chiefly in the hard¬
wood belt on the southern edge of the coniferous forest. It was
not confined strictly to heavy timber, but ranged into the oak
openings of the prairie where also deer were common.
The cougar was a rare animal in the Upper Peninsula of
Michigan where it was observed last about 1850. There are so
many records for Wisconsin that the species cannot have been
especially rare there in the early days. Most of the records come
from the Lake Winnebago district and from the valleys of the
Chippewa and St. Croix Rivers. The Museum of Lawrence Col¬
lege at Appleton has a mounted cougar killed locally by Samuel
P. Hart on November 22, 1857. This is the only specimen extant
for the entire region under consideration.32 Richard Dart33 came
to Green Lake County in 1840. That fall two panthers roaming
in the vicinity were killed by the Indians. In 1839, Locke34 exam¬
ined the effigy mounds near Blue Mounds, Dane County and
stated that they might have been intended for the cougar, “an
animal still existing in that region.” Carver35 mentions seeing
one on an island in the Chippewa River in 17 67, and Fonda36 tells
of shooting one on an island in the Mississippi, near Trempealeau
Mountain, in 1839. An “enormous catamount” that prowled about
the Upper St. Croix River in the winter of 1866-67 was finally
killed by a posse from Stillwater. The mounted animal was pre¬
sented to Mr. L. A. Taylor, editor of the Prescott Journal.31 The
last acceptable record for the state is the cougar measuring “nine
32 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts and Letters
feet” in length, killed near Butternut, Ashland County, in Febru¬
ary, 1884.38
There are comparatively few records for Minnesota. Herrick39
considered the cougar killed in Chisago County in 1875 as a late
occurrence. The species did not become extinct until long after¬
wards. Wilcox40 mentions one killed in Becker County, in 1882,
and another shot in 1897.
Elk ( Cervus canadensis canadensis Erxleben)
The elk is the most magnificent of the American deer. Except
for its greater size it resembles the European stag or red deer,
names that it carried frequently in colonial times. It occurred
throughout the entire region under consideration but never was
common in the heavily forested areas, particularly those occupied
by conifers. The favored habitats were the park-like areas and
prairies. Here it was to be found in droves of hundreds, mingling
freely with the bison.
The elk disappeared rapidly from southern Wisconsin after
1800. In 1837 it was considered extinct in Illinois;41 however,
during the winter of 1827-28, Fonda42 found some Indians starv¬
ing between Milwaukee and Chicago “though the country was
teeming with deer, wild turkies, and elk.” Le Clair43, who went
to Milwaukee in 1800, stated that at that time there were no
elk or buffalo. In 1828, when Hollman44 settled at Platteville, bear,
elk, etc. were to be found in “astonishing quantities.” When Hoff¬
man45 was at Prairie du Chien in February, 1834, he mentions the
necessity of going to a distance to secure this game. Dogs for
running elk were kept by the officers at Fort Crawford.
Elk were plentiful in the Chippewa valley at this time and
continued common until about 1860. Copway,46 who was at the
foot of Lake Pepin in 1837, mentions seeing a drove of 500. The
last dependable record for the state is for the fall of 1866 when
nine were killed out of a drove of twelve found fifteen miles
west of Menomonie.47 In April, 1886, six elk, reputed to have
been killed in “the Lake Superior regions”, were shipped through
Chetek48, Barron County. They came most probably from Minne¬
sota. Brayton,49 in 1882, quoted a statement from B. H. Van Vleck
that the elk is still found in the vicinity of Green Bay. Being the
oldest settled community in the state, the elk disappeared rela¬
tively early, and it is highly improbable that its presence in 1882
would have escaped mention elsewhere.
Schorger — Extinct and Endangered Mammals and Birds 33
Elk were formerly very abundant in Minnesota. Pond,50 in
his quaint orthography states that “the Read and Moose Dear
are Plentey hear, Espeshaley the former. I have seen forty Kild
in One Day By Surrounding a drove on a low spot By the River
side in the Winter Season.,, Pike 51 depended largely on the elk
for food. They were still common in certain sections of the state
in 1885.52 The elk was seen last in Marshall County in 188753
while the latest unquestionable record for the state is 1890. Ac¬
cording to Surber,54 the reports of one shot in 1908, and of three
seen in Beltrami County in 1917, are open to doubt and may in
actuality refer to the moose.
Moose ( Alces americana americana Clinton)
Originally the moose was found throughout the Upper Penin¬
sula of Michigan and in Wisconsin from Green Bay southwest
to Green Lake County, thence northwest through Clark, Barron,
and Polk Counties, to northwestern Minnesota. The ancient
range in Minnesota is uncertain. Pond,55 who was on the Minne¬
sota River in 1773-75, mentions the “Moose Dear” among the
game animals. This would extend the southern boundary appre¬
ciably. In 1857 the line extended from the extremity of Pine
County to the northeastern corner of Kittson County.56
The presence of moose as far south as Green Lake County,
Wisconsin, in 1840, is mentioned by Richard Dart:57 “Elk and
Moose were found upon Willow River, and occasionally around
Green Lake.” Its presence around Lake Winnebago is established
by finds of moose antlers in streams and in Indian burials. It
had become so rare in Polk County by 1866 that the killing of one
elicited the statement that it was the first killed in the county.
There is no information on which to base an opinion that the
moose was ever more than fairly common in Wisconsin and
Michigan. Malhiot,58 who had charge of the trading post at Lac
du Flambeau from August, 1804 to June, 1805, records but 10
moose in the form of skins and meat. In the fall and winter of
1884 a hunter had exceptional success in the killing of five moose
in Douglas County.59 The largest population was to be found in
the northwestern part of the state where undoubtedly the species
was reinforced frequently by arrivals from Minnesota. In the
early days the region west of Superior was excellent moose ter¬
ritory. Few if any native Wisconsin moose existed after 1900.
From that time to the present, an occasional moose has wandered
34 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts and Letters
into the state from Minnesota. In 1921, a moose swimming across
Allouez Bay, near Superior, to the Wisconsin shore was drowned
after being roped and towed by a launch.60
The native stock in Michigan is extinct except on Isle Royale
where the moose is still numerous.
Minnesota is in a splendid position in that it possesses a
greater population of moose than all the other states of the union
combined. In 1932 a careful estimate placed the number at 4000.
Most of the moose are to be found in the northern tier of counties,
especially Lake and Cook.
Caribou (Rangifer caribou caribou Gmelin)
The caribou was abundant formerly in Minnesota but never
so in northern Wisconsin and the Upper Peninsula of Michigan.
It does not thrive except in a muskeg country. Crespal,61 who
was with the French expedition sent in 1728 to chastise the Fox
Indians in Wisconsin, compares a caribou, killed by the Indians
in the Upper Peninsula, with a moose: “The caribou is not so
tall and shaped more like the ass . . .” This is not an individual
flight of French fancy for Lahontan refers specifically to the
caribou as the “wild ass”. Still earlier, the winter of 1661-62,
Radisson62 was in the St. Croix River district where the Indian
party killed “Carriboucks.”
Acceptable records for the southern shore of Lake Superior
are few. Doty,63 in 1820, listed the “rein deer” for Leech and
Sandy Lakes but not for the head of Lake Superior. It was given,
however, as an inhabitant of the latter area in 1831 by School¬
craft.64 Florantha Sproat,65 writing from Fond du Lac (Supe¬
rior) on April 18, 1842, mentions seeing a reindeer, a “beautiful
animal of silver gray,” just killed by an Indian. While at the
Carp River, Chippewa County, Michigan, in March, 1849, Rev.
Pitezel66 was served Cariboo meat. Wood67 mentions that the
caribou has been recorded for Keweenaw (Isle Royale), Char¬
levoix (Beaver Island), Luce, Chippewa, and Dickinson Counties,
Michigan. According to Cory,68 a cow caribou was killed near
Ralph, Dickinson County, in November, 1905. He with others
mentions the killing of caribou in Wisconsin in 1910. These
records are questionable. In 1906, twenty Newfoundland caribou
were placed on the Pierce estate on the Brule River, Douglas
County. While all of them are supposed to have died on the
estate, several may have escaped.
Schorger — Extinct and Endangered Mammals and Birds 35
The caribou was once numerous in northern Minnesota and
was common until about 1900. Johnson69 mentions that in the
winter of 1895 two trappers located about 25 miles northeast of
Upper Red Lake furnished sleighloads of moose and caribou meat
to a lumbering camp. One drove of fully 500 caribou was seen.
The men did not like the caribou meat as it had “a rank taste of
peat or moss/' Breckenridge70 in 1935 reported that at least six
native caribou remained in Minnesota in the muskeg country be¬
tween Upper Red Lake and Lake of the Woods. This number had
decreased to three by 1939 when several caribou were imported
from Saskatchewan in an attempt to perpetuate the species.
It is of interest that centuries ago the range of the caribou
extended to Polk County, Wisconsin. Among the bones of an
extinct bison ( Bison antiquus) found in a marl deposit near
Osceola were a few of the caribou.71
Caribou formerly crossed from Canada to Isle Royale on the
ice. The last acceptable record for the island is 1905 when a drove
of nine was seen.72
Bison ( Bison bison bison Linn.)
The bison or buffalo, in the popular mind, is associated with
the great plains, and a statement that it once ranged nearly to
the Atlantic Ocean is received with scepticism. In early days it
was abundant on the prairies and “openings” of Wisconsin and
Minnesota.
The range in Wisconsin has been worked out in detail.73 Mar¬
quette,74 in 1674, found it on the shore of Lake Michigan at
modern Racine. The bison occurred as far north as Lake Winne¬
bago where Dablon75 found and described it in 1670-71. Writing
of the fur trade along the Wisconsin River on August 22, 1682,
La Salle76 mentions “the great number of buffaloes, which are
taken there every year, almost beyond belief.” This indicates
how early the slaughter began.
The Indian as a conservationist is somewhat of a myth. Hen¬
nepin77 mentions that at Lake Pepin the Sioux would kill forty or
fifty buffaloes and in their haste to move onward take only the
tongues and some other of the best pieces. In Minnesota in
March, 1807, the deer were powerless due to a deep, crusted snow
through which they sank. Anderson78 relates that the Indians
tomahawked the deer for sheer sport and that as a result during
the next winter not a deer was to be seen. The acquisition of
36 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts and Letters
firearms by the Indians, coupled with the size and unwariness
of the bison, brought about its extinction in southern Wisconsin
by about 1800.
Many of the early writers tell of the abundance of game in
the Chippewa valley. Here, says Carver,79 “larger droves of buffa¬
loes and elks were feeding, than I had observed in any other part
of my travels.” In this region the bison persisted longest. The
last were killed in Trempealeau County in 1832.
The French,80 in 1700, built a fort near the present site of
Mankato, Minnesota. While the fort was being built one-half
of the men spent their time hunting buffalo, 400 of which were
killed for use during the winter. Sibley81 accompanied the Sioux
on a hunt southeast of this locality in the winter of 1841. A large
amount of game was killed but it included only “a few buffaloes.”
By 1821 the bison no longer occurred on the east bank of the
Mississippi River in Minnesota. Lt. Allen,82 while near the junc¬
tion of the Crow Wing with the Mississippi in 1832, learned that
during severe winter storms herds of bison sought shelter in the
belt of timber on the right bank and occasionally penetrated to
the river. None were seen by Featherstonhaugh83 during his trip
up the Minnesota River in the fall of 1835.
Small herds of buffalo were found occasionally in western
Minnesota subsequent to 1850. According to Surber84 the last
living bison was observed in Norman County in the summer of
1880. Johnson85 states that the bison was killed last in Marshall
County in 1878 but that a small band was seen in the spring of
1881.
Canada Spruce Grouse (Canachites canadensis canace Linn.)
The spruce grouse is a bird of the coniferous forest. Its
favorite haunt is a dense swamp of arbor vitae, spruce and
tamarack. My first grouse was found near Lake Gogebic in a
stand of hemlock bordering a swamp. On a mossy log, in this
damp and gloomy place, strutted a handsome male. The notable
decrease in numbers may be explained best, perhaps, through its
common name “fool hen.” Foolish it was not under primitive
conditions or the species would not have survived. Man was
simply another animal to be avoided by a few feet. Even today
it has not learned the danger of the hurled stick or slipnoose on
the end of a pole.
Its status is given succinctly by Dr. Roberts:86 “The Spruce
Grouse is in Minnesota, as elsewhere, a disappearing bird.” Kum-
Schorger— Extinct and Endangered Mammals and Birds 37
lien and Hollister,87 writing of the bird in Wisconsin in 1903, state
that it has been decreasing during the past twenty-five years, the
rapid decline being difficult to explain.
The former abundance and range are based largely on general
assumptions. Barrows88 states that it was once a common bird
throughout the pine regions of Michigan and abundant in the
Upper Peninsula. As to Wisconsin it is very doubtful if it fol¬
lowed the conifers as far south as Adams County. Hoy,89 in 1852,
reported it as common about the headwaters of Wolf River and
in the vicinity of Lake Superior. Writing in 1891, Kumlien90 stated
that the spruce grouse is never found in southern and central
Wisconsin, and according to his observations was “far more
abundant” in the Upper Peninsula of Michigan than in Wiscon¬
sin. In Minnesota about seventy years ago Trippe91 found it
abundant from Carlton County westward to the Mississippi River.
During the past two decades the spruce grouse has become a
rare bird. Breckenridge,86 while along the north shore of Lake
Superior in May, 1928, failed to find it though he was informed
that a few occurred inland. The species has a good chance of
survival in the large swamps of northern Minnesota. Manweiler92
listed recently the gallinaceous birds of the “Big Bog” in the fol¬
lowing order of abundance: sharp-tailed grouse, ruffed grouse,
spruce grouse, pinnated grouse.
In Wisconsin, Jackson93 'failed to find it at Mamie Lake, Vilas
County in 1917 and 1918 though he obtained reports of a bird
killed in each of the years 1918 and 1919. W. E. Scott has col¬
lected' data from wardens and others showing that during the
past two years the spruce grouse has occurred in the following
northern counties : Bayfield, Ashland, Iron, Vilas, Forest, Sawyer,
Price, Oneida' and Langlade. It would appear that less than 200
birds remain in the state but owing to the inaccessibility of the
preferred habitat this figure may be wide of - the mark.
This grouse, according to Van Tyne,94 is rare in Michigan
south of the Straits of Mackinac, but there' are recent records
south to Ogemaw County.
Prairie Chicken ( Tympanuchus cupido americanus Reich)
The prairies of Wisconsin once supported a large mixed popu¬
lation of prairie chicken and sharp-tailed grouse. Under primeval
conditions Minnesota appears to have had the latter species only.
With the beginning of .agriculture the prairie chicken increased
38 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts and Letters
greatly and pushed its range farther and farther north until it
was overwhelmed by the same agency that had given it a “golden
age.”
The plow has destroyed its best habitat to the south, confining
it to a northern belt that, if occupied at all under primitive con¬
ditions, would have been held most precariously. The bird now
occupies a region far more suitable to the sharp-tailed grouse
with which it is forced to compete.
It is difficult to estimate the population prior to settlement
owing to the paucity of data. As early as 1842, prairie chickens
were brought into Milwaukee by the sleighload and were con¬
sidered as “common fare.”95 A party of hunters at Kenosha, on
September 12, 1843 had 515 “grouse” in a mixed bag of game.96
At Racine, in 1849, a single gun could obtain “sixty to ninety”
daily.97 Prairie chickens continued abundant for three decades and
during this period large numbers were killed for the market. The
first sharp drop in numbers came in 1857. Since that date the
species has gone through the well known cyclic fluctuations.
A census of the prairie chicken population of Wisconsin made
in 1929, as reported by Leopold,98 totalled 54,850. The following
year a detailed report on the species was prepared by Gross.99
During the past decade it has been the subject of continuous study
and its present status leaves little room for optimism. It is a real
question if the prairie chicken can be preserved as a game bird.
Hamerstrom100 has shown clearly that the best habitat is being
invaded rapidly by brush as a result of fire, drought and the
activities of man.
The situation in Minnesota is identical with that in Wisconsin.
Without the practice of conservation, “the days of the Prairie
Chicken are numbered.”101 In 1929 Gross102 wrote : “It is not only
maintaining itself, but, unlike the nearly extinct Heath Hen, it is
increasing its numbers.” Today the heath hen is extinct and the
prairie chicken shows a decline.
Wild Turkey ( Meleagris gallopavo silvestris Vieillot)
This fine bird was once common in southern Wisconsin and in
Iowa. The upper limit of its range may be defined by a line
running southwest from Green Bay through Green Lake and
►Sauk Counties, thence due west along the Minnesota-Iowa
boundary, through southwestern Minnesota and southeastern
South Dakota.
Schorger — Extinct and Endangered Mammals and Birds 39
In 1670, Allouez103 saw two turkeys in a tree at Lake Win-
neconne, Wisconsin. Dart104 found wild turkeys in Green Lake
County in 1840 ; and according to Canfield,105 who came to Sauk
County in 1842, turkeys occurred there formerly. An army
officer106 stationed at Prairie du Chien in 1847 wrote that “turkeys
and deer are plenty in the woods.” The early reports of Hennepin
and Carver of the presence of turkeys at Lake Pepin are open
to doubt.
Opinions on the range west of the Mississippi vary widely.
Coues,107 in 1874, stated that the northern limit could not be far
from the Minnesota boundary. This is certainly true of its old
range. The prairie was not a barrier. Anderson,108 who spent the
winter of 1801-2 at the present site of Des Moines states : “The
little islands of wood, scattered over the boundless plains, were
swarming with wild turkeys.” Owen,109 in 1852 reported briefly :
“Only found on the south of the Upper Iowa.” This would bring the
range into extreme northeastern Iowa. Leopold110 records its
presence in Worth and Mitchell Counties about 1860. It was
formerly abundant in Woodbury and Cherokee Counties. He
reports one killed in the latter county as late as April, 1897. Mr.
N. E. France111 was born near what is now Livermore, Humboldt
County, Iowa, in 1857. A few years ago he wrote to me that at that
period game was abundant and his father did much hunting and
trapping. During the severe winter of 1860, droves of elk and
flocks of wild turkeys were forced southward, only a few of which
ever returned.
It is difficult to prove that the wild turkey occurred in
Minnesota. Hatch112 mentions that it was reported as a resident
of the extreme southwestern part of the state. Its presence there
is highly probable in view of its former abundance in the Missouri
valley up to southeastern South Dakota. The most definite state¬
ment is that of Peter Pond113 who wintered on the Minnesota
River in 1773-5. As to game he mentions that there are “sum
turkeas”. Being a New Englander, there is little likelihood of an
error in identification. There must have been many advances and
retreats on the northern border of the range of a species like the
turkey ; hence it is not improbable that there were many occasions
on which it wandered into southern Minnesota.
Some idea of the former abundance of the turkey in Wisconsin
may be gained from the following statement of Lockwood :114 “It
40 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences } Arts and Letters
was not an uncommon thing to see a Fox Indian arrive at Prairie
du Chien with a hand sled, loaded with twenty or thirty wild
turkies for sale, as they were very plenty about Cassville.”
The severe winter of 1842-3 nearly exterminated the turkey
in Wisconsin. At about this time also settlement of the country
became vigorous so that the species never recovered. According
to Hoy115 the last time that a turkey was killed near Racine was in
the fall of 1846. It survived longest in Grant County where one
was shot in the fall of 1872.
The turkey disappeared more gradually from Iowa. It was
seen last in Appanoose County in 1902, Davis County in 1905,
and Lucas County in 1910. 116 The latter date marks the extermina¬
tion of the native stock in the Upper Mississippi Valley.
Sandhill Crane ( Grus canadensis tabida Peters)
The sandhill crane, up to 1850, was a common breeding bird
in the states bordering the Upper Great Lakes. It occurred in
largest numbers on the wide prairies, though confined to the
marshes mainly during the nesting period. While having a varied
diet, seeds are the preferred food in spring and fall. The decline
in numbers is due to a variety of causes. Wary and intolerant of
civilization, its habitat became restricted. Only two eggs are laid
and the nest appears to be highly susceptible to predation and to
abandonment on disturbance. It is a desirable bird for the table
and large numbers were killed for this purpose. Today it is
sometimes called “northern turkey” in the prairie provinces of
Canada. Even here, where it occurs in far greater numbers than
in the Lake States, there is distinct pessimism as to its survival.117
The sandhill crane still nests in a few isolated areas in Wood,
Jackson, Adams, Oconto, Marquette, and Green Lake Counties,
Wisconsin, and along the St. Croix River. Henika 118 believes that
the total breeding population of Wisconsin is limited to 25 pairs.
Hamerstrom119 reports approximately 12 pairs occupying the
breeding areas northwest of Necedah in Jackson, Monroe, Wood,
and Juneau Counties. The flocks of migrants numbering 25 to 300
birds that alight on the resting grounds in autumn give an
erroneous impression as to the actual breeding population.
The situation in Minnesota and Michigan is no more favorable.
One or two pairs still nest in Norman and Pennington Counties,
Minnesota. It is doubtful if the entire state has more than 10 pairs
of breeding birds. Michigan has approximately 10 pairs nesting
S charger— Extinct and Endangered Mammals and Birds 41
in the Seney marshes, Schoolcraft County, Upper Peninsula. In
the lower peninsula a few pairs still nest in Washtenaw, Living¬
ston, Ingham, Jackson, and Calhoun Counties.120 The state has
possibly 20 breeding pairs.
The paper by Hamerstrom is one of the very few studies made
of the present habitat of the sandhill crane with a view to its
preservation. The size of the range of a pair of breeding birds is
impressive. Reversion of the areas studied to game and forestry
management would undoubtedly destroy a large part of the
present breeding grounds through the growth of brush.
Passenger Pigeon ■( Ectopistes migratorius Linn.)
No American bird has left as dramatic an impression as the
wild or passenger pigeon. The flocks numbered millions and the
nestings covered many square miles of forest. Their numbers
were so great that the belief existed that this was one bird that
could not be exterminated. Yet when the end was in sight, it is
astonishing how little 'comment was made on its disappearance
during the decade 1890 to 1900.
The passenger pigeon lived largely on beechnuts and acorns.
In the- Upper Great Lakes region a good beechnut crop occurred
usually in the fall of odd years and thus provided abundant food
for nesting during the spring of even years. The beech being con¬
fined in its range to Michigan and eastern Wisconsin, the nestings
took place in these states in even years. The nestings in the
remainder of Wisconsin and Minnesota depended upon the supply
of acorns. In Minnesota the nestings were confined largely to the
hardwood timber in the southeastern part of the state.
One of the largest nestings that has been described took place
in central Wisconsin in 1871. 121 It is estimated that the nesting
area covered 850 square miles and contained 136,000,000 breeding
birds. The last nestings of large size occurred in the same region
in 1882.
It is a popular opinion that the end of the pigeon came sud¬
denly as the result of a disease or a natural disaster such as
drowning. This, is far from the truth. Man alone was responsible
for the extinction. Organized bands of trappers followed the
pigeons from their wintering grounds in the South to the nestings
in the North, Here the old birds were trapped and the squabs
removed' from the nests by tens of thousands to supply the gun
clubs and city markets.
42 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts and Letters
The data that has been assembled show a gradual and not a
sharp decline. In 1885 there was a fairly large nesting in the
southeastern corner of Langlade County, Wisconsin, and in 1887
an attempted nesting in Waushara County was broken up by
indiscriminate shooting. In 1890, pigeons appeared at various
places in Wisconsin, as many as “thousands” being reported.
They arrived at Sparta in 1892 in sufficient numbers to raise the
hope that there would be a nesting. The succeeding years pro¬
duced reports of fewer and fewer birds up to 1899. In September
of this year, the last “acceptable” pigeon for Wisconsin was killed
near Babcock.122
The extinction of the passenger pigeon must be accepted as
one of the inevitable accompaniments of civilization. This was
a bird the very existence of which depended upon huge numbers.
Before this was understood the population had been reduced to
a point below which the single egg laid could not maintain the
race. Agriculture could tolerate but a fraction of their primitive
numbers as cutting of the forests reduced the natural food sup¬
ply. Wilson estimated that a flock of 2,280,272,000 birds seen by
him would consume daily 17,424,000 bushels of mash. We have
our agriculture but have lost a fine species.
Footnotes
1 Bartlett, W. W. History . . . the Chippewa Valley. Chippewa Falls (1929) p. 219.
2 Curot, M. Wis. Hist. Coll. 20 (1911) 396-471.
3 Malhoit, F. V. Ibid. 19 (1910) 163-233.
4 Dubuque, J. Ibid. 19 (1910) 321.
3 Porlier, J. Ibid. 19 (1910) 357.
• Paul, A. Superior Chronicle, June 3, 1856 ; Sept. 29, 1857.
7 Cartwright, David W. Natural History of Western Wild Animals. Toledo (1875)
pp. 245 and 272.
8 Hubbard, G. S. Autobiography. Chicago (1911) p. 17.
• Scott, W. E. Wis. Conservation Bull. 4, No. 10 (Oct. 1939) 27.
10 Errington, Paul. In litt. Jan. 31, 1940.
11 Surber, T. The Mammals of Minnesota. St. Paul (1932) p. 48.
13 Breckenridge, W. J. In litt. Jan. 29, 1940.
13 Anderson, T. G. Wis. Hist. Coll. 9 (1882) 159.
14 Bunnell, L. H. Winona and its Environs. Winona (1897) p. 200.
18 Lapham, I. A. Trans. Wis. State Agr. Soc. 2 (1853) 338.
18 Canfield, W. H. Outline Sketches of Sauk County. Third Sketch [1870] p. 38.
17 Scott, W. E. L.c. p. 27.
18 Leopold, A. Report on Huron Mountain Club. [1939].
10 Manweiler, J. Minn. Conservationist, No. 63 (Dec. 1938) 25.
20 Schoolcraft, H. R. Summary Narrative of an Exploratory Expedition to the Sources of
the Mississippi River in 1820. Philadelphia (1855) p. 141.
Schorger — Extinct and Endangered Mammals and Birds 43
21 Doty, James D. Wis. Hist. Coll. 7 (1876) 195-206.
22 Schorger, A. W. J. of Mammal. 20 (1989) 503.
23 Stevens Point Pinery. April 1, 1870.
si Hoy, P. R. Wis. Acad. Sciences. 5 (1882) 255-7.
25 Cory, C. B. Mammals of Illinois and Wisconsin. (1912) p. 355.
28 Surber, T. L.c. p. 50.
27 Johnson, C. E. J. of Mammal. 4 (1923) 54.
28 Quarles, J. V. Wis. Mag. Hist. (1933) 310.
29 Dice, L. R. and Sherman, H. B. Oce. Paper No. 109, Museum of Zoology, Ann Arbor,
Feb. 25, 1922.
30 Herrick, C. L. Mammals of Minnesota. (1892) p. 79.
31 Surber, T. L.c. p. 55.
32 Schorger, A. W. J. of Mammal. 19 (1938) 252.
33 Dart, Richard. Proc. Wis. Hist. Soc. for 1909 (1910) 257.
34 Locke, J. Senate Doc. 239 (1840) p. 140.
35 Carver, J. Travels, Walpole (1813) p. 230.
30 Fonda, J. H. Wis. Hist. Coll. 5 (1868) 269.
37 Prescott Journal May 2, 1868.
38 Ashland Press March 8, 1884.
39 Herrick, C. L. L.c. p. 68.
40 Wilcox, A. H. A Pioneer History of Becker County. St. Paul (1907) pp. 72-76.
41 Illinois in 1837. Philadelphia (1837) p. 39.
42 Fonda, J. H. L.c. p. 31.
43 Le Clair, A. Wis. Hist. Coll. 11 (1888) 240.
44 Hollman, F. G. Autobiography. [Platteville, 1922 ?] p. 3.
45 Hoffman, C. F. A Winter in the Far West. London, Vol. 2 (1835) 8.
46 Copway, G. The Traditional History of the Ojibway Nation. London (1850) p. 35.
47 Menomonie Dunn County News Dec. 1, 1866.
48 Chetek Alert April 3, 1886.
49 Brayton, A. W. Report of the Geological Survey of Ohio. Zoology. Vol. 4, Part 1
(1882) p. 80.
60 Pond, Peter. Conn. Mag. 10 (1906) 258.
51 Pike, Z. M. Expeditions . . . 1805-6-7. Coues edition, N. Y. (1895).
32 Herrick, C. L. L.c. p. 280.
33 Johnson, C. E. J. of Mammal. 11 (1930) 449.
64 Surber, T. L.c. p. 9.
56 Pond, Peter. L.c.
66 Surber, T. L.c. p. 77.
67 Dart, Richard. L.c. p. 260.
38 Malhiot, F. B. L.c.
39 Bayfield Press Jan. 17, 1885.
80 McNaughton, J. W. Wis. Conservationist. 3, No. 6 (Jan. 1922) 12.
61 Crespal, E. Wis. Hist. Coll. 10 (1885) 49.
82 Radisson, Ibid. 11 (1888) 79.
63 Doty, James D. Ibid. 7 (1876) 196 and 201.
64 Schoolcraft, H. C. Personal Memoirs. Philadelphia (1851) p. 310.
83 Sproat, Florantha T. Wis. Mag. Hist. 16 (1932) 207.
83 Pitezel, Rev. J. H. Lights and Shades of Missionary Life. Cincinnati (1860) p. 195.
67 Wood, N. A. Check List of Michigan Mammals. Occasional Paper No. 4, Museum of
Zoology, Ann Arbor, April 1, 1914. p. 3.
68 Cory, C. B. L.c. p. 81.
69 Johnson, C. E. J. of Mammal. 11 (1930) 450.
79 Breckenridge, W. J. Ibid. 16 (1935) 327.
71 Eddy, S. and Jenks, A. E. Science 81 (May 31, 1935) 535.
44
Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts and Letters
72 Adams, C. C. An Ecological Survey of Isle Royale. (1909) p. 396.
73 Schroger, A. W. Wis. Acad. Sciences. (1937) 117-130.
74 Macquette, Jacques. Jesuit Relations, Vol. 59 (1900) 171.
75 Dablon, Pere. Ibid. Yol. 55 (1899) 195.
76 La Salle, R. In Margry’s Decouvertes et Establissements des Francais (1614-1754) .
Paris Yol. 2 (1876-1885) 254.
77 Hennepin, Louis. A New Discovery. London (1698) p. 160.
78 Anderson, T. G. Wis. Hist. Coll. 9 (1882) 159.
79 Carver, J. Travels. London (1781) p. 103.
80 Penicault, M. Hist. Coll, of Louisiana and Florida, N.S. New York (1869) p. 70.
81 Sibley, H. H. Coll. Min. Hist. Soc. 3 (1880) 265.
82 Allen, Lt. James. Senate Doc. 323, 23rd Congress (1834) p. 53.
83 Featherstonhaugh, G. W. A Canoe Voyage up the Minnay Sotor. London (1847) .
84 Surber, T. L.c. p. 79.
86 Johnson, C. E. J. of Mammal. 11 (1930) 451.
86 Roberts, T. S. The Birds of Minnesota. Vol. 1 (1932) 367.
87 Kumlien, L. and Hollister, N. Birds of Wisconsin. (1903) p. 56.
88 Barrows, W. B. Birds of Michigan. (1912) p. 223.
89 Hoy, P. R. Trans. Wis. State Agr. Soc. for 1852. Vol. 2 (1853) 358.
90 Kumlien, L. Wis. Naturalist. Vol. 1 (1891) 146.
91 Trippe, M. T. Proc. Essex Institute. 6 (1871) 113.
92 Manweiler, J. Minn. Conservationist, No. 63 (Dec. 1938) p. 25.
93 Jackson, H. H. T. Auk. 40 (1923) 481.
94 Van Tyne, J. Check List of the Birds of Michigan. Occasional Paper No. 379, Museum
Zoology (June 16, 1938) p. 11.
96 Milwaukee Sentinel Jan. 29, 1842.
98 Southport (Kenosha) American Sept. 14, 1843.
97 Porter’s Spirit of the Times. 19 (Aug. 11, 1849) 295.
98 Leopold, A. Game Survey of the North Central States. (1931) p. 170.
99 Gross, A. O. Progress Report of the Wisconsin Prairie Chicken Investigation. Madison
(1930).
i" Hamerstrom, F. N. Wilson Bull. 51 (1939) 105-120. .
101 Roberts, T. S. L.c. p. 388.
102 Gross, A. O. Bird-Lore. 31 (1929)) 383.
103 Allouez. Wis. Hist. Coll. 16 (1902) 69.
104 Dart, Richard. L.c. p. 260.
i°5 Canfield, W. H. L.c. p. 4.
106 H., A. S. Porter’s Spirit of the Times. 17 (Aug. 23, 1847) 333.
107 Coues, E. Birds of the Northwest. (1847) p. 392.
i°8 Anderson, T. G. Wis. Hist. Coll. 9 (1882) 152.
roe Owen, D. D. Report of a Geological Survey of Wisconsin, Iowa, and Minesota. Phila¬
delphia (1852) p. 622.
110 Leopold, A. Report on a Game Survey of Iowa. Mss. ( 1932 ) .
111 France, N. E. In litt. Platteville, Wis. July 3, 1935.
112 Hatch, P. L. Bull. Minn. Acad. Nat. Sciences. 1 (1874) 61.
113 Pond, Peter. L.c. p. 258.
114 Lockwood, J. H. Wis. Hist. Coll. 2 (1856) 132.
ns Hoy, P. R. L.c. p. 257.
ii® Leopold, A. L.c.
117 Taverner, P. A. Birds of Western Canada. (1926) p. 126.
ii® Henika, F. S. Proc. North Am. Wildlife Conference. Washington, (1936) p. 25.
119 Hamerstrom, F. N. Wilson Bull. 50 (1938) 175.
120 Van Tyne, J. L.c. p. 12.
^2i Schorger, A. W. Proc. Linn. Soc. N. Y. No. 48 (Oct. 1937) 1-26.
122 Schorger, A. W. Auk. 55 (1938) 531.
MUTATIONS IN MINKS1
Max Shackelford
Department of Genetics, University of Wisconsin
(Read at Meeting of the Academy, April 5, 1941)
The standard color phase of ranch-bred minks is dark brown,
but may vary from light brown to near black. This range of
coloring characterizes also the geographical races of the American
mink ( Mustela vison) from which domestic minks have been
derived. A stripe down the back, the tail and the feet are darker
than other parts of the body. The eyes, nose and claws are dark
brown. There are often white spots on the chin, throat, breast
and belly, although some individuals are free of all white marking.
A number of color variations have arisen from ranch-bred
minks. One of these, the “platinum,” first appeared on the ranch
of Mr. William Whittingham of Arpin, Wisconsin, in 1929. Con¬
siderable numbers of these platinum minks are now being bred
on the ranches of Mr. Whittingham and Mr. Guy S. Ingham of
Spencer, Wisconsin.
The platinum mink may be described as a light bluish gray
in color. The eyes are dark brown, ventral white spots are often
evident, and a stripe down the back, the tail and the feet are
darker than other parts of the body. The data obtained from 55
litters indicate definitely that platinum is inherited as a simple
autosomal recessive to the dark color phase. Microscopical exam¬
ination of the hairs of platinum minks reveals a clumping of the
dark pigment granules, similar to the condition in the maltese
cat and other “blue” mammals and some birds.
Another mink observed on the Guy S. Ingham ranch resembles
the “chocolate” color common in other mammals. The general
body color, eyes, nose, and claws of this individual were distinctly
lighter brown than the lightest of the standard dark minks. No
breeding tests have been made with this animal, but its standard
dark parents have produced other chocolate kits, which suggests
that the condition is recessive to dark. The lighter color of this
mink is due to the pigment granules being smaller, fewer in num¬
ber and lighter brown than in dark minks.
1 Paper No. 288 from the Department of Genetics, Wisconsin Agricultural Experiment
Station, under a project of the University Fox and Mink Research Program.
45
.
RURAL AGGLOMERATED SETTLEMENTS IN
THE EASTERN LAKE SHORE RED CLAY DAIRY REGION
OF WISCONSIN
Kenneth Bertrand
In the older and more densely settled parts of the United
States an important cultural phase of the landscape is the large
number of small rural hamlets and villages which dot the country¬
side. These rural agglomerated settlements which date from the
beginning of white settlement in their respective regions have
been relatively neglected as objects of study by geographers.
The Eastern Lake Shore Red Clay Dairy Region of Wisconsin,
an historically old, densely settled area of 2,500 square miles,
makes a very satisfactory unit for such an investigation.1
Physiographically, the region consists of a preglacial cuesti-
form plain modified by the effects of multiple glaciation. The
most recent deposits of red till and/or red lake clay have resulted
in an extremely low relief and a heavy but fertile red clay soil
which are in marked contrast to surrounding regions. Settled for
over 100 years, the region has had a long and varied history which
has had significant effect on the development of agglomerated
settlements. Farms in this highly developed dairy region average
less than 100 acres in size. For much of the region there are
more than 40 rural persons per square mile, making this the most
densely settled area of major size in Wisconsin.
All of the agglomerated settlements included in this study are
essentially rural, and are closely related to the agricultural
umland which they serve as markets.2 3 None of the 136 towns
here considered is exactly like any of the others, yet most of
them possess common characteristics. These contrasts and sim¬
ilarities in various combinations of situation, site, morphology,
and function permit an orderly classification. The settlements
vary in size from small crossroads hamlets of three or four houses
1 This region was first delimited by Loyal Durand, Jr., "The Geographic Regions of
Wisconsin,” Ph.D. thesis, University of Wisconsin, 1930, pp. 223-235. Published in part in
"Wisconsin Dairying,” Bull. 120, Wisconsin Crop and Livestock Reporting Service, pp. 29-32,
1931. A detailed study of the region was submitted as a Ph.D. thesis at the University of
Wisconsin by the author in 1940.
3 Four quarry towns and six lake shore towns are being dealt with in separate studies.
47
48 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts and Letters
clustered about a church, general store, and tavern to the largest
towns of approximately 2,000 people. The primary raison d'etre
and the functional development, both reflected in the present
structure and function of the settlements, permit a four-way
classification of the towns : mill towns, bridge towns, rural ham¬
lets, and railroad towns.
Mill Towns
As lumbermen and agricultural settlers began to move into
the region after 1834, 3 a pressing need developed for mills to saw
the timber that was being cleared from the land and to grind the
grain that was grown on newly cultivated fields. Except for
military roads, land routes were poorly maintained trails, and
long hauls were arduous and hazardous undertakings. Small mills
serving a relatively limited area grew up at any point which
promised sufficient water power. Frequently, but by no means
always, the mill served as a nucleus for a settlement whose for¬
tunes rose and fell with the mill. As the land was cleared, the
water table dropped, the rate of run-off increased, and streams
which once turned wheels were reduced during dry periods to
a mere trickle. Consequently, most of the mills on the smaller
streams ceased operation, and any towns which may have been
built about them either died or remained stagnant. Other towns
can no longer be included in this classification, having grown
beyond the simple function of the mill town until the old nucleus
is only a minor part of the town or has completely vanished.
Although no mill town is incorporated, Mishicott, the largest, has
perhaps 200 people. None are located on rail lines.
On the dip slope of the Niagara Cuesta where the relatively
steep gradient of the streams provide numerous power sites,
seventeen mill towns are located. On the other hand, only one
is found in the Fox-Winnebago Lowland, where, except for the
industrial region of the lower Fox River, stream gradients are
extremely low.
The mill towns have been built on a variety of sites. Some
were actually located at a rapids, but many were built at points
where the valley sides were steep and high enough to permit
3 Although permanent settlement had begun at Green Bay in 1745, the first major influx
of settlers did not take place until the government land office was opened at Green Bay in
1834. Many of the buyers were Yankee speculators interested in timber and probable future
town sites. The great influx of German immigrants did not begin until 1850. See maps by
Guy-Harold Smith, Geog. Rev., Vol. 18, p. 421, 1928.
Bertrand- — Rural Agglomerated Settlements in Wisconsin 49
the impounding of water sufficient for a head. The towns may
be classified according to three types of sites, (1) valley sites,
(2) valley bottoms, and (3) broad, open valleys. Ten of the
seventeen mill towns in this area are included in the first group.
The valley is wide, yet has definite slopes by which the mill pond
is enclosed and on which the town is built. Only two towns are
located in a valley bottom. This type is differentiated from the
first in that the town is confined to the broader valley bottom and
has not spread up the valley sides. Six towns possess sites in
broad, open, gently sloping valleys with ill-defined slopes.
50
Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts and Letters
Fig. 2. Franklin, Sheboygan County, a typical mill
town. The valley bottom is narrow, and the town
occupies sloping valley sides. Key: 1, mill; 2, sales
establishments; 3, services establishments; 4, taverns;
5, public buildings; 6, cheese factory; 7, dwellings.
Regardless of the detailed morphology, all of the mill towns
are focused on the mill, for the universal practice of bridging
the stream just below the dam resulted in a desirable convergence
of roads at that point. The road which crossed the stream con¬
verged with one or more that paralleled the valley, giving to the
town the pattern which has persisted to the present. Due to the
irregular course of the stream or to the steep grades of the
valley sides, the road pattern and the resultant town pattern are
more or less irregular, conforming wherever possible to the rec¬
tangular pattern of the survey system. Although each town has
a pattern peculiar to its own particular site, the town patterns
may be grouped into three general classes. One includes five
Bertrand — Rural Agglomerated Settlements in Wisconsin 51
towns which are built on the road crossing the stream. A second
type is composed of six towns which are built on the road parallel¬
ing one side of the stream. The third type is a combination of
the first two in which seven of the towns have grown so as to
occupy both the crossroad and the road paralleling the stream.
The mill pond, the dam, the mill,4 steep valley sides, and the
bridge are conspicuous parts of the mill towns. Only two, Mishi-
cott and Hingham, have expanded beyond the primary road pat¬
tern to the extent of the developing a grid of secondary streets.
The function of the small mills scattered over the region is
almost, but not entirely, over. For example, the mill at Neshoto
in Manitowoc County saws about 20,000 to 30,000 board feet of
lumber during a period of six to eight weeks each spring.5 The
logs are cut from the swampy woodlots, which are still numerous
in the vicinity. Water power is used exclusively both for sawing
logs and for grinding feed. Few mill towns are any larger today
than they were fifty years ago, and they have had to change their
function to agricultural market and service towns to exist at all.
Except for Mishicott and Hingham, none are large enough to
boast a residential area as such. These towns and Tisch Mills
possess a small business section composed of a variety of shops
and stores all catering to farm trade. Most of the towns consist
of a general store, a blacksmith and machine shop, a garage, a
couple of taverns, the old mill, and a half dozen houses. Some
include a cheese factory, others a school or church or both.
Bridge Towns
Four rural towns within the red clay region have grown up
at points where land traffic must of necessity converge to reach
a relatively easy point to cross the Fox River or its tributary,
the Wolf. Wrightstown is located on the incised valley of the
lower Fox River at a point where narrow bits of riverine terrace
lie at the foot of the steep clay banks which border both sides of
the stream. To the first low level bridge,6 these terraces provided
easy approaches. Eureka, Omro, and Winneconne are situated in
the Winnebago Lowland across which the Wolf and upper Fox
. . —
4 Although frame structures are more common, brick buildings are to be found among
the two or three-story mills that have replaced the original timbered, one-story structures.
Concrete or masonry dams have replaced the original log barriers.
5 By contrast in 1854 a steam and a water mill at Neshoto produced 3,500,000 board feet
of lumber, 50,000 feet of laths, 700,000 shingles, and 24,000 railroad ties. (Plumb, Ralph G.,
History of Manitowoc County, Wisconsin, p. 38, 1904).
8 The present structure, opened in 1935, extends from the east terrace to the west upland.
52 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts and Letters
Rivers flow in a winding sluggish course bordered by expanses
of marshland and interspersed by shallow lakes. The towns are
located at bridge points where subdued, overidden bedrock or
glacial features pinch out the marsh lands and narrow the valley.
Both river and land traffic have provided an impetus for town
growth. The old Indian waterway of the Fox-Wisconsin Rivers
was of paramount importance to the French fur trade and con¬
tinued to serve the region as an important route until the advent
of the railroads in the Civil War decade. Canoes, durham boats,
and steamboats followed in order as a means of travel on the
waterway which connects the Great Lakes and the Mississippi
River. Before the Civil War the easiest means of reaching the
north central part of the state from the northern terminus of
the railroad at Fond du Lac was by steamboat via Lake Winne¬
bago, the upper Fox, and Wolf Rivers. With the exploitation of
the great Wolf River pineries, enormous quantities of logs were
floated down the Wolf and Fox Rivers to mills on the waterway,
particularly at Oshkosh.
The earliest travel on land by white men followed the Indian
trails which crossed the waterway at the present bridge towns in
the Winnebago Lowland. The early military road from Fort
Howard at Green Bay to Fort Winnebago at the portage between
the Fox and Wisconsin Rivers passed through the site of Wrights-
town. With the construction of a road in 1839 from Appleton to
the river bank opposite Wrightstown, it became an important
road junction. Although the rectangular government survey
modified the road pattern, the convergence of traffic on the bridge
points persisted. Hoel S. Wright established a ferry at Wrights¬
town in 1836, and ferries were established at the other bridge
towns in 1849. As settlement and traffic increased, the four
bridge towns were given more permanent site quality by the con¬
struction of floating bridges at Wrightstown in 1840, Omro in
1850, Eureka in 1854, and Winneconne in 1855. These have long
since been replaced by more substantial structures.
The structural form of each town is more or less modified by
the terrain. Street patterns, essentially rectangular, are par¬
tially oriented to the stream course. Built on two levels, the
uplands and the stream terraces, Wrightstown is most irregular
in structure and in street pattern. Having grown up on both
ends of the crossing, all bridge towns present a divided nature,
two distinct sections separated by the river. Moreover, with the
Bertrand— Rural Agglomerated Settlements in Wisconsin 53
possible exception of Wrightstown, all bridge towns have devel¬
oped to a greater degree on the right bank of the river, the side
on which the business section is located. This can be partly ex¬
plained by the fact that from 1832 until 1838 the land north and
west of the Fox River was Indian Territory from which white
settlers were expelled by Federal troops. Indian trading posts
therefore developed on the right bank at Eureka, Omro, and
Wrightstown. The present site of Winneconne was the designated
place of payment of Federal grants to the Menomonee Indians,
Fig. 8. Map of the Winnebago Lowland showing the location of bridge
towns at points where the marshes bordering the river are pinched out. Note
the convergence of roads at these points. Key: 1, state highway; 2, county
highways. Town roads are not shown.
54 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts and Letters
and at this place the blacksmith shop of Joseph Jourdain, who
mended arms and implements of the Indians, served as a nucleus
for the future town. An additional factor in the unequal develop¬
ment of the two sides of the towns can be found in the impetus
supplied by the railroad, which terminated on the right bank at
Omro from 1861 to 1868. Since 1868 this terminus has been on
the right bank at Winneconne. In the case of Wrightstown the
railroad and the now defunct inter-urban line on the left bank
have resulted in a development of that side practically equal to
that of the original settlement on the right bank.
Agricultural settlement and lumbering in the region took
place simultaneously. By 1850 saw mills had been established in
each of the bridge towns, and logs rafted down from the Wolf
River pineries added to the local supply. A flour mill constructed
at Omro in 1856 and a carriage and spoke factory indicate a
growing importance of the agricultural umland at an early date.
As the Wolf River pineries were depleted and as the railroads
gradually replaced the steamboat, the lumber industry and the
river traffic declined. In consequence the population of bridge
towns in the Winnebago Lowland declined until 1920.
Table Showing Decline and Rise of Population in River Towns*
Any port function that may have flourished has ceased to
exist, and the former river zone is represented, if at all, by old,
dilapidated wharves and rotting rows of piling. In all but Eureka,
which is not served by a rail line, heavy commercial zones includ¬
ing coal yards, lumber yards, stock loading pens, gasoline bulk
plants, and a few industries have grown up along the railroad.
Except for their site which has resulted in the concentration of
highway traffic at the bridge towns, they are similar in function
and appearance to the other rural towns located on railroads. A
pea cannery and a condensery are located along the railroad in
Winneconne; Omro boasts a feed mill on the river bank and a
co-operative creamery. A cheese factory and a general dairy
products plant operate in Wrightstown while Eureka has no
industries. All trace of the original lumber industry has vanished.
Retail and wholesale establishments are all based on the farm
* From the United States Census.
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Figure 11. A milk condensery and pea cannery located at the Figure 12. The winding main street of Denmark which fol-
edge of Valders which can be seen behind the trees on the left. lows the line of an early road upon which the town was built.
These buildings are typical of those for their respective type
Bertrand — Rural Agglomerated Settlements in Wisconsin 55
trade of the umland. The residential sections, in general, reflect
the age of the towns.
Rural Hamlets
Rural hamlets are here considered to be those small agglom¬
erated settlements commonly located at road junctions in rural
areas and which generally include a garage and machine shop,
a general store, a tavern, a cheese factory, a church, and an in¬
definite number of houses. Functioning mainly as local retail
markets and service towns, the rural hamlets are distinguished
from other towns by a general lack of industry other than cheese
making. The rural hamlets lack the heavy commercial establish¬
ments characteristic of rural towns located on railroads. Although
the rural hamlets are small, size is not a distinctive feature of this
type of settlement, for mill towns, in general, are comparable in
size. Stockbridge, the largest and only incorporated rural hamlet,
has a population of 377, a figure which exceeds that of some rail
towns.
Most of the 70 rural hamlets in the region are located east of
the Fox River and Lake Winnebago. There is at least one in
almost every civil town,7 and some civil towns have as many as
three hamlets. Sixty-six of the rural hamlets are located at road
junctions. With few exceptions, all are located on level to gently
rolling land which has provided no particular site quality not
possessed by other localities that might have been selected for a
settlement. Some rural hamlets, such as Mills Center, have grown
up around a mill, but they have long since become rural hamlets
in function and appearance. No trace of the mill remains.
Such names as St. Johns, St. George, Holy Cross, Lake Church,
and New Bethel Kirche bespeak the origin of a surprising num¬
ber of rural hamlets. Such towns are usually the center of an
agricultural community which was settled as a unit by some
foreign group. The bands of immigrants were frequently led by
a clergyman, and generally the group built a church on a centrally
located site at a relatively early date. Because historic data are
lacking for most of the rural hamlets, it is difficult to determine
just how many of them were built around a church nucleus. Ap¬
parently some grew up about an early general store or cheese
factory, and still others are former mill towns. Of the 70 hamlets
in the region, 37 have a centrally located church, which may or
T In Wisconsin the civil units of rural government are called towns.
56 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts amd Letters
may not have provided the nucleus, since many are not of known
origin. The remaining 33 hamlets have either outgrown the orig¬
inal church nucleus or were not organized around such. Many
began as stopping places along the old military roads which were
built in the 1830’s. The greatest percentage of hamlets are located
at road junctions, where business has been able to attract farm
trade from several directions. Business places have sprung up at
church sites, to which large numbers of people are attracted every
Sunday. Store keepers say that even now the major part of their
business is done on Sunday mornings, though this predominance
of Sabbath Day business has decreased of late years, since the
automobile has made possible quick trips to the store at any time.
In a region with such low relief, the road pattern appears to
be the dominant factor in the morphology of the settlement. Ex¬
cept for Bay Settlement, Stockbridge, Brothertown, and Quinney,
all of the rural hamlets were organized after the Federal Land
Survey was made and so conform to the rectangular road pattern
of the survey. Only where a road has followed a pre-survey trail or
where some topographic feature has interrupted the regular pat¬
tern do the town plans deviate from the rectangular. The various
patterns and their frequency of recurrence are shown in Figure 7.
Only two rural hamlets, Stockbridge in Calumet County and
Kellnersville in Manitowoc County, have expanded to the point of
developing a rectangular grid of secondary streets. Where the
church is present it generally dominates the hamlet, especially
in the case of Catholic churches and to a lesser degree, Lutheran
churches. Large brick buildings with high steeples are most com¬
mon. Both of these denominations commonly support a parochial
school. The church, the school, the parsonage, and the sisters’
home or school teacher’s residence comprise the most imposing
part of the hamlet. The cemetery commonly adjoins the church
property. (Fig. 6.)
Other than a residence for local business men and retired
farmers, the main function of the rural hamlet is that of a local
market and service center. Even in the largest hamlet pro¬
fessional services are not available. The small cluster of business
places in all hamlets, regardless of whether or not they contain
a church, include one or more taverns, a feed store, a blacksmith
shop, and a garage. Frequently the horseshoeing and car repair¬
ing are done by one man, and farm machinery is commonly sold
either by the blacksmith or the garage operator. Hardware
Bertrand — Rural Agglomerated Settlements in Wisconsin 57
Fig. 7. A table showing the recurring patterns of rural hamlets.
stores, meat markets, harness shops, tin shops, and barber shops
are frequently found in the larger hamlets. Faded old signs and
vacant stores tell of an ever narrowing of the market scope of
the rural hamlets.8 Some hamlets possess a small fire station;
8 An extreme example of declining functions is to be found in a vacant store whose
faded sign advertises caskets and undertaking supplies in Cooperstown.
58 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts and Letters
others are the site of the town hall. Stockbridge has a drug store,
and is one of the three hamlets having a bank.
As a general rule, the only manufacturing carried on in the
rural hamlets is cheese making. Cheese factories are located in
53 of the 70 rural hamlets. Although other distinctly local indus¬
tries9 do exist in six of the 70 rural hamlets, they are declining
and all indications point to a gradual extinction.
Rural Towns Located on a Railroad
The most distinctive feature of the towns included in this
group is that they are located on railroads which dominate both
morphology and function and are responsible for the growth of
the towns. Unlike the rural hamlets, the towns located on rail¬
roads possess distinctive zones of heavy commercial and industrial
establishments, and the functions are consequently broadened.
The sites of the rural towns located on railroads vary in
accordance with the origins of the towns. Some of these towns,
such as Forest Junction and Hilbert, owe their origin to the
railroad. Many of the towns that grew up along the line of a
newly completed road took the names of company officials. Others
existed as mill towns or rural hamlets prior to the building of
the railroad.
The fact that towns existed prior to the building of the rail¬
road has resulted in many cases in a dual site and a bi-nuclear
settlement with a second center at the railroad, connected to the
original by a strassendorf development.10
Because of their more complex development, it is much more
difficult to generalize about the structural form of the rural towns
located on railroads than it is to do so for the rural hamlets. The
greatest similarity of the towns is found in the presence of a
heavy commercial zone along the railroad. Other morphological
factors vary as to site and degree of development of the settle¬
ments. Of the 39 towns in this class eleven are bi-nuclear. In
nine of these, one part is centered on the railroad and the second
9 These include feed mills at Nuren and Calumetville, portable saw mills at Eaton and
Wayside, and permanent steam driven saw mills dating back 60 years at Rosecrans and
Kellnersville. If local demand arises, the saw mills employ from four to eight men sawing
the logs of surrounding farmers one to three weeks in winter.
10 Francis Creek developed about a tavern on the portion of the old military road between
Manitowoc and Green Bay. A secondary nucleus, now connected to the first by a strassen¬
dorf, developed later about the station of the Chicago and Northwestern Railroad. See Folge,
Louis, History of Manitowoc County, Wisconsin, p. 343, Chicago, 1912.
Bertrand — Rural Agglomerated Settlements in Wisconsin 59
Fig. 8. Map of Chilton and Gravesville showing land use areas. These
two towns began as rival mill sites shortly before 1850. Victory in a county
seat contest with Gravesville brought continued growth to Chilton while its
rival stagnated. When the railroad was constructed between the two towns,
Chilton spread eastward until its former rival became but a suburb. Note
the bi-nuclear structure of Chilton centered at the original water power site
and at the railroad station. Key: 1, retail commercial; 2, heavy commercial;
3, industrial; 4, residential; 5, public buildings; 6, public utilities.
nucleus of the town is located at a highway junction. In some
instances the highway nucleus preceded the railroad, and in
others it has developed as a result of modern automobile traffic
on major highways. In the latter cases, the business places are
of the type that cater to the passing traffic. The present incor¬
porated limits of Waldo include the railroad nucleus of the town
proper and the mill town formerly known as Onion River. The
original bi-nuclear arrangement of Chilton has been engulfed by
the growing town, but the pattern is retained in the dual busi-
60 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts and Letters
ness section of the town.11 The bi-nuclear arrangement is lacking
in towns in which the railroad passed through the original center.
In such instances the original site has played an important part
in the present morphology. Casco, as an example, originated
as a waterpower site, but since the railroad follows the valley,
the linear arrangement of the town along the valley bottom has
been maintained.
Towns vary greatly in size and degree of development, both
of which are reflected in the structural form. They vary in size
from a mere cluster of buildings to the incorporated municipality
of Chilton with 2,203 people in 1940. Fifteen of the 39 towns
have not grown beyond the primary road pattern upon which
the town was developed. The following patterns, strassendorf,
diagonal crossroads, double crossroads, and double T road junc¬
tions are each represented by one of these towns. Four possess
a radial pattern, and a similar number form a T pattern. Three
are located on crossroads. Of the 24 towns which have developed
beyond the primary road pattern, 18 have developed a grid of
secondary streets. The pattern of this grid varies considerably
from the true rectangular, which characterizes ten of the towns,
to an extremely irregular pattern. Forest Junction, which is
wedged between a diagonal railroad junction, and Valders are
characterized by a modified triangular grid. Oriented to the
railroad, Collins has a rectangular grid, which is superimposed
diagonally over the rectangular grid of the land survey. Other
than that it conforms to the street pattern, no generalization can
be made regarding the outline of the towns.
Like all towns in the region, those located on a railroad, in
addition to being places of residence, are primarily local agri¬
cultural market and service towns. They carry on heavy com¬
mercial activities that are lacking in non-rail towns. The heavy
commercial establishments include grain elevators, coal yards,
lumber yards, pickle stations, sugar beet loaders, and stockyards.
11 Both physiographic and historical factors entered into the development of Chilton and
the present structure of the town. Moses Stanton, a negro, and his Indian wife settled at a
waterpower site on the Manitowoc River, where he built a sawmill in 1846 and a grist mill
in 1848 which served as a nucleus for the development of a village called Stantonville.
Gravesville was laid out less than a mile to the northeast by LeRoy Graves in 1849. A year
later he too erected a sawmill on the Manitowoc River. When the county was fully organized
a heated political battle developed between the neighboring settlements over the location of
the county seat. Stantonville, later renamed Chilton, won the contest, and continued to growT
while Gravesville declined. When the railroad was constructed between the two towns, Chilton
spread eastward until now its former rival is but a suburb. (See Watrous, Col. J. A.,
“Chilton’s History, a Frontier Epic,” Milwaukee Sentinel, April 11, 1910.)
Bertrand— Rural Agglomerated Settlements in Wisconsin 61
Twenty-four of the 39 towns have grain elevators, and four of
them have more than one. Three of the towns have a cheese
warehouse each. In the larger towns manufacturing is an added
function. Like the heavy commercial establishments, the manu¬
facturing plants are for the most part based on a local source of
raw material or on the local market. Twenty of the towns have
cheese factories, six have milk condenseries, and thirteen have
canning factories. The other industries include the manufacture
of soil pulverizers, furnaces, aluminum goods, shoes, beer, and
concrete blocks. Three towns have planing mills, one of which
has been recently closed. A veneer plant is located at Rio Creek.
Commercial lime kilns are located in or on the edge of three towns.
In the larger towns, in addition to a greater variety of technical
services, professional services are available. Retail business of
the towns, as in all towns in the area, definitely caters to the
farm trade.
Functional areas are best developed in the larger towns, but all
towns located on a railroad have three such zones which are more
or less well defined : a heavy commercial zone, a retail commercial
zone, and a residential zone. The most characteristic is the indus¬
trial and heavy commercial zone along the railroad. Included with¬
in this zone are the long low sheds of the lumber and coal yards,
the towering concrete or frame grain elevators, stock loading
pens, sugar beet loaders, warehouses, and other heavy commercial
establishments. Within the railroad zone of the larger towns are to
be found one or more industrial plants (Fig. 9) . The most typical
and most common are the condenseries and canning factories,
generally located along the railroad on the edge of town (Fig. 11) .
Both establishments are large and require a considerable amount
of ground, which, except on the edge of town, was not generally
available at the late date of their development. Industries less
common are the older industries dating back to the development of
the settlement such as wood-using industries and foundries or
machine shops, which are located in the railroad zone in the
built-up older parts of town (Fig. 10). Some more modern
industries, such as the shoe factory at Belgium and the aluminum
goods plant at Chilton, are located within the built-up zone if
and where sufficient land is available (Fig. 9). Also along the
railroad on the outer edge of town are to be found one or more
batteries of gasoline storage tanks legislated to a safe distance
by city ordinance.
62 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts and Letters
Only in the larger towns is the business district a zone of
continuously built-up business places. Much more commonly,
dwellings are interspersed with the retail establishments.
Generally centered at the town's main intersection, the retail
commercial zone consists mostly of two-story and fire-proof
buildings, but there are many frame buildings. The large towns
have one or more banks ; office space is rented above the stores by
men offering professional services. Garage and implement stores
are present in every town.
The third functional zone, common to all towns regardless of
classification, is the residential area. The quality of the area
depends on the size and prosperity of the town, but in every town
there are a few houses or a cluster of houses which are modest
yet comfortable and well kept and belong to the wealthier business
men. As a general rule, however, the bulk of the houses are
second rate. The shady streets are generally gravelled, but
unpaved. Cement sidewalks are general. In this zone are located
the churches and schools of the settlement.
THE NATURE OF TWO ASSOCIATED WISCONSIN
SOILS AS INFLUENCED BY POST-GLACIAL EROSION,
TOPOGRAPHY, AND SUBSTRATUM
Lewis B. Nelson
Contribution from the Department of Soils, University of Wisconsin.
A portion of this paper was part of a thesis submitted to the faculty of
the University of Wisconsin in partial fulfillment of the requirements for
the degree of doctor of philosophy. Published with the permission of the
Director of the Wisconsin Agricultural Experiment Station.
The marked differences in profile characteristics and crop
relationships between two of the major agricultural soils of north-
central Wisconsin, namely, the Marathon (Gloucester, shallow
phase)1 and Spencer (Colby)1 silt loams, have generally been
ascribed to differences in parent material. The previous Marathon
has been thought to be almost entirely residual from crystalline,
granitic rocks in contrast to the impermeable Spencer which de¬
veloped on clayey drift of early (pre-Wisconsin age) glaciations.
Geologically, the Marathon area has been mapped as a part of the
Wisconsin “Driftless” or unglaciated area (1, 3, 4)2. The follow¬
ing quotations from soil survey reports describe these views:
“In the central part of Marathon county there is a considerable
area which is usually spoken of as an unglaciated region and in
which the soils are largely of residual origin. Over this area,
however, it is not uncommon to find a few glacial bowlders, and
there is other evidence that this region was influenced to some,
though a very slight, extent by glacial action.” (2, p. 23) “While
a few glacial bowlders are sometimes found, the glacial action
over this region was so slight as to have no appreciable influence
on the formation of the soil.” (5, p. 34)
Detailed soil fertility and drainage investigations of these
soils showed that the above explanation of their origin was
inadequate in several respects. For instance, on the uplands^
numerous areas of Spencer (glaciated) were found to be entirely
surrounded by Marathon (unglaciated) soils, and wide variations
in illuviation and drainage were found in the areas mapped as
Marathon. Since the relations of these two soils were significant
1 The names. Marathon and Colby, first used by Weidman in his 1903 report, have been
used in state soil survey reports ; the corresponding names, Gloucester and Spencer, have
been used in U.S. Bureau of Soils reports. The names. Marathon and Spenser, are given
preference in this paper because the names Gloucester and Colby are applied to different
soils in other states.
2 Figures in parentheses refer to “Literature Cited”, p. 72.
63
64
Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts and Letters
in agricultural and experimental work, a study of their profiles,
relative locations, and development was made.
Procedure
Work in a field experiment program made possible a fairly
Fig. 1. Deposits of glacial drift and general stream pattern in central
Wisconsin.
Nelson — The Nature of Two Associated Wisconsin Soils 65
complete study of an area of about 1000 square miles in central,
southwestern, and eastern Marathon and northwestern Wood
county (Fig. 1). This area comprises about one-sixth of the
total acreage mapped as Spencer and Marathon soils in northern
Wood, northeastern Clark, western Marathon, and in Taylor,
Price, Rusk, and Barron counties in north-central Wisconsin.
Previous soil surveys by Whitson, et al, (5, 6), and Geib, et al,
(2), and Weidman (3), and the geological treatise by Weidman
(4), were utilized in detail in the experimental work and soil
studies. Numerous observations of the soil profiles and the
underlying material were made. Particular attention was paid
to the depth of glacial covering, presence or absence of mottling
in the soil profiles, the amount of illuviation as shown by the
depth, cementation, compactness or imperviousness of the B2
horizon, and the nature and perviousness of the underlying
material. The relation of topography and location of streams and
drainage channels to the distribution of the soils was studied in
the field and on topographical maps made by the United States
Geological Survey.
Results
The soils of the region studied, with the exception of 300
square miles of Marathon soils in central and eastern Marathon
county, belong to the Spencer series. The Spencer soils consist of
the typical or level, and the rolling phase of the Spencer silt loam.
The so-called typical silt loam was found to be planosol occurring
only on the slopes of less than two per cent.
The Ai horizon of the level phase Spencer silt loam is a grayish-brown,
friable silt loam having a granular structure. The lighter-colored Ai horizon
occurs at a depth of 4 inches and is a friable silt loam with a platy structure.
The Bi begins at about 8 inches, and is strongly mottled, reddish-brown or
yellowish-brown silt loam with a distinctly platy structure. A characteristic,
whitish-gray, silty deposit of silica is found on the outside of the particles
and in the fissures and cracks immediately overlying the heavier B2. At
approximately 20 inches, this gives way to the dense B2 which is a more or
less mottled, reddish-gray silty clay, very compact, and tightly cemented
with sesquioxides. Its structure is somewhat columnar when dry, it has a
low water-holding capacity, is seldom penetrated by plant roots, and is very
impervious to water as shown by infiltration measurements. The C horizon
begins at a depth of 40 or 50 inches and consists of a sticky, impervious
gray or red sandy clay locally with gray and yellow mottling. Small glacial
stones are common throughout the profile, and lenses of sand are locally
found in the B2 and C horizons. The underlying till varies in depth from
six to one hundred feet.
66 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts and Letters
The rolling phase of the Spencer silt loam was found on rolling
land whose average slope was 4 or 5 per cent. Its profile differs
from the level Spencer silt loam in that it has a less mottled E>!
and B2, a more reddish color of the B2 horizon, and a slightly less
illuviated and cemented B2 horizon.
The parent material of the Spencer soils was found in all
instances to be a sandy and clayey till which, according to
Weidman (4), was deposited by at least three early, pre-
Wisconsin glaciations. Other workers have considered this drift
to be deposited by only one glaciation, probably of Illinoian age
(1) . In any case, it is a rather smooth drift and is now considered
to be of much later origin than previously thought. The term
“pre-moraine” instead of “pre-Wisconsin” has been suggested
for it by Professor F. T. Thwaites. At present the depth of the
non-calcareous zone in the drift varies from 3 to 20 or more feet.
The depth of the till with which the level Spencer silt loam is
associated, was found to vary from 6 to 100 feet, while that of the
rolling phase often was much shallower, the minimum depth being
around 3 feet. Underlying the till are large areas of coarse and
fine-grained granites, and Cambrian sandstone which, regardless
of their porosity, apparently exert no influence upon the nature
of the overlying till and soil.
The level Spencer silt loam was found to be limited to uplands
that have not been encroached upon by active drainage systems
(Fig. 1). Hilly moraines, kettle holes, kames, eskers, and other
glacial surface features are lacking on these uplands at present.
The rolling phase was found on areas nearer to the deep drainage
systems which are now actively dissecting the area (Fig. 2).
The profile of the Marathon soils differs distinctly from that
of the adjacent Spencer soils, particularly in the lack of mottling,
and the presence of a more shallow, less strongly cemented, and
more pervious B2 horizon in the Marathon. However, the Mara¬
thon silt loam as mapped in reconnaissance surveys is quite
variable, ranging from a heavily illuviated soil, having a solum
2 to 2 y2 feet in depth with a heavy B2 horizon, to one having a
youthful profile with no B2 horizon. Rounded glacial stones were
found intermixed throughout the solums of all profiles studied.
The B2 horizons were found to be underlain for the most part by
a decomposed, coarse-grained granitic bedrock, which had been
considered to be similar to the parent material of the soil itself.
This granite weathers very easily into a granular, porous mass
Nelson — ‘The Nature of Two Associated Wisconsin Soils 67
Fig. 2. Central portion of Marathon county, Wisconsin, showing location
of soils in relation to stream channels.
which grades slowly into a less decomposed, less porous material, •
and finally into solid, unweathered rock at a depth of ten or fifteen
feet. Infiltration measurements showed that the weathered
granite is extremely pervious to water movement.
The location of the Marathon soils, the amount of illuviation
as shown by the depth, compactness, and cementation of the B2
horizon, and the depth of the solum with its glacial stones were
found to vary according to the proximity of the soil to the numer¬
ous streams which dissect central Marathon county.
The Wisconsin river flows in a southerly direction through the
68 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts and Letters
Marathon area (Fig. 2). A number of tributaries, the Pine,
Trapp, Big and Little Eau Claire rivers flow into the Wisconsin
from the southeast. Tributaries from the southwest, the Big Rib,
Little Rib, and Big and Little Eau Pleine rivers, further dissect
the area. The valleys cut by all of these streams in pre-glacial
times apparently were not greatly altered by glaciation. This
region is notable, along the upper Wisconsin river, for the number
of deep-channeled streams per unit area. On the steeper slopes
close to these streams, the youthful Marathon soils having a solum
of about one foot in depth were found. On the gentle slopes more
distant from the streams, the soil had a heavy, deep B horizon,
which increased in depth with distance from the stream, until the
Marathon soil graded into soils of the Spencer series (Fig. 2).
On undissected uplands between the streams and within the
borders of the Marathon soil area, isolated local areas of both the
level and rolling phases of the Spencer silt loam were found, for
the most part, surrounded by soils of the Marathon series
(Fig. 2). In some instances, a regular succession of soils was
found ; the level, mottled Spencer silt loam on the flat upland ; the
rolling phase Spencer on the more rolling slopes ; the non-mottled
Marathon soil with a heavy, deep B horizon on steeper, more
dissected areas ; and, finally, on the valley sides near the stream,
the more youthful and less illuviated form of the Marathon.
Small areas of Marathon gravelly silt loam were found upon
hummocky, much dissected, granite hills located at points where
two drainage systems are at present intersecting. This soil,
devoid of glacial stones, consists of a brown or dark-brown silt
loam, six to ten inches in depth overlying granite. The granite, to
a depth of six or eight feet, has decomposed into a coarse-grained,
loose mass of angular fragments of about one-half inch in
diameter.
Discussion
The prevalence of a wide variety of glacial stones over the
whole of the Marathon and Spencer area points to the conclusion
that glaciation and deposition of drift occurred over the entire
area. The part occupied chiefly by the Marathon soils was former¬
ly included in the “Driftless Area,” but glacial stones found high
on the monadnock quartzite hills of the region show that the ice
was once quite deep over much of the area. The presence of a pre¬
glacial granitic peneplain is suggested by level uplands of uniform
Nelson— The Nature of Two Associated Wisconsin Soils 69
height. This pre-glacial peneplain was probably dissected by
pre-glacial streams and drainage ways, forming a topography
somewhat similar to that now existing. Apparently the glacial
till was then deposited more or less uniformly over the area but
the greater fall to the level of the streams in the Marathon area
caused post-glacial erosion to proceed more rapidly there than in
the Spencer area. The depth of till was never great enough to
cause the streams to be diverted for any appreciable period from
their pre-glacial drainage ways.
The depth of drift remaining in the Marathon area varies
considerably. With the exception of glacial outwash, only a thin
mantle of glacial material is present near the Wisconsin River or
its deep channeled tributaries. In some places, this glacial cover¬
ing has been entirely removed by post-glacial erosion. Farther
back from the stream channels or toward their heads, erosion has
been less active and glaciated material over two and one-half feet
in depth is found. The uplands not encroached upon by drainage
systems, have lost much less of their original drift deposits and
are still covered with relatively deep glacial drift. It is also highly
probable that the original deposit of till was thinner over some
local areas and on the slopes to the pre-glacial drainage-ways.
The poorly-drained Spencer silt loam appears to be limited to
the uplands with their deeper drift covering. Because of the lack
of erosion, the topography has remained level and the surface
runoff is greatly reduced. The lack of soil removal and the
increase in percolating water have led, in such locations, to the
formation of a planosol with a cemented, deep, and impervious B2
horizon. This horizon, and the clayey underlying till, have inhib¬
ited water movement to the extent that a highly mottled, poorly-
aerated soil has resulted. The combination of insufficient surface
with poor internal drainage has greatly lowered the agricultural
value of this soil.
The rolling phase of the Spencer silt loam occurs where the
smaller tributaries of the Wisconsin River are cutting back into
the regions of deeper till (Fig. 2) . The B2 horizon appears to be
sufficiently impervious, and the underlying clayey till of ample
depth to seriously impede the internal drainage of the soil. Under
these conditions, mottling is still a dominant feature, although it
is somewhat less pronounced than in the level Spencer. As a
consequence of the rolling nature of the topography, excellent
70 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts and Letters
surface drainage has resulted, and these soils are therefore more
desirable for farming than the level Spencer soils.
The Marathon silt loam, for the most part, is limited to areas
in close proximity to well-developed drainage systems (Fig. 1).
Here, the erosion has been rapid and the glacial mantle exists at
depths of two and one-half feet or less. Because of the increased
rate of post-glacial erosion and the porous nature of the under¬
lying granite, profile development has been slow and the B2 is
either quite friable or non-existent. As a consequence of the
permeable subsoil and the porous underlying granite, the internal
drainage is excellent, and mottling is entirely absent. With an
increase in the steepness of the slopes there is a corresponding
decrease in the thickness of the glacial mantle, and more youthful,
less-illuviated soil profiles result. This is strikingly demonstrated
by the absence of B2 horizons in the soils of the steeper slopes
close to the deep drainage systems.
The borders between the more mature phases of non-mottled
Marathon silt loam and the mottled, rolling phase, Spencer silt
loam are in most places sharp and well defined. The depth of
glaciated material seems to be the dominant factor in determining
the type of soil. Evidently, where the glaciated material is deeper
than two and one-half feet, it impedes the drainage sufficiently to
result in the formation of the mottled, rolling phase, Spencer silt
loam.
The Marathon gravelly silt loam shows the least profile devel¬
opment of all the soils of the area. This type occurs on tracts
devoid of glacial material and is found only between two active
drainage systems which are cutting down the divide between them
(Fig. 1). This would indicate that post-glacial erosion has been
largely responsible for the lack of drift. The water-retaining
power of the soil mantle and the underlying decomposed granite
is extremely low and is a limiting factor in crop production.
Eventually, as the drainage systems deepen and erosion
progresses, the soils will undergo a cycle of successive changes.
As the regions of deeper till are eroded, the level Spencer silt
loam will pass into the rolling phase of the Spencer silt loam.
When the glacial material has been reduced to a depth of about
two and one-half feet, at which point the underlying porous mate¬
rial, where present, appears to exert its favorable influence on
water movement, the non-mottled, more-illuviated phases of the
Marathon silt loam will supersede the rolling phase of the Spencer
Nelson — The Nature of Two Associated Wisconsin Soils 71
silt loam. As geologic time progresses, more and more till will
be removed and the less-illuviated phases of the Marathon silt
loam will form. Finally, as the drainage systems intersect, the
last traces of glacial material will be removed and the very im¬
mature, drouthy Marathon gravelly silt loam will be formed.
The areas farthest and most protected from the deep drainage
systems will retain their glacial covering longest.
Summary
The results of a field study of the influence of post-glacial
erosion, topography, and substratum upon the formation and
character of the Spencer (Colby), and Marathon (Gloucester)
soils of central Wisconsin is presented. The region occupied by
these soils, including a portion previously thought to be a part
of the Wisconsin “Driftless Area,” apparently was entirely cov¬
ered by a clayey till laid down by an early pre-moraine ice
invasion. Differential post-glacial erosion, varying with the prox¬
imity of the drift to deep-channeled pre-glacial drainage systems,
has since occurred, which, coupled with the original depth of
drift, is closely related to the distribution of present-day soils.
Where post-glacial erosion has been slight, and relatively deep
drift is found, the poorly-drained, mottled level phase Spencer is
found; where the topography is rolling and post-glacial erosion
has been more active, the more shallow rolling phase Spencer
occurs. Where the present glacial covering is so thin that the
underlying, porous, decomposed granite is within 30 inches of
the surface, the entirely different, well-drained, non-mottled
Marathon occurs. Where all the till has been removed the drouthy
Marathon gravelly silt loam is formed.
As the drainage systems deepen and erosion progresses, the
soils in this area appear to pass, in regular succession, from the
Spencer, level phase, through the rolling phase, to the Marathon
silt loam and finally to the Marathon gravelly silt loam. This
relation of a number of soils ranging from a strongly-illuviated
planosol to a rather coarse, steep, and drouthy soil is the key
to soil formation in the area studied and to the distribution of
soils with regard to topography, altitude, and location of streams.
Acknowledgment
The writer wishes to express his appreciation for the helpful
suggestions and criticisms tendered by Professor R. J. Mucken-
72
Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts and Letters
hirn and the late Professor F. L. Musbach under whose general
direction this work was done. Grateful acknowledgment is fur¬
ther made of suggestions given by Professor F. T. Thwaites and
F. D. Hole of the Department of Geology of the University of
Wisconsin.
Literature Cited
1. Antevs, Ernst. Maps of the Pleistocene glaciations. Geol. Soc. Am.
Bui. Vol. 40, 631-720, 1929.
2. Geib, W. J., Taylor, A. E., et al. Reconnoissance soil survey of south
part of north-central Wisconsin. U. S. Dept. Agr. Soil Survey
Report, 1917.
3. Weidman, Samuel. Preliminary report on the soils and agricultural
conditions of north-central Wisconsin. Wis. Geol. and Nat. Hist.
Sur. Bui. No. 11. 1903.
4. Weidman, Samuel. Geology of north-central Wisconsin. Wis. Geol. and
Nat. Hist. Sur. Vol. 16, 1907.
5. Whitson, A. R., Geib, W. J., et al. Reconnoissance soil survey of south
part of north-central Wisconsin. Wis. Geol. and Nat. Hist. Sur.
Bui. No. 52-A. 1918.
6. Whitson, A. R., Geib, W. J., et al. Soil survey of Wood county, Wis¬
consin. Wis. Geol. and Nat. Hist. Sur. Bui. No. 52-B. 1918.
FACTORS INFLUENCING INJURY TO
CRANBERRY PLANTS DURING FLOODING
Neil E. Stevens and Noel F. Thompson
For many years, submerging the cranberry plants on which
they were feeding was the standard control measure for the
black-headed fireworm ( Rhopobota vacciniana Pack). Except
in extreme cases this was used only during the larval stage of
the first brood. Since this usually occurred in June, the “June
reflow” became almost a routine practice of many cranberry
growers. During the past two decades, however, the demon¬
strated effectiveness of certain insecticides, together with im¬
proved machinery for their application, led to a decided reduction
in the amount of flooding for insect control.
The June reflow has never been abandoned, and during the
past two years, interest in this method of control has greatly
increased. This increase is due in part to the threatened short¬
ages of certain important insecticides, and in part to the realiza¬
tion that the reflow had apparently held in check other insects
than those at which it was specifically directed.
Injury to the cranberry plants themselves has frequently
occurred during the June reflow. The symptoms of water injury
are all too well known to many cranberry growers. Blossom buds
are most easily injured; they may be killed outright, in which
case the whole bud turns brown and never opens ; or they may be
injured on one side only, in which case the distorted bud opens
but rarely forms a berry. In extreme cases, the tender young
leaves soon turn brown.
Injury of this type was unusually severe in the Mather-
Warrens district of Wisconsin during early June of 1942. In the
present paper, the factors believed to be important in relation
to this injury are reviewed in the light of observations made in
Wisconsin during that season. Since the careful studies of Berg¬
man1 and of Franklin2 on this subject in 1919, there has appar¬
ently been no question that the injury is due to the actual drown¬
ing of the plant parts due to lack of oxygen in the flooding water.
Thus the factors which may influence injury include not only
73
74 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts and Letters
those which affect the plant directly, but all those which affect
the amount of 02 in the water.
The factors which will be discussed in this connection are
temperature, light, the initial 02 content of the water used in
flooding, the color of the flooding water, and the carbonate con¬
tent of the flooding water itself. Of the importance of this last
factor we have only recently become convinced.
Temperature
High temperatures are more liable to produce injury both
because the plants respire faster at higher temperatures and
because the 02 holding capacity of the water declines with rising
temperature. The importance of the temperature of the water
relative to its effectiveness in killing insects has long been recog¬
nized. Dr. Franklin's3 recommendations for use in Massachusetts
indicate that twice as long a submergence is necessary at 65° F.
as at 85° F. Injury to the plant also occurs much more quickly
at the higher temperatures, a fact well known to cranberry
growers, who almost invariably take it into consideration, some¬
times to the exclusion of other factors, which may be of critical
importance.
Light
The importance of light as a factor in the oxygen content of
flooding water on cranberry marshes was emphasized by Berg¬
man1 in 1919. He pointed out that the 02 content of the water
in which cranberry plants are submerged falls at night or on
very cloudy days, and rises on clear days. This is evident from
the figures given in Table 1, based on data obtained in Wisconsin
in 1942.
The rise in the amount of dissolved 02 is of course due to the
photosynthetic action of the cranberry plants themselves. 02 is
a waste product of photosynthesis and within limits, the more
rapid the photosynthesis, the greater the amount of 02 dissolved
in the flooding water and available for the respiration of the
plants.
In general, it has been the experience of Wisconsin growers
that it is safer to flood in clear or partially clear weather, but
for reasons which will be discussed later, this relation is not so
direct or simple as in Massachusetts.
Initial Oxygen Content of the Flooding Water
It has long been recognized in Wisconsin that on certain
marshes it is never safe to hold the flooding water for any such
Stevens and Thompson-— Injury to Cranberry Plants 75
Table 1
Dissolved 02 in Flooding Water of
Various Wisconsin Marshes During Submergence (1942)
lengths of time as those recommended for Massachusetts, 8 to 12
hours being the recognized limit of safety. On the other hand,
there are marshes which have been flooded while the buds were
in the “hook stage” for 60 to 72 hours without any trace of injury.
One striking difference is the 02 content of the water in the
reservoir at flooding time (See Table 2). Reference to this table
will show that during the season of 1942 there were being used
for flooding cranberries in Wisconsin, water with 02 content
at the surface of the reservoir as high as the saturation point,
and others as low as 1.8. It is probably needless to add that it is
in marshes which have water with lower 02 content that the short
flooding periods are necessary.
Difference in 02 Content of Water
at Different Depths in Reservoirs
One of the most important facts observed in our studies of
reservoir water was the difference in the 02 content of the water
at different levels. This is noticeable only if the water is fairly
still, and is apparently most pronounced if the water is colored
and the bottom of the reservoir contains much organic matter
(See Table 3). Obviously, any grower who floods with water
from the bottom of a reservoir of this type is sacrificing 02
content for the sake of using cooler water.
76 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts and Letters
Table 2
Reservoir Water Data
*See text for explanation.
“Color" of the Water
In his discussion of the causes of the severe injury from
flooding in Massachusetts on June 17, 1919, Dr. Franklin2 called
attention to the importance of the color of the water. Since once
the plants are submerged the only known source of 02 is that
given off by the plants themselves as a result of photosynthesis,
anything that tends to limit that activity tends to cut down the
amount of 02 available to the plants.
Stevens and Thompson— Injury to Cranberry Plants 77
Table 3
0.i Content of Reservoir Water at Various Depths
While we have as yet no exact measurements of the degree
to which light is reduced by water of different colors, it is certain
that dark colored water will transmit light much less effectively
than clear water. Birge and Juday5 have pointed out that in
general, light transmission decreases as color rises, and that in
general stain affects transmission much more than it does
transparency.
It is evident from Table 2 that the water of many Wisconsin
cranberry reservoirs is dark colored, also that there is consider¬
able difference in their color. Undoubtedly, all other conditions
being equal, dark colored water would be somewhat less favorable
than clear water. In Table 2, the color of the water is indicated
by the depth in inches that a 150 mm. white porcelain plate
could be seen. The plate was lowered until it disappeared, then
raised until just visible, and the average depth recorded.
78 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts and Letters
Dissolved Carbonates in the Flooding Water
The rate at which plants are able to carry on photosynthesis
may be limited by the amount of C02 available as well as by light
and temperature. In fact, under the conditions prevailing out¬
doors in the summer, the small amount of C02 in the air (only
3 to 4 parts per 10,000) is recognized as often being the limiting
factor in the rate of photosynthesis. In greenhouses, plants have
been successfully “fertilized” by adding C02 to the air in which
they were growing.
It has been repeatedly proved, also, that plants submerged in
water can secure aspart of the C02 they need from bicarbonates
dissolved in the water. Our observations of the past summer
have convinced us that lack of adequate bicarbonates in the
flooding water may often be a critical factor in producing the
shortage of 02 which results in water injury. Reference to Table
2, column 8 shows that the water of many Wisconsin reservoirs
is very low in carbonates (bound C02). Among these are the
marshes which developed so little dissolved 02 during the days
in which observations were made (9 and 32). (See Table 1.)
That the lack of adequate dissolved bicarbonate in certain
water does act as a limiting factor in the photosynthesis of sub¬
merged cranberry plants was readily proved by a simple experi¬
ment carried out July 9 and 10 with water from a reservoir on
Marsh No. 9. In this experiment, sods of cranberry vines of
approximately equal size were placed in tubs filled with water
from the reservoir. The tubs themselves were then partly sub¬
merged in the water and left over night. The next morning, the
water in each tub was tested for dissolved C02 and bound C02
(See Table No. 2). Tub No. 1 was left as a check. Tub No. 2
was covered so as to cut off all the light and to the water of Tub
No. 3 was added enough sodium bicarbonate to raise the pH to
7, and the bound C02 content to a level well above that of most
flooding water. The results are all clearly evident in Table 4 and
Figure 1. That the water in Tub No. 1 contained more 02 than
was found on the marsh itself on June 14 is explained by the con¬
ditions of the experiment. The water was dipped into the tub
and the amount of water was smaller relative to the quantity of
vines. With no light available, the 02 in Tub No. 2 was soon
exhausted. The photosynthesis in the plants in Tub No. 3 was
so much more rapid that the 02 content of the water reached the
Stevens and Thompson-— Injury to Cranberry Plants 79
saturation point on both days, while that in Tub No. 1 rose only
to 5.5 and 4.8.
oa
RRM
e
5
4
3
2
I
0
A.M. JULY 9 P.M. A.M. JULY iO PM.
'Fig. 1. Results of adding sodium bicarbonate to flooding water.
Table 4
Results from Adding Sodium Bicarbonate to Flooding Water
July 9, 1942 July 10, 1942
Sods were cut and placed in washtubs about 4 p.m. July 8.
The tubs were then partially submerged in the reservoir and filled
with reservoir water. -About 8:80 a.m. on July 9, Tub No. 2 was
covered by a piece of plywood to exclude most of the light, and
to the water in Tub No. 3 was added about 4/5 oz. of sodium
bicarbonate.
Relation of the Foregoing Observations
to Illumination During the Flooding Period
Certain Wisconsin growers are convinced that it makes little
difference whether they flood in clear weather or cloudy. Others
80
Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts and Letters
believe that clear hot days are more likely to produce injury than
cloudy ones. With water that is very low in carbonates, this may
well be the case. Obviously, if the flooding waters lack dissolved
C02 or bicarbonates in sufficient amounts to permit photosyn¬
thesis, the process can not go on no matter how strong the light.
Moreover, considerably less than full sunlight is often adequate
for photosynthesis. Under these conditions, the added heat de¬
rived from the bright sun may well add to the injury.
Possible Relation of Heavy Rainfall to Water Injury
To anyone who observed conditions on the Mather-Warrens
district during early June, 1942, it was hard to avoid the con¬
clusion that the injury was aggravated by the excessive rains of
late May and early June.
Table 5
Rainfall at Mather, Wisconsin in May and June, 1942
(Data from Alex Grimshaw — Weather Observer)
Rain water, when it falls, has a very high 02 content, and
usually a very low content of bound C02. Mixed with water of
high bound C02 content, as that of the Wisconsin River, it would
be rather beneficial than otherwise, but mixed with water already
low in carbonates and containing organic matter which would
soon exhaust the 02, it might well be actually harmful.
Practical Suggestions Based on the Foregoing Observations
The most obvious conclusion from the observations recorded
above is that experience on one marsh does not furnish a safe
guide for use on another unless conditions are known to be very
similar.
While in general, injury to submerged plants is less likely to
occur if flooding is done on clear, or at least only partly cloudy
days, there appear to be certain Wisconsin marshes where the
photosynthesis of the plants is so limited by other factors that
little is gained by the presence of abundant light. Among these
limiting factors appears to be extreme scarcity of bicarbonates
in the flooding water.
Stevens and Thompson — Injury to Cranberry Plants 81
In most reservoirs where there is little movement of the water
and the amount of dissolved oxygen is small, the lower levels of
water are extremely deficient in oxygen. The practice of drain¬
ing flooding wafer from the bottom of the reservoir for the sake
of obtaining cooler water thus appears to be very dangerous.
If experience has proved that the flooding period must be
very short, the best practice would appear to be to flood the
marsh during one night or early morning, and remove it the
following night or early evening.
Citations
1. Bergman, H. F., “The Effect of Cloudiness”, 32nd Annual Report of
the Cape Cod Cranberry Growers Association. (Page 19-30) 1920.
2. Franklin, H. J., State Bog Report, 32nd Annual Report of the Cape
Cod Cranberry Growers Association. (Page 11-18) 1920.
3. Franklin, H. J., “Cape Cod Cranberry Insects”, Massachusetts Agri¬
cultural Experiment Station Bulletin Number 239. 1928.
4. Birge, E. A., and C. Juday, “Solar Radiation and Inland Lakes”, 4th
Report Trans. Wisconsin Academy of Science. (27: 523-562) 1932.
5. Birge, E. A., and C. Juday, “Transmission of Solar Radiation by the
Waters of Inland Lakes”, 4th Report Trans. Wisconsin Academy
of Science. (24:509-580) 1929.
J
NOTES ON WISCONSIN PARASITIC FUNGI. II.
H. C. Greene
The collections on which these notes are based were made
principally in the southern counties during the seasons of 1940
and 1941.
Urophlyctis pluriannulata (B. & C.) Farl. on Zizia aurea.
Waukesha Co., Eagleville, August 2. Rare. A single previous
Wisconsin collection from Kenosha Co., 1907.
Plasmopara obducens Schroet. on Impatiens pallida. Sauk
Co., Parfrey's Glen, September 6. Although Davis lists this host
for P. OBDUCENS there were no Wisconsin specimens in the
Herbarium.
Erysiphe polygoni DC. on Aquilegia canadensis. Dane Co.,
near Sauk City, September 28. Tracy and Galloway, in an article
entitled “Notes on Western Erysipheae and Peronosporeae,,, in
Jour. Mycol. 4: 35 (1888), mention E. polygoni as occurring
on Aquilegia canadensis in Wisconsin. Since no specimens were
found in the Davis Herbarium or in the University Herbarium,
it seems that Davis based his citation of this host on the report
of Tracy and Galloway.
Presumed Erysiphe galeopsidis DC. has been observed on
Stachys palustris and Mentha arvensis var. canadensis in several
localities over a considerable period of time. The asci, character¬
istically, lack mature spores, but it has not been determined
whether the haustoria are lobed.
Achillea millefolium has been found at Eagleville, Wauke¬
sha Co., bearing Erysiphe heavily parasitized by ClClNNOBOLUS
cesati DeBary. E. cichoracearum DC. is reported on this host
in Seymour's Index, but has not so far been collected in recog¬
nizable condition in Wisconsin.
Microsphaera alni (DC.) Wint. var Extensa (C. & P.)
Salm. on Quercus rubra. Dane Co., near Sauk City, September
28; Columbia Co., Gibraltar Rock, October 5. Trelease in 1882
reported this variety from Madison, Dane Co., but apparently it
has not been found in the interim. The flexuous appendages,
exceeding in length three times the diameter of the perithecium,
are striking.
83
84 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts and Letters
Uncinula SALICIS (DC.) Wint. on Salix rostrata. Dane Co.,
Madison, September 27. Only one previous Wisconsin collection
on this host, but it is probably not uncommon.
Dothidella betulina (Fr.) Sacc. on Betula pumila var.
glandulifera. Dane Co., Madison, April 10. Davis in his “Notes”
XIV, p. 185, states “A collection on living leaves of Betula pumila
from Danbury corresponds with immature specimens of Dothi¬
della betulina.” This writer found no mature specimens from
Wisconsin in the Herbarium. In October 1939, at Madison, leaves
of B. pumila var. glandulifera were found heavily infected with
presumed Dothidella betulina. A number of such leaves were
overwintered in cheesecloth bags in the field. In April 1940 the
fungus was reexamined and found to have matured, establishing
the presence of D. betulina in Wisconsin.
Phyllachora graminis (Pers.) Fckl. on Sporobolus cryptan-
drus . Sauk Co., Cactus Bluff (opposite Mazomanie), September
13. Previous Wisconsin collections are immature.
Phyllachora boutelouae Rehm on Bouteloua hirsuta . Sauk
Co., the “Owl’s Head” near Merrimac, September 6. Collected
once before in Wisconsin by Davis and Greene at Poynette in
Columbia Co., 1935. P. boutelouae differs from P. graminis in
having larger asci and spores. Theissen and Sydow in their
monograph of the Dothideales, Ann. My col. 13: (1915), describe
P. boutelouae Rehm as with asci 75-90 X 9-11/x, and spores
9- 11 X 6-7 /*. In a footnote they state that the species has been
cited by Spegazzini as having asci 100-120 X 10/*, and spores
14-16 X 7-8/*. Davis, in an unpublished note on the 1935
collection, gives the asci as 65-85 X 8-10/*, and the spores
10- 13 X 6-8 /*. The Merrimac collection has asci 75-85 X 8-10/*,
and spores 12-15 X 6-8/*.
Rhytisma ilicis-canadensis Sacc. on Nemopanthus mucro-
nata. Coll. E. J. Backus, Juneau Co., Rocky Arbor State Park,
October 13. Immature when collected. Overwintered leaves in
May showed mature R. ilicis-canadensis. Previous collections
in the Herbarium are all immature.
\
Puccinia ANEMONES-VIRGINIANAE Schw. on Anemone cyl -
indrica. Waukesha Co., Eagleville, June 20. In 1885 Trelease
reported this host for P. anemones-virginianae, but Davis did
not collect it, and there were no Wisconsin specimens in the
Herbarium.
Greene— -Notes on Wisconsin Parasitic Fungi . II. 85
Puccini A violae (Scfaum.) DC* I. on Viola blanda . Coll. K. B.
Stevens, Sauk Co., Parfrey's Glen, May 14, 1938. There were no
collections of the aecial stage on this host in the Herbarium.
Puccinia xanthii Schw. on Ambrosia psilostachya . Dane
Co., near Sauk City, September 20. Rare on this host in Wiscon¬
sin. One earlier collection from Sauk Co.
Asteromella andrewsii Petr. (Phyllosticta gentianae-
COLA (DC.) Ell. & Ev.) has been found on both Gentiana andrewsii
and G. puberula . One specimen on G. andrewsii shows well
formed conidia 4.5-5 X 5.5-7 p,. A specimen of the same fungus,
collected by Davis in Wisconsin, was described by Ellis and Ever¬
hart in their “North American Phyllostictas" (1900) as having
conidia elliptical, hyaline, 3.5-5 X 1.5-2 p. They state that in the
Wisconsin collection the conidia are not well developed, but give
the dimensions of conidia in a West Virginia specimen as being
7.5-5pf which corresponds to the recent Wisconsin material.
Panicum scribnerianum growing near Mazomanie, Dane Co.,
September 1940, had an extremely heavy infestation of ostiolate
pycnidia, with microconidia of a bacillary type. Overwintered
plants were collected in May 1941, but showed no further de¬
velopment of the fungus, save for a thickening of the pycnidial
walls and almost complete closure of the ostioles. Infected plants
similar to those of 1940 were collected again in October 1941.
A single collection of Phyllosticta desmodii Ell. & Ev. was
made some thirty years ago on a host at that time identified as
Desmodium canescens . Dr. N. C. Fassett has examined this and
states the host is undoubtedly D. illinoense , thus eliminating D.
canescens.
A collection of a fungus, said to be Phomopsis juniperovera
Hahn, on J uniperm virginiana , made at the Central State Nur¬
sery at Wisconsin. Rapids, has been examined. In its principal
microscopic characters it corresponds well with the fungus men¬
tioned, but this writer has been unable to demonstrate the scoleco-
spores which are supposed to be a diagnostic feature.
Peck, from the Herbarium of the New York State Museum,
determined and distributed a fungus on Archangelica atropur -
purea (Angelica atropurpurea) which he called Stigmatea
OS truth ii (Fr.) Oudem. The specimen was collected in October
at N. Greenbush, but no year date is given. Examination of the
material shows it is identical with a fungus which occurs com-
86 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts and Letters
monly in the fall on the same host in central and southern Wis¬
consin. Small, hypophyllous, ostiolate pycnidia are massed on the
living leaves, causing a blackish discoloration of considerable
areas. Some of the pycnidia contain very small spermatia-like
conidia. This writer has overwintered such infected leaves in the
field on two occasions without obtaining any positive results.
Peck's specimen shows no evidence whatever of asci and since
the original description of Stigmatea ostruthii is admittedly
based on immature material, the existence of such a fungus
seems doubtful.
Trelease, in his ‘‘Preliminary List of Wisconsin Parasitic
Fungi," published in 1885, reported Ascochyta violae Sacc. &
Speg. on leaves of Viola pubescens from Madison. No further
Wisconsin collections of A. violae have been recorded. In May
1940 Ascochyta was found on Viola sp. at Mt. Vernon, Dane Co.
The pycnidia are somewhat less than the 180-200^ diam. of the
Saccardian description, but correspondence in other features is
close, and the fungus should probably be referred to Ascochyta
VIOLAE.
A fungus has been observed on the leaves of Comics sp.
(C. paniculata?) which perhaps belongs in the genus Stag-
ONOPSIS Sacc. The flesh-colored pycnidia are mostly epiphyl-
lous on rather ill-defined grayish spots, globose, 40-7(V diam.,
with hyaline, subfusoid conidia, 2-4-, mostly 3-septate, 15-25 X
3.5-5/x. This is not Stagonopsis pallida (B. & C.) Sacc., de¬
scribed on Cornus sp. from Alabama, since the latter had spores
regularly 7-8-septate. In view of the uncertain identity of the
host, formal description awaits collection of additional material.
The fungus (or fungi?) that has been assigned to Davisiella
ELYMINA (Davis) Petr, is widespread in Phyllachora in Wiscon¬
sin. In his “Notes" V., p. 701, Davis, describing the fungus in
Phyllachora on Elymus virginicus, states that the sporules are
oblong, hyaline, often 4-guttulate, becoming uniseptate, 7-10 X
2%-3/x. He proposed the name Cytodiplospora elymina, with
the suggestion that it occured as a part of the life cycle of
Phyllachora. Petrak was of the opinion that this bore a parasitic
relation to the Phyllachora and proposed for it a new genus,
Davisiella (Ann. My col. 22: 133-4). Davis observed a similar
development two or three times in loculi of Phyllachora on
Calamagrostis canadensis, but not in sufficient abundance to
secure a specimen. In “Notes" XX, p. 7, Davis states (in part)
Greene — Notes on Wisconsin Parasitic Fungi . II. 87
“there was reference to a form on Calamagrostis with sporules
10-2 (V in length. In a collection from DeSoto, Sept. 2, 1932 on
Muhlenbergia racemosa the sporules are 10-16 X 2-3/*. A col¬
lection on Oryzopsis asperifolia from Crivitz, Aug. 25, 1931,
shows sporules 12-20, mostly about 17 /* long, nucleate but not yet
septate. Davisiella domingensis Petr. & Cif. was described
as having conidia 13-20 X 2-2%/* (Ann. Myc. 30: 277). In col¬
lections on Andropogon furcatus from Sauk Co. (Greene & Davis)
the sporules are 3-septate.” In a collection on Hystrix patula
from Troy Center, Walworth Co., Sept. 20, 1941, the sporules are
likewise 3-septate, about 15-17 X 4/*. On the other hand a speci¬
men from Eagleville, Waukesha Co., August 12, 1941 in the locules
of PHYLLACHORA vulgata Theiss. & Syd. on Muhlenbergia
foliosa, has well developed 1-septate conidia of the dimensions of
those first described on Elymus virginicus. It seems likely that
more than one fungus is involved.
The variable Septoria populi Desm. has been found* on
Populus nigra at Madison. Davis, “Notes” XIV, p. 281 reports
this on dubious P. nigra from Sauk City. The spots here are
somewhat larger, but the fungus is the same as that of the Sauk
City collection.
The late J. J. Davis described a fungus occurring in Wisconsin
on various species of Ribes as Cylindrosporium ribis {Trans.
Wis. Acad. Sci. 16: 759). In an appendix to the description he
stated that this form might prove to be Septoria sibirica Thuem.
with undeveloped pycnidial wall. In a later publication he states
“The fungus recorded in the provisional list under the name
Cylindrosporium ribis Davis is evidently conspecific with
Brenckle’s Fungi Dakotenses 320 which was determined by Sac-
cardo as Septoria sibirica Thuem. Saccardo gives a description
in Annales Mycologici 13 : 122. This seems quite different from
European material distributed under this name.” Professor
Ehrlich of the University of Idaho has been engaged in a study
of certain fungi on Ribes and has examined a number of speci¬
mens of Septoria sibirica, both American and European, from
the Wisconsin Herbarium. He finds the American material to be
good Cylindrosporium and states in a personal communication
“The Idaho fungus in question is similar but not identical with
Dr. Davis’ Cylindrosporium ribis. In view of the inconsistency
among European specimens distributed under the name Septoria
sibirica and in the absence of authentic Thuemen material, it
88 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts and Letters
seems to me that there is no sound basis for deciding whether
the two names actually apply to the same species. In view of
this circumstance, it seems best to me to designate our American
material, at least for the present, as Cylindrosporium ribis
Davis/' A fungus collected on Ribes sativum at Eagleville, Wau¬
kesha Co., June 1941 is certainly Cylindrosporium, and I am
therefore inclined to agree with Professor Ehrlich.
Septoria anemones Desm. on Anemone virginiana. Wal¬
worth Co., East Troy, July 20; on Anemone quinquefolia, Dane
Co., Madison, June 9. This is rarely collected, being so far found
only on the above-named hosts in North America and on Anemone
nemorosa in Europe. Our only North American collections are
from Wisconsin.
Septoria tenuissima Wint. ? on Boehmeria cylindrica. Sauk
Co., Parfrey's Glen, August 21. The sporules of this specimen
average somewhat longer than the 20-28 p of Winter's description.
Final determination must await collection of further material.
Septoria ziziae Ell. & Ev. ? on Zizia cordata. Waukesha Co.,
Eagle, October 1. Seymour's citation is based on a report of the
fungus by Brenckle (Mycologia 10: 220, 1918). I am unable to
trace a description of this species in the Sylloge Fungorum or in
the Journal of Mycology, and it is not among the specimens dis¬
tributed by Ellis and Everhart in North American Fungi . In the
specimen at hand the spots are irregularly rounded, grayish with
a narrow pale brown border, about 3-5 mm. diam. Pycnidia
gregarious, black, subrostrate, 115-130^ diam. ; sporules straight,
filiform, 25-35 X 1/a, ejected in slender cirrhi in water mounts.
Septoria solidaginicola Pk. on Solidago patula. Waukesha
Co., Eagleville, August 12. A rare host. Davis made one earlier
collection at Cecil, Shawano Co. He notes that it has few sporules.
The leaf lesions of the Eagleville specimen are strikingly con¬
spicuous, but it likewise has few sporules.
Gloeosporium ramosum Ell. & Ev. on Polygala sanguinea .
Dane Co., near Paoli, September 1. One earlier collection from
Nekoosa, Wood Co.
Pestalotia funerea Desm. has been observed developing on
the languishing foliage of Juniperus virginiana. Guba, in his
monograph of the genus Pestalotia, states that there is some
evidence in favor of a parasitic habit for P. funerea. This mate¬
rial, however, definitely suggests a saprophytic state.
Greene— Notes on Wisconsin Parasitic Fungi. II. 89
Ovularia isarioides (Ell. & Ev.) Sacc. on Staphylea trifolia.
Columbia Co., Gibraltar Rock, June 26. A rare and interesting
fungus.
Ophiocladium hordei Cav. on Phalaris arundinacea. Dane
Co., near Sauk City, August 29. Originally described as occurring
on Hordeum sativum in Europe. Davis collected 0. hordei in
two localities and placed his specimens in the Herbarium as
Ophiocladium hordei Cav. var. phalaridis ined. where they re¬
main thus labelled. Later in 1937 {Trans. Wis. Acad. Sci. 30 : 15) ,
he published the collections simply as Ophiocladium hordei
Cav. This writer has carefully examined the Davis specimens
and his own later one, but does not find sufficient difference from
the original description to warrant varietal distinction. Appar¬
ently Davis reached the same conclusion, but neglected to re¬
label his specimens.
Cladosporium aromaticum Ell. & Ev. collected on Rhus
glabra at Eagleville, Waukesha Co., July 27, is entirely hypo-
phyllous, while all other collections in the University Herbarium
are epiphyllous, the state set forth in the original description.
The host plant was growing on an exposed hillside and the fungus
developed during a period of extreme dryness, which may ac¬
count for its position.
Ramularia subrufa Ell. & Holw. on Smilax herbacea. Sauk
Co., Devil's Lake, August 19. The fungus here caused little dis¬
coloration of the leaves, and is hypophyllous in rather large,
diffuse, ill-defined patches. Previous collections have had small
spots, sharply delimited by vein islets.
Alternaria violae Gall. & Dorsett was collected by J. B.
Carpenter on Viola sp. (cult.) at Madison, Dane Co. in October
1939. This is perhaps dubiously parasitic, although the lesions
on which it appears are well marked.
Puccinia ANDROPOGONIS Schw. I on Castilleja sessiliflora.
Columbia Co., Gibraltar Rock, June 27. Reported for this host
by Trelease, but no interim Wisconsin collections are in the
Herbarium.
Additional Hosts
Peronospora parasitica (Pers.) Fr. on Sisymbrium can-
escens var. brachycarpon. Coll. L. H. Shinners, Jefferson Co.,
Ft. Atkinson, June 21. P. parasitica is not listed on this host
90 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts and Letters
in Seymour’s Index, but there is a specimen in the Wisconsin
Herbarium, collected by Dr. F. L. Wellman at Wichita, Kansas
in May 1929.
Sphaerotheca humuli (DC.) Burr, on Agrimonia pubescens
(A. mollis of Gray’s Manual) . Plant growing in a dry oak open¬
ing. Waukesha Co., Eagleville, July 10.
Sphaerotheca humuli (DC.) Burr. var. fuliginea (Schl.)
Salm. on Castilleja sessiliflora. Columbia Co., Gibraltar Rock,
September 4. There is no previous report of Sphaerotheca on
this host.
Erysiphe polygoni DC. on Thalictrum glaucum (cult.). Dane
Co., Madison, October 1939. Coll. & Det. by J. B. Carpenter.
Erysiphe polygoni DC. on Thalictrum aquilegifolium (cult.) .
Dane Co., Madison, October 30, 1938. Coll. & Det. by J. B. Car¬
penter.
Erysiphe poligoni DC. on Muehlenbeckia platyclada (cult.).
Dane Co., Madison, November 15. Greenhouse, University Dept,
of Botany.
Erysiphe cichoracearum DC. on Aster macrophyllus. Wau¬
kesha Co., Big Bend, August 29. Davis made* a collection of
E. cichoracearum on this host at Jacksonport, Door Co., in 1932,
but did not record it in his notes.
Erysiphe cichoracearum DC. on Aster novi-belgii (cult.).
Dane Co., Madison, October 20, 1938. Coll. & Det. by J. B.
Carpenter.
Erysiphe cichoracearum DC. on Helianthus kellermani
(cult.). Abundant material was collected by Mr. S. C. Wadmond
at Delavan, Walworth Co., in September 1941. Davis does not
mention this host in his published notes, although there is a
small specimen in the University Herbarium collected by him
in 1916 at Madison.
Erysiphe cichoracearum DC. on Tragopogon porrifolius
(cult.). Dane Co., Madison, October 10, 1939. Coll. & Det. by
J. B. Carpenter.
Erysiphe cichoracearum DC. on Zinnia elegans (cult.).
Dane Co., Madison, October 30, 1938. Coll. & Det. by J. B.
Carpenter.
Erysiphe cichoracearum DC. on Cirsium altissimum. Wau¬
kesha Co., Big Bend, August 29.
Greene — Notes on Wisconsin Parasitic Fungi . II.
91
Microsphaera diffusa C. & P. on Symphoricarpos albus var.
laevigatus (cult.). Door Co., Sturgeon Bay, October 20, 1939.
Coll. & Det. by J. B. Carpenter. Davis made a small collection of
this fungus on the seeds of the above-mentioned host at Hayward,
Sawyer Co., in 1924, but did not report it. The Door Co. collection
is on the leaves. This writer has not yet observed M. diffusa
on the snowberry in southern Wisconsin, although it is not
uncommon on the cultivated Indian currant, Symphoricarpos
orbiculatus.
Microsphaera alni (Wallr.) Wint. on Ligustrum vulgare
(cult.). Dane Co., Madison, November 16.
Phyllactinia corylea (Pers.) Karst, on Quercus rubra.
Dane Co., near Sauk City, October 10. Davis made a collection
on this host at Madison in 1928, but failed to report it.
Claviceps purpurea (Fr.) Tul. Sclerotia on Agropyron
smithii. Milwaukee Co., Milwaukee, September 7 ; Fond du Lac
Co., Campbellsport, September 4. Coll. L. H. Shinners.
Phyllachora graminis (Pers.) Fckl. on Bouteloua cur -
tipendula. Dane Co., near Sauk City, October 2. Immature
when collected. Overwintered leaves examined in April 1941
showed mature asci and ascopores. Davis does not report Phyl¬
lachora graminis on this host from Wisconsin, although there
are in the University Herbarium two specimens that are labelled
as being immature.
Phyllachora vulgata Theiss. & Syd. on Muhlenbergia cus -
pidata. Coll. N. C. Fassett, St. Croix Co., Burkhart, August 2,
1934; Buffalo Co., Alma, August 7, 1926. Coll. J. W. Thomson,
Monroe Co., Norwalk, September 2, 1937.
Phyllachora vulgata Theiss. & Syd. on Muhlenbergia mex-
icana. Grant Co., Mississippi River bottoms (opposite Dubuque),
September 8, 1930. Coll. N. C. Fassett.
Sphacelotheca sorghi (Lk.) Clint, on Sorghum vulgare
var. sudanense. Dane Co., Madison, September 25. Coll. & Det.
by D. W. Chamberlain.
Coleosporium solidaginis (Schw.) Thiim. II, III on Solidago
riddellii. Waukesha Co., Eagleville, October 8.
Coleosporium solidaginis (Schw.) Thiim. II, III, on Aster
pilosus. Dane Co., Madison, October 5. Coll. L. H. Shinners.
The host was formerly confused with A. ericoides L.
Uromyces silphii (Burr.) Arth. I on Silphium laciniatum.
Waukesha Co., Eagle, June 10 ; Jefferson Co., Lake Mills, June 27.
92 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts and Letters
In both of these localities the fungus was also found on Silphium
terebinthinaceum. The only previous collection on the latter host
was made by Davis in June 1886 at Barnes Prairie, near Racine.
Puccinia liatridis (Webber) Bethel I on Liatris pycnos -
tachya. Waukesha Co., Eagle, July 6.
Puccinia rubigo-vera (DC.) Wint. I on Hydrophyllum
virginianum. Langlade Co., Kempster, June 20. Coll. R. L.
Krause. This form is listed by Arthur under the trinomial P.
RUBIGO-VERA apocrypta (E. & T.) Arth.
Puccinia menthae Pers. II, III on Mentha piperita. Burnett
Co., Sec. 22, T38N, R16W, September 19, 1928. Coll. N. C.
Fassett.
Puccinia asteris Duby on Aster oblongifolius. Dane Co.,
near Sauk City, June 26; Lafayette Co., Platteville, September 13.
Puccinia asteris Duby on Aster lucidulus (A. puniceus var.
lucidulus of Gray’s Manual). Walworth Co., East Troy, Sep¬
tember 5.
Puccinia asteris Duby on Aster lindleyanus. Vilas Co.,
Sayner, August 9. Coll. & Det. by M. P. Backus.
Puccinia helianthi Schw. Ill on Helianthus laetiflorus
(cult.). Lafayette Co., Platteville, September 13. Coll. L. H.
Shinners.
Puccinia helianthi Schw. Ill on Helianthus “multiflorus”
(cult.) . Dane Co., Madison, October 2, 1938. Coll. & Det. by J. B.
Carpenter.
Gym nosporangium globosum Farl. I on Crataegus crus-galli.
Dane Co., Madison, August 22. Coll. & Det. by M. P. Backus.
Phyllosticta iridis Ell. & Mart, on Iris virginica var.
shrevei. Jefferson Co., Lake Mills, September 17. Iris versicolor
of Gray’s Manual is in part L virginica var. shrevei. In Wiscon¬
sin, however, the natural range of true I. versicolor is the extreme
north border of the state. It seems likely that previous collections
of Phyllosticta iridis from southern Wisconsin, labelled as
being on I. versicolor , are on 1. virginica var. shrevei .
Ascochyta graminicola Sacc. on Hierochloe odorata. Wau¬
kesha Co., Eagleville, May 10. Examination of herbarium speci¬
mens of H. odorata shows the same parasite on a collection made
by Dr. N. C. Fassett at Hubbleton, Jefferson Co., May 26, 1928.
There is also a fungus specimen on Torresia odorata (H. odorata)
Greene— Notes on Wisconsin Parasitic Fungi . 11.
93
.collected in 1928 at Scott, Sask. and labelled Ascochyta sp. by
the collector. Davis determined it as Ascochyta gr a minicola
Sacc., and it is identical with the Wisconsin specimens.
Septoria salicina Pk. on Salix fragilis. Waukesha Co.,
Eagleville, July 26; Walworth Co., near Mukwonago, August 3;
Jefferson Co., Lake Mills, August 7. This writer is unable to
see a satisfactory distinction between Septoria salicina Pk. and
Septoria didyma FcM. var. santonensis Pass.
Septoria urticae Desm. & Rob. on Urtica gracilis . Dane Co.,
Madison, October 23. Coll. & Det. E. A. Kerr.
Septoria divaricata Ell. & Ev. on Phlox paniculata X
maculata (cult). Barron Co., Barron, October 10, 1941. Coll.
A. Benson, Det. J. B. Carpenter.
Septoria cornicola Desm. on Cornus stolonifera . Waukesha
Co., Eagleville, July 26; Dane Co., Mazomanie, August 14.
Septoria menthicola Sacc. & Let. on Blephilia ciliata. Wau¬
kesha Co., Eagle, June 23.
Septoria liatridis Ell. & Davis on Liatris pycnostachya.
Waukesha Co., Eagle, August 4; Jefferson Co., Lake Mills,
August 7.
Septoria atropurpurra Pk. on Aster novae-angliae . Wau¬
kesha Co., Eagleville, September 1.
Gloeosporium septorioides Sacc. on Quercus ellipsoidalis.
Waukesha Co., Eagleville, August 10.
Collrtotrichum graminicolum (Ces.) Wils. on Elymus
canadensis . Dane Co., Madison, October 1930. Coll. M. P. Backus.
Colletgtrichum violae-rotumdifoliae (Sacc.) Davis on
Viola sororia . Dane Co., Middleton, May 1926. Coll. M. B. Lin¬
ford. This specimen was placed in the Herbarium by Davis, but
was overlooked in his host record.
Colletotrichum solitarium Ell. & Barth, on Solidago rid -
delliL Walworth Co., East Troy, September 19. Also found on
Solidago nemoralis , Walworth Co., Troy Center, September 20.
There is one earlier collection on S. nemoralis made at Nekoosa,
Wood Co.
Cercospora cypripemi Ell. & Dearn. on Cypripedium. reginae.
Coll. J. T. Curtis, Vilas Co., Land ’o Lakes, August 16; Coll.
H. C. Greene, Walworth Co., East Troy, September 5. Speci¬
mens in the Herbarium labelled merely as on Cypipedium sp
collected by Davis in 1911 at Gaslyn and Spooner, appear likewise
to be on Cypripedium reginae (fide Prof. Curtis).
94 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts and Letters
Cercospora cypripedii Ell. & Dearn. on Cypripedium pubes -
cews. Coll. J. T. Curtis, Vilas Co., Land o’ Lakes, July 31.
Cercospora polygonacea Ell. & Ev. on Polygonum tenue.
Sauk Co., Prairie du Sac, August 26; Columbia Co., near Lodi,
September 6. Determined by Professor Chupp.
Cercospora beticola Sacc. on Beta vulgaris var. cicla (cult.) .
Waukesha Co., Eagleville, September 6. Common, but included
because the host has not been mentioned previously in notes on
Wisconsin parasitic fungi.
Cercospora beticola Sacc. on Proboscidea louisiana (Mar-
tynia louisiana) (cult.). Dane Co., Madison, September 1914.
Coll. & Det. V. W. Pool & M. B. McKay.
Cercospora squalidula Pk. on Clematis integrifolia (cult.).
Dane Co., Madison, October 16. Determined by Professor Chupp.
Cercospora violae Sacc. on Viola tricolor (cult.). Door Co.,
Sturgeon Bay, August 2, 1938. Coll. C. N. Clayton,. Det. J. B.
Carpenter.
Cercospora racemosa Ell. & Mart, on Teucrium occidentale.
Dane Co., near Sauk City, August 20. Host identification is based
on the treatment appearing in Deam’s “Flora of Indiana”. It
seems extremely likely that previous Wisconsin collections have
been made on this host, although there is no report to that effect.
Additional Species
Mycosphaerella pontederiae (Pk.) House Sphaerella
pontederiae Pk., 40th Hep. N. Y. State Mus., p. 69 (1886). On
leaves of Nuphar advena. Dane Co., Verona, August 19. This
fungus appears to be truly parasitic.
Mycosphaerella impatientis (Pk. & Clint.) House
Sphaerella impatientis Pk. & Clint. 30th Bep. N. Y. State Mus.,
p. 67 (1877). On living leaves of Impatiens biflora. Walworth
Co., East Troy, July 20. No specimens of this fungus were
available for inspection in the Wisconsin Herbarium, but the
material corresponds exactly with the amplified description ap¬
pearing on p. 501 in Vol. 1 of the “Sylloge Fungorum”.
Fabraea maculata (Lev.) Atk. on Crataegus oxyacantha.
For several seasons on the University Campus in Madison a
fungus was observed abundantly infesting the foliage of Cra¬
taegus oxyacantha (cult.). The small purplish, immarginate
spots were at once macroscopically suggestive of Entomosporium,
but examination showed a Gloeosporium with conidia of the micro
Greene — Notes on Wisconsin Parasitic Fungi. II. 95
type, bacillary, 3-4 X 1.5-2 //,. In November 1940, large stromatic
cushions of hyphae were observed developing beneath each acerv-
ulus. Leaves were collected and overwintered until May 1941, at
which time asci with mature 1-septate spores had developed. The
fungus corresponds with the description of Stigmatea mespili
Sor. Atkinson (Science N. S. 30:452, 1909) expresses the opinion
that Stigmatea incorrectly designates the form in question and
refers it to Fabraea mespili (Sor.) Atk. Fabraea mespili is
supposedly the perfect stage of Entomosporium mespili (DC).
Sacc. while Fabraea maculata is the perfect stage of Entomo-
SPORUM MACULATUM Lev. Atkinson thinks that E. Mespili and
E. MACULATUM are in all probability conspecific, which pre¬
sumably would make Fabraea mespili and Fabraea maculata
identical. Although the Entomosporium stage has not been ob¬
served, it is felt that the ascigerous stage is sufficiently well-
defined to warrant the record. (Although Entomosporium
thuemenii (Cke.) Saac. is the form commonly reported on
hawthorn, E. mespili also is reported on Crataegus oxyacantha.)
Ustilago vilfae Wint. on Sporobolus neglectus. Dane Co.,
Cross Plains, October 23. Coll. L. H. Shinners.
Entyloma eryngii (Cda.) DeBary on Eryngium yuccifolium.
Dane Co., Paoli, August 29, 1941 ; September 29, 1940. The small
yellow, immarginate spots are distinct, but there is no host
hypertrophy.
Entyloma aster-sericeae Zund. on Aster sericeus . Dane
Co., near Sauk City, September 29 ; Columbia Co., Gibraltar Rock,
October 5; Adams Co., Friendship, August 22; Walworth Co.,
Troy Center, September 20. Entyloma has not been previously
reported on this host.
Melampsora euphorbiae (Schub.) Cast. II on Euphorbia
cyparissias. Dane Co., Pine Bluff, November 14. Coll. R. I.
Evans, Det. M. P. Backus.
Phragmidium ivesiae Syd. I, II, III on Potentilla recta.
Waukesha Co., Eagleville, July 2; Dane Co., Paoli, August 19.
Puccinia purpurea Cke. II on Sorghum vulgare var.
sudanense. Dane Co., Madison, October 23. Coll. & Det. D. W.
Chamberlain. Sorghum rust is uncommon in the northern United
States.
Puccinia lapsanae (Cke.) Fckl. II, III on Lapsana com¬
munis. Fond du Lac Co., Wolf Lake, July 17, 1938. Coll. L. H.
Shinners.
96 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts and Letters
Nyctalis asterophora Fr. on Coprimes comatus. Dane Co.,
Madison, October 5. Coll. E. M. Gilbert. Also on various species
of Russula, as shown by specimens in the University Herbarium.
Phoma iowana Sacc. on Aster lucidulus (A. puniceus var.
lucidulus of Gray’s Manual). Waukesha Co., Eagleville, Sep¬
tember 14. A specimen of Aster ptarmicoides collected by
A. B. Stout in the Town of Delton, Sauk Co., August 19, 1905,
shows pycnidia which perhaps should also be referred to Phoma
iowana. These hosts are the same two cited by Saccardo in
connection with the original description. This fungus should
probably be transferred to Phyllosticta, since it is not caulivorous,
but develops on the foliage.
Septoria dearnessii Ell. & Ev. on Angelica atropurpurea.
Waukesha Co., Eagleville, October 8. The sporules measure up
to 32/a long, as do those of the same fungus distributed in Barthol¬
omew’s Fungi Columhiani as No. 3873, and collected by Dearness
at London, Ont., the type locality. It seems likely that the orig¬
inal description was based on somewhat immature material.
Septoria eryngicola Oud. & Sacc. on Eryngium yuccifolium.
Dane Co., near Paoli, August 29. Apparently not hitherto re¬
ported as occurring in North America.
Septoria angularis Dearn. & Barth, on Solidago gramini-
folia. Waukesha Co., Eagleville, September 14. Previously re¬
ported only on Solidago latifolia. The lesions are identical.
Colletotrichum vermicularioides Hals, on Linaria vulgaris.
Sauk Co., Parfrey’s Glen, September 6. On stems and lower
leaves. It appears to be parasitic and lethal.
Monochaetia discosioides (Ell. & Ev.) Sacc. on Geum tri-
florum. Waukesha Co., Eagle, June 29. Comparison of this col¬
lection with Pestalozzia discosioides Ell. & Ev. (North Amer¬
ican Fungi, 2nd series, No. 2180), on leaves of cultivated rose,
shows conidia which are identical, except for a considerably
shorter basal stalk in those of the fungus on Geum triflorum. The
conidium is remarkable among others in this group for the ex¬
tremely short (3-5/a), rigid seta jutting obliquely from the
terminal cell. The spots on the G. triflorum leaves are 1-3 mm.
diam., well-defined, with a narrow dark brown border and a pale
brown center on which the acervuli are produced.
Cercospora gei Fckl. on Geum triflorum . Waukesha Co.,
Eagleville, September 7. Determined by Professor Chupp who
Greene — Notes on Wisconsin Parasitic Fungi. II.
97
states this is the first collection of this species that he has seen
from the Western Hemisphere.
Cercospora variicolor Wint. on Paeonia albiflora (cult.).
Dane Co., Madison, October 2, 1938. Coll. & Det. J. B. Carpenter.
Cercospora crotonophila Speg. on Croton glandulosus var.
septentrionalis. Columbia Co., Lodi, September 10. Professor
Chupp states that this is definitely not Cercospora crotonifolia
Cke., reported on this host in Seymour’s Index, but does corre¬
spond in its principal characters with Spegazzini’s species.
Cercospora bartholomaei Ell. & Kell, on Rhus toxicoden¬
dron. Iowa Co., Arena, September 22. Identification confirmed
by Professor Chupp.
Cercospora carotae (Pass.) Solheim on Daucus carota var.
sativa. Waukesha Co., Eagleville, August 22. Undoubtedly very
common, but apparently not hitherto reported.
Cercospora diodiae Cke. on Diodia teres. Iowa Co., Arena,
August 23. Professor Chupp has no record of other collections
north of Missouri.
Gloeosporium oncidii Oud. has been found on leaves of
Oncidium sphacelatum, and Gloesoporium cintum B. & C.
(= Glomerella cincta) on leaves of Dendrobium nobile in a
University of Wisconsin greenhouse. The two forms appear to
intergrade. Davis has previously reported G. cinctum on Den¬
drobium moschatum. Very likely all of these were imported
with their hosts and can scarcely be considered established repre¬
sentatives of the parasitic fungus flora of Wisconsin.
Sporonema trifolii n. sp. Pycnidia amphigenous, scattered
or gregarious, innate, often somewhat flattened, wall imperfectly
defined in a looser or denser mass of stromatic tissue, 60-170//,
diam., mostly 90-150/x diam., borne on elongate, brown or black¬
ish-brown spots which tend to follow the veins, and often extend
to the leaf margin ; conidia hyaline, continuous, cylindric, straight
or slightly curved, 4-9 X 1.3-3//,, very variable, mostly 5.5-7.S
X 1.5-2.5 fiy borne on slender, hyaline, mostly simple, densely
aggregated conidiophores, 14-17 X 1.5-2. 5//,. On leaves of Tri¬
folium pratense.
Sporonema trifolii sp. nov. Pycnidiis amphiginis, sparsis
vel gregariis, innatis, irregularibus, imperfecte limitatis in plus
minusve stromaticis hyphis, 60-170//, diam., plerumque 90-150/x
diam., Maculis late enlongatis, bruneis vel atro-bruneis, neuros
98 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts and Letters
sequentibus, saepe ad marginem tendentibus; sporulis hyalinis,
continuis, cylindraceis, rectis vel leviter curvulis, 4-9 X 1.3-3 n,
variabilibus ; conidiophoris hyalinis, plerumque simplicibus,
dense aggregatis, 14-17 X 1. 5-2.5 /z.
Dr. F. R. Jones called the writer's attention to this Sporonema.
It occurs on red clover exclusively, so far as known, and probably
represents the imperfect stage of a Pyrenopeziza. Apparently it
usually occurs in association with Ascochyta trifolii or Gloe-
OSPORIUM trifolii, although leaves of Manitoba material seem
to bear the Sporonema alone. The description is based on a
specimen in the University of Wisconsin Herbarium collected and
determined by J. J. Davis as Gloeosporum trifolii Pk. and later
redetermined as Asochyta trifolii (Pk.) The specimen was
taken at Minocqua, Wis., July 3, 1914. In connection with
Ascochyta trifolii, Davis in his “Notes” IV, p. 674, states
“What appears to be a state of this, probably immature, has been
collected with sporules but about 8 X 2%/z, continuous, and what
is possibly a spermogonial or microconidial state occurs fre¬
quently with sporules 4-8 X 1-1%/a, continuous. In this form the
distal portion of the pycnidium is imperfect and it is much like
the fungus on Medicago known as Sporonema phacidioides
Desm.” Sporonema phacidioides is the imperfect stage of
Pyrenopziza medicaginis Fckl. and occurs on alfalfa exclusively,
but it is apparent that Davis observed the fruiting bodies of
Sporonema trifolii. All the specimens of S. trifolii from Wis¬
consin in the University Herbarium are on specimens labelled
Ascochyta trifolii, and are from the northern part of the state.
Herbarium of the University of Wisconsin.
January, 1942.
CATS WITH ABNORMALLY ARRANGED VISCERA
Harold R. Wolfe
Department of Zoology , University of Wisconsin
Recently two articles on abnormal arrangements of the
viscera of cats have appeared. Rifenburgh, Lawson and Ogden
(1937) described a cat with an “upside-down stomach.” This
condition was due to a diaphragmatic hernia which allowed for
the entrance of the small intestine, the pancreas and the spleen
into the right pleural cavity. The rest of the digestive organs
were found in the abdominal cavity. There was but one kidney,
the left one, which was approximately three times the size of a
normal one. Wragg (1938) described a cat with completely re¬
versed viscera and with an aortic loop arising from a larger right
ventricle and arching to the right.
Other animals have been found with anomalous conditions of
the internal organs. The transposition of the viscera, known as
situs viscerum inversus , is not uncommon in human beings.
Bailey and Miller (1929) state in their textbook of Embryology
that there are two hundred cases on record. The functions of the
organs of these individuals were unimpaired. Hansen (1939) de¬
scribed a “reversed” cryptobranchus in which the internal organs
were found on the sides opposite that of the normal animal.
The reversed position of the viscera and diaphragmatic hernia
are rare conditions in cats. Because of this rarity it seems ad¬
visable to give a detailed description along with photographs of
the structures of the abdominal and pleural cavities of two female
cats that were found by students in a comparative anatomy class.
The two specimens were adults but looked scrawny though this
condition could not definitely be attributed to their abnormalities.
Both of these cats had diaphragmatic herniae with a transposi¬
tion of some of the visceral organs to the side opposite that of a
normal individual. These two specimens were found in successive
years, one in 1927 and the other in 1928. They were both received
from nearby farmers and there is a possibility that they were
related though there was a difference in the degree of their ab¬
normality. Since these cats were found approximately two thou¬
sand others have been dissected without a single case of such an
abnormal arrangement of the viscera.
99
100 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts and Letters
The two cats will be described separately since their abnorm¬
alities were dissimilar. The first one to be described will be that
of the cat found in 1927.
Cat 1
The general shape of the abdominal and pleural cavities was
slightly different from that of a normal cat. The abdominal cavity
was much shorter and slightly narrower than that of a normal
cat while the pleural cavity was considerably longer and wider.
These size differences were due, no doubt, to the presence in the
left pleural cavity of much of the abdominal organs.
A hernia, approximately one inch in diameter, was present in
the center of the diaphragm. The entire small intestine and
ascending colon entered the left pleural cavity through this open¬
ing. Also present in the cavity were part of the greater omentum,
the pancreas, the cystic lobe and the left lateral and left median
lobes of the liver. The small intestine reached as far anteriorly
as the first rib. The left lung was much reduced in size and
pressed against the dorsal body wall but it apparently had been
functional to a slight extent. The anterior portion of the duo¬
denum and pancreas were lying against the cranial surface of the
diaphragm on the left side of the left pleural cavity. Parallel
and just anterior to these structures, passing from left to right,
was the ascending colon. The portions of the liver mentioned
above were on the right side and the ileum, jejenum and ascend¬
ing colon were median in position.
The presence of these numerous structures in the left pleural
cavity crowded the mediastinal septum to the right so that the
heart was on the right side. The right lung was elongated and
the right pleural cavity was longer and considerably narrower
than that of a normal specimen. The aortic arch and pulmonary
artery were apparently normal.
The abdominal cavity contained the stomach, part of the
greater omentum, the transverse and descending colon, the right
lateral liver lobe, the spleen and the urogenital organs. The
stomach was on the left side of the body just caudal to the dia¬
phragm and reversed in position so that the greater curvature
was toward the right and the pyloric region was more anterior
than the cardiac region. The portions of the liver were on the
right side and did not overlap the stomach. The posterior quar¬
ter of the abdominal cavity contained only the colon and uro-
Plate 1. Photograph: ventral view of viscera of cat no. 1. Plate 2. Photograph: right latero-ventral view of viscera of cat no 1.
Plate 3. Photograph : left lateral view of viscera of cat no. 2. Plate 4. Photograph : ventral view of viscera of cat no.
ILEUM
HEAP!
D LUNG
D/A PH PA GM
LIVED
DK/DNEY
Plate 5. Photograph : right latero-ventral view of viscera of cat no. 2.
Wolfe— Cats with Abnormally Arranged Viscera 101
genital ducts. The right kidney was closely adherent to the
caudal division of the right lateral liver lobe so that it appeared
at first to be the part of the liver.
Cat 2
The abnormalities in this cat were similar in some respects
to those of the first cat described. While the size and shape of
the thoracic basket were approximately the same as those of the
other cat, the abdominal cavity was very different from it and
from that of a normal animal. Crowded into the left pleural cav¬
ity through a hernia of about one inch in diameter were the
stomach, greater omentum, entire small intestine, ascending and
transverse colon, pancreas, spleen, and the left lateral, the median,
and three-fourths of the cystic liver lobes. The stomach was
located on the anterior surface of the diaphragm on the left side
of the body with the greater curvature facing anteriorly. Instead
of being pear-shaped it was of uniform size throughout, though
sharply bent in the middle. The pylorus was close to the dia¬
phragm on the extreme left side and the duodenum passed ante¬
riorly from that point. Lying ventral to the stomach and duo¬
denum was the spleen. The portions of the liver present were on
the right side and the other digestive structures were centrally
located. The left lung, lying against the dorsal body wall was
small but may have been slightly functional. The position of
the heart and the size of the right lung were similar to those
described for the first cat.
The posterior three-fourths of the abdominal cavity was very
much constricted. An enlarged descending colon, about one-
fourth of the cystic lobe of the liver and the right lateral liver
lobe were in the anterior region of this cavity. The portions of
'the liver present were on the right side of the cavity and over¬
lapped the anterior and median portions of the right kidney.
The anterior portion of the descending colon entered the ab¬
dominal cavity through the hernia and bent toward the mid-line.
From that point it followed a median course and was bordered
on either side by a large cornu of the uterus. The body of the
uterus was on the left side so that the right cornu was diagonal
in position and the left one vertical. The left kidney was just
posterior to the caudal border of the diaphragm on the extreme
left side.
102 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts and Letters
The astounding survival under such adverse conditions seems
quite remarkable for as far as one could judge these two cats
enjoyed a normal cat's life. The adaptations and adjustment
that were made did not seem to interfere with the functions of
the organs. The only definite, structural abnormalities that were
found in regard to size of organs were the small left lungs of
the two cats and the somewhat enlarged colon of one of them.
The author wishes to express his appreciation to Dr. Joseph
G. Baier, Jr., of the Milwaukee Extension Division of the Uni¬
versity of Wisconsin for his kindness in taking most of the
photographs, and to Professor Wagner of the Department of
Zoology for the specimens described.
Literature Cited
Bailey, F. R., and Miller, A. M. 1929. A Textbook of Embryology. William
Wood and Company.
Hansen, Ira B. 1939. A Reversed Cryptobranchus. Science, Vol. 89, p. 128.
Rifenburgh, S. A., Lawson, W. P., and Ogden, R. P. 1937. A Cat with
an “Upside-down Stomach.” Indiana Acad, of Sci. Proceed., Vol.
47, pp. 285-286.
Wragg, Helen A. 1939. A Reversed Cat. Vol. 88, p. 475, Science.
THE SUMMER STANDING CROP OF PLANTS AND
ANIMALS IN FOUR WISCONSIN LAKES*
Chancey Juday
Introduction
Quantitative studies of the biota of several Wisconsin lakes
have been in progress for a considerable number of years and
the data obtained in four of these investigations are now com¬
plete enough to give an approximate idea of the ratio of the
aquatic plants to the aquatic animals in summer. Generally
speaking aquatic animals are dependent, either directly or in¬
directly, on aquatic plants for their sustenance ; a certain amount
of organic matter that may serve as food may be blown into the
water by the wind, while another portion may be washed in from
the drainage basin or brought in by streams. By far the greater
part of the material that is utilized by the aquatic animals, how¬
ever, is manufactured autotrophically by the aquatic plants of
the lake. The relative abundance of the aquatic plants, there¬
fore, becomes a problem of great importance to the animal popu¬
lation of the lake. The manufacturers of the organic matter,
namely the plants, include both the phytoplankton and the large
aquatic plants that grow in the shallow water, while the animals
range from protozoa to fish ; the former constitute the producers
and the latter the consumers of organic matter. The ratio be¬
tween the two groups shows the trophic conditions of the con¬
sumers. Data are most complete for two lakes in northern
Wisconsin (Weber and Nebish) situated near the Trout Lake
Limnological Laboratory ; with the exception of their fish popula¬
tions, similar data have been obtained on two lakes in the
southern part of the state, namely Green and Mendota. The two
northern lakes have soft waters and the southern fairly hard
waters so that direct comparisons of the biological productivity
of the two types of water can be made. Plankton observations
have been made regularly during the months of July and August
from 1931 to 1941, inclusive, on the two northern lakes; from
time to time during this 11-year period assessments of the large
aquatic plants, the bottom fauna and the fish have also been taken,
* From the Department of Zoology and the Limnological Laboratory of the Wisconsin
Geological and Natural History Survey. Notes and reports No. 117.
103
104 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts and Letters
so the results give a fairly complete knowledge of the quantitative
relationships between the constituents of the biota of these two
lakes in summer. Since 1938 the plankton observations have been
continued during the other 10 months of the year, but they are
not included in the present report; they are reserved for a
later paper.
The quantitative investigations on Green and Mendota have
included the plankton, the bottom fauna and the large aquatic
plants, but no estimates of their fish populations have yet been
made; most of the quantitative studies on these two lakes were
made between 1912 and 1924, with a few additional observations
in more recent years. Data regarding the dissolved organic mat¬
ter were obtained on the two southern lakes between 1922 and
1924 and on the two northern lakes between 1925 and 1936.
Acknowledgments
Several research assistants have taken part in these investi¬
gations, but the list is too long to mention each of them by name.
Data regarding the large aquatic plants of Weber Lake have been
obtained from Dr. L. R. Wilson, Dr. John E. Potzger and from
Mr. L. A. Fraser on those of Nebish Lake. Rickett’s reports have
been used for the large aquatics of Green and Mendota. Dr. R. P.
Domogalla contributed some chemical data on Green and Mendota
in addition to those given in his two published papers. Dr. G.
Eisenhart has supervised the computations and assisted in mak¬
ing plans for the fish population studies. The Works Projects
Administration has given assistance in some phases of the in¬
vestigations. Financial aid has been received from the Division
of Fishery Biology, United States Fish and Wildlife Service, the
Wisconsin Conservation Department, the Brittingham Trust
Fund, the University Research Committee and the Wisconsin
Alumni Research Foundation.
Methods
Plankton . On Weber and Nebish lakes the plankton was taken
with a high speed Foerst centrifuge ; this instrument has a bowl
75 mm. in inside diameter and a speed of about 18,000 r.p.m.
so that it develops a centrifugal force of approximately 12,500
times gravity. This is sufficient to remove the plankton organ¬
isms, including about three-quarters of the bacteria, as well as a
considerable portion of the organic detritus in a particulate form,
and inorganic material in the form of silt ; thus the term seston
Juday— Summer Standing Crop of Plants and Animals 105
is more appropriate for these catches than plankton. These cen¬
trifuge catches were dried, weighed and ashed for the purpose
of determining the approximate amount of organic matter in
them. Chemical analyses of some of the material have also been
made in order to get some idea of its food value. The centrifuge
used on Green Lake did not have such a high speed but correc¬
tions were made for this difference. A large clarifier type of
centrifuge was used on Lake Mendota. It had substantially the
same efficiency as the high speed instrument. Plankton observa¬
tions covering the entire depths of the four lakes were made
once a week during the summer, and sometimes twice a week on
Lake Mendota. The quantitative data given in the tables thus
represent averages of seven to ten sets of samples taken prin¬
cipally in July and August each year; a few sets taken in late
June and early September have also been used.
Quantitative determinations of the zooplankton were made
simultaneously with a plankton trap. They showed that the
rotifers and microcrustacea constituted about 6.5 per cent of the
organic content of the centrifuge catches in the two northern
lakes and 6.0 per cent in the two southern lakes ; these two per¬
centages have been used, therefore, in computing the standing
crop of zooplankton. Both the phytoplankton and the organic
detritus recovered by the centrifuge are utilized for food by
such forms as protozoa, rotifers, microcrustacea, insect larvae and
bivalve mollusks ; from the food standpoint, then, it is not neces¬
sary to distinguish between the living and dead phytoplankton
organisms and the organic detritus that may be present.
Bottom flora and fauna. Petersen and Ekman dredges were
used for the quantitative studies of the large aquatic plants and
the bottom-dwelling animals. In certain localities a square made
of strap iron 25 mm. wide and measuring 50 cm. on a side was
used for samples of the large aquatics. This square, covering
one-fourth square meter, was thrown overboard at random in
shallow water and all of the plants inside it were collected by
hand. This method was employed chiefly by Rickett in his studies
on Green and Mendota. All of the samples of large aquatics in
Weber and most of those in Nebish were taken with the regular
Petersen dredge which sank into the bottom far enough to bring
up the roots as well as the stems of the plants, hence both are
included in the weights given for the large aquatics. For the
bottom fauna, the Petersen dredge was employed in the shallow
106 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts and Letters
water where the bottom consisted of sand and gravel, and the
Ekman dredge in the deeper water where the bottom deposit
consisted chiefly of mud. A large percentage of the catches came
from the shallow water where a greater variation in numbers
and in forms was noted; the average number of samples was
11 per hectare of lake surface.
Fish. Fish population studies have been confined to the two
smaller northern lakes ; the southern lakes are so large that no
attempt has yet been made to estimate their fish populations. In
the northern lakes the general method of Dr. David H. Thompson
of Illinois has been employed. The fish were caught in modified
fyke nets, marked either by placing a numbered metal tag on
the gill cover or by clipping a certain fin, and then liberated at
a central station. When about 1000 specimens had been marked
in Weber Lake and about twice that number in Nebish Lake,
fishing operations were discontinued for a week to allow the
marked fish to redistribute themselves; this was followed by a
second period of fishing which lasted about two weeks. The ratio
of marked to unmarked fish caught in the second period of fishing
made it possible to compute the total fish population by means
of Schnabel's formulae (1938). Experiments have shown that
this method is accurate enough for all practical purposes, since
the error is less than 10 per cent.
Dissolved organic matter. This material includes the organic
matter in true solution and that which is in such a finely divided
state that it cannot be recovered with the high speed centrifuge ;
it also includes about a quarter of the bacteria, but they make only
a small contribution because they are usually found in such small
numbers in the open water, ranging from 100 to 500 per cubic
centimeter as determined by the plate method. The quantity of
this unrecoverable organic matter was ascertained by evaporat¬
ing samples of water from different depths and then determin¬
ing the amount of organic carbon, organic nitrogen and ether
extract (fat) in these residues. The quantity of organic N X 6*25
gives the crude protein. In computing the organic matter from
these determinations, the following percentages of carbon were
assigned to the three primary constituents : crude protein, 53 per
cent; ether extract, 75 per cent; carbohydrate, 50 per cent. De¬
ducting the organic content of the plankton from the sum of
these three items leaves what has been called the “dissolved
organic matter" in these lake investigations; as already indi¬
cated it does contain a certain amount of particulate matter.
Juday — Summer Standing Crop of Plants and Animals 107
The weight data included in the tables for the various biotic
constituents give the wet weight in kilograms per hectare on an
ash-free basis. The wet weights best represent the natural status
of the animals and plants in the water ; such weights were obtained
directly for the large aquatics, the bottom fauna and the fish. The
wet weight of the plankton was obtained by multiplying the dry
weight of the organic matter by the factor 10 ; this factor is based
on results which show that the water content of a number of
plankton organisms ranges from 90 to 95 per cent. In fact sub¬
stantially the same percentages of water have been found in the
large aquatics, the bottom fauna and the fish; thus the wet
weights given in the tables can be converted to dry weights by
dividing them by 10. The percentage of ash in the several biotic
constituents varies widely, ranging from less than 5 per cent of
the dry weight in some of the plankton organisms to more than
50 per cent in Chara ; so it was deemed best to state the results
on an ash-free basis which gives a better picture of the organic
content of the lake as a whole and which is also advantageous in
considering the producer-consumer relationships.
Character of Lakes
Table 1 gives some of the physical characteristics of the four
lakes. It will be noted that Weber and Nebish are much smaller
and shallower than Green and Mendota. Weber Lake is the
smallest and shallowest of the four and it belongs to the seepage
type ; that is, it has neither an inlet nor an outlet. It loses water
only by evaporation and by seepage through the ground. The
drainage basin is very small so that most of its water supply
comes from the rain and snow precipitated on its surface. This
reduction of the land factors of its environment to a minimum
Table 1. Physical characteristics of the four lakes on which quantita¬
tive studies of the biota have been made. The color was determined by the
platinum-cobalt standard; a 30 cm. white disc was used to determine the
transparency and the depth at which the disc disappeared from view is
indicated in meters.
108 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts and Letters
gives Weber Lake unique characteristics and makes it as com¬
plete a self-contained aquatic habitat as nature can provide.
Nebish Lake is two and a half times as large as Weber and
has a somewhat greater maximum depth, but a smaller mean
depth. Its drainage basin is small also and it has no inlet. At
unusually high stages of the water there is an overflow into a
small detached basin which has no visible outlet but which has
margins and bottom without a water tight seal. As a result the
overflow water which it receives from Nebish escapes rapidly
by seepage through the ground. Aside from this unique type of
outlet discharge, Nebish Lake is equally as isolated from its land
environment as Weber Lake.
Green and Mendota are much larger than the two northern
lakes; they have inlets and outlets and relatively large drainage
basins; thus they belong to the drainage type of lakes and are
subject to a much greater influence of land factors in their
environment than the two northern lakes. Green Lake has a
maximum depth of 68 meters and it is the deepest lake within the
borders of the state. Its large volume is shown by the fact that
its mean depth is 83.1 meters.
Table 2 gives some of the chemical characteristics of the
waters of the four lakes. Weber and Nebish have very soft
waters, the former especially ; they are situated in a region where
the upper part of the glacial deposit contains relatively small
amounts of carbonates. While the deeper deposits contain larger
amounts of carbonates, the lake basin seal keeps the deeper
ground waters from entering these two lakes and giving the water
a larger mineral content. The bed rock in this region consists of
Table 2. Chemical characteristics of the waters of the four lakes on
which biological studies were made. The conductivity or specific conductance
is expressed in reciprocal megohms; the dissolved substances are indicated
in milligrams per liter of water.
Juday — Summer Standing Crop of Plants and Animals 109
granite which is covered by glacial deposits ranging from 42 to
70 meters in depth.
Green and Mendota are situated in limestone regions so that
their waters have a much larger mineral content than those of
the northern lakes. Carbonates are plentiful in their drainage
basins so that the inflowing waters add a substantial amount of
inorganic material to these two lakes. Because of their location
in limestone areas, they both have fairly hard waters.
Quantitative Data
Weber Lake
Some of the results obtained in the quantitative studies of
the biota of Weber Lake are given in Table 3. These investiga¬
tions covered the standing crop of the various forms during the
months of July and August in the years indicated in the table.
In one year an additional set of plankton samples was taken
during the last week in June and in two other years sets were
taken in the first week of September; these extra observations
have been used in computing the summer means of these years
since they correspond so closely in time with the other samples.
The second column in the table gives results for 1936-38, inclu¬
sive, because complete assessments of the bottom flora and fauna
were not made annually during this period ; in fact the complete
survey of these two groups of organisms extended from 1936 to
1939, thus these two items are given the same values in the
1936-38 column and in the 1939 column. Complete assessments
Table 3. Average amount of organic matter in standing crop of plants
and animals in Weber Lake in summer; the quantity of dissolved organic
matter is also given. The results are stated in kilograms per hectare of lake
surface on a wet weight, ash-free basis.
110 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts and Letters
were made in 1933 and again in 1940, however, as indicated
in the table.
The table shows that there was almost a twofold increase in
the standing crop of plankton between 1933 and 1940. This in¬
crease was due in part, at least between 1936 and 1940, to the
use of fertilizers ; the lake is small enough to permit experiments
of this character without excessive cost of materials. From 1932
to 1935 inclusive, mineral fertilizers were used, such as super¬
phosphate, lime, nitrogen compounds and potash, but they seemed
to have no effect upon the standing crop of plankton. The mean
quantity of organic matter in the plankton during these four
summers ranged from a maximum of 722 kg/ha, wet weight, in
1932 to a minimum of 604 kg/ha in 1935, with a mean of 651
kg/ha for the four-year period; the mean for the summer of
1931, the year before any fertilizers were added, was 675 kg/ha,
or 24 kg/ha larger than the mean of the four following summers
(1932-35) when mineral fertilizers were used.
In July and August, 1936, an organic fertilizer in the form
of soybean meal was added to the lake and there was an appreci¬
able increase in the standing crop of plankton; the mean was
952 kg/ha as compared with 651 kg/ha for the four previous
summers in which mineral fertilizers were applied; this repre¬
sented an increase of 45 per cent. The average standing crop
was three per cent smaller in 1937 than in 1936 and only about
7 per cent smaller in 1938 than in 1936, but no fertilizers were
added during these two summers; apparently the soybean meal
was effective for three summers. In 1939 cottonseed meal was
used and a further increase in the plankton crop was observed
as shown in the table ; the mean for that summer was 1026 kg/ha.
There was a further increase to 1143 kg/ha in 1940 although no
fertilizer was added in that summer. Likewise no fertilizer was
added in 1941 and the mean crop of plankton declined to 824
kg/ha. From this result it appears that the cottonseed meal was
effective for only two instead of three summers as noted for the
soybean meal. However, this difference may be due in part to the
fact that only one ton of cottonseed meal was added as compared
with one and a half tons of soybean meal.
Corresponding to an increase in the standing crop of plankton
from 1936 to 1940 was a similar increase in the weight of the
bottom flora and fauna as indicated in the table. During this
time the bottom flora increased from 366 kg/ha in 1933 to 553
Juday — Summer Standing Crop of Plants and Animals 111
kg/ha in 1940, while the bottom fauna rose from 73 kg/ha in
1933 to 147 kg/ha in 1940, a twofold increase. The fish, on the
other hand, declined in weight from 38 kg/ha in 1933 to a
minimum of 17 kg/ha in 1939, with a slight increase to 23 kg/ha
in 1940. The total weight of plants (phytoplankton and large
aquatics) increased from 949 kg/ha in 1933 to 1622 kg/ha in
1940, an increase of 71 per cent, while that of the animals rose
from 152 kg/ha in 1933 to 244 kg/ha in 1940, an increase of a
little more than 60 per cent. The somewhat lower percentage
gain in the animals was due chiefly to the decrease in the weight
of the fish.
The third line from the bottom of Table 3 shows the ratios
of the wet weight of the plants to that of the animals on an ash¬
free basis. The plants include the combined weight of the phyto¬
plankton and the large aquatics and the animals that of the zoo¬
plankton, the bottom fauna and the fish. It will be noted that
these ratios are remarkably uniform for the eight-year period
covered by these observations, ranging from a low of 6.1 in
1936-38 to a high of 6.8 in 1939. They mean that each kilogram
of animals had a potential food resource of 6 to 7 kilograms of
plants, and this ratio remained almost constant in spite of the
annual changes found in the total weight of these two groups
during the eight summers. That is, they reached a biological
balance when the weight of the plants was between 6 and 7
times that of the animals. Apparently the biotic potential of the
plants was such that they were able to take advantage of the
more favorable trophic conditions produced by the addition of the
organic fertilizers and the biotic potential of the animals, with
the exception of the fish, enabled them to respond promptly to
the improved food conditions resulting from the increase in the
plants.
The second line from the bottom of Table 3 shows the relation
of plants to animals when fish are excluded from 'consideration.
Since fish are chiefly animal consumers, their exclusion gives a
better idea of the more direct relations between plants and ani¬
mals from a food and feeder standpoint ; in addition also the fish
populations of Green and Mendota are not known and these
ratios with fish excluded can be compared directly with similar
ratios for the two southern lakes. In Weber Lake the ratios with
the fish excluded show a somewhat larger variation than with
the fish included, yet they are reasonably close, ranging from 8.3
112 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts and Letters
in 1933 to 7.1 in 1936-38. These ratios are really an index of the
efficiency of the animals in utilizing the plant material for graz¬
ing purposes.
The last line in Table 3 shows the relation of the weight of
the food directly available for fish (zooplankton and bottom
fauna) to the weight of the fish. While the quantity of food
gradually increased from 1933 to 1940, the weight of the fish
declined during this time, reaching a minimum in 1939 with a
moderate increase in 1940. The ratio of available food to fish
rose from 3.0 in 1933 to 11.1 in 1939, which was more than a
threefold increase. Thus the fish did not respond as promptly to
the improved food conditions as the other animals which sug¬
gests that other factors than food were involved in the decrease
of the fish population. Couey (1935) found that more than 80
Figure 1. This figure shows the weight relationships of the various
constituents of the biota of Weber Lake; it is based on the weights given in
the 1940 column of Table 3. The weight of each constituent is proportional
to the total area of the triangle; the original diagram was platted on a
scale of 1 kg/ha = 12.4 sa. mm.
Juday— Summer Standing Crop of Plants and Animals 113
per cent of the food of the yellow perch of Weber Lake consisted
of aquatic insect larvae and Cladocera ; the same was true of the
smallmouthed black bass, the only species of fish found in the
lake at the time of his investigations (1931-32). Both of these
food organisms showed an increase between 1933 and 1940, yet
there was a decline in the weight of the fish.
Figure 1 shows graphically the weight relationships of the
various constituents of the biota of Weber Lake during the
months of July and August, 1940; it serves to illustrate what
may be called the “pyramid of aquatic life” in the lake during
those months. The entire area of the triangle represents the total
weight .of plants and animals, namely, 1872 kg/ha; the areas,
included in the various divisions of the triangle are proportional
to the weight contributed to the total by each group. The original
diagram was platted on a scale of 1 kg/ha = 12.4 sq. mm. The
lower part of the diagram shows the broad foundation of aquatic
plants on which the animal population rests ; the two groups of
plants (phytoplankton and large aquatics) are separated by a
broken line in order to indicate the relative weight of each group.
The upper part of the triangle represents the amount of organic
matter contributed by the animals ; the zooplankton and bottom
fauna are separated by a broken line, while the fish are set off
with a solid line since they may be regarded as the end product
of all the biological processes that take place in the lake. The
diagram shows clearly what a small proportion of the total weight
of the biota is contributed by the animals, with the fish forming
only a small cap for the pyramid. The percentage of organic
matter contributed by the various groups of organisms is indi¬
cated in Table 5. The phytoplankton and the large aquatics
together furnished substantially 87 per cent of the material and
the animals 13 per cent, of which the fish constituted only 1.23
per cent.
This type of diagram does not show the food relationships
between the plants and the animals nor those existing among the
animals themselves. Most of the animals are vegetarians and
feed directly on the plants, but some forms are carnivorous and
prey upon other animals; the fishes particularly are chiefly car¬
nivorous and only a few species of them are vegetarians.
In addition to the organic content of these groups of plants
and animals the dissolved organic matter needs to be taken into
consideration. The quantity of this material found in Weber Lake
114 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts and Letters
is given in Table 3. The mean for 21 series of samples taken be¬
tween 1925 and 1936, inclusive, is 2866 kg/ha as indicated in the
1940 column of the table. This quantity is 52 per cent larger
than the organic content of the standing crop of plants and
animals in that year. Somewhat smaller amounts were found in
1933 and in 1936, yet the dissolved organic matter was more than
twice as large as the organic content of the plants and animals
in 1933 and 49 per cent larger in 1936.
Figure 2. This figure shows the weight relationships of the biota and
the dissolved organic content of Weber Lake. The weight of each constituent
is proportional to the total area of the triangle. The original diagram was
platted on a scale of 1 kg /ha = 4.9 sq. mm.
Figure 2 shows the quantitative relationships of the plants
and animals to each other and also to the dissolved organic con¬
tent of the water of Weber Lake. It gives a general picture of
the organic content of the water together with those of the bot¬
tom flora and fauna. The diagram shows clearly what a large
proportion of the pyramid is required to represent the quantity
of dissolved organic matter and it also demonstrates what a small
Juday — Summer Standing Crop of Plants and Animals 115
role the animals play in that part of the organic content of the
lake which is included in these studies. Percentages for the
various items in this organic matter budget are given in Table 5.
The dissolved organic matter makes up a little more than 60 per
cent of the total included in the diagram, while the fish constitute
only one-half of one per cent and the other animals a little less
than 5 per cent.
With the exception of the comparatively small number of bac¬
teria which it contains, the dissolved organic matter consists of
material that is on its way back to the elemental status from
which it came originally, namely, water, carbon dioxide and nitro¬
gen compounds. The major part of it comes from the phyto¬
plankton and thus represents the surplus of organic matter pro¬
duced by these organisms which has not been used by the animal
consumers up to this stage; that which is still in a particulate
state is available for the food of some animals, especially some
of the zooplankton forms.
Up to the present time, the survey of the bottom deposits in
the deeper water has been limited to the upper 15 cm. so that
nothing is known of the total depth of the deposits or their
organic content at greater depths. In the upper 15 cm. chemical
analyses show that 43.3 per cent of the dry weight of the mud
consists of organic matter with the following composition : 12.1
per cent crude protein; 1.2 per cent ether extract; 30.0 per cent
carbohydrate (Juday, et al., 1941). According to Steiner and
Meloche (1935) about half of the organic matter is ligneous in
character. Henrici and McCoy (1938) found that the average
dry weight of one cubic centimeter of the upper 15 cm. of the
Weber Lake deposits was 0.032 gram. The typical mud deposits
are limited to the region below a depth of 8 m. which has an
area of 79,200 sq. m. Computations based on the foregoing data
indicate that the organic content of the upper 15 cm. of the
deposits within the 8 m. contour line amounts to 1,644,952 kilo¬
grams, wet weight. Since some of this organic matter is derived
from the 0-8 m. zone as well as from the deep water, the whole lake
must be taken into account in computing the average amount per
unit of area ; that is, the organic matter deposited on the bottom
in the shallow water is eventually carried out to the deeper water
by the action of the waves and currents. Taking the area
of the entire lake into consideration, the organic content of the
116 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts and Letters
upper 15 cm. of the bottom deposits amounts to an average of
105,378 kg/ha, wet weight.
Just how long a period it has taken to form the upper 15 cm.
of the deposit can only be conjectured. Conger (1939) estimated
that the rate of deposition in Crystal, a nearby seepage lake, was
only about 0.25 mm. per year on the basis of 10,000 years of
elapsed time since the close of the glacial period or half that
amount on a 20,000 year basis. At the rate of 0.25 mm. per year
the upper 15 cm. in Weber Lake would represent an accumulation
extending over a period of 600 years or twice that number of
years on a 20,000 year scale. This upper layer is not as compact
as the deeper layers of the deposits so that it probably represents
a somewhat shorter period of time than the average for the total
deposit; it is evident however, that the upper 15 cm. of the de¬
posit in a lake having the characteristics of Weber would require
a few hundred years, at least, for its deposition.
Twenhofel and Broughton (1939) found much smaller
amounts of organic matter in the strata below a depth of 15 cm.
in the deposits of Crystal Lake and it seems reasonable to sup¬
pose that the same is true of the deeper strata in the Weber Lake
deposits. Henrici and McCoy (1938) found a considerably larger
bacterial flora in the upper 9 cm. of the bottom deposits of Weber
than between 9 and 21 cm. which may be regarded as an indica¬
tion that organic substances are more plentiful in the upper 9 cm.
of the deposits.
Nebish Lake
The results of the quantitative investigations made on Nebish
Lake during July and August, 1941, are given in Table 4. Regular
observations on the plankton of this lake were begun in 1931 and
have been continued each summer up to and including 1941. The
general purpose of these studies was to use the plankton results
for comparison with those obtained on Weber Lake where fer¬
tilizers were being used ; the waters of the two lakes are similar
in their physical and chemical characteristics, but that of Nebish
Lake has a somewhat larger mineral content than that of Weber
(Table 2) . Also they are only about 8 km. apart so that they are
both subject to the same general climatic conditions; likewise
both are surrounded by second growth timber.
Juday — Summer Standing Crop of Plants and Animals 117
Table 4. Average amount of organic matter in standing crop of plants
and animals in Nebish Lake in July and August, 1941; the quantity of dis-
While some quantitative studies of the bottom fauna were
made in 1931 and 1935, the number of samples taken each year
was not large enough for the estimation of the bottom population
of the entire lake. A cursory survey of the large aquatic plants
of Nebish Lake was made in 1935 also, but it was chiefly quali¬
tative in character. Thus no complete quantitative survey of
these two groups of organisms was made until the summer of
1941. The investigation also included estimates of the fish pop¬
ulations each summer from 1938 to 1941. The results of the
1941 survey are given in Table 4.
During the 11 years covered by the plankton studies of Nebish
Lake, the quantity of organic matter in the standing crop varied
from a minimum of 525 kg/ha, wet weight, in 1931 to a maximum
of 1002 kg/ha in 1940, with a mean of 714 kg/ha for the entire
period. The table shows that the average standing crop of 1941
was below the general mean, namely 650 kg/ha. The bottom flora
of Nebish in 1941 yielded a somewhat larger crop than that of
Weber Lake in 1940, or 590 as compared with 553 kg/ha. The
weight of the bottom fauna, on the other hand, was appreciably
smaller in Nebish in 1941 than in Weber in 1940; it amounted
to 122 kg/ha in the former as compared with 147 kg/ha in the
latter. The standing crop of fish was larger in Nebish than in
Weber, namely 35 to 23 kg/ha.
The dissolved organic content of the water was about one-
third larger in Nebish than in Weber, or 3829 kg/ha in the former
as compared with 2866 kg/ha in the latter. The quantity in the
118 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts and Letters
Nebish Lake water was nearly three times as large as the organic
content of the plants and animals combined. The ratio of plants
to animals in Nebish Lake was just a little below the minimum
of Weber Lake, or 6.0 as compared with 6.1. Excluding the fish
the 1941 ratio of plants to other animals is substantially the same
for Nebish as for those of Weber Lake in 1989 and 1940, or 7.3
as compared with 7.4. The ratio of the weight of the zooplankton
and bottom fauna to that of fish in Nebish Lake is 4.7, which is
larger than that found in Weber Lake in 1933, but much smaller
than those of Weber in 1939 and 1940. The ratio of plants, zoo¬
plankton and bottom fauna to fish in Nebish Lake was 37.1 ; in
a general way this represents the potential food resource of each
kilogram of fish. The weight of the fish in Nebish Lake con¬
stituted 2.5 per cent of the total weight of plants and animals;
this is twice as large as the percentage found in Weber Lake,
namely 1.2 per cent (Table 5) .
Table 5. The percentages which the various forms contribute to the
total weight of plants and animals per unit of area and to the total quantity
of organic matter (plants, animals and dissolved organic matter) in Weber
and Nebish lakes.
Weber Lake, 1940
Per cent of plants
and animals
Per cent of total
organic matter
Plankton
61.26
57.29
3.97
29.63
7.88
1.23
24.15
22.59
1.56
11.69
3.11
0.49
60.56
Phytoplankton
Zooplankton
Bottom flora
Bottom fauna
Fish
Dissolved organic matter
Nebish Lake, 1941
Plankton
Phytoplankton
Zooplankton
46.53
43.53
3.00
42.24
8.73
2.50
12.44
11.63
0.81
11.30
2.33
0.67
73.26
Bottom flora
Bottom fauna
Fish
Dissolved organic matter
Juday — Summer Standing Crop of Plants and Animals 119
The weight relations between the various constituents of the
biota of Nebish Lake are shown graphically in Figure 3 ; it cor¬
responds to Figure 1 for Weber Lake. A comparison of these
two figures shows that the phytoplankton constitutes a smaller
Figure 3. This figure shows the weight relationships of the various
constituents of the biota of Nebish Lake; it is based on the weights given
in Table 4. The weight of each constituent is proportional to the total area
of the triangle. The original diagram was platted on a scale of 1 kg/ha =
16.6 sq. mm.
proportion of the plant base of the pyramid of Nebish than
that of Weber Lake, but the reverse is true of the bottom flora
of the two lakes; a small part of these differences is due to the
slightly different scales on which the two diagrams are platted.
In both lakes the animals constitute substantially the same pro¬
portion of the total biota; in Nebish Lake the animals represent
13.2 per cent of the total weight and in Weber Lake 13.0 per
cent. The cap of the pyramid which represents the fish of each
lake is somewhat larger in the Nebish than in the Weber Lake
diagram.
120 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts and Letters
Zooplankton
Figure 4. This figure shows the weight relationships of the biota and
the dissolved organic matter of Nebish Lake. The weight of each con¬
stituent is proportional to the total area of the triangle. The original
diagram was platted on a scale of 1 kg/ha = 4.4 sq. mm.
Figure 4 shows the relative proportions of the plants, the
animals and the dissolved organic matter of Nebish Lake; it
corresponds to Figure 2 of Weber Lake, thus including the total
organic content of the water as well as the bottom flora and
fauna. It will be noted that the dissolved organic matter base of
the pyramid is appreciably larger than that of Weber Lake and
that the plant and animal portions are correspondingly smaller.
In Nebish Lake the dissolved organic matter makes up 73 per
cent of the total organic content, while in Weber Lake it con¬
stitutes only 60 per cent (Table 5).
As a result of the larger percentage of dissolved organic mat¬
ter in the water of Nebish Lake, no special comparisons between
the plants and animals of the two lakes as shown by these two
figures can be made ; but they serve to show what a small propor-
J uday-— Summer Standing Crop of Plants and Animals 121
tion of the organic content of the two lakes is contributed by the
animals. In Nebish Lake the animals constitute 3.8 per cent of
the total organic matter represented in the pyramid, of which
0.7 of one per cent consists of fish, while in Weber Lake the animals
contribute 5.1 per cent, with a little less than 0.5 of one per cent
consisting of the fish.
The weights of the fish populations of Weber and Nebish lakes
seem unusually small, but they compare favorably with some of
the results that have been reported by other investigators. Tarz-
well (1940) reported the weights of the fish populations of several
lakes and among them are seven, three situated in Nova Scotia
and four in Michigan, which had standing crops ranging from
19 to 49 kg/ha; the records for these seven lakes are based on
poisoning experiments and thus represent the actual weights of
the fish populations.
Data are not available for the computation of the organic
content of the bottom deposits of Nebish Lake. The organic con¬
tent of the upper 15 cm. was 54.3 per cent of the dry weight as
compared with 43.3 per cent in the deposits of Weber Lake. The
organic matter of the bottom deposits of Nebish Lake consisted
of 16.6 per cent crude protein, 2.2 per cent ether extract and 35.5
per cent carbohydrate.
Green Lake
Green Lake ranks second in area in this group of four lakes ;
if is first in maximum and -mean depths as well as in volume
(Table 1). The water has only a small amount of color as deter¬
mined by the platinum-cobalt standard and it has a medium trans¬
parency as compared with the other three lakes. The mineral
content of the water is much larger than in Weber and Nebish
so that it ranks as a fairly hard water lake (Table 2).
The results of the biological survey of Green Lake are given
in Table 6. The standing crop of plankton was larger than those
of the other three lakes, amounting to 2944 kg/ha, wet weight.
This is more than four times as large as the standing crop of
Nebish Lake and two and a half times as large as that of Weber
in 1940. It is also about one-third larger than that of Lake
Mendota. The large crop of plankton in Green Lake when given
on a unit area basis is due in part to the much greater depth of
this body of water. Light conditions are such in Green Lake
that the zone of photosynthesis or region of phytoplankton pro¬
duction extends to a depth of about 15 m. in summer, but the
122 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts and Letters
Table 6. Average amount of organic matter in the standing crop of
plants and animals and in the dissolved organic matter of Green Lake and
of Lake Mendota. In Green Lake the plankton samples were taken in July
and August, 1921-24 inclusive, and in Mendota in July and August, 1915-16.
The amounts are given in kilograms per hectare of lake surface on a wet-
weight, ash-free basis.
0-15 m. stratum includes only about one-third of the total volume
of the lake. The large volume of water below this depth contains
a certain amount of phytoplankton and a moderate population
of zooplankton organisms so that the microscopic life of the
lower water contributes a substantial amount of material to the
plankton crop of the upper stratum when results are expressed
in terms of a unit area of surface.
The table indicates that the standing crop of large aquatic
plants was seven to ten times as large as those of Weber and
Nebish lakes, but it was somewhat smaller than that of Lake
Mendota. The main constituent of this crop in Green Lake was
Chara which has a large percentage of ash, namely 41.0 per cent
of the dry weight (Schuette and Alder 1929) ; this accounts in
part for the smaller organic content of this crop of large aquatics
as compared with that of Lake Mendota. In connection with the
bottom flora, it may be noted that Oscillatoria prolifica was found
growing saprophytically in a grayish mat 2 mm. thick on the bot¬
tom of Green Lake where the water was 65 to 68 meters in
depth. (Juday 1984.)
The weight of the bottom fauna of Green Lake was smaller
than that of Weber Lake in 1940, but larger than those of previous
years; it was about 10 per cent larger than the weight of the
bottom fauna of Nebish Lake in 1941 but only one-third as large
as that of Lake Mendota. This comparatively small weight of
the bottom fauna is due, in part at least, to the depth of the
Juday— Summer Standing Crop of Plants and Animals 123
water, the steep slope of the bottom and the low temperature of
the bottom water which ranges from 2° in winter to about 6° C.
in summer. Environmental conditions in Green Lake favor the
Tanytarsus rather than the Chironomus type of bottom fauna
and it is a well. established fact that the former type of lake does
not support as large a bottom population as the latter.
The dissolved organic content of the water of Green Lake is
unusually large, amounting to 27,901 kg/ha on a wet weight
basis; this is almost four times the total weight of the plants
and animals, namely 7300 kg/ha. Again this large amount of
dissolved organic matter per unit area is partly explained by
the greater depth, hence greater volume, of the lake. While the
quantity of dry organic matter in this dissolved material was
only about two-thirds as large per unit volume in Green Lake as
in Lake Mendota, yet the amount per unit of surface was much
larger in the former than in the latter because of the larger
volume of water in the former; on a dry weight basis the dis¬
solved organic matter in Green Lake was 8.42 mg/1 as compared
with 12.52 mg/1 in Lake Mendota.
Table 6 shows that the ratio of plants to animals in Green
Lake, excluding fish, is 22.2, which is much larger than in the
other three lakes; this means that there are 22.2 kilograms of
organic matter in the phytoplankton and large aquatics to one
kilogram of organic matter in the zooplankton and bottom fauna.
Such a large ratio indicates that the animal population of Green
Lake is much less efficient in converting the plants into animal
material than those of the other three lakes. The relatively small
weight of the bottom fauna was chiefly responsible for this
situation.
Lake Mendota
Lake Mendota is the largest of these four lakes; it has a
medium depth, with a maximum of 25.6 m. and a mean of 12,1 m.
(Table 1), The color of the water is low, the same as that of
Nebish Lake; the transparency is also low in the summer, with
a mean of 2.2 m. for the disc readings. The mineral content of
the water is substantially the same as that of Green Lake, so that
it has a fairly hard water (Table 2).
The wet weight of the standing crop of plankton was three
to five times as large as those of Weber and Nebish lakes, but it
was more than 30 per cent smaller than that of Green Lake.
124 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts and Letters
The standing crop of large aquatic plants was larger than those
of the other three lakes ; it exceeded that of Green Lake by about
8 per cent and it was eight to twelve times as large as those
of Weber and Nebish lakes (Table 6). A much larger bottom
fauna was found in Lake Mendota than in the other three lakes ;
its weight was 414 kg/ha as compared with 73 to 147 kg/ha in
the others. While a large part of the hypolimnion of Mendota is
devoid of dissolved oxygen for three months or more each sum¬
mer, the lower layer of water does not become too foul for the
bottom-dwelling organisms during this time; in fact large num¬
bers of Limnodrilus, Tubifex, Pisidium, Chironomus and Chao-
borus (Corethra) occupy the bottom zone at this time (Juday
1921) ; it is thus a Chironomus type of euthropic lake.
The quantity of dissolved organic matter in the water of
Lake Mendota amounted to 15,201 kg/ha, which is only a little
more than half as much as found in Green Lake, but it is two
to seven times as large as noted in Weber and Nebish lakes. It is
a little more than twice the organic content of the plants and
animals, excluding the fish.
The ratio of plants to animals, excluding the fish, is 12.1,
which is much smaller than that found in Green Lake, but it is
almost twice as large as those of Weber and Nebish lakes. This
indicates that the efficiency of Lake Mendota in converting
aquatic plants into zooplankton and bottom fauna, the two main
direct sources of food for fish, is much higher than that of Green
Lake, but it is much lower than those of Weber and Nebish lakes.
Discussion of Results
Plants
By means of energy derived from subsurface solar radiation,
most of the fundamental foodstuffs of a lake are manufactured
autotrophically by aquatic plants from substances dissolved in
the water or from materials present in the subaqueous soils. A
certain amount of organic matter comes from outside sources,
such as that blown into the lake by wind and that which is brought
in by drainage waters from the shores and by inflowing streams
in the form of particulate and dissolved organic matter. The
aquatic chlorophyll-bearing organisms, however, constitute the
chief producers of the primary organic content of the lake and
this material, either directly or indirectly, is the main source
of the food of the animals. In addition to that which is consumed
Juday— Summer Standing Crop of Plants and Animals 125
by animals, the plants themselves use a certain amount of the
organic material, which they manufacture in their own metabolic
processes; experiments have shown that this is about one-third
of the total quantity of organic matter manufactured by them,
which leaves two-thirds available as food for the animals. These
food relationships raise the question of the ratio of the weight of
the standing crop of plants to that of animals; in other words,
what is the ratio of producers to consumers ?
Turning first to a consideration of the trophic conditions of
the’ plants in the two types of lakes dealt with in this report,
Table 2 shows the marked difference in the mineral content of
their waters. The data listed in the other tables give direct
evidence of the dynamic response of the aquatic vegetation to the
differences in the 'chemical factors of their environment. That
is, the standing crop of plants per unit of area was found to be
much' smaller in the soft than in the hard water lakes. There is
some difference in the climatic conditions of the two regions in
which the lakes are situated. The northern soft water lakes have
a somewhat shorter growing season; their waters begin to cool
earlier in the autumn and they become covered with ice some
three weeks earlier than the southern lakes. In the spring also,
they retain their ice cover about three weeks longer than the
southern lakes ; thus they are subject to low winter temperatures
at least six weeks longer each year than the two southern lakes.
On the whole however, the climatic factor can hardly be regarded
as having much importance in determining the marked difference
in the size of the standing crop of plants in the northern soft
water lakes as compared with that of the southern hard water
lakes.
The data indicate that the mineral content of the water is the
chief factor in determining the plant production of these two
groups of lakes. Just which minerals play the most important
role in limiting the plant crop of the northern lakes has not
been determined. Phosphorus and nitrogen compounds are gen¬
erally considered as the chief limiting factors. Table 2 shows
that the difference in the soluble or phosphate phosphorus con¬
tent of the two types of water is about twofold. This is the form
of phosphorus that can be used directly by the plants ; the organic
form can not be utilized until it is liberated from its organic
combination or “regenerated.” The nitrate content of the waters
of the two southern lakes is about twice as large as that of the
126 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts and Letters
northern lakes, so that both of these factors need to be taken
into consideration with reference to the size of the plant crops
in the four lakes. Fertilizing experiments on Weber Lake, how¬
ever, show that both phosphorus and nitrogen compounds did not
stimulate the growth of aquatic plants in that body of water;
thus there is some doubt about their serving as limiting factors
in the two soft water lakes.
In 1932 for example, enough superphosphate was added to
Weber Lake to raise the phosphate content of the water to ap¬
proximately ten times the amount found in 1931 when no fer¬
tilizers were used, but no response from the phytoplankton was
observed. In the summer of 1933 both superphosphate and lime
were added without any response; superphosphate, lime and ni¬
trate were added in 1934 and no effect on the phytoplankton was
noted. In 1935 similar negative results were obtained with
nitrate and potash ; in fact the phytoplankton crop of this year
was smaller than in the three previous summers. Thus the small
standing crop of phytoplankton of Weber Lake can hardly be
attributed to any of these four mineral factors.
In the summer of 1936, 1360 kilos of soybean meal were used
and a prompt response was obtained from the phytoplankton ; the
average standing crop was 50 per cent larger than in the three
previous summers. The mean standing crop of phytoplankton
for 1933-35, inclusive, was 586 kg/ha, while the 1936 crop was
890 kg/ha. Also the effect of the soybean meal seemed to last
through the summers of 1937 and 1938 as well, since the phyto¬
plankton showed only a three per cent decrease during the first
and a seven per cent decrease during the latter summer. During
the summer of 1939, 907 kilos of cottonseed meal were added to
the water and a further favorable response was noted in the
phytoplankton when the mean standing crop rose to 959 kg/ha,
an increase of almost 8 per cent over the average of 1936. It
rose to a maximum of 1069 kg/ha in 1940 without the addition
of any more fertilizer, which was an increase of more than 11 per
cent over the mean crop of 1936 and almost twice as large as
the mean crop of 1933-35, namely, 586 kg/ha, when mineral fer¬
tilizers were being added. There was a sharp decline in the
standing crop of phytoplankton in 1941, the amount falling to
770 kg/ha, a decrease of 28 per cent as compared with the 1940
crop; no fertilizer was added in 1941. These experiments seem
to warrant the conclusion that an organic fertilizer, carrying
Juday— Summer Standing Crop of Plants and Animals 127
both mineral and organic constituents, is necessary to stimulate
the growth of the phytoplankton in Weber Lake and presumably
this would be true of similar soft water lakes in this region. An
increase in the standing crop of large aquatic plants was also
noted between 1936 and 1940 which indicates that they also were
affected by the organic fertilizers (Table 3).
The larger quantities of calcium and magnesium present in
the hard waters may play a role also since they exist chiefly as
carbonates and bicarbonates and thus make a much larger stock
of carbon dioxide available for the plants of hard water lakes
than in the soft waters. They affect the hydrogen ion concentra¬
tion of water, but pH is generally not regarded as an important
factor in determining the productivity of lakes. Some of the
trace elements, such as copper, boron, lithium, zinc and man¬
ganese, may have some effect in determining the productive
capacity of the water, but this problem has not been fully
investigated. Chemical analyses show that there is a concen¬
tration of boron, for example, in the phytoplankton and large
aquatic plants, but the significance of the concentration has not
been determined up to the present time. Much more extended
studies will be necessary to determine what specific mineral fac¬
tors are responsible for the differences in the productivity of the
two types of water found in these four lakes.
While the mineral content of the water plays a major part in
the total productivity of the two hard water lakes, there is a
certain advantage in their greater depth and volume when the
results are expressed in units of surface area ; that is, the vigor¬
ously growing phytoplankton organisms are confined to the upper
stratum of water where the solar radiation is great enough to
enable them to carry on photosynthesis. Those that die or be¬
come senile settle into the lower water on their way to the bot¬
tom and thus contribute to the phytoplankton content of the
lower strata of a deep lake. In a shallow lake they reach the bot¬
tom more promptly and become eliminated from the lower water.
In Green Lake for example, the phytoplankton crop of the upper
10 m. of water amounted to 1086 kg/ha as compared with the
2767 kg/ha of the total quantity shown in Table 6. That is, about
38 per cent of the total crop of phytoplankton was found in the
0-10 m. stratum, with 62 per cent below this depth. This upper
stratum represents the greater part of the zone of photosynthesis,
so that it was occupied by the actively growing phytoplankton
128 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts and Letters
organisms. The water of Green Lake absorbs solar radiation at
such a rate that the amount is reduced to one per cent of the
total delivered at the surface at a depth of about 11 m. and it
seems probable that very little photosynthetic activity is found
below this depth.
Because Lake Mendota is much shallower than Green Lake,
the accumulation of phytoplankton in the lower water is not so
marked. In Lake Mendota subsurface radiation is reduced to
one per cent of the amount delivered to the surface at depths
ranging from 4 m. to 8 m., depending upon the transparency of
the water; it seems probable, therefore, that very little or no
photosynthesis takes place below a depth of 10 m. Observations
showed that the 0-13 m. stratum of Lake Mendota contained
about 72 per cent of the standing crop of phytoplankton in early
August, leaving only 28 per cent for the 14-25 m. region. The
amount in the 0-13 stratum was 1673 kg/ha, or more than twice
as large as the standing crops of phytoplankton in Weber and
Nebish lakes, especially before organic fertilizers were added to
Weber Lake. Thus, while there is some advantage in the yield of
phytoplankton per unit of surface area due to the greater depth
of water in Green Lake, this advantage is almost negligible in
the case of Lake Mendota and the chemical content of the water
must be regarded as the chief factor in the greater phytoplankton
production in the latter lake.
The mineral content of the water plays an important part in
determining not only the quantity but also the character of the
lake flora. The summer standing crop of phytoplankton in the
two soft water lakes consists chiefly of green algae (Chloro-
phyceae) and diatoms (Bacillarieae) ; the blue-greens (Myxo-
phyceae) may be the dominant forms at certain times during the
summer, but they are usually species of Chroococcus and they
have not reached bloom proportions at any time during the period
of these observations. The summer phytoplankton of the southern
hard water lakes is dominated by Microcystis, Coelosphaerium,
Lyngbya and Anabaena which are the blue-greens that usually
produce the blooms on the lakes in the southern part of the state.
In the northern soft water lakes, the large aquatic plants are
usually limited to eight or ten species, while 30 or more species
are found in the southern hard water lakes. Most of the soft
water species are specific to that type of water.
Juday — Summer Standing Crop of Plants and Animals 129
From the food standpoint, the phytoplankton and the large
aquatic plants present different problems to the animal popula¬
tion. The phytoplankton organisms, both living and dead, are
distributed throughout the open water and are thus available in
substantially all parts of the lake; they are the chief source of
food for the microcrustacea and rotifers that occupy not only
the upper but also the lower strata of water even in deep lakes
and for the vegetarians that live on the bottom. A residue of
unconsumed phytoplankton is deposited on the bottom and this is
available for those organisms which ingest the bottom material
and digest the organic content of this mud insofar as they are
able to do so; much of this organic residue is ligneous in char¬
acter, however, and not readily digested.
The large aquatic plants, on the other hand, occupy the shal¬
lower water where the subsurface illumination is great enough
for them to carry on photosynthesis, so that they are available
for food and for an attachment substratum only to the animals
that are found in the shallow water zone ; certain of these animals
feed directly on the large aquatics, while others feed chiefly on
the algae and bacteria attached to them. Thus the large aquatics
furnish a more limited source of food than the phytoplankton.
The quantities listed in the tables represent substantially the
annual crop of large aquatics, while the data listed for the phy¬
toplankton represent the average standing crop which is subject
to a frequent turnover during the summer ; under favorable con¬
ditions the algal cells may divide once, perhaps twice, each day
during a vigorous period of growth. Taking into account the
seasonal changes in light, temperature and other factors, it
seems probable that the turnover in the standing crop of plankton
averages once a week during July and August so that the sum¬
mer yield would be about eight times the weight indicated for
the standing crop in the tables ; the turnover in the southern lakes
would probably be more frequent than this.
The standing crop of large aquatics was determined chiefly
in August when they had practically completed their annual
growth; thus the weights given for them in the tables may be
considered as the annual yield. They die off during the autumn
and early winter and settle to the bottom where decomposition
takes place. Through the action of waves and currents a large
percentage of this material is transported from the shallower
to the deeper water for final deposition. As they break up they
)
130 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts and Letters
contribute organic detritus to the water and thus furnish a cer¬
tain amount of food to the free swimming animals; that which
remains on the bottom, both in the shallow and in the deep
water, becomes a source of food for the bottom dwelling animals.
Steiner and Meloche found that 10 to 20 per cent of some of the
large aquatics consisted of ligneous material and this fraction
is probably of little food value. Schuette also found 15 to 19
per cent of crude fiber in some of the large aquatics of Lake
Mendota and this material is also regarded as having little
food value.
Animals
Similar differences have been noted in the standing crop of
animals in the two types of lakes. The weight of the zooplankton
is appreciably smaller in the soft than in the hard water lakes,
but the bottom fauna varies. In Green Lake for example, the
bottom animals weigh substantially the same as those of the two
soft water lakes ; this indicates that depth and probably temper¬
ature are more important factors in determining the size of the
standing crop of bottom animals than the hardness of the water.
A somewhat smaller variety of animals is found in the soft than
in the hard water lakes and a few show a specificity for the soft
waters. The cladoceran Holopedium is confined chiefly, though
not entirely, to soft waters; it has been found in considerable
numbers in a typical marl lake in central Wisconsin. The most
marked differences have been noted in the mollusk populations of
the two types of lakes ; no large bivalves, for example, have been
found in the soft water lakes. Morrison (1932) reported that
the characteristic mollusks of the soft water lakes were species
of the small bivalve Pisidium and snails belonging to the genus
Campeloma. He noted that Pisidium was very tolerant of acidity
and lived in the softest water with a reaction of pH 5.7 and as
little as 1.5 p.p.m. of bound carbon dioxide; their shells were
very thin and fragile, however. Both Pisidium and Campeloma
occur in Weber and Nebish lakes, the former in considerable
numbers. The mollusk populations of the two hard water lakes
are much larger and more varied than in the two northern lakes.
The ratios of plants to animals given in the tables show that
an equilibrium is established between them in Weber and Nebish
lakes when the weight of the former is about seven or eight times
as large as that of the latter, excluding the weight of the fish
Juday-— Summer Standing Crop of Plants and Animals 131
from the animal population. The food relations of the two
groups of organisms are not as simple as these ratios might in¬
dicate, however, because some of the animals are predatory and
do not feed directly on plants ; this is especially true of the fishes
where there may be two or three up to half a dozen links in the
food chain connecting them with plants. Because most of the
fishes are carnivorous, it is best to exclude them in order to get
a better trophic index of the food-feeder relationship between
plants and animals. In other words their exclusion gives a better
idea of the direct utilization by the consumers of the material
manufactured by the producers ; such an index, therefore, shows
more clearly the extent and effectiveness of the grazing activ¬
ities of the vegetarian animals. Some of the zooplankton and
bottom forms are predators also, but they constitute a rather
small percentage of these forms and do not require any special
consideration.
These ratios of plants to animals may also be regarded as
indexes of the conversion of plant material into animals, which
in a way represents the efficiency of a lake in the production of
animals. As indicated in the tables the ratio of plants to animals,
excluding fish, was found to be 12.1 in Lake Mendota and 22.2
in Green Lake, as compared with 7.3 in Nebish Lake and an
average of 7.5 in Weber Lake. This means that the two hard
water lakes have a much lower efficiency in the conversion of
plants to animals than the two soft water lakes. According to
these ratios Lake Mendota is only a little more than half as effi¬
cient in the use of its plant material and Green Lake only one-
third as efficient as the two soft water lakes. The much greater
depth and the low temperature of the bottom water of Green Lake
seem to be factors in limiting the size of the standing crop of bot¬
tom fauna, thereby lowering the efficiency ; with a bottom, fauna
as large as that of Lake Mendota, the ratio of plants to animals
would be 11.7 instead of 22.2, which would bring Green Lake
into line with the index of Lake Mendota, namely 12.1. Just why
the two hard water lakes are so much less efficient than the two
soft water ones is not evident from the data in hand.
Dissolved Organic Matter
The heterogeneous mixture of substances designated as dis¬
solved organic matter represents chiefly the organic matter that
is in various stages of decomposition and that which comes from
the excretions of the aquatic organisms resulting from their
132 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts and Letters
metabolic activities. Most of it may be considered as belonging
to the final stages in the cycle of organic matter in lake waters.
Aside from a relatively small number of bacteria, it consists of
degradation products on their way to conversion into water, car¬
bon dioxide and mineral salts, the original building blocks from
which the organic matter was built up by the producers in the
process of photosynthesis. Four different items are represented
in this material: (1) a small percentage of the bacteria;
(2) minute particles of decomposing organic material which can¬
not be recovered with a high speed centrifuge ; (3) particles small
enough to be regarded as colloids; and (4) organic matter in
true solution. The first and second stages of this material are
still available for the food of some of the aquatic animals, such
as microcrustacea, rotifers, protozoa and some members of the
bottom fauna ; the third and fourth stages can be utilized only by
bacteria, and when so utilized they again enter the food cycle
because the bacteria may be consumed by certain animal forms.
The dissolved organic matter is in a constant state of flux;
it is continually receiving both decomposing and excretory mate¬
rial from the biota on the one hand and losing organic substances
that change over to inorganic compounds on the other. Since the
amount of dissolved organic matter remains fairly constant in
a lake during the summer as well as from year to year, the quan¬
tity being added is in substantial equilibrium with that which is
removed at the end of the degradation process. There was an
increase in the amount of this material in the water of Weber
Lake when organic fertilizers were used to stimulate the growth
of the phytoplankton ; also unusually large increases in the stand¬
ing crop of phytoplankton may add appreciable amounts to the dis¬
solved organic matter, especially at the end of such a plankton
pulse when these organisms have completed their life cycle and
are declining in numbers.
The dissolved organic matter contains a large percentage of
organic material that is not readily oxidized by bacteria. Steiner
and Meloche (1935) found that the plankton, the chief source
of this organic matter, contained 10 to 20 per cent of ligneous
substances which are more resistant to decomposition than the
other organic constituents and this ligneous portion thus tends
to lag in the process of decomposition. ZoBell (1940) noted
that the remains of plankton organisms were more readily
oxidized by bacteria than the dissolved organic matter found
Juday — Summer Standing Crop of Plants and Animals 133
in the lake water. Also ZoBell and Stadler (1940) state that
lignin is attacked less readily than the other major organic con¬
stituents found in lakes, but that it is slowly decomposed by
certain bacteria present in lake water and in bottom deposits.
Their experiments showed that these bacteria oxidized from 4.4
to 17.4 per cent of highly purified lignins in 30 days at 28° C.
when the lignin concentrations were comparable to those found
in lake waters.
The slowness of the decomposition of the dissolved organic
matter may also be due in part to the low concentration of this
material in the lake waters. In the four lakes included in this
report, the range is from a minimum of 3.7 mg/1 in Weber Lake
to a maximum of 12.5 mg/1, dry weight, in Lake Mendota;
Nebish Lake yielded 7.3 mg/1 and Green Lake 8.4 mg/1. ZoBell
(1940) states that many bacteria indigenous to natural waters
can maintain themselves indefinitely when subcultured in lake
water with less than 10 mg/1 of total organic matter, but this
concentration seems to be in the neighborhood of their threshold
of multiplication. He found also that the lower the concentration
of the oxidizable material is, the more refractory it is to bacterial
decomposition. It will be noted that three of the four lakes being
considered in this report had less than 10 mg/1 of dissolved
organic matter; only Lake Mendota exceeded that amount.
. Summary
1. The size of the standing crop of plants and animals in
two soft water lakes is compared with that in two hard water
lakes.
2. The plant crop in the two hard waters weighed three to
five times as much as that of the soft water lakes. The soft
waters had only about one-fourth as many species of large
aquatic plants as the hard waters.
3. On an average the animal population of the hard waters,
excluding the fish, weighed two to three times as much as that
of the soft waters.
4. The ratio of the weight of the plants to that of the animals,
excluding the fish, was 7.3 in one soft water lake and 7.5 in the
other, while it was 12.1 in one hard water lake and 22.2 in the
other. Thus the soft water lakes were approximately two to
three times as efficient in converting their plant material into
animals as the hard water lakes.
134 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts and Letters
5. The ratio of other animals (food) to fish was 4.7 in one
soft water lake and ranged from 3.0 to 11.1 in the other; the fish
populations of the hard water lakes were not determined. The
fish constitute a very small cap for the pyramid of life in the
two soft water lakes as shown in the figures, making up 1.2 per
cent in one and 2.5 per cent of the total weight of plants and
animals in the other.
6. The dissolved organic matter, which is chiefly a degrada¬
tion product, is much larger in the hard than in the soft water
lakes.
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Sci. 237: 231-252.
ZoBell, Claude E. 1940. Some factors which influence oxygen consumption
by bacteria in lake water. Biol. Bull. 78 : 388-402.
ZoBell, Claude E. and Janice Stadler. 1940. The oxidation of lignin by
lake bacteria. Archiv f. Hydrobiol. 37: 163-171.
THE GROWTH, FOOD, DISTRIBUTION AND RELATIVE
ABUNDANCE OF THE FISHES OF LAKE GENEVA,
WISCONSIN, IN 1941*
Merlin N. Nelson and Arthur D. Hasler
The Lake Geneva Institute of Natural Science and Department
of Zoology , University of Wisconsin
Introduction
A study of the fishes of Lake Geneva was undertaken in the
summer of 1941 to determine something of their relative abun¬
dance, rate of growth, foods, and general habitat relations. It was
hoped that this survey could be extended over a period of years
and its results used as the basis of a fish management policy for
the lake, but due to exigencies of war this is not possible and we
have decided to release these findings.
Lake Geneva is the center of a popular and well developed
summer resort area whose use may be expected to increase dur¬
ing the war period because it is less than a two-hour drive by
train or car from Chicago. It is located in Walworth County,
Wisconsin, has an area of 8 y2 square miles, a shore line of about
26 miles, and a maximum depth of 143 feet. The lake is about 9
miles long with the city of Lake Geneva near the east end, and
the village of Williams Bay near the west end. The shores are
mostly rocky. The zone of aquatic rooted vegetation extends out
to a depth of 25 or 30 feet, consequently, in the summer most of
the fish inhabit a very limited zone.
Most of the fish handled in this survey were taken along the
north shore of the west half of the lake, extending from the “Nar-
< rows,” near the center, to the west end. A large number of gill
net sets were also made in the deeper parts of the lake and a few
along the south shore.
Each of the three gill nets used was 125 feet long, five feet
deep, and consisted of five 25-foot sections with a different mesh
size for each section. The mesh sizes used were %, 1, 1%, 1%
and 2 inches square. Most of the sets were on the bottom, al¬
though a number of sets were suspended at various depths. Two
* This study was made possible by a grant from Mr. Frank W. Schwinn, Williams
Bay, Wisconsin. Prof. 6. van Biesbroeck, Otto Sehisling, Hamspeter Thomsen, and the
Wisconsin Conservation Department gave aid in the conduct of the project.
137
138 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts and Letters
methods were used in putting the nets out. For bottom sets,
each end of the net was tied to a five-pound anchor from which a
rope extended to a buoy at the surface. Other sets were sus¬
pended from the buoys with ropes, the length of which deter¬
mined the depth at which the net was set. To prevent excessive
sagging, three smaller buoys were attached to the top line of
the net.
Five different sets were made with a fyke net. This net was
hung on 7 frames (2 square frames and 5 hoops), 6 feet in
diameter. From the middle of the first frame, a wing 90 feet
long, 5 feet deep, and with 1 inch meshes extended into shore.
The sets were all made at right angles to the shore and in water
not exceeding 25 feet in depth. This net was very successful in
the capture of bluegills, pumpkinseeds, and rock bass. Only an
occasional northern pike or black bass was taken.
Upon removal from the nets, the fish were taken immediately
to the field laboratory. Here scale samples were collected and
records kept of the species, locality, standard length, weight, sex,
gear, and date of collection of each fish. A representative number
of stomachs for each species was preserved in formalin.
Net Fishing in Lake Geneva
Samples of the larger fish of Lake Geneva were taken with
gill nets and a fyke net as described above. Gill net fishing was
begun on July 1 and was continued until September 3. The nets
were set only on week days because of the many fishermen and
speed boats on the lake over week ends. Table I shows the num-
Table I. Number of fish caught in gill nets at different depths.
bers and kinds of fish taken at different depths with the gill nets.
Cisco ( Leucichthys artedi) made up 62 per cent in numbers of
the total catch and northern pike ( Esox Indus) was second,
contributing 18 per cent. The smallmouth bass ( Micropterus
dolomieu) furnished 6 per cent. Other kinds were taken in still
smaller numbers, notably white bass ( Lepibema chrysops). In
Nelson and Easier — The Fishes of Lake Geneva 139
addition to these fish a black bullhead ( Ameiurus melas) and one
common sucker ( Catostomus commersonnii) were taken.
When the nets were set in water more than 60 feet deep,
only cisco were caught. In the shallower water it is likely that
the net catches do not give more than a very rough estimate of
the relative abundance of the different kind. This selectivity
arises from two principal causes. (1) In order to be caught
a fish must move into the net under its own power and gill nets
like all other stationary tackle are more likely to catch those kinds
which move more actively than those which are more sedentary
in habit; (2) certain fish avoid capture by being more wary
(largemouth bass, Euro salmoides) , or are less easily entangled
by lacking spines or projections.
The catch per 24 hours of gill net fishing for each mesh size
is given in Table II. The total number of hours of gill net fish¬
ing for both cisco and all other fish caught was 1096. Since cisco
were taken almost exclusively where the water depth was 50 feet
or more and the other fish in depths of less than 50 feet, the num¬
ber of hours of fishing done in each area was taken and the
catch per day determined.
Table II. Average catch per gill net per 24 hours and the number of fish
caught by gill net fishing. July- August, 1941.
Number of hours fished for cisco = 480 ; for all others, 550.
The numbers in parentheses = number of fish caught in each mesh.
140 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts and Letters
The fyke net catches consisted principally of pan fish taken
between depths of 10 and 30 feet. Rock bass ( Ambloplites rupe-
stris) composed 81 per cent (191 specimens) of the total catch,
bluegills ( Lepomis macrochirus) 13 per cent (30 specimens),
and pumpkinseeds ( Lepomis gibbosus) 7 per cent (14 speci¬
mens) . Rock bass were caught at the rate of 48 per 24-hour net
setting; bluegills, 8 and pumpkinseeds, 3.5.
Food
Northern pike — Stomachs examined : 96 ; number containing
food: 27. Length: 12.3-35.2 inches; average 19.2. Stomachs of
the larger n. pike contained cisco almost exclusively. Of 14
specimens weighing from 3 to 10 pounds, 13 contained cisco ex¬
clusively and 1 contained mimic shiners exclusively. The stomach
contents of 13 smaller n. pike, weighing from 1% to 3 pounds,
was more varied. In 7 stomachs, only cisco and mimic shiners
were found, however, the other 6 contained 3 yellow perch ( Perea
flavescens) , 1 smallmouth bass, 1 rock bass, 1 unidentified cen-
trarchid, and 1 crayfish.
Smallmouth bass— Stomachs examined : 28 ; number contain¬
ing food : 17. Length : 5.1-13.1 ; average 8.9 inches. Mimic shiners
were found in 9 stomachs, unidentified fish remains in 2 and
crayfish in 9 stomachs.
Largemouth bass — Stomachs examined: 8; number contain¬
ing food : 3. Length : 7.6-12.8 ; average 9.3 inches. Mimic shiners
were found in 1 stomach and crayfish in 2 stomachs.
White bass— Stomachs examined: 19; number containing
food: 10. Length: 10.4-16.7; average 12.2 inches. Black bass
sp. were found in 2 stomachs, mimic shiners in 6 and crayfish
in 4 stomachs.
Yellow perch — Stomachs examined: 11; number containing
food: 6. Length: 5. 1-7.4; average 6.1 inches. A smallmouth bass
was found in 1 stomach, mimic shiners in 4 and midge larvae
in 1 stomach.
Rock bass— -Stomachs examined : 47 ; number containing
food: 24. Length: S.7-9.3; average 6.0 inches. Black bass sp.
were found in 4 stomachs, mimic shiners in 8 and crayfish in
14 stomachs.
Bluegills— Stomachs examined: 9; number containing food:
6. Length : 4.3-7.7 ; average 5.8 inches. Aquatic vegetation
(Chara) occurred in 5 stomachs, insects (midge larvae, mayfly
Nelson and Easier — The Fishes of Lake Geneva 141
and stonefly naiads, insect fragments) in 3, and snails in 1
stomach.
Cisco— Stomachs examined : 35 ; number containing food : 32.
Length: S.8-9.4; average 8.3 inches. Copepods and cladocerans
constituted the most important part of the contents of the stom¬
achs analyzed. An average number of 983 copepods was found
in each of the 27 stomachs in which they occurred and an average
of 599 cladocerans (water fleas) were counted in 24 stomachs.
Midge larvae occurred in 15 stomachs, insects (mayfly and stone-
fly naiads and adult insect fragments) in 4, snails in 1 and
aquatic vegetation {Char a) in 1 stomach.
Growth
Ages were determined for only 50 of each of the total num¬
ber of n. pike, rock bass and cisco taken. The number of speci¬
mens caught of each species was divided into one half inch
length frequencies and the scales of a proportionate number of
specimens from each length frequency was selected for age de¬
terminations. By a simple proportion, the number of fish be¬
longing to each age group was determined. Age determinations
were made for all of the scale samples collected from the small-
mouth bass, white bass, and bluegills since the number of each
species from which scales were collected was small.
Northern Pike— {See Table III-A.) A legal length of 18
inches is attained by many during their 2nd year of life and by
all early during their 3rd year. Van Engel (1940) reported a
similar growth rate for other lakes of southern Wisconsin. In
northern lakes, however, he found that the legal length is not
reached until after the 3rd and 4th years of life. Eighty-six
per cent of the total number of n. pike caught had attained 18
inches of length or over. Sixty per cent of all of the specimens
were in their 3rd year of life or belonged to the 1939 year class.*
A weight of 1.2 pounds was attained at 18 inches of length.
The largest specimen weighed 14 pounds, measured 39.8 inches
total length and was in its 8th year of life.
Smallmouth bass— {See Table III-D.) The legal length of
10 inches is attained by some of the smallmouth bass late in the
3rd year of life, by all in the 4th year. The average growth rate
of smallmouth bass in 19 Wisconsin lakes and 1 river was re¬
ported by Bennett (1938) to be such that a legal length of 10
inches was attained during the 4th year.
* Fish hatched in 1939.
142 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts and Letters
Table III. Numerical representation of year classes of fish taken in 1941.
*Standard length is from tip of nose to end of vertebral column.
Thirty-two per cent of the smallmouth bass caught were of
legal length or over. As was the case with n. pike the 1939 year
class was the strongest of the group since 61 per cent belonged
to this class and had attained an average standard length of
8 inches by 1941. This was further verified by Thomsen (1941)
who observed in a two weeks’ creel census that 50 per cent of the
smallmouth bass caught by anglers were less than 10 inches long.
White bass — A legal length of 7 inches is attained by some of
Nelson and Hasler — The Fishes of Lake Geneva
143
the white bass during the 2nd year of life and by all during the
3rd year. Although no specimens less than two years old were
captured, each of the single specimens caught during their 3rd
and 4th years of life had attained standard lengths of over 10
inches. Most of the specimens belonged to the 1935 year class
(Age Group VI) and had attained a standard length of 12 inches.
The largest specimen caught had reached a standard length
of 12.7 inches, weighed 1.43 pounds and was in its 8th summer
of life.
Rock bass — (See Table III-C.) A legal length of 7 inches is
attained by rock bass during their 5th and 6th years of life. In
Nebish Lake, Wisconsin, this length is reached some time during
the 9th year of life (Hile, 1941).
Sixty per cent of the rock bass caught belonged to the 1936
and 1937 year classes. Eighty per cent of the total number were
of legal length or over. Thomsen (loc. cit.) reported that of 293
rock bass caught by anglers during the period of his creel census,
79 per cent were of legal length or over.
Bluegills — A legal length of 6 inches is attained during the
4th year of life. Eighty-three per cent of the number caught were
of this length or over. The 1938 year class was the strongest
group in the catches. A similarly high percentage of legal fish
caught by anglers was reported by Thomsen. Of 270 bluegills
caught, 80 per cent were of legal size.
Cisco — (See Table III-B.) A length of 10 inches is reached
during the 3rd year of life. Eighty-four per cent of the number
caught were of this size or over. Sixty per cent of the total num¬
ber taken belonged to the comparatively strong 1939 year class.
The growth rate of cisco in Lake Geneva exceeds that of cisco in
three other Wisconsin lakes, as determined by Hile (1936) (Mus-
kellunge, Trout, and Silver Lakes) ; however, is not as rapid as
that of Clear Lake in which the cisco are nearly 1.5 inches longer
than the ones of Lake Geneva at the end of the 3rd summer of life.
Distribution
Net settings varied from 10 to 110 feet in depth. Because of
the many fishermen and speedboats, the nets were always set at
least 5 feet below the surface to prevent damage to them by motor
boats. Consequently no catches were made in depths of less than
5 feet, and as a result data for the fish occurring in the shal¬
lower water is lacking. Distribution of the fishes is based entirely
on the gill net catches. This is given in Table I for each species
144 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts and Letters
caught with the exception of bluegills, pumpkinseeds, a single
black bullhead, and a single common sucker. Sufficient samples
of these species were not taken to warrant including them in the
distribution table.
Oxygen determinations were made from water samples taken
at 15-foot intervals down to a depth of 100 feet or well into the
hypolimnion. At this depth the oxygen concentration in late July
was 5.7 mg./l. or sufficiently high to support fish life.
Northern pike— N. pike occurred most frequently in depths
of 20 to 40 feet. Within this depth range much variation in size
of the fish was noted. Beyond the 40-foot depth the specimens
caught weighed 3 pounds or more, while with few exceptions the
smaller n. pike were taken between depths of 10 and 20 feet.
It is probable that the n. pike taken at depths greater than
40 feet had foraged out from the somewhat shallower water in
search of cisco which were observed to comprise the sole diet
of all n. pike that weighed 3 pounds or over.
Black bass — Smallmouth bass were taken most frequently be¬
tween depths of 20 and 30 feet, although the catches indicate that
they range quite freely between depths of 10 and 40 feet. Only
one fish was taken beyond the 40-foot depth, although Pearse
(1921) reported them as deep as 85 feet. Seven of the largemouth
bass caught were taken between the 10 and 30-foot depths and
one between 30 and 40 feet. This number is too small, however,
to give a reliable indication of their distribution. Hook and line
fishing for this species is superior to nets. Thomsen reported
228 in his 1941 creel census.
White bass — White bass were taken most frequently between
depths of 30 and 40 feet, although ranging out to 50 feet.
Yellow perch — Yellow perch exhibited the greatest diversity
of habitat. Although only 11 yellow perch were caught they oc¬
curred in depths ranging from 10 to 60 feet. Pearse (loc. cit.)
reported their occurrence to almost twice this maximum depth
or between 115 and 120 feet.
Rock bass — Rock bass occurred most frequently out to a
depth of 30 feet, although they were caught in small numbers be¬
tween 30 and 40-foot depths. According to Pearse, they have
occurred at 65 feet.
Cisco — Cisco were taken almost exclusively in the deep waters.
Eighty per cent of the total catch was taken between 60 and 90
feet, and 90 per cent between 60 and 110 feet. No cisco were
Nelson and Hasler — The Fishes of Lake Geneva 145
caught in any set beyond a depth of 110 feet. One catch of 5 cisco
was made at a depth of 21 feet. Although numerous other sets
were made between 20 and 50 feet, no more cisco were caught
above the low limit of 50 feet. The temperature at this level was
10.8° C. in late July. The temperature of the water where the
greatest numbers were caught was 6.6° C.
Relative Abundance
The relative abundance of 8 species of the game and pan
fish based on the gill net catches is given in Table II. From this
it may be seen that cisco is the most abundant species in the lake,
while n. pike, rock bass and smallmouth bass made up 77 per cent
of the game and pan fish catch. A creel census by Thomsen
(loc. cit.) showed that these three species made up 67 per cent
of the total number of fish caught by anglers in mid-August, 1941.
The relative abundance of the rock bass, bluegills and pumpkin-
seeds is better shown by the fyke net catches.
Although Thomsen's creel census showed that only slightly
more rock bass were caught than bluegills, it is evident from all
of the information gathered that the ratio is well in favor of the
rock bass. White bass although not reported by Thomsen are com¬
mon, while yellow perch, largemouth bass, pumpkinseeds and
rainbow trout constitute a minor part of the game and pan fish
population. Gar and carp were not caught, however both were
reported present by local residents and anglers.
It is interesting to compare the results of this survey with
those of Pearse whose survey of Lake Geneva was made 21 years
ago. Listed in the order of their abundance, based on gill net
catches, the following species were reported by Pearse: yellow
perch, rock bass, smallmouth bass, cisco, walleyed pike ( Stizos -
tedion vitreum) , common sucker, n. pike, bluegills, pumpkinseeds,
largemouth bass, and brook trout.
Since Pearse's report, yellow perch have declined until they
are among the least abundant species present. Walleyed pike
have almost completely disappeared in spite of a very heavy
artificial propagation program. None was caught in the gill
or fyke nets, Thomsen did not report any in his creel census and
many of the older fishermen and fish guides have reported only
an occasional walleyed pike caught during the past 12 years.*
*Scales from a confiscated walleye were sent to us by Mr. R. E. Johnson of Williams Bay.
It was 10 years old and had grown very little in the past 4 years. He estimated it measured
34 inches and weighed 9 lbs.
146 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts and Letters
N. pike on the other hand are now the most abundant of the game
fish, although Pearse reported them less abundant than either
smallmouth bass or walleyed pike. Bluegills have at least held
their own and may have increased somewhat. The rock bass,
smallmouth bass, largemouth bass and pumpkinseeds appear to
have remained more nearly constant in relative abundance. White
bass although not reported by Pearse are common. No brook
trout were taken in the present survey, however two rainbow
trout were taken and these were not recorded by Pearse (Mr.
R. E. Johnson has reported good spawning runs in Williams Bay
Creek). Thomsen reported a small number of crappies caught
by fishermen, although none was recorded by Pearse nor were
any caught in our nets. Pearse stated that the shiner minnows,
Notropis hudsonius, were present in small numbers. No minnows
of this species were observed by the writers, however the mimic
shiners, Notropis volucellus volucellus, were extremely abundant.
Lake Management
Lake Geneva is particularly fortunate in not having a large
population of rough fish. Measures taken to maintain good fishing
can therefore be confined to attempts to establish favorable ratios
among the game and pan fish with the dominant species consist¬
ing of the most desirable game and pan fish. With the exception
of cisco, rock bass and northern pike were the most abundant
species present. Rock bass compete directly with the smallmouth
and largemouth bass for food and prey upon them to an unde¬
termined extent. N. pike, if allowed to become too abundant, are
likely to compete with the black bass and prey upon them more
heavily than they are now doing.* Therefore the following recom¬
mendations for the control of these two species are made for a
definite test period.
(1) No closed season.
(2) No bag limits.
(3) Removal of any legal size limits.
Further pertinent questions which should be answered before
a sound lake management policy can be formulated are :
(1) An intense creel census taken throughout the summer.
Extended over a period of years this would show the fluctuations
in the numbers of fish of each species caught by anglers, the
adequateness of existing fishing regulations and the effect of
* Moreover, rock bass and n. pike are sufficiently abundant to permit heavier exploitation.
Nelson and Hasler—The Fishes of Lake Geneva 147
measures taken to increase or decrease the abundance of any
particular species.
(2) Comparison between net and hook and line fishing to
arrive at a closer estimate of the population of each species.
(8) Further stomach analysis particularly of the game fish
and of rock bass to determine the degree of intercompetition for
food and of predation.
(4) Close observations during the spawning season to deter¬
mine the degree of success attained by each species in reproduc¬
ing themselves.
Discussion
Food , Growth and Distribution
Mimic shiners, crayfish and cisco were the principal sources
of food for the game fish and rock bass in Lake Geneva. While
mimic shiners occurred in some of the stomachs of each of the
species of game fish and of rock bass examined, cisco occurred
only in the stomachs of the n. pike, and with one exception
formed the complete food diet of n. pike weighing over 3 pounds.
Game and pan fish were found in the stomachs of the smaller n.
pike, white bass, rock bass and yellow perch. Aquatic vegetation
(Cham) was found in most of the bluegill stomachs analyzed.
This plant was quite abundant in Lake Geneva, occurring as deep
as 30 feet. Copepoda, cladocera and midge larvae, in the order
listed were the most important food items found in the stomachs
of the cisco. Mayfly and stonefly naiads, adult insects and snails
made up a minor portion of the stomach contents.
Growth of the game and pan fish in Lake Geneva exceeded the
average growth rate, as found by other workers, for fish in many
Wisconsin lakes, and compared well with all of them. Due to the
restricted habitat of the smaller game and pan fish particularly
a high degree of competition for food' existed between the young
fish of all species, and the growth was relatively slow. By the
end of the second year of life, however, most species attained
sufficient size to feed freely upon the mimic shiners, crayfish, and
cisco with a resulting increase in the rate of growth. At present
the abundance of mimic shiners and cisco insures a good food
supply.
It is noteworthy that there was an exceptionally good hatch
of fish (see Table III) of several species in 1939 since they made
up a strong year class in the 1941 captures. It would be interest-
148 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts and Letters
ing to study the re-occurrence of strong year classes and attempt
to correlate them with phenomena controllable by management
policies.
Summary
1. Northern pike, smallmouth bass and rock bass are the three
most abundant game and pan fishes in Lake Geneva.
2. The game fish habitat during July and August is restricted
to a narrow belt around the shore constituting about 15 per
cent of the total lake area.
3. Good growth was made by all of the game and pan fish in
Lake Geneva.
4. Crayfish, cisco, minnows and plankton constitute the chief
sources of food.
5. Competition for food is probably strongest between the white
bass, rock bass, and black bass.
6. The 1939 year class of smallmouth bass, northern pike and
cisco was the largest of the year classes represented in the
1941 catch.
7. Walleyed pike have become very scarce during the past twenty
years, as have yellow perch. Northern pike have become an
abundant game fish in Lake Geneva.
8. In the summer months cisco occur almost exclusively beyond
the fifty-foot depths, while only occasional game and pan fish
were taken beyond this depth.
9. A longer open season, removal of bag and size limits for rock
bass and northern pike are recommended for a definite test
period.
Bibliography
Bennett, G. W. 1938. Growth of the smallmouthed black bass, Micropterus
dolomieu Lacepede, in Wisconsin waters. Copeia, 1938 : 157-170.
Hile, R. 1936. Age and growth of the cisco, Leucicthys artedi (Le Sueur),
in the lakes of the northeastern Highlands, Wisconsin. U. S. Bur. Fish.
Bull. 48: 211-317.
Hile, Ralph. 1941. Age and growth of the rock bass, Ambloplites rupestris
(Rafinesque), in Nebish Lake, Wisconsin. Trans. Wis. Acad. Sci. Arts
& Lett. 33: 189-337.
Pearse, A. S. 1921. The distribution and food of the fishes of three Wis¬
consin lakes in summer. Univ. of Wis. Studies in Science No. 3,
Madison.
Thomsen, H. P. 1941. Analysis of game fish catch in Lake Geneva. Re¬
leased by: Geneva Lake Property Owners Association.
Van Engel, W. A. 1940. The rate of growth of the northern pike, Esox
lucius Linnaeus, in Wisconsin waters. Copeia, 1940: 177-188.
STUDY OF THE ROOTED AQUATIC VEGETATION OF
WEBER LAKE, VILAS COUNTY, WISCONSIN*
J. E. Potzger Butler University
Willard A. Van Engel University of Wisconsin
The region of northern Wisconsin of which Vilas county con¬
stitutes a prominent part is pitted with numerous depressions or*
kettle holes as evidence of the activity of late Wisconsin glaci¬
ation. Many of these depressions have been and are now lakes, the
most representative of which in the county is Trout Lake. Exten¬
sive studies have been made over a number of years, involving
most of the larger bodies of water in that region, by members of
the Wisconsin Geological and Natural History Survey. The in¬
vestigations included not only the flora and fauna but also such
physical features of the water as penetration of light, acidity, gas
content, and others. The' present study of Weber Lake is one of
a series of investigations made over a period of years. They are
planned by Doctor C. Juday, director of the Limnological Labora¬
tories at Trout Lake. Weber Lake is located about three miles
east of Trout Lake along highway N, in T. 41 N., R. 7 E., Sec. 28.
The last section of Figure 1. shows the general outline of the small
lake, comprising only 15.81 ha., with a shoreline of 1.6 km., and
water totalling approximately 1,132,900 cu.m.
History and Characteristics of the Lake
Weber Lake has for several years been closed to fishing be¬
cause of extensive continued studies on fish population by mem¬
bers of Wisconsin Geological and Natural History Survey. Dur¬
ing the year 1940 the water level was considerably higher than
it had been in 1935, when a similar study of the vegetation was
made by L. R. Wilson. Water now covers completely a former
wide shoreline up to the shrub zone of the water-free beach line.
Outside of a small, muddy bay-like indentation at the south¬
eastern end of the lake, the shore is sandy and easily accessible.
The bottom consists of fine quartz sand which is covered by a
comparatively thin layer of black sediment even twenty to thirty
* This is contribution 123 from the Botanical Laboratories of Butler University, Indian¬
apolis, Indiana, and reports 106 of the Limnological Laboratory of the Wisconsin Geological
and Natural History Survey, University of Wisconsin.
149
150 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts and Letters
Fig. 1. Showing 29 transects with 16
and location along the shore.
A. Gratiola lutea f. pusilla
B. Juncus pelocarpus f. submersus
C. Sparganium angustifolium
D. Car ex sp.?
E. Elatine minima
two-meter sampling stations at each,
F. Myriophyllum tenellum
G. Isoetes macrospora
H. Eriocaulon septangulare
I. Lobelia Dortmanna
Figures in squares indicate sampling station and amount of plant material
taken of a given species
1. XA gram or less
2. Vi to V2 gram
3. V2 to 1 gram
4. 1 to 2 grams
5. More than 2 grams
Potzger — Rooted Aquatic Vegetation of Weber Lake 151
152 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts and Letters
meters from the shore. There is one exception to this general
condition at the southern and southeastern shoreline where the
floor consists chiefly of densely-packed gravel.
Cultural Influences
Weber Lake has for years been free of the modifying activity
of campers and fishermen, but scientific experimental studies in¬
volved the addition of fertilizer to the water as follows : 1932 —
750 pounds of superphosphate; 1933 — 500 pounds superphos¬
phate, and 2,000 pounds of lime; 1934 — -500 pounds of super¬
phosphate, 1,300 pounds of lime, 900 pounds of ammonium sul¬
phate; 1935 — 1,000 pounds muriate of potash (July), 1,200
pounds cyanimid (August) ; 1936 — 3,000 pounds soybean meal;
1939 — 2,000 pounds cotton seed meal. The aim was to increase
plankton life and indirectly the productivity of the fish in the
lake. If the experiment succeeded in this aim, one might expect
a modified penetration of light to the bottom in 1940 as compared
with 1932.
Gross Characteristics of the Rooted Aquatic Plants*
The vegetation is made up of eight species, viz., Gratiola lutea
forma pusilla (Fassett) Pennell, J uncus pelocarpus forma sub -
mersus Fassett, Sparganium angustifolium Michx., Elatine
minima (Nutt.) Fisch. & Meyer, Myriophyllum tenellum Bigel,
Isoetes macrospora Dur., Eriocaulon septangulare With., Lobelia
Dortmanna L., and a sedge-like species (Fig. 2). Only Spar¬
ganium has vegetative parts rising to the surface of the water,
all others are small, submerged plants, none more than four cm.
in height (this characterization is not correct with respect to
observations made in 1941). Sparganium grows in intermittent
colonies, totalling 76 for the whole lake, one of these comprising
a large bed approximately 50 meters in extent.
Methods
Plan of Sampling
The problem of studying an adequate number of quadrats,
sufficiently representative in area to warrant basing conclusions
on them with respect to sociological and quantitative factors
applying to the vegetation as a whole is not easily solved by
estimate. A preliminary sampling survey showed that the vege¬
tation complex is comparatively simple, for only eight species
play a prominent part, and their distribution is uniformly the
* The nomenclature is that of Fassett’s Manual of Aquatic Plants, 1940.
0) ,24
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ft
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0)
+* X
X ©
5jo >>
•55 ^
&jc .5
.S n
* -g
X £
in ft
ca
ft
S s
ft s
% s
© s
CO 8
© *2
«H «
2 ft
s ^
ft ^
e ©
© ©
c> te
^ S
I .©
© ”-S
S 8
ft 4
!
Plants about 1/5 natural size.
cm
19+0
/9+I
-to
Fig. 3. Showing difference in size of plants during a year of high water
stage (1940) and a year of low water stage (1941) in Zone I.
Potzger— Rooted Aquatic Vegetation of Weber Lake 153
same along definite belts (Tables 1, 2; Fig. 1.). It seemed, there¬
fore, that 29 transect lines, placed at 50-meter intervals, should
be adequate to assure reliable quantitative data which would re¬
flect the true status of sociological phenomena. Sampling was
along a given transect at every two meter linear distance, extend¬
ing into the lake as far as plants were encountered.
Locating Quadrats and Transects
Transect stations were located by numbered stakes driven into
the sand at the water’s edge. This method placed the first sample
on the outside of the now partially submerged shrub zone. Fish¬
net floats were fastened to a stout line at two meter intervals for
a distance of 34 meters. The line was fastened to a wooden
float (a piece of two by four) which was fastened to an anchor
by a rope sliding readily through two holes in the float. This
proved a very efficient method of locating sampling stations
definitely, and permitted accurate collecting even on very windy
days. Collections were made the week of August 2, 1940. The
work was carried out by two persons, one rowing the boat, re¬
cording depth at which samples were taken, marking the wrap¬
ping paper, and taking care of the samples, the other operating
the dredge and calling the depth at which samples were taken.
The rope fastened to the dredge was marked by bands at every
Table 1
Dry weight of various species in total samples at any given 2-meter belt
(linear distance from shore). Weight in grams.
Dry weight in grams of various species taken at a given depth zone, and percent this represents of the total.
154
Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts and Letters
Potzger— Rooted Aquatic Vegetation of Weber Lake 155
156 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts and Letters
quarter meter, this facilitated reading depths at % meter inter¬
vals. Total number of samples taken was 355.
Equipment
At the Limnological Laboratory we had at our disposal a
heavy Petersen and a lighter modified Petersen dredge. Both of
these machines were tried out for efficiency in denuding a given
area in order to secure accurate quantitative results. It seemed
apparent that even a small error would be magnified tremen¬
dously when quantitative results are translated into the total
area of the lake. Preliminary studies showed that the modified
Petersen would not be satisfactory for accurate sampling. It is
too light to settle sufficiently deep into the soil to denude a quadrat
completely, and the open sides and top permitted large numbers
of the small plants to float out of the dredge as it was being
lifted. Both of these objectionable features were eliminated in
the extremely heavy and closed Petersen dredge. In order to
test the efficiency of the two dredges, ten samples were taken with
each in the dense Gratiola-Juncus association in the six meter
(linear distance from shore) belt where the vegetation was visible
from the boat, so that apparently similar vegetation mats could
be selected. The results show definitely that the modified Petersen
is not efficient in the collecting work involved in this study. The
ten samples, wet weight, blotted only with paper towels, totalled
168.995 grams with the Petersen, and only 33.59 grams for the
modified Petersen. Further, there is the probability that the
modified Petersen may denude more efficiently the plants of the
Isoetes association than those of the matted smaller plants in the
Juncus-Gratiola association, which would introduce an error in
the abundance figures of the various species. Using the Petersen
from a rowboat is extremely hard manual labor, which in the
present study was performed primarily by Mr. Van Engel.
Collecting and Preserving the Samples
Preliminary sampling showed that even the Petersen dredge
may at times permit small plants to escape from between the
jaws, and so a small silk dip net was added to the equipment, to
facilitate picking up escaped plants when they rose to the sur¬
face after a sample was taken.
During the active work of sampling the dredge was first
emptied into a large iron pan, because the heavy, tight-fitting
Petersen retains not only the plants but also the soil and water.
Potzger— Rooted Aquatic Vegetation of Weber Lake 157
The collection was then poured into a small box, approximately
12 by 12 inches, with a copper screen bottom. This permitted
easy washing* out of the mud and gathering of the plants. Heavy
wrapping paper, marked with transect and quadrat numbers, was
used to keep each collection separate. At the laboratory each
sample was segregated into the various species, these were
wrapped in paper towels, marked properly with collecting data,
and were then placed into a large cheesecloth sack to prevent loss
of small packages. This procedure also made possible suspending
the sack between two small trees where wind and sun hastened
drying. Molding of plants is a serious problem in the high
humidity of the Trout Lake region. The dried plants were ship¬
ped to the Botanical Laboratory of Butler University, where
each sample was weighed to the fourth place on a chain-o»matic
scales.
Larger quantities of the various species were taken to estab¬
lish the approximate water content of each, based on air-dried
weight of the plants. Results are shown in Table 3.
Results
A glance at one or all of the tables presenting the sampling
work, will show a definite tendency for species to distribute them-
selves along zone lines in linear distance from the shore, forming
typical associations. Beginning with the Gratiola-Juncus asso¬
ciation in the zone nearest shore, the succession into deeper water
is from Sparganium-Elatine to Myriophyllum-Isoetes associa¬
tions. Eriocaulon occupies a secondary position in the Gratiola-
Juncus association and Lobelia in the Myriophyllum-Isoetes asso¬
ciation. Eriocaulon usually grows , in dense, small, scattered
colonies.
Table 3
Water content of various aquatic plants from Weber Lake.
Weight in Grams
158 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts and Letters
The tendency for species to form associations along certain
belts is also shown in Table 4 and Figure 1, where fidelity of
appearance in the 29 transects is presented. No species declined
abruptly within a narrow margin, except the Carex sp. ?, which
had such disjunct distribution that one cannot well base any
serious argument on its distribution characteristics.
Table 4
Fidelity and frequency index (F.I.). Showing number of transects in which
certain species appear in each 2-meter belt (linear distance from shore).
Total number of transects 29. Total number of samples involved 355.
The F.X. is low for nearly all plants (Table 4, Figure 1).
Gratiola with 61 per cent ranking high, and Isoetes with 54.3 per
cent is second. All others are present in % or less of the samples.
This, again, indicates zonation. However, the range of distribu¬
tion according to depth of water is large for all species (Tables
1, 5; Figure 1). For Isoetes the range is from 1% to 4% meters.
The higher water level in the lake during 1940 inundated the
former exposed beach and this permitted some general observa¬
tions on migration to and invasion of former unoccupied lake
bottom by the various species of plants. Gratiola lutea , Juncus
pelocarpus , and Elatine minima are moving shoreward, they have
invaded more protected places along old Chamaedaphne hummocks
or compacted soil between dead, matted roots and clumps of tight¬
ly-packed humus. Juncus was a frequent invader of tightly packed
Potzger— Rooted Aquatic Vegetation of Weber Lake 159
sand, appearing in water only three inches in depth. No plants
were observed in loose sand, which seemed to indicate that sta¬
bility of the substratum had a definite influence on the establish¬
ment of plants in a new area; Along the steeper slope at transects
25, 26, 27 (Fig. 1) organic matter had accumulated in a deep
layer and no plants were advancing shoreward at this place.
Table 2 shows the distribution of the various species. and the
vegetation as a whole in four zones, determined by depth of
water. The one to two-meter zone with 53.49 per cent of the
total is the most productive, five of the nine species have greatest
abundance in this zone. Next most productive is the zone 0-1-
Table 5
Showing transects, sampling intervals and depth of water where species
disappeared.
a. Sample where plant ceased.
b. Depth of water in meters where plant ceased.
160 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts and Letters
meter. Least bulk was in the 3-5-meter zone. Only Isoetes pro¬
duced the most abundant crop in the 2-3-meter zone.
Wave action as causal indirect factor in determining distri¬
bution of plants is indicated by the greater depth at which plants
disappeared along the shore of the eastern half of the lake as
compared with the western half (Table 6; Fig. 1). The plants of
Weber Lake are, outside of Sparganium, all small, and must
apparently be rooted in sand ; and so sediments in excess of their
above-surface vegetative parts apparently halt their migration
into deeper water. One wonders how these plants can exist even
in their present range, for Myriophyllum and Isoetes are fre¬
quently etiolated to a narrow band at the tips (Fig. 2).
Observations in 1941
Weber Lake was visited briefly the end of August in 1941,
and surprising changes were noted in the water level, and the
physical characteristics of the plants near shore. The deficiency
in rainfall during the past year caused a decided lowering of the
water level, changing our 1940 two-meter linear distance belt
into exposed beach line. Gratiola, Juncus, and Eriocaulon flow¬
ered abundantly, and the plants were from two to ten times taller
than last year (Fig. 3). It is, thus, very likely if sampling had
been carried out this year that the total bulk of plants obtained
would have been much greater, at least for Gratiola, Juncus, and
Eriocaulon, and the 0-1-meter zone would have been the most
productive.
Juncus pelocarpus was in 1940 universally the forma sub-
mersus, this year the plants in the 1940 two-meter belt were
almost universally the straight species, and flowered luxuriantly.
Discussion
Little need be said of the small number of species constituting
the vegetation in Weber Lake, the factors in cause have been dis¬
cussed by Wilson (1935) . His paper also shows that lakes in the
region in general very frequently support only a few species,
number depending on the stage of development of the lake,
abundance of plants increasing with accumulation of sediments ;
and the flexuous types succeeding the rosette type. Wilson (1935)
records for Silver Lake 14, Little John Lake 13, Sweeney Lake
27 species. The youthful condition of Weber Lake is also ex¬
pressed by the presence of only one flexuous species, Sparganium
angustifolium. Theoretically one would expect to find Sparganium
invading areas of deeper organic deposits, but table 5 and figure 1
Potzger— Rooted Aquatic Vegetation of Weber Lake 161
Table 6.
Showing depths of water at which plants disappeared along the 29 transects
and in which half of the lake the transect is located.
162 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts and Letters
show that it is not found beyond the two-meter zone. Its distri¬
bution is no doubt controlled by the seedling stage requirements.
If the seedlings demand sand for placement of roots, this taller
species would still be controlled by a rosette type of habitat, which
is also indicated by the fact that it has recently invaded the newly
inundated shore area (Table 1; Fig. 1).
It should be pointed out, however, that while Weber Lake
appears to the casual observer as almost barren, the vegetation
may at times form a dense cover, almost completely occupying
the surface of the soil. Even such tiny plants as Elatine minima
yielded over two grams dry weight per 729 cm2, and Isoetes
macrospora totalled even 8.5 gms. for a like area. So we must
say that plant life is abundant in Weber Lake but of small size.
Taking total area of the lake, dry weight yield of plants was
5.73 gms. for a m2 surface. This is much in excess of the dry
weight yields for a like area reported by Wilson (1935) for
several lakes of that region. He reports the following: Silver
Lake .08 gms., Muskellunge Lake .45 gms., Little John Lake .52
gms. However, he states that the modified Petersen dredge was
used in the sampling work, and since we found the efficiency of
this dredge poor in dense mats of small plants, we can assume
that the plant crop was much greater in all these lakes than the
figures indicate.
Isoetes gave the largest yield in Weber Lake, and J uncus
pelocarpus f. submersus was second in this respect. This was
not due to a greater abundance of these species but rather to the
greater bulk of the individual plant as compared with Gratiola
and Elatine. If sampling had been made in 1941, Juncus pelo¬
carpus, which was then the typical species, would without doubt
have exceeded the total weight of Isoetes because of the extremely
larger size of the individual plant in 1941.
One is hardly justified to use the entire 4-meter zone of
vegetation as a unit on which to base frequency and fidelity
studies, for there are really very definite zone limits to the various
associations, and type species of these behave as relics or early
invaders in the adjoining zones (Tables 1, 4 ; Fig. 1) . Gratiola has
apparently the greatest potentiality for extending its range with
considerable importance from the shallow waters near shore to
a depth of 2.5 m. (Table 5; Fig. 1), thus occupying soils almost
devoid of organic sediments to soils covered by as much as an
inch of organic matter.
Potzger — Rooted Aquatic Vegetation of Weber Lake 163
For species like Sparganium angusti folium, Eriocaulon sept-
angulare, and Lobelia Dortmanna the F.I. and fidelity are low.
One wonders why such species as Myriophyllum tenellum are so
unimportant near shore. Perhaps the competition with mat-
formers like Gratiola and Juncus is too great for a rhizome plant
like Myriophyllum, and so it finds a more tolerable association
with a scattered growing plant like Isoetes. Using the belt of
optimum expression of a given association, F.I. and fidelity are
high except for Sparganium (Table 4; Fig. 1) one can, of course,
readily understand why a plant like Elatine is limited to the
sandy bottoms of the near-shore waters, for it seldom grows above
one to two cm. in height, so deep organic sediments would pre¬
vent invasion and ecesis.
The plants collected in the first two-meter belt were invaders
since the high water inundated the beach during the past few
years. The chief migrants are Gratiola lutea f. pusilla, Juncus
pelocarpus f. submersus, but also Sparganium angustifolium,
Elatine minima, and Eriocaulon septangulare have appeared in
this belt (table 1; fig. 1), perhaps there was a similar shift from
one belt into the other in the deeper water zones.
The question of cause of distributional phenomena in vegeta¬
tion also here remain a topic for speculation; causes of control
are usually complexes which do not yield readily to complete
analysis. Light, mineral content of the soil, acidity of the water
have been discussed at length for the Wisconsin lakes by Wilson
(1935, 1937) and so need hardly be repeated. From the observa¬
tions of summer 1940 it appears that in Weber Lake the major
control is a physical factor of the lake bottom, and indirectly of
wave action. The fact that all species were rooted in sand indi¬
cates that organic matter could have provided mineral nutrients
only indirectly by filtration through the sand; but at the same
time it becomes an inhibiting factor when accumulation exceeds
the photosynthetic parts of the small plants. Wilson (1937) re¬
ports decrease in plants in Sweeney Lake during periods of heavy
deposition of organic matter. In many instances the plants in
Weber Lake were etiolated to a small tip region (Fig. 2). This
inhibiting effect of loose organic sediment is also indicated along
the southeastern shore where not a single plant was observed,
even though the water and light factors must have been favorable
to growth of plants. Control by purely physical effects of the
sediments is further indicated by the difference in depth of water
164 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts and Letters
at which plants ceased along the western and eastern shorelines
(Table 6 ; Fig. 1) . Along the more disturbed eastern shore, plants
penetrated on an average into water which is deeper by two
meters than that along the western half. Apparently sediment
is stirred up continually along the eastern shore and carried by
undercurrents to be settled out in the deeper water ; while along
the western shore sediments are less disturbed and so settle out
nearer to shore; and their physical presence inhibits the small
plants from invading soils in deeper water which from a light
standpoint they could still invade. Wilson (1937) also recognizes
for Sweeney Lake that certain aquatic plants are obligated to be
rooted in sand when he writes, “The ecological conditions along
the south and eastern shores resemble most nearly those of the
youthful lakes in the region — the exposure to wave action is the
chief factor in the perpetuation of the inorganic sediments upon
which these plants are growing.” Colonies of Sparganium, like¬
wise, are twice as numerous along the western than along the
eastern shore. One might, thus, be justified to assume that early
maturity in Weber Lake will appear sooner on the western than
on the eastern shoreline, and that flexuous species are likely to
invade first the western half of the lake.
The distribution of bulk of plants differs strikingly in Weber
Lake from that in Sweeney (Wilson, 1937), Silver, Little John,
and Muskellunge lakes as reported by Wilson (1935) where %
to % of the crop was in the two zones involving water one to
three meters in depth. The observations made at Weber Lake in
1941 indicate that distribution of bulk by zones per se is
a very changeable feature, being governed by high or low water
level. Only repeated studies at the same lake during periods of
non-fluctuating water level can establish the truth about the dis¬
tribution of bulk of plants in the various zones, and comparisons
of results obtained in different seasons in a number of lakes are
really not possible. The real issue involved is whether productivity
of a given zone is a habitat-controlled phenomenon which may
vary with difference in water level only temporarily until adjust¬
ment could be made during a prolonged period of a given change
in water level, or whether it is merely a variation induced by
changing water level as such.
Summary
1. The paper presents a study of the rooted aquatic plants in
Weber Lake, Vilas County, Wisconsin, involving such phyto-
Potzger— Rooted Aquatic Vegetation of Weber Lake 165
sociological factors "as zo nation, frequency, fidelity, associa¬
tion, and abundance.
2. The 1.6 km. long shoreline was studied along 29 transects,
separated from one another by approximately 50 meters.
Samples were taken along each transect at every two-meter
linear distance from shore until plants ceased.
3. Sampling was carried out with the Petersen dredge. The
bite of this instrument denuded an area of 729 cm2.
4. The plants segregated into three major associations, which
in their maximum expression form belts marked by increas¬
ing distance from shore, and could be classified as Juncus-
Gratiola, Elatine-Sparganium, and Myriophyllum-Xsoetes
associations. The dominants of one belt extend with reduced
abundance into the flanking belts.
5. Depth of water at which plants disappeared ranges from
2 y2 to 5% meters.
6. All plants are rooted An sand, and' it is suggested that the
physical effects of organic sediments control the extent of
plants into deeper water by covering the photosynthetic
parts.
7. The average depth of water at which plants disappear along
the western half of the lake is 3% meters and 4% for the
eastern half. Wave action along the eastern shore apparently
keeps organic matter- suspended which is then transported to
deeper water; while along the less disturbed western shore
it remains where it first settles out.
8. Dry weight of plants totals 5.73 gms. per m2 (computed)
for the total area of the lake, or 57.3 kg. per hectare.
9. The bulk of material collected was distributed as follows:
Zone I, water less than a meter in depth, 28.63 per cent;
Zone II, water one to two meters in depth, 53.49 per cent;
Zone III, water two to three meters in depth, 14.73 per cent ;
Zone IV, water three to five meters in depth, 3.15 per cent.
10. Change in water level in a given lake is considered a vital
factor in determining in any one season the tendency of dis¬
tribution of bulk of plants by zones. So that comparison of
lakes not studied approximately the same time, and under
similar rainfall and lake level conditions is very likely of
little significance with respect to zonal distribution of abun¬
dance of plants, and perhaps even of bulk as such.
166 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts and Letters
Acknowledgments
To Dr. C. Juday we express our thanks for suggesting the
research, for advice, critical reading of the manuscript, for con¬
tinued interest in the work, and for the map and computation of
area of Weber Lake; to Mr. Charles Lines (posthumous) for
assistance in determining the area denuded by the Petersen and
modified Petersen dredges ; to Mr. Sidney Gottlieb for assistance
in the work of collecting. Appreciation is also expressed to the
Wisconsin Geological and Natural History Survey for the oppor¬
tunity to serve on the staff, and for the facilities provided neces¬
sary to carry out the work, likewise to the Wisconsin Alumni
Research Foundation whose grant of funds supported this in¬
vestigation. We thank Dr. Norman C. Fassett for identifying
the species of Isoetes and Sparganium. To Mr. Carl C. Hartman,
commercial artist of Indianapolis, we are indebted for lettering
of figure 1.
Literature Cited
Wilson, L. R. 1935. Lake development and plant succession in Vilas County,
Wisconsin. Ecol. Mon. 5:207-247.
. 1937. A quantitative and ecological study of the larger
aquatic plants of Sweeney Lake, Oneida County, Wisconsin. Bull.
Torr. Bot. Club 64:109-208.
. Rooted aquatic plants and their relation to the limnology of
freshwater lakes. Pub. 10. The Am. Assn. Adv. Sci. 107-122.
LIMNOLOGICAL OBSERVATIONS ON THREE LAKES
IN EASTERN VILAS COUNTY, WISCONSIN
Thomas H. Flanigon
From the Limnological Laboratory of the Wisconsin Geological
and Natural History Survey . Notes and Reports No. 1U
Introduction
During the summer of 1941 a limnological survey of six lakes
in Vilas County, Wisconsin was conducted for the Town of State
Line, Wisconsin. The results of this survey together with recom¬
mendations for management of the lakes were presented in a
mimeographed report (Flanigon, 1942) to the Town of State
Line. More complete data were obtained on three of these lakes,
and although the sounding of the lakes was done from a row
boat and without the aid of surveying instruments, the general
observations are believed worthy of publication at this time since
it will probably be many years before these lakes will be sounded
through the ice by state agencies and the hydrographic and mor¬
phometric data from that source made available. All three of
the lakes are soft water seepage lakes.
Acknowledgments
The writer wishes to thank the Town of State Line and the
Land O’Lakes Chamber of Commerce for the financing of the
field work; Mr. Lyman Williamson, Junior Biologist of the Wis¬
consin Conservation Department and Dr. Chancey Juday for their
many valuable suggestions and assistance; and the Wisconsin
Conservation Department for the financing of the laboratory
work and the generous use of their equipment for the survey.
Methods
Soundings were taken with a calibrated line from a row boat
and consequently are only approximately accurate, but sufficiently
so for practical purposes. Difficulty was frequently encountered
in keeping the boat on a straight line. The outline maps were
copied from aerial survey photographs and enlarged with a
pantograph. The soundings were recorded on this map and the
contour lines were drawn. The surface areas of the lakes, as
167
168 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts and Letters
well as the areas at different depths, were determined by plani-
meter measurements of tracings of the enlarged maps. The
length of the shoreline was determined by means of a Universal
Map Measurer. The volumes were determined from the maps
by the same method employed by Juday (1914 and 1941) .
Table I.
Physical and chemical characteristics of the waters of the lakes studied.
Temperatures are expressed in degrees Centigrade, chemical analyses in
parts per million, and depths in meters.
All chemical analyses were determined by methods outlined
in Standard Methods for the Examination of Water and Sewage
(1936) and are stated in parts per million. pH was measured
with a Hellige pH Comparator. Transparency of the water was
determined by a nine-inch Secchi disc. These data are presented
in Table I.
Fishes were captured with fyke nets with single leads and
without wings. The nets were set with the leads perpendicular
Flanig on— -Limnological Observations on Three Lakes 169
to the shore. Three nets were operated concurrently in Merrill
and Wood Lakes and four nets in Crampton Lake. One of the
nets was of one-inch mesh bar measure and the other two or
three nets were of three-eighths-inch bar measure. Scientific and
common names of fishes are in compliance with those used by
Hubbs and Lagler (1941).
Zooplankton samples were taken with a tow net of 44 mesh to
the inch. Both vertical and horizontal hauls were made. Benthos
sampling was done with an Ekman dredge.
Scientific and common names of the aquatic plants follow
Fassett’s Manual of Aquatic Plants (1940).
Crampton Lake
Crampton Lake (Fig. 1) has an area of 21.35 hectares (52.7
acres), a maximum depth of 16.7 meters (54.8 feet), and a mean
depth of 4.1 meters (18.5 feet). The total volume of water is
approximately 1,076,000 cubic meters (1,405,000 cubic yards).
The water was very soft (bound carbon dioxide 1.8 to 3.1 ppm)
and slightly acid. A thermocline was present between four and
seven meters. Two deep spots were observed. The two large,
shallow bays on the south side of the lake have mud bottoms.
The remainder of the lake bottom is sand and gravel around the
periphery and mud in the deeper water.
The zooplankters observed included Daphnia hyalina , Daphnia
pulex, Diaphanosoma , Leptodora, Cyclops , Diaptomus, Epischura ,
nauplii, and Corethra ( Chaoborus ) larvae. Daphnia hyalina was
the dominant organism.
Benthos included Corethra , Chironomus, Ephoron, and Sialis
larvae, Pisidium, and fresh-water sponges. Empty caddis fly
cases were plentiful. Corethra and Chironomus larvae were the
dominant forms.
The aquatic plants in Crampton Lake were abundant and
well dispersed over the shallower water. The species observed
included Sparganium (bur reed), Potamogeton (pondweed),
Scirpus (bulrush), Eriocaulon septangular e (pipewort), Ponte -
deria cordata (pickerel-weed), Polygonum coccineum (water
smartweed), Nymphae a odorata (water lily), Nuphar varie-
gatum (yellow water lily), Chamaedaphne calyculata (leather-
leaf), Vaccinium macro carpon (cranberry), and another sedge.
The five species of fishes present were Micropterus d. dolomieu
(northern smallmouth bass), Huro salmoides (largemouth bass),
Lepomis m. macrochirus (common bluegill), Perea flavescens
170 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts and Letters
(yellow perch), and Stizostedion v. vitreum (yellow pikeperch).
A total of 19 net lifts over 31 net days captured 436 fishes for
an average of 14 fishes per net per day. The dominant species
was Huro salmoides, with Micropterus dolomieu next in rank.
Stizostedion vitreum were rare and are probably making acci¬
dental entrance into the lake.
Merrill Lake
Merrill Lake (Fig. 2) is characterized by being of uniform
depth. The bottom drops quickly a few meters from shore to a
depth of six meters and the rest of the lake is nearly level. Sand,
gravel, and boulders make up most of the shore and the bottom
in the shallower water; the bottom in the deeper water is mud.
There is a small gravel bar near the southwest shore. The lake
has an area of 10.6 hectares (26.2 acres). The maximum depth
of 7.3 meters (24 feet) was found in several places; the mean
depth is 4.1 meters (16 feet). The water was clear, very soft
Flanigon — Limnological Observations on Three Lakes 171
Crampton Lake
T. 43 N., R. 8 E., Sec. 14, 15
Length . . . 684 m.
Breadth . 574 m.
Area . 21.35 ha.
Maximum depth . 16.7 m.
Mean depth . 4.10 m.
Length of shoreline. ..... 3.04 km.
Shore development. . . 1.85
Number of soundings. . . . .224
(bound carbon dioxide 1.4 to 2.9 ppm), slightly acid, and con¬
tained abundant dissolved oxygen at all depths.
Merrill Lake is not a very productive lake. Only one species
Fig. 2. Hydrographic map of Merrill Lake. Depths are indicated in
meters.
172
Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts and Letters
Merrill Lake
T. 43 N., R. 9 E., Sec. 34
Length . 572 m.
Breadth . 270 m.
Area. . . . 10.6 ha.
Maximum depth . 7.3 m.
Mean depth . 4.87 m.
Length of shoreline . 1.44 km.
Shore development. ...... 1.24
Number of soundings . 100
of benthos, Corethra larvae, was observed; these were not very
abundant. The zooplankters included Daphnia hyalina, Diaphano-
soma, Leptodora, Cyclops, Diaptomus , Epischura, and nauplii.
Daphnia hyalina and Leptodora were the dominant organisms.
The total zooplankton content was low\
Only a very few aquatic plants were present; most of these
were confined to the small bay at the east end of the lake and
the gravel bar. The species observed were Eriocaulon septangu-
lare, Nymphaea odorata, Chamaedaphne calyculata, and a sedge.
The fish population of Merrill Lake is very small. Five species
of fishes were observed but only 185 fishes were captured in 28
net lifts over a period of 27 net days. This is an average of only
4.5 fishes per net per day. Huro salmoides, Perea flavescens, and
Catostomus c. commersonnii (common white sucker) were the
dominant forms. Lepomis m. macrochirus and Pomoxis nigro-
maculatus (black crappie) were also present, but rare.
Wood Lake
Wood Lake (Fig. 3) is approaching typical bog lake condi¬
tions. Although it has a wide margin of Sphagnum and Chamae¬
daphne, it still retains a small gravel and rock bar near the center
and a few meters of sloping sandy shore along the east side. The
water is from one-half to nearly two meters deep at the edge of
the mat. The lake has an area of 5.94 hectares (14.7 acres).
Flanigan — Limnological Observations on Three Lakes 173
Fig. 3. Hydrographic map of Wood Lake. Depths are indicated in meters.
Wood Lake
T. 43 N., R. 9 E., Sec. 34
Mean depth . 2.35 m.
Length of shoreline . 900 m.
Shore development . 1.04
Number of soundings . 77
Although the maximum depth is 7.1 meters (23.3 feet) , the mean
depth is only 2.35 meters (7.7 feet). The total volume of water
Length. . . .302 m.
Breadth . 267 m.
Area . 5.94 ha.
Maximum depth ......... 7.1m.
174 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts and Letters
is 139,710 cubic meters (182,500 cubic yards) . The lake is nearly
circular, the shore development being 1.04. The water was clear,
acid, and soft (bound carbon dioxide 1.3 to 3.1 ppm).
The productivity of Wood Lake is high. Both the zooplankton
and the benthos are abundant. Daphnia hyalina, Holopedium,
Polyphemus, Bosmina, Cyclops, Diaptomus, nauplii, and Corethra
larvae were observed. A very large population of the rotifer
Conochilus was present for several days in July. Species of
benthos included Chironomus, Corethra, Tanypus, Pisidium, an¬
nelids, fresh-water sponges, and empty caddis fly cases. Corethra
larvae were the dominant organisms in the deeper water and
Pisidium and annelids were the dominant forms in the shallower
water.
Calla palustris (water arum), Polygonum natans (water
smartweed), Nymphaea odorata, and a moss were observed but
were not very abundant. The principal components of the bog
mat were Sphagnum, Chamaedaphne calyculata, and Vaccinium
macrocarpon.
Only three species of fishes were observed in the lake. Perea
flav escens was the dominant form; Huro salmoides was next in
rank. Lepomis m. macrochirus was captured only occasionally.
Fifteen net lifts over a period of 27 net days captured 279 fishes
for an average of 10 fishes per net per day. Although a few adult
bass were caught by hook and line fishing, none were captured
in the nets. Bass fingerlings of the same year's hatch were fre¬
quently taken in the nets.
Summary
The observations presented are part of the results of a lim¬
nological survey of a group of lakes in Vilas County, Wisconsin
conducted as part of a fish management program for the Town of
State Line, Wisconsin. Hydrographic maps and the morphometry
of the basins of three lakes are presented. Crampton Lake with
an area of 21.35 hectares is the largest and most productive lake
studied. Plankton, benthos, and aquatic plants were abundant
and helped the lake support a good bass population. Merrill Lake
has an area of 10.6 hectares. It is the least productive lake of the
three considered. Benthos, plankton, and aquatic plants were not
plentiful. The fish population was the smallest encountered.
Wood Lake is a bog lake of 5.94 hectares. The benthos and plank¬
ton content was high but the aquatic plants were not plentiful.
Perea flavescens was the dominant piscine species.
Flanigon — Limnological Observations on Three Lakes 175
Literature
American Public Health Association. 1936. Standard methods for the
examination of water and sewage. New York. 309 pp.
Fassett, Norman C. 1940. A manual of aquatic plants. McGraw-Hill Book
Co., Inc. New York. 382 pp.
Flanigon, T. H. 1942. Limnological survey of six lakes in Vilas County,
Wisconsin, with respect to a fish management program. Mimeo¬
graphed. 28 pp.
Hubbs, C. L., and K. F. Lagler. 1941. Guide to the fishes of the Great Lakes
and tributary waters. Cranbrook Institute of Science. Bull. 18.
100 pp., 118 figs.
Juday, C. 1914. The inland lakes of Wisconsin. The hydrography and
morphometry of the lakes. Bull. 27. Wis. Geol. & Nat. Hist. Survey.
137 pp., 27 maps, 8 figs.
Juday, C., and E. A. Birge. 1941. Hydrography and morphometry of some
northeastern Wisconsin lakes. Trans. Wis. Acad. Sci., Arts & Let.
33: 21-72. 30 figs.
MICROFOSSIL STUDIES OF THREE NORTHCENTRAL
WISCONSIN BOGS
L. R. Wilson and R. M. Webster
From Coe College and the Limnological Laboratory of the
Wisconsin Geological and Natural History Survey. Notes and
reports No. 111.
Introduction
The region of northcentral Wisconsin is one of pine forests
with smaller areas of hardwoods. Pine and hemlock are, or re¬
cently were, important species, and the region may be described
as being part of the lake forest (Weaver and Clements, 1929).
Hemlock at present is but a minor element but appears to have
been more important before lumbering was begun. Upon the
heavier soils the forests contain an important hardwood element
which includes sugar maple, yellow and white birch, basswood,
American elm, and red oak. Mixed with the hardwoods is white
pine, hemlock, balsam fir, and white spruce. The lighter, sandy
soils are forested at present with jack and red pine, white birch,
quaking aspen, and pin cherry. The virgin forests contained
heavy stands of red pine. Large areas of the sandy soils in
northern Wisconsin have been logged and severely burned and
are at present covered by little more than sweet fern ( Myrica
aspleni folia) , scrub oak ( Quercus ellipsoidalis) , and young stands
of jack pine. They are frequently referred to as the pine barrens,
sand barrens, or barrens. Agriculture is almost impossible in
such areas.
The virgin forests of northcentral Wisconsin contained some
of the most valuable timber in the state, and because they repre¬
sented such a fine example of the lake forest, a study of its
history was undertaken.
The region in which the present study was conducted is cen¬
tral Vilas County in Wisconsin. The fossils in three bogs are re¬
ported from this investigation. These bogs are located in kettles
upon the pitted outwash plains of Wisconsin substage 4, and
near lakes after which each is named.
177
178 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts and Letters
The Fossils
The peat material studied was collected by means of a Davis
peat sampler. In the laboratory, about 50 grams of dry peat were
pulverized and boiled in about 200 cc. of water until it became
a humic mass. Then a few centimeters of concentrated sodium
hydroxide solution was added to the material, which was thor¬
oughly stirred. This treament is usually sufficient to free the
fossils and make them suitable for study. The material was then
screened through a one millimeter mesh and diluted with water.
The diluted solution was then centrifuged and washed several
times. Some material was stained with saffranin for 12 hours
and again washed and centrifuged. Material for permanent
reference was mounted in glycerine jelly, but the counts were
made from temporary slides. The photographs were made from
stained glycerine and glycerine jelly mounts. The identification
and counting of the fossil pollen was done with a compound
binocular microscope using 15 X oculars and 10 mm. and 3mm.
objectives. The slides were controlled with a mechanical stage,
and usually two hundred fossils were counted for the analysis.
The photomicrographs were made with a Zeiss Ikon camera sup¬
plemented with a detachable Eastman Kodachrome adapter. The
film used was 35 mm. Panatomic-X ; it was developed in D-ll and
D-8 developer. The magnification used in the photographing
varied according to the size and structure of the microfossils.
The compound microscope used is a monocular, and combinations
were made with oculars of 5x, 10 X, and 20 X magnification, and
10 mm. and 3 mm. objectives.
At present the illustrative material of pollen and spores is
very scanty and it is necessary for each worker in paleo ecology
to collect and prepare for himself a collection of the most common
spores and pollen. Regardless of the abundance of illustrations
and descriptions of spores and pollen, it will always be necessary
for each worker to have at his disposal such a collection for study
and frequent comparison. It is now becoming apparent that
pollen of the same species varies not only within the same spo-
range, but also there appear to be differences in the pollen of the
same species in various portions of their geographic ranges.
However, the value of further illustrations cannot be overlooked,
since they may serve to clear up problems of identification, and
also may be a real help to the innovate. With this in mind, the
authors are presenting the following photomicrographs and the
Wilson and Webster — Micro fossil Studies of Wisconsin Bogs 179
accompanying notes of the most common fossils found in the
Vilas County bogs. Numerous abnormal grains appear in peat
deposits and illustrations of them are worth recording, since
these forms may be confusing to the beginner, and, too, they are
of morphological interest.
Sphagnum sp (Plate I, Figs. 1, 2). Triangular to round when
seen in proximal or distal view; diameter 25-29 microns; wall
thin, unornamented; trilete mark on proximal surface.
This is an important fossil since it is indicative of local
ecological conditions.
Lycopodium lucidulum (Plate I, Fig. 5). Triangular, sides
concave in proximal or distal view ; diameter 25-30 microns ; wall
uniformly papillate (1.2 mu.) on distal surface, papillae on
proximal surface finer or absent; trilete mark on proximal
surface.
The occurrence of L. lucidulum in peat is rather uncommon.
The senior author, when monographing the genus (1934), noted
that the proximal surface of this species and L. selago were
unornamented. This appears to be the usual condition of the
spores when they are subjected to the drastic KOH treatment
used in the preparation of the material described in that paper.
The spores found in the Vilas County peat were not smooth on
the proximal surface.
Lycopodium annotinum (Plate I, Figs. 8, 9). Triangular to
round in proximal or distal view ; diameter 28-33 microns ; prox¬
imal surface smooth, distal surface somewhat wavy reticulate,
reticulum extending to the equator and ending as plainly visible
projections. The number of projections upon the equator is ap¬
proximately twenty, fewer than any other species of American
lycopod. This species and its varieties are frequent inhabitants
of peat bogs.
Lycopodium clavatum (Plate I, Figs. 10, 11). Triangular to
round in proximal or distal view ; diameter 28-35 microns ; prox¬
imal and distal surfaces polygonally reticulate, 35 or more pro¬
jections are present on the equator, reticulum upon the proximal
surface extends three-fourths or higher into the angles of the
trilete mark.
The spores of this species are differentiated from L. com -
planatum by the greater number of projections on the equator and
the higher extent of the reticulum into the angles of the trilete
mark. In the latter species the projections are usually about 30,
180 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts and Letters
and the reticulum enters very slightly into the angles of the
trilete mark.
Lycopodium clavatum and its varieties are frequent inhab¬
itants of peat bogs, and their spores are common fossils in some
peat deposits.
Lycopodium inundatum (Plate I, Figs. 6, 7). Triangular to
round in proximal or distal view ; diameter 43-48 microns ; prox¬
imal surface papillate, especially in the angles of the trilete
mark, distal surface wavy reticulate.
Lycopodium inundatum appears as an abundant fossil in the
lower levels of the Winchester Bog (Wilson and Webster, 1942).
This species is interesting because McLaughlin (1932) has
pointed out that it is at present associated with many species of
Coastal Plain plants that appear to have migrated inland during
the stages of Glacial Great Lakes. The occurrence of the fossils
in Vilas County substantiates the early appearance of the species.
Thelypteris sp. (Plate I, Fig. 3) . Bean-shaped in lateral view ;
length 37-45 microns; thickness 24-34 microns; wall smooth,
monolete mark on proximal surface.
Fern spores are abundant in peat and need further study as
fossils. The spore illustrated appears to be Thelypteris palustris,
but definite identification with this species is withheld, for other
spores of the same genus appear to lose their perisphoral struc¬
tures when subjected to boiling. This results in a spore the type
of which is illustrated.
Osmunda sp. (Plate I, Fig. 4). Spherical; diameter 36-39
microns; wall densely and irregularly covered with blunt pro¬
jections, 1-3 microns long; trilete mark extends to equator.
The spores of Osmunda should prove interesting to the tax¬
onomist, for they appear to have specific characters. Osmunda
spores are frequently observed in the peat.
Picea mariana (Plate I, Figs. 12, 13). Winged grains;
greatest dimension of tube cell 55-65 microns ; bladders somewhat
half-moon-shaped when seen in distal (ventral) view of the grain
(Fig. 13) ; in transverse view (Fig. 12) the bladders join the
tube cell at a nearly straight angle ; a marginal crest appears to
be absent.
The photomicrographs show typical examples of this species,
but there are transitional forms that make separation of it from
P. glauca, Pinus resinosa, and P. Strobus very difficult. The pollen
of conifers need a critical study and comparison since there is
Wilson and Webster— Micro fossil Studies of Wisconsin Bogs 181
considerable overlapping of the characters used to distinguish
them.
Picea glaum, (Plate I, Figs. 15. 18) . Similar to P. Mariana ,
but larger (tube cell 65-75 microns in greatest dimension), and
the bladders are frequently more angular when seen in distal
(ventral) view (Fig. 16).
This species has undoubtedly been mistaken for Abies by
many workers in peat fossils. P. glauca is very abundant in the
basal levels of nearly every peat bog in the Middle West.
Abies balsamea (Plate I, Figs. 17, 18). Largest winged pollen
in the Middle West; tube cell 72-81 microns in greatest dimen¬
sion ; bladders bulbous, joining the tube cell at a sharp angle near
the dorsal (proximal) roots, round or nearly so in distal view
(Fig. 18) ; tube cell also frequently round in this view.
Wodehouse (1935) states that a faint tri radiate streak is
sometimes present on the dorsal (proximal) side of the grain,
but it has never been seen in fossil material by the authors. This
may be due to corrosion of the exine, since the trilete mark is at
best a very indefinite feature of the tube cell.
Abies does not occur as abundantly in middlewestern peat as
was previously supposed by many authors.
Tsuga canadensis (Plate I, Fig. 14). Wingless, doubly con-
vexed to round in optical section ; diameter 60-80 microns ; coarse
exine texture.
A very abundant pollen in some middlewestern peats. Sears
(1930) has pointed out the danger of mistaking pteridophyte
spores for pollen of Tsuga . He further points out that the former
may be distinguished by the presence of triradiate prismatic
faces on the proximal side. The fern spore most closely re¬
sembling Tsuga is Osmunda , and in this genus the trilete mark
is not always apparent, even in fresh material. With some prac¬
tice it is possible to separate Osmunda and Tsuga by exine struc¬
ture. The exine of Osmunda is generally less reticulate and is
more spinose. Another adjunct in determining the presence of
Osmunda in peat is the occurrence of the wool-like trichomes.
These have characteristic thickenings that give the appearance
of joints. They preserve well as fossils and are easily recognized.
Pinus Banksimm (Plate II, Figs. 19, 20, 21) . Smallest winged
pollen in the Middle West; tube cell 41-48 microns in greatest
dimension; marginal crest frequently well defined; bladders
nearly round when seen in distal view.
182 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts and Letters
Explanation of Plates I-II
Fig. 1, 2. Sphagnum , sp.
Fig. 3. Thelypteris sp.
Fig. 4. Osmunda sp.
Fig. 5. Lycopodium lucidulum
Fig. 6, 7. Lycopodium inundatum
Fig. 8, 9. Lycopodium annotinum
Fig. 10, 11. Lycopodium clavatum
Fig. 12, 13. Picea mariana
Fig. 14. Tsuga canadensis
Fig. 15, 16. Picea glauca
Fig. 17, 18. Abies balsamea
Fig. 19, 20, 21. Pinus Banksiana
Fig. 22, 23, 24, 25, 26. Pinus Strobus or P. resinosa
Fig. 27, 28. Alnus sp.
Fig. 29, 30, 31, 32. Betula sp.
Fig. 33, 34, 35. Quercus sp.
Fig. 36. Corylus sp.
Fig. 37, 38. Ulmus americana
Fig. 39, 40, 41. Tilia americana
Fig. 42, 43. Juglans cinerea
Fig. 44. Cary a cordiformis
PLATE I
PLATE II
4 1
39
42
43
44
Wilson and Webster — Micro fossil Studies of Wisconsin Bogs 18S
Cain (1940) has shown by size-frequency determinations that
P. Banksiana may be distinguished from other pines of the east
by its smaller size. Figure 21 is a photomicrograph of an ab¬
normal grain with three, possibly four bladders.
Finns Strobus or P. resinosa (Plate II, Figs. 22, 28, 24, 25, 26) .
The distinction of these two species as fossils is very doubtful,
for even in fresh material, no constant character appears to be
present. In fresh material of P. Strobus the reticulation of the
bladders is fairly uniform, while that of P. resinosa appears to
be finer near the edges when the grains are viewed on the distal
side. However, this method of distinction is not a satisfactory
one. Both species of pollen are about the same size, the tube cell
measurements being 55-67 microns in longest dimension. Figures
22, 25, and 26 are abnormal grains.
Alnus sp. (Plate II, Figs. 27, 28). Diameter 18-27 microns;
pores, narrowly elongate, generally four or five in number ; sub-
exineous thickenings usually extend from pore to pore along the
equator. Not all fossil specimens examined have had these thick¬
enings present. The specimens illustrated are either A. crispa
or A. incana .
Betula sp. (Plate II, Figs. 29, 30, 31, 32). Diameter 20-31
microns, generally about 26 microns; usually three elliptical
pores; two- and four-pored forms have been observed (Figs. 30,
31, 32) ; exine at pore expanded, appearing as broad knobs when
viewed in optical section.
Several species of Betula pollen are present in the Vilas
County peat, but these cannot be differentiated with certainty.
Corylus sp. (Plate II, Fig. 36). Diameter 22-26 microns;
three circular or elliptical pores ; exine at pores club-shaped when
viewed in optical section.
Quercus sp. (Plate II, Figs. 33, 34, 35). Diameter 25-37
microns; spheroidal or flattened; three-furrowed; exine gran¬
ular or warty, no regular pattern. When flattened, the grains
frequently split along the furrows and appear in fossil form as
illustrated in Figure 35.
TJlmus americana (Plate II, Figs. 37, 38). Diameter 28-38
microns; oblately flattened; usually four or five elliptical pores;
subexineous reticulation.
Ulmus is one of the important trees of the swamp forest in
northern Wisconsin and has an extensive fossil history in the
peats.
184 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts and Letters
Tilia americana (Plate II, Figs. 39, 40, 41). Diameter 25-37
microns; oblately flattened; usually three elliptical pores that
are deeply sunken, and have marked subexineous thickenings
which are seen in optical section ; exine uniformly pitted.
Two- and four-pored grains have been observed in the peat,
but these are rare.
Juglans cinerea (Plate II, Figs. 42, 43). Diameter 32-35
microns; spheroidal; 9 to 12 circular pores restricted to one
hemisphere ; subexineous thickening around pores ; exine smooth.
This species and Carya cordiformis are considered more fully
below in the discussion.
Carya cordiformis (Plate II, Fig. 44). Diameter about 40
microns; spheroidal or oblately flattened; pores usually three,
elliptical to circular, and generally in one hemisphere; exine
somewhat granular.
Spruce Lake Bog
This peat deposit is an extensive bog covering several thou¬
sand acres. The location where borings were made is the NW %
of the SW %, Section 7, Township 41 N., Range 5 E. Near the
center of this deposit is a bog lake known as Spruce Lake, and
from this the bog takes its name. The deposit is relatively shallow
as one would expect in a bog of such large size. At the location
where samples were collected, the contact of peat with sandy
clay was found nine feet below the surface. Samples were col¬
lected from one-foot intervals. The surface of the bog is covered
with a dense growth of heaths and a few small, black spruces.
The heaths are species of Vaccinium, Chamaedaphne, Gaylmsacia,
Ledum, Kalmia, and Andromeda .
The forests around the bog are of recent second growth and
consist of red, white, and jack pine, balsam fir, white spruce,
. white birch, aspen, soft maple, and scrub oaks.
Figure 1 shows graphically the abundance and succession of
the microfossils in the Spruce Lake Bog, and Table I gives fur¬
ther details. From these microfossil studies there is evidence
that the pine forests were preceded by a more northern type of
forest composed largely of white spruce. This early gave way
to the pine forest, as is indicated by the increase in pine pollen
about two-thirds of the distance from the top of the deposit.
Near the middle levels there is a suggestion that basswood and
ash were more abundant than they are today. Birch pollen is
more important in the top level than below. Some of the birch
Wilson and W 'ebster—. Micro, fossil Studies of Wisconsin Bogs 185
Fig. 1. Diagram showing the distribution and succession of microfossils in
in the Spruce Lake Bog.
186 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts and Letters
fossils undoubtedly are of bog species, and therefore this pollen
does not give a true picture of the forest composition. The occur¬
rence of hemlock at the bottom and near the top of the bog is
of interest, since this species of tree has not been seen in the
immediate vicinity today. Such occurrence supports other evi¬
dence that this species has had a wider distribution in the past
than at present. Black spruce pollen usually occurs abundantly
in two levels of the spectrum, and these are separated by levels
where it is scarce. An explanation of this occurrence may be
that the black spruce was early an upland tree along with the
white spruce. When most of the latter migrated northward,
some of the black spruce probably remained near the edge of the
lake in which peat was accumulating, and attained greater im¬
portance when subaerial peat was formed and a bog such as the
present one came into existence. The return of white spruce
fossils to the spectrum may be suggestive of climatic change and
reverse to cooler conditions. Such has been suggested by Cooper
(1942).
Table I.
Percentages of fossil pollen in the Spruce Lake Bog, Vilas County,
Wisconsin.
Species
Depth in Feet
Silver Lake Bog
Silver Lake Bog is located in the SE % of the SW % of Section
24, Township 41 N., Range 6 E. It is about one-quarter of a mile
Wilson and Webster — Microfossil Studies of Wisconsin Bogs 187
133 J
Fig. 2. Diagram showing the distribution and succession of microfossils in
the Silver Lake Bog.
188 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts and Letters
east of Silver Lake and approximately the same distance south
of Trout Lake. The bog is about three acres in area and located
in a rather deep kettle hole near the edge of an outwash plain.
Thwaites (1929) maps the area immediately to the south as part
of the Muskellunge Moraine.
The forest surrounding the bog is second growth with a pre¬
dominant element of white birch and aspen. In addition, white
and red pine, balsam fir, white spruce, red oak, and soft maple
occur. A few small black spruces grow upon the bog and the
remaining cover is that of heaths and other characteristic bog
plants.
The depth of the peat is seventeen feet to the contact with
sandy clay. Samples were collected at one foot intervals, except
from the fifteenth foot level where a water pocket was encoun¬
tered, and no peat was recovered.
Table 2 and Figure 2 illustrate the abundance and succession
of the fossil pollen in the Silver Lake Bog. The same general suc¬
cession of the forest species is indicated as is suggested in the
Spruce Lake Bog. Hemlock again appears in the peat but is not
present in the immediate vicinity of the bog today. The surface
sample, however, shows hemlock to be present. Two possibilities
exist ; the sample taken from the surface may have extended deep
enough to include peat that was formed before lumbering began,
or, hemlock pollen is being deposited upon the bog from a small
stand that is nearly three miles away. Hickory pollen occurs in
the eight foot and one foot levels, and butternut in the one foot
level. These are not living in the region today. The nearest
hickory is found about 65 miles southward, and butternut about
60 miles westward.
White Sand Lake Bog
The location of White Sand Lake Bog is the NW %.of the SE
% in Section 28, Township 42 N., Range 7 E. It is approximately
one acre in area and seven feet deep near its center. Sandy clay
underlies the deposit.
The cover of the bog is Chamaedaphne and a few small, black
spruces. The upland is typical jack pine barrens, as is much of
the area of outwash plain in that region. In addition to having
been logged, the region has been severely burned. There is evi¬
dence in the stumpage that the immediate vicinity did support a
heavy cover of red pine. Many of the stumps are two and three
feet in diameter.
Table II.
Percentages of fossil pollen in the Silver Lake Bog, Vilas County, Wisconsin.
Wilson and Webster — Microfossil Studies of Wisconsin Bogs 189
190 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts and Letters
Table 3 and Figure 3 indicate the abundance and succession
of the microfossils. It will be noted again that the fossil spectrum
suggests that the earliest forest was spruce and that this gave
way to pine. Again there appears to have been a period during
which hemlock was more abundant than at present. Also, elm is
present in the middle levels and not found on the surface. Birch
and oak show a fairly strong percentage at the two foot level,
and the latter is present through the entire section of the bog.
Table III.
Percentages of fossil pollen in the White Sand Lake Bog, Vilas County,
Wisconsin.
Species
Depth in Feet
Discussion
The three bogs give a rather definite history for the develop¬
ment of the lake forest in northcentral Wisconsin. It appears to
have early succeeded the boreal forest of white spruce and has
remained the important formation of the region since. It has
been pointed out above that near the middle levels in each bog
there is evidence of an abundance of certain hardwoods, namely,
oak, hickory, birch, basswood, ash, elm, and maple. This minor
fluctuation in species of hardwood pollen is general throughout
upper Wisconsin. There appears to be a direct correlation with
a greater fluctuation of hardwood pollen in bogs of southern Wis-
Wilson and Webster— Micro fossil Studies of Wisconsin Bogs 191
Fig. 3. Diagram showing the distribution and succession of microfossils in
the Sand Lake Bog.
133J
192 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts and Letters
consin, Illinois, Indiana, and Ohio, but closer comparison must
wait a critical examination of many more intermediately located
bogs and a careful study of age relationships. The wide distri¬
bution of hardwood forest elements approximately in the center
of a pine forest period is not a normal sequence of forest suc¬
cession. This irregularity has been suggested as evidence of a
climatic shift, and supports the climatic hypothesis of Von Post
(1930). He suggests that there were three generalized phases:
(1) increasing warmth, (2) maximum warmth, and (3) decreas¬
ing warmth. The strongest fossil pollen evidence for this hy¬
pothesis in northcentral Wisconsin is the occurrence of hickory
pollen in the Silver Lake Bog, noted above, and the Winchester
Bog located about twenty-five miles northwest (Wilson and Web¬
ster, 1942) . Both of these localities are north of the present range
of hickory in Wisconsin and suggest that during the so-called
“xerothermic period”, the oak-hickory forest of southern Wis¬
consin extended farther north than it does at present. A return
to a cooler climate is suggested by the disappearance of hickory,
the decrease in abundance of other hardwoods, and the increase
of conifers such as white spruce and possibly hemlock.
Summary
1. Three bogs in Vilas County, Wisconsin, were investigated
paleoecologically to determine the history of the lake forest
present in that region.
2. Notes and photomicrographs of common and abnormal
spores and pollen found in the deposits are included in the studies.
3. The fossils indicate that the lake forest was preceded by a
boreal forest composed largely of white spruce. Near the middle
of the pine forest period there is a small amount of hardwood
fossil pollen including hickory and butternut, two species which
no longer grow within the region.
4. The occurrence of hickory and other hardwood pollen is
interpreted as evidence of a warmer period of climate in late
postglacial time, supporting the Von Post hypothesis.
Literature Cited
Cain, Stanley A. 1940. The identification of species in fossil pollen of
Pinus by size-frequency determinations. Amer. Jour. Bot. 27:
301-308.
Cooper, W. S. 1942. Vegetation of the Prince William Sound Region,
Alaska; with a brief excursion into post- Pleistocene climatic his¬
tory. Ecol. Mono. 12: 1-22.
Wilson and Webster— Micro fossil Studies of Wisconsin Bogs 198
McLaughlin, W. T. 1932. Atlantic Coastal Plain plants in the sand barrens
of northwestern Wisconsin. Ecol. Mono. 2: 335-383.
Sears, P. B. 1930. Common fossil pollen of the Erie Basin. Bot. Gaz. 89:
95-106.
Thwaites, F. T. 1929. Glacial geology of part of Vilas County, Wisconsin.
Trans. Wis. Acad. Sci., Arts & Let. 24: 109-125.
Von Post, L. 1930. Problems and working lines in the post-arctic history
of Europe. Rept. Proc. 5th Intern. Bot. Cougr. Cambridge: 48-54.
Weaver, J. E. and F. E. Clements. 1929. Plant Ecology. McGraw-Hill
Book Company, New York.
Wilson, L. R. 1934. The spores of the genus Lycopodium in the United
States and Canada. Rhodora 36: 13-19.
. 1938. The postglacial history of vegetation in northwestern
Wisconsin. Rhodora 40: 137-174.
. and R. M. Webster. 1942. Fossil evidence of wider post-
Pleistocene range for hickory and butternut in Wisconsin. Rhodora
44: 409-414.
Wodehouse, R. P. 1935. Pollen Grains. McGraw-Hill Book Co., New York.
A PHOTOELECTRIC METHOD FOR
DETERMINATION OF pH
John Rae and V. W. Meloche
An accurate and rapid photocolorimetric method for deter¬
mining pH without the use of color standards for comparison is
described in detail.
A calibration table is presented for rapid conversion of light
transmission to pH. Correction data for temperature and salt
concentration variations are also offered in easily useable form.
The present method is directly applicable to systems adapted
to analysis by other colorimetric pH methods. In addition this
method works well, with certain restrictions, in the case of solu¬
tions containing coloring materials. Suspended colloids in orange
juice and in the soil-water mixtures used in soil reaction studies
are held responsible for unreliable results in these cases because
of adsorption of the indicator. The method was found to be well
suited to acidity control work with nutrient solutions such as are
used in hydroponics.
The method is readily adaptable to rapid multiple determina¬
tions and is exceedingly inexpensive. Only one standard solution
is necessary and this is easily standardized and stable for at least
one month.
Introduction
H. T. S. Britton (1) in his book entitled Hydrogen Ions , Their
Determination and Importance in Pure and Industrial Chemistry ,
has emphasized the importance of hydrogen ion concentration.
“Hydrogen ion concentrations have long been recognized as an
essential factor in many biochemical processes, and it is un¬
doubtedly on account of this recognition that considerable addi¬
tions have been made in recent years to our knowledge of bio¬
chemical principles. In other branches of chemistry, hydrogen
ion concentrations are only just beginning to be regarded as
being of fundamental importance, and the use of the hydrogen
electrode and the other associated methods are being increasingly
195
196 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts and Letters
applied, not only to measure very small changes in acidity and
alkalinity, but as valuable indicators of the extents to which
reactions have proceeded and as a means of controlling these
reactions with an exactitude hitherto impossible.” Today hydro¬
gen ion considerations are most important to leather processing
concerns, sugar manufacturers, pulp and paper manufacturing
plants, brewing concerns, baking houses, sewage disposal plants,
ceramics, and textile and dye industries.
Although the indicator colorimetric methods for the deter¬
mination of hydrogen ion concentrations are being replaced by
electrical methods making use of the standard half -elements, the
hydrogen electrode, the quinhydrone electrode, oxygen and air
electrodes, metal-metallic oxide electrodes, and the glass electrode
systems, the colorimetric methods are still today widely used.
These colorimetric methods often require the use of a series
of buffer solutions of known pH for color comparisons. The prep¬
aration and use of these buffer solutions is time-consuming and
as a rule, the solutions are subject to bacterial action and their
usefulness in accurate pH work is limited to a period of a week
or two.
The purpose of the present work was to develop an accurate
and rapid method for determining hydrogen ion concentrations
without the use of color standards for comparison. This was
accomplished chiefly by the use of an improved type of photo¬
electric colorimeter, the careful choice of indicator and reagent
concentrations, and the construction of a calibration table of
universal applicability.
In principle the present method is based upon the work of
Wallace R. Brode (2) who has described ‘The determination of
hydrogen ion concentration by a spectrophotometric method and
the absorption of certain indicators.” According to the Brode
method, a standard amount of indicator is added to the test solu¬
tion and the hydrogen ion concentration is determined by com¬
paring the height of its absorption band with those obtained with
solutions of known hydrogen ion concentration. These measure¬
ments necessarily involved the use of a spectrophotometer. The
present modification is more direct, accurate, and rapid and does
not involve the use of a spectrophotometer. Moreover the tech¬
nique of the operations involved is exceedingly simple so that
even the unskilled operator should have no difficulty in using the
method.
Rae and Meloche — Photoelectric Determination of pH 197
Brode has observed in the spectrophotometric study of certain
dyes and indicators at various hydrogen ion concentrations, that
the absorption band does not shift in wave length but merely
changes in height, with changing pH. If, then, light of wave
length corresponding to the region of maximum absorption of
the indicator is used along with a suitable instrument for meas¬
uring light transmission, the observed transmission will be a
measure of the hydrogen ion concentration. This is the principle
upon which the present method is based.
Since the work was completed, a method based upon the same
principle has been described (3). However, since that paper
lacked certain details of operation and technique, it was con¬
sidered necessary to publish the more detailed report.
Materials
Colorimeter. The Evelyn Photoelectric Colorimeter equipped
with filter No. 540 was especially selected for this work. It was
chosen for the high degree of standardization of its components
permitting the interchange of calibration curves and constants
from one colorimeter to any other colorimeter of the same make.
Thus it has been possible to offer calibration data of universal
applicability for the determination of pH. The necessity of con¬
structing new calibration curves for each different colorimeter
is thereby obviated, and with the calibration data offered here
one can proceed at once with the actual determination without
having to make up any standards for comparison.
Standard Methyl Red Reagent. 0.100 grams of methyl red
were ground in an agate mortar with 3.7 ml. of 0.1 N NaOH and
3.7 ml. of distilled water. This mixture was made up to about
one liter with distilled water and filtered into a one liter storage
bottle. 380 ml. of this approximately 0.01 per cent water solu¬
tion of neutralized methyl red were diluted to about 880 ml. in
a one liter bottle. A one ml. aliquot of this diluted solution was
added to 20 ml. of 0.1000 N HC1 and the color density read on the
colorimeter. Subsequent adjustments were then made on the
original diluted indicator solution to bring the indicator concen¬
tration to a value which gave a corrected colorimeter reading of
36.7 at 25° C when one ml. of the indicator solution was added
to 20 ml. of 0.1000 N HC1 as above. (In making these ad¬
justments it is convenient to know that 2.1 ml. of distilled
water or 0.8 ml. of 0.01 per cent methyl red solution added to
900 ml. of the diluted methyl red will result in a difference of
198 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts and Letters
about 0.1 mm. in the colorimeter reading. The reading will be
higher if water is added and lower if methyl red is added. It is
also convenient to know that the temperature coefficient of this
system is about +0.1 mm. (scale divisions) per degree rise in
temperature. In these color density measurements the HC1
solution and not water was used for the 100 setting of the
galvanometer.
It has been found that this standard solution of methyl red
can be kept unaltered for a period of at least one month.
Description of Method
pH Calibration Curve. Standard buffer solutions ranging
from pH 4.00 to pH 7.00 in steps of 0.20 pH units were made up
according to Clark and Lubs (4), using a potassium biphthalate-
sodium hydroxide system from pH 4.00 to 6.00 and a mono¬
potassium phosphate-sodium hydroxide system for pH's above
6.00. One-ml. aliquots of the above described standard methyl
red solution were pipetted into test tubes containing 10 ml. of
buffer solution. The test tubes, of the specially selected 7" x %"
variety supplied with the Evelyn Colorimeter, were stoppered
with No. 4 rubber stoppers. After thoroughly mixing the solu¬
tion, their light transmissions were measured at 25° C. All
transmission measurements were taken relative to the trans-
Rae and Meloche — Photoelectric Determination of pH 199
mission of the test solution before the addition of indicator and
were read directly on the colorimeter. The colorimeter readings
were plotted against pH as shown in Figure I.
This calibration curve was constructed on the basis of a com¬
mercial grade of methyl red purified by recrystallization from
glacial acetic acid. However, points on the curve were checked
with a methyl red solution made up from the unpurified product
and were found to be identical with those obtained with the
purified methyl red.
Procedure. To determine the pH of an unknown system, 10
ml. of the test solution were pipetted into a clean, dry colorimeter
tube. One ml. of the standard methyl red indicator was added,
and the transmission of the thoroughly mixed solution was read
on the colorimeter, as indicated in the description of the construc¬
tion of the standard curve. The test solution was set at 100 on
the galvanometer scale before the addition of the indicator.
Calculation of Results. The direct conversion of colorimeter
readings to pH can be accomplished by use of the standard curve
shown in Figure I above. Actually, however, for greater ease in
making more accurate conversions, Table I is used.
Table I. Colorimeter readings and corresponding pH*
*At 25° C and salt concentration of 0.08 M.
This table was built by the use of Newton's interpolation
formula from a difference table constructed from data obtained
with the standard buffer series mentioned above.
For very accurate work it is sometimes necessary to correct
the apparent pH for variations in temperature above or below
25° C. This temperature correction varies from -0.001 to -0.014
pH units per degree rise in temperature depending upon the pH
of the solution as shown in Figure II.
200
Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts and Letters
In addition to the correction for temperature variations, it is
often advisable to make a correction for variations in the salt con¬
tent of the test solution. This correction amounts to approx¬
imately 0.01 pH units per 0.01 mole of electrolyte per liter of
solution but will vary for different electrolytes as explained under
“Experimental Results”. Inasmuch as the calibration data in
Table I were computed assuming a salt concentration of 0.08 M,
this figure should be subtracted from the estimated salt concen¬
tration in the test solution. The difference, expressed in pH
units, should be added to the uncorrected pH. In many cases the
salt concentration of the particular solution being tested will be
such that this correction will be unnecessary for the degree of
accuracy required of the determination.
Application and Limitation of the Method. It is demonstrated
below that the present proposed method for determining pH is
well suited to the type of solution which lends itself to analysis
by the ordinary colorimetric pH methods. More particularly, the
present method has been applied successfully to “reaction”
studies with nutrient solutions such as are used in hydroponics.
In addition, it has been found that the method is also applicable,
with certain restrictions, to colored and turbid solutions. (The
presence of color or suspended material in the solution is taken
Rae and Meloche — Photoelectric Determination of pH 201
care of automatically by setting the “blank” at 100 on the
galvanometer scale before the addition of the indicator solution.)
This method cannot be used with a high degree of accuracy
in the case of (1) solutions too highly colored to be set at 100 on
the galvanometer scale, (2) solutions containing sufficient col¬
loidally suspended material to adsorb appreciable quantities of
indicator, or (3) solutions containing substances which will enter
into chemical reaction with the indicator dye. These limitations
are common to any colorimetric pH method.
As far as reproducibility of results is concerned it has been
found that on portions of the same test solution hydrogen ion
concentrations can be reproduced easily to within two hundredths
of a pH unit in the optimum range of the indicator. However,
there are other factors besides precision which enter in to effect
the accuracy of the determination. The temperature effect has
already been referred to and correction data have been offered.
Another source of error is the effect of salt concentration as re¬
ferred to above and discussed below under “Experimental Re¬
sults”.
An idea of the possible instrumental error involved can be had
from Figure III which shows the effect of a 1 mm. galvanometer
deviation upon the apparent pH.
Since it has been found that galvanometer readings are repro¬
ducible within 0.3 mm., the plotted pH coefficients can be divided
by a factor of three for an estimate of the error caused by ordi¬
nary variations experienced in the operation of the colorimeter.
202 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts and Letters
In connection with the general, direct applicability of the
calibration data presented in Table I, it has been demonstrated
(see “Experimental Results”) that the mean error incurred by
using the calibration data interchangeably with any Evelyn
Colorimeter will not exceed 0.03 pH units in the pH range be¬
tween 4.8 and 6.0. The maximum possible error (based on cal¬
culations from the Maxwell distribution) should not exceed 0.15
pH units. Where a high degree of accuracy is required it is rec¬
ommended that several points on Table I be checked with buffer
solutions as described above in the description of the method. If
these checks are not satisfactory, correction data can be worked
out to be used along with Table I.
Experimental Results
Spectral Characteristics of Indicator Solution. The spectral
transmission of a buffer solution of pH 4.20 containing 1 ml. of
a 0.00394 per cent solution of methyl red per 10 ml. of buffer
solution was studied with the aid of both a Coleman Spectro¬
photometer and a Cenco Spectrophotelometer. The data obtained
are plotted in Figure IV. Curves 1 and 2 represent data obtained
with the Coleman and Cenco instruments respectively.
Fig. IV. Spectral transmission of methyl red at pH 4.20
As previously noted, Brode (2) has shown the absorption
band for a number of indicator dyes including methyl red does
Rae and Meloche — Photoelectric Determination of pH 203
not shift in wave length but simply changes in intensity with a
change of hydrogen-ion concentration. In the light of this fact,
the above data indicate that the optimum color filter to use ex¬
clusively in the present proposed method of determining hydro¬
gen ion concentrations should transmit light of about 540 m/x in
wave length. (It is obvious from Figure IV that there was a
difference in wave length calibration of about 20m/x in the case
'of the two instruments used in the investigation.)
Determination of Optimum Color Filter and Indicator Con¬
centration. In order to determine the best color filter to use for
maximum sensitivity in measuring the light absorption of methyl
red, varying amounts of a 0.01 per cent aqueous solution of
methyl red were added to two series of colorimeter tubes, the first
series containing 20 ml. aliquots of buffer solution at pH 3.00 and
the second series containing 20 ml. aliquots of buffer solution at
pH 6.00. (The buffer solutions were made according to Clark
and Lubs (4) .) The transmissions of these solutions were meas¬
ured by use of the Evelyn Colorimeter equipped with filters No.
520, No. 540, and No. 540M successively. As a measure of color¬
imeter sensitivity over the range from pH 3.00 to 6.00, the trans¬
missions of the solutions at pH 3.00 were subtracted from the
transmissions of the solutions at pH 6.00 to which an equal
amount of indicator had been added. These differential trans¬
missions were then plotted against indicator concentrations as
shown in Figure V.
204 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts and Letters
These data would indicate that for the pH range under con¬
sideration, the best color filter from the standpoint of sensitivity
is filter No. 540. In addition, it is seen that the optimum indicator
concentration should correspond to about 15.4 drops of 0.01 per
cent aqueous methyl red. (The volume of 15.4 drops of indicator
solution was determined as 0.788 ml. by determining the average
weight per drop and then converting this weight into volume and
multiplying by the number of drops.) It was tentatively con¬
cluded that 0.788 ml. of 0.01 per cent methyl red should be used
for 20 ml. of test solution or 0.394 ml. should be used with 10 ml.
of test solution. For convenience in adding the indicator solution
it was diluted at this stage of the investigation to a concentration
of 0.00394 per cent so that a 1 ml. aliquot could be added to 10 ml.
of test solution in place of 0.394 ml. of the 0.01 per cent.
Theoretical and practical considerations indicated that the
best indicator concentration for maximum sensitivity in one pH
range as from pH 3.00 to 6.00 would not be the best concentration
for maximum sensitivity in another pH range. Accordingly this
point was tested. Varying amounts of the diluted indicator were
added to three series of colorimeter tubes containing buffer solu¬
tions of pH 4.20, 5.20 and 6.00. Sensitivities, measured by dif¬
ferences in transmission as above, over the pH ranges considered,
were recorded and plotted against the amount of indicator added
as indicated in Figure VI.
0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0
ml. Indicator Added
Fig. VI. Optimum indicator concentrations for various pH ranges
Rae and M e loche — Photoelectric Determination of pH 205
The data show clearly that optimum indicator concentrations
vary with the pH range under consideration. It appears that for
pH ranges covering similar differences in pH, the optimum indi¬
cator concentration for maximum sensitivity decreases with in¬
creasing acidity of the test solution. However, these data show
that an indicator concentration of 1 ml. of 0.00394 per cent
methyl red per 10 ml. of test solution is a good compromise.
Having thus determined the indicator concentration, it was
important to be able to reproduce accurately the 0.00394 per cent
solution of methyl red so that standard pH curves would remain
valid and could be used unaltered in other laboratories. Because
of the variability of the purity of the methyl red reagent, the
standard indicator solution cannot be made up by direct weigh¬
ing. Hence it was found convenient and entirely satisfactory
to make up an approximate indicator solution and subsequently
adjust it with distilled water to give a colorimeter reading of
36.7 (at 25° C.) when added to 0.1000 N hydrochloric acid in the
proportion of 1 ml. of indicator to 20 ml. of test solution. This
value of 36.7 was determined simply by adding 1 ml. of the
0.00394 per cent indicator solution to 20 ml. of 0.1000 N HC1
contained in a colorimeter tube at 25° C. and reading the trans¬
mission on the colorimeter. The average transmission was 36.7
per cent. The detailed procedure for preparing the standard in¬
dicator solution has been described above under “Materials”.
Temperature Effects . In connection with the construction of
the pH calibration curve, Figure’ I, as well as with the practical
application of the method to various systems, it was important
to determine quantitatively the effect of temperature on the ap¬
parent pH of a system as estimated by light absorption according
to the procedure described above. Accordingly, a 3 ml. aliquot of
the standard indicator solution was added to each of a series of
colorimeter tubes containing 30 ml. aliquots of buffer solutions
ranging in pH from 4.00 to 7.00 in steps of 0.20 pH units. In ad¬
dition, a study of the temperature-transmission coefficient of a
0.1000 N HC1 solution containing 1 ml. of indicator per 20 ml. of
acid was included in these studies. The light transmissions of this
series of solutions were measured and recorded at different tem¬
peratures over a region from 15 to 43 degrees centigrade as
shown in Figure VII.
For these investigations the temperature was controlled by the
use of hot and cold water baths and measured by means of a ther-
206 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts and Letters
mometer protruding directly into the solution in the colorimeter
tube fitted with a one-hole rubber stopper.
The data obtained indicate a straight-line relationship be¬
tween temperature and transmission for the various buffer sys¬
tems studied. It is seen that the slope of these lines falls off
nearly to zero as either limit of the pH range of the indicator is
approached.
Fig. VII. Transmission-temperature coefficient curves
Light transmissions corresponding to a temperature of 25
degrees centigrade, found by graphic interpolation, were plotted
against the pH of the buffer solutions to obtain the standard pH
calibration curve (Figure I above). The slopes of the tangents
drawn to this curve at various pH values determine the differ¬
ential transmission per pH unit at the particular pH chosen.
These coefficients were combined with the temperature-transmis¬
sion coefficients in such a way as to give temperature-pH coeffi¬
cients (see Figure II) which are necessary in determining pH
for making corrections for deviations in temperature from 25° C.
Salt Effect. To determine the effect of salt concentration upon
the light absorption of the methyl red indicator and thus upon
the apparent pH as determined colorimetrically, a buffer of pH
5.40 was diluted with distilled water to give salt concentrations
Rae and Meloche — Photoelectric Determination of pH 207
of 0.085, 0.043 and 0.015 M. The pH of these buffer solutions was
determined by use of a Beckman pH meter and these values were
assumed to be the correct ones. The values obtained colorimetri-
cally by use of the pH calibration curve, constructed on the basis
of an average salt concentration of 0.08 M, were then compared
to those obtained with the Beckman pH meter. From the data
obtained it appears that in the colorimetric method the effect of
the salt concentration of the test solution is to give an apparent
pH which varies approximately one-hundredth of a pH unit per
one-hundredth of a mole of electrolyte per liter of solution as
shown in Figure VIII.
Fig. VIII. Salt effect
The effect of electrolyte concentration upon the apparent pH
will vary somewhat for different electrolytes and the specific
effect shown in Figure VIII is intended merely to indicate the
order of magnitude of possible errors caused by changes in salt
concentration.
It should be mentioned here that this salt effect is not caused
by a change in light transmission of the test solution before the
addition of the indicator. This point was checked by comparing
the transmission of a 0.1 M buffer solution with that of distilled
water. No appreciable difference was observed.
208 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts arid Letters
Check on pH of Buffer Solutions by Use of the Beckman pH
Meter. As a check on the pH of the buffer solutions used during
the present investigations and at the same time as a means of
testing the validity of pH determinations by the Beckman pH
meter employing a glass electrode, a series of buffer solutions
ranging in pH from 4.00 to 6.00 in steps of 0.20 pH units was
tested by use of the Beckman instrument. Table II shows that in
no case did the determined pH differ from the accepted value for
the particular buffer solution by more than 0.02 pH units. Fur¬
thermore, it is significant that the sum of the differences was zero.
Table II. Check on pH of buffer solutions
Colorimeter Comparison Studies . For the purpose of ascer¬
taining the error involved in using the calibration data presented
in Table I interchangeably with different Evelyn Colorimeters,
transmissions of two different buffer systems of pH 6.00 and 4.80
with methyl red added were measured on eight different Evelyn
Colorimeters fitted with filter No. 640. The results as summarized
in Table III show an average deviation from the mean of 0.4
and 0.7 scale divisions for the buffer solutions of pH 6.00 and 4.80
respectively.
From these data and the fact that one mm. scale division cor¬
responds to 0.03 pH units or less between pH 4.80 and 6.00, it
was estimated that the mean error involved in using calibration
data interchangeably from one Evelyn Colorimeter to any other
of the same make will not exceed 0.03 pH units. The maximum
error (based on the Maxwell distribution of errors) should not
exceed 0.15 pH units.
Rae and Meloche — Photoelectric Determination of pH 209
Table III. Colorimeter comparison
Effect of Coloring Matter in the Test Solution. In an attempt
to determine the effectiveness of correcting for color or turbidity
in the test solution by setting the solution at 100 on the color¬
imeter before the addition of indicator, separate portions of a
buffer solution of pH 5.40 were given a considerable coloration
with Bismark Brown, Methyl Red, Methyl Orange, and ordinary
writing ink. The pH of these colored solutions was determined
colorimetrically by the present method, the colorimeter being set
at 100 with the colored test solution before the addition of the
indicator. Table IV shows that, except for the case in which the
solution was colored with methyl red itself, the described blank
was effective in keeping the error due to coloration below 0.04
pH units.
Table IV. Effect of foreign color
Throughout these investigations on the effect of color it was
observed that the apparent pH by the colorimetric method was
invariably higher than that obtained by use of the Beckman pH
meter. This was attributed to the fact that the above described
blank does not take into account dilution of the color of the test
solution by the indicator solution added. This, however, is a
second order effect and can be neglected in rough work, especially
210 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts and Letters
when the solutions are not too deeply colored. To obtain a more
correct blank one should dilute a separate 10 ml. aliquot of the
test solution with one ml. of water and set this at 100 on the
colorimeter.
In this connection it should be mentioned that some advantage
might, in certain cases, be gained by using only 0.1 ml. of an
indicator solution adjusted to 36.7 with 0.1 N HC1 as above but
using a 0.1 ml. aliquot of indicator, instead of a one ml. aliquot,
with 20 ml. of HC1. Reducing the volume of indicator solution
used would lessen the error in the convenient approximate blank
described above and might be advantageous in the case of poorly
buffered solutions. It would possess the disadvantage that it is
difficult to measure out accurately 0.1 ml. and, further, the more
concentrated methyl red solution appears to be less stable.
Table V. Acidity of nutrient solutions
Attempted Applications. At the outset it was thought that
the present colorimetric pH method would be convenient for the
determination of soil reaction. However, it was found that this
Rae and Meloche — Photoelectric Determination of pH 211
was not the case. The principal source of interference seems to
lie in the colloid fraction of the soil. In the first place this frac¬
tion often renders the ultimate test solution too dark to read on
the colorimeter. In the second place appreciable amounts of in¬
dicator are absorbed by the colloidally suspended material. This
phenomenon leads to results which are in some cases nearly 1 pH
unit high.
The absorption of the indicator dye by colloidal particles was
also found to interfere with the colorimetric determination of the
pH of orange juice. The results in this case were observed to be
0.73 pH units higher by the colorimetric method than by the glass
electrode determination.
Another attempted application of the present method was
the pH control of nutrient solutions used in hydroponics. Six
samples of different composition were collected from different
feeder reservoirs and tested for hydrogen ion concentration both
by the present colorimetric method and by the Beckman pH
meter. The results of these analyses are summarized in Table V.
The designations PO, P27, KO, K81, N3, and N243 in the
Table refer to aqueous solutions of the following salt concen¬
trations :
PO
0.0090 M Ca(N03)
0.0045 M MgS04
0.0045 M KC1
P27
Same as PO plus sufficient
NaH2P04 to yield 27 ppm.
of phosphorus.
KO
0.0090 M Ca(N03)2
0.0045 M MgS04
0.0045 M NaH2P04
K81
Same as KO plus sufficient
K2S04 to yield 81 ppm. of
potassium.
N3
0.0090 M CaCl2
0,0045 M MgS04
0.0045 M KH2P04
plus sufficient NaNOs to
yield 3 ppm. of nitrogen.
N243
Same as N3 but sufficient
NaN03 to yield 243 ppm.
of nitrogen.
212 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts and Letters
To all of the above solutions the following elements were
added in the quantities designated :
The data in Table V would indicate that a mean error of about
0.06 pH units can be expected in the case of buffered nutrient
solutions. (Note that PO is poorly buffered.)
Determination of the Equation of the pH Calibration Curve.
It should be mentioned in passing that considerable time was de¬
voted to a search for a simple equation which would fit the
observed data and permit mathematical expression of the rela¬
tionship between pH and transmission. The problem was attacked
from both theoretical and empirical considerations. The theo¬
retically derived equation,
pH = 5.00 + log [{1.017/ (2 -log G')}-1]
(in which G' is the transmission of the test solution plus methyl
red relative to that of the test solution before addition of the
indicator) was found to fit the data to within 0.05 pH units every¬
where in the pH range from 4.4 to 6.4. It was concluded, however,
that this equation could not be used practically in the actual de¬
termination of pH because of its failure at the extremes of the
pH range considered, its limited accuracy even in the optimum
range of the indicator, and the labor involved in calculating pH
from transmission. No better relationship was found.
Literature Cited
(1) Britton, H. T. S., Hydrogen Ions, Their Determination and Importance
in Pure and Industrial Chemistry, (1929).
(2) Erode, Wallace R., J. Am. Chem. Soc., 46, 581 (1924).
(3) Hatfield, W. D., and Phillips, G. E., Ind. Eng. Chem., Anal. Ed., 13,
430 (1941).
(4) Kolthoff, I. M., pH and Electrotitrations, (1941), p. 34.
SAMUEL CHAPPUZEAU AND HIS
“EUROPE VIVACE,” 1666-71
Casxmir D. Zdanowicz
Samuel Chappuzeau is scarcely known today except by the
historians of the French theatre, who never fail to quote his
little book on “Le Theatre Frangois”, published in 1674, which
contains much useful information on the conditions of dramatic
production in his day, to which he had contributed several medi¬
ocre works, both tragedies and comedies, one of which Moliere’s
troupe had produced, and from several of which the great master
of comedy drew little bits to fit into his own great works.
But this “adventurer in literature’', as he has been called,
deserves better of posterity because of some of his ideas and
undertakings, the conception of which bear the mark of original¬
ity and boldness, even though he lacked that element of genius
which has been described as the “infinite capacity for taking
pains”. He wrote too rapidly and too much, and distributed his
energies over too wide a field.
A mere enumeration of his works fills one with amazement.
Born in 1625, he began his literary career in 1649-50 with a
novel, “Ladice,” for which he has never received credit, since
it was published anonymously. He followed the mode of the day
so successfully that the work is frequently quoted in one of the
recent histories of the French novel of the 17th century, but
without name of author. Then he tried poetry, was for a time
a preacher, at least one of whose sermons was published, and
later wrote a treatise on “Christian Oratory”— “L’Orateur
Chretien”, which may be read with profit even today. A trans¬
lator of the “Colloquies” of Erasmus, he wove several parts of
these into a little play, “Le Cercle des femmes,” which antedated
by three years the “Precieuses Ridicules” of Moliere. The same
year he brought out the first of his books on contemporary his¬
tory, “Lyon dans son lustre”, a description of Lyons, with its
monuments and civic organizations, and the important people,
celebrating the city in which he had lived for five years as a
proof-reader. After other dramatic works, and two years as
tutor of French to William of Orange, later King of England,
213
214 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts and Letters
he returned to Paris, and, while conducting a kind of boarding
school, he wrote other plays. Eemoving to Geneva, he taught
geography, and languages, and became a sort of prolific hack
writer for the publisher Widerhold — producing an “Orbis Physi-
cus” in Latin, a “Histoire des Joyaux,” a book of French dia¬
logues for his students (since he was dissatisfied with the avail¬
able material) , a series of French and Latin verses to accompany
a re-edition of Bible illustrations, and several minor works. It
was then that he conceived the plan of a history of contemporary
Europe — which would give a picture of the geography, political
and social conditions, and above all, the reigning families and
great figures of each country. This was his “Europe Vivante.”
He devoted parts of several years to travel in the different
countries, collecting his information at first hand, received at
court, and making acquaintances from whom he received notes
and accounts which he incorporated in his book.
At this time also the appearance of the first volume of
Moreri’s “Dictionary” filled him with the ambition to compile
a great encyclopedia. This fitted in well with his own fondness
for geography and history, and throughout the remainder of his
life he was absorbed with the collection of this material. He
translated the work of the German Hoffmann, and Widerhold
was to bring out a new “dictionary” when lawsuits with other
publishers prevented. It seems that much of Chappuzeau’s mate¬
rial was utilized in the later edition of Moreri.
In the meantime Chappuzeau found time to write from notes
and dictation the account of the “Six Voyages” of Tavernier,
whose travels and explorations to the Near and Far East made
him the most renowned traveler of his day.
There are also attributed to Chappuzeau a translation of
the “Dialogues” of Mathurin Cordier, also intended for school
use, and the preparation of a German-French-Latin Lexicon, and
perhaps a Latin-French grammar, though these were not signed
and the publisher did not give credit to the compiler.
A poem entitled “Geneve delivree,” a sort of epic on the
successful defense of the city against the attack of the Duke of
Savoy, published posthumously, about completes the list, though,
during his later years, while serving as “Gouverneur des pages”
of the Duke of Brunschwig-Lunebourg, he published a geograph¬
ical work — “LTdee du Monde,” and is reported to have prepared
each month for the Duke a compendium of the happenings of
Zdanowicz — Chappuzeau and his “Europe Vivante” 215
the Court, entitled “Le Mercure.” As late as 1694 he issued a
prospectus for a “Bibliotheque universelle, Dessin d’un nouveau
Dictionnaire historique, geographique, chronologique, et phil-
ologique, etc.” and extant letters show negotiations with pub¬
lishers, and correspondence asking for special articles, almost to
the time of his death in 1701. Unhappily this ambition was not
to be realized and just before he died he lost his sight. Our regret
that he was not permitted to complete his work is tempered by his
own philosophical reflection— -“But I shall be satisfied if I never
draw from it any other advantage than to have worked at it for
my own satisfaction, and to learn a thousand fine things which
I should never have known without applying myself to this work.”
“L’Europe Vivante”
This work consists of two volumes, to which two other vol¬
umes with separate titles are closely related. The complete title
of the first part reads, 'in translation :
“Living Europe, or a New Political and Historical Account
of All its States according to their actual Situation at the End
of the Year 1666, Represented in divers Tableaux which disclose
their Extent, Quality, Commerce, Strength, Revolutions, Religion,
Government, Claims and Interests, followed by Portraits and
Alliances of the Kings and Princes, in which are discussed the
Condition of their Courts, the Genius of their Peoples, the Uni¬
versities and celebrated Libraries, Academies of Eloquence, and
Illustrious Persons in each Profession, with a Collection of the
Most Memorable Things which have happened in Europe since
the General Peace ; Revolutions, Wonders, Wars, Crimes, Treaties
of Peace, Great Projects, New Discoveries, Solemn Ceremonies,
Deaths, Births and Illustrious Marriages.” Published in 1666,
this was republished in 1669, with the change of date to corre¬
spond — “According to the situation from the end of the year 1666
to the beginning of the year 1669,” and, with a second part, en¬
titled, “Protestant Germany, or a new account of a Journey made
to the Courts of the Electors and Protestant Princes of the Em¬
pire during the months of April, May, June, July and August of
the year 1669,” and republished two years later, the title again
brought up to date.
The table includes the following courts in the order in which
the author had visited them :
Wurtemberg, Baden, the Palatinate, Hessia, Saxony, Anhalt,
Brunschwig-Lunebourg, Brandenburg, Holstein and Mecklen-
216 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts and Letters
berg, and, in his “Design of the Author,” he enumerates the same
objects of study as in the previous volume, promising, above all,
to “display the splendor of the Electoral Houses and the Princes
who follow them and to give their portraits along with those of
their Families . . (pen portraits to be sure), 556 pages.
In 1673 was published an “Account of the Courts of
Savoy and Bavaria,” containing 203 pages for the first part — “On
the Royal House of Savoy,”— and 178 pages on “The Present
State of the Electoral House of the Court of Bavaria.”
In 1667 had been published separately an “Exact Description
of Hessia, drawn upon the spot from very good accounts.”
These descriptive titles convey a very good idea of what
Chappuzeau was attempting to do. He dedicates his first work
to the “Sovereign Princes of Christendom,” and claims that it
has been conceived for their honor and glory, and, in other places
the author makes clear his admiration and veneration for roy¬
alty, as divinely appointed.
In his introduction, Chappuzeau maintains the boldness of his
project, though modestly admitting that he may have fallen short
in its execution.
“I shall say then, in the first place, that I feel my own weak¬
ness, and that I do not pretend to the glory of the Great Authors ;
that I am not writing for the Learned, but for those who know
less than I, and who have not measured on foot so many Prov¬
inces. Thus my work should be beneath censure and not deserve
the criticism of the Learned.
“I shall say, in the second place, that I am giving here only
the plan of a great Work which I am meditating, and in which I
should not be sorry to be forestalled by someone else, since any¬
one else would acquit himself of it better than I. My purpose is
doubtless ingenious enough, but perhaps not so successful in
execution; I have hurried things too much, or I have not made
them sufficiently clear, and I have tried to put the Iliad into a
nutshell.
“I confess that I have not received all of the reports which I
wished, or that I have not had the patience to wait for them. But,
after all, I have not gone far from my subject, and I have pur¬
posed only to give Europe in brief and to condense in a few pages
the different current accounts of its states. If I have not said all,
I have touched on the most essential ; or if I have only followed
Zdanowicz — Chappuzeau and his “ Europe Vivante” 217
others, I am persuaded that one takes pleasure in reading dif¬
ferent versions of the same work to see the different talents of
the translators.”
Again,
“I should have had sufficient material-— (claims and interests
of Princes) to fill a thick volume; but, besides the short amount
of time which my affairs leave me, and the pressing demands of
the printer, I have had to follow necessarily my own disposition,
which avoids long drawn out labor, and which, by running too
fast, cannot run very far.”
Chappuzeau anticipates both the criticism and the praise
which the modern reader might give him. It was a bold and
original plan to give a complete sketch of contempororary Europe,
and he tries to embrace it all. He had himself travelled exten¬
sively. He claims to have gone from one end of France to the
other. In his youth he had accompanied a young Scotch lord to
Edinborough, and spent several months in Scotland and England,
returning twice to the latter country, “after it had been re¬
stored to its rightful lord”— -(rather a striking sentence from a
Protestant, and indicating the royalist convictions of the author) .
He lived twice in the Netherlands, the second time from 1656 to
1661, during the last two years of which he was preceptor to the
Prince, as he lost no opportunity to remind his readers. In prep¬
aration for writing “L’Europe Vivante,” he had revisited France
and England, the Netherlands, and even the Scandinavian coun¬
tries, or, at least Denmark. He was for twenty years a resident
of Geneva, and travelled in northern Italy, and Germany. He
writes of Spain and Portugal, Russia, “Muscovy”, Poland, and
Turkey, in addition to those countries which he had himself seen,
but admits that his knowledge of them is more limited. His style
is always personal and he likes to bring himself into the picture
wherever possible. This is especially true of the volumes on
Protestant Germany and on Savoy, in which he narrates his
visits to these courts, the reception he received, and his conver¬
sations with princes and notable persons ; but, along with these
details, which have little interest to us today, he gives descrip¬
tions of places and people, and observations on the theatre, on
manners and characteristics, which have their value, though we
must often discount his enthusiasm, or his over-eulogistic re¬
marks about various notables calculated to arouse their gener¬
osity toward the writer, for town councils as well as individuals
218 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts and Letters
made him gifts when he could point to his praise of them in his
first volume, or promise to include it later.
He recounts himself how he started in 1669, “with all Europe
in his saddle-bags,” colporting his book, and never fails to men¬
tion the munificent presents he received. Bayle in his correspon¬
dence refers to someone who had just been “skimming the cream”
off of the German princes — “a la Chappuzeau.”
Although the “Journal des Sea vans” in 1667 criticized the first
volume for showing a Protestant bias, Chappuzeau is remarkably
liberal and tolerant, both in religion and politics. He says in the
text of the first volume (page 124) —
“Do not expect to find here, nor in all the course of my work,
that I take sides nor that I undertake to censure men who all
believe themselves wise in the conduct of their affairs. I shall
blame neither their Religion nor their Politics, nor their customs ;
because a writer who treats History ought, it seems to me, to be
free of all self-interest. Far from giving insulting names to
peoples who follow different religions, I do not undertake to
touch their maxims, and I shall speak of each with honor.”
He takes occasion to rebuke the French for a feeling of supe¬
riority and hopes that his book on the German courts will dis¬
abuse those who believe that all politeness and gallantry of the
age are to be found between Calais and Marseilles.
His view about Germany is of especial interest for the present
time — Vol. I, p. 339 —
“It is difficult to give a very exact account of all these things,
and it is a Labyrinth in which the most intelligent are lost. All
these sovereigns, all these cities, all these Diets, have their spe¬
cial privileges, and their jurisdictions are so cut up and inter¬
twined with each other that the Elector of Mayence goes as far as
the gates of Heidelberg, and the Elector of Palatinate to the gates
of Mayence. The same is true of several other princes of the
Empire, and of several cities, and large volumes would not suffice
to untangle so many things and give all the detail. I shall merely
say that while Germany shall remain well united and all the
members of this great body shall move in harmony, there is no
power in the world capable of disturbing it and which will not
hesitate more than once before making any attack on a liberty
which forms all its felicity and all its glory. But, as in the great
machines, there is often some piece which happens to fail, and
which prevents all the rest from functioning, Germany is not
Zdanowicz — Chappuzeau and his “Europe Vivante,> 219
always fully in accord with itself, and it gives the foreigner some¬
times occasion to mingle too much with its affairs, which, for its
tranquillity it ought to avoid as much as it can. This august
republic should have a leader but it ought not really to have a
master, and while it flees slavery from within it would be shame¬
ful to have the law laid down from without. Therein is its great
and principal concern ; and it is still advantageous for it that the
Sophie is delaying the Grand Seigneur in Asia to turn aside the
storm which sometimes falls on its frontiers, and to relieve it of
a redoubtable enemy.”
Professors of language, historians, geographers, and men of
letters, writers of encyclopedias, all find a colleague in this little-
known writer of the 17th century, whose unbounded admiration
for the French Academy and for Academies in general would
have won mention of the august assembly before me, were he to
be re-incarnated and to be describing Wisconsin of today.
Chappuzeau
(Partial Bibliography)
The best studies of Chappuzeau are: the dissertation of F. Meinel,
“Samuel Chappuzeau, 1625-1701.” Inaugural-Dissertation zur Erlangung
du Doctorwurde, etc., Leipzig, 1908; the article of Lanson in La Grande
Encyclopedic , and Eugene and E. M. Haag, “La France Protestante,” Vols.
Ill and VII, Paris, 1852.
(Principal Works)
1. “Ladice ou les Victoires du grand Tamerlan,” Premiere Partie, 2 vols.
Paris, Toussaint Quinet, 1650.
2. “Le Cercle des Femmes, Entretien Comique, Tire des Dialogues
d’Erasme, etc.” Lyon, chez Michel Duhan, 1656.
3. “Lyon dans son Lustre,” Lyon, 1656.
4. Two of Chappuzeau’s comedies, “La Dame d’Intrigue ou le Riche Vilain”
(1663) and “L’Acadernie des Femmes” (1661) have been published in
Victor Fournel, “Les Contemporains de Moliere,” Vols. I and III,
Paris, 1863-1875.
5. “Le Theatre Francois, divise en trois livres,” etc., Lyon, 1674. (Edited
by Georges Monval, Paris, 1876).
6. “L’Orateur Chretien, ou Traite de Pexcellence et de la pratique de la
Chaire,” Paris, 1676.
7. “Histoire des joyaux et des principals richesses de l’Orient et de
POccident, etc.” Geneva, 1665.
8. “Orbus Physicus, hoc est utriusque sphaerae synopsis, etc.” Geneva,
1665. (in fol. 8 pp.)
9. “Les Six Voyages de Jean Baptiste Tavernier . . . qu’il a fait en
Turquie, en Perse et aux Indes, pendant l’espace de quarante ans . . .”
Paris, G. Clouzier, 1676.
220
Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts and Letters
10. “Entretiens familiers pour Pinstruction de la noblesse etrangere . .
2nd edition, Geneva, 1671.
11. “leones historicae Veteris et Novi Testamenti,” Geneva, 1681.
12. “Les Entretiens familiers d’Erasme, divisez en cinq decades . . . Traduc¬
tion nouvelle ...” Geneva, 1669.
13. “L’Europe Vivante, ou Relation nouvelle historique et politique, de
tous ses estats selon la face qu’ils ont sur la fin de la presente annee
1666.” Geneva, 1666.
Reprinted with a second part “depuis la fin de Pannee 1666 jusques au
commencement de Pannee 1669,” 2 vols., quarto, Geneva, 1669.
“Suite de PEurope Vivante . . .” same title as preceding, with change
of date: “jusques au commencement de Pannee 1671,” two books in one
vol., quarto, Geneva, 1671.
Another: “Suite de PEurope Vivante contenant la Relation d’un voyage
fait en Alemagne, etc.,” Geneva, 1671.
Reprinted as: “L’Alemagne, ou Relation nouvelle de toutes les cours
del PEmpire, recueillie en deux voyages que Pauteur y a faits en 1669
et 1672 — I ere partie reveue . . . en cette seconde edition, Paris, C.
Barbin 1673.
“Relation de PEtat present de la maison royale et de la cour de Savoye,
. . . Relation de PEtat present de la maison electoral et de la Cour de
Baviere, par le sieur Chapuzeau,” 2 parties en 1 vol. in -12, Paris, L.
Billaine, 1673.
“Description exacte de la Hesse, tiree sur les lieux de tres bons
memoires, . . .” [British Museum, (See Blanc (J). Le grand Atlas, etc.
vol. 3, part 2, 1667, fol.]
14. “La Muse Enjouee, ou le theatre comique du sieur Chapuzeau, . . .”
Lyon, J. Girin et D. Riviere, undated, contains four plays in verse,
of different dates and printings :
“Le Partisan duppe” (same as Le Riche impertinent or Le Riche
mecontent) .
“Le Riche vilain, ou La Dame d’intrigue.”
“Les Eaux de Pirmont.”
“Le Cercle des femmes” (same as V Academic des femmes).
15. “Damon et Pythias, ou le Triomphe de Pamitie,” tragi-comedie, Am¬
sterdam, 1657.
16. “Armetzar, ou les Amis ennemis,” tragi-comedie, Leyden, 1658.
MARGARET ASHMUN : WISCONSIN AUTHOR
AND EDUCATOR
Julia Grace Wales
Americans are sometimes impressed with the matter-of-fact
way that the Englishman — or any other European — knows and
enjoys the literature not only of his own land but of his own
locality, regarding it as a commodity to be kept in constant use.
With our cosmopolitan tendency to look abroad for greatness, we
have sometimes in the past been too modest about our product
and failed to perceive that in its relation to our own scene it is
not duplicated elsewhere. Among Wisconsin possessions which
it would be a misfortune to lose is the work of Margaret Ashmun.
Margaret Eliza Ashmun was born in Rural, Waupaca County,
Wisconsin. She was a graduate of Stevens Point State College.
She took her Ph.B. at the University of Wisconsin in 1904, and
her A.M. in 1908. She was the head of the English Department
at Stout Institute, Menomonie, Wisconsin, 1904-06, and a mem¬
ber of the Department of English at the University of Wis¬
consin 1907-12. In 1912 she went to New York, and from that
year on she gave the greater part of her time to writing. She
kept up her home in Rural, spent some winters in Madison, and
was several times abroad for considerable periods. In 1928 she
adopted a little girl, whose death ten years later was a great
shock and grief to her. Miss Ashmun died in 1940 at the age of 65.
Her literary work falls into several distinct categories. First,
her educational work, which includes several books : Prose Liter¬
ature for Secondary Schools (1910), “with some suggestions for
correlation with composition'’, Modern Prose and Poetry for
Secondary Schools (1914), the selections being accompanied by
notes, study helps, and reading lists, Modern Short Stories (1924)
including an introduction, biographies and bibliographies, and
finally, in 1914, The Study and Practice of Writing English , of
which last she was joint author with Mr. Gerard P. Lomer.
These books throw sidelights on her work in general, her
interest in education and in the young, her critical theories, and
her methods of writing.
In the second place we have the material published in maga-
221
222 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts and Letters
zines including articles, stories, and poetry. The most important
of Miss Ashmun’s short stories is “The ‘Birthplace”,1 published in
the Atlantic Monthly in 1911. It is a poignant little tale of loss
and resignation, the scene, vividly realized, being a small town in
Illinois and more particularly an old-fashioned garden, on a June
afternoon and evening.
Miss Ashmun produced a considerable amount of verse, which
was rather extensively published in the New England Magazine,
the Overland Monthly, Good Housekeeping, the Christian Science
Monitor, and other periodicals, but never collected in a volume.
Miss Ashmun did not take her verse very seriously but thought of
it as a minor part of her work.
Among the finest pieces are some sonnets published in the
New England Magazine . One, “On an Old Russian Candlestick”,
paints the chiaroscuro of some “strange-set” board, where, long
ago, the flame of the candle lighted “wine-wild faces” and was
caught by studded swordhilts,
“ . . . till, coarse-carousing with her lord,
Some jewelled woman flashed it back again.”
And now
“This bit of brass forlornly braves its doom —
To waste with me the silent day’s desire,
To watch long nights of quietness and gloom,
To share the lonely glimmer of my fire
And cheer the hired bareness of my room.”2
It may be that the greatest service of Margaret Ashmun to
her generation is found in her books for children. That these
have been appreciated is well enough seen from the worn copies
in our public libraries. How many little folk in small chairs at
small tables have pored over No School Tomorrow (1925) , School
Keeps Today (1926), Brenda Stays at Home (1926), Mother’s
Away (1927), Susie Sugarbeet (1930) . The very titles are allur¬
ing. Who could resist No School Tomorrow ?
One is impressed with all the inventiveness that went into
these little books— -the devising of ever-new play, that is at the
same time grounded in the essential psychological appeal of all
the old games of the world.
These are glorious places, seen in high lights and rich
shadows : hayloft, woodshed, attic, a garden, an old mill, a flowing
brook, the kitchen with its gay ragrugs, “and the bright dishes
1 Atlantic Monthly, Vol. 107, No. 2 (February, 1911), pp. 233-241.
2 New England Magazine, n.s. 35 : 345. November, 1906.
Wales— Margaret Ashmun- Author and Educator 223
in the glass cupboard and yellow gingham curtains at the win¬
dows, and Flora, the black and white cat, washing her paws in
the square of sunshine on the floor.” And there are happy com¬
panionships: kittens, birds, dolls, and a real playmate whose
tastes complement one’s own, whose love of doing real things
keeps pace with one’s more fanciful imaginings.
We see the Little Girl going through the garden with her
orange in her hand, and entering the barn where “the sunshine
streamed in across the plank floor, which was littered with dried
grass and straw and was soft to your bare feet. Above, there was
a high roof, where rays of light came through tiny cracks between
the shingles, and made long dusty lines in the shadows.”
“She wished she didn’t remember things so vividly. Other
people didn’t seem to.” These words occur in one of the novels
for adult readers, with implications of sadness. But in the chil¬
dren’s books this powerful recollection is a great storehouse of
treasures. Vivid sense impressions, color, the warmth of the sun,
the freshness of the wind, the ecstasy of running and jumping —
these things are here as the child first senses them in that pre¬
school age before “shades of the prison house” have cut off the
sharpness of their light. The books are designed to reinforce
these impressions at the point where they might be lost — just
when school begins to keep today and crowd them out with other
needful furnishings of the mind. Wordsworth turned back to rec¬
ollect these riches and make them the stuff of reflective verse.
What Margaret Ashmun has done is to organize them for the
child himself, while he is still a child, and so insure his perma¬
nent possession of them.
The writing of these little books was no time-serving task.
The writer gave herself to the enjoyment of them. And so they
are a boon not only to the child but to those grown-ups who read
to children. They are interspersed with original verse of the
school of Mother Goose.
There is plenty of incidental instruction, too: how to build
a fire, how to make an outdoor fireplace, how to paper a wall. A
recipe for pancakes becomes a narrative of high adventure
breathlessly pursued by two small girls allowed to do real cooking
on a rainy day.
Margaret Ashmun’s work is probably known in her native
state most extensively through her books for teen-age girls— the
224 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts and Letters
Isabel Carleton series of five volumes (1916-19). These perform
the same function as Miss Alcott’s books did and still do.
That Miss Ashmun was consciously going on with Miss Al¬
cott’s mission, though quite in her own individual way, is borne
out by a sonnet “On a Portrait of Miss Alcott,” published in the
New England Magazine, in which Miss Ashmun describes how
in her childhood she had thought of Miss Alcott as a marvelous
figure, a sort of princess “on whom a kindly fate forever smiled.”
The latter part of the sonnet goes on to say,
“Now where I, musing, stand
Her portrait hangs. This unassuming guise
Shows, not a princess, haughty to command,
But one most humble, human, sorrow-wise,
Who seems to live and reach me forth her hand —
A woman simple, sweet, with tired eyes.”3
Of the four novels for adult readers the most notable are
The Lake, published in 1924, and Pa: Head of the Family, pub¬
lished in 1927.
The English edition of The Lake came out under a slightly
different title The Lonely Lake. The book was, I think, Miss
Ashmun’s own favorite of her writings.* *
It is a bleak novel, at times as bleak as Ethan Frome, but
it is a point of contrast with the New England novel that the
bleakness is alleviated much as in Hardy by a warm homeliness
of detail that accords well with the opulent and richly colored
Wisconsin landscape.
“They turned in along the edge of the marsh, where twisted
gentians stood up stiffly, and iris pods were dry and slitting.
On a harder knoll a hickory tree showed its dark fruit. The
squirrel instinct of the boy would hardly let him pass.”4
The treatment of setting is profoundly integrated with char¬
acterization, affording not only frame and background but at
once realistic detail of the action and poetic symbols of the
essence of the theme.
“Bert set out, with the heavy basket on his arm. He was
warmly dressed, in his reefer and muffler and mittens, but the
cold cut avidly through his clothes. The wind was keen and
slashing. He tramped along the narrow wood road, looking
up at the tops of the trees against the pale, hard sky. He
thought of the time, not so very long ago, when he and Uncle
Alec were out in the woods, and there was a warm golden colour
8 New England Magazine 37 :78. September, 1907.
* The Lake, New York, 1924, p. 101.
* Part of my comment on this book, repeated with permission, was published in the
Capital Times, Madison, Sunday, March 15, 1936, under the title “A Story of Central
Wisconsin.”
1
Wales— Margaret Ashman- Author and Educator 225
over everything. How different it was now! How long the
winter was! It had hardly more than begun. The snow would
lie on the ground till March or April. Even in the latter days
of April, it would not be melted in the dark places under the
hemlocks, or on northward knoll-sides in the woods.”5
The natural scene and persons alike are always beheld with
the seeing eye— even the rhubarb “flaunting huge crumpled leaves
on rose-colored stocks”,6 the Hunt's cottage “unintentionally
pretty.”7
“He walked as if getting over the ground were a process of
nature, involuntary and unnoticed like breathing.”8
“Averil Faraday was a quiet woman, who would have been
thought beautiful in a different environment. The country
people did not like her black hair, which she wore braided and
wound about her head, coronetwise; nor her deep-set eyes,
which seemed to them too knowing; nor her white skin, which
kept its smoothness in the heat of summer and the cold of
winter.”9
Properties are used with skill and reappear in the story at
intervals with tragic effect, the flashlight “sickly yellow in the
sun”,10 the lad's silver watch, the screen door thrice left wide
open, the kitchen table, after the devastating domestic storm has
spent its fury, “placidly covered with its checked blue cloth.”11
The people are made real to us through their very inarticulate¬
ness, which contributes both to their power of outward control
and to the danger from submerged emotions once they find a vent :
Alexander and Willard able to work together all day and many
days with tragic jealousy and uncertainty between them ; Libbie
and Averil thinking of their individual troubles.
“Each was tempted to tell her secrets to the other, but each
refrained. Each was sorry for the other, but dared not make
mention of her reasons, lest she appear prying or bold.”12
A high point of characterization is in the portrayal of the
Hunt family— “Caddie”, whose firm, capable, young hands must
disentangle the knots of other people's lives ; Mrs. Hunt (called
“poor Libbie Hunt” because of the behaviour of an elusive hus¬
band), who with her quiet common sense and ethical hold on
life, enduring without a martyr spirit, refuses tragedy for her-
® The Lake , p. 140-141.
® Ibid., p. 70.
* Ibid., p. 19.
s Ibid., ». 100.
9 Ibid., p. 8.
i® Ibid., p. 18.
n Ibid., p. 16.
i2 Ibid., p. 68.
226 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts and Letters
self and alleviates it in others. ‘The whole interior of the Hunt
family is delightfully presented,”13 wrote a reviewer in the
London Times Literary Supplement, “and the incident of the
vagabond husband’s brief return to live upon her [his wife] is
extremely telling.”
Power of characterization is seen not only in the strong draw¬
ing of the main characters but in vivid picturing of minor ones.
The scene is never over-crowded. Only those appear who have
an essential part to play; yet they suffice to suggest the com¬
munity life three-dimensionally.
The tragic central story is set firmly in a larger stream of
experience. The passion of youth is spent before the story opens ;
yet the action never lacks intensity. It begins at once and moves
swiftly. The dark aftermath is given fully and logically; yet it
is not the end. Even in the bitter struggle with disillusionment
which the younger generation have to suffer and the expiation
they have to make, we are not allowed the sense of despair and
finality ; rather we are taken up into an onward movement toward
renewal of life. Unflinching realism is combined with sanity.
The book is not without its weaknesses — notably the rather
flat surface presentation of Mr. Sutton, the well-meaning young
minister, and the element of conventionality and improbability
in the treatment of Daddy Gleason and his part in the denoue¬
ment. Mr. J. B. Priestley mentioned some weaknesses in his re¬
view of the book in the London Mercury, but nevertheless com¬
mented on “the power,14 the curious reality and conviction of
her more dramatic scenes that are so extraordinarily good.” He
goes on to say, “She has imagined these incidents with intensity,
and though she never raises her voice and never departs from
her detached sane manner of narration, she dominates our imag¬
ination with them.”
The style has many excellencies — gravity and grace, ease and
reticence, thrift and high finish, and in its best passages, an
unobtrusive exactness in choice of word, carrying within its
simplicity a symbolism that seems at once fortuitous and accurate :
“His voice sounded far away, indistinct, and unavailing.”
“She merely wanted to rest there on the surface of the lake, in
the precarious safety of the boat.”15
“The harvest came, as harvests will come, after the patient sus-
18 The Times Literary Supplement, Thursday, Dec. 18, 1924, p. 868.
14 London Mercury, Vol. 11, No. 63 (January, 1926), p. 319-20.
15 The Lake, p. 41.
Wales — Margaret Ashmun- Author and Educator 227
pense, after the sprouting and ripening of the plant, whose seed
is in itself.”10
In stressing the local interest of The Lake , we must not forget
that it has a universal interest too. When it appeared, it was re¬
ceived with enthusiasm both at home and abroad. The New York
Times commended it for being “psychological without being clin¬
ical,” and pronounced its plot one “over which Hardy must have
rejoiced.” Dorothy Foster Gilman, writing in the Boston
Transcript , described it as “an exceptionally interesting novel,
well written, artistically conceived, with an emotional significance
both fervent and exalted. . . . The narrative unwinds with de¬
liberation and power . . . Miss Ashmun has shown herself the
possessor of remarkable talent, coupled with a deep sense of the
grandeur and significance of our human drama.” The Nation
(New York) described the book as “a lowering, sombre tale of
hidden love hovering between tragedy and release; carried on a
tide of intense and passionate writing which is strikingly appro¬
priate to the theme.”17 The Cardiff Mail said of the author, “She
has a strength and dignity and a sense of architecture which are
given to few writers.” The Glasgow Herald did not hesitate to
say, “The texture of this fine transatlantic novel suggests some of
the qualities of the best Russian fiction.” Similar comments have
already been quoted from the London Mercury and the Literary
Supplement of the London Times .
Pa: Head of the Family (Macmillan, 1927) though of less
depth and power than The Lake , is in some ways more skillfully
executed. Its values are in its intensely clear-cut setting, its sharp
characterizations, and the hard clarity of the style, not a word
wasted, with no ornament, no affectation, no idealization, with
nothing but an ever-present ironic humor to mitigate the harsh
reality. The story goes through to its logical ending. The uneth¬
ical conduct of some of its persons gets no comment. If the
reader has help in keeping his sense of human values, it is
through the presence of Emma Doty. Yet Emma herself is not
idealized. She is a sensible, right-feeling woman, kind, just-
minded, patient in a humorous way, disciplined in herself through
taking the circumstances of her own life in good part. In the
words and thoughts given her, however, there is nothing imported
from any larger range of awareness than her own.
“Pa” himself is a masterpiece of characterization.
16 Ibid., p. 50.
17 The Nation, Vol. 120, No. 3107 (January 21, 1925), p. 74.
228 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts and Letters
“The old man sat down clumsily, letting his cane fall with a
clatter. He noted with rancour that his cup of weak tea was
already cooling at his place. He felt like pushing it off the
table. He loved hot, strong tea, with plenty of sugar at the
bottom of the cup.”
If the book has a “heroine” it must be Mattie. She it is who
goes through desperate adventures and makes haven at last in
the secure ever-after of matrimony. Her misfortunes are not
sentimentalized for the reader. Her spinal curvature and with¬
ered arm are never presented as a claim for a kindly judgment.
Mattie stands on her own, in venom and egotism more than the
equal of the others.
The action of the story never flags and never leaves its track.
Mattie prepares with great zest for her wedding and is deserted
by the bridegroom at the last moment— Pa, who hates his grand¬
daughter, Mattie, having secretly encouraged the young man to
get away while there is time. All the reactions of everybody to
these events are mirrored with the utmost precision and hold our
interest by their sheer clarity, like objects sharply seen in a
painting of a Dutch interior.
When a new Prince Charming appears, in the person of Arne,
the Swede, hired man of the Doty's, we are no more worried
about his fate than about Petruchio’s. True, Mattie will never
be tamed, but Arne’s good nature and shrewd materialism will
be a match for her. He knows what he is doing, and feels com¬
pensated by the dowry wrested from the obstinate Pa by a trick
which it does not even occur to Arne to be ashamed of.
The humor of the treament is not found in comment or any
pointing up of absurdity. It is in the steady, ironic eye of the
author, who sees everything, but without malice.
It remains to speak of Miss Ashmun’s scholarly biography of
Anne Seward, a contemporary of Dr. Johnson. The Singing Swan
was published in 1931 by the Oxford Press, and must have repre¬
sented a great deal of very delightful research in England.
This book seems to me to be the high point of Margaret Ash¬
mun’s literary achievement. The style is as far as possible from
being naive ; yet it remains simple and unaffected. The book is
scholarly and at the same time human. Over every page plays
the light of delicate irony that at times reminds one of Jane
Austen. Every absurdity in the human situations dealt with is
relentlessly seen in the light of that irony— and yet not merci¬
lessly, for in the very justice of every judgment there is an ever-
Wales — Margaret Ashman- Author and Educator 229
present human kindness and understanding rare with such pene¬
trating humor. Though the narrative keeps the pace of a biog¬
raphy based on exact research, the skill of the practiced narrator
is felt in the way she now anticipates and now withholds the
story. In this book, more than anywhere, else, it seems to me,
is revealed in its maturity the personality of Margaret Ashmun,
which those of us who knew her found so delightful — good sense,
ironic humor, moderation, human understanding, resolute just¬
ness of mind, and a taste for simplicity.
AN EIGHTEENTH CENTURY DICTATORSHIP
Berenice Cooper
Superior State Teachers College
Among the writers of France during the eighteenth century,
the Abbe Prevost has received scant attention for any contribu¬
tion to the intellectual life of this period. Although Bayle, Mon¬
tesquieu, Diderot, Voltaire, and Beaumarchais have been gener¬
ously accorded a place in the history of the development of ideas
of tolerance and human freedom, the Abbe Prevost is known
chiefly for his sentimental romance of passionate love, Manon
Lescaut. The rest of his fiction is too often dismissed as long-
winded melodrama of interest only to the aspiring Ph. D. in
desperate need of an unexplored field.
Such an estimate of the good Abbe is unfair to an author who
is a keen student and satirist of the manners and of the intellec¬
tual problems of his period. His analysis of the human problems
lying beneath the veneer of events so surely penetrates to aspects
of universal significance that the modern reader finds himself
saying, “How true that is today! How true it has always been
for thinking human beings !”
Of no work is this more characteristic than of Le Philosophe
Anglais, a novel written and published over a period of eight
or ten years, a work which represents questions, observations,
and conclusions with regard to education, government, philos¬
ophy and religion in relation to the needs of the human mind
and heart.
The external events in this eight-volume work are the stuff
from which typical eighteenth century novels of adventure are
made : shipwrecks, tales of the American wilderness, political and
love intrigues, revenge, and persecution. In spite of the super¬
ficialities of such melodrama, the fundamental conflict in the
novel is between ideas and feelings. The English philosopher-
hero, Mr. Cleveland, natural son of Oliver Cromwell, is indeed
very busy escaping the malignant vengeance of his father, seek¬
ing to advance the cause of Charles II in the American Colonies,
winning and losing and rewinning the woman he loves, and nar¬
rowly missing death by the sword of his jealous rival. The
231
232 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts and Letters
essence of the plot, however, is not the struggle against a cruel
fate ; the unifying theme is the search of Cleveland for peace of
mind, for a philosophy of life which can reconcile apparent incon¬
sistencies in the facts of experience and endue the soul with
strength to bear grief.
Cleveland’s search for a philosophy of life includes experi¬
ments in many personal relationships — family, romantic love,
friendship ; in social institutions— education, government, church ;
in a philosophy which shall so harmonize all these phases of
human life as to satisfy both the intellectual and the emotional
needs of man.
The narrative of the successive stages in Cleveland’s develop¬
ment offers satirical passages widely varying from subtle impli¬
cations to obvious statements and from sly ambiguity to keen
thrust.
Early in the hero’s experiences occurs the adventure in the
Carolinas with the American Indian tribe, the Abaquis. So subtle
is the satire of the foundation principles of absolutism in these
episodes that it provoked no such contemporary resentment as
was produced by the account of Cleveland’s teaching the savages
a natural religion.1 To the modern reader, however, Cleveland’s
methods of establishing and maintaining absolute power and the
causes of the fall of his dictatorship are almost prophetically
parallel with the ideas being discussed today in newspapers, in
magazines and over the radio.
This eighteenth century experiment in dictatorship appears
upon a superficial examination to be beneficent in purpose, an
attempt to create a Utopian state among a tribe of American
Indians ; but under a closer scrutiny of the principles and meth¬
ods employed, the aims of Cleveland’s government seem less noble.
The opportunity to initiate this experiment is forced upon
Cleveland because the tribe into whose hands he falls while wan¬
dering in the Carolinas develop such a devotion for him that they
will not consider allowing him to continue on his travels.2 From
this affectionate internment Cleveland wishes to escape in order
to search for his father-in-law and in order to carry out his
mission as an agent in America for the cause of Charles II.3
Shrewdly he decides that by becoming the ruler of the tribe
he can manage his escape, win the Abaquis as loyal subjects of
1 Bibliotheque Belgique, Oct., 1731, pp. 419-50.
2 Le Philosophe Anglais, (Utrecht: Neaulme, 1736) III, iv, 111-18.
3 Ibid., pp. 125-26.
Cooper— An Eighteenth Century Dictatorship
233
Charles II4, and in addition do the noble work of civilizing this
savage people, raising them from their crude customs and intro¬
ducing an organization lacking in their primitive society5.
When the project of governing the Abaquis is adequately
motivated and justified in Cleveland's mind, he does not proceed
by any crudely obvious method to seize absolute power. He deter¬
mines to be urgently invited to become a ruler and through his
devoted Indian servant is able so to manipulate public opinion
that the desired invitation is given by the tribe. Upon hearing
the request of the Abaquis, he feigns great reluctance to grant
it and, as he expects, this response serves only to increase the
ardor of the savages' request that he becomes their ruler. Finally,
he accepts upon the sole condition that his power be made
absolute.6
As soon as he has been granted absolute power, Cleveland puts
into operation three measures for securing himself against re¬
bellion : appeal to fear in order to instill obedience, diplomatic
handling of strong men, and rigid military discipline.
The first step in this program is to find an oath which the
savages will respect because its violation will bring certain and
terrible punishment. He learns that the Abaquis are sun-wor¬
shippers and that in their legends there are many tales of direful
punishments which follow violation of an oath sworn in the
name of the sun. This use of a superstitious religion which he
does not respect, he defends on the ground that he thus uses their
simplicity for their ultimate welfare, since by this means he will
be able to civilize them ; later, he says, he will teach them a better
religion. Before administering the oath of allegiance, he deliber¬
ately plays upon their fears by reminding them of the horrible
punishments which always follow the breaking of such a solemn
oath.7
Another means by which Cleveland attempts to secure his abso¬
lute power is by a judicious selection of ministers. Iglou, an older
man, superior to the other Abaquis in intelligence and sincerely
devoted to Cleveland, is selected as a kind of prime minister.
Moou, a potential dangerous youth, impulsive, not easily disci¬
plined, apt to stir up trouble, is flattered by an appointment as a
* Ibid.
6 Ibid., p. 128.
6 Ibid., pp. 128-29.
1 1bid., pp. 128-29.
234 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts and Letters
sort of personal aide to Cleveland, a method not entirely out¬
moded.8
As has been said, this dictatorship is represented as bene-
ficient. Cleveland has many reforms in mind in order to raise
the savages from their ignorance and superstitution, but he is
enough of an eighteenth century primitivist to wish to preserve
the noble features of the savage. He decides to make no change
in the natural simplicity of their food and dress (or lack of
dress) , but to civilize them by introducing changes in family life:
private instead of community dwellings and greater respect for
age. At present he permits them to continue their sun-worship,
since a futile attempt to present a deistical religion convinces him
that their minds are not amenable to reason. He hopes, however,
to teach them some day a natural religion of a higher type than
sun-worship.9
As an institution of propaganda for the reforms which his
government initiates, Cleveland creates an advisory council. Each
council-member represents a district in which he supervises and
checks on the daily life of the people. To be sure, Cleveland is
unlike modern dictators in some respects, for there are women
on the council. They must be over fifty, however, for like modern
dictators, he considers that up to that age their main function
in the state is that of childbearing.10
And this eighteenth century dictator has his youth movement,
too. Because he fears the young men in the tribe may resent some
of his reforms, Cleveland institutes compulsory military service
to keep them employed. Appealing to their fears of a neighbor¬
ing tribe, the Rouintons, he promises his subjects protection from
their most dangerous enemies and regiments them into a project
of digging about the camp a trench, filled with water and crossed
by drawbridges. At the same time he institutes a military
organization with stiff drill and discipline.11
Unfortunately, the youth movement fails to direct Moou’s
dangerous energy so that he serves the cause of the dictator, for
the young savage can not adapt himself to the regimented life and
to taking orders from a superior officer.
When Moou leads a rebellion against the rigid militarism,
Cleveland orders the rebels killed by a bomb and a rifle shot ; the
8 Ibid., pp. 129-39.
® Ibid., pp. 180-181.
Ibid., pp. 163-164.
11 Ibid., pp. 166-169.
Cooper — An Eighteenth Century Dictatorship 235
incident completely terrorizes the savages, who are ignorant of
the use of gun-powder. Here comes the opportunity which Cleve¬
land has awaited to teach the savages a better religion. One of
the most remarkably inconsistent features of the story is his use
of superstitious fears to convert the Abaquis to religious doc¬
trines which he designates as the religion of nature, based on
reason.12
After having terrorized them by killing Moou and his confed¬
erates, Cleveland addresses to the trembling Abaquis an impres¬
sive speech pointing out the evidence that the power of his god is
greater than that of the sun, that his god sends down terrible
punshments for disobedience but rewards obedience and will pro¬
tect them from their enemies. The savages ask two questions be¬
fore capitulating. Where is this god? Why can we not see him
as we see the sun? When Cleveland answers that God is seen in
the rain, the thunder, in all forces of nature, “the eyes of the
savages are immediately opened to the truth.” Cleveland ascribes
this victory to one of three causes : the truth of his answer, the
quality of his voice, or the infinite goodness of God.13
Although Cleveland meets successfully the first attack upon
his absolute power and, by threat of a punishment like that of
Moou, achieves even greater power over the untutored mind,
security soon proves to be only a temporary state. Again in the
military system lies the source of the trouble.
Some youth of the Rouinton tribe tangle with some of the
Abaquis in a dispute over killing game. The Abaquis are im¬
patient to exercise their newly acquired skill in arts of warfare.
Although Cleveland hates war, the Abaquis are insistent, and
he concludes that it may be well to permit them to vanquish these
enemies. Furthermore, he speculates, it might be possible after
conquering the Rouintons to unite the two tribes into a friendly
nation. Having thus rationalized his motives in acceding to the
demands of the Abaquis, Cleveland makes all necessary prepara¬
tion for attacking the enemy.14
The army marches in orderly and well disciplined fashion
toward the territory of the Rouintons. Even though it would be
easy to take the enemy by surprise and cut them to pieces, Cleve¬
land offers them an opportunity for peaceful negotiation. To
avoid being insulted, the envoys of peace are to give out first the
12 Ibid., pp. 199-203.
18 Ibid., pp. 199-203.
14 Ibid., pp. 207-210.
236 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts and Letters
information that they are supported by fifteen hundred troops.
The Rouintons boast only eight hundred.15
Cleveland orders his general to behave severely and haughtily
in stating terms. “My sense of security,” he says, “was based on
the ignorance of those with whom I treated and upon my superior
forces.” The demands, described as “candid and humane,” re¬
quire that the Rouintons burn all their arms, submit to Cleve¬
land's authority, and found a settlement in the valley of the
Abaquis.16
The Rouintons do not behave as Cleveland anticipates. They
choose to flee away under cover of the night rather than to sub¬
mit. They burn their villages and retreat only to return later to
wreck a horrible vengeance. Cleveland’s army weakened by a
sudden epidemic that sweeps the camps, is easily defeated, and
the captives find that the Rouintons are a cannibal tribe.17
Such is the tale of Cleveland’s government. Its power has
rested upon fear of punishment, shrewd manipulation of dan¬
gerous men, and regimentation. The first threat to absolutism,
the revolt of a dangerous leader, was successfully met by further
appeal to fear, but brought a very temporary security even with
religion as an ally.
Is this eighteenth century tale a satire of all absolutism ?
Le Philosophe Anglais is packed with incidents and stories
within the story which offer satirical comment upon the eight¬
eenth century theory and practice in government, politics, educa¬
tion, and religion. Unifying a novel, which upon superficial con¬
sideration appears to be a rambling collection of episodes in the
life of the hero and his acquaintances, is the theme of the in¬
sufficiency of reason to solve the problem of satisfactory living
and of the supremacy of strong emotions over human reason.
This episode of the attempted dictatorial government of the Aba¬
quis satirizes the instability of a government founded upon fear,
upon the prostitution of religion to the theory of absolutism, and
upon militarism.
This narrative, probably composed in 1731 when Voltaire as
well as Prevost found greater toleration in England than in
France, may conceivably be motivated by Prevost’s observations
of the weakness of absolutism as he considered contemporary
politics and government.
is Ibid., p. 211.
i0 Ibid., pp. 211-212.
I? Ibid., pp. 215-216.
I
THE VOGUE OF MACAULAY IN AMERICA
Harry Hayden Clark*
Much interest has been aroused in this crucial time in the
traditions for which England and America have stood, and in
the history of the inter-relations and of the divergence of those
traditions. One good index to such history is the record of the
vogue and influence in one country of representative authors of
the other country. Thus Professor Harold Blodgett's Walt Whit¬
man in England (1934) offers a fascinating history of the way
in which British opinion of the more extreme forms of American
democracy in politics and poetry have fluctuated in different
periods. And Dr. Robert Rodney's study of British reactions to
Mark Twain and such anti-feudalistic books as The Connecticut
Yankee in King Arthur's Court should be even more revealing
as a record of changing British opinion and literary taste. On the
other hand, much able work as been done on American reactions
to representative British authors such as Byron and Scott, but
much of it has had to deal with matters which are exclusively
literary. In the present study I propose to deal with a figure who
is more broadly representative not only of literary taste but of
political, religious, and ethical ideas as well— with Thomas Bab-
ington Macaulay. As literary critic, as Whig statesman, as a
protagonist of the practical and the scientific, as a historian of
the Puritanism which entered so largely into the founding of
America, he represents a large segment of the circumference of
British traditions in the nineteenth century. And the year by
year reaction of Americans ought to provide an interesting
barometer to many phases of the history of American opinion of
what our British allies stood for during the last century and to
help us to understand the ideals of the two countries more
intelligently.
If Byron and Scott* 1 in the first half of the nineteenth century
were the first English writers to take the American reading
public by storm, their triumphant acceptance appears very small
* The writer gratefully acknowledges that this work was supported in part by a grant
from the Research Fund of the University of Wisconsin.
1 W. E. Leonard, Byron and Byronism in America (1905). G. H. Orians is about to pub¬
lish a full-length study of Scott’s vogue in America.
237
238 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts and Letters
indeed beside the epic-reception accorded to Macaulay after 1840.
The sales’ records of his books read like a modern fairy tale.
Edward Everett told Macaulay that only the Bible and one or
two common school books had had such sale in the United States
as his History .2 In 1849, shortly after its appearance in America,
Harpers wrote that there would soon be six American editions;
60,000 copies had already been disposed of and the demand was
expected to rise to 200,000 within three months. “No work, of
any kind, has ever so completely taken our whole country by
storm.”3 So great was the Macaulay legend that at the end of
the century, Charles Francis Adams could say: at least twenty
“American publishing houses have brought out complete
editions of Macaulay, both his Miscellanies and the History
of England .” And though many of these were very expensive,
“they seem uniformly to have met with a ready demand.”4 Macau¬
lay himself was not only “greatly pleased,” but somewhat puzzled
by the American popularity of his works, especially the History
which he admitted was “quite insular in spirit.” “I do not under¬
stand,” he wrote Everett, “how it should be acceptable to the body
of a people who have no king, no lords, no established church, no
tories, nay, I might say, no whigs, in the English sense of the
word.”5
One feels that Macaulay’s perplexity was entirely justified.
Why should a five-volume history covering only the years
from 1688 to 1702 find such favor with Americans? Why
should Macaulay’s critical essays gain more favor, even before
the appearance of the History , than many other and better
critics? The answer is found in the numerous critical articles
and reviews v/hich were called forth with each new edition and
biography. American opinion, however, was by no means unani¬
mous, and a study of Macaulay criticism not only reveals the
actual influence of the man himself but throws into relief the
changing temper of American literature and criticism, even to
the extent of bringing out some minor critical trends hitherto
unrecognized.
2 Quoted by A. H. Guernsey, Galaxy, XXII, 806 (Dec., 1876).
3 G. E. Trevelyan, Life and Letters of Lord Macaulay, II, 609, (1931).
The American historian W. H. Prescott wrote Mrs. Milman in 1855 of Macaulay’s “tens
of thousands” of readers in America. “There is no man who speaks to such an audience
as Macaulay. It is certainly a great responsibility.” George Ticknor’s Life of W. H. Prescott
(Philadelphia, 1875), p. 289.
4 “The Sifted Grain and the Grain Sifters,” American Historical Review, VI, 228 (Jan.,
1901).
5 Quoted by Guernsey, op. cit., p. 806.
Clark — The Vogue of Macaulay in America
239
The reputation of Macaulay in America can be studied in
three fairly well-defined periods: 1840 to 1860 — a period in
which Macaulay is quite generally, though by no means unani¬
mously, accepted ; 1860 to 1900 — a period in which his genius is
challenged, mainly by the new scientific historians ; and 1900 to
1940-™- a period of more detached critical evaluation resulting in
an upward turn of his reputation.
I. 1840 TO 1860
The journals of the conservative Puritan sects were the first
in America to notice Macaulay. This was the time of the trans¬
cendental heresy, and the conservatives were in quest of a cham¬
pion such as the transcendentalists had in Carlyle. The reviewer1 2
of the Critical and Miscellaneous Essays for the Princeton Re¬
view in 1840 felt that in Macaulay the great defender of common
sense religion had been found. “Strong common sense . . . marks
every paragraph : there is no puling, there is no cant, there is no
transcendentalism.,,2 Moreover, the “serene dignity” and “tragic
pathos” of Macaulay’s essay on Milton indicate that the “fame of
the Puritans” may be trusted in Macaulay’s hands.3 * The Chris¬
tian Review 4 in discussing the same work asserts the same con¬
tentions. Macaulay has the “impress of an elegant and well-bal¬
anced mind” and “deals but slightly in the subtleties of meta¬
physics”; he has no “enigmatical sayings, no newfangled phi¬
losophy” like Carlyle whom he “far surpasses.” Besides, he is a
“master critic” as the essay on Milton shows, and at the same
time he possesses one of the “very best specimens of pure and
finished English.”5 6
On the other hand, Edgar Allan PoeG as a great spokesman
of romanticism and a disciple of the transcendental Coleridge,
charges Macaulay with shallowness— -the typical charge brought
by the romantic against the man of common sense. Macaulay, he
says, is “a terse, forcible, and logical writer,” but it is wrong to
regard him as “a comprehensive and profound thinker.” His
“exceeding closeness of logic” misleads him to “concentrate force
upon minutiae, at the expense of a subject as a whole.” Poe
therefore became the first to raise a charge that was to be made
again and again, particularly by romantic writers.
E. P. Whipple, who first gained literary recognition through
1 James W. Alexander, “Critical and Miscellaneous Essays,” Biblical Repertory and Prince¬
ton Review, XII, 431-451, (July, 1840). This was the official organ of the Presbyterians at the
Princeton Theological Seminary.
2 Ibid., p. 445.
3 Ibid., pp. 434-5.
* V. 450-472, (Sept., 1840).
5 Ibid., pp. 451-4.
6 Reprinted in Edgar Allan Poe: Representative Selections (ed. by M. Alterton and H.
Craig, 1935) pp. 318-321. In another and peculiarly typical passage Poe asserts, “The style
and general conduct of Macaulay’s critical papers could scarcely be improved,” and that two
of our best critics, E. P. Whipple and W. A. Jones are his imitators. Then he proceeds to
“analyze” Macaulay’s style to show how in practice, not theory, it could be improved. See
“E. P. Whipple and other Critics,” Literary Criticism, Sterling edition, 405-15.
240
Clark — The Vogue of Macaulay in America 241
his essay on Macaulay in 18437, came under the literary influence
of the Englishman himself and Macaulay's style is clearly “re¬
flected in much of the earlier work of his American admirer."8
Whipple's essay itself shows a deep admiration for Macaulay's
“range over the field of literature and science, and the boldness of
his generalizations."9 As a critic, Macaulay shows “depth of feel¬
ing," “a fine sense of the beautiful" and “a comprehensive and
penetrating judgment," though his “critical severity" is regret¬
table.10 Moreover, Macaulay pays “eloquent tribute" to “the
Puritans."11 He has faults, but these are all due to one source —
his great “vigor." “Byron displays hardly more intensity."12
Whipple's uncritical acceptance of Macaulay is typical of a great
many American essays. It took minds of considerable critical
insight to find faults in Macaulay's brilliant glitter.
In the same year, 1843, the Lays of Ancient Rome were pub¬
lished and were enthusiastically reviewed by the Southern Liter¬
ary Messenger .13 Macaulay “infused new life and vigor into the
old legends" and “initiated the close and easy simplicity of the
ballad style" better than could be expected in this artificial age.
The Lays convey more “true historical information" and “genuine
classical taste than many other works of more ponderous form
and of graver pretensions." The Lays themselves did a great deal
to popularize Macaulay in America. Their appearance here for¬
tunately coincided with the revival of the ballad form by our most
popular poets, Longfellow and Whittier, and as a result, they
were widely read.
But in The Pioneer ,14 vehicle for the young Lowell's fiery
idealism, Macaulay's work met with a far different reception.
Lowell, who liked to sparkle himself, praised the Lays as “bril¬
liant, but never profound, witty, but not humorous, full of
sparkling antitheses." Macaulay “is a kind of prose Pope," with
philosophizing and talent but with “no great ideas, no true phi¬
losophy." Above all, “he is not a genius." His Whig politics seem
to Lowell an ignoble, selfish compromise. His sympathies are
merely “fashionable," expressed “to be admired by everybody
_ _ -
7 Boston Miscellany (Feb. 1843). Reprinted in Essays and Revietvs, I, (1848), pp. 9-30.
8 George S. Heilman, C H A L, III, 125-6. He says that Whipple’s book. Essays and
Reviews, is closely related to “the Macaulay school of essayists.”
9 Essays and Reviews, p. 15.
19 Ibid., pp. 17, 20.
11 Ibid., p. 24.
12 Ibid., p. 28.
13 IV, 76-81 (July, 1843).
14 I, 2 (Jan., 1843), 93-4.
242 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts and Letters
today, and then to retire upon such precarious pittance of immor¬
tality as is furnished by the charitable corner of a country
newspaper.”
Before returning to the attack on the poet himself, Lowell
turns aside to drub “Christopher North” (who had persecuted both
Keats and Tennyson) for North's “vulgarity and intrepid ego¬
tism.” This sally against a “self-constituted dictator in Par¬
nassus” is made relevant by citations of North’s compliments to
Macaulay. Then Lowell comes to the philosophic heart of his
objections to the Lays. Their spirit is “a mistaken one. The chiv¬
alry which it tends to excite, is anti-spiritual, and therefore,
(except insofar as it is picturesque,) anti-poetic.” In short:
That poetry which awakens the gentle and deeper feelings of our
original nature, not that which rouses those fierce and quarrelsome prin¬
ciples which have been implanted in us by long ages of barbarism, is the
best. Whatever spurs the soul to overcome hatred with love, and violence
with meekness, to struggle against and overcome inward enemies, makes
a man more truly manly, than all that fosters in him that physical
courage, which only makes him the better animal. The patriotism of
Horatius might have been ideal two thousand years ago, but, however
slowly, a nobler and higher ideal is surely rising, and men are learning
that there is a moral and spiritual patriotism as far above that bodily
patriotism of the Romans, as beauty is above deformity.
The best Lowell can find to say for “Macaulay” at this time is
that his “book displays a fine classical taste, and the possession
of an excitable temperament, and a good ear for metre, rather
than poetical power.” It exhibits “the highest range and accom¬
plishment of a man of talent.” The net effect is to damn by both
precept and faint praise.
Hawthorne seems to have had a genuine admiration for
Macaulay. Mrs. Hawthorne wrote in 1844, “My husband has been
reading aloud to me. . . . Macaulay’s 'Miscellanies’.” He is “very
acute, a good hater, a sensible admirer, and one of the best
simile-makers.” His style is clear and his humor pleasant, but
“we do not always agree with his dicta.”15 Later, Hawthorne
became deeply interested in the ancient history of Italy, and
before leaving England caused his children “to learn by heart
Macaulay’s ‘Lays of Ancient Rome’.”16
Not a little of the early reception of Macaulay was due to the
influence of his father, the great abolitionist. As leader of the
Freetown colony in Africa, Zachary Macaulay was well known in
15 II. Hawthorne, Nathaniel, Hawthorne and His Wife (1895), I, 275.
is Ibid., II. p. 172.
Clark — The Vogue of Macaulay in America 243
America, and this popularity obtained quick recognition for the
work of his son, particularly in New England. This was the case
with Edward Everett17 first a friend of the father, and later an
intimate friend and ardent admirer of the son. In 1844, while
ambassador to England, he wrote that Macaulay is “the ablest
writer of the day and one of the most extraordinary men. His
conversation is as remarkable as his writing, pouring out in a
full tide, upon every subject that comes up, as if he had read
everything that was written, and remembered everything he had
read.” 18 The two men occasionally corresponded. In 1849
Macaulay wrote Everett, hoping that he would soon return to
England : “For I am sure that you can do more than any other
man living to promote good feeling between New England and
Old England, and we are both, I am confident, equally convinced
that the concord of the two great branches of the English race,
is of highest importance to the happiness of both.”19 Macaulay
had a very high opinion of Everett’s capacity, and urged that he
“undertake to give us a history of the United States, such as
might become classical.”20
Another early channel for the transmission of Macaulay’s
influence to America was the historian George Bancroft who
served as ambassador to England, 1846 to 1849. He wrote to
John Appleton in 1847 that he saw Macaulay “very often” and
“each day that I see him makes me more and more admire the
wonderful extent and precision of his knowledge. His memory
is as great as his industry; and politics or theology, the ancient
or the modern, the literature of all cultivated nations in all ages,
are equally present to him.”21 Later the same year he wrote to
the American historian, Prescott, that of all the contemporary
historians in England, “Macaulay is the most extraordinary of
them all. He rises in my esteem . . . every time I see him ; for his
foibles show themselves at once; his greatness by degrees. He
has the most nearly universal knowledge of any man I ever met ;
. . . I think him what is so rare, greater than his book.” Ban¬
croft then proceeds to notice Macaulay’s one defect ; he has “good
intentions as an inquirer” but “he fastens upon a subject or a
character with a tenacity and vehemence which sometimes leads
17 Everett visited Zachary Macaulay in London in 1815 and 1818. See P. R. Frothingham,
Edtvard Everett: Orator and Statesman (1925), pp. 38, 49-50.
18 Ibid., p. 245.
19 Ibid., p. 302.
20 Ibid., pp. 308-9.
21 Life and Letters of George Bancroft (ed. by M. A. DeWolfe Howe, 1908), II, p. 11.
244 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts and Letters
him to judgments which a more tranquil mind would qualify.”22
Thus Bancroft even before the appearance of the History diag¬
nosed the historian's chief defect as a lack of impartiality. Yet
Bancroft's admiration and almost daily association with Macau¬
lay at the time when he was completing his History of England
suggests he may have exerted considerable influence on Ban¬
croft's History, the last seven volumes of which appeared after
this time.
The actual appearance of Macaulay’s History of England in
America in 1849, had very unexpected results. The popularity of
Macaulay's earlier work, particularly in New England, would
seem to presage a very warm reception for the brilliant History .
But such is not the case — at least among the reviewers. The
reason is that Macaulay said some very unpleasant things about
the Puritans and Nonconformists in volume one of the History,
and most of the American reviewers were Puritan. G. E. Ellis,
reviewing the work in the Christian Examiner 23 (the journal
of the Harvard theology faculty) is favorable in general and notes
that our “newspapers are all copying [the] narrative.” But he goes
on to say that he must take two exceptions to Macaulay's account.
The reader must take a more comprehensive view of Puritanism
before accepting such a judgment as Macaulay's. And he must
not accept too readily Macaulay's analysis of the character of
William Penn. Though the other reviewers often repeated this
criticism, they were not always so candid. J. Williams in the
Church Review 24 attacked Macaulay as “very brilliant” but
“very unscrupulous.” He has forced the narrative to subserve the
“paltry purposes of party: the never-failing characteristic of a
narrow-minded and superficial historian.” He has entirely mis¬
understood the political side of Anglicanism and the status of
the Church of England as the Via Media. Politics is his vocation,
but philosophizing on “the high truths of religion” and estimat¬
ing the “characters of the good and the wise” are “beyond his
depth.” Broivnson* s Quarterly takes a similar stand. The Puri¬
tans with all their “faults, sour looks, and cant, are, under a
human point of view, always to be preferred to the swearing,
toast-drinking, and licentious Cavaliers.”25 G. P. Fisher in
Knickerbocker Magazine 26 is more disturbed, but takes the same
22 Ibid., II, 16-17.
22 XLVI, 253 ff. (1849).
24 II, 2 ff. (1849).
23VI, 275 (1849).
20 “Macaulay and the Puritans,” XXXIII, 508 ff. (June, 1849).
Clark— The Vogue of Macaulay in America 245
point of view. Macaulay is not successful in describing Crom¬
well ; '“it requires a thorough Puritan to comprehend the Prince
of Puritanism.” The aristocratic North American Review 27
avoids the issue with a short notice in which the orthographic
changes in the Harper 'edition are attacked but the History is
snubbed by making no comment on it.
Whittier of course came to bat for the Quakers.28 Macaulay's
‘'sparkling rhetoric is not the safest medium of truth to the sim¬
ple-minded inquirer.” The “intelligent and well-informed reader”
is continually compelled “to reverse the decisions of the author,
and deliver some unfortunate personage, sect, or class from the
pillory of his rhetoric.”29 And while giving praise to the great
“third chapter,” Whittier proceeds to defend the character of
William Penn. Macaulay has labored through “many pages of
disingenuous innuendoes and distortion of facts to transform the
saint of history into a pliant courtier.”30 He goes further and
defends the character of James II, and attacks Macaulay for re¬
lying on Burnett.81
And in the September 16, 1847, National Era Whittier made
the hue and cry raised by his Scotch constituents' disciplining of
Macaulay for flouting their Dissenter interests the occasion of an
article entitled “The Rejection of Macaulay at Edinburgh.” He
listed the sins against democratic representation committed by
Macaulay which justified his defeat at the polls, replied with
mingled irony and preaching to the sneers and invective levelled
by English journals at the rugged Scots who had rejected the
Great Man, and called his countrymen to witness that in a time
of rising democracy notice was being served upon any “popular
genius whose ambition may lead [him] to block up the pathway
of Reform with the tropes and figures of rhetoric” that neither
Englishmen nor Americans would tolerate such waywardness
longer.
Theodore Parker, as editor of the Massachusetts Quarterly ,32
.spoke out for the Transcendentalists in a long essay. Parker
asserts that in general Macaulay's impartiality “is very con-
87 LXVIII, 511 ff. (1849).
28 "England under James II,” Prose Works , II, 348-867.
Ibid., p. 848.
so Ibid., p. 855.
31 Ibid., pp. 868-7.
82 II, 826 ff. (1849). Reprinted in the Centenary Edition in the volume entitled The
American Scholar , pp. 823-63.
246 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts and Letters
spicuous,” but if he errs in any direction, it is “that he may not
have done full justice to the religious or political principles of
the Independents.”33 In Macaulay’s comparison of the Eng¬
land of 1685 with Victorian England, Parker thinks that “the
former is somewhat overcharged, and the latter ... a little flat¬
tering.”34 Parker essentially agrees with Macaulay’s picture of
the 17th century, but thinks that in Victorian times the concen¬
tration of land in a few hands is “a melancholy, disastrous change
in the social system of England”35 and that the educational sys¬
tem of New England is not due to English precedents, “but to
the piety and wisdom of our Puritan ancestors.”36
The favorable reviews of the History are limited to three. L.
Bacon in the New Englander 37 replies to the attack of the Church
Review. He defends Macaulay’s analysis of the role of the
Anglican Church in the 17th century, and says that the History
is “finding its way everywhere. It will be read by all our reading
population.”38 The History was also praised by the conservative
aristocratic Southern Quarterly Review** because the reviewer
believed that the children of the South should be imbued “with the
high, bold, manly morality of Old England, (not New England,
or modern England) . . .”40 The soundest critical review of the
History was a favorable one appearing in the scholarly Demo¬
cratic Review .41 The reviewer considers the History* s lack of
profundity “one of its decided charms,” for where the philoso¬
pher’s duty is analysis, that of the historian is “to narrate.”42
And suggestibility therefore is the most important quality a his¬
tory can have. Macaulay also discovered a “neglected branch of
history” in “character-writing”43 and had besides a “spontaneous
style” free from “artificial rules,” — essentially the style of the
33 The American Scholar, p. 325.
34 Ibid., p. 327.
36 Ibid., p. 351.
36 Ibid., p. 359. When Parker came to discuss Prescott’s histories, however, he found
comparison with Macaulay a good means of attack. Wishing social and literary, rather than
merely political, history, Parker pointed out in Macaulay the “spirit of humanity,” the
criterion of histories by which he condemned Prescott. Mass. Quart. Rev., II, 215-48 ; 437-70.
37 “Macaulay and the Anglo-Catholics,” VII, 288ff. (May, 1849). See also Frederic Howes’
“Macaulay’s History of England ,” Mass. Quart. Rev., June, 1849, pp. 326-55.
38 “We are glad and thankful that in our country, everybody that wants this book can
have it — the rich at two dollars . . . and others at almost any price . . . down to twenty-
five cents.”
39 XV, 374 ff. (1849).
40 Ibid., p. 407.
44 XXIV, 205 ff. (March, 1849).
42 Ibid., p. 209.
43 Ibid., p. 213.
Clark — The Vogue of Macaulay in America 247
cultivated 19th-century Englishman, “self-possessed, healthy,
with reason on the alert, and comfort all around.”44
In the same year, H. H. Hudson, the romantic Shakespearean
critic, reviewed a new edition of the essays for The American
Review .45 He violently attacked Macaulay who, he says, shows a
“practical atheism of human virtue” in failing to appreciate the
“likeability” of character in Dr. Johnson. He is plagued by an
“itching fondness for saying smart things.” He has a wrong-
headednesss which makes him cherish his opinions “above his
sense and above the ideals of love, God, and justice.” His “under¬
standing of ecclesiastic and religious questions” is sophomoric
and his History is inferior to Lord Mahon’s. Hudson’s review
carries on the romantic attack on Macaulay begun by Poe ; like
Poe, Hudson was a disciple of Coleridge, the Transcendentalist.
In 1850 the Princeton Review 46 (the conservative Presbyterian
journal) reviewed the History and reversed its enthusiastic re¬
ception of Macaulay ten years before. He should have avoided
the history of the Commonwealth, for he shows a grave lack
of “deep and earnest religious convictions.”47 His ignorance of
the Puritans’ doctrines makes him do them “great injustice,”
and thus with all his “rare gifts” Macaulay is not “a philosopher
or a reasoner.”48 In the same years, an anonymous reviewer
made a violent attack in the Democratic Review 49 on the Lays of
Ancient Rome which had come out in a new edition. The re¬
viewer evidently has a strong romantic bias. He accuses Macau¬
lay of trying “to hide a lack of imagination under the garb of
pleasing simplicity,” and contrasts him with Keats’ magic han¬
dling of old legends. The Lays are full of “puerilities” and “gross
plagiarism” and Macaulay had better go back to “writing preju¬
diced history, and one-sided reviews !”
Macaulay’s speeches were reviewed in the scholarly Christian
Examiner 50 of Harvard by C. C. Smith in 1858. Like Whipple,
Smith explains Macaulay’s partisanship as the “vehemence with
which he espouses any cause” rather than the “uniform advocacy
of the measures” of a party.51 He is one of the great practical
44 Ibid., pp. 214-15.
46 IX, 499 ff. (May, 1849).
4 8 Biblical Repertory and Princeton Review, XXII, 101 ff. (Jan., 1850).
47 Ibid., p. 104.
48 Ibid., pp. 108, 120.
48 XXVI, 209-219. (March, 1850).
68 LIV, 285-307 (March, 1853)
61 Ibid., p. 290.
248 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts and Letters
statesmen and “regards the security of property as the chief
object for which governments are instituted” and as a result he
has “always opposed universal suffrage.” Nevertheless in educa¬
tion his views “are broad, liberal, and statesmanlike.”52 This well-
balanced review was followed later by a vigorous but uncritical
attack on Macaulay in the New York Quarterly ,53 Macaulay “is
in no respect qualified” for history. His great feature is partial¬
ity ; he was “the mere instrument of the Whigs” and the malicious
slanderer of Stuarts as well as Puritans. His “present courtly
habits” prevent him from correctly “depicting the glorious char¬
acter of Cromwell.”54 His essays are “vigorous and brilliant” but
he is “not an original or creative writer.”55
J. C. Moffat’s essay in the Princeton Review56 in 1856 mani¬
fests a new spirit in the attitude of the puritanical church
journals toward Macaulay. The attitude of American Puritans
as a whole underwent an interesting evolution. At first Macaulay
was enthusiastically received as a friend of Puritanism and as
a Whig reformer and protector in modern England of the political
liberties which the Puritans felt they had won in the Revolution.
The appearance of the History destroyed this illusion and for
several years the Puritans were very bitter. By 1856, however,
the church journals lost their bitterness and began to take a view
of Macaulay which, if not entirely favorable, at least approached
a fairly accurate critical understanding. This new spirit was
first expressed by C. C. Smith in the Christian Examiner in 1853
when he noticed that though Macaulay’s views on education were
“broad, liberal, and statesmanlike,” he was not a dyed-in-the-wool
liberal and “always opposed universal suffrage” in order to pro¬
tect property.57 Moffat carries on this better understanding, and
introduces an entirely new element. “The ultimate object,” he
says, “of national progress is perfect equality of rights” and “the
existence of England is the longest . . . practical commentary
upon the law of that progress.”58 And the very essence of English
history — the dualism between absolute monarchy and “parlia¬
mentary business” — -has been recorded by Macaulay in “an
52 Ibid., pp. 293-4.
53 “Macaulay’s England,” III, 499-521, (Jan., 1855).
54 Ibid. p. 507.
56 Ibid., pp. 515-16.
80 XXVIII, 286 ff. (April, 1856).
57C. C. Smith, op. cit., p. 294.
58 Moffat, op. cit., p. 287.
Clark — The Vogue of Macaulay in America 249
animating style.”59 Moffat is a thorough democrat almost to the
extent of being class-conscious, and though he feels that Macaulay
“failed to do justice to [the religious] motive of Englishmen” in
securing greater political and social equality, yet he has “a heart
that beats in unison with the great natural impulses of his
countrymen.”60 He has written a “great historical epic”61 of the
struggle of his country to secure free government and his History
can teach America “a lesson of ever-during value” as to the cost
of regaining free government should we ever “permit it to elude
our grasp.”62 Thus Macaulay was being read, even by one who
disagreed with him, for his embodiment of the democratic spirit.
And this, combined with his belief in material progress and com¬
mon-sense intellectualism, all imbibed by a reading public running
into millions, must have constituted a considerable force for the
rise of realism in America.
The new spirit of the Puritan journals is perhaps best shown
by L. E. Smith in the Christian Review for 1856.63 Smith is quite
objective and reveals some of the conditions which resulted in so
much praise and blame for the History. He says that there is a
marked contrast “between the popular judgment and that of pro¬
fessional critics,” and that the whole-hearted popular admira¬
tion for Macaulay is the more sound. Part of Macaulay’s pop¬
ularity seems to have been due to his inheritance of the novel¬
reading public of Scott, particularly in New England where
novels were considered immoral but history was not. Smith
quotes a disgruntled critic who tried to predict what history
would be in “the ascendant when The mob of novel-readers’ shall
have deserted Mr. Macaulay for some new favorite.” Smith
makes a very striking analysis of the cause of the opposition to
the History . He says it is difficult to write an impartial history
of 17th-century England because it “involves the history of a
struggle between principles that, in one form or another, are
still living and in conflict on either side of the Atlantic, — between
parties in politics and religion whose successors and represen¬
tatives now struggle on a wider and still widening field.” In such
a case the historian can no more gain favor with the “partisans
on both sides than one man can serve two masters.” Hence the
BS> Ibid., p. 288.
•® Ibid., p. 290.
n Ibid., p. 300.
62 Ibid., pp. 308-9.
«3 XXI, 356 ft. (July, 1856).
250 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts and Letters
attainment of a cordial reception under these conditions is indeed
“proof of transcendent merit." Yet Macaulay's “credibility" is
not “very seriously" damaged; “at least in this country, where
he probably has more readers than in his own." This marks the
end of the Puritan controversy over Macaulay and if we may
judge from favorableness of the last reviews, Macaulay was
henceforth as readily accepted by the American Puritans as in
the days of his first appearance.
In English Traits (1856) Emerson delivered the strongest
romantic and transcendental attack, centering his criticism on
Macaulay's materialism.04 Macaulay, he says, “explicitly teaches
that good means good to eat, good to wear, material commodity ;
that the glory of modern philosophy is its direction on 'fruit' ; to
yield economical inventions; and that its merit is to avoid ideas
and avoid morals." Furthermore he believed the distinctive merit
of Bacon over Plato to be in “disentangling the intellect from
theories of the all-Fair and all-Good" in order to obtain “solid
advantage," meaning always that “sensual benefit is the only
good." And thus after a thousand years the civility and religion
of England “ends in denying morals and reducing the intellect
to a sauce-pan." Peter Bayne's essay65 two years later was writ¬
ten in the same vein and was widely circulated in New England.
Bayne takes Plato to represent “the highest order of mind," and
Bacon with his aversion for “scaling the Infinite" to represent
minds of the second order. Macaulay belongs to the latter class.
He “rests satisfied in the fabric of human knowledge as it is,"66
and entirely ignores the Christian doctrine that there is a “spirit¬
ual influence from on high upon the human mind."67 Hence he
goes astray because of “this fatal defect." He limits the theory
of government to a “purely temporal end, the protection of the
persons and property of men." Bayne says he can hardly “imagine
a government, whose aims were of no more exalted a character"
and that true government “must be progressive in a nobler sense
64 Pp. 247-8. See also pp. 262, 292. Upon meeting him while in England, Emerson had
written home: “Macaulay is the king of diners-out. I do not know when I have seen such
wonderful vivacity. He has the strength of ten men ; immense memory, fun, fire, learning,
politics, manners, and pride, — talks all the time in a steady torrent. You would say, he was
the best type of England.” Yet Emerson relayed with sympathetic gusto the verdict “that
this most fashionable orator, scholar, statesman, gentleman, is, in some companies of highest
fashion, voted a bore.” Letters of Ralph Waldo Emerson, ed. by Rusk, 1939, IV, 42-3. See
also I, 306 ; II, 22, 41, 62 ; V, 29, 172 ; VI, 6, 19, 20.
65 “T. B. Macaulay,” Essays in Biography and Criticism, Second Series (Boston, 1868),
pp. 52-85.
66 Ibid., p. 58.
87 Ibid., p. 63.
Clark— -The Vogue of Macaulay in America 251
than this theory admits/'68 This marks the end of the romantic
and transcendental opposition to Macaulay. After the Civil War
the new literary forces of realism dominated America and
stronger forces of anti-Macaulay criticism arose from a very
different source.
One avenue for the transmission of Macaulay's influence to
America, as we- have seen in the case of Everett and Bancroft,
was the direct contact of prominent Americans with Macaulay in
England. In I860 George Ticknor, then perhaps the outstanding
American scholar, met and formed an intimate friendship with
Macaulay.69 He was astonished at the “resources” of Macaulay's
great memory, which, he says, is “all but fabulous.”70 Macaulay
also had a high opinion of Ticknor's work and once recommended
the History of Spanish Literature to the Queen as one of the best
books of the age.71
The new literary journal, Putnam's Monthly Magazine,12 con¬
tained a journalistic essay highly appreciative of Macaulay in
1856. The reviewer believed that Macaulay owed much of his
success to the Edinburgh Review because of its use of the his¬
torical essay in his early training period. As to Macaulay him¬
self, the writer thought him to be a greater political philosopher
than Hume, but a less permanent addition to literature because
of his barn-storming eloquence.
William Alfred Jones, whose debts to Macaulay we have
already seen discussed by Poe,73 was in the van of his admirers.
His list74 of Macaulay's excellences is only just short of rhapsodic.
He is “probably, the most brilliant writer of English now living,”
a successful politician as well as “splendid writer.” His “reviews
are the very Iliad and Odyssey of criticism— models of that kind
of writing. Abler men and deeper scholars have written review
articles without that mastery of the art.” Even Hazlitt was not
so good a reviewer, though of course a better critic. Macaulay
is “that rare union of critic and miscellaneous writer— a critical
essayist.” Jones' partiality to his style makes him seek a romantic
image to describe it: “It is like love at first sight, you may
08 Ibid., pp. 70, 71.
60 For accounts of his visits with Macaulay, see Life , Letters, and Journals of George
Ticknor (1876), II, 361, 362, 866, 367, 369, 373.
’o Ibid., II, §25.
71 Ibid., II, 220 n.
72 VII, 255 ff. (March, 1856). The essay is probably by Parke Godwin who was editor
at this time.
73 See Poe’s essay “E. P. Whipple and Other Critics.”
74 Characters and Criticisms, 1857, 164-5.
252 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts and Letters
always know his hand.’’ Since Macaulay is “always partizan,”
however, he would have been at his greatest as a political pamph¬
leteer. Finally, there are the historical essays where “portrait
painting and finished declamation have been carried to perfection
... in which we find, besides, a treasury of fine and ingenious
thoughts, richly illustrated and admirably employed.”
Of all American magazines the Southern Literary Messenger
seems to have been most sympathetic to Macaulay. Though one
or two unfavorable essays were published, it contained a far
greater number of favorable notices than any other magazine.
Besides his own merit, Macaulay’s anti-Puritan reputation and
his prominence as an English man of affairs undoubtedly con¬
tributed to this preference. The period just before the Civil War
was especially fruitful. The first article of this series was a
comparison, entitled “Prescott and Macaulay,” made in 1856.75
The writer claimed that the only similarity of the two men was
their “laborious research.” On the other hand, where Prescott
was “calm, unimpassioned and judicial,” Macaulay is much “less
frigid” and hence is “always on one or the other side of every
great question that arises.” Macaulay’s partisanship however is
not a defect, but “lends a coloring to his history” which is “ab¬
solutely necessary for . . . perception.” For that reason Macaulay
is not less “to be relied on that Prescott.” The writer believes,
however, that Prescott is superior to Macaulay in style. Where
Prescott is “free from mannerisms” and “rarely brilliant,”
Macaulay shows “pictorial effects” and a “love of antithetical
forms of expression” but with an “extravagance” seldom equalled
anywhere. “The eternal epigram becomes at last pointless” and
betrays him “into exaggeration — if not misstatement.” In 1859 a
controversy appeared in the magazine over Macaulay’s criticism
of Bacon. William S. Grayson attacked Macaulay’s view in the Sep¬
tember number.76 He says he admires Macaulay’s estimate of
Bacon the man, but that his review of Baconian philosophy must
be accepted with “many grains of allowance.” He raises the old
charge of Macaulay’s lack of depth. He “is eminently an historian,
and just as eminently not a philosopher . . . His genius revels in
the world of men, and not in the world of mind.” He “sig¬
nally failed in comprehending the hypothesis on which Bacon’s
fame reposes.” W. S. McCabe came to Macaulay’s defense
75 XXII, 144 ff. (Feb., 1856).
76 “Bacon’s Philosophy, and Macaulay’s Criticism of It,’’ Southern Literary Messenger,
XXIX, 177-183 (Sept., 1859).
Clark — The Vogue of Macaulay in America 253
in the November number.77 He says that Grayson did not fully
quote “Macaulay’s opinion of the Baconian philosophy” and
thus failed to give his “opinion of the great importance and
true benefit of the Baconian philosophy.”78 At this time also a
controversy was raging over Macaulay’s treatment of Marl¬
borough, and the Messenger has two articles on the subject. The
controversy arose over an article in Blackwood’ s'1* attacking
Macaulay’s portrait as “inaccurate and false.” In October, 1859, 80
a writer answered the Blackwood’s charges, claiming that it is
impossible to be an impartial historian where religion and pol¬
itics are concerned. All we can do is “to judge leniently of
men.” A writer in the January, 1860, number81 replied, attacking
Macaulay’s portrait, and defending the Blackwood’s article with
a technical discussion of the evidence.
There are other articles in the immediately following numbers
of the Messenger, but they belong by the nature of their content
in the next period of Macaulay’s reputation in America. As we
shall see there was a fairly distinct break in American criticism
of Macaulay after 1860. Before the Civil War he was received as
essentially a materialist at the height of our romantic transcend¬
entalism. After the War literary tastes had changed and from
1860 to 1900 the problem becomes Macaulay’s reception in the
period when American literature was devoted to realism.
77 “Bacon’s Philosophy and Macaulay’s Criticism of It,” Southern Literary Messenger,
XXIX, 382-386 (Nov., 1859).
78 Ibid., p. 382.
78 LXXXV, June, 1859, pp. 661-76.
80 “Lord Macaulay and Marlborough,” Southern Literary Messenger, XXIX, 241 ff. (Oct.,
1859).
81 “Macaulay and Marlborough,” Southern Literary Messenger, XXX, 1-10 (Jan., 1860).
II. 1860 to 1900
In the first period the most serious opposition to Macaulay
in America came from such romantic and transcendental critics
as Poe, Hudson, Theodore Parker, Whittier, and Emerson. Such
opposition was entirely natural ; the intellectualism, materialism,
and optimistic Victorianism of the Macaulay temper provided
little attraction for the romantic spirit of the 1840,s and 1850’s.
But romanticism was a receding force with Whitman and
Howells, and hence opposition from this source, even though
coming from some of the greatest spirits of American literature,
could not check the rising tide of Macaulay-popularity. For
Macaulay’s popularity in America rose with, if it did not indeed
help along, the rise of American realism. And it was only when
Macaulay’s genius began to be questioned by men of his own
stripe, by certain forces within the realistic movement itself, that
his reputation began to suffer. These were not the declining but
the rising and dominating forces of their time, and thus had
ample power to injure seriously the Macaulay juggernaut. This
receding movement was aided by the death of Macaulay himself
in 1859 at the very time when the movement was getting under
way, but as a matter of fact, it had already been written in
the stars.
The new attitude did not escape the sharp eyes of H. T.
Tuckerman when he wrote his essay on Macaulay in I860.1 The
“gifted few,” he says, are beginning to look somewhat askance
on Macaulay. It is beginning to be felt “that he is too dazzling
to be trusted, too interesting to be solid, too attractive to be
true.” This position, says Tuckerman, is maintained by a new
class of men who “deny the possibility of uniting substantial
and profound historical research and speculation-— with a style
and method that shall win English workmen to listen with de¬
light.”2 This “new class of men” was of course the new scien¬
tific school3 of ultra-realistic historians who were destined to
furnish the chief opposition to Macaulay for the next forty years.
Thus we see that where Macaulay was too material-minded in a
romantic age, now he is not realistic enough for the scientific
1 Southern Literary Messenger, XXX, 241-250 (April, 1860).
2 Ibid., p. 241.
3 The most influential of this school was of course Leopold von Ranke, who held the
chair of History at Berlin from 1825 to 1871. See C. K. Adams, “Recent Historical Work
[since 1860] in the Colleges and Europe and America," Papers, Amer. Hist. Assn. (Jan.
1890), pp. 89-65 ; and E. G. Bourne, “Leopold Von Ranke,” Annual Kept., Amer. Hist. Assn.
(1896) pp. 65-82.
254
Clark— -The Vogue of Macaulay in America 255
historians. Tuckerman says that Macaulay also alienated “the
clerical instinct” when he attacked certain episcopal and dissent¬
ing ministers for lack of humility and truthfulness. Still others
attacked Macaulay for being a Whig advocate. But the most
serious charge against him is “his disloyalty to fact.”4 “All these
factors taken together,” he says, “contributed to the decline of
Macaulay’s prosperity at this time.” Tuckerman himself, how¬
ever, is essentially a Macaulay man. He thinks the “number of
actual errors of judgment or of statement is remarkably small
in proportion to the extent of the subject.”5 Macaulay himself
best exemplifies the “British practical and thorough, positive and
intelligent spirit.” There is no indistinctness— “all is bold, clear,
full, direct, effective— neither French rhetoric and sentiment nor
German mysticism and diffuseness— but Saxon vigor, lucidity,
freedom and abundance.” He made his country’s institutions and
her illustrious characters “known in Europe as they were never
known before.”6 And whatever was thought, said, or acted in the
British Isles “Macaulay knew and announced in a memorable
style.”7 There is a critical fairness in Tuckerman’s attitude
toward Macaulay that was seldom met with before the end of
the century.
It was in 1860 also that a crucial event occurred which had
considerable significance for Macaulay, in America. Again the
journal involved was the Southern Literary Messenger which
published the articles in its March and August issues. It had
long been thought strange, says the writer of the March article,8
that Macaulay expressed no opinion of America, a land where his
History , was “read and admired by a vastly greater number of
persons . . . than on his own side of the Atlantic.” He adds, how¬
ever, that this deficiency is now supplied by Macaulay’s letter to
H. S. Randall,9 the American biographer of Jefferson. The letter
4 Ibid., p. 242.
6 Ibid., p. 243.
6 Ibid., p. 245.
’ Ibid., p. 246.
8 “Macaulay’s Opinion of the United States Government,” Southern Literary Messenger,
XXX, 225-228 (March 1860).
9 Randall’s Life of Thomas Jefferson (New York, 1858), 3 vols., still ranks as the
“official” biography of Jefferson. The letter from Macaulay resulted from Randall’s presenta¬
tion of his biography and other books on American history to the historian. Randall may
have been inspired by political motives to publish the letters so soon after Macaulay’s death.
The fact that they were published in a southern magazine strengthens this conclusion. The
letters actually are a strong indictment of the democratic ideal as it was held by a large
part of the North, above all by the abolitionists. On the other hand, they would seem in
general to support southern notions of government by an aristocracy.
256 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts and Letters
which he reprints was written in 1857 and outlines Macaulay’s
views on the future of democracy in the United States. Macaulay
begins by saying that he has “not a high opinion of Mr. Jefferson”
nor of democracy itself. He says that he has never believed “that
the supreme authority in a state ought to be entrusted to the
majority of citizens told by the head ... I have long been con¬
vinced that institutions purely democratic must, sooner or later,
destroy liberty or civilization, or both.” The extreme form of
Jeffersonian democracy being established in the United States,
says Macaulay, would have very dire results in a thickly-
populated land like England. “Either the poor would plunder
the rich, and civilization would perish, or order and prosperity
would be saved by a strong military government, and liberty
would perish.” Macaulay, however, saw no immediate danger;
Jeffersonian politics, he thought, could continue to exist without
causing a fatal calamity as long as large areas of fertile land10
remained unoccupied. But he foresaw a very black future when
the free land was gone and repeated economic crises shook a
crowded nation to its foundations. And on the basis of this
thought he concluded with his famous prediction, of the fall of
American democracy in the twentieth century.
It is quite plain that your government will never be able to
restrain a distressed and discontented majority. For with you
the majority is the government, and has the rich, who are
always a minority, absolutely at its mercy . . . There will be,
I fear, spoliation. The spoliation will increase the distress.
The distress will produce fresh spoliation. There is nothing
to stop you. Your Constitution is all sail and no anchor. . . .
when a society has entered on this downward progress, either
civilization or liberty must perish. Either some Caesar or Na¬
poleon will seize the reins of government with a strong hand,
or your republic will be as fearfully plundered ... in the
twentieth century as the Roman Empire was in the fifth . . .
The letter raised a great storm of protest, and some said it
did not represent Macaulay’s true opinion of America, and others
that he changed his opinion later. Randall himself denied these
explanations in the August issue of the Messenger ,lx and pub-
10 It seems odd that neither Randall nor Macaulay nor the early commentators on this
letter knew that Jefferson himself had expressed much the same doctrine: “I think our
governments will remain virtuous ... as long as they are chiefly agricultural ; and this will
be as long as there shall he vacant lands in any part of America. When they (the people)
get piled upon one another in large cities, as in Europe, they will become corrupt as in
Europe.” ( Writings of Jefferson, ed. Ford, IV, 479-80, Dec. 20, 1787.)
11 H. S. Randall, "American Institutions. Lord Macaulay’s Letter to the Biographer of
Jefferson,” Southern Literary Messenger, XXX, 133-135 (August, 1860).
Clark— -The Vogue of Macaulay in America 257
lished parts of other letters12 from Macaulay re-affirming the
opinions in the published letter. In a later letter13 written only a
year before his death Macaulay went even further than in the
letter published. He emphatically denied that American progress
and prosperity were in any way the consequences of our peculiar
democratic institutions, but the result of “causes which operated
in America long before your Declaration of Independence, and
which are still operating in many parts of the British Empire.”
And he cites the case of Australia which has made as great pro¬
gress within the Empire as the United States has without.
The effect of the letters eventually was to alienate from
Macaulay another large class within the realistic movement — the
believers in American democracy and progress. The Civil War,
however, seems to have deferred such a consequence for a time.
In this same year, 1860, George Fitzhugh, a well-known Virginia
apologist for slave labor, delivered a violent attack in the strong
pro-South De Bow's Review 14 on Milton and Macaulay. Fitzhugh
evidently sees in the two men twin symbols of the free labor
system of the North. Both share the “ultra-liberal doctrines of
the Puritans, Independents and Infidels, and of the vulgar
despotism of Cromwell.” To say that “liberty is a good is
absurdly false.” Fitzhugh regards Macaulay as a menace to
Southern aristocracy. He merely “proposes to combine the landed
and moneyed interests, and form a government of the middle
classes,” but for the great “laboring class, he has no care.” And the
false friends of liberty, “like Macaulay, may rue the day when
they stripped the poor of their only natural friends ... a king
with the power and the will to protect them, a feudal nobility”
and “a church richly endowed.”15 Fitzhugh discredits the pre¬
dictions in Macaulay’s letter of the impermanence of American
institutions, especially in the South. “There is no free suffrage
at the South, for only the whites vote, and negroes constitute
the larger portion of the common laboring class.” Until lately,
Fitzhugh goes on to say, it seemed likely that in the North
“Macaulay’s predictions would prove true. We now believe that
strikes and trade-unions will anticipate free suffrage in the work
of destruction and anarchy.”16 Thus we see how the strained
12 In all, Macaulay wrote four letters to Randall, the dates of which are Jan. 18, 1857,
May 23, 1857, Oct. 9, 1858, and Jan. 8, 1859. The letter first published in the Messenger
was the second.
is Oct. 9, 1858.
14 “Milton and Macaulay,” De Bow's Review, XXVIII, 667 ff. (June, 1860).
15 Ibid., pp. 670-1. (Compare R. C. Beatty’s southern agrarian view in 1938.)
19 Ibid., p. 672.
258 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts and Letters
sympathies of the Civil War had an adverse effect on Macaulay’s
reputation in the South. It was but natural that the son of an
eminent abolitionist and the advocate of the Reform Bill of 1832
should find little favor in the South in 1860.
In the North, on the other hand, Macaulay was received with
more enthusiasm than ever, particularly by the abolitionists who
were greatly pleased by his essay attacking slavery. Sumner met
Macaulay in London shortly before his death and was greatly
impressed. “His conversation was as full and interesting as
ever. Nothing seemed too great or too small for his memory. I
think that I was more than ever struck by him.”17 Sumner wrote
an introduction18 to Macaulay’s early essay on slavery when it
was published by Horace Greeley in the New York Tribune ,
March 3, 1860. Sumner charged that the essay had been deliber¬
ately omitted from American editions of the Essays because it
favored abolition. The essay itself dealt with British slavery in
the West Indies, but Sumner claims that Macaulay’s analysis
foreshadows the whole slavery movement in the United States.
It is very striking “to find how exact the parallel becomes.”19 He
even predicted the “threats of disunion, coming from slave-
drivers.”20 Sumner concludes with a very high estimate of
Macaulay. He is “the first writer of the English language in our
day, and one of the first in all times.”21 W. H. Seward also met
Macaulay in London in 1859 just before his death,22 and his son
wrote that Macaulay was among his father’s favorite essayists.23
The chief American magazine, the conservative North Amer¬
ican Review, waited until 1861 before devoting a long essay to
Macaulay, but that year published C. C. Smith’s highly favorable
defense, “Lord Macaulay as an Historian.”24 Smith begins with
an analysis of Macaulay’s “lofty conception” of the qualifications
of an historian. These, he says, are four in number : the union
of “reason and imagination” ; “ability to portray the characters
of individual actors”; “copiousness of information”; and “the
homely virtue of honesty.”25 To the first three Macaulay gave
- - -
17 Ed. L. Pierce, Memoirs and Letters of Charles Sumner (1878), III, 589.
18 The introduction entitled, “Macaulay on Slavery,” is reprinted in Sumner’s Works.
IV, 417-428.
19 Ibid., p. 418.
2° Ibid., p. 419.
21 Ibid., p. 421.
22 Frederick Bancroft, Life of W. H. Seward, (1900), II, 75.
28 Ibid., II, 72, n. 2.
2± XCIII, 418-456 (Oct., 1861).
25 Ibid., pp. 420-1.
Clark — The Vogue of Macaulay in America 259
“far greater importance than any of his predecessors.”26 And
thus, of this “ideal standard of historic excellence,” Macaulay
“furnishes the best illustration,” while the “signal triumph” of
the History itself abundantly shows “the soundness of the theory.”
Everywhere readers have pronounced it “not less interesting
than the last new work of Thackeray or Dickens.”27 But though
the “unflagging interest of the narrative” is chiefly responsible
for its popularity, its soundness in other respects must not be
overlooked. Smith, however, like Tuckerman, notes that charges
are beginning to be “preferred in respectable quarters” at this
time that Macaulay is no better than a “brilliant partisan.”
“These charges . . . relate to the accuracy of his knowledge, to
his impartiality, and to his honesty.”28 But unlike Tuckerman,
Smith was not acute enough to understand the seriousness of
the charges being brought against Macaulay from “respectable
quarters.” Instead he goes into an elaborate defense of Macaulay's
accuracy of facts. The charges against Macaulay, he says,29
may be reduced to seven alleged inaccuracies of fact: he mis¬
understood and misrepresented the character of Cranmer and
the Established Church; drew a false picture of the social posi¬
tion of the rural clergy under Charles II; libelled the Scotch
Covenanters ; caricatured the Highlanders of Scotland and heaped
unmerited obloquy on their leaders ; indulged in unfounded stric¬
tures on the Duke of Marlborough; concealed defects in the
character of William; and committed a gross blunder in regard
to the character of William Penn. The list helps in a specific way
to explain the many attacks on the History from the clerical
journals; a great many sects came in for some kind of censure
from Macaulay. Smith, however, upholds Macaulay in every
case, and concludes that none of the charges “will bear the test
of a critical examination” ;30 even in the case of Penn, he says,
that “there is as yet no reason to doubt that it presents a correct
portrait.”31 Smith ends with a comparison of Macaulay and the
“most eminent” historians of modern times, and concludes that
“in a certain rare combination of qualities of the first importance
to an historian he is superior to them all.”32 Smith’s essay is the
20 Ibid., p. 422.
27 Ibid., p. 428.
28 Ibid., p. 432.
20 Ibid., p. 432 ff.
30 Ibid., p. 453.
31 Ibid., p. 440.
32 Ibid., p. 456.
260 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts and Letters
high-water mark in American criticism favorable to Macaulay.
Never again was he to be given such unqualified praise from so
high a source. And had Smith been more discerning, he might
have seen that the winds had already changed.
The Civil War had now begun in earnest, and there is little
to record in the way of Macaulay criticism for the remainder of
this decade. Lowell, however, expressed his opinion of Macaulay
in 1864, and thereafter to the end of his life gave occasional
opinions of Macaulay. Lowell's first reference appeared in the
essay, “The Rebellion,” where he discusses history and his¬
torians.33 Lowell exalted poetry over history — it “is not to be
depended upon in any absolute sense” ; nevertheless he preferred
“historical romance” to the mechanical “impartial historian.”
Several types of “historical romance,” he says, are written. Car¬
lyle represents one type — the choice of a heroic figure around
which events and characters group themselves. In the second
type “a period is selected, where the facts, by coloring and ar¬
rangement, may be made to support the views of a party, and
history becomes a political pamphlet indefinitely prolonged . . .
Macaulay is preeminent in this kind, and woe to the party or the
man that comes between him and his epigrammatic necessity.”34
Lowell, however, goes on to say that a third type of “romantic
history” is the new scientific history of Froude, Buckle, and
Taine, and that this method by which facts are made subservient
to an a priori theory is even less reliable than Macaulay's par¬
tiality.35 Three years later, in 1867, he praised Macaulay's use of
his sources. “In what gutters has not Macaulay raked for the
brilliant bits with which he has put together his admirable
mosaic picture of England under the Stuarts?”36 In 1876 he
attacked Morley’s paper on Macaulay as “altogether too a priori
and Teutonically obtuse,” but he said that Stephen's essay did
“more justice than the rest to the essential manliness and
Britishism of his character.”37 Much later, in 1890, Lowell
again referred to Macaulay’s partiality; it is his “wont when
dealing with men whom he dislikes” to blacken their character.
Lowell, however, was not wholly antagonized by Macaulay's par¬
tiality. His position is that all history is partial in one way or
83 Writings of James Russell Lowell (Riverside Edition, 1890), V, pp. 120-132.
34 Ibid., Elmwood Edition, VI, 153.
35 Ibid., Riverside Edition, V, 123-4.
38 Ibid., II, 284.
37 “Letter to Miss Norton,” Letters of James Russell Lowell (ed. by C. E. Norton),
II. 170.
261
Clark— The Vogue of Macaulay in America
another. At the same time he believed the literary values of his¬
tory to be quite as important as the historical values. And there¬
fore, though he recognized deficiencies in Macaulay’s partiality
and rhetoric, Lowell came to quite a high estimate of his worth
as a writer of history. This view, however, was not typical of
Macaulay criticism at this time, and the immediate future
criticism of Macaulay was more than at any other time deter¬
mined by special biases. But Lowell was a good critic, and his
balanced view foreshadows that which would be taken in the
new century.
Sidney Lanier, who as a representative of the Old South had
no cause to value Macaulay’s politics, chose to combat him chiefly
for personally antipathetic literary opinions. In his early novel,
Tiger Lilies (1867), Lanier wrote with a fine poetic scorn and
some logic: “And so who can believe this humbug of Macaulay,
that the advance of the imagination is inverse to the advance
of reason, and that as science flourishes poetry must decline ? . . .
But how long a time intervened between Humboldt and Goethe;
how long between Agassiz and Tennyson.”38
In the 1870’s American criticism of Macaulay regained its
former volume. In 1872, M. A. Munson attacked Macaulay as an
historian in the Lakeside Monthly ,39 He says he cannot agree
with Macaulay’s principle of forming history on “little incidents”
and “the imagination.” Such a method is “inaccurate and par¬
tial.” Besides, Macaulay was a Whig protagonist and “uses his¬
tory only to illustrate principles and to grace literature.” His
“keen and well-feathered antithesis” most often lodges “in the
very heart of murdered truth.” He views history merely as the
“raw materials” out of which to create his portraits. Munson
ends his essay with a minute defense of Penn against Macaulay’s
charges. In general Munson may be classed with those who be¬
lieved that Macaulay was deficient in objective historical truth.
John Bascom’s Philosophy of English Literature, 1874, simply
lists Macaulay (p. 268) among a number of men who have con¬
tributed to progress in historiography. The year following G. H.
Calvert repeated with emphasis Lowell’s early disparagement of
Macaulay as a man of talent, not genius.40 And in 1876 Noah
38 Quoted by Starke, Lanier, p. 97. This same year (1867) Yournans reprinted an attack
on the study of classical languages from the “Essay on the Athenian Orators” in his The
Culture Demanded by Modern Life. (pp. 451-2).
30 “A Few Chapters from Macaulay,” Lakeside Monthly, VIII, 140 ff. (1872).
40 Essays Aesthetical, 1875, p. 100.
262 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts and Letters
Porter attacked Macaulay for writing “quasi-historical novels”
like an “impassioned advocate . . , a retained attorney.”41
In 1876 the English historian, E. A. Freeman, wrote on
Macaulay for the International Revieiv.42 His very appreciative
essay emphasizes the fact that “Macaulay is a model of style” and
could be used as a model. He has nothing to say of Macaulay as
historian, but notes his immense reading of Greek and Latin
writers of which so “very little came.” Among all his essays,
“there is not one directly devoted to any Greek or Roman sub¬
jects.”43 Freeman concludes by noticing Macaulay’s “eighteenth
century contempt for mediaeval times.” In the same year, Henry
Adams, the American historian, then editor of the North Amer¬
ican Review , wrote that he was going to ask “F. T. Palgrave for
a notice of Macaulay” and “if he won’t [write it], I will do it
myself.”44 The essay was never written. Later Adams wrote to
his assistant editor, H. C. Lodge, concerning Macaulay : “I advise
you to read Gardiner’s books. They are not written like Macau¬
lay’s but they are fairer.”45 And here again is the perennial
charge of historical inaccuracy rising up at this time to challenge
Macaulay’s reputation.
In 1876 also the appearance of George Otto Trevelyan’s great
Life and Letters of Lord Macaulay brought forth many reviews.
The foremost of these was that by Professor A. V. Dicey, the
English correspondent of Godkin’s Nation ,4G who followed C. C.
Smith in defending Macaulay against the critical historians.
Dicey thinks that the verdict of time will rectify that of
Macaulay’s present readers and will “pronounce him the greatest
historical narrator who has written in English.” The first con¬
dition of his success is a “capacity for living in the past.” The
immediate sources of his success as a narrator, however, are an
“extraordinary gift of memory,” a style which is “completely the
natural expression of his mode of thought,” and “rarest and
noblest” of all an intellect of “matchless lucidity.” Dicey admits
however, that Macaulay lacked the power of psychological anal¬
ysis. This “comparative deficiency in analytical power affected
both his reputation among his contemporaries and the character
41 Books and Reading . . . pp. 162, 182. He did, however, defend Macaulay’s politics
as contributing to the progress of England. See p. 200.
42 “Macaulay,” International Review, III, 689 ff. (1876).
43 Ibid., 694.
44 Letters of Henry Adams (1858-1891), ed. by W. C. Ford, 1930, p. 286.
45 Ibid., p. 295.
46 Nation, XXII, 337-338 (May 25, 1876).
Clark— -The Vogue of Macaulay in America 263
of his . . . work.” On the other hand, the prevailing literary taste
of the time has a “passion for analysis of character.” With such
a fashion “Macaulay’s whole tone of mind was thoroughly out
of sympathy,” and consequently this lack of harmony greatly
“diminishes Macaulay’s influence at the present moment” over
“opiniop in England and America.” Dicey believes that it was
Froude’s “partisan pamphlets,” published under the name of
histories, which distorted contemporary opinion. Macaulay, how¬
ever, was a narrator rather than a critical historian. This does
not mean that he was “credulous” or lacked capacity for weigh¬
ing evidence. He may occasionally have been biased by prejudice,
but his weighing of evidence was “far more sound than that of
the various minute critics who, on the strength of special study
of particular questions, have from time to time assailed his gen¬
eral conclusions grounded on immense general knowledge of his
subject.” Macaulay intended to do no more than narrate facts, for
he considered that to be the job of the historian. And it augurs
well for the future of Macaulay’s reputation that while the “value
of the theories must almost inevitably pass away, the value of the
facts remains.”
A. H. Guernsey, the former editor of Harper's, wrote his re¬
view of Trevelyan’s Life for Galaxy 47 in the form of a highly
favorable summary of Macaulay’s life, but says nothing of the
historian in a critical way. The Life was also reviewed in Har¬
per's New Monthly Magazine,48 but again the interest was mainly
biographical, though the reviewer was favorable to Macaulay.
The notice in the Methodist Quarterly Review 49 by Rev. Abel
Stevens, however, was more critical, though not very incisive. He
pays high tribute to Macaulay and proposes to trace in his writings
and memoirs “the conditions of his vigorous and manifold intel¬
lectual life.”50 Macaulay built on a sound natural base— the ideal
of “the mens sana in corpore sana." He acquired his transcendent
style by “ ‘persistent diligence.’ ” His essays are all founded on
“minute accuracy of research.”51 And his great memory gave
him such “extraordinary versatility” that he knew more theology
than most clergymen.52 The crux of Rev. Stevens’ admiration,
however, seems to have been Macaulay’s favorable treatment of
^ “Macaulay,” Galaxy, XXII, 793-809, (Dec. 1876).
48 “Lord Macaulay and His Friends,” LIII, 86 ff., 238 ff. (June, 1876) by R. H.
Stoddard.
49 “Lord Macaulay,” XXXVII, 197-224 (April, 1877).
69 Ibid., p. 200.
61 Ibid., p. 204.
62 Ibid., p. 208-9.
264 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts and Letters
Wesley. Methodists everywhere have been “partial to him for his
estimate of their founder.” But Stevens also sanctions Macaulay's
Whig partiality in the History. He “justly” represents the
doctrines of Whig politics as the “fundamental ideas of modern
civilization and progress.” And therefore his History “is, and
for indefinite time will be, an oriflamme in front of the onward
march of the Anglo-Saxon race.”53
In 1877 Harper's, which seems to have been consistently inter¬
ested in the popular or sensational aspects of Macaulay's charac¬
ter, published without comment the complete text of the famous
letters to Randall.54 This was the first time that the letters had all
been published together .55 Two years later, 1879, Harper's 56 also
published D. D. Lloyd's pleasant biographical essay, “The Tom'
Side of Macaulay.”
Prior to the Lloyd essay in Harper's, two new journals were
heard from on Macaulay. M. J. Griffin, an eminent Catholic
leader, attacked Macaulay in the Canadian Monthly for not being
a true liberal. His liberalism “was in truth whiggism of the
Queen Anne period.” He was not interested in “the masses” ; he
was not “genial” nor “popular,” and he disliked public speaking.
Moreover, he hated Lord Brougham, the “great Liberal cham¬
pion.” And Griffin concludes that if he “lived today, he would be
a conservative.” Griffin’s attitude57 undoubtedly grew out of the
publication of the Randall letters by Harper's the previous year.
The specific nature of Macaulay's liberalism was greatly clarified
by the opinions on American democracy expressed in the letters.
The effect of the letters was to alienate a large part of the follow¬
ers of liberalism and democracy, and Griffin first gives expression
to an attitude that was henceforth to become quite common. In
the same year the American Journal of Education 58 praised
Macaulay as an advocate of a “liberal system of public instruc¬
tion” and as supporting a strong, judicious civil service system by
competitive examinations. The article ends on a note quite incon¬
es Ibid., p. 215.
“Lord Macaulay on American Institutions,” Harper’s Magazine, LIV, 460-462 (Feb.,
1877).
66 For a complete history of these remarkable letters, see Charles M. Adams, “Macaulay on
America, Once More,” Bulletin of the New York Publie Library, XL, 437-439 (May, 1936).
LVXXI, 605 ff. (1879).
67 Part of Griffin’s attitude may have been due to his pro-Irish sympathies. Griffin’s
Journal, published in Philadelphia from 1873 to 1900, was under the leadership of the Irish
Catholic Benevolent Union. See F. L. Mott, A History of American Magazines, 1865-1885,
(1938), p. 261.
68 “ Thomas Babington Macaulay,” XXVIII, 449 ff. (1878).
Clark — The Vogue of Macaulay in America 265
sistent with the first part of the essay by quoting extracts from
Macaulay's illiberal letters to Randall expressing his disbelief in
Jeffersonian democracy.
An interesting sidelight on the Randall letters has recently
been uncovered.59 Sometime after their publication by Harper's
in 1877, and probably during the presidential campaign of 1880,
Macaulay's strictures on American democracy were brought to
the attention of Garfield, who attempted to answer them. He
defended America against Macaulay's prediction, and said that
England herself had taken dangerous steps in the same direction
since the prediction was made. Garfield thought the prediction
itself was deficient because British writers, like Macaulay, born
into an aristocracy, cannot emancipate themselves from the idea
“that mankind are born into permanent classes." The possibility
of such a class-conflict as Macaulay envisioned, says Garfield, will
materialize only where classes are fixed. And he concludes that in
depicting the dangers of universal suffrage, Macaulay leaves
“wholly out of the account the great counterbalancing force of
universal education."60 Thus we have the spectacle of an Amer¬
ican, not especially notable for his liberalism, condemning Macau¬
lay as aristocratic and conservative. Macaulay's reputation there¬
fore has come a long way from the early days where he was looked
upon as a great Whig reformer, sympathetic to 17th-century
Puritan levellers. One of the most important contributions of the
criticism of this period was the clarification of the basic nature
of Macaulay's political and social theory.
William Mathews, pedestrian but voluminous critic, echoed
the voice of the times in 1879 by terming Macaulay's “so-called
History" an “ingenious and masterly piece of special pleading,"
in the disparagement of James II and glorification of his suc¬
cessor.61 Aside from his decided impartiality, Macaulay's great
fault lay in the inability of his brilliant impassivity to rise “to the
height of the great argument of Puritanism."62 Mathews feels
compelled to admit “Macaulay's champagne-like exhiliration of
style, his sparkling antithesis, epigram, and point,"63 his unsur¬
passed “power of lucid, swift, brilliant statement."64 But his
60 Charles H. Betts, “Macaulay’s Criticism of Democracy and Garfield’s Reply.” Open
Court, XXXII, 273-279 (May, 1918).
00 Betts, op. cit., 277.
61 Hours With Men and Books, 174.
63 Ibid., 181-3.
63 Literary Style, and other Essays, 1881, 124.
64 Ibid., 23-4.
266 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts and Letters
professorial judgment is that Macaulay is possessed by the uvery
demon of mannerism, and his tricks of style are . . . transparent” ;
his style is "obtrusive by its brilliancy” : therefore, "Macaulay’s
style is necessarily second-rate.”65
The opposition to Macaulay was brought to a climax by the
appearance of J. C. Morison’s Macaulay in 1882. The reviewer
in the Boston Literary World 66 stated its significance by say¬
ing that it first gave "full popular expression to the opinions of
dissenters from what we may reasonably call the great Macaulay
cult.” Morison’s list of the "direct and indirect causes which pre¬
vented Macaulay from attaining a permanent place among the
foremost of English prose writers” was as follows : a natural cast
of mind repugnant to all philosophical thought ; a lack of passion
and genuine affection for humanity; a want of intellectual
curiosity ; a want of ethical depth ; an incapacity for psychological
analysis and therefore a lack of ideality and suggestiveness ; and
the destruction of " ‘the tender bloom of his mind’ ” by an early
experience in politics. Morison’s chief objections against the
History were : a want of generalized and synthetic views ; exces¬
sive diffuseness; and deficient historical spirit. The American
reviewer of Morison’s book, however, is favorable to Macaulay
and says that Macaulay’s ability to hold his own in spite of so
formidable arraignment, "argues the existence of magnificent
qualities.”
Henry Adams praised Morison’s attack quite highly in his
letters. In 1882 he wrote to Henry Cabot Lodge that America
needed more impersonality in her books. "On the whole the
English still do better work than we. Morison’s Macaulay is an
instance.”67 He expressed further interest in the book when he
asked C. M. Gaskell in 1883 to find out for him "who is a man
named Morison, who has written a very clever sketch of Macau¬
lay? So good a piece of criticism ought to come from some one who
is known.”68 Professor Dicey, the English correspondent of the
American Nation again came to Macaulay’s defense.69 Dicey is,
by all odds, Macaulay’s most clear-headed defender in this period.
He saw clearly the basic issue at stake between Macaulay and the
critical historians, and he defends Macaulay on the only grounds
&5,Ibid., 23-4.
a® XIV, 38-9 (Feb. 10, 1883)
67 Letters , op. cit., 344.
68 Ibid., p. 346.
69 Review of Morison’s Macaulay, Nation, XXXVI, 174-5, 195-6, (Feb. 22, Mareh 1, 1888).
Clark — The Vogue of Macaulay in America
267
where that is possible. Macaulay, he asserted over and over
again, was “above all things a narrator : his object was to tell the
tale of the past/’ and he “will certainly be quite misunderstood if
you confuse the object of a narrator with the aims of an historical
critic.,, Morison has not always remembered this, though he
appreciated the literary character, public spirit, and manliness of
Macaulay. And if these qualities, says Dicey, fail to arouse
sympathy in the present generation, “the question may arise
whether the defect lies in the man who possesses these qualities,
or in the generation which is imbued with a passion for sympathy
and self-analysis.”
The remark shows the extent to which Macaulay's reputation
had suffered as a result of the new trends of thought, and suggests
that already he is regarded as a representative of Victorian
prudery.70 In the second half of his review Dicey discusses the
two basic problems raised by Morison on which Macaulay must
finally be judged. First, did Macaulay succeed in carrying out his
own idea of the task of the historian? Morison said not, but
Dicey says he misunderstood Macaulay's position of narrator.
Second, what was the worth of Macaulay’s conception of history?
This is the basic question in which Macaulay's reputation will be
determined. The present reaction against Macaulay, says Dicey,
is due to the rise of two schools of history radically different from
Macaulay's own. One is that of Carlyle and his school who writes
history as a “branch of ethics.” Dicey believes, however, that
no one “who really cares for the progress of knowledge [can]
doubt that Macaulay's treatment of history is . . . far more sound
and healthy than the mode in which it is treated by Carlyle.”71
The other group are those who trace in history the evolution of
ideas and principles. This group think that Macaulay does not
deserve to be called an historian because he held no such theory.
From this position Dicey says he would “distinctly demur.”
Macaulay is a narrator, and theories of history change with each
age, but narrated facts remain permanent. Anyway, there is
room in the field of history “for both types.” At present, however,
there is “some real danger lest the importance of narration should
be underrated” and as long as such a tendency exists men will
continue to underrate “one of the best, if not the best, of all his¬
torical story-tellers.”72
™Ibid., p. 175.
Ibid., p. 195.
72 Ibid., p. 196.
268 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts and Letters
Dicey’s labor of rehabilitation of the position of Macaulay
was abetted by Charles F. Thwing, who defended Macaulay
especially for his readability. Since 1849, wrote Thwing (in
1888), many histories have “been as interesting as a romance.
To the great Whig historian is due in a large degree the honor of
creating the change. It was Macaulay’s design, as he expresses it,
to write a history which, for at least two weeks, should supplant
the latest novel on a young lady’s table, and he succeeded . . .
The chief reason of the wonderful success was that the work was
written in a glowing, attractive, picturesque style.” This sort of
statement was much more important in the resuscitation of
Macaulay’s reputation at its point of lowest vitality than mere
assertions such as that made by Thwing that Macaulay’s treat¬
ment of James II and William and Mary “is the work first to be
consulted” by a student of that period.73
In the years following Morison’s Macaulay, John Fiske, the
most outstanding American spokesman for evolution, frequently
spoke out against Macaulay’s conception of history. In his
Excursions of an Evolutionist (1883) he spoke of Macaulay as
being entirely outmoded. “The interval in knowledge which
separates a Freeman in 1880 from a Macaulay in 1850 is as great
as the interval which separated Dalton and Davy from the be¬
lievers in phlogiston.”74 Many years later, in A Century of Science
(1899), he again spoke of the “remarkable advance in fairness
and breadth of view which historical studies have made within
the last fifty years,” and he again illustrates the change by con¬
trasting “the spirit in which the seventeenth century is treated
by Masson and Gardiner” as compared to Macaulay.75 In his
Essays written about this time he says that he also considers
Gardiner’s work on the 17th century to have superseded “all
others.”76 Fiske’s opinion may be taken as the extreme view of
critical historians toward Macaulay in the last two decades of the
19th century. Fiske himself is now considered “unscientific” by
modern historians.
In 1886, in an essay on John Morley, Melville B. Anderson
continued the attack, this time on Macaulay’s style. According
73 The Reading of Books, 1883* 29-30, 33.
74 Excursions of an Evolutionist, Boston, p. 1S4.
75 Ibid., p. 156.
76 “Old and New Ways of Treating History,” Essays Historical and Literary (1902),
Vol. II, p. 9. Fiske may have been prejudiced against Macaulay because of the latter’s un¬
sympathetic treatment of William Penn, for Fiske idealized Penn and the Quakers as those
who realized “the Christian ideal more perfectly than any other sect of Christians.”
Clark — The Vogue of Macaulay in America
269
to Anderson, Morley's “style has few of those fascinating quali¬
ties that made Macaulay the bread and meat of young minds in
the last generation,— until they tired of his antithetic trick and
began to learn that truth has infinite shades and iridescences not
to be portrayed by the crude purples and blacks of Macaulay's
palette. To thoughtful and sincere minds that have reached this
stage of cultivation, no better corrective to the narrow and con¬
fident assertiveness of Macaulay could well be found" than Mor-
ley.76a
From a wholly different and somewhat sentimental point of
view, the aristocratic Miss Agnes Repplier attacked Macaulay in
1888 in her volume of essays, Books and Men. Her principal
charges were that Macaulay was one of those “men whose unusual
powers of discernment were too often dimmed by their preju¬
dices" ;77 and that he had an unfortunate blindness for the gay,
colorful, and joyous aspects of life. The second view is particu¬
larly exploited throughout the concluding essay, “The Cavalier."
Here every effort is made to discredit Macaulay for inaccuracy
and dull Puritanism, and Walter Bagehot is skillfully played off
against him. Miss Repplier's thesis is well summed up in her
saying : “the Cavalier looked straight into the sunshine with clear,
joyous eyes, and troubled himself not at all with the disheartening
problems of humanity. How could a mind like Macaulay's, logical,
disciplined, and gravely intolerant, sympathize for a moment
with this utterly irresponsible buoyancy! How was he, of all
men, to understand this careless zest for the old feast of life, this
unreasoning loyalty to an indifferent sovereign, this passionate
devotion to a church and easy disregard of her precepts, this
magnificent wanton courage, this gay prodigality of enjoyment!
It was his loss, no less than ours, that, in turning over the pages
of the past, he should miss half of their beauty and their
pathos . . ."7S
Two notable defenses of Macaulay came in the decade after
1889. Professor Henry E. Shepherd gave high praise to Macaulay
as a writer of history in the new scholarly journal, Modern
Language Notes.79 He says Macaulay was especially fitted to write
7«a The Dial, VII, 101-2 (Sept., 1886).
77 Books and Men, p. 145. H. T. Griswold’s essay on Macaulay in her Home Life of
Great Authors (Chicago, 1887; pp. 177-187), in contrast, is rhapsodic in its appreciation
of Macaulay as a joyous person and a “wonderful conversationalist.”
78 Ibid., p. 207. See also Miss Repplier’s Essays in Idleness, 1893, pp. 196-8, where she
defends Horace Walpole against Macaulay’s attack.
79 “Lord Macaulay as an Historian,” Modern Language Notes, IV, 73-76, (1889).
270 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts and Letters
the history of the 17th century. Many elements of the period had
a strong personal appeal for him: “the diversity of strongly
defined character, the ample scope for the exercise of delinea-
tive faculty, the unfolding of that political consciousness which
was so eminently developed in our historian.” Shepherd denies
the “charge of inaccuracy and of unfair delineation of
character.”80 His narrative may have been overwrought, but
“among all the masters of historic art, none has been
animated by greater purity of spirit, by a more thorough absence
of tampering with authorities, by more intense and exacting
scrutiny of original sources.” “The quickening power of his work
is the purest attestation of its excellence.” For, as a matter of
fact, and here Shepherd takes issue with the critical historians,
the shaping spirit of the imagination is as essential to the “his¬
torian as it is to the poet or the scientist.” It is this power which
enables Macaulay to “re-create and restore a ‘day that is dead'.”81
Shepherd concludes with the prediction that “the calmer scrutiny
of a distant generation will discern in Macaulay’s finished and
breathing pictures, some deeper semblance of truth than shadowy
counterfeits and mythical delineations.”82 The prediction is full
of meaning, for it points directly to what was soon to happen.
The other defense of Macaulay at this time, 1899, was H. D.
Sedgwick’s essay, “The Vitality of Macaulay,” in the Atlantic
Monthly ,83 The principal reason for Macaulay’s popularity is the
fact that he had “much of the permanent English in him.” His
speeches on the Reform Bill “are characteristic of the English
mind. He instinctively employs only English arguments; he
disclaims any symmetrical theory, he courts property, he shouts
warning of instant danger.” All of which, of course, does not
account for his equally great American popularity. Sedgwick
next comments on the causes of Macaulay’s popularity have more
relevancy to America. “Common sense is the great English char¬
acteristic ; Macaulay was filled with it,” and “cared not for philos-
80 Ibid., p. 74.
61 Ibid., p. 75.
82 Ibid., p. 76. The power of style which figures in Shepherd’s praise found periodic
appreciators such as T. W. Hunt who found the difference in manner between the essays of
Arnold and those of Lamb and Macaulay “marked in favor of the latter, and the difference
is one between restricted and general circulation.” “Matthew Arnold as an English Writer,”
New Princeton Review, VI, New York, 1888, p. 368. D. G. Mitchell was representative of the
prevailing wing of critical doctrine, however, in saying that Macaulay “was apt to let his
exuberant and cumulative rhetoric carry him up to a climacteric which the ladder of his facts
would scantily reach.” See his Works, Edgewood ed., XII, 111.
82 LXXXIV, 163-174 (August, 1899).
Clark — The Vogue of Macaulay in America 271
ophy. The history of England is the great romance of the modern
world/'84 but before Macaulay her historians had not done justice
to the part played by the Whig middle class with its “achieve¬
ments of utility and progress.” Macaulay arose to “show the real
value of the work of the middle classes.”85 And the History suits
neither the Tories, the religious, nor the artistic, but it suits
instead “the majority of Englishmen, by its virile directness,
its honest clearness, and its bold definiteness.” Sedgwick now
turns to more fundamental issues. He defends Macaulay against
the charges of being narrow and prejudiced, of understanding
only what the “liberals of his generation understood,” and of
seeing the outward but not the inward aspects of life. History
is always written by the adherents of some sect, and Macaulay
merely wrote “the Whig, or rather . . . the English idea of his¬
tory.”86 Froude, Morley, and Sir Leslie Stephens themselves are
each “limited by some special creed of their own.” Macaulay,
however, “is so steeped in information that, although he may be
wrong as to a particular fact, he is justified in his conclusion.”
Thus we have the peculiar situation in which critical analysis
instead of being used by Macaulay's opponents to attack his lack
of depth, is now being used by his friends to justify his biases;
since critical analysis of late years87 had shown that the most
scientific method of approach could not entirely eradicate the
special view of the historian, and that therefore all historians
were more or less prejudiced, Sedgwick concludes with high
praise for Macaulay's essays. He is the greatest rhetorician in
English literature and is comparable to “a Cicero, a Bossuet.”88
He presents everything “in brilliant images.” There is nothing in
his work “which the world did not possess before; but most of
the world was not aware of those possessions until Macaulay
gathered them together.”89
W. J. Ashley's review of a book called Social Life in England
from the Restoration to the Revolution, 1660-1690, by a certain
William C. Sydney, for the Nation 90 in 1893 reveals in a very
8* Ibid, pp. 164, 165.
85 Ibid., p. 167.
88 Ibid., p. 172.
87 See, for example, Charles A. Beard’s address as President of the American Historical
Association entitled “Written History as an Act of Faith,” American Historical Review,
XXXIX, 219-231 (Jan., 1934). Also Arnold J. Toynbee’s “The Relativity of Historical
Thought,” in A Study oj History, London, 1934, Vol. I, pp. 1-16.
88 Sedgwich, op. cit., p. 173.
89 Ibid., p. 174.
09 “Macaulay and Water,” LVI, 16-17 (Jan. 5, 1893).
272 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts and Letters
trenchant way the ebb-tide of Macaulay’s popularity in America
in the last decades of the century. Ashley quotes parallel passages
to show that Sydney had compiled his book by merely paraphras¬
ing the History and at times even using Macaulay’s exact words
for a paragraph or two. Such a stunt is now possible, says Ashley,
because the “general public no longer reads its Macaulay.”
Frederic Harrison, the English positivist, wrote on Macaulay
for the American Forum 91 in 1894. Macaulay, he says, is popular
with the public but not with the critics. The modern “scientific”
school calls his History “a splendid failure.” His optimism and
robust health forms a contrast for “poor, despondent, morbid
and cynical” Carlyle. The public, however, likes a manly, down¬
right optimist” but “the moody and prophetic pessimist” appeals
merely to the critics. The arguments he sets forth for his point
of view are neither philosophy nor history, but nevertheless are
full of a “certain rich literary seed.” Harrison, however, dislikes
Macaulay’s stylistic tricks which he thinks lead to a “habit of false
emphasis.” And Harrison comes to the standard judgment of the
critical realist of this time in regard to Macaulay. “He stands
between philosophic historians and the public very much as
journals and periodicals stand between the masses and great
libraries.” He brings the mature work of scholars to the “man
in the street,” but compared to Gibbon’s work his History is mere
“glorified journalism.”
In 1895 came Howell’s appreciative estimate of his own early
reception of Macaulay.92 There was much in Macaulay to strike
responsive chords in Howells, and he records how he read “every
one” of Macaulay’s essays. “It was like a long debauch, from
which I emerged with regret that it should ever end.” Howells
says he liked him better than Carlyle after exhausting the Essays.
“I read his history of England, and I could measurably console
myself with that.” He goes on to tell how he discussed the Essays
with the machinist, the organ-builder, and the printer, until an
“intense fascination” and “personal devotion” had overtaken him.
“Of course I reformed my prose style . . . and began to write in
the manner of Macaulay, in short, quick sentences, and with the
prevalent use of brief Anglo-Saxon words. ... As for his notions
91 “Macaulay’s Place in Literature,” XVIII, 80 ff. (1894).
92 My Literary Passions (1895), New York, 1895, pp. 114-118. However, W. H. Hudson
( Studies in Interpretation, New York, 1896, pp. 193-4) spoke of Macaulay as one “in whom
the shallow self-complacency of the time found a ready and vigorous spokesman.” Hudson
refers to his essay on Southey and “the concluding paragraphs of the famous third chapter
of his History .”
Clark— -The Vogue of Macaulay in America 273
of literature, I simply accepted them with the feeling that any
question of them would have been little better than blasphemy.”
Later, he says, his taste, for Macaulay "waned rapidly.” (It will
be remembered that Howells became a Socialist.) "His worst
fault was only to have stopped short of the finest truth in art, in
morals, in politics.” He had a "bright and clear intelligence” and
"I do not think yet that he swayed me in any very wrong way.”
The last notice of Macaulay in the nineteenth century is fate¬
fully enough the reappearance of his prophetic letters to Randall
on the fate of American democracy in the twentieth century. The
Panic of 1893 and the consequent economic and social ills had
recalled the letters to mind, as was to be the case in later economic
crises, and they were reprinted without comment in Gunton’s
Magazine in 1896. The truth of the prophecies and their further
effect on his reputation, however, are matters affecting Macau¬
lay's reputation in the twentieth century, to which we now turn.
III. 1900 to 1940
After 1900 criticism of Macaulay gradually entered its mature
stage. There is little of the blind devotion and prejudiced hos¬
tility of the period from 1840 to 1860, nor much of the dog¬
matic criticism of the period from 1860 to 1900. And as biases
die out, criticism mellows. The new spirit was undoubtedly aided
also by the rise of investigative scholarship in American universi¬
ties and the establishment of scholarly journals. At any rate the
new age is characterized by quiet investigation and more accurate
evaluation. In the period just past the History alone had pretty
well dominated American criticism of Macaulay. This will no
longer be true. The strength and weakness of the History had
been pretty well analyzed by 1900. The new age is a period of
special studies of many aspects of Macaulay's varied career,
overlooked in the earlier dominance o£the History. New emphasis
is to be given to his criticism, his poetry, his style, and his real
literary values. There is much less unity in the criticism of the
period. No trend of thought, like that of a new school of history,
unifies the criticism of this period. It is one of independent study
by isolated men. In general the most important feature of the
new age is a slow improvement of Macaulay's reputation in
America.
The new age, however, was not to come at once. The old
criticism lived on into the first years of the new century. The
Knickerbocker edition of Macaulay's works appeared in 1900
and was reviewed in Current Literature1 in 1901. The reviewer
testifies to the “renewed appetite" for Macaulay, and adds that
much “nonsense" has been written lately criticizing Macaulay
by men who could better spend their time “in studying the
secrets of his eloquence."
Edward Eggleston's Beginners of a Nation (1896) and The
Transit of Civilization (1901), the only volumes he completed in
a projected comprehensive history of American life, were signifi¬
cant signs of the growing retreat from military “drum and
trumpet" history toward social history concerned with the full
circumference of the everyday life of the masses. And it is there¬
fore interesting to notice that in Eggleston's influential Presi¬
dential Address entitled “The New History," before the Amer¬
ican Historical Association in 1900, he should have praised
1 XXX, 64-56 (Jan., 1901).
274
Clark ■ — The Vogue of Macaulay in America 275
Macaulay and acknowledged his indebtedness to him. He begins
by excusing the fact that his style, while "brilliant and balanced,”
was "too antithetical,” by reminding us that "he wrote in the first
half of the nineteenth century.” Macaulay's history, he says,
"begins with taxes and revenues; the customs and revenue lists
of the princes are much elaborated and are not very interesting.
But by degrees he draws near to manners and he draws near to
London. The picture of old London, turned over and over in his
mind in those long walks Macaulay is said to have made through
every street of the metropolis, is a wonderful piece of history.
It is worth the whole history beside. And nobody ever dreamed
before that such a subject was in the province of history.” Like
other histories, Macaulay's has gone, he says, through a cycle of
disapprobation, but he concludes that the greatest of nineteenth
century historians is Macaulay.2
In the same year Charles Francis Adams renewed the attack
of the modern historians on Macaulay.3 Adams is ready to recog¬
nize Macaulay's greatness as an historian on one side only. He
came "nearer than any other English writer of the century to
the great historical stature; but he failed to attain it.” Of the
three essential attributes of an historian, he had only one — "vast
erudition” with a "phenomenal memory.” His judgment was
defective by being "partisan” and the "wealth of his imagina¬
tion and the exuberance of his rhetoric were fatal to his sense of
form.” "He was incomparably the greatest of historical racon¬
teurs, but the fascination of the story overcame his sense of
proportion, and he was buried under his own riches.” His work
is "unquestionably history,” but the pigments he used are "indis¬
putably Whig.” His method was instinctively correct but he
labored under two fatal disadvantages: "like Gibbon, he was
born and wrote before the discoveries of Darwin had given its
whole great unity to history” ; and he did not subordinate his plan
to "both his imagination and his rhetoric.” Thus Adams re-stated
three of the four most commonly expressed charges against
Macaulay as historian : his partisanship, his lack of a philosophy
of history, and his lack of a style suited to historical truth. The
fourth charge — a lack of critical analysis of motives —was amply
treated by his previous critics. One of the most interesting phases
2 Annual Report of the American Historical Association for the Year 1900, Vol. I, pp.
44-45.
3 “The Sifted Grain and the Grain Sifters,” American Historical Review, VI, 218-220,
227, 228 n. (Jan., 1901). The whole essay, a sifting of historians, was delivered as a lecture
at the founding of the Wisconsin Historical Society Library, Oct. 18, 1900.
276 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts and Letters
of Macaulay criticism in the new century is the later historians’
opinion of the charges preferred against Macaulay by the 19th-
century historians. Thus in 1900 Sydney G. Fisher, reviewing
John Fiske’s Dutch and Quaker Colonies, attacked the style and
manner of earlier American historians as “horrible.” “If I were
a professor of English literature I should give my pupils a
course in these writers just to show them what turgidity, bom¬
bast, insincerity, and all the weaknesses and faults of style are
in actual practice.” He ranks Macaulay with Gibbon as having
“dignity and real dignity.” “Read Macaulay’s essay on the writ¬
ing of history, and see what he thinks should be the mental
equipment and training of a man who sets forth to write history
with a light hand. Even Mr. Fiske, good as he is, is not up to
Macaulay’s standard.”4 In 1902 John Burroughs5 cited Macaulay
among those who “have studied and elaborate styles, but in each
the matter is paramount and the mind finds something solid to
rest upon.” Mark Twain in a political speech in 1901 compared
the politicians of Tammany Hall to Warren Hastings, saying:
“The most of us know no Hastings but Macaulay’s, and there is
good reason for that. When we try to read the impeachment
charge against him we find that we cannot endure the pain of
the details. They burn, they blister, they wrench the heart, they
drive us out of ourselves . . .”6 The power of style which had
made him feel the emotional and political effectiveness of the
parallel is as patent as the high praise from a powerful writer
who had no hesitation about roasting the sacred dead if he felt
they deserved it.
In 1902 Professor A. V. Dicey appeared with another of his
periodical defenses of Macaulay in the American Nation .7 He
attributes Macaulay’s decline to the fact that his genius was
“antipathetic” to the men “who guided the educated opinion of
4 Book Buyer, XX, 146-48 (March, 1900). On the other hand, Fiske is praised in the
Nation (LXXVI, 17, Jan. 1, 1903) because his writings “introduced into American historical
writing a feature of which Macaulay first revealed the secret — that of reconstituting the
past by actually introducing us to the daily life of the period — a feature lacking in some of
the best volumes of even so recent a writer as Parkman.” Another reviewer of Fiske
(Athenaeum, No. 3940, 560-61, May 2, 1903), concludes that he holds “a place in the new
school of historical writers akin to that which the two latter [Prescott and Motley] held in
the age of Hallam and Macaulay.”
5 John Burroughs, Literary Values (in Works, Riverby Edition, X), 73. On p. 106
Burroughs says “The critic must escape from the local and accidental. We would have
Macaulay cease to be a Whig . . .” He thought that his “highest excellence as a poet is his
eloquence” (p. 182). See also pp. 70, 71, 73, 87, 145.
6 See A. B. Paine, Mark Ttvain, a Biography, 1912.
7 “Macaulay and His Critics,” Nation, LXXIV, 388-389 (May 18, 1902). The article
is a review of two books on Macaulay by Sir Richard C. Jebb and H. D. Macgregor.
Clark— The Vogue of Macaulay in America 277
England” in the latter half of the 19th century. He was really
more like the 18th century in character, yet his “onslaught on
the a priori . . . method of the Benthamites . . . breaks with
the intellectual tradition of the eighteenth century, and antici¬
pates the historical view of political science.” His belief that
democratic life was “due to the rise of Christianity” is also
quite foreign to the ideas of Gibbon and Hume. He expresses
the “spirit of 1832” in his optimism, belief in material progress,
and manly vigor, but he is not part of the intellectual reaction
to 19th century thought represented by Carlyle, Froude, New¬
man, and Matthew Arnold. His view of history as primarily
“narrative” was also opposed by the “scientific” historians. But
their charge that he made no “discoveries” of truth is meaning¬
less. Macaulay is a man of genius and no amount of criticism
can injure him.
The first essay typical of Macaulay criticism in the 20th
century is T. E. Blakely's study of “Macaulay’s English” in
Harper’s* All critics agree, he says, that in Macaulay’s works
“the English language has been written more clearly and correctly
than in any great literary composition of the nineteenth century.”
Macaulay’s clearness, correctness, and delicacy comes from two
sources: his careful study of “the great classical writers” and
his “study of the genius and grammatical structure of the English
language.”9 Macaulay carefully revised all his work. Even after
the History had been completely successful, he went over the
whole work in 1855 and made thousands of changes, nine-tenths
of which were in grammar and rhetoric. Blakely claims that “no
English writer of the last century displays such scrupulous ob¬
servance of the rules of grammar and rhetoric, such careful selec¬
tion of words, and such regard for euphony and clearness.”10
And from this he concludes that those who strive to write should
observe that the most popular writer of the 19th century was one
who paid most attention to grammar and the classics.* 11
H. D. Sedgwick’s second essay on Macaulay came out in
1903. 12 Sedgwick believed that Macaulay’s “enormous fund of
information” was an injury rather than an aid “by coddling, as
it were, the stunted side of his imagination,”-— a view that has
become quite generally accepted. Sedgwick is also among the
s CV, 529-533 (1902).
9 lbid.t p. 529.
10 Ibid., p. 530.
11 Ibid., p. 533.
12 “Macaulay,” Essays on Great Writers (1903), pp. 141-197.
278 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts and Letters
first to stress emotional deficiency in Macaulay's life — another
view that was to be generally accepted. He never had “the educa¬
tion of a great private personal emotion. He never was in love ;
he never comprehended the meaning of religion."13 “All his life
Macaulay was convinced that truth is as clear as day," and he
had “the highest aims and the noblest aspirations that are com¬
patible with complete mental subjection to the practical . . .
mechanical parts of life." Sedgwick quotes Froude as saying that
Macaulay embodied his age. He did have the rosy vision of many
men regarding the “growth of population and the increase of
wealth." Sedgwick also gives a new emphasis to Macaulay's
Essays. They form “part of the strength of English literature,"
and fill the need in English for the rhetorical type of essay. His
poetry, like his prose, is written for the “strong, healthy, typical
Englishman." Sedgwick’s essay is important for several new
elements which will receive more emphasis in later criticism.
Professor Dicey wrote his last defense of Macaulay for the
Nation in 1903. 14 Dicey emphasizes the change which has taken
place in the world since Macaulay wrote. He belongs “in spirit
to a different and a more robust and manly age than ours."
Dicey admits that Macaulay “lacked the quality of scientific dis¬
interestedness," but his “partisanship was nothing but the weak
side of a splendid historical imagination." Macaulay was psycho¬
logically blind to certain things ; he could not comprehend histor¬
ical characters “in whom religious sentiment was blended . . .
with a certain amount of moral obliquity." As an historian
Macaulay was “picturesque" rather than “scientific," but in
“power of narration" he “stands a head and shoulders above all
modern English writers." Macaulay's reputation has suffered
because the modern view sees history less as literature and more
as scientific research to “discover" facts. Dicey, however, claims
that this is ultimately “a narrow and one-sided creed." This
prediction was soon borne out by the historians themselves. Only
a year later, G. Smith, President of the American Historical As¬
sociation, in his essay on “The Treatment of History"15 called
Macaulay “the most brilliant of historians."
The year 1906 saw the private printing of The Education
of Henry Adams which treated Macaulay according to the cus¬
tomary Adams' procedure of criticism by snatching back more
« Ibid., p. 158.
14 “Macaulay as an Essayist/' LXXVII, 529-530 (Dec. 31, 1903).
16 American Historical Review, X (April, 1905), 511-20.
Clark — The Vogue of Macaulay in America 279
with the excoriating right hand than the laudatory left had
given. “Adams had the greatest admiration for Macaulay,” he
wrote of the great fellow-historian whose acquaintance he had
made in London, “but he felt that anyone who should even
distantly imitate Macaulay would perish in self-contempt. One
might as well imitate Shakespeare. Yet evidently something was
wrong here, for the poet and the historian ought to have different
methods, and Macaulay's method ought to be imitable if it were
sound ; yet the method was more doubtful than the style. He was
a dramatist; and painter; a poet, like Carlyle. This was the
English mind, method, genius, or whatever one might call it;
but one never could quite admit that the method which ended in
Froude and Kinglake could be sound for America where passion
and poetry were eccentricities . . . perhaps the English method
was right, and art fragmentary by essence. History, like every¬
thing else, might be a field of scraps . . .”16
In 1907 the Contemporary Review 16a published an article on
the marginalia which Macaulay had penciled into insignificant
books. This was the type of work that needed to be done before
Macaulay could be evaluated as a critic. The article is not
exhaustive, however, and the subject was to be much more thor¬
oughly investigated later by Chislett and Williams, as we shall
soon see.
William Cleaver Wilkinson the next year (1908) set himself
up as “the true critic” in opposition to Matthew Arnold and
proclaimed that :
The verse of Macaulay in his Lays is of course not poetry
in any high sense, and that critic misses the mark who ap¬
praises it and condemns it as if it pretended to be such. The
Lays are simply an incomparably spirited embodiment of the
primitive Roman genius and character as Livy conceived and
represented [them] ... No true lover of literature, with taste and
comprehension broad enough to constitute the qualified critic,
can fail to feel the manly stir and rally that Macaulay has put
into his lines. There is base metal in them only to the reader
who falsely judges . . .17
In his essay of 1908, “Two Types of Humanitarians: Bacon
and Rousseau,” the humanist, Irving Babbitt, took eager advan¬
tage of Macaulay's weakness for “glittering antitheses” to make
a major point. Macaulay had poised Bacon's glorious idea of
16 The Education of Henry Adams, Popular edition, 221.
18a “Among Macaulay’s Books,” LXXXXII, Supplement, pp. 9-11, (Dec., 1907).
17 Some New Literary Valuations, p. 136.
280 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts and Letters
progress against his personal meanness. “But for one who is
seeking the truth and not rhetorical effect,” Babbitt snapped,
“the significance of Bacon’s moral breakdown lies in the very
fact that it had the same origins as his idea of progress. He
was led to neglect the human law through a too subservient pur¬
suit of the natural law . . .”18 In addition to castigating this
“strange psychological anomaly,”19 he slashed once more at
Macaulay for a “shallow infatuation with material progress.”20
The golden anniversary of Macaulay’s death was celebrated
by two essays in 1909. The Bookman 21 contained a personality-
sketch in which the writer concluded that Macaulay was a
dangerous writer for an “untrained or immature mind” and
that, though the History was declining, it would never die.
William Roscoe Thayer’s brilliant essay “Macaulay Fifty Years
After,” appeared a few weeks later in the North American Re¬
view.22 The essay is an accurate, impartial account of Macaulay’s
reception in the last fifty years. “Optimism, clear doctrines which
chimed with the prevailing ideas of liberty and progress, vivacity,
a genius for the pictorial, a level head and a wholesome heart” —
these, says Thayer, were the qualities which contributed to
Macaulay’s early popularity. He furnished “definite, cogent,
aggressive opinions” for those “who could quote, but not form
them.” And what he said brought to the oppressed population of
the world “the redemptive virtues of Freedom and Constitu¬
tionalism and Nationality.”23 Yet all this would not have sufficed
without “his amazing style” — for his “great service was to
clarify, once for all, the language of affairs.”24 According to Mayer,
a great turn against Macaulay took place after 1860 : “Realism,
based on Science and guided by the theory of Evolution,” sought
to make everything human “as transparent as a chemist’s reac¬
tion” ; “infallible law would be traceable even in matters of
taste” ; “literary criticism would become an exact science and his¬
tory merely the study of applied social dynamics.” In such a
world Macaulay seemed “not only unprofitable, but a stumbling-
block.”25 His freedom, optimism, and progress seemed out of
18 Literature and the American College, pp. 38-9.
19 Ibid., p. 49.
20 Ibid., p. 40.
21 E. Fuller, “Macaulay: Then and Now,” XXX, 38-40 (Sept. 1909).
22CXC, 737-752 (Dec., 1909).
23 Ibid., p. 737.
24 Ibid., p. 738.
25 Ibid., p. 739. For general orientation consult W. M. Payne, “American Literary
Criticism and the Doctrine of Evolution,” International Monthly, II, 26-46, 127-153 (1900) ;
Clark— The Vogue of Macaulay in America 281
tone with the “hideous inequalities” of industrialism; his chief
interest was politics, but the new interests were economics and
sociology ; his ideal of freedom seemed strange when the position
of the privileged classes was confirmed by the doctrine of the
survival of the fittest ; and his practical science was much in ad¬
vertence with the science of evolution striving for the key to the
universe. Literary taste had also changed, “Objectivity was now
the ideal,” and Matthew Arnold said Macaulay's “chief sin was
his subjectivity.”26 The current of English prose was shifting “to
the colloquial on one hand and to preciosity on the other.” And to
both groups Macaulay's style seemed “unnatural.”27 The fiercest
war, however, raged over the nature of history. Here also objec¬
tivity was in the ascendant and a great quarrel arose between the
“scientific” and “literary” historians. Followers of Ranke
fifty years ago tried to “avoid interpretation as a deadly sin.”
Hence resulted the unpopularity of Macaulay “who was so frankly
an interpreter.”28 The scientists debased historical composition to
mere research and out of Germany came the notion of publishing
doctor's theses. Thayer believes that it is because “Macaulay
can serve as a corrective of some of these developments that a
return to him may be recommended.”29 He represents the past
“not as dead, but living.” He “attains the highest truth by
dwelling in the heart and not on the surface.”30 If any adverse
criticism is to be made, it is that his History “seems too pre¬
pared,9* The evidence is so skillfully selected and so lucidly pre¬
sented that we miss the element of chance or mystery in human
affairs. Thayer says he does not exaggerate the contrast be¬
tween Macaulay's well-defined body of opinions and “the Prag¬
matist confusion in which we are weltering to-day.”31 He is the
last English writer in whom “tradition can be seen unblurred.”
His writings “are the most Roman of all modern productions.”32
With Thayer's important essay Macaulay's reputation may be
said to be definitely on the upward path again.
In 1909 the popular historian James F. Rhodes thought that
John Richard Green, whom he greatly admired and who was
J. P. Hoskins, “Biological Analogy in Literary Criticism,” Modern Philology, April and July,
1909, p. 407-434 ; and James M. Baldwin, Darwin and the Humanities (1909).
26 Ibid., p. 740.
27 Ibid., p. 741.
28 Ibid., p. 744.
29 Ibid., p. 745.
so Ibid., p. 746.
31 Ibid., p. 761.
Ibid., p. 752.
282 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts and Letters
very widely read in America, was still surpassed in popularity
here by Macaulay. As shapers of the opinions of the reading
public Macaulay is ranked with Carlyle and Gibbon.32a
Nevertheless in 1909, C. H. Rominger attacked Macaulay's
essay on Milton in Education ,33 He claims Macaulay had no
taste for Milton's delicacy, but a good deal for his bombast. His
essay shows little feeling or soul. “It is the calm, reflective
criticism of a matter-of-fact mind.'' Macaulay gives a great
amount of space to the “almost irrelevant consideration of Eng¬
lish politics" and comparatively little to Milton's poems. In
Rominger's essay American criticism spreads out to include
Macaulay the critic and before the period is ended an attempt
will be made to estimate his critical importance.
In 1910 Professor A. B. Hart, the popular Harvard historian,
made a new evaluation of the essential qualifications of the true
historian in his essay, “Imagination in History."34 This new
emphasis on imagination marks a new era for Macaulay as a
historian. Hart thinks him “the most striking example of the
imaginative historian." He has “been in and out of fashion
several times: the scientific historians find him unreal; the dull
writers think him meretricious, but one thing is certain”; you
can get history from anyone, “but in reading Macaulay you get
Macaulay. He puts into every page his own experience of life;
he moves forward and backward ; everywhere he finds compar¬
isons, allusions, parallels, categories."35 “The arousing style, the
prodigality of knowledge, the real interest in, acquaintance with,
and love for, historical characters . . . combine to put Macaulay
in the front rank of the world's historians. He is great because
of his dramatic power; his people are all taking a part in a
mighty movement ; one after another speaks his lines, telling us
why he is on stage, or by indirection making us aware of his
assignment."36 Thus did Hart set forth the terms on which the
new century was to come to a newer and higher and more accu¬
rate estimate of Macaulay's History.
32a Rhodes, Historical Essays, 1909, “Green.”
88 “Macaulay’s Essay on Milton,” XXX, 36-39 (Sept., 1909). D. J. Snider, the St. Louis
Hegelian, is enthusiastic but a little patronizing in his description of the way in which
Macaulay’s Milton essay thrilled him as a college boy. The style and manner are recalled
as full of rush and gusto. The volume of essays is, then, “one of the best educational books
for boys between sixteen and twenty, or for men — of the same degree of ripeness.” But it
can give no “lasting satisfaction” to maturity. See Snider’s A Writer of Books, 1910, 118-9.
84 American Historical Review, XV, 227-251 (Jan., 1910).
86 Ibid., p. 247.
38 Ibid., p. 248. For Hart’s criteria see also his article on “The American School of
Historians,” International Monthly, II, 294-322 (Sept., 1900).
Clark— -The Vogue of Macaulay in America 283
The Lays of Ancient Rome were edited in 1912 by Professor
Arthur Beatty who wrote an appreciative scholarly introduc¬
tion.37 He discusses the ballad revival and the relation of the
Lays to previous ballad forms, and finds that they “have the
force and vigorous simplicity of Scott, with the directness of the
ballad, combined with the free stanza-form of Coleridge.” The
Lays themselves he regards “as a successful attempt to transform
some part of Roman legend back again into the lost ballad-poetry
of the ancient city.”38 He traces the source of the ballads to
Niebuhr's History of Rome and says they thus “are the result of
the profound scholarship of Niebuhr and the brilliant, rhetorical
genius of Macaulay.”39 He defends the Lays against the attack
of Matthew Arnold, and concludes that in them there is “an
abundance of good matter for the nurture of the spirit and of
the imagination, which cannot fail to develop in youth the love
for the best in life and literature.”40 Beatty's essay shows the
tendency of 20th century American criticism to develop all sides
of Macaulay's work and to investigate and understand before
it judges.
In 1913 Theodore Roosevelt continued the theme begun by
Hart three years before and emphasized the need for literary
qualities in the writing of history. In his essay, “History as
Literature,”41 he, like Hart, pays high tribute to Macaulay.
Macaulay “the historian is read by countless thousands to whom
otherwise history would be a sealed book,” because his works
“are material additions to the great sum of English literature.”
They have filled the great need “for vivid and powerful presen¬
tation of scientific matter in literary form.”42 Such a verdict
must have had great influence because Roosevelt was not only
President of the United States but President of the American
Historical Society, before which this address was made.
..
The regeneration of Macaulay's reputation as a historian was
continued in W. C. Abbott's reviews43 of Firth's Illustrated Edi¬
tion of the History which appeared volume by volume in 1914
and 1915. Since its appearance sixty-five years ago, says Abbott,
Lays of Ancient Rome ( Scribner English Classics, 1912) pp. viii-xxi.
38 Ibid., p. xv.
39 Ibid., p. xvii.
40 Ibid., p. xx.
41 American Historical Review , XVIII, 473-489 (April, 1913).
42 Ibid., p. 474.
43 Abbott’s reviews appeared in the American Historical Review as each volume of the
new edition appeared: XIX, 612 (April, 1914), 149 (Oct., 1913) ; XX, 431 (Jan., 1916), 662
(April, 1915) ; XXI, 145-6 (Oct., 1916).
284 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts and Letters
Macaulay’s History “has been, if not the most admired, almost
certainly the most widely read historical work in the English
language.” And Macaulay, he says, is one of the “two most
eminent of English historians.”44 Abbott testifies to Macaulay’s
“marvellously intimate acquaintance with the almost innumer¬
able individuals whose actions and characters he chronicles.”45
He says the two most “current criticisms” of Macaulay are that
he was “insular and political to a degree which limits greatly the
value and general appeal of his work.” Abbott defends Macaulay
against these charges. When compared to Ranke and Klopp (the
two most prominent continental writers in the same field), “the
infinitely greater catholicity of interest and the scarcely less
breadth of view of the English historian” is evident at once.
Abbott thinks that the appearance of Firth’s monumental edition
portends “a revival of Macaulay from the relative obscurity and
discredit into which the past generation of critics and scholars
has driven his work.” Such a revival seems more likely now
“than at any time in the past thirty years.”46
In 1915 appeared W. Chislett’s special study, “Macaulay’s
Classical Reading.”47 He found Macaulay’s classical reading to
be “prodigious.”48 He read the classics throughout his life and
“arrived at an appreciation of Greek and Latin writers that was
vital, sound, and his own.”49 He was not interested in the “meta¬
physics and politics” of Plato and he “disliked Socrates,” com¬
paring them unfavorably with Bacon. But he had high praise for
Demosthenes, thought Thucydides “ ‘the greatest historian that
ever lived’.”50 and appreciated and understood Cicero as few
“scholars of his day understood” him.51 Macaulay’s familiarity
with the classics enabled him to deal “critically with the scholar¬
ship of men and movements of which he wrote” ; made him
learned without appearing to be so ; and brought into the History
the influence of Thucydides and Demosthenes who “stand always
before him as the ideal orator and the ideal historian.”52 Chis¬
lett’s essay indicates that American criticism of Macaulay has
reached its maturity— a period of very specialized studies de¬
voted to certain neglected phases of his personality and work.
The advent of the World War at this point disrupted all
criticism and for five years there is a lapse in the expression of
American opinion on Macaulay. When it was resumed again,
^ Ibid., XIV, 612.
47 Classical Journal, XI, 142-150 (1915).
50 Ibid., p. 145.
45 Ibid., XX, 149.
48 Ibid., p. 149.
5i Ibid., p. 148.
46 Ibid., XXI, 146.
49 Ibid., p. 142.
52 Ibid., p. 150.
Clark — The Vogue of Macaulay in America 285
very characteristically it was Macaulay’s letter to Randall con¬
taining his famous prediction regarding democracy in 20th-
century America that first attracted attention. And thus the
popularity of the letter in the chaotic days following the Civil
War was re-enacted on a much larger scale after the World War.
Macaulay’s prediction had really been made in reference to the
20th century, and to many in the troublous post-War period the
evil day of Macaulay’s prediction seemed to have come. For forty
years no mention had been made of the letter in American criti¬
cism of Macaulay, and the World War generation was undoubt¬
edly unaware of its existence. It was probably brought inadvert¬
ently into public notice again when Charles H. Betts reprinted
it in the Open Court53 in 1918 and published with it President
Garfield’s refutation, without comment of his own. But other
writers were quick to see the importance of the letter for their
time, and for the next twenty years men were forever bringing
it to light. In 1920 A. R. Dearborn reprinted the letter in the
Sewanee Review 54 for the purpose, he says, of awakening the
public conscience to “the importance of giving timely considera¬
tion to impending dangers now indicated by things too obvious
to be ignored.” This situation has come about by “the failure
of civilization to prevent the destruction of all that has made
for progress, by the warring nations of Europe.”55 “The changes
in class conditions that have taken place in England since
1914, have swept from beneath his [Macaulay’s] feet the
ground upon which he stood in 1857.” In America, organized
labor, capitalizing on the nation’s war necessities, has insisted
on concessions, and “has left the country in a state of socialistic
paternalism of which its founders never dreamed.”56 And Dear¬
born concludes that in the midst of our glorious triumph in the
World War, we would do “well to put on the garments of humility
that go with true greatness and view with soberness Lord
Macaulay’s suggestion-— 'That your Huns and Vandals will have
been engendered within your own country by your own insti¬
tutions’.”5^
C. D. Hazen in his Introduction to the Modern Students
Library edition of the Historical Essays53h tried to explain in 1921
53 “Macaulay’s Criticism of Democracy and Garfield’s Reply,” XXXII, 273-279 (May,
1918). The article has been discussed above for the year 1880.
54 “Macaulay Up to Date,” XXVIII, 66-74 (1920).
65 Ibid., p. 70.
66 Ibid., p. 73. B6a Ibid., p. 74.
G6b Historical Essays by Lord Macaulay (1921), pp. v-xvii.
286 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts and Letters
the causes of Macaulay’s American popularity. Hazen believes
there can be no doubt of his “universal popularity” and “the
permanency of his influence,” and he believes it was chiefly
gained through “the magic of style.” But besides, Macaulay was
a self-made man and thus satisfied “all the supposed requirements
of our democratic and popular morality.”57 Hazen analyzes in
detail the art of the new historical essay of Macaulay and finds
that in many ways it is akin to the novel ; it is therefore an aid
to the memory and the quick reader alike.58 His “supreme merits
as a writer of history” are many : he places himself in the center
of time and place by vivid detail; imparts to others his living
visualizations; possesses a dramatic sense of subordination and
arrangement of scene ; conveys a sense of breadth by comparison,
contrast and illustration; and conveys a sense of the pictorial
through great portraits and panoramas. His animation and cer¬
tainty are the qualities of youth. He was a crusader for “Whig
liberty” but as an advocate he was “fair.”59 “His essays . . .
make an incomparable manual and vade mecum for a busy,
uneducated man.”
In 1924 another essay appeared on Macaulay as a critic^— this
time from the pen of Stanley Williams.60 One of the basic char¬
acteristics of modern evaluation of Macaulay is the emphasis on
him as a critic. Not since the early days of the essays had this
side of Macaulay attracted much attention. Williams, however,
proposes to analyze Macaulay’s informal criticism in his letters,
marginal notes, and scraps of paper. A curious aspect of
Macaulay’s reading “was undiscriminating taste.” He read
the worst with the best. Williams says Macaulay was “well-
equipped for criticism.”61 He had a wide knowledge of the
classics. The nature of his interest, however, shows the bent of
67 Ibid., p. vi.
68 Ibid., p. x. In 1921, in his essay, “What is a Puritan?” ( Atlantic Monthly, CXXVIII,
342-56), S. P. Sherman wrote: “When, a hundred years ago, Macaulay wrote his famous
passage on the Puritans in the essay on Milton, he tried to do them justice ; and he did brush
aside the traditional charge of hypocrisy with the contempt which it deserves. But in place
of the picture of the oily hypocrite, he set up another picture equally questionable. He
painted the Puritan as a kind of religious superman of incredible fortitude and determina¬
tion . . .” This “caricature . . . violently exaggerates certain harsh traits of individual
Puritans under persecution and at war ; it suppresses all the mild and attractive traits . . .
It gives an historically false impression, because it conveys the idea that Puritans were
exceptionally harsh and intolerant as compared with other men in their own times”
59 Ibid., p. xv.
60 “Macaulay’s Reading and Literary Criticism,” Philological Quarterly, III, 119-131
(1924).
01 Ibid., p. 124.
Clark — The Vogue of Macaulay in America 287
his mind and his weakness as a critic. “His interest is first in
the historians.” “There is the same interest in externals found in
his formal criticisms.” He probably did not understand the ideal¬
istic philosophy of Socrates and Plato. As a result, very slight in¬
fluence was “exerted by the deepest thought of the ancients upon
his writings.”62 He read widely in French, Spanish, Italian and
German literature— but his mind was never penetrated with the
ideas of a single writer. “Incidents, anecdotes, pageantry” were
what interested him.
In 1925 under the title “What Did Macaulay Say About
America?” the Bulletin of the New York Public Library 63 pub¬
lished without comment Macaulay’s four letters to Randall on
America. But America was rapidly recovering from the War in
the middle of the ’20s, and people saw that they were mistaken in
believing that the evil day which Macaulay had predicted had
arrived.
In 1929 the journalistic John Macy wrote on Macaulay under
the title “Macaulay: Historian to the People.”64 Strangely
enough Macy does not attack him as a stuffy Victorian. Macaulay
was too masculine and strong in common sense and humor for
that. In spite of some intellectual defects “he never did anything
wrong, anything mean, ungenerous, anything with the faintest
streak of dishonesty.”65 Macy tries to interpret Macaulay on the
Freudian basis. “He was a man of suppressed feeling and
thwarted ambition,” and his attacks on characters were “the out¬
let for his emotions.”66 Macy thinks Macaulay’s imaginative
power was never realized in the right direction. He was “by
instinct dramatist and novelist with a touch of the poet.”67 As a
critic Macaulay has no value. His reading was a gluttony, “a de¬
fect rather than a merit.” “I recall not even a single sentence of
literary criticism in Macaulay which has the slightest
value.”68 He had a natural “inability to search the heart of man.”
It was his “ineptitude as literary critic and his obtuseness to
pure thought that caused the swift reaction against him among
the literary men of the next generation who were concerned with
critical, literary and philosophic ideas and cared little for his
" Ibid., p. 125.
63 XXIX, 459-481 (July, 1925).
34 Bookman, LXX, 76-87 (Sept., 1929).
38 Ibid., p. 76.
•• Ibid., p. 79.
•v Ibid., p. 80.
33 Ibid., p. 81.
288 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts and Letters
politics and public services.”69 In straight historical narrative he
“is unrivalled” ; “there is poetry of a pictorial and dramatic kind,”
but there is “no philosophy in any real meaning of the word.”
But Macy defends Macaulay’s History. It was “not a cheap con¬
descension.” He “hit the center of the target with unerring aim.
His success, granted his purpose and limitations, is absolute, per¬
fect.”70 He is comparable to Dickens in his “immediate appeal to
the senses of common people.” Yet he wrote not mere fiction nor
Whig prejudice. “His chief failing is his inability to think
deeply, to search character and ... to make really profound
generalizations.”71 Macy ends with high praise for Macaulay’s
style. The external rhetorical deficiencies have always been
stressed, but the “real qualities” of his “brilliant, virile prose”
have been neglected.
In the same year discriminating Professor W. C. Abbott made
the final defense of Macaulay as historian.72 Unless all signs fail,
he contends, “the so-called ‘picturesque school’ of historical writ¬
ing is coming back.” Abbott believes that Macaulay, with Gibbon,
“occupies a place in the first rank of world historians.”73
Three bodies of detractors have arisen against Macaulay’s His¬
tory. Those who combed his books for small errors of fact. Those
who objected to the spirit of his work and its sweeping generali¬
zations. Those who resented his treatment of their heroes. The
first must be admitted; the last dismissed; the second is con¬
troversial. Abbott defends the truthfulness of Macaulay’s His¬
tory. The charges against him arise from his “positiveness, his
assertiveness, his vituperative phraseology, rather than his evi¬
dence.” He “made few statements without evidence to back
them.” His History remains, after two generations of minute
critical scrutiny, “astonishingly true.”74 The real crux of Macau¬
lay’s reputation is the change of temper which came over England
at the end of the century. This change had three consequences.
Macaulay wrote in the “full tide of Victorian success,” while an
“era of doubt” came over England about 1900. Reading habits
have changed so that no one has time to read such a work as Mac¬
aulay’s History. Most important of all, history itself has
changed her garments and language and character — it foreswore
a® Ibid., p. 82.
7® Ibid., p. 85.
71 Ibid., p. 86.
72 “Macaulay and the New History,” Yale Review, XVIII, 539-557 (1929).
73 Ibid., p. 540.
7* Ibid., p. 552.
Clark — The Vogue of Macaulay in America 289
the world for the cloistered seminar and “dull science.”75 There
is now a reaction against the dull scientific histories — a reaction
against the reaction. As a result, “Macaulay is undoubtedly com¬
ing back.”76
The hectic days following the Great Depression in the early
1930's again brought Macaulay's now famous letter on American
democracy to the foreground of men's consciousness just as it had
always done in troubled times before. Now certainly the evil day
of Macaulay's prediction had come. In the Revieiv of Reviews11 for
1934 Roger Shaw published the letter and applied its prediction
to New Deal economy. Shaw correctly states Macaulay's political
beliefs : he “was a firm believer in the British ruling class, liberal
but in no sense democractic, and he was a strong supporter of
nineteenth-century vested interests and the institution of private
property.” Shaw says that “Macaulay's predictions as to the
saturation point of the great American West and an American
depression are telling examples of this noted historian's fore¬
sight.” He wonders also if New Deal policies to aid the forgotten
one-third are “not all cumulative proofs of Macaulay's prophetic
powers?” And he concludes that “Macaulay proves himself a firm
believer in laissez-faire and in natural economic laws of supply
and demand, combined with civil liberties ; and he clearly dislikes
radical reform along the lines of any planned economy — as in
present-day Russia, Italy, or America.”
N. Ellenbogen replied to Shaw's article in the next issue.78
Shaw's praise of Macaulay as a prophet is amusing. Macaulay's
letter to Randall “was written nine years after the Communist
Manifesto in which Marx and Engels also predicted crises, the
end of democracy, the way of demogogues, etc.” Hence it re¬
mains to be seen whether Marx and Macaulay were not “both
right in implying that preventing starvation is impossible while
we have the institution of private property.”
The letter was reprinted again the following year in the
American Mercury under the caption, a “Timely Letter from Lord
Macaulay.”79 In 1936 Charles M. Adams gave the history of the
famous letters to Randall in the Bulletin of the New York Public
75 Ibid., p. 554.
7« Ibid., p. 657.
77 “Macaulay as a New Deal Prophet : with the Text of a Letter to H. S. Randall, 1857,”
XC, 88-39 (July, 1934).
78 “Marx vs. Macaulay : Reply to Macaulay as a New Deal Prophet,” Revieiv of Re¬
views, XC, 4 (Oct., 1934).
78 XXXV, 378-379 (1935).
290 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts and Letters
Library*0 There is one notable difference between the modern
acceptance of Macaulay's criticism and that of the 19th century.
At the time of its appearance in 1860 and for twenty years there¬
after Macaulay was roundly condemned as a traitor to democracy
and faithless to America. Its reappearance in the 20th century
caused no such reaction. All hands, conservatives and radicals
alike, seem to agree that there is a measure of truth in Macaulay's
prophecy.
In contrast to these bids for popular attention, Godfrey
Davies'81 investigation into Macaulay's handling of materials for
the history of the British Constitution is designed principally for
the scholarly eye. Defects in Macaulay's historiography are his
lack of knowledge about the periods prior to the seventeenth
century, his failure to appreciate or analyze thoroughly the quali¬
ties of sixteenth and seventeenth century religious conflicts. He
fails to see the power of the divine right theory in its own day,
and some of his sources are generally suspect. His strengths,
however, are an excellent account of the growth of political par¬
ties, and especially general “comprehensiveness.”
The most recent book-length treatment of our “hero” is Rich¬
ard Croom Beatty's Lord Macaulay , Victorian Liberal (Norman,
Oklahoma, 1938) . This attempts to “present objectively” Macau¬
lay's philosophy of government as it “revealed itself in action.”
Although Dr. Beatty calls his History “the most magnificent and
ambitious prose fragment in our literature,” and admits that “his
volumes became, as he hoped they would, as popular as the latest
popular novel,” the portrait of the “Victorian Liberal” is deeply
critical. For Dr. Beatty hails from Vanderbilt, the home of the
modern Southern Agrarians, and he not only dislikes Macaulay's
faith in industrialism as the basis of progress but he believes that
“the debacle of 1914-1918” was “one of the fairly early fruits of
his philosophy.” He was blind to the possibility of “periodic
unemployment, specialization, the loss of freedom and initiative
on the part of the laborer,” blind to the possibility of the capital¬
ists' using education so as to make the masses their slaves, blind
to property's power of controlling public opinion. A liberal in
sponsoring the Reform Bill of 1832, he became “static” in his
thinking after that, putting his faith in “the sacred institution
of property” and fearing universal suffrage. Constantly pre-
80 “Macaulay on America, Once More,” XL, 437-439 (May, 1936).
81 “The Treatment of Constitutional History in Macaulay’s History of England ” Hunt¬
ington Liberary Quarterly, II, 179-204.
Clark — The Vogue of Macaulay in America 291
occupied with material things, he was the foe of “spiritual re¬
formers” like Carlyle and Ruskin — indeed the foe of all idealisms.
“He saw men almost always from the outside . . . Their motives
he did not inquire about . . . The subtleties of behavior, being
attributes of spirit, eluded his clumsy hammer and tong prob¬
ings.” Yet he was “the most fascinating story-teller who ever
wrote in the historical guise.” (Pp. xv, 296, 307, xiii, 232, 231,
270-272.)
The reviews of this book mark the end of a century of Ameri¬
can criticism of Macaulay. Lloyd Eshleman82 calls Macaulay a
“genuine liberal,” the greatest liberal historian of England.” He
was always “steadfast in principle” and “took to heart Middleton's
advice To live strictly and think freely ; to practice what is moral
and to believe what is rational'.” Professor Geoffrey Brunn, in
New York Herald Tribune Books,83 says Beatty presents Macaulay
as “the symbol and the spokesman of middle-class England in
the second quarter of the nineteenth century.” Yet he “trans¬
cends such a convenient classification. It is Macaulay the rhetori¬
cian, with his brilliance and his bias, his appalling literacy, his
deficient emotional capacity, his outward complacency and inner
disquietude, that dominates the book.” Macaulay's tragedy was
that he had “no vital and transforming human contacts, no elec¬
trifying emotional experience.” In the History he said “what
middle class England wanted to believe.”
William S. Knickerbocker84 finds in Beatty's book evidence
that Macaulay, though on the other side of the fence as the repre¬
sentative of the “prosperous and powerful bourgeoisie,” was a
man as “completely ‘class-conscious' ”85 as Karl Marx himself.
Hence his brilliant sayings take on life and proper meaning only
as they are interpreted in the light of the common sentiment of
his day. Understanding Macaulay depends even upon a study of
“his family and ‘nurtural' inheritance.”86 Judged in these terms,
Beatty's work is picturesque and buoyant, but not thorough-going
enough or strenuous enough in its examination of terms or critical
detachment in dealing with Macaulay himself. John Morley's
study, undertaken in reply to Matthew Arnold's attack on Mac¬
aulay, remains, according to Knickerbocker, the most satisfac-
82 New York Times Book Review, p. 2 (Jan. 1, 1939). In contrast to Beatty’s view see
J. W. Cunliffe, Leaders of the Victorian Revolution (New York, 1934), pp. 35-71.
as Jan. 15, 1939, p. 3.
84 “Suet with No Plums,’’ Sewanee Review, XLVII, 242-52.
ss Ibid., p. 248.
8« Ibid., p. 246.
292 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts and Letters
tory, though not completely acceptable, treatment. However, Dr.
Godfrey Davies of the Huntington Library finds Beatty’s book
better on Macaulay as a Victorian Liberal (he prefers the word
Whig) than on Macaulay as the historian of the Revolution of
1688. According to Davies, Beatty’s treatment of backgrounds
is “distinctly amateurish in spots,” and his “remarks on the
History of England are rather conventional and trite.”87 Thus
Macaulay continues to inspire sharply different opinions ; and his
vogue, favorable or unfavorable, endures as a vital part of our
British heritage.
87 American Historical Review, XLV, 386 (Jan., 1940). For Canadian views, see John
Harris’ A Review of Macaulay' s Teaching on the Relationship of Theology to Government
(Montreal, 1874), which argues against his disparagement of theology and attacks his lack
of idealism ; and D. Monroe’s “Macaulay— The Last of the Whigs,” Dalhousie Review, XIX,
428-437 (Jan., 1940), which briefly reviews his part in the drama of Victorian politics.
PROCEEDINGS OF THE ACADEMY
Seventy-first Annual Meeting
The seventy-first annual meeting of the Wisconsin Academy of Sciences,
Arts and Letters was held jointly with the meeting of the Wisconsin
Museums Conference and the Wisconsin Folklore Society at the Milwaukee
Public Museum on Friday and Saturday, April 4 and 5, 1941. A total of
more than 200 persons registered for the sessions, which were held on Friday
afternoon and Saturday morning. Two separate sections were held each day,
an Academy section and a Museum-Folklore section. The customary
annual banquet was not held, and in its place the members and guests of
the organizations were entertained at a reception, smoker, and tea on Friday
evening, immediately following the annual lecture. The staff of the Mil¬
waukee Public Museum acted as hosts.
The following program of papers and lectures was presented.
Academy Section
Friday afternoon
Marvel Ings, University of Wisconsin. War at Home (Strategic Min¬
erals) ; Rufus M. Bagg, Lawrence College, The Pebble Mill at Sister Bay;
Ernest F. Bean, Wisconsin Geological Survey, Progress of Mapping in Wis¬
consin; Ralph N. Buckstaff, Oshkosh Public Museum, New Wisconsin
Meteorite; Lincoln R. Thiesmeyer and Ralph E. Digman, Lawrence College,
Wind-cut Stones in Kansan Drift of Wisconsin; Paul W. Icke, University of
Illinois, Some Aspects of Recreational Land Use in the Northern Lakes
Region of Wisconsin; Ole N. deWeerdt, Beloit College, An Operational
Analysis of the Nature of Intelligence and its Measurement; Charlotte R.
Partridge, Layton Art Gallery, The Layton Art Gallery.
Museum-Folklore Section
Friday afternoon
Albert Schnabel, Milwaukee, The Development of the Milwaukee His¬
torical Museum; Wesley Shepard, Racine, Selling the Racine County His¬
torical Museum to the Public; Chester Holway, Milwaukee, Will Americans
Visit Their Own Museums?; Norbert W. Roeder, Kenosha, A Museum Is Born;
Mrs. R. C. Buchanan, Green Bay, The Roi-Porlier-Tank House Museum;
Mrs. Francis T. Bleseh, Green Bay, The Old Fort Howard Buildings; Mrs.
Rachel Grignon Twells, Green Bay, The Captain John Cotton House Museum;
Mrs. John F. Conant, DePere, Art Exhibits at Green Bay; Alonzo W. Pond,
Blue Mounds, The Cave of the Mounds— a Subterranean Museum; Henry
L. Ward, Green Bay, How the Neville Museum Serves Green Bay; Walter E.
Scott, Madison, Obtaining Natural History Specimens; Dorothy M, Brown,
Madison, The Opportunity for Folklore Research in Wisconsin.
293
294
Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts and Letters
Annual Academy Lecture
The annual Academy lecture was delivered by Dr. Ira Edwards, Direc¬
tor of the Milwaukee Public Museum, in the Museum Lecture Hall on Friday
evening April 4 at 8 p. m. The subject was The General Geology of the Mil¬
waukee Region. Immediately following the lecture the members and guests
adjourned to the Museum Trustees Room for the reception, smoker, and tea.
The various members of the staff of the Museum and their wives served as
hosts and hostesses.
Academy Section
Saturday morning
Fr. R. H. Reiss, Marquette University (Introduced by W. N. Steil),
Interruption of Nerve Net in Pelmatohydra oligactis; W. N. Steil, Marquette
University, Some Studies of Ferns; Robert Esser, Marquette University (In¬
troduced by W. N. Steil), Preliminary Report on Incomplete Nuclear and
Cell Divisions in the Apogamous fern Cyrtomium falcatum var. compactum;
Lowell E. Noland, University of Wisconsin, Techniques for Growing Fresh¬
water Snails Under Controlled Conditions in the Laboratory; Jack LaMalfa,
University of Wisconsin (Introduced by L. E. Noland), Preliminary Studies
on the Effects of Diet on Growth of Lymnaea stagnalis lillianae; J. E.
Potzger, Butler University, and W. A. Van Engel, University of Wisconsin,
Studies of the Large Aquatic Vegetation of Weber Lake, Vilas County,
Wisconsin; William A. Hiestand, Purdue University, The Effects of Neuro-
phil Drugs on the Starfish, Asterias; Willard A. Van Engel, University of
Wisconsin (Introduced by Chancey Juday), The Food of the Black Crappie,
Pomoxis nigromaculatus, in Wisconsin waters; Arthur H. Moeck, Milwaukee
Entomological Society, The Honeybee; Banner Bill Morgan, University of
Wisconsin (Introduced by Chancey Juday), The Physalopterinae (Nema-
toda) of North American Vertabrates; Max Shackelford, University of
Wisconsin (Introduced by Leon J. Cole), Mutations in Mink; Robert E.
Duncan, University of Wisconsin (Introduced by Charles E. Allen), Somatic
Chromosome Numbers in the Cultivated Cypripediums ; Lewis B. Nelson,
University of Wisconsin, The Nature of Two Associated Wisconsin Soils as
Influenced by Post-Glacial Erosion, Topography, and Substratum; Julia
Grace Wales, University of Wisconsin, Warp and Woof in Hamlet : A Note of
the Relating of Study of Source to Study of Structure.
Museum-Folklore Section
Saturday morning
Ralph N. Buckstaff, Oshkosh, A Toothed Stone Spade; George L. Pasco,
Ripon, Indian Scrapers; Gerald C. Stowe, Superior, The Douglas County
Historical Museum; Marvel Ings, Madison, Museum Storytelling for Children;
Marion E. Martin, Hartford, The Erin Cache of Flint Disks; Nile C.
Behncke, Oshkosh, The Benefit of Special Museum Art Exhibits; Leland A.
Coon, Madison, The Wisconsin Folk Music Recording Project; Edith B.
Heidner, West Bend, The Local History Museum of the West Bend High
School; Henry L. Ward, Green Bay, Valediction of a Life of Museum Effort;
Joseph Rohr, Madison, The State Visual Aids Projects ; Harold R. McCall,
Proceedings of the Academy
295
Manitowoc, Historical Building Museums of Wisconsin; Walter Bubbert,
Milwaukee, Indian Myths and Legends About Iron; Joseph Lucius, Solon
Springs, The Blue Springs, Indian Shrine; H. Holmes Ellis, Columbus, Ohio,
Caches of Flint Disks in Wisconsin.
Academy Papers Presented by Title
Berenice Cooper, State Teachers College, Superior, The Abbe Prevost’s
Interpretation of the English Philosopher; Charles G. Wilber, Johns Hopkins
University, The Contractile Vacuoles of Pelomyxa carolinensis ; Clarence A.
Brown, University of Wisconsin, Wordsworth’s Theory of the Imagination;
J. T. Curtis, University of Wisconsin, Natural Reproduction in the Genus
Cypripedium; Chancey Juday, University of Wisconsin, The Summer
Biomass of an Inland Lake.
Report on the Annual Business Meeting and
Change in the Constitution
The annual business meeting was held at 4 p. m. Friday, April 4, 1941
in the Museum Trustees Room. A change was voted in Article IV of the
Constitution, as follows.
Article IX of the Constitution, regarding changes, reads as follows:
“Amendments to this Constitution may be made at any annual meeting by a
vote of three-fourths of all members present; PROVIDED, that the amend¬
ment has been proposed by five members, and that notice has been sent to all
the members at least one month before the meeting.” Proposal to change the
terms of the officers of the Academy from three years to one year was re¬
ceived from the five following members: Charles E. Allen, Ernest F. Bean,
Norman C. Fassett, Edward M. Gilbert, and Lowell E. Noland. This pro¬
posal was mailed to the entire membership on February 23, 1941, and acted
upon at the business meeting. Article IV now reads “The officers of the
Academy shall be a president, a vice-president for each of the three depart¬
ments, sciences, arts and letters, a secretary, a librarian, a treasurer, and a
custodian. These officers . . . shall hold office for one year.”
The Academy officers, elected in 1939 for a three-year term carry
through to the 1942 meeting, and the one-year term takes effect in the
spring of 1942. Consequently no new officers were elected.
Treasurer’s Report
April 4, 1941
Receipts
Carried forward in Treasury, April 1, 1940 . $1,533.95
Receipts from dues, April 2, 1940— April 3, 1941 . 513.44
Grant from A. A. A. S. May 24, 1940 . 100.00
Sale of publications . 181.50
Interest on investments . . . 95.25
Total receipts. . . . . . . . $2,424.14
296 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts and Letters
Disbursements
Safety box, paid April 2, 1940 . . 3.30
Safety box, paid April 2, 1941 . . 3.33
Printing 1940 programs . . . 7.00
Deposit for printing Vol. XXXII of Transactions. . . 920.00
Reprint deposit for Vol. XXXII of Transactions. ................ 403.00
1940 grant-in-aid for research to Harry H. Clark . . . . 100.00
Printing call for Milwaukee meeting and proposed change in
Constitution . . . . . . . 7.25
Stamps . . . . . . . . . . 35.00
Secretary allowance . . . . . . . . 200.00
$1,678.88
BALANCE, April 4, 1941, $745.26.
The Secretary-Treasurer appeared before Governor Heil and the Fi¬
nance Committee of the Wisconsin Legislature asking for restoration of the
fund to aid the Academy in publication of the Transactions. This was voted
upon favorably by the Wisconsin Legislature. $1000. was granted, which was
immediately cut 5% in common with all state appropriations, so $950. was
granted the Academy. The State Emergency Board eventually cut the
appropriation 25%, and the Academy received a credit of $712.50 from the
state for aid in publication of Volume XXXII. This money was credited
toward publication of the volume, in addition to the sum of money listed
above. The sum does not appear in the receipt list, because it is not sent to
the Academy, but an order is drawn upon it through the State Printing
Board.
Loyal Durand, Jr.
Secretary -Treasurer.
PROCEEDINGS OF THE ACADEMY
Seventy-second Annual Meeting
The seventy-second annual meeting of the Academy was held in Science
Hall at the University of Wisconsin on Friday and Saturday, April 17 and
18, 1942. Three other organizations participated jointly in the meeting,—
the Wisconsin Archeological Society, Wisconsin Museums Conference, and
the Wisconsin Folklore Society. The Academy section met in Science Hall,
while other sections held meetings in both Science Hall and the State His¬
torical Society Building. Two hundred and fifty persons attended the various
meetings, and 88 were in attendance at the annual banquet in the Wisconsin
Memorial Union Building. The annual business meeting and election of
officers was held on Friday afternoon. The following program of papers was
presented.
Academy Section
Friday morning
George Urdang, American Institute of Pharmacy (Introduced by Arthur
H. Uhl) , In Commemoration of the Bi-Centennial of the Birth of Carl Wilhelm
Scheele; Julia Grace Wales, University of Wisconsin, Margaret Ashmun:
Wisconsin Novelist and Educator; Chancey Juday, University of Wisconsin,
The Summer Standing Crop of Plants and Animals in Four Wisconsin
Lakes; L. R. Wilson and R. M. Webster, Coe College (Introduced by Chancey
Juday), Fossil Evidence of Wider Post-Pleistocene Range for Hickory and
Butternut in Wisconsin; Lemuel A. Fraser, University of Wisconsin (In¬
troduced by Lowell E. Noland), Observations on the Fresh-Water Clam,
Sphaerium; Thomas H. Flanigon, University of Wisconsin (Introduced by
Chancey Juday), Limnological Survey of Six Lakes in Vilas County, Wis¬
consin, with respect to a Fish Management Program; Lemuel A. Fraser and
Charles W. Lines, University of Wisconsin (Introduced by Chancey Juday),
Observations on Corethra Larvae in Lake Mendota; J. E. Potzger, Butler Uni¬
versity, Flowering Plants and Ferns of Vilas County, Wisconsin (By title) ;
J. E. Potzger and C. O. Keller, Butler University, A. Pollen Study of Four
Bogs Along the Southern Border of Vilas County, Wisconsin (By title) ;
Ralph Hile, University of Michigan, Mathematical Relationship Between the
Length and Age of the Rock Bass, Ambloplites ripestris (Rafinesque) (By
title) ; Melbourne R. Carriker, University of Wisconsin (Introduced by
Lowell E. Noland), On the Structure and Function of the Proboscis in the
Common Oyster Drill, Urosalpinx cinerea Say; Louis W. Holm, University of
Wisconsin (Introduced by Lowell E. Noland), Reproduction of Lymnaea
stagnalis.
Museum-Archeological Section
Friday morning
Marvel Ings, Madison, The University Geological Museum in Public
Service; J. Stanley Dietz, Madison, The Grand Army Museum; Edna Mc-
297
298 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts and Letters
V.
Chesney Bullard, Madison, The Story of Eden Glen; Charles G. Sehoewe,
Milwaukee, Did the Indian Practice Conservation?; Albert 0. Barton, Madi¬
son, Early Galena Letters; Albert Schnabel, Milwaukee, Obtaining Museum
Accessions; W. C. English, Wyocena, The Teaching of History; Walter
Bubbert, Milwaukee, Community Nature Museum; Lorraine C. Brown, Beloit,
A Cache of Stone Netweights; Sylvester Jerry, Racine, The Program of the
Charles A. Wustum Museum of Fine Arts; Charles E. Brown, Madison, Large
Native Copper Axes.
Academy Section
Friday afternoon
Mary Jo Read, Milwaukee State Teachers College, The Population of
the Driftless Hill Land During the Pioneer Period ; Ira Edwards, Milwaukee
Public Museum, Glacial Studies in the Vicinity of Waukesha, Wisconsin;
Leon J. Cole and R. M. Shackelford, University of Wisconsin, New Color
Phases in Foxes; J. F. Groves, Ripon College, Organizing a Teaching Mu¬
seum; Clarence H. Pratt and George H. Conant, Ripon, A New Station for
Habenaria leucophaea in Green Lake County; John Limbach, Ripon (Intro¬
duced by George H. Conant), Staining Celloidin Sections of Woody Tissues
on the Slide; John Limbach, Ripon (Introduced by George H. Conant) , Sodium
Hypochlorite in Chromosome-Nucleolus Staining; John T. Curtis, University
of Wisconsin, Natural Germination of Some Wisconsin Orchids; John Caten-
husen, University of Wisconsin (Introduced by Aldo Leopold), Birds of the
Arboretum — Summary of a Paper by H. G. Anderson, T. M. Sperry, and W.
S. Feeney; Lynn L. Gee, Wisconsin Conservation Department, and W. B.
Sarles, University of Wisconsin, The Disinfection of Trout Eggs Contami¬
nated with Bad. salmonicida; Charles G. Wilber, Johns Hopkins University,
The Digestion of Fat in Pelomyxa carolinensis (By title) ; Berenice Cooper,
Superior State Teachers College, The Religious Convictions of the Abbe Pre-
vost (By title).
Folklore-Museum Section
Friday afternoon
Hans D. Gabler, Watertown, The Octagon House; Zida C. Ivey, Fort
Atkinson, The Dwight Foster Historical Museum; Neita 0. Friend, Hartland,
Indian Uses of Native Plants; Dorothy M. Brown, Madison, The National
Folk Festival; Nancy Oestreich, Milwaukee, The Indian and the Butterfly;
Bernadine C. Ratzlaff, Edgerton, Wisconsin Pictorial Folklore Maps; Mrs.
Willis Tyler, Lake Mills, Old Aztalan; George Urdang, Madison, The Serpent
in Medicine; Dorothy Kundert, Monroe, This Our Heritage; Rev. Luther E.
Stonecipher, Sturgeon Bay, Door County’s Interesting Experiment; Ruth
Potter, Lake Mills, An Aztalan Adventurer; Ella S. Colbo, Racine, Heg
Memorial Park and Museum.
Academy Section
Saturday morning
Paul W. Boutwell, Douglas Bannermann, Donald Anderson, and Paul
Gibson, Beloit College, Some Factors Affecting the Formation of Aliphatic
Proceedings of the Academy
299
Nitriles; Robert Mcllrath and Paul W. Boutwell, Beloit College, The Use of
Crystal Structure as a Teaching Aid in the Organic Laboratory; John Rae
and V. W. Meloche, University of Wisconsin, A Photoelectric Method for
Determination of pH; J. G. Kane, University of Wisconsin (Introduced by
H. A. Schuette) , The Indian Fat and Oil Industry; John B. Field, University of
Wisconsin, Biochemical Studies of Fish Blood; Edward A. Birge, University
of Wisconsin, The Relations Between Water and Transmitted Sunlight;
Arthur D. Hasler and Roland K. Meyer, University of Wisconsin, The
Respiratory Response of Goldfish to Carp Pituitary Before and After
Castration; Hanspeter Thomsen, University of Wisconsin (Introduced by
Arthur D. Hasler), Analysis of Game Fish Catch in Lake Geneva, August
1941; Merlin Nelson and Arthur D. Hasler, University of Wisconsin, Notes
on the Life History of the Northern Mimic Shiner ( Notropis v. volucellus ) ;
Merlin Nelson and Arthur D. Hasler, University of Wisconsin, A Report of
the Gill Net Fishing in Lake Geneva for the Summer of 1941; Jay D. An¬
drews and Arthur D. Hasler, University of Wisconsin, The Fish Food
Productivity of the Aquatic Plants of University Bay, Lake Mendota;
Eleanor Reichel and Lowell E. Noland, University of Wisconsin, Life Cycle
of a Pulmonate Snail, Lymnaea stagnalis, Completed Without Access to the
Air; Charles M. Vaughn, University of Wisconsin (Introduced by Lowell
E. Noland), The Effects of Temperature on the Hatching Time of the Snail,
Lymnaea stagnalis; Vivian A. Mathews, University of Wisconsin (Intro¬
duced by Lowell E. Noland), The History and Developmental History of the
Ovotestis of Lymnaea stagnalis; Wayland J. Hayes, Jr., University of
Wisconsin (Introduced by Lowell E. Noland), A Survey of the Rhabdocoela
of Dane and Vilas Counties.
Museum-Folklore Section
Saturday morning
Alonzo W. Pond, Blue Mounds, Growth of a Tradition; Helene Strat-
man-Thomas, Madison, Wisconsin Folks and Their Songs; Gladys J. Haney,
Sparta, Paul Bunyan Research; Marie H. Pauly, Madison, Beliefs and
Customs Concerning the Prehistoric Stones of France; Edith B. Heidner,
West Bend, West Bend High School Museum; Vivian G. Dube, Superior, How
Our Museum Serves the Public; Eloise Gerry, Madison, The Forest Products
Museum, A Branch of the Forestry Museum Development; H. J. Rahmlow,
Madison, The Wisconsin Horticultural Society and its Work; C. H. Bach-
huber, Milwaukee, Early French Charcoal Burners of Dodge County.
Academy Business Meeting
The annual business meeting was held in Science Hall on Friday after¬
noon, April 17, 1942.
The Nominating Committee, Leon J. Cole, Chairman, presented the
following slate of officers for the ensuing Academy year. The slate was
elected for one year only, pursuant to the change in the Constitution made
at Milwaukee in April, 1941.
President: A. W. Schorger, Madison.
Vice-President:
In Science— W. N. Steil, Marquette University.
300
Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts and Letters
In Arts — Ralph N. Buckstaff, Oshkosh.
In Letters — Berenice Cooper, Superior State Teachers College.
Secretary-Treasurer: Loyal Durand Jr., University of Wisconsin.
Librarian: Gilbert H. Doane, University of Wisconsin.
Curator: Charles E. Brown, State Historical Museum.
Treasurer's Report
April 17, 1942
Receipts
Cash on hand, April 4, 1941 . . . . . $ 745.26
Receipts from dues, April 5, 1941 to April 17, 1942 . 448.00
Sale of publications . 204.67
Sale of reprints from Vol. XXXII to authors . 193.95
Collection from author for publication . 11.22
Interest on investments . 90.00
Grant from A. A. A. S. April 17, 1941 . 100.00
$1,793.10
Disbursements
Printing programs for Milwaukee meeting . $ 16.50
Printing of envelopes, November 1941 . 15.50
Printing of billheads, February 1942 . 11.00
Expressing reprints to authors . . . 5.00
Stamps . 15.00
Safety box, paid April 2, 1942 . 3.60
Secretary allowance . 200.00
Grant-in-aid of research to James F. Groves, 1941 . 100.00
$ 366.60
Cash on hand, April 17, 1942, $1,426.50.
Loyal Durand, Jr.
Secretary -Treasurer.
“The Auditing Committee has examined the accounts of the Treasurer
and the contents of the safety deposit box belonging to the Academy and
has found them in order and as reported.”
(signed) Ira Edwards.
(signed) V. C. Finch.
Annual Dinner and Lecture
The annual Academy dinner was held on Friday evening, April 17, in
the Wisconsin Memorial Union. Two addresses were made. President Paul
W. Boutwell of Beloit College presented his presidential talk, the subject of
which was “Chemistry and Preparedness 25 Years Ago and Now.” Professor
Leon J. Cole of the University of Wisconsin gave an illustrated talk on
“Alaska.”
THE CONSTITUTION OF THE WISCONSIN ACADEMY
OF SCIENCES, ARTS AND LETTERS
(October 31, 1942)
Article I — Name and Location
This association shall be known as the Wisconsin Academy of Sciences,
Arts and Letters, and shall be located at the city of Madison.
Article II— Object
The object of the Academy shall be the promotion of sciences, arts and
letters in the state of Wisconsin. Among the special objects shall be the
publication of the results of investigation and the formation of a library.
Article III— Membership
The Academy shall include four classes of members, viz. : life members,
honorary members, corresponding members and active members, to be
elected by ballot.
1. Life members shall be elected on account of special services rendered
the Academy. Life membership may also be obtained by the payment of
one hundred dollars and election by the Academy. Life members shall be
allowed to vote and to hold office.
2. Honorary members shall be elected by the Academy and shall be men
who have rendered conspicuous services to science, arts or letters.
3. Corresponding members shall be elected from those who have been
active members of the Academy, but who have removed from the state.
By special vote of the Academy men of attainments in science or letters
may be elected corresponding members. They shall have no vote in the
meetings of the Academy.
4. Active members shall be elected by the Academy or by the council,
and shall enter upon membership on payment of the first annual dues.
Article IV — Officers
The officers of the Academy shall be a president, a vice-president for
each of the three departments, sciences, arts and letters, a secretary, a li¬
brarian, a treasurer, and a custodian. These officers shall be chosen by
ballot, on recommendation of the committee on nomination of officers, by
the Academy at an annual meeting and shall hold office for one year.
Their duties shall be those usually performed by officers thus named in
scientific societies. It shall be one of the duties of the president to pre¬
pare an address which shall be delivered before the Academy at the an¬
nual meeting at which his term of office expires.
Article V— Council
The council of the Academy shall be entrusted with the management
of its affairs during the intervals between regular meetings, and shall con¬
sist of the president, the three vice-presidents, the secretary, the treasurer,
the librarian, and the past presidents who retain their residence in Wis-
301
302
Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts and Letters
consin. Three members of the council shall constitute a quorum for the
transaction of business, provided the secretary and one of the presiding
officers be included in the number.
Article VI — Committees
The standing committees of the Academy shall be a committee on pub¬
lication, a library committee, and a committee on nomination of mem¬
bers. These committees shall be elected at the annual meeting of the
Academy in the same manner as the other officers of the Academy, and
shall hold office for the same term.
1. The committee on publication shall consist of the president and sec¬
retary and a third member elected by the Academy. They shall determine
the matter which shall be printed in the publications of the Academy.
They may at their discretion refer papers of a doubtful character to
specialists for their opinion as to scientific value and relevancy.
2. The library committee shall consist of five members, of which the li¬
brarian shall be ex officio chairman, and of which a majority shall not be
from the same city.
3. The committee on nomination of members shall consist of five mem¬
bers, one of whom shall be the secretary of the Academy.
Article VII — Meetings
The annual meeting of the Academy shall be held at such time and place
as the council may designate. Summer field meetings shall be held at such
times and places as the Academy or the council may decide. Special
meetings may be called by the council.
Article VIII — Publications
The regular publication of the Academy shall be known as its Transac¬
tions, and shall include suitable papers, a record of its proceedings, and
any other matter pertaining to the Academy. This shall be printed by the
state as provided in the statutes of Wisconsin.
Article IX — Amendments
Amendments to this constitution may be made at any annual meeting
by a vote of three-fourths of all members present; provided, that the amend¬
ment has been proposed by five members, and that notice has been sent to
all the members at least one month before the meeting.
BY-LAWS OF THE WISCONSIN ACADEMY OF
SCIENCES, ARTS AND LETTERS
1. The annual dues shall be two dollars for each active member, to be
charged to his account on the first day of January of each year. Five
dollars, paid in advance, shall constitute full payment for three years’
annual dues.
2. The annual dues shall be remitted for the secretary-treasurer and
librarian during their term of office.
3. As soon as possible after January first of each year the secretary-
treasurer shall send to members statements of dues payable, and in case
of non-payment shall, within the succeeding four months, send a second
and, if necessary, a third notice.
The Academy Constitution
303
4. The secretary-treasurer shall strike from the list of members the
names of those who are one year or more in arrears in the payment of
their dues, and shall notify such members of this action offering at the
same time to reinstate them upon receipt of the dues in arrears plus the
dues for the current year.
5. Each member of the Academy shall receive the current issue of the
Transactions provided that his dues are paid. Any member in arrears at
the time the Transactions are published shall receive his copy as soon as
his dues are paid.
6. The fee received from life members shall be set apart as a per¬
manent endowment fund to be invested exclusively in securities which are
legal as investments for Wisconsin trust companies or savings banks. The
income alone from such fund may be used for the general purposes of the
Academy.
7. The secretary-treasurer shall receive annually an allowance of two
hundred dollars for services.
8. The secretary-treasurer shall be charged with the special duty of
editing and overseeing the publication of the Transactions. In the per¬
formance of this duty he shall be advised by the committee on publication.
9. The Transactions shall contain in each volume: (a) a list of the offi¬
cers of the Academy (b) the minutes of the annual meeting and (c) such
papers as are accepted under the provisions of Section 10 of these By-
Laws and no others.
10. Papers to be published in the Transactions must be approved as to
content and form by the committee on publication. They must represent
genuine original contributions to the knowledge of the subject discussed.
Preference shall be given to papers of special interest to the state of Wis¬
consin and to papers presented at a regular meeting of the Academy. The
privilege of publishing in the Transactions shall be reserved for the mem¬
bers of the Academy.
11. The Constitution and By-Laws and the names and addresses of the
members of the Academy shall be published every third year in the Trans¬
actions. The Constitution and By-Laws shall also be available in reprint
form from the secretary-treasurer at any time.
12. Amendments to these By-Laws may be made at any annual meet¬
ing by vote of three-fourths of all the members present.
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