'

TRANSACTIONS

OF THE

WISCONSIN ACADEMY

OF

SCIENCES, ARTS AND LETTERS

VOL. XXXVII

NATURAE SPECIES RATIOQUE

MADISON, WISCONSIN

1945

TRANSACTIONS

OF THE

WISCONSIN ACADEMY

OF

SCIENCES, ARTS AND LETTERS

VOL. XXXVII

MADISON, WISCONSIN

1945

The publication date of Volume 36 (1944) was January 12, 1946.

The publication date of Volume 37 (1945) is April 10, 1947.

OFFICERS OF THE WISCONSIN ACADEMY OF SCIENCES,

ARTS AND LETTERS

President

H. A. Schuette, University of Wisconsin

Vice-Presidents

In Science: Ruth Walker, Milwaukee

In Arts: Walter Bubbert, Milwaukee

In Letters: Helen White, University of Wisconsin

Secretary-Treasurer

Banner Bill Morgan, University of Wisconsin

Librarian

Halvor 0. Teisberg, University of Wisconsin

Curator

Edward P. Alexander, State Historical Museum

Council

The President

The Vice-Presidents

The Secretary-Treasurer

The Librarian

E. A. Birge, past president

Charles S. Slichter, past president

L. J. Cole, past president

Charles E. Allen, past president

Rufus M. Bagg, past president

Paul W. Boutwell, past president

A. W. Schorger, past president

Committee on Publications

The President

The Secretary-Treasurer

Philo M. Buck, Jr., University of Wisconsin

^ ^ i Committee on Library

j 40 ^ 3 ' The Librarian

^10/17 0. C- Kowalke, University of Wisconsin

0 '■yJ Ruth Marshall, Wisconsin Dells

James F. Groves, Ripon College

W. N. Steil, Marquette University

Committee on Membership

The Secretary-Treasurer

E. F. Bean, Wisconsin Geological Survey

P. W. Boutwell, Beloit College

W. E. Rogers, Lawrence College

A. W. Schorger, Madison

Representative on the Council of the American Association

for the Advancement of Science

Banner Bill Morgan

50U. T3

VI V/L'h

TABLE OF CONTENTS

Page

The Distribution of Wisconsin Hares. Aldo Leopold _ 1

A Winter Rabbit Browse Tally on the University of Wisconsin Arbo¬

retum. Robert A. McCabe _ _ _ 15

The Ruffed Grouse in Early Wisconsin. A. W. Schorger _ 35

Studies in Ornithology at Lake Koshkonong and Vicinity by Thure

Kumlien from 1843 to July, 1850. Angie Kumlien Main _ 91

Edward Kremers (1865-1941) Reformer of American Pharmaceutical

Education. George Urdang _ 111

The Labral Sense Organs of the Red-legged Grasshopper, Melanoplus

femur-rubrum (DeGeer). Wm. S. Marshall _ : _ 137

The Rectal Glands of Mosquitoes. Wm. S. Marshall _ 149

Parasites of Northwest Wisconsin Fishes. I. The 1944 Survey. Jacob H.

Fischthal _ 157

The Cartosyrphus Flies of North America (Syrphidae). C. L. Fluke

and F. M. Hull _ 221

•

The Use of Phemerol in the Treatment of Certain Bacterial Fish Dis¬

eases. Barbara A. McLaren, Elmer F. Herman, C. A. Elvehjem

and Edward Schneberger _ 265

Parasites of Brule River Fishes. Jacob H. Fischthal _ 275

A Four-year Creel Census on the Brule River. D. John O’Donnell _ 279

An Analysis of the Vegetative Cover of the Brule River (Wisconsin)

Watershed. John W. Thomson, Jr. _ 305

Bottom Deposits of the Brule River. Richard Evans _ 325

The Brook Lamprey in the Brule River. Warren S. Churchill _ 337

The First Year of the Wisconsin Junior Academy of Sciences, 1944-1945 347

Proceedings of the Academy. Seventy-fifth Annual Meeting _ _ _ _ _ 353

Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts and Letters

List of Active Members - 355

New Members for 1945 _ 361

Subject and Author Index to the Papers Published by the Academy,

1933-1944 _ 363

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Doe, J. H. 1934. The ecology of Wisconsin. Trans. Wisconsin Acad. Sci.

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Halvor 0. Teisberg, 120 State Historical Building, Madison 6, Wisconsin.

THE DISTRIBUTION OF WISCONSIN HARES

Aldo Leopold

Department of Wildlife Management

College of Agriculture , University of Wisconsin

Both of the hares of Wisconsin have changed their original

range boundaries. The jackrabbit is spreading rapidly east¬

ward ; the snowshoe hare has been, at least until recently, shrink¬

ing slowly northward. This paper aims to record their distribu¬

tion as of 1944, and to discuss briefly the probable reasons for

boundary changes.

The present ranges are mapped in Figures 1 and 2. A por¬

tion of the “stations” on these maps were accumulated since

1928 by questioning students, farmers, game wardens, sports¬

men and technical field men. Another portion was obtained by

questionnaires and correspondence in 1944.* A final and very

valuable series of historical records was contributed by Dr. A. W.

Schorger.

Jackrabbit (Lepus townsendii companius. Hollister)

Former status. Cory, in his “Mammals of Illinois and Wis¬

consin” (1912), lists the jackrabbit as “not yet recorded from

Wisconsin (although it) has been taken in the eastern border of

Iowa . . . and in extreme southeastern Minnesota” (6:265).

Cory was mistaken, for the following captions will show

at least five occurrences of jackrabbit in Wisconsin prior to the

publication of Cory's book in 1912 :

Grant County, 1888 . Assemblyman Lloyd Rundell, who grew

up on a farm 12 miles north of Platteville in Grant County,

remembers the killing of a jackrabbit on about February 21,

1888. The animal was shot by Albert Warne and William Gubbel

* I wish in particular to acknowledge the help of Arnold S. Buss, Donald

Euers, John T. Curtis, W. S. Feeney, William H. Field, H. M. Fuley, Fred Gardner,

Albert Gastrow, Wallace Grange, Arthur S. Hawkins, S. W. Hayner, Karl W. Kah-

mann, Helmer Mattison, John O’Donnell, A. J. Peterson, Lloyd Rundell, Raymond

Schenk, A. W. Schorger, Clarence A. Searles, Herbert L. Stoddard, and G. A. Weitz.

APR 2 8 1947

1

2 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts and Letters

of Livingston. I have a letter from Albert Warne dated Feb¬

ruary 12, 1945, reciting all the details. This letter leaves no

doubt as to the identity of the animal. The year is certain

because the event followed the historic blizzard of January 12,

1888. The letter indicates that jackrabbits were previously

unknown in that locality.

Iowa County, 1897. Dr. A. W. Schorger has discovered the

following in the Madison State Journal for January 5, 1898

(p. 1) : “A genuine jackrabbit, weighing over 8 pounds, was

killed in the town of Arena a few days ago by Walter A. Cook.

Harry Smith, of this city, has just returned from a hunting trip

JACKRABBIT

• PRESENT OCCURENCE

1900* DATE FIRST SEEN

m PRESENT RANGE

* ARTIFICIAL PLANTING

Fig. 1.— Range of the Jackrabbit in Wisconsin as of 1944.

Leopold — Distribution of Wisconsin Hares

8

Fig. 2. — Range of the Snowshoe Hare in Wisconsin as of 1944.

in Arena and brought it home with him.” This record is unmis¬

takable, but it contains no inference as to whether jackrabbits

in Iowa County were something new. It does imply that they

were scarce.

Sauk County , 1906? Herbert L. Stoddard, whose boyhood

home was in Sauk County, writes me under date of January 7,

1945: “To the best of my recollection there were a few jack-

rabbits on what is known as the Sand Prairie, some 8 or 10

miles west of Prairie du Sac, when I first came to Wisconsin

about 1906-7. Later they increased, and by 1915-1920 they

were quite numerous ... Ed Ochsner (now deceased) told me

SNOWSHOE HARE

• PRESENT OCCURENCE

° FORMER OCCURENCE

: PRESENT RANGE

o 1900 DATE LAST SEEN

* ARTIFICIAL PLANTING

4 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts and Letters

that they were brought in from elsewhere, and liberated on the

Prairie.”

Through the courtesy of Dr. A. W. Schorger, I am able to

quote the following note made by him on February 16, 1935

after a conversation with Ed Ochsner : “Regarding jackrabbits

he (Ochsner) stated that about 40 years ago a saloon-keeper

moved to Prairie du Sac from Nebraska. The children brought

with them some young jackrabbits which escaped. After that a

pair or so were shot every winter, but they have become fairly

common only within the past ten years.” (About 1925.)

Ed Ochsner, in 1921, told Paul Jones, a competent naturalist,

that jackrabbits had been planted on the Sand Prairie “about

25 years ago.”

Albert Gastrow, a life-long resident of Prairie du Sac and

field companion of Herbert Stoddard, tells me that he can re¬

member jackrabbits on the Sand Prairie as far back as 1898,

but that he has no recollection of a planting.

I have entered the Sauk colony on Figure 1 as a probable

planting dating back to about 1906, but it is evident from the

foregoing evidence that the colony may be older, and that it may

be indigenous. Whatever its origin, an increase in numbers be¬

gan about 1925. When I came to Wisconsin in 1924, jackrabbits

were present on the Sauk Prairie, but absent from Dane County,

which lies east of Sauk.

Dunn County, 1905 . Helmer Mattison of Menomonie, a re¬

liable trapper and a field companion of Irven 0. Buss, wrote me

in July 1944: “The first jack I know of was on the Fall City

Prairie about 1905 in the town of Spring Brook . . . My father’s

farm was in the town of Spring Brook 2*/2 miles west of Fall

City. My folks bought this farm in 1898 as wild land.”

Jackrabbits were apparently absent here prior to about 1905,

but moved in as the region was cleared for farming. Mattison

knows of no local plantings, nor have I found any reports of

plantings in that region.

Waushara County Planting, 1900 . As will be described later,

a well-authenticated planting of jackrabbits was made in Wau¬

shara County in 1900, and is locally believed to account for the

present local stock (17).

As against these five positive records, Dr. A. W. Schorger

has contributed seven others which are either negative or doubt-

Leopold — Distribution of Wisconsin Hares

5

ful as to jackrabbits. These, however, are in part positive as to

snowshoe hare, and hence are quoted later under the discussion

of snowshoe hare.

While Cory overlooked the jackrabbit, it is clear that the

species must have been scarce when his book was published in

1912, and for a long time prior to 1912, else some report of its

presence in the state would have come to Cory's notice. Cory's

omission of the jack has been perpetuated in the subsequent

books on the mammals of this region (2, 8).

Cory must have had some inkling that the jackrabbit might

be about to spread eastward, for he reports the species as “not

yet recorded from Illinois or Wisconsin."

There are a good many early reports of large rabbits in

southern Wisconsin, but these are usually inconclusive because

it is uncertain whether they refer to jackrabbits or to snowshoe

hares. I have already published one report of “large white rab¬

bits" in Trempealeau County about 1876 which may refer to

either species (12:95-96).

Plantings . At least part of the present jackrabbit popula¬

tion stems from plantings. I have gathered reports of ten plant¬

ings of jackrabbits imported into Wisconsin from western states :

tween Luxemburg and Ellisville. Now

spread E. to Algoma, W. to Sugar-

bush in Brown Co. where one was

killed Jan. 1945.

6 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts and Letters

Number

No. County Year Planted

Remarks

8 Door

1932 ? Near Whitefish Bay, by Mr. Machek.

Survived a few years, now gone.

9 Door

1938 40-50 Near Sawyer, by Arden Robertson.

Stock from Rago, Kansas. One killed

Dec. 20, 1944 by Ervin Serville.

10 Door

1939 ? In Brussels and Claybank townships,

by Justin Shutawar of Forestville.

Now established across the base of

the Door Peninsula.

Not all of these reports are equally dependable. Numbers 1,

7, 8, 9, and 10 are supported by satisfactory corroborative detail.

Numbers 1, 7, and 10 resulted in the establishment of a popula¬

tion on range previously vacant.

Could all of the present stock have originated from plant¬

ings? Not unless additional successful plantings, unknown to

me, were made in southwestern Wisconsin before 1888 (Grant

County record), and in northwestern Wisconsin before 1905,

(Dunn County arrival). Two plantings (No’s. 1 & 2) preceded

the arrival in Dunn County, but they lie too far south and east

to account for the Dunn County stocks.

At this late date there is only one final proof of indigenous

jackrabbits : the identification of bones from Indian middens.

The general progression of arrival dates in Figure 1 is clearly

from westward to eastward, and this supports the theory that

the bulk of the present stock originated by natural spread from

the Mississippi River counties, or even from points west. The

upper Mississippi is frozen in winter, and presents no barrier to

winter movement.

Reasons for Spread: Present Habitat. The present jackrab-

bit range, as depicted in Figure 1, consists of two zones : a peri¬

pheral northeastern fringe of cutover pine lands, and an interior

block of rich dairy farms in the southwestern counties originally

consisting largely of prairie. The jackrabbit had to cross this

prairie farm zone in order to reach the peripheral cutover zone.

Unless the spread eastward represents response to some long

climatic cycle, we must look to land-use changes in the prairie

farm zone to explain the inception of the eastward movement

in this mammal.

Leopoldr— Distribution of Wisconsin Hares

7

It is now well known, both from vegetative evidence (15) and

recorded history (18:13; 19:13) that prior to 1840, Indian fires

tended to keep what is now the prairie farm zone in prairie

vegetation, whereas after 1840 there was widespread encroach¬

ment of oak-hickory forest on the unplowed portions. This trend

toward reforestation perhaps explains the scarcity of jackrab-

bits up to Cory’s time.

By 1900 intensive dairy farming began to reverse this trend

toward more woodlots in the farming zone, while the fires which

followed lumbering created large grassland areas in the former

pineries. These changes presumably set the stage for the recent

eastward extension of the jackrabbit range. The occupation of

the prairie farm zone by jackrabbits was largely completed in

the 1930’s, and this brought the frontier to the edge of the cut¬

overs, the invasion of which is now proceeding at a rapid rate.

(See arrival dates in Figure 1.)

While the two zones were both being deforested from 1900

to about 1930, the inauguration of state-wide forest fire protec¬

tion in about 1930 has now reversed the trend of plant succes¬

sion in the cutovers, and this will ultimately constrict and

localize the jackrabbit in the peripheral fringe. In the farm

zone, on the other hand, the tendency toward deforestation is

being accelerated by the pasturing of woodlots, drouth, oak wilt

disease (10) and (since the war started) by boom prices for oak

logs and railroad ties. Brushy fence rows are being cleared up,

partly to combat the cornborer, while roadside growths are dis¬

appearing due to the widening of roads and the mechanical mow¬

ing of road-shoulders. All those changes doubtless tend either

to encourage the jackrabbit, or to discourage his cover¬

demanding competitors and predators.

While the jackrabbit now occupies most of the state, his

population density, unlike that in the western states, is very

light. Jacks are most abundant on the flat, wide prairie ridges

of the southwestern counties, but even there the density prob¬

ably seldom exceeds three or four individuals per farm. In the

peripheral fringe, some of the counties showing three or four

stations in Figure 1 may support only a few dozen individuals,

and these are for the most part confined to sandy “barrens,” or

to large areas of abandoned fields not yet reclaimed by woody

vegetation.

8 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts and Letters

The eastward spread of the jackrabbit frontier is known to

occur not only by the slow advance of a solid front, but by out¬

liers thrust suddenly far ahead of the main front, and later in¬

corporated in it. Thus in 1930 Professor John T. Curtis found

a jackrabbit skeleton in Waukesha County near Mukwanago, at

which time the species was not yet known to have entered Dane

County, and the nearest known “front” lay 75 miles to the west.

Jackrabbits have not occurred regularly in Waukesha County

until very recently.

These two types of spread by an expanding population are

similar to those already described for Hungarian Partridge (13) .

Snowshoe Hare (Lepus americanus phaennotus)

This paper follows the taxonomy of Hamilton (8:376), and

takes no account of the possible existence of two subspecies in

Wisconsin.

The south boundary of the snowshoe hare range during the

pre-settlement period undoubtedly lay far south of the present

boundary (Figure 2), and may have extended as far south as

Chicago. Kennicott, in 1855, makes this qualified assertion,

quoted by Cory (6:264) : “It has been stated that a number

were shot on the present site of the city of Chicago in the winter

of 1824.” This is possible, for the tamarack bogs constituting

the southerly habitat of the snowshoe extended as far south as

Chicago.

If the original range did extend into Illinois, then one would

expect to find reports of early colonies in the numerous tam¬

arack bogs of southeastern Wisconsin. I have found no such

reports ; my records of former occurrences are confined to recent

years, and to the counties immediately adjoining the present

boundary. Dr. A. W. Schorger, however, has contributed seven

records, all preceding 1900, and scattered widely over the south¬

ern counties almost to the Illinois boundary. I present Schorger’s

records in chronological order:

Ozaukee County, 1848. C. T. Ficker settled in the town of

Mequon in the winter of 1848-49. His journal, recently pub¬

lished (7 :349) says “There are no German rabbits here, though

there are wild hares which in summer have a gray appearance,

in winter white.” Ozaukee County is still rich in bogs, but there

was no prairie. Ficker’s description certainly refers to snow-

shoe hare.

Leopold — Distribution of Wisconsin Hares

9

Green Lake County , 18 U9. John Muir's parents settled on a

farm near Kingston in 1849. In his “Boyhood and Youth” Muir

says (16:181) “Hares and rabbits were seldom seen when we

first settled in the Wisconsin woods, but they multiplied rapidly

after the animals that preyed upon them had been thinned out,

and food and shelter supplied in grain fields and log fences and

the thickets of young oaks that grew up in pastures after the

annual grass fires were kept out.”

Green Lake was partly prairie, but it also had many tamarack

swamps, and Muir’s hares were clearly snowshoes.

Milwaukee County, 1852. Increase H. Lapham, a versatile

naturalist, mentions a specimen of Lepus americanus from Mil¬

waukee preserved in the collection of the Natural History Society

at Madison (11:340).

Sauk County, 1870. W. H. Canfield came to Sauk County in

1840. In 1870 he published the third of a series of recollections,

in which is this item: “Northern Hare. Seldom seen. Gray rab¬

bit. Scarce when the country was new, but now very plenty.

Water rabbitt. That resorts to water when pursued, sinking be¬

low the surface except the nose and eyes.” (5:39)

Canfield was originally attached to a government surveying

party. Schorger considers him observant and generally reliable.

His “water rabbit,” however, was certainly a swimming cotton¬

tail. Cottontails swim freely when pressed by hunters or dogs.

There is a large tamarack swamp on Leech Creek northeast

of Baraboo. While the tamaracks are now but a remnant, the

locality is logical as an early location for a colony of snowshoes.

Richland County, 1882 . The Richland Centre Republican and

Observer for Nov. 23, 1882 (p. 8) contains notice of a “side

hunt” in which a hare rated 75 points and a rabbit 25. There is

a large tamarack bog just south of Richland Centre. It is a

logical location for former snowshoe hares.

Buffalo County, 1888. L. Kessinger, in his county history,

gives a list of animals, in which this item occurs: “Northern

Hare. Changeable fur; rare.” The jackrabbit is of course also

changeable, but Kessinger’s correct nomenclature leaves little

doubt that he is reporting snowshoes. The tributaries of the

Mississippi in Buffalo County include swamps suitable as habitat.

Winona, Minn., 1897. L. H. Bunnell came to the La Crosse

region of Wisconsin in June, 1842. He was familiar with the

10 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts and Letters

Mississippi Valley from Prairie du Chien northward. The fol¬

lowing note, published at Winona, Minn, in 1897, does not refer

to any exact locality, but to the valley in general. He says

(4:338) “Rabbits are also quite common in the neighborhood,

and the northern hare occasionally appears, but as far as I know,

the real jackrabbit of the plains has not been seen in the Missis¬

sippi bottoms; though his fur becomes, in winter, almost as

white as that of the hare, and one is sometimes mistaken for the

other. A full-grown jackrabbit is considerably larger than either

the northern hare or the English hare.”

I have mapped Bunnell's report as Winona for lack of any

specific location.

Additional records of snowshoe may, in time, be discovered

in Indian middens. Bones from one such a midden at Aztalan,

in Jefferson County, have been partially reported (3:386) . Three

“rabbits” are listed as found among the Aztalan bones, but the

southern swamp rabbit is one of the three. The improbability

of this canebrake species in Wisconsin casts doubt on the de¬

pendability of all three identifications.

The present south boundary of the snowshoe, as depicted in

Figure 2, refines somewhat the boundaries published by Cory

and Hamilton, but it is nevertheless a crude affair, for it per¬

force ignores the fact that most marginal colonies are isolated

islands, whereas in Figure 2 only four extreme cases are so

mapped. Wallace Grange tells me that parts of the range in

Wood, Brown, Kewaunee Counties, and southern Door County

consist of islands. I know that some of the colonies in Outa¬

gamie, Portage, Juneau, Monroe, Jackson and Polk Counties are

islands, but I lack precise information necessary to map them

as such.

Recent Trends. Wallace Grange, who undoubtedly under¬

stands the snowshoe hare better than any other present Wiscon¬

sin naturalist, thinks that the northward recession of the bound¬

ary ceased about 1930, and that since 1930 snowshoes in the

peripheral counties have trended upward in numbers and per¬

haps southward in distribution. The eleven extinguished col¬

onies, recorded in Figure 2, all disappeared before 1931. A re¬

gression of agricultural settlement and drainage, together with

an improvement in forest fire control, both followed by an up¬

ward trend in plant succession, also occurred during the early

Leopold — Distribution of Wisconsin Hares 11

1930’s. Hence the southern boundary may, in general, be re¬

garded as stabilized since 1930.

The following instances illustrate the extinguishment of

peripheral colonies prior to 1930 :

Polk County. Snowshoes were seen at Balsam Lake, in the

center of the county, in 1931, but not since. C. A. Weitz, the

conservation warden, has sent me convincing evidence of three

relic colonies existing to the east and north of Balsam Lake in

1943 and 1945, but in each case the colony is very small. In this

county the pre-1930 recession perhaps still continues.

Dunn County. Helmer Mattison of Menominee, a thoroughly

competent woodsman, writes me : “The last snowshoe hare that

was in Dunn County that I know of was shot on my father’s

farm in the town of Spring Brook, 21/2 miles west of Fall City,

December 25, 1903. My folks bought this farm as wild land in

1898. I don’t know of any snowshoe rabbits now further south

than the northern half of Barron County.”

Waushara County. Dr. A. W. Schorger saw a snowshoe hare

near Pine Lake, Hancock township, on August 21, 1927. One of

my students, F. N. Hamerstrom, Jr., lived near Pine Lake during

1939 and 1940, but cannot remember evidence of snowshoes at

this point. Jack Worden, the conservation warden, says there

are no snowshoes in the county now, and that the last one he

saw was near Pine Lake “about 15 years ago.” I conclude that

the hare recorded by Schorger was about the last survivor of a

relic colony.

The process of shrinkage is evidently not yet everywhere

arrested. Clarence Searles of Wisconsin Rapids, who operates a

cranberry marsh near the most easterly of the two remaining

colonies in Wood County, writes me: “Snowshoe hares were

quite plentiful in the swamps of central Wood County until

about 15 years ago. In a swamp on our property they were com¬

mon, but now they are rare, although still present.”

Jefferson County Planting. The human itch to plant strange

rabbits has found expression not only in jackrabbits, but also in

this species. Hawkins (9:60) records a planting of two snow-

shoes in 1932 by Peter Dietrich in a tamarack swamp on his

farm near Faville Grove in Jefferson County. There is no evi¬

dence of establishment, and the tamaracks fell victim to some

12 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts and Letters

insect or disease about 1942. This same disorder swept most of

the tamarack bogs in the southeastern counties, and will pro¬

foundly affect their flora and fauna.

Status in Northern Wisconsin. While shrinking at their peri¬

phery up to 1930, snowshoe hares in northern Wisconsin reach

high levels at each peak of their cycle. These high populations

are usually spotty, but where they occur they often inflict heavy

damage on forest reproduction and forest plantations (1). This

damage, however, is in my opinion more localized in both time

and space than that now done by deer (14) . It occurs largely in

brushy cover, in winter, and at intervals of 10 years. Deer dam¬

age, on the other hand, is not confined either to cover or to

winter, and there is no population cycle to create periods of

respite. Both species browse as high as they can reach from a

standing position, but the leader of a forest tree does not become

deer-proof until eight feet above the snow, whereas it becomes

hare-proof much earlier.

Wallace Grange has pointed out that the same browsing

which makes the snowshoe a nuisance in forest plantations re¬

sults in valuable thinnings in over-dense thickets of jackpine

reproduction. The snowshoe seems to be the only native mammal

capable of maintaining a dense population in the monotype of

young jackpines which now covers large areas of outwash sand

in northern Wisconsin.

Summary

The development of agriculture has had opposite effects on

the two hares of Wisconsin. It has drawn the jackrabbit fron¬

tier eastward from the prairies, while pushing back the snow-

shoe frontier northward toward the Canadian zone.

The spread of the jackrabbit did not begin until about 1900,

when intensive dairying began to shrink the woodlots of south¬

ern Wisconsin. This trend promises to continue.

Having crossed the southern dairy belt, the jackrabbit was

free to invade the burned cutovers to the north, and is now

doing so. This extension of the range, however, will hardly per¬

sist, for fire protection now permits the advance of the forest

succession in the former cutovers.

Leopold — Distribution of Wisconsin Hares 13

The present jackrabbit population originated in part from

plantings, but the bulk of it probably represents natural spread

from the West.

The snowshoe hare once inhabited swamps in southern Wis¬

consin and perhaps in northeastern Illinois, but the exact loca¬

tion of the original southern frontier is unknown. The species

has receded slowly northward, but the south boundary has

become stabilized since 1930.

The gross ranges of two hares now overlap in a large block of

central Wisconsin counties, but they seldom occupy identical

niches. In the zone of overlap the jackrabbit inhabits barrens

and abandoned farms; the snowshoe, on the other hand, is

largely confined to swamps, jackpine thickets, and brushy lands.

Literature Cited

1. Aldous, Clarence M. and Shalek, E. Aldous. 1944. The snowshoe

hare, a serious enemy of forest plantations. Jour. Forestry 42:88-94.

2. Anthony, H. E. 1928. Field book of North American mammals. G. P.

Putnam’s Sons, New York. 625 pp.

3. Barrett, S. A. 1933. Ancient Aztalan. Bull, of the Public Museum of

Milwaukee 13:1-602.

4. Bunnell, L. H. 1897. Winona and its environs. Jones and Kroeger,

Winona, Minn. p. 333.

5. Canfield, W. H. 1870. Sketches of Sauk County (No. 3). A. N. Kellog.

Republic Office, Baraboo.

6. Cory, Charles B. 1912. The mammals of Illinois and Wisconsin. Publ.

153, Field Museum of Natural History, 505 pp.

7. Ficker, Christian T. 1942. Advice to emigrants. Wisconsin Magazine

of History 25:349.

8. Hamilton, Wm. J., Jr. 1943. The mammals of the eastern United

States. Comstock Publ. Co., Ithaca, N. Y. 432 pp.

9. Hawkins, Arthur S. 1940. A wildlife history of Faville Grove, Wis¬

consin. Trans. Wisconsin Acad. Sci. 32:29-65.

10. Henry, B. W., C. S. Moses, Audrey C. Richards, and A. J. Riker.

1944. Oak wilt: its significance, symptoms, and cause. Phytopathol¬

ogy 34:636-647.

11. Lapham, I. A. 1852. Fauna and flora of Wisconsin. Wis. Agr. Soc.

2:340.

12. Leopold, Aldo. 1931. Game survey of the north-central states. Sporting

Arms and Ammunition Mfgs. Institute. 299 pp.

13. Leopold, Aldo. 1940. Spread of the Hungarian partridge in Wisconsin.

Trans. Wisconsin Acad. Sci. 32:5-28.

14 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts and Letters

14. Leopold, Aldo. 1943. Deer irruptions. Trans. Wisconsin Acad. Sci.

35:351-365.

15. Marks, John B. 1942. Land use and plant succession in Coon Valley,

Wisconsin. Ecol. Monographs 12:113-133.

16. Muir, John. 1913. The story of my boyhood and youth. The Riverside

Press, Cambridge, Mass. 294 pp.

17. Mumbrue, Guy. 1938. Jackrabbits. Letter to Wis. Conservation Bull.

3:23.

18. Schafer, Joseph. 1922. A history of agriculture in Wisconsin. State

Historical Society of Wisconsin, Madison. 212 pp.

19. Schorger, A. W. 1943. The prairie chicken and sharp-tailed grouse in

early Wisconsin. Trans. Wisconsin Acad. Sci. 35:1-59.

A WINTER RABBIT BROWSE TALLY ON THE

UNIVERSITY OF WISCONSIN ARBORETUM1

Robert A. McCabe

Arboretum Biologist , Department of Wildlife Management,

University of Wisconsin

In southern Wisconsin during the winter of 1944-45 rabbits

damaged more trees and shrubs than in any winter for the past

twenty-five years. My observations cover only the period since

1930, but the above conclusion is substantiated by older observers

who are acquainted with the nature and severity of outbreaks

of rabbit damage.

The observations and measurements here reported were

made at the University of Wisconsin Arboretum, a thousand-

acre tract which lies partly within the city of Madison, on the

south shore of Lake Wingra. This area is ideally suited to meas¬

uring the extent of rabbit damage, first, because it has diversi¬

fied soils, topography and plant associations; second, because

the rabbits are only lightly hunted; and third, because many

woody species not found elsewhere have been planted in the park

and horticultural sections and in the two nurseries.

The cottontail rabbit (Sylvalagus floridanus mearnsii) is

common throughout southern Wisconsin and is the only rabbit

found in the Arboretum.

Severe rabbit damage occurs in a given locality only in cer¬

tain winters. The winter of 1943-44 had only an average amount

of browsing by rabbits, whereas in the winter of 1944-45 there

was exceptional browsing on most woody plants. The three most

likely reasons are: (1) that there were more rabbits on the

area; (2) that the plants were more palatable; and (3) the

weather conditions were more extreme.

The logical assumption might be that there were more rab¬

bits. This was not the case. On a 250-acre trapping area (Fig. 1)

38 rabbits were caught in 900 trap nights during December,

1943. The same area produced 39 rabbits in 900 trap nights in

Journal Paper Number 7, University of Wisconsin Arboretum.

15

16

Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts and Letters

Figure 1.

December, 1944, thus indicating that the rabbit density was the

same during the two winters. Rabbits were relatively abundant

both years.

I found no evidence of a differential palatability between the

two years. While I believe that browse foods do change in

palatability, the only evidence I have to support this contention

as follows:

First, Aldo Leopold (unpublished) observed a given stand of

elderberry (Sambucus spj each winter from 1935 through 1945

and found that browsing occurred only in February, 1940. The

browsing in this case was severe. During the ten-year period

many of the more apparent variables, such as cover changes,

McCabe— A Winter Rabbit Browse Tally 17

rabbit densities, etc., were active, supporting the belief that the

single year of heavy browse was due to change in palatability of

the elderberry.

Second, just beyond the extreme northeast corner of the

Arboretum the city of Madison has its brush dump, which is

filled with the fall prunings from city parks and roadsides. Here

I found that these prunings, cut a month or two previously, had

“cured” and become more palatable than live, green twiggage of

the same species. This was particularly true of American elm

and cottonwood, where the cured material was heavily browsed

but the living plant only slightly browsed.

Whether this apparent change in plant sugars (curing)

occurs in live trees and shrubs, I do not know, but if it does it

could account for year to year, season to season, and location to

location changes in palatability that I suspect exist.

The weather influence can be divided into two parts, tem¬

perature and snowfall. The mean temperature averaged lower

in 1944-45 (18.9° F.) than in 1948-44 (28.1° F.) for the trap¬

ping period. Neither year can be considered as severely cold, as

there were no prolonged periods of sub-zero weather. Most im¬

portant, I found no correlation between the daily temperature

and daily catch (Table 1), indicating that temperature alone

was not a factor causing excessive browsing.

The most apparent difference between the two winters under

discussion was the length of time snow covered the ground. In

1943-44 there were only two periods of 11 and 14 days when

there was snow, with a maximum depth of 3.1 inches, whereas

in 1944-45 there were 76 consecutive days from November 29

to February 13 when snow covered the ground, with a maximum

depth of 15.4 inches. The blanketing of the ground obviously

limits the rabbits' food supply to the palatable bark of woody

plants that extend above the snow, and the longer the snow

remains the greater the damage to the available supply. The

protracted period when the ground was covered with snow was

in my opinion the reason for the severe browse in 1944-45.

My field observations indicate that certain plant species are

preferred browse while others are not. This is not an original

observation, as other writers (see Discussion) have also pointed

this out. There are, however, several mechanical qualities of the

woody plants that appeared to influence the browsing.

TABLE

18 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts and Letters

m

0)

■a

o3

£

Fig. 2.— Wild crab (Pyms ioensis) showing the severe girdling on the young,

smooth-barked trunk and the older, roughened trunk untouched.

Fig. 3.— Cottonwood ( Populus deltoides) branches six inches in diam¬

eter browsed by rabbits in the Madison brush dump. Note that the rough¬

ened areas along the branches were not browsed.

Fig. 5.— Honey locust ( Gleditsia triancanthos ) showing trunk and lower

limbs girdled. Compare size with field glasses at base of tree.

Fig. 4. — Mountain ash ( Sorbus americana) two inches in diameter and

eight feet tall which will not survive the rabbit browsing.

McCabe — A Winter Rabbit Browse Tally

19

It was noted that when the bark of a given species became

roughened by the overlapping unsloughed layers of corky mate¬

rial, it was seldom browsed, but prior to this stage it might be

severely gnawed. This was particularly true in wild crab

(Prunus sp. - Fig. 2) and hackberry (Celtis occidentalis) , where

most of the available smooth-barked trees were killed by debark¬

ing and the smooth-limbed branches were damaged. The rough¬

ness of the bark discouraged browsing.

Just north of Murphy’s Creek in the brush dump mentioned

earlier, rabbits completely girdled a six-inch (dia.), smooth-

barked, upper branch of a cottonwood (Fig. 3) and left other

rough sections of the same branch untouched.

Roughness alone is not an infallible index of immunity, for

common nine-bark, with its rough peeling bark, was the only

member' of the rose family not browsed, while wild grape,

equally rough and peeling, was browsed. Also, the smooth bark

of mulberry was not touched in 100 trees examined.

In several species, namely shagbark hickory (Cary a ovata),

alternate-leaved dogwood (Cornus alternifolia) and red maple

(Acer rubrum), there were a number of plants that were scarred

by what appeared to be repeated attempts at debarking but

which left only single scars or tooth marks which failed to reach

the soft bark. The trees thus scarred had smooth bark and were

over %" in diameter. Those trees of the same species but smaller

in diameter were severely debarked and pruned. In these cases

it appeared toughness of the bark discouraged browsing.

Spiny growths such as prickles and thorns were no hindrance

to hungry rabbits, for several species of rose (Rosa sp.), honey

locust (Gleditsia triacanthos) , prickly gooseberry (Ribes cynos-

bati), prickly ash (Zanthoxylum americanum), and red rasp¬

berry (Rubus strigosis) were both debarked and pruned.

Rabbit damage is most acute in the vicinity of dens and pro¬

tective cover, but observations here reported were made in all

sections of the Arboretum so that the measurements are of an

average cross section.

The diameter of the stem browsed was measured with a

caliper and read to the nearest eighth of an inch.

In recording the browse on a large area of many interspersed

plants, some relative categories were necessary, hence two group¬

ings in Table 2, relative abundance and amount of damage , use

TABLE 2

20 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts and Letters

McCabe— A Winter Rabbit Browse Tally

21

tUD

o C

° £

O t)

^4

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8*8

W CO

p

2 JQ

> <y

Is

c7

T7

U-\ 00

4

r"\ sQ

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co _ _ _

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7 7

r^s oo

I I

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r^i o>

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CQ

OQ

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U

CQ

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U

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§

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||

C/D

a C

i <u

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b od

£2

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CO

Indicates that the browsing was lethal to some plants.

TABLE 2 ( continued )

22

Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts and Letters

McCabe — A Winter Rabbit Browse Tally

23

3

c/

£2^

5?

o

-c>

® §

03 -C

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C3 v. ti

0-0 c

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Indicates that the browsing was lethal to some plants.

TABLE 2 (continued)

24

Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts and Letters

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McCabe— A Winter Rabbit Browse Tally

25

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TABLE 2 (continued)

26 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts and Letters

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Indicates that the browsing was lethal to some plants.

TABLE 2 (continued)

28

Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts and Letters

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McCabe — A Winter Rabbit Browse Tally

29

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Indicates that the browsing was lethal to some plants.

30 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts and Letters

a relative classification. An abundant species is designated by A,

moderately abundant as B, uncommon as C and rare as D. Like¬

wise the amounts of damage are not uniform for all sections,

and the column amount of damage uses the following classifica¬

tion : A for severe, B for moderate, C for slight, D for trace and

0 for none.

Type of damage is designated by two letters. D indicates de¬

barking, which means the gnawing away of the outer bark and

cambium, usually exposing the dead wood. P indicates pruning

or nipping off of branches, twigs or young shoots and seedlings.

The two main areas where a species was examined are num¬

bered and refer to locations on the Arboretum base map (Fig. 1) .

Discussion

Why rabbits eat certain plants in winter is still a moot ques¬

tion despite scientific efforts to chemically analyze some of their

food (Dalke and Sime 227:1941) and to pigeon-hole their feed¬

ing behavior. What rabbits eat in particular areas is known.

There are, however, certain observations regarding winter feed¬

ing that are not experimentally tested, but which bear on the

question of palatability.

The roughness of bark as previously discussed is known to

inhibit browsing, but is this a mechanical difficulty, one of taste,

or does the rabbit not know how to hull off the undesirable bark

to get at the green edible material ? I believe the rabbit incapable

of the squirrel’s ability to hull the non-edible covering of poten¬

tial food.

Some smooth-barked trees remained untouched after an

initial attempt at browsing. Other trees of the same species but

smaller in diameter were severely gnawed, indicating that tough¬

ness (or hardness) of the bark discouraged browsing. This

appears to be the rabbits’ aversion to “hardtack” bark when

smaller tender shoots are available.

A large diameter alone was of little consequence in prevent¬

ing browsing. Mountain ash (Strobus americana) (Fig. 4) was

girdled and killed when two inches in diameter, as was honey

locust (Gleditsia triacanthos) (Fig. 5). In both cases the trees

were six to eight feet tall. Some old, prostrate apple trees eight

to ten inches in diameter were likewise severely browsed.

McCabe — A Winter Rabbit Browse Tally

31

In the case of the brush-pile browsing also mentioned earlier,

there is a possibility that green-cut twigs and branches that are

allowed to “cure” become more palatable than in the green state.

Numerous instances point to the fact that once a plant is in¬

jured, for example by trampling or scuffing along a foot trail, it

is very apt to be browsed. Sometimes the plant so scuffed may

be inferior food, yet it will be lightly browsed, perhaps by dif¬

ferent rabbits, for several successive nights. The inferior plant

may never be severely damaged, nor will the same species close

by be touched. It may be that this is “inquisitive browsing,” or

that the aroma released when the bark is broken makes the twig

temporarily attractive. Red osier and gray dogwood and Tar¬

tarian honeysuckle are some of the more abundant poorer foods

eaten after they have been injured.

A preference rating of winter foods is good only for the

area in which it was made. Within the confines of the Arbo¬

retum there were two large areas (65-7 and 59-1) where the

choice of wild foods was limited, and there gray dogwood was

severely browsed. In the two nurseries (64-7 and 80-11) where

the choice of plants was much greater, only a trace of gray dog¬

wood browsing was recorded. Thus a survey of either section

alone would have conveyed an erroneous impression.

This difference in preference between regions on a geo¬

graphic scale is recorded in the literature. Hosley (1938 -cited

by Sweetman), Todd (1927) and Trippensee (1938) found that

arbor-vitae (Thuja occidentals) was eaten, while Sweetman

(1944) and the present study record it as untouched. Also Sweet¬

man (1944), Dalke and Sime (1941), Hosley (1938) and Trip¬

pensee (1938) agree that smooth sumac (Rhus glabra) is only

slightly browsed, but my observations substantiate Hendrickson

(1938), who states that it is severely browsed.

Likewise, differences between years were noted by Dalke and

Sime (1941) who showed that in a feeding experiment during

the winters of 1937 and 1938 where penned rabbits were fed

known quantities of twiggage from 24 species of woody plants,

the preference varied considerably between the two years. In

any feeding experiment there are of course numerous variables

that influence preference; however, Arboretum held observa¬

tions substantiate this preference variation between years. Such

plants as red osier dogwood, red cedar and Tartarian honey-

32 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts and Letters

suckle are browsed in some winters and not in others. The

severity of browse on certain species, for example plum, choke

cherry, hickory and elm, also varies greatly between winters.

I further believe that in a year of high rabbit density and

severe browsing, food preferences may be obscured because of

food shortage. Or put another way, browse preferences may

change with food availability.

Since evergreens are important from forestry, game cover

and landscaping points of view, they were given particular

attention. No debarking was noted on red pine (Pinus resinosa),

white pine (Pinus strobus) or jack pine (Pinus banksiana) , but

needles of all three species were eaten in small amounts and the

lower branches of some white and jack pines were pruned. Red

cedar (Juniperus virginiana) and prostrate juniper (Juniperus

communis) are trees very rarely if ever damaged by rabbits, but

this winter they were severely browsed and pruned. Several

hundred white cedars (Thuja occidentalis - average height eight

feet) were untouched, as were five hundred white spruce (Picea

alba) that average two feet in height. This is interesting in

view of the fact that at the Faville Grove Wildlife Area at Lake

Mills (Jefferson Co.), Wisconsin, 25 miles east of the Arboretum,

white spruce could not be used for wildlife cover plantings be¬

cause rabbits killed and stunted the trees by over-browsing.

To eliminate what was at first thought to be a weakness in

other browse studies, namely the relative classification of the

amount of damage, a numerical standard was worked out. This

involved taking the percent of browsed stalks per 100 plants.

This system if adhered to would have created an inaccurate pic¬

ture. The percentages kept changing as more time was put on

the survey and as more areas were covered ; so that in the end I

was certain that my relative appraisal was more reliable than

the numerical values. I am now satisfied to accept the relative

classifications of other observers as an “accurate” picture of

rabbit browse for the year and area covered.

In short, I believe that experiments and field observations of

rabbit feeding leave much to be desired in answering the ques¬

tion of “Why the differential palatability of winter foods?” The

object of this report is to record the kind and amount of browse

in a year of severe rabbit damage, and to interpret some of the

Arboretum browse observations in light of rabbit abundance,

cover and available plants.

McCabe — A Winter Rabbit Browse Tally

33

Summary

During two winters of similar rabbit density and tempera¬

ture, but dissimilar snow cover, rabbit browsing was much

heavier during the snowy winter.

A browse tally of 108 woody species showed 41% severely

browsed, 8% unbrowsed. Within a given species browsing ceased

when the bark became rough. While not proven, toughness

(hardness) of bark is likewise thought to inhibit browsing.

Large diameter did not discourage browsing and the diameters

at which woody plants were not eaten varied between species.

Prickles and thorns on plants had no hindering effect on rab¬

bit browsing. In some species partial curing of cut twiggage

seemed to increase the palatability. Scuffed shoots and branches

along foot trails were readily browsed while the same species

close by but not scuffed or broken was untouched.

Within a given species, palatability varies in different years.

Acknowledgments

Appreciation is expressed to Professor Aldo Leopold for edit¬

ing the manuscript ; to Professor G. W. Longenecker for aid with

identification of horticultural plants; and to Professor N. C.

Fassett for reading the manuscript and checking the taxonomic

material.

Literature Cited

Dalke, P. H. and P. R. Sime. 1941. Food habits of the eastern and New

England cottontails. Jour. Wildlife Mgmt. 5:216-228.

Hendrickson, G. 0. 1938. Winter food and cover of Mearns cottontail.

Trans. Third North Amer. Wildlife Conf. 3:787-793.

Sweetman, H. L. 1944. Selection of woody plants as winter food by the

cottontail rabbit. Ecology. 4:467-472.

Todd, J. B. 1927. Winter food of the cottontail rabbits. Jour. Mammalogy.

8:222-228.

Trippensee, R. E. 1938. Food relationships of the cottontail rabbit in

southern Michigan. Trans. Third North Amer. Wildlife Conf. 3:794-804.

• •

THE RUFFED GROUSE IN EARLY WISCONSIN

A. W. SCHORGER

The ruffed grouse during the period of settlement was com¬

monly called “pheasant” or “partridge.” The latter name pre¬

vails at the present time. La Hontan1 was one of the first writers

to mention this bird in the state. While at Green Bay in Sep¬

tember, 1688, he was served two wood-hens (Gelinotes de hois)

at a feast. Our ruffed grouse is closely related to the wood-hen,

or hazel-hen (Bonasa sylvestris) of Europe.

Two forms of this bird have been described for the state by

Aldrich and Friedmann.2 Bonasa umbellus mednanus is found in

the southern part and Bonasa umbellus togata in the northern.

The ruffed grouse is a bird of the thickets and the margins

of the forest. Where there has been little or no experience with

man, it is surprisingly unwary. The “educated” bird, however,

furnishes most difficult hunting. Eternal vigilance is required to

obtain a shot. Where the cover is dense this grouse may dis¬

appear in a flash, or there may be only a roar of wings to indi¬

cate its former presence. In hilly country, as you toil up one

slope the bird goes down the other. Also it has the reprehensible

habit of allowing the hunter to walk past, then zooming away

behind his back. H. W. Herbert,3 a noted sports writer of a cen¬

tury ago, considered it too difficult to shoot to make good sport.

A Milwaukee sportsman,4 writing of the ruffed grouse in 1856,

states that it is so difficult to secure that those obtained are killed

incidentally by hunters while in pursuit of other game. He adds :

“There is another peculiarity about him that is unpleasant to the

sportsman. He seems to have no local attachments. You may

find a place where the partridge abounds one day, and on the

next you may hunt that same place all day and not find a single

bird.”

The paucity of early references to the ruffed grouse in Wis¬

consin shows that it was not favored by gunners. This condition

changed as the other upland game birds became less plentiful,

and eventually the hunting of the partridge was looked upon as

a princely recreation. Van Dyke5 appreciated fully the aesthetics

85

36 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts and Letters

of the sport, for he wrote: “Imagine a long, easy, sun-kissed

slope in the most beautiful section of the magnificent ‘Badger

state’ — time mid-afternoon. Half of this slope is gleaming stub¬

ble which rolls in sleepy, golden billows to a strand of dull crim¬

sons and cooling bronze, where the waist-high scrub oaks and

briars and dwarf hazels weave together, glowing like some huge

rare rug of Orient spread over the everlasting hills. Beyond all

this, stern ramparts of grim grey stone hearsed with sombre

pines, beneath which trail heavy crimson banners of creepers,

as though flung earthward in grief for the passing glory of the

year. . . . Along a certain Wisconsin steep runs a peculiar step¬

like formation — a smooth pathway one third of a mile long.

Upon one side and for many feet above rises a huge slope of

forested rock, which, upon the outer side of the path, falls away

into a dim ravine, so deep that only the tallest of its tree-tops

rise above the level of the path. . . . The ruffed grouse love such

places as they love the old logging roads and ancient trails.”

Historical Review .

It is remarkable that none of the early travelers in northern

Wisconsin recorded the ruffed grouse as abundant at any time.

Henry6 was at Michilmackinac, Michigan, in the fall of 1761. He

states: “The neighboring woods abounded in partridges and

hares. . . While on the Muskegon River, Michigan, in Janu¬

ary, 1820, Hubbard7 trapped daily from “one to a dozen par¬

tridges.” Returning to Wisconsin, Carver8 writes of “the brown,

the red, and the black” partridges encountered in 1766. Pre¬

sumably he refers to color phases of the ruffed grouse and to

the spruce grouse. Few men had as good opportunities to make

observations as did Schoolcraft,9 yet he barely mentions the bird :

an Indian boy on the St. Croix River was useful for killing par¬

tridges. Lapham10 gives “the pheasant and prairie hen (T. um-

bellus and T. cupido)” as abundant in the woods and prairies

of southern Wisconsin.

Rev. Ely11 was a missionary in the Fond du Lac (Duluth-

Superior) district from 1833 to 1854, and resided at Superior.

Though he made numerous journeys overland, the ruffed grouse

is seldom mentioned, and never as abundant. For example :

December 15, 1835. Fond du Lac. “Almost daily Peter takes

Rabbitts and occasionally Partridges.”

Schorger—The Ruffed Grouse in Early Wisconsin 37

April 30, 1839. Fond du Lac. “The shots we heard [from the

north shore] were discharged at partridges. Henry had been

hunting.”

August 9, 1839. Between La Pointe and Fond du Lac. “Have

had a couple of partridges to cook with them. Every day - 7th

2, 8th 1, 9th 2.”

October 20, 1839. River St. Croix. “The boys brought 2 par¬

tridges.”

October 20, 1846. West of La Pointe. “Killed two partridges.”

The Lac Vieux Desert region was reported by Capt. Cram,12

in 1841, to be “tolerably well provided” with partridges and

other game. Mills13 walked from Stillwater, Minnesota to Supe¬

rior in the summer of 1856. The only game mentioned as killed

were six partridges. Most observers were impressed by the scar¬

city of game on the southern shore of Lake Superior. The In¬

dians subsisted largely on fish and provisions obtained from the

traders. Andrews14 reported in 1853: “Game has become ex¬

ceedingly scarce in these thickly wooded regions, only a few

bears, rabbits, and porcupines and some partridges being found

in the woods. ...” A party of four men that left Ontonogan,

Michigan, on December 5, 1855, travelled by trail to Wausau,

Wisconsin and reported that no game was found “except a few

partridges.”15

Owing to a better habitat provided by more open country the

situation was entirely different in the southern half of the state.

Fonda16 states that “pheasants” were abundant along Bloody

Run (Mill Coulee), near Prairie du Chien, in 1834. Rodolph,17

who came to Lafayette County in 1834, mentions the drumming

of the cock “pheasant” and that “the country was full of game ;

prairie chickens, partridges, quails, . . .” In 1837 Gen. Smith18

visited southwestern Wisconsin and found that “pheasants also

are in great numbers.” That same year Keyes19 came to Jeffer¬

son County, where game, including partridges, was abundant.

Quarles20 wrote quaintly from Kenosha County on February 14,

1839: “We have lived like heroes, a plenty of venison Racoon

Patridges Prairie hens. . . .” The town of Taycheedah, Fond

du Lac County, was settled in 1838. Among the upland game

birds, “patridges” were found.21 ... In January, 1839, “wild

turkies, partridges, . . .” were offered abundantly in the village

of Milwaukee.22

38 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts and Letters

Distribution.

The ruffed grouse formerly occurred in every county in Wis¬

consin. As would be expected, it was not common in the virgin

coniferous and hardwood forests of the northern portion of the

state. Lumbering eventually produced a wide range of desir¬

able territory. The prairie regions with their “oak openings”

in the central, southern, and western portions of the state pro¬

vided good cover. Where the prairie escaped burning for a few

years, thickets filled the border between the woods and the

prairie. The forests that escaped burning were likewise filled

with brush. Clark,23 who came to Madison in 1840, wrote:

. . almost the entire area of what is, at this day, the beau¬

tiful city of Madison, . . . was then, and for some years later,

almost an impassable forest, with a dense undergrowth of young

trees and briars, through which I used to make my way hunting

for partridges, and other game, with great difficulty.”

Settlement for a time improved and increased greatly the

cover for ruffed grouse through decrease in burning. “Snap

Shot”24 wrote from Oregon, Dane County : “It sounds strangely

to one who has hunted here off and on for ten years to hear that

‘ruffed grouse are more numerous than quail in Wisconsin now’ ;

but such is the fact. Ten years ago the quail whistled from every

fence-corner while the ‘partridge’ was a bird you saw rarely and

momentarily in the woods. Now the quail, sadly thinned out by

the severe winters . . . while the ruffed grouse are growing

more numerous every year. They are very plenty this season.

. . . The cover here is getting to be abominable, a perfect tangle

of scrub-oak, choke-cherry, wild crab-apple, hazel-brush, frost

grape and a variety of briars, with now and then a little patch

of tolerably clear poplar for relief.”

“Atticus”26 wrote from Racine in 1844: “Pheasants, or par¬

tridges as they are sometimes called, are killed in considerable

numbers.” In 1852, the ruffed grouse was reported by Hoy26 as

common in all the timbered districts of Wisconsin. A year later,

Barry27 considered this grouse abundant. By 1885 it had become

scarce within twenty miles of Racine, though when Hoy28 arrived

there in 1845 it was abundant.

The western portion of Wisconsin remained for many years

excellent territory for ruffed grouse. On February 13, 1869,

Gibbs29 wrote of the Lake Pepin region: “We hear the whirr of

Schorger — The Ruffed Grouse in Early Wisconsin 39

the ruffed-grouse frequently as we startle them from their thick¬

ets. In the fall of the year they are abundant in these woods,

and a party camping near any of the creeks can have them for

boiling at their log fire with little trouble ... on Lost Creek

. . . some years ago ... in the month of October . . . these

grouse were so plenty that while one of us was starting up the

fire in the morning, another might take his gun, step into the

thickets anywhere and return in fifteen minutes with enough for

breakfast. In the evening, an hour or so before sunset, we could

hear a noise like distant thunder occasioned by their flying down

from the bluffs to feed upon the birch and alder buds along the

bank of the stream. Last fall, too, they were reported to be very

plenty in this neighborhood. . . . This grouse is called 'par¬

tridge’ and 'pheasant’ in the Northwest.”

Ruffed grouse seem to be unable to exist on other than very

large islands. Palmer30 wrote in 1913 that this species was intro¬

duced successfully on Washington Island, Door County, Wiscon¬

sin, in 1900. Correspondence with residents of this island has

resulted in the unsatisfactory information that there are a few

to none to be found there at the present time. Madeline Island,

one of the Apostle group, has an area of 22.5 square miles and is

1.8 miles distant from the mainland. I have covered this island

on foot from end to end on several occasions and never saw a

ruffed grouse. None of the inhabitants interrogated had ever

seen one on the island. The sharp-tailed grouse is periodically

common. It is highly improbable that a ruffed grouse could cover

the distance of 1.8 miles except in winter and by resting on the

ice. Blanford30a makes the preposterous statement that two birds

flew from Hook Mountain to Sing Sing, a distance of 4.5 miles.

No proof was offered.

Decline.

There are probably not more than six counties in the state

where the ruffed grouse is now extinct. The decline began about

1870 in the southern portion of the state. This year the open

season was shortened a month for the eleven southernmost coun¬

ties. The chief factor in the decline was, and continues to be,

grazing. Kumlien,31 in 1891, said of this grouse: ". . . in all

settled parts of the state it is steadily diminishing in numbers.

The most deadly enemy of this bird is the skunk which has in¬

creased in numbers within the last quarter century.” A more

40 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts and Letters

correct appraisal was made in 1903: “Common resident in

favored sections of the south and central parts of the state, and

almost abundant in some of the northern counties. The gradual

clearing up of underbrush and tangled thickets, and the pastur¬

ing of woodland lots have driven the ‘partridge’ from many of

its old haunts.”32 Hollister,33 in 1919, reported that it had been

extinct at Delavan for five or six years. He doubted if any were

to be found in Walworth County. Extinction was attributed to

the pasturing of woodlots and to cats.

The rate of the decline is difficult to estimate due to the fail¬

ure to recognize cycles. In 1870, it was said for the vicinity of

Watertown:34 “. . . occasionally partridges were to be met

within our timber lands . . . but now, we understand, the par¬

tridges have become almost extinct” ; however, in 1874 they were

“pretty plentiful” in Watertown35 at fifty cents a pair.

There are few data on which to determine the population

density at any one period. In the summer of 1877, King36 made

a census of birds along four routes near Whitewater, Jefferson

County. No ruffed grouse were reported for three of the routes,

while ten were found on the fourth route covering a distance of

three miles. If these birds represented a single covey, a sparse

population is indicated. In 1902 it was estimated that there was

a pair of ruffed grouse “for nearly every piece of woods of ten

acres or more in extent” in Sheboygan County.37

Migration,

It has been recognized for over a century that there was a

fall movement of the ruffed grouse in considerable numbers. It

is a moot question if this movement should be considered a

migration in the sense that there is a return of a portion of the

population from more than an insignificant distance. Until more

is known about the phenomenon, it is safer to look upon it as a

redistribution. Audubon38 wrote : “The Ruffed Grouse, although

a constant resident in the districts which it frequents, performs

partial sorties at the approach of autumn. These are not equal

in extent to the peregrinations of the Wild Turkey . . . but are

sufficiently so to become observable during the seasons when

certain portions of the mountainous districts which they inhabit

become less abundantly supplied with food than others. These

partial rovings might not be noticed, were not the birds obliged

to fly across rivers of great breadth, as whilst in the mountain

Schorger — The Ruffed Grouse in Early Wisconsin 41

lands their groups are as numerous as those which attempt these

migrations ; but at the north-west banks of the Ohio and Susque¬

hanna rivers, no one who pays the least attention to the man¬

ners and habits of our birds, can fail to observe them. The

Grouse approach the banks of the Ohio in parties of eight or

ten, now and then twelve or fifteen. . . . This usually happens

in the beginning of October. ... In the month of October, 1820,

I observed a larger number of Ruffed Grouse migrating from

the States of Ohio, Illinois and Indiana into Kentucky, than I

had ever before remarked. During the short period of their

lingering along the north-west shore of the Ohio that season, a

great number of them was killed, and they were sold in the Cin¬

cinnati market for so small a sum as 12% cents each.”

It was believed that the ruffed grouse was partially migratory

at the approach of winter, the birds leaving the hills for more

sheltered situations in the lowlands. Nuttall,39 in travelling

nearly the length of New Hampshire, in November, 1831, did

not see a single grouse and assumed that the migration had

taken place.

There is no reliable information on the maximum distances

that the ruffed grouse cover in the autumn movement. Herbert3

makes the bold statement that single birds or small groups will

wander ten to twelve miles entirely on foot. Schley40 did not

believe that the species was migratory, or that the autumn move¬

ment was either extensive or general. Rarely, he found a bird

two or three miles from woodland, on one occasion four miles

from any woods or thickets. In Manitoba, on October 14, 1884,

Thompson41 shot “a large full plumaged male partridge on the

open prairie, at least a mile from cover of any kind.”

The cause of the autumnal wanderings, in the opinion of

Van Dyke,5 might be due to the retention of a trace of an old

instinct to migrate. On several occasions he found single birds

within the limits of the town in which he resided, a mile and a

half from the nearest possible grouse cover. According to Brew¬

ster42 it was commonly believed in the Lake Umbagog region of

Maine that the species “came and went at infrequent and irregu¬

lar intervals.” He gives several examples of mass movements.

On one occasion, prior to 1870, one of his guides shot a ruffed

grouse. At the report of the gun, so many birds arose that the

woods seemed filled with them. When followed, they all travelled

southward in successive flights.

42 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts and Letters

“ Crazy Flight ”

The appearance of ruffed grouse in unusual places is a part

of the fall redistribution. One of the most sensible views of this

movement is that of Eaton:43 “In the fall, just before the trees

drop their leaves, there is a dispersal of grouse in all directions

from the locality where they were reared. They then appear in

unusual places. ... At this time of the year, many suppose that

grouse become bewildered, and they certainly exhibit strange

instincts at this season. ... I am inclined to think that grouse

at this season are not afflicted by any nervous disease, but have

an instinct to wander into new localities, an impulse which is of

value to the species in restocking depleted coverts, and in intro¬

ducing new strains of blood in different localities, thus maintain¬

ing the vigor of the breed.”

Several other explanations have been offered to account for

the “crazy flight.” It is a quite old observation that the ruffed

grouse shows sexual activity beyond the breeding period. Ken¬

dall44 wrote : “It was in October, I think, at any rate in the fall

of the year, that I once observed a male Grouse treading a hen.”

The opinion has been advanced by Clarke45 that the persistence

of this sexual activity may be the cause of the abnormal fall

flights. If the flights were produced by sexual stimulus, it is

logical to assume that there would be more cases in spring than

in fall; however, spring occurrences have been recorded rarely.

In the spring of 1911 a partridge flew through the window of a

church at Jordan Station, Ontario.46 Gross47 mentions an adult

male that struck a building in New Brunswick, Maine, on

April 14, 1924. Only two cases occurring in spring were found

for Wisconsin.

A few wandering grouse were examined by Gross47 and

found to contain helminth parasites. He suggested that para¬

sitism might cause the peculiar behaviour. Much more data is

required to establish this affliction as a cause.

The flight seems to be due to an innate urge to disperse in

autumn. Only a given density of population is tolerated. Clarke45

considers it normal for the family group to persist throughout

the winter. The evidence is rather to the contrary. This grouse

will frequently assemble to roost, or to feed in the morning and

evening, yet remains more or less solitary throughout the day.

Eaton43 mentions that the broods disperse for the winter. At

Schorger — The Ruffed Grouse in Early Wisconsin 43

6.00 A. M. on the morning of March 9, 1902, Brewster42 watched

nine grouse in an apple tree that they had selected for budding

in his orchard at Concord, Massachusetts. They left one or two

at a time “but in three or four different directions, thus indicat¬

ing that they had come from divers places.”

Ruffed grouse were extremely abundant in Outagamie

County, Wisconsin, in the summers of 1882 and 1883 ; yet in

winter Grundtvig48 found them “only singly.” In the fall of 1883,

the following note from Lacon, Marshall County, Illinois, ap¬

peared: “The ruffed grouse are very much more plentiful in

this immediate vicinity this autumn than at any time since their

first appearance here about 25 years ago, yet next year at this

time they may have almost entirely disappeared, though none

may have been shot. Right now here they are having what is

known as 'crazy grouse times,’ i.e., the coveys have separated,

and individuals are liable to be found anywhere, even in town.”49

There is a far greater shifting of the population, even when

it is sparse, during the nonbreeding season than is generally

assumed. In my journal is the following entry for January 7,

1928: “There must be some movement of this species for I do

not find them near town [Madison] except in winter.” Data on

spring flights are few in comparison with autumn, as would be

expected in view of the winter mortality. King50 gives a winter

loss of 20 percent for certain areas in Minnesota, while on two

areas in New York the adult losses from September, 1936 to

September, 1937 were 63.5 percent and 45.4 percent, respectively.

The best data on the spring shift are given by Bump.52 An

area of 500 acres of good grouse cover contained 40 grouse in the

fall of 1933. By April, 1934 the population was reduced to four

by intensive hunting. Though the area was entirely surrounded

by open land for a distance of 800 feet, except for a small tongue

of brush, 12 grouse had moved into the area by the end of the

first month. A census showed 83 grouse present on the area on

the first of September.

There are some data available on the carrying capacity of

grouse habitats, or what may be called the density of population

tolerated by the species. King,50 after a study of seven years’

duration found that the maximum breeding population was one

bird for four acres. In New York, Edminster53 found the satura¬

tion point to be a bird to four acres. He adds: “In every case

44 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts and Letters

where this density was surpassed in early fall, immediate reac¬

tion set in in the form of dispersion and accelerated decimation.”

Particularly pertinent are the findings of Errington54 on the

winter-carrying capacity of marginal grouse territory in south¬

ern Wisconsin. One bird required from 15 to 200 acres in vari¬

ous areas in Dane County and six acres in the Baraboo Hills,

Sauk County. Assuming an extreme case, that ten members of a

brood survived until fall in Dane County, it is to be expected

that in the trial and error search for suitable wintering grounds,

the excess grouse will wander to considerable distances, and some

will be found in unusual places. It is doubtful if, in poor grouse

territory, more than a fraction of the dispersed birds will survive

the winter.

The age of the “crazy” birds has been recorded in only a few

instances, but both old and young birds have struck buildings.

Forbush55 quotes E. S. Thompson as saying that the trait is

shown by young birds during the first season, occasionally in the

second,* but never afterwards. Normally there are more young

than adult birds in autumn; so it is to be expected that the

majority of the birds showing this behaviour would be young of

the year.

The ruffed grouse is not as skillful in avoiding obstacles in

the wild as is generally supposed. Every observant hunter will

recall hearing the sound produced by the wings striking twigs.

Forbush55 saw a grouse strike a limb and fall to the ground. He

mentions a case where a grouse impaled itself on the broken end

of a dead limb. Most villages appear like an inviting forest to

a grouse approaching from a distance. Naturally it would be

confused greatly by buildings with which there is no background

of experience and which it is not structurally fitted to avoid.

The short, broad wings are suited only for short, rapid, direct

flight. It has a wing area of only 1.02 sq. cm. per gram of body

weight, rendering it elephantine in maneuverability in compari¬

son with a bird like the pigeon hawk (Falco c. columbarius)

having long, pointed wings, and a wing area of 2.37 sq. cm. per

gram of body weight.56

There are many references in the literature to the appear¬

ance of grouse in unusual places, and striking buildings and

* No reliable method is known for determining the age of a ruffed grouse

after it is one year old.

Schorger — The Ruffed Grouse in Early Wisconsin 45

other objects in autumn. Appendix 1 contains about 80 cases

found for Wisconsin. In three or four instances the bird was

given as a prairie chicken, obviously in error. The cases are

given in some detail for the purpose of furnishing data for fur¬

ther analysis of this behaviour when additional information

becomes available.

Analysis of the Wisconsin data shows that:

1. The flights extended from September 17 to November 16,

the majority during the first half of October.

2. Where the time of day is given, the flights occurred in the

morning and evening.

3. There is a tendency for more cases to occur in years of a

high population than in a low.

4. Spring “crazy flights” are comparatively rare and take

place in April.

Our knowledge of the subject may be summarized as follows :

1. The initial fall dispersal appears to be due to population

pressure. It is similar to that of the quail when its popula¬

tion is high.57 Owing to the unevenness of grouse popula¬

tions, areas may exist in every year where there is popula¬

tion pressure.

2. There are insufficient data to show that either sexual activ¬

ity or parasitism is a factor in the dispersal. Neither would

account for the similar behavior of quail.

3. There is more or less shifting of the population throughout

the year except during the nesting period.

4. The greater number of “accidents” during the fall may be

attributed to greater activity and poorer visibility due to

the presence of foliage.

Food.

The diet of the ruffed grouse is decidedly varied. Its food

habits in Wisconsin and elsewhere58 have been investigated ex¬

tensively. King59 did the pioneer work in the state: “Of six

specimens examined two had eaten twenty-four caterpillars ; one,

the grub of a beetle ; one, two grasshoppers ; one, seven harvest-

men ; one, fruit ; one, foliage ; one, seeds ; one, partridge-berries ;

and three, buds.” A chick, approximately a week old, had eaten

13 caterpillars, the grub of a beetle, and seven harvest-men.

King59 mentions that an adult bird taken in October had eaten

304 buds of the white birch. The observation that budding be¬

gins in Wisconsin in October, while other foods are available,

was also made by Grange.60 He noticed that the grouse began to

46 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts and Letters

bud at dawn, or just before, on very cold mornings, and states:

“It would almost seem that the colder the morning, the earlier

the breakfast of the ruffed grouse.” Evening feeding is pro¬

longed to twilight.

There is no reference to injury to fruit trees in Wisconsin.

Maynard61 took 180 apple buds from the crop of a bird shot at

10.00 A. M. Weed and Dearborn62 state: “In isolated cases ruffed

grouse cause some damage to fruit-trees by eating the buds in

winter. The extent of the injury which a grouse is capable of

doing in a season may be estimated from the contents of a crop

examined by us. It was taken from a female shot in January,

and contained 347 apple-tree buds, 88 maple buds, and 12 leaves

of sheep-laurel. This was of course a single meal, and, as two

such meals are eaten per day, it must be reckoned as half the

daily consumption.” Based on observations at Concord, Brew¬

ster42 was of the opinion that the budding of apple trees was not

harmful. In fact, the operation prevented the trees from over¬

bearing, so that they yielded a crop of apples annually instead of

every other year.

Some stomach examinations of Wisconsin birds were made by

Bennetts.63 The gizzards of two birds collected in Washington

County on September 6, 1899, contained the seeds of: Prunus

serotina, wild black cherry; Gramineae , probably Andropogon

sorgum; Rhus vernix, poison sumac; Cornus asperfolia , rough¬

leaved dogwood; Viola obliqua Hill, hooded blue violet.

The stomachs of 14 birds taken in Barron County between

November 10-20, 1899 contained no insect remains, though the

stomachs of insectivorous birds collected at the time were filled

with them. They contained: seeds of Rhus hirta L., staghorn

sumac; Thuja occidentals, arbor vitae; Morus rubra, red mul¬

berry; Liliaceae, some member of; Polygonum dumetorum,

hedge buckwheat ; Mitchella repens, partridge berry ; Smilax, sp. ;

Crataegus crus-galli, cockspur thorn ; Cruciferae, sp. ; both fer¬

tile and sterile catkins of Betula lutea, yellow birch, and Betula

papyrifera, paper birch; leaves of Frag aria canadensis Mich.,

northern wild strawberry, and Hepatica triloba, round-leaved

hepatica.

The crops of ruffed grouse taken in northern Wisconsin in

the fall of 1914 were found by Betts64 to contain the catkins of

hazel (apparently Corylus rostrata) ; and of ten birds collected

Schorger — The Ruffed Grouse in Early Wisconsin 47

in Chippewa County, November 25-28, 1915, seven had eaten

the pods of the hog peanut (Amphicarpoea) , that was abundant.

The crop of one bird contained: 37 pods of Amphicarpoea. ; 130

seeds of Amphicarpoea ; 105 small reddish leaf buds; 17 seeds

of Desmodium ; 36 green leaflets of clover; three green leaflets

of strawberry; one leaf and one berry of wintergreen; the re¬

mains of an insect ; and one small pebble.

Gross65 reported on the examination of the crops and stom¬

achs of 1055 ruffed grouse, of which 32 came from Wisconsin.

Vegetable matter from 129 sources constituted 98.57 percent of

the food eaten by birds taken in October, November, and De¬

cember. Regardless of the season, animal food is of minor

importance to the adult grouse.

The ruffed grouse is not listed by Guthrie66 among the birds

that eat snakes. One shot at Green Bay,67 Wisconsin, September,

1867, was found to have eaten a snake seven inches in length. It

has been stated that in Maine it is common for this grouse to

eat snakes.68 Roberts69 cites a case of a ruffed grouse that choked

to death in its attempt to swallow a garter snake.

The ruffed grouse is so accustomed to a vegetable diet of low

nutritive value that a food problem occurs but rarely. During

the winter months when snow covers the ground, it subsists on

the buds and tips of twigs of various trees, a source of food that

is always readily available except after a heavy sleet storm.

Weather.

The oldest and commonest explanation offered in Wisconsin

for a low ruffed grouse population was a cold, wet spring that

caused the sitting bird to abandon its eggs or “drowned” the

young. It is now known that young grouse cannot be reared

successfully without insect food. A cold, wet spring that re¬

stricts insect activity to the point where few are available results

in a low survival of the young birds.

The ruffed grouse is about as weather-proof as any of our

birds. The chief source of mortality is imprisonment by a crust

that forms on the snow under which the bird has gone to roost.

Reports of casualties of this nature are numerous; however,

Clarke45a mentions that only seven of his correspondents had

actually seen grouse killed in this manner. There are statements

from Hudson70 and Richland Center71 that the winter of 1872-73

had been very severe on partridge and other small game, and

48 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts and Letters

that some had been killed. A thaw followed by a freeze in Janu¬

ary, 1888, is said to have killed large numbers of partridge and

other grouse in the northwestern part of the state.72 The follow¬

ing statement appeared at Grand Rapids (Wisconsin Rapids) :73

“Word comes to us that a great many partridges, prairie chick¬

ens and grouse are found beneath this heavy crust dead. It is

thought that the first night it froze so hard . . . they were un¬

able to extricate themselves in the morning and died. These facts

were obtained from men residing on the cranberry marshes.”

The same condition prevailed at Friendship74 and Eau Claire.75

It has been questioned if ruffed grouse are ever caught in this

manner.76

Some information on mortality of ruffed grouse in Wisconsin

due presumably to severe winter weather, or to a sleet storm (in

1917) was collected by Leopold.77

In February, 1922 there was a severe storm in northwestern

Wisconsin. A thunderstorm on the 19th was followed by zero

weather on the evening of the same day in Outagamie County.

The afternoon of the 21st there was a blizzard with sleet and

snow that lasted through the 23rd. Four partridges that had

died from starvation were found in Center Swamp near Apple-

ton on March 1, and others were found subsequently. Hundreds

were reported near starvation. Birch trees were cut down and

the ice knocked from the branches to expose the buds. The birds

are stated to have gone to the fallen trees in large numbers.78

Barber79 published a photograph of several of the dead birds.

An interesting case is mentioned by Clarke45a of a bird that

had eaten such a large quantity of wet buds that the crop was

extended beyond the ability of the feathers to cover the bare skin.

The crop and its contents were frozen. During severe weather

this species can succumb to cold when occupying an arboreal

roost. Two birds were found frozen to death on the Presidential

Range, New Hampshire, a crust preventing them from burrow¬

ing into the snow.80

The death of partridges from a hail storm on July 5, 1871,

in Sauk County, must be considered as very unusual.81

Cycles.

It is an old observation that ruffed grouse have years of

scarcity and abundance. Phillips82 mentions that New York had

a closed season as far back as 1708, and Massachusetts in 1818.

Schorger — The Ruffed Grouse in Early Wisconsin 49

His inference that “colonial legislators were concerned with

cyclic scarcity just the same as they are now” is hardly justi¬

fiable. Any clear-cut idea of a grouse cycle as understood today

did not appear until the latter half of the past century. In 1883

the following concrete statement was published : “The periodical

disappearance of the ruffed grouse is a topic of much animated

discussion. . . . We have noted the facts for forty years, but

an explanation of them is yet to be found. In a certain locality

where the birds have been abundant the supply will begin to

decrease, and in three or four years the game will have become

almost extinct. Then the number will gradually increase, and in

time the shooting will be good.”83

There began to appear about 1880 a series of sporadic

attempts to discover causes for the death or decline of this

grouse. Many, explanations have been offered. Webster84 thought

that the young birds were destroyed by the larvae of the hippo-

boscid fly, Olfersia americuna Leach. An observer reported that

grouse were very scarce in western Ontario in 1883, where they

had been plentiful two years previously, and suggested that the

decimation was caused by some disease.85 Grinnell86 reported the

occurrence of avian tuberculosis in a Wisconsin ruffed grouse

that had died after a confinement of six weeks. The ideas were

advanced by Widmann87 in 1907 that the decline of the ruffed

grouse in Missouri might be due to the chigger ( Trombidium) ;

or that the old custom of burning the forest was responsible for

an undesirable habitat.

The great scarcity of grouse in the northeastern section of

the United States in 1907 drew considerable attention to the

phenomenon. Burns88 mentioned that the species reached a peak

in population in Pennsylvania in 1906. Very few eggs hatched

in the spring of 1907 and sitting birds died on the nest from a

disease resembling roup. A special report was prepared by

Woodruff,89 who gave the following probable causes :

1. Unusual abundance of foxes, and especially goshawks dur¬

ing the winter of 1906-07.

2. Extremely cold, wet, late spring of 1907 that impaired the

vitality of adult females and young.

3. An epidemic of some disease, or parasite, or both.

No better explanations than the above were advanced by For-

bush.00

50 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts and Letters

At this time the goshawks fed largely on ruffed grouse in

Rhode Island,91 and probably other places where grouse were

plentiful. Hunters are fond of something as tangible as “vermin”

to account for a decline, but sufficient data have been accumu¬

lated within recent years to show that predators are practically

without influence on the cycle.

It was observed in the autumn of 1886 that the prairie chick¬

ens shot at Plover, Wisconsin, had an unusual number of “wood

ticks” on their necks.92 This grouse reached a low in the cycle

the following year. Brewster42 considered the tick the most de¬

structive agent to ruffed grouse. He was convinced that the ticks

killed the young birds by piercing their tender skulls, but this

seems highly improbable. In this connection I have been told by

old residents of northern Wisconsin that wood ticks are much

more plentiful now than they were formerly. The tick also has

its ups and downs. Mrs. Kinzie’s93 party landed on an island at

the northern end of Lake Winnebago in July, 1882 and was soon

driven out by the “myriads” of wood ticks.

The first direct evidence that ticks could produce disease in

grouse was obtained by Parker and Spencer.94 They induced an

infection in blue grouse with the tick Haemaphysalis leporis-

palustris, a carrier of tularemia. Green and Wade95 inoculated

ruffed grouse in Minnesota with a strain of Bacterium tularense,

obtained from a human case of tularemia, and found that the

birds died within three to nine days.

There is confusion regarding the species of tick that occurs

most frequently on the ruffed grouse. Haemaphysalis cinnuba-

rina is thought to have mainly avian hosts. In 1926 Allen and

Gross97 reported this tick as occurring on ruffed grouse in Maine,

Michigan, and Alberta. Clarke45b could not positively identify

any tick other than H. cinnabarina on the grouse taken in On¬

tario and Manitoba. The rabbit tick, H. leporis-palustris , has

been considered the parasite occurring on ruffed grouse from

Wisconsin, Minnesota, and westward. In 193,2 Gross96 stated

that H. leporis-palustris had been collected from birds taken

throughout the range of the ruffed grouse. Haemaphysalis cin¬

nabarina and H. punctata were found less frequently. The two

chief species have been found on both birds and mammals. I

have been informed (in litt.) by Dr. C. L. Larson, U. S. Public

Health Service, that the two species can be differentiated clearly.

Schorger — The Ruffed Grouse in Early Wisconsin 51

The ruffed grouse seems to be subject to most of the endo-

parasites, ectoparasites, and bacterial diseases to which avian

flesh is heir.96 The decline is due to the very low survival of

young birds. Clarke98 believes that the “die-off” is due mainly

to the bacterium, Leucocytozoon bonasae . It is impossible at the

present time to point with certainty to a single disease, or to a

single other agency, as a cause of the periodic decimation.

An interesting attempt was made in the state of New York

to correlate the weather conditions with the major declines. The

conclusions were : “Analyses of the weather records reveal that,

with respect to years of major decline, unusually severe condi¬

tions of temperature and precipitation occurred during February

and March of the preceding year, and that during the year in

question June temperatures, particularly in the first ha]f of the

month, were well below normal. In years of minor shortage, the

same combination of conditions was involved, but the degree of

severity was less or in reverse order. It is significant that each

time this combination of conditions occurred in successive years

a grouse decline occurred, and that every time a grouse decline

occurred these weather conditions prevailed. While it does not

seem logical that this correlation should be accidental, the mecha¬

nism by which it might operate to affect grouse is quite obscure.

In any case local weather variations from normal certainly are

not the primary causes.”99

Neither the rapidity nor the severity of the decline is uni¬

form. Phillips100 mentions that the decline is more severe in

primitive areas than in partly cultivated regions, a statement in

which Leopold77a is in agreement. The die-off, however, hits peak

and sparse populations alike.50 This indicates that some disease

is endemic in all grouse populations and that a period of approxi¬

mately ten years is required for a lethal stage to be reached.

The decline is generally abrupt the first year and continues

for two additional years, but an apparent low may be reached

in two years. One of the New England grouse investigations was

begun because of a “depression cycle that started very abruptly

after an apparently successful breeding season in 1924. ”100 A

hunter wrote from Appleton, Wisconsin, November 10, 1890:

“Some two weeks ago I took a few days’ outing for partridges

(ruffed grouse), and went to a section where two years ago

there were thousands. With the aid of a pair of very lively

52 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts and Letters

cockers I could not find an average of three in a day in the very

finest cover.”101

It has been satisfactorily demonstrated that shooting does not

influence the grouse cycle.50 The winter losses in the Lake Supe¬

rior region varied from 45.4 to 70 percent, in all cases except

one being above 50 percent. Hunters took only 33 percent of the

birds on eight sections of the Superior National Forest.102 In the

state of New York a three-year survey showed a smaller density

of population for the refuge area than for the public shooting

ground area.103 Fisher,104 in Michigan, found that the number

of birds killed by hunters did not exceed on the average 14 per¬

cent of the population.

Length of Cycle .

The first systematic attempt to determine the length of the

grouse cycle was made by Criddle.105 He found that the pattern

of fluctuation of the ruffed grouse differed only slightly from

that of the sharp-tailed grouse. Leopold and Ball106 considered

that the fluctuations of the three species of grouse, including the

prairie chicken, took place simultaneously. Clarke45c subscribed

to this opinion since there was no evidence that the cycle varies

for the different species in the same locality.

The length of the cycle was found by Criddle105 to vary from

nine to 11 years. This finding was confirmed by Clarke45d for the

ruffed grouse of Ontario. Bump107 compiled all the information

available for the northcentral states. From the admittedly in¬

sufficient date, he found the following:

He concluded that the median of periods of abundance may fall

eight to 13.5 years apart. Similar data for the northeastern

states showed the median period of abundance to be 12.2 years.

However, in the state of New York" major declines were noted

in 1896-97, 1907, 1916-17, and 1927, with minor scarcities in

1904 and 1924. This shows a quite uniform cycle of approxi-

Schorger — The Ruffed Grouse in Early Wisconsin 53

mately ten years in length. The data on the annual kills in Penn¬

sylvania108 for the years 1915-1942 do not show a well-defined

low or high for the period 1930-1942.

The data at present available are insufficiently extensive and

reliable to prove that the cycle is even as regular as nine to 11

years. On the basis of ClarkeV5e data, Fallis109 states that a peak

was to be expected in Ontario in 1941 ; however, no well-marked

peak year was shown from the information collected from 1935

to 1943. The “highs” ran from 1938 through 1941 in various

parts of the province. This indicates that maximae and minimae

for the four regions in Ontario vary considerably more than the

one to two years stated by Clarke.45f

The Cycle in Wisconsin.

A study of the cycle of the ruffed grouse in Wisconsin from

1880 to 1929 was made by Leopold, 77b who obtained the following

highs and lows for that portion of time where the present study

overlaps :

High __ 1880-85 1891 1897 1901-02 1907 1912

Low ___ 1886 1895 1899-1900 1905 1908 1919

A summary of the status of the ruffed grouse in Wisconsin

from 1839 to 1908 is given in Appendix 2. The data prior to

1850 are too few to be of value in determining the length of the

cycle. In the previous study of the prairie chicken and sharp¬

tailed grouse110 it was comparatively simple to determine the

lows, but not the highs ; with the ruffed grouse just the reverse

is the case. Hunting the ruffed grouse, in comparison with gun¬

ning for prairie chickens, was not nearly so popular. The fewer

the ruffed grouse, the fewer the statements to be found. As it

increased in numbers it received a corresponding increase in

attention. For example, during the high of 1887 there were 25

favorable statements, one “fair,” and one unfavorable as to the

number of birds ; and for the 1898 high there were 25 favorable,

one “fair,” and five unfavorable reports. During 1888, 1889, and

1890 the number of favorable statements decreased to 14, 5, and

3 respectively. One of the great difficulties in attempting to de¬

termine the lows, aside from the paucity of reports for those

years, is that from 1854 to 1907 there was seldom a year when

there were not one or more statements that ruffed grouse were

plentiful or “more numerous than usual.” This shows the un¬

evenness of local populations.

54

Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts and Letters

Below are given the years showing highs for the ruffed

grouse, and for comparison the lows of the prairie chicken :

Ruffed Grouse Highs

1857 1866 1877 1887 1898 1906

Prairie Chicken Lows (Schorger)

1857 1867 1878 1887 1897

There is uncertainty as to the accuracy of the year 1857. It was

selected because the population appeared to be at a high level for

the period 1854 through 1857 ; also it was reported as “abund¬

ant” at Madison and in the Milwaukee market during the winter

of 1857-58. In 1866, when there was a definite high for the

state, “an uncommonly large number” of ruffed grouse were

offered for sale in Madison.111 This gives a cycle of nine years

for Madison for this particular period.

The data show an eight to 11-year cycle for the ruffed grouse

and a nine to 11-year cycle for the prairie chicken. Leopold7715

had to depend largely upon the memories of the men whom he

contacted for his early data, and up to 1897 they vary consider¬

ably from contemporaneous accounts. His 1901-02 highs were

evidently minor bulges. My data show a decided decrease in

1899, a rise from 1900 through 1902, then a minor decrease in

1903, followed by a rise to a peak in 1906.

The kills of ruffed grouse in Wisconsin during recent years

were :

Year Grouse

1931 _ 38,885 (?)

1932 _ 317,007

1933 _ 318,410

1934 _ 131,762

1935 _ _ 72,778

1936 _ Closed

1937 _ Closed

1938 _ 71,489

The data show a cycle of nine years between the peaks that

occurred in 1933 and 1942. The peaks are less definite, however,

than the years of sharp decline, 1934 and 1944, that show a ten-

year cycle. The extremely “spotty” nature of ruffed grouse popu¬

lations is now fully recognized. In order to arrive at the length

of a cycle with any degree of accuracy, it is necessary to collect

data for a long period of years in a great number of localities

Schorger—The Ruffed Grouse in Early Wisconsin 55

covering an area the size of a commonwealth. The annual kills,

if collected consistently, will probably furnish as good informa¬

tion as can be obtained.

It seems quite improbable that in Wisconsin the cyclic de¬

cline of the ruffed grouse has been coeval with that of the prairie

chicken and sharp-tailed grouse. Opinions collected by Leopold112

were about equally divided between the prairie chicken and

ruffed grouse being the first to die off. Wherever a direct com¬

parison was found, ruffed grouse were usually reported plentiful

and prairie chickens scarce. .This statement holds for Mineral

Point, 1886, Sparta, 1887, Ladysmith, 1903, and Solon Springs,

1904.113 Comparison of the cyclic highs of the ruffed grouse with

the cyclic lows of the prairie chicken, as given above, shows that

in every case the prairie chicken die-off occurred first.

56

Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts and Letters

Appendix 1

WISCONSIN RECORDS OF RUFFED GROUSE FOUND

“OUT OF BOUNDS’’

1870

On September 29, one alighted on a store in Portage.1

1 Portage Register Oct. 1.

1873

On October 10, a ruffed grouse smashed a glass over a quar¬

ter of an inch in thickness in a store on Main Street in Madison

and was killed.1

1 Madison Democrat Oct. 10.

1874

On September 28, one alighted in an open window of the

court house in Green Bay.1

Early in October, partridges “were carelessly fooling around

private residences within the city limits” of Grand (Wisconsin)

Rapids.2

1 Green Bay Advocate Oct. 1. 2 Grand Rapids Reporter Oct. 8.

1877

Early in October, one flew through the window of a jewelry

store in Geneva.1

Another was found, the end of September, associated with a

flock of chickens at Janesville.2

Early in October, one flew through two panes of glass in a

restaurant at Eau Claire.3

1Lake Geneva Herald Oct. 1. 2 Janesville Gazette Sept. 27. 8 Eau Claire

Free Press Oct. 4, [4].

1882

On October 26, a bird was killed by striking the shutters of

a house at Melrose, Jackson County, “in a heavy fog.”1

On September 20, a “young partridge” flew into a meat mar¬

ket at Peshtigo and was captured.2

The latter part of September, one was killed by striking a

house in Stevens Point.3

1 Black River Falls Banner Nov. 3. 2 Marinette and Peshtigo Eagle Sept. 23.

3 Stevens Point Gazette Sept. 20.

Schorger — The Ruffed Grouse in Early Wisconsin 57

1888

In October, a "‘partridge” was found perched on a window

sill in Augusta.1

On September 28, a grouse struck the window of a residence

in Oconto, “scattering the glass a distance of 22 feet.”2

Early in October, partridges were found in the shade trees in

Grand Rapids.3

1 Eau Claire Free Press Oct. 25. 2 Oconto Reporter Sept. 29. 8 Grand Rapids

Tribune Oct. 6.

1884

In the fall several birds appeared in the business section of

Neillsville, and two of them flew through windows.1 On Novem¬

ber 9, one broke a window, and its neck, in a shop at Neillsville.2

The end of September, one was caught in a barn at Elkhorn.3

On April 18, one broke a window in an office in Menomonie.4

1 Neillsville Times Nov. 11. 2 Neillsville True Republican Nov. 13. 8 Elkhorn

Independent Oct. 2. 4 Menomonie News April 19.

1885

In September, one was shot from a tree in the yard of a

residence in Plover.1

At dusk on the evening of October 22, a partridge was dis¬

covered in a cellar in Green Bay.2

On September 20, one broke the window of a residence in

Portage and fell at the feet of the owner as he sat reading.3

On October 8, a “full grown partridge” broke a window in a

residence in Fort Atkinson.4

1 Stevens Point Gazette Sept. 23. 2 Green Bay Gazette Oct. 24. 8 Portage

Democrat Sept. 25. 4 Fort Atkinson Union Oct. 16.

1886

The end of September, a “pheasant” was found sitting on a

sign on High Street, Mineral Point.1

On October 14, one flew through a “double-plate pane of

glass” in a residence in Menasha.2

On October 25, one broke a window in a residence in Green

Bay: “This is not the first one we have heard of in town this

season.”3

No less than five partridges, early in October, were killed or

captured by flying against or into residences in Elkhorn.4

1 Mineral Point Tribune Sept. 30. 2 Green Bay Advocate Oct. 21. 8 Ibid

Oct. 28. 4 Elkhorn Independent Oct. 14.

58 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts and Letters

1887

Early in October there were four cases of grouse striking

or entering buildings in New Richmond.1

The middle of October, one was killed by striking a window

in Portage.2 It is recorded that on November 16 a “wild par¬

tridge/’ in attempting to dodge a man in the yard of the court

house at Portage, struck a tree and was killed.3 This is an excep¬

tionally late date.

On October 20, one was captured alive in a structure on the

square of the court house at Kewaunee.4

Early in October, one struck a window and was killed in

Oshkosh.5

During the second week in October, several grouse appeared

within the city limits of De Pere.6

The latter part of October two struck houses in Elkhorn.7

1 New Richmond Republican Oct. 12. 2 Portage State Register. 3 Portage

Advertizer Nov. 16. 4 Kewaunee Enterprise Oct. 21. 6 Oshkosh (w) North¬

western Oct. 13. 0 De Pere News Oct. 15. 7 Delevan Enterprise Oct. 26.

1890

The end of September, one flew through the window of a

school house at Little Suamico.1

1 Oconto Reporter Sept. 27.

1891

On October 3, a “partridge” broke a window in a residence

in Angelo, then escaped.1

Early in October, one broke a window in De Pere.2

The window in a store at Seymour was broken by a partridge

in the first half of October.3

1 Sparta Herald Oct. 6. 2 De Pere Democrat. In Green Bay Gazette Oct. 14.

3 Appleton Crescent Oct. 17.

1893

“The fires in the woods have driven considerable small game

into the city [Chippewa Falls] of late. . . . Squirrels and par¬

tridges are quite numerous in different parts of the city.”1

1 Chippewa Falls Herald Sept. 22.

1894

On November 5, a partridge was shot in the First Ward,

Oshkosh.1

On September 19, one struck the screen door of a house in

Sheboygan, then escaped.*

Schorger — The Ruffed Grouse in Early Wisconsin 59

Early on the morning of September 20, one was killed with a

club in the First Ward, Marinette.3

1 Oshkosh Times Nov. 10. 2 Sheboygan Falls News Sept. 19. 3 Marinette

Eagle Sept. 22.

1895

The latter part of September, a partridge struck a green¬

house at Mauston.1

1 Mansion Chronicle Sept. 25.

1896

The end of September, one struck a plate glass window in

Kilbourn and was killed.1

Snyder2 records a similar instance at Beaver Dam.

On September 22, one flew through the window of a resi¬

dence in Trempealeau.3

1 Kilbourn Gazette Oct. 3. 2 W. E. Snyder, Osprey 1, No. 5 (Jan., 1897) 67.

3 Trempealeau Herald Sept. 25.

1897

On October 17, one flew through the window of the depot at

Nye.1

At Rhinelander a partridge flew into a cigar shop on Septem¬

ber 23, and another flew through the window of a store on

October 6. 2

The end of September, a “prairie chicken” broke a window

in a house in Appleton.3

1 St. Croix Falls Standard Oct. 21. 2 Rhinelander Herald Sept. 25; Vindi¬

cator Oct. 12. 8 Appleton Crescent Oct. 2.

1898

At dusk on September 18, a partridge flew into a barber shop

at Chetek; and on the morning of the 20th, one remained for

twenty minutes on the porch of a residence.1

The end of September, one was caught in an abandoned home

at New London.2

On October 15, a partridge flew through one of the south

windows of the court house at Mauston and, before falling, de¬

parted through a north window.3

On October 1, a partridge flew through a street-car at Mari¬

nette, then alighted on the window sill of a house nearby.4

1 Chetek Alert Sept. 23. 2 New London Press Sept. 29. 3 Mauston Star

Oct. 20. 4 Marinette Eagle Oct. 1.

60

Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts and Letters

1899

A partridge spent the night of October 6 on a fence-post

within a block of the main street of Rhinelander and departed in

the morning.1

Rhinelander Vindicator Oct. 11.

1900

One broke two windows in the Warren home, about four

miles from Fox Lake, Dodge County, on April 22.1

1 W. E. Warren. Forest and Stream 54 (May 5, 1900) 347.

1901

About 10:00 A. M., September 28, a partridge struck a plate

glass window in Stevens Point, and on October 6, a stunned

bird was picked up from the street.1

Early in October, partridges appeared in number in Me¬

nominee, and several were killed by striking windows. “The

birds seem to be about as numerous in town this year as they

are in the woods.”2

On October 1, a partridge broke a wing by striking a wire in

Marshfield. Four birds were found in an apple tree in a front

yard.3 Five other cases are mentioned, including one brought

in alive by a bird dog, for the same community.4

One flew through a window at Plymouth in summer,5 and on

October 6, one alighted on a wood shed in Pittsville.6

1 Stevens Point Journal Oct. 5; Gazette Oct. 9. 2 Menominee (Michigan)

Herald. In Marinette Eagle Oct. 11. 3 Marshfield Times Oct. 4. 4 Marshfield

News; In Pittsville Pilot Oct. 10. 5 Plymouth Review Jan. 29, 1902. 6 Pitts¬

ville Pilot Oct. 10.

1902

On October 18, a partridge broke a window in a store at

Lake Mills.1 It weighed 18 ounces.

The end of September one broke a window in Rice Lake, and

early in October another flew into a residence.2

1 Lake Mills Leader Oct. 23. 2 Rice Lake Chronotype Oct. 10.

1903

One evening the forepart of October, two partridges alighted

in a garden in Osceola and began pecking at the ripe tomatoes.

Both were killed at one shot.1

Schorger — The Ruffed Grouse in Early Wisconsin 61

On September 23, one was shot from a telephone wire at the

corner of a store in Bloomer.2

1 Osceola Press Oct. 15, p. 3. 2 Bloomer Advance Sept. 24.

1904

Early in November, one flew through the window of a cheese

factory near Plymouth.1

In October, one alighted on the stove-pipe in a store in

Marshfield.2

On September 30, a partridge entered a woodshed in Green¬

wood. A few days previously, one struck a house.3

On September 30, at 9:00 A. M., a partridge flew through a

window at Medford.4

During the last week of September, two birds were caught

in Phillips.5

One flew through the window of a residence in Wausau early

on the morning of September 23. 6

1 Plymouth. Review Nov. 9. 2 Marshfield Times Oct. 14. 3 Greenwood Gleaner

Oct. 6. 4 Medford Star and News Sept. 30. 5 Phillips Times Oct. 1. 6 Wausau

(w) Record Sept. 29.

1906

The end of September, a partridge broke a window in Stur¬

geon Bay, and another flew into a house in the town of Forest-

ville.1

The middle of October, two birds broke glass in a conserva¬

tory in Florence and were captured.2

The end of September one flew through a kitchen window at

Abrams and landed on the table.3

1 Sturgeon Bay Democrat Sept. 29, Oct. 13. 2 Florence Mining News Oct. 13.

3 Oconto Reporter Sept. 26.

1907

On September 18, a partridge broke a window in Green¬

wood.1

During the third week of September, a bird took refuge in

the main entrance to a hotel in Tomahawk.2

At 7 :00 A. M. on September 17, one flew through the window

of a residence in Florence.3

Similar instances are cited for two places in the Upper Pen¬

insula of Michigan, Crystal Falls and Sault St. Marie.4

62 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts and Letters

On the morning of October 17, a partridge was killed by

striking a residence in New London, and on the following morn¬

ing one flew through a window.5

The end of October, early in the morning, one was caught in

a screened porch at Marinette.6

1 Greenwood Gleaner Sept. 19. 2 Tomahawk Tomahawk Sept. 21. 8 Florence

Mining News Sept. 21. 4 Ibid. Oct. 19. 6 New London Press Oct. 17. 6 Mari¬

nette Eagle-Star Oct. 31, p. 1.

1909

The end of September, one flew through the window of a

residence in Medford.1

1 Medford Star-News Oct. 1.

Schorger — The Ruffed Grouse in Early Wisconsin 63

Appendix 2

RUFFED GROUSE ANNALS

1839

Partridges and other game were plentiful at Kenosha1 and

abundant in Milwaukee.2

1J. V. Quarles. Wis. Mag. History 16 (1933) 310. 2 Milwaukee (w) Sen¬

tinel Jan. 15.

1844

Killed at Racine in “considerable numbers.”1

1 Racine Advocate Jan. 23.

1845

They sold in the Chicago market at $1.25 per dozen.1

A Milwaukee sportsman found “a covey of partridges (ruffed

grouse) and killed four with his two barrels.” Having another

chance, he killed five more, the gun this time being loaded with

gravel.2

1 Chicago (d) Journal Dec. 8. 2 Milwaukee Sentinel Sept. 23.

1846

Milwaukee sportsmen claimed that partridges, quails, etc.

were never so abundant.1

1 Milwaukee Sentinel Aug. 17.

1847

Abundant at Watertown.1

1 Watertown Chronicle Aug. 18.

1852

Anderson,1 who came to Manitowoc County in 1852, stated:

“Partridges were abundant everywhere. I have stood on the

Neshoto River bottoms in the years 1852 and 1853 and had

coveys of partridges run around me thicker than the fowls in a

farmer's barnyard and nearly as tame.”

1 J. S. Anderson. Proc. Wis . Hist. Soc. for 1911 (1912) p. 161.

1853

Joseph Clason, of Beaver Dam, brought 100 partridges

among other game to the Milwaukee market.1

There was good partridge shooting at Green Bay.2 It was

stated for Manitowoc County : “The woods are filled with bears

64 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts and Letters

and partridges. They are attracted to the beech groves, where

they find a plentiful supply of nuts.”3

1 Milwaukee Sentinel Feb. 2. 2 Green Bay Advocate Sept 8. 3 Manitowoc

Herald; In Milwaukee Sentinel Oct. 19.

1854

“A load of partridges and prairie hens” was sold in Water-

town1 and shipped to Milwaukee. The game dealers in Milwau¬

kee had “any quantity” of partridges and other game.2 Par¬

tridges and other game in abundance were offered for sale on

the streets of Janesville3 and Green Bay.4 In December, they

sold in Beloit for 12.5 to 18 cents apiece.5

1 Watertown Democrat Dec. 21. 2 Milwaukee Sentinel Dec. 20. 3 Janesville

Standard; In Madison Argus and Democrat Dec. 29. 4 Green Bay Advocate

March 23. 5 Beloit Journal; In Madison Argus and Democrat Dec .29.

1855

Reported numerous at Superior.1 Partridges and other game

were obtainable in “unlimited numbers” at Hudson.2 In Janu¬

ary large numbers were sold in the markets of Watertown3 and

in October were taken in “great numbers” at Waukesha.4 There

was excellent shooting at Jefferson.5 During the winter of

1855-6 tons of game birds, including partridges, were hanging

in the yard of the Capitol House at Madison.6

1 Superior Chronicle Oct. 5. 2 Hudson North Star Aug. 8. 3 Watertown

Democrat Jan. 4 and 18. 4 Waukesha Plain Dealer Oct. 16. 5 Jefferson Jef¬

fersonian Oct. 25. 6 Madison State Journal June 12, 1856.

1856

They were reported very plentiful at Prescott1 in April, and

at Watertown2 in May. Large quantities of partridges and other

game were marketed in Watertown3 in January, November, and

December. In January they were offered abundantly in the mar¬

kets of Milwaukee,4 and at Lancaster5 the price was $1.00 to

$1.25 per dozen. Cooke6 settled at Gilmanton during this year

and stated that partridges were obtained easily.

1 Prescott Transcript April 12. 2 Watertown Democrat May 1. 3 Ibid. Jan. 31,

Nov. 13, and Dec. 25. 4 Milwaukee Sentinel Jan. 25. 5 Lancaster Herald; In

Milwaukee Sentinel Jan. 10. 6 W. W. Cooke. Wis, Mag. History 23 (March,

1940) 285.

1857

Reported plentiful at Janesville.1 In December, they were

offered for sale “cheap” in Milwaukee.2 Cartwright3 hunted in

the fall on the Red Cedar River. While gone from camp a com-

Schorger — The Ruffed Grouse in Early Wisconsin 65

panion shot “a big pile of prairie chickens and partridges,

enough to last a good sized family for a week.” Davis,4 while

surveying for a railway, saw “many partridges and pigeons”

between Portage and Chippewa Falls.

1 Janesville Gazette Aug, 10. 2 Milwaukee Sentinel Dec. 17. 3 David Cart¬

wright. Natural History of Western Wild Animals. Toledo (1875) p. 240.

4 A. M. Davis. Proc. Wis. Hist. Soc. for 1910 (1911) p. 170.

1858

In February, the following statement appeared in a Milwau¬

kee paper: “Patridges, on the other hand, which were not dis¬

turbed last year, have been abundant, excellent and cheap this

year.”1 They were “very numerous” at Prairie du Chien in Sep¬

tember.3 The prices in Milwaukee in early winter ranged from

14 to 15 cents apiece, and $1.00 per dozen.4

Since partridges were also “abundant” in the market at

Madison2 in January, they must have been numerous in the fall

of 1857.

1 Milwaukee Sentinel Feb. 1. 2 Madison Argus and Democrat Jan. 16.

3 Prairie du Chien Courier Sept. 16. 4 Milwaukee Sentinel Dec. 1 ; La Crosse

Independent Republican Dec. 1.

1859

Partridges sold in Milwaukee1 on January 1 at 10 cents

apiece and on January 17 at $1.50 per dozen. In November,

large quantities of game, including partridges, were brought into

Milwaukee.2 Hunters in September came into Superior3 “well

supplied with partridges” and other game. In December, 20

cents a pair was paid for them in Sauk City.4 Fox Lake claimed

that they were plentiful in autumn.5

1 Milwaukee Sentinel Jan. 1 and 17. 2 Milwaukee News Nov. 19. 8 Superior

Chronicle Oct. 1. 4 Baraboo Republic Jan. 5, 1860. 6 Fox Lake Gazette

March 22.

1860

Partridges were “abundant” to a “good many” at IToricon.1

They, with other upland game birds, were “unusually plenty” at

Burlington.2 David Finn settled between Merrill and Wausau in

1860, at which time 20 to 30 partridges could be killed within an

hour.3

1 Horicon Argus Oct. 19, Nov. 16. 2 Burlington Gazette Aug. 14. 3 Merrill

Herald Feb. 22, 1921.

66 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts and Letters

1861

The woods at Watertown1 were filled with partridges and

other game.

1 Watertown Democrat Aug. 1.

1862

They were very plentiful at La Crosse.1 “Snap Shot,” writing

from Oregon, stated that quail and ruffed grouse “lurk under

every hedge.”2

1 La Crosse Democrat Nov. 14. 2 Wilkes’ Spirit of the Times , N. S. 7

(Sept. 27, 1862) 55.

1868

“Wil-mer-el” stated that partridges could be found every¬

where in Wisconsin.1 They were to be found in August “with¬

out much trouble” near La Crosse.2 A party of 17 men left La

Crosse on October 12 and hunted 15 miles north of the city. In

the list of game killed were 53 “pheasants” and 11 prairie

chickens.3

'Wilkes’ Spirit of the Times , N. S. 7 (Jan. 10, 1863) 295. 3 La Crosse (w)

Democrat Aug. 11. 3 Milwaukee Sentinel Oct. 21.

1864

“Snap Shot” stated that quail swarmed in the stubbles in

Dane County, then added: “Grouse are proportionally plenty (I

speak of ruffed) . . . S’1 They were “never so plenty” at Osceola.2

The following statement appeared at Superior : “Partridges are

very thick in the woods this fall ; a party of gentlemen in going

to the Copper Creek mine and back, killed some forty along the

road.”3

1 Wilkes’ Spirit of the Times 11 (Sept. 17, 1864) 35. 2 Osceola Press; In

Milwaukee (d) Wisconsin Aug. 5. 3 Superior Gazette Nov. 5.

1865

They were reported plentiful in April at Sturgeon Bay1 and

in August they abounded “without number” at Osceola.2 Wau-

toma reported: “Partridges and squirrels have never been as

plenty during our acquaintance with the country as they are

now.”3

1 Sturgeon Bay Advocate April 27. 2 Osceola Press Aug. 19. 8 Wautoma

Argus Oct. 27.

Schorger — The Ruffed Grouse in Early Wisconsin 67

1866

Partridges were “by no means scarce” at Appleton.1 They

were very plentiful in Dane County. One writer stated that they

were more numerous than quail,2 and another that they abounded

in certain localities.3 The following statement appeared at Madi¬

son : “An uncommonly large number of pheasants, or partridges,

whichever you please to call them, have been brought into town

for sale this fall.”4 They were very plentiful at Alma5 and Osce¬

ola.6 In January, 1867, thousands of quails and partridges were

being shipped from the state contrary to law.7

1 Appleton Crescent Sept. 22. 2 “Snap Shot” Wilkes' Spirit of the Times 15

(Oct. 20, 1866) 129. 3 Ibid. p. 82. 4 Madison State Journal Nov. 3. 5 Alma

Journal; In Milwaukee Sentinel Oct. 17. 3 Osceola Press Sept. 22. 7 Mil¬

waukee (d) Wisconsin Jan. 21, 1867.

1867

Pease and Baker, of Richland Center, ran the following adver¬

tisement: “Wanted 1000 Pheasants and Quails.”1

1 Richland Center Republican Dec. 12.

1868

C. H. Cooke made a canoe trip on the Chippewa River above

Eau Claire in April. He wrote in his diary: “Partridges were

not so plentiful as we had been told.”1 They were quite plentiful

at Wausau,2 and plentiful near Lake Pepin.3 Richland Center

reported : “. . . squirrels, partridges, quails, etc. have not been

so abundant as now since the country was first settled.”4

*Eau Claire Telegram Dec. 16, 1917. 2 Wausau Pilot Nov. 14. 3 Oliver

Gibbs. Lake Pepin Fish-Chowder. N. Y. (1869) p. 52. 4 Richland Center

Sentinel; In Madison State Journal Oct. 17.

1869

The following advertisement appeared at Lancaster: “10,000

quails, prairie chickens and pheasants are wanted by Nathan

Schreiner & Co., for which a good price will be paid.”1

The woods at Brodhead2 were reported full of partridges

and other game, but Janesville3 had the following lament:

“Sportsmen complain that the partridge which have hitherto

been so common in the woodlands hereabout, have almost

entirely disappeared.”3

1 Lancaster Herald Dec. 7. 2 Brodhead Independent; In Milwaukee (d) Sen¬

tinel Nov. 25, p. 1. 3 Janesville Gazette Oct. 18,

68 Wisconsin Acadetny of Sciences , Arts and Letters

1870

The reports for this year are decidedly mixed. Prairie du

Chien stated that quail and partridges were never more numer¬

ous1 and that they were being shot in large numbers.2 At Osh¬

kosh3 they were reported abundant throughout the state. Eau

Claire4 found them quite plentiful.

On the other hand “partridges have become almost extinct”

at Watertown5 and “scarce as hen’s teeth” at Kaukauna.6

1 Prairie du Chien Courier; In Madison State Journal Oct. 14. 2 Prairie du

Chien Union; In Madison State Journal Oct. 19. 3 Oshkosh Northivestern

Oct. 27. 4 Eau Claire Free Press Oct. 20. 5 Watertown Republican Nov. 9.

6 Appleton Crescent Sept. 3, Oct. 1.

1871

This year partridges showed a decided increase. The young

were quite plentiful in July at Mauston.1 There was good shoot¬

ing at La Crosse2 and Richland Center.3 Black River Falls4 re¬

ported them “plenty in every direction,” Osceola5 “numerous,”

and Neillsville6 “in great numbers.”

1 Mauston Star July 20. 2 La Crosse Democrat; In Madison State Journal

Nov. 2. 3 Richland Center Republican Dec. 7. 4 Black River Falls Banner

Nov. 4. 5 Osceola Press Aug. 25. 0 Neillsville Republican Oct. 4.

1872

Partridges were reported abundant in May at Friendship,1

and in October there was good shooting at Ellsworth.2

1 Friendship Press May 4. 2 Ellsworth Herald Oct. 23.

1873

Partridges were reported plentiful at Madison1 and La

Crosse,2 and very abundant at Prairie du Chien3 and Menomo-

nie.4 Ashland5 stated that there were “thousands” along the Cen¬

tral Railway. They were not “very abundant” at Lancaster.6 A

few were brought in at Clinton,7 while at Watertown8 they were

not nearly as common as formerly. During a side hunt at Osh¬

kosh,9 in which a total of 28 men participated, 8 partridges were

in the list of game killed.

1 Madison Democrat Oct. 10. 2 La Crosse Liberal Democrat; In Milwaukee

Neivs Oct. 11. 3 Prairie du Chien Courier Sept. 16. 4 Menomonie News Oct. 4.

5 Ashland Press Oct. 11. 6 Lancaster Herald Nov. 6. 7 Janesville Gazette

Nov. 19. 6 Watertown Democrat Aug. 21. 9 Oshkosh Times Oct. 15.

Schorger — The Ruffed Grouse in Early Wisconsin 69

1874

They were reported plentiful to very plentiful at Yorkville,1

Sheboygan,2 Oconto,3 Ashland,4 Osceola,5 River Falls,6 and Mon-

tello.7

The price was 30 cents apiece in Madison8 and 25 cents at

Watertown,9 in which market they were “pretty plenty.”

1 Racine Argus Sept. 17. 2 Sheboygan Herald Oct. 30. 8 Oconto Reporter

Oct. 31. 4 Ashland Press Sept. 26. 5 Osceola Press April 11. c River Falls

Press Oct. 8 and 29. 7 Fred Pond. Forest and Stream 2, No. 26 (1874) 410.

8 Madison State Journal Oct. 20. 9 Watertown Democrat Aug. 27.

1875

This year all the reports were very favorable. At Red Cedar,

Barron County, the birds “are so thick at times the sun cannot

be seen.”1 They were “unusually numerous” at De Pere2 and

were found “in greater numbers than ever before” at Sturgeon

Bay.3 They were reported plentiful to very numerous at Mari¬

nette,4 New London,5 Wausau,6 and Chippewa Falls.7

Many were brought into Oconto8 the end of December. Tif¬

fany, Dunn County, reported: “Hundreds of partridges have

been killed in this town and vicinity, and marketed at twelve to

twenty cents apiece.”9 Approximately 3,000 pounds of birds

were shipped from New Richmond10 the end of the year.

Three men returned to Baldwin11 with 100 birds. A hunter at

Merrill,12 in August, killed 11 partridges out of a flock of 12,

while at Escanaba,13 Michigan, a sportsman shot 36 partridges

in a forenoon.

1 Rice Lake Chronotype Aug. 28. 2 De Pere News Oct. 16. 3 Sturgeon Bay

Expositor Oct. 22. 1 Marinette and Peshtigo Eagle Oct. 16. 5 New London

News Sept. 15. 6 Wausau Pilot Aug. 21. 7 Chippewa Falls Herald Oct. 15;

Oconto Reporter Jan. 1, 1876. 9 Menominee News Jan. 1, 1876. 10 New

Richmond Republican Jan. 12, 1876. 11 Baldwin Bulletin Nov. 11. 13 Merrill

Advocate Aug. 21. 13 Milwaukee Commercial Times Sept. 18.

1876

There were very few statements for this year. Green Bay1

reported the woods Ailed with “partridge and small game,” and

the Madison2 markets were “well stocked” with them. On the

other hand, they were “quite scarce” at Prairie du Chien.3 Dur¬

ing a side hunt at Edgerton,4 in which 11 men participated, 10

partridges were shot.

1 Green Bay Advocate Oct. 19. 2 Madison Patriot Dec. 19. 8 Prairie du Chien

Union Dec. 1. 4 Edgerton Independent Dec. 22.

70 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts and Letters

1877

There was good shooting at Tiffany,1 Dunn County. Par¬

tridges were numerous to very plentiful at Iola,2 Waupaca

County, Green Bay,3 Sturgeon Bay,4 Oconto,5 Marinette,6 Apple-

ton,7 Chippewa Falls,5 and Westboro,9 Taylor County. They were

“quite numerous’" at Milton,10 where they sold for 15 cents

apiece.

During a side hunt at Easton,11 Adams County, on Novem¬

ber 10, one man shot 4 birds. They were “few and far between”

at Esdaile,12 Pierce County.

1 Menomonie News Jan. 5, 1878. 2 Waupaca Republican Sept. 13. 8 Madison

State Journal Sept. 21, p. 2. 4 Sturgeon Bay Expositor Aug. 10. 6 Oconto

Reporter Sept. 1. 6 Marinette and Peshtigo Eagle Oct. 27. 7 Appleton Cres¬

cent Aug. 25, Dec. 8. 8 Chippewa Falls Herald Oct. 26. 9 S. D. C. Forest and

Stream 9 (Sept. 6, 1877) 94. 30 Janesville Gazette Oct 23. 11 Friendship

Press Nov. 24. 12 Ellsworth Herald Sept. 5.

1878

Col. F. J. Bowman wrote from Bayfield on September 4 that

“woodcock, pheasant and spruce-partridge are abundant.”1 Par¬

tridges were numerous to abundant at Prairie du Chien,2 Chip¬

pewa Falls,3 Oconto,4 and Sturgeon Bay.5 They were unusually

scarce at Clear Lake.6

During a side hunt at Darlington,7 11 partridges were killed.

A hunting party from Madison8 spent a day in the Baraboo Val¬

ley and returned with a mixed bag containing 11 partridges.

1 Bayfield Press Oct. 2. 2 Prairie du Chien Courier Sept. 10, Oct. 15. 3 Chip¬

pewa Falls Herald July 19, Nov. 1. 4 Oconto Reporter Sept. 7, Nov. 1.

5 Sturgeon Bay Expositor Oct. 11, Nov. 8. 6 Clear Lake News Aug. 30.

7 Darlington Republican Nov. 1. 8 Madison State Journal Oct. 14.

1879

They were numerous at Phillips1 in May and plentiful near

La Crosse2 in July. Merrill3 considered them quite plentiful near

Waukesha, while L’Eclair,4 writing from Milwaukee, states that

the ruffed grouse, formerly common, is now exterminated. They

were scarce at Clear Lake5 and Boscobel.6

Partridges were “drumming vigorously” in November near

Eau Claire.7

1 Phillips Times May 17. 2 “Banshee.” Chicago Field 11 (July 26, 1879) 378.

3H. W. Merrill. Forest and Stream 13 (Nov. 20, 1879) 827. 4 L’Eclair,

Ibid., p. 714. 5 Clear Lake News Sept. 5. 6 Boscobel Dial Oct. 31. 7 Eau Claire

Free Press Nov. 27.

Schorger — The Ruffed Grouse in Early Wisconsin 71

1880

Partridges seem to have been numerous only in the extreme

northeastern portion of the state. They were reported plentiful

at Marinette,1 Oconto,2 and Sturgeon Bay.3 An “immense load of

rabbits and partridges,” secured near Delavan, was brought into

Whitewater.4

They were scarce at Lafayette,5 Chippewa County, and at

Eau Galle,6 Dunn County. The report for the Milwaukee market

was: “No partridges nor grouse have been offered during the

week. They seem to be very scarce.”7

1 Marinette and Peshtigo Eagle Oct. 2. 2 Oconto Reporter Oct. 9. 8 Sturgeon

Bay Expositor Oct. 1 and Advocate Nov. 4. 4 Whitewater Register Dec. 2.

5 Chippewa Falls Herald Oct. 1. 0 Menomonie Times Sept. 17. 7 Milwaukee

Sentinel Oct. 18.

1881

They were quite plentiful at Racine1 and New Richmond.2 A

hunter at Green Bay3 shot 7 partridges and 8 pigeons in about

fifteen minutes.

There were a few partridges at Waukesha.4 They were

scarce at Pepin,5 and the same report was made for the entire

state.6

1 Racine Journal Oct. 26. 2 New Richmond Republican Oct. 12. 8 Green Bay

Gazette Aug. 27. 4 L. G. Chicago Field 15 (May 7, 1881) 202. 5 A. T. Ameri¬

can Field 16 (Oct. 22, 1881) 265. 6 “Scaup.” Turf, Field and Farm 33

(Nov. 18, 1881) 322.

1882

Grundtvig1 reported ruffed grouse “extremely abundant” at

Shiocton the summers of 1882 and 1883. They were “quite nu¬

merous” at Florence.2 During a side hunt at Beloit,3 in which 34

men participated, 8 birds were shot. Five men hunting rabbits

at Waldick,4 Iowa County, brought in 17 partridges along with

184 rabbits in a day's hunt. Eleven men, engaged in a side hunt

at Elroy,5 had 4 birds in a mixed bag. They were scarce at Phil¬

lips6 and Boscobel.7

1 F. L. Grundtvig. Trans . Wisconsin Acad. Sci. 10 (1895) 105. 2 Florence

Mining News Nov. 11. 8 Beloit Free Press Dec. 1. 4 Mineral Point Demo¬

crat Dec. 29. 5 Elroy Tribune Nov. 17. 6 Phillips Badger Sept. 27. 7 Boscobel

Dial Nov. 3.

1883

There was a decided increase in numbers. Partridges were

plentiful at Popple Lake,1 Chippewa County, Green Bay,2 and

Marinette ;3 and abundant to “unusually abundant” at Appleton,4

72 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts and Letters

Westfield,5 Noquebay Lake,6 Shiocton,7 Oconto,8 Sevastopol,9 Door

County, and Marinette.10 A hunter at Peshtigo killed 76 birds

in an afternoon.11

1 Chippewa Falls Independent Oct. 11. 2 Green Bay Gazette Nov. 3. 3 Mari¬

nette Star Oct. 5. 4 F. R. Forest and Stream 21 (Jan. 3, 1884) 456. 5 Harry

Hunter. American Field 20 (Sept. 22, 1883) 270. 6 Ibid., p. 174. 7 F. L.

Grundtvig, l.c. 8 Oconto Reporter Sept. 22, Oct. 27. 0 Sturgeon Bay Advo¬

cate Jan. 3, 1884. 10 Marinette and Peshtigo Eagle Oct. 27. 31 Ibid. Nov. 3.

1884

Partridges were reported unusually numerous at Neillsville.1

They were plentiful at Bailey’s Harbor,2 Door County, Marsh¬

field,3 and Peshtigo,4 and “quite thick” at Hayward.5 B. A. E.6

wrote from Menomonie that “it is a hard fact that ruffed grouse

are perceptibly less abundant than they were two years ago.” A

La Crosse sportsman hunted two days and killed 3 birds each

day.7 They sold for 20 cents apiece at Soldiers Grove.8

1 Neillsville Times Nov. 11. 2 Sturgeon Bay Advocate Sept. 25 and Expositor

Sept. 26. 3 Marshfield Times Aug. 30. 4 Marinette and Peshtigo Eagle

Nov. 22. 6 Hayward News Oct. 11. c B. A. E. Forest and Stream 23 (Oct. 2,

1884) 186. 7 H. E. W. Ibid. 23 (Jan. 22, 1885) 507. 8 Soldiers Grove Journal

Dec. 15.

1885

The reports for this year are very favorable. Partridges were

plentiful to abundant at De Pere,1 Green Bay,2 Marinette,3 Flor¬

ence,4 Waupaca,5 Viroqua,6 Chippewa Falls,7 Chetek,8 Neillsville,9

Superior,10 and Black River Falls.11 Two hunters “bagged a

large number of partridges and quail” at La Fayette,12 Walworth

County.

Market hunters were active. One man is stated to have

“cleared $60 in two weeks” in Pierce County.13 Due to the warm

weather “hundreds of pheasants” spoiled before they could be

shipped from Wilson,14 St. Croix County. Large numbers were

shipped from Lessor,15 Shawano County, and from Grantsburg,16

where the hunters received 10 to 12 cents per bird.

1 De Pere News Oct. 24. 2 Green Bay Gazette Nov. 14 and Advocate Oct. 8.

3 Marinette Eagle Oct. 3, 17, 24, 31. 4 Florence Mining News Oct. 24. 6 Wau¬

paca Republican Sept. 4. 6 Viroqua Leader Oct. 16. 7 Chippewa Falls Herald

Oct. 9. 8 Chetek Alert Aug. 29. 9 Neillsville Times Oct. 6. 10 Superior Times

Sept. 26. 11 Black River Falls Independent Dec. 2. 32 Elkhorn Independent

Nov. 26. 13 River Falls Journal Nov. 19. 14 Baldwin Bulletin Oct. 2 and 9;

cf. Eau Claire (d) Leader Oct. 31. 15 Shawano Advocate Dec. 3, 1886.

16 Grantsburg Sentinel Oct. 30.

Schorger — The Ruffed Grouse in Early Wisconsin 73

1886

Partridges were very numerous this year. They “wintered

well” at Egg Harbor.1 La Crosse2 reported that “there never

was known such a year for partridges.” One hunter brought 80

birds to the market. Another hunter shipped over one hundred

dozen to the Chicago market from the Beef River district, Buf¬

falo County.3 They were very plentiful in Clark4 and Jackson5

counties, at Colby,6 Wausau,7 Florence,8 Marinette,9 Oconto,10

and Sturgeon Bay.11 A hunting party arrived in Fond du Lac12

with a large number of birds, while two Beloit13 hunters returned

from the Lake Superior region with “five deer and about 50 par¬

tridges.” The shooting was very good at Glidden,14 Phillips,15

De Pere,16 and Tomah.17 The number of birds at Sparta18 was

“first class,” and they were quite numerous at Alma.19 Ruffed

grouse were considered more numerous than pinnated at Mon-

tello.20

In the southern part of the state partridges were plentiful at

Darlington,21 Mineral Point,22 and Prairie du Chien.23 They

were shot in “considerable numbers” near Portage24 and Beloit.25

The price paid to market hunters at Hersey,26 St. Croix

County, was 20 cents apiece.

Two market hunters at Elm Hall, Gratiot County, Michigan,

are stated to have killed 2,000 birds during the season.27

1 Forest and Stream 26 (April 8, 1886) 207. 2 La Crosse Chronicle Nov. 18,

p. 8. 3 Richland Center Rustic Nov. 20, p. 6. 4 Neillsville Times Sept. 7,

Nov. 16; True Republican Oct. 14; Milwaukee Journal Sept. 25. 5 Black

River Falls Banner Oct. 8; Independent Oct. 6; Eau Claire Free Press

Oct. 14. 6 Colby Phonograph Sept. 30. 7 Wausau Pilot and Review Aug. 31,

Sept. 21, Oct. 5. 8 Florence Mining News Aug. 21. 9 Marinette Eagle Nov. 6.

10 Oconto Reporter July 31, Sept. 11, Oct. 9, 23. 11 Sturgeon Bay Expositor

Oct. 22. 12 Fond du Lac Commonwealth Nov. 26. 13 Beloit Free Press Dec. 4.

14 Glidden Pioneer Sept. 23. 15 Phillips Times Oct. 2. 16 De Pere News Nov. 27.

17 Tomah Journal Sept. 18; Oct. 23. 18 Sparta Herald Aug. 10. 19 Alma Jour¬

nal Sept. 9. 20 Montello Express Aug. 7, p. 2. 21 Darlington Democrat

Aug. 26; Republican Oct. 15. 22 Mineral Point Tribune Aug. 26. 23 Prairie

du Chien Courier Sept. 21. 24 Milwaukee Journal Oct. 23. 25 Beloit Free Press

Oct. 22. 26 Baldwin Bulletin Sept. 17. 27 Shullsburg Pick and Gad Feb. 3,

1887.

1887

The birds were plentiful throughout the state. At Colby1

they were “uncommonly thick” and at Phillips2 “unusually

abundant.” Very favorable reports came from Neillsville,3

Alma,4 Hurley,5 Crandon,6 Ashland,7 Barron,8 Oshkosh,9 Wau-

74 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts and Letters

sau,10 Florence,11 Oconto,12 Green Bay,13 Appleton,14 Sparta,15

Oxford,16 Reedsburg,17 Friendship,18 Kilbourn,19 Mineral Point,20

and Darlington.21. At Black River Falls22 hunters did not have

“much success” with either partridges or prairie chickens.

The following advertisement appeared in a Reedsburg17

paper: “5000 Patridges wanted at Harris and Hosier's.” There

was a complaint from New Richmond23 of illegal shipments of

partridges to Chicago, and at Rice Lake24 a consignment of 100

birds was seized by a game warden.

1 Colby Phonograph Aug. 25, Sept. 29. 2 Phillips Times Oct. 1 and 8.

3 Neillsville Times Sept. 27. 4 Alma Journal Sept. 20. B Hurley Miner Oct. 27.

0 Crandon Forest Leaves Aug. 25. 7 Ashland Press Aug. 20, Oct. 8. 8 Barron

Shield Sept. 30. 9 Oshkosh (w) Northwestern Oct. 13. 10 Wausau Pilot and

Review Sept. 20. 11 Florence Mining News Sept. 17. 22 Oconto Reporter

Oct. 22, Nov. 5. 13 Green Bay Gazette Oct. 12. 14 Appleton Post Oct. 13.

15 Sparta Herald Aug. 30 ; Democrat Sept. 10. 145 Montello Express Sept. 10.

17 Reedsburg Free Press Sept. 1, Oct. 27. 18 Friendship Press Nov. 5. 19 Kil¬

bourn Mirror-Gazette Oct. 13. 20 Mineral Point Tribune Sept. 29. 21 Darling¬

ton Democrat Oct. 6; Republican Sept. 30. 22 Black River Falls Independent

Sept. 7. 23 New Richmond Republican Oct. 26. 24 Chippewa Falls Times

Nov. 1.

1888

This year the decline began in certain areas. At Neillsville1

they had become scarce: “Last year there were thousands

shipped, but the shipments so far have been only a few hun¬

dred.” The birds were scarce near Oconto,2 but reported plen¬

tiful in the western part of the county. The shooting was poor

at Kilbourn,3 Viroqua,4 Dodgeville,5 and Mineral Point.6

Partridges were plentiful at Green Bay,7 De Pere,8 Appleton,9

Florence,10 Crandon,11 Bayfield,12 Phillips,13 and Wausau.14 Two

Wausau hunters are stated to have killed 26 birds in one day,

while another pair killed 106. Marinette15 reported that a party

of four hunters, two of whom hunted two weeks, and two one

week, killed a bear, 2 deer, and 112 partridges. A hunting party

is stated to have killed 200 birds in 10 days in Bear Valley, Rich¬

land County.16 A La Crosse17 hunter killed 55 birds in 10 days in

the Chippewa Valley.

An Appleton hunter18 wrote that in a certain section there

were “thousands” of birds. New Richmond19 reported: “One

thing our amateur sports seem to be agreed upon, and that is the

measurement of partridges. They uniformly remark that you

can go out and shoot a wagon load !”

Schorger * — The Ruffed Grouse in Early Wisconsin 75

At Crandon11 $2.00 per dozen were offered for partridges,

while in La Crosse County20 they sold from 15 cents apiece to

$3.00 per dozen.

1 Neillsville Republican and Press Sept. 6 and 20, Oct. 18. 2 Oconto Reporter

Sept. 1, Oct. 6. 3 Kilbourn Mirror-Gazette Sept. 8. 4 Viroqua Leader Sept. 7.

5 Dodgeville Chronicle Sept. 28. 6 Mineral Point Tribune Nov. 20. 7 Green

Bay Gazette Oct. 17. 8 De Pere News Sept. 29, Oct. 13. 9 Appleton Post

Oct. 4; C. V. Y. Forest and Stream 31 (Nov. 15, 1888) 326. 10 Florence

Mining News Aug. 25, Sept. 29, Oct. 20. 11 Crandon Forest Leaves Oct. 11,

Nov. 1 ; Republican Oct. 16 and 23. 12 Bayfield Press Oct. 6. 13 Phillips Times

Aug. 18. 14 Wausau Pilot and Review Sept. 11, Oct. 2; Torch of Liberty

Oct. 11. 15 Marinette Eagle Oct. 20. 16 Richland Center Rustic Nov. 24,

Dec. 8. 17 La Crosse (w) Republican and Leader Oct. 20. 18 C. V. Y. Forest

and Stream 35 (Nov. 20, 1890) 351. 19 New Richmond Republican Oct. 17.

20 La Crosse (w) Republican and Leader Nov. 17, Dec. 1.

1889

There were few reports for this year, indicating that the

birds were not plentiful. They were “very scarce” at Milton1

and “unusually scarce” at Algoma.2 The hunters at Oconto3 had

“indifferent success,” while the shooting at Florence4 was fairly

good. The birds were quite numerous near Neillsville,5 where

they brought 20 to 25 cents apiece in the market. At Chippewa

Falls6 two hunters returned from a day's hunt “loaded with par¬

tridges.” Two hunters, in three days, killed 62 birds near Rich¬

land Center.7 At Menominee, Michigan, two men “made a short

trip up the state road on Wednesday and bagged 26 birds.

.”S

1 Milton Telephone Nov. 28. 2 Algoma Record Sept. 26. 3 Oconto Reporter

Oct. 26. 4 Florence Mining News Aug. 31, Sept. 7, Oct. 19. 6 Neillsville Re¬

publican and Press Sept. 28, Oct. 19. 6 Chippewa Falls Times Nov. 6. 7 E. H.

Parfrey. Am. Field 32 (Nov. 23, 1889) 485. 8 Green Bay Advocate Oct. 17.

1890

This year is clearly a “low.” C. V. Y.1 wrote from Appleton

that he could not find an average of three birds in a day where

there were thousands in 1888. He thought that the decrease was

due to shooting for the market. The birds had “almost entirely

disappeared” at Oxford,2 and the shooting at Marinette3 was

“very poor.” Florence4 reported : “Partridges are ‘all-fired’

scarce this year. The reason for the prevailing scarcity is not

apparent.” The hunting at Barron5 was poor.

Good shooting was reported at Lena, Oconto County.6 At De

Pere7 a hunter killed 7 partridges, 11 rabbits, and a wildcat

76 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts and Letters

between 7 :00 A. M. and 4.00 P. M. ; and at Sparta8 a hunter killed

13 partridges and 8 squirrels in “a couple of hours.”

Partridges brought $3.00 a dozen at Merrillan,9 La Crosse,10

and Barneveld.11

1 C. V. Y. Forest and Stream 35 (Nov. 20, 1890) 351. 2 Montello Express

Aug. 23. 3 Marinette Eagle Oct. 4. 4 Florence Mining News Oct. 11. 5 Bar¬

ron Shield Sept. 26. 6 Oconto Reporter Oct. 11. 7 De Pere Neivs Nov. 1.

8 Sparta Independent Nov. 1. 9 Merillan Leader Oct. 31. 10 La Crosse (w)

Republican and Leader Nov. 8. 11 Dodgeville Chronicle Dec. 26.

1891

The partridge population continued to be low. They were re¬

ported plentiful at Arcadia1 and Durand ;2 and a letter from Dry-

wood, Chippewa County, stated: “The partridge has been slain

by the hundred owing to the 25 cents apiece they bring in the

local market.”3 The birds were “quite plenty” at Shawano,4

“rather scarce” at Crandon,5 and “very scarce” at Appleton.6

There was considerable hunting at Wausau7 but no indication of

the results. The individual bags reported by hunters at Viroqua8

and Barron9 show that partridges were far from plentiful.

1 Arcadia Leader Oct. 22. 2 Durand Courier Oct. 31. 3 Baraboo Republic

Nov. 26. 4 Shawano Journal Oct. 1, Nov. 5. 5 Crandon Republican Oct. 28.

e Appleton Crescent Oct. 10. 7 Wausau Pilot-Review Oct. 20. 8 Viroqua

Censor Nov. 4. 9 Barron Shield Oct. 2 and 9.

1892

The few reports for this year show that the population

remained low. At Prairie du Chien1 “dead loads of squirrels and

pheasant” were brought in. A report of great scarcity at Mari¬

nette2 was followed' by one stating that partridges were “very

plenty.” Florence3 and Wausau4 reported that the birds were

very scarce.

1 Prairie du Chien Courier Nov. 1. 2 Marinette Eagle Sept. 10, Oct. 1.

3 Florence Mining News Sept. 17, Oct. 8. 4 Wausau Pilot-Review Oct. 4.

1893

The few reports available indicate that the number of par¬

tridges had increased slightly. The birds were quite numerous

at Steuben,1 Crawford County, Merrillan,2 and Marinette.3 They

were reported numerous on the Indian reservation near De

Pere,4 while at Colby5 two hunters killed “too many to speak of.”

Partridges were quite numerous in the city of Chippewa Falls,6

due supposedly to having been driven in by forest fires. During

Schorger—The Ruffed Grouse in Early Wisconsin 77

a side hunt at West Salem,7 150 squirrels, 20 partridges, 20 rab¬

bits, and 3 ducks were secured. Sheboygan Falls8 reported that

the partridge was no longer to be found in the vicinity.

1 La Crosse (w) Republican and Leader Oct. 14 and 28. 2 Merillan Leader

Sept. 22, Oct. 20. 3 Marinette Eagle Sept, 9. 4 De Pere News Oct. 14. 5 Colby

Phonograph Dec. 7. 6 Chippewa Falls Herald Sept. 22. 7 La Crosse (w)

Republican and Leader Nov. 11. 6 Sheboygan Falls News Sept. 6.

1894

At Jacksonport,1 Door County, “partridges were never before

as plentiful,” and at Marinette2 they were “unusually numerous.”

They were reported plentiful at Green Bay3 and De Pere.4 There

was good shooting at Flambeau,5 Rusk County, Arpin,6 Wood

County, and Prairie du Chien.7

1 Sturgeon Bay Advocate Oct. 6. 2 Marinette Eagle Sept. 22. 3 Green Bay

Gazette Aug. 29. 4 De Pere News Sept. 15. 6 Chippewa Falls Herald Oct. 26.

6 Centralia Enterprise Sept. 29. 7 Prairie du Chien Courier Oct. 23.

1895

Partridges were reported to be unusually plentiful in the

northern part of Door County,1 and plentiful at De Pere,2 Mari¬

nette,3 Trempealeau,4 and Grantsburg.5 The birds were very

scarce at Florence,6 and the shooting was poor at Merrill.7 Six

men hunted a day in Iron County8 and secured only 2 birds.

Other one-day bags were : one man shot 26 birds near Ashland ;9

a Marinette10 hunter secured 13; and two men near Barron11

shot 9.

I Sturgeon Bay Democrat Sept. 14. 2 De Pere News Sept. 14. 3 Marinette

Eagle Oct. 12. 4 Trempealeau Herald Sept. 27. 6 Grantsburg Sentinel July 25.

6 Florence Mining News Oct. 5. 7 Merrill Advocate Sept. 10. 6 Hurley Re¬

publican Oct. 25. 9 Ashland (w) Press Oct. 12. 10 Peshtigo Times Sept. 28.

II Barron Shield Oct. 11.

1896

The birds were plentiful this year at River Falls,1 Cable,2

Arcadia,3 Richland Center,4 Stanley,5 Chippewa County, Dancy,6

Marathon County, Marshfield,7 Tomahawk,8 Minocqua,9 Flor¬

ence,10 Peshtigo,11 and Kewaunee.12 At De Pere13 they were

“much scarcer than last year.”

“Observer,”14 at Spooner, stated that the local express agent

had purchased and shipped 25,000 “pheasants and grouse” dur¬

ing the season. Two men returned from Wood County with

about 50 birds.15 At Shawano16 six men in a day’s hunt killed 22

rabbits and 17 partridges. Bauer Bros, shipped nearly 2,000

78 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts and Letters

birds from Marshfield17 during the season. Three men hunted

three days at Mellen and returned with 62 birds.18 Two men

killed 169 partridges near Ashland,19 the length of the hunt not

being stated.

1 River Falls Journal Aug. 27. 2J. S. I. Forest and Stream 47 (Dec. 12,

1896) 469. 8 Arcadia Herald Sept. 25. 4 Richland Center Rustic Nov. 21.

5 Stanley Republican Sept. 26. 6 Stevens Point Journal Oct. 10. 7 Marshfield

Times Sept. 25. 8 Tomahawk Tomahawk Sept. 5. 0 Minocqua Times Sept. 3,

17, and 24. 10 Florence Mining News Aug. 29. n Marinette Eagle Oct. 3.

12 Kewaunee Enterprise Sept. 4. 13 De Pere News Dec. 5. 14 “Observer.”

Forest and Stream 48 (Feb. 27, 1897) 167. 15 Oshkosh (d) Northwestern

Nov. 9, 1896, p. 2. 10 Shawano Journal Oct. 1. 17 Marshfield Times Dec. 18.

19 Ashland (d) News Oct. 13. 19 Ibid. Oct. 17.

1897

The birds were reported plentiful at Merrill,1 Tomahawk,2

Marinette,3 Marshfield,4 and Wausau.5 There was much hunting

at Claywood,6 and Ogema,7 Price County. The shooting at

Sparta8 was fair. At Florence9 and Wausau9 the early reports

were favorable, but in October the shooting became poor. A

statement from Wausau10 reads: “Where a bag of 20 or 25

could easily be killed early in the season, hunters must now gen¬

erally be content with three or four.” Though the hunting was

considered poor, two men at Wausau11 killed 39 birds in one day.

At Minocqua12 two men returned with only 2 birds. A hunter

at Bayfield13 killed 7 partridges in an hour. Two men hunting

along the Eau Claire near Wausau14 killed 26 birds in one day

and 12 the following morning. Two men who hunted in Taylor

County15 returned with “a large amount of pheasants.” In Price

County,16 a man, in travelling from Pike Lake to Fifield, a dis¬

tance of 26 miles, killed 20 partridges.

Partridges were “unusually scarce” at Kewaunee,17 and scarce

at Minong,18 Washburn County, Stanley,19 and at Spooner.20 A

report from the latter place states: As we have it, Wm. Busch

shipped 2,300 in one week last year ; this is more than the entire

harvest this season.”

1 Merrill Advocate Oct. 5, Nov. 2. 2 Tomahawk Tomahawk Oct. 30. 3 Mari¬

nette Eagle Oct. 30. 4 Marshfield Times Sept. 3. 5 Wausau Pilot Aug. 24,

Oct. 5; Central Wisconsin Aug. 28, Oct. 16. 6 Oconto Reporter Nov. 5;

Shawano Advocate Nov. 4. 7 Prentice Calumet Sept. 17. 8 Sparta Herald

Oct. 26. 9 Florence Mining News Sept. 4 and 18, Oct. 9 and 23. 10 Wausau

Central Wisconsin Oct. 23. 11 Wausau Neivs Sept. 30. 22 Minocqua Times

Sept. 23. “Ashland (w) Press Sept. 11. 14 Wausau Pilot Oct. 12. 15 La

Crosse (w) Republican and Leader Nov. 12. 16 Green Bay Advocate Nov. 4.

17 Kewaunee Enterprise Oct. 29. 18 Shell Lake Register Sept. 18. 19 Stanley

Republican Oct. 9. 20 Shell Lake Register Oct. 16 and 30.

Schorger — The Ruffed Grouse in Early Wisconsin 79

1898

In spite of the apparent decrease in partridges last year,

this year was unquestionably a high in the cycle. They were

reported unusually numerous at Antigo,1 Wausau,2 Minocqua,3

Hurley,4 New London,5 Mellen,6 Peshtigo,7 Marinette,8 Florence,9

and Marshfield.10 In Barron County, two men shot 78 birds in

one day, and “hundreds” were shipped from Silver Lake.11 Three

men returned from a hunt at Bruce,12 Rusk County, with 75

birds. At West Sweden,13 Burnette County, a hunter killed 30

in one day. The shooting was good at Rice Lake, where par¬

tridges brought 20 cents apiece. One hunter “averaged eleven

and twelve a day” for a week. The shipments from Rice Lake15

were “surprisingly large.” Hough16 reported them numerous at

Conover, Vilas County, and at Twin Lakes. A hunter at Butter¬

nut,17 Ashland County, killed 20 partridges in four hours. They

were “quite numerous” at Arpin,18 Wood County. The “crop”

was “very good” at Prentice.19

Hough20 was told by John Stevans, of Neenah, that “the

number of partridges that were being shipped from Ogema

[Price Co.] was something almost past beief. He said that time

and again he saw heaps of partridges piled up at the station

platform in piles reaching almost as high as his head. Shipments

of 400 and 500 a day from that one point alone were the ordi¬

nary thing during the open season. . . . The local shooters are

paid 40 cents for each bird they kill, sometimes as high as 50

cents. The bags run from twenty to forty birds a day to each

man. . . . One man said he had shipped 1,500 birds last fall up

to date, and he was still shooting, and had 75 ready to ship.

This man said that he had paid off the mortgage on his farm

by means of his market shooting.”

The citizens of Neillsville, according to Hough,21 were indig¬

nant at the buyers who were shipping 500 to 600 partridges

daily. Elsewhere22 it is stated that the shipments comprised

“partridges and grouse,” and that 30 cents apiece was paid.

Thomas23 reported that thousands of partridges were shipped

from Chippewa County. “An agent on the Soo road in the

northern part of the county has written me that 3,000 were

shipped from his station alone and this is hardly one fifth of

the total killed.”

80 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts and Letters

The following statement appeared at Marshfield:24 “Levin

and Son are not what would be considered extensive buyers, yet

during the hunting season they have bought and shipped to Mil¬

waukee parties, 2,000 birds. For these they paid to hunters on

an average 20 cents apiece, a total of $400. Other concerns in

this city did an equal and possibly a better business. From the

hundreds of towns along the different lines of railroad in this

part of the state, thousands of these birds were shipped. . .

Partridges were quite scarce at Merrill,25 Shawano,26 and

Kewaunee,27 and very scarce at Green Bay28 and De Pere.29 A

hunter at Glidden30 was considered “well rewarded” with a

dozen.

I Antigo News Item Oct. 1; Republican Sept. 22. 2 Wausau Central Wiscon¬

sin Sept. 3 and 10. 3 Minocqua Times Sept. 1, Oct. 13. 4 Hurley Miner Oct. 4.

5 New London Republican Sept. 1 and 8. 0 Ashland (w) Press Oct. 8. 7 Pesh-

tigo Times Oct. 1 ; Marinette Eagle Oct. 15. 8 Marinette Eagle Oct. 15.

0 Florence Mining News Sept. 17, Oct. 1 and 15. 10 Marshfield Times Oct. 14.

II Cumberland Advocate Sept. 15 and 22. 12 Barron Shield Oct. 21. 43 Grants-

burg Sentinel Sept. 29. 14 Rice Lake Chronotype Sept. 23 and 30, Nov. 4.

15 Rice Lake Leader Sept. 29. 10 E. Hough, Forest and Stream 51 (Oct:. 8,

1898) 288. 17 Ashland (w) Press Sept. 24. 18 Grand Rapids Reporter Oct. 20.

19 Prentice Calumet Sept. 16. 20 E. Hough, Forest and Stream 52 (Jan. 14,

1899) 30. 21 E. Hough. Ibid. 51 (Oct. 29, 1898) 348. 22 Viroqua Censor

Oct. 26, p. 1. 23 Milwaukee Sentinel Jan. 22, 1899, p. 10. 24 Marshfield Times

Nov. 19. 25 Merrill Advocate Sept. 6 and 13. 26 Shawano Journal Sept. 15.

27 Kewaunee Enterprise Oct. 28. 28 Green Bay Gazette Nov. 30. 29 De Pere

Democrat Oct. 21. 30 Ashland (d) News Sept. 29.

1899

There was a decided drop in the population, judging from

the few reports available. These birds were reported plentiful

at Marshfield,1 Merrill,2 and “upper Wisconsin.”8 They were

fairly plentiful at Florence,4 Coomer,5 Spirit Falls,6 Lincoln

County, and Minocqua,7 where a man bagged 15 in one day. They

were reported plentiful at Koepiniek,8 Langlade County, but at

Antigo9 “all the hunters claim that partridges are very scarce

this year.” The scarcity at Marinette10 was attributed to the

late, wet spring. A man hunting at Dudley,11 Lincoln County,

killed only 6 partridges in two days. During a side hunt at

Sparta,13 in which nine men took part, only 3 partridges were

listed in the game killed. Hunters at Superior13 found only a few

birds. Prentice14 buyers were paying 20 cents apiece.

1 Marshfield Times Sept. 2. 2 Merrill Advocate Oct. 3. 3 E. Hough. Forest

and Stream 53 (Sept. 30, 1899) 267. 4 Florence Mining News Oct. 14.

5 Grantsburg Sentinel Oct. 12. 6 Tomahawk Tomahawk Sept. 30. 7 Minocqua

Times Oct. 19. 8 Antigo Republican Sept. 7 and 14. 9 Antigo News-Item

Schorger — The Ruffed Grouse in Early Wisconsin 81

Oct. 7. 10 Marinette Eagle Sept. 2, Nov. 4. 11 Tomahawk Tomahawk Oct. 14.

12 Sparta Herald Oct. 24. 13 Superior (d) Telegram Oct. 7, p. 7. 14 Prentice

Calumet Oct. 13.

1900

The reports were more favorable than for 1899. The birds

were stated to be abundant at Longwood,1 Clark County, Rhine¬

lander,2 and Florence ;3 and quite plentiful at Minocqua,4 Hurley,5

Antigo,6 Marshfield,7 Wausau,8 and Waupaca.9 Two men at

Marshfield10 killed over 500 birds during the season. A timber

cruiser, working in the northern part of Clark County, reported

that he had never seen deer and partridges more plentiful.11

Two men hunting near Melrose,12 Jackson County, killed 46

birds. Though more plentiful at Merrill13 than the preceding

year, no large bags were made. A hunter at Glen Flora,14 Rusk

County, bagged 13 birds in “short order.”

They were scarce at Green Bay.15 At Sparta,16 18 men en¬

gaged in a side hunt and reported only 3 partridges amongst

the game killed.

Game wardens seized several illegal consignments. A ship¬

ment of 41 birds from Glen Flora was seized en route to St.

Paul.17 Near Stevens Point,18 mixed shipments of ruffed grouse

and prairie chickens amounting to 500, 150, and 300 birds were

seized. Hough19 mentions that 700 partridges were confiscated in

Milwaukee. There is doubt if all of these birds were ruffed

grouse. A shipment of 596 partridges from Mather, Juneau

County, was seized in Milwaukee early in September.20

I Greenwood Gleaner Sept. 29. 2 Rhinelander Herald Sept. 1 ; Vindicator

Oct. 17. 3 Florence Mining News Sept. 8, Oct. 6 and 13. 4 Minocqua Times

Oct. 18. 6 Hurley Vindicator Oct. 17. c Antigo News-Item Oct. 27. 7 Marsh¬

field Times Aug. 3. 8 Wausau Central Wisconsin Sept. 1, Oct. 20. 9 E. Hough.

Forest and Stream 55 (Oct. 6, 1900) 268. 10 Marshfield Times Nov. 9.

II Ibid. Aug. 17. 12 Black River Falls Banner Sept. 13. 13 Merrill Advocate

Sept. 18, Oct. 23. 14 Prentice Calumet Oct. 4. 15 Forest and Stream 55

(Dec. 29, 1900) 508. 16 Sparta Herald Oct. 16. 17 Barron Shield Nov. 30.

18 Stevens Point Journal Oct. 6, 20, and 27 ; Gazette Sept. 26, Oct. 17 and 24.

19 E. Hough. Forest and Stream 55 (Oct. 13, 1900) 288; Eau Claire (d)

Telegram Oct. 2. 20 Eau Claire (d) Telegram Sept. 5, p. 5.

1901

Partridges seem to have been fewer than last year. They

were reported very plentiful at Florence,1 and Marshfield,2 and

“quite” numerous at Cumberland,3 Greenwood,4 Clark County,

Coomer,5 Burnett County, Rhinelander,6 Antigo,7 Wausau,8 and

Hurley.9 They were scarce at Arcadia10 and Galesville.11 Some

82 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts and Letters

Indians passed through Shell Lake12 with about 800 partridges

and other grouse to be sold in the Spooner market.

Game wardens seized shipments of partridges at Antigo,13

Marshfield,14 and Stevens Point.15 A barrel of birds seized at

Ladysmith16 appears to have been the largest consignment.

1 Florence Mining News Aug. 10 and 31, Oct. 12. 2 Marshfield Times Aug. 16,

Oct. 4. 3 Cumberland Advocate Oct. 3. 4 Greenwood Gleaner Sept. 13, Oct. 11.

5 Grantsburg Journal Oct. 25. 6 Rhinelander Herald Aug. 31 ; Vindicator

Sept. 11, Oct. 9. 7 Antigo News-Item Sept. 21; Republican Sept. 5, Oct. 10.

8 Wausau Pilot Sept. 24, Oct. 8. 9 Hurley Miner Sept. 3 and 24. 10 Arcadia

Leader Sept. 13. 11 Galesville Republican; from Independence News-Wave

Sept. 28. 12 Shell Lake Watchman Oct. 10. 13 Antigo Republican Oct. 24.

14 Marshfield Times Nov. 1 and 8. 15 Stevens Point Journal Oct. 26; Gazette

Nov. 6. 10 Ladysmith Journal Oct. 19.

1902

Large numbers of birds were reported at Green Bay,1 Stur¬

geon Bay,2 Florence,3 Marshfield,4 Minccqua,5 Cumberland,6 and

Superior.7 The woods at Antigo8 were “full” of birds, but they

were decimated rapidly as a result of the $9.00 per dozen offered

in Milwaukee; however, only 30 cents apiece was offered at

Prentice.9 A party of three men returned from Rice Lake with

“plenty of partridges.”10 A game warden at Stevens Point11

stated that “more birds are being killed this fall than ever before

in his memory.” An Appleton12 hunter killed 14 partridges in a

day's hunt at Marshfield.

The birds were “quite scarce” at Ladysmith,13 daily bags run¬

ning from 5 to 10; but in various parts of Rusk County the

shooting was very good. At Shell Lake14 they were “quite numer¬

ous.” Hunters at Hurley15 and Grantsburg16 obtained only a few

birds. While they were reported very plentiful at Florence17 in

September, in October two men obtained only 9 birds in a hunt

of two days. At Wausau18 they were scarce and fewer than in

1901.

Small shipments, up to 72 birds, were seized at Marshfield.19

1 A. G. H. Forest and Stream 59 (Oct. 11, 1902) 292. 2 Sturgeon Bay Demo¬

crat Sept. 20. 3 Florence Mining News Aug. 30, Sept. 27. 4 Marshfield Times

Aug. 29. 6 Minocqua Times Sept. 18, Oct. 9. 6 Cumberland Advocate Sept. 25.

7 Superior (d) Telegram Sept. 4, p. 3. 8 Antigo News-Item Oct. 4. 9 Pren¬

tice Calumet Oct. 30. 10 Merrill Advocate Oct. 14. 11 Stevens Point Gazette

Oct. 1. 12 Appleton Post Sept. 25. 13 Ladysmith Journal Sept. 13 and 20,

Oct. 4 and 11. 14 Shell Lake Register Sept. 13, Oct. 4. 15 Hurley Miner

Sept. 17. 18 Grantsburg Journal Sept. 5. 17 Florence Mining News Oct. 6.

18 Wausau Central Wisconsin Aug. 30, Sept. 6; Record Sept. 18. 12 Marshfield

Times Oct. 3 and 24.

Schorger — The Ruffed Grouse in Early Wisconsin 83

1903

In most areas the population remained low. The birds were

“unusually numerous” at Ladysmith,1 and plentiful at Shell

Lake,3 Washburn County. Good bags were made at Rice Lake3

and Cumberland4 in Barron County. Three men hunted five days

in the southern part of Ashland County5 and killed 72 “grouse

and partridge.” Two men hunted several days at the mouth of

the Brule River and reported that it was more difficult “finding

partridge this year than usual.”6 At Ashland7 the hunting was

very uneven: “Many of the sportsmen have been very success¬

ful, securing as many as a dozen or more birds in a day while

others have not even had an opportunity of seeing any. In some

portions of the woods, where partridge were in years past very

plentiful, none can be found.”

The birds were very scarce at Hurley,8 Florence,9 and Wau¬

sau,10 due, supposedly, to the “continued rains.” Two hunters at

Stanley11 killed 14 birds in a hunt of two days. Greenwood12

lamented that partridges and prairie chickens could no longer be

sold, thus destroying “quite an industry for the northern part

of the state.”

1 Ladysmith Journal Sept. 5. 2 Shell Lake Watchman Aug. 27, Sept. 3.

3 Rice Lake Chronotype Sept. 25, Oct. 16, Dec. 4; Leader Oct. 22. 4 Cumber¬

land Advocate Sept. 17, Oct. 15. 5 Ashland (w) Press Oct. 17. 6 Superior

(d) Telegram Sept. 24, p. 3. 7 Ashland (d) News Sept. 4. 8 Hurley Miner

Oct. 21. 9 Florence Mining News Sept. 12. 10 Wausau Central Wisconsin

Sept. 5; Record Sept. 17. 11 Stanley Republican Nov. 14. 22 Greenwood

Gleaner Aug. 27.

1904

The reports were more favorable than the year previous.

Sturgeon Bay1 stated: “.Reports from Marinette County state

that partridges are scarcer this fall than they have ever been

before. Just the opposite is the case in this county. Hunters

report that partridges were never so plentiful. . . .” Overbeck,2

writing from Madison, stated that they were very plentiful.

They were reported plentiful also at Spencer,3 Wood County,

Withee,4 Clark County, Medford,5 and unusually plentiful at

Ashland.6 Game Warden P. H. Water bury 7 stated that par¬

tridges were quite plentiful at Solon Springs, but that “grouse”

were scarce.

The shooting was poor at Florence,8 Phillips,9 and Hurley.10

At Rice Lake11 there were fewer birds than the previous autumn,

covies having only three or four birds ; however, they were “re-

84 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts and Letters

ported to be found in profusion in the woods about Longlake,

Birchwood, and Radisson.” They were “extremely scarce’' at

Wausau.12 There was fair shooting at Ladysmith.13

A warden seized, at Eau Claire, 16 dozen partridges that had

been shipped from Sawyer County.14

1 Sturgeon Bay Democrat Oct. 15 and 22. 2 H. Overbeck. Forest and Stream

63 (Oct. 8, 1904) 305. 3 Marshfield Times Nov. 11. 4 Greenwood Gleaner

Sept. 22. 6 Medford Star and News Aug. 26, Oct. 14. 6 Ashland (w) Press

Sept. 3. 7 Ibid. Oct. 8. 8 Florence Mining News Oct. 15. 9 Phillips Times

Sept. 17. 10 Hurley Miner Sept. 2. 11 Rice Lake Chronotype Oct. 28. ^Wau¬

sau Pilot Sept. 27. 13 Ladysmith Journal Oct. 22. 14 Ibid. Oct. 8.

1905

The population continued to increase, the hunting in Price

County was excellent.1 The birds were very plentiful at Fifield.2

At Prentice3 a man secured 19 birds in a day’s hunt, while at

Phillips a man “started up the Coolidge road and was gone

nearly the whole day. When he returned he had in his buggy

74 partridges.” Deputy Game Warden A. W. Gratz, Madison,

stated on August 29 : “Reports from the northern counties say

that partridges are plentiful, but that prairie chickens suffered

somewhat from wet weather.”5 They were reported abundant

at Chippewa Falls.6 There was good shooting at Ladysmith.7

At Rhinelander8 a huntress killed 11 birds in a forenoon, and at

Florence9 a man shot 36 in three days, 15 of which were secured

in one forenoon. Two other hunters at Florence10 obtained 11

birds in a day’s hunt. The shooting at Marshfield11 was good.

There were few birds at Superior,12 Heller,13 Lincoln County,

and Hurley.14 They were scarce at Ashland,15 where “the par¬

tridge now being shot are all old birds which shows that the

young birds this spring did not grow to maturity.” Wausau10

reported: “It is a fortunate and persistent hunter who bags

more than one or two birds in a half day’s hunting and almost

all of those brought in so far have been old and tough.”

1 Phillips Bee Oct. 12. 2 Fifield Tribune Oct. 19. 3 Prentice Calumet Oct. 26.

4 Phillips Times Sept. 23. 5 Chetek Alert Sept. 1, p. 2. 6 Chippewa Falls In¬

dependent; In Ladysmith Journal Sept. 2. 7 Ladysmith Journal Sept. 9.

8 Rhinelander Vindicator Sept. 20. 9 Florence Mining News Oct. 21. 10 Ibid.

Sept. 11. 11 Marshfield Times Nov. 3 and 17. 12 Superior Telegram Sept. 23,

p. 7. 13 Merrill Advocate Oct. 24. 14 Hurley Miner Sept. 15. 15 Ashland (d)

News Oct. 3. 16 Wausau Record Oct. 5.

1906

This year was a high in the cycle. The birds were reported

as very numerous at two localities in Door County,1 and at Med-

Schorger — The Ruffed Grouse in Early Wisconsin 85

ford.2 They were very plentiful near Superior and at the mouth

of the Brule River,3 while “hundreds” were killed near Hay¬

ward.4 At Cable,5 Bayfield County, they were “more plentiful

than ever before.” Ralph Mitchell, of Rhinelander,6 reported:

“It is many years since birds were as plentiful as this fall.

The woods are literally filled with grouse and partridges.” They

were numerous at Ashland7 in comparison with the year previ¬

ous. Here most hunters secured good bags, some as high as 18

birds in a single day. They were reported plentiful at Flam¬

beau,8 Vilas County, and quite plentiful at Rhinelander.9 An

optimistic report at Florence10 was reversed a week later. Par¬

tridges were “very numerous” at Greenwood,11 Clark County.

Near Fifield12 a man killed 13 birds on October 30, while return¬

ing from Pike Lake. Wausau13 reported them “plentiful,” and

Marshfield14 numerous. They were quite plentiful at Antigo.15

There was much hunting at Phillips,16 but the bags were

small. At Couderay,17 Sawyer County, the shooting was not as

good as the year previous, and only a few birds were secured

early in the season. Two men driving on the roads west of Cum¬

berland,18 Barron County, secured 14 birds in a day’s hunt.

They were not plentiful at Stanley.19

Partridges were “quite plentiful” at Oconto.20 At Peshtigo21

hunters were “all more or less successful,” one man securing 16

birds in three hours. A Marinette22 woodsman reported that “he

had never seen partridges as numerous as they are now.”

1 Sturgeon Bay Democrat Oct. 6 and 24. 2 Medford Star-News Oct. 5 and 19.

3 Superior (d) Telegram Sept. 12 and 29, Oct. 13. 4 Ibid. Oct. 6. 5 Washburn

News and Itemizer April 12, 1907. 6 Milwaukee Sentinel Oct. 21, p. 4. 7 Ash¬

land (d) News Oct. 2. 8 Rhinelander Vindicator Oct. 17. 0 Rhinelander Her¬

ald Oct. 13. 10 Florence Mining News Sept. 8 and 15, Oct. 13. 11 Greenwood

Gleaner Sept. 6. 32 Fifield Tribune Nov. 1. 13 Wausau Pilot Sept. 4. 14 Marsh¬

field Times Sept. 5, Oct. 10. 15 Antigo News-Item Sept. 28, Nov. 8. 16 Phillips

Bee Sept. 6; Times Oct. 6. 17 Rice Lake Leader Sept. 14. 18 Ibid. Oct. 5.

19 Stanley Republican Sept. 29. 20 Oconto Reporter Sept:. 6. 21 Peshtigo Times

Oct. 25, Nov. 1. 22 Marinette Eagle-Star Sept. 22.

1907

There was a sharp drop this year. Amherst,1 Portage County,

reported partridges “more plentiful than useful.” Hunters at

Ladysmith2 returned “with quite a bunch.” They were, how¬

ever, reported scarce to extremely scarce at Minocqua,3 Phillips,4

Florence,5 and Wausau.6 It was stated at Phillips:7 “It is to be

regretted that something can’t be done immediately to restore

86 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts and Letters

the usual number of partridge in this part of the country, be¬

cause some unknown cause has made this splendid fowl ex¬

tremely scarce this season. . .

1 Stevens Point Journal Sept. 14. 2 Ladysmith Journal Oct. 5. 3 Minocqua

Times Sept. 26. 4 Phillips Bee Oct. 10. 5 Florence Mining News Sept. 7,

Oct. 19, Nov. 16. 6 Wausau Pilot Oct. 8; Central Wisconsin Oct. 12. 7 Phil¬

lips Bee Oct. 24.

1908

Partridges were reported “quite plentiful” at Florence1 and

Antigo,2 but at neither place was the hunting good. They were

reported scarce at Phillips3 and scarce for the state as a whole.4

No “extraordinarily large” bags were obtained at Osceola.5

1 Florence Mining News Sept. 19, Oct. 3. 2 Antigo Republican Sept. 10.

3 Phillips Bee Oct. 8; Times Oct. 24. 4 National Sportsman. In Nekoosa

Times Oct. 8. 6 Osceola Sun Sept. 10.

References

1 Baron La Hontan. Voyages dans L’Amerique Septentrionale. Amster¬

dam. Vol. 1 (1728) p. 193.

2 J. W. Aldrich and H. Friedmann. A revision of the ruffed grouse.

Condor 45 (1943) 85-103.

3 H. W. Herbert. Field sports of the United States. N. Y. Vol. 1 (1852)

pp. 240-7.

4 Milwaukee (d) News Sept. 7 and Nov. 25, 1856.

6E. Sandys and T. S. Van Dyke. Upland game birds. N. Y. (1904)

pp. 132 and 137.

6 Alexander Henry. Travels and adventures. Chicago (1921) p. 55.

7 G. S. Hubbard. Autobiography. Chicago (1911) p. 105.

8J. Carver. Travels. Boston (1797) p. 270.

0 H. R. Schoolcraft. Narrative of an expedition through the upper

Mississippi to Itasca Lake ... in 1832. N. Y. (1834) p. 136.

10 1. A. Lapham. Wisconsin: its geography and topography. 2 ed. Mil¬

waukee (1846) p. 70.

11 Rev. Edmund F. Ely. Journals, 1833-1854. Typed copy in the files

of the Wis. Hist. Soc.; originals in possession of the St. Louis County His¬

torical Society, Duluth.

12 Capt. T. J. Cram. Report on the survey of the boundary between the

State of Michigan and the Territory of Wiskonsin. Senate Doc. 151, 26th

Congress, 2d Session. (1841) p. 10.

13 Joseph T. Mills. Diary in the files of the Wis. Hist. Soc.

14 1. D. Andrews. Report on colonial and lake trade. Sen. Doc. 112, 32d

Congress, 1st Session. Washington (1853) p. 241.

15 Stevens Point (s-w) Pinery Jan. 5, 1856.

10 J. H. Fonda. Wis. Hist. Soc. Coll. 5 (1868) 266.

17 T. Rodolph. Ibid. 15 (1900) 347 and 353.

18 [W. R. Smith]. Observations on the Wisconsin Territory. Philadel¬

phia (1838) p. 24.

Schorger — The Ruffed Grouse in Early Wisconsin 87

10 Elisha W. Keyes. Wis. Hist. Soc. Coll 11 (1888) 424.

20 J. V. Quarles. Wis. Mag. Hist. 16 (1933) 310.

21 Martin Mitchell. History of the county of Fond du Lac. (1854) p. 80.

22 Milwaukee (w) Sentinel Jan. 15, 1839.

23 Julius T. Clark. In : Daniel S. Durrie. A history of Madison. Madison

(1874) p. 182.

24 “Snap Shot.” Autumn game-gossip. Wilkes ’ Spirit of the Times 15

(Oct. 20, 1866) pp. 129-30.

25 “Atticus.” Racine Advocate Jan. 23, 1844.

26 P. R. Hoy. Notes on the ornithology of Wisconsin. Trans. Wis. State

Agr. Soc. for 1852. (1853) p. 357.

27 Rev. A. C. Barry. Ornithological fauna of Wisconsin. Proc. Boston

Soc. Nat. History 5 (1854) pp. 1-13.

28 P. R. Hoy. Proc. Wis. Nat. Hist. Soc. March, 1885, p. 8.

29 Oliver Gibbs. Lake Pepin fish chowder. N. Y. (1869) p. 51.

30 T. S. Palmer. Auk 30 (1913) p. 582.

303 C. G. Blanford. Forest and Stream 53 (Dec. 9, 1899) p. 464.

31 L. Kumlien. Wis. Naturalist (Madison). 1 (1891) p. 146.

32 L. Kumlien and N. Hollister. The birds of Wisconsin. (1903) p. 56.

33 N. Hollister. Wilson Bull. 31 (1919) p. 107.

84 Watertown Republican Nov. 9, 1870.

^Watertown Democrat Aug. 27, 1874.

80 F. H. King. Nuttall Bull. 7 (1882) p. 186.

37 Plymouth Review Jan. 29, 1902.

38 J. J. Audubon. Ornithological biography. Edinburgh. Vol. 1 (1831)

p. 211.

39 T. Nuttall. A manual of the ornithology of the United States and

Canada. Boston. Vol. 1 (1832) p. 657.

40 Frank Schley. American partridge and pheasant shooting. Frederick

(1877) p. 188.

41 E. Thompson. The birds of Manitoba. Proc. U. S. Nat. Museum 13

(1891) p. 513.

42 W. Brewster. The birds of the Lake Umbagog region of Maine. Bull.

Museum Comp. Zool. Vol. 66, pt. 2 (1925) pp. 286-305.

43 E. H. Eaton. Birds of New York. Albany. Vol. 1 (1910) pp. 367-8.

44 W. C. Kendall. Osprey 6, No. 1 (Jan. 1902) 28; Cf. E. H. Forbush.

Ref. 55, p. 30; A. A. Allen. Sex rhythm in the ruffed grouse and other

birds. Auk 50 (1934) pp. 180-99.

45 C. H. D. Clarke. Fluctuations in numbers of ruffed grouse, with spe¬

cial reference to Ontario. University of Toronto Studies , Biol. Series, No.

41 (1936) 56; 45a, p. 99; 45b, p. 90; 45c, pp. 28-9; 45d, p. 23; 45e, pp. 30-4;

45f, p. 22.

48 H. W. Hunsbery. Rod and Gun in Canada 12 (May, 1911) p. 1598.

47 A. O. Gross. Auk 42 (1925) pp. 423-31.

48 F. L. Grundtvig. Trans. Wisconsin Acad. Sci. 10 (1895) p. 105.

49 Forest and Stream 21 (Oct. 25, 1883) p. 247.

60 R. T. King. Ruffed grouse management. J. Forestry 35 (1937)

pp. 523 — 32,

88 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts and Letters

61 27th Annual Report N. Y. Conserv. Dept., 1937. (1938) p. 267.

52 G. Bump. Ruffed grouse in New York during the period of maximum

abundance. Trans. 21st Am. Game Conf. (1935) pp. 364-9.

53 F. C. Edminster. Productivity of the ruffed grouse in New York.

Trans. 3rd N. Am. Wildlife Conf. 1938. (1939) p. 833.

54 P. L. Errington. Can. Field Natur. 51 (March, 1937) pp. 31-4.

55 E. H. Forbush. Birds of Massachusetts. Vol. 2 (1927) p. 29.

60 E. J. Poole. Weights and wing areas in North American birds. Auk

55 (1938) pp. 511-7.

57 A. W. Schorger. The quail in early Wisconsin. Trans. Wisconsin

Acad. Sci. 36 (1944) pp. 77-103.

56 R. Darrow. Seasonal food preferences of adult and of young grouse

in New York state. Trans. Uth North Am. Wildlife Conf. (1939) pp. 585-

90; A. 0. Gross. Food of ruffed grouse. Game Breeder 32, No. 11 (Nov.,

1928) pp. 327-9; S. D. Judd. The grouse and wild turkeys of the United

States and their economic value. U. S. Biol. Survey Bull. No. 24 (1905) ;

R. A. Johnson. The fall food habits of the ruffed grouse in the Syracuse

area of N. Y. Auk 45 (1928) pp. 330-3; W. H. Kittams. October foods of

ruffed grouse in Maine. J. Wildlife Manag. 7 (1943) pp. 231-3; L. H.

Kelso. Winter foods of ruffed grouse in New York. Div. of Wildlife Re¬

search, U. S. Biol. Survey, Leaflet BS-1, Jan., 1935; Phoebe Knappen.

Food of Bonasa umbellus [literature references]. Auk 45 (1928) pp. 513-4;

T. M. Kuhn. Fall foods of the ruffed grouse in Pennsylvania. Penn. Game

News. 11, No. 10 (Jan., 1940) pp. 4, 5, and 31; H. V. Merritts. What

grouse eat during the hunting season. Penn. Game News (Feb., 1943) ;

A. L. Nelson. Early winter food of ruffed grouse on the George Washington

National Forest. U. S. Dept. Agr. Circ. No. 504 (Dec., 1938) 38 pp.

59 F. H. King. Geology of Wisconsin. Vol. 1 (1883) p. 591.

00 W. Grange. Some observations on the ruffed grouse in Wisconsin.

Wilson Bull. 48 (1936) pp. 104-10.

61 C. J. Maynard. The birds of eastern North America. Newtonville

(1896) p. 232.

62 C. M. Weed and N. Dearborn. Birds in their relation to man. Phila¬

delphia. (1903) p. 226.

03 W. J. Bennetts. Notes on the food of the ruffed grouse. Bull. Wis.

Nat. Hist. Soc. 1 (1900) pp. 1-6.

04 N. de W. Betts. Auk 32 (1915) p. 238; 33 (1916) p. 438.

63 A. O. Gross. Food of the ruffed grouse. Game Breeder and Sports¬

man 41, No. 8 (Aug., 1937) p. 142.

66 J. E. Guthrie. Wilson Bull. 44 (1932) p. 101.

67 Green Bay Gazette Sept. 21, 1867.

08 H. L. M. Grouse swallowing snakes. Forest and Stream 17 (Nov. 24,

1881) p. 329.

69 T. S. Roberts. Birds of Minnesota. Vol. 1 (1932) p. 380.

70 Hudson Star and Times April 11, 1873.

71 Richland Center Republican April 3, 1873.

72 Shullsburg Southwestern Local Feb. 12, 1888; New Richmond Repub¬

lican Feb. 29, 1888.

Schorger — The Ruffed Grouse in Early Wisconsin 89

73 Grand Rapids Reporter Jan. 12, 1888.

74 Friendship Press Jan. 21, 1888.

75 Eau Claire (w) Free Press Feb. 16, 1888.

76 “Pine Tree.” Grouse and snow crust. Forest and Stream 28, No. 15

(May 5, 1887) 324; ibid. p. 392.

77 A. Leopold. Game survey of North Central States. Madison (1931)

p. 157; 77a, p. 136; 77b, p. 142.

78 Appleton Post-Crescent Feb. 28, March 2 and 3, 1922.

79 W. E. Barber. Wis. Conservationist 4 (March, 1922) p. 5.

80 G. M. Allen. The birds of New Hampshire. (1903) p. 94.

81 Baraboo Republic July 19, 1871.

82 J. C. Phillips. Man’s influence on ruffed grouse populations. Cam¬

bridge. (1937) 24 pp. Privately printed.

83 Ed. Forest and Stream 21 (Sept. 20, 1883) p. 142.

84 J. W. W [ebster] . Ibid . 13 (Oct. 2, 1879) 684; cf. 19 (1882) pp. 66

and 222.

85 A. G. C. Ibid. 21 (Oct. 4, 1883) p. 185.

86 M. Grinnell. Ibid. 27, No. 26 (Jan. 20, 1887) p. 503.

87 0. Widmann. A preliminary catalog of the birds of Missouri. St.

Louis. (1907) p. 80.

88 F. L. Burns. Wilson Bull. 19 (Dec., 1907) pp. 157-9.

89 E. S. Woodruff. The ruffed grouse. A study of the causes of its

scarcity in 1907. 13th Ann. Report Forest, Fish and Game Com. of N. Y.

22 pp.

90 E. H. Forbush. Game birds, wild fowl and shore birds of Massachu¬

setts. 2nd ed. Boston (1916) pp. 380-4.

91 R. Deane. Auk 24 (1907) pp. 182-6.

92 Greener. Am. Field 26 (Sept. 11, 1886) p. 245.

93 Mrs. John H. Kinzie, Waubun. Chicago [1901] p. 328.

94 R. R. Parker and R. R. Spencer. 6th Biennial Report Montana State

Board of Entomology, 1925-26, p. 30.

95 R. G. Green and E. M. Wade. Ruffed grouse are susceptible to tula¬

remia. Proc. Soc. Exp. Biol, and Medicine 25 (1928) pp. 515-7; cf. J. J.

Murray. Auk 46 (1929) pp. 110-1.

96 A O. Gross. In U. S. Nat. Museum Bull. 162 (1932) p. 162.

97 A. A. Allen and A. O. Gross. Report of the ruffed grouse investiga¬

tion, 1925-26. Am. Game (Oct., 1926) ; C. H. D. Clarke. Ref. 45, pp. 80-97;

F. H. Connell and H. M. Doremus. Endoparasitism in ruffed grouse near

Hanover, New Hampshire. Auk 54 (1937) pp. 321-3; Eloise B. Cram.

Bird parasites of the nematode suborders Strongylata, Ascaridata, and

Spirurata. U. S. Nat . Museum Bull. 40 (1927) pp. 75, 93, 229 and 239;

A. M. Fallis. Population trends and blood parasites of ruffed grouse in

Ontario. J. Wildlife Manag. 9 (1945) pp. 203-6; A. O. Gross. Diseases of

the ruffed grouse. Auk 42 (1925) pp. 423-31; A. O. Gross. Ref. 96, pp.

161-5; J. E. Schillinger and L. C. Morley. Diseases of upland game birds.

U. S. Dept. Agr. Farmers Bull. 1781. (1937) ; E. E. Tyzzer, Flagellates

from the ruffed grouse. Am. J. Hyg. 11 (1930) pp. 56-72.

90 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts and Letters

98 C. H. D. Clarke. Cause of mortality of young grouse. Science 80

(1934) pp. 228-9; Blood parasites of ruffed grouse . . . Canud. J. Re¬

search 12 (1935) pp. 646-50; The dying-off of ruffed grouse. Trans. 21st

Am. Game Conf. 1935. (1936) pp. 402-5; Ref. 45, p. 83; Organisms of

malarial type in ruffed grouse. J. Wildlife Manag. 2 (1938) pp. 146-50.

09 27th Ann. Report N. Y. Conservation Dept. 1937. (1938) p. 266.

100 J. C. Phillips. An investigation of the periodic fluctuation in the

numbers of the ruffed grouse. Science 63 (Jan. 22, 1926) pp. 92-3.

101 C. V. Y. Forest and Stream 35 (Nov. 20, 1890) p. 351.

102 [R. E. Trippensee]. National Waltonian Oct., 1935.

103 F. C. Edminster. An analysis of the value of refuges for cycle game

species. J. Wildlife Manag. 1 (1937) pp. 37-41.

104 L. W. Fisher. Studies of the ruffed grouse in Michigan. Agr. Exp.

Station Tech. Bull. 166. (1939) p. 18.

105 N. Criddle. Some natural factors governing the fluctuations of

grouse in Manitoba. Can. Field Natur. 44 (1930) pp. 77-80.

108 A. Leopold and J. N. Ball. Ibid. 45 (1931) pp. 162-7.

107 G. Bump. Some characteristics of the periodic fluctuations in abund¬

ance of ruffed grouse. Trans. 1+th N. Am. Wildlife Conf . 1939. (1940) pp.

478-84.

108 Anon. Penn. Game News 15, No. 3 (June, 1944) p. 10.

109 A. M. Fallis. J. Wildlife Manag. 9 (1945) pp. 203-6.

110 A. W. Schorger. The prairie chicken and sharp-tailed grouse in early

Wisconsin. Trans. Wisconsin Acad. Sci. 35 (1944) p. 23.

1VL Madison State Journal Nov. 3, 1866.

112 A. Leopold. Game survey of Wisconsin. Madison. (1929) MS p. 22.

113 Mineral Point Tribune Aug. 26, 1886 ; Sparta Herald Aug. 30, 1887 ;

Ladysmith Journal Sept. 5, 1903; Ashland Press Oct. 8, 1904.

STUDIES IN ORNITHOLOGY AT LAKE KOSHKONONG

AND VICINITY BY THURE KUMLIEN FROM

1843 TO JULY, 1850

Angie Kumlien Main

This paper is based chiefly on the Swedish Journal kept by

Thure Kumlien from February 14, 1844, to January 5, 1850,

and other papers in his handwriting.

I have in my possession a paper dated May 15, 1843, which

is written in Swedish by him before he left Sweden and contains

a list of his Upsala University laboratory equipment and some

mounted birds among which are mentioned swan, partridge,

eider duck, eagle, lark, etc. It also lists books and the furniture

of his room. The pieces named are one chair, a back cupboard,

a case, etc. The price is listed after each article, so they are

apparently being offered for sale to help raise money to come to

America.

The next signed paper by Thure Kumlien is a note dated

May 29, 1843, to a nobleman friend, Carl Gustaf Lowenkjelm,

which shows Thure borrowed a sum of money for his passage to

America. At the bottom of the note is a notation by Lowen¬

kjelm on February 11, 1859, stating that the money had all been

paid by Thure Kumlien by his sending collections of birds and

other objects of natural history.

A passport before me is number 1397 and is made out for

maiden Christine Wallberg, born in Upland, Sweden, with resi¬

dence in Stockholm; another numbered 1398 is made out to

maiden Sophia Wallberg with same birthplace and residence

as her sister Christine. The last one, numbered 1399, is made

out for student Thure Kumlien, born in Westergothland,

Sweden, from Upsala. They are all dated May 31, 1843, and the

passengers are all bound for New York. From a photostatic

copy of the original passenger list of the log of the sailing vessel,

the “Brig Swea,”1 on which the above three sailed, I find that

the ship landed in New York Harbor on August 16, 1843.

1 Original list found in the archives at Washington, D. C.

91

92 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts and Letters

In comparing the passenger list which I received after the

publication of the biography2 of Thure Kumlien, I find that

James Worm, an instrument maker from Denmark, and Charles

E. Westring, Lars and Andrus Wahlin from Sweden and Alice

Benneworth, aged 71, mother of James Benneworth from Eng¬

land, were also passengers on the “Brig Swea” and settled near

Lake Koshkonong. (The above names were not mentioned in

my biography of Thure Kumlien.) In later years, James Worm

hunted birds for Kumlien. James Benneworth came to bring his

mother to the home of Samuel Kirby on the northwest shore of

Lake Koshkonong where he had settled in 1841. 2 Mr. Benne¬

worth acted as interpreter for the Swedes on board ship and in

New York City. I mention this because I think it had a bearing

on the place of settlement of these Swedes at Lake Koshkonong.

These passengers traveled by way of the Erie Canal and the

Great Lakes to Milwaukee and while at Buffalo, New York,

Kumlien probably met a Mr. Dole with whom he corresponded

soon after arriving in Wisconsin. He was either interested in

ornithology or was connected with shipping, for I find in Kum-

lien’s journal under date of August 4, 1844: “Got a letter from

Mr. Dole from Buffalo.” Other records show that birds were

shipped to him.

On August 28, 1843, Kumlien signed his intention of becom¬

ing a citizen of the United States in Milwaukee, Territory of

Wisconsin. At the same place on September 5, 1843, Thure

Kumlien and Christine Wallberg were married.

During a part of September and October the men of the

party walked to Lake Koshkonong, staked their claims, and

probably all except Thure Kumlien built temporary shacks until

they could get their warmer log cabins built. I have a letter in

which Kumlien states that he was on the lake every day for the

first six months. His deep interest in ornithology and his being

unused to manual labor of any kind is what probably prompted

him to take possession of an old deserted hunter’s cabin which

had an open fireplace with a large outside stone chimney. This

cabin was situated about fifteen rods southeast of the Elias

Downing log house, which had been built in 1842, near what is

now the Carcajou Club House. This Downing farm is now a

2 In “Thure Kumlien, Koshkonong Naturalist,” Wis. Mag. History , 27 <1943)

17-39, 194-220; 27 (1944) 321-43, the dates of the settlement of Samuel Kirby

and Elias Downing are changed around.

Main— Studies in Ornithology at Lake Koshkonong 93

part of the late H. L. Skavlem farm. The present frame farm

house was built around Downing’s log house.

Thure and his bride, Christine, and her older sister, Sophia

Wallberg, lived in this old cabin until the weather became too

severe, when they moved in with Mr. Downing’s people. They

remained with the Downings until toward spring, when they

went back to the cabin. They stayed here until the following

January 20, 1845, when they moved to a new log cabin on their

own claim, which was near Lake Koshkonong and about a mile

northwest of Mr. Downing’s.

This past summer, on May 20, 1944, I saw for the first time

the site of this old hunter’s cabin, which is only a few steps

from the Noland cottage. It is a beautiful location with a grove

of large ancient bur oaks near by. One of them is so near that

it must have shaded the old cottage in these early days. Two

springs near the lake shore are within sight, one of them having

furnished water for these early settlers. The old cabin stood

on a rather high piece of land which slopes gently to the lake

shore. Mr. Charles Hammerquist, who is nearly ninety-five years

old, tells me he lived in the Downing log house for a few years

when he was a boy and played with the children who were then

living in this old hunter’s cabin.

From here one has a fine view of the lake. To the right is

Willow Point, a long, narrow, wooded peninsula that extends

out into the water from the mouth of Koshkonong Creek, which

enters the lake here. The land has been built up through long

years of deposition of the debris brought down by the current

of the stream, and by floating canebrake.

It is now a wilderness of white and black ash, willows and

soft maples. Along the edges of the trees the red osier and

panicle dogwood, the button bush, the six-foot rushes and then

the lower patches of blue flag and the big glossy arrow-shaped

leaves of the arrow-head crowd the shore to the very water’s

edge, making the place a veritable jungle.

Between the peninsula and where we stood was a small

marshy bay which was literally covered with large herring gulls.

Occasionally one would leave the others and gracefully fly out

over the lake, then return to feed on the dead fish which the

waves had washed into the tiny bay.

94 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts and Letters

Purple martins flew in and out of their house and sallied

out over the marshy shore for their insect fare. When Thure

Kumlien first came here, these swallows were nesting in holes in

trees and did until 1869. The pewees sang their plaintive song

from the old oaks, while the yellow-bellied and least flycatchers

watched in the same trees.

The hairy, downy and red-headed woodpeckers were busy on

the trunks of the trees. The black terns skimmed over the water

and the barn and bank swallows also hunted there for their food.

Blue jays, house wrens, goldfinches, yellow warblers, flick¬

ers, Baltimore orioles, bluebirds, white-breasted nuthatches,

song sparrows and a whole army of red-winged blackbirds

claimed my attention as I walked among the oaks and followed

the old path to the spring down by the lake shore.

Many changes have taken place here in the bird world dur¬

ing the past 100 years since Thure Kumlien’s first appearance

at Lake Koshkonong and the lake itself is not the same. It lies

mostly in Jefferson County with a small part of its western

edge in Dane County and the southern extremity in Rock

County ; it is nine miles long and four miles wide. This lake has

many broad shallow bays, most of which are bordered by marshy

or swamp areas, so it has a very irregular shore line. Before

the advent of the white man it was for centuries the home of the

aborigines. In the Winnebago language, it means “the lake we

live on.,, Mute evidence of this is told by the nearly 500 Indian

mounds, most of which still dot the shores and adjacent land.

Lake Koshkonong is a widening of Rock River and is fed by

numerous springs. In the territorial and early days of this state,

the lake as a whole was not as deep as it is now. Wild rice and

wild celery grew abundantly in the bays and shallow parts of the

lake. This change in the depth of Lake Koshkonong was brought

about by the construction of a dam at Indian Ford which is

about four miles below the outlet of the lake. “The Indian Ford

dam is located in sections 16 and 21, township 24 north, range 12

East, Rock County. It appears to have been authorized by the

Territorial Legislature of Wisconsin, approved April 7, 1848,

and by Chapter 339, Laws of 1851. Since said time a dam has

been continuously maintained at the present site by the grantees

and their assigns under said legislative acts.”3

Public Service Commission of Wisconsin, from docket No. 2-WP-461.

Main- — Studies in Ornithology at Lake Koshkonong 95

When this dam was changed from a height of four feet to six

or seven feet, the depth of the lake was greater. This killed the

wild rice, except that which grew in the shallow bays.

When Dr. Increase A. Lapham visited Lake Koshkonong in

1850, he wrote: "The water is from 4 to 12 feet deep. At the

time of our visit in July, wild rice was growing abundantly over

almost its entire surface, giving it more the appearance of a

meadow than a lake/'4

In a letter written August 15, 1886, by Frithiof Kumlien to

his father, Thure Kumlien, he says, "Thursday I took the Slagg

boys out sailing. You would laugh to have seen the lake, grass¬

hoppers and birds can walk clear across on the weeds.”5

Governor Hoard told me that once in the fall of the early

1870’s, Thure Kumlien invited him to go to the lake with him

before daylight to watch the migration of the famous canvas-

back ducks. He said, "We lay flat in the boats on the shore and

did not have long to wait before a roaring of wings was heard

in the distance. As they flew over us, the noise became greater.

On and on they came, great hosts of them. When morning broke,

the water was covered with these beautiful ducks as far as the

eye could see.”

They had come here to feed on the wild celery buds (Val-

lisneria spiralis) and on the nutlets from the pond weeds, one

of them belonging to the family naiadaceae ,6

The redheads came here too in the fall and spring to feed on

the same plant food as the canvasbacks. After a month or more

of this plant food, the flesh of these two kinds of ducks was

considered a great delicacy.7

In the forties Thure Kumlien didn’t seem to be sure about

the canvasbacks and the redheads for, on a list of birds seen at

Lake Koshkonong, signed by him and dated 1850, 8 he mentions

only the redhead. The early- hunters at this lake were confused

for quite some time because they called them the big and little

4 Wisconsin Antiquities, p. 35.

6 Letter in possession of the writer.

6 See Birds of Wisconsin by Kumlien and Hollister, pp. 21-22.

7 There were several springs in the marshes directly south of the home of

Thure Kumlien where this wild celery grew in the water around them. The early

settlers used to come to these springs to gather the celery for use on their tables.

Information given to writer by Chas. Hammarquist in 1945.

8 List of birds in possession of writer which will be given to the Wisconsin

State Historical Society.

96 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts and Letters

redheads. Eastern hunters had told our hunters that “there

were no true canvasbacks in the West.”9

In 1881 carp were introduced into Lake Koshkonong, unfor¬

tunately successfully, for they cleaned out the wild celery and

pond weed and drove out the most of the native fish. Conse¬

quently the myriads of water fowl which once haunted its waters

are now becoming a memory.

Thure Kumlien began his work as a naturalist at Lake Kosh¬

konong before the hand of man had had a chance to destroy its

rich treasures of plant and bird life. Old Koshkonong was then

in the full tide of its glory as a lake for waterfowl.

The first dated record I have of Thure Kumlien’s bird work

is in his old Swedish Journal10 under date of February 28, 1844.

This and other bird records will follow in the order given.

“Feb. 23, 1844, Cut 10 foot rails. Stuffed a blue jay. Carrick

came here with new ale.

“Feb. 26, Helped Carrick all afternoon. Janson saw six

ducks.

“Feb. 29, Saw two wild geese. Built at a hen house.

“March 7, Shot 4 blackbirds. Cut down 2 large trees.

Burned some grass.

“March 8, Rainy and misty weather. Shot four blackbirds,

and prepared two squirrel skins.

“March 12, Rain. Did nothing but a little wood chopping.

Shot more blackbirds.”

Next day he mounted some birds.

“March 14, at Downing’s in the morning. Got some speci¬

mens at lake.”

Next day Thure shot some more blackbirds and three

squirrels.

“March 16, Skinned two blackbirds and three squirrels.

“March 17, Hard storm in night. Finished two blackbirds

and looked over others.

“March 26, Caught 19 fish; shot three ducks. Two of the

fish weighed five pounds. None under li/2 pounds.

“March 30, Nothing. Hunted. Worm here. Shot a crane

[probably a sandhill11] and a tern.”

9 Statement of Ira Bingham, famous early duck hunter of Lake Koshkonong,

but who hunted several years later than 1843.

10 This Swedish Journal was translated by A. O. Barton of Madison, Wisconsin,

and is in the State Historical Society of Wisconsin.

ai From a practice copy of a letter written by Thure Kumlien, I quote, “1

have lived on the same place for nearly eight years and every spring there has

been a pair of cranes on the marsh below my house ; they have had their nest

Main — Studies in Ornithology at Lake Koshkonong 97

The next day he hunted and worked at skins. Worm was

there.

“April 9, Prepared bird skins.

“April 10, Shot two prairie chickens. Chopped some wood.”

[The common prairie chicken at this time was the prairie

sharp-tailed grouse ( Pedioecetes phasianellus campestris)

and was very abundant in the forties. Later, it was gradu¬

ally replaced by the prairie hen (Tympanuchus cupido

americamcs) as the country became more settled,]

“April 9, Prepared bird skins.

“April 10, Shot two prairie chickens. Chopped some wood.

“April 21, Caught two redhorses and shot six pigeons.”

[Wild pigeons or passenger pigeons.]

On April 23 and 24, he shot some birds but did not mention

what kind. On May 2, Thure shot some birds and records that

on May 4, he helped Mellberg a while in forenoon and shot nine

fine birds. On May 11, he located a pair of cranes, undoubtedly

sandhill.

“May 12, Shot some birds with handmade shot.

“May 19, To Fort Atkinson with a letter to Buffalo.”12

The next day he found a couple of cranes near the end of

the marsh.

“May 25, Rain all day. Shipped birds.

“June 2, Hunted in woods but got only two pigeons.

“June 8, Rainy weather. Stuffed one bird.”

The next few days he mentions shooting some birds.

“June 18, At Fort to see about letter from Buffalo.

“June 24, Shot nine birds, midsummer day.

“Aug. 4, Got letter from Buffalo, Mr. Dole.

“Jan. 9, Puttered with the mounting of a prairie chicken.

“Feb. 16, At Reuterskiold’s a while. Shot a woodcock and a

gray squirrel. Rained and snowed in the night.

“Feb. 19, Heard some small birds today.

“Feb. 20, Heard the gray goose a couple of days ago. Neigh¬

bor thinks it will soon be green down in the swale. Repaired

my boots.

there and one spring they had it placed so I could see her sitting on her eggs

from my window. I did not disturb her, as I loved to have the stately bird sitting

on the marsh unmolested, but one of my neighbors had a different taste — set his

dogs on them and fired at them without any other effect than that they have been

rather shy since and keep on another side of the marsh. I will endeavor to get

you a good skin of one next spring. If I cannot shoot any myself, having no rifle,

I will hire one shot.”

12 His correspondent at Buffalo was a Mr. Dole,

98 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts and Letters

“Feb. 21, Helped Carrick from 10 to 4 cutting logs for his

bridge. Piled up some brush where I am thinking of break¬

ing. Saw a flock of small gray birds in the black oaks next

to the breaking. They seemed to be on flight, but I could

not tell their variety. Norwegian Johnny came to borrow

tools.

“Feb. 22, In forenoon cut stuff for about fifty rails and at

eleven hauled stuff for about twelve rails and a load of

wood. In the evening called at Carrick’s to see about his

sickness. Heard trana [crane] and blackbird singing today.

Water rising. To Carrick’s with some potatoes.

“Feb. 23, Nothing in particular. Fine weather. Fixed a

prairie chicken.

“Mar. 2, Stuffed some small birds and was out looking for

birds and squirrels. Mellberg here.

“March 27, Yesterday I shot a muskrat on the lake and one

prairie chicken.

“March 28, Shot a prairie chicken with rifle and hauled

two loads of stone. Shot a lark. [Horned lark or prairie

horned lark.]

“March 30, Labeled and packed thirty birds for Dole of

Buffalo and six for Norway’s museum.

“April 1, Stuffed a pair of birds.

“April 6, I walked to Fort Atkinson13 and bought 1 % lbs.

of shot for a muskrat skin and took eleven pounds of shot

on credit. One dollar for the shot.”

In the next few days Thure speaks of shooting prairie

chickens.

“April 13, Sunday. Mounted birds.”

The next week Thure shot ten ducks and several prairie

chickens and mounted birds. The 28th and 29th he hunted and

fixed birds, shot and skinned a blue jay and shot a sparrow hawk.

Rain and hail fell as large as eggs.

“April 30, Stuffed birds and fixed two boxes of them. I

now have birds fixed for $12, if I can sell them.

“May 4, Shot a nighthawk.

“May 5, Stuffed birds and shot a notskeriker, night crier.14

“May 6 & 7, At Whitewater for Ole Lind who is to pay me

four shillings or 25 lbs. of meal for my oxen and work for

me two days. I bought fifty lbs. of fresh meal flour for 75^

and one bu. shorts for fifty cents. Sold birds for $2.50 cash.

“May 25, Stuffed a pair of sylvia. [Old scientific name for

warbler.]

13 A distance of twelve miles.

14 Might be nighthawk or night heron.

Main — Studies in Ornithology at Lake Koshkonong 99

“June 2, Hunted in woods but only got two pigeons.

“June 13, Planted corn at Mellberg’s, shot a specimen.

“June 18, At Fort to see about a letter from Buffalo.”

Birds are not mentioned again for six months. Everyone in

the family and many in the settlement are ill with fever and

ague, and have a very hard time to get along and attend to their

crops and threshing.

18U6

“Jan. 1, Severe weather. I accomplish nothing. Looked up

a place for cleaning wheat in the wind. Farbro put things

in order for it. I moved my birds and deer skins to Farbro’s.

“Feb. 10, Chopped wood. Shot a prairie chicken and pre¬

pared for a trip to Pine Lake.15

“March 22, Out hunting and fishing but got nothing except

a prairie chicken and a pigeon.

“March 23, One prairie chicken.

“March 25, Nothing more than to skin a penelope.16 Shot

a blackbird and a pair of bommer [meaning not known].

In evening skinned a pair of ducks, 1 penelope and a high

[illegible] Fuligula.

“March 29, In afternoon I went hunting at Downing’s point.

Shot two Fuligula ferina [redhead] and another Fuligala

[probably canvasback] .

“March 31, I stuffed a pair of ducks. Laid up fence and cut

new rails. Shot a pair of geese and a pigeon.

“April 3, Continued Mellberg’s houseraising in forenoon.

I’m not well. Stuffed some birds. Received of Dr. Head pay

for prairie chickens, mudhens and [illegible] at 50^ each.

“April 5, Never saw more bommer.

“April 11, Nice weather after storm. Cold. B. J. gets a

prairie chicken.

“April 12, Easter. Fixed some birds.

“April 13, Stuffed a prairie chicken.

“April 17, Did nothing but stuff a prairie chicken.

“April 23, Upon the prairie to see about wheat at Slaters.

Shot three prairie chickens. Split twenty rails in the

evening.

“April 27, I split 25 rails. Hindered by Garrick’s visit.

Shot a trana. [Swedish name for crane.]

“April 28, Rained all day. At Carrick’s. Skinned the trana.

“May 3, Out to see if I could find any snakes or fish. Shot a

teal duck, one quail and one prairie chicken.

“Nov. 11, Cleaned a cat [wild cat]. Fixed a hawk skin.

“Dec. 8, In forenoon puttered with some new birds.

15 To visit Rev. Unonius, a Swedish Episcopal minister.

16 Penelope is the specific name of the European wigeon, but he undoubtedly

had the American wigeon in mind.

100 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts and Letters

18U7

“Jan. 5, Butchered a large gobbler and a hog. [Undoubtedly

a wild turkey.]

“Jan. 30, In the afternoon fixed two bird skins.

“March 13, Fixed a pair of birds.

“April 9, Laid up a fence and fixed a pair of Strix [owls] .

“April 20, Ran around to borrow salt, did not succeed. In

afternoon fixed a vitvea. [Not decipherable.]

“May 2, Fixed Dr. Head’s birds for which he paid me four

new dollars.

“May 3, Shot three snapyroil.” [Meaning not known.]

The first week in May Kumlien worked quite steadily at his

birds.

“May 9, Fixed some birds and one woodchuck. To Green’s

with two trana for $1.00.

“May 18, Fixed a glass box with birds and took it to Catfish

[now Fulton].

“May 21, Rained. Stuffed Tra. etc.

“May 22, At Catfish after 4 V2 bu. grist for myself and for

five others. Sold birds for $1.75.

“May 23, Fixed a little on Dr. Head’s birds. With Hammer-

quist at Blackhawk Island but did not shoot anything.

“May 27, Planted 7 small pails of potatoes. Fixed four bird

skins for an Englishman.

“June 18, In forenoon sold bird skins for $4.00 and worked

at fixing four others for $1.00.

“July 4, America’s high festival day. In afternoon to store

with five pounds butter. Shot one duck. Fia home.

“Aug. 9, Shot three fine white ardeidae. [Probably Ameri¬

can egret.]

“Aug. 22, Shot seven ducks Saturday and fixed three today.

“Oct. 2, Made a mounting.

“Oct. 3, Shot four shitepokes and a blue crane.

“Nov. 6, Cleaned manure out of the stable. Rain and cold

with thick weather and strong storm. Wrote and sent Fri¬

day (yesterday) a letter to J. G. Bell, New York, about

birds.

“Dec. 11, Butchered a pig in forenoon, went after an eagle

in the afternoon.

18 U8

“Feb. 18, Translated for Dr. Dass [Dr. Dundass] on his

accounts. Took gray goose.

“Feb. 26, At Fort Atkinson, letter from Bell. Got word from

Willard, selling a box of birds to Pelton for $2.00.

“Feb. 27, Shot two [illegible] and one lark.

Main— Studies in Ornithology at Lake Koshkonong 101

“March 21, At Dietrichson’s for Wilson’s Ornithology.

“March 29, Have sore throat. Split 16 rails. Got of Mrs.

Reuterskiold $1.50 for 6 bu. potatoes and $1.50 on fees

[Thure Kumlien appraised the Reuterskiold estate when

Mr. Reuterskiold died] which equals $3.00 which I sent with

Preston Downing to Unonious and birdboxes from Mil¬

waukee to pay for Wilson’s Ornithology.”

In a letter to Thure Kumlien from Rev. Gustaf Unonius, Pine

Lake, Wisconsin, dated March 14, 1848, and which was sent to

him through Pastor Dietrichson (pastor at one of the Kosh¬

konong Lutheran churches) at the Christiania Post Office, Dane

County, is a reference to Wilson’s Ornithology as follows : “You

have received, I believe, the book from Pastor Dietrichson. It

cost $3.00, which little sum I have paid out. When you send it

to me, send the letter with the money to Delafield Post Office as

until further notice this will be my address. The other book

which you asked me to buy costs $30. So I thought it best not to

buy it. Write soon to me. God be with us all. Your indebted

friend, G. Unonius.”

This book was the first bird book he ever had on American

birds. The $30 book Kumlien wanted was one by Audubon, who

was living at this time.

“April 2, I shot four ducks and Tetrao umbellus [ruffed

grouse] on a visit at Mellberg’s.

“April 11, Yesterday arranged to stuff a pelican for Mr.

Harden in Catfish. Chopped a little near the woods.

“May 3, Planted six pails of early potatoes and onions. Had

visit in tamaracks of Pelicanus erythroryhnchus [American

white pelican].

“May 5, I laid up a fence. Shot a sialia sialis [bluebird], a

Baltimore Oriole and a Tetrao. Dass here on medical errand.

“May 9, In the Norwegian Settlement after Fjargallare.

[Probably Swedish name for butterflies.]

“May 21, Hunted down by the lake. Phalaropus lobatus

[Northern phalarope].

“May 22, Rained the greater part of the day. I was lucky

enough to shoot four Phalaropus lobatus.

“June 1, Sold a prairie hen to H. Hull for 50^.17

“June 4, Rained in night. Pelican visitors.

“June 8, Hoed. Planted potatoes. Finished a bird cabinet.

“June 12, Second day of Pentecost. Out on the lake sailing

and hunting. Christine along.

17 This might be his first Tympanuchus americanus which, in after years,

nearly replaced the prairie sharp-tailed grouse in southern Wisconsin.

102 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts and Letters

“June 19, Hoed in forenoon. Fixed a bird box.

“June 28, At Clinton and Cambridge. Sold a bird box for

a pair of boots, $2.50.

“July 4, America’s holiday. Rained all day. In the evening

a big flock of bird visitors arrive.

“July 30, Shot a white gull, one gray blue large _ _ — _

one Totanus [probably yellow-legs] and two Charadrii

[plovers] .

“Sept. 14, Nothing. Shot three wood ducks.

“Sept. 22, Fia cocked up a little hay. I shot five ducks.

“Oct. 14, Gubben plowed and I fixed my bow and made three

arrows for hunting hens.

“Nov. 9, My birthday, 29 years old. A considerable age.

18h9

“March 1, Yesterday Hammarquist saw and heard a gray

goose.

“March 10, Swen cut two new logs for the house and

trimmed a pair of others. I worked on the house. Yesterday

I saw crow-blackbirds [bronzed grackle].

“March 11, Spring seems near. Bluebirds.

“March 12, After the grist at Clinton.18 Saw a flock of Bl.

Migratora [bluebirds].

“March 13, Turdus migratorius [robin] . Chopped for house.

“March 16, Saw Wood ducks. Hammarquist in. Heard Trana.

Beautiful day. Strong frost in night. Have seen Trana.

“March 25, Cold night. Snowed yesterday. Some fish appear

to be running. Not many small birds yet. Fringilla hye-

malis [slate-colored junco] and Fringilla arbor ea, [Wilson,

is the tree sparrow], Emb. layy. [lapland longspur] and Al.

Alyestris [ Alanda Alyestris, northern horned lark]. Black¬

birds have been here in large flocks.

“March 29, Shot a pair of hens.

“April 9, Rained nearly all day. Fixed some birds for

Sweden.

“April 11, Heard Totanus Bartramius. [Bartram’s sand¬

piper.]

“April 18, Shaved shingles. Stuffing a yelicanus Americanus

[American white pelican].

“April 19, Sowed and dragged about an acre. In afternoon

worked on pelican. Bjorkander and Henry Carrick buy the

old sawmill.

“May 7, Carrick brought a red bird to stuff. Rainy. Mr.

James Clarke, an Englishman brought four birds to stuff.

“May 13, Sunday. Lots of visitors. Mr. Clarke brought six

birds to stuff. Stuffed two of them and shot four.

18 Now Rockdale.

Main — Studies in Ornithology at Lake Koshkonong 103

“May 21, Planted corn. Stuffed a highholder [flicker] for

Mr. Clarke.

“May 22, At Rice’s with 3 pounds 5 oz. butter for which I

got 3jf sugar. Got of Clarke’s boys 2A/% bu. corn for fixing

birds, $4. Grubbed a little.

“May 26, At store with 3# butter with which I bought a

jug of tack [vinegar] 25^. Received of Randall 4 bu. corn

for a pair of Tetrao cupido [pinnated grouse, prairie

chicken] $1.00.

“May 29, Chinked and mudded at stable. Grubbed a little in

afternoon. Shot a scarlet Tanager.

“May 30, Stuffed a scarlet bird for Jenken’s boy.

“May 31, Stuffed a fulig. rubida [old name for ruddy duck] .

“June 2, Cut and split 80 shingles. Moved the fence by the

stable. Put eyes in several birds.

“Nov. 4, Music of Totanus [one of the species of yellow-legs]

in afternoon.

“Nov. 23, Busy, heard Totanus all day.

“Nov. 28, Got of Dr. Head 94^ on payment of pelican.

Worked a little on house.

“Dec. 8, Skinned a Grus Americanus [whooping crane] .

“Dec. 12, Wrote letter to Sweden and fixed a Crane.”

The last date in the journal concerns a bird and is under

date of

“Jan. 5, Worked on a swan.”

As Thure Kumlien did not always give the species of a bird

mentioned in the old journal, but would write, “I saw six ducks,”

“heard music of the Totanus ,” etc., I cannot give the exact num¬

ber of different birds seen by him at Lake Koshkonong in the

1840’s. Many translations are missed because the words were

not decipherable.

The blue jay was the first bird mentioned in the journal ; the

most common birds were red-winged blackbirds, prairie chickens

and quails. The robin, Turdus migratorius, was not mentioned

until March, 1849, and the bluebird was first mentioned two

days earlier.

I have in my possession a list of birds, dated June 14, 1850,

and signed by Thure Kumlien, that he had met with in Wis¬

consin on the west side of Koshkonong Lake in Jefferson County.

This list contains several birds not mentioned in the journal and

the journal contains a few birds not found on this list. This list

104 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts and Letters

is written with the old scientific names which have been trans¬

lated into the present-day common names.

1. Falco leucocephalus _

2. Falco sparverius _

3. Accipiter pennsylvanicus

(Swainson) _

4. Falco cyaneus _

5. Falco leverianus _

6. Strix nyctea _

7. Strix tengmalmi _

8. Strix nebulosa _

9. Strix virginiana _

10. Caprimulgus vociferus _

11. Caprimulgus virginianus__

12. Cypselus pelasgius _

18. Hirundo riparia _

14. Alcedo alcyon _

15. Muscicapa tryannus _

16. Muscicapa crinita _

17. Muscicapa fusca _

18. Lanius borealis _

19. L. excubitoroides _

20. Turdus migratorius _

21. Turdus minor (Bonap) __

22. Turdus felivox (Bonap) __

23. Turdus rufus _

24. Sylvia coronata _

25. Sylvia aestiva _

26. Sylvia canadensis _

27. Sylvia trichas _

28. Troglodytes palustris _

29. Troglodytes aedon _

30. Troglodytes americanus __

31. Regulus satrapa _

32. Regulus calendula _

33. Sialia wilsonii (Swainson)

34. Certhia familiaris -

35. Parus atricapillus _

36. Alauda alpestris _

37. Fringilla pennsylvanica __

38. Fringilla gramina _

39. Fringilla canadensis _

40. Fringilla hyemalis _

Bald Eagle

Sparrow Hawk

Sharp-shinned Hawk

Marsh Hawk

Eastern Red-tailed Hawk

Snowy Owl

Richardson’s Owl [might be

confused with Strix asio

— screech owl]

Barred Owl

Great Horned Owl

Whip-poor-will

Nighthawk

Chimney Swift

Bank Swallow

Kingfisher

Kingbird

Crested Flycatcher

Phoebe

Great Northern Shrike

Migrant [or Loggerhead]

Shrike

Robin

Hermit Thrush

Catbird

Brown Thrasher

Myrtle Warbler

Yellow Warbler

Black-throated Blue Warbler

Maryland Yellow-throat

Marsh Wren

House Wren

Audubon Wood Wren [con¬

fused with House Wren in

fall plumage]

Golden-crowned Kinglet

Ruby-crowned Kinglet

Eastern Bluebird

Brown Creeper

Black-capped Chickadee

Northern Horned Lark

White-throated Sparrow

Vesper Sparrow

Tree Sparrow

Slate-colored Junco

Main — Studies in Ornithology at Lake Koshkonong 105

41.

42.

43.

44.

45.

46.

47.

48.

49.

50.

51.

52.

53.

54.

55.

56.

57.

58.

59.

60.

61.

62.

63.

64.

65.

66.

67.

68.

69.

70.

71.

72.

73.

74.

75.

76.

77.

78.

79.

80.

81.

82.

83.

84,

Fringilla linaria _ Redpoll

Emberiza lapponica _ Lapland Longspur

Emberia nivalis _ Snow Bunting

Cyanospiza cyanea _ Indigo Bunting

Carduelis tristis _ Goldfinch

Pipilo erythrophthalmus __ Red-eyed Towhee

Coccothraustes ludoviciana Rose-breasted Grosbeak

Pyranga rubra _ Scarlet Tanager

Icterus baltimore _ Baltimore Oriole

Icterus spurius _ Orchard Oriole

Icterus agripennis _ Bobolink

Icterus pecoris _ Cowbird

Icterus xanthocephalus _ Yellow-headed Blackbird

Icterus phoeniceus _ Red-winged Blackbird

Quiscalus major _ Boat-tailed Grackle [mis¬

take ; not here]

Quiscalus versicolor _ Bronzed Grackle

Quiscalus ferrugineus _ Rusty Blackbird

Sturnella ludoviciana _ Meadowlark

Corvus corax _ Raven

Corvus americanus _ Crow

Garrulus cristatus _ Blue Jay

Sitta carolinensis _ White-breasted Nuthatch

Quote: “There is a humming bird here, which one I

don't know."

Picus pileatus _ Pileated Woodpecker

Picus villosus _ Hairy Woodpecker

Picus pubescens _ Downy Woodpecker

Picus varius _ Yellow-bellied Sapsucker

Picus carolinus _ Red-bellied Woodpecker

Picus erythrocephalus _ Red-headed Woodpecker

Picus auratus _ Flicker

Coccyzus erythrophthalmus Black-billed Cuckoo

Ectopistes migratoria _ Passenger Pigeon

Ectopistes carolinensis _ Mourning Dove

Ortyx virginianus _ Quail — Bobwhite

Tetrao umbellus _ Ruffed Grouse

Tetrao cupido _ Pinnated Grouse — Prairie

Chicken

Tetrao phasianellus _ Sharp-tailed Grouse

Gallinula chloropus _ Florida Gallinule

Fulica americana _ American Coot

Quote: “Three species of Rallus I think I have had but

had no ornithology then."

Grus americanus _ Whooping Crane

Ardea nycticorax _ Black-crowned Night Heron

Ardea lentiginosa _ American Bittern

Ardea exilis _ Least Bittern

Ardea herodias _ Great Blue Heron

106 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts and Letters

85. Ardea candidissima _ Snowy Heron

86. Ardea egretta _ American Egret

87. Charadrius vociferus _ Killdeer

Quote: “and I think one smaller Charadrius. ”

88. Tringa alpina _ Red-backed Sandpiper

89. Totanus Bartramius _ Upland Plover

Quote : “Two or three more species” not identified

90. Limosa (I think) hudsonica Hudsonian Godwit

91. Scolopax wilsonii _ Wilson’s Snipe

92. Scolopax noveboracensis __ Eastern Dowitcher

98. Microptera americana _ American Woodcock

94. Numenius longirostris _ Long-billed Curlew

95. Phalaropus wilsonii _ Wilson’s Phalarope

96. Anser canadensis _ Canada Goose

97. Anser bernicla _ American Brant

98. Cygnus buccinator _ Trumpeter Swan

99. Anas boschas _ Mallard

100. Anas americana _ Baldpate

101. Anas acuta _ Pintail

102. Anas sponsa _ Wood Duck

108. Anas carolinensis _ Green-winged Teal

104. Anas discors _ Blue-winged Teal

105. Anus clypeata _ Shoveller

106. Fuligula ferina _ Red-head

107. Fuligula marila _ Scaup

108. Fuligula rufitorques _ Ring-necked Duck

109. Fuligula rubida _ Ruddy Duck

110. Fuligula albeola _ Buffle-head

111. Mergus merganser _ American Merganser

112. Mergus cucullatus _ Hooded Merganser

113. Pelecanus americanus _ American White Pelican

114. Sterna hirundo _ Common Tern

115. Sterna nigra _ Black Tern

Quote : “Two or three species of Larus — Gulls”

116. Colymbus glacialis _ Loon

Quote: “One species of Grebe or Podiceps ”

At the end of the list Thure Kumlien writes, “This list, of

course, is very imperfect, but having not until late been able to

get a book on the subject and but little time to spend on hunt¬

ing, it is very likely that I have not mentioned half of the birds

we have here.”

By the will of Thure Kumlien, his natural history collection,

bird books and his bird notes were left to his son, Ludwig, who

was also a naturalist.

These bird notes were used by Ludwig Kumlien and Ned Hol¬

lister in their “Birds of Wisconsin,” which was published in

Main — Studies in Ornithology at Lake Koshkonong 107

1903. I will quote the bird notes mentioned as of the 1840’s from

“Birds of Wisconsin.”

Trumpeter Swan, Olor buccinator, p. 31. “Thure Kumlien

had a juvenile specimen, obtained somewhere between 1842-45

in Jefferson County, with down on the head and primaries still

soft, color a dingy ash.”

Cory’s Least Bittern,* Ardetta neoxena, p. 34. “In June,

1845, Thure Kumlien found some Indian children playing with

a small headless heron, using it as a target for bow and arrow

practice. This was at an Indian encampment on Black Hawk

Island, Lake Koshkonong. The bird was new to him and he

secured it and later sent a color sketch to Dr. T. M. Brewer.

Brewer pronounced it probably some southern species or a dif¬

ferent plumage of the least bittern. A copy, or in fact the orig¬

inal sketch, is still in our possession, and it plainly shows the

specimen to have been a typical Ardetta neoxena. No others

were found and the matter was lost sight of by both Dr. Brewer

and Kumlien. Neither was the bird ever found by L. Kumlien

during many years of careful marsh collecting in the same

locality. Its claim to a place in the present list, therefore, rests

principally on the capture of a full plumaged male by Mr. C. E.

Akeley on Lake Koshkonong, May 22, 1893, and preserved in

the Field Columbian Museum, Chicago. ( Cherrie, Auk, XIII,

p. 79)”

American Avocet, Recurvirostra americana, p. 42. “Speci¬

mens of this peculiar wader were taken by Thure Kumlien at dif¬

ferent times from 1844 to 1875. Three were shot on Lake Kosh¬

konong September, 1873. Those taken by Thure Kumlien were

more often taken in September and October and were principally

young birds.”

American Woodcock, Philohela minor, p. 42. “On the evi¬

dence of Thure Kumlien and Dr. Hoy, and others, this species

increased from the early forties up to say about 1870. From

that time on to the present its numbers have decreased, from

too close shooting, settlement of the country, and the draining

and drying up of its natural resorts.”

Buff-breasted Sandpiper, Tryngites subruficollis , p. 51. “Rare

migrant. During a residence of fifty years in southern Wiscon-

* Now considered a color phase of the Least Bittern. — Editor.

108 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts and Letters

sin, Thure Kumlien procured but a single specimen, killed on a

prairie in Dane County late in September, 1845.”

Hudsonian Curlew, Numenius hudsonicus, p. 52. “From 1845

to about 1865 this species was fairly common during migrations

in the prairie regions. Dr. Hoy writes of finding a few nesting

at Fox Lake, June 15, 1848, and Thure Kumlien found the birds

in summer in Dane County and, from their actions, supposed

them to be nesting. We have no positive evidence, however, that

the species ever bred in the state.”

Great Gray Owl, Scotiaptex cinerea, p. 70. “Rare winter vis¬

itant. This great owl seldom reaches southern Wisconsin, espe¬

cially of late years. Before the heavy timber was cut down

specimens were sometimes known to reach even the southern

tier of counties. Recorded by Dr. Hoy from Racine in 1848.

Two specimens were sent to Thure Kumlien from Bark River

woods, Jefferson County, at about the same time.”

Snowy Owl, Nyctea nyctea, p. 72. “Winter visitant, of irreg¬

ular occurrence.” Thure Kumlien knew of two cases of this owl

remaining through the summer, but the birds proved to be crip¬

ples. “Perfectly sound specimens were secured, however, in

April on several occasions, and one as late as May 5 (1847).”

Carolina Paroquet, Conurus carolinensis, p. 73. “Many years

ago the paroquet occasionally wandered to southern Wisconsin.

Thure Kumlien saw a considerable flock near Lake Koshkonong

in 1844 or 1845. One specimen which he secured at this place

at an early day was sent to John G. Bell, of New York.”

Prairie Warbler, Dendroica discolor, p. 116. “A rare strag¬

gler to Wisconsin. Dr. Hoy procured but one specimen at Racine,

and Thure Kumlien but one at Lake Koshkonong. Unfortunately

the dates of capture of both specimens are gone, but both were

taken at a very early day, between 1845 and 1860.”

Bell’s Vireo, Vireo belli, p. 133. “In the early forties Thure

Kumlien procured specimens of a vireo which he called belli, of

which he had no description, simply to distinguish it from gilvus.

This led to some confusion with Lawrence, Baird, and others

who had not seen the specimens. The bird referred to was later

described by Cassin as V. philadelphicus”

On a paper written by Thure Kumlien at an early date, he

writes, “The yellow-billed Cuckoo I have not seen here, but the

Main — Studies in Ornithology at Lake Koshkonong 109

black-billed Cuckoo is not uncommon and I may get their eggs.

I have found its nest three times but only one nest within the

last three or four years.”

Considering the fact that Thure Kumlien had to learn the

English language, that he had no knowledge nor experience of

manual labor and that he had to work so hard to eke out a bare

existence in this new country with no railroads, no American

books on the subject of natural history, no one else anywhere

around him interested in the subject, without the proper equip¬

ment for his work and with ill health stalking the family, he did

very well indeed with his bird study the first seven years from

1843 to 1850.

The early pioneers suffered many hardships during the long

Wisconsin winters, so. the arrival of spring was very welcome.

It was especially so to Thure Kumlien, as the following lines

which were found in his own handwriting among his old papers

will show :

“At last spring has come — the bluebirds, robins, and meadow

larks singing near my house and the prairie hens tooting in the

lowlands below it with an occasional screaming of the Sandhill

cranes, long strings of geese cackling and the constant whirring

of duck wings over my head is delightful to me now. To me

spring has something inexpressibly pleasing.”

The writer is indebted to A. W. Schorger of Madison, Wiscon¬

sin, for helping in unravelling some of the old scientific bird

names.

EDWARD KREMERS (1865-1941)

REFORMER OF AMERICAN PHARMACEUTICAL

EDUCATION

George Urdang

American Institute of the History of Pharmacy , Madison, Wis.

I. The Preliminary Stage

The word “reformer” has, objectively as well as subjectively,

a disquieting connotation. It presupposes an individual dissat¬

isfied with the status quo, who takes issue with conveniences and

tacit allowances, who is moving faster than the majority of his

contemporaries and sees realities which to them still seem to be

dreams, fanciful or even dangerous.

To be a “reformer” means to ask for a fight. There are those

who know this fact and try to circumvent it or at least to dimin¬

ish its tempo and temper. To these born statesmen a compro¬

mise is a desirable success which may be used as a stepping

stone for further accomplishment. To bribe people into their

fold by flattery or persuasion is to them perfectly legitimate.

There are others who, knowingly or otherwise, take pleasure in

fighting. To these born fighters combat is wonderful and almost

an end in itself and compromise, however promising, a despi¬

cable disgrace. Hesitant people are not to be persuaded but

driven into the fold by thunderous reproach.

The statesmen present suggestions taking as little personal

risk as possible. The fighters set an example taking every risk

possible. The reformer Edward Kremers belonged to the sec¬

ond, the fighter category.

The last third of the nineteenth century saw a remarkable

change in the educational ideas and methods in the United States

of America. It was political (and politico-ideological) not intel¬

lectual independence from Great Britain that had been achieved

as the fruit of the Revolutionary War at the end of the

eighteenth century. There had been some sprinkling of French

influence in letters as well as in science. On the whole, how-

111

112 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts and Letters

ever, for more than a century the educational system, spirit and

results, had been definitely Anglo-Saxon in character.

But now the great-grandchildren of the men of Bunker Hill

and the grandchildren of the French refugees from 1789 to 1815

had been joined in great numbers by the children of the German

liberals coming to this country about 1848 and after. Moreover,

one of the miraculous constellations for which historians heap

up reasons without ever finding a patent explanation had just

now made Germany the leader in scientific education and re¬

search. Thus it was German trends and influence that played

an important part in the educational renaissance taking place in

the United States after the Civil War. “The leaders of American

education in the post-Civil War period were for the most part

German-trained; the universities of Gottingen, Jena and Berlin

were particularly influential.”1

Edward Kremers was as “German-trained” as a native Amer¬

ican possibly could be. He was born on February 23, 1865 in the

most German community within the United States, Milwaukee,

as the scion of a German immigrant family that clung to the

cultural traditions of the “fatherland” with all the tenacity of

this idealistic generation of refuges who emphatically tried to

create and set an example for a synthesis of what they esteemed

most, both in the countries of their birth and their choice. About

his Milwaukee schooltime Kremers reports: “there were in my

class two or at the most three children who did not participate

in the instruction in German, i.e., were of English descent.”2

His high-school training he received in the “Missionhouse” in

Herman township, Wisconsin, a German theological institution

devoted especially to the education of ministers of the Reformed

faith.

Thus prepared, the young man entered in his home town a

professional activity which in its specific form even in the old

country has always belonged to the most typical German insti¬

tutions, a pharmacy “equipped and conducted exclusively accord¬

ing to German concept”3 and even called by its German-born

1 S. E. Morrison and H. S. Commager, 1942. The Growth of the American

Republic. New York. 2:311.

2 Badger Pharmacist , 1936. No. 8, 10.

3 Louis Lotz (1843-1923). Autobiographical notes in the manuscript flies of the

American Institute of the History of Pharmacy.

UNITED

mixK#"®1

Tin/ i\mij»m «*

WUHiMWIlV/ /ih^n

HIM lilt nil <«l III A

ism i/m wi/m w

Dip i 5 Itiuutn.

This picture of Dr. Edward Kremers was taken on the occasion of the

Convention of the American Medical Association, held at Milwaukee in

June, 1933. It shows him amidst an exhibition of pharmacopeias. The pic¬

tures on the wall, from left to right, represent Thomas F. Wood (1833-

1892), C. Lewis Diehl (1840-1917), and Lyman Spalding (1775-1821).

Ur dang — Edward Kremers (1865-19 U1 )

113

owner, Louis Lotz,4 with its German name ApotheJce. A former

student of Liebig (chemistry), Jolly (physics), Radlkofer (bot¬

any) and Buchner (pharmacognosy), Lotz had passed his phar¬

maceutical examination at the University of Munich with the

best possible marks. Besides, he was a man of high general

culture quoting in his instructions to his apprentices not only

scientific authors but also the great German poets.

The idea of pharmacy as applied science and not as a busi¬

ness requiring the more or less disconnected knowledge of some

scientific details, was inculcated on young Edward by Louis

Lotz. The aging German apothecary imbued the young American

furthermore with the doctrine that there has to be an educational

balance between science proper and the humanities which, with¬

out interfering with the necessary specialization in the one field

or the other, marks the well-educated man and maintains the

unity of the world of culture. The certificate which the apothe¬

cary Lotz in the city of Milwaukee handed Edward Kremers at

the end of the latter's apprenticeship (reduced from three to

two years because of the special merits of the unusual appren¬

tice) is written in German. It could have been a copy of the

certificate which Lotz himself received in 1862 from the apothe¬

cary August Halberstadt in Camberg in the grandduchy Nassau.

It is significant that the only attempt ever made by Edward

Kremers at staying for a longer period of time in another part of

the United States than in the Middle West, in particular Wis¬

consin, proved to be a failure. After having attended the junior

course in the Philadelphia College of Pharmacy during the fall

and winter 1884-85, he returned to Wisconsin in order to con¬

tinue his studies at the university of his home state where a

Department of Pharmacy had been established scarcely two

years previously.

There were three men who in the formative period of his

life gave Edward Kremers the incentives and the opportunities

which he needed. The one was the apothecary Louis Lotz men¬

tioned above. The second was the Anglo-American Frederick B.

Power,5 6 one of the great American scientists who came from

4 Owner of a professional pharmacy in Milwaukee for half a century, archeolo¬

gist, and mineralogist.

6 Frederick B. Power (1853-1927 ) , organizer and first head of the Department

of Pharmacy of the University of Wisconsin, member of the National Academy of

Science. He attained international renown as director of the Wellcome Research

Laboratories in London, especially by his studies of chaulmoogric and hydnocarpic

acids which proved to be of scientific as well as therapeutic importance.

114 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts and Letters

the ranks of pharmacy and Kremers’ teacher as well as prede¬

cessor in the capacity as head of the Department of Pharmacy

of the University of Wisconsin. The third was the pharma¬

ceutical scientist, author and journalist Frederick Hoffmann6

who, like Lotz German-born and educated, not only was an excel¬

lent analytical chemist but wielded one of the most analytical

pens ever employed in American pharmaceutical journalism. All

three men had studied at German universities, at Munich (Lotz) ,

at Strassburg — German from 1871-1918 — (Power) and Berlin

(Hoffmann) .

Lotz was a German romanticist to whom, irrespective of his

strong scientific ambitions, general cultural ideas and ideals

were of first importance. Power was an Anglo-American prag¬

matical classicist to whom, irrespective of his strong cultural

ambitions, science and scientific achievements were of first im¬

portance. Hoffmann was a German intellectualist of the mili¬

tant preceptor type using as his yardstick the cultural German

situation as it was when he left his home country in 1862,

guilded by distance and his need of justification for his assumed

role of praeceptor pharmaciae Americanae . It was in Hoff¬

mann’s Pharmaceutische Rundschau that Kremers, in 1887,

published his first scientific report to appear in a periodical.

Although it was a German-language paper and Kremers mas¬

tered German with the same perfection as English, the article

was written in the latter in spite of or perhaps even because of

the editor’s persuasive invitation to write in German. To what¬

ever extent the young man may have felt proud of his descent

and what he may have thought to be its cultural advantages, he

apparently refused to be regarded (and to regard himself) as

anything else but American.

Already one year earlier, in 1886, the name Edward Kremers

had appeared before the pharmaceutical world. It was in the

Contributions from the Department of Pharmacy of the Uni¬

versity of Wisconsin No. II that Kremers’ Pharmaceutical Grad¬

uate (Ph. G.) thesis on Fraxinus Americanus was published.

After his graduation the young man continued work at the

School and acted as Professor Power’s assistant during the col-

6 Frederick Hoffmann (1832-1904), owner of a New York pharmacy, editor of

a New York pharmaceutical German-language journal, analytical chemist. His

“Manual of Chemical Analysis as Applied to the Examination of Medical Chem¬

icals” lived to see several editions.

Ur dung — Edward Kr enter s (1865-19 Ul)

115

legiate year 1886-87. In this year he published the results of

not less than four different investigations. With two of them he

entered the field in which he was to become an internationally

recognized authority, that of the examination of volatile oils.

They brought him simultaneously his first public distinction, the

Ebert prize of the American Pharmaceutical Association for the

year 1887.

In the fall of 1887 Kremers matriculated again as an under¬

graduate, this time in the General Science Course of the Uni¬

versity of Wisconsin, and in 1888 he graduated as Bachelor of

Science. As he states in one of his many autobiographical notes,

it was his “self esteem’’ which caused the young pharmacist to

make himself “the equal” of the non-pharmaceutical students on

the campus who looked down on the “pharmics” with practically

no entrance requirements and with only four terms out of twelve

of the undergraduate quadrennium. This confession is of high¬

est psychological importance. It offers the cue to the special

direction of the later activities of the reformer Kremers, to the

missionary zeal with which he tried to make pharmacy, first and

above all, the “equal” of the other professions requiring an

academic study.

In the late summer of 1888 the young man made his great

trip over the ocean, and in the fall of that year he matriculated

at the University of Bonn, Germany. It was, however, not a

certain university, it was a certain man to whom his pilgrimage

was directed. This man was Otto Wallach,7 the so-called “Mes¬

siah of the Terpenes.” “I was drawn to the master,” writes

Kremers, “by his earliest contributions in the Annalen [Liebig’s

Annalen der Chemie\ of the early eighties while I was working

in the laboratory of Professor Power on the volatile oils of

pennyroyal and citronella. Though a mere tyro in the field, I

recognized instinctively the accomplishments of the master.”8

Naturally, Kremers also took advantage* of the presence of other

famous scientists on the teaching staff of the University of Bonn

and attended with special pleasure and profit the lectures of the

theoretical chemist Kekule.9 When, however, his master Wal¬

lach in 1889 accepted a call to Gottingen as successor to Victor

7 Otto Wallach (1847-1931). His experimental work and the theoretical con¬

clusions drawn from it opened a new era in the chemistry of terpenes and essential

oils and influenced general structural chemistry.

8 E. Kremers. Otto Wallach. 1933. Register of Phi Lambda TJpsilon, 18:91.

°F. A. KekulS von Stradonitz (1829-1896), creator of the benzene ring theory.

116 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts and Letters

Meyer,10 Kremers followed him. He was rewarded not only by

his unusually successful work with Wallach, but by the unex¬

pected opportunity of being introduced into a then new branch

of science, physical chemistry, by a young man who was to

become one of the great physicists of our time, Walter Nernst.* 11

It is a remarkable proof of the ability of the young American

student, as well as of the knowledge acquired by him previous

to his study in Europe, that after scarcely two years of work

with Wallach, Kremers, in 1890, took the degree of Doctor of

Philosophy at the University of Gottingen. His dissertation

dealt with “The Isomerism within the Terpene Groups and laid

the ground for many later investigations. Kremers’ work was

based on limonene nitrosochloride, limonene monhydrochloride

and limonene hydrochloro-nitrosochloride and their derivatives

from both dextro and laevo limonene. According to Kremers’

own statement “out of some forty odd compounds fully two-

thirds were new.”

When the young American returned to his home country in

the late summer of 1890, he came back with the holy zeal of a

missionary. He had been an active and efficient part of a well-

organized and highly esteemed world of science in which his own

profession, pharmacy, had its place and was given its opportu¬

nity, and he had seen professional pharmacy practiced as a rule

and not as an exception. Even there he had found much that, in

his opinion, was in need of reform. All the more reason to

change the chaotic situation in American pharmaceutical educa¬

tion fundamentally, using the German pattern but by no means

adopting it.

A quite unusual stroke of luck gave the young man his oppor¬

tunity when all his irons still were hot. In the fall of 1890 he

had become an instructor of pharmacy at the University of Wis¬

consin (and Assistant to Professor Power) with an annual sal¬

ary of $600.00. Soon the laboratory instruction, the experimental

as well as the theoretical, was turned over completely to Krem¬

ers — the University Catalogue for 1890-1891 lists him as “In¬

structor in Pharmacy and Director of the Pharmaceutical Lab¬

oratory” — and his salary was doubled. Hardly another year

10 Victor Meyer (1848-1897), known especially for his researches leading to

the thiopene series.

11 Walter Nernst (1864- - ) became especially known for his studies on

electricity (Nernst’s electric lamp).

Urdang — Edward Kremers (1865-19^1)

117

later, in spring 1892, the unexpected happened. Professor Power

decided to leave Madison in particular and teaching pharmacy

in general for a position in industry, and it was with almost

automatic self-evidence that Kremers succeeded him. At the age

of twenty-seven years a young idealist found himself in a posi¬

tion offering unusual, almost dazzling potentialities. If he should

decide to go farther than Professor Prescott at Ann Arbor,12

the man who had served in a considerable degree as a model to

Professor Power, there was no precedent to be followed. His

was the full sensation of the decision, the full sweetness of satis¬

faction if he succeeded, the full bitterness of disappointment if

he failed. Sure, there was the administration of the University

of Wisconsin, the President and the Regents whose permission

had to be asked for. There were the druggists of Wisconsin on

whose initiative the Department of Pharmacy was created and

who, through their association, patronized as well as supervised

it. But he, young Edward Kremers, was after all the only one

on the campus and in the State and, may be, even in the nation,

who had some definite idea about a reform in pharmaceutical

education, its ways and aims. There was no doubt in his mind,

he would be allowed to make a start for there was nobody except

himself who really knew what he was after and what it would

lead to. As a matter of fact, Kremers had already begun his

work of reform during his instructorship.

II. A Reformer at Work

a. The Background

What was the situation in American pharmaceutical educa¬

tion about 1890? It has to be borne in mind that it was not

until 1904 that one state, New York, made graduation from a

School of Pharmacy the legal prerequisite for the State Board

examination which had to be passed by all applicants for reg¬

istration as licensed pharmacists, and that this example was

followed only very slowly.13 Until 1890 there were still fifteen

states without a pharmacy law, hence without a pharmaceutical

^Alfred B. Prescott (1832-1905). Without any drug store experience the

physician Prescott became closely connected with American pharmacy and as the

Dean of the University of Michigan School of Pharmacy one of the most progres¬

sive pharmaceutical teachers in this country. He was author of several textbooks.

18 At the time being there are still two states, Nevada and Vermont, and one

Territory, Alaska, without the requirement of college graduation for pharmaceutical

licensure.

118 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts and Letters

licensing board and examination. It is understood that under

such conditions the number of students of pharmacy was bound

to be small. Of the 34,886 American drugstore owners counted

in 1892 only about ten percent had attended a School of Phar¬

macy, and even of this number “only a few were prepared for

a profound study of the sciences of pharmacy.”14 The apprentice

system still dominated the pharmaceutical scene and the older

colleges, all of them private institutions established mostly by

local druggists or druggist associations, were intended to sup¬

plement the training and experience received in “the store”

rather than to furnish scientifically educated pharmacists. There

were no educational prerequisite requirements, or at best very

modest ones, until the beginning of the twentieth century. A

person with only a grammar school education or even less could

enter most of the colleges of pharmacy in the United States.

Evening courses were the rule, and laboratory work was offered

only in exceptional cases.

Kremers was by no means the first one to attempt a change

of this situation and the idea underlying it. The first step for¬

ward was taken, when an American state university, Michigan,

in 1867, made the academic education of pharmacists a part of

its tasks, and the Dean of this new School of Pharmacy, Albert B.

Prescott, ignored the traditional apprenticeship as an obligatory

preliminary to pharmaceutical college education not only for

admission but even for graduation. It was but natural that he

was outlawed for this sacrilege by the leaders of what was then

official American pharmacy.15 Prescott furthermore replaced at

Ann Arbor the evening courses of the old-line colleges by a bal¬

anced combination of laboratory work and lectures during the

day demanding practically the entire time of the student for

two academic years. When the second American State Univer¬

sity School of Pharmacy, that of Wisconsin, was established in

1883, the man who was to become its leader, Professor Power,

14 E. Kremers. 1893. Pharm. Rundschau , 11:76.

15 At the St. Louis meeting' of the American Pharmaceutical Association in

1871 the (School of Pharmacy of the) University of Michigan was denied the

recognition of being “within the proper meaning of our [the association’s] Consti¬

tution and By-laws, a College of Pharmacy : it being neither an organization con¬

trolled by pharmacists, nor an institution of learning which, by its rules and

requirements, insures to its graduates the proper practical training, to place them

on a par with the graduates of the several colleges of pharmacy represented in this

Association.” Proc. Amer. Pharm. Assoc., 19:1871, 47.

Urdang — Edward Kremers (1865-19 41)

119

visited at Ann Arbor and “received much encouragement and

valuable suggestions from Professor Prescott.16

There was, however, one fundamental difference between the

origin of the Michigan and the Wisconsin School of Pharmacy.

The former was started without the cooperation of the local

pharmacists, hence was not obligated to any kind of compromise,

while the latter, being the child of the druggists of the State,

was to a great extent responsible to them. Kremers describes

the course in pharmacy offered by Professor Power at the Uni¬

versity of Wisconsin in 1883 as “a compromise between the old

and new with strong leanings to the old,” and states that “it

was not until ten years later,” i.e., under his, Kremers’, leader¬

ship “that changes were made which placed the Wisconsin course

on a footing similar to that of Michigan.”17 In one respect, how¬

ever, Power from the very beginning of his activity at the Uni¬

versity of Wisconsin vied successfully with Michigan: in the

spirit of research, work which at that time was scarcely in

existence at other American Schools of Pharmacy and even very

rare in the other departments of American universities.

“In this,” says Kremers, “he [Power] was far ahead of most

of his colleagues in other departments of the University. Long

before graduation theses were required in the College of Let¬

ters and Science, they were insisted upon in Pharmacy. What is

more, these theses were not essays copied from encyclopedias

and textbooks, but were based on laboratory experimentation.”18

This statement found an authoritative confirmation when, on

the occasion of the conferring of the honorary degree of Doctor

of Laws upon Frederick B. Power by the University of Wis¬

consin on June 17, 1908, President Van Hise said: “The value

of your services here were greatly enhanced by scientific research

at a time when this aspect of university activity was in its

infancy.”19

The question may well be asked, what, after such beginnings

and examples, were the reformations due to Kremers which

made him the foremost figure in the fight for adequate pharma¬

ceutical education in the United States of America. The answer

16 The Badger Pharmacist, 1900. 113.

17 E. Kremers, The Old Northwest Territory and Pharmaceutical Education.

Lafayette, Ind. 1934. 12.

i * Ibid.

19 Pharm. Review, 26:1908, 192a.

120 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts and Letters

is that of the three men in question, Prescott, Power and Krem¬

ers, only the latter felt himself actually a pharmacist and was

prepared for fight by inclination as well as by professional pride.

He alone saw in the leadership of a School of Pharmacy not only

a locally restricted task to be taken care of to the best of his

ability, but a mission in the service of American pharmacy and,

through it, of American society on the whole. Prescott, after

his rebuke by American pharmacists in 1871, withdrew for a

while, until a changed time asked for his cooperation, from the

public pharmaceutical arena devoting himself to his School and

the pharmaceutical affairs of his home state only. Power, after

nine years at Madison and just when the development had

reached a critical point, left educational pharmacy for scientific

work in the pharmaceutical industry. Kremers did not make any

attempt to evade the issue in the one or the other way. On the

contrary, he invited fight by fearless and sometimes even aggres¬

sive presentation of his views.

b. The Four Years' Course in Pharmacy

As pointed out above, Kremers had already begun his work

of reform while still an instructor. During the winter term he

gave a preparatory “review of pharmaceutical chemistry” of

three lectures weekly. The outline of this course as published

in the Catalogue of the University of Wisconsin for 1890-1891

reads as follows: “The subjects may be taken from inorganic

or organic chemistry. Facts of pharmaceutical interest will be

chiefly dwelt upon. These, however, will be viewed in the light

of general and theoretical history. The end to be attained is to

lead the student to think and reason for himself in order to

better prepare him for the original investigations connected

with his thesis work.”

Here the entire educational program of Edward Kremers is

given in a nutshell. Understanding instead of memorizing was

the goal. Everything else was only a more or less elaborate

means of achieving this aim. That the end was to be attained

in employing historical views was another novelty not only in

American pharmaceutical education but in scientific education

in this country at large.

The young instructor was especially proud of the fact that

a number of students had remained at the University during the

Ur dang — Edward Kr enters (1865-19 Ul) 121

spring term of 1892 and continued to work with him voluntarily.

This encouraged him, when he had taken the chair of Professor

Power, to lengthen the Course in Pharmacy from two years of

two terms to two full academic years of three terms each. While

the title of his predecessor had been “Professor of Pharmacy

and Materia Medica,” Kremers’ title as given in the University

Catalogue 1891-1892 reads “Professor of Pharmaceutical and

Pharmacognostical Chemistry.” This change was a very delib¬

erate one. It meant a program, a new departure in American

pharmaceutical education following resolutely and even expand¬

ing the pattern set by Professor Prescott at Ann Arbor.

It was evidently when Kremers still acted ad interim, during

the spring term of the academic year 1892, that the changes

referred to were decided upon, and it was still before he defi¬

nitely started his new office in the fall of 1892 that he let the

American pharmaceutical world know who and what was com¬

ing. On June 6 of this memorable year Edward Kremers mar¬

ried Laura Haase of Milwaukee and in July he attended with

her the annual meeting of the American Pharmaceutical Asso¬

ciation held at the Profile House, in the White Mountains, New

Hampshire. It was the first time that the young man had ap¬

peared before this forum. But he certainly made his debut im¬

pressive. He presented one paper entitled “The Menthol Group,”

reporting highly successful scientific (phytochemical) research,

another one dealing with queries published in earlier volumes

of the Proceedings of the Association and not yet answered, and

finally “Notes on Pharmaceutical Education” which, in tone and

contents, was a challenge to the generally accepted concepts and

was recognized as such. The three papers together cover

twenty-eight printed pages in the Proceedings of the Associa¬

tion for 1892 (vol. 40). Not less than six pages in small type

are devoted to the discussion of Kremers’ views on education.

In his “Notes on Queries” Kremers criticized severely the

American pharmaceutical journals. Stating that “the very ex¬

istence of the customary queries is a confession of poverty of

thought and observation in the ranks of the pharmaceutical

profession,” he assured his audience that, to use his own words,

“I shall do as much as is in my power to oppose them, at least in

their present form.”20 In his “Notes on Pharmaceutical Educa-

20 Proc. Amer. Pharm. Assoc. 1892. 40:288.

122 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts and Letters

tion” the young debutant wholly discarded the customary way

of subdividing the subject-matter to be taught at the American

colleges of pharmacy and stressed something hitherto unheard

of in American pharmaceutical education, the necessity of

humanizing the technical sciences. “The professional student,”

he said, “should at least have a fair knowledge of the history of

his profession. If philosophy makes the natural sciences inter¬

esting, history lends them a peculiar charm. Both, I dare say,

are equally important in the symmetric development of a

scholar.”21 Finally he ventured the opinion that “medical materia

medica receives an undue share of attention in the pharmaceuti¬

cal schools” due to the fact that a majority of the then teachers

at these schools were M. D’s.22

No less a person than Henry H. Rusby23 called Kremers’

Notes on Pharmaceutical Education “a very learned paper, and

one which will rank among the historical brochures of this Asso¬

ciation.”24 But he was opposed to the statements as well as to

the conclusions of the speaker and so were most of the others

taking part in the discussion. Joseph P. Remington,25 the fore¬

most representative of the private schools and then President

of the American Pharmaceutical Association, expressed cer¬

tainly the opinion of the majority of the pharmacy teachers

present, when he charged that “Professor Kremers has consid¬

ered the subject of materia medica without also thoroughly

taking into consideration the needs of the institution.”26 The

head of the Wisconsin delegation to the 1892 meeting of the

American Pharmaceutical Association, Mr. John A. Dadd,27 was

undoubtedly right in stating in his report that the paper on phar¬

maceutical education read by Professor Kremers had caused

21 Ibid . 316.

2 ^ ibid. 310.

23 Henry H. Rusby (1855-1940), M. D., botanist and pharmacognosist, botanical

explorer and author, professor at the New York College of Pharmacy.

21 Proc. Amer. Pharm. Assoc. 1892. 40:318.

25 Joseph P. Remington (1847-1918), professor in the Philadelphia College of

Pharmacy (1874) and its Dean (1893), author of a most successful American phar¬

maceutical textbook, one of the most influential men in American contemporary

pharmacy.

26 Proc. Amer. Pharm. Assoc. 1892. 40:321.

27 John A. Dadd (1829-1895), English-born Milwaukee druggist, first president

of the Wisconsin Pharmaceutical Association, one term vice-president of the Ameri¬

can Pharmaceutical Association, one of the fathers of early Wisconsin pharma¬

ceutical legislation and education.

Urdang — Edward Kremers (1865-19 Ul)

123

“much comment and discussion, the views expressed being much

at variance with existing conditions.”28

This experience of seeing his ideas refused and misunder¬

stood, and as he was inclined to think partly even deliberately,

had by no means a discouraging effect on the young reformer.

He had seen that the same people who had answered his sugges¬

tions with a more or less disguised “crucifige!” had welcomed

with “hosannah!” and as an extremely progressive step the

suggestion of Professor W. Simon29 of a “three-years’ course in

colleges of pharmacy.” Supposed to consist of “three sessions

(of six months each) ,”30 Simon’s course was to cover exactly the

same time of study, i.e., eighteen months, as the two full aca¬

demic years which Kremers just had introduced as the pharma¬

ceutical minimum course at the University of Wisconsin. Fur¬

thermore, the only practical argument advanced against his sug¬

gestions had been the allusion by Professor R. G. Eccles31 to “the

brevity of time that is allotted” for the study of pharmacy. “It

is simply the fable of Aesop of the boy and the nuts,” Eccles had

said. “The boy putting his hand into the narrow necked jar to

pull out the nuts, fills his hands too full and gets none at all.”32

As Kremers apparently saw it, there were two steps to be

taken: 1. The eighteen months’ course, welcomed as an aim to be

approached by the recognized leaders in pharmaceutical educa¬

tion and just realized at Wisconsin, had to be built up as a more

or less strictly pharmaceutical course, complete and satisfactory

as possible ; 2. In order to counteract the idea that this eighteen

months’ course was the ultimate educational end of American

pharmacy, another course had to be offered, aiming at a general

education with pharmacy as its main but by no means only

objective. Kremers took both steps immediately. He had hardly

returned from his trip to the East, his honeymoon and his first

crossing of swords in his lifelong fight for progress in educa¬

tion, when he initiated what proved to be the second milestone

in American pharmaceutical education after Prescott’s emanci-

28 Proc. Wis. Pharm. Assoc. 1892. 13:15.

29 william Simon (1844-1916), German-born pharmacist, professor of chemistry

at the Maryland College of Pharmacy and the Baltimore Colleges of Physicians

and Surgeons and of Dental Surgery, author of a well-known textbook.

30 Proc. Amer. Pharm. Assoc. 1892. 40:299.

31 Robert G. Eccles (1847-1934), Scotch-born M. D. and Ph. G., research and

sometime government chemist, professor in the Brooklyn College of Pharmacy,

author, editor of Merck’s Archives.

32 Proc. Amer. Pharm. Assoc. 1892. 40:319.

124 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts and Letters

pation of the academic teaching in pharmacy from “the store”

program: the first academic four-years’ course in pharmacy on

American soil, and the first course of this kind in the whole

world.

In announcing the extension of the University of Wisconsin

Course in Pharmacy to two full academic years, Kremers in a

“general statement” in the Catalogue of the University 1891-

1892 says that “the addition of two terms admits of remodeling

of the fundamental studies and of a closer adjustment of the

studies to those of the General Science Course. (The italics here

and in the paragraphs that follow are the writer’s.) In the

Catalogue of 1898-1894 he triumphantly tells of a “decided im¬

provement” in this eighteen-months’ course which was to meet

the first goal of his program. “The object of this course,” he

says, “has been and still is to lay as thorough a scientific founda¬

tion as time and means will permit for the pursuit of the pro¬

fession of pharmacy. The elements of chemistry, botany and

physics must be studied before their application to pharmacy

can rationally be considered. This is as true for pharmacy as

for any other applied science or art. Any other process must

tend toward superficiality.”

It was in the University Catalogue issued between the two

quoted above, i.e., that for 1892-1898, that the establishment of a

four-years’ course in pharmacy was announced giving the phar¬

macy students the possibility of a complete instead of merely “a

closer” adjustment to the General Science Course. “This longer

course,” reads the Catalogue, “was created in order to accom¬

modate those students who desire to obtain a general scientific

education and to include in their course the pharmaceutical

studies; and with the hope of stimulating a broader pharma¬

ceutical education.” In later years Kremers frequently stated

that to him in 1892 the contents of the four-years’ course in

pharmacy, although he took them very seriously, were of little

significance as compared with the fundamental idea of placing

the pharmaceutical course on a par with the other courses on the

University campus. It was for the same reason that from the

very beginning the course was open to high-school graduates

only. When the President of the University, Dr. Chamberlin,

before giving his consent to the planned innovation, asked Krem¬

ers how many students he expected in the proposed four-years’

Ur dang — Edward Kr ewers (1865-194-1)

125

course, the young reformer proudly replied: “Mr. President, I

am not concerned with numbers, but with an ideal. ,,3S

Like everyone fighting for an ideal, Kremers did not imme¬

diately find complete understanding and appreciation. On the

contrary, he encountered plenty of difficulties within Wisconsin

as well as without. At times the opposition among the Wisconsin

druggists against his emphasis on scientific achievements and

teaching methods was so strong that his position was in danger,

and his colleagues at the other American schools of pharmacy

viewed his reformatory zeal and actions with much reserve and

suspicion, if not even fear and indignation, and resented heartily

his continuous criticism and admonitions. At this place details

would lead too far. They may be reserved for a biography of

Kremers and/or a History of Pharmaceutical Education in the

United States of America. Kremers himself, in an address de¬

livered at the dedication ceremonies of the University of Mary¬

land School of Pharmacy in 1930, describes the reaction to the

establishment of a four-years’ course in Pharmacy as follows :34

“The new step, so far as it did not remain unnoticed, received

little else than ridicule. Thus the Dean of Northwestern Oscar

Oldberg35 who, in the name of efficiency, had concentrated the

former so-called two-year course into one calendar year, sug¬

gested that someone might be crazy enough — though he did not

use this word — to offer an eight-year course. This criticism

amused. But it did hurt when Professor Prescott replied to a

question as to what he thought of the step : ‘it will do no harm.’

The young innovator had looked up to his venerable colleague

for encouragement and had received a shrug of the shoulder.

This was in 1893. Soon thereafter,36 President James, then of

Northwestern, left his Evanston Campus to address the phar¬

macy students in Chicago. He told them that every boy and

girl aspiring to become a pharmacist should take a four-year

course at college. It was also a few years later that Professor

Prescott wrote: ‘We are contemplating giving a four-year

course. Upon looking over the catalogues, we find that you are

already giving such a course. What has been your experience?’ ”

33 J ourn. Amer. Pharm. Assoc. 1930. 19:603.

** Ibid.

35 Oscar Oldberg- (1846-1913), Swedish-born pharmacist, teacher, editor, author.

33 In fact it was nine years later, in 1902. Bull. Pharmacy, 1902. 16:242.

126 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts and Letters

What then had been Kremers’ experience? In 1896 he states

that “no school or college of pharmacy in this country or in

Europe can boast of such an organization” as it existed at this

time at the University of Wisconsin.37 In 1897 he reports that

“more than two thirds of the Wisconsin pharmacy students were

taking courses longer than the two-years’ course,”38 and in 1897

“the school graduated five students from the four-years’ course,

six from the three-years’ course and but two from the two-years’

course.”39

Still more, the young reformer’s bold experiment found the

highest recognition possible, that of imitation, after an almost

incredibly short incubation period. Kremers’ reply to Prescott’s

inquiry caused the introduction at Ann Arbor of an analogous

elective “college course of four years, leading to the Degree of

Bachelor of Science in Pharmacy” in 1895 (School of Pharmacy

of the University of Michigan, Announcement for 1895-96). In

the same year the University of Purdue School of Pharmacy

followed suit, and two other schools, established in 1895 as de¬

partments of educational state institutions, of the Alabama Poly¬

technic Institute and of the Maine State College of Agriculture

(later University of Maine) , introduced the elective four-years’

course in pharmacy from the very beginning of their existence.

One year later, in 1896, Louis E. Sayre,40 who was given the new

title of a Michigan Bachelor of Science in Pharmacy as an hon¬

orary degree by Prescott, introduced the four-years’ course at

the School of Pharmacy of the University of Kansas.

One of the new schools, that of Maine, made the four-years’

course even a kind of drawing card for itself and for the Univer¬

sity Schools of Pharmacy in general. In its Catalogue for 1898-99

it contended incorrectly that “only three other courses of the

same length and kind exist in the United States”; and in 1901

the Bulletin of the University of Maine, after having outlined

the all-round education offered by the four-years’ course in phar¬

macy, went on to say that “such opportunities are found, in their

entity, only in University Schools of Pharmacy.”41

37 Proc. Wis. Pharm. Assoc. 1896. 16:42.

38 Ibid. 1897. 17:66.

s°Ibid. 1899. 19:30.

40 Louis E. Sayre (1848-1925), retail druggist in Philadelphia, then Dean of

the School of Pharmacy of the University of Kansas from its founding in 1885,

author of a well-known text on pharmacognosy.

41 The Maine Bulletin , 1901, 3, No. 6:2.

Ur dang — Edward Kr enters ( 1865-19 Ul)

127

This latter statement was undoubtedly correct, and it was the

idea behind it which Kremers expressed much more definitely

before a meeting of the American Pharmaceutical Association

in 1895, only three years after his dramatic debut on the same

platform. Having triumphantly announced that his ideas had

“this year received the endorsement of three large state univer¬

sities,” he gives an outline of the studies to be recommended for

a four-years’ university course in pharmacy and admits cold¬

bloodedly that the development which he advocates was to under¬

mine the old private schools. His recommendation to these

schools is to give up their fragmentary independence and to

become affiliated with state universities in order to make avail¬

able for their students “all education and training in general sci¬

ences and letters which they may demand.”42 It does not need

to be proved that this suggestion did not enhance Kremers’ popu¬

larity with those, teachers as well as druggists, interested in the

maintenance of the private schools of pharmacy, then still out¬

numbering by far the few university schools already in existence.

Time has confirmed Kremers’ foresight step by step. With

the beginning of the twentieth century one school (or depart¬

ment or college) of pharmacy after the other offered an elective

four-years’ course, and this course was made the only official

(minimum) course at the Ohio State University College of Phar¬

macy in 1925, at Georgia in 1926, and at Minnesota in 1927. In

1982, finally, it became the obligatory minimum course at all

accredited schools of pharmacy in the United States of America

on the basis of a resolution adopted by the American Associa¬

tion of Colleges of Pharmacy as early as 1928 and accepted by the

National Association of Boards of Pharmacy. This development

was paralleled by another one presaged likewise by Kremers

which has been summarized in the Kremers-Urdang-History of

Pharmacy as follows :43

“More and more private colleges of pharmacy sought and

secured affiliation with universities and in this way offered to

students and teachers an open door to broader intellectual oppor¬

tunities. Even those colleges which were so proud of their tradi¬

tional independence that they did not want any affiliation,

followed the general trend, although in another way. The Phila-

42 Proc. Amer . Pharm. Assoc. 1895. 43:447.

43 E. Kremers and G, Urdang, History of Pharmacy. Philadelphia, 1940. 218.

128 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts and Letters

delphia College of Pharmacy, for example, responded to the

challenge by remodelling the structure of the school, adding

courses of purely scientific character and developing into 'a

great specialized scientific school. In token of the extension of

its activities, a new charter was secured, and the name of the

corporation was changed to the Philadelphia College of Phar¬

macy and Science.’ ”

At the present time, all but seven of the sixty-five accredited

schools of pharmacy in the United States of America are either

parts of or more or less closely affiliated with general institutions

of higher learning (Universities, Polytechnic or Technologic In¬

stitutes, State Colleges, Agricultural or Medical Colleges).

c. Graduate Study in Pharmacy

It has not been recognized sufficiently that in introducing the

full academic four-years’ course in Pharmacy, Kremers opened

the way for the realization of another aim of pharmaceutical

education to which the adoption of the general academic under¬

graduate requirements by pharmacy was only the necessary pre¬

requisite: The degree of Doctor of Philosophy or Science to be

granted by acknowledged institutions of higher learning to phar¬

macists doing graduate work in their own schools on scientific

problems.

The emancipation of the academic teachers in pharmacy from

the necessity of obtaining their advanced training and degrees

in fields outside of pharmacy or, like Kremers himself, abroad,

by opening to them an opportunity of such training and degrees

in their own country was at least as important as the emancipa¬

tion of the academic teaching in pharmacy from “the store”

concept by Prescott in 1868. From now on the self-taught teach¬

ers gradually disappeared from the pharmaceutical faculties,

and it became increasingly less frequent that pharmacists with

teaching talent and intention acquired the M. D. degree or that

M. D.’s without pharmaceutical training or experience were en¬

trusted with professorships and deanships at Colleges of Phar¬

macy. There had been so-called graduate courses in Schools of

Pharmacy before Kremers. They represented, however, essen¬

tially a prolongation of the usual twelve or eighteen-months’

courses adding one more year of study and leading to titles like

Master of Pharmacy, Pharmaceutical Chemist and Doctor of

Urdang — -Edward Kremers (1865-19 kl)

129

Pharmacy which carried little weight outside of pharmacy and

not even very much within.44

In 1899 and in 1900 the first Master of Science degrees

acquired under regular academic conditions were earned in the

School of Pharmacy of the University of Wisconsin, and in 1902

the first Ph. D. degree was given to a student of Dr. Kremers,

Oswald Schreiner.45 In his report submitted to the Wisconsin

Pharmaceutical Association in the same year, Kremers proudly

states that according to his knowledge “this is the first time that

an American university has given its highest degree to a grad¬

uate student who pursued his major work in a pharmaceutical

department.”46 In an article written exactly thirty years later, in

1932, Oswald Schreiner preserved for posterity the significant

remark of another “admiring alumnus” which he quotes as fol¬

lows: “Many have come to him [Kremers] to learn the art of

making pills and have departed as doctors of philosophy.”47 Sur¬

veying in 1930 the development of pharmaceutical graduate

study at the University of Wisconsin Kremers himself wrote

this:

“At first we were permitted to give the degree of Doctor of

Philosophy with Pharmaceutical Chemistry as major. Pharma¬

ceutical Botany under Dr. True,48 a recent disciple of Pfeffer,49

the noted plant physiologist at Leipzig, followed. When, how¬

ever, we offered Pharmacy as major, a battle was on. . . . Phar¬

maceutical chemistry, after all, was chemistry, and pharma-

44 Such a three-years’ course leading to the degree of 'Master of Pharmacy was

announced at the University of Wisconsin for the first time in the Catalogue

1890-91 and for the last time in the Catalogue 1916-17. According to W. L. Sco-

ville the title of Doctor of Pharmacy was still given in 1905 by six schools after

two years and by nine after three years of study. The title of Pharmaceutical

Chemist could be earned at sixteen schools after pursuing a two-year course and

at one institution even after only one year. Although for the Master of Pharmacy

a three-year course was the rule, it could be obtained at twro schools after only

two years.

45 Oswald Schreiner (1875- ), German-born pharmacist, joined the U. S. De¬

partment of Agriculture, Bureau of Plant Industry, shortly after having received

his Ph. D. and advanced to Chief, Division of Soil Fertility. A recognized authority

in the field, Schreiner represented the United States at the First International Con¬

gress of Soil Science in 1928.

46 Proc. Wis. Pharm, Assoc. 1902. 22:49.

47 Industrial and Engineering Chemistry , 1932. 24:115.

48 Rodney H. True (1866-1940), pharmacognosist in the School of Pharmacy

of the University of Wisconsin (1895-98), physiologist in charge of physiological

investigations in the Bureau of Plant Industry, U. S. Dept. Agr., professor of

botany in the University of Pennsylvania (1920-37).

40 Wilhelm Pfeffer (1845-1920), author of a fundamental book on plant

physiology.

130 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts and Letters

ceutical botany was botany, but pharmacy, God forbid! If his

colleagues of the Philosophical Faculty at Giessen had accused

Liebig of introducing the methods of the kitchen into academic

procedure, we were accused of doing something equally abhor¬

rent or even worse. Well, strange things have happened educa¬

tionally since the days of Liebig50 a hundred years ago. Not only

did we win the fight, but in 1926 the Department of Pharmacy

had six successful candidates for the doctorate, five of whom

took it with pharmacy as major.”51

More than fifty Ph. D/s have earned their degree under the

personal guidance of Edward Kremers and they have proved the

value, scope and special meaning of pharmaceutical research all

over the United States and even beyond the borders of this

country. Kremers' men have excelled in government positions

and in industry as well as in academic work, in research and in

teaching. They have carried Kremers' ideas and methods into

the staffs of many continental American Colleges of Pharmacy

as well as to Puerto Rico, the Philippines and even Beirut in

Syria, and it is certainly not accidental that most of those Schools

of Pharmacy in this country in which at present research is re¬

garded as an indispensable part of the school activities and

given special attention are headed by or staffed with former

students of Kremers. Of the fifty members of the Committee of

Revision of the United States Pharmacopoeia Convention elected

in 1940 ten were men who received their doctor's degree at Wis¬

consin. “Considered from the point of view of geographical dis¬

tribution,” says Kremers, “Wisconsin would have been entitled to

one representative.”52 The significance of this recognition of the

scientific capacity warranted by a doctor's degree acquired under

Kremers becomes still more evident from the fact that only

thirty-two of the fifty members of the Committee of Revision

were representatives of pharmacy (schools, associations, retail

and manufacturing business), while the rest represented medi¬

cine or, in one case, dentistry. Hence almost one third of the

pharmaceutical group within this most important Committee

concerned with the utilization of medical and pharmaceutical

50 Justus von Liebig- (1803—1873), German chemist known especially for his

pioneer work in agricultural and physiological chemistry. With pharmacy he was

connected by ten months of apprenticeship and lifelong collaboration with the lead¬

ing men in German scientific and industrial pharmacy.

51 J. Amer. Pharm. Assoc. 1930. 19:604.

52 Wisconsin Druggist. 1940. 8:6,

Ur dang — Edward Kremers (1865-19 Al)

131

science and experience for the sake of the people consisted of

former students of Kremers.

d. Cooperation Between Schools and State Boards of Pharmacy

There has always been one danger in the educational set-up of

American pharmacy : Lack of understanding between the schools

of pharmacy supposed to warrant the scientific capacity of the

applicants for a pharmaceutical license and the boards of phar¬

macy supposed to guarantee the practical ability and reliability

of the licentiates. In earlier times this danger was still aggra¬

vated by the fact that the practitioners acting as State Board

examiners often did not have any or but little scientific educa¬

tion, hence were inclined to underestimate its meaning and

importance. There has been factual overlapping and personal

suspicion resulting from lack of sufficient cooperation.

It was on Kremers’ instigation that a common platform was

established on which Schools and Boards of Pharmacy have met

regularly and presented their views to each other since 1904.

He initiated this innovation in his capacity as the third presi¬

dent of the Conference of Pharmaceutical Faculties (now Ameri¬

can Association of Colleges of Pharmacy) in 1903. “His only

recommendation was that the colleges invite the boards to effect

a similar organization [as the schools had founded in 1900] and

to hold one joint meeting of the two bodies annually. In 1904,

the boards organized as a national body . . . which is not only

carrying out his [Kremers’] suggestion of an annual conference

with the college faculties but also joint district conferences

throughout the year.”53

It testifies to the gradually growing appreciation of the work

and person of Kremers by the representatives of pharmaceutical

retail practice that in 1939, two years before his death, he found

himself Honorary President of the National Association of

Boards of Pharmacy.

e. The Pharmaceutical Experiment Station at the

University of Wisconsin

The main distinction between the reformer by nature and by

mere accident is that the first will find some reform to be made

or initiated everywhere, while the latter restricts himself to the

53 National Association of Boards of Pharmacy, Bull. 1939. 3, No. 7.

132 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts and Letters

one problem he accidentally happens to stumble upon. Having

made plant chemistry his special field and knowing about the

prominent part taken by European pharmacists in the cultiva¬

tion of medicinal plants through the ages, it was to be expected

that some day Kremers would also turn his energies to this task

as an educational and research problem of American pharmacy.

In his report submitted to the Wisconsin Pharmaceutical Asso¬

ciation in 1909, Kremers makes the following announcement:

“For fifteen years your reporter had hoped that his botanical

or agricultural colleagues might take up the cultivation of

medicinal plants. In this he was disappointed, but not discour¬

aged. So during the summer of 1908 he, with the cooperation of

the pharmacy students, made an attempt in his own garden. The

results were such that when Dr. True, in charge of medicinal

and poisonous plants at Washington, visited Madison last fall, a

plan of cooperation between the Department of Agriculture at

Washington and the University was agreed upon. We now have

an acre of University ground seeded and planted. . . . With this

step, the University has gone back to first principles in phar¬

macy.”54

This statement disproves the claim of the University of

Minnesota College of Pharmacy of having been the first Ameri¬

can School of Pharmacy to add a plant garden to its educational

facilities. Anyway, a mere plant garden would not have satisfied

the vision of this born reformer. What he conceived was a State-

supported “Pharmaceutical Experiment Station.” On June 21,

1912 the Wisconsin Pharmaceutical Association following Krem¬

ers’ suggestion resolved unanimously to prepare a draft of a

bill “to be presented to the next legislature.”55 On June 2, 1913

the bill became law, and for the first time there came into exist¬

ence on American soil a State-supported Pharmaceutical Ex¬

periment Station in connection with the Department of Phar¬

macy of a State University supposed to cooperate with the Fed¬

eral Department of Agriculture and to disseminate information

on the basis of research. The work done by the new Station met

all justified expectations of a practical as well as of a scientific

nature. With an appropriation of originally $2,500 which was

doubled in 1917, it carried through a series of investigations

5iProc. Wis. Pharm. Assoc. 1909. 29:19.

55 Ibid. 1912. 32:43.

Ur dang — Edward Kr enters (1865-19^1)

138

yielding valuable results. It was due to the research done at the

Station that the indigenous horsemint ( Monarda punctata L .)

became a source of thymol in the United States of America, and

a new method for purifying digitalis was put to general use

during the first world war. The Pharmaceutical Journal , the

official organ of the British Pharmaceutical Society, called the

Wisconsin innovation, “a model,”56 and the renowned English

pharmacognosist, H. G. Greenish, in referring to the Wisconsin

Pharmaceutical Experiment Station expressed his regret “that

no experimental station exists in this country [Great Britain]

in connection with the Pharmaceutical Society.”57

A new method of extraction of thymol which proved to be of

economic interest was worked out at the Station. An especially

remarkable amount of successful study was devoted to the vari¬

ous species of Monarda. It is due to the work done by and in

connection with the Pharmaceutical Experiment Station of the

University of Wisconsin that we possibly know more at present

about the chemical constituents of these plants and the role they

play in the life processes than of any other genus of plants.

Finally, the Station paralleled its analytical work by synthetic

ones. It prepared synthetics, such as guajacol derivatives.

It was at the height of the period of depression, in 1933, that

the Wisconsin legislature discontinued the appropriation which

had made possible the work of the Pharmaceutical Experiment

Station and thus put an unjustified end to it that, if merit and

usefulness are decisive, can be but transitory.

III. Conclusion

It would be wrong to consider the reformer Kremers as a

lonely figure in the American pharmacy of his time. If that

would have been the case, the period of incubation which his

ideas had to go through, would have lasted much longer. His

merit was that he not only grasped what had to be done but did

it without even thinking of compromise at a time when the steps

he took required a considerable amount of courage and defiance

of what is commonly regarded as collegial courtesy. In starting

his reformatory action at a turning point in American education

in general, Kremers delivered once and forever American phar¬

maceutical education from its traditional isolation.

58 P harm. Journ. and Pharmacist. 1919. 102:424.

57 Year Book of Pharmacy (London), 1912. 361.

134 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts and Letters

Kremers’ reform activities were due undoubtedly to his vision

and the strength of his conviction. It was, however, his being a

high-grade scientist and historian that made his fight a success.

If the young man had not proved very early his capacity as a

teacher and a research worker and established his scientific

reputation on the campus by his learned paper on ((The Limo-

nene Group of Terpenes” read before the Wisconsin Academy of

Sciences, Arts and Letters on December 30, 1891, 5S the President

of the University of Wisconsin would scarcely have permitted

him to establish the first American full academic course in phar¬

macy. If his historical sense and knowledge would not have

enabled him to use the experience of the past for his plans for

the future, he would have lacked the adequate arguments and

power of inspiration.

It must remain for a more comprehensive biography of

Kremers to record in detail his scientific achievements and to

list his publications.59 At this place it must suffice to say that

phytochemistry, especially the knowledge of the essential oils,

owes him much, that he furnished fruitful ideas to theoretical

chemistry, and that his numerous articles on pharmaceutico-

historical and cultural subjects placed this branch of the history

of civilization on a level which in this country it had not had

before. As an editor he became the guardian of pharmaceutical

ethics, and his many and profound book reviews created a new

standard in this field of American pharmaceutical journalism.

As early as 1901 Henry B. Mason, a well-versed pharmaceutical

journalist, wrote about the then thirty-six-year-old Wisconsin

professor as follows :

“Edward Kremers ... is one of the best-equipped and

ablest men in American Pharmacy . . . , a specialist who has

read widely and thought deeply; whose interests range over a

wide field of observation, and whose activities are directed into

several channels. . . . What he believes, he believes earnestly,

and he is as sincere in his devotion to pharmacy as any man in

this broad land of ours.”60

And yet, the record testifying to the merits of Edward

Kremers is not without its other side. Working so intensively

in so many fields, Kremers was an inspiring and even impetuous

58 Trans. Wisconsin Acad. Sci. 1892. 8:312-62.

50 Such a biography is in the process of preparation.

60 Bulletin of Pharmacy. 1901. 15:150.

Ur dang — Edward Kremers (1865-19 Ul) 135

initiator rather than a man finishing meticulously one job after

the other. The Kremers-Urdang History of Pharmacy published

by J. B. Lippincott Company, Philadelphia in 1940, not quite one

year before Kremers’ death, would never have appeared had it

not been for the fact that his co-author took over the actual

writing. The “detailed classification of all constituents isolated

from volatile oils,” promised by Kremers in 190061 has never

been published, and the only hope that the standard work on

phytochemistry expected from Kremers will ever be presented

to the world, rests on the fact that in the last years of his life

he delivered the preliminary work done by him to one student

of his in whose scientific ability and human reliability he put

confidence. “As a matter of fact, I have been too busy collecting

material to find time to edit it,” he himself once confessed.62

Edward Kremers closed a biographical sketch devoted to

another reformer, the founder of the Russian Pharmaceutical

Society, Alexander N. von Scherer (1771-1824), with a quota¬

tion from the Neuer Nekrolog der Deutschen which, in some

measure, may well be applied to himself. This quotation reads

in translation as follows: “He had learned much but finished

less because of his lack of consistency and perseverance [mean¬

ing here concentration on one task] . He knew the highest aims

of his science and had them in mind. He did, however, never

reach them entirely because there was so much that attracted

his curiosity and led him astray. He had worked much and

fought much. But although he weathered storms and waves, he

never really entered the port, and peace came to him only with

his death.”63

In all probability that is as it has to be. Although peace may

be the reformer’s aim, fight is his lot. What the world expects

of him, is the opening of new ways rather than the completior

of some special work; perfectioning rather than perfection.

G1 Amer. Drugg. and Pharm. Rec. 1900. 36:172.

<®Isis. 1925. 7:110.

wjourn. Amer. Pharm. Assoc. 1930. 19:1246.

THE LABRAL SENSE ORGANS OF THE RED-LEGGED

GRASSHOPPER, MELANOPLUS FEMUR-RUBRUM

(DEGEER)

Wm. S. Marshall

Emeritus Professor of Entomology , University of Wisconsin

Nagel's (1894) figure of the inner surface of the labrum of

Acridium caerulescens (PL V, Fig. 86) is similar to what we

found in Melanoplus femur-rubrum. He depicted the furcula

and the large setae surrounding it, those back of and at either

side of the anterior marginal notch and others scattered over the

surface, also the groups of cuticular setae. He figured the labrum

of Locusta viridissima (PL V, Fig. 85) which is quite different

from his other view and unlike our specimens.

Mclndoo (1920) figured the dorsal surface of a grasshop¬

per's labrum (Fig. 5) and described a group of four pores on

the median line of the ventral surface a little posterior to the

notch. On the labrum of the red-legged grasshopper he noted

three pores (Fig. 75) resembling our sensilla without setae. He

described on the ventral surface many hypodermal gland pores

differing from those on the dorsal ; the ones he figured were not

setiferous thus differing from what we found in our specimens.

Rohler (1906) has a figure showing the ventral surface of the

labrum of Tryxalis nasuta; on it are setae in groups or scattered

similar to those shown in our view (Fig. 1). Slifer (1936)

listed the scoloparia on the body and appendages of Melanoplus

differential1^ ; he fails to mention the labrum.

A view of the internal surface of the labrum of Melanoplus

femur-rubrum (Fig. 1) shows sense organs and spaces upon

it there are no traces of setae or pits. A study of sections

shows two main types of sensilla, those with setae, scattered and

more numerous, others without setae which are restricted in

their distribution. Where setae protrude above the surface they

appear quite similar, but sections show that these can be divided

into two groups : first, each seta is part of a sensillum ; second,

cuticular setae without any underlying sense organ. Each kind

is well scattered over the surface or is restricted to certain areas.

137

138 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts and Letters

Explanation of Plate

1. View of internal surface of labrum, 1, 2, 3, and 4 the sensilla

and cuticular setae restricted to certain areas. A few of the

setae have been drawn on one side only. Diagram.

2. Sensillum without seta on the internal surface showing a nerve

entering at its base. X940.

3. Sensillum on internal surface, this is very similar to all the

others on both surfaces. X940.

4. A sensillum on the external surface, this differs from the others

in its narrow pore canal and smaller body. X940.

5. Tip of labrum showing sensillum oblique to its surface. X210.

6. Showing attachment of a seta to its tubercle. x940.

7. Peculiar binucleate cell from external surface. X940.

Abbreviations

AB Apical body

AM Articular membrane

CL Clypeus

CN Circular nucleus

LN Median notch of labrum

N Nuclei

NS Nuclei of sensillum

NV Nerve

S Seta

SB Striated border

TS Terminal strand

V Ventral

VA Vacuole

CT Cuticula

D Dorsal

F Furcula

FI Fibrils

H Hypodermis

Marshalt—Labral Sense Organs of the Grasshopper 139

AB

li \\ \ GT

?! V:\ f\\

M!utuTS

iM

i ! n !;\ ^

m

m lu-f

Ijt

■ / i

/; yi| / !)

?\f—j — rrGM

\ -

&T .

fiv ;•

o

140 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts and Letters

As far as practical these groups are shown (Fig. 1) and each

one numbered: (1) here are found a small number of sense

organs without setae; (2) these short, curved setae have thick

pore canal and tubercle; (3) these slightly curved and lightly

colored setae are set directly upon the cuticula, they are oriented

towards the median axis of the labrum. The setae of this group

are smaller on the anterior part of the labrum than are the

central or posterior ones; (4) here are the largest of the setae,

they have darker and heavier pore canal and tubercle than the

others, are slightly curved and all are oriented towards the fur-

cula. The setae not included in these four groups are scattered

over the surface; they show differences in length, are straight

or slightly curved, and are oriented in different directions.

The sense organs without setae (Fig. 2) are the only ones on

either surface not protruding above the cuticula. There are two

groups of these, one each side of the median notch of the labrum

and close to its anterior margin. A line drawn around either

group would form a long, irregular outline having two or three

sensilla in its transverse and about fifteen in its longitudinal

diameter. Two groups of similar sense organs are found at the

base of the labrum but most of these belong to the clypeus.

Packard (1889) noticed similar sensilla in Cannula pellucida

between the clypeus and the labrum ; he referred to them as two

fields of taste pits.

Each of these sense organs is of two parts, one within the

cuticular layer, the other in the hypodermis and surrounded by

its cells. The former part, the pore canal, is a distinct, dark

tube, its wall of greater sclerotization and easily differentiated

from the surrounding cuticula. Over the outer end of this tube

the cuticula shows a slight, circular depression at the bottom of

which is a thin cap or disk, perforated in its center. Above this

opening is a short peg, apical body, to the base of which is

attached the distal end of the terminal strand ; its proximal end

did not connect with nuclei or fibrils but often ended in a loop

within the body of the sensillum. When cut transversely this

strand showed, as in longitudinal section, a distinct, colored

wall, probably the neurilemma. Within the canal are a number

of longitudinal fibrils of varying lengths, a few ended upon the

inner surface of the disk, others extended into the body of the

sensillum.

Marshall — Labrai Sense Organs of the Grasshopper 141

The body of the sensillum is long and narrow, its basal part

widest, especially if it extends beyond the hypodermis where it is

free from compression by other cells. Some of these bodies are

perpendicular, others oblique to the surface of the labrum

towards the posterior end of which they are directed. Each con¬

tains a vacuole extending from within the pore canal to the

group of nuclei in the basal part of the body. This vacuole is

best seen in the wider sense organs in which it may leave but

little space between it and the lateral boundary of the sensillum,

the general contour of which it follows. Some of the wider

vacuoles show a peculiar inner lining having a ciliate appear¬

ance, so referred to by others, but it more nearly resembles the

striated border of the mid-intestine; it has been mentioned and

figured by others but, as far as we have ascertained, nothing is

known as to its function except its acting as a reservoir for the

secretion from the trichogen.

No cell boundaries were seen in the sensillum but several

nuclei are crowded together in its basal part. These nuclei are

of various shapes, circular or elongated, the latter lie parallel to

the longitudinal axis of the hypodermal cells the nuclei of which

they resemble. At least one of these nuclei is circular and a

little larger than the others; often it is surrounded by a clear

circle as if enclosed in a vacuole of a slightly greater diameter ;

in some this outer circle is not clear. The chromatin bodies of

this nucleus are further apart than in the others and give it a

lighter appearance.

Noyes (1931) figured the labrum of a termite, Termopsis

angusticollis, and showed the distribution of the nerves on both

its inner and external surfaces. Two nerves are shown, one each

side, entering the base of the labrum and branching into all its

parts. Not having examined the entrance of nerves into the

labrum of Melanoplus femur-rubrum we assume it to be similar

to what has been described for this termite. Our longitudinal

sections through the labrum show many branching nerves which

subdivide to finally contact the inner surface of the hypodermis.

Examining a number of sections a small branch can be found to

enter the base of a sensillum into which its fibrils can be fol¬

lowed for varying distances; they pass around the nuclei and

the vacuole.

142 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts and Letters

The setiferous sense organs on the inner surface differ more

in size than in structure. Their setae vary in length and thick¬

ness, some are straight, others curved, some restricted to certain

areas, others scattered; nearly all are yellow and their orienta¬

tion is in different directions. One kind is cuticular; the others

are part of a sensillum and all of these have their body funda¬

mentally alike in structure, a description of one (Fig. 3) will

suffice for all.

The pore canal extends through the cuticula covering the

inner surface of the labrum ; it, the tubercle and the setae vary

in thickness, attaining their maximum in the heavy setae sur¬

rounding the furcula. The alveolus, at the distal end of the pore

canal, sinks for a short distance below the surface of the cuticula

and its rim, the tubercle, is but slightly elevated. Within the

pore canal are a number of longitudinal fibrils some of which

can be seen to enter the body of the sensillum and a few can be

traced to their insertion on the inner surface of the cap. The

terminal strand connects with the central part of the cap and

extends into the hollow seta. Its proximal end could not be

traced further than the bottom of the vacuole or to the group

of nuclei in the basal part of the sensillum.

The body of the sensillum varies in size and shape, elongated

and narrow or shorter and broad. This difference depends upon

its position within the hypodermis, the oblique ones near the tip

of the labrum are directed towards its base (Fig. 5). It is

impossible to differentiate cells as no boundaries were seen sepa¬

rating the nuclei from each other. Within the body, as in the

pore canal, a number of longitudinal fibrils are present; some

are seen to enter the pore canal, others can be traced to near the

base of the body. The terminal strand can be followed from the

base of the seta towards and into the body of the sensillum where

it often ends in a loop near the center of the vacuole. This

strand has a tubular appearance due to its thin, stained wall,

the neurilemma. The principal nucleus in the largest sensilla is

circular or elliptical; if the latter, it lies across the body at its

base. Most of the other nuclei are elongated and follow the posi¬

tion of those in the hypodermal cells. In the widest sensilla a

vacuole is seen to extend from within the pore canal to the

nuclei of the body, and this vacuole has an inner lining resem¬

bling a striated border.

Marshall— Labral Sense Organs of the Grasshopper 143

Cuticular setae are present only upon the internal surface

where some are restricted to certain areas (Fig. 1, 3), others

are scattered. All are pointed and hollow to near the closed tip,

not fitting upon a tubercle but directly upon the surface of the

labrum. In studying the largest of these setae it was noticed

that where they were attached to the cuticula this layer showed

a hollow connecting with that in the seta and reaching to the

surface of the hypodermis. This opening does not have a defi¬

nite wall but is an elongated hollow equal to the width of the

cuticula. A few sections showed places where the underlying

hypodermis had been withdrawn from the cuticula; here, occa¬

sionally, were seen stained strands leading from the surface of

the hypodermis through the open space in the cuticula and into

the hollow of the seta. Other slides showed similar strands pass¬

ing through the cuticula when the hypodermis was close against

its inner wall. An unsuccessful search was made for hypodermal

cells from which these strands originated. Such could not be

found, and we conclude that these strands are the last of the

secretion given out by the trichogen forming the seta.

The connection of a seta to its tubercle is best seen in one of

the largest ones which, probably, represents the condition in

all sizes. The rim of the tubercle, often more elevated than in

the one figured (Fig. 6), fits into a notch around the outer wall

of the seta near its proximal end. This is best seen in a longi¬

tudinal section as a surface view shows the basal part of the

seta encircled by a narrow collar formed by the free end of the

pore canal (Fig. 4). The base of the seta is connected to the

cuticula by a finely striated articular membrane. This striated

appearance has been noticed and figured by others; it is best

shown in a surface view of the labrum at some place where a

seta has been cut off.

The cuticula on the external surface is thicker than on the

inner, its setae are not so numerous nor are they arranged in

such regular groups. Many have been broken off and, from a

surface view, their tubercles appear as pits or some form of

sense organ ; this view is dispelled by a study of sections where

their true nature as part of a sensillum is disclosed. The setae

are of different lengths, straight or curved, and many are more

erect than those upon the opposite surface. No cuticular setae

144 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts and Letters

were observed on this surface and each one formed part of a

sensillum.

A description of the pore canal and body of the sensilla on

the external surface would be similar to what has been described

in the sense organs upon the internal surface. A drawing of

one of these (Fig. 3) shows what they are like, also their simi¬

larity to the others already described. There is one exception, a

description of which follows.

The one sense organ (Fig. 4) on the external surface differ¬

ing from the others has a short seta and a small but well-marked

body. These sensilla are restricted to the posterior half of the

labrum and their most striking difference to the others is their

pore canal. This is a canal through the cuticula; its sides are

parallel until near its distal end where it enlarges and bends,

generally, towards the tip of the labrum, Hauser (1880) , Erhardt

(1916) and Sihler (19.24). The seta is shorter than the others

but is similar in its structure and its attachment to the tubercle.

The body of the sensillum is small, has fewer nuclei and these

are crowded together. A vacuole can be seen in the body of the

sensillum extending into the pore canal, but the narrowness of

this made it impossible to follow the vacuole to the distal end

of the canal. The wall of the canal is not sclerotized but appears

as a tunnel through the cuticular layer. The terminal strand

can be traced through the canal from the base of the setae to

the anterior part of the body, and fibrils are present in the pore

canal and in the body of the sensillum.

So much similarity is apparent in all the labral sense organs

that it might be well to give a general and comparative account,

to point out a few differences as well as certain parts common to

all. There also occurs the comparison with what other workers

have described about the sensilla in insects of different orders.

This literature is a large one. We can mention but a few of the

many papers, and select some of those having certain similarities

to what we have found in our work on the red-legged grass¬

hopper.

The greatest difference in the setae of the sense organs is in

their size and curvature; all are yellow, the darkest being the

numerous small ones near the tip of the labrum and those at or

near the margin. All are hollow and closed at their tip, and all

are widest at their base. In the largest ones the groove around

Marshall — Labral Sense Organs of the . Grasshopper 145

their base, into which the rim of the tubercle fits, can be seen

in longitudinal sections.

The tubercle, fitting into a shallow alveolus, may be flush

with the surface or slightly elevated, never far above it. There

are differences in thickness and size which, to a large degree,

depend upon the size of the seta fitting into the tubercle. In sur¬

face view the articular membrane shows fine striae, in sections

a lamellated structure often is present. The membrane is lightly

colored by methelene or Lyon’s blue.

The width of the pore canal depends upon the size of the

seta and tubercle ; its length corresponds to the thickness of the

cuticular layer surrounding it. There is a variation in the

amount of sclerotization of its wall which is thickest and darkest

at or near its distal end. Many specimens showed a darker

exocuticula near the tip of the labrum and, in this region, was

found the darkest of the pore canals. The pore canal contained

the distal part of the terminal strand, many fibrils and a portion

of the vacuole.

The terminal strand narrows as it enters the base of the seta

but does not clearly show sense rods nor apical bodies. Some

specimens did show a dark end to the strand but not enough of

these were seen to give to it any definite special part. The strand

has a border corresponding to the neurilemma of others and, as

the strand narrowed at its tip, this might converge to form a

small inverted v. In some specimens one could trace the proximal

end of the strand to near the group of basal nuclei, in others not

so far. It often ended in a loop [Hsu (1938)] apparently within

the vacuole but, no doubt, external to it. One naturally might

expect to see its proximal or inner end connected with one or

more of the nuclei, or that it consisted of a number of fibrils

joined together; it never was seen to have any such connection.

The strand and its apical end can best be seen in specimens

stained with Heidenhein’s iron-hematoxylin, or with methelene

blue followed by aqueous safranin.

The sensilla contained many nuclei one of which differed

from the others ; it was circular or elliptical, and the position of

the latter generally was transversely across the base of the sen-

sillum. The slightly greater size of these nuclei has been men¬

tioned, also that the circular ones often were surrounded by a

narrow circle, generally clear. Their chromatin granules were

146 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts and Letters

further separated than in the other nuclei thus giving them a

lighter appearance. The relation of these slightly different

nuclei to the others, to the terminal strand or to the fibrils,

could not be ascertained; we concluded that the sensilla in the

labrum of the red-legged grasshopper are without a special sense

cell or nucleus, but that the cells, the nuclei and the fibrils, com¬

bine to form a sense organ. Similar insect sensilla have been

described; v. Rath (1888), Eggers (1924), Wacker (1925) and

Hiifner (1939).

The body of the sensillum varies in size and shape, generally

pyriform. The group of nuclei in its basal part forms the most

noticeable content of the body; they generally are crowded to¬

gether and not separated by cell boundaries. The body contains

the major part of the vacuole, the proximal portion of the ter¬

minal strand with its free end, and many fibrils of different

lengths. The boundary of the sensillum in many sections was

difficult to define, in others clearly marked. Some specimens had

not been depigmented and in these the cells of the hypodermis

contained pigment granules. These were not present in the

sensilla.

A number of papers figure and describe the vacuole as be¬

longing to the trichogen, Snodgrass (1926, 1935), Sihler (1924) ;

in our specimens, in which cell boundaries could not be seen,

it was impossible to place the vacuole in any one cell. The inner

ciliate-like lining, striated border, has been found in this vacuole

in different insects and a granular content has been described

by Freiling (1909). Most of our specimens were mature and

the seta fully formed, but one can imagine the necessity of a

large trichogen to secrete the largest of the setae.

Some of the cited references show the fibrils similar to those

we have described. Eggers (1924) figures them as coming from

the nerve and extending to near the tip of the sensillum. In the

sensilla of our specimens the fibrils were seen for distances of

different lengths, a few were observed coming from the nerve to

enter the base of the sensillum, some to end on the base of the

setae, but no single one could be traced for a long distance;

what one sees in sections is only a part of a fibril. A careful

examination was made in an endeavor to find a connection be¬

tween a fibril and a nucleus; at first glance such was evident,

but under the highest power of the microscope such a fibril was

Marshall — Lahral Sense Organs of the Grasshopper 147

seen to go around its edge, over or under it, not to show any

distinct connection.

In a number of our specimens dark, thick and irregular

strands were seen to extend from near or at the base of the

hypodermis to the inner surface of the cuticula; these were

irregular in position, changed their diameter, some were

straight their entire length, others bent and crooked. Many ap¬

peared as if originating from the nucleus of a hypodermal cell

but, upon closer observation, this was found to be incorrect.

These strands appeared in the hypodermis and in the sensilla,

were more abundant on the inner surface of the labrum, and

were seen in greatest numbers in its distal half. Many had a

dark blue color as if stained with Heidenhein’s iron-hematoxylin ;

they also were colored by aqueous safranin. In examining the

literature on the sense organs of insects it was found that

Guenther (1901) had figured strands similar to those just de¬

scribed. His text did not give an account of these except to say

they were, “die schwarzen geschlungenen Plasmafortsatze der

Hypodermiszellen”.

No endeavor, other than a microscopic one, was made to

determine what these strands signified and their relationship, if

any, to the hypodermal cells and sensilla. Randow (1924) has

two figures (6 and 16) of the wall of the fore- and hind-intestine

of a myriapod, Julus fallax; these show, especially the former,

that the strands he figures are quite similar to those in our

specimens. These two parts of the alimentary tract of this

myriapod consist of a single row of cells covered by a chitinous

layer. Randow labelled these strands glycogen. Our sections

showing these strands, also from mature specimens after the

setae and cuticular layer had been secreted, might represent

some residue after the formation of the chitinous parts. “It

(chitin) is believed to be formed partly from glycogen and

partly from protein/’ Wigglesworth (p. 327).

In a number of our specimens the hypodermis of the external

surface has binucleate cells and a body, without any apparent

structure between them (Fig. 7). These cells were similar in

size and shape to the regular ones and gave no sign of special

use which could be microscopically determined. The internuclear

body showed, in some specimens, a lighter center, this without

any apparent structure. Generally the nucleus nearest the cuti-

148 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts and Letters

cular layer was the smaller of the two, and fitted like a cap upon

the end of the internuclear body.

Literature Cited

Eggers, F. 1924. Zur Kenntniss der antennalen stiftfuhrenden Sinnesorgane

der Insekten. Zeit. fur Morph, und Okol d. Tiere. 2:259-349.

Ekhardt, E. 1916. Zur Kenntnis der Innervierung und der Sinnesorgane

der Fliigel von Insecten. Zool. Jahrb. Anat. 39:293-334.

Freiling, H. H. 1909. Duftorgane der weiblichen Schmetterlinge nebst Bei-

tragen zur Kenntnis der Sinnesorgane auf dem Schmetterlingsflugel

und der Duftpinsel der Mannchen von Danais und Euploea. Zeit. wiss.

Zool. 92:210-290.

Guenther, K. 1901. Ueber Nervenendiglingen auf dem Schmetterlings-

fluge. Zool. Jahrb. Anat. 14:551-572.

Hauser, G. 1880. Physiologische und histologische Untersuchung-er iiber

das Geruchsorgan der Insekten. Zeit. wiss. Zool. 34:367-403.

Hau, F. 1938. fitude cytologique et comparee sur les Sensilla des insectes.

La Cellule 47:7-60.

Hufner, B. 1939. Die Antennen und antennalen Sinnesorgane der Hydro¬

cores mit besonderer Berucksichtigung der Nepidem. Zoologica. 97:1-32.

McIndoo, N. E. 1920. The olfactory sense of Orthoptera. Journ. Comp.

Neurology. 31:405-427.

Nagel, W. A. 1894. Vergleichend physiologische und anatomische Unter-

suchund iiber den Geruchs- und Geschmacks-sinn und ihre Organe.

Bibliotheca Zool. 18:1-207.

Noyes, B. 1931. The peripheral sense organs in the Termite, Termopsis

angusticollis (Hagen). Univ. Calif. Publ. in Zool. 33:259-280.

Packard, A. S. 1889. Notes on the epipharynx, and the epipharyngeal

organs of taste in mandibulate insects. Psyche 5:193-199.

Randow, E. 1924. Zur Morphologic und Physiologie des Darmkanals der

Juliden. Zeit. wiss. Zool. 122:534-582.

v. Rath, O. 1888. Uber die Hautsinnesorgane der Insekten. Zeit. wiss.

Zool. 46:413-454.

Rohler, E. 1906. Beitrage zur Kenntnis der Sinnesorgane der Insecten.

Zool. Jahrb. Anat. 22:225-288.

Sihler, H. 1924. Die Sinnesorgane an den Cerci der Insekten. Zool. Jahrb.

Anat. 45:519-580.

Slifer, E. H. 1936. The scoloparia of Melanoplus differentialis. Entom.

News 47:174-180.

Snodgrass, R. E. 1926. The morphology of insect sense organs and the

sensory nervous system. Smith. Miscell. Col. 77:1-80.

Snodgrass, R. E. 1935. Principles of insect morphology. New York. Mc¬

Graw-Hill. 1-667.

Wacker, F. 1925. Beitrage zur Kenntnis der antennalen Sinnesorgane der

Hymenopteren. Zeit. Morph, und Okol. d. Tiere. 4:739-812.

Wigglesworth, V. B. 1939. The principles of insect physiology. New York.

E. P. Dutton and Co. Inc. 1-434.

THE RECTAL GLANDS OF MOSQUITOES

WM. S. Marshall

Emeritus Professor of Entomology, University of Wisconsin

During the summer of 1944 Dane County, Wisconsin, appro¬

priated money for a mosquito survey, one object of which was

to determine the species within that area and their breeding

habitats. Dr. L. G. Gumbreck, at that time assistant in zoology

at the State University, had experience in this line of work and

was assigned the task of collecting larvae and pupae, and the

breeding and identification of the adults. An interest in the

rectal glands, papillae, of insects led to an examination, both

sexes, of the different species of these mosquitoes since Engel

(1924) had discovered that in the Culicidae the males had four

and the females six rectal glands. His paper figured the rectal

sac with its papillae of both male and female Culex pipiens L.

(p. 510), and he described the same variation (p. 509) in

Anopheles maculipennis Mg. and Culex annulatus Schrk. We

examined both male and female specimens of twelve species and

found that in all of these the number of glands had the same

ratio 4 : 6. We appreciate the generous assistance of Dr. Gum¬

breck in naming the specimens and his help in other ways.

Obtaining the mosquitoes soon after they were killed and

before feeding and ovulation, the abdomen was cut off near its

base and placed in water on a slide. Under a binocular dissect¬

ing microscope one could, by using fine forceps, hold the tip and

the base of the abdomen and, gently pulling, sever it near its tip,

and the intestine would be released through the basal segments.

It was easier with the males because their genital claspers could

be held and a single pull would free the rectal sac for examina¬

tion under the microscope. The females were more difficult ; two

or three of the segments remained attached to the apical end and

had to be removed with fine needles before the rectal sac could

be seen. After both sexes of each species, later enumerated, had

been examined, no further attention was given to that species.

Whole mounts and sections were made for a detailed study.

These specimens were prepared in the same way except a small

149

150 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts and Letters

amount of the fixative was placed on the slide instead of water.

After removing the rectal sac, to which a small portion of the

intestine adhered, it was placed in a vial of the fixative and then

transferred to alcohol. Sections were made in the usual paraffin

method, haematoxylin stains were used, and several of the slides

counter stained.

fig. !.

Fig. 1. — A partially diagrammatic longitudinal section of a rectal gland

of a mosquito. To make them more easily seen, certain parts, interglandular

wall and the attachment-plate, have a greater enlargement than the other

parts. AP., attachment-plate; CT., connective tissue; HP., hypodermis;

I., intima; M., muscles; TR., tracheae. Sections were made through the

rectal sac, with its enclosed glands, of several different species of mos¬

quitoes, both male and female. These were so similar that differences could

not be observed, and this figure represents a gland seen in any of the

sections.

Marshall — The Rectal Glands of Mosquitoes 151

The structure of the rectal glands of mosquitoes can best be

understood by an examination of a longitudinal section (Fig. 1).

This is very similar to that of other Diptera as figured by Chun

(1876) and Tonkov (1925) for Musca vomitoria L., and by

Engel (1924) for Tipula oleraceae L. Where the tracheae enter

the gland there is a small amount of connective tissue and similar

cells are scattered in the wider part of the lumen. The epithelial

cells are arranged in a single layer around the lumen and con¬

stitute the greatest part of the gland. The cells forming the

basal row are larger than the others and all cells and their

nuclei decrease in size towards the apex. The shape of the

nuclei depends upon that of the cells ; they are narrowest in the

thinner cells, more circular in others.

The tracheal supply to each rectal gland has been described

for several Diptera ; in mosquitoes we find that it is best shown

in whole mounts of the rectal sac. Those examined had two

tracheae entering each gland through the opening at its base,

not proof that this number is constant. In longitudinal sections

the tracheae are seen to give off branches which decrease in

diameter until they reach the apex of the gland, although they

were not seen to enter the epithelial layer; probably such are

present in a limited number. In Diptera and other insects

tracheae and tracheoles have been found to penetrate the epi¬

thelium of the gland ; in our sections a few tracheoles, difficult to

find, were seen to enter between the cells. Nuclei of the tracheae

are present in the lumen of the gland.

The much-reduced interglandular portion of the wall of the

rectal sac consists of three layers (Fig. 1, IG) ; externally the

longitudinal and circular muscles, next the small hypodermal

cells with their nuclei, and the intima, often in small folds, form

the inner layer. The thin layer of interglandular muscles could

not be traced into the lumen of the gland but is seen to extend

over its basal part between its opening and the margin. Where

the interglandular wall joins the gland it abruptly enlarges to

form the basal row of cells. The intima covers the gland and,

near its base, bulges outward to form a loop (Fig. 1, AP) encir¬

cling the gland and, under this loop, there are one or two nuclei,

generally a single one. This loop of the intima forms the

attachment-plate, “Chitinring, ” “Kreiswulst” of some authors. It

is difficult to assign any use to this structure in the mosquitoes.

152 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts and Letters

Two specimens, counter stained with aqueous safranin, showed

many small, red granules between the margin of the gland and

the intima.

Literature on mosquitoes has greatly increased in the last

few years; most of this is taxonomic with but little work on

internal structure. The following is a summary of much of the

work on the rectal glands in an endeavor to ascertain what, if

anything, is known about this difference in the number of these

glands in the male and female mosquitoes. The writings of early

authors were not examined although Dufour (1851) has draw¬

ings of the alimentary tract of several Diptera, and his figure

of a Culex annuiatus Schrk., shows two pairs of rectal glands.

Christophers (1901), without giving the species, says of a female

mosquito, ‘‘into the rectum project six solid growths the so-called

rectal glands” (p. 7). He figures a section through the rectal

sac containing two glands. Giles (1902) shows the rectal sac

of a female Culex with four glands and makes this curious

statement: “connected with the intestine by short ducts”

(p. 103). Nuttall and Shipley (1903) show a longitudinal dia¬

grammatic section of Anopheles maculipennis Mg., with three

papillae. In a view of a dissection of a female they show six

rectal papillae and mention the same number in the text. Thomp¬

son (1905) shows the rectal sac of a female mosquito with six

glands and mentions this number in the text. Patton and Cragg

(1913) figure the alimentary tract of a Culex with three papillae,

sex not mentioned. Hindle (1914) has a diagrammatic longitu¬

dinal section of A. maculipennis Mg., copied from Nuttall and

Shipley (1903). This shows two glands, but in the text Hindle

says the rectum contains six large ovoid papillae. Neumann and

Mayer (1914) show the alimentary tract of C. pipiens L., with

six rectal papillae. In the text (p. 196) they mention six glands

for the female, four for the male. Engel (1924) has been men¬

tioned. Patton and Evans (1929) show the alimentary tract of

a female C. pipiens L., with six glands.

It might be of interest to see if the works on blood sucking

and predatory Diptera refer to anything similar to the 4 : 6 ratio

of the rectal glands of mosquitoes. The older workers are not

listed. Stuhlmann (1905) writes of Glossina, “treten in das

Lumen der Analblase vier grosse hohle Papillen ein” (p. 389).

Later (1907) he says that the rectal sac of the male has four

Marshall — The Rectal Glands of Mosquitoes 153

glands. Minchin (1905) records the same of Glossina palpalis

Rob.-Desv. In the text (p. 538) he mentions four rectal glands,

sex not given, and figures this number of papillae in the male.

Patton and Cragg (1913) figure the alimentary tract of Tabanus

with three rectal papillae, in their text they mention six. They

show four glands in Hippobosca maculata, sex not given. Engel

(1924) in his study of the rectal sac and glands of the Diptera

examined more species than any other worker. A complete list

of these would be out of place but we give the results he obtained

from some blood sucking and predatory flies. Tabanidae :

Haematopoda fluvialis Mg., Tabanus bromius L., and T. mon-

tcmus Mg., each has six glands in both sexes, the males are not

blood sucking. Rhagionidae: Arterix ibis L., male and female

have the same number and ratio as the Culicidae. Leptis scolo -

pacea L., has four glands, sex not given. Hippoboscidae : Hippo¬

bosca equina L., Crataerrhina palliola Ltr., Lopoptena cervi L.

and Melophagus ovirms L., were examined and four glands were

found in each sex. Lester and Lloyd (1928) writing of the

tsetse fly: “In the wall of the metarectum are the usual four

rectal papillae of Dipteral Perfiljew (1928) describing Phle¬

botomies minutus Rondani shows that both sexes have two glands.

Patton and Evans (1929) show the female of Haematopoda

fluvialis Mg., with six glands. Glossina palpalis Rob.-Desv., the

male has four glands (p. 226). Simulium ornatum, the female is

figured with four glands. Phlebotomus chinensis R. and H., fig¬

ured with two glands, the text gives six. Culicoides varius , the

female figured with two glands. Smart (1935) says the female

of Simulium ornatum Mg., has six rectal papillae. No mention of

the male except it is not blood sucking.

If we consider the mosquitoes and not the other Diptera,

what meaning, if any, has this greater number of glands in the

female as compared to the smaller number in the male? It is

known that these insects can produce viable ova without a blood

meal although blood is the principal, if not the exclusive, food

of many females, rarely of the males. This difference in highly

nutritious food might have something to do with the presence

of the larger number of glands in the female as this sex has to

produce much more, ova and egg coverings, than the male. The

greater number of rectal glands in the female might be of use

in the production of a larger amount of secretion, or, if the

154 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts and Letters

glands are not secretory, there must be some other reason. We

have shown that in twelve species of mosquitoes this ratio of

four glands in the male to six in the female is common to all.

The mosquitoes we examined for this work :

Aedes vexans Meig.,

A. trivittatus Coq.,

Anopheles punctipennis

Say,

A. quadrimaculatus Say,

A. walker i Theo.,

Culex apicalis Adams,

Culex pipiens L.,

C. tar satis Coq.,

C. territans Walker,

Theobaldia inornata Will.,

T. morsitans Theo.,

Uranotaenia sapphirina

0. Sacken,

To this list can be added two other species examined by

Engel (1924), Anopheles maculipennis Mg., and Culex annulatus

Schrk. ; specimens of these species we did not have a chance to

examine.

Literature Cited

Christophers, S. R. 1901. The anatomy and histology of the adult female

mosquito. Kept, to the Malaria Com. of the Roy. Soc. Lond. 1-20.

Chun, C. 1876. liber die Bau, die Entwicklung und physiologische Bedeut-

ung der Rectaldriisen bei den Insekten. Abd. d. Senkenberg. naturf.

Ges. 10:27-55.

Dufour, L. 1851. Recherches anatomiques et physiologiques sur les Dip-

teres. Mem. Acad. Sc. Savants Estrangers. 11:171-360.

Engel, E. O. 1924. Das Rectum der Dipteren in morphologischer und his-

tologischer Hinsicht. Zeit. wiss. Zool. 122:503-533.

Giles, G. M. 1906. The anatomy of the biting flies of the genera Stomoxys

and Glossina. Journ. Trop. Med. 9:182-185.

Hindle, E. 1914. Flies in relation to disease. Bloodsucking Flies. Cam¬

bridge, Univ. Press. 1-386.

Lester, H. M. O. and Ll. Lloyd. 1928. Notes on the process of digestion in

tsetse-flies. Bull. Entom. Research 19:39-60.

Minchin, E. A. 1905. Report on the anatomy of the tsetse-fly (Glossina

palpalis). Proc. Roy. Soc. Ser. B. 76:531-547.

Neumann, R. O. and M. Mayer. 1914. Lehmann’s Medizinische Atlanten

XI. Atlas und Lehrbuch wichtiger tierischer Parasiten und Ubertrager.

Miinchen. 1-58.

Nuttall, G. H. F. and A. E. Shipley. 1903. Studies in relation to malaria.

II. The structure and biology of Anopheles. Journ. of Hygiene III:

166-215.

Patton, W. S. and F. W. Cragg. 1913. A Textbook of Medical Entomology.

London, Madras and Calcutta. 1-764.

Marshall — The Rectal Glands of Mosquitoes

155

Patton, W. S. and A. M. Evans. 1929. Insects, Ticks, Mites and Venomous

Animals. Croyden. 1:1-785, 2:1-740.

Perfiljew, P. P. 1928. Zur vergleichende Anatomie von Phlebotomus.

Zeit. Parasitenk. 1:437-475.

Smart, J. 1935. The internal anatomy of the black-fly Simulium ornatum

Mg. Ann. Trop. Med. and Parasit. 29:161-170.

Stuhlmann, F. 1905. Verlaufige Mittheilung iiber Anatomie und Physi-

ologie der Tsetse Fliege. Der Pflanzer. No. 14, No. 25:369-412.

Stuhlmann, F. 1907. Beitrage zur Kenntniss der Tsetsefliege ( Glossina

fusca, and G. tachinoides) . Arbt. Kaiser. Gesundheitsamte. 26:1-83.

Thompson, M. T. 1905. Alimentary canal of the mosquito. Proc. Boston

Soc. Nat. Hist. 32:145-202.

Tonkov, V. 1925. Uber den Bau der Rectaldrusen bei Insecten. Zeit.

Morph, u. Okol. d. Tiere 4:416-429.

.

■m

■

.

PARASITES OF NORTHWEST WISCONSIN FISHES

I. THE 1944 SURVEY

Jacob H. Fischthal

Biologist, Wisconsin Conservation Department, Spooner

During recent years the general public has taken more notice

of and interest in the encysted parasites in the skin and flesh of

some of Wisconsin's game and pan fishes. As a result of the

many inquiries on parasites made of the Wisconsin Conservation

Department, and the need for more knowledge on the distribu¬

tion of the bass tapeworm, Proteocephalus ambloplites, in secur¬

ing a brood stock and in planting of fingerling bass, a program

was formulated for a complete survey of the parasites of Wis¬

consin fishes.

Northwest Wisconsin has been little investigated for fish

parasites in the past and in this regard is relatively virgin terri¬

tory. Bangham (in press) spent about one week in this region

during the summer of 1943 investigating a few of the lakes and

streams for fish parasites. However, due to the shortness of his

stay too few fishes and waters were surveyed. The majority of

the parasite surveys for Wisconsin were accomplished in other

sections of the state by Marshall and Gilbert (1905), Pearse

(1924), Cross (1938), and Bangham (in press and unpublished

research).

The present paper is the first in a series of annual reports

on a parasite survey of northwest Wisconsin fishes. The survey

started December 22, 1943 and for the purpose of this report

was terminated December 6, 1944. During this period fresh

fishes were examined from 54 different lakes, streams, and nat¬

ural and artificial bass rearing ponds as shown in Table 1. These

fishes were collected for the most part by the use of fyke nets

in lakes, and a common sense minnow seine in streams. Other

means used for collecting fishes were electric shocking, line fish¬

ing, and poisoning with rotenone.

A total of 2,059 fishes, representing 44 different species,

were examined for parasites. Nineteen hundred and eighty-four

or approximately 96.4 percent of these fishes harbored at least

one species of parasite (data summarized in Table 2) . This

figure is quite high when compared to other surveys elsewhere.

157

158 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts and Letters

Bangham (in press) found parasites in 93.2 percent of the 1,3.29

fishes examined in northern Wisconsin during 1943. Essex and

Hunter (1926) obtained parasites from 39 percent of 652 fishes

from lakes and streams of the Central States. In a survey of

Lake Erie, Bangham and Hunter (1939) found 58.3 percent of

2,156 fishes infected with parasites. Bangham (1940) found

88 percent of 1,380 fresh- water fishes from southern Florida

infected. Fishes from Algonquin Park lakes (Ontario) studied

by Bangham (1941) showed 84.3 percent of 560 fishes para¬

sitized. Hunter (1941) found parasites in 72.5 percent of 598

Connecticut fishes examined.

In Table 1 the locations given for streams are those points

at which collections were made. In collecting from lakes, fyke

nets were set in varying aquatic environments in order to obtain

as representative a sample of fishes as possible and under varied

ecological conditions. The information on water condition, also

shown in Table 1, was obtained mainly from lake surveys by

Bordner (1942) ; the figures for total alkalinity were secured

from water analyses by Mr. N. H. Boortz (unpublished re¬

search). In the other tables, no mark preceding the names of

the parasite indicates an adult stage; an inverted T (1) before

the parasite denotes the presence of both adult and immature

stages in the same fish; two asterisks (**) preceding the para¬

site indicates an immature stage; a single asterisk (*) preced¬

ing the parasite indicates a larval stage ; the superimposed num¬

ber one 0) following the number of infected fish indicates an

infection with one to ten specimens of that species; the super¬

imposed number two (2) denotes an infection with 11-50 speci¬

mens; the superimposed number three (3) indicates an infection

with 51 or more specimens. The use of sp. or spp. after a generic

name or a broader classification than the genus indicates that

the specimens could not be identified more completely. The nota¬

tion (B.) following the Yellow River indicates the stream is in

Barron County; the notation (W.) indicates Washburn County.

Appreciation is due Dr. R, V. Bangham, College of Wooster,

Ohio, for aid in verifying certain identifications, in identifying

certain other specimens, and for his many helpful suggestions;

Mr. D. John O’Donnell for his many helpful suggestions during

the course of this work ; Mr. Warren Churchill, and many of the

Fisheries personnel at Spooner for their aid in collecting the

fishes.

Lakes and Streams Surveyed for Parasites

Fischthal—Parasites of Northwest Wisconsin Fishes 159

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Lakes and Streams Surveyed for Parasites

160

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Fischthal — Parasites of Northwest Wisconsin Fishes 161

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162 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts and Letters

TABLE 2

Summary of Parasite Survey Data

Fischthal — Parasites of Northwest Wisconsin Fishes 163

TABLE 3

Amia calva Linnaeus - Bowfin

Bowfin

All five bowfin were infected. Parasitic infections were rela¬

tively light. The immature Contracaecum sp. was recovered

from the intestine.

TABLE 4

Salmo trutta fario Linnaeus - Brown Trout

Brown trout

Only seven (50 percent) of the 14 brown trout were infected.

The Proteocephalus sp. from the Brule River was too immature

for species identification. The glochidia on the trout from Bean

Brook were extremely numerous, over 100 being on all fins, the

operculum, and the gills.

164 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts and Letters

TABLE 5

Salmo gairdnerii irideus Gibbons - Coast Rainbow Trout

Examined

Infected

18

14

Brule

River

18

14

Cystidicoloides harwoodi . . .

*Neascus sp .

Phyllodistomum sp .

Pomphorhynchus bulbocolli

Rhabdochona cascadilla. . . .

Spinitectus gracilis .

101

1 1

2 1

1 1

4 1

TABLE 6

Salvelinus f. fontinalis (Mitchill) - Common Brook Trout

Common brook trout

Five (approximately 83 percent) of the six brook trout were

infected. A single specimen belonging to the nematode family

Oxyuridae was found in the intestine of one trout. Bangham

(personal communication) has “seen a similar form in frogs,”

and it is possible that the one from the trout may have been

accidently ingested with the frog.

Fischthal— Parasites of Northwest Wisconsin Fishes 165

TABLE 7

Moxostoma aureolum (Le Sueur) - Northern Redhorse

TABLE 8

Moxostoma rubreques Hubbs - Greater Redhorse

TABLE 9

Moxostoma erythrurum (Rafinesque) - Golden Redhorse

Golden redhorse

All golden redhorse were infected. The Myxosporidia was

found in a cyst on the roof of the mouth; the larval Neoechino-

rhynchus crassus was encysted in the mesenteries.

166 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts and Letters

TABLE 10

Hypentelium nigricans (LeSueur) - Hog Sucker

Examined 1 1

Infected 8

*Clinostomum marginatum.

**Contracaecum sp .

Glaridacris catostomi .

Gyrodactyloidea .

*Neascus sp .

*Philometra sp. . .

Bean

Brook

1 1

Bear

Creek

1 1

Hay

River

3 1

1 2

3 1

1 2

2 1

1 1

Meadow

Creek

1 1

1 2

1 3

I 1

Hog sucker

Eight (approximately 73 percent) of the 11 hog suckers

were infected. The larval Philometra sp. was found encysted in

the mesenteries.

Common white sucker

Only 144 (approximately 95 percent) of the 151 suckers were

infected. The larval Diplostomulum sp. occurred in the lens of

the eye. The Myxosporidia was found in cysts in the gills. The

larval Bucephalus elegans , Philometra sp., Pomphorhynchus

bulbocolli , Proteocephalus sp., and Spiroxys sp. were encysted in

the mesenteries. Sanguinicola sp. from Potato Creek was taken

from the mesenteric blood vessels and apparently is a new spe¬

cies of blood fluke. Bangham (in press) found only the adult

Pomphorhynchus bulbocolli in two Yellow River suckers exam¬

ined by him. In his examination of 18 Brule River suckers

similar parasites were found as indicated in this report, and in

addition he recorded Triganodistomum attenuatum from three of

these 18 fish.

TABLE 11

Catost omits c. commersonnii (Lacepede) - Common White Sucker

Fischthal — Parasites of Northwest Wisconsin Fishes 167

a.

2 A

TJ

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TABLE 11 — (Continued)

Catostomus c. commersonnii (Lacepede) - Common White Sucker

168

Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts and Letters

Fischthal— Parasites of Northwest Wisconsin Fishes 169

TABLE 12

Campo stoma anomalum pullum (Agassiz) - Central Stoneroller

Central stoneroller

Forty-one (approximately 95 percent) of the 43 examined

harbored parasites. The adult and immature Proteocephahts sp.

from Hay River and Lightning Creek is apparently a new spe¬

cies, according to Bangham (personal communication), and a

similar form had been taken by him in Lake Erie. Trichodina

sp. was recovered from the ureters of a stoneroller from Brill

River. The Myxosporidia was found in cysts on the gills.

170 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts and Letters

TABLE 13

Rhinichthys c. cataractae (Valenciennes) - Great Lakes Longnose Dace

Examined 5

Infected 5

Bean Bear

Brook Creek

3 2

*Clinostomum marginatum. . . .

**Contracaecum sp .

*Glochidia .

Myxosporidia .

*Neascus sp .

*Posthodiplostomum minimum

**Proteocephalus sp .

Rhabdochona cascadilla .

I1

1 1

l1

1 3

1 1

l1

1 1

3 1

Great Lakes longnose dace

All longnose dace were infected. The Myxosporidia from

Bean Brook was found in the liver. The immature Proteo-

cephalus sp. from Bear Creek was too young to be identified ; no

apical sucker was seen on the scolex.

TABLE 14

Rhinichthys atratulus meleagris Agassiz - Western Blacknose Dace

Fischthal — Parasites of Northwest Wisconsin Fishes 171

TABLE 15

Nocomis biguttatus (Kirtland) -Hornyhead Chub

Horny head chub

The 29 hornyhead chubs examined were all infected. The

larval Bucephalus elegans, Pomphorhynchus bulbocolli , and

Spiroxys sp. were encysted in the mesenteries. Chloromyxum sp.

was recovered from the gall bladder. The Myxosporidia from

Bean Brook was from the gall bladder, while the Whalen Creek

species was from two large cysts on the gills.

172 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts and Letters

TABLE 16

Semotilus a. atromaculatus (Mitchill) - Northern Creek Chub

Northern creek chub

All 25 creek chubs were infected with parasites. The larval

Leptorhynchoides thecatus and Proteocephalus sp. were encysted

in the mesenteries. The mature Proteocephalus sp. from Potato

Creek is probably a new species according to Bangham (per¬

sonal communication) as he does '‘not think this fits in with any

described species.” Trichodina sp. was found on the gills. The

recovery of Bothriocephalus formosus from this fish appears to

be a new host record.

Fischthal — Parasites of Northwest Wisconsin Fishes 173

TABLE 17

Notemigonus crysoleucas auratus (Rafinesque) - Western Golden Shiner

Western golden shiner

Fifteen (approximately 94 percent) of the 16 fish harbored

a parasite. The larval Hymenolepis sp. was found in the intes¬

tine of Crooked Lake golden shiners. Van Cleave and Mueller

(1934), in their survey of Oneida Lake (New York) fish, found

a larval Hymenolepis sp. in the intestine of the largemouth bass

{Huro salmoides) and stated that “all evidence seems to point

to this as an abnormal host and location. It is highly probable

that the larva is carried normally by some crustacean through

whose agency the tapeworm enters a natural bird host.”

TABLE 18

HyborJvynchus notatus (Rafinesque) - Bluntnose Minnow

Bluntnose minnow

Thirteen (approximately 68 percent) of the 19 bluntnose

minnows examined were infected. The protozoan, Chloromyxum

sp., was found in the gall bladder. The Myxosporidia was found

on the gills.

TABLE 19

Notropis comutus frontalis (Agassiz) - Northern Common Shiner

174 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts and Letters

Fischthal— Parasites of Northwest Wisconsin Fishes 175

Northern common shiner

All 61 common shiners were infected. Chloromyxum sp., and

the heavy infections with Myxosporidia from Potato Creek and

Vermillion River occurred in the gall bladder. The Myxosporidia

in the light infection from Vermillion River was found within

two cysts in the flesh. The Microsporidia occurred as very large

cysts in the flesh of the back. The larval Bucephalus elegans

and Pomphorhynchus bulbocolli were encysted in the mesen¬

teries. The blood fluke Sanguinicola sp. was found in the mesen¬

teric blood vessels and apparently is a new species.

TABLE 20

Notropus rubellus (Agassiz) - Rosyface Shiner

Examined 1 2

Infected 8

*Bucephlam elegans. .

*Diplostomulum scheuringi . . .

*Posthodi plostomum minimum

*$piroxys sp . .

BeaifCreek

12

8

3 1

12

3 1

1 1

TABLE 21

Notropis heterodon (Cope) -Blackchin Shiner

Northern yellow bullhead

All 34 yellow bullheads were infected. The larval Contra-

caecum sp., Leptorhynchoides thecatus, Pomphorhynchus bulbo¬

colli, and Spiroxys sp. were encysted in the mesenteries. The

larval Diplostomulum sp. was found in the lens of the eye. The

Myxosporidia was found in many cysts on the gills.

TABLE 22

Ameiurus n. natalis (LeSueur) - Northern Yellow Bullhead

176

Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts and Letters

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£ o

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t>0 tio

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Ameiurus n. natalis (LeSueur)

Fischthal — Parasites of Northwest Wisconsin Fishes 177

TABLE 23

Ameiurus n. nebulosus (Le Sueur) -Northern Brown Bullhead

178

Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts and Letters

TABLE 23 — (Continued)

Ameiurus n. nebulosus (LeSueur) - Northern Brown

Fischthal — Parasites of Northwest Wisconsin Fishes

179

180 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts and Letters

Northern brown bullhead

All 68 brown bullheads were infected. The larval Diplosto-

mulum sp. occurred in the lens of the eye. The larval Acantho-

cephala, Contracaecum sp., Proteocephalus sp., and Spiroxys sp.

were encysted in the mesenteries. One brown bullhead was ex¬

amined from Spooner Lake by Bangham (in press) and infec¬

tions of one to nine specimens each of Alloglossidium geminus,

Ergasilus versicolor, Gyrodactylidae, and Phyllodistomum staf-

fordi were found. From the Yellow River he examined 14 brown

bullheads, but found neither Proteocephalus pearsei nor larval

Spiroxys sp. recorded in this report. However, in addition to

the other parasites recorded, he found Alloglossidium geminus,

larval Clinostomum marginatum, Corallobothrium fimbriatum,

immature Crepidostomum sp., Dichelyne robusta, Gyrodac¬

tylidae, Myxobolus sp., and larval Proteocephalus ambloplites.

TABLE 24

Ameiurus m. melas (Rafinesque) - Northern Black Bullhead

Northern black bullhead

All the black bullheads were infected with at least one species

of parasite. The larval Diplostomulum sp. was in the lens of the

eye. The larval Pomphorhynchus bulbocolli, Proteocephalus sp.,

and Spiroxys sp. were found in cysts in the mesenteries.

Fischthal — Parasites of Northwest Wisconsin Fishes 181

TABLE 25

Noturus fiavus (Rafinesque) - Stonecat

Stonecat

All 13 stonecats were infected with at least one species of

parasite. The larval Diplostomulum sp. were taken from the

lens of the eye; the larval Proteocephalus sp. were encysted in

the mesenteries.

TABLE 26

Schilbeodes mollis (Hermann) - Tadpole Madtom

Tadpole madtom

All 10 madtoms were infected with at least one species of

parasite. The larval Leptorhynchoides thecatus and Proteo¬

cephalus sp. were encysted in the mesenteries. Trichodina sp.

was found on the gills.

182 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts and Letters

TABLE 27

Umbra limi (Kirtland) -Western Mudminnow

Western mudminnow

All 26 mudminnows were infected. The larval Diplostomulum

sp. was in the humor of the eye. The larval Acanthocephala and

larval Proteocephalus sp. were encysted in the mesenteries. The

Myxosporidia occurred on the gills.

Esox lucius Linnaeus - Northern Pike

Fischthal — Parasites of Northwest Wisconsin Fishes 183

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TABLE 28 — (Continued)

Esox lucius Linnaeus - Northern Pike

184

Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts and Letters

TABLE 28 — (Continued)

Esox Indus Linnaeus - Northern Pike

Fischthal — Parasites of Northwest Wisconsin Fishes 185

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TABLE 28 — (Continued)

Esox Indus Linnaeus - Northern Pike

186 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts and Letters

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Fischthal — Parasites of Northwest Wisconsin Fishes 187

Northern pike

All 125 northern pike were infected. The Myxosporidia was

in a very large cyst in the upper portion of the mouth. Tricho-

dina sp. occurred on the gills. Four northern pike were exam¬

ined by Bangham (in press) from Spooner Lake; however, he

did not find Leptorhynchoides thecatus, Macroderoides flavus,

and larval Proteocephalus ambloplites . In addition to the other

parasites recorded in this report from this lake he found imma¬

ture Haplonema sp., and larval Triaenophorus nodulosus. Bang-

ham (in press) also examined four fish from the Yellow River;

however, Contracaecum brachyurum, Leptorhynchoides thecatus,

Macroderoides flavus, Neoechinorhynchus tenellus, Phyllodisto-

mum sp. and Trichodina sp. were not recorded by him. In addi¬

tion to the other parasites mentioned from this Yellow River

fish, excluding those listed immediately above, he found Crepi-

dostomum cooperi and Spinitectus sp.

TABLE 29

Esox m. masquinongy (Mitchill) - Great Lakes Muskellunge

Great Lakes muskellunge

All four muskellunge bore a parasitic infection. The Myxo¬

sporidia was recovered from cysts on the gills. Trichodina reni-

cola was observed in the ureters and urinary bladder, while

another species of Trichodina was seen on the gills.

TABLE 30

Perea flavescens (Mitchill) - Yellow Perch

188 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts and Letters

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TABLE 30 — (Continued)

Perea flavescens (Mitchill) - Yell<

Fischthal — - Parasites of Northwest Wisconsin Fishes 189

190 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts and Letters

TABLE 30 — (Continued)

Perea flavescens (Mitchill) - Yellow Perch

Fischthah— Parasites of Northwest Wisconsin Fishes 191

TABLE 30— (Continued)

Perea flavescens (Mitchill) - Yellow Perch

192 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts and Letters

Yellow perch

Of the 144 perch examined, 142 (approximately 99 percent)

were infected. The larval Contracaecum sp., Cryptogonimus

cihyli, Leptorhynchoides thecatus, Proteocephalus sp., and Spi-

roxys sp. were encysted in the mesenteries. The larval Diplosto-

mulum sp. (probably D. huronense) occurred in the humor of

the eye. The larval Triaenophorus nodulosus was encysted in the

liver. Trichodina sp. occurred on the gills. Bangham (in press)

in his examination of nine fingerling perch from Spooner Lake

found only Gyrodactyloidea and larval Neascus sp. in common

with that recorded in this report from the three adult fish. In

addition to these two parasites in common he found Azygia

augusticauda, immature Bothriocephalus cuspidatus, Bunodera

sacculata, Leptorhynchoides thecatus, and N eoechinorhynchus

cylindratus. One perch was also examined from the Yellow

River by Bangham, and only larval Clinostomum marginatum,

Crepidostomum cooperi, larval Diplostomulum sp. (1), Gyro-

dactylidae, Leptorhynchoides thecatus, and larval Neascus sp.

were found. In the one perch examined from Cable Lake, Bang¬

ham found larval Clinostomum marginatum, Dichelyne cotylo-

phora, larval Diplostomulum sp. (1), Gyrodactylidae, Leptorhyn¬

choides thecatus, and larval Neascus sp.

Walleye pike

All 118 walleye pike were infected. The larval Triaenophorus

nodulosus occurred in cysts in the liver and mesenteries. Tri¬

chodina sp. was found on the gills. Bangham (in press) exam¬

ined four pike from Cable Lake, finding Azygia augusticauda,

Bothriocephalus cuspidatus, Bucephalopsis pusilla, larval Diplos¬

tomulum scheuringi, Gyrodactylidae, Proteocephalus stizostethi,

and larval Neascus sp.

TABLE 31

Stizostedion v. vitreum (Mitchill) - Walleye Pike

Fischthal — Parasites of Northivest Wisconsin Fishes 193

TABLE 31 — (Continued)

Stizostedion v. vitreum (Mitchill) - Walleye Pike

194

Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts and Letters

TABLE 31 — (Continued)

Stizostedion v. vitreum (Mitchill) — Walleye Pike

Fischthal— Parasites of Northivest Wisconsin Fishes 195

196 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts and Letters

TABLE 32

Hadropterus maculatus (Girard) - Blackside Darter

Blackside darter

All four blackside darters were infected. The larval Contra-

caecum sp. was encysted in the mesenteries ; the immature Con-

tracaecum sp. was found in the liver.

TABLE 33

Percina caprodes semifasciata (De Kay) - Northern Logperch

Examined 5

Infected 5

**Contracaecum sp .

Crepidostomum isostomum. . . .

*Diplostomulum scheuringi ....

*Diplostomulum sp .

*Neascus sp .

*Neoechinorhynchus cylindratus

Phyllodistomum etheostomae . .

Spinitectus gracilis .

*Tetracotyle sp .

Trichodina sp .

Bean

Brook

Bear

Creek

Eau Claire

County

Bass Pond

2 1

3 1

1 1

2 1

3 1

1 1

1 2

1 1

Northern logperch

All logperch were infected. The larval Diplostomulum sp.

was found in the humor of the eye. The larval Neoechinorhyn-

chus cylindratus was encysted in the mesenteries. Trichodina sp.

was on the gills.

Fischthal — Parasites of Northwest Wisconsin Fishes 197

TABLE 34

Boleosoma n. nigrum (Rafinesque) - Central Johnny Darter

Central Johnny darter

All 82 Johnny darters were infected. The larval Contracae-

cum sp., Crypto gonimus chyli, Leptorhynchoides thecatus, Neoe-

chinorhynchus cylindratus , and Proteocephalus sp. were all en¬

cysted in the mesenteries. The larval Diplost omnium sp. was

found in the humor of the eye. Trichodina sp. occurred on the

gills. The Myxosporidia were recovered from cysts in the mus¬

culature, liver and mesenteries.

Iowa darter

Six (60 percent) of the 10 Iowa darters examined harborec

at least one species of parasite. The immature Contracaecum sp.

were recovered from the liver of the fish ; the Glochidia were on

the gills and fins.

TABLE 36

Poecilichthys c. caeruleus (Storer) - Northern Rainbow Darter

Northern rainbow darter

All rainbow darters were infected. The larval Crypto, gonimus

chyli, Contracaecum sp., and Leptorhynchoides thecatus were all

encysted in the mesenteries. The larval Diplostomulum sp. was

recovered from the humor of the eye.

Fischthal — Parasites of Northwest Wisconsin Fishes 199

TABLE 37

Catonotus flabellaris lineolatus Agassiz - Striped Fantail

Striped fantail

Thirty-seven (approximately 97 percent) of the 38 fantails

were infected. The larval Contracaecum sp., Cryptogonimus

chyli, Leptorhynchoides thecatus, and Neo echinorhynchus cy Un-

dr atus were encysted in the mesenteries. The larval Diplosto-

mulum sp. was found in the humor of the eye.

Northern smallmouth bass

All eight smallmouth bass were infected. The Whalen Creek

bass was a two-inch fmgerling. The larval Contracaecum sp.,

Leptorhynchoides thecatus , Proteocephalus sp., and Rhipidoco-

tyle papillosum were encysted in the mesenteries. The species of

Sanguinicola was recovered from the mesenteric blood vessels

and is a new species as it differs morphologically from the only

known North American species S. occidental is from Stizostedion

vitreum. This new species also occurs in the largemouth bass.

Trichodina sp. was found on the gills.

200 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts and Letters

TABLE 38

Micro'pte't'us d. dolomieu Lacepede - Northern Smallmouth Bass

TABLE 39

Huro salmoides (Lacepede) — Largemouth Bass

Fischthal — Parasites of Northwest Wisconsin Fishes 201

TABLE 39 — (Continued)

Huro salmoides (Lacepede) -Largemouth Bass

202

Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts and Letters

TABLE 89 — (Continued)

Huro salmoides (Lacepede) - Largemouth Bass

Fischthal — Parasites of Northwest Wisconsin Fishes 203

204 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts and Letters

Largemouth bass

Of the 156 largemouth bass examined, 152 (approximately 97

percent) were infected. The bass examined from the bass rear¬

ing ponds were all fingerlings from two to four inches in length.

The larval Contracaecum sp., Acanthocephala, and Spiroxys sp.

were encysted in the mesenteries. Sanguinicola sp., occurring in

the mesenteric blood vessels, is a new species of blood fluke, and

is similar to the one recovered from the smallmouth bass. The

Myxosporidia occurred in cysts in the mouth region.

TABLE 40

Lepomis cyanellus Rafinesque - Green Sunfish

*

Cedar Long

Lake Lake

Examined 4 3 1

Infected 4 3 1

*Camallanus oxycephalus .

*Contracaecum sp .

Crepidostomum cooper i .

*Cryptogonimus chyli .

*Diplostomulum scheurirxgi . .

Gy rodactyloidea .

*Neascus sp .

*Posthodiplostomum minimum

*Proteocephalus ambloplites

Spinitectus carolini .

*Spiroxys sp .

1 1

l1

ll

2 1

1 1

2 2

1 1

1 2

1 3

11

1 1

12

1 1

l1

1 1

TABLE 41

Lepomis gibbosus (Linnaeus) - Pumpkinseed

Fischthal— Parasites of Northwest Wisconsin Fishes 205

TABLE 41 — ( Continued)

Lepomis gibbosus (Linnaeus) - Pumpkinseed

206

Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts and Letters

TABLE 41 — (Continued)

Lepomis gibbosus (Linnaeus) - Pumpkin seed

Fischthal — Parasites of Northwest Wisconsin Fishes 207

208 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts and Letters

Pumpkinseed

All 139 pumpkinseeds were infected. The larval Contracae-

cum sp., Acanthocephala, and Spiroxys sp. were encysted in the

mesenteries. The larval Diplostomulum sp. occurred in the

humor of the eye. The larval Triaenophorus nodulosus was en¬

cysted in the liver. Trichodina sp. occurred on the gills. The

Myxosporidia was in cysts in the mesenteries, and more numer¬

ous on the conus of the heart. Bangham (in press) examined

one pumpkinseed from Spooner Lake, finding all but Gyrodacty-

loidea and Leptorhynchoides thecatus as recorded in the report.

He also examined nine fish from the Yellow River, finding similar

parasites with the exceptions of Bothriocephalus claviceps , larval

and immature Contracaecum sp., Glochidia, larval Leptorhyn¬

choides thecatus, Phyllodistomum pearsei, and Pomphorhynchus

bulbocolli which he did not record.

Common bluegill

All 217 bluegills were infected. The larval Contracaecum

sp., Proteocephalus sp., Rhipidocotyle papillosum, and Spiroxys

sp. were encysted in the mesenteries, while the larval Triaeno¬

phorus nodulosus was encysted in the liver. The Myxosporidia

occurred in cysts in the mesenteries. Trichodina sp. was found

on the gills. Bangham (in press) in one bluegill from Cable

Lake found all but the larval Clinostomum marginatum, Crepi-

dostomum cooperi, and Leptorhynchoides thecatus recorded in

this report. Ten fish were examined by Bangham from Chetac

Lake, however, he did not find the larval Clinostomum mar¬

ginatum, or Myxosporidia. Besides the parasites found in com¬

mon in both reports on this lake, he found Azygia augusticauda,

immature Camallanus sp., Crepidostomum cooperi, larval Di-

plostomulum scheuringi, larval Proteocephalus ambloplites, and

larval Triaenophorus nodulosus. Also examined by Bangham

were six fish from Spooner Lake in which he recorded all but

Ergasilus caerleus and larval Proteocephalus ambloplites listed

in the present report. In addition to the parasites in common

he found Bothriocephalus claviceps, immature Camallanus sp.,

and larval Clinostomum marginatum. Seven bluegills from

Tozer Lake were examined by Bangham. He failed to find Crepi -

Fischthat — Parasites of Northwest Wisconsin Fishes 209

dostomum cornutum; however, in addition to those species in

common listed in this report he found the larval Clinostomum

marginatum , Crepidostomum cooperi , and Myxobolus sp.

TABLE 42

Lepomis m. macro chirus Rafinesque - Common Bluegill

210 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts and Letters

TABLE 42 — (Continued)

Lepomis m. macrochirus Rafinesque - Common Bluegill

Fischthal — Parasites of Northwest Wisconsin Fishes 211

TABLE 43

Ambloplites r. rupestris (Rafinesque) - Northern Rock Bass

212 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts and Letters

TABLE 43 — (Continued)

Ambloplites r. rupestris (Rafinesque) - Northern Rock Bass

Fischthal — Parasites of Northwest Wisconsin Fishes 213

TABLE 43 — (Continued)

Ambloplites r. rupestris (Rafinesque) - Northern Rock Bass

Northern rock bass

All 132 rock bass were infected. The larval Bucephalus ele-

gans, Contracaecum sp., Acanthocephala, Spiroxys sp. were en¬

cysted in the mesenteries. The Myxosporidia occurred in cysts

in the mouth region. Trichodina sp. was found on the gills.

Bangham (in press) examined six rock bass from the Yellow

River, and many parasites were found in common with those

recorded in this report. In addition he recorded Illinobdella sp.,

and larval and immature Proteocephalus ambloplites . He did not

find any Azygia augusticauda, Glochidia, larval Leptorhtynchoides

thecatus, Myxosporidia, N eoechinorhynchus cylindratus, larval

and adult Pomphorhynchus bulbocolli, and Trichodina sp.

TABLE 44

Pomoxis nigro-maculatus (LeSueur) - Black Crappie

214

Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts and Letters

TABLE 44 — (Continued)

Pomoxis nigro-maculatus (LeSueur) - Black Crappie

Fischthal — Parasites of Northwest Wisconsin Fishes 215

216 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts and Letters

Black crappie

Of the 216 crappies examined, 207 (approximately 96 per¬

cent) were infected. Of all the game and pan fish examined the

black crappie shows the lightest incidence and intensity of infec¬

tion. Argulus versicolor was taken from the underside of the

operculum. The larval Diplostomulum sp. occurred in the lens

of the eye. The Myxosporidia were in cysts in several locations,

viz., on the conus arteriosus in one fish from Bear Lake, in three

from the Namekagon River, in eight from Spooner Lake, and in

the 10 from Staples Lake; on the conus and in the mesenteries

in one from the Namekagon River; in the gills in the seven from

Mathews Lake ; in the stomach wall in one from the Namekagon

River; in the intestinal wall in three from Bear Lake, in one

from Casey Lake, in one from Spooner Lake, and the two from

Teal Lake; in the gall bladder in the one from the Red Cedar

River. Trichodina sp. occurred on the gills. Bangham (in press),

in examining seven crappies from Chetac Lake, found in addi¬

tion to those parasites listed in this report the following larval

parasites : Diplostomulum scheuringi , Leptorhynchoides the -

catus, Neascus sp., Posthodiplostomum minimum, and Proteo -

cephalus ambloplites; also the adult Spinitectus sp.

TABLE 45

Coitus b. bairdii Girard - Northern Muddler

Fischthal — Parasites of Northwest Wisconsin Fishes 217

Northern muddler

All 16 muddlers were infected with at least one species of

parasite. Two species of larval Diplostomulum were recovered

from the humor of the eyes of Bean Brook fish.

TABLE 46

Eucalia inconstans (Kirtland) - Brook Stickleback

Brook stickleback

Only 15 (approximately 45 percent) of the 33 sticklebacks

were infected. The larval nematode, Proteocephalus sp., and

Pomphorhynchus bulbocolli were encysted in the mesenteries.

Specimens of N eoechinorhynchus sp. from the Brule River sent

to Dr. R. V. Bangham and Dr. H. J. Van Cleave were placed by

both (personal communications) in the above genus. Van

Cleave, in addition, stated “the worms seemed to be definitely

stunted in size due to their occurrence in such a miniature host.”

He also stated “the worm looks very much like an undescribed

species Professor Pearse sent me from various Wisconsin fishes

and which was also included in the old Marshall and Gilbert col¬

lections of their pioneer survey. I have had the species in ques¬

tion from perch, from rock bass and from Esox.” Trichodina sp.

from Hay River and Potato Creek fish occurred on the gills.

218 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts and Letters

CHECK LIST OF PARASITES

No. spp.

Parasite fish infected

Trematoda

Acolpenteron catostomi (Fischthal and Allison, 1942) . 1

Allocreadium lobatum (Wallin) . 3

Alloglossidium corti (Lamont, 1921) . 5

Alloglossidium geminus (Mueller, 1930) . 3

Anonchohaptor anomalum (Mueller, 1938) . 1

Azygia augusticauda (Stafford, 1904) . 11

Bunodera leuciopercae (Mueller, 1776) . 1

Bunodera saceulata (Van Cleave and Mueller, 1932) . 1

Bunoderina eucaliae (Miller, 1938) . 2

Bucephalopsis pusilla (Stafford, 1904) . 1

Bucephalus elegans (Woodhead, 1930) . 7

Caecincola parvulus (Marshall and Gilbert, 1905) . 2

Clinostomnm marginatum (Rudolphi, 1819) . 24

Crepidostomum cooperi (Hopkins, 1931) . 11

Crepidostomum cornutum (Osborn, 1903) . 4

Crepidostomum farionis (Mueller, 1788) . 1

Crepidostomum isostomum (Hopkins, 1931) . 2

Cryptogonimus chyli (Osborn, 1903) . 8

Diplostomulum scheuringi (Hughes, 1929) . 15

Diplostomulum spp . 14

Gyrodactyloidea . 24

Macroderoides flavus (Van Cleave and Mueller, 1932) . 1

Macroderoides parvus (Hunter, 1932) . 1

Neascus spp . 33

Octomacrum lanceatum (Mueller, 1934) . 1

Phyllodistomum brevicecum (Steen, 1938) . 1

Phyllodistomum etheostomae (Fischthal, 1942) . 3

Phyllodistomum lysteri (Miller, 1940) . 1

Phyllodistomum nocomis (Fischthal, 1942) . 1

Phyllodistomum notropidus (Fischthal, 1942) . 1

Phyllodistomum pearsei (Holl, 1929) . 1

Phyllodistomum spp . 3

Phyllodistomum staff ordi (Pearse, 1924) . 3

Phyllodistomum undulans (Steen, 1938) . 1

Plagiocirrus primus (Van Cleave and Mueller, 1932) . 1

Plagioporus sinitsini (Mueller, 1934) . 2

Posthodiplostomum minimum (MacCallum, 1921) . 18

Rhipidocotyle papillosum (Woodhead, 1929) . . . 3

Sanguinicola occidentalis (Van Cleave and Mueller, 1932) .... 2

Sanguinicola spp . 4

Tetracotyle spp . 12

Triganodistomum attenuatum (Mueller and Van Cleave, 1932) 1

Cestoda

Biacetabulum infrequens (Hunter, 1927) . 1

Bothriocephalus claviceps (Goeze, 1782) . 1

Bothriocephalus cuspidatus (Cooper, 1917) . 5

Bothriocephalus formosus (Mueller and Van Cleave, 1932) .... 2

Bothriocephalus sp . 2

Cestodaria . . 1

Corallobothrium fimbriatum (Essex, 1928) . 4

Glaridacris catostomi (Cooper, 1920) . 2

Glaridacris confusus (Hunter, 1929) . 1

Glaridacris intermedius (Lyster, 1940) . 1

Hymenolepis sp . 1

Fischthal — Parasites of Northwest Wisconsin Fishes 219

CHECK LIST OF PARASITES (Continued)

No. spp.

Parasite fish infected

Proteocephalus amhloplites (Leidy, 1887) . 14

Proteocephalus pearsei (La Rue, 1919) . . . . . 12

Proteocephalus pinguis (La Rue, 1911) . 2

Proteocephalus spp . 16

Proteocephalus stizostethi (Hunter and Bangham, 1933) . 1

Triaenophorus nodulosus (Pallas, 1781) . 5

Nematoda

Camallanus oxycephalus (Ward and Magath, 1917) . 19

Capillaria catenata (Van Cleave and Mueller, 1932) . 7

Contracaecum brachyurum (Ward and Magath, 1917) . 2

Contracaecum spp . 31

Cystidicoloides harwoodi (Chandler, 1931) . 3

Dichelyne cotylophora (Ward and Magath, 1917) . 5

Dichelyne robusta (Van Cleave and Mueller, 1932) . 3

Hepaticola bakeri (Mueller and Van Cleave, 1932) . 2

Nematode — larva . 1

Philometra cylindracea (Ward and Magath, 1917) . 2

Philometra sp . 2

Oxyuridae . . . 1

Rhabdochona cascadilla (Wigdor, 1918) . . 9

Spinitectus carolini (Holl, 1928) . 12

Spinitectus gracilis (Ward and Magath, 1917) . 12

Spiroxys sp . 19

Acanthocephala

Leptorhynchoides thecatus (Linton, 1891) . 25

N eoechinorhynchus crassus (Van Cleave, 1919) . 3

N eoechinorhynchus cylindratus (Van Cleave, 1913) . 11

N eoechinorhynchus tenellus (Van Cleave, 1913) . 3

N eoechinorhynchus sp . 2

Octospinifer macilentus (Van Cleave, 1919) . 1

Pomphorhynchus bulbocolli (Linkins, 1919) . . 24

Protozoa

Chloromyxum spp . 4

Microsporidia . 1

Myxosporidia . 17

Trichodina renicola (Mueller, 1931) . 1

Trichodina spp . 15

Copepoda

Achtheres micropteri (Wright, 1882) . 4

Argulus catostomi (Dana and Herrick, 1837) . 1

Argulus versicolor (Wilson, 1902) . 1

Ergasilus caeruleus (Wilson, 1911) . 6

Mollusca

Glochidia . 23

Virus

Lymphocystis . 1

Hirudinea

Illinobdella spp.

7

220 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts and Letters

Literature Cited

Bangham, R. V. 1940. Parasites of fresh-water fish of southern Florida.

Proc. Fla. Acad. Sci. 5:289-307.

Bangham, R. V. 1941. Parasites of fish of Algonquin Park lakes. Trans.

Am. Fish. Soc. 70:161-171.

Bangham, R. V. (in press). (Parasites of northern Wisconsin fish.) Trans.

Wisconsin Acad. Sci.

Bangham, R. V. and Hunter, G. W., III. 1939. Studies on fish parasites of

Lake Erie. Distribution studies. Zoologica 24:385-448.

Bordner, J. S. 1942. Inventory of northern Wisconsin lakes. Bull. Wis.

Dept. Agric. No. 228:1-104.

Cross, S. X. 1938. A study of the fish parasite relations in the Trout Lake

region of Wisconsin. Trans. Wisconsin Acad. Sci. 31:439-456.

Essex, H. E. and Hunter, G. W., III. 1926. A biological survey of fish para¬

sites from the Central States. Trans. Ill. Acad. Sci. 19:151-181.

Hunter, G. W., III. 1941. Studies on the parasites of fresh-water fishes of

Connecticut. In “A fishery survey of important Connecticut lakes.”

Conn. Geol. & Nat. Hist. Surv., Bull. No. 63:228-288.

Marshall, W. S. and Gilbert, N. C. 1905. Notes on the food and parasites

of some fresh-water fishes from the lakes at Madison, Wisconsin. Rept.

Commr. Fish, for 1905:513-522.

Pearse, A. S. 1924. Observations on parasitic worms from Wisconsin

fishes. Trans. Wisconsin Acad. Sci. 21:147-160.

Van Cleave, H. J. and Mueller, J. F. 1934. Parasites of Oneida Lake

fishes. Part III. A biological and ecological survey of the worm para¬

sites. Roosevelt Wild Life Ann. 3:161-334.

THE CARTOSYRPHUS FLIES OF NORTH AMERICA

(. SYRPHIDAE )

C. L. Fluke

University of Wisconsin

F. M. Hull

University of Mississippi

This revision is Part III of a study of the genus Cheilosia

S. L. which was started jointly several years ago. Part I deals

with the genus Cheilosia sensu stricto and is published elsewhere.

A discussion of generic synonomy is included in Part I. The

second part appeared in the last volume of these Transactions

and covered the subgenus Chilomyia Shannon which Goffe pro¬

poses for Cheilosia Meigen 1822 nec Panser, 1809. A discussion

of this paper is not necessary as the topic is covered fully by

Goffe.

The authors treat only of Cartosyrphus Bigot sensu stricto in

this paper, excluding the group with plumose arista, which was

designated Hiatomyia Shannon, genotype willistoni Snow by

Shannon, 1922. We are not particularly concerned whether Car¬

tosyrphus is considered a genus or sub-genus but for consistency

in our series of papers it is recognized here with sub-generic

rank.

We have had access to numerous collections for our revision

but have had relatively few specimens from Mexico, thus our

studies deal mostly with representatives from the United States

and Canada. Many of the types have been seen and we wish to

take this opportunity to thank all who have been of assistance.

Special thanks are due to Dr. C. H. Curran of the American

Museum, Dr. R. H. Beamer of the University of Kansas, Dr.

Nathan Banks of the Museum of Comparative Zoology, Dr. S. A.

Scullen of the Oregon Agricultural College, Mr. Kenneth Mac-

Arthur of the Milwaukee Public Museum, and Mr. R. R. Dreis-

bach of Midland, Michigan.

221

222 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts and Letters

Cartosyrphus Bigot sensu stricto

Ann. Soc. Ent. France (6) 3:230, 1883.

Shannon, 1922, Insec. Insci. Mens. 10:127.

Goffe, 1944, Ent. Mont. Mag. 80 :238.

Figures 1 and 2

Eyes bare ; face with a prominent tubercle ; face usually bare

of long pile, as distinct from the short pubescence, although pile

is present in a few forms; antennal pits usually confluent, but

separated by a distinct chitinous extension of the frontal lunule

in three known American species; arista bare or very short

pubescent; scutellum may or may not have apical bristles but

with abundant ventral fringe; anterior cross-vein placed well

before the middle of the discal cell; abdomen black, the sides

curled under. Genotype Syrphus paganus Meig., 1822.

This characterization eliminates species of Cheilosia with

hairy eyes and those bare-eyed species with a long plumose arista.

Unlike the other sub-genera of Cheilosia, this one is well

represented in the eastern states. About a dozen species occur

east of the Mississippi River and seven or eight of these are

restricted to the east.

The flies of Cartosyrphus fall into five groups based upon the

principal characters used in the keys. They are as follows :

(1) Antennal pits separated by a chitinous ridge

pulchripes, platycera, wisconsinensis

(2) Slopes of face pilose

sialia, sialia var. argentipila n. var.,

sialia var. alpinensis n. var.

(3) Legs and antennae entirely black

lucta, laevis

(4) Black bristles on the scutellum

sialia, laevis, lucta, shannoni, wisconsinensis, pulchripes,

platycera, sororcula, tristis, leucoparea, pallipes,

megatarsa

(5) With enlarged hind metatarsi

shannoni, megatarsa

The flies of this sub-genus are small, ranging from 5 or 6 mm.

to 10 mm. in length. They offer very few distinguishing char¬

acters, thus considerable reliance must be placed upon the color

Fluke , Hull — Cartosyrphus Flies of North America 223

of the pile in placing them in the keys. The facial tubercle is a

good character but difficult to express in words. The beginning

student should have his determinations verified and then study

carefully the shape and size of the tubercle. In this way he will

be able to recognize the species more readily. The color of the

legs is quite variable within species and teneral specimens will

often lead one astray. Soft, poorly matured material is of very

little value and any determinations of such forms are unreliable.

The authors have been working on these flies for several

years and even yet are not fully satisfied in every respect regard¬

ing their conclusions. More study is needed but only after

abundant collecting and proper association of sexes. Early

spring collecting is the best time to find them although a few

occur later in the season. They are most numerous near wooded

areas and along streams where spring flowers, especially willow

catkins, plum blossoms, and dandelions are in bloom.

Key to the Males of Cartosyrphus

1. Slopes of face pilose . . . 2

Face without; long pile except on side strips . 4

2. Pleural pile black, squamae brownish (Western) .

. sialia var. alpinensis n. var.

Pleural pile pale, at most only a few hairs black; squamae yellow 3

3. Smaller species 5.5 to 6.5 mm. (Wisconsin)

. sialia , var. argentipila n. var.

Larger species 7 to 8 mm. (Canada, Michigan, New York)

. sialia Shan.

4. Legs and antennae wholly black . . . . 5

At least the base of the tibiae yellowish or reddish . 6

5. Squamae white ciliate (Northwestern) . laevis Bigot

Squamae blackish ciliate (Colorado, New Mexico). . lucta Snow

6. Margin of scutellum with evident bristles with or without long

hairs, bristles usually black . 7

Margin of scutellum with only delicate long hairs, although they

may be black . . . 15

7. Hind metatarsi unusually thickened, greater than girth of hind

tibiae (side view); arista pubescent; upper mesopleural pile

golden or brassy, squamal fringe brownish (Eastern)

. . . . . shannoni Curran

Hind metatarsi slender, no larger than hind tibiae; arista pubescent

or bare, squamal fringe usually pale yellow . 8

8. Antennal pits separated by a chitinous extension of the frontal

lunule, arista nearly bare . . 9

Antennal pits confluent, not completely separated . . 11

224 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts and Letters

9. Third segment of antennae one and three-fourths as long as broad,

four front tibiae yellow, separation of antennal pits longer than

wide . wisconsinensis n. sp.

Third segment of antennae little longer than broad, four front

tibiae darkened, separation of pits as broad as long . 10

10. Face evenly but deeply concave, pile of fourth tergite largely black

(Western) . pulchripes Loew

Face nearly straight from antennae to base of tubercle, pile of

fourth tergite usually largely yellow (Alaska) . . . .platycera Hine

11. Pteropleural and usually the mesopleural pile predominately black,

anterior coxae dark brown to black, humeri nearly always black,

mesonotal pile pale or black . 12

Mesopleural and pteropleural pile usually pale in color except for

the few black hairs on the upper edge, anterior coxae brownish

yellow, pile in the center of the mesonotum pale yellow often

mixed with black hairs . 13

12. Blue black flies, mesonotal pile pale (Southwestern States)

. sororcula Will.

Black flies, mesonotal pile mostly black (Canada, Northern States)

. tristis Loew

13. Hind tarsi black or dark brown, pile on the sides of the abdomen

and under the scutellum white, dark blue-black species (South¬

western States) . sororcula Will.

Second to fourth segments of hind tarsi yellow, pile on sides of

abdomen and fringe of scutellum yellowish; black, aeneous, or

brassy-black flies . 14

14. Scutellar discal pile all pale yellow, upper oral edge and apex of

tubercle equally distant from eye margins, hind femora usually

wholly black (Southeastern States) . leucoparea Loew

Scutellar discal pile usually black and yellow mixed, tubercle closer

to eye margins than upper oral edge, hind femora frequently

yellow basally . pallipes Loew

15. Front nearly bare (Nebraska) . laevifrons Jones

Front long pilose . 16

16. Pile of front yellowish, white or silvery . 17

Pile of front black . 19

17. Basal edge of costa with conspicuous long black bristles, tibiae gen¬

erally without a conspicuous dark ring (Southeastern States)

. capillata Loew

Costa with the usual very short black or pale bristles, tibiae with

definite black ring, smaller species . 18

18. Pile of tibiae and basal segments of tarsi white, tubercle of face

inconspicuous (Eastern) . caltha Shannon

Pile of tibiae and tarsi largely black, facial tubercle more prominent

(Colorado) . brevichaeta Shannon

Fluke , Hull — Cartosyrphus Flies of North America 225

19. Upper edge of the third antennal segment straight, occasionally

slightly concave; fore tibiae entirely yellow; dorsal pile on the

hind metatarsi black (Southeastern) . prima Hunter

Upper edge of third segment rounded, fore tibiae usually with a

dark spot . . . . . . . 20

20. Large species (10 mm.); shiny, brassy-haired; hind metatarsi en¬

tirely yellow haired, tibiae largely yellow with black ring (North¬

eastern States) . slossonae Shan.

Small species (7 mm.) ; shining black, pile more fulvous, hind meta¬

tarsi black haired above, tibiae largely black . . . 21

21. Thoracic and abdominal pile fulvous with a stripe of black pile

from the humeri to the wings and a few black hairs on the post

alar callosities, tarsal segments brownish (Ontario)

. sensua Curran

Thoracic and abdominal pile pale whitish with only a few black

hairs on the notopleura, tarsal segments usually reddish (Colo¬

rado) . tarda Snow

Chilosia frontosa Bigot from Mexico is not included.

Key to the Females of Cartosyrphus

1. Slopes of face pilose .

Slopes of face bare .

2. Pile of front and occiput predominantly silvery, black only near the

ocelli (Wisconsin) . sialia var. argentipila n. var.

Pile of front and occiput predominantly black or brown .

3. Eastern, front with a faint median sulcus . sialia Shan.

Western, front without a median sulcus (Western States)

. sialia var. alpinensis n. var.

4. Legs entirely black, antennae dark brown to black, wing veins

brown . . .

Legs in part yellowish or reddish, antennae usually yellowish or

reddish brown .

5. Pile of the thorax short but erect, of the abdomen also generally

erect, pile of the lower half of the front yellow and black mixed,

mesopleura with one to three black bristle-like hairs above

(Northwestern States) . laevis Bigot

Pile of the thorax and posterior segments of the abdomen appressed,

pile on lower front all pale, mesopleura pale pilose (Colorado)

. lucta Snow

6. Antennal pits separated by a chitinous extension of the frontal

lunule, arista nearly bare .

Antennal pits confluent, not completely separated .

7. Legs largely yellow, mesonotal pile appressed, third segment of

antennae elongate . wisconsinensis n. sp.

Femora black, tibiae with black ring, mesonotal pile partly erect,

antennae oval . . .

2

4

3

5

6

7

9

8

226 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts and Letters

8. Face evenly but deeply concave, pile of fourth tergite partly black

on the disc (Western) . pulchripes Loew

Face nearly straight from antennae to base of tubercle, pile of

fourth tergite all pale (Alaska) . platycera Hine

9. Scutellar rim with evident bristles, usually black . 10

Scutellar rim with only slender hairs, either short or long . 15

10. Hind metatarsi enlarged, wider than adjacent portion of tibiae;

greenish black or black flies . 11

Hind metatarsi slender, no wider in side view than adjacent portion

of tibiae . 12

11. Face on each side with a rounded yellowish spot; arista moderately

pubescent; legs with very little yellow color; hind metatarsi

grossly thickened, nearly twice as much as hind tibiae (Colo¬

rado) . megatarsa n. sp.

Face at most only reddish brown on the sides, arista conspicuously

pubescent, hind metatarsi thickened but much less so, the four

front tarsi except apical segment, yellow or reddish (Eastern)

. shannoni Curran

12. Femora and tibiae extensively pale yellow, the fore pair entirely so,

scutellum largely yellow, mesonotal pile appressed. .pallipes Loew

Femora extensively black, scutellum at most only narrowly yellow

on the rim . 13

13. Mesonotal pile white and generally erect, scutellar bristles often

pale (Southwestern States) . sororcula Will.

Mesonotal pile yellow and appressed, scutellar bristles always black 14

14. Third segment of antenna yellow, large, reaching to apex of tubercle

(Southeastern States) . leucoparea Loew

Third segment of antennae usually darkened apically, small, never

reaching the apex of tubercle . tristis Loew

15. Costa near base with long black bristle-like hairs, third segment of

antenna large with a straight slit on the inner side (South¬

eastern States) . capillata Loew

Costa with the bristles either short and black or pale in color,

antenna wthout seam . 16

16. Third antennal segment very large, several times as large as

usual, bright orange-yellow; large species (8 to 11 mm.) . 17

Third segment usual in size, orange colored, small species (6 to 7

mm.) . 18

17. All the femora pale yellow, the hind femora occasionally with a

small brown cloud near the middle (Southeastern States)

. prima Hunter

Femora black, narrowly yellow at the tip (Northeastern States)

. slossonae Shannon

18. Front flattened, not trisulcate (Colorado, Canada) . . . .comosa Loew

Front with a median fine furrow in addition to the usual side

furrows . 19

Fluke , Hull—^Cartosyrphus Flies of North America 227

19. Pile on the outer sides of the hind tibiae largely black; pale areas

of legs reddish (Colorado) .................... brevichaeta Shan.

Pile on the hind tibiae pale, pale areas of legs yellowish (Central

States) . . . . . caltha Shannon

Cheilosia (Cartosyrphus) sialia Shannon

Insec. Insci Menst. 10:132, Oct. 1922.

Chilosia rita Curran, May 1922, Can. Ent. 54:71

(preoccupied, by rita Curran p. 70) ; Can. Ent. 59 :74.

Figures 7, 20 and 21

Sides of the face pilose; squamae yellow; pile of the meso-

notum black, of the pleura generally pale ; Length 7 to 8 mm.

Male Face and front shining black, lightly silvery pubes¬

cent with a heavier coating beneath the antennae ; slopes of the

face with white pile, occasionally a few black hairs present ;

pile of front, ocellar triangle, and upper occiput black; pile of

the cheeks and lower occiput white. Facial tubercle prominent

with a deep concavity above, strips of average width, shining,

orange colored, somewhat darkened apicaily on some specimens ;

arista black, thickened basally, microscopically pubescent.

Thorax:— Shining black, the mesonotum with brownish pollen

on the anterior half, pile all black, longer and somewhat bristly

along the sides. Pile of the pleura and humeri white, a few

black hairs on the upper edge of the mesopleura. Pile of the

scutellum long and black, longer and bristle-like on the rim, the

fringe long and white.

Legs: — Black; apex of the femora, basal third and narrower

apex of the tibiae, and the basal two or three segments of the

tarsi yellowish brown, the pile mostly pale on the femora and

tibiae, black on the inner sides of the hind tibiae; a circlet of

black bristles at the apex of the mid tibiae. Wings luteous, the

veins yellow to light brown; squamae and plumule pale yellow;

halteres yellow with darkened knob.

Abdomen:— Shining black, opaque on the disc of the first

two tergites and on the posterior edge of the third. Pile all

erect, pale with a few black hairs in the middle and on the

posterior edges of the second and third tergites.

Female -Curran has given a full description of the female.

The only points that need be added here are that the arista is

microscopically pubescent, front often (usually?) with a faint

228 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts and Letters

median sulcus and dominantly black pile, pile of mesonotum

appressed and pile of the mid and hind tibiae largely black.

Distribution : — New Brunswick — type male (In U. S. N.

Mus.) and Ontario, type female as rita Curran (in Ontario

Museum, Toronto).

Material reviewed: — Type male; Michigan — Jackson, 1 male

May 2, 1925 (E. G. Anderson) ; Mecosta County, 1 female

May 30, 1940 (Dreisbach) ; Oseola County, 1 pair May 11 and 25,

1940 and 1941 (Dreisbach) ; Otsego County, 1 male April 26,

1941 (Dreisbach). New York — Cayuga Lake, 1 male May 8,

1935 (Townes). Wisconsin — Madison, 1 male May 11, 1926

(Fluke). Alberta — Wabamun, 1 female June 27, 1936 (Strick¬

land). Ontario— -Lake Abitibi, 1 female June 18, 1925 (Bige¬

low). Quebec — Hull, 1 female April 26, 1923 (Osburn) ; Me-

gantic, 1 female June 20, 1923 (Curran).

This species would be very easy to place because of the hairy

face if it were not for the variations that occur in other sections

of the country. The eastern forms are generally paler, the high

altitude western forms extremely dark including the squamae.

Since there appears to be a gradual gradation of forms from

east to west we are naming the two forms below as new varie¬

ties, both of which may prove to be distinct species.

Cheilosia (Cartosyrphus) sialia var. alpinensis n. var.

Figure 2

Mesonotal and pleural pile black and the squamae brownish

fringed on the male ; females practically indistinguishable from

typical sialia. Length 7 to 8 mm.

Male : — Head shining black the slopes of the face with sparse

long white pile with several black ones below ; the front sparsely

pubescent and relatively long black pilose, with a median deep

sulcus; facial strips very narrow with short white pile. Facial

tubercle prominent. Vertical triangle shining with long black

pile, cilia long and all black. First two segments of the antennae

brown, the third orange with darker tip and upper edge, arista

black, basally thickened ; micropubescent.

Thorax: — Shining black, the pile long and all black, bristle¬

like along the sides and on the rim of the scutellum yellow.

Fluke, Hull—^Cartosyrphus Flies of North America 229

Legs:— -Dark brown to black; the apices of all the femora,

basal two-fifths of all the tibiae and their narrow apices, and

basal two segments of the four front tarsi yellowish brown, all

rather diffuse. Hind femora ventrally black pilose except for a

few pale hairs at the base, otherwise pale pilose except the

apex which is black pilose ; pile of the other femora quite simi¬

larly colored ; pile of the tibiae black, pale on the inner surface.

Wings:-— Pale brown, the stigma yellow; subapical cross-vein

extremely long, joining the third vein at an acute angle. Squamae

dull yellowish brown, the border and fringe darker; plumule

yellowish, halteres black.

Abdomen: — Oval, shining black with a bluish cast, broadly

opaque on the second tergite and on the middle of the third. Pile

erect, pale basally, becoming mostly black posteriorly. Ventral

pile pale.

Female: — Similar to the male; facial pile sparse and all

pale; third segment of antenna larger and generally more yel¬

lowish orange ; front long, no definite median sulcus but with a

prominent transverse depression above the antennae with a me¬

dian depression reaching forward to the antennae; pile black

with shorter white hairs towards the antennae; mesonotal pile

extremely short and appressed, all black ; pleural pile pale ; scutel-

lar pile pale and black intermixed, appressed, the rim with two

pairs of short black bristles and two other pairs of still shorter

lateral ones; squamae whitish. Abdominal pile is short, ap¬

pressed except in the basal corners of the tergites, shining black

with bluish cast.

Holotype:— Male, Granite Peaks Camp, Bayfield, Colorado,

July 19.28, 9,000 ft. elevation (J. Bequaert).

Allotype: — Female same data.

Paratypes: — One male Hood River, Oregon, May 19, 1917

(F. R. Cole) ; one male Electron, Wash., June 26, 1933 (J. Wil¬

cox) ; one female same data as holotype. Holotype and allotype

in Hull collection, paratypes in Oregon State and Fluke collec¬

tions.

The female is very difficult to separate from sialia. The speci¬

mens before us have a narrowing front above and with no trace

of a median sulcus, sialia has a very shallow median furrow and

the front is also somewhat wider. The males are amply distinct,

told principally by the black pile of the pleura and darkened

squamae.

230 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts and Letters

Cheilosia ( Cartosyrphus) sialia var. argentipila n. var.

Figure 6

Smaller than typical sialia (5.5 to 6.5 mm.), pile of the meso-

notum of the male more brownish with a few whitish hairs

intermixed especially on the anterior disc.

Female : — Pile of front largely pale, black only near the

ocelli ; on the mesonotum also yellowish but difficult to distin¬

guish due to its extremely appressed condition ; no black bristles

on the mesopleura, pile of the hind tibiae and tarsi yellow. The

front of the female is similar to the females of sialia, that is

wider than variety alpinensis and with a faint median sulcus.

Holotype: — Female Madison, Wis. May 30, 1924, (Fluke).

Allotype : — Male same place May 10, 1926.

Paratypes: — One male same place May 17, 1926 and one

female same place May 11, 1922.

Cheilosia (Cartosyrphus) pulchripes Loew*

Chilosia pulchripes Loew, 1857, Verh. Zool. Bot. Ges. 7 :597.

Figure 22

Antennal pits separated, face strongly concave, facial strips

narrow, pile on fourth tergite of female black on the disc. Length

6.5 to 7 mm.

Female Face shining black, almost devoid of any pollen¬

like pubescence except beneath antennae, the tubercle prominent

and sloping above into a deep concavity. Cheeks shining with

white pile. Facial strips quite narrow, nearly bare with short

fine white pile. Front shining with shallow side furrows, the

pile black with a few yellowish hairs, the frontal lunule and a

transverse depression above shining ; the inner arms of the

lunule extend between the antennae to separate the antennal

pits, this separation is about twice as wide as on wisconsinensis.

Antennae yellowish orange, the third segment enormous, reach¬

ing to the apex of the tubercle, longer than broad ; arista brown,

practically bare. Ocellar triangle black pilose, the occipital pile

yellow with a few black cilia.

Thorax and Scutellum: — Shining black, the pile all short and

yellow with black bristles on the upper edge of the mesopleura,

* Kertess lists this species as a synonym of pagana Mg'.

Fluke , Hull — Cartosyrphus Flies of North America 231

notopleura, calli, above wing base, and on the rim of the scutel-

lum, although these latter are not many and they are relatively

short.

Legs: — Yellow ; the femora except the apex, an apical ring

on the hind tibiae, the hind metatarsi, and the apical segment of

all the tarsi dark brown.

Wings .—Yellowish, the plumule and halteres white.

Abdomen: — Shining black, the pile yellowish along the sides,

black and somewhat appressed on the disc of the fourth tergite.

The above description made from a female from Welzheimer

— Wald, Germany. Two females from Alberta, Canada are iden¬

tical although the legs are slightly darker and in one the pile

on the fourth tergite is mostly pale.

Male: — The specimen before us also from Germany lacks

the head and most of the dorsum of the thorax. The legs are

quite similar to those of the female but there is evidence of

black pile along the sides of the mesonotum. The pile down the

middle of the abdomen is also black.

Coquillett recorded this species from Alaska but Shannon

stated that this reference was to an un described species which he

named kincaidi. The two are very similar but definitely differ¬

ent. We have however two females before us from Alberta that

do not differ in any respects from the European forms.

Distribution : — Europe.

Material reviewed:— Germany — A pair. Alberta — Edmon¬

ton, 1 female June 1, 1934 and 1 female May 29, 1926 (Strick¬

land).

Recorded by others: — Alberta, British Columbia (Osburn).

Cheilosia ( Cartosyrphus) platycera Hine

Chilosia platycera Hine, 1922 (March), Ohio Jour. Sci.

22:143.

Cartosyrphus kincaidi Shannon 1922 (July), Insec. Insci.

Menst. 10:142.

Figures 23 and 24

Closely related to pulchripes Lw. Distinguished principally

by the shape of the face which is very little concave between the

upper base of the tubercle and the antennae. The antennae are

slightly rounder, the legs are darker, and the mesonotum is more

232 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts and Letters

shaggy haired with relatively few black hairs except along the

sides. European specimens of pulchripes apparently vary con¬

siderably as to color of pile and color of legs and if it were not

for the less concave face we would consider the two identical,

especially in view of the Alberta specimens which we consider

typical pulchripes. We have before us one of the Harriman

Alaska specimens and we have also examined the types of both

American species and can find no differences that appear to be

specific.

Distribution : — Alaska (Type in Ohio State Museum).

Material reviewed: — Alaska — Type; Kukak Bay, 1 male

July 1, 1899 (Kincaid) ; Mt. Taveloq, 1 male June 7, 1913

(Kuske) ; Seward, 2 males and 2 females June 21, 1937 (Phillip).

Cheilosia (Cartosyrphus) wisconsinensis n. sp.

Figures 12, 25, 26, 27 and 28

Antennae yellow, the third segment elongated, about one and

three-quarters longer than wide. Pile of the front mostly white,

of the mesonotum erect and yellowish-white, appressed on the

female ; bristles of the scutellum long and black. Length 8.5 mm.

Male: — Face with a moderate tubercle gently excavated

above and rather sharply excavated below; the oral angles

slightly protruding below; white pubescent below the antennae

and very lightly dusted over the rest of the face. Front whitish

pubescent with predominately black pile, a few white hairs inter¬

mixed. Ocellar triangle semi-shining, the pile largely black, the

cilia sparse, partly black and partly white; cheeks next to the

eyes heavily white pollinose, the pile all white. Antennae yel¬

low; the first segment slightly darker; third segment elongate;

the arista reddish-brown and very short pubescent, thickened

on the basal third. Antennal pits narrowly but distinctly sepa¬

rated ; in this respect related to platycera Hine.

Thorax: — Mesonotum shining blue-black with erect white

pile, a strong black bristle and four or five black hairs on the

notopleura; about four black bristles just above the wing base

and two on the callus ; scutellar pile long and all white, the rim

with about four pairs of black bristles ; fringe yellowish-white.

Scutellum slightly rugose near the apex. Pleura shining with

pale pile and two black bristles on the upper mesopleura.

Fluke, Hull — Cartosyrphus Flies of North America 233

Legs:— Mostly yellow with the following black areas: coxae,

all but the narrow base and apical third of the femora, a median

ring on the hind tibiae, the hind metatarsi, and the apical seg¬

ment of all tarsi. Pile of the legs rather sparse and mostly

white, strong black setulae on the under sides of the hind

femora, middle tarsi and a few on the outside of the hind tibiae.

Wings:— Hyaline, the veins and stigma yellow; squamae and

plumule white, the halteres yellow.

Abdomen:— Shining black with long, erect white pile along

the sides becoming darker and shorter down the middle.

Female : — Dissimilar ; face reddish over the tubercle and on

the sides; front quite narrow, no median sulcus, the pile ap-

pressed and all pale ; occipital pile pale ; third segment of anten¬

nae slightly larger than on the male but similarly shaped and

entirely yellow.

Thorax : — Shining black, the pile rather long but appressed

and pale on the mesonotum and scutellum, the latter with mar¬

ginal black bristles although they are all broken off except one ;

one strong black bristle on the mesopleura, one on the noto-

pleura, two or three above the wing base and two on the calli.

Legs: — Generally yellow, the tibiae entirely so, the femora

may be brownish on well-matured specimens but are only very

little darkened on the allotype; hind metatarsi and the apical

segment of the other tarsi brownish. Wings yellowish, the veins

yellow.

Abdomen: — Entirely shining black with a brassy tint; the

pile all white and generally appressed except along the sides.

Holotype : — Male, Madison, Wisconsin May 20, 1925 (Fluke).

Allotype: — Female, Milwaukee, Wisconsin June 20, 1908.

Paratypes : — One male Columbus, Wisconsin, May 27, 1926

(Fluke) and one crippled male (lacks head) Columbus, Wis¬

consin, June 15, 1924 (Fluke), one male Milwaukee, Wisconsin,

May 31, 1909. Allotype female and last named paratype male in

the Milwaukee Public Museum. Holotype in the American

Museum.

This species is quite distinct with its elongate yellow anten¬

nae. The frontal and ocellar pile on the male from Columbus is

all white except for a few black hairs, on the other two males

it is dominantly black. We believe this female belongs with the

234 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts and Letters

males because of the similarity of the antennae and divided

antennal pits, even though the facial tubercle is more prominent

on the females.

Cheilosia (Cartosyrphus) laevis Bigot

Chilosia laevis Bigot, 1883, Ann. Soc. Ent. France, No. 32,

part 23, p. 553.

Figures 8 and 29

Antennae and legs entirely black, squamae yellow, mesonotal

pile of female short, mostly white and erect. Length 7 mm.

Male : — Face shining black, with fine pollen-like grey pubes¬

cence, thicker below the antennae; pile of the strips short and

pale. Front shining, lightly pubescent, the pile black. Ocellar

and occipital pile long and black. Antennae small, dark brown to

black, the third segment almost obtuse at the end ; arista brown,

noticeably pubescent.

Thorax: — Mesonotum shining black with rather strong black

and white pile intermixed, longer and blacker on the sides; on

the scutellum quite similar, the rim with many long bristly-like

hairs. Pleura shining, the upper edge with black pile becoming

pale below. Legs dark brown to black, the pile mostly black,

paler at the bases of the femora. Wings infuscated dark brown,

the pile at the base of the costa conspicuous and black. Squamae

almost white, the fringe yellowish, halteres brown.

Abdomen: — Shining, semi-opaque down the middle; the pile

yellow, shorter and often black down the middle.

Female: — Similar. The frontal pile pale with a few inter¬

mixed black hairs; occipital pile largely pale. Mesonotal pile

short, erect, and largely pale, with strong black bristles along the

side ; scutellar pile similar to mesonotum, the rim bristles fewer

and shorter. Abdomen more oval, entirely shining.

Distribution: — Washington (Type in Brit. Museum).

Material reviewed: — Type ; Colorado — Ward, 1 male June 25,

1922 (9300 ft. alt.). Oregon — Bellfouatain, 1 male (Lovett) ;

Alsea Mt., Benton Co., 1 male May 3, 1936 (Scullen). Washing¬

ton — Electron, 5 males, 1 female May 7, 1935 (Wilcox) ;

Olympia, 1 female May 3, 1932 (Martin) ; Puyallop, 1 female

May 3, 1932 (Wilcox) ; Roy, 1 male May 4, 1930; Sumner, 2

males, 3 females April 30, 1930 and May 27, 1933 (Latta).

Recorded by others: — Colorado, Oregon, Washington.

Fluke, Hull — Cartosyrphus Flies of North America 235

This species is easily recognized by its dark legs and an¬

tennae. It resembles closest lucta which species however has

black ciliate squamae on the male and appressed yellow pile on

the mesonotum of the female. On the females of lucta before us

there are no black bristles on the pteropleura, always present on

laevis.

Cheilosia (Cartosyrphus) lucta Snow

Chilosia lucta Snow, 1395, Kansas Univ. Quart. 8 :228.

Figure 30

Entirely black, including antennae and legs; pile on the

mesonotum of the female appressed; squamal fringe of male

blackish ciliate, on female yellowish. Length 6 mm.

Female:— Head shining black with pale pile, black around

the ocelli; face deeply concave below antennae, giving the

tubercle an upturned appearance; facial strips broad with deli¬

cate white pile. Antennae velvety black, the third segment

round, arista feebly pubescent.

Thorax: — Shining, with short appressed yellowish pile, two

black bristles on the notopleura, one on the calli, and usually

one or two above the wing. Scutellar edge with a pair of rela¬

tively short black bristles and three pairs of shorter pale bristles.

Legs wholly black, not even yellowish on the knees. Wings with

blackish veins. Halteres and squamae yellowish.

Abdomen: — Shining black, first tergite dulled in the middle,

the pile short and pale, appressed on the third and fourth ter-

gites.

Distribution: — Colorado— Type female Manitou (In Univer¬

sity Kansas Collection).

Material reviewed:— Colorado— (Type) , Custer Co., 1

female Aug. 1928, 10,000 ft. elev. (Painter) ; Lake City, 1 female

Aug. 1938, 9,000 ft. elevation (Fluke) ; Masonville, 1 female

July 10, 1938, 6,567 ft. elev. (James). New Mexico — Jemez

Springs, 1 female July 1, 1941 (Baemer).

*We have not seen the male but have used the character em¬

ployed by Shannon of black ciliate squamae. In this respect it

differs from laevis a very closely related species. Snow’s original

* Since the above was written we have examined several males collected at

Estes Park, Colo. (Aug. 1946 — Fluke). They agree in having the squamae black

ciliate.

236 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts and Letters

description does not mention the black bristles on the rim of the

scutellum but an examination of the type shows they have been

broken off, thus they are characteristic of the species.

Cheilosia (Cartosyrphus) tristis Loew

Chilosia tristis Loew 1863, Centuria, 4:71.

Cartosyrphus longipilosa Wehr. 1922, Univ. Stu. Nebr.

22:25.

Figures 1, 9, 31 and 32

Shining aeneous black, scutellum with long black bristles on

the rim, facial slopes without pile. Male: face black, mesonotal

pile mostly black, squamal fringe brownish, abdomen semi¬

opaque. Female: slopes of face with yellowish red spot, pile of

mesonotum whitish and appressed, abdomen mostly shining.

Length 6 to 8 mm.

Male: — Face shining black with a dark red cast below the

well-rounded tubercle and below on the cheeks; the fine pubes¬

cence white and very sparse, thicker on the facial strips and just

below the antennae ; the fine short pile on the facial strips white,

longer on the cheeks. Front and ocellar triangle shining black,

the former with a deep median furrow, the pile long and black,

the frontal lunule shining yellowish red; the cilia on the upper

occiput black, the shorter pile behind and below white. Antennae

small, first two segments blackish, the third variable but usually

yellowish red or light orange, sometimes brown but never black,

very little longer than broad; arista brown with pubescence as

long as diameter of arista.

Thorax: — Semi-shining; the mesonotum quite dull with three

poorly defined rusty pollinose vittae on the anterior half seen

from the side and in front, the pile mostly black, posteriorly

often with a few whitish hairs and the black ones may be tipped

brownish, usually several longer prescutellar black bristle-like

hairs. The humeri black with a rusty patch of pollen on their

inner sides. Scutellum shining black with long black hairs and

shorter white hairs intermixed, the rim with three or four pairs

of long slender black bristles, the fringe long and yellow. Noto-

pleura, calli, and an area just above the wing base with strong

black bristles, usually two in each area. Pleura lightly dusted

with white pollen, the pile pale below but black on the ptero-

pleura and mesopleura with a few bristles on the hump.

Fluke , Hull — Cartosyrphus Flies of North America 237

Legs: — Dark brown to black; extreme tips of the femora and

tibiae, basal third of the tibiae, and the extreme bases and tips

of the tarsal segments reddish to yellowish ; northeastern United

States examples are usually lighter colored, the reddish areas

more extensive and the tarsal segments except the last one often

entirely yellow. Pile not conspicuous, usually black but with

longer white hairs on the femora basally, the hind femora with

many bristle-like hairs on the underside ; pile of the front tibiae

yellowish below. Wings dilutely tinged brownish, the veins

brown. Squamae yellow, the fringe brown although an occa¬

sional specimen with yellowish fringe ; plumule yellowish white ;

halteres yellow with darkened knob.

Abdomen: — Shining aeneous black on the first and fourth

tergites and broadly on the anterior corners of the second and

third tergites, otherwise opaque black; the pile rather long and

yellowish to whitish on the shining areas, black and shorter

down the middle and at the apex of the fourth tergite. Venter

shining, pile on the first two sternites long and white; short,

black and appressed on the apical sternites.

Female: — Dissimilar. Facial slopes usually with a distinc¬

tive yellow spot between the oral opening and the eyes. Front

shining with parallel sides, a pair of white side dust spots, the

pile black above the frontal lunule, from there to the ocelli with

white pile with black hairs intermixed, often predominately

black; cilia usually white with an occasional black hair; third

segment of antenna a little larger than on the male. Pile of the

mesonotum short and yellowish white, appressed; humeri often

reddish, the interhumeral pollinose spots white; without the

brownish pollinose vittae on the anterior half. Pile of the scu-

tellum short, appressed and white, the rim bristles long and

black, the fringe short and white. The black bristles along the

sides of the mesonotum similar to the male but more conspicuous

in the background of white pile. Pleural pile white with two

black bristles on the upper edge of the mesopleura. Legs usually

more extensively yellow, wing veins yellowish toward the base,

halteres and squamae yellow. Abdomen more shining, the pile

shorter but colored similar to the male.

This description is based upon a long series of specimens

from Pingree Park, Colorado which are considered typical. Loew

described the species from specimens from the Red River of the

238 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts and Letters

North. We therefore believe these high altitude specimens from

Colorado are more typical than the Eastern representatives be¬

fore us. Specimens of the males from Maine, Massachusetts, and

Michigan are paler, often having yellowish hairs on the disc of

the mesonotum and there are also some differences in the shape of

the facial tubercle; in these respects they closely resemble the

male of pallipes and even leucoparea. A series of six females,

three from Red River, New Mexico and three from Lake Nipi¬

gon, Ontario have the rim of the scutellum extensively yellow

agreeing in this respect with pallipes but the legs are dark.

Another series of 25 females and nine males from Lake City,

Colorado also vary from the others in the shape of the facial

tubercle and darker color of the legs, but we do not believe they

are sufficiently different to be distinct.

There will occasionally be some confusion in identifying

slightly teneral specimens, and it may be possible that this species

was originally described from such forms.

Wehr’s species represents one of the several varieties that

occur in the males. It is somewhat similar to the Eastern speci¬

mens mentioned below which have considerable yellowish pile

on the disc of the mesonotum. We have examined two of the

males of the original series described by Wehr. Unfortunately

we have not had an opportunity in recent years to examine

Loew’s types.

Distribution: — Canada — Red River of the North (Type,

Female in the Museum of Comp. Zoology) .

Material reviewed: — Ontario — Macdiarmid, Lake Nipigon,

3 females July 28, 1932 (Bigelow) ; Low Bush, Lake Abitibi, 1

female Aug. 14, 1925 (Bigelow). Colorado — Cameron Pass, 3

males and 1 female Aug. 1932 and 1941 (Fluke) ; Cuchara, 9,000

ft. elev., 1 female Aug. 7, 1940 (Snyder) ; Estes Park, 1 female

Aug. 22, 1936; Granite Peaks Camp, 9,000 ft. elev., July, 1928

(J. Bequaert) ; Lake City, 9,000 ft. elev., 9 males and 34 females

Aug. 1936 and 1938 (Fluke) ; Pingree Park, 9,000 ft. elev., 9

males and 106 females Aug. 1923, 1925, 1932, 1935 (Fluke) ;

Webster, Aug. 1, 1938. Maine — Bar Harbor, 2 males and 2

females July 10 (C. W. Johnson) ; Great Pond, Mt. Desert, 1

male July 16, 1918 (C. W. Johnson) ; Mt. Desert, 3 males and 4

females July (C. W. Johnson) ; Orrs Island, 2 males July 24

(C. W. Johnson) ; S. W. Harbor, 1 male July 10, 1918. Massa-

Fluke , Hull — C artosyrphus Flies of North America 239

CHUSETTS— North Adams, 4 males June 20 (C. W. Johnson) ;

Mt. Greylock, 1 male July 13 (C. W. Johnson) ; Reading, 1 male

July 23, 1933 (Dow). Michigan — Cheboygan Co., 1 pair Aug. 15,

1940 (Dreisbach). New Hampshire — Glen House, 11 males and

4 females July 17 to 20 (C. W. Johnson). New Mexico— Red

River, 2 females Aug. 14, 1940 (Snyder). Oregon — Breitenbus

Hot Springs, 2,222 ft. elev., 1 male July 4, 1931 (Scullen). Wash¬

ington — Mt. Rainier, 1 male July 7, 1926. Wisconsin — Madi¬

son, 1 female Aug. 27, 1929 (Fluke) ; Maher, 1 female Sept. 20,

1930. Wyoming — Centennial, 1 pair July 27, 1935 (Blake) and

August 20, 1936 (Fluke).

Recorded by others:— Alaska, British Columbia, New York,

and Ohio.

Cheilosia (C artosyrphus) shannoni Curran

Cartosyrphus similis Shannon, 1916, Proc. Biol. Sci. Wash.

29:196.

Cartosyrphus shannoni Curran, 1927, Can. Ent. 59:73.

Figures 3, 10 and 35

Recognized principally by the enlarged hind metatarsi,

weakly so on the male; squamae of male brownish fringed.

Length 7 to 8 mm.

Male: — Face shining black, the tubercle nasiform with the

groove below extending to the side strips ; lightly pubescent but

not pilose, the pubescence white and much thicker below the

antennae and on the side strips which are relatively narrow.

Pile of the front and vertex black, on the cheeks yellow. An¬

tennae small, third segment orange, arista black and promi¬

nently pubescent, the hairs nearly as long as diameter of arista.

Thorax:— Shining black, the disc of mesonotum in front

lightly brownish pollinose ; the pile black, somewhat yellowish in

the middle of the mesonotum and all yellow on the pleura except

for a few black bristle-like hairs on the upper edge of the ptero-

pleura and mesopleura. Scutellum with black pile and shorter

brownish hairs intermixed, the rim with long black bristles.

Legs: — Brownish to black; the basal half and narrower tips

of the tibiae and basal two segments of the four front tarsi

yellowish to reddish ; pile mostly black, yellow hairs at the basal

half of the femora and generally on the front tibiae. The hind

metatarsus considerably enlarged, best seen from a side view.

240 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts and Letters

tr/\s t/s

cilia

<a— - ocellar triangle

— — ^ - fron t

frontal sulcus

frontal lunule

facial strip

facial tuberc/e

facial pile

ora / tuberc/e

cheek

2- a/joit7ensjs

'5-megcifarsa

9

6- argent/ pi /a

7-sia/i a

X

Cr/aevfc

Fluke , Hull — Cartosyrphus Flies of North America 241

Explanation of Plates

All drawings were made with the aid of the camera lucida except num¬

bers 5 and 34. All head sketches except 34 were made to the same scale.

The antennae were made in two different scales: numbers 6, 12, 16, 17 and

18 to one scale and the rest to a slightly smaller scale. Front views of

heads were each made at slightly different angles.

Plate I

Fig. 1. C. tristis Lw. dorsal view of male.

Fig. 2. C. sialia var. alpinensis n. var. front of female.

Fig. 3. C. shannoni Cur. hind leg of female.

Fig. 4. C. pallipes Lw. hind leg of male.

Fig. 5. C. megatarsa n. sp. tibia and meta tarsus of female.

Fig. 6. C. sialia , var. argentipila n. var. antennae of female.

Fig. 7. C. sialia Shan, antenna of female.

Fig. 8. C. laevis Big. antenna of female.

Fig. 9. C. tristis Lw. scutellum of female.

Fig. 10. C. shannoni Cur. antenna of female.

Fig. 11. C. pallipes Lw. antenna of female.

Fig. 12. C. wisconsinensis n. sp. antenna of male.

Fig. 13. C. prima Hunter antenna of female.

Fig. 14. C. capillata Lw. basal costal margin of wing.

Fig. 15. C. slossonae Shan, antenna of female.

Fig. 16. C. capillata Lw. antenna of female.

Fig. 17. C. capillata Lw. antenna of male.

Fig. 18. C. caltha Shan, antenna of female.

Fig. 19. C. brevichaeta Shan, antenna of female.

242 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts and Letters

25- v/sconsinetisis

Fluke, Hull — Cartosyrphus Flies of North America 243

Plate II

Fig. 20. C. sialia Shan, front view of head of female.

Fig. 21. C. sialia Shan, profile of head of male.

Fig. 22. C. pulchripes Lw. profile of head of female.

Fig. 23. C. platycera Hine front view of head of male.

Fig. 24. C. platycera Hine side view of head of female.

Fig. 25. C. wisconsinensis n. sp. profile of head of male.

Fig. 26. C. wisconsinensis n. sp. front view of head of male.

Fig. 27. C. wisconsinensis n. sp. front view of head of female.

Fig. 28. C. wisconsinensis n. sp. profile of head of female.

Fig. 29. C. laevis Bigot profile of head of male.

Fig. 30. C. lucta Snow profile of head of female.

Fig. 31. C. tristis Lw. front view of head of female.

Fig. 32. C. tristis Lw. profile of head of male.

Fig. 33. C. sororcula Will, profile of head of male.

Fig. 34. C. megatarsa n. sp. profile of head of female.

Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts and Letters

35-$hannom

36- pa/hpes

3 7-pa//ipes

3Q~/eucoparea

40'S/ossonae

Fluke, Hull — Cartosyrphus Flies of North America 245

Fig. 35. C.

Fig. 36. C.

Fig. 37. C.

Fig. 38. C.

Fig. 39. C.

Fig. 40. C.

Fig. 41. C.

Fig. 42. C.

Fig. 43. C.

Fig. 44. C.

Fig. 45. C.

Fig. 46. C.

Plate III

shannoni Cur. profile of head of female.

pallipes Lw. profile of head of male.

pallipes Lw. profile of head of female.

leucoparea Lw. profile of head of male.

leucoparea Lw. profile of head of female.

slossonae Shan, profile of head of male.

capillate Lw. profile of head of male.

prima Hunter profile of head of female.

caltha Shan, profile of head of male.

caltha Shan, front view of head of female.

brevichaeta Shan, profile of head of male.

tarda Snow profile of head of male.

246 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts and Letters

In some specimens the enlargement is very little more than the

girth of the adjacent tibia.

Wings: — Decidedly tinged with brown, squamae light brown¬

ish, the fringe darker, halteres yellowish brown.

Abdomen: — Semi-opaque black, the fourth tergite and ante¬

rior corners of the second and third shining ; pile yellowish along

the sides, black broadly down the middle and more broadly on

the tips of the tergites.

Female : — Much paler ; pile of front white except near ocelli ;

on the mesonotum short and white, mostly erect ; black bristles

along the sides of the thorax. Legs much paler, the tibiae largely

yellow. Wings less infuscated, squamae yellow. Abdominal pile

shorter and generally pale. Hind metatarsus conspicuously

thickened.

Distribution: — Eastern states (Type in the U. S. Natl.

Museum) .

Material reviewed: — Type; Maryland — College Park, 4

males Sept, and Oct. 1930 (J. H. Roberts) ; East Shore, 1 female

Sept. 25, 1930 (Ditman) ; Prince George County, 2 females

July 12, 1917 (Nicolay). Massachusetts — Holliston, 3 females

August (Banks); Southboro, 1 female Sept. 24, 1922 (Frost).

Maine — Southwest Harbor, 1 female Aug. 1923 (C. W. John¬

son). Michigan — Livingston Co., 1 female Sept. 3, 1933 (Styk-

skal). Virginia — Great Falls, 3 females October (Shannon).

Wisconsin — Madison, 1 male and 1 female, Sept, and Aug.

(Fluke).

Recorded by others: — New Jersey, New York, Pennsylvania,

North Carolina.

This species appears to be most common in the late summer

and fall months. It occurs over the entire eastern section of the

United States.

Cheilosia (Cartosyrphus) megatar saw. sp.

Figures 5 and 34

Characterized by the greatly thickened hind metatarsus,

small antennae, pubescent arista, appressed pile on the meso¬

notum, and black bristles on the rim of the scutellum. Length

8 mm.

Female: — Face shining black with a faint brassy cast, the

lower slopes with a brownish yellow spot, cheeks brown ; pubes-

Fluke , Hull — Cartosyrphus Flies of North America 247

cence white, rather thick on the lower half of face and cheeks,

mid line of face bare ; tubercle quite narrowly pointed and promi¬

nent, the slope from tubercle to antennae long, slanting, project¬

ing considerably forward from the base of the antennae, con¬

cavity below tubercle short and deep. Front polished black with

faint brassy reflections, a wedge-shaped sub-triangular yellowish

grey pubescent patch along the eye margin, continuing more

narrowly nearly to the ocelli; pile chiefly silvery with several

black hairs above the antennae and others on the upper part.

The vertical pile before and behind the ocelli is black; occipital

pile very pale yellow, almost white. Antennae small dark brown,

the third segment scarcely lighter colored below and basally;

arista dark brown, thickened on the basal third, strongly

pubescent.

Thorax : — Mesonotum thickly, quite short, appressed yellow¬

ish white pilose; ground color shining black with slight brassy

cast. Black bristles on the following areas : Two or three on the

notopleura, seven or eight short ones above the wing base, three

long and one or two short ones on the post calli, two small ones

on the upper edge of the mesopleura, none on the pteropleura.

Pile of scutellum similar to mesonotum, the outer edge with two

pairs of long stout tuberculate black bristles, the base with two

shorter pairs.

Legs: — Dark brown; narrow apex of hind femora, apices

of other femora a little more extensively, basal fourth of hind

tibiae and narrow apex, basal half and narrow apex of middle

tibiae are light brownish in color; all the tarsi are dark brown

to black. Pile of the legs inconspicuous, mostly whitish on the

hind femora, the usual short black bristles on the ventral apical

half are sparse and scattered, reduced to six or seven ; hind meta¬

tarsus black pilose above and enormously thickened, about twice

as thick as the end of the tibiae and nearly two and one half

times as thick as the middle of the tibiae. Wings long and

slender, pale grey, hyaline, the stigma concolorous ; the postical

cross vein straight, with a spur; the subapical cross vein long,

very gently sinuous, without spur and joining the third vein

acutely.

Abdomen: — Black, but little shining, with a very faint cop¬

pery or brassy luster; the pile silvery and erect except on a

median line ; black pilose on posterior triangles of second to fifth

tergites, small on second and fifth, larger on intervening tergites.

248 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts and Letters

Holotype:— Female, Chambers Lake, Colorado, Sept. 3, 1922.

Type in the Colorado State College Collection, Fort Collins.

(Chambers Lake is about 60 miles west of Fort Collins and close

to the continental divide, altitude about 9,500 feet.)

Cheilosia (Cartosyrphus) pallipes Loew

Chilosia pallipes Loew, 1863, Centuries. 4:70.

Chilosia pallipes Williston, 1886, Syn. N. Amer. Syrph. 41.

Cartosyrphus pallipes Shannon, 1916, Proc. Biol. Soc. Wash.

29:196.

Figures 4, 11, 36 and 37

Male: — Face with a broad rounded tubercle forming a

transverse depression below that reaches between the facial

strips, pubescence of the face moderately well distributed but

heavier on the lower slopes, rather heavy just below the an¬

tennae; facial strips narrow with white pollen and pile. Front

small, particularly bare of pollen, a deep median sulcus, pile

black. Ocellar triangle shining black, the pile all black and rather

long. The upper occiput thin with black cilia, lower occiput

with white pile; cheeks somewhat reddish with white pile. An¬

tennae yellowish brown, the first two segments darker; arista

dark with conspicuous pubescence, which is longer than the

arista is wide.

Thorax : — Shining black with very little pollen anteriorly, a

prominent patch of white pollen just interior from the yellowish

humeri; pile all black along the sides becoming paler towards

the middle; on the disc of the scutellum with long, black hairs

and many shorter white hairs, on the rim of the scutellum at

least four pairs of long, black bristles but frequently more

slender bristles are also present; near the apex the scutellum

with one or two shallow depressions ; the fringe long and white.

Pleura shining, the pile mostly white with some stronger black

hairs on the upper edge of the meso and pteropleura.

Legs: — Reddish brown with the following yellow areas: tips

of the femora, basal third to one half and the apex of the tibiae,

the basal four segments of the four front tarsi and the middle

three segments of the hind tarsi. Pile of the femora mostly black

but becoming white basally, the hind femora with many bristle¬

like hairs on the under side ; pile of the front tibiae entirely yel¬

low, pile of the hind metatarsi mostly yellow below, black above.

Fluke , Hull — Cartosyrphus Flies of North America 249

Wings: — Slightly tinged with yellow, the veins brown;

squamae white with golden fringe, the plumule white, halteres

yellowish brown.

Abdomen: — Shining on the first and fourth tergites and

broadly on the anterior corners of the second and third tergites,

otherwise opaque black; the pile rather long and white on the

shiny areas, black and shorter down the middle and at the apex

of the fourth tergite.

Female : — Readily recognized by its extremely pale legs, the

four front pair almost entirely yellow ; the yellow slopes of the

face, yellow humeri, dominately yellow scutellum, and yellow

wing veins. From leucoparea with which it is related it can be

told by the yellow four front femora and smaller antennae. The

female of leucoparea has very large antennae and the femora are

mostly black.

Distribution: — District of Columbia (Type in Museum

Comp. Zoology).

Material reviewed: — Maine — Bar Harbor, 2 males and 3

females July (CWJ) ; Mt. Desert, 2 males (CWJ). Massachu¬

setts — Chester, 2 males and 1 female July and August (CWJ) ;

Holliston, 1 female August 3 (H. E. Smith) ; Lexington, 1 male

June 23; Melrose, 1 pair June 16 (H. E. Smith); Sharon, 1

female June 28; Southbridge, 1 female July 8 (CWJ); Stony

Brook Res., 1 female June 21, 1925; Williamsburg, 1 female

Aug. 7 (CWJ). Michigan — Marquette, 1 male 1911 (W. T.

Davis) ; Midland Co., 1 male Aug. 29, 1937 (Dreisbach). Missis¬

sippi — Tishomingo Co., 1 female June, 1940. New Hampshire —

Glen House, 2 females July 15 (C. W. Johnson) ; Franconia, 1

female July 21 ; Jaffrey, 1 female July 25. New Jersey — Hewitt,

1 male June 18, 1918; Riverton, 1 female Aug. 6, 1920. New

York — Flushing, 1 male May 18, 1918; Keene Valley, Essex Co.,

1 male June 14, 1916; Watchogue, 1 male July 21, 1920. North

Carolina — Franklin, 1 male Mar. 15, 1939 (Hardy) ; Highlands,

2 males June 29 (Fairchild). Tennessee— Smoky Mts., 1 female

Sept. 1, 1933 (Fluke). Vermont — Manchester, 1 pair July 8

(CWJ) ; Norwich, 2 males July 7 (CWJ) ; Woodstock, 1

female (A. P. Morse). Washington — Montesano, 1 female

July 23, 1931 (Baemer). Wisconsin — Madison, 5 males June

and July (Fluke) ; Sturgeon Bay, 3 pairs June and Aug. (Fluke) .

250 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts and Letters

Ontario — Lake Nipigon, 1 female Aug. 26, 1928 (Bigelow).

Quebec — Montreal, 1 female June 1, 1920; St Anne's, 1 male

June 15, 1940.

Recorded by others: — New Hampshire, Washington, Oregon

(Williston) ; New York (Leonard) ; Ohio (Metcalf) ; Oregon

(Cole and Lovett) ; Colorado (Jones) ; British Columbia

(Osburn) .

The males of this species are difficult to separate from those

of leucoparea and tristis. The pteropleura and mesopleura of

tristis are mostly black haired, usually pale haired except for

the upper edge on leucoparea and pallipes. The scutellar discal

pile is all pale on the single male that we have identified as leuco¬

parea and it is usually yellow and black mixed on pallipes . It is

possible that we have misidentified the male of leucoparea; cer¬

tainly the female, which we feel sure of, is amply distinct. Paler

colored males of pallipes have the hind femora extensively yellow

basally.

Cheilosia (Cartosyrphus) sororcula Williston

Chilosia sororcula Williston, 1891, Biol. Cent. Amer. 8 :9.

Figure 38

Dark blue-black species with whitish mesonotal and abdom¬

inal pile. Related to tristis. Length 7.5 to 8.5 mm.

Male: — Face rather thickly coated with white pubescence,

the strips with delicate white pile ; tubercle low but broad ; front

shining, the pile black ; vertex with black pile. Antennae orange

to brown, third segment very little longer than broad, arista

brown and pubescent.

Thorax : — Shining with long white pile, black along the sides

and narrow bands anteriorly and in front of the scutellum; the

latter with black pile and much shorter white pile intermixed;

scutellar rim with long black bristles, the fringe white. Pleural

pile white with a prominent patch of black hairs on the upper

half of the pteropleura and sometimes on the mesopleura.

Legs : — Black ; the basal third or half and narrower apex of

the tibiae and the basal two or three segments of the four front

tarsi yellow to reddish; the long pile largely white. Wings

dilutely infuscated, the stigma yellowish brown ; squamae white

with yellow fringe; halteres yellow.

Fluke , Hull — Cartosyrphus Flies of North America 251

Abdomen : — Shining blue black, opaque on the disc of the sec¬

ond tergite and a broad hourglass-shaped spot on the third ; the

pile all white except on the apex of the fourth tergite where it is

black and appressed.

Female Paler ; the front broad without a median sulcus,

pile white, black near ocelli ; mesonotal pile generally erect and

all white except for a few black bristles along the sides ; pleural

pile all white ; scutellar bristles may often be yellow, sometimes

black. Legs more extensively pale; abdomen more shining and

with shorter pile.

Distribution: — Mexico (Type in British Museum).

Material reviewed: — Arizona — Mt. Lemon, Catalina Mts., 15

males and 6 females July 27 at 6,000 ft. (J. Bequaert) and

Feb. 29, 1917 at 8,000 ft.; 1 male July 22, 1942 (Scullen) ; Post

Creek Co., Pinalen Mts., Fort Grant, 1 female July 15, 1917

(J. Bequaert). Colorado — Granite Peaks Camp, 9,000 ft., 2

males July 28 (J. Bequaert). New Mexico — Magdalena Mts., 4

males August 1894 (Snow) ; Santa Fe, 9,200 ft., 1 female July 27,

1932.

Recorded by others: — Oregon (Lovett), Colorado (Jones),

New Mexico (Snow), and Wisconsin (Graenicher — error).

The general blue-black color and white pile with the low

tubercle will distinguish this species from its nearest relatives.

Cheilosia (Cartosyrphus) leucoparea Loew

Chilosia leucoparea Loew, 1863, Centuries, 4:69.

Figures 38 and 39

Scutellum with strong black bristles; lower slopes of face,

the humeri and the rim of the scutellum yellowish on the female,

only slightly so on the male. Length 7 to 8 mm.

Male : — Head ; face black, lower slopes usually reddish,

lightly dusted with white pubescence which is prominent be¬

neath the antennae ; the tubercle large and very broad reaching

the narrow side strips. Front small with long black pile so dis¬

tributed that a central area is bare; the median sulcus distinct.

Ocellar triangle black pilose; occiput very narrow, the upper

cilia black. Cheeks reddish brown with sparse white pile. An¬

tennae small; the third segment longer than broad, yellow, the

basal segments somewhat darker ; arista black, brownish pubes¬

cent. Thorax shining brassy, the notopleura, almost all the

252 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts and Letters

humeri, a confluent band across the anterior part of the meso-

notum, and the posterior margin of mesonotum black pilose;

rest of the pile yellowish brown. Notopleura with two or three

strong black bristles, the posterior calli with two, and usually

two more just above the wing base. Pleura with pale pile, a few

black hairs on the upper edge of the mesopleura and pteropleura.

Scutellum shining black with long pale yellow pile, a few fine

black hairs intermixed ; rim with four or five hairs of long black

bristles with shorter pairs basally ; fringe long and brassy. Legs

black to dark brown with the following areas yellow: All the

extreme bases of the femora, more widely apices of the femora,

basal halves and apical fourth of the tibiae, all the tarsi except

the apical segment and the hind metatarsus. Pile mostly yellow

with black hairs intermixed; conspicuously short, stubby and

black below on the hind femora. Wings hyaline, the veins brown,

false vein and stigma yellow, squamae yellow to white, the fringe

slightly brownish ; halteres yellow.

Abdomen: — Opaque black, the first tergite, large basal spots,

and the entire fourth shining with a brassy reflection. The pile

yellow, long, with shorter somewhat appressed black pile on the

disc of the third and fourth tergites and some longer black hairs

at the apex of the fourth ; pile mostly black on the genitalia.

Female: — Dissimilar; the antennae much larger but of the

same shape and color; lower slopes of the face yellow; pile of

the front silvery with a few black hairs just above the antennae

and around the ocelli. Arista briefly pubescent, less than on the

male. Pile of the mesonotum short, pale, and appressed ; one black

bristle on the notopleura, one on the calli, and a patch just above

the wing base. The humeri and broad rim of the scutellum yel¬

low, apical two segments of all tarsi black. Abdomen mostly

short pilose which is black and appressed except on the sides of

the second segment where it is erect and brownish.

Distribution: — Carolina (Type in Museum Comp. Zoology).

Material reviewed: — Georgia — Yonah Mt., 1 male June 10,

1936 (P. W. Fattig). North Carolina — Valley of Black Mts.,

1 male July 17, 1906 (Beutenmuller). Tennessee — Smoky Mts.,

1 female Sept. 1, 1933 (Fluke).

This species is not common and apparently has not been gen¬

erally recognized except in the female. For this reason we pre¬

sent a rather detailed description of the male. The male will be

told with difficulty from pallipes Lw.

Fluke, Hull — Cartosyrphus Flies of North America 253

Cheilosia (Cartosyrphus) capillata Loew

Chilosia capillata Loew, 1863, Centuries, 4:65.

Cartosyrphus lamprurus Bigot, 1884, Ann. Soc. Ent. France,

552.

Figures 14, 16, 17 and 41

A relatively large shining black species with rather abundant

yellowish pile; pile of the front in both sexes white; scutellum

without bristles although the female may have two slightly

longer bristle-like hairs near the apex. Length 9 to 10 mm.

This species is easy to recognize by the long black setose

hairs on the costa at the base and the longer hairs as far as the

stigma. The abdomen of the male is brownish opaque on the

posterior margins of tergites two and three, also somewhat

dulled on the disc, otherwise shining with all yellow pile. Meso-

notum shining, slightly punctate, pile long and abundant, yellow,

with a few black bristles on the sides just above the wing base.

Legs black, the tibiae and all but the apical two or three tarsal

segments yellow, hind metatarsus and a ring on the hind tibiae

of the male dark; pile of legs nearly all yellow. Third segment

of the antennae of the female with a deep longitudinal seam on

the inner surface.

Distribution: — District of Columbia (Type, in Museum

Comp. Zoology) .

Material reviewed: — Maryland — Garrett Co., 1 female

June 6, 1931 (Roberts). Pennsylvania — Heckton Mills, 1 male

May 5, 1911 (Kirk) ; Dauphin, 1 female May 25 (Champlain &

Knull). Virginia— 1 male.

Recorded by others: — Ohio (Metcalf).

Cheilosia (Cartosyrphus) laevifrons Jones

Chilosia laevifrons Jones, 1907, Jour. N. Y. Ent. Soc. 15:90.

Front with very short, sparse, yellowish pile, arista finely

pubescent, mesonotum covered with long yellowish pile, scutel¬

lum without bristles, abdomen yellowish pilose. Length 7.65 mm.

We have not seen this species. It was described from a single

male taken at Roca, Nebraska. Apparently it is related to brevi-

chaeta Shannon but that species has abundant long yellowish

pile on the front.

254 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts and Letters

Cheilosia (Cartosyrphus) slossonae Shannon

Insec. Insci. Menst. 10:144 (Oct. 1922).

Chilosia rita Curran (Printer’s error) Can. Ent. 54:70

(May 1922).

Chilosia Ontario Curran, Can. Ent. 54:191 (Nov. 1922).

Chilosia Ontario Curran, Can. Ent. 59:73 (1927).

Figures 15 and 40

A large brassy-haired species closely related to prima Hunter.

General color shining black with aeneous cast, tibiae yellow with

indefinite dark streaks, third segment of antenna rounded on

dorsal edge. Length 8.5 to 10 mm.

Male : — Face shining black, very lightly dusted, heavier be¬

neath the antennae; side strips shining dark brown with short

white pile. Cheeks shining with pale sparse pile. Front sulcate,

punctate except for a depressed smooth triangle just above the

frontal lunule, pile black. Ocellar triangle shining with black pile,

shorter and yellow behind, the cilia all black. Antennae large,

the third segment longer than broad and well rounded apically

above; yellowish red, darker on the apex and above; arista

brown, bare.

Thorax and Scutellum : — Shining black with a slight aeneous

cast, the pile long and yellow, with dominately black hairs on the

notopleura and several above the wing base, on the calli, upper

edge of the pteropleura and mesopleura. The scutellar pile is all

yellow on all the specimens before us except for one male from

Madison which has three pairs of slender black bristles on the

rim. Legs black with following parts yellow : tips of the femora,

the tibiae except for elongate spots on the outside, the hind

metatarsi, and the apical segment of each tarsus. Wings hyaline,

the stigma and veins yellowish. Squamae and plumule yellowish

white, halteres darker.

Abdomen: — Shining with a greenish cast, sub-opaque on the

second and third tergites except on the sides and down the mid¬

dle of the latter ; pile all yellowish, a few black hairs on the apex

of the fourth tergite and genitalia.

Female: — Similar, the antennae larger, the pile all yellow

and shorter, yellow of legs more pronounced, no dark spot on the

tibiae ; pile on the front entirely yellow.

Fluke , Hull^Cartosyrphus Flies of North America 255

Distribution: — New Hampshire (Types in U. S. Natl.

Museum).

Material reviewed: — Quebec — Newwago, 1 female June 25,

1916. New Brunswick— Fredericton, 1 female June 3, 1931

(Maxwell). Wisconsin — Madison, 6 males and 17 females

April and May (Fluke).

Recorded by others: — Ontario (Curran's type), New York

(Leonard).

We agree with Curran that the few black hairs on the scutel-

lum that occur on some specimens are only a variation ; we can

see no other differences. This species, however, is very close to

prima, differing only in the more rounded third antennal seg¬

ment, shorter pile on the mesonotum of the male, and paler legs.

There is a difference in the shape of the facial tubercle but diffi¬

cult to describe. Typical representatives of prima occur in the

Southeastern States, of slossonae in the Northeastern States.

We regret that it is necessary to use Shannon’s name, but to

use rita for either of Curran’s species would cause confusion.

Cheilosia (Cartosyrphus) prima Hunter

Chilosia prima Hunter, 1896, Can. Ent. 28:92.

Figures 13 and 42

Very similar to slossonae Shannon. The males differ princi¬

pally in the shape of the antennae, the third segment of which is

straight on its dorsal edge, in fact almost concave in some speci¬

mens ; the female is amply distinct with the legs all yellow except

the hind metatarsi which are brown. In two female specimens

before us from Florida and Georgia the hind femora are partly

darkened, but typical specimens are all pale. The pile on the

mesonotum of the male is slightly shorter than on slossonae, and

the tibiae are entirely yellow.

Distribution: — Pennsylvania (Type, Location unknown).

Material reviewed: — Florida — Gainesville, 1 pair Feb. 22,

1919 (Fattig). Georgia — Atlanta, 3 females June, 1933, 1934,

1941 (Fattig) ; Stone Mt., 1 male Apr. 19, 1931 (Fattig). Mary¬

land- — Prince Frederick, 2 females Sept. 4, 1931 (Ditman).

Mississippi — Oxford, 2 males and 5 females May, 1942 and 1944

(Hull).

Recorded by others: — Wisconsin (error, see slossonae) .

256 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts and Letters

Cheilosia (Cartosyrphus) caltlna Shannon

Cartosyrphus caltha Shannon, 1922, Insec. Insci. Menst.,

10:133.

Figures 18, 43 and 44

A small, shining, brassy black, white pilose species, no bristles

on the rim of the scutellum. Length 6.5 to 7.5 mm.

Male: — Head — Face shining, very lightly pubescent on the

sides, the tubercle low, only gently concave below antennae;

facial strips wide, shining, the pile pale and short. Front in¬

flated with a median sulcus, pale pubescent, the pile long and all

whitish. Pile of the ocellar triangle mostly white, a few black

hairs intermixed. Antennae small, the third segment oval, red¬

dish, darker at the apex and above; arista black, very faintly

pubescent.

Thorax: — Shining brassy black, the pile everywhere white

with a slight yellowish tinge on the mesonotum, grey pollinose

on the mesonotum. Scutellum slightly rugose before the apex,

the pile on the rim longer than on the disc, but all pale.

Legs: — Black, tibiae at the basal half and narrowly at the

apex yellow, basal two or three segments of the tarsi yellowish

brown ; the pile all pale, a few black setulae at the apex of the

tibiae and beneath the tarsi. Wings hyaline, the stigma yellow,

hairs at base of costa pale in color. Squamae and plumule white,

halteres yellow.

Abdomen: — Mostly shining black, the pile all white.

Female : — Quite similar, the tubercle more prominent due to

a deeper cavity above; the pile of the front and mesonotum

shorter ; the abdomen entirely shining. Front shining and trisul-

cate, the median sulcus a very shallow but definite furrow; an¬

tennae slightly larger and the inner surface of the third segment

poriform. Pile on the hind tibiae all yellow.

Distribution: — Indiana — (Type, Male from Lafayette, April

22, 1918 Aldrich, in the Natl. Museum) .

Material reviewed: — Illinois — Carlinville, 4 males and 4

females 1891 and 1892 (Robertson). Kansas — Douglass Co., 1

female April 23, 1925 (Beamer). Michigan — East Lansing, 1

female May 25, 1937 (Sabrosky). Missouri — Platte Co., 1 male

Fluke, Hull — ‘ Cartosyrphus Flies of North America 257

and 3 females May 2, 1936 (Henderson). Wisconsin — Gays

Mills, 2 females May 11 and 13, 1934; Monroe, 1 male May 5,

1934 (Fluke).

The general appearance of this species is very similar to

Shannon's species brevichaeta which was described from Colo¬

rado. The latter species, however, has short black hairs on the

tibiae and tarsi, all pale except the setulae on caltha.

A splendid series of this species was located in the Robertson

collection which is now in the Illinois Natural History Survey.

The specimens were all collected at Carlinville, Illinois.

Cheilosia (Cartosyrphus) brevichaeta Shannon

Cartosyrphus brevichaeta Shannon, 1922, Insec. Insci. Menst.

10:133.

Figures 19 and 45

A white pilose species closely related to caltha, pile on inside

of hind tibia black, facial tubercle more prominent. Length 7 to

8 mm.

Male : — Head shining black with white pubescence lightly on

the sides of the face, heavier beneath antennae and on the front ;

pile of front white, of the vertex black, cilia white ; facial strips

broad, entirely shining, the pile white. Antennae small, the third

segment reddish yellow, slightly darker at the obtuse apex;

arista dark, thickened almost on the basal half, practically bare.

Thorax: — Shining with a slight bluish green cast, the pile

long and all silvery except for a single black hair on the noto-

pleura and one just posterior to it; a paratype male lacks these

two black hairs. Legs brown, the basal third or more and apex

of the tibiae reddish yellow; the tarsi reddish brown. Pile of the

legs whitish, black on the inner and upper sides of the tibiae

and basal segments of the tarsi. Wings lightly yellowish,

squamae white, halteres reddish.

Abdomen: — Shining, somewhat dulled on the basal tergites ;

the pile erect and all whitish.

Female:— Very similar; the antennae larger, the third seg¬

ment more rounded; front trisulcate with short whitish pile, a

few black hairs around the ocelli ; pile of thorax shorter ; pile of

abdomen shorter, all erect on the fourth tergite; abdomen,

entirely shining.

Distribution: — Colorado — (Type, in U. S. Natl. Museum).

258 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts and Letters

Material reviewed: — Colorado — Paratype male ; 1 male Half¬

way House, Pikes Peak, at Salix, May 30 (Cockerell) ; 2 females

near Ward June 2-9, 1933 (Rodeck) ; 1 female Boulder, May 27,

192,2.

This species is slightly larger than caltha , the tubercle of the

male more prominent, and the pile of the legs blacker ; otherwise

they are very similar. The female of caltha has paler legs and

is particularly brassy in appearance.

Cheilosia (Cartosyrphus) tarda Snow

Chilosia tarda Snow, 1895, Kansas Univ. Quarterly 3 :228.

Figure 46

Front of male large, inflated, scutellum without bristles;

mesonotum pale pilose ; squamae yellowish. Length 6 to 7 mm.

Male: — Head shining, black; the face mahogany, nearly

straight with the upper slope of the tubercle gentle, strips very

wide with pale sparse pile; front large and inflated, with a

median sulcus, lightly greyish pubescent, pile long and black.

Ocellar triangle black pilose, the cilia black, occiput whitish

pilose. Antennae small, the third segment dark red, brownish at

the apex, arista thickened on the basal third, very short

pubescent.

Thorax: — Shining metallic black, the pile long and white with

a yellowish tinge along the sides, a few black hairs on the noto-

pleura, upper edge of the mesopleura, and just above the wing

base. Pile on the scutellum all yellowish. Legs black to dark

brown ; the tips of all the femora and tibiae, basal third to half

of the tibiae and the basal two or three segments of the four

front tarsi yellowish red. Hind tibiae somewhat arcuate, their

pile mostly black. Wings dilutely tinged, the veins light brown;

squamae yellow, halteres yellowish brown. Abdomen shining

black, somewhat dulled in the middle of the first three segments,

pile all yellowish.

Female : — Unknown. When found it will probably resemble

brevichaeta except for black hairs at the base of the costa.

Distribution: — Colorado — (Type, Male from Fort Collins in

the Kansas University Collection).

Material reviewed: — Colorado — Ward, 1 male and 2 females

June 2-9, 1933 (H. G. and H. E. Rodeck).

Fluke, Hull — Cartosyrphus Flies of North America 259

Cheilosia (Cartosyrphus) sensua Curran

Chilosia sensua Curran, 1922, Can. Ent. Vol. LIV, p. 19.

Face bare, frontal pile black, mesonotal pile yellow with black

hairs along the sides, metatarsi blackish. Length 7 mm.

Male: — Face and front shining black, the fine pubescence

present in moderate amounts below the antennae; side strips

lack pubescence but with short sparse white pile ; pile of front

black, of the ocellar triangle black in front and whitish behind.

Antennae yellowish red, the first and second segments darker

and the third darkened at the apex and above ; arista brown and

bare.

Mesonotum: — Shining black, the pile fulvous with stronger

black hairs along the sides ; scutellum with pre-apical depression,

the pile all fulvous but longer on the rim, no black bristles;

pleural pile yellowish, a few black hairs on the upper mesopleura.

Legs: — Generally black; narrow tips of femora, basal third

or more of the tibiae, narrow apices of the four front tibiae and

the middle three segments of their tarsi reddish yellow. Wings

with yellow veins; squamae, plumule, and halteres yellow.

Abdomen: — Shining black, considerably opaque on the second

and less so on the third tergites ; pile wholly fulvous.

Distribution: — Ontario — (Type, Male in Canadian National

Museum).

Material reviewed: — New Jersey — Palisades, 1 male March

31, 1918 (A. Nicolay).

The description above was made from the New Jersey speci¬

men which is slightly teneral; we believe, however, that it is

Curran’s species, although we have not seen the type. The almost

entirely shining face and front and the fulvous pile on the thorax

appear to distinguish this species from its relatives.

Cheilosia (Cartosyrphus) comosa Loew

Chilosia comosa Loew, 1863, Centuries, 4:66.

Chilosia comosa Williston, 1886, Bull. U. Natl. Mus. No. 31,

p. 44.

Cartosyrphus comosa Shannon, 1922, Insec. Insci. Menst.

10:138, 135.

This species was described from the English River, Winnipeg,

and recorded by numerous writers from Colorado, Idaho, Oregon,

Nebraska, Wisconsin (?), and Washington. We have been un-

260 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts and Letters

able to recognize it from the descriptions among the numerous

specimens before us. There is a strong suspicion that Snow de¬

scribed it as tarda if we are to accept Williston’s short descrip¬

tion. Shannon, however, places the species in his keys, the male

on the basis of white pile on the front and the female front as

non-trisulcate. These identifications do not agree ; and we there¬

fore leave the species unidentified, although we have followed

Shannon by placing the female in our key. It will be necessary to

examine the type, a male, which we have been unable to do, in

order to determine its status. We give below a direct quotation

from Williston which is almost a direct translation of Loew’s

short Latin description:

“Habitat. — Colorado!, English River, Winnepeg (Lw.).

“Male. Length, 6 mm. Shining metallic green, with rather

long yellowish pile. Frontal triangle large, with blackish pile.

Face shining black, lightly pollinose on the sides and above. An¬

tennae rather small, first joint black, second and third joints

obscurely red ; arista black, bare. Eyes bare. Scutellum without

black bristles. Abdomen wholly shining, but less so on the ante¬

rior segments. Legs black ; tip of femora, base and tip of tibiae,

yellowish red. Wings cinereous hyaline, stigma and veins yellow¬

ish, the latter on the outer part and the costa darker.

“Female. The pile shorter, the third antennal joint larger

and lighter-colored, the tibiae in larger part, and the tarsi in

part, yellowish red.

“Two males and one female from Colorado.”

Distribution: — Canada — (Type, in the Museum Comp.

Zoology) .

Cheilosia (Cartosyrphus) latrans (Walker)

Syrphus latrans Walker 1849, Cat. Dipt. Ins. Part 3:575.

Male : — Length 7.5 mm. Facial knob conspicuous, the cavity

below the antennae deep with gradual slope, below the tubercle

short and deep. Face dark brownish black, shining black below

the antennae. Front short, shining, pile long and black; vertex

shining and with long black pile ; occipital pile white. Antennae

brown, the third segment more orange; arista brown, basally

swollen and long pubescent.

Thorax: — Mesonotum and scutellum brassy black; the pile

delicate, long, erect, and everywhere black. Upper pleural pile

Fluke, Hull — Cartosyrphus Flies of North America 261

black, white below. Legs dark brown ; femora blackish, their tips

reddish; tibiae brownish and darker on a wide median band.

Pile of femora black anteriorly, pale ventrally and baso-posteri-

orly; tibiae pile black. Wings uniformly tinged smoky brown

which is not more intense basally ; stigma pale brownish yellow.

Squamae and fringe light brown ; halteres dark brown.

Abdomen ; — Brassy black, especially on the sides and anterior

parts of the segments. The abdomen is greasy, its pile decumbent

upon the last two segments, pale yellow on the sides except at

the extreme posterior corners of the segments. The pile on the

posterior one half of the last segment and especially on the ante¬

rior halves of the segments, as well as upon the hypopyguim, is

long, delicate, and black. (Redescription by Hull direct from the

type in the British Museum.) The type is from Martin Falls,

Canada.

Unfortunately we are unable to associate this species with

any of the well-known forms described above. It appears to be¬

long to the tristis complex and may be a dark form of that spe¬

cies. It was described in 1849, and if it proves to be tristis, then

this name will have to be changed. The following species

(aescytes) appears also to be closely related to tristis. These de¬

scriptions were made a number of years ago, and it wasn’t pos¬

sible at that time to make associations with present known forms.

Cheilosia (Cartosyrphus) aescytes Walker

Syrphus aescytes Walker, 1849, Cat. Dipt. Ins. Part 3:591.

Length 6.3 mm. Specimen teneral. Head: — Shining, light

brown in color, facial strips moderately wide, but not visible in

profile; pubescence (not pile) is thick along the facial strip and

concentrated in a triangular spot near the eye margin below the

antennae, continuing as a narrow median band that does not

reach the tubercle; likewise, thicker on the lower part of the

face. Pile of the front and vertex black, elsewhere white. Third

segment of antennae missing, the first and second segments light

brown.

Thorax: — Shining dark brown with some evidence of a

violaceous tinge, probably brassy black in well-developed speci¬

mens. Pollen of the thorax white and dense ; pile long, upright,

and black but not dense, changing to long black bristles on the

posterior half of the scutellum. There are a few black bristles

262 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts and Letters

above the base of the wing and on the posterior calli. Ventral

fringe of the scutellum white. Upper pleural pile is black, stiff,

tips delicate ; lower pleural pile and pollen white.

Legs : — Uniformly pale brownish yellow and slightly teneral;

the femora with posteriorly directed fringes of delicate blackish

pile. The fore femora seem to be a little more than usually arcu¬

ate upon the anterior surface. The hind metatarsi are as long as

the remaining segments. The mid tibiae are black-clawed and

the mid tarsi black spinose. Fore tarsi and tibiae and hind tarsi

and tibiae pale yellowish pilose.

Wings: — Pale brownish, the stigma only slightly darker;

base of the wing not darkened. Squamae white and white-

fringed; halteres brownish cream colored.

Abdomen: — Light brown, sub-shining, the very narrow pos¬

terior borders darker; sides of the segments brassy; the mar¬

ginal pile is black bristly and on the greatly curled extreme

edges, white ; pile on the last two segments is largely appressed,

black, very fine and bristly. (Description by Hull direct from

type in British Museum.) The type, a male, was collected at

Martin Falls, Canada.

Appendix

A recent opportunity by F. M. Hull to examine two of Loew’s

types in the Museum of Comparative Zoology at Cambridge

enables us to make the following additional notes.

C. comosa Loew. We indicated a possibility that tarda is the

same as comosa but a critical examination of the type of comosa,

a male, shows that they are distinct. Comosa, male, runs in our

key to brevichaeta Shan. The character used by Shannon will

not apply to comosa since the mesonotal pile is long and not so

short as he indicates in his key. The only differences we can

note between a male brevichaeta compared with the type at

Washington and the type of comosa is a slight difference in the

apical shape of the antennae (somewhat flattened apically on

brevichaeta) and the more whitish pile of the front and meso-

notum of the latter. Comosa has a few black hairs on the front

but the pile is dominantly whitish. We doubt if these differences

are enough to be specific.

Fluke, Hull — Cartosyrphus Flies of North America 263

C. tristis Loew. An examination of the type female does not

indicate any necessary additions to the description already given ;

however, some of our specimens may be distinct varieties, espe¬

cially the midwestern and Lake City, Colorado representatives.

C. lucta Snow. A splendid series of both males and females

of this species taken at Chamber’s Lake, Colorado, August 14,

1946 (Fluke). The black ciliate character used in the key to the

males is correct and will place the species readily.

'

: .. . . f

THE USE OF PHEMEROL IN THE TREATMENT OF

CERTAIN BACTERIAL FISH DISEASES

Barbara A. McLaren, Elmer F. Herman,

C. A. Elvehjem and Edward Schneberger

Department of Biochemistry, University of Wisconsin

and

Biology Division, Wisconsin Conservation Department,

Madison, Wisconsin

Introduction

For several years the Biology Division of the Wisconsin

Conservation Department, in cooperation with the Biochemistry

Department of the University of Wisconsin, has been interested

in a fish nutritional program. The work has been carried on at

the James Nevin State Fish Hatchery, located at Madison, Wis¬

consin. The purpose of the project is to ascertain the nutritional

requirements of trout, so that healthy, sound fish may be pro¬

duced more economically. During the course of these experi¬

ments with yearling rainbow trout, (Salmo gairdnerii irideus),

an outbreak of fin rot occurred which affected adversely these

nutritional experiments. In order to insure accurate results, it

was imperative to use normal individuals, since fish so afflicted

would not furnish reliable evidence as to the merits of various

dietary factors.

Fin rot is one of the most common diseases of hatchery and

experimental fish. Jewell, Schneberger, and Ross (1933) men¬

tioned the susceptibility to fin rot of catfish and goldfish on syn¬

thetic diets. Fish on rations containing fresh meat did not

develop the disease. Wolf (1938) observed the condition of the

fins of trout on adequate and restricted diets. The stunted trout

had both the dorsal and pectoral fins badly diseased while those

on the adequate diet were, for the most part, normal. Davis

(1937) presented a detailed account of the manifestations of

the disease, but did not isolate the causative organism. He pointed

out that the bacterium found in the greatest numbers on the

265

266 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts and Letters

infected fins was a rod-shaped bacillus. Zobell (1938)1 confirmed

Davis’ findings and characterized it as a non-sporulating, gram-

negative, non-pigmented and non-motile bacillus. It measured

from 2.0 to 3.8 /a in length and 0.6 to 0.8/a in width. It grew

readily on fresh-water nutrient agar but failed to be nourished

on corresponding media prepared from sea water. Following

some later nutritional studies in relation to ulcer disease, Wolf

(1940) came to the conclusion that fin rot and ulcer disease

were one and the same. A search of the literature revealed that

no other workers have confirmed this relationship, although

Davis (1937) is strongly inclined to believe that these two dis¬

eases are caused by the same organism. Solution of this question

lies in the isolation of the organism or organisms which cause

fin rot and the inoculation of the organism into healthy fish,

thereby producing the disease.

It is the purpose of this paper to present a report of the

studies which led to a cure of this infection by dipping the fish

in a solution of Phemerol.

Pathology

Fin rot is characterized by the disintegration of the fins,

which are often entirely destroyed. Usually the first indication

is a more or less distinct white line along the outer margin of

the fin. The white line gradually progresses toward the base

of the fin, while at the same time the outer edges become frayed,

owing to the disintegration of the interradial membrane (Fig¬

ures 1 and 3). In the later stages, lesions, filled with a glisten¬

ing white pus, develop at the base of the fin. These lesions are

small, usually circular depressions, which extend for some dis¬

tance into the underlying muscle.

The extent to which the lesions develop is largely dependent

upon the age and size of the fish. In very young fish death

usually occurs before the infection extends beyond the fins, the

occurrence of lesions on the body being rare. Larger, more re¬

sistant fish may live for a time after some of the fins are entirely

destroyed, affording more opportunity for the lesions to develop

on the adjacent tissues.

Wright (1936) observed that the disease varied greatly in

intensity with the mortality rates, extending from a very low

1 Reported in Sumner, P. B. and Doudoroff, P. (1938).

McLaren, et al.—Use of Phemerol for Fish Diseases 267

to a very high percentage. Over a four-year period, she found

losses ranging from 50 to 95 percent and believed this was due

to a difference in the virulence of the bacteria.

Experimental Procedure and Data

The fish used for experimentation were (20-90 gm.) rainbow

trout (Salmo gairdnerii irideus). They were obtained from the

raceways of the hatchery and all were infected with fin rot in

varying degrees of severity.

Preliminary trials were made, using twenty-five yearling

rainbow trout, maintained in hatchery tanks 13.5 feet long by

1.5 feet wide and 1 foot deep. These tanks contained approxi¬

mately sixty-two gallons of water. The water supply was from

one of the many springs used for trout propagation on the

hatchery grounds.

Mortality and regeneration of the fins were taken as cri¬

teria for measuring the effectiveness of the treatment. Losses

were recorded daily. Each fish was examined every other day

for the presence of the white line of infection. Replacement of

the white by a black line was used as a standard for declaring

the fish cured. The black line is shown in Figure 2.

Phemerol is a quaternary ammonium salt and occurs in the

form of colorless, odorless crystals containing one molecule of

water of crystallization. These crystals are extremely soluble in

water giving solutions which have a pH range of 5 to 6. Surface

tension characteristics of a germicide are of importance because

of the resulting increase in spreading and penetrating properties.

This property is exhibited to a marked degree by Phemerol. A

solution of Phemerol (1 part in 1,000 parts of water) has a sur¬

face tension of 36 dynes per cm. at 25° C. (water has a surface

tension of 72 dynes per cm. at the same temperature). Accord¬

ing to Joslyn, et al., (1941) who used the Shippen (1928) tech¬

nique, the action of Phemerol is bactericidal. They tested this

drug against ten pathogenic microorganisms and found it

effective.

The desired amount of Phemerol was weighed, then ground

in a mortar and added to seven gallons of water. It was stirred

vigorously to insure proper mixing. At first, the solution was

aerated, but oxygen tests (Winkler method) indicated that aera¬

tion was unnecessary if not used for more than six treatments.

268 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts and Letters

The trout were placed in a deep dip net and completely immersed

in the solution. The immersion period was measured by means

of a stop watch. After the treatment, the fish were returned to

their respective tanks.

Experimental Treatments

Series 1. Laboratory experiments.

A(l). A 1:26,000 solution of Phemerol was used. Groups of

25 fish each were dipped in the solution for 2, 5, 10, 15, 80, and

40 minutes. A (2). Since there were large losses in those groups

which were treated for more than five minutes, four more groups

were dipped for 1, 2, 3, and 4 minutes. The losses were greatly

reduced, and it was evident that the fish should not be allowed

to remain in contact with Phemerol for more than two minutes

(Table 1).

B. The concentration of Phemerol was varied from 1 :26,000

to 1 : 6,000. The duration of the immersions was extended from

80 to 120 seconds. The data are summarized in Table 2.

A control tank of trout was maintained under exactly the

same conditions as the Phemerol-treated fish. At the same time

another group was treated with malachite green according to the

procedure outlined by Foster and Woodbury (1936). All fish

were fed daily a ration composed of equal parts of fresh liver

and canned carp, plus 5 percent brewer’s yeast. The fish were

given an amount equivalent to 5 percent of their body weight.

TABLE 1

Effect of Varying Time Intervals Using Concentration of 1:26,000

Solution of Phemerol

(Series 1, laboratory experiments)

McLaren, et al.—Use of Phemerol for Fish Diseases 269

TABLE 2

The Effect of Varying Time and Concentration on the Mortality

and Condition of Diseased Trout

7

C. The third series was set up with 100 fish to a tank. This

number was selected as it approximated the number of fish

usually held in the same quantity of water in the hatchery race¬

ways. Seven tanks were used — one was maintained as a con¬

trol — the second was treated with malachite green — and the five

others were given a Phemerol treatment in graduated doses.

Using a Phemerol solution (1:10,000), each group received

treatment as follows:

a. One group received one dip;

b. One group received two dips in two days ;

c. One group received three dips in three days;

d. Two groups received four dips in four days (Table 3).

On the fifth day the fish which had been given four dips did

not eat all of their food, indicating that the maximum number

of immersions the fish could tolerate was four.

It was observed that the fish which most frequently suc¬

cumbed to the Phemerol treatment were those which weighed

about 75-100 grams. Twenty-five fish of this size were dipped

in a solution of Phemerol whose concentration was gradually

increased from 1:26,000 to 1:10,000 over a period of four days.

270 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts and Letters

TABLE 3

The Effect of Increasing the Number of Dips

(Concentration 1:10,000 — Time: 30 seconds)

There were no losses in the group. The fin rot disappeared after

ten days. Thus, better results were obtained when the tolerance

of the trout to this bactericidal agent was developed gradually.

Fifty large fish (20 inches in length) weighing approxi¬

mately 1,000 grams developed fin rot. There were as many as

three dying each day. A 0.3 percent solution of Phemerol was

applied to the infected areas every other day. After three appli¬

cations, the sores began to heal and the mortality was entirely

eliminated.

Series 2. Hatchery raceway procedure.

A. When the preliminary trials in the biological laboratory

were completed, Phemerol was tested under raceway conditions.

For this experiment, 2,200 three-year old rainbow trout were

selected. These fish averaged 13 inches in length and had an

average weight of 540 grams. Many of the group were badly

infected with fin rot. The procedure for this treatment was to

seine the fish and hold them in a large net, dipping about 100 of

them at a time, for 30 seconds. The initial concentration of

Phemerol was 1:26,000. The lower concentration was used for

two days to assure the survival of the weakest fish. On the third

day the concentration was increased to 1:17,000, on the fourth

Fig. 1. — Dorsal fin showing denuded fin rays and accom- Fig. 2. — A regenerated dorsal fin showing the black line

panying fungus infection. on the outer edge. The light color of the fin is due to lack of

pigmentation in the newly formed tissue.

Fig. 3. — Caudal fin showing almost complete erosion of fin rays and

intermedial membrane.

Fig. 4. — Caudal fin cured of fin rot showing almost complete regen¬

eration. Several areas of incomplete regeneration of the interradial mem¬

brane are still apparent.

McLaren, et at. — Use of Phemerol for Fish Diseases 271

day to 1:13,000, and on the fifth to 1:10,000. Immediately after

the dipping treatment, they were fed 22 pounds of canned carp,

supplemented with 2 percent codliver oil. During the treatment

and a three-week observation period, 26 fish succumbed, a mor¬

tality of 1.2 percent.

* B. Another group of 1,100 yearlings was treated with

Phemerol. This lot of fish was in better condition and, there¬

fore, it was decided to give them only one dip in the 1:26,000

solution and increase the concentration to 1:17,000 for the sec¬

ond immersion, to 1:13,000 for the third, and to 1:10,000 for

the fourth. There were no losses over a period of four weeks.

Only those fish which had their dorsal fin almost completely eaten

away still showed some white markings. On closer examination,

the fin had regenerated to such an extent that there was no ques¬

tion in the minds of several experienced fish-culturists that the

disease had been cured. The regeneration of the fin is shown in

Figures 2 and 4.

The spent solutions of Phemerol were thrown away on the

grass a few feet from the raceway without any deleterious

effects on vegetation.

Discussion

Most chemicals have a toxic effect on fish when used in too

high a concentration. The ideal curative range of Phemerol is

very limited. There are two variable factors whose relation must

be ascertained for effective treatment, namely, the duration and

concentration of the immersion. Rice (1885) introduced the

method of dipping the fish. He used a 3.0 percent solution of

sodium chloride until they showed signs of distress, after which

he removed them to fresh water. This procedure has been used

extensively in Europe and the United States. Wright (1936),

employing sodium chloride, obtained moderately successful re¬

sults during four consecutive yearly epidemics of fin rot. She

found that a 1:100,000 solution of copper sulfate, as proposed

by Davis (1937), did not successfully combat the disease. Fish

(1935) devised a method whereby a concentrated solution of

copper sulfate was allowed to flow into a raceway at a uniform

rate. This technique eliminates handling and causes less bodily

harm to the fish. It was found that Phemerol could also be used

in this manner.

272 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts and Letters

Foster and Woodbury (1940) tested the effectiveness of many

bactericidal agents for the control of fish diseases. They came

to the conclusion that malachite green was superior to common

salt, copper sulfate and potassium permanganate, in the treat¬

ment of Saprolegnia. When the epidemic of fin rot first occurred

at the Nevin hatchery, the trout were dipped in malachite green

according to the procedure outlined by these authors, but it was

found ineffective. If an outbreak occurs in a hatchery, the usual

procedure should be to thin out the fish and destroy those which

are badly infected. It seems obvious that only 25 yearling trout

in one of our hatchery tanks (13.5' x 1.5' x 1') are not over¬

crowded. Moreover, it is evident that the meatless diets did not

contribute to the weakened condition of the fish for there were

comparable losses on the fresh meat rations. The meatless

rations consist of a mixture of dry meals, supplemented with

yeast, salt, codliver oil and liver powder. The fresh meat diet

consists of fresh liver, canned carp and yeast.

From the data presented in Table 1, it may be concluded

that Phemerol is toxic to the fish if they are left in contact with

it for more than two minutes. Table 2 is a summary of many

attempts to arrive at the most effective concentration — duration

relationship. Two important observations were made during the

course of these tests. First, if the dips of higher concentrations

were given without sufficient time intervals, the fish lost their

appetites. If their tolerance was developed by gradually increas¬

ing the concentration of the dips from day to day over a four- or

five-day period, they appeared stronger and continued to eat.

Second, a 1 : 17,000 solution was too weakening to the trout, for,

although there were no losses with these groups, their appetite

was diminished. From Table 3 it can be seen that trout will

tolerate at least four baths, the concentration of which is

1 : 10,000. From the results of dipping operations in the raceway,

it was found that the older trout could stand five immersions of

increasing concentration.

Although the swabbing technique is tedious, it is effective in

controlling the infection amongst the larger trout. It may be

of value in treating fish on display, which are prone to develop

skin diseases, due to handling.

A few words may not be amiss concerning the application

of this method to other species of fish. O'Donnell (1941), using

McLaren , et al. — Use of Phemerol for Fish Diseases 273

malachite green in extensive experiments with warm and cold

water types of fish, found that trout would tolerate a higher

concentration and a longer interval of immersion than bass,

bluegills, sunfish, perch, black crappie, muskellunge, northern

pike, bluntnose and fathead minnows. It should be pointed out

that the technique for each species of fish must be determined

individually.

Conclusions

The following assertions seem warranted with reference to

the use of Phemerol in the treatment of bacterial diseases :

1. After the correct time interval of dipping and the most

effective concentration of Phemerol were determined, fm rot was

cured. The most effective concentration was shown to be

1:10,000 with a duration of immersion of 30 seconds. By using

graduated doses of Phemerol, losses were reduced to such an

extent that they were negligible.

2. Secondary fungus infections were also destroyed by this

treatment.

3. Phemerol has been shown to be very effective in the con¬

trol of fin rot in all ages of trout and probably has its application

for other species of fish.

4. Phemerol, if it comes in contact with vegetation on the

hatchery grounds, has no deleterious effects. Thus, a spent solu¬

tion offers no disposal problem.

Acknowledgments

The authors wish to acknowledge the generous supply of

Phemerol supplied to Mr. Lester Teply of the Biochemistry De¬

partment by Parke, Davis and Company and the help received

from Mr. Wendel Anderson, fish-culturist at the James Nevin

Hatchery, Madison, Wisconsin.

Literature Cited

Davis, H. S. 1928. Fin rot in trout. Trans. Amer. Fish. Soc. 58:89-91.

- 1937. Care and diseases of trout. U. S. Bur. Fish. Invest. Rpt. 35,

60-63.

Fish, F. F. 1934. Ulcer disease of trout. Trans. Amer. Fish. Soc.,

64:252-258.

Foster, F. J., and L. A. Woodbury. 1936. Use of malachite green as a fish

fungicide and antiseptic. Prog. Fish-Cult. 18:7-9.

274 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts and Letters

Jewell, M. E., Edward Schneberger, and J. A. Ross. 1933. Vitamin re¬

quirements of goldfish and channel cat. Trans. Amer. Fish. Soc.

63:328-347.

Joslyn, A. D., K. Yaw, and A. L. Rawlins. 1943. Germicidal efficacy of

Phemerol. Jour. Amer. Pharm. Assoc. 32:49-51.

O’Donnell, D. John. 1942. A new method of combating fungus infection.

Prog. Fish-Cult. 56:18-21.

Shippen, L. F. 1928. A fallacy in the standard methods of examining dis¬

infectants. Amer. Jour. Pub. Health. 18:1231-1234.

Sumner, F. B., and P. Doudoroff. 1938. The effects of light and dark back¬

grounds upon the incidence of a seemingly infectious disease in fishes.

Proc. Nat. Acad. Sci. 24:463-466.

Wolf, Louis E. 1938. The effect of amount of food on fin condition of

trout. Prog. Fish-Cult. 39:16-18.

- 1940. Further observations on ulcer disease of trout. Trans. Amer.

Fish. Soc. 70:369-381.

Wright, Alice. 1936. A report of four years’ experience with fin rot and

some remarks on octomitiasis. Prog. Fish-Cult. 24:1-25.

PARASITES OF BRULE RIVER FISHES

Brule River Survey: Report No. 6*

Jacob H. Fischthal

Wisconsin Conservation Department, Spooner

As part of the project to survey northwest Wisconsin fishes

for parasites, a total of 106 fishes representing eight species

were examined from the Brule River in Douglas County during

1944. Eighty-five or approximately 80.2 percent were infected

with at least one species of parasite. These fishes were col¬

lected on July 13 and 26, August 1, November 22 and Decem¬

ber 6, 1944, from below Stone's bridge, in Big and Lucius lakes,

and from the latter to Winneboujou bridge. Since the parasites

from these different localities were somewhat similar, the re¬

sults of the survey were grouped together regardless of the area

from which the fishes were collected.

In the table following, an inverted T (1) before the parasite

denotes the presence of both adult and immature stages in the

same fish; two asterisks (**) preceding the parasite indicates

an immature stage ; a single asterisk ( * ) preceding the parasite

indicates a larval stage ; no mark before the parasite denotes an

adult stage; a single pound mark (#) following the number of

infected fish indicates an infection with one to ten specimens of

that species; two pound marks (##) denote an infection with 11

to 50 specimens; three pound marks (#$#) denote an infection

with 50 or more specimens. The use of sp. after a generic name,

or a broader classification than the genus, indicates that the

specimens could not be identified more completely.

Appreciation is due Messrs. D. John O’Donnell, J. R. Jacob¬

son, and Warren S. Churchill for their aid in collecting the fishes

herein examined ; Dr. R. V. Bangham, College of Wooster, Ohio

for aid in verifying certain parasite identifications.

♦Brule Papers 1 to 5 appealed in Volume 36 (1944) of the Transactions,

pages 1-76.

275

276 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts and Letters

Disgussion

From the table presented, it can be ascertained that Brule

River fishes in general are lightly parasitized. The exceptions

are in the extremely heavy infections of Catostomus c. commer-

sonnii and Cottus b. bairdii with Neascus sp., the larval parasite

causing black spot. These fishes were thickly peppered with

hundreds of black spots. Fish-eating birds serve as the natural

definite host for the black spot parasite. Bangham (in press), in

his examinations of 18 Catostomus c. commersonnii from the

Brule River during the summer of 1948, found parasitism in

this species similar to that indicated in this report ; in addition

he recorded the trematode THganodistomum attenuatum from

three of these 18 fish.

Incidence of Parasitism in Brule River Fishes

Fischthal — Parasites of Brule River Fishes 277

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Incidence of Parasitism in Brule Eiver Fishes

278

Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts and Letters

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2

A FOUR- YEAR CREEL CENSUS ON THE BRULE RIVER,

DOUGLAS COUNTY, WISCONSIN1

Brule River Survey Report No. 7

D. John O'Donnell

Wisconsin Conservation Department , Madison

Abstract

Creel censuses were conducted during the trout seasons of

1936, 1940, 1943 and 1944 to determine fishing intensity or con¬

centration of anglers, catch, rate of catch, and effectiveness of

1943 and 1944 plantings of marked (tagged and fin-clipped)

legal-sized trout in the Brule River. The brook trout catch has

continued to decline since 1936 while the brown trout have

entered the creel in increasing numbers during the same period,

even though plantings of the latter species have always been

light. Stocking of brown trout was stopped entirely three years

ago. In 1936 the catch of resident (unmarked) brook trout was

57.5 percent, brown trout 10.2 percent, and rainbow trout 32.3

percent, as compared with the 1944 catch of brook trout 34.3

percent, brown trout 35.2 percent and rainbow trout 30.5 per¬

cent. Returns from a spring plant of 2,000 marked legal-sized

brook trout in 1943 amounted to 28.7 percent. The captures from

a spring plant of 6,500 legal brook trout in 1944 amounted to

27.7 percent of the plant, but made up 50.5 percent of the total

catch of all species of trout for the year. Very few of the trout

stocked in 1943 were caught in 1944 since only one brook trout

from a plant of 2,000, and only 11 rainbow trout from a plant of

1,665, were noted by census clerks. The catch per fisherman-day

of resident trout has declined steadily since 1936 ; the numbers

of trout per fisherman were 4.4, 2.8, 2.8, and 2.4 for the years

1936, 1940, 1943 and 1944 respectively. When the tagged legal¬

sized trout are included, the catch per fisherman-day for the

last two years has amounted to 4.7 and 4.8 trout. It is concluded

that the stocking of legal-sized trout during the spring and early

season provides a return to the angler in fishing satisfaction

which the previous extremely heavy plants of fingerling trout did

not provide.

279

280 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts and Letters

Introduction

As part of the biological survey of the Brule River in Douglas

County, an intensive creel census was conducted during 1943 and

1944. These data were compared with data for the seasons of

1936 and 1940 in order to determine changes in fishing pressure,

catch by species, rate of catch, and the effectiveness of 1943 and

1944 plantings of legal-sized trout. Such data are reliable in¬

dices to the annual trend in fishing and provide a measure of the

results of stocking, management practices, and legal restrictions.

These censuses also provide a personal contact between state

employees and the fisherman and stimulate the general interest

of sportsmen in conservation matters.

During the past few years, considerable evidence has been

reported to show that greater returns to the angler are obtained

when trout of legal size are stocked in the spring or during the

open season than when the fish are released in the fall. Cobb

(1934) recovered 5,403 (33 percent) of 15,875 marked legal

brown and brook trout released in Connecticut streams. The

trout were marked by internal tags. He found that brown trout

provided fishing for several weeks after planting while brook

trout, planted during the open season, were usually depleted

within one week. Nesbit and Kitson (1937), in Massachusetts,

concluded that spring planting gave a return to the angler by an

average ratio of five to one over fall stocking. Hoover and John¬

son (1938) found that 76 percent of a plant of 2,000 legal-sized

brook trout, stocked during the season, were caught within three

weeks. They also found that the greatest migration from the

point of planting was 3,900 feet upstream (by the end of twenty

days) and 3,700 feet downstream (end of eight days). In check¬

ing the efficiency of stocking methods, they found that spot

plantings provided good fishing for a maximum of three weeks,

while scatter plants throughout the stream produced good fishing

for five weeks or longer.

Williamson and Schneberger (1943) obtained a check of re¬

capture of 37.5 percent of 2,623 marked legal-sized rainbow

trout stocked in a Wisconsin stream. The stocked legals amounted

to 29.0 percent of the total yield.

Shetter and Hazzard (1942) made experimental plantings of

36,000 trout in 51 experiments. Brook trout were planted in six

streams and brown and rainbow in four. They found a return

O'Donnell — A Creel Census on the Brule River 281

to the creel of 4.4 to 5.8 percent for fall stocking, 11.8 to 25.5

percent for spring stockings, and 13.0 to 25.4 percent for open-

season plantings. A very few brown and rainbow trout were

found to carry over to a second season, but brook trout were

never found during the second season. Brook trout contributed

to the catch for approximately four weeks after planting and

the brown and rainbow trout were usually caught out in eight

weeks.

Needham and Slater (1944), in five years’ study on 63 trout

plants, found a summer mortality of planted fingerlings of 45 to

70 percent and an additional first winter mortality of 56 to 71

percent, and they conclude that few, if any, planted fingerlings

ever survive to the creel. Natural propagation provides prac¬

tically all of the angler’s catch, and the most efficient use of

hatchery fish is by planting for the creel in heavily fished waters.

Smith (1940) conducted a creel census on the Salmon Trout

River in northern Michigan, a stream with relatively light fish¬

ing pressure, and also checked the yield from fall- and spring-

planted, marked, legal brook trout. Fall planting yielded a maxi¬

mum of 1.0 percent, while spring-planted produced a maximum

return of 19.6 percent. The contribution of hatchery fish of

legal size to the entire season’s catch amounted to 44.0 percent,

38.6 percent and 24.9 percent respectively in three successive

seasons.

Methods

The 1936 creel census was made with the assistance of per¬

sonnel of the Works Progress Administration, while the census

clerks for 1940 were members of the Civilian Conservation Corps

who had been especially instructed, and who worked under the

supervision of a biologist. The censuses of 1943 and 1944 were

made with Survey employees.

Since the first plant in the Brule in 1890, some 3,935,295

trout of all species have been stocked. Up to 1918 the plants

were limited almost entirely to fry, and from 1919 to 1942 to

fingerlings. During the course of the survey in 1943 and 1944,

the planting was restricted to marked legal-sized trout. The

marking was either by fin-clipping or jaw-tagging.

The number in the census crew varied from six to twelve

persons at selected stations, with additional personnel on a “rov-

282 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts and Letters

ing” assignment. As a result of “spot checks” and other investi¬

gations, it was concluded that the census was 50 percent

complete.

Past Plantings

Records of state plantings of all species of fish in the river

since the first stocking in 1890 are shown in Table 1. The plant

of 1890 consisted of 160,000 walleye pike fry in Big Lake, an

expansion of the river. Brook trout were native and present in

abundance. In 1892 an introduction of 80,000 rainbow trout fry

was made; the first state stocking of brook trout in 1894 con¬

sisted of 10,000 fry.

TABLE 1

Stocking of Fish in Brule River and Tributaries, 1890-1945

(Total plant, all species: 3,935,295; largest plant in one year,

all species: 542,822.)

1 Walleye Pike.

2 Black Bass.

3 Legal — 7 inches and over.

The stocking of brook and rainbow trout fry continued spo¬

radically until 1902 when yearly plants. were inaugurated. Black

bass (2,500), species unknown, were introduced into Big Lake in

1906. Practically all of the brook and rainbow trout planted up

O'Donnell — A Creel Census on the Brule River 283

to 1918 consisted of fry. Beginning at that time production of

fingerlings increased steadily, and the number of fish planted

increased accordingly. Brown trout fry were introduced in 1920

with a plant of 10,800 fish. After the initial plant only 218

brown trout were planted during the next 14 years. From 1934

to 1942 a total of 376,042 brown trout were planted, and further

plantings were discontinued in 1942'. Subsequent to 1942, only

legal-sized brook and rainbow trout have been planted. Since

the first plant in 1890, a total of 1,944,800 brook trout, 1,449,953

rainbow trout, 376,042 brown trout, 160,000 walleye pike and

2,500 black bass (species unknown) have been planted — a grand

total of all species of 3,935,295. The largest plant made in any

one year consisted of 542,842 trout of all species and sizes.

Summary of Total Catch

As census data were compiled for each of the four years, a

cumulative summary table was prepared (Table 2) showing the

annual catch and percentage of the total for all species of trout,

both marked and unmarked.

The censuses of 1936 and 1940 were made during the period

of very heavy plants of fingerling, which were made because of

many complaints that trout fishing was continuing to decline.

The actual contributions of these fingerlings to the stock of legal¬

sized fish could not, of course, be determined. During 1943 and

1944, however, several plants of marked legal trout were present,

and comparisons could be made between the contributions of the

planted and native fish to the total catch.

An examination of Table 2 shows that resident (unmarked)

brook trout have declined greatly since 1936, with a very sharp

reduction between 1936 and 1940. The period from 1936 to 1940

was one of intense “stream improvement” on the river. Many

devices were built, logs and “down” trees removed, some bank

clearing and other work carried on which tended to improve the

river for canoe travel. Some of these operations, however, may

very well have helped bring about the sharp reduction of brook

trout.

Much of the fluctuation in the percentage of each species of

trout caught during the four years is due to the wide variations

in the take of rainbow trout. The availability of rainbow trout

is regulated by environmental conditions which determine the

relationship between the time of migration back to Lake Supe-

Summary Record of All Trout Reported Caught in Brule River, 1936, 1940, 1943, 1944

The creel census on which these figures are based are estimated to have been about 50 percent efficient.

284

Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts and Letters

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O'Donnell — A Creel Census on the Brule River 285

rior and the date of the opening of the season. The year 1936

was very poor for rainbow trout, while in 1940 this species made

up almost 70 percent of all trout taken from the river.

The catch of brown trout has continued to increase year

after year even with little or no stocking. The first plant of

brown trout which was made in 1920 consisted of 10,800 fry.

During the following fourteen years, only 218 brown trout

(adults) were planted. In the fall of 1935, the stream was

stocked with 36,380 fingerlings, but it is most improbable that

any of these entered the 1936 catch, since insufficient time had

elapsed for them to reach legal size. The brown trout contrib¬

uted 10.2 percent of the total catch of all species in 1936. It is

known definitely that the brown trout has become established in

the shore waters of Lake Superior and that, each fall, these

large breeders migrate up the streams tributary to Lake Supe¬

rior for the purpose of spawning. These migrations have actu¬

ally been observed in the Brule River.

The legal brook and rainbow trout, marked with jaw-tags,

made substantial contributions to the total catch of all species

in 1943, 22.1 percent and 18.4 percent respectively. An addi¬

tional lot of fin-clipped legal brook trout was planted, but the

returns amounted to only 2.9 percent of the plant. This low

figure can be attributed only to oversight by census clerks when

we consider that a return of 28.7 percent was obtained on the

total plants of both brook and rainbow trout that had been

jaw-tagged.

In 1944 a larger plant was made of jaw-tagged, legal-sized

brook trout. In that year the total return on the plant amounted

to 27.7 percent. However, the percentage contribution to the

total catch (50.5 percent) was much greater than that from the

1943 plant (22.1 percent). The 1943 introductions of legal trout

were made before the season and during the early season as

“spot” plantings (at bridges), while in 1944 all introductions

were “scatter” plantings (well distributed by boat) .

Since, as previously explained, the annual catch of rainbow

trout varied widely according to conditions affecting migrations,

the trends of the populations of brook and brown trout are

shown more advantageously in Table 3, in which the data on

rainbow trout have been omitted.

286 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts and Letters

TABLE 3

Summary of All Brook and Brown Trout Reported Caught

in the Brule River, 1936, 1940, 1943, 1944

The highest percentage of brook trout in the combined

catches of brook and brown trout occurred in 1936 when the

former species made up 84.9 percent of the total as compared

with 15.1 percent for the latter. During the period between 1936

and 1940 the brook trout declined at a rapid rate (percentage)

while the brown trout increased at exactly the same rate. From

the percentages of brook trout (marked legals not included) in

the catch for the four years, 84.9 percent, 57.6 percent, 55.1

percent, 49.3 percent, a sudden decline followed by a slower,

but continuing, decline is to be noted. The percentages for brown

trout obviously show precisely the reverse trend. It should also

be noted at this point that the last plant of brown trout (made

in 1942) consisted of 62,022 fingerlings. These fish, in combina¬

tion with the considerable numbers known to be produced natur¬

ally, undoubtedly accounted for the rapidity with which the

brown trout is becoming the dominant trout of the river.

Fishing Success

The test of whether a stream will continue to receive the

attention of the angler depends almost entirely on whether or

not the fisherman can expect a reasonable creel for the amount

of effort expended. Angler satisfaction has been defined in the

past as an average of one fish per hour of effort.

The success of fishermen on the Brule River is shown in

Table 4 for each of the census years. The number of fishermen

increased from 1936 through 1940 and has decreased only

slightly during the past few years. The fishing success (fisher¬

men catching trout) decreased somewhat from 1936 through

1940, but has increased during the past two years. The percent¬

age of successful fishermen has amounted to 67.7 percent, 58.7

percent, 77.8 percent and 92.4 percent, during each of the four

years.

O’Donnell — A Creel Census on the Brule River 287

TABLE 4

Total Numbers of Fishermen, Numbers and Percentages That Did and

Did Not Take Trout, and Numbers of Trout Taken per Fisherman-

day in the Brule River in 1936, 1940, 1943, and 1944

Data are given for sections of the river in 1936 and 1943. Estimated

efficiency of census was 50 percent.

Number of Fishermen

Fishermen Catching Trout

Fishermen Without Trout

Number of Trout Per Fisherman-Day

1 Upper Section — Headwater downstream to and including Stone’s bridge.

2 Middle Section — Stone’s downstream to and including Highway 2 bridge.

3 Lower Section — Highway 2 bridge downstream to Lake Superior.

4 Average of 1 .9 (tagged) ; 2.8 (untagged).

6 Average of 2.4 (tagged) ; 2.4 (untagged).

Much of the increase during 1943 and 1944 can be attributed

to the catch of tagged legal trout which were planted. This is

verified by the fact that a number of fishermen (approximately

35) who were checked had caught only tagged trout. There has

been a corresponding decrease in the percentage of anglers

catching no trout (32.3 percent, 41.3 percent, 22.2 percent, and

7.6 percent) .

288 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts and Letters

The average number of trout per fisherman-day was at a

level of 4.4 in 1936 and had dropped to 2.8 in 1940. In 1943, the

average had again increased, being 4.7 ; however, this is com¬

posed of 1.9 tagged trout and 2.8 untagged trout (resident).

Therefore, the average catch per fisherman-day of resident (un¬

tagged) trout remained approximately the same as for 1940.

During 1944, the average catch again increased, however, the

catch consisted of 2.4 tagged trout and 2.4 untagged trout

(native). These averages indicate a continual decrease in the

return to the creel of native trout (4.4, 2.8, 2.8, and 2.4)

although fishing satisfaction was maintained by the plant of

tagged legal-sized trout during 1943 and 1944 which brought the

average up to 4.7 and 4.8 respectively. The carryover of tagged

legal-sized trout from the 1943 plant was negligible, consisting

of one brook trout and eleven rainbow trout; however, on the

opening day of the season in 1945, four returns were examined

of tagged brook trout from the 1944 plant.

A complete resume was prepared of the 1943 census by seven-

day periods and for a number of categories (Table 5) . It will be

noted that of 704 fishermen, 215 or 30.5 percent were concen¬

trated in the first seven days of the season. These fishermen

caught 23.4 percent of the total season’s catch and 47.4 percent

of the total pounds of trout caught. Although the average

fisherman-day amounted to 5.54 hours and the average creel

amounted to 2.8 trout per day, the average pounds of trout per

fisherman consisted of 4.19 pounds.

The largest single creel for one fisherman, caught during the

same period, weighed 16 pounds and 15 ounces. The record

trout for the entire season was a rainbow caught on the second

day which weighed 10 pounds and 10 ounces. These unusually

high figures for the early season catch are due to the fact that

most fishermen are concentrating on the large Lake Superior

run rainbow trout.

As the season advances the fishing pressure is reduced to

what could only be considered as a very light pressure for the

amount of fishing water available (46.9 stream miles ; 199 acres) .

Although the hours per fisherman-day remains up to very near

average and during some weeks is even increased, the average

catch per day is reduced, and the average weight of trout per

fisherman-day decreases to 2.00 pounds or less from July 10 to

the end of the season.

O’Donnell — A Creel Census on the Brule River 289

TABLE 5

Detailed Information on the 1943 Creel Census on the Brule River

(Length of season — 130 days. Record trout for season: 10 lbs.-lO oz.,

rainbow, May 2.)

Even though the total harvest of trout amounted to 1,900

pounds, the removal was at a rate of 9.5 pounds per acre. Much

of the crop weight was due to the migratory rainbow trout and

does not represent the actual removal of resident trout.

In addition to the trout, several other species of fish were

caught. These included 3 rock bass (Ambloplites rupestris), 8

northern pike (Esox lucius) (19 to 27 inches), 300 walleye pike

( Stizostedion vitreum) (14 to 22 inches), 40 silver redhorse

290 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts and Letters

(Moxostoma anisurum) (14 to 18 inches), and several hundred

suckers — in the upper reaches of the river the common sucker

(Catostomus commersonnii commersonnii) , and in the lower

parts the Eastern sturgeon sucker ( Catostomus catostomus cato¬

stomus ).

The 1943 census has been tabulated in Table 6 to indicate the

success of those fishermen catching trout, and arranged by

stream section from the headwaters to Lake Superior.

The distribution of fishermen by sections has always been

very uneven due to success in previous years, parking and other

facilities. The two headwater sections have been popular for

the brook trout fisherman, while those areas known as Winne-

boujou, Ranger Station, Co-op Park and Johnson’s Bridge have

attracted those interested in rainbow and brown trout.

TABLE 6

Fishing Success by Stream Section in the Brule River, 1943

(Of 704 fishermen, 548 or 77.8 percent caught trout while 156 or 22.2

percent did not catch trout.)

1 Tagged trout planted here.

The Winneboujou bridge and Ranger Station areas consist¬

ently draw most of the fishermen. The facilities for parking are

excellent and these areas can be quite easily fished by wading.

The average number of trout per fisherman-day is greatest

in the headwater areas and gradually decreases in the down-

O’Donnell — A Creel Census on the Brule River 291

stream areas. However, the catch in the upper waters consists

almost entirely of brook trout while brown and rainbow trout,

in fewer numbers but of larger sizes, enter the catch in the

middle and lower reaches of the river. These statements are

clearly supported by the data presented in Table 6. However, the

averages which are numbered are abnormally high due to the

fact that legal-sized brook and rainbow trout were “spot” planted

in these sections.

In 1943 part of the legal tagged trout were planted two to

four weeks before the season opened and part were planted dur¬

ing the season (Table 7) . One thousand brook trout were “spot”

planted two weeks before the season opened, and apparently had

distributed themselves sufficiently that only 12.0 and 19.2 per¬

cent respectively were caught during the season. However, these

furnished fishing for approximately ten weeks. Another one

thousand were “spot” planted six weeks after the season opened

and most of those recaptured were taken within three weeks,

although a fair catch was made for an additional three weeks.

The total recorded catch amounted to 41.8 percent or two to

three times the percent caught from the before-season plant.

Averaging the total return from the three plants, the recorded

return to the fisherman amounted to 28.7 percent. The results

from two before-season “spot” plants and one in-season plant of

tagged legal-sized rainbow trout gave exactly the same total

recorded return, 28.7 percent, and the contribution to the creel

was in practically the same proportion, and over the same

period of time, as that for brook trout.

During 1943 the co-operation of an expert trout fisherman

was secured, and we obtained a record of trout caught by species

and hours fished. His record has been tabulated in Table 8 and

presents several interesting facts with reference to fishing in the

upper Brule above Big Lake.

The percent of total catch of brook, brown and rainbow trout

amounted to 38.7, 37.1 and 24.2 percent respectively; however,

it should be noted that the brook trout catch of 38.7 percent is

a combination of 16.1 percent tagged brook trout and 22.6 per¬

cent untagged or resident brook trout. A one-day catch of ten

tagged legal-sized brook trout made a substantial contribution to

his catch of this species. He fished a total of 42 hours and had a

total catch of 62 trout, or an average catch of 1.5 trout per hour,

292

Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts and Letters

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O'Donnell — A Creel Census on the Brule River

293

TABLE 8

Catch of Trout by One Fisherman, 1943

(62 trout were caught in 42 hours or an average of 1.5 trout per hour.

Of the total trout 16.1 percent were tagged brook trout and 22.6

percent were untagged brook trout.)

1 Tagged trout.

which is well over the “one fish per hour” considered necessary

for fishing satisfaction. Approximately two thirds (64.3 per¬

cent) of the fishing effort was before 5 p.m. while one third

(35.7 percent) was during the early and late evening. The even¬

ing fishing accounts for the fact that 37.1 percent of the trout

catch were brown trout as compared to an average of 17.4 per¬

cent for the full length of the stream during the entire season.

During the season of 1944 another expert fisherman co¬

operated with the survey by keeping accurate records of his

catch. All trout were caught in the middle section of the Brule,

from Big Lake to U. S. 2 bridge, and all fishing was between the

hours of 9 A.M. and 6 P.M. Approximately two thirds of the fish

were taken on wet flies and one third on dry flies. A tabulation

of his season catch is given in Table 9.

Since the section of stream was fished for 54 days and a total

of 237.5 hours, the average fisherman-day consisted of 4.4 hours

and the average catch per day amounted to 7.8 trout, which is

somewhat higher than the average of 4.8 trout for the entire

stream. The average number of trout caught per hour was 1.78,

which is almost double the one fish per hour considered neces¬

sary for fishing satisfaction. The catch of brook trout (61.9 per¬

cent) is slightly less than the average for the entire stream

(67.5 percent), the catch of brown trout (24.4 percent) some-

294 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts and Letters

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O’Donnell — A Creel Census on the Brule River 295

what higher than the stream average (17.4 percent), while the

catch of rainbow trout (13.7 percent) agrees quite well with the

stream average of 15.1 percent. The total catch of brook trout

has been further divided into resident and tagged legal. The

resident brook trout accounted for 52.7 percent while the bal¬

ance, or 47.3 percent, were tagged legal-sized brook trout as

compared to 49.5 percent and 50.5 percent respectively for the

same groups on a streamwide average.

Analysis of the 1940 Catch

The catch for 1940 in the Brule River has been analyzed and

presented graphically in a number of figures (1 to 6) to show

the length distribution of the various species caught and the

areas in which each was taken.

120 *

110 •

100 *

90 ■

80*

70-

60*

50-

40

30-

20-

10 •

0 *

TOTAL LENGTH (INCHES)

T--T- r— tt i i — « » 1 » r y.— "j — v« 'i

7 8 9 10 II 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23

Fig. 1. — Length distribution of all brook trout caught in the Brule River,

1940. (Legal length — 7 inches)

The size of brook trout and the number of each size is shown

in Figure 1. Although one brook trout 23 inches in length was

caught, the vast majority were in the 7-10-inch range, the

8-inch group predominating. There is a sharp rise from the

296 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts and Letters

7-inch to the 8-inch group indicating that many fishermen must

return to the water quite a few trout which are barely 7 inches

in length. The same sharp increase from 7 to 8 inches is noted

on the graphs for brown trout and rainbow trout which will

follow later.

The distribution of the brook trout catch by the number

caught in various sections of the stream is shown in Figure 2.

The section labeled Stone is the Stone's bridge area at the upper

end of the stream, and the McNeil section is at the extreme

lower end near Lake Superior. The majority of the brook trout

are caught in the upper one-third of the Brule, from the head¬

waters down to Winneboujou bridge. Comparatively few brook

STATION 2 (3

Fig. 2. — Number of brook trout by stream section.

trout are taken in the balance of the river, very probably due to

the fact that many environmental conditions are no longer con¬

ducive to good brook trout production. Higher water tempera¬

tures prevail, and there occurs very serious soil erosion into the

stream.

The brown trout is rapidly becoming the dominant trout in

the Brule River. The evidence for this fact will be presented in a

forthcoming report on an analysis of the fish populations of the

river. Figure 8 indicates that there is a much wider range of

catch sizes in the brown trout than was found in the brook trout.

O’Donnell — A Creel Census on the Brule River 297

The size-range of the principal catch extends from 7 inches to 17

inches, however, the majority were in the 7-inch to 12-inch

group.

Fig. 3. — Length distribution of all brown trout caught in the Brule River,

1940. (Legal length — 7 inches)

Whereas the peak catch of brook trout was in the Stone's

bridge area, the peak catch of brown trout occurred in the Win-

neboujou area (upper end of middle section of river), with a

smaller peak in the Johnson's bridge area (lower end of middle

section). This is shown graphically in Figure 4.

Practically the same type of curve as was obtained for brook

and brown trout results when the rainbow trout data are plotted.

Table 5 shows the number of rainbow trout according to total

length. Although the principal attraction of the Brule River

during the early season is the presence, and the possibility of

catching one or more, of the large rainbow trout which migrate

298 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts and Letters

STATION 2 13

Fig. 4. — Number of brown trout by stream section.

Fig. 5. — Length distribution of all rainbow trout (1,022) caught in the

Brule River, 1940. (Legal length — 7 inches)

O'Donnell — A Creel Census on the Brule River 299

from Lake Superior, 74 percent of the actual catch consists of

rainbow trout 7 to 12 inches in length.

SHORE STATION 2 13

Fig. 6. — Upper: Number of fisherman-days by stream section with

average catch per fisherman-day indicated for Winneboujou bridge and

Johnson bridge areas, 5.28 and 3.03 respectively. Lower: Number of rain¬

bow trout caught by stream section.

Several types of data have been graphed on Figure 6. The

total rainbow trout catch is shown by stream section indicating

two areas of heavy catch, the Winneboujou area and Johnson's

bridge area, respectively. Almost the same number of trout was

caught in each area. However, approximately twice as many

fisherman-days were required in the Johnson's bridge area as in

the Winneboujou area. Consequently the fishing satisfaction, as

reflected in trout per fisherman-day, was greater in the Winne¬

boujou area (5.28 trout) than in the Johnson's bridge area

(8.08 trout).

300 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts and Letters

During the 1944 investigational work on the river, approxi¬

mately 125 quantitative samples of the fish population were

made with the use of electric shocking equipment which allowed

the fish to be collected easily; length and weight measurements

and other data were then taken, and the fish returned to the

TABLE 10

Comparison of Trout Population Collected by Electric Shocker

in Blocked Sections of Three Streams

water without damage. A report will follow later on an analysis

of fish populations in the river based upon all of the above col¬

lections. However, since much of the creel census data indicates

the decline of the brook trout and the growing importance of

the brown trout, Table 10 is presented in this report to show

that the brown trout is, in fact, well established in the Brule

River, and to make a comparison with populations of other

streams. The Flag and Iron rivers were selected for convenience

of contact and because they are both considered good streams,

although not as highly advertised as the Brule. In addition, they

did not receive the extensive “stream improvement” such as was

done on the Brule. The stations selected on the Brule were two

of the best trout areas on the river. These data indicate that the

brown trout is well established in the Brule, and also that there

is a comparatively low standing crop of trout in pounds-per-

acre in the Brule when compared to the Flag and Iron rivers.

Summary

1. Trout were first planted in the Brule River in 1890 and,

since the first introductions, a total of 3,935,295 fish of all species

O’Donnell — A Creel Census on the Brule River 301

have been stocked. This includes 160,000 walleye pike fry and

2,500 black bass (species unknown) .

2. Brook trout were native to the river and the first intro¬

ductions, by the state of various species, were made as follows :

walleye pike in 1890, rainbow trout in 1892, brook trout in 1894,

black bass in 1906 and brown trout in 1920. The largest plant in

one year of all species consisted of 542,842 trout stocked in 1940.

3. The catch of brook trout declined markedly between 1936

and 1940, the period of intense “stream improvement.”

4. The return to the creel of marked legal-sized trout

amounted to 28.7 percent in 1943 and 27.7 percent in 1944. The

stocking consisted of 2,000 tagged trout in 1943 and 6,000 in

1944. However, the marked legal-sized trout contributed 43.1

percent in 1943 and 50.5 percent in 1944 to the total creel of all

species.

5. “Scatter” planting of legal-sized trout allows a return to

the creel over a longer period of time than does “spot planting.”

“Spot” planted trout (at bridges) are rapidly removed from the

stream.

6. The catch of brown trout has increased since 1936 at the

same rate as that for the decrease in brook trout.

7. The average catch of trout per fisherman-day has de¬

clined each year for 1936, 1940, 1943, and 1944, being 4.4, 2.8,

2.8, and 2.4. The plant of tagged legal-sized trout in 1943 and

1944 increased the average for these two years to 4.7 and 4.8

respectively.

8. The over-winter carryover of legal trout was negligible.

9. In 1943, the first seven days of the season provided fishing

for 30.5 percent of the season’s total fishermen, and they caught

23.4 percent of the total season’s catch and 47.4 percent of the

total pounds of trout.

10. The total harvest checked (minimum) amounted to 1,900

pounds in 1943 or 9.5 pounds per surface acre (199 acres, 46.9

stream miles) . Much of this crop weight was due to the migra¬

tory rainbow trout.

11. In addition to trout, the following species of fish were

taken in varying numbers : rock bass, northern pike, walleye

pike, silver redhorse, common sucker and Eastern sturgeon

sucker.

302 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts and Letters

12. The catch in the extreme upper waters consists almost

entirely of brook trout, while brown and rainbow trout in fewer

number, but of larger sizes, enter the catch in the middle and

lower reaches of the river.

13. Early season stocking of legal-sized trout provide two to

three times the return to the creel as before-season planting.

14. The total season catch of two fishermen, one in 1943 and

one in 1944, is analyzed.

15. The catch for 1940 is analyzed and presented graphically

to show the length distribution of the various species caught,

and the areas in which each was taken.

16. The trout population of two areas on the Brule River was

compared with areas on the Flag and Iron rivers. All samples

were quantitative, in seine-blocked areas, and fish were collected

with the electric shocker. The results indicate that the brown

trout is dominant in that section of the Brule, and also that there

is a low standing crop of trout in pounds-per-acre when com¬

pared to the Flag and Iron rivers.

17. Recommendations for stocking of trout. Plant only brook

trout of legal size, south of Cedar Island, to provide reasonable

success for anglers. Give consideration to legal-sized brown

trout in lower portion of river. Rainbow trout are not to be

stocked.

Literature Cited

Chamberlain, T. K. 1943. Overstocking fish streams. Trans. Eighth N. A.

Wildlife Conf., 350-359.

Cobb, Eben W. 1933. Results of trout tagging to determine migrations and

results from plants made. Trans. Am. Fish. Soc., 63:308-318.

Hazzard, Albert S. and David S. Shetter. 1939. Results from experi¬

mental plantings of legal-sized brook trout (Salvelinus fontinalis) and

rainbow trout (Salmo irideus). Trans. Am. Fish. Soc., 68:196-210.

Hoover, Earl E., and M. S. Johnson. 1938. Migration and depletion of

stocked brook trout. Trans. Am. Fish. Soc., 67:224-227.

Needham, Paul R., and Daniel W. Slater. 1944. Survival of hatchery-

reared brown and rainbow trout as affected by wild trout populations.

Jour. Wildlife Management, 8:No. 1, 22-36.

Shetter, David S. 1936. The jaw-tag method of marking fish. Papers Mich.

Acad. Sci. Arts and Letters, 21:651-653.

- 1937. Migration, growth rate, and population density of brook trout

in the North Branch of the Au Sable River, Michigan. Trans. Am.

Fish. Soc., 66:203-210.

O'Donnell — A Creel Census on the Brule River 303

- 1939. Success of plantings of fingerling trout in Michigan waters

as demonstrated by marking experiments and creel censuses. Trans.

Fourth N. A. Wildlife Conf., 318-325.

Shetter, David S. and Albert S. Hazzard. 1940. Results from plantings

of marked trout of legal size in streams and lakes of Michigan. Trans.

Am. Fish. Soc., 70:446-468.

- 1942. Planting “keeper” trout. Michigan Conservation, ll:No. 4,

3-5.

Smith, Lloyd L. Jr. 1940. The results of planting brook trout of legal

length in the Salmon Trout River, northern Michigan. Trans. Am.

Fish. Soc., 70:249-260.

Williamson, Lyman O. and Edward Schneberger. 1943. The results of

planting legal-sized trout in the Deerskin River, Vilas County, Wiscon¬

sin. Trans. Am. Fish. Soc., 72:92-96.

■

AN ANALYSIS OF THE VEGETATIVE COVER OF THE

BRULE RIVER (WISCONSIN) WATERSHED

Brule River Survey Report No. 8

John W. Thomson, Jr.

Department of Botany , University of Wisconsin

Introduction

In order to obtain an accurate estimate of the present-day

vegetative cover of the Brule River (Wisconsin) watershed, for

use in gauging its possible influence upon the stream and the

life in it, the present study was undertaken.

Funds making possible the necessary field work and making

available the aerial photographs and reproduction of the cover

map were supplied by the Wisconsin Conservation Commission

from the budget allotted to the Brule River Survey in coopera¬

tion with the University of Wisconsin. Grateful acknowledg¬

ment is made to Dr. N. C. Fassett and to my wife, Olive S.

Thomson, for help and suggestions in the preparation of this

paper.

The basis of the map included in this paper are aerial photo¬

graphs made of this region for the A.A.A. program by the

Abrams Aerial Survey Corp., Lansing, Michigan in August, 1938.

Enlargements showing the area on a scale of approximately

three inches to the mile were used in plotting the cover. A small

Zeiss stereoscope provided by the Forestry Division of the Con¬

servation Department was used in examining the photographs.

The borders of the cover types were traced in pencil and then

plotted on the cover map, which is on the scale of an inch to

the mile, by means of a transparent grid placed over the photo¬

graph and compared with a proportionately smaller grid drawn

on the working map. Reference was made constantly to the

conditions in the field to be certain that the interpretation of the

photographs was correct. The photographs were for the most

part satisfactory for plotting cover, although certain types could

not be distinguished and therefore have been lumped together.

305

TABLE 1

Areas in Vegetational Cover Types on the Brule River Watershed and Its Sections of Particular Interest

306

Thomson-

Vegetative Cover of the Brule Watershed 307

308 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts and Letters

Pasture and cultivated land could not be satisfactorily separated

without visiting each area in the field and have therefore been

grouped together in this analysis. For the same reason black

spruce (Picea mariana), balsam (Abies balsamea), and white

cedar (Thuja occidentalis) have been grouped together under

the general term, conifer bog.

The areas marked off on the photographs were measured

with a planimeter and the readings translated into acreages for

Table 1 by simple proportion :

Acres ^40 X planimeter reading of cover area

planimeter reading of the square mile

As the enlargements varied somewhat from mile to mile, the

planimeter reading was taken for each square mile as well as

for the areas of the various cover types within the square mile.

Only one reading was taken for each measurement, because to

make several readings and to take the average would have re¬

quired more time than was available for this work and would

not have appreciably affected the results. It was felt that an

accuracy well within 7% was obtained from the readings. Cal¬

culations of proportions were made by use of a slide rule, but

this possible source of error may be minimized for the purposes

of this study.

The lists of plants characteristic of the various communities

are by no means complete for the region but represent samples

listed in various parts of the watershed. Aquatic and semi-

aquatic communities have been omitted as they have been dis¬

cussed in a previous paper. A complete set of voucher specimens

has been deposited in the Herbarium of the University of Wis¬

consin ; a second set is at the Superior State Teachers College.

CONIFER BOG COMMUNITIES

Gates makes three associations of the coniferous bog com¬

munities: the Larix or tamarack, the Picea mariana or black

spruce, and the Thuja or white cedar associations. The Thuja

association is the climax association for boggy areas in the Brule

watershed as well as in northern lower Michigan. Whether the

seres leading to this association are the grass marsh community,

the alder swamp association or the leatherleaf bog association,

the final stand would be of the white cedar or Thuja association

whose species are listed below.

1 V

Thomson — Vegetative Cover of the Brule Watershed 309

Plants of Conifer Bogs

Dominant

Abies balsamea (balsam fir), Larix laricina (tamarack), Picea

mariana (black spruce), Sphagnum (peat moss), Thuja occi¬

dental is (white cedar).

Subdominant

Chamaedaphne calyculata (leatherleaf), Ledum groenlandicum

(Labrador tea).

Associated Species

Acer rubrum (red maple), Alnus incana (tag alder), Aster

puniceus (aster), Botrychium virginianum (rattlesnake fern),

Calla palustris (water arum), Car ex intumescens var. fernaldii

(sedge), Carex laxiflora (sedge), Carex tenella (sedge), Carex

trisperma (sedge), Chiogenes hispidula (snowberry), Circaea

alpina (enchanter’s nightshade), Clintonia borealis (Clintonia),

Coptis trifolia (goldthread), Cornus canadensis (bunchberry),

Cypripedium pubescens (yellow lady’s slipper) , Dryopteris cris -

tata (crested fern), Dryopteris thelypteris var. pubescens

(marsh fern), Equisetum fluviatile (marsh horsetail), Erio-

phorum viridi-carinatum (cotton grass), Fraxinus nigra (black

ash), Galium triflorum (bedstraw), Geum canadense (white

avens), Glyceria canadensis (rattlesnake manna grass), Good-

yera repens var. ophoides (rattlesnake plantain), Hahenaria

dilatata var. media (wood orchis), Habenaria obtusata (wood

orchis), Ilex verticillata (black alder), Impatiens biflora (jewel

weed), Linnaea borealis var. americana (twinflower) , Lomcera

canadensis (honeysuckle), Lonicera oblongifolia (honeysuckle),

Lycopodium annotinum (clubmoss), Mitella nuda (naked mitre-

wort), Moneses uniflora (one-flowered pyrola), Nemopanthus

mucronata (mountain holly), Osmunda cinnamomea (cinnamon

fern), Poly gala paucifolia (fringed polygala), Pteretis nodulosa

(ostrich fern), Pyrola chlorantha (pyrola), Pyrola secunda var.

obtusata (pyrola), Rhamnus alnifolia (alder-leaved buckthorn),

Ribes prostratum (skunk currant), Rubus triflorus (dwarf rasp¬

berry), Senecio aureus (golden ragwort), Smilacina trifolia

(three-leaved Solomon’s seal), Solidago uliginosa (bog golden-

rod), Symplocarpus foetidus (skunk cabbage), Trientalis ameri-

310 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts and Letters

cana (star flower), Vaccinium oxy coccus var. ovalifolium (cran¬

berry), Veronica americana (American brooklime), Viburnum

trilobum (highbush cranberry) , Viola 'pollens (white violet) .

Although only 6.8% of the area of the entire watershed and

16% of the area of the sections touching the river are covered

by the conifer bog communities, the conifer bog is of utmost

importance in the management of the stream. This is due to the

peculiar geological setting of the stream and the consequent

effect upon the water supplies. As pointed out by E. F. Bean

and J. W. Thomson, Jr., the Brule River occupies the former val¬

ley of a stream which once drained Glacial Lake Duluth to the

southwestward. This stream eroded the broad valley of the

upper Brule in which the conifer bog communities have become

the dominant vegetation. The Thuja, or white cedar association,

is the principal community in the floor of the valley. Under it a

deposit of five to six feet of woody peat has been laid down.

This organic material is the result of the slow accumulation since

the Glacial Period of the remains of the bog plants — an accumu¬

lation of some 25,000 to 30,000 years. As pointed out by Gates

and other students of bogs, the white cedar association is depend¬

ent upon the maintenance of wet ground and also upon the con¬

tinued accumulation of the woody peat. Changes which destroy

the delicate moisture balance destroy the bog. The upper Brule

River obtains its water supplies iji part from the precipitation,

rain or snow and ice, which falls upon the bog and seeps slowly

through the bog to enter the stream. The major part of the

water supply, however, comes from the sand barrens. Water fall¬

ing on the large barrens to the east of the Brule, or the smaller

barrens to the west (see the maps) seeps vertically down through

the sand to become part of the ground water supply. Eventually

the water emerges on the broad valley floor through the springs

and seepages which supply the upper Brule. Protected from

warm sunlight by the bog association, and supplied by water

seeping slowly through the cold peat deposits, the upper Brule

is kept fairly constant in temperature and well within the range

of satisfactory conditions for brook trout throughout the sum¬

mer. The coniferous bog on the upper Brule must thus be pro¬

tected not only to assure satisfactory shade over the stream but

also to continue to deposit the woody peat which is a controlling

factor in the upper valley. Pulpwood or other cutting, and plac¬

ing of roads and trails through the bog, will undoubtedly cause

Thomson — Vegetative Cover of the Brule Watershed 811

deterioration of the cover, loss of the organic soil through oxida¬

tion and run-off, and disintegration of the upper Brule, the por¬

tion of the stream which is at present the least disturbed and in

the most satisfactory condition. As seen in Table 1, large por¬

tions of the clay soil area and the Lake Nebagamon drainage area

are in conifer bog communities, 9.4% and 11.8% respectively.

These bogs act as buffers in preventing deposition of erosion

materials in the Brule via Nebagamon Creek. While these bog

communities may be cut under selective logging procedures, care

should be taken not to destroy these buffers either by overlog¬

ging, fires, or other destructive practices.

THE ASPEN ASSOCIATION

The principal plant community of the watershed area, cover¬

ing 89.8 percent of the entire area is the aspen association. Sev¬

eral phases of this association were distinguished on the water¬

shed, depending upon the admixture of other trees. Over the

greater part of the watershed the typical phase is one in which

various species of Populus (aspen) and Betula papyrifera (white

birch) dominate. This is called the popple-birch cover type in

Table 1 and Aspen Association on the map. Along the Brule

River and in the Nebagamon Creek drainage area are the main

areas covered by this phase. On the red clay soil area in the

north portion of the watershed, below the Copper Range, this

cover type becomes largely supplemented with an admixture of

conifers. Balsam, Abies balsamea, arbor vitae, Thuja occiden-

talis, and white spruce, Picea canadensis , are the principal coni¬

fers coming up among the poplars and white birch. Economically

this sub-sere or phase is of greater value than the popple-birch

type. On the uplands along the river and in some parts of the

barrens, the poplars are intermixed with pine, largely jack pine,

Pinus hanksiana, and red pine, Pinus resinosa. On the red clay

area large stands of the aspen association are mixed with alder

on the poorly drained parts of the area. Cutting of the better

stands of poplar, birch, and conifers for pulpwood tends to pro¬

duce, on the red clay soils, the successional stages largely domi¬

nated by alders, Alnus incana. On the areas examined in the

field there does not seem to be much recovery of the poplars, and

still less of the conifers, following the clear cutting on the red

clay. Succession following fires is the reason generally given by

312 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts and Letters

most authors for the presence of the aspen association in the lake

states, and the Brule River watershed is no exception. All

through the aspen association are great stumps, charred and

blackened by the fires following the lumbering on the watershed.

Where unbroken by roads, cultivation, pulpwood logging, or

other activities of man, adequate protection of the watershed

soils is given by the aspen association. An abundance of herba¬

ceous plants as well as woody plants is found in the aspen asso¬

ciation. Except along the banks of the lower Brule, where the

undercutting of the red clay soils produces landsliding and

slumping, little evidence of erosion was noted in this associa¬

tion. Where the aspen association on the red clay soils is cut

for pulpwood, care should be taken to avoid the succession

toward the alder swamp association which has become dominant

over 17 percent of that area.

Plants of the Aspen Association

Dominant

Betula papyrifera (white birch), Populus grandidentata (large-

toothed aspen), Populus tremuloides (trembling aspen), Prunus

pennsylvanica (pin cherry).

Subdominant

Aster macrophyllus (large-leaved aster), Diervilla lonicera

(bush honeysuckle), Pteridium latiusculum (bracken fern).

Associated Species

Abies balsamea (balsam fir), Acer rubrum (red maple), Acer

saccharum (sugar maple), Actaea rubra (red baneberry),

Agrostis scabra (hair grass), Amelanchier wiegandii (june-

berry) , Amphicarpa monoica (hog peanut) , Anemone canadensis

Canada anemone), Anemone quinquefolia (wood anemone), An-

tennaria neodioica (pussy-toes), Apocynum androsaemifolium

(dogbane), Aquilegia canadensis (columbine), Aralia nudicaulis

(wild sarsaparilla), Aralia racemosa (spikenard), Aster lindley-

anus (aster), Athyrium angustum (lady fern), Botrychium mul-

tifidum (grape fern), Botrychium virginianum (rattlesnake

fern), Car ex gracillima (sedge), Caulophyllum thalictroides

(cohosh), Chimaphila umbellata (pipisissewa) , Clintonia bore¬

alis (clintonia), Cornus canadensis (bunchberry) , Cornus pani-

culata (gray dogwood), Cornus rugosa (round-leaved cornel),

Thomson — Vegetative Cover of the Brule Watershed 318

Corylus rostrata (beaked hazelnut), Dryopteris spinulosa

(spinulose shield fern), Epigaea repens (rattlesnake plantain),

Epilobium angustif olium (fire-weed), Equisteum sylvaticum

(horsetail), Erigeron ramosus (daisy fleabane), Frag aria vir-

giniana (strawberry), Hepatica americana (hepatica), Hystrix

patula (bottlebrush grass), Lactuca canadensis (wild lettuce),

Lathyrus ochroleucus (white wild pea), Lathyrus venosus var.

intonsus (wild pea), Luzula saltuensis (wood rush), Lycopodium

clavatum (club moss), Lycopodium obscurum (club moss), Mai-

anthemum canadense (canada may flower) , Melampyrum linear e

(cow wheat), Mitchella repens (partridge-berry), Osmunda

daytoniana (interrupted fern), Ostrya virginiana (ironwood),

Panicum xanthophyscum (panic grass), Pedicularis canadensis

(wood betony), Petasites palmatus (sweet coltsfoot), Picea can¬

adensis (white spruce), Pinus banksiana (jack pine), Pinus

resinosa (red pine), Pinus strobus (white pine), Poa pratensis

(june grass), Populus tacamahacca (balsam poplar), Prenanthes

alba (white lettuce), Pyrola asarifolia var. incarnata (pyrola),

Quercus borealis (red oak), Rhus toxicodendron (poison ivy),

Rosa blanda (pasture rose), Rubus nigrobaccus (blackberry),

Rubus parviflorus (thimbleberry) , Rubus villosus (dewberry),

Salix discolor (pussy willow), Salix humilis (prairie willow),

Sanicula marilandica (black snakeroot), Senecio pauper cuius

(ragwort), Streptopus roseus var. longipes (twisted-stalk),

Steironema ciliatum (fringed loosestrife), Thalictrum dioicum

(meadow rue), T ilia americana (basswood), Vaccinium pennsyl-

vanicum (blueberry), Viburnum dentatum (arrow-wood), Vida

americana (vetch), Viola pubescens (yellow violet).

THE JACK PINE COMMUNITY

Two subdivisions have been made of the jack pine community

(Pinus banksiana) for the purpose of distinguishing between

the amounts of standing timber on each. The “pine” cover type

represents a dense growth of jack pine with the tops confluent

in the aerial photographs. The “scattered pine” cover type is the

same community but with the tops discrete, and even widely

spaced, on the aerial photographs. The jack pine community is

characteristic of the sandy soils of the Brule Barrens, mainly

to the east of the river. As already pointed out in papers by

Thomson and Fassett, drainage in the barrens area is almost

entirely vertical. Little or no effect on the river is likely to

314 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts and Letters

occur from changes in this vegetational cover. The jack pine

barrens are the result of fires as well as climate and soils. Peri¬

odic fires set the succession back. Early seres or stages in the

succession toward the jack pine community are the grass upland,

the oak scrub, the hazel brush, and the scattered pine cover

types. The probable successional stages are indicated in Figure 1.

JACK PINE, RED PINE, AND OAK ASSOCIATION

n

JACK PINE COMMUNITY

OAK AND SCATTERED PINES

SCATTERED PINES

HAZEL BRUSH

OAK SCRUB GRASS UPLAND

FIRE

JACK PINE COMMUNITY ON SAND BARRENS

Fig. 1. — Probable plant succession on the Brule barrens.

When the burning is severe as in the fire of 1936, large areas

of the “barrens” are converted into grass barrens. When the pines

are eliminated by burning the Hill’s oak, Quercus ellipsoidalis.

underground parts may survive and by sending up shoots, pro¬

duce a community apparently dominated by this oak. However,

young jack pines soon spring up among the oaks and the com¬

munity reverts to the jack pine community with oak intersper-

sion. The forbs and grasses are similar in these seres leading

to the climax, jack and red pine and Hill’s and bur oak

association.

Thomson — Vegetative Cover of the Brule Watershed 315

In this analysis it was not worthwhile separating the other

pine communities from the jack pine because the areas in which

these are dominant represent such an insignificant part of the

watershed. A fine stand of red pine existed- on the Pierce estate

at the time of the field work but was being logged in 1945. Small

stands of white pine also exist, but do not grealy influence the

river.

Plants of the Jack Pine Community and Seres

Leading to It

Dominant

Firms banksiana (jack pine), Quercus ellipsoidalis (Hill's oak).

Subdominants

Corylus amerieana (hazelnut), Danthonia spicata (wild oats

grass), Myrica asplenifolia (sweetfern), Pteridium latiusculum

(bracken fern), Quercus macrocarpa (bur oak), Salix humilis

(prairie willow), Vaccinium pennsylvanicum (blueberry).

Associated Species

Acer rubrum (red maple), Agrostis gigantea (red-top), Agros-

tis scabra (hair grass), Alnus crispa (green alder), Amelan-

chier humilis (juneberry), Andropogon furcatus (big bluestem),

Andropogon scoparius (little bluestem), Anemone quinque folia

(wood anemone), Antennaria fallax (pussy-toes), Antennaria

plantaginifolia (pussy-toes), Apocynum androsaemifolium (dog¬

bane), Arabis laevigata (tower mustard), Arctostaphylos uva-

ursi (bearberry), Aster azureus (aster), Aster laevis (smooth

aster), Aster lindleyanus (aster), Aster macrophyllus (large-

leaved aster), Aster ptarmicoides (aster), Campanula rotunldi-

folia (bluebells), Ceanothus ovatus (New Jersey tea), Cladonia

chlorophaea (pyxie cups), Cladonia cristatella (scarlet-crested

cladonia), Cladonia gracilis (slender cup lichen), Cladonia

nemoxyna, Cladonia verticillata (organ pipes lichen), Comandra

umbellata (bastard toadflax), Convolvulus spithamaeus var.

stans (bindweed), Cypripedum acaule (common lady's slipper),

DierviUa lonicera (bush honeysuckle), Erigeron glabellus (flea-

bane), Fragaria virginiana (strawberry), Gaultheria procum-

bens (wintergreen) , Helianthemum canadense (frostweed),

Helianthus occidentals (sunflower), Helianthus rigidus (sun-

316 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts and LetteTs

flower), Heuchera richardsonii var. hispidior (alum root), Hous-

tonia longifolia (bluets), Koeleria cristata (prairie junegrass),

Lactuca canadensis (wild lettuce), Liatris ligulistylus (blazing

star), Lilium philadelphicum (wood lily), Lithospermum canes -

cens (puccoon), Lithospermum carolinense (puccoon), Lysi -

machia quadrifolia (whorled loosestrife), Maianthemum cana-

dense (Canada mayflower), Mollugo verticillata (carpetweed),

Monarda fistulosa (wild bergamot), Oryzopsis asperifolia

(mountain rice), Panicum depauperatum (panic-grass), Pani-

cum meridionale (panic-grass), Pinus resinosa (red pine), Poly¬

gala polygama (fringed polygala), Polytrichum piliferum

(awled hair-cap moss), Populus tremuloides (trembling aspen),

Prumts pumila (sand cherry), Rubus villosus (dewberry), Sela-

ginella rupestris (creeping club moss), Senecio pauper culm

(ragwort), Solidago canadensis (Canada goldenrod), Sorghas -

trum nutans (indian grass), Symphoricarpos occidentalis (wolf-

berry), Viola conspersa (violet), W aldsteinia fragarioides (bar¬

ren strawberry).

THE SWAMP HARDWOODS ASSOCIATION

The swamp or lowland hardwoods association is of minor

importance in the watershed as a whole. In its various phases

it occupies 6.7 percent of the entire watershed. On poorly

drained portions of the Lake Nebagamon watershed it assumes

more importance and covers 11.9 percent of that area. Two sub¬

phases are distinguishable in the Brule watershed: one with a

heavy mixture of balsam fir and white cedar, and one with a

heavy proportion of alder. These are easily separable on the

aerial photographs and have, therefore, also been separated in

Table 1.

Plants of the Swamp Hardwoods Association

Dominant

Acer rubrum (red maple), Fraxinus nigra (black ash), Ulmus

americana (elm).

Subdominant

Abies balsamea (balsam fir), Alnus incana (tag alder), Betula

papyrifera (white birch), Populus tacamahacca (balsam poplar).

Thomson — Vegetative Cover of the Brule Watershed 317

Associated Species

Acer spicatum (mountain maple), Actaea alba (white bane-

berry), Actaea rubra (red baneberry), Apocynum androsaemi -

folium (dogbane), Aralia nudicaulis (wild sarsaparilla),

Asarum canadense (wild ginger), Aster macrophyllus (large-

leaved aster), Athyrium angustum (lady fern), Botrychium vir-

ginianum (rattlesnake fern), Campanula aparinoides (marsh

bellflower), Carex retrorsa (sedge), Carex tuckermani (sedge),

A-6400— SCIENCES, ARTS AND LETTERS Galley 102

Cornus stolonifera (red-osier dogwood), Corylus amen c ana

(hazelnut), Dryopteris spinulosa (spinulose shield fern), Echin-

ocystis lobata (bur-cucumber), Equisetum arvense (horsetail),

Eupatorium purpureum ( joe-pye- weed ), Geum canadense (white

avens), Humulus lupulus (hops), Impatiens bi flora (jewelweed),

Laportea canadensis (wood nettle), Lilium michiganense (yel¬

low meadow lily) , Maianthemum canadense (Canada may flower) ,

Onoclea sensibilis (sensitive fern), Osmunda claytoniana (in¬

terrupted fern), Pteretis nodulosa (ostrich fern), Pteridium

latiusculum (bracken fern), Ribes cynosbati (wild currant),

Rubus idaeus (raspberry), Rudbeckia laciniata (coneflower),

Sanicula marilandica (black snakeroot), Scutellaria lateriflora

(mad-dog skullcap), Senecio aureus (golden ragwort), Stachys

palustris (woundwort), Steironema ciliatum (fringed loose¬

strife), Streptopus roseus (twisted stalk), Thalictrum dioicum

(meadow rue), Thuja occidentals (white cedar), Trillium cer-

nuum (trillium), Urtica procera (nettle), Viburnum lentago

(nannyberry) , Viburnum opulus var. americanum (high-bush

cranberry), Waldsteinia fragarioides (barren strawberry).

MAPLE-BASSWOOD-YELLOW BIRCH COMMUNITY

This community, with a dominance of hardwood trees is of

small importance on the watershed, the main stands being on

the north side of Lake Minnisuing and to the east of the Brule

River near the Copper Range and on it. Less than 2 percent

of the watershed is covered by this type. Formerly a sugar camp

for obtaining maple sugar was located on the hill to the west of

the N. P. Johnson’s Bridge, but with lumbering and fires, the

old trees have gone and the sugaring has ceased. A scrub growth

of the same species covers the rock hill today, but recovery will

be slow as much of the soil is gone from the hillslopes.

318 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts and Letters

Plants of the Maple-Basswood-Yellow Birch Community

Dominant

Acer rubrum (red maple), Acer saccharum (sugar maple),

Betula lutea (yellow birch), Betula papyrifera (white birch),

Ostrya virginiana (iron wood), Pinus strobus (white pine), Tilia

americana (basswood).

Associated Species

Abies balsamea (balsam fir), Acer spicatum (mountain maple),

Allium tricoccum (wild leek), Aralia nudicaulis (wild sarsa¬

parilla), Aralia racemosa (spikenard), Arisaema triphyllum

(jack-in-the-pulpit), Asarum canadense (wild ginger), Athy-

rium angustum (lady fern), Botrychium matricariae folium

(grape fern), Botrychium virginianum (rattlesnake fern),

Carex intumescens (sedge), Clintonia borealis (clintonia), Cor -

allorhiza maculata (coral-root orchis), Cornus stolonifera (red-

osier dogwood), Dryopteris linnaeana (oak fern), Dryopteris

phegopteris (long beech fern), Galium aparine (bedstraw),

Hepatica americana (hepatica), Maianthemum canadense (Can¬

ada mayflower), Milium effusum (wild millet), Osmorrhiza

claytoni (sweet cicely), Osmorrhiza longistylis (sweet cicely),

Osmunda claytoniana (interrupted fern), Petasites palmatus

(sweet coltsfoot), Ranunculus abortivus (abortive buttercup),

Rib es prostratum (skunk currant), Rubus villosus (dewberry),

Sanicula marilandica (black snakeroot), Streptopus roseus var.

longipes (twisted stalk), Trientalis americana (star flower),

Trillium cernuum (trillium), Veronica serpyllifolia (thyme¬

leaved speedwell).

ALDER SWAMP ASSOCIATION

Although a small percentage of the area next to the river is

in this cover type, the influence upon the river is very strong.

Only 8.7 percent of the sections touching the river is in this

type, but the alder swamp association borders the stream and is

especially important in the upper section above Big Lake where

the Brule River flows through the Brule bog. Here the sedi¬

ments, as shown by R. I. Evans, are principally contributed by

this plant association. The non-aquatic invertebrates supplying

fish foods and the terrestrial and aerial stages of the aquatic

Thomson — Vegetative Cover of the Brule Watershed 319

insects must all be strongly influenced by this stream border

association.

Along the upper Brule, the association provides much needed

cover to protect the stream. The dark waters and bottom readily

absorb the heat rays in the sunlight and these must be inter¬

cepted by appropriate stream cover to prevent warming of the

water. The alder swamp association, eminently satisfactory for

this purpose, should be maintained, not cleared, along the upper

Brule. The narrow fringe of alders along the lower Brule also

should be left undisturbed to provide cover and erosion pre¬

vention.

Fires and continued pulpwood cutting of the aspen associa¬

tion on the red clay soils area have led to a large percentage of

this area, 17.7 percent, being covered with an alder thicket.

Plants of the Alder Swamp Association

Dominant

Alnus incana (tag alder).

Subdominant

Cornus stolonifera (red-osier dogwood), Rhamnus alnifolia

(alder-leaved buckthorn), Salix pedicellaris (bog willow), Vi¬

burnum opulus var. americanum (high-bush cranberry) .

Associated Species

Aster puniceus (aster), Aster umbellatus (aster), Athyrium

angustum var. rubellum (lady fern), Calamagrostis canadensis

(blue joint), Calla palustris (water arum), Chrysosplenium

americanum (golden saxifrage), Cicuta bulbifera (water hem¬

lock), Cirsium muticum (swamp thistle), Dryopteris cristata

(crested fern), Equisetum sylvaticum (horsetail), Fragaria vir -

giniana (strawberry), Galium asprellum (bedstraw), Galium

claytoni (bedstraw), Helianthus giganteus (sunflower), Impa-

tiens biflora (jewelweed), Iris versicolor (iris), Ly copus ameri-

canus (water horehound), Mentha arvensis var. lanata (mint),

Myosotis scorpioides (forget-me-not), Myrica gale (sweet gale),

Prenanthes alba (white lettuce) , Ribes americanus (gooseberry) ,

Rumex britannica (great water dock), Solidago uliginosa (bog

goldenrod), Spiraea salicifolia (meadowsweet), Steironema cili-

atum (fringed loosestrife), Thalictrum dasycarpum (meadow

rue) , Viola sp. (violet) ,

320 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts and Letters

GRASS MARSH COMMUNITIES

It would appear that the grass marsh communities, compris¬

ing only a fraction of 1 percent, are of very little importance

to the entire watershed. Here, as in the case of the conifer bogs

and the alder swamp association, the importance is that of posi¬

tion. Examination of the maps will show that the grass marshes

are along the river, particularly the upper Brule. Removal of

the trees from a wooded bog, particularly when followed by

fires, brings about the establishment of the Calamagrostis asso¬

ciation of wet-meadow grasses according to Gates. The stream

then winds through an open marsh with the black bottom ex¬

posed to insolation which can raise the bottom temperatures

considerably. In addition, the streamside alder cover is reduced

along such meadows on the upper Brule, and conditions for fish

seem less satisfactory than in undisturbed sections of the stream.

Protection from fires and from removal of the timber is neces¬

sary to prevent further encroachment of the grass marsh

communities.

Plants of the Grass Marsh Communities

Dominants

Calamagrostis canadensis (bluejoint), Poa palustris (fowl blue-

grass).

Associated Species

Asclepias incarnata (swamp milkweed), Aster lateriflorus

(aster), Campanula aparinoides (marsh bellflower), Carex

stricta (sedge), Gentiana flavida (yellow gentian), Glyceria

grandis (manna grass), Hypericum ascyron (great St. John’s-

wort), Hypericum virginicum var. fraseri (marsh St. John's

wort), Ly copus americanus (water horehound), Ly c opus vir-

ginicus (water horehound), Lysimachia thyrsiflora (tufted

loosestrife), Mentha arvensis var. lanata (mint), Polygonum

sagittatum (arrow-leaved tear-thumb), Stellaria longifolia

(marsh chickweed) .

LEATHERLEAF BOG ASSOCIATION

The leatherleaf bog or Chamaedaphne association is of prac¬

tically no importance in the watershed management. It occupies

mainly the kettleholes of the morainic topography of the Lake

Thomson — Vegetative Cover of the Brule Watershed 321

Nebagamon watershed area and the Barrens, and occupies but a

fraction of 1 percent of the entire area. The leatherleaf bog

association, if given protection, especially from fires, leads even¬

tually through tamarack and black spruce communities to the

white cedar association.

Plants of the Leatherleaf Bog Association

Dominant

Chamaedaphne calyculata (leatherleaf), Sphagnum sp. (peat

moss).

Subdominant

Ledum groenlandicum (labrador tea), Vaccinium pennsylvani-

cum (blueberry).

Associated Species

Andromeda glaucophylla (bog rosemary), Betula papyrifera

(white birch), Calla palustris (water arum), Calopogon pulchel-

lus (grass pink), Drosera rotundifolia (sundew), Dryopteris

thelpyteris var. pubescens (marsh fern), Dulichium arundina-

ceum (three-way sedge) Epilobium angustif olium (fireweed),

Eriophorum spissum (cotton grass), Eriophorum viridi-carina-

tum (cotton grass), Kalmia polifolia (pale laurel), Larix lari-

cina (tamarack), Lysimachia terrestris (swamp-candle), Men-

yanthes trifoliata (buck bean), Picea mariana (black spruce),

Pinus banksiana (jack pine), Sarracenia purpurea (pitcher

plant), Scirpus atrocinctus (wool grass), Utricularia vulgaris

var. americana (bladderwort), Vaccinium oxycoccus (cran¬

berry), Vaccinium pennsylvanicum var. nigrum (blueberry).

PASTURE AND CROP LAND

The most extensively cultivated and pastured part of the

watershed is on the red clay soil area north of the Copper Range.

Here 30.6 percent of the area is under pasture or is cultivated.

The Lake Nebagamon drainage area is second with 16 percent

under cultivation and pastured. The average for the entire area

is but 12.4 percent. The barrens with only 3 percent in such

cover pulls down the average. A preliminary study of the crop

practices by 0. R. Zeasman and M. F. Schweers showed that

cropping practices were such that the cultivated areas were con¬

tributing little silt to the river. The crop lands are largely on

322 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts and Letters

level ground and are used for raising close-grown crops which

do not cause great erosion. Taking the figures for T.49N.,

R.10W. and T.48N., R.10W. from J. S. Bordner’s study of the

county, we find that 2,347 acres are in open, pastured or aban¬

doned land and 4,831 acres are in crop land. If the portion of

these red clay soil townships which is in the Brule River water¬

shed maintains the same proportion of crop to pastured and

similar land, then about 10 percent of the red clay soil is pas¬

tured and 20 percent is under cultivation. Small grains, peas and

similar crops, are the principal crops on the red clay soils, and

the increasing tendency is to place more and more in pasture,

thus keeping the soils rather well protected. As pointed out in

earlier reports, the highways, access roads to farms and cot¬

tages, and eroding river banks are the principal sources of silt

in the river. There are some clean tilled crops in the Lake Neba-

gamon area, but between them and the river are the bogs and

kettleholes of that area and the settling basins of Lakes Neba-

gamon and Minnisuing.

SUMMARY

1. The Brule River drainage pattern is atypical of most trout

streams of northern Wisconsin in that its valley is a broad val¬

ley eroded by a former, much larger, stream which flowed in the

opposite direction. The water supplies come partly from a coni¬

ferous bog occupying this valley, and partly from springs issu¬

ing from the floor of the valley. The ground water emerging

from the springs comes via vertical drainage from the sandy

barrens to either side of the Brule. With this peculiar drainage

pattern, the vegetation of the parts of the watershed in the

barrens has little effect on the river ; and on the other hand the

vegetation of the headwaters bog, although it occupies but a

small percentage of the watershed area, has a very great

influence.

2. The principal plant communities of the Brule River water¬

shed are the conifer bog communities, the aspen association, the

jack pine barrens community, the swamp or lowlands hardwoods

association, the maple-basswood-yellow birch association, the

alder association, the grass marsh communities, the grass upland

community, the leatherleaf bog association, and cultivated and

pastured land.

Thomson — Vegetative Cover of the Brule Watershed 323

3. The conifer bog communities include the tamarack, black

spruce, and white cedar-balsam fir associations.

4. Seres or successional stages, caused by fires, on the Brule

barrens are the grass uplands, hazel brush, oak scrub, and jack

pine communities, leading to the jack pine- red pine-Hill’s and

bur oak association.

5. The dominant, subdominant and associated species of each

community are listed.

6. The analysis of the watershed area vegetational cover in

toto and for various parts is given in terms of acreages and

percentages.

7. A map of the watershed area, showing the vegetational

cover, is provided.

8. Some watershed management recommendations are made.

References

Bean, E. F. and J. W. Thomson, Jr. 1945. Geology of the Brule River.

Trans. Wisconsin Acad. Sci. 36:7-17.

Bordner, John S. et al. 1933. Land Economic Inventory of Northern

Wisconsin, Douglas County. Wis. Dept. Agric. and Markets Bull. 146.

Evans, Richard I. The Bottom Deposits of the Brule River. Trans. Wis¬

consin Acad. Sci. 37:325-335.

Fassett, N. C. 1945. Vegetation of the Brule Basin, Past and Present.

Trans. Wisconsin Acad. Sci. -36:33-56.

Gates, Frank C. 1930. Aspen Association in Northern Lower Michigan.

Bot. Gaz. 90:233-259.

Gates, Frank C. 1942. The Bogs of Northern Lower Michigan. Ecol.

Mongr. 12:213-254.

Hansen, Henry P. 1933. The Tamarack Bogs of the Driftless Area of

Wisconsin. Bull. -Public Museum of Milwaukee 7:231-304.

Thomson, John W., Jr. 1945. A survey of the larger aquatic plants and

bank flora of the Brule River. Trans. Wisconsin Acad. Sci. 36:57-76.

Thomson, John W., Jr. and N. C. Fassett. 1945. The Past and Present

Vegetation of the Brule River Watershed. Wis. Conservation Bull.

10, No. 1:3-8.

Wilson, L. R. 1938. The Postglacial History of Vegetation in Northwest¬

ern Wisconsin. Rhodora 40:137-175.

BOTTOM DEPOSITS OF THE BRULE RIVER

Brule River Survey Report No. 9

Richard Evans

Department of Botany, University of Wisconsin

Recent studies made upon the Brule River have shown that

the general character of the stream varies considerably through¬

out its length. Such differences, of course, make for equally

different conditions for the growth of trout. Conditions in the

lower Brule are fairly obvious: the stream cuts through banks

of red clay and as a consequence the water is heavily charged

with red sediment. In the upper Brule the stream flows through

a sphagnum bog which acts as a filter and as a reservoir from

which water eventually seeps into the river. This bog is bordered

by jack pine barrens; papers now in press in the Transactions

of the Wisconsin Academy (N. C. Fassett, J. W. Thomson)

present the theory that, although these barrens are largely de¬

forested by burning, there is little or no surface drainage reach¬

ing the Brule River because precipitation water soaks into the

sand and thence reaches the river largely through springs in

the bog. However, the upper river has a heavy bottom deposit,

sometimes several feet deep, of material which is superficially

amorphous and unidentifiable to the naked eye.

Identification of the constituents of these deposits (both

from qualitative and from quantitative standpoints) has been

undertaken for the purpose of determining their origin. The

bearing which the presence or absence of these bottom deposits

may have upon trout, whose environment they probably affect

both directly and indirectly, and upon suckers which derive food

from some of these bottom substances can, of course, best be

evaluated by fish experts.

All the first collections made by Dr. N. C. Fassett were

taken directly from the exposed upper layer of detritus during

the fall of 1943. One collection made by Dr. John Thomson on

April 30, 1944 was from flotsam in an eddy at Stone’s Bridge

following the extraordinarily high water of that year. The re-

325

326 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts and Letters

maining collections were made by the writer on the 21st of May,

1944 at various points in the upper river above Stone’s Bridge.

These latter collections were taken as follows : a sample was re¬

moved from the surface and one from six inches below the sur¬

face at the same point in the river bottom with a tubular brass

trap fitted with a seated conical valve. This valve could be

manipulated from above by means of a brass rod which extended

up through the trap and through the extendable pipe-handle

threaded onto the trap.

At the outset, in making determinations, a few cc. of a well-

mixed sample were thoroughly shaken in distilled water; this

mixture was then allowed to stand for an hour and the liquid

was pipetted off and centrifuged. A second washing was made

followed by a half-hour settling period and the liquid was treated

as in the first washing. Likewise several other washings which

were followed respectively by three fifteen-minute settling peri¬

ods, a ten-minute period, and a five-minute period were made —

the liquid in each case being pipetted and centrifuged. However,

in examining the centrifuged residues from the supernatant

liquid following the longer settling periods it was found that

there was little of an identifiable nature present. Following even

the five-minute period, nothing that could be certainly identified

remained in suspension excepting some of the smaller diatoms,

extremely fine silt, individual parenchymatous cells of higher

plants or small groups of such cells, cork cells, individual wood

fibers, bits of xylem vessels or tracheids, an occasional fragment

of a filamentous alga, and a few sponge spicules. Much of this

material could not be specifically identified beyond these cate¬

gories. Most of the filamentous algal fragments appeared to be

Ulothrix sp. A very few desmids, Cosmarium sp., were found.

Beyond these forms, no algae were encountered which could be

recognized as such. A very few gymnosperm pollen grains were

found, but they were only occasional. Since such pollen grains

are provided with hollow appendages and hence will float for a

long time before becoming water-logged, it is small wonder, per¬

haps, that only a very few were found in the bottom deposits in

the upper reaches of the river.

The following procedure was then settled upon : two or three

cc. of a sample were well shaken in distilled water and the whole

was allowed to stand for a minute or two until everything of a

possibly identifiable size had settled. The water was then care-

Evans— Bottom Deposits of the Brule River 327

fully decanted. This same procedure was repeated until the

water came off clear. All the washing water was filtered and the

residue was saved. Using a dissecting binocular microscope, the

washed detritus was sorted into identifiable and unidentifiable

fractions. The identifiable fraction was then further sorted into

wood fragments, leaf fragments and bark fragments. All the

fractions of the total sample were dried in an oven and weight

computations were made.

Results obtained from the analyses of these samples show

that most of the deciduous leaf material that could be identified

was alder, although some member of the Ericaceae also was rep¬

resented— probably leatherleaf. The bulk of the gymnosperm

leaf material was white cedar, with some balsam, white pine, and

tamarack leaf fragments also present. Gymnosperm leaves were

found to maintain their identities remarkably consistently as

long as portions of them remained which were large enough to

be selected and examined. Bark was in most cases unidentifiable

as to species, although groups of cork cells as such could be rec¬

ognized under the microscope. Fragments of bark large enough

to show recognizable characteristics proved to be alder bark.

With respect to the identification of the wood fractions of

the various samples, the following may be said : alder, leather-

leaf, and aspen could be recognized with certainty. Angiosperm

wood in which disintegration was too far advanced to permit the

finding of characteristic vessel segments could, even so, be dis¬

tinguished from gymnosperm wood and was cataloged simply as

“angiosperm wood.” In working with gymnosperm wood, most

of the fragments were too small or too far advanced toward dis¬

integration to employ the usual means for further specific diag¬

noses (such as those based, for example, upon ray character¬

istics). Consequently gymnosperm wood was of necessity simply

classified as such. In all identifications of wood, the phloro-

glucinol-hydrochloric acid treatment was used. It may be noted

that in general, gymnosperm wood, as long as it could be recog¬

nized by bordered pits and no matter how far it had proceeded

toward disintegration, gave the characteristic bright red of the

phloroglucinol lignin test, whereas only the most recent angio¬

sperm wood samples stained brilliantly. However, gymnosperm

wood was never recorded as such unless bordered pits could be

328 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts and Letters

distinguished. When there was doubt with respect to identity,

fragments were simply classified as “wood.”

As has been suggested, calculations were based upon oven-

dry weights of sorted detritus. Although the proportions vary

somewhat with the samples, the following figures are representa¬

tive for the surface bottom collections :

TABLE 1

(Location 2 on the map)

Recognizable residue .

Unrecognizable residue

Flotable residue .

87.3 mg.— 29.5%

78.1 mg.— 26.3%

131.0 mg. — 44.1%

Percentages of

total sample.

296.4 mg.

Recognizable (

residue \ grf

47.2 mg.— 54.0%

20.3 mg.— 23.2%

19.8 mg. — 22.7%

Percentages of

identifiable fraction.

87.3 mg.

What is referred to in the above table as “flotable residue” is

that material which was carried off with the washing water in

the first fractionating procedure — colloidal soil particles, indi¬

vidual cells or very small groups of cells, etc. A composite quan¬

tity of flotable residue taken from six surface samples was oven-

dried. Of this sample, .8809 gr. was ignited for twelve hours at

1200° F. The ignition loss was 61.5%. Prof. M. L. Jackson of

the Soils Department of the University determined by means of

the chromic acid method that the organic matter in this same

sample was 59.5%. The “recognizable” and “unrecognizable”

residues make up those materials which were left after washing.

These figures would indicate (1) that almost half the bottom

sediment was made up of extremely finely divided organic and

mineral matter, of which approximately 60% was organic; (2)

that 75% or more of the bulk (by weight) of the identifiable

material was wood and bark.

The figures given below with the recapitulation at the end

present the wood analyses for representative surface collections

in the upper Brule and for the flotsam collection made by Dr.

Thomson. The first column of figures in each case gives the

numbers of fragments concerned.

Evans — Bottom Deposits of the Brule River

329

Location of collections. The numbers correspond to those used in the tables.

330 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts and Letters

TABLE 2

(See map for locations of the following ten collections.)

1. Alder . 25 — 50%

Gymnosperm . 24 — 48%

Aspen . 1 — 2%

50

2. Alder . 26—52%

Gymnosperm . 17 — 34%

Angiosperm . 7 — 14%

50

3. Alder . 23—46%

Gymnosperm . 24 — 48%

Leatherleaf . 1 — 2%

Aspen . 2 — 4%

50

4. Flotsam collection

Alder . 70—55.5%

Gymnosperm . . . 49 — 38.8%

Leatherleaf .... 1 — 0.8%

Aspen . 2 — 1.6%

Wood . 4— 3.2%

126

5. Alder . 63—67%

Gymnosperm . 26 — 27%

Leatherleaf . 6 — 6%

95

6. Alder . . 43—56.5%

Gymnosperm . 21 — 27.6%

Leatherleaf . 3 — 3.9%

Angiosperm . 8 — 10.5%

Wood . 1—1.3%

7. Alder . 19—47.5%

Gymnosperm . 13 — 32.5%

Angiosperm . 6 — 15.0%

Wood . 2— 5.0%

40

8. Alder . 23—37.8%

Gymnosperm . 29 — 46.8%

Leatherleaf . 3 — 4.8%

Angiosperm ...... 4 — 6.4%

Wood . 3— 4.8%

62

9. Alder . 20—40%

Gymnosperm . 25 — 50%

Angiosperm . 3 — 6%

Wood . 2 — 4%

50

10. Alder . . . 29—58%

Gymnosperm . 16 — 32%

Leatherleaf . 4 — 8%

Aspen . 1 — 2%

50

Recapitulation :

Alder . 341—52.5%

Gymnosperm . . . 244 — 37.6%

Leatherleaf .... 18 — 2.8%

Aspen . . 6 — 0.9%

Angiosperm .... 28— 4.3%

Wood . 12— 1.8%

76 649

It is possible that these figures do not give an entirely accu¬

rate estimate of the original proportions of the various constitu¬

ents of the bottom deposits. Since alder, for example, disin¬

tegrates much more rapidly than gymnosperm wood, there is

extant very probably a considerably lower proportion of alder

fragments than would have been observed if all the wood had

disintegrated at the same rate. An interesting side-light might

well be presented at this point. Up to 95% of the wood frag¬

ments were more or less completely permeated with fungous

hyphae. The percentages of fungous infestations varied from

80% to 95%, but in general they were well over 50%. Many of

Evans-— Bottom Deposits of the Brule River

331

the wood fragments in which hyphae could not be found showed

fungous erosion, but these latter were excluded in calculating the

percentages given above. Practically all the hyphae which were

observed possessed cross-walls; clamp connections were fre¬

quent. This evidence points to the fact that the fungi concerned

were Basidiomycetes and hence were present in the wood before

it settled to the stream bottom. It may be concluded from the

high incidence of basidiomycetous hyphae that disintegration in

most instances was well advanced before the wood reached the

river.

In Table 3 weight data are presented for two representative

collections — -one taken at the surface, the other taken at six

inches below the surface at the same spot in the river bottom of

the upper Brule. The figures for the surface collection have

already been given in Table 1, but they are repeated here for

purposes of comparison.

TABLE 3

(Location 2 on the map)

Surface Sample :

Recognizable residue

Unrecognizable residue . .

Flotable residue .

87.3 mg _

78.1 mg.— 26.3%

131.0 mg.— 44.1%

29.5% ) percentages of

70.4% ( total sample.

296.4 mg.

Recognizable

residue

Wood

Bark

Leaf

47.2 mg. — 54.0%)

20.3 mg.— 23.2% V

19.8 mg.— 22.7%)

Percentages of

identifiable fraction.

87.3 mg.

Sub-surface sample— 6 inches below the surface:

Recognizable residue .... 4.1 mg.

Unrecognizable residue . . 35.3 mg.

Flotable residue . 111.8 mg.

2.7% 1 Percentages of

09 On/ ) <

73*9 97-2% j total sample.

151.2 mg.

Recognizable

residue

Wood

Bark

.Leaf

1.3

1.0

1.8

mg.— 31.7%)

mg. — 24.4% >

mg. — 43.9%;

Percentages of

identifiable fraction.

4.1 mg.

It may be noted in studying Table 3 that the recognizable

residue from the surface collection comprised 29.5% of the total

sample, whereas that from the sub-surface collection made up

only 2.7% of the total bulk. Accordinglyr 70.4% of the surface

332 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts and Letters

sample was unrecognizable as compared with 97.2% of unrecog¬

nizable material in the sub-surface sample. It may also be

observed in comparing surface “recognizable residue” with sub¬

surface “recognizable residue” that the wood fraction decreased

sharply: from surface 54.0% to sub-surface 31.7% whereas the

bark and leaf fractions increased in amounts: bark, surface

23.2% to sub-surface 24.4%; leaf, surface 22.7% to sub-surface

43.9%. The leaf material in the sub-surface sample was in large

part made up of badly decomposed fragments of gymnosperm

leaves ; little in the way of angiosperm leaf material was present

and that little was extremely fragmentary. Figures presented in

Table 4 itemize the wood counts for this same pair of collections

(surface and sub-surface). The figures in Table 5 give a resume

of percentages of the woods found in 300 fragments from com¬

parable pairs of surface and sub-surface collections.

TABLE 4

(Location 2 on the map)

Suh-swrface

. 26—52% Alder . 5—10%

. 17 — 34% Gymnosperm . . . 23 — 46%

7 — 14% Angiosperm . 6 — 12%

Wood . 16—32%

TABLE 5

(Locations 1, 2, and 3 on the map)

Surface Sub-surface

From the data presented in Tables 3, 4, and 5, it may be

concluded that the differences in constitution of bottom surface

detritus and sub-surface detritus are to a considerable degree

contingent upon the comparative ages of these two layers. The

data in Table 3 suggest these probabilities: since there is so

much more unidentifiable material in the sub-surface layer than

in the surface layer, (1) it is highly probable that the sub¬

surface layer is much older than the surface layer and as a

corollary, (2) there has been over the years very little disturb¬

ance in the river bottom as each year’s deposit of detritus is

Surface

Alder .

Gymnosperm .

Angiosperm .

Evans — Bottom Deposits of the Brule River 333

added to those which preceded. In other words, it would appear

that the entire body of detritus in the river bottom is not a

mass of material which is constantly being churned and mixed,

but is an orderly accumulation of annual deposits of debris

which find their way into the stream.

With respect to these probabilities, the following comments

may be made. In Tables 4 and 5 the figures demonstrate for the

surface collections the high incidence of alder — a wood which

decays relatively quickly — and the low incidence of alder at the

sub-surface levels. Likewise the proportion of gymnosperm wood

which is considerably more durable than alder is far higher at

the lower than at the surface levels. In addition, in the sub¬

surface collections as compared with the surface collections it

is apparent that there has accumulated five times as much wood

which has decayed to such a point that it can no longer be speci¬

fically identified. This fact, in addition to the fact that the more

durable gymnosperm leaf fragments and the corky bark frag¬

ments are in greater abundance at the lower levels, lends support

to those probabilities which have been suggested above — namely,

a greater age of sub-surface layers as compared with surface

layers, this probability hinging upon the lack of disturbance

and mixing of these layers following even extraordinarily high

water such as that of the month preceding the one in which

certain of the collections were made.

Often a considerable proportion of the unidentifiable bottom

material, especially that of the spring holes, was in the form of

more or less spherical or ovoid masses which ranged in size from

approximately 100 to 500 microns in diameter. These bodies

were often firm enough so that they could be manipulated or

separated from the other materials with a pair of finely pointed

needles. Microscopic examination demonstrated their composi¬

tion to include individual cells or small groups of cells of higher

plants, diatom shells, extremely finely divided inorganic mate¬

rial, sponge spicules, occasional pollen grains, and fragments of

algae and fungous hyphae.

Some of the bottom material from one of the springs which

included practically nothing but these bodies was put through a

homogenizer so that the individual constituents were completely

separated and a smooth suspension was obtained. This liquid

was put into a low container about three inches in diameter with

334 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts and Letters

a sheet-cork lid into which were inserted rows of common pins

at one-eighth inch intervals each way. The pins reached from the

lid to the bottom of the container and acted as baffles in the

liquid when the apparatus was put onto a shaking device. The

shaker platform moved back and forth at the approximate rate

of twenty strokes to the minute so that the liquid moved through

the pin baffles rather slowly and was only gently agitated. At

the end of 48 hours, bodies comparable in form, texture, and

constitution to the original ones were again present. The result

of this experiment may indicate that the method of origin of

these bodies, often present in great quantity in the bottom de¬

posits, is a matter of flocculation accomplished through rela¬

tively gentle stream action. It would seem that these bodies

form in particular abundance in the springs in which there is

a constant boiling action and accumulate elsewhere in the stream

by a process of differential sedimentation. There is no reason

to believe, however, that such bodies could not form in places

in the stream other than the springs.

Conclusions

In the light of the data presented above, certain facts stand

out clearly:

(1) But a very small fraction of the accumulated debris in

the river bottom of the upper Brule is made up of plants or parts

of plants which originate in the river itself. Diatoms, of course,

are present along with fragments of filamentous algae, but the

actual bulk of such remains is relatively negligible.

(2) The great bulk of material in the bottom comes from

plants growing in the immediate vicinity of the river. More

than one half of the wood is alder, obviously coming from the

shrubs bordering the stream.

(3) The material originating in the bog is remarkably small

in amount when we consider the fact that the stream is flowing

through this bog. To be sure, leaf and wood fragments of leather-

leaf are found, but there are numerous places along the upper

river where these plants are close enough to the river so that

their parts could drop directly into the water. The scarcity of

Sphagnum remains in the detritus is perhaps one of the most

conspicuous departures from what might be expected. Leaves of

Sphagnum are durable and are so characteristic in appearance

Evans — Bottom Deposits of the Brule River 835

that their presence in any abundance would most certainly have

been observed even without the use of the compound microscope.

(4) As for the barrens, there is no evidence of plant mate¬

rial reaching the river from this source. It is impossible to say

that the wood of red pine or of jack pine was not present in the

conifer wood fractions of the various collections, for the reason

given above — i.e., inability to distinguish one gymnosperm wood

from another. However, fragments of the leaves of all the coni¬

fers can readily be distinguished and no fragments of red pine

or of jack pine needles were found in this entire study. Like¬

wise, the incidence of aspen wood is extremely low in compari¬

son to all the other woods. Aspen, of course, is abundant in the

barrens, -but some aspens also grow close enough to the river so

that portions of these trees could reach the stream directly.

All these observations definitely corroborate the idea that

the water seeps through the bog but carries on practically no

erosion; likewise they indicate that the river does not cut into

the bog to any appreciable extent. This is of some practical

significance in that undamaged bog, which acts as a reservoir

and as a regulator of the flow of water into the stream, allows

essentially nothing in the way of the products of erosion from

surrounding areas to reach the stream. What is in the stream

bottom in the way of plant detritus is there because of the prox¬

imity to the stream of the plants from which this detritus came.

All of these findings point toward the wisdom of the Conserva¬

tion Commission in its present policy of buying and protecting

the bogs as a basic measure for protecting the physical char¬

acters of the Brule itself.

The appreciation of the writer is due Prof. N. C. Fassett

and Prof. J. W. Thomson for suggestions and for aid in making

collections, and to the Wisconsin Alumni Research Foundation

for financial aid which made possible a portion of this work.

THE BROOK LAMPREY IN THE BRULE RIVER

Brule River Survey Report No. 10

Warren S. Churchill

Wisconsin Conservation Department, Woodruff

Introduction

During a survey of the Brule River in Douglas County, Wis¬

consin, it was found that ammocoetes of the northern brook

lamprey, Ichthyomyzon fossor, were extremely abundant

throughout the lower part of the stream. A study of these was

undertaken to determine something of their life history and

particularly their role in the ecology of the Brule River. This is

the second record of this species from Wisconsin; the first from

the Lake Superior drainage of Wisconsin.

Methods

Lampreys were collected from the river by means of an

electric shocker. This is a device for passing an alternating

current of variable voltage through the water or bottom between

two electrodes. At high voltages this stuns any fish in the elec¬

tric field thus created; at lower voltages it causes convulsive

movements which usually take the fish out of the field. Even at

paralyzing voltages, lampreys make a few such movements be¬

fore succumbing, and these usually cause them to emerge from

the mud in which they were buried. They are then easily cap¬

tured with a dip net.*

For lamprey collections, a field of 110 volts is used and the

electrodes are held on the river bottom about six feet apart and

moved slowly upstream. Many of the lampreys emerge com¬

pletely from the mud before they are paralyzed and drift down¬

stream ; others are overcome when still partly buried and may be

dug out with the corner of the net. Either end may emerge first.

* During the summer of 1945, use of the shocker has revealed the presence of

brook lampreys in a large number of streams in Northern Wisconsin.

387

338 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts and Letters

Still others are paralyzed while still buried and are passed

over by the collector; a second sweep usually brings out a con¬

siderable number that were missed the first time. While in the

electric field they are quite rigid and often contorted, but they

recover almost instantaneously when removed and are fully

restored by the time they are placed in the collecting pail.

Since this method depends on seeing the lampreys in the

water or on the bottom, it is obvious that the smallest individuals

will be most frequently overlooked. In any quantitative collection

the smallest and youngest individuals should be the most numer¬

ous, but in these the larvae of the latest two seasons are quite

scarce. Okkelberg found the same thing when using another

method of collecting, and also attributes it to the difficulty of

detecting the smallest larvae. He also suggests the possibility

that younger ammocoetes remain nearer the spawning grounds

at first.

Measurements were made to the nearest millimeter, using an

ordinary fish-measuring board. With the exception of the Nov¬

ember collection, all lampreys were preserved in the field with

5 percent formaldehyde and measured after preservation. On

one occasion, eighty lampreys from a collection were allowed to

die of asphyxiation in air and measured while fresh. They were

then preserved and measured after two months in formaldehyde.

The average shrinkage was about 3 percent. The November col¬

lection was brought to the laboratory alive and measured under

ether anaesthesia. A 1.5 percent aqueous solution of ether was

used; all lampreys recovered and showed no ill effects.

Life History

Spawning has not been observed in the Brule River. On

June 18 and 19, 1945, 17 adults which had not yet spawned were

collected from three locations where conditions were suitable for

spawning. Since no congregations were observed on the riffles,

and no nests were identified, it is believed that spawning activi¬

ties had not yet begun. The spring of 1945 was unusually cold,

and spawning was probably later than usual. This would place

the average spawning season sometime around the middle of

June. Hubbs reports that I. fossor spawns in June in northern

Michigan.

Churchill — Brook Lamprey in the Brule River 339

Judging from the abundance of ammocoetes, spawning activi¬

ties must be very extensive. Leach states that hatching takes

place about twelve days after fertilization in the laboratory, the

larvae swimming freely for a short time, and beginning to bur¬

row about fourteen days after fertilization. This would mean

that the new larvae appear in the Brule in late June or early

July. The earliest collection of ammocoetes from the Brule was

on July 6 and did not include any ammocoetes considered to be

the young of the year. A collection on July 7 contained one larva

of 27 mm., probably hatched that year since it was 10 mm.

shorter than the next smallest and about 20 mm. shorter than the

average of the presumptive year-old group. Subsequent collec¬

tions usually included one or more very small individuals consid¬

ered to be the young of the year. As mentioned above, these

smallest larvae were very scarce in all collections. The smallest

measured 20 mm.

The ammocoetes require a fairly soft bottom in which to

make their burrows. They are not, as a rule, found in firm sand

or in the extremely soft mud of the backwaters. The best location

is a mixture of a sand and silt. In a given area with suitable

bottom they are most numerous in water six to twenty-four

inches deep, among the vegetation. They have been dislodged

from burrows in water as deep as three feet.

Food of the ammocoetes in the burrowing period consists of

microscopic organisms. All of the alimentary canals examined

contained diatoms and unicellular algae which were not identi¬

fied. Creaser and Hahn have given a detailed account of the

stomach contents of Entosphenus. They found all of the organ¬

isms taken to be present in the water and especially abundant in

the thin surface layer of debris on the bottom. They were not

present below this layer, indicating that the food of the ammo¬

coetes comes from the surface of the bottom. Leach reports that

larvae frequently extend the head and pharynx out of the burrow

while feeding.

The length of this larval life is not definitely known. It ends

with the transformation of the larva into the adult, at which

time the alimentary canal degenerates and no more food is

taken. Detailed descriptions of the changes that take place are

given by Gage and Leach. The first obvious changes are the

appearance of the eye and alteration in the snout occurring in

late summer or early fall. Ammocoetes showing these changes

340 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts and Letters

have been found in the Brule as early as August 9 ; Leach reports

transformation beginning as late as September 15. On Septem¬

ber 15, ten individuals were found in the Brule in which trans¬

formation was still incomplete, while on November 22, four in¬

dividuals were found in which the external changes appeared

complete but none in a partially transformed state. Internal

changes continue until maturation of the gonads the following

spring. Since degeneration of the alimentary canal occurs at the

beginning of transformation, there is a period of eight or nine

months during which no food is taken.

Both Gage and Leach have concluded that transformation

does not occur until a year after full growth is reached, although

Leach has found internal changes occurring during this resting

period. In all collections from the Brule which contained trans¬

forming individuals, there were larger numbers of larvae of

the same size that showed no evidence of transformation and had

functional alimentary canals. Larvae in this size range were

found all through the summer and there is no indication of

growth through the year in this group.

All investigators agree that the brook lamprey dies very

shortly after the spawning season.

Distribution in the Brule River

For the first third of its course, the Brule River is a region

of deep slow water with a thick muck bottom and heavy weed

growth. The first riffle occurs about one third of the way down.

From this point on, rapids and riffles are frequent and the pro¬

portion of slow water steadily diminishes toward the mouth.

During the summer of 1944, collections were made with the

shocker throughout the length of the river. No lampreys were

found in any of the collections above the first riffle, but one or

more occurred in every collection below this point.

They are most numerous in fairly shallow pools having a suit¬

able bottom and some rooted vegetation. However, even in the

most swift and rocky parts of the stream there are mudbanks

along the shore and pockets between the rocks where the ammo-

coetes can and do make their burrows. The test areas were pur¬

posely selected to include all types of bottom and current, and all

contained at least a few lampreys.

Churchill — Brook Lamprey in the Brule River 341

Where conditions are optimum, the concentration is very

high. At one station, on a delta below a strong rapid, 153 lam¬

preys were taken from an area 13 feet square. Undoubtedly

enough were missed to raise the total to more than one per

square foot. At another station, 73 were taken from a mudbank

covering about 220 square feet in an otherwise swift and rocky

part of the stream. Lampreys were found to be more abundant

than any species of fish.

Community Relations

Brook lampreys play a very minor role in the life of the

stream community. Their activities are restricted to a single

type of habitat where their principal neighbors are burrowing

mayfly nymphs and small mussels. All three of these forms feed

directly on the microscopic organisms of the bottom and have

no effect on each other except possibly in the competition for

food. The abundance of all three in the same area indicates

that such competition is not an important factor.

As forage for fish they are also unimportant, since their bur¬

rowing habits make them inaccessible throughout larval life.

Out of 300 trout stomachs from the Brule examined in the course

of the survey, only five contained remains of lampreys. These

were all rainbow trout, taken early in July from a part of the

stream where lampreys are very abundant. While the remains

were too well digested to make sure, it is thought that they were

adults taken during or just after the spawning period. None of

200 sucker stomachs examined contained lampreys.

It is worth noting in this connection that lampreys are highly

prized as bait by trout fishermen in certain parts of the country.

The sale of “mud eels” is a profitable business on the west coast.

Population Studies

A number of attempts have been made to estimate the length

of the larval life of this and other species by analysis of the

size distribution in collections. Since there is only one spawning

season each year, the ages of ammocoetes in any one collection

must vary by one-year steps. Hence, if the larvae fall into defi¬

nite size classes, these may be taken as year groups. There is a

difference of opinion as to whether such size groups exist.

Okkelberg found seven such size groups in two collections for

Thunder Bay River in Michigan, and concluded that the larval

342 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts and Letters

life was seven years. Schultz, working with much larger collec¬

tions of Lampetra, concluded that this method is not satisfac¬

tory for determination of the length of life and indicated that

Okkelberg’s groups were not distinct enough to justify his con¬

clusions. Leach cites measurements of one collection from the

Tippecanoe River in Indiana which fall into five very distinct

groups, and concludes that growth of the larva takes five years,

followed by a year’s resting period before transformation.

In drawing their conclusions, none of the above-mentioned

authors makes any mention of a difference in size between the

sexes. Collections from the Brule show that, at least in this

stream, there is such a difference in this species. Of 68 trans¬

forming lampreys examined, 37 males ranged from 97 to 130

mm. in length, after preservation, with the average length 110

mm. Thirty-one females ranged from 112 to 141* mm., with an

average length of 125 mm.

Of 17 adults, 10 males ranged from 100 to 128 mm. with an

average length of 108 mm. Seven females ranged from 112 to

147 mm. with an average length of 123 mm.

This difference results in overlapping of the size ranges of

the year classes, so that no well-marked modes appear on the

distribution curve except at the ends. If the sexes could be

plotted separately, it is probable that the year classes would be

indicated by distinct humps on the curve.

Attempts to separate the sexes have thus far been unsuc¬

cessful, since lamprey larvae are hermaphroditic in early life.

Okkelberg found that the gonads of larvae of Entosphenus wil -

deri have both oocytes and cysts of male cells at the same time.

He was able to distinguish sex in these larvae only by ratio of

male to female cells as determined by actual count.

All of the larger larvae of one collection from the Brule were

opened and a bit of the gonad removed and examined briefly

under the microscope. All gonads found contained large numbers

of oocytes and all were similar in appearance. No gonad was

found on macroscopic examination in about one fourth of the

larger ammocoetes. The lengths of these individuals were evenly

distributed and no conclusions could be drawn.

In Chart 2 are shown the length distribution curves of ammo¬

coetes in eight collections from the Brule River. These curves

♦145 mm. when alive ; preserved length estimated as 3 percent less.

Churchill — Brook Lamprey in the Brule River

343

Chart 1. Length frequency distribution of 68 metamorphosing lam¬

preys taken from the Brule Kiver. Moving average of five 1 mm. classes.

1. All individuals; 2. 37 males; 3. 31 females.

344 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts and Letters

Chart 2. Length frequency distributions of ammocoetes in eight collec¬

tions from the Brule River. Moving average of five 1 mm. classes. Trans¬

forming individuals are indicated by circles at the corresponding length on

the scale. Open circles represent males, solid circles females.

1. July 7, 1944; 2. July 6, 1944; 3. August 16, 1944; 4. July 28, 1943;

5. August 29, 1944; 6. August 28, 1944; 7. September 15, 1944; 8. Novem¬

ber 22, 1944.

Churchill — Brook Lamprey in the Brule River 345

represent a moving average of five adjacent 1 mm. classes.

Open circles under the curves represent transforming males of

the indicated length, solid circles transforming females.

It will be noted from the graphs that most of the Brule River

collections contain one or more larvae of such small size as to be

clearly the young of the year. There is a very definite separa¬

tion between this size group and the next larger. Okkelberg also

found a very pronounced size group in this range, which was

considered valid by Schultz. The small number in each case is

due to the difficulties in collection mentioned above. Likewise,

most of the collections show another distinct hump in the curve

representing the yearlings. It is safe to assume in each case

that the larvae captured were the larger members of the group,

and that the average size for this time and place would be some¬

what smaller than that indicated by the graph. Beyond this

point, the size groups overlap so that no definite modes appear,

indicating that a difference in growth rate has set in between

the sexes. This agrees with Okkelberg’s conclusion that the

future sex of the hermaphroditic larva is determined during the

second year.

Fig. 1, Chart 1, shows the distribution curve of all transform¬

ing lampreys taken from the Brule. Figs. 2 and 3 show how this

group breaks down into males and females. The extra hump at

the extreme right is due to the larger females. The character¬

istic curve of Fig. 1 can be identified, with slight variations, at

the right end of the collection graphs; it represents the fully

grown ammocoetes that will transform within the year.

It is worth noting that the two curves presented by Okkel¬

berg show this same peculiarity at the right end. Okkelberg

found seven modes in the curve which he identified as year

classes, plus these few larger larvae which he regarded as

atypical. The seventh mode of the two curves centered at 105

and 110 mm. respectively, is the size range of the fully grown

males in the Brule River collections. Of the five size groups men¬

tioned by Leach in one collection from the Tippecanoe River, the

two largest averaged 105 and 125 mm. respectively, correspond¬

ing to the males and the females of the same year in these

collections.

346 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts and Letters

Literature Cited

Berg, Leo S. 1931. A review of the lampreys of the northern hemisphere.

Ann. Mus. Zool. Acad. Sci. U.S.S.R. 32:87-116.

Creaser, Charles W., and Hahn, Clare S 1929. The food of larval lam¬

preys. Papers Mich. Acad. Sci. Arts and Letters. 10:433-437.

Creaser, Charles W., and Hubbs, Carl L. 1922. A revision of the Holarc-

tic lampreys. Occ. Papers Mus. Zool. Univ. Mich. No. 120:1-14.

Gage, Simon H. 1928. The lampreys of New York state — Life history and

economics. In: A biological survey of the Oswego river system. Suppl.

17th ann. rept. N. Y. state cons. dept. 1927. 158-191.

Gage, Simon H. 1929. Lampreys and their ways. Sci. Monthly. 28:401-416.

Hardisty, M. W. 1944. Life history and growth of the brook lamprey

(Lampetra planeri). Jour. Animal Ecol. 13:110-112.

Hubbs, Carl L. 1925. The life-cycle and growth of lampreys. Papers Mich.

Acad. Sci. Arts and Letters. 4:587-603.

Hubbs, Carl L. and Trautman, Milton B. 1927. A revision of the lamprey

genus Ichthyomyzon. Misc. Publ. Mus. Zool. Univ. Mich. No. 35:1-109.

Leach, W. James. 1940. Occurrence and life history of the northern brook

lamprey, Ichthyomyzon fossor, in Indiana. Copeia. 1:21-34.

Okkelberg, Peter. 1921. The early history of the germ cells in the brook

lamprey, Entosphenus wilderi (Gage), up to and including the period

of sex differentiation. Jour. Morph. 35:1-151.

Okkelberg, Peter. 1922. Notes on the life history of the brook lamprey,

Ichthyomyzon unicolor. Occ. Papers Mus. Zool. Univ. Mich. No. 125:

1-14.

Raney, Edward C. 1939. The breeding habits of Ichthyomyzon Greeleyi

Hubbs and Trautman. Copeia 2:111-112.

Schultz, Leonard P. 1930. The life history of Lampetra planeri Bloch,

with a statistical analysis of growth of the larvae from western Wash¬

ington. Occ. Papers Mus. Zool. Univ. Mich. No. 221:1-35.

THE FIRST YEAR OF THE WISCONSIN JUNIOR ACADEMY

OF SCIENCE, 1944-1945

John W. Thomson, Jr., Chairman, Junior Academy Committee

The Inception — Credit for the founding of the Wisconsin Junior Acad¬

emy of Science should go to a committee composed of members of the

Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts and Letters and members of the

faculty and staff of the University of Wisconsin. Instrumental in the incep¬

tion of this project were: President E. B. Fred of the University of Wis¬

consin, C. J. Anderson, E. F. Bean, C. A. Dykstra, E. M. Gilbert, Frank 0.

Holt, M. H. Ingraham, A. W. Schorger, and H. A. Schuette. Much help was

given in organization by Dr. Howard E. Enders of the Indiana Junior

Academy of Science and Miss Alta S. McEvoy of the Illinois Junior

Academy of Science.

The Start — In order to acquaint the science teachers and principals

with the aims and proposed activities of the Wisconsin Junior Academy

of Science several means were utilized. A letter from President Schuette

was sent to each of the science teachers listed by Science Clubs of America

as having a club or as being interested in science club work. In schools

where no such teacher was listed, the same letter was sent to the principal.

A listing of the names of the teachers and principals was obtained from

the State Department of Public Instruction through the courtesy of Super¬

intendent John A. Callahan. The letter, a statement of the general aims

of the Junior Academy and an introduction to the appointment of J. W.

Thomson, Jr. as Chairman of the Junior Academy Committee, follows:

“That it may serve and stimulate the development of scientific activities

on the part of youth the Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts and Letters

has expanded its activities by setting up the Junior Academy of Science

for which it assumes sponsorship. This sponsorship presupposes a coopera¬

tive arrangement with Science Service, Inc., which administers Science

Clubs of America.

“Because of the suggestion which was made that participation in an

aiqtivity of this type would constitute another off-campus service to the

citizens of our State, the University of Wisconsin, not unmindful of the

possibilities of being a factor in the discovery and development of scientific

abilities and interests among the youth of Wisconsin, has cooperated in

this program and generously given us its aid. This aid has found expres¬

sion in the appointment of Dr. John W. Thomson, Jr., formerly of State

Teachers College at Superior, as assistant professor of botany, who will

devote his time not only to the supervision and management of the Junior

Academy but also to the encouragement of scientific work at the pre-college

level. The council of the Academy, in turn, has appointed Dr. Thomson

chairman of its Committee on the Junior Academy of Science. In his hands

has been placed the guidance of the Junior Academy. Steps have already

347

348 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts and Letters

been taken to recruit the personnel of this committee from among the high

school science teachers with due consideration to their past or present key

positions in the several district educational associations of our State.

“Perhaps you have already had the opportunity of personally hearing

Dr. Thomson discuss his plans. In any event, you may expect to hear from

him by letter.

“May I bespeak for Dr. Thomson, and the Wisconsin Academy of Sci¬

ences, Arts and Letters, your cordial cooperation?

“I am, with much respect,

Very truly yours,”

(Signed) H. A. Schuette

President

A second letter was sent as a follow-up. This letter, issued by the

Chairman of the Junior Academy Committee, stated some of the specific

objectives and proposed activities of the Junior Academy and invited the

teachers or principals to return an enclosed1 questionnaire on science clubs.

Inasmuch as this letter and questionnaire went to every high school in the

state it was of material assistance in locating the active science clubs in

this state. Replies were received from 188 schools. Some 60 out of the 487

high schools in Wisconsin are listed as having active science clubs at the

present time. In comparison with some of the other states this reflects a

serious neglect in the schools of a useful phase of development of science

talent. Virginia, for example, has 115 science clubs in their Junior Academy

alone.

While the questionnaire was being sent out, and while awaiting the

replies in the mail, in the winter, the chairman of the Junior Academy

Committee visited schools in southeastern Wisconsin, using the mailing list

provided by Science Clubs of America. High schools in the following com¬

munities were visited at that time: Milwaukee, 27 schools; Jefferson;

Albany; Janesville; Beloit; South Milwaukee; Racine, two schools; Bur¬

lington; Waterford; Union Grove; Sturtevant; Kenosha; Lake Geneva;

Wilmot; Walworth; Columbus; Watertown; Hartland; Oconomowoc; Bur¬

nett; Waupun; Fond du Lac; North Fond du Lac; Lomira; Campbellsport ;

Kewaskum; Port Washington; Oostberg; Sheboygan, two schools; and

North Sheboygan. The teachers were interviewed in these schools to deter¬

mine the actual club situation in the field and to determine the needs of the

club sponsors in encouraging scientific work at the secondary school level.

In schools which have clubs the number varies from one to seven clubs

operating in various fields of science. Reflecting present-day interests, the

greatest number are general science clubs, and the others are biology,

physics, or chemistry clubs in decreasing number.

Arrangement of a District Meeting in Milwaukee — By the time many

of these schools had been visited it was apparent that enough schools were

interested to warrant holding a district meeting in the Milwaukee area

during the spring of 1945. Therefore, a preliminary meeting of sponsors

of clubs in the Milwaukee area was called on March 10. Through the

courtesy of Prof. Ross H. Bardell, the preliminary meeting was held at the

Thomson- — First Year of the Wisconsin Junior Academy 349

Milwaukee Extension Center of the University of Wisconsin. Representa¬

tives from twelve schools attended this meeting and arranged for a tenta¬

tive date and program for the middle of May. Estimates showed that so

many club delegates would come that the large hall of Marquette Univer¬

sity would be the only room with the necessary facilities able to accom¬

modate the group. Through the kindness of Prof. John R. Koch, Head of

the Department of Chemistry at Marquette University, and Father Keegan,

the lecture room in the science building was made available for the Junior

Academy meeting. The program of the meeting on May 20 follows:

Address of Welcome, Professor H. A. Schuette, President, Wisconsin

Academy of Sciences, Arts and Letters, 5 minutes.

Red Blood Preferred, Catherine Backe, Dolores Deniski and Patricia

Kasper, Mercy Science Club, Mercy High School, 15 minutes.

Butterfly Collecting, Wanda Provencher, Science and Camera Club,

Messmer High School, 10 minutes.

Black Magic with Ultra-Violet, Dan Rasmussen and David Dalyrimple,

Tesla-Marconi Club, West Allis Central High School, 20 minutes.

Tesla-Coil Demonstration, Fritz Dudi and Karl Dudi, Science Club,

Rufus King High School, 20 minutes.

Automatic Crossing Switch, Carl King, Science and Camera Club,

Messmer High School, 10 minutes.

Relationship of the Atomic Number to Conductivity, James Ringe-

noldis, Chemistry Club, Custer High School, 6 minutes.

Pharmacy in Colonial America, James Tingstadt, Chemistry Club,

Custer High School, 6 minutes.

Wisconsin Limestone and Minerals Found With It, Robert Zusy, St.

John Cathedral High School, 10 minutes.

Volcanism, Alfred Newmann, Jr., Steuben Junior High Science Club,

Steuben Junior High School, 20 minutes.

Exhibits

Butterflies, Wanda Provencher, Science and Camera Club, Messmer

High School.

The Futer of Magnesium, a mural by Betty Woelm, Chemistry Club,

Custer High School.

Attendance at the meeting was 180 with delegates from clubs as far

away as Madison, Lake Geneva, Port Washington, and Kenosha attending

to observe the proceedings.

Awards— -The papers and demonstrations presented at the Milwaukee

district meeting were of such high quality that it was difficult to choose

the recipients of the honorary awards. By vote of the Science Club spon¬

sors present at the meeting the following awards were made: one year

honorary memberships in the American Association for the Advancement

of Science went to Wanda Provencher, Messmer High School, and Dan

Rasmussen and David Dalyrimple of West Allis High School. One year

honorary memberships in the Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts and

Letters were voted for Catherine Backe, Dolores Deniski, and Patricia

350 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts and Letters

Kasper, representing Mercy High School Science Club; Fritz and Karl

Dudi, from Rufus King High School Science Club; Robert Zusy of St. John

Cathedral High School; and Alfred Newmann, Jr., of Steuben Junior High

School. Honorary mention was accorded James Tingstadt and James

Ringenoldis of Custer High School and Carl King of Messmer High School.

The Honorary Junior Memberships in the American Association for the

Advancement of Science entitle the recipients to the Association Bulletin

and to Science News Letter for a year in addition to copies of reports of

meetings of the association. The recipients of the one year memberships

in the Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts and Letters are entitled to the

Transactions of the Academy and to any other material issued by the

Academy for general distribution to the members as well as being privileged

to attend the meetings.

Newsletters — Three newsletters were issued during the spring semes¬

ter. The first, in response to the requests of the sponsors present at the

preliminary meeting to arrange for the Milwaukee district meeting, con¬

sisted of sample programs of the annual meets of the Junior Academies

of Science of other states. The programs were obtained from various pro¬

grams and publications issued by the academies.

The second newsletter was a circular announcing the date of the Mil¬

waukee meeting and mainly consisted of blanks to be filled in and concerned

the registration for the Milwaukee meeting and joining the Junior Academy

of Science.

The third newsletter announced the program of the Milwaukee meet¬

ing, the awards offered, a preliminary announcement of a news bulletin to

be put out by the clubs next year, and two cooperative projects with state

scientists on tree distribution and wildflower phenology.

Publicity — Through the help of the University Press Bureau several

articles about the Junior Academy of Science appeared in the newspapers.

Articles appeared in the Daily Cardinal for November 30, 1944; the Mil¬

waukee Journal for November 26, 1944, May 17, May 20 and May 21,

1945; the Milwaukee Sentinel for May 21, 1945; Science for December 8,

1944 and June 1, 1945; the Chicago Tribune for May 14, 1945; and the Uni¬

versity Press Bulletin for May 16, 1945. Articles prepared by the chairman

of the Junior Academy Committee appeared in the Wisconsin Journal of

Education for February and May, 1945. A longer article, “The Wisconsin

Junior Academy of Science,” appeared in the Bulletin of the Wisconsin

Association of Secondary School Principals for March, 1945. This issue

was distributed by the association to all of the Wisconsin principals.

Talks to Clubs — During the spring semester, scheduled trips were made

to central, northern, and eastern Wisconsin to talk with the science club

members about the activities of the Junior Academy of Science. The

schools in which these talks were given are located in Black River Falls,

Rhinelander, Goodman, Marinette, Florence, Wonewoc, Eau Claire, Oshkosh

(three schools), Berlin, Wisconsin Rapids, Pittsville, Stevens Point, and

Wausau. In addition club sponsors were visited in a few communities in

which the clubs were not meeting in time for scheduled talks. These were

in Bloomer, Medford, Dorchester, and Plainfield.

Thomson — First Year of the Wisconsin Junior Academy 351

As part of the assignment of encouraging pre-college level scientific

activity, nature study talks were given in several conferences for the

Regional Recreational Laboratories in Whitewater and Antigo and at the

4H Club Leadership Camps at Green Lake, Hudson, and Pigeon Lake near

Drummond. Talks at the Lincoln County Achievement Days at Tomahawk

and Merrill and to the Edgerton Rotary Club and Methodist Men’s Club

were given in the same vein. In addition to a talk on wildflower conserva¬

tion, a conference on the Junior Academy possibilities interested the biology

society, the Zeta Chapter of Sigma Zeta, of Central State Teachers Col¬

lege, Stevens Point, in being hosts to the high school science clubs at a

district meeting in the future.

A talk on the Junior Academy was given at the Lake Superior Educa¬

tion Association convention on October 12, 1944. A similar talk was sched¬

uled for the Southern Wisconsin Education Association convention to have

been held in March, 1945. The ban on conventions by the Office of Defence

Transportation cancelled this. Barring similar difficulties this fall, arrange¬

ments have been made to speak at the Milwaukee convention of the Wis¬

consin Education Association and at the convention of the Northwestern

Wisconsin Education Association.

Services to the Clubs — In addition to the news bulletins issued to help

the clubs three other important projects were prepared. In response to re¬

quests from several clubs a list of plays on science and scientists was made

available. These were reviewed and briefly annotated in the listing. The

greatest immediate need felt on the part of the club sponsors, it was found

on visiting the schools, was a list of sources to which the teachers and

students could turn for ideas for club projects and experiments. By writing

the publishers for the loan of books and by scanning every available source,

a list of books and pamphlets covering this field was compiled. The con¬

tents were noted on the listing in order that the club sponsor would know

what materials the book covered.

Directions were prepared for two projects for the clubs which are

interested in cooperating with state scientists. The projects are on the

distribution of Wisconsin forest trees, and on the phenology, or blooming

and fruiting dates, of the common wildflowers and trees. Data of consid¬

erable value is expected to accrue from these projects.

Further materials resulting from club requests is a list of the clubs

in the state with their interests and activities mentioned as well as the

sponsor names and other data of assistance to the clubs in keeping in touch

with each other.

Membership — Charter member clubs started joining the Junior Acad¬

emy in April, the Science Club of Rufus King High School, Milwaukee

being the first. By June, fifteen clubs with a total membership of 433 pupils

were enrolled in the Wisconsin Junior Academy of Science. This, com¬

pared with the initial years of the junior academies of some of the other

states, seems very satisfactory. Indiana started with eight, Kansas with

six, Alabama with seventeen, Iowa with thirteen, Minnesota with seven,

Pennsylvania with fourteen and Oklahoma and West Virginia with

sixteen.

352 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts and Letters

First Year Charter Members

Science Club, Rufus King High School, Milwaukee

Science Experiment Club, South Milwaukee High School, South Milwaukee

Tesla-Marconi Club, West Allis High School, West Allis

. , St. John Cathedral High School, Milwaukee

Mercy Science Club, Mercy High School, Milwaukee

Stan-Sci Club, St. Stanislaus High School, Milwaukee

Chemistry Club, Custer High School, Milwaukee

Science and Camera Club, Messmer High School, Milwaukee

Phi-Bi-Chem Club, Steuben Junior High School, Milwaukee

Albertus Magnus Math-Science Club, St. Mary’s Academy, Milwaukee

The Searchers, Girl’s Trades and Technical High School, Milwaukee

. , Port Washington High School, Port Washington

C Y Science Club, Peckham Junior High School, Milwaukee

Albertus Magnus Club, St. Robert School, Shorewood

Seminar, Kenosha High School, Kenosha

Looking Ahead — Some of the services which the Junior Academy would

like to offer to the clubs of Wisconsin are listed below. Some of these are

already maturing. The presentation of the very fine lantern slide collection

of the late Prof. E. R. Downing to the Junior Academy by his widow will

make possible a circulating loan collection for the clubs. Dr. Downing was

a former member of the Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts and Letters

and this gift will enable us to render a very useful service to the clubs.

1. A news bulletin edited by the clubs.

2. A circulating lantern slide collection.

3. Lectures to the clubs.

4. Can we obtain help to offer scholarships for excellent work?

5. More cooperative projects.

6. Organization of a central Wisconsin district.

7. Selection of student officers.

8. Circulating loan collections of booklets on projects and of materials

useful for club exhibits on plastics, etc.

9. An advertising folder.

10. Radio programs.

PROCEEDINGS OF THE ACADEMY

Seventy-fifth Annual Meeting

In view of the request by the War Mobilization Director for a ban on

conventions, the Council of the Academy voted 13 to 1 for postponement

of the 75th anniversary meeting.

However, the table of contents of this volume was previewed Febru¬

ary 15, 1946, in the Wisconsin Academy News Letter. This was consid¬

ered as a meeting “in print”. All papers published in Volume 37 of the

TRANSACTIONS are dedicated to the 1945 meeting as our 75th

anniversary.

As a regular meeting was not held, all of the officers of the Academy

retained their office for the next Academy year.

Treasurer’s Report

April 1, 1945

Receipts

Carried forward in Treasury, April 12, 1944 . $1,944.30

Receipts from dues, April 15, 1944-April 1, 1945 . 1,152.65

Sale of publications . 98.90

Interest on endowment . 98.25

Grant-in-aid for research from A.A.A.S . 96.00

Home Owners Loan Coupon Bonds called in by U. S. Government 1,050.00

Total receipts . $4,440.10

Disbursements

Purchase of U. S. Savings Bonds Series G . . . $ 300.00

Purchase of U. S. Savings Bond Series F . .' . 1,110.00

Cost of Bond transfer . .70

Allowance to Secretary-Treasurer Banner Bill Morgan . 100.00

Grant-in-aid for research to E. S. McDonough . 96.00

Rental of film for annual meeting . 2.30

Rubber stamps . 1.20

Transfer of cash from checking account to savings account . 1,000.00

Printing for Junior Academy . 44.75

Stamps, envelopes, express charges, materials for Newsletter . . . 59.03

Check in process of collection . 100.00

Total disbursements . $2,813.98

Balance, April 1, 1945.. $1,626.12

Check in process . 100.00

$1,726.12 Balance March 31, 1945, Bank

Statement.

Banner Bill Morgan

Secretary -Treasurer

353

354 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts and Letters

The accounts of the Academy were found to be in order and as

reported above for the date March 31, 1945.

Auditing Committee

Raymond J. Roark

R. J. Muckenhirn

Endowments and Assets of the Wisconsin Academy of

Sciences, Arts and Letters

1. U. S. Treasury Coupon Bond 1692B . . . . . $1,000.00

2. “ “ “ “ 12894D . 500.00

3. U. S. Savings Bond Registered Series G — M1696059G ..... 1,000.00

4. “ “ “ “ “ G — C1563347G . 100.00

5. “ “ “ “ “ G — C1563348G ..... 100.00

6. U. S. Savings Bond Series F — D494206F . 500.00

7. “ “ “ “ F — M989457F . 1,000.00

8. “ “ “ “ G — C3389339G . 100.00

9. “ “ “ “ G — C3457898G . 100.00

10. “ “ “ “ G— C3512841G . 100.00

Total Amount of Endowment . $4,500.00

11. U. S. Savings Bond Series G — C2386504G . 100.00

12. “ “ “ “ G — C2386505G . 100.00

13. “ “ “ “ G — C2386506G . 100.00

14. “ “ “ « G — C2386507G . 100.00

Current Assets Invested in U. S. Bonds . $ 400.00

15. Savings Account No. 3263, 12/13/44 . 1,000.00

Total . $5,900.00

The contents of the safety deposit box and the savings account were

found in order and as reported above for the date March 31, 1945.

Auditing Committee

Raymond J. Roark

R. J. Muckenhirn

WISCONSIN ACADEMY OF SCIENCES, ARTS

AND LETTERS

List op Active Members

Corrected to December 31, 1945

1. Aberg, Wm. J. P . 3401 Lake Mendota Drive, Madison, Wis.

2. Abrams, Allen . Rothschild, Wis.

3. Adkins, Homer . 369 Chemistry Bldg., Madison 6, Wis.

4. Alcorn, Paul . Univ. of Conn., Storrs, Conn.

5. Alexander, Edward P . 208 Historical Library, Madison, Wis.

6. Allen, Charles E . 104 Biology Bldg., Madison, Wis.

7. Allison, Leonard L . . Pittsburgh Road, Poland, Ohio

8. Anderson, Donald . 801 Magdeline Drive, Madison, Wis.

9. Aurner, R. R . 418 Sterling Hall, Madison, Wis.

10. Badalik, Elizabeth A. . St. Xavier Coll., 4900 Cottage Grove, Chicago, Ill.

11. Bagg, Rufus M . P. O. Box 386, Appleton, Wis.

12. Baier, Joseph, Jr . 623 W. State St., Milwaukee, Wis.

13. Baldwin, Ira L... . 150 Bascom Hall, Madison, Wis.

14. Bangham, R. V . 1004 N. Bever St., Wooster, Ohio

15. Barber, W. H. . . . . . .Dept, of Physics, Ripon Coll., Ripon, Wis.

16. Barta, E. F., Dr . 425 E. Wis. Ave., Milwaukee, Wis.

17. Barton, A. 0 . 1914 Madison St., Madison, Wis.

18. Bartsch, A. P . 623 W. State St., Milwaukee, Wis.

19. Bass, Turner C . 233 Alden Drive, Madison, Wis.

20. Bassett, N. D . Maple Bluff, Madison, Wis.

21. Baumann, Carl A . Biochemistry Bldg., U. W., Madison, Wis.

22. Bean, Ernest F . 115 Science Hall, Madison, Wis.

23. Becker, George Charles. . . Port Edwards, Wis.

24. Beckman, Wm. C . Univ. Museums Bldg., Ann Arbor, Mich.

25. Bennett, Edward . 208 Elec. Engr. Bldg., Madison, Wis.

26. Benninghoven, R. N . 1110 H St., N. E., Washington, D. C.

27. Berger, Kermit C . 6 Soils Bldg., Madison, Wis.

28. Bertrand, Kenneth

. Apt. C-657, 3520— 39th St., N. W., Washington, D. C.

29. Black, J. D . Dept. Biol., Anderson Coll., Anderson, Ind.

30. Bloodgood, F. J., Rev . 1102 Lincoln St., Madison, Wis.

31. Bolender, E. L . 92 Maple Ave., Superior, Wis.

32. Boutwell, Paul W . Dept. Chem., Beloit Coll., Beloit, Wis.

33. Bradley, H. C., Dr . Serv. Mem. Inst. Bldg., Madison, Wis.

34. Brauns, Fritz E . 306 E. South River St., Appleton, Wis.

35. Briggs, Lucia R.

. Holton Hall, Milwaukee-Downer Coll., Milwaukee, Wis.

36. Brink, Royal A . 105 Genetics Bldg., Madison, Wis.

37. Brown, Bruce K . . . 910 S. Mich. Ave., Chicago, Ill.

38. Brown, Charles E . State Hist. Museum, Univ. Lib., Madison, Wis.

39. Browne, Frederick L . U. S. Forest Prod. Lab., Madison, Wis.

40. Browning, Harold W . R. I. State Coll., Kingston, R. I.

41. Bryan, G. S . 203 Biology Bldg., Madison, Wis.

42. Bubbert, Walter . . .1516 N. 37th St., Milwaukee, Wis.

43. Buchen, Walther . . . 605 Arbor Vitae Rd., Winnetka, Ill.

44. Buck, Philo M., Jr . . . 77 Bascom Hall, Madison, Wis.

45. Buckstaff, Ralph N . 1122 S. Main St., Oshkosh, Wis.

46. Bunting, Charles H . 504 Serv. Mem. Inst., Madison, Wis.

355

356 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts and Letters

47. Buss, Irven 0 . Wis. Cons. Dept., Madison, Wis.

48. Cameron, Donald H . % B. D. Eisendrath Tanning Co., Racine

49. Campbell, R. S . Univ. of Mo., Columbus, Mo.

50. Carbine, W. F . 203 Museums Annex Bldg., Ann Arbor, Mich.

51. Carbye, J. 0 . 135 W. Wells St., Milwaukee, Wis.

52. Carrol College . Waukesha, Wis.

53. Carroll, Paul, Rev.

St. Louis Univ. School of Med., 1402 S. Grand Blvd., St. Louis, Mo.

54. Catenhusen, John . .

55. Chase, Samuel H . 905 Univ. Ave., Madison, Wis.

56. Chase, Wayland J . 1727 Summit Ave., Madison, Wis.

57. Chidester, Gardner H . U. S. Forest Prod. Lab., Madison, Wis.

58. Churchill, W. S . Box 168, Minocqua, Wis.

59. Clark, Harry H . 356 Bascom Hall, Madison, Wis.

60. Clark, O. H . Univ. Museums Bldg., Ann Arbor, Mich.

61. Clark, Paul F . 421 Serv. Mem. Inst., Madison, Wis.

62. Cole, Leon J . 108 Genetics Bldg., Madison, Wis.

63. Coleman, Thomas E . Maple Bluff, Madison, Wis.

64. Coleman, Wm. W . 1101 N. Marshall St., Milwaukee, Wis.

65. Colien, Francis E . 2010 N. 54th St., Omaha 4, Nebraska

66. Colmer, Arthur R . Coll, of Agr., West Va. Univ., Morgentown, Va.

67. Conant, Geo. R . 719 Watson St., Ripon, Wis.

68. Cooper, Berenice . 1219 N. 21st St., Superior, Wis.

69. Cooper, Delmer C . 103 Genetics Bldg., Madison, Wis.

70. Cox, Eleanor H . Stout Inst., Menomonie, Wis.

71. Curry, John S . 432 Lorch St., Madison, Wis.

72. Curtis, John T . 58 Biology Bldg., Madison, Wis.

73. Daniels, Farrington . 1301 E. 60th St., Chicago, Ill.

74. Davies, Ithel B. . 325 Racine St., Delavan, Wis.

75. Deason, Hilary J..Fish and Wildlife Serv., U.S.D.I., Washington, D. C.

76. De Cleene, L. A. V., Rev . 920 Christian St, Philadelphia 47, Pa.

77. De Esbjorn, Gustavus . Gen. Del., Winnipeg, Manitoba, CANADA

78. Denniston, Rollin H . 409 Biology Bldg., Madison, Wis.

79. Derleth, August W . Sauk City, Wis.

80. Deutsch, Harold F . 202 Mem. Inst. Bldg., Madison, Wis.

81. de Weerdt, Ole N . Beloit Coll., 405 E. Grand Ave., Beloit

82. Dillon, Myles . 108 Bascom Hall, Madison, Wis.

83. Doane, Gilbert H . 220 Univ. Library, Madison, Wis.

84. Dobblesteen, L. A . R. #2, Luxemburg, Wis.

85. Dodge, B. O . N. Y. Bot. Garden, New York, N. Y.

86. Domogalla, Bernhard P.

87. Doolittie,’ Sears P.’.'. . . 1519 44th’ St., N. W., Washington,’ D. C.

88. Dornfeld, Ernst J . Zool. Dept., Ore. St. Coll., Corvallis, Ore.

89. Doudna, E. G . 2017 Monroe, Madison, Wis.

90. Drechsler, Charles . Bur. Plant Ind., Sta. Beltsville, Md.

91. Du Mez, Andrew G.

School of Pharmacy, U. of Md., Lombard & Green Sts., Baltimore, Md.

92. Durand, Loyal, Jr . Dept, of Geog., U. of Tenn., Knoxville, Tenn.

93. Dykstra, Clarence A . Provost, U. C. L. A., Los Angeles, Cal.

94. Dyson, Helen C . 1815 King St., La Crosse, Wis.

95. Eggleton, F. E . Dept, of Zool., U. of Mich., Ann Arbor, Mich.

96. Eigen, David F . 3141 N. Green Bay Ave., Milwaukee, Wis.

97. Ellis, C. W . 122 Lakewood Blvd., Madison, Wis.

98. Elvehjem, Conrad A . Biochemistry Bldg., U. W., Madison, Wis.

99. Englerth, Geo. H . Forest Products Lab., Madison, Wis.

100. Englerth, Mrs. Harriet W . 601 Baltzell St., Madison, Wis.

101. Errington, Paul . . Zool. Dept., Ia. State Coll., Ames, Iowa

102. Evans, Clarence T . 2626 Lefeber Ave., Wauwatosa 13, Wis.

103. Evans, Lucille . ■ . 2129 E. Kenwood Blvd., Milwaukee, Wis.

List of Active Members

357

104. Evans, Richard. . . . .110 Biology Bldg., Madison, Wis.

105. Everest, D. C. . . Rothschild, Wis.

106. Farner, Donald S. . .4332 N. 32nd St., '% Mrs. C. S. Copps, Omaha, Neb.

107. Fassett, Norman C . . . 261 Biology Bldg., Madison, Wis.

108. Feeney, Wm. S . . .Menasha Ave., Ladysmith, Box 132, Wis.

109. Finch, Vernor €..... . 301 Science Hall, Madison, Wis.

110. Fischer, Richard . 1 Langdon St., Madison, Wis.

111. Fischthal, J. H. ........ . .Biol. Lab., Wis. Cons. Dept., Spooner, Wis.

112. Fisk, Emma L. . . . . . . 205 Biology Bldg., Madison, Wis.

113. Fluke, Charles L., Jr . 105 King Hall, Madison, Wis.

114. Fowlkes, John Guy . 88 Cambridge Road, Madison, Wis.

115. Fox, Philip G . 403 Sterling Hall, Madison, Wis.

116. Frasche, Dean F . .1830 Plymouth St., N. W., Washington, D. C.

117. Frautschi, Walter A . 33 Fuller Drive, Madison, Wis.

118. Fred, Edwin B... . 158 Bascom Hall, Madison, Wis.

119. Frey, Charles N. . . . . . 45 Cambridge Road, Scarsdale, N. Y.

120. Friesner, R. C . Dept, of Bot., Butler Univ., Indianapolis, Ind.

121. Fuller, Albeit M . ..Milwaukee Pub. Museum, Milwaukee, Wis.

122. Funk, John L.. . . . . . . . . . State Stream Pollution Comm.,

Daniel Bagley Hall, U. of Wash., Seattle, Wash.

123. Gajewski, J. E.

. Dept, of Pharmacology, 315 Mem. Inst. Bldg., Madison, Wis.

124. Gates, Charles B . 2501 E. Stratford Court, Milwaukee, Wis.

125. Gehrke, Willis T . 16 Park Ave., Mayville, Wis.

126. Gerry, Eloise . . . Forest Prod. Lab., Madison, Wis.

127. Gilbert, Edward M . . . . 307 Biology Bldg., Madison, Wis.

128. Gilbert, Wm. P . Dept, of Physics, Lawrence Coll., Appleton, Wis.

129. Gloyer, Walter O . . . N. Y. Agr. Expt. Sta., Geneva, N. Y.

130. Graber, L. F . . . Ill Moore Hall, Madison, Wis.

131. Grace, Harriett. M . 613 Howard Place, Madison, Wis.

132. Greacen, Katherine . Hunt Oil Co., Midland, Texas

133. Greco, Jennie . 5519 — 25th Ave., Kenosha, Wis.

134. Greene, H. C. . 210 Biology Bldg., Madison, Wis.

135. Greene, Howard T . . . Genesee Depot, Wis.

136. Greene, John M . . . . . .Genesee Depot, Wis.

137. Greve, H. C . Hayward, Wis.

138. Grill, John, Dr.. . . . .4145 W. McKinley Ave., Milwaukee, Wis.

139. Groves, James F . Biology Dept., Ripon Coll., Ripon, Wis.

140. Guyer, Michael F . ...253 Biology Bldg., Madison, Wis.

141. Halbert, Charles A . . . Shorewood Hills, Madison, Wis.

142. Hall, Norris F . . . 205 Chem. Bldg., Madison, Wis.

143. Hanawalt, Ella M. ....... .Milwaukee-D owner Coll., Milwaukee, Wis.

144. Hanley, Wilber.. . 107 Ext. Bldg., U. W., Madison, Wis.

145. Hansen, Arthur C . . . 2565 N. 84th St., Wauwatosa, Wis.

146. Hanson, Harold C . Nat. Hist. Surv. Resource Bldg,, Urbana, Ill.

147. Harper, Robert A . R. #5, Bedford, Va.

148. Harrington, C. L . . . 136 Lathrop St., Madison, Wis.

149. Hasler, Arthur D.. . . . . Biology Bldg., U. W., Madison, Wis.

150. Hawley, John C.. . . .The Evergreens, R. #4, Madison, Wis.

151. Hayes, Merlin L. .% James Fox, 789 N. Jefferson St., Milwaukee, Wis.

152. Hays, Orville E . . . Cons. Expt, Sta., La Crosse, Wis.

153. Heffner, R. M. S . . . Dept, of German, 84 Bascom Hall, Madison

154. Henmon, V. A. C.. .......... . . 20 Bascom Hall, Madison, Wis.

155. Heun, Alphonse L . . . 1611 N. 33rd St., Milwaukee, Wis.

156. Heuser, Emil. . . . . 304 River Drive, Appleton, Wis.

157. Hiestand, Wm. A . Dept, of Biol., Purdue Univ., Lafayette, Ind.

158. Higgs, Charles D . Box 86, Fontana, Wis.

159. Hile, Ralph.... . Univ. Museums Bldg., Ann Arbor, Mich.

160. Hoffman, Carl E . . . 1127 W. 8th St., Appleton, Wis.

161. Hollister, H. L. .................... 11 E. 75th St., New York, N. Y.

358 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts and Letters

162. Honey, E. E . Box 474, Milwaukee, Wis.

163. Hotchkiss, W. 0 . .Rensselaer Polytechnic Inst., Troy, N. Y.

164. Hougen, 0. A.. ........ . . . . 2247 Rowley Ave., Madison, Wis.

165. Howells, W. W . 2432 Tracy Place, Washington, D. C.

166. Hrubesky, C. E . . . Forest Prod. Lab., Madison, Wis.

167. Hughes, Merritt Y. ....... . 352 Bascom Hall, Madison, Wis.

168. Huntzicker, V. E . 2857 N. Stoverel Ave., Milwaukee 11, Wis.

169. Huskins, C. L . . . Biology Bldg., U. W., Madison, Wis.

170. Icke, Paul . 407 Rosemary Lane, Fall Church, Va.

171. Ihde, A. J . . . . . 132 Chem. Bldg., Madison, Wis.

172. Ingraham, Mark H . 102 South Hall, U. W., Madison, Wis.

173. Ireland, Edward J.

. Dept, of Pharmacology, Loyola Univ., New Orleans, La.

174. Jackson, Hartley H. T . Fish & Wildlife Serv., Washington, D. C.

175. Jahnke, Paul J . . . 1970 B St., Lincoln, Nebraska

176. Jasper, Thomas M.

. Union League Clb. of Chicago, 65 W. Jackson St., Chicago, Ill.

177. Johnson, Raymond E . 53 E. Main St., Mystic, Conn.

178. Jones, Fred Revel . 214 Hort. Bldg., U. W., Madison, Wis.

179. Jones, S. Paul . 509 W. Ave., Waukesha, Wis.

180. Jung, Clarence S.. . . .6383 N. Port Wash. Rd., Milwaukee, Wis.

181. Kant, Fritz . 1300 Univ. Ave., Madison, Wis.

182. Kaufman, Theo. N . 295 Pleasant Valley Way, West Orange, N. J.

183. Keitt, Geo. W . 207 Hort. Bldg., U. W., Madison, Wis.

184. Keller, Sr. Mary Anthony

. Marian Coll., 390 E. Div. St., Fond du Lac, Wis.

185. Kesselman, Wm . 3061 N. Downer, Milwaukee, Wis.

186. Kiekhofer, Wm. H . 308 Sterling Hall, Madison, Wis.

187. Kilmer, Victor J . Mayo Gen. Hosp., Galesburg, Ill.

188. King, Ralph . . . 1056 Lancaster Ave., Syracuse, N. Y.

189. Kirchhoff, Roger C . 1908 Arlington Place, Madison, Wis.

190. Klak, Geo. E . . . .8101 Diggs Road, Norfolk, Va.

191. Kliefoth, Max . . . Woodward Grove, Madison, Wis.

192. Koehler, Arthur . Forest Prod. Lab., Madison, Wis.

193. Kohl, E. J . Ripon Coll., Ripon, Wis.

194. Kopf, Kenneth . Hawaiian Pineapple Co., Ltd., Honolulu, Hawaii

195. Kowalke, Otto L . 104 Chem. Engr. Bldg., Madison, Wis.

196. Krause, H., Dr . 510 Fort St., Pensacola, Florida

197. Krohn, Charles H . 3728 W. Sheridan Ave., Milwaukee, Wis.

198. Krumholz, Louis A. ...... . .Dept. Zool., Ind. Univ., Bloomington, Ind.

199. Kruschke, Emil P . . . Milw. Pub. Museum, Milwaukee, Wis.

200. LaFleur, Angelus, Rev. . . . . Mt. St. Francis, Ind.

201. Laird, Melvin R . 208 S. Cherry St., Marshfield, Wis.

202. Lamers, Wm . 7832 Warren Ave., Wauwatosa, Wis.

203. Leonard, Clifford S., Dr.

. . . Dept, of Pharmacology, U. of Vt., Burlington, Vt.

204. Leopold, Aldo . 102 Old Ent. Bldg., Madison, Wis.

205. Liesch, W. H... . 207 N. Spooner St., Madison, Wis.

206. Lilly, John H . . . Biology Bldg., U. W., Madison, Wis.

207. Lindsay, Ruth H. . . Hallowell House, Wellesley Coll., Wellesley, Mass.

208. Link, Karl Paul . .Dept, of Biochem., U. W., Madison, Wis.

209. Lorenz, Robert H.. ..... . .4825 N. Cumberland Ave., Milwaukee, Wis.

210. Loughborough, W. Karl. . . Forest Prod. Lab., Madison, Wis.

211. McCalmont, Mary M. ............ . .Stout Institute, Menomonie, Wis.

212. McCoy, Elizabeth F. ................... .21 Agr. Hall, Madison, Wis.

213. McDonough, Eugene S.. . . .Dept, of Biol., Marquette Univ., Milwaukee

214. McElvain, S. M.. . . . . . . 309 Chem. Bldg., Madison, Wis.

215. McKern, W. C. .............. . .818 W. Wis. Ave., Milwaukee 3, Wis.

216. McNeel, W . . . . .3610 Nakoma Road, Madison, Wis.

217. MacLean, J. D . Forest Prod. Lab., Madison, Wis.

List of Active Members

359

218. Main, Angie Kumlien. . . R. #1, Fort Atkinson, Wis.

219. March, Herman W . . .1825 Summit Ave., Madison, Wis.

220. Marquette, Wm. G . . . 59 Broadway, Pleasantville, N. Y.

221. Marschall, A. J . 14 Proudfit St., Madison, Wis.

222. Marshall, Ruth . Wisconsin Dells, Wis.

223. Marshall, Wm. S . . .139 E. Gilman St., Madison, Wis.

224. Marvin, Philip R . . . 3726 N. Booth St., Milwaukee, Wis.

225. Mason, Arnold C . Ill. Geological Survey, Urbana, Ill.

226. Mathews, Joseph H . Ill Chem. Bldg., Madison, Wis.

227. Mathiesen, John . 1111 Ruley Ave., Houghton, Mich.

228. Maurer, Edward R . 167 N. Prospect Ave., Madison, Wis.

229. Mead, Daniel W . 120 W. Gorham St., Madison, Wis.

230. Mead, Warren J . 77 Mass. Ave., Cambridge 39, Mass.

231. Meloche, Villiers W . 269 Chem. Bldg., Madison, Wis.

232. Merrell, Martha B . . . 1438 Main St., Racine, Wis.

233. Middleton, W. S . . . . . Wis. Gen. Hosp., Madison, Wis.

234. Miles, Philip E . 1900 Arlington Place, Madison, Wis.

235. Miller, Eric R . Box 536, Winter Park, Florida

236. Moeck, Arthur H. . . . . .301 E. Armour Ave., Milwaukee, Wis.

237. Moffett, James W„

North Rotunda, Museum Bldg , Stanford Univ., Palo Alto, California

238. Morgan, Banner Bill . 101 Stock Pavilion, Madison, Wis.

239. Mossman, Harland W . 417 Science Hall, Madison, Wis.

240. Mo wry, Wm. A.... . 119 Wis. Gen. Hosp., Madison, Wis.

241. Muckenhirn, Robert J . 303 Soils Bldg., Madison, Wis.

242. Neff, E. E,, Dr . Maple Bluff, Madison, Wis.

243. Neidhoefer, J. R . 2443 N. 68th St., Milwaukee, Wis.

244. Nelson, Glenn H . 2807 E. Lee Street, Tucson, Ariz.

245. Nesbitt, Paul H. . Beloit Coll., Beloit, Wis.

246. Nevins, Beatrice I . Ga. State Women’s Coll., Valdosta, Ga.

247. Nichols, M. Starr . 423 Serv. Mem. Inst., Madison, Wis.

248. Noland, Lowell E . . . 455 Biol. Bldg., Madison, Wis.

249. Norris, R. F..... . 2024 Chadbourne Ave., Madison, Wis.

250. Oberholser, Harry C.

Cleveland Museum of Nat. Hist;., 2717 Euclid Ave., Cleveland, Ohio

251. O’Donnell, D. John. Wis. Cons. Dept., State Office Bldg., Madison, Wis.

252. Oehlenschlaeger, Eliz. A. . .R. #6, Fairy Chasm Rd., Milwaukee, Wis.

253. Ordway, John G.. .Crane Mfg. Co., Broadway at Fifth, St. Paul, Minn.

254. Palmer, Lewis C . . . 131 W. Gilman St., Madison, Wis.

255. Parsons, Helen T . 219 Home Econ. Bldg., Madison, Wis.

256. Paul, Benson H . Forest Prod. Lab., Madison, Wis.

257. Perry, James C . . . Dept. Zool., Marquette Univ., Milwaukee

258. Perry, L. E . . . . . 605 Volunteer Bldg., Atlanta, Georgia

259. Peterman, Mary L . 911 Clymer Place, Madison, Wis.

260. Pfefferkorn, K. B.

. Oshkosh Clinic Bldg., Inc., 19 Jefferson Ave., Oshkosh, Wis.

261. Pinney, Mary E.

. Johnston Hall, Milwaukee-Downer Coll., Milwaukee, Wis.

262. Pohl, Richard . .Box 374, Colorado City, Texas

263. Potzger, J. E.. .Dept, of Botany, Butler University, Indianapolis, Ind.

264. Pratt, Clarence H . 727 Thorne St., Ripon, Wis.

265. Pritzl, Peter P. . . . . . . . St. Norbert Coll., West DePere, Wis.

266. Reed, Geo. M . Brooklyn Botanic Garden, Brooklyn, N. Y.

267. Reese, Hans H . Wis. Gen. Hosp., Madison, Wis.

268. Rehwaldt, Aug. C. . . .615 N. 11th St., Milwaukee, Wis.

269. Reis, Raymond, Rev . Marquette Univ., Milwaukee, Wis.

270. Reith, Allan F . 924 E. Sylvan Ave., Whitefish Bay, Wis.

271. Retzer, John P. . ..4973 N. Larkin, Whitefish Bay, Wis.

272. Reyer, H. B . 7525 Oak Hill Ave., Wauwatosa, Wis.

273. Reynolds, B. S . 1015 E. Wash. Ave., Madison, Wis.

360 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts and Letters

274. Richards, C. Audrey . Forest Prod. Lab., Madison, Wis.

275. Richardson, Robert K . 829 Church St., Beloit, Wis.

276. Richtmann, W. 0 . 453 Chem. Bldg., Madison, Wis.

277. Riker, Mrs. A. J . 212 Hort. Bldg., Madison, Wis.

278. Ritter, Geo. J . 310 Vista Road, Madison, Wis.

279. Roark, Raymond J . 115 Educ.-Engr. Bldg., Madison, Wis.

280. Robinson, W. Merle . Box 146, Montezuma, Iowa

281. Roebuck, John R . 128 Sterling Hall, Madison, Wis.

282. Rogers, Walter E . Dept. Botany, Lawrence Coll., Appleton

283. Rohde, H. W . 3927 N. Stowell Ave., Milwaukee, Wis.

284. Rosenberry, Marvin B., Hon . 81 Cambridge Road, Madison, Wis.

285. Ross, Frank A . Shorewood Hills, Madison, Wis.

286. Ruegger, Geo . Radisson, Wis.

287. Sarles, Wm. B . 310 Agr. Hall, Madison, Wis.

288. Schmidt, Erwin R . Wis. Gen. Hosp., Madison, Wis.

289. Schneberger, Edward

. Wis. Const. Dept., State Office Bldg., Madison, Wis.

290. Schubring, E. J. B . 122 W. Wash. Ave., Madison, Wis.

291. Schubring, Selma L., Dr . 410 N. Pinckney St., Madison, Wis.

292. Schuette, H. A . 253 Chem. Bldg., Madison, Wis.

293. Schulte, Walter B . 1551 W. Logan St., Freeport, Ill.

294. Schwartz, Sidney L . Forest Prod. Lab., Madison, Wis.

295. Scott, Walter E . Mendota Beach Heights, Madison, Wis.

296. Searles, Clarence A . Wisconsin Rapids, Wis.

297. Seguin, Hazel A...... . State Teach. Coll., Superior, Wis.

298. Sevringhaus, Elmer L . Wis. Gen. Hosp., Madison, Wis.

299. Shackelford, R. Max . 202 Genetics Bldg., Madison, Wis.

300. Shoemaker, Milton J . 3433 Sunset Drive, Madison, Wis.

301. Simon, Arthur . 828 First Wis. Nat’l. Bnk. Bldg., Milwaukee, Wis.

302. Sr. Mary Roberdetta . 1218 W. Kilbourn Ave., Milwaukee, Wis.

303. Sr. Mary St. Victor . 1218 W. Kilbourn Ave., Milwaukee, Wis.

304. Slidell, Kemper . 1811 Kendall Ave., Madison, Wis.

305. Slotkin, J. S . Howard Univ., Washington, D. C.

306. Smith, Lloyd L. .Div. of Fish and Game, Dept, of Cons., St. Paul, Minn.

307. Smith, W. N . 121 Bayley Ave., Platteville, Wis.

308. Snell, Walter H . 21 Laurel Court, Providence, R. I.

309. Sorum, C. H . 938 Univ. Bay Drive, Madison, Wis.

310. Sperry, Theo. M . 648 Oakland Court, Decatur, Ill.

311. Spohn, Wm. H . 221 Lakewood Blvd., Madison, Wis.

312. Squier, Theo. L . 425 E. Wis. Ave., Milwaukee, Wis.

313. Stauffer, John F . 55 Biology Bldg., Madison, Wis.

314. Stebbins, Joel . Washburn Observatory, Madison, Wis.

315. Steenbock, Harry . 258 Biochem. Bldg., Madison, Wis.

316. Steil, Wm. N . 1926 N. 53rd St., Milwaukee, Wis.

317. Steiner, Gotthold . 4117 — 29th, Mt. Rainier, Md.

318. Stevens, Myron . 2317 W. Lawn Ave., Madison, Wis.

319. Stevens, Neil E . Dept, of Botany, U. of Ill., Urbana, Ill.

320. Stickney, Malcolm E . Botany Dept., Denison Univ., Granville, O.

321. Stock, Kurt . Fish Creek, Wis.

322. Stoddard, Herbert L . R. #5, Thomasville, Ga.

323. Storey, O. W . 180 N. Wabash Ave., Chicago, Ill.

324. Stout, Arlow B . N. Y. Bot. Gardens, New York, N. Y.

325. Stovall, Wm. D . .438 Mem. Inst. Bldg., Madison, Wis.

326. Struve, Otto . Yerkes Observatory, Williams Bay, Wis.

327. Studer, Sr. M. Mira . 1413 South Layton Blvd., Milwaukee, Wis.

328. Supernaw, Jack S . 818 Prospect Place, Madison, Wis.

329. Sweet, Carroll V . 115 Ely Place, Madison, Wis.

330. Swift, Ernest . . . 2716 Gregory St., Madison, Wis.

331. Teisberg, Halvor O . . . 120 Univ. Lib., Madison, Wis.

332. Tenney, Horace K., Jr . 2110 Chadbourne Ave., Madison, Wis.

List of Active Members

361

333. Thomsen, Hans Peter . % Louis Larsen, R. #3, Box 406, Beloit

334. Thomson, J. W., Jr . Dept. Botany, U. W., Madison, Wis.

335. Thorkelson, H. J. B . . . % Kohler Co., Kohler, Wis.

336. Throne, Alvin L . State Teach. Coll., Milwaukee, Wis.

337. Thwaites, Fredrik T . . . 207 Science Hall, Madison, Wis.

338. Trautmann, W. J . 1743 Emerson St., Beloit, Wis.

339. Trewartha, Glenn T . 313 Science Hall, Madison, Wis.

340. Truog, Emil . 204 Soils Bldg., Madison, Wis.

341. Turneaure, Frederick E . 166 N. Prospect Ave., Madison, Wis.

342. Twenhofel, Wm. H . . . 208 Science Hall, Madison, Wis.

343. Tyler, Stanley . Science Hall, U. W., Madison, Wis.

344. Urdang, Geo . 1635 Monroe St., Madison, Wis.

345. Van Biesbroeck, Geo . Yerkes Observatory, Williams Bay, Wis.

346. Vanderwall, E. J. . .Wis. Cons. Dept., State Office Bldg., Madison, Wis.

347. Van Vleck, J. H. . . 55 Fayerweather St., Cambridge, Mass.

348. Von Jarchow, B. L . 1601 Wash. Ave., Racine, Wis.

349. Wadmond, Samuel C . 3859 Columbus Ave., Minneapolis, Minn.

350. Wagner, Geo. . 546 Wash. Ave., Palo Alto, California

351. Wales, Julia G . 320 Bascom Hall, Madison, Wis.

352. Walker, J. Chas . 206 Hort. Bldg., Madison, Wis.

353. Walker, Ruth I.. .U. W. Ext. Bldg., 623 W. State St., Milwaukee, Wis.

354. Washburn, Robert G . 425 E. Wis. Ave., Milwaukee, Wis.

355. Waters, Ralph M... . 730 Senica Place, Madison, Wis.

356. Watson, Kenneth M . 3501 Blackhawk Drive, Madison, Wis.

357. Weishar, Wm. J . 513 E. Kenwood Ave., Menomonee Falls, Wis.

358. Wellman, Frederick L.

. . . % U. S. Embassy, San Salvador, El Salvador, C. A.

359. Wells, Sidney D.. . . . . . . Box 1, Combined Locks, Wis.

360. Welty, Carl . 819 College St., Beloit, Wis.

361. Wenstrand, David E. W . 720 E. Wis. Ave., Milwaukee, Wis.

362. Westenberger, E. J., Rev . 128 S. Monroe St., Green Bay, Wis.

363. Wettengel, Mrs. Geo. R . 317 E. Coll. Ave., Appleton, Wis.

364. White, Helen C . ..321 Bascom Hall, Madison, Wis.

365. Wickhem, John D., Hon . 716 Edgewood Ave., Madison, Wis.

366. Wilde, Sergius A . 202 Soils Bldg., Madison, Wis.

367. Williams, Clement C . 129 N. Prospect Ave., Madison, Wis.

368. Wilson, H. F . 105 King Hall, Madison, Wis.

369. Wing, M. E . Beloit College, Beloit, Wis.

370. Wingert, E. L . 117 N. Prospect Ave., Madison, Wis.

371. Winslow, Carlile P. . . Forest Prod. Lab., Madison, Wis.

372. Wise, Louis E. . Inst, of Paper Chem., Appleton, Wis.

373. Witzemann, Edgar J . Serv. Mem. Inst., Madison, Wis.

374. Wolfe, Harold R . 68 Biology Bldg., Madison, Wis.

375. Wright, Stillman. .U. S. Bur. of Fisheries, Utah Agr. Coll., Logan, Utah

376. Zdanowicz, Casimir . 207 Bascom Hall, Madison, Wis.

377. Zellmer, Luther . State Teach. Coll., Platteville, Wis.

378. Zens, Rev. Claude P . St. Francis Major Sem., St. Francis, Wis.

379. Zimmerman, Fred R . 4110 Birch Ave., Madison, Wis.

380. Zirrer, Francis . . R. #3, Hayward, Wis.

381. Tressler, W. L . Dept. Zool. Univ. Maryland, College Park, Md.

New Members for 1945

1. Aberg, Wm. J. P . 3401 Lake Mendota Drive, Madison, Wis.

2. Aurner, R. R . 418 Sterling Hall, Madison, Wis.

3. Baier, Joseph, Jr . . . 623 W. State St., Milwaukee, Wis.

4. Barton, A. O . . . 1914 Madison St., Madison, Wis.

5. Bartsch, A. F . . .623 W. State St., Milwaukee, Wis.

6. Bass, T. C . 233 Alden Drive, Madison, Wis.

7. Black, John D . Dept. Biology, Anderson College, Anderson, Ind.

362

Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts and Letters

8. Brown, Bruce K . 910 S. Michigan Ave., Chicago, Ill.

9. Buchen, Walther . 605 Arbor Vitae Rd., Winnetka, Ill.

10. Campbell, R. S . Dept. Zoology, Univ. Missouri, Columbia, Mo.

11. Churchill, W. S . Box 168, Minocqua, Wis.

12. Doudna, E. G . 2017 Monroe, Madison, Wis.

13. Ellis, E. W . 122 Lakewood Blvd., Madison, Wis.

14. Englerth, George H . Forest Products Lab., Madison, Wis.

15. Englerth, (Mrs.) Harriet W . 601 Baltzell St., Madison, Wis.

16. Fischthal, J. H . Biol. Lab., Wis. Conservation Dept., Spooner, Wis.

17. Gilbert, W. P . Dept. Physics, Lawrence College, Appleton, Wis.

18. Greco, Jennie . 5519 25th Ave., Kenosha, Wis.

19. Greve, H. C . Hayward, Wis.

20. Hanley, W. M . 441 Virginia Terrace, Madison, Wis.

21. Hansen, Arthur C . 2565 N. 84th St., Wauwatosa, Wis.

22. Hougen, O. A . 2247 Rowley Ave., Madison, Wis.

23. Huskins, C. L . 1938 Rowley Ave., Madison, Wis.

24. Ihde, A. J . 132 Chemistry, Univ. Wis., Madison, Wis.

25. Kesselmann, Wm . 3061 N. Downer, Milwaukee, Wis.

26. King, Ralph. . 1056 Lancaster Ave., Syracuse, N. Y.

27. Kliefoth, Max H . Woodward Grove, Madison, Wis.

28. Kopf, Kenneth . Hawaii Pineapple Co., Ltd., Honolulu, Hawaii

29. Liesch, W. H . 207 N. Spooner St., Madison, Wis.

30. Marvin, Philip R . 3726 N. Booth St., Milwaukee, Wis.

31. McKern, W. C . 818 W. Wis. Ave., Milwaukee, Wis.

32. McNeel, W . 3610 Nakoma Rd., Madison, Wis.

33. O’Donnell, D. John

. Wis. Conservation Dept., State Office Bldg., Madison, Wis.

34. Ordway, John G . Crane Mfg. Co., Broadway at 5th, St. Paul, Minn.

35. Paul, Benson H . Forest Products Lab., Madison, Wis.

36. Reyer, Harold B . 7525 Oak Hill Ave., Wauwatosa, Wis.

37. Reynolds, B. S . 1015 E. Washington Ave., Madison, Wis.

38. Robinson, W. Merle . P. O. Box 146, Montezuma, Iowa

39. Slidell, Kemper . 1811 Kendall Ave., Madison, Wis.

40. Sorum, C. H . 938 Univ. Bay Drive, Madison, Wis.

41. Watson, Kenneth M . 3501 Blackhawk, Madison, Wis.

42. Wingert, E. L . 117 N. Prospect Ave., Madison, Wis.

43. Zimmerman, F. R. (Reinstated) . 4110 Birch Ave., Madison, Wis.

SUBJECT AND AUTHOR INDEX TO THE PAPERS PUBLISHED

BY THE ACADEMY*

1933-1944

Compiled by

Banner Bill Morgan

Secre tary- Treasurer

The figures refer to the number of the article in the alphabetized

author index which follows the subject index.

Addresses of a general nature: 734, 780, 860, 878, 907.

Agriculture: 709, 716, 858, 873, 908, 912, 921, 952.

American Indians: 813.

Astronomy: 726.

Bacteriology: 735, 782, 827, 828.

Biography: 833, 924, 936.

Biology: (see Botany and Zoology).

Botany: Bacteria (see under bacteriology); Bryopkytes: 730, 748; Cytol¬

ogy: 704, 870; Ecology: 727; Embryology: 870; Flora of Wisconsin:

727, 730, 739, 740, 745, 749, 750, 751, 752, 753, 759, 812, 818, 853, 866,

869, 875, 909, 914, 915, 928, 930, 931; Flora of North America: 928;

Fungi: 744, 766, 767, 768, 769; Palaeobotany: 938, 944; Physiology:

811, 908, 912, 917, 945; Geography and Distribution (see Flora);

Pteridophytes : 812, 869.

Chemistry: 729, 772, 787, 788, 841, 861, 871, 885, 886, 887, 888, 889, 890,

891, 892, 893, 900, 919, 946.

Education: 734, 822.

Engineering: Chemical: 814; Methods and Instruments: 911.

English: (see Linguistics, Literature).

Entomology: 707, 757, 758, 789, 852.

Forestry: 862.

Geography: Wisconsin: 717, 718, 773, 815, 816, 904, 910.

Geology: 708; North America: 710, 764, 903, 918; Wisconsin: 713, 714,

718, 725, 726, 755, 762, 816, 840, 841, 858, 897, 898, 913, 916, 918, 920,

922, 923.

Languages: German: 894.

Limnology: 756; Apparatus: 942; Chemical Studies: 705, 722, 723, 724,

771, 776, 791, 797, 799, 800, 801, 802, 805, 806, 807, 808, 810, 817, 819,

825, 826, 831, 832, 842, 843, 844, 845, 846, 847, 848, 850, 864; Fauna of

Lakes: 707, 741, 742, 760, 777, 779, 784, 785, 795, 796, 804, 809, 859,

902, 926; Flora of Lakes: 707, 727, 735, 777, 782, 796, 827, 828, 868,

* Continuation of the compilation by L. E. Noland, Trans. Wisconsin Acad.

Sci. 1932. 27:573-606.

363

364 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts and Letters

925, 943; Hydrography and General Studies of Lakes: 722, 725, 756,

762, 776, 799; Light Penetration : 719, 720, 721, 743, 791, 792, 798, 808,

830, 880, 939, 940, 941, 948; Plankton: 798; Temperatwre Studies: 735;

Bibliography : 778, 803.

Linguistics, Comparative Grammar, Syntax: 770, 894.

Literature: 703, 712; American: 731, 732, 733, 734, 872; English: 703, 712,

733, 763, 982, 933, 934, 935, 937; French: 736, 737, 738, 951.

Medical Science: 770.

Obituary: (see Biography).

Plant Pathology: 793, 794.

Religion: 712, 734, 736, 737, 738.

Sociology: 717, 734, 773, 899.

Travel Notes: 712.

Wildlife: 746, 747, 774, 775, 781, 790, 820, 821, 822, 823, 824, 881, 882, 883,

884.

Zoology: Anatomy: 947; Genetics: 896, 950; Parasitology: 711, 715, 742;

Physiology : 783; Protozoa: 854; Porifera: 857; Parasitic Worms: 711,

742, 855; Copepoda: 715; Hydracarina (water mites): 834, 835, 836,

837, 838, 839; Fishes: 707, 711, 741, 742, 760, 765, 779, 784, 785, 786,

795, 804, 809, 859, 860, 863, 867, 876, 877, 879, 902, 926, 949; Birds:

706, 728, 746, 747, 754, 761, 823, 829, 865, 882, 883, 884, 901; Mam¬

mals: 775, 824, 856, 881, 882, 896.

List of Articles

Published in the Transactions , Volumes 28-36 (1933-19UU)

703. Alderman, William E. 1933. Shaftesbury and the doctrine of opti¬

mism in the eighteenth century. Trans. 28:297-305.

704. Allen, Charles E. 1935. The course and significance of sexual dif¬

ferentiation. Trans. 29:195-202.

705. Allgeier, R. J., B. C. Hafford and C. Juday. 1941. Oxidation-

reduction potentials and pH of lake waters and of lake sediments. Trans.

33:115-133.

706. Anderson, Harry G., Wm. S. Feeney, Theodore M. Sperry and

John Catenhusen. 1942. Birds of the University of Wisconsin Arboretum.

Trans. 34:5-22.

707. Andrews, Jay D. and Arthur D. Hasler. 1943. Fluctuations in

the animal populations of the littoral zone in Lake Mendota. Trans. 35:

175-185.

708. Bagg, Rufus Mather. 1943. Geological contributions to human

progress. Trans. 35:247-273.

709. Bain, H. F., joint author; see N. E. Stevens.

710. Ball, John R., joint author; see Katherine F. Greacen.

711. Bangham, Ralph V. 1944. Parasites of Northern Wisconsin fish.

Trans. 36:291-325.

712. Barker, Russell H. 1937. George Sandy’s Relation. Trans. 30:

253-273.

List of Articles 365

713. Bean, Ernest F. 1937. State geological surveys of Wisconsin.

Trans. 30:203-220.

714. Bean, Ernest F. and John W. Thomson, Jr. 1944. Topography and

geology of the Brule River basin. Trans. 36:7-17.

715. Bere, Ruby. 1935. Further notes on the occurrence of parasitic

copepods on fish of the trout lake region, with a description of the male of

Argulus biramosus. Trans. 29:83-88.

716. Berger, K. C., and E. Truog. 1944. Boron deficiency in beets as

correlated with yields and available boron. Trans. 36:421-425.

717. Bertrand, Kenneth. 1942. Rural agglomerated settlements in the

eastern lake shore red clay dairy region of Wisconsin. Trans. 34:47-62.

718. Bertrand, Kenneth. 1944. A survey of Wisconsin lime industry.

Trans. 36:399-413.

720. Birge, Edward Asahel, joint author; see Harry R. James.

721. Birge, Edward Asahel, joint author; see Chancey Juday.

722. Birge, Edward Asahel, joint author; see Chancey Juday.

723. Birge, Edward Asahel, joint author; see Chancey Juday.

724. Birge, Edward Asahel, joint author; see Chancey Juday.

725. Broughton, W. A. 1941. The geology, ground water and lake basin

seal of the region south of the Muskellunge Moraine, Vilas County, Wis¬

consin. Trans. 33:5-20.

726. Buckstaff, Ralph N. 1943. A new Wisconsin meteorite. Trans.

35:99-103.

727. Catenhusen, John. 1944. Some aquatic and sub-aquatic plants

from the region of glacial Lake Wisconsin. Trans. 36:163-169.

728. Catenhusen, John, joint author; see Harry G. Anderson.

729. Chang Y. Chang, and H. A. Schuette. 1935. The cupro-alkali

metal carbonate solution in the determination of reducing sugars. Trans.

29:381-388.

730. Cheney, L. S., and Richard Evans. 1944. The mosses of Wiscon¬

sin. Trans. 36:171-224.

731. Clark, Harry Hayden. 1933. Thomas Paine’s theories of rhetoric.

Trans. 28:307-339.

732. Clark, Harry Hayden. 1940. Literary criticism in the North

American Review, 1815-1835. Trans. 32:299-350.

733. Clark, Harry Hayden. 1942. The vogue of Macaulay in America.

Trans. 34:237-292.

734. Clark, Harry Hayden. 1943. The influence of science on American

ideas, from 1775 to 1809. Trans. 35:305-349.

735. Colmer, Arthur R., and Elizabeth McCoy. 1943. Micromonospora

in relation to some Wisconsin lakes and lake populations. Trans. 35:187-220.

736. Cooper, Berenice. 1940. The relation of Le Philosophe anglais by

the Abbe Prevost to the religious controversies in France and England

during the early eighteenth century. Trans. 32:279-286.

737. Cooper, Berenice. 1940. Variations in the texts of eighteenth cen¬

tury editions of Le Philosophic anglais. Trans. 32:287-298.

738. Cooper, Berenice. 1942. An eighteenth century dictatorship. Trans.

34:231-236.

366 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts and Letters

739. Costello, David F. 1933. Preliminary reports on the flora of Wis¬

consin. XXIII. Urticaceae. Trans. 28:191-196.

740. Costello, David F. 1935. Preliminary reports on the flora of Wis¬

consin XXLV. Salicaceae. Trans. 29:299-318.

741. Couey, Faye M. 1935. Fish food studies of a number of north¬

eastern Wisconsin lakes. Trans. 29:131-172.

742. Cross, Samuel X. 1938. A study of the fish parasite relationships

in the Trout Lake region of Wisconsin. Trans. 31:439-456.

743. Davis, Francis J. 1941. Surface loss of solar and sky radiation by

inland lakes. Trans. 33:83-93.

744. Davis, J. J. 1937. Notes on parasitic fungi in Wisconsin XXX.

Trans. 30:1-15.

745. Drescher, A. A. 1933. Preliminary reports on the flora of Wis¬

consin XXII. Cornaceae — Dogwood Family. Trans. 28:187-190.

746. Errington, Paul L. 1933. The wintering of the Wisconsin Bob-

white. Trans. 28:1-35.

747. Errington, Paul L. 1937. Emergency values of some winter pheas¬

ant foods. Trans. 30:57-68.

748. Evans, Richard, joint author; see L. S. Cheney.

749. Fassett, Norman Carter. 1933. Preliminary reports on the flora

of Wisconsin XXI. Geraniales. Trans. 28:171-186.

750. Fassett, Norman C. 1937. Preliminary reports on the flora of

Wisconsin XXV. Arales. Trans. 30:17-20.

751. Fassett, Norman C. 1940. Preliminary reports on the flora of

Wisconsin XXIX. Anacardiaceae. Trans. 32:103-106.

752. Fassett, Norman C. 1943. Preliminary reports on the flora of

Wisconsin XXXI. Solanaceae. Trans. 35:105-112.

753. Fassett, Norman C. 1944. Vegetation of the Brule basin, past and

present. Trans. 36:33-56.

754. Feeney, William S., joint author; see Harry G. Anderson.

755. Fischer, Alfred G., Arnold C. Mason, and W. S. Twenhofel. 1940.

Survey of Pokerville Cave, Blue Mounds, Wisconsin. Trans. 32:243-250.

756. Flanigon, Thomas H. 1942. Limnological observations on three

lakes in eastern Vilas County, Wisconsin. Trans. 34:167-175.

757. Fluke, Charles Lewis, Jr. 1933. Revision of the Syrphus flies of

America north of Mexico (Diptera, Syrphidae, Syrphus s.l.) Part I. Trans.

28:63-127.

758. Fluke, C. L., and F. M. Hull. 1944. Syrphid flies of the genus

Cheilosia, subgenus Chilomyia in North America (Part II). Trans. 36:

327-347.

759. Fogelberg, Sidney O. 1937. Preliminary reports on the flora of

Wisconsin. XXVI. Convolvulaceae. Trans. 30:21-35.

760. Frey, David G. 1938. Growth of the buffalo in Wisconsin lakes

and streams. Trans. 31:513-525. Hubert Cedracine — joint author.

761. Frey, David G., and Lawrence Vike. 1941. A creel census on lakes

Waubesa and Kegonsa, Wisconsin, in 1939. Trans. 33:339-362.

762. Fries, Carl, Jr. 1938. Geology and ground water of the trout

lake region, Vilas County, Wisconsin. Trans. 31:305-322.

List of Articles 367

763. Gottfried, Rudolf B. 1937. Spenser as an historian in prose.

Trans. 30:317-329.

764. Greacen, Katherine F., and John R. Ball. 1944. Studies of Silurian

fossils in the Thomas A. Greene collection at Milwaukee-Downer College.

Trans. 36:415-419.

765. Greene, C. Willard, joint author; see Carl L. Hubbs.

766. Greene, H. C. 1940. Notes on Wisconsin parasitic fungi. I. Trans.

32:77-83.

767. Greene, H. C. 1942. Notes on Wisconsin parasitic fungi II. Trans.

34:83-98.

768. Greene, H. C. 1943. Notes on Wisconsin parasitic fungi. III.

Trans. 35:113-135.

769. Greene, H. C. 1944. Notes on Wisconsin parasitic fungi V. Trans.

36:225-243. VI. 245-268.

770. von Grueningen, John Paul. 1937. The rise of professionalism in

Switzerland about 1700. Trans. 30:275-301.

771. Hafford, B. C., joint author; see R. J. Allgeier.

772. Hall, Norris F., and Willard F. Spengeman. 1937. Conductimetric

titration of organic bases in glacial acetic acid. Trans. 30:51-55.

773. Halverson, Lynn Harvey. 1933. Beloit, Wisconsin: A study in

urban geography. Trans. 28:129-155.

774. Hanson, Harold C. 1943. The cottontail and the weather. Trans.

35:91-97.

775. Hanson, Harold C. 1944. Small mammal censuses near Prairie du

Sac, Wisconsin. Trans. 36:105-129.

776. Hardman, Yvette. 1941. The surface tension of Wisconsin lake

waters. Trans. 33:395-404.

777. Hasler, Arthur D., joint author; see Jay D. Andrews.

778. Hasler, Arthur D., joint author; see Chancey Juday.

779. Hasler, Arthur D., joint author; see Merlin N. Nelson.

780. Hasler, A. D., joint author; see E. Schneberger.

781. Hawkins, Arthur S. 1940. A wildlife history of Faville Grove,

Wisconsin. Trans. 32:29-65.

782. Henrici, Arthur T., and Elizabeth McCoy. 1938. The distribution

of heterotrophic bacteria in the bottom deposits of some lakes. Trans.

31:323-361.

783. Hiestand, William A. 1940. Oxygen consumption of thyone bri¬

ar eus (Holothurioidea) as a function of oxygen tension and hydrogen-ion

concentration of the surrounding medium. Trans. 32:167-176.

784. Hile, Ralph. 1941. Age and growth of the rock bass, Ambloplites

Rupestris (Rafinesque) in Nebish Lake, Wisconsin. Trans. 33:189-337.

785. Hile, Ralph and Chancey Juday. 1941. Bathymetric distribution

of fish in lakes of the northeastern highlands, Wisconsin. Trans. 33:147-187.

786. Hubbs, Carl L., and C. Willard Greene. 1935. Two new sub¬

species of fishes from Wisconsin. Trans. 29:89-101.

787. Huebner, E. O., joint author; see Henry August Schuette.

788. Huenink, D. J., joint author; see H. A. Schuette.

789. Hull, F. M., joint author; see C. L. Fluke.

368 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts and Letters

790. Jackson, Hartley H. T. 1943. Conserving endangered wildlife spe¬

cies. Trans. 35:61-89.

791. James, Harry R. 1941. Beer’s law and the properties of organic

matter in lake waters. Trans. 33:73-82.

792. James, Harry R., and E. A. Birge. 1938. A laboratory study of

the absorption of light by lake waters. Trans. 31:11-154.

793. Johnson, James. 1937. An acquired partial immunity to the to¬

bacco streak disease. Trans. 30:27-34.

794. Jones, Fred Reuel. 1943. Ascochyta meliloti (Trel.) Davis as the

conidial stage of Mycosphaerella lethalis stone. Trans. 35:137-138.

795. Juday, Chancey. 1938. Fish records for Lake Wingra. Trans.

31:533-534.

796. Juday, Chancey. 1942. The summer standing crop of plants and

animals in four Wisconsin lakes. Trans. 34:103-135.

797. Juday, Chancey, joint author; see R. J. Allgeier.

798. Juday, Chancey, and Edward Asahel Birge. 1933. The transpar¬

ency, the color and the specific conductance of the lake waters of north¬

eastern Wisconsin. Trans. 28:205-259.

799. Juday, Chancey, and E. A. Birge. 1941. Hydrography and mor¬

phometry of some northeastern Wisconsin lakes. Trans. 33:21-72.

800. Juday, Chancey, E. A. Birge and V. W. Meloche. 1935. The carbon

dioxide and hydrogen-ion content of the lake waters of northeastern Wis¬

consin. Trans. 29:1-82.

801. Juday, Chancey, E. A. Birge and V. W. Meloche. 1938. Mineral

content of the lake waters of northeastern Wisconsin. Trans. 31:223-276.

802. Juday, Chancey, E. A. Birge and V. W. Meloche. 1941. Chemical

analyses of the bottom deposits of Wisconsin lakes. II. Second report.

Trans. 33:99-114.

803. Juday, Chancey, and Arthur D. Hasler. 1944. List of publications

dealing with Wisconsin limnology. Trans. 36:469-490.

804. Juday, Chancey, joint author; see Ralph Hile.

805. Juday, Chancey, joint author; see D. Lohuis.

806. Juday, Chancey, joint author; see V. W. Meloche.

807. Juday, Chancey, and V. W. Meloche. 1943. Physical and chemical

evidence relating to the lake basin seal in certain areas of the Trout Lake

region of Wisconsin. Trans. 35:157-174.

808. Juday, Chancey, joint author; see Harold A. Schomer.

809. Juday, Chancey, and Lawrence E. Vike. 1938. A census of the

fish caught by anglers in Lake Kegonsa. Trans. 31:527-532.

810. Juday, Richard E., joint author; see Winston M. Manning.

811. Kahlenberg, Louis, and Ralph N. Traxler. 1933. The osmotic per¬

meability of living plant membranes. Trans. 28:275-290.

812. Keller, C. O., joint author; see J. E. Potzger.

813. Kellogg, Louise Phelps. 1935. The Winnebago visit to Washing¬

ton in 1828. Trans. 29:347-354.

814. Kowalke, O. L. 1933. On the stoppage of sewer laterals by roots

of trees. Trans. 28 : 261-266.

List of Articles 369

815. Kowalke, Otto L. 1937. An unusual pitting in Niagara limestone.

Trans. 30:221-223.

816. Kowalke, Otto L., and E. F. Kowalke. 1938. Topography of aban¬

doned beach ridges at Ellison Bay, Door County, Wisconsin. Trans. 31:547-

553.

817. Kozminski, Zygmunt. 1938. Amount and distribution of the chloro¬

phyll in some lakes of northeastern Wisconsin. Trans. 31:411-438.

818. Kruschke, Emil P. 1944. Preliminary reports on the flora of Wis¬

consin. XXXII. Boraginaceae. Trans. 36:273-290.

819. Leader, G., joint author; see V. W. Meloche.

820. Leopold, Aldo. 1935. Wild life research in Wisconsin. Trans.

29:203-208.

821. Leopold, Aldo. 1937. The Chase Journal: an early record of Wis¬

consin wildlife. Trans. 30:69-76.

822. Leopold, Aldo. 1937. Teaching wildlife conservation in public

schools. Trans. 30:77-86.

823. Leopold, Aldo. 1940. Spread of the Hungarian partridge in Wis¬

consin. Trans. 32:5-28.

824. Leopold, Aldo. 1943. Deer irruptions. Trans. 35:351-366.

825. Lewis, Charles H., and Neil E. Stevens. 1944. Winter oxygen con¬

tent and biochemical oxygen demand in a Wisconsin artificial lake. Trans.

36:389-394.

826. Lohuis, D., V. W. Meloche and C. Juday. 1938. Sodium and potas¬

sium content of Wisconsin lake waters and their residues. Trans.

31:285-304.

827. McCoy, Elizabeth, joint author; see Arthur T. Henrici.

828. McCoy, Elizabeth, joint author; see Arthur R. Colmer.

829. MacNaughton, J. F., joint author; see M. E. Pinney.

830. Manning, Winston M. 1938. Photosynthesis of aquatic plants at

different depths in Trout Lake, Wisconsin. Trans. 31:377-410. Joint

authors — C. Juday and Michael Wolf.

831. Manning, Winston M. 1943. Physical factors influencing the accu¬

racy of the dropping mercury electrode in measurements of photochemical

reaction rates. Trans. 35:221-233.

832. Manning, Winston M., and Richard E. Juday. 1941. The chloro¬

phyll content and productivity of some lakes in northeastern Wisconsin.

Trans. 33:363-393.

833. Marsh, Mrs. Florence W. 1938. Professor C. Dwight Marsh and

his investigations of lakes. Trans. 31:535-543.

834. Marshall, Ruth. 1933. Preliminary list of the hydracarina of

Wisconsin. Part; III. Trans. 28:37-61.

835. Marshall, Ruth. 1935. Preliminary list of the hydracarina of

Wisconsin. Trans. 29:273-297.

836. Marshall, Ruth. 1937. Preliminary list of the hydracarina of

Wisconsin. Part V. Trans. 30:225-251.

837. Marshall, Ruth. 1940. Preliminary list of the hydracarina of

Wisconsin. VI. Trans. 32:135-165.

370 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences , Arts and Letters

838. Marshall, Ruth. 1940. The water mite genus Tyrrelia. Trans.

32:383-389.

839. Marshall, Ruth. 1944. Preliminary list of the hydracarina of

Wisconsin. Trans. 36:349-373.

840. Mason, Arnold C., joint author; see Alfred G. Fischer.

841. Mathiesen, John T. 1940. The Pleistocene of part of northwest¬

ern Wisconsin. Trans. 32:251-272.

842. Meloche, Villiers W., joint author; see Chancey Juday.

843. Meloche, Villiers W., joint author; see Chancey Juday.

844. Meloche, Villiers W., joint author; see Chancey Juday.

845. Meloche, Villiers W., joint author; see Chancey Juday.

846. Meloche, Villiers W., G. Leader, L. Safranski and C. Juday. 1938.

The silica and diatom content of Lake Mendota water. Trans. 31:363-376.

847. Meloche, Villiers W., joint author; see D. Lohuis.

848. Meloche, Villiers W., and Katherine Pingrey. 1938. The estima¬

tion of magnesium in lake water residues. Trans. 31:277-283.

849. Meloche, Villiers W., joint author; see John Rae.

850. Meloche, Villiers W., and T. Setterquist. 1933. The determination

of calcium in lake water and lake water residues. Trans. 28:291-296.

851. Meloche, Villiers W., joint author; see John F. Steiner.

852. Moeck, Arthur H. 1940. A butterfly migration in Mexico. Trans.

32:113-122.

853. Moore, E. B., and Russell Sanford. 1940. Spring flora on Farm¬

er’s Island, Lake Mills, Wisconsin. Trans. 32:67-76.

854. Morgan, Banner. Bill. 1943. Host list of the Genus Trichomonas

(Protozoa: Flagellata). Trans. 35:235-245.

855. Morgan, Banner Bill. 1944. The Physaloptera (Nematoda) of

carnivores. Trans. 36:375-388.

856. Mossman, H. W. 1940. What is the red squirrel? Trans.

32:123-134.

857. Neidhoefer, James Russell. 1940. The fresh-water sponges of

Wisconsin. Trans. 32:177-197.

858. Nelson, Lewis B. 1942. The nature of two associated Wisconsin

soils as influenced by post-glacial erosion, topography, and substratum.

Trans. 34:63-72.

859. Nelson, Merlin N. and A. D. Hasler. 1942. The growth, food, dis¬

tribution and relative abundance of the fishes of Lake Geneva, Wisconsin,

in 1941. Trans. 34:137-148.

860. O’Donnell, D. John. 1944, A history of fishing in the Brule River.

Trans. 36:19-31.

861. Oppen, Frederick C., joint author; see Henry August Schuette.

862. Paul, Benson H. 1944. Second growth may supply timber of ex¬

ceptional quality. Trans. 36:269-271.

863. Pedracine, Hubert, joint author; see Frey, David G.

864. Pingrey, Katherine, joint author; see V. W. Meloche.

865. Pinney, M. E., and J. F. MacNaughton. 1937. Some early bird

records of Wisconsin and neighboring territory to the west and north

(1896-1900) and of Indiana (1876-1877). Trans. 30:87-11 6.

List of Articles

371

866. Pohl, Richard W. 1940. Preliminary reports of the flora of Wis¬

consin. XXX. Rhamnales. Trans. 82:107-111.

867. Pope, T. E. B. 1938. Landlocked salmon in Wisconsin. Trans.

31:559-565.

868. Potzger, J. E. and W. A. Van Engel. 1942. Study of the rooted

aquatic vegetation of Weber Lake, Vilas County, Wisconsin. Trans.

34:149-166.

869. Potzger, J. E. 1943. Flowering plants and ferns of Vilas County,

Wisconsin. Trans. 35:139-145.

870. Potzger, J. E., and C. 0. Keller. 1943. A pollen study of four bogs

along the southern border of Vilas County, Wisconsin. Trans. 35:147-156.

871. Rae, John, and V. W. Meloche. 1942. A photo-electric method for

determination of pH. Trans. 34:195-212.

872. Richardson, Robert Kimball. 1933. The idea of progress in Locks-

l&y Hall. Trans. 28:341-361.

873. Rogers, L. M., joint author; see N. E. Stevens.

874. Safranski, L., joint author; see V. W. Meloche.

875. Sanford, Russell, joint author; See E. B. Moore.

876. Schloemer, Clarence L. 1938. A second report on the growth of

the Muskellunge, Esox masquinongy immaculatus (Garrard), in Wisconsin

waters. Trans. 31:507-512.

877. Schneberger, Edward. 1935. Growth of the yellow perch ( Perea

flavescens Mitchill) in Nebish, Silver and Weber Lakes, Vilas County,

Wisconsin. Trans. 29:103-130.

878. Schneberger, E., and A. D. Hasler. 1944. Brule River survey:

Introduction. Trans. 36:1-5.

879. Schneberger, Edw., and Lowell A. Woodbury. 1944. The lake

sturgeon, Acipenser Fulvescens Rafinesque, in Lake Winnebago, Wisconsin.

Trans. 36:131-140.

880. Schomer, Harold A., and Chancey Juday. 1935. Photosynthesis of

algae at different depths in some lakes of northeastern Wisconsin. Trans.

29:173-193.

881. Schorger, A. W. 1937. The range of the bison in Wisconsin.

Trans. 30:117-130.

882. Schorger, A. W. 1942. Extinct and endangered mammals and

birds of the upper Great Lakes region. Trans. 34:23-44.

883. Schorger, A. W. 1943. The prairie chicken and sharp-tailed

grouse in early Wisconsin. Trans. 35:1-57.

884. Schorger, A. W. 1944. The quail in early Wisconsin. Trans.

36:77-103.

885. Schuette, Henry August. 1943. Death in the Pot. Trans.

35:283-303.

886. Schuette, Henry August;, joint author; see Chang Y. Chang.

887. Schuette, Henry August, and E. O. Huebner. 1933. Daily varia¬

tions in the freezing point of milk. Trans. 28:267-274.

888. Schuette, Henry August, and Frederick C. Oppen. 1935. The de¬

termination of organic nitrogen: past and present. Trans. 29:355-380.

372 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts and Letters

889. Schuette, Henry August, and Sybil C. Schuette. 1935. Maple

sugar: A bibliography of early records. Trans. 29:209-236.

890. Schuette, Henry A., and Frank J. Schubert. 1944. The acidity of

honey. Trans. 36:427-433.

891. Schuette, Henry August, 'Warren W. Woessner, Ralph E. Triller

and D. J. Huenink. 1940. Degree of pigmentation and the potential acid-

base balance of honey. Trans. 32:273-277.

892. Schuette, Sybil C., joint author; see Henry August, Schuette.

893. Schubert, Frank J., joint author; see H. A. Schuette.

894. Senn, Alfred. 1935. The literary German language and its rela¬

tion to the German dialects. Trans. 29:341-346.

895. Setterquist, T., joint author; see Villiers W. Meloche.

896. Shackelford, Max. 1942. Mutations of minks. Trans. 34:45-

897. Shrock, R. R. 1935. Insoluble residues from Wisconsin sedi¬

mentary rocks. Trans. 29:257-271.

898. Shrock, Robert R. 1940. Geology of Washington Island and its

neighbors, Door County, Wisconsin. Trans. 32:199-232.

899. Slotkin, J. S. 1944. Racial classifications of the seventeenth and

eighteenth centuries. Trans. 36:459-467.

900. Spengeman, Willard F., joint author; see Norris F. Hall.

901. Sperry, Theodore M., joint author, see Harry G. Anderson.

902. Spoor, William A. 1938. Age and growth of the sucker, Catosto-

mus commersonnii (Lacepede), in Muskellunge Lake, Vilas County, Wis¬

consin. Trans. 31:457-505.

903. Squires, H. D. 1933. Strike slip faulting in the Acadian Appa¬

lachians. Trans. 28:157-170.

904. Staats, J. Riley. 1935. The geography of the central sand plain

of Wisconsin. Trans. 29:237-256.

905. Steiner, John F., and V. W. Meloche. 1935. A study of ligneous

substances in lacustrine materials. Trans. 29:389-402.

906. Stevens, Neil E., joint author; see Charles H. Lewis.

907. Stevens, Neil E. 1944. Further observations on alkaline flooding

water in cranberry growing. Trans. 36:395-398.

908. Stevens, Neil E., and Noel F. Thompson. 1942. Factors influenc¬

ing injury to cranberry plants during flooding. Trans. 34:73-81.

909. Stout, A. B. 1944. The bur oak openings in southern Wisconsin.

Trans. 36:141-161.

910. Strain, Warren. 1937. Geography of the northwest dairy region

of Wisconsin. Trans. 30:179-201.

911. Sweet, C. V. 1944. Gasogens. Trans. 36:435-440.

912. Thompson, Noel F., joint author; see Neil E. Stevens.

913. Thomson, John W., Jr., joint author; see Ernest F. Bean.

914. Thomson, John W., Jr. 1940. Preliminary reports on the flora of

Wisconsin. XXVII. Lentibulariaceae. Trans. 32:85-89.

915. Thomson, John W., Jr. 1944. A survey of the larger aquatic plants

and bank flora of the Brule River. Trans. 36:57-76.

916. Thwaites, F. T. 1940. Buried Pre-Cambrian of Wisconsin. Trans.

32:233-242.

List of Articles

373

917. Traxler, Ralph N., joint author ; see Louis Kahlenberg.

918. Trewartha, Glenn T. 1940. The vegetal cover of the driftless

cuestaform hill land. Pre-settlement record and post-glacial evolution.

Trans. 32:361-382.

919. Triller, Ralph E., joint author; see H. A. Schuette.

920. Truman, Harry V. 1937. Fossil evidence of two prairie invasions

of Wisconsin. Trans. 30:35-42.

921. Truog, E., joint author; see K. C. Berger.

922. Twenhofel, W. H. 1938. A new species of receptaculities (R. Pe-

dunculatus) from the Silurian strata of eastern Wisconsin. Trans. 31:

545-546.

923. Twenhofel, W. S., joint author; see Alfred G. Fischer.

924. Urdang, George. Carl Wilhelm Scheele. Trans. 35:275-281.

925. Van Engel, Willard A., joint author; see J. E. Potzger.

926. Vike, Lawrence, joint author; see David G. Frey.

927. Vike, Lawrence E., joint author; see Chancey Juday.

928. Wadmond, Samuel C. 1933. The Quericus ellipsoidalis — Quercus

coccinea complex. Trans. 28:197-203.

929. Wadmond, S. C. 1938. A North American record for Juncus capi-

tatus Weig. Trans. 31:555-557.

930. Wade, Douglas E., joint author; see Dorothy R. Wade.

931. Wade, Dorothy R., and Douglas E. Wade. 1940. Preliminary re¬

ports on the flora of Wisconsin. XXVIII. Caprifoliaceae. Trans. 32:91-101.

932. Wales, Julia Grace. 1933. Shakespeare’s use of English and for¬

eign elements in the setting of Much Ado About Nothing. Trans. 28:363-398.

933. Wales, Julia Grace. 1935. Elaboration of setting in Othello and

the emphasis of the tragedy. Trans. 29:319-340.

934. Wales, Julia Grace. 1937. Amleth’s Shield: A comment on the

pictorial elements of the Hamlet story. Trans. 30:303-312.

935. Wales, Julia Grace. 1937. A suggestion for a history of Shakes¬

pearean criticism by plays. Trans. 30:313-315.

936. Wales, Julia Grace. 1942. Margaret Ashmun: Wisconsin author

and educator. Trans, 34:221-229.

937. Wales, Julia Grace. 1944. Professor Beatty’s interpretation of

Shakespeare. Trans. 36:441-457.

938. Webster, R. M., joint author; see L. R. Wilson.

939. Whitney, Lester V. 1938. Microstratification of inland lakes.

Trans. 31:155-173.

940. Whitney, Lester V. 1938. Continuous solar radiation measure¬

ments in Wisconsin lakes. Trans. 31:175-200.

941. Whitney, Lester V. 1938. Transmission of solar energy and the

scattering produced by suspensoids in lake waters. Trans. 31:201-221.

942. Whitney, L. V. 1941. A multiple electromagnetic water sampler.

Trans. 33:95-97.

943. Wilson, L. R. 1941. The larger aquatic vegetation of Trout Lake,

Vilas County, Wisconsin. Trans. 33:135-146.

944. Wilson, L. R., and R. M. Webster. 1942. Microfossil studies of

three northcentral Wisconsin bogs. Trans. 34:177-193.

374 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts and Letters

945. Wilson, P. W., and F. C. Wagner. 1937. Combined nitrogen and

the nitrogen fixation process in leguminous plants. Trans. 30:43-50.

946. Woessner, Warren W., joint author; see H. A. Schuette.

947. Wolfe, Harold R. 1942. Cats with abnormally arranged viscera.

Trans. 34:99-102.

948. Wolf, Michael, joint author; see Winston M. Manning.

949. Woodbury, Lowell A., joint author; see Edw. Schneberger.

950. Woolley, George Walter. 1937. Genetic history of cattle in Wis¬

consin. Trans. 30:131-178.

951. Zdanowicz, Casimir D. 1942. Samuel Chappuzeau and his “Euro¬

pen Vivante,” 1666-71. Trans. 34:213-220.

952. Stevens, Neil E., L. M. Rogers and H. F. Bain. 1940. Alkaline

flooding water in cranberry growing. Trans. 32:351-360.