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TRANSACTIONS

OF THK

WISCONSIN Academy

OP

SCIENCES, ARTS, AND LETTERS.

1870-2.

Publis-Jied hy Order of the Legislature.

/f-

MADISON, WIS.;

AT\VOOI> it CULVER, PRINTERS AND STEREOTYPERS.

1S73.

TRANSACTIONS

OF THE

WISCONSIN ACADEMY OF SCIENCES.

ARTS, AND LETTERS.

1870-2

Published by Order of the Legislature.

f ♦«»

MADISON, WIS.;

ATWOOD & CULVER, PRINTERS AND STEREOTYPERS.

1872.

/->

ONTENTS.

Page.

I. LISTS OF OFFICERS AND MEMBERS 5-8

II. REPORT OF THE PRESIDENT—

Embracing:

1. Reasons for tlie organization of the Academy, witli a record of what liad

previously been done by, and in behalf of, Wisconsin in the Sciences, in

the Arts, and in Letters 9

3. General Plan of the Academy 36

3. What the Academy has done 38

III. SOME OP THE PAPERS READ BEFORE THE ACADEMY:

DEPARTMENT OF THE SOCIAX, AND POLITICAL SCIENCES.

1. The Relation of Labor and CaDital. By A. L. Chapin, D. D., LL.D.,

President of Beloit College 45

2. The German Sunday. By Right Rev. W. E. Armitage, D. D., Protestant

Episcopal Bishop of Wisconsin 63

3. Social Science and Woman Suffrage. By Rev. Charles Caverno, A. M. .. 72

4. The Common Jail System of the Csuntry. By Hon. S. D. Hastings, Sec-

retary of the State Board of Charities 90

DEPARTMENT OP THE NATURAL SCIENCES.

5. Deep Water Fauna of Lake Michigan. By P. R. Hoy, M. D 98

6. On the Classification of Plants. By I. A. Lapham, LL.D 103

7. Insects Injurious to Agriculture— Aphides. By P. R. Hoy, M. D 110

8. Coniferse of the Rocky Mountains and their Adaptation to the Soil and

Climate of Wisconsin. By J. G. Knapp, Esq 117

9. Report on the Geology of the Region about Devil's Lake. By Professor

Jas. H. Eaton, Ph. D 134

10. On the Age of the Quartzites, Schists and Conglomerates of Sauk County.

By Professor Roland Irving, E. M 139

11. Suggestions as to a Basis for the Gradation of the Vertebrata. By Prof.

T. C. Chamberlin 138

12. Ancient Lakes of Wisconsin. By J. G. Knapp, Esq 151

13. On the Mineral Well at Waterloo, Wis. By Rev. A. O. Wright, A. M. . . . 154

14. On Potentials, [and their Application in Physical Scienee. By Prof.

John E. Davies, M. D : 155

4 Wisconsm Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters.

DEPARTMENTJOF THE ARTS. ^ d ) V-CAAJ^-I'^ ,

15. The Production of Sulphide of Mercury by a New Process, and its Use in

Photography. P.y W. H. Sherman, Esq 105

16. The Kural Population of England as Classified in Domesday Book. By

Prof. William F. Allen, A. M 167

17. On the Place of the Indian Languages in the Study of Ethnology. By

Prof. John B. Feuling, Ph. D 178

IV.-PROCEEDINGS.

1. Proceedings of the Convention called to organize the Academy 183

2. First meeting of the Academy, February 16, 1870 185

3. First meeting the General Conncil 186

4. Second meeting of the Academy, July 1870 186

5. Third meeting of the Academy, September, 1870 188

6. First annual meeting of the Academy, February, 1871 190

7. Fifth meeting of the Academy, July 1871 192

8. Sixth meeting of the Academy, September 1871, 197

9. Second annual meeting of the Academy, February, 1871 197

GENERAL OFFICERS OF THE ACADEMY.

PRESIDENT :

Dr. J. W. HOYT, Madison

t

VICE PRESIDENTS, EX-OFFICIO :

Dr. p. R. hoy, Hacine.

Rt. Rev. W. E. ARMITAGE, - - Milwaukee.

Ex-Gov. NELSON DEWEY, - - - Cassville.

Rev. Dr. A. L. CHAPIN, - - - Beloit.

GENERAL SERETARY :

Dr. I. A. LAPHAM, Milwaukee.

ACTING SECRETARY :

Dr. J. E. DA VIES, University of Wisconsin.

TREASURER :

GEO. P. DELAPLAINE, Esq., Madison.

DIRECTOR OF THE MUSEUM :

WILLIAM DUDLEY, Madison.

LIBRARIAN :

J. G. KNAPP, Esq., Madison.

COUNSELORS EX-OPPICIO :

HIS EXCELLENCY THE GOVERNOR OF THE STATE.

THE LIEUTENANT GOVERNOR.

THE SUPERINTENDENT OF PUBLIC INSTRUCTION.

THE PRESIDENT OF THE STATE UNIVERSITY,

THE PRESIDENT OF THE STATE AGRICULTURAL SOCIETY.

THE SECRETARY OF THE STATE AGRICULTURAL SOCIETY.

Wisconsin Academy of Sciences^ Arts, and Letters.

OFFICERS OF THE DEPARTMENTS.

Departinennt of the Natural Sciences.

President, Ex.Officio— THE PRESIDENT OF THE ACADEMY.

Vice-President.— Y>^. P. R. HOY, Racine.

Secretary.— Qo\.. S. V. SHIPMAN, Madison.

Counselors.— T>K. R. Z. MASON, Appleton; Dr. SOLON MARKS,

Milwaukee; Dr. E. B. WOLCOTT, Mihuaukee.

Department of the Social and Political Sciences.

President, Ex-Officio.-TVL'S. PRESIDENT OF THE ACADEMY.

Vice President.— ViT. Rev. W. E. ARMITAGE, Miwaukee.

Secretary.— ^TL\. CHARLES CAVERNO, Amboy, III.

Counselors. — Rev. Dr. G. M. STEELE, Laxvrence University; Rev.

A. O. WRIGHT, Nevj Lisbon; Dr. A. S. McDILL, State Hos-

pital for the Insane.

Department of the Arts.

President, Ex-Officio.—THE PRESIDENT OF THE ACADEMY.

Vice President.— Hon. NELSON DEWEY, Cassville,

Secretary.— Coi.. S. V. SHIPMAN, Madison..

Counselors.— ]Oll^ H. VAN DYKE, Esq., Milwaukee; ALEXANDER

PROVIS, Lancaster; Hon. J. I. CASE, Racine.

Department of Letters.

President, Ex- Officio.— HU'E PRESIDENT OF THE ACADEMY.

Vice Presidefit-REV. Dr. A. L. CHAPIN, Beloit College.

Secretary —YviO¥. JOHN B. FEULING, State University.

Counselors. — Vrof. W. F. ALLEN, State University; Hon. LYMAN

C. DRAPER, State Historical Society; J. L. HAUSER, Esq.,

Milivaukee.

Corixsponding Members.

MEMBERS OF THE ACADEMY.

CORRESPONDING MEMBERS.

Prof. E. B. Akdrews, LL. D., Marietta College, Marietta, O.

T. Blossom, M. A.. M. E., School of Mines, Columbia College, New York.

Dr. N. Bridge, M. D., Chicaffo, 111.

J. G. Brinton, M. D., Philadelphia, Penn.

Prof. E. S. Carr, M. D., LL. D., University of California, Oakland, Cal.

F. Ebkner, Ph. D., Baltimore, Md.

J. W. Foster, LL. D., University of Chicago, Chicago, 111.

J. C. Freer, M. D., President of Rush Medical College, Chicago, 111.

H. P. GatC'IIELL, a. M., M. D., Kenosha, Wis.

Prof. D. C. GiLMAN, Yale College, New Haven, Conn.

Prof. S. S. Haldeman, LL. D., University of Pennsylvania, Chickis, Pena.

Asa Horr, M.D., President Iowa Institute of Arts and Sciences, Dubuque, la.

Prof. J. S. Jewell, M. D., Northwestern University, Evanston, 111.

Prof. Oliver Marcy, LL. D., Northwestern University, Evanston, III.

Prof. L. D. McCabe, D. D., Ohio Wesleyan University, Delaware, O.

Prof. J. I. Newberry, LL. D., Director of the Geological Survey of Ohio'

Columbia College, New York.

Prof. E. Orton, a. M., President Antioch College, Yellow Springs, O.

Prof. J. W. Safford, Director of the Astronomical Observatory at the Uni-

versity of Chicago, 111.

Wm. Le Barron, State Entomologist, Geneva, 111.

*Wm. Stimson, M.D., Secretary Chicago Academy of Sciences, Chicago, 111.

Prof. N. S. Shaler, A. M., Harvard University, Cambridge, M?.ss.

J. WiNGATE Thornton, Esq., Boston, Mass.

J. Hammond Trumbull, LL. D., Hartford, Conn.

Prof. M. SciiELE DE Vere, LL. D., University of Virginia, Charlotteville, Va.

Prof. A. E. Verrill, A. M., M. D., Yale College, New Haven, Conn.

Prof. James Watson, A. M., Director of the Astronomical Observatory at

Ann Arbor, Mich.

Prof. W. D. Whitney, Yale College, New Haven, Conn.

Prof. Alexander Winchell, LL. D., LTniversity of Michigan, Ann Arbor,

Mich.

G. Ward, LL. D., President of the University of Western Pennsylvania,

Pittsburg, Penn.

♦Deceased.

Wisconsin Academij of Sciences^ Arts^ and Letters.

LIFE MEMBERS.

Hon. J. I. Case, Eacine.

Ex-Gov. Nelson Dewey, Cassville.

J. J. Hatjennp.nn, Esq., Milwaukee.

J. L. Hill, Esq., Madison.

Dr. J. W. Hoyt, Madison.

Dr. I. A. Lapham, Milwaukee.

John Lawler, Esq., Prairie du Chien.

Hon. J. L. Mitcliell, Milwaukee.

J. A. Noonan, Esq., Milwaukee.

Hon. J. E. Thomas, Sheboygan Falls.

Hon. J. G. Thorp, Eau Claire.

Hon. S. A. White, Whitewater.

ANNUAL MEIMBERS.

Prof. W. F. Allen, A. M. State Uni-

versity, Madison.

Prest. Oliver Arey, A. M., State Nor-

mal School, VYhitewater.

Kt. Kev. Bishop Wm. E. Armitage, D.

D., Milwaukee.

Hon. Henry Biietz, Madison.

Mosses Barrett, M. D. Waukesha.

Hon. H. D. Barron, St. Croix Falls.

Hon. LI. Breese, Madison.

Elisha Burdick, Esq., Madison.

J A. Byrne, Madison.

Prof. S. H. Carpenter, LL D., Uuiver-

of Wisconsin.

Prof. T. C. Chamberlin, A. M., State

Normal School, Whitewater.

Rev. C. Caverno, Amboy, Ills.

Joseph S. Carr, Milwaukee.

Prast. A. L. Chapiu, D. D., Beloit

College, Beloit.

Prest. E. A. Charlton, A. M., State

Normal School, Platteville.

Alexander Provis, Esq., Lancaster.

Prof. W. W. Daniells, State Univers-

ity, Madison.

Prof. J. E. Davies, State University,

versity, Madison.

Geo. P. Delaplaine.Esq., Madison.

W. A. De LaMatyr, Esq.,Mazomaine.

Wm. Dudley, Esq., Madison.

Daniel S. Durrie, State Historical So

ciety, Madison.

Prof. .Jas. li. Eaton, Beloit College,

Beloit.

Prof. P. Engelmaun, Milwaukee.

Rev. Samuel Fallows, A. M., Supt.

of Public Instruction, Madison.

Prof. J. B. Feuling, Ph. D., LTuivers-

ity, Madison.

A. J. Finch, Esq., Milwaukee.

Prof. J. C. Foyp, A. M., Lawrence

University, Appleton.

Hon. S. D. Hastings, Madison.

J. L. Hauser, INIilwaukee.

C. T. Hawley, Esq., Milwaukee.

Joseph Hobbins, M. D., Madison.

Hon. E. D. Holton, Esq., Milwaukee.

P. R. Hoy, M. D.. Racine.

Prof. R. b. Irving, M. E., Madison.

J. T. Kingston, Necedah.

J. G. Knapp, Esq,, Madison,

E. B. Leland, Esq., Milwaukee.

Prof. T. H. Little, A. M., Wis, Ins.

for the Blind, Janesville.

A. S. McDill, M. D., feupt. St. Hosp.

for the Insane, Madison.

Solon Marks, M. D., Milwaukee.

R. Z. Mason, LL. D., Appleton.

Hon. John Murrish, Mazomanie.

Prof. Wm. J. L. Nicodemus, U. S. A.

State University, Madison.

Prof. J. B. Parkinson, A. M., State

L'niversity, Madison.

Rev. J. B. Pradt, A. M., Madison.

Ch.Preusser, Pres. Nat. Hist. Society,

Milwaukee.

Hon. George Reid, Manitowoc.

H. W. Roby, Esq., Milwaukee.

Wm.'H. Sherman, Esq., Milwaukee.

S. V. Shipman, Esq., Madison.

Hon. Wm. E. Smith, Fox Lake.

Prest. G. M. Steele, D. D. Lawrence

University, Appleton.

Prest. W. C. Whitford, Milton Col-

lege, Milton.

E. B. Wolcott, M. D., Milwaukee.

Rev. A. O. Wright, New Lisbon.

REPORT OF THE PRESIDENT.

His Excellency, Cadwalladeh C. Washburn",

Governor of ^Y^scons^n:

Sir : In compliance witli tlie law, I have tlie honor to submit

the following report of the "financial and other transactions"

of the Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts and Letters, for

the year ending February 13th, 1872. And inasmuch as cir-

cumstances prevented the delivery of the report of the previ-

ous year in time for its transmission to the last Legislature, it

has been deemed proper to embody herein such important facts

as are necessary to complete the public record of the Academy

from the date of its organization.

Motives in which the Academy Originated.

^ The Academy was organized on the 16th of February, 1870,

"■^ by a Convention called for that purpose by the Governor and

( more tJian one hundred other prominent citizens of the State.

<' The general objects aimed at were these :

_5 The material, intellectual and social advancement of the

- State;

^ The advancement of Science, Literature and the Arts.

^^- 1. On the part of the State, the reasons were as many as the

numl)er of the elements involved in both of these gene-

I'al objects. For while it was obvious that the advanta-

■^-geous geographical position of tlie State, the variety and vast-

"-*ness of its natural resources, and tlie character of its popula-

co

CO

10 Wisconsin Academy of /Sciences^ Arts, and Letters.

tion, both demanded and encouraged tlie employment of agen-

cies calculated to rapidly advance it to a condition of material

prosperity and power, it was no less demonstrable that true

greatness could only be assured by tlie timely adoption and

earnest use of measures looking to higli intellectual and social

development.

"What then is the status of Wisconsin as a civilized State ?

was a question that demanded attention. And since the de-

velopment of a people is illustrated and measured by its cul-

tivation of Science and the application of it to the numberless

uses of political, social and industrial life, as well as by its

achievements in Literature and Art, it was a question that

could be answered — a question, indeed, that must be answered,

if new agencies for the advancement of the commonwealth

were to be wisely planned and put into successful operation.

To the question. What has hitherto been done in the vari-

ous departments of Science — that is, for Science and by means

of it ? the answers were these :

In Pliilosopliy^ which may be called the science of Science,

and is the common, though unseen, source in which all the so-

called sciences have their origin, — in Philosophy, distinctively

considered, almost nothing, so far as had appeared to the pub-

lic through the medium of any publication ; unless, uj)on the

one hand, by the application of established principles, to con-

firm past deductions, or, on the other, to supply facts for new

generalizations. Indeed, we have learned of but a single im-

portant contribution to Philosophy made by a citizen of our

State, and even that was a contribution to its literature rather

than to Philosophy itself, to wit :

Upon the Pkesekt Stand-point of Philosophy. By Dr. K. S. Bayr-

HOFFER, Ph. D., late of Green County, Wisconsin. Published by the

PhilosopJiische Moiiatshefte of Berlin, Germany, Vol. III., Nos. 4 and 5;

Vol. IV., Nos. 4 and 5.

Report of the President 11

In Jmisp-udence^ barely so mucli as is represented by tlie

organic and statute law of tlie Territory and State, and by the

reports of judicial proceedings.

It was a just ground of pride and satisfaction that tlie

decisions of tlie supreme court of Wisconsin had gained so

high a reputation in the country at large, and that the jurists

had won for themselves and the state so honorable a place in

connection with American jurisprudence. But it was, never-

theless, a fact that hitherto no contribution had been made to

the science and literature of this great department other than

those contained in the catalogue of publications herewith

presented, to wit :

Statutes of the Territory of Wisconsin. 1839 to 18i8.

Revised Statutes of Wisconsin. 1849.

Revised Statutes of Wisconsin. 1858.

An Appendix to the Revised Statutes, from 1859 to 1867 inclusive, of the

State of Wisconsin, in accordance with a Resolution of the Legislature.

By D. A. Reed, Attorney-at-Law. Madison. 1868. 8vo. pp. 28.

The General and the Private and Local Laws since enacted and annually

published.

A Digest of the Laws of Wisconsin from the year 1858 to the year 1868,

both years inclusive; to which is added an Appendix, giving a List of

all the Laws and Provisions of the Constitution passed upon by the

Supreme Court. Compiled by E. A. Spencer, Counselor-at-law. Madi-

son: Atwood & Rublee. 1868. One vol. 8vo. pp.

Laws of Wisconsin concerning the Organization and Government of Towns,

and the Powers and duties of Town Officers and Boards of Supervisors,

with numerous Practical Forms. By Elijah M. Hains. Chicago: Wm.

B. Keene & Co. 1858. One vol. 8vo. pp.

Reports of the Supreme Court cf the Territory of Wisconsin for 1842 and

1843. Reported by T. P. Burnett. Madison: Geo. Hyer. 1844. Oce

vol. 8vo.

Reports of Cases Argued and Determined in the Supreme Court of the State

of Wisconsin. By Daniel H. Chandler. Milwaukee: Sentinel Press.

1854. Four vols. 8vo. (1849 to 1851 inclusive.)

Reports of the Cases Argued and Determined in the Supreme Court of Wis-

consin. With Tables of the Cases and Principle Matters. Vols. 1 to

11, by Hon. A.D. Smith; vols. 12 to 15, by P. L. Spooner, Esq.; vols. 16

to 24, by 0. M. Conover, Esq. 1853 to 1870.

12 Wisco7isin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters.

A Complete Digest of the Decisions of the Supreme Court of the State of

Wisconsin, in Law and Equity, from its organization down to and in-

cluding the Cases reported in vol. xiv of the Wisconsin Reports. By

Wm. E. Sheffield, Couuselor-at-Law. Chicago: E. B. Myers & Co.

1865. One vol. 8vo.

A Digest of Wisconsin Reports, from the Earliest Period to the year 18G8;

comprising all the Published Decisions of the Supreme Court of Wis-

consin presented in Burnett's, Chandler's and twenty volumes of the

Wisconsin Reports, with References to the Statutes. By James Sim-

mons, Counselor-at-Law. Albany: William Gould & Son. 1868. One

vol . 8vo.

Argument in the U. S. Supreme Court, in the matter of ex-parte, Wm. H.

McCardle, Appellant. By Hon. Matt. H. Carpenter. 1868.

In the Science of Politics, so mucli liad been done, and sucli

contributions had been made, as appeared from tlie legislative

journals, the executive messages, the proceedings of political

conventions, the discussions and reports of discussions con-

tained in the public journals, and the few political speeches

which had been published in pamphlet form, namely :

Speech on the Fugitive Slave bill, delivered in the United States Senate,

August 6, 18j2, by Hon. Charles H. Durkee.

Speech on the Lecompton Constitution, delivered in the United States Sen-

ate, March 20, 1858, by Hon. Charles H. Durkee.

The Calhoun Rebellion; its basis. Speech of the Hon. J. R. Doolittle in

the Unied States Senate, December 14, 1859.

State Rights. A speech delivered in Madison in 1860, by Hon. Abram D.

Smith.

The State and the National Governments; their Mutual Political Relations;

a speech delivered at Madison in 1860, by Hon. Tim. O. Howe.

Are we a Nation? By J. M. Bundy, Edq., Beloit, 18G0. Second edition of

same, with an Historical Letter by Hon. Tim. O. Howe. New York,

1869.

On approving certain acts of the President. Speech of Hon. Tim 0. Howe

in the United States Senate, August 2, 1861.

African Colozination. Speech of Hon. J. R. Doolittle in the United States

Senate, April 11, 1862.

On the Conduct of the War. Letter of D. H. Waldo to Gov. Edward Salo-

mon. Milwaukee, 1862.

On the Amendment to the Constitution. Speech of Hon. Tim 0. Howe

in the United States Senate, April 4, 1864.

Report of ill e President. 13

On Reconstruction: being a Review of a Speech made by Hon. J. R. Doo-

little at Madison in 18G5. By John Y. Smith, Esq., Madison, I860.

Reconstruction. Speech of Hon. J. R. Dooliltle in the United States Sen-

ate, January 17, 18G6.

On a Military Despotism. Speech of Hon. J. R. Doolittle in the United

States Senate. 18GG.

Reconstruction. Sj)eech of Hon. H. E. Paine in the United States House

of Representatives.

Reconstruction and Equal SufFrage. Speech of Hon. M. H. Carpenter, de-

livered in the Music Hall at Milwaukee, October 4, 18GG. Milwaukee.

8vo.

The Legal Consequences of the Rebellion. Speech of 0. H.Waldo, Esq.,

made at Racine in 18GG.

Confiscation. Speech of Hon. C. A. Eldridge in House of Representatives,

December 10, 18G7,

Reconstruction. Speeches of Hon. Tim. 0. Howe in the United States Sen-

ate, January 10,18GG, June 5, 1866, January 31, 1868.

On the impeachment of the President. Speech by Hon. Tim. 0. Howe in

the United States Senate.

On the Claims of Loyal Citizens living in the South during the Rebellion.

Speech of Hon. Tim. O.Howe in the United States Senate, January 14

and 15, 1869.

State Rights and the Appellate jurisdiction of the Supreme Court of the

United States: A Constitutional Argument. By a member of the

Rock County Bar. Beloit: Journal and Courier 'pv\ni,l'd^!>S). 8vo.

The Mission and Future Policy of the United States. Address at the

Dedication of Memorial Hall, Beloit College, July, 1869. By Hon.

Matt. H. Carpenter.

Neutrality between Spain and Cuba. Speech of Hon. Matt. H. Carpenter

in the United States Senate, December 15, 1869.

The Laws of Neutrality. Speech of the Hon. Tim. 0. Howe in the United

States Senate, February 2, 1870,

Til Social Science^ so mucli of Political Economy as was

found in tlie executive messages, tlie legislative discussions

and enactments, the annual reports of tlie State departments

and industrial societies, of the boards of trade, and in the pro-

ceedings of conventions held in ihe interest of the various in-

dustries and of public improvements looking to our commer-

cial supremacy ; so much of Educational Science and Social

Economy as was shown by our schools, libraries, charitable,

14 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences^ Arts^ and Letters.

reformatory and penal institutions, by tlie statute law of tlie

State, and by tlie documents, journals, and otlier publications

mentioned below :

POLITICAL AND SOCIAL ECONOMY.

Depreciation of the Currency: a short essay on the Financial Condition and

Prospects of the Country. By John Y. Smith, Esq. Madison. 8vo,

pp. 14.

The Practical Development of the Rtfsources of Science in relation to Agri-

culture and tlie Health and Habitations uf the People. Dr. D. B. Reid,

LL. D., F. R. S. E. 8vo, pp. 20. See also Trans. Wis. State Agr., vol.

vi., 1860.

The Position, Value, and Duties of the Agriculturist in the Economy of

Society. An address by J. H. Lathrop, LL. D. 16mo, pp. 34. 1851 .

See also Trans. Wis. St. Agr. Soc, vol. i., 1851.

The Farmer and the Manufacturer. Address by E. B. Ward, Esq., before

State Agr. Soc. 8vo, pp. 20. 1868. See also Trans. Wis. State Agr.

Soc, vol. viii., 1869.

The Growth of Monopoly in the Carrying Business. An address by Hon

Matt. H. Carpenter, U. S. S. Milwaukee: Sentinel Print. 8vo, pp. '^0.

1860. See also Trans. Wis. St. Ag. Soc, vol. viii., 1869.

Oj Banks and Railroad Bonds. By Hon. Moses M. Strong. Milwaukee

Sentinel Print. 185-. 8vo, pp. 21.

On the Public Debt. Speech of Hon. Tim. 0. Howe in the U. S. Senate,

Feb. 12, 1863.

National Currency. Speech of Hon. Tim. O. Howe in the U. S. Senate, Jan.

24, 1870.

On the Purchase of Russian America. Speech of Hon. C. C. Washburn in

the H. of R., Dec. 11, 1867.

On the Postal Telegraph. Speech of Hon. C. C. Washburn in the H. of R.,

Dec. 23, 1869.

The Iron Interests of America. Address of Hon. Tim. 0. Howe before the

American Iron Association, ai Chicago, May 24, 1865.

Banks and Banking. 8vo, pp. 6.

Annual Reports of the State Treasurer of Wisconsin. 1848 to 1870.

Annu'al Reports of the State Agricultural Society. 1851 to 1870.

Annual Reports of the Milwaukee Chamber of Commerce. 1857 to 1870.

Report on the Improvement of Kock River; submitted by a Committee

authorized by the Legislature. Adopted by Legislature of 1867.

Janesville. 1867. 8vo.

Proceedings of the Wisconsin and Fox Rivers Improvement Convention,

held at Prairie du Chien, November 10, 1868, and at Portage City,Octo-

Re^jort of the President 15

ber 1809; with a Memorial to Congress. Prepared for publication

under the direction of Lucius Faircliild, Uovernor of Wisconsin. Mad-

ison. Atvvood & Culver. 1870. With maps. 8vo, pp. 88.

EDUCATION AND SOCIAL ECONOMY.

Universal Education necessary to the Stability of Republican Institutions.

Address by Hon. Tim 0. Howe before Wisconsin Stale Teachers' Asso-

ciation in i860. Madison. 8vo, pp. 20.

The Claims of the Natural Sciences to Enlarged Consideration in our Sys-

tems of Education. Inaugural Address by Dr. E. S. Carr, M. D., Wis-

consin State University. 185G.

University Progress: a Paper presented to the National Teachers' Associa-

tion at Trenton, New Jersey, in 1869. Part I. The University of the

Past. II. The University of the Present. III. The University of the

Future. By John W. Hoyt, A. M., M. D., President Wisconsin Acade-

my of Sciences, Arts and Letters. New York. D. Appleton & Co.

8vo, pp. 88.

Education in Europe and America: Being a Report to the Government of

the United States in connection with the Paris Universal Exposition of

1867. By John W. Hoyt, United States Commissioner. Washington.

Government Printing OfRce. 8vo, pp. 398.

Annual Reports of the State Superintendent of Public Instruction. 1848

to 1870.

Annual Reports of the Regents' of the University of Wisconsin. 1849 to

1870.

Annual Reports of the State Board of Normal School Regents. 18j7 to

1870.

Annual Reports of the Trustees of the State Institution for the Education

of the Blind. 1850 to 1870.

Ar.nual Reports of the Board of Trustees of the Wisconsin Institute for the

Deaf aud Dumb. 1852 to 1870.

Annual Reports of the Board of Management of the Soldiers' Orphans' Home,

1866 to 1870.

Annual Reports of the Board of Managers of the Wisconsin State Industrial

School for Boys. 1859 to 1870.

Annual Reports of the State Prison Commissioners. 1852 to 1870.

Annual Reports of Board of Trustees of the State Hospital for the Insane,

1860 to 1870.

The annual publications of the colleges, seminaries, academies and local

boards of education.

The published Proceedings of the Wisconsin State Teachers 's Association.

1853 to 1870.

16 Wisconsin Academy cf Sciences, Arts, and Letters.

The Wisconsin Journal of Education. Published and edited successively

by Geo. P. Dodge, Janesville; John G. McMynn, Racine; A.J. Craig

and John B. Pradt, Madison, from 1856 to 1864; by Williams & Peck,

Mineral Point, from 1866 to 1869.

The School Monthly. By Milwaukee Teachers' Association. 1869.

In Journalism, wliicli niiglit properly enougli be considered

under tlie head of Social Science, "Wisconsin liad readied a po-

sition wliicli at once evidenced tlie general intelligence of lier

population and reflected credit upon lier journalists ; for tlie

total numl^er of newspapers and otlier periodicals was no less

tlian 174, — of wliicli 6 were montlily, 1 semi-monthly, 11 daily

and weekly, and 153 weekly, — and for creditable appearance,

editorial ability and extent of circulation, they compared fa-

borably with the like publications of any state in the union,

It is also worthy of note that Wisconsin was one of, if not

the, first of the states to form an editorial association (organ-

ized in 1857,) and that the same has had a career of uninter-

rupted prosperity and usefulness; holding annual meetings

and publishing fourteen volumes of its proceedings.

A list of the newspapers and other periodical publications

regularly issued at the date of January, 1870, will be found

in the Legislative Manual for that year.

In the Natund Sciejices more had been accomplished than at

first appeared ; but unhappily for our State, comparatively

little of it could be credited to Wisconsin ; and even this had

been chiefly the work of a few private citizens devoted to

scientific pursuits, such as Dr. I. A. Laphani, LL. D., and Dr.

P. R Hoy, M. D., who without other reward than the satis-

faction of having done the public a great service, have con-

tinued their scientific labors without intermission even from

early territorial times down to the present hour. Moreover,

the work actually done, whether by citizens, the State, or the

United States, had been almost wholly confined to geodetic,

tojoographical, nautical and natural history surve3's.

Report of the President 17

The State liud four times in quick succession legally recog-

nized tlie importance of a geological survey by tlie appoint-

ment of a geologist, or a commission of geologists, to perform

that service — once in 1853, by the appointment of Edward

Daniels ; once in 1854, by the appointment of Jas. G. Percival

to sncced Mr. Daniels ; again in 1857, by the reappointment

of Mr. Daniels, upon the death of Dr. Percival ; and yet again

by the appointment of a Geological Commission consisting of

James Hall of New York, and Edward Daniels and E. S.

Carr of Wisconsin, in 1858. Nevertheless, except in the Lead

Eegion, to which considerable special attention had been given

by the sveral state geologists, but little more than general or

preliminary work had been accomplished up to 1861, when

the law instituting the survey was repealed.

In Pure Mathematics, and in Physics, including Astronomy,

nothing of importance could be claimed by us. What had

actually been accomplished, both by us and for us, in the

departments of scientific investigation first above named, up

to the date of which we are now speaking (1870), will appear

on reference to the following quite complete catalogues of the

books, journals and charts embracing the results of such

labor:*

IN DESCEIPTIVE GEOGRAPHY, GEOLOGY, TYPOGRAPHY AND HYDROGRAPHY.

Report and Map of a visit to the Northwestern Indians in 1833. By Lieut.

J. Allen and H. R. Schoolcraft. Executive Document. 1833-4. No.

323. Washington. 8vo.

Notes on Wisconsin Territory — Iowa Laud District. By Albert M. Lea.

Philadelphia. 183G. 12mo, pp. 53.

Observations on the Wisconsin Territory: Chieflly on that part called "The

Wisconsin Land District," with a Map of the settled part of the Ter-

ritory, as laid oil' by Counties by act of the Legislature of 1837. Phil-

adelphia. 1838. 12mo, pp. 134.

* The author of this report has pleasure lu stating that for the material of this and the

suhsequcnt bibliographical enumeratious he is largely Inclebtecl to that ethcient and

conscientious public officer, Mr. Daniel S. Durrie, Librarian of the Wisconsin State His-

torical Society, and Member of the Academy, whose Bibliograpliy of Wisconsin, being

now quite complete, should somehow be published at an early day. For the perfection

of his chartology, he acknowledges his indebtness to Dr. I. A. Lapham.

18 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences^ Arts^ and Letters.

A Condensed Geography (and History) of the Western States, or the Mis-

sissippi Valley. Cincinnati. 1828. 2 vols. Bvo.

Boundary, Township and Sectional Surveys. Land Office Reports. 1833-

41-44-48.

Map of Wisconsin Territory; Compiled from the Public Surveys. By

Capt. T. J. Cran^. Senate Document. No 140. 1st Session 36th Con-

gres. 18.38.

Reports of Surveys of the Mouths of Milwaukee, Root, Manitowoc, She-

boygan and Kewaunee Rivers. By J. M. Berrien. Senate Document.

No. 175. 25th Congress, 2d Session. February, 1838. With Maps.

Report on the Improvement of Fox, Wisconsin and Rock Rivers. By Capt.

T. J. Cram. Senate Document. No. 318. 26th Congress, 1st Session.

March, 184(».

Report relative to Internal Improvements in Wisconsin. By Capt. T. J.

Cram. Senate Document, No. 140, 26th Congress, 1st Session. Jan.

uary, 1840. With Map of the State.

Report on the Survey of the Boundary between Wisconsin and Michigan,

with Maps. By Capt. T. J. Cram. Senate Document, No. 151, 26th

Congress, 2d Session. February, 1841. Also Senate Document, No.

170, 27tli Congress, 2d Sesbion. March, 1812. See, also, Vinton on

" the Northeast Boundary of Wisconsin," in Collections State Histor-

ical Society, Vol. 4, pp 350, et seq.

Report of the Survey of Green Bav. By Capt. Wm. G. Williams. See

Executive Document No. 170, 1st Session 29th Congress. 1846.

Report intended to Illustrate a Map of the Hydrographical Basin of the

Upper Mississippi, made by I. N. Nicollet while in the employ of the

Bureau of the Corps of Topographical Engineers, January 11, 1845.

Washington. 1845. 8vo, pp. 170.

Elevations in Wisconsin. By I. A. Lapham. See Silliman's American

Journal of Science, Vol. 46, (1844), pp. 258.

On the Public Land Surveys and the Latitude and Longitude of places in

Wisconsin. By I. A. Lapham. See Collections State Historical Socie-

ty of Wisconsin, Vol. 4, pp. 359 et seq.

Land Office Report. 1843. Maps of surveYs of Mineral Lands adjacent to

Lake Superior. By Gen. John Stockton. Report of 1845.

Report to the Secretary of War of Explorations and Surveys of the Min-

eral District of Lake Superior. By A. B. Gray. Washington. 1846.

8vo, pp. 23.

Survey of the Upper Mississippi River: Report of Gen. G. K. Warren, to

the Sec. of War, of the Surveys of the Upper Mississippi and its Trib-

utaries. Senate Doc, 2d Sess., 39th Congress, Lib. 15, 1867. 8vo, pp.

116. Also his Report for the year ending June 30, 1867, in Appendix^

" D," Ex, Doc. No. 1, House of Rep., 40th Congress, 2d Sess. 8vo, pp.

Bej'tori of tJie President 19

6. Also his Report for the yenr eDcling June 30, 18G8, in Appendix G,

Ex. Doc. 1, Part 2. House of Rep., 40th Congress, 3d Sess., Aug., 1808.

8vo, pp. 8G.

Geographical and Topographical Description of Wisconsin, with br'ef

Sketches of its History, Geology, etc. By I. A, Lapham. Milwaukee.

1844. 12mo, pp. 255. Also 2d Ed. greatly improved, with Map. Mil-

waukee. 1840. 8vo, pp. 208.

Report to the War Department of the Surveys, Commerce and Improve-

ments of the Harbors of Wisconsin, Illinois, Michigan and Indiana.

By Lieut. Col. Jas. D. Graham, U. S. A, Washington, 1850. 8vo,

pp. 480.

Surveys of Sheboygan and Manitowoc Harbors (charts). By Lt. Col. J. D.

Graham, U. S. A. 1850.

Chart of West End of Lake Superior, St. Louis River, etc. Lake Survey

Report. 1801.

Map of the Territories of Michigan and Ouisconsin. By John Faraicr. De-

troit. 1830.

Map of the Surveyed Part of Wisconsin Territory. Compiled from pub.

surveys. By S. Morrison, D. Dwelle and J. Hathaway, Jr. 1837.

Map of the Northern Part of Illinois and the Surveyed Portion of Wiscon-

sin Territory. New York. 1830.

Sectional Map of Wisconsin. By I. A. Lapham. Milwaukee, 1846, 1847.

Map of Wisconsin, with Recent Surveys. By L. Chapman. Milwaukee.

1857. Subsequent Editions.

Map of the Copper Region of Lake Superior, embracing Michigan and Wis-

consin. By J. Farmer. 1858.

Map of Wisconsin, prepared for Legislative Manual. By I. A. Lapham.

1865.

Map showing the Position of the Reef near Racine Harbor. By S. Farmer.

1837. The same, smaller. 1868.

Township Map of Wisconsin. By S. Farmer. 1807. The same, reduced.

1808.

COXNTY MAPS OP THE FOI-LOWING COUNTIES.

Winnebago. By I. H. Osburn. 1855.

Milwaukee, Waukesha, Racine, Kenosha and part of Walworth.

By S. Chapman.

Dane. By A. Menzes and A. Ligowski. 1858.

Milwaukee. By Louis Lipmau. 1858.

Milwaukee. By H. F. Walling. 1858.

Waukesha. By H. F. Walling. 1859.

Dodge. By 1800. ^

Racine. By Redding and Watson. 1800.

20 IVisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters.

Kenosha. H. F. Walling, 1861.

Green. By J. T. Dodge. 1861.

Sauk. By W. H. Canfield. 1861.

Columbia. By A. Legonski & C. Wasmund. 1861.

Sheboygan, By Randall & Palmer. 1862.

Jefferson. By H. Steeger.

Grant. By J. T. Oodge. 1863.

Grant. By Gray & Pettengill. 1868.

Milwaukee County and City. By Silas Chapman & S. Crampton.

1869.

IN PHYSICAL GEOGRAPnT.

On Supposed Tides on the Lakes, with Observations at Green Bay. By

Maj. Henry Whiting. See Sillimau's American Journal of Science,

Vol. XX, pp. 205. 1831.

Indian Summers at Fort Winnebago, etc. See Silliman's Journal of Sci-

ence, Vol. 30, 1836, pp. 8.

On the Tides of the North American Lakes, with Observations at Green

Bay. By D. Buggies. See Silliman's American Journal of Science,

Vol.xlv., pp. 18, 1843.

Lake Superior: Its Physical Character, etc. By Lous Agassiz. Boston.

1850. 8vo, pp. 428.

The Flu-ituations of the Water Level at Green Bay. By Col. Chas. Whit-

tlesey. See Silliman's American Journal of Science, May No., 1859,

pp.8.

Some of the Supposed Causes of the Peculiar Climate of Wisconsin. Il-

lustrated by a Chart of the State. By J. W. Hoyt. See Transactions

Wisconsin State Agricultural Society, Vol. vi, 1860. Republished in

pamphlet by the State.

Map of Wisconsm, with lines showing the Remarkable Effect of Lake

Michigan in Elevating the Temperature of January and Depressing

that of July. By I. A. Lapham. 1865. Republished in Transactions

of Chicago Academy of Sciences, Vol. i, Plate x. 1865.

Remarks ou the Climate of the Country bordering on the Great Lakes. By

I. A. Lapham. See Transactions Chicago Academy of Sciences, Vol.

i, p. 58. With Map. 1867.

Certain Physical Features of the Upper Mississippi River. By Gen. G. K.

Warren. See Proceedings of American Association for the Advance-

ment of Science. 1868.

The Mississippi Valley: Its Physical Geography; With Sketches of To-

pography, etc. By J. W. Foster. Chicago: S. C.Griggs & Co. 1869.

8vo.

Reports of Meterological Observations. See Army Meterological Register,

Report of ilie President 21

1826-1854. 4to and 8vo. Also Transactions Wisconsin State Agricul-

tural Society, 1851 to 1859. Also Patent Office Reports, 1849 to 1861.

Also Reports of Commissioners of Agriculture, 1863 to 1872.

Report on the Disastrous Effects of the Destruction of Forest Trees in the

State of Wisconsin. By J. G. Knapp, I. A. Lapham and Hans Crock-

er, State Commissioners for that purpose. Madison. 1867, pp. 104.

IN geology:

The Wisconsin and Missouri Lead Regions. By James T. Hodge. See

American Journal of Science. Vol. 13, pp. 35 to 72. Bvo.

Report on Copper Mines of Montreal River. By James T. Hodge. Bvo.

pp. 19.

Report of a Geological Reconnoissance made in 1835 from the seat of Gov-

ernment, by way of Green Bay and the Wisconsin Territory to the

Couteau de Prairie. By Geo. W. Featherstonhaugh. Washington.

1836. 8vo, pp. 168.

Geology of the Region about Fort Winnebago. By D. Ruggles. See Sil-

liman'p American Journal of Science. Vol. 30, part 1. With Fig-

ures. 1836.

On the Mining Country in Wisconsin. By J. P. Sheldon. See Senate Doc-

uments, 25th Congress, 2d session. No. 411. May, 1838.

Report of a Geological Exploration of the Mineral Lands of Iowa, Wiscon-

.siu and Northern Illinois. With maps, plates, etc. By David Dale

Owen, United States Geologist. Washington. 1840. 8vo. pp. 161.

Includes Report of John Lock on Geological Magnetism and Antiqui-

ties of Lead Region of Wisconsin, pp. 110.

Fossils from Wisconsin, etc. By Alex. Winchell. See Silliman's Ameri-

can Journal of Science. Part 3. Vol. 37. pp. 226.

Observations on the Lead-bearing Limestone of Wisconsin, and Descrip-

tion of Fossils. By T. A. Conrad. See Proceedings Academy of Natu-

ral Sciences. Philadelphia. Vol.1. 1843. pp.329.

Report Relative to the Lead Mines. By Lieut. Col. G. Talcott. See House

Documents, No. 152. 27th Congress, 3d session. February, 1843. Al-

so another Report on same subject. House Documents, 28th Congress,

pp. 28.

Report of the Ordnance Bureau on the Mineral Lands of the Upper Missis-

sippi. Washington. 1844. 8vo, pp. 52.

Rei:>ort to the Secretary of War relative to the Copper Mineral of Lake Su-

perior. By Walter Cunnintjham. Washington. 1845. 8vo. pp. 8.

Report of the Secretary of War on the Condition and Government of the

Mineral Lands on Lake Superior, with maps. By John Stockton.

Washington. 1845. 8vo, pp. 23.

C.

22 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences^ Arts, and Letters.

A Canoe Voyage up tlie Minnay Sotor; with an account of the Lead and

Copper Deposits of Wisconsin, etc. By G. W. Featlierstouliaugli.

London. 1847. 2 vols. Eighty maps and plates.

On the Lacustrine Deposits in the vicinity of the Great Lakes. By L A.

Lapham. See Sillimaa's Amer. Jour, of Science, 1847, pp. 90, with

figures.

Report of a Geological Reconnoissance of the Chippewa Land District of

Wisconsin; with a portion of the Kickapoo Country of Iowa and Min-

nesota. Numerous plates. By David Dale Owen. Washington; 1848.

8vo, pp.134.

Report on the Geology of Wisconsin. By J. G. Norwood. See Ex. Doc.

No. 57, 1st Sess.SOth Congress. 1848. pp. 78-129. Washington. 8vo.

Report on the Geology of Wisconsin. By. J. G. Norwood. See Executive

Doc. No. 57, 1st Sess. 30th Congress. 1848. pp. 73-129. Washing-

ton. 8vo.

The Geological Formations of Wisconsin. By L A. Lapha^^a. See Trans-

actions of Wis. State Ag. Soc. Vol.2. 1857. Page J22 e<se(7.

-On the mineral Regions of Lake Superior. By F. C. Koch, Gottingen.

1851. 8vo.

Report of a Geological Survey of Wisconsin, Iowa and Minnesota and a

portion of Nebrask.-i, with 72 wood cuts, 27 steel plates and 18 maps.

By David Dale Owen. Philadelphia. 1852. 4to.,pp.638.

'On the Geology of the south-east portion of Wisconsin not heretofore sur-

veyed. By I. A. Lapham. See Foster and Whitney's Report on the

Geology of the Lake Superior Laud District. Part 2d, p. 167 et seq.

Washington. 1851.

.Annual Report (first State Report) on the Geology of Wisconsin. By

Edward Daniels, State Geologist. See Executive Messages and Doc-

uments of 1845. Doc. " H." 8vo, pp. 84.

First and Second Annual Reports of the Geological Survey of Wisconsin.

By James G. Percival, State Geologist; (being for the years 1855 and

185G), with map. See Executive Messages and Documents of those

years, pp. 101 and 111.

■Report on the Iron Region of Dodge and Washington counties, with Maps.

By Jas. G. Percival. Milwaukee. 1855. 8vo, pp. 9.

A Geological Map of Wisconsin. By I. A. Lapham. 1855.

Second Report of Edward Daniels on the Geology of Wisconsin; (being for

the year '1857). See Executive Message and Documents. Doc. " P."

1857.

Preliminary Report on behalf of the State Commission of Wisconsin. By

James Hall. Executive Message and Documents. 1858.

Report of Progress on behalf of the Geological Commission of Wisconsin.

By James Hall. Executive Message and Documents. 1859.

RepovL of the President. 23

Report of tbe Superintendent of Geological Survey of Wisconsin. By James

Hall. January 1, 18G1. Executive Message and Documents. 1861.

Bvo, pp. 53. (Descriptive of Fossils.)

Eeport of tlie Geological Survey of Wisconsin. By James Hall, Superin-

tendent; (covering Report of J. D. Whitney on " the Lead Region.")

Vol. 1. Royal 8vo. pp. 40G. ,With Plates and Maps. Albany. 1863.

The Penokee Iron Ridge, with Map. By I. A. Lapham. See Transactions

Wisconsin State Agricultural Society. Vol. v. 1858-9. pp. 391 et seq.

Descriptions of New Species of Fossils from the Northwestern States. By

I. H. McChessney. Chicago. 1859. Royal 8vo. pp.154. With Plates.

Wiscon.sin Building Stones and Marbles. By Edward Daniels. See Trans-

actions Wisconsin State Agricultural Society. Vol. vi. 1860. pp. 299

et seq.

On the Drift Cavities or Potash Kettles of Wisconsin. By Col. Chas.

Whittlesey. See Proceedings American Association for Advancement

of Science. Vol. 13, pp. 297. Springfield. 1860. Also, hy same au-

thor, Origin of the Azoic Rocks of Wisconsin and Michigan, pp. 301.

Notice of New Potsdam Sandstone Fossils of Wisconsin and Missouri. By

B. F. Sherward. See Transactions St. Louis Academy of Sciences,

Vol. 3, 1863. pp.101.

Fauna of the Potsdam Sandstone. By Jas. Hall. See Annu^ Report of

Regents of University of New York, 1863. pp. 119. With Plates and

numerous Figures of Wisconsin Fossils.

Iron Ridge Mines, Wisconsin. Milwaukee. 1863. 8vo, pp. 16.

Description of Fossils of the Niagara Group. By James Hall. See 20th

Annual Report of Regents of University of New York. pp. 308. Plates

and Figures of Wisconsin Fossils.

The Penokie Mineral Range, Wisconsin. By Chas. Whittlesey. See Pro-

ceedings of Boston Natural History Society, July 1863. pp. 10.

Relations of Niagra Group. Recent Limestone. By James Hall. See

Annual Report of Regents University of New York. 8vo. pamphlet,

printed in advance, pp. 48.

Report of the Bladder Rock Iron Property, Ashland county. By Chas.

Whittlesey. 8vo, pp. 9. 1865.

Report on the Montreal River Copper Location, Ashland county. By Chas.

Whittlesey. 1865. 8vo, pp. 5.

Report on the Marangoin Iron Property, Ashland county, with Map. By

Chas. Whittlesey. 8vo, pp. 7. 1865,

Account of the Copper Lands of Sections 15, 16 and 21, Town 45 north

Range 2 west, Ashland county. By Chas. Whittlesey. 8vo. pp.6. 1865.

Fresh Water Glacial Drift of the Northwestern States. By Chas. Whit-

tlesey. See Smithsonian Contributions. Vol. 15. 1866. pp. 33.

Maps and Figures,

24 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences^ Arts, and Letters.

Mineral Regions of Lake Superior as known from theii earliest discoveries

to 1865. By Henry M. Rice. Bee Collections of Minnesota State His-

torical Society. 1867, pp. 8-1 *).

On the Mines of Wisconsin. By Edward Daniels. See Transactions of

Wisconsin State Agricultural Society. 8vo.

Remarks on the Wisconsin Meteorite. By J. Lawrence Smith. See Silli-

inan's American Journal of Sciences. Part. 2d. Vol. 47. March 1859,

pp. 271.

On the Western Boulder Drift. By E. Andrews. See Sillimau'a American

Journal of Sciences. Part 2. Vol. 48. 1769. pp. 172.

A new Geological Map of Wisconsin. Prepared from Original Observations,

By L A. Lapham. 1869. 15 miles to the inch,

IN BOTANY.

Catalogue of Plants found in the vicinity of Milwaukee. By I. A. Lapham.

1838. 12mo, pp. 23.

On the Plants of Wisconsin. By I. A. Lapham. See Proceed. Amer. Ass'u

for Advancement of Science, Vol. 2, 1850, p. 19. Also published iu

Trans, of Wis. State Ag. Soc, Vol. 2, 1852, pp. 375 et seq.

Notes on the Woods of Wisconsin. By P. R. Hoy. See Trans. Wis. State

Ag. Soc, Vol. 2, 1852, pp. 419 et seq.

The Grasses of Wisconsin and the adjacent States. By I. A. Lapham. See

Trans. Wis. State Ag. Soc, Vol. 3, pp. 397 et seq.

The Forest Trees of Wisconsin. By I. A. Lapham. See Trans. "Wis. State

Ag. Soc, Vol. 4, pp. 195 ct seq.

Additions to the Flora of Wisconsin. See Trans. Wis. State Ag. Soc, Vol.

v., 1858, pp. 417; also Vol. VL, 18G0, pp. 258.

Map of Wisconsin illustrating Distribution of Timber, etc. By J. W. Hoyt

See Trans. Wis. State Ag. Soc, 1860.

IN ZOOLOGY.

Fauna of Wisconsin. By I. A. Lapham. See Trans. Wis. State Ag. Soc,

Vol. 2, 1852, pp. 237 et seq.

Notes on the Ornithology of Wisconsin. By P. R. Hoy. See Transactions

State Agricultural Society, Vol. 2, 1852. p. 341; also the same, with

additions, in Proceedings Academy Natural Sciences, Philadelphia,

Vol. 6, pp. 304, 381, 425, 1854.

Description of Minerals from Wisconsin. By P. R. Hoy. See Proceedings

Academy Natural Sciences, Philadelphia, Vol. 6, p. 210, 1854.

Quadrupeds of Illinois, Wisconsin, etc. By Robert Kennicott. See Patent

Office Reports, 1856. pp. 52.

The Sapsucker {Pious varius and Picus jyuhescens); with Illustrations. By

Dr. P. R. Hoy. See Transactions Wisconsin State Agricultural Socie-

ty, Vol. vi., 1860, pp. 243-249.

Report of the President. 25

IN MEDICINE,

Transactions of tlie Wisconsin State Medical Society, Vols. I and II, 1843

to 18G9.

Reports of Superintendent of the State Hospital for the Insane. See Ke-

porta of Board of Trustees, 1866 to 1870.

The Uiii'fnl Arts liacl been cultivated with considerable suc-

cess. Agriculture bad advanced witli steady pace, until the

improved lands had an area of nearly five-and-a-half-million

acres, and a total valuation of more than three hundred mill-

ion dollars. Horticulture had Avon many honors in its strug-

gles with the adversities of climate. The inventive genius of

our citizens had made valuable contributions to the mechanic

arts. Manufactures had reached an aggi-egate annual produc-

tion of more than eighty million dollars, and in some impor-

tant classes gained a supremacy in the western markets. State

and county societies were in successful operation, guiding and

stimulating the industry of the state in its various depart-

ments. Books and lesser documents had been regularly issued

by authority of the legislature, while periodical and occasion-

al publications, looking to the same end, had made good

record of individual enterprise, and sown tlie seed of future

harvests, as will appear from the following catalogue of indus-

trial publications ;

Notes on Wisconsin Territory — Iowa Land District. By Albert M. Lea,

Philadelphia. 1836. 12mo, pp. 53.

Observations on the Wisconsin Territory; chiefly on the part called the

" Wisconsin Land District," with a map of the settled part of the Ter-

ritory, as laid off by counties, by act of the Legislature of 1837. Phil-

adelphia. 1838. ]2mo, pp. 134.

A condensed Geography (and History) of the Western States, or the Mis-

sissippi Valley. Cincinnati. 1828. 2 vols, 8vo.

Valley of the Mississippi; or the Emigrant's and Traveler's Guide to the

West. With maps. By R. B. Philadelphia. 1835. 12mo, pp.573.

The Western Transit to Oliio, Michigan, Illinois, and Wisconsin, and the

Territories of Wisconsin and Iowa. By J. Calvin Smith. New York.

1840. 12mo,pp. 180. With maps.

26 Wisco7isin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters.

Notes on tlie North-west or Valley of the Upper Mississippi. By J. A.

Bradford. New York. 1846. Pp.302.

The Wisconsin Farmer; a monthly Magazine d3votedto Agriculture, Horti-

culture, Mechanic Arts and Eural Economy. 18 vols. 8vo. 1848 to

1866, inclusive. Managed from 1848 to 1856 by Mark Miller; 1856 by

Powers & Skinner: 1857 to 1860, by Powers, Skinner & Hoyt,1860 to

1866 by Hoyt & Campbell ; 1866 by W. B. Davis. Changed January, 1867

to a weekly folio, with title of Western Farmer; 1867 to 1870, by Morrow

Brothers ,

Transactions of the Wisconsin State Agricultural Society. 8 vols., to wit:

vol. 1, 1851; vol. 2, 1852; vol. 3, 1853; vol. 4, 1854-5-6-7; vol. 5, 1858-9;

vol. 6, 1860; vol. 7, 1861-8; vol. 8, 1869, 8vo, pp. 500, each. Prepared

by A. C. Ingham, D. J. Powers and J. W. Hoyt, successive Secretaries.

Industrial Progress and Condition of Counties. Trans. Wis. State Ag. So-

ciety, vol. vi., 1860.

The Emigrants' Hand Book and Guide to Wisconsin. By Samuel Freeman.

Milwaukee. 1851. 8vo, pp. 147.

Wisconsin: a paper prepared for the use of the State Immigration Agency.

By J. H. Lathrop. Madison. 1852. 8vo, pp. 16.

Industrial Resources of Wisconsin. By John Gregory, C. E. Chicago.

1853. 13mo, pp. 329.

Wisconsin Gazeteer: containing the names, location and advantages of the

counties, cities and. towns, etc. By J.W.Hunt. Madison. 1853. 8vo,

pp. 255.

Wisconsin Almanac and Annual Register. By J. W. Hunt. Milwaukee.

1856. 8vo, pp. 96. 1857. 8vo, pp. 119.

Hand Book of Wisconsin; or Guide to Travelers and Emigrants. By Silas

Chapman.

Northern Wifcconsiu; its Capacities and Wants. By Albert G. Ellis. See

Transactions Wisconsin State Agricultural Society, Vol.2, 1852, pp.326;

also Historical Society Collections, Vol. 3, pp. 135.

Western Portraiture and Emigrants' Guide; a Description of Wisconsin,

Illinois and Iowa; with remarks on Minnesota; with Map. By Daniel

S. Curtis. New York. 1852. 12mo, pp. 180.

Wisconsin and its Resources; with Lake Superior, its Commerce and Nav-

igation; Map. By Jas. S. Ritchie. Philadelphia. 1857. 12mo, pp.312.

Wisconsin; its Natural Resources and Industrial Progress; with a Map

showing the General Geology, Climatology and Distribution of Timber.

By J. W. Hoyt. Reprinted from Transactions Wisconsin State Agri-

cultural Society for 1860, by order of Legislature. Madison. 1862.

8vo, pp. 68.

The Great West; or the Garden of the World; its History, Wealth and

Advantages. By Chas. W. Dana. Boston. 1861. 12mo, pp. 396.

Eeport of the President. 27

Wisconsin; its Resources, Condition and Prospects. By A. F. Carman.

See Hunt' s Merchants' Magazine, Vol. 28, pp. 444^53.

Wisconsin and its Resources. By Josiali Bond. See Hunt's Merchants'

Magazine. Vol. 10, p. 541 .

Emigrants' Guide to the West. By C. F. J. MoUer. Madison. 1865. 8vo,

pp. 14. (In Danish.)

Statistics— History, Climate and Productions of Wisconsin. Published by

order of the Legislature. Svo., pp. 33, with maps.

Wisconsin and the International Exhibitions of 1863 and 1867. By J. W.

Hoyt, State Commissioner. Madison. 1869. 8vo. pp.100. Also pub-

lished in Transactions Wisconsin State Agricultural Society. Vol. 8.

1861-8.

Reports of Wisconsin Fruit Growers' Association. Organized in 1853. First

reports in pamphlet form; from 1859-1865 inclusive. In Transactions

Wisconsin State Agricultural Society.

Reports of Wisconsin State Horticultural Society, 1805-1870. See Trans-

actions Wisconsin State Agricultural Society.

Proceedings of the Wisconsin Sugar-cane Growers' Convention. Madison.

W J. Park, State Printer. 1864. Svo.

Tlie Fine Arts had received some attention, but had made

little impression upon the life and character of the people.

The practice in Architecture, both in the construction of

private dwellings and buildings for public use, gave here, as

elsewhere in our country, painful proof of a prevailing ignor-

rance of the principles of the art. Painting had been favored

with many votaries of considerable promise, but no effort had

been made to bring them into any sort of relations of associ-

ated effort, and there was nowhere in the State, even the

beginning of what could be called an Art Gallery. Sculpture

had been attempted by but two of our citizens, so far as we

are aware, both of whom, however, were artists of high promise,

and one of whom — Miss Vinnie Ream, a native of Madison —

had already commanded the attention and confidence of the

National Government and won for her name a more than

national distinction.

In Letters^ the product of our labor, though interesting, and

in some cases of very superior quality, did not aggregate much

28 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences^ Arts, and Letters.

in amoiiut outside of History. Even in this important branch,

although a history of the State had been published, and im-

jDortant researches were steadily progressing under the direc-

tion of Hon. Lj-man C. Draper, the accomplished and indefat-

igable Corresponding Secretary of the State Historical Society,

comparatively little had yet been accomplished beyond the

collection of material — an imjDortant work, to which the His-

torical Society has devoted itself with so much zeal and with

such signal success that its library and collections fairly enti-

tle it to rank second among the historical societies of the

United States. So that the facts of Wisconsin history then

accessible to the student, in printed form, must be sought for

in a gi-eat number of works, of which, however, the somewhat

extended catalogue herewith presented is believed to be very

nearly, if not quite complete :

IN LANGUAGE.

Manual Latin Grammar. By \Ym. F. Allen, A. M., and Joseph H.Allen.

Boston: Edwin Glinu & Co. 18G8. 12mo. [Also contained in

foregoing catalogue of Educational Works.]

A Latin Reader; with Copious Notes and Vocabulary. By same authors and

publishers. [Also found in list of E ducational Works.]

The First Six Books of the Aeneid. Translation and Notes by F. S. Searing,

A. M., Professor of Ancient Languages, Milton College.

Phocylidis Poema Adminitorium. Recognovit Brevibusque Notis Instruxit.

J. B. Feuling, Ph.D.. A. 0. S.S., Professor Philologiae Compar in Un

ver.sitate Wisconsiuensi. Editio Prima Americana. Andoveri: W. F.

Draperi. 1869. Svo.

ni.*TORY — ANTIQUITIES.

Description of Ancient Remains, Animal Mounds, and Embankments, prin-

cipally in the counties of Grant, Iowa and Richland in Wisconsin Ter-

ritory. By Stephen Taylor. See Silliman's Amer. Journ. of Science,

xliv., 21-41.

Indian Mounds, etc. By Richard E. Taylor. See Silliman's Am. Jour., vol.

XXX. Also Squier & Davis' Ancient Monuments, pp. 124 et scq.

Observations on the Aboriginal Monuments of the Mississippi Valley. By

Edward G. Squier. New York. 1847. 8vo.

Ancient Monuments of the Mississippi Valley: comprising the result of

Extensive Original Surveys by Edward G. Squier and E. H. Davis, with

Report of tlie President. 29

numerous eugravings. Vol. i. Sniitlisouian Contributions. Washing-

ton. 1848. 4to.

Ancient Mounds or Tumuli in Crawford County, Wis. By Rev. Alfred

Brunson. See Histor. Soc. Collec, Vol. 3, j^p. 178.

The Antiquities of Wisconsin surveyed and described on behalf of the

American Antiquarian Society, with drawings, maps, etc. By I. A.

Lapham. Washington. 1855. 4to, pp. 95.

Traditions of De-coodah and Antiquarian Researches: comprising exten-

sive explorations, surveys and excavations of the Earthen Remains of

the Mound Builders of America. By WilHi.m Pidgeon. New York,

1858. 8vo.

EARLY EXPLOEATIOKS AKD TRAVELS.

Voyage et Dccouverte de quelques Pays et Nations de 1' Amerique Sep-

teutrionale en 1673, par h'. Pere Jacques Marquette. Paris. 1G81.

13mo.

Description de la Louisiane nouvellement decouverte a Sud-ouest de la

Nouvelle France, avec Je carte du Pays, les moeurs et la Maniere de

vivre des sauvages. By Louis Hennepin. Paris. 1G83. 1C88; Am-

sterdam. 1680. l2mo.

Nouveau Description d'un tres grand Pays situe dans I'Amerique entre le

nouveaa Mexique et la mer Glaciale, depuis 1670 jusqu'au 1682; avec

des reflexions sur les enterprises de M. Carvalier de la salle, et autres

choses concernfuit la description de I'Amerique Septentrionale. Utrecht.

1687. Amsterdam. 1688. 1711. 1720. 12mo.

English edition of the above London. 1698. 12vo.

New Voyages to North America; containing an account of the several na-

tions of this vast continent; their customs, commerce and navigation

on the lakes; the attempts of the English and French to dispossess oje

another; and the various adventures between the French and the Iro-

quois confederates in England. Containing also a geographical de-

scription of Canada, etc.; to which is added a Dictionary of the Algon-

kine Language; with twenty three maps and cuts. Written in French

by the Baron La Houton; done into English. London. 1703. 2 vols,

vols. 8vo. La Haye. 1703. 2 vols. 12vo. La Have. 1715. 2 vols.

12vo.

Relations of the Jesuits- Contenant ce qui s'est passe de plus remarka-

bles dans les missions des peres de la campagne de Jesus dans La

Monville France. Ouvrage public sans les auspices du Gouvernment.

1611-1672. Quebec. 1858. 3 vols. 8vo.

Voyage dans le Canada, et eon naufrage en revenant en France. Par le

pere Emanuel Crespel. Frankfort. 17^2-1752. Amsterdam. 1757.

l2vo. and 18vo. Republished in English at London. 1797. 12vo.

so Wisconsi7i Academy of Sciences^ Arts^ and Letters.

Quotations from, in Smith's History of Wisconsin. Vol. 1. pp. 339.

(Crespel's visit to Green Baj in 1728.)

Historical Journal of the establishment of the French in Louisiana. By

Berard de La Harpe. See French's Historical Collections Louisiana.

Vol. 3. Also Smith's History of Wisconsin, vol. 1, pp.321. (Le Sueur's

visit to Green Bay and voyage up the Mississippi in 1693 and 1700.)

Discovery and Exploration of , the Mississippi Valley; with the original

Narratives of Marquette, Alloues, Membre, Hennepin and Anastase

Donay, with a fac simile of the newly discovered Mpp of Marquette.

By John Oilman Shea, LL. D. New York. 1852, 1853. 8vo, pp. 268.

Histoire et Description Generalede la Nouvelle France, avec le Journal His-

torique d'un Voyage fait dans I'Amerique Septentrionale. P. Fr. X.

de Cliarlevoix. Paris. 1744. G vols. 12mo. 1744. 3 vols. 4to.

The same translated, with notes by John Oilman Shea. New York. 1866-

70. 4 vols. 8vo.

History of the Conspiracy of Pontiac, and the war of the North American

Tribes against the English Colonies after the Conquest of Canada.

By Francis Parkman, Jr. Boston. 1851. 8vo. New York. 1853. 8vo.

Diary of the Siege of Detroit in the War with Pontiac. Albany. 18G0. 4to.

New York Colonial Documents, published by order of the Legislature.

Albany. 1855-1858. 10 vols. 4to. (Earb- History of Green Bay, etc.)

History of Louisiana or the western part of Virginia and Carolina, with

Descriptions of both sides of the Mississippi River. By Le Page du

Pratz. London. 1763. 2 vols. 12mo.

Journal of a Voyage to North America, undertaken by an order of the

Frencli King; containing a Description of Canada, Address to the

Dutchess of Lesdiguieres. By P. Fr. X. Charle-Voix. London. 1761,

1763. 2 vols. 8vo. See also French's Historical Collections of Lou-

isiana. Vol. 3.

History of the War between the United States and the Sacs and Fox nations

of Lidiaus in the years 1827, 1831 and 1832. By John A. Wakefield,

Jacksonville, His. 1834. 12mo, pp. 142.

Synopsis of the Indian Tribes o North America. (See Trans. Amer. Anti-

quarian Soc. Vol. 2. By Albert Gallatin. Worcester. 1836-38.

Sketches of the West, or the Home of the Badgers; comprising an Early

History of Wisconsin. Milwaukee. 1847-8. pp.48.

History of Hlinois; (containing an account of the Black Hawk War.) Bv

Gov. Ford, Henry Brown, Ex-Gov. John Reynolds.

Various other works relating to the Black Hawk War, by the following au-

thors: Orrin Clemens, Keokuk, 1866, 12mo; rSamuel G. Drake, Boston,

1851, 8vo; Lieut. Gen. Winfield Scott, New York, 1864; Benj. Drake,

Cincinnati, 1856 and '58, 12mo; Elbert H. Smith, New York, 1848, 8vo;

J. B. Patterson, Cincinnati and Boston, 1833 and 1834 and 1845, 12mo.

Report of the President. 81

Anuals of the West: embracint? the principal events which have occurred

in the Western States and Territories. By Jas. E. Albach. Pittsburg.

1857. 8vo.

Historical and Scientific Sketches of Michigan (including infonnation about

Wisconsin), by Gen. Lewis Cass, H. R. Schoolcraft, John Beddler and

others. Detroit. 1834. 12mo, pp. 215.

History of Michigan, etc. By J. H. Lanman. New York. 1839. 8vo, pp.

398.

Sketches of Iowa and Wisconsin. St. Louis. 1839. 12mo, pp. 103.

Eeport on Indian Affairs: comprising a Tour in 1820 to ascertain the State

of the Indian Tribes. By Rev. Jed. Morse. New Haven. 1822. 8vo,

pp. 496.

Communications relative to his Travels in the Northwestern Wilderness of

Wisconsin. By Rev. Alfred Branson. Wis. Leg. Doc, Dec. 19, 1843;

House of Rep., 1844, appendix, pp. 30.

History of Wisconsin from its first discovery to the j^resent time. By Don-

ald U.McLeod. Buffalo. 1840. 8vo, pp.309.

Sketches of the West; or Home of the Badgers: comprising an early his-

tory of Wisconsin and familiar letters on the country. Milwaukee.

1847. 8vo, pp. 48.

Early Voyages up and down the Mississippi. By Cavalier, St. Cozme, Le

Sueur, Gravier and Guiquas; with an Introduction and Notes by John

Oilman Shea. Albany 1861. 4to, pp. 191.

The Discovery of the Great West. By Francis Parkman, jr. Boston. 1869.

8vo, pp. 425.

Historical Collections of Louisiana; embracing many rare and valuable

Documents relating to the Natural, Civil and Political History of the

State; compiled with Historical and Biographical Notes. Philadelphia

and New York. 1846-1869. 6 vols. 8vo.

History of the Catholic Missions among the Indian Trib'is of the United

States, 1529-1854. By John Gilman Shea. New York. 1855. 12mo'

pp. 514.

Travels through the Interior of North America in the year 1767 and 1768.

By Jonathan Carver. Illustrated with copper plates, colored. London.

1778. 8vo, pp. 543. Many times re-published.

Voyage in a Six-oared Skiff to the Falls of Saint Anthony in 1817, with an

an Introductory Note by Edward D. Mill. Philadelphia. 1860. 8vo,

pp. 88.

Report of Congressional Committee on the Petition of Sundry Indians of

the Stockbridge Nation, comprising their Title to certain Lands.

House Report, February 24, 1820.

Narrative Journal of Travels from Detroit northwest to the sources of the

Mississippi river in 1820. By Henry E. Schoolcraft. Albany. 1821

32 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences^ Arts^ and Letters.

pp. 424. Map and Illustrations. Also a summary narrative of tlie

same Expedition revised and completed in 1832. New York. 1834.

pp. 308. Also an Edition under the direction of the United States,

with Official Report and Scientific Papers. Philadelphia, 1855.

Narrative of an Expedition to the source of St. Peters' River, Lake Winne-

peck, Lake of the Woods, performed in 1823, under the command of

Maj. Stephen Loug; compiled by Wm. H. Keating. Philadelphia.

1824. 2 vols. 8vo. Map and Plates. London. 1825.

Sketch of a Tour to the Lakes, of the Character and Customs of the Chip-

pewa Indians and of incidents connected with the Treaty of Fond du

Lac; with a Chippewa vocabulary. Baltimore. 1827. 8vo, pp. 493.

A Pilgrimage to Europe and America, tending to the Discovery of the

Sources of the Mississippi, etc., with a Description of the whole course

of the same, etc. By J. C. Bettrami. London. 1828. 2 vol.*. 8vo.

With Maps and Engravings. New Orleans. 1824. Bvo, pp. 328.

Tour of the American Lakes and among Indians of the Northwest Territo-

ry in 1830. By Rev. Calvin Cotton. London. 1833. 2 vols. 12mo.

The Ramble in North America. 1832 and 1833. By Chas. Joseph Latrobe.

New York. 1835. 2 vols. 12mo.

Dakotah; or Life and Legends of the Sioux around Fort Snelliug. By Mrs.

Mary Eastman. New York. 1849. 12mo, pp. 268.

History of the Ojibway Indians. Boston. 1851. 12mo.

Personal Recollections of a residence of thirty years among ludian Tribes

on the American Frontier. By H. R. Schoolcraft. Philadelphia. 1851.

8vo, pp. 703.

On the Nortliwestern Indians. By Alex. Ramsay. See Pres't's Mess, and

accomp. Doc, 1849-50, Pt. 3, pp. 1005.

History of the Valley of the Mississippi. By A. M. Hart. Cincinnati.

1853. 12mo.

Report of Commissioner on Indian Affairs on the removal of the Wiuneba-

goes from Iowa and Wisconsin to their Lands in Minnesota. (See Plouse

Doe. No. 510, 1st sess., 31st Congress, 1850.

Wau-bun: the Early Day in the North- West, with illustrations. By Mrs.

J. H. Kinzies. New York. 1856. 8vo, pp. 498.

Our Whole Country: Historical and Descriptive. By John W. Barber. Cin-

cinnati. 1861. 8vo, pp. 1496. (Wisconsin portion, pp. 1167 to 1210.)

History of Wisconsin in three parts, Historical, Documentary and Descrip-

tive. By Gen. William R. Smith, under direction of the Legislature.

Madison. 1854. 8vo. Vol. 1, pp. 432; vol. 3, part 2, pp. 443,

Historical Collections of the Great West. By Henry Hare. Cincinnati.

1853. 8vo, pp.410.

Lights and Shades of Missionary Life; or nine years in the Region of Lake

Superior. By Rev. J. H. Pitezel. Cincinnati. 1859. 12mo, pp.431.

Report of the President 33

Various papers relative to the supposed identity of Rev. Eleazer Williams

(for a time resident at Green Bay) and Louis Capet, Dauphin of France,

to-wit: In Putnam's Magazine for 1853, 4 and '08, by Rev. J. H. Han-

son and A. H. Vinton ; in New York World (September 19, 1867.)

Military History of Wisconsin; a Record of the Civil and Military Patriotism

of the State in the War for the Union. By Edmund B. Quiner.

Chicago. 18G6. 8vo, pp. 1022. Steel Engravings.

Wisconsin in the War of the Rebellion; a History of all the Regimentb and

Batteries. By W. iJeLoss Love. Chicago. 18G0. 8vo, pp. 1130.

Plates.

The Army of the Potomac. Behind the Scenes; a Diary of Unwritten His-

tory. By Alfred L. Castleman, M. D., Surgeon of the 5ih Regiment

Wisconsin Volunteers. Milwaukee 1863, "08, pp. 288.

Battle Fields and Camp Fires of the Thirty-Eighth Wisconsin Volunteers.

By S. VV. Pierce. Milwaukee. 1866, 12mo, pp. 354.

A Soldier of the Cumberland; Memoir of Mead Holmes, of the twenty-

first Wisconsin Volunteers. Boston. 1864, 1864, 12mo, pp. 240.

Metomen, Springvale, Alto and Waupun in Fond du Lac Counties, Wis., dur-

ing the late War. Brandou. 1837. Svo, pp. 16.

Statement of the Military services rendered by him to the government since

March 1861. By Gen. J. C. Starkweather. Prepared at the request of

the War Department, Milwaukee, 8vo, pp.14.

Opening of the Mississippi: or Two Year's Campaigning in the Southwest;

a record of the campaign, sieges, actions and marches in which the

Eighth Wisconsin Volunteers participated. By a non-commissioned

officer. Madison. 1864. 8vo.

History of the Wisconsin State (and Territorial) Medical Society, from the

date of its organization in 1842 to 1868. See Transactions of the Soci-

ety. Vol.2, pp.102. Beloit, 1869.

BIOGKAPHY AND GENEALOGY.

Biographica, Genealogica Americana; an Alphabetical Index to American

Genealogies and Pedigrees contained in State, County and Town His-

tories, Printed Genealogies and kindred works. By Daniel S. Durrie,

Librarian of the Wisconsin State Historical Society. Svo, jip.

296. 1868.

Steele Family; a Genealogical History of John and George Steele, settlers

at Hartford, Conn., 1685-6, and their Descendants, with general infor-

mation respecting the families of the name. By Daniel S, Durrie. En-

larged edition. Sup. royal 8vo, pp. x., 168. 1862.

Holt Genealogy; a Genealogical History of the Holt family in the United

States; more particularly the descendants of Nicholas Holt, of New-

34 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences^ Arts^ and Letters.

bury and Andover.Mass., 1634-1644, and of Wni. Holt, of New Haven,

Conn. 8vo. By Daniel S. Durrie. 8vo, pp. 367. 1864.

Bibliography of Wisconsin. By Daniel S. Durrie. See Hist. Magazine for

July, 1809.

Siicli is a pretty full record, so far as made public, of the

labors wliicli had been performed b}^ and for AVisconsin in the

Sciences, in the Arts, and in Letters up to the j'ear 1870. If

it shows that in the Practical Arts— in the rough work of civ-

ilization— we had achieved marvelous results for a State of

but twenty-two years, it reveals, on the other hand, how little

has been accomplished in those higher fields of human activ-

ity, the scientific, literary and aesthetic, whose cultivation, if

more difficult and apparently less fruitful of immediate re-

sults, is nevertheless not only indispensable to them but also

essential to those high intellectual achievements which exalt

man as an individual and make of the otherwise half-civilized

community an enlightened and refined commonwealth. And,

in so far as this deficiency has been shown, to that same extent

has it been demonstrated that the welfare of the State would

be j)i'omoted by an efficient organization formed for the ex-

press purpose of suppljnng it.

2. On behalf of Science, Literature and the Arts, the rea-

sons which influenced the founding of the Academy are briefly

stated.

The sympathies and aspirations of a people should not be

limited to objects which refer to the State. Every communi-

ty is in duty bound to contribute something to the common

stock of liuman knowledge. Nay, more ; there is a sentiment

higher than even philanthropy, namely, fealty to truth inde-

pendent of all its relations. It can hardly be said, to-day,

when the rule of might is not yet ended, that a state or nation

is influential in proportion as it cherishes those higher senti-

ments and makes them the rule of its conduct. But it is cer-

tain that none can justly claim the respect of mankind from

whose policy they are excluded.

Bepori of tlie President 35

In other words, a people become truly gi'cat, prosperous

and powerful, and thus fulfil the ends of the State, in propor-

tion to their loyalty to the best interests of the race.

It was in view of all the foregoing facts and considerations

that so large a number of the leading citizens of the State

united their efforts in the movement which resulted in the es-

tablishment of this Academy, and that, in the call issued by

them for the convention at which the organization was effected,

they used the following language :

" An institution of tlie kind in question would bring into more intimate

relations many men, who, though already more or less engaged in original

studies and investigations of various kinds, accomplish less than they would

had they frequent association with each other, a common storehouse into

which to bring their material collections, and some proper medium through

which to publish the approved results of their scientific labors to the world.

" It would awaken a scientific spirit in all enquiring minds, and thus lead

to a more fruitful intellectual activity among the people at large and to a

wider diffusion of useful knowledge.

" Through a scientific and economical exploration of the State, to which

it would early lead — and which it might with great advantage direct — as

well as through the published results of independent investigations, con-

ducted by its members, it would do much towards bringing the many natu-

ral advantages of our State to the notice of foreign populations, and espec-

ially to capitalists, both at home and abroad; thus promoting the more rapid

and more economical development of our material resources.

" It would result in new and important applications of science to the

practical arts, and thus advance the industry of the country.

" It would associate artists of every class, establish higher standards for

the execution of works of art, and lead to the formation of an art museum.

" It would bring together men of letters and promote advancement in

every department of language, literature and philosophy.

" It would also tend to promote the literary and aesthetic culture of the

people, and by the quickening, invigorating, and elevating influence it

would exert upon all our higher educational institutions, largely contribute

to the social progress of the State, and the earlier insure to Wisconsin an

advanced position among the most enlightened communities of the world.

" We further believe that the time has now come, when, with proper ef-

fort on the part of those who may be reasonably expected to aid in so im-

portant an enterprise, the foundations may be laid for an institution that

she ]1 be of great practical utility and a lasting honor to the State."

36 Wiscojisin Academy of Sciences^ Arts^ and Letters.

II.

Plax of the Academy.

In view of the general objeets to be accomplislied, tbe great

value of associated effort, and tlie relation of harmony that

exists between the several departments of knowledge, the

Academy was broadly planned, so as to embrace every im-

portant interest of the State and every department of investiga-

tion looking to the advancement of knowledge.

Its objects more specificaly stated, are set forth in the terms

of the Charter, as follows :

" Section 3. * * Among the specific objects of the Academy shall be

embraced the following:

" 1. Researches and investigations in the various departments of the

material, metaphysical, ethical, ethnological and social sciences.

" 2. A ]irogressive and thorough scientific survey of the State, with a

view to determine its mineral, agricultural and other resources.

" 3. The advancement of the useful arts, through the applications of

science, and by the encouragement of original invention.

" 4. The encouragement of the fine arts, by means of honors and prizes

awarded to artists for original works of superior merit.

" 5. The formation of scientific, economical and and art museums.

" 6. The encouragement of philological and historical researches, the col-

lection and preservation of historic records, and the formation of a general

' library.

" 7. The diffusion of knowledge by the publication of original contribu-

tions to science, literature and the arts."

The Departments named in the Constitution are these :

The Department of the Sciences.

The Department of the Arts.

The Department of Letters.

But with a view to subsequent development, the Constitu-

tion provides that, " any branch of these Departments may be

constituted a Section ; and any Section or group of Sections

Report of the President 37

may be expanded into a full Department whenever sucli ex-

pansion shall be deemed important."

By reason of modifications made under this provision, the

present scheme of the Departments is as follows :

1st. The Department of Speculative Philosophy (not yet

organized).

2d. The Department of the Social and Political Sciences —

Embracing :

Jurisprudence.

Political Science.

Political Economy.

Education.

Pubhc Health.

Social Economy.

3d. The Department of the Natural Sciences —

Embracing :

Mathematics.

Physics.

Natural Histoiy,

Medicine.

4th. The Department of the Arts —

Embracing :

The Useful Arts.

The Fine Arts.

5th. The Department of Letters.

Embracing :

Language.

Literature.

Histoiy.

Bach department has its own officers, while all are under

the direction of a General Council.

The membership embraces Honorary and Corresponding

38 Wisconsm Academy of /Sciences, Arts, and Letters.

Members, Founders, Patrons, Members for Life, and Annual

Members.

Tln-ee meetings are held annually for tlie reading and dis-

cussion of papers.

The proceedings of tlie Academy at these meetings, includ-

ing brief abstracts of the papers read, are published, as soon

as i^racticable after the adjournment, in a neat octavo periodi-

cal called the Bulletin.

III.

What the Academy Has Done.

At the time of its organization, the attempt, in so new a

State, to form an association whose active members must of

necessity be capable of making either original researches and

investigations or valuable contributions to the Arts, was

thought by some cordial friends of the objects of the Acade-

my to be a little premature. The results have shown, on the

contrary, that the enterprise had been too long postj)oned.

The presidents of our colleges as well as the professors con-

nected therewith, distinguished scientists and members of the

several professions, have heartily united in the inauguration

of the enterprise and have since shown their deep interest in

its welfare by giving to it not only their moral and pecuniary

support, but also the fruits of their intellectual labor.

The present number of Life Members is, 12 ; of Annual

Members, 55 ; of Corresponding Members, 29.

The report of the Treasurer, herewith submitted, shows the

condition of the fiscal affairs of the Academy at the date of

the late Annual Meeting.

Report of the President 39

[Copy.]

Treasurer's Eeport.

Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts and Letters,

Office of the Treasurer,

Madison. Feb. 14, 1872.

Hon. J. W. HoYT, President of the Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and

Letters:

Sir: — I have tlie honor to report the financial condition of the Academy

as follows:

Total annual fees received from 44 members §^480 00

To fees from life members 807 25

11,287 25

Disbursed in payment of warrants, as per vouchers hertofore

and herewith furnished 382 75

Leaving a balance in the treasury of $904 50

Placed to credit of life members' permanent fund ^807 25

To credit of general fund 97 25

1904 50

Report of Fixaxce Comaiittee.

I have this day examined the foregoing report and account of the Treas-

urer, and compared the same with the vouchers and stub books, and find

the same in all respects correct.

MADiS0N,Feb. 14, 1872.

NELSON DEWEY,

Chairman Finance Committee.

As the duties of all officers have been performed without

compensation, and the expenses of members in making their

investigations and attending the meetings have been defrayed

by themselves, the only expenditures have been for incidental

purposes and for the printing of the Bulletin, of which five

numbers have been issued.

The Museum of Natural History and the Useful Arts has

made considerable growth, and must eventually come to be

exceedingly valuable to the State for scientific uses, as well as-

interesting to the general public. By favor of the Governor

and of the State Agiicultural Society, it occupies the larger

40 Wisco7isin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters.

one of the elegant apartments in tlie capitol so generously as-

signed to Agriculture some years ago.

There are many private collections in the State which would

make great gain in usefulness could they be brought together

at the capitol, and which, it is gratifying to be able to add,

their proprietors, in some cases, purpose giving to, or deposit-

ing with, the Academy, so soon as suitable preparations are

made for them.

Field work in Geology and the other branches of Natural

History, being necessaril}^ attended with considerable pecuniary

outlay, it cannot be expected that very great progress will be

made therein until the Academy is in a condition to relieve

its members of at least a portion of such burden of expense.

It already includes gentlemen fully competent to thorough

work in each of the departments ; and when this condition of

pecuniary ability is reached there is reason to believe that, un-

der a well devised system, embracing a judicious division of

labor, a good deal may be done by it towards a scientific sur-

vey of the State, with comparatively little expense.

It is of much practical as well as scientific importance that

further work of this kind should be done; for as yet no single

-county has been thoroughly examined in its relation to all the

departments of natural histor}^, and much the larger portion of

the State, as already intimated, has not been favored with so

much as a general reconnoissance.

The construction of railroads now in progress through the

centre and northern portions, which are believed, upon e\'idence

already furnished, to be rich in mineral and other resources,

will facilitate the needed explorations and should prompt the

state, as well as citizens who have an interest — and what citi-

zen who has not? — in the development of that region, to extend

to the Academy all reasonable encouragement in its endeavors

to institute and carry on such investigations as properly come

■within the plan of its scientific labors.

Report of the President. . . 41

The nature and extent of the work actually performed by

members of the Academy, in the field, laboratory, and private

study, since its oranization in 1870, will appear from the fol-

lowing titles of papers prepared for its meetings:

On the classification of llie Sciences. By Rev. Albert 0. Wriglit, M. A.

New Lisbon.

On the importance of more attention to the Preservation and Culture of

Forest Trees in Wisconsin. By Mr. P. Englemann, Secretary of the

Natural History Society, Milwaukee.

Ihe Coniferae of the Rocky Mountains, and their adaptation to the Soils

and Climate of Wisconsin. By Hon. J. G. Knapp.

On the Origin of the Potsdam Sandstone. By Hon. John Murrisb, State

Commissioner for the Survey of the Lead Region.

On the Importance and Practicability of finding a Unit of Force in Physics

that shall be of Universal Application. By Prof. John E. Davies, M.

D., Wisconsin State University.

The Fauna of Lake Michigan off Racine. By P. R. Hoy, M. D., Vice

President of tae Academy, Racine,

On the Age of the Quartzite of Baraboo. By Dr. I. A. Lapham, LL.D., Gen-

eral Secretary of the Academy.

On the Formation of certain new Compounds of Manganese. By Prof. Jas.

H.Eaton, of Beloit College.

The Metamorphic Rocks in the Town of Portland, Dodge county. By Rev.

A. 0. Wright, M. A.

The Metamorphic Rocks of Devil's Lake. By Rev. A. 0. Wright, M. A.

Some Observations upon the Fauna of Mammoth Cave. By Mr. P. Engel-.

mann, Milwaukee.

On the Nebular Hypothesis in Astronomy. By Dr. R. Z. Mason, LL.D., Ap-

pleton.

The Mineral Well at Waterloo, Wisconsin. By Rev. A. 0. Wright, M. A.

On the Classification of Plants. By Dr. L A. Lapham, LL.D., Milwaukee.

Metallic Veins and the Deposition of Minerals. By A. J. Finch, Esq.. Mil-

waukee.

On the Geology of the Region about Devil's Lake, Sauk county; being a

Report of Observations made by request of the Academy. By Prof*

Jas. H. Eaton, Beloit College.

On the Relations between Social and Moral Science. By Hon. Charles

Caverno, M. A., Secretary of the Department of the Social and Political

Sciences, Lake Mills.

The Mammalia of Wisconsin. By Dr. P. R. Hoy, M. D., Racine.

On the Climatic Relations of the Flora of Wisconsin. By Hon. J. G. Knapp,

Madison.

•42 Wisconsin Academy of /Sciences, Arts, and Letters.

Eeeults of Recent Observations in the Lead Regions of Wisconsin. By

Hon. John Murrish, Mazomauie.

On the Laws which Govern the Configuration of Comets. By John Y. Smith,

Madison.

On the Kinetic Measure of Forces. By Prof. John E. Davies, M. D., State

L^niversity.

On the Duty of the State to its Idiotic Children. By Prof. 0. R. Smith, Mil-

waukee.

On the Place which the Indian Languages should hold iu the Study of

Ethnology. By Prof. John B. Feuling, Ph. D., Secretary of the De-

partment of Letters, State University.

On the Clay Deposits and the Fossils found therein in the Region about

Appleton. By Dr. R. Z. Mason, LL. D., Appleton.

On the Ancient Lakes of Wisconsin. By Hon. J. G. Knapp, Madison.

Suggestions as to a Basis for the Gradation of the Vertebrafa. By Prof*

T. C. Chamberlin, State Normal School, Whitewater.

Facts Relating to the Local Geology of the Whitewater Region. By Prof.

T.C. Chamberlin.

On the Rocks and Mines of the Upper Wisconsin River. By Hon. J. G.

Knapp,, I^adison.

The German Sunday. By Rt. Rev. Wm. E. Armitage, D. D., Vice President

of the Department of the Social and Political Sciences.

The Relations of Capital and Labor. By Dr. A. L. Chapin, D. D., LL.D.,

Vice President for the Department of Letters.

Social Science and Woman Suffrage. By Hon. Charles Caverno, Secretary

for the Department of the Social and Political Sciences.

The Common Jail System of the Country. By Hon. D. S. Hastings, Secre-

tary of the State Board of Charities.

The Physical Basis of the Mineral Sources of Wisconsin. By Hon. John

Murrish, late Commissioner for the Survey of the Lead Region.

Insects injurious to Agriculture — Aphides. By Dr. P. R. Hoy, Vice Presi-

dent for the Department of the Natural Sciences.

On the Age of the Quartzites, Schists and Conglomerates of Sauk county.

By Roland Irving, M. A., M. E., Professor of Geology, etc., in the State

University of Wisconsin.

Observations on some of the Coal Deposits of Colorado. By Dr. J. W.

Hoyt, President of the Academy.

On the Potential Functions and their application in Physical Science. By

Prof. John E. Davies, M. D., State University. ,

On a Modification of Grove's Battery for a special Purpose. By Prof. John

E. Davies, M. D.

The Theory of Evolution illustrated by the Science of Language. By Dr.

i

Report of the President. 43

John B. Feuling, Ph. D., Professor of Comparative Philology, in the

University of Wisconsin.

The Rural Population of England, as classified in Domesday Book. By

Wm. F. Allen, A. M., Professor of Ancient Laiiguages and History in

the University of Wisconsin.

Outline of a Plan for a National University. By Dr. J. W.Hoyt, President

of the Academy.

While many of tliese papers were of such interest as to

make their publication in full very desirable, the Council have

limited their selection for this purpose to those herewith sub-

mitted, the important character of which must commend them

to an intelligent public.

On behalf of the Academy, I have the honor to be, Sir,

Very respectfully.

Your obedient servant,

J. W. HOYT.

Madison, March 10, 1872.

DEPARTMENT OF THE SOCIAL AND POLITICAL SCIENCES.

THE KELATIONS OF LABOR AND CAPITAL.

BY KKV. A. L. CHAPIN, D. D., LL. D.,

President of Beloit College.

The problems respecting the relation of Labor and Capital

which are now engaging the attention of all sorts of people in

all parts of the civilized world, may be greatly simplified by

a clear apprehension of a few elementary facts and principles.

The presentation of these facts and principles is the object of

this paj)er. I attempt nothing more than a brief digest of

some matters familiar to all who are acquainted with the

science of political economy. In this I follow mainly Mr.

Mill's line of thought, and adopt often his own forms of

exjDression, claiming no merit for the paper excejDt for the

putting of things together with a bearing.

We start with the simple fact that all icealih is produced hy

the application of lahor to natural objects. In the case even of

those objects which nature brings forth spontaneoiisly in a

form to gratify desii'C, some labor is necessary to find and ap-

propriate them. In most cases some further labor is requisite

to bring natural objects into a condition fit for use. Fig-leaves

must be sewed together before they can serve for clothing.

The fish and the deer, after being caught, must be divided,

cleansed and cooked before they are fit for food. The dirty

ore, taken from the bog or mountain, must pass through a suc-

cession of varied jDrocesses of labor before it takes the fomi of

a knife, convenient for a thousand purposes. So it is with

46 Wisconsm Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters.

everything wliicli contributes to man's necessities, comfort or

enjoyment. " All tilings are full of labor." In each we find

a natural gift from God, with an added gift from man's labor.

So long as there is found a desire of man ungratified, or an

object of nature unappropriated or unexhausted of its capacity

to gratify desire, there will be place for human labor to be ap-

plied to natural objects for the increase of wealth.

We advance a step and come upon another obvious fact. It

is that in civilized society, all the processes of industry require

some accuTmilaiion of the products of former labor to begin with.

The blacksmith cannot begin his work without iron to work

upon, and a forge and its fuel and hammer and anvil to work

with. And, moreover, if he is to spend the day in his shop,

the food which supports him must be provided beforehand.

In other words, he must have materials, tools and sustenance.

But these all come as the results of previous labor, his own or

another's. So it is in every branch of civilized industry. To

this necessary accumulation of the products of former labor

the name capital is given. This is the radical idea of capital.

Now putting these two facts together, we have the universal

fundamental principle that the union of these two elements, lahor

and capital, is essential to the production and to the very existence

of icealth. Hence comes the obvious inference that the true

relation of capital and labor is that of partners — coadjutors for

a common end — sharers in a joint result. Each is indispensa-

ble to the other. Abstractly considered, they meet on an

equality. Antagonism between them is ruinous to the inter-

ests of both. This view of the subject is fundamental to all

sound political economy. It is so plain as to seem a truism

which hardly needs a formal statement. Sound philosophy

and common sense both sustain this view. Yet in practice it

is very generally ignored, and in the sharp discussions of our

times it seems almost lost sight of on both sides. Amid the

din of the workshop and above the din of wordy contention

this simple truth needs to be continually affirmed, elucidated

The Relations of Labor and Capital. 47

and reiterated. No -labor reform movement can avail anything

wliicli does not start with the proposition that labor and capi-

tal are partners, not rivals, and write upon its banners, "What

God hath joined together let not man put asunder."

For a better apprehension of the principle in all its bearings,

let us linger a little on the questions — what is labor? what is

capital? and what conditions most favor the harmonious and

profitable union of these two forces of industry ?

1. Labor is fitly defined to be "the voluntary effort of hu-

man beings to produce objects of desire." Since the human

being is made up of body and mind, we must distinguish two

kinds of labor, viz : physical labor, in which muscular exertion

is the chief thing, and mental labor, which engages chiefly the

faculties of the mind. I say chief smd chiefly because in reality

all human exertion combines some phj^sical and some mental

effort. The dullest laborer must think some about the work

of his hands ; and the profoundest thinlcer must task his mus-

cles some to present to the world the products of his brain-work.

Recognizing this distinction, let us note what each kind of

labor achieves. Mere physical labor only puts things in mo-

tion. The muscles of the body are made capable of contrac-

tion. This creates a pressure which when applied to a piece

of matter, tends to put it in motion, or if it be already mov-

ing, to change or stop its motion. This is all that mere mus-

cular exertion can do. But through this power of putting

things into contact and relation with each other, man is able

to command the hidden forces of nature to an unlimited extent.

Man stirs the earth and drops a seed into it, then the forces of

vegetation hid in the seed and in the soil multiply the seed a

hundred fold. Man brings coal, places it in a furnace, sets

fire to it, and at once a force of nature in the process of com-

bustion turns the carbon into heat. He may add to the pile

ore taken from the earth, and another force of nature by the

action of heat makes the iron flow. Man's muscles grasp and

wield the hammer only to enable nature's forces, gravitation

48 Wisconsm Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters.

and density on the one hand, and tenacity and malleability on

tlie other, to make the blow effective to sha^^e the iron as he

will. Man sets his poles and strings his wires and adjusts the

comj^onents of his battery and arranges his machine so that by

touching a key he can command that subtle force of nature,

electi'icity, and make it the bearer of his thoughts to the ends

of the earth. Yet in all this, physical labor only moves

things ; the forces of nature do the rest.

But how does the man know what things to move, what

kind of motion to give and how to produce that motion so as

to accomplish his purpose ? ISTot every putting forth of muscu-

lar exertion is effective in producing desired results. Action

must be suited to the nature of things and guided by

methodical rule. Hence the constant necessity of mental labor

to precede and attend the operations of all physical labor.

The faculties of the human mind must be tasked in investi-

gating the properties and laws of nature, in studying the

philosoj)hy of motion itself, to find the mechanical powers, in

contriving in detail tlie means or instruments through which

the force of nature may be made available, and various

motions may be combined on philosophical principles for

certain results, and in watching over the actual operations of

both the human laborers and the natural agents in the com-

plex combination of productive industry. It is plain on the

bare statement of it that the mind-work of discovery, inveyition

and superintendence is indispensable, an essential part of all

productive labor, and that its importance and value, though

often overlooked, cannot be overestimated. We say, therefore,

of mental labor in this form, that it is directly concerned with

all productive industry. We recognize, also, another kind of

labor, chiefly mental, which is employed to develop and

improve the physical, intellectual, moral and social condition

of human beings themselves. The results of this kind of

labor affect men individually and collectively, and determine

very much their qualities as laborers and the circumstances

Tlie lielations of Luhor and Cajjiial. 49

and associations in whicli tliey live and work. It is thus

indirectly concenied witli all departments of productive in-

dustry. Under this head may be set down the mother's

nursing and training of her child, the teacher's efforts, the

services of the phj^sician, the lawyer, the minister of religion,

the author, the editor and the greater part of the labor

involved in the administration of government— all that is

commonly called professional and official service.

This distinction of labor as directly or indirectly concerned

in production is much more simple and better every way than

the old distinction much insisted on by some writers on Po-

litical Economy and as strongly contested by others, of labor

as productive or unproductive. The term unproductive can

properl}^ be ap})lied to labor only when it is labor wasted

through misdirection, as when a wag paid a man ten cents

an hour to bail out the river, as its waters set up between two

boats, or as a luckless inventor may spend years of brain-work

and manual toil on a machine which has no practical use.

Certainly we may not say of Morse's years of study and work in

devising the elective telegraph, or of Webster's labor to bring

under sentence of the law the murderers of White, or of Coan's

preaching the gospel in the Sandwich Islands, it was unpro-

ductive labor.

Much exertion is put forth for mere recreation, as in hunt-

ing, boating, ball-playing, etc. If this really recruits mind

and body, it pu.ts the laborer in better condition for produc-

tive toil, and so indirectly aids it.

There are professions, such as those of the musician and the

actor, in which labor is put forth only to furnish a passing en-

tertainment— a moment's pleasure. Though after the enter-

tainment is over, nothing is left which can be laid up and

counted as wealth, yet is it for the time a real gratification,

and the sweet memory of it will abide. The true end of labor

is accomplished immediately. The satisfaction follows the

effort instantaneously. The hearer of Nilsson has his quid

50 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences^ Arts, and Letters.

2)ro quo in tlie ecstasy of tlie hour. "Why then is not thisp?'o-

ductive labor just as truly as if it had produced a ribbon for

ornament, or a shoe for protection, or bread for food? Proper

gratification of this kind cheers the spirits of men, and so in-

creases their productive energy. If the recreation is, in kind

or degree, exhausting, if the amusement is in its influence de-

moralizing, or if the taste be so fostered that amusement is

made itself an end — then the economist and the moralist may

fitly enter their joint protest against a waste and a wrong. But

that labor which brings refreshing relief to wearied body and

mind, or ministers a gratification to a pure and healthy taste,

cannot be fitly called unproductive.

Still less properly can the term be applied to professional

labor generally. It is a very common notion, which has been

encouraged by some who would be esteemed philosophical

writers on the subject, that the manual labor of the farmer,

the carpenter, the cotton manufacturer, etc., is productive ; but

some are disposed to set down the mental labor of the doctor,

the lawyer, the editor, the teacher, the legislator, etc., as un-

productive. But the real diffei'ence is only that the labor of

the latter class is directed in a general way to favor the essen-

tial conditions of effective labor universally. It is expended

on the human beings individually and in their social state to

fit them for labor, to protect them in their labor and to gi-at-

ify and expand the wants which are to be satisfied by the

fruits of labor. So long as physical health, intelligence, mo-

rality, security under good government and just laws, justly

administered, and social refinement and good feeling are essen-

tial conditions of successful industry, all labor of the kind re-

ferred to must be set down as indirectly productive. Nor is

labor in this form further removed from, or less essential to

the ultimate result than is the labor of the miner in the ore-

bed, with reference to the needle and the comfort of the coat

made by its use. I have seen a pictorial sheet, the prominent

object in which is a farmer standing in the centre, while around

The Relations of Labor and Cai^ital. 51

him, in tlie margin, appear representatives of half a dozen dif-

ferent professions. The Lawyer saj^s, "I plead for all ; " the

merchant, " I trade for all ; " the clergyman, " I pray for all ; "

the soldier, " I fight for all ; " the railway manager, " I carry -

for all," and the physician, " I prescribe for all." But in letters

of double size, the farmer is made to say with emphasis, " I

^ay for all."

Now I suppose this picture fitly represents the cun^ent pop-

ular notion on the subject. But according to the views just

expressed, the notion is false. None can deny that agricultu-

ral labor lies at the foundation of human society, at the be-

ginning of human industry, because it is busy producing the

necessaries of life. For that very reason it is sustained, stim-

ulated, and imid hy all. It gives no more than it receives.

Its interests are all identified with the growth of diversified

society, organized, protected, enlightened, refined. In well

ordered society each branch of honest industry is tributary

to every other, and all are mutually dependent. For, to quote

the words of holy writ, "the body is not one member but

many, and the eye cannot say to the hand I have no need of

thee, nor again the head to the feet, I have no need of you ; nay

much more those members of the body which seem to be more

feeble are necessary and those members of the body which we

think to be less honorable, upon these we bestow more abun-

dant honor; and our uncomely parts have more abundant

comeliness." There is necessity fixed in the nature of things

that the greater part of men must be occupied with agri-

cultural labor or other forms of manual labor. Let the

intrinsic worthiness and dignity of all such labor be re-

cognized and honored. But, at the same time, let it be

■understood that with this labor is closely interwoven all

the busy brain- work of the minority who, though they seem

to stand aloof, are efficient partners in both the toil and its re- .

suits. The correction of the false and substitution of true

views respecting labor itself, is the first step in every wise and

sincere movement for labor reform.

52 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters.

2. Next Ave liave to study Capital. It will serve for a gen-

eral definition to say Cajyital is that jKirt of loealth lohich is act-

ually employed in production. Wealth is a broader term. Cap-

pital is a part of wealth. It is not synonymous with money,

for money itself does not go into production. More specifically

Capital is the sum toted of the products of former labor empjloyed to

provide shelter, protection, tools and materials for the processes of the

production and to feed and otherwise to maintain the laborers during

the process. This threefold classification of capital should be

particularly noticed. There are the instruments of production

— as land, buildings, tools and machinery — the materials on

which labor is expended, such as wheat, iron, cotton, leather,

etc., and also houses, food and clothing for the safety and sup-

port of the laborers while engaged in productive operations.

The items last named are usually provided for by the laborers

themselves out of the wages paid them. Wages therefore rep-

resents this form of capital, whether paid in money or in rent

and groceries and dry-goods.

Capital is not money but things in one or other of these

forms. What a manufacturer wants is not money but a steam

engine and gearing and spindles and looms and cotton. La-

borers look at their money- wages only as means for procuring

food and raiment and the protection of a home. Money is but

the convenient instrument of exchange. The same money

may go out of the bank in the morning, run around a busy

circuit and get back in the afternoon. In its circuit, perhaps,

it sent a machine to the shop and a load of wool to the mill

and a load of potatoes to the laborer's home, but it comes

back just what it went out ; money is nothing else, though its

value is represented threefold in as many forms of capital. So

far as money has in itself real value it is a part of the products

of former labor, saved and set apart for this specific service in

the exchange of products. So it is capital in the form of an

instrument which aids production. Banking capital is thus a

portion of the wealth of a community appropriated to this ob-

The Relations of Labor and Capital. 53

ject It renders a very important service. Yet the benefit it

confers may all be resolved into tbe greater facility it furnishes

for the transfer of values in the form of tools and machinery —

materials and the means of sustenance — into one or other of

which all capital must be brought in order to be made product-

ive. The proper and legitimate business of a bank is to fur-

nish just these facilities for the productive industry of the

community in which it is located. When the banks of New

York permit their fu.nds to be absorbed in the gambling specu-

lations of Wall street, they work mischief rather than benefit

to productive industry. The wealth represented by their capi-

tal stock is withdrawn from production. It forms no part of

cajntal in the true sense of the term. They are, for the time,

so far, turned into nothing better than faro-banks, mere reser.

voirs of wealth, to be played with and shifted fi'om hand to

hand at the turning of cards. Wealth so absorbed can by no

possibility come into union with labor. It is of the highest

consequence to the clear understanding of our subject that the

term cajntal be held strictly to its technical meaning, and that

it be conceived of as existing mainly in the instruments, the

materials, the wages, directly or indirectly provided for the

employment of labor. Apprehending thus the nature of capi-

tal, I must content myself with the bare statement of a few

fundamental propositions laid down and illustrated at length

by Mr. Mill.

1. Industry is limited hy capital. Every increase of capital

may give additional employment to industry. Industry can-

not go beyond the limit of capital ; it may not, through lack of

laborers, come up to it. This recognizes the mutual depend-

ence of these two elements, labor and capital. It says, simply,

that the most stalwart or skilled laborer can do nothing until

he has tools and materials and something to live on while he

is working, i. e., capital. If he has acquired these by former

labor, then is he owner of the needed capital, and in a sense

indciDendent ; if he has not these he must wait the will and

E.

5-i Wisconsin Academy of Sciences^ Arts, and Letters.

pleasure of some one wlio can come into partnersliip witli liim

by finding tliese tilings for liim to begin with.

2. Capital is the residt of saving. To consume less than is

produced is saving. Saving is simply laying up tbe difference

between wliat one spends and wliat lie earns — between wealtli

produced and wealtli consumed. The amount saved and so

added to capital may be increased by either consuming less or

producing more, or both. There is no other source of capital.

3. Yet capital though the result of saving is actually consumed

in the very process of production.

The wealth saved goes at once into implements, materials

and provisions for the daily wants of laborere, and there is sub-

jected to consumption, quick or gradual. It is withdrawn fi'om

all other possible uses. Investment for production and spend-

ing for enjoyment coincide in the first stages of their opera-

tions. Both begin with the destruction of a portion of wealth.

But in the spending the first is the final stage. In the product-

ive investment a second stage is reached, when an equivalent

of what has been consumed is returned with increase. Tlius

capital is kept in existence from age to age, not by preserva-

tion, but by perpetual reproduction. The greater part of the

present capital of England was produced within the last

twelve-month. The growth of capital is like the growth of

population. Every individual who is born dies, but in each

year the number born exceeds the number who die. The

population increases while the individuals pass away. So with

capital ; out of the productive consumption of one year comes a

greater product available for the next.

4 What supports and employs labor is the capital lohich sets it

at work, not the demand for the comphted p)roduct. The demand

for commodities determines the directions of labor, but not the

amount of labor itseli That depends on the amount of the

capital devoted to the sustenance and remuneration of labor.

The Relations of Labor and Ca])ital. 55

One does good to laborers not by what he consumes on him-

self, but by what he does not so consume. This corrects the

very common error that the lavish expenditure of the rich is a

benefit to laborers. The distinction of wealth is in itself an

injury or loss. The only qualification of this view needed is

in the case of a class of rich persons who have no disposition

themselves to turn their wealth into capital. Their lavish ex-

penditure may bring their wealth into other hands, so that it

may be used productively. The whole community, laborers

most of all, are interested in the accumulation of wealth as

capital. Saved and so employed, it is multiplying ever the

sum of comforts in the world.

It is very obvious that the principles stated confirm the gen-

eral view with which we started, that the true relation of labor

and capital is that of partners. We are prepared now, in a

few words, to define the conditions most favorable to their har-

monious union. They meet most advantageously in the same

person, i. e., when the laborer is owner of capital enough to

employ his labor. This brings both the elements under the

control of one and the same will, to be governed by one self-

interest. All rivalry and antagonism is excluded, and accord-

ing to the measure of his capital and his capacity, the man will

multiply products.

But this adjustment cannot be made universal, because —

1. Such is the tendency of capital to increase that the man

will soon find in his hands a surplus, to employ which he must

either bring in another who has only labor to work under him,

or lend it as capital to another independent worker, and so a

distinction between capitalist and laborer is sure to begin,

2. But a greater difficulty comes from the fact that the ca-

pacities and tastes of men differ greatly. Some efficient labor-

ers lack managing skill and tact in saving so as to keep and

accumulate capital independently. Others j^eculiarly endowed

in these respests lack physical strength for labor. J |;To some,

56 WisconsiJi Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters.

manual labor is irksome, and they will seek exemption from

it as soon as their increase of capital enables tliem to do so.

Others find the care of manas-inar business no less distasteful

O O

and so put their accumulating capital into other hands. Then,

3. Many forms of production, most essential to a state of

highest civilization, must be carried on in large establishments

which shall combine great capital and great numbers and di-

vers grades of laborers. The most economical division of

labor can be secured only through such establishments.

Hence there is a strong tendency to a separation of the two

elements, so that the capital will be the chief concern with

some and the labor with others. This disturbs the abstract

equality and mutual dependence just spoken of. Perhaps

with respect to actual increase, capital alone is most helpless.

But in the meeting of persons to enter into contract, the capi-

talist has the advantage because he can live on his capital with-

out labor, but the laborer cannot live except he earns his neces-

sary food by working with somebody's capital. Under the

sway of short-sighted self-interest, therefore, capitalists are in-

clined to use this advantage to domineer and oppress laborers.

I say short-sighted self-interest, for in the long run and in the

broad view, such oppression reacts upon the oppressors. When

laborers are held down to starvation wages, capital must be

heavily taxed for the support of paupers, and in time there

must come an insurrection which will make capital insecure.

On the other hand, the consciousness of dependence tends to

make laborei^ sensitive to the least real wrong and suspicious

of wrong where none exists. Against their own true interests

on both sides the parties are thus led into a partial antagonism.

The fact of these tendencies must be recognized. They are

not so strong in our country as in England. Yet enough is

apparent here to awaken thoughtful consideration. The prob-

lem is to guard the rights of both parties so that they shall be

bound by their natural common interest in harmonious union

with each other.

The Relations of Labor and Capital. 57

It is a liopeful sign that tlie minds of pliilosopliers and plii-

lantliropists and practical working men and capitalists are Just

now intently engaged upon this problem. The surest way to

reach the true solution of the problem is to enlighten the people

generally respecting the elementary principles involved. By

these both rights and interests are to be defined, and when they

are distinctly apprehended, both parties will be drawn by nat-

ural affinity into harmonious union.

We may deduce from the principles, already stated, three

leading circumstances which favor the most profitable union

of labor and capital.

1. First to he named is the general distribution of capital. I

mean such a condition of things that the capital of a country

shall be in many hands rather than few — that laborers them-

selves shall have some capital. Whatever in the social organ-

ization creates or sustains privileged classes is opposed to this

and needs to be removed. Whatever in legislation or usage

by the easy allowance of public opinion tends to create or

maintain monopolies, is opposed to this and needs to be espe-

cially guarded against. If no hindrances are in the way on

the one side and no special protection accorded on the other,

the natural working of things on the principles of self-interest

will secure a pretty general distribution of capital. The end

will be promoted by all measures which encourage saving on

the part especially of laborers. Savings banks, such as New

England has had and profited by for a century, or perhaps

better yet a government savings bank through a modification

of the postal order system, on the plan now in use in England,

will be of great service in this matter. In large manufactur-

ing establishments the stock may be divided into small shares

and brought within the reach of the employes so as to induce

them by their savings to become owners in part of the capital

and so entitled to dividends from the profits in addition to

their wages. Such measures elevate labor and give it inde-

68 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters.

pendence, and also increase capital by devoting mucli wealth

that would be spent, to production. And capital thus dis-

tributed stimulates energy, develops talent, comes closer to

labor, better defends itself and superintends operations by

having in each operative an interested observer of both his

own and others work.

2. A second circumstance to be considered is the ratio of

the ivhoh amount of capital to the whole number of laborers and the

ratio of the increase of capital to the increase of labor. This only

recognizes the principles before stated that industry is limited

by capital and every increase of capital demands increase of

labor.

No universal rule can be given for this proportion. It will

vary somewhat according to the circumstances of each country

and the spirit of its people. Here the age of a country must

be taken into account — its natural advantages — the general

occupation of its people. In a new country, occupied by a

thrifty people, capital increases faster than labor, and there

we see always the highest stimulus to production. For all

countries and all people, the general principle is, that there

should be labor enough to employ the capital and capital

enough to employ the labor. A perfect balance is perhaps

nowhere realized. Yet, if labor and capital are free, the flow

of each under the law of competition towards an equilibrium

is as natural as that of the waters of the ocean under the

action of gravitation. In the order of nature undisturbed,

there is provision for the steady increase of both capital and

labor in something like a defined proportion. There is no

danger of a surplus of either, for the whole world, nor for any

one country, if only the passage is open for the outflow and

inflow of either.

8. The third circumstance to be named is the certainty that la-

bor and capital shall each be made sure of a just reward. The part-

ners join hands each for an expected reward. Men will not

The Relations of Labor and Capital. 59

labor for nothing, nor will capital be put out in uncertain

risks. To ensure this certainty of reward to each, there must

be,

1. Division of property, personal ownership in everything

that can by labor be made an object of value and appropriated.

Without this capital can not be. On common property men

will not labor except on the compulsion of force or stern neces-

sity.

2. There must be also, security to all property-rights by

both prevalent moral sentiment and Just laws, equitably ap-

plied and faithfully executed. When governments invade or

are weak to defend property-rights, capital withdraws itself

into secret places as hoarded wealth, and labor is stinted and re-

duced to the lowest degradation. It is a terrible mistake to

suppose that existing wrongs under which labor suffers can

be relieved by that greatest of all wrongs the invasion or sub-

version of the rights of property.

8. And once more : there must be for both capital and labor,

perfect freedom, iinrestricted by monopolies or special legisla-

tion of any kind. A special favor in these relations of labor

and capital involves an infringement of freedom on one side or

the other, and that is an interference with natural law — a hind-

rance to the best results. The world is opening its eyes, after

centuries of wrong and mischief, to the fact that the business

of governments respecting these relations of capital and labor

is simply to protect the rights of each and hold other things

in even balance for tlie free working of natural law — to let

both alone, giving neither any advantage, but both the utmost

freedom. They are natural partners, and if not interfered with,

will spontaneously seek each other as birds mate in the spring

for a happy fruitful union.

There is not time, nor is this the place to discuss in detail

measures for the better harmonizing of labor and capital. I

will however, as we leave the subject, suggest a few thoughts

which come as corollaries from our main proposition. It must

60 ]Visconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters.

be acknowledged that tlirougli greater facility for organiza-

tion, through, false views which have gained acceptance in

the current usage of business and through mistaken legisla-

tion in some things, capital has been unduly favored ; it has

the advantage and inclines to opj)ress labor. Laborers have

some reason to complain and ask for relief. Justice and

philanthropy require that every man who fears God and loves

his fellow-man should consider the rights involved and lend

a helping hand to the weak. But admitting this, it is obvi-

ous, from the views we have considered, that any measures

which directly increase the antagonism between the parties,

any organization which contemplates open war between labor

and capital will only aggravate the evil and work damage to

both sides. Combinations of employers on the one hand to

set the j)rices they will pay — or of laborers on the other to

agree upon what they will demand, and, in general, strikes

and trades-unions are in this light positively mischievous. The

great interests of both are common, and the true relief must

come fi'om the better understanding of those common interests.

On the other hand, all measures which tend to increase the

intelligence and promote the thrift and independence of labor-

ers and so inspire them with self-respect and confidence as

they come into contact and union with capitalists are helpful.

Co-operative associations which gather up the scattered capi-

tal of many laborers, to be used in the employment of their

own industry, under their own management, may fitly be com-

mended and encouraged. If capital has gained an advantage

by special legislation, this is to be counter-balanced, not by

sjoecial legislation to favor the other side, by attempts to fix

the hours and the wages of labor, but by earnest united pro-

tests against all special legislation — by insisting on freedom as

the fundamental law of productive industry. From the study

of principles and the observation of facts within the range of

my opportunities I am convinced that prominent among the

sources of wrong to labor is the use of an unreal, ever fluctu-

The Relations of Lahor and Cafpital. 61

ating currency. The control of that whole matter has been in

the hands of capitalists. They profit by it, not through its

relations to legitimate productive industry, but through the

chances and stimulus such a currency gives to speculation.

Capital invested in real production, and labor both suffer from

it, but labor most of all ; for in the ever recurring fluctua-

tions wages are slowest to rise and quickest to fall, and all the

mischiefs of deranged industry touch the very seat of life with

laborers. Honest capitalists and laborers are alike interested

in urging by all practical measures the correction of this cry-

ing evil. Freedom to work and honest pay for honest work

well done is the universal maxim of wisdom for genuine thrift.

The mischief is that thousands are studying and struggling all

the time to thrive by the opposite rule, reaching on the one

hand after the fruits of honest work without rendering honest

pay, and on the other reaching after dishonest pay for dishon-

est work. The grand correction for this condition of things

is a more sacred regard on all hands to that great command

uttered by Jehovah at Sinai some few thousand years ago,

" Thou shall not steals

62 Wisco7isin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters.

THE GEKMAN SUNDAY.

BY RT. REV. W. E. ARMITAGE, D. D.

P. E. Bishop of Wisconsiu.

I venture to present, as a topic of social science, one on

wHcli it would be easier for me to preach. But while I do

not for an instant concede tliat tlie Divine authority, and the

teaching and practice of the Christian Church, are not to be

quoted here, I recognize the wisdom and the value for our

present purposes of rather choosing authorities and proofs

from human and social history and experience. And, there-

fore, I shall hold in reserve what to many of us would be

more conclusive than what I offer ; but with the conviction

that if on this, as on any other subject, we could perfect our

social science — give the result of the widest induction and the

soundest deduction— we might expect it in the language of

that marvellous Book with which no perfected science has ever

found itself in discord.

Europe inherited, no matter whence or how, the custom of

marking one day in seven fi-om all the others. And immigra-

tion brought that custom from Europe to our shores. It brought

with it also two distinct modes of observance, which we may

call the " English Sunday," and the " Continental Sunday."

The influx from the Continent during the last twenty years, and

the consequent strengthening of the latter mode, seem to have

caused many of those disturbed by it to overlook some very

obvious facts. The two modes of Sunday observance were

brought here in the earliest period of settlement. While the

English colonies, some of them under exacting religious con-

victions, enacted and practised the English mode, the French

The German Sunday. 63

and other European settlers were equally attached to the

Sunday of their own old homes. And it was, indeed, a result

of the old French war, as our fathers used to call it — the most

momentous of all our wars in its results — I often think that

the English Sunday was established as the custom of the

country. In Lower Canada the French left their Sunday with

their religion at that period, but every where else, in Canada

and in the future United States, England planted her own

usage as to the observance of every seventh day.

Unhappily however the importation of this English custom

took place just at a period when the custom itself was a subject of

controversy in the mother country. The Puritans had made it

one of their leading purposes to reform the national habits of

Sunday observance ; had recalled from the Bible the name of

Sabbath for the day ; and were enforcing, as far as they could,

the substitution of a strict Sabbath, like that of the Jews as

they understood it, for the Sunday which the Eeformation had

left to the English people. Our sympathies in all parts of the

conflict between the Church of England and the Puritans are

likely to be biassed by our own present affinities, but it seems

to me that any fair-minded man ought to look back to the two

parties with a readiness to interpret the action of either in the

light of the provocation of the other. They were about as

wrong-headed in those days, as we are now, with the difference

that it was a more earnest age than this in the maintenance of

principles, whether civil or religious. The enormity of the

" Book of Sports " on the one hand, is only explained by the

the aggressive strictness of Puritan books and enactments on

the other, and vice versa. Hence it came that when a Puritan

commonwealth was founded on our shores, the Sabbath was

imposed with all the greater strictness because i1> had been

fought for in England. The rulers and people would have it

and enforce it, and prove their doctrine about it by a demon-

stration. I need not quote the blue-laws which even made

Sabbath-breaking a capital offence, and then by prohibiting

64 Wisconsin Academy q/ /Skieiices, Arts, and Letters.

walking in one's garden, cooking, making beds, sweeping house,

kissing one's wife or child, must have tempted men even to

risk the halter. Those laws were soon repealed, but the Sab-

bath, down to the childhood of some of us, burdened men,

women and children, specially the latter, with a load almost

too grievous to be borne. And the natural result has followed,

a reaction so complete, that thousands of the descendants of

the Puritans have either given up the pretence of keeping the

day holy, or are content with an observance for which their

fathers would have put them in the stocks.

But meanwhile, du.ring the progress of this history of the

Sabbath, our population was being steadily recruited from the

old world. And the new comers did not usually bring the

Sabbath with them, unless they came from Scotland, where

the Puritans had succeeded in planting it. But finding here

either the New England Sabbath or the English Sunday, with

which most of them were familiar, they confirmed and aided

in the establishment of Sunday observance as the national

custom and law. The immigrants from the continent, gi'eatly

in the minority, more or less conformed to American usage ;

and all over the land Sunday was marked from other days by

the cessation of business, the public worship of God, and the

general quiet and rest of our whole people. Within the last

quarter of a century events on both sides of the ocean have

turned the tide of continental immigration to us, and great

changes have resulted in many directions. And one of these

has been, that the continental Sunday has been brought to us

by thousands, fresh from its own home, accompanied with such

associations, and sustained under our universal suffrage, with

such political power and other influence, that it threatens to

usurp the established American custom and to reign in its

stead.

I can but regard it as unfortunate for all who are rallied

against it, that the reaction from the Puritan Sabbath has lost

them so many allies. I do not mean allies in talking, but in

The German Sunday. 65

action and influence. The advocates of tlie continental Sun-

day may say to tliose on the other side : Your custom has had

two centuries of possession of the land ; it should be strong

enough to stand ; but we find thousands of your own people,

if not welcoming our mode, at least weary of yours. Had all

our English-speaking citizens been firm for our own custom, the

new comers would have accepted it, in spite of their increasing

numbers, as their predecessors had done. But having lost

that vantage-ground, the friends of the old mode are disposed

to strike very wildly and unreasonably, I must be allowed to

say, in its defence and in attack upon the strange Sunday.

Into the theological aspects of the question we do not enter

here ; but the most strenuous advocates of the Puritan Sab-

bath, or the one most shocked by the continental innovations,

may well be advised not to waste breath, and risk his cause

by surveying the field from no point of view but his own.

There may be in the annals of human folly precedents enough

for announcing, "Thus saith the Lord," with one's own inter-

pretation of the saying, and then proceeding to style all who

don't agree and obey, infidels and unbelievers. But I think

it will be wiser to consider what is to be said on the other side

before you band together against you all sorts of opponents,

many of them of your own making by your process.

Here in Wisconsin our conflict on the question has been

brought about chiefly by our large German immigration, and

I shall speak therefore, henceforth, of the German rather than

the Continental Sunday. If we inquire into the history of

the German Sunday, we shall find that it has the highest sanc-

tions of Luther and his brother-reformers. Those great men

were but human, and could no more restrain the reformation-

pendulum at once in its proper arc, than the rest of us can in

minor-matters They found the Lord's day included in a

great number of church festivals and fasts, all put on a like

ground of obligation, and burdening the people. Their re-

forming zeal undertook to discriminate between the Sunday

66 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences^ Arts^ and Letters.

and the. other days, among the Latter retaining certain great

festivals, but very jealous for the paramount authority of the

Sunday. They were not agreed among themselves about the

ground of its obligation, and as discussion went on about it,

Luther, and even Calvin, and others were drawn into giving

their authority to what seems to us lax observance of the day,

in their fears of the people's relapsing into unreformed prac-

tices, or adopting views of their own opponents. For instance,

Luther's saying, quoted from his Table-talk, " If anywhere the

day is made holy for the mere day's sake, if anywhere any one

sets up its observance on a Jewish foundation, then I order you

to work on it, to ride on it, to dance on it, to feast on it, to do

anything that shall remove this encroachment on christian liber-

ty." And what he counselled, he seems to have done — and as it

was a convenient mode of proclamation of reformed views and

j^ractices, one in harmony with the national instinct for out-

door enjoyment, whatever the previous Sundays have been

among the throng of holy days, the German Sunday now was

established with all the honors, and with all the earnestness,

of the leaders of the Eeformation.

Very sad, sometimes, are the evidences of human weakness,

even in the case of great men, and of whole nations. We may

wonder and lament that they did not reach the divine truth,

instead of supposing that they found it in the contradiction of

errors ; but so it was. The religious earnestness of the time

probably prevented immediate evils from their laxity, if we so

regard it. But they bequeath it to less earnest generations,

with the sanction of their great names, and with national pride

associating them with it. So when you undertake to waive

away, or condemn the Grerman custom as a mere instance of

infidelity, or actual hostility to the christian religion, you are

very likely to array in its defence every German who hears

you, from the mere instincts of patriotism. Whereas the Ger-

mans in this country are as much divided on the questions

about the day, as we are divided ourselves between the Puri-

The German Sunday. 67

tan Sabbath and the English Sunday. Thousands of them

not only are not infidels, but are contending for the Lord's

day against infidel associations whose avowed object it is to

desecrate and destroy it. And it is not more honest to con-

found friends with foes, than it is politic to make them all foes

by indiscriminate attack. The custom is hallowed to them by

education, by associations of their childhood, of their friends

living and dead, their home and the fatherland. It is no more

than plain common sense to look at it with their eyes, to ad-

mit what ever good there is in it, and to enlist their aid with

some other argument than that our Sunday is of the Lord,

while theirs is of the devil. And that is actually what they

constantly have to hear upon the subject.

The love of out-door life I have referred to as a natural trait of

the German race, and it is one which we Americans may well

envy and imitate. I have seen a little bit of yard in a crowded

city, containing a small grass-plat and a shrub or two made

the chief scene of family recreation, despite the large and well-

furnished parlor. And let it also be borne in mind that it is

always family recreation which they seek ; that in their sim-

ple amusements and pleasures, men, women and children par-

ticipate. It is not their way to leave home and all its affec-

tions and influences and go to places and entertainments to

which they cannot take their wives and sisters. All who have

seen them in their own country will testify to the quiet and

well behaved crowds which assemble in the gardens and parks,

evidently not for entertainments — for in many of the most fre-

quented none are allowed, still less for hard drinking or other

vice, but for the enjoyment of their friends and of out-door

life. I am not prepared to pronounce a Sunday afternoon so

spent intrinsically less innocent than that of nine-tenths of our

native population in which a special dinner, a lazy sleep, after

the children have been sent to the convenient Sunday school,

and the Sunday papers, are the chief employments, even

when conscience, personal and traditional, forbids riding and

68 Wisconsi7i Academy of Sciences^ Arts^ and Letters.

visiting and walking out. Let us make no naked issue witli

tlie Germans. In the Fatherland men whom all honor for their

Christianity have followed the custom we condemn. To us?

with our habits and opinions it would be wrong, but to them

attending circumstances will make it right or wrong, and

those circumstances I think we need to press upon them,

waiving the question of difference of custom, until we can

convert their judgments and consciences to our views of ob-

ligation and duty.

I have made no apology for the German Sunday, but only

urge that it should have the full weight of the fact that our

adopted citizens like it, not because they are sinners but

because they are Germans. Feeling an intense anxiety that

our English and American custom should prevail, I wish to

point out the injustice and impolicy with which the matter is

commonly treated. And now granting all that has been

admitted, let me iirge some reasons why the German innova-

tion should be resisted in all proper ways.

That some consideration is due from them to the feelings

and habits of the country which so heartily welcomes them,

the intelligent among them would readily admit. You cannot

imagine an American crowd invading the rights and customs

of a German community, as they have done ours. It would

not be tolerated for an instant. The day we reverence as of

God's appointment, the quiet and order we desire for it, the

undisturbed houses of worship and burial places of our dead

to which we are surely entitled, the influence and moral

atmosphere we would keep about our children — all these are

invaded by strangers within our gates. We give them citizen-

ship and all its privileges, even suffrage and political power,

and they trample on our ways and feelings, sajdng that they

have rights as well as we. I have known a beer-garden to be

opened almost at the door of one of our churches, and the

services broken in upon by the blasts of a brass-band. I have

buried the dead to the music of a waltz and the laughter of a

Tlie German Sunday. 69

merry crowd while the mourners were almost jostled at the

side of the grave by other Sunday idlers. Our Sunday

Schools, on which we depend, foolishly enough, I gi-ant, for

the religious teaching of thousands of our children, are com-

monly depleted of the boys during the summer months, be-

cause of the attractions and excitements of the gardens. The

vicious of all nations, our own included, find on Sunday both

their strongest temptations and their best opportunities. Thou-

sands of men, women and children are robbed of the rest of

one day in seven to minister to the pleasure-seekers. The

moral sense of the community is debased and weakened by the

example of the violation of law, and the victory of pleasure

over restraint. Nay more, it has come to be the settled and

avowed determination of associations of men to compel the

day's desecration ; to choose it for public celebrations, to

■ repeal all restrictions and restricting ordinances ; to release

the American people from the superstition of Sunday observ-

ance.

Now for these evils, which justify my subject on the present

occasion, for these evils who are responsible ? Not we, say

many of our Germans. If we were left to ourselves, many of

these excesses would not occur. We never had them in our

own land, we have no desire for them here. Vicious Americans,

Irishmen, and others interfere with our quiet; so much so

that many of the gardens we never visit, nor can we take our

wives and children to them as we used to do at home. This

has been often said to me by respectable Germans who at the

same time were offended by the denunciation of their custom

as all evil. And" they were right, and yet admitted all the

charge. Granting all that they can say as to the harmlessness

of the Sunday in the Fatherland — for that is not the point of

discussion — it cannot be harmless here. They exchange a

society of one race for one made up from all the nations of

the earth ; a society, of defined ranks and orders, for one in which

F.

70 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters.

all men, from the liigliest to tlie lowest, liave equal riglits ; a

society under strict law absolutely enforced, for one whose

jDolice regulations and administration are swayed by the

popular breath ; a society accustomed for centuries to the

Sunday, for one in which it is an innovation, a step of decline,

a liberty which instantly passes into a license for immorality

and vice. And good citizenship— may I not say, sound social

science — demands that they should look iipon the custom as

one that cannot be ti-ansplanted from the Fatherland. There

it may continue as they have known it ; there they may enjoy

it when they return to visit or to dwell. But here, in return

for American opportunities and rights, which, they would

acknowledge, repay for all such sacrifices, they must be

content to give up the custom, or be held responsible for the

flood of evil to which it opens the gates.

As, however, my opinion and advice are not likely to bring

all the Germans at once to give up their Sunday, I think there

are some measures that we Americans should take for our

own protectioiL Every city and large town should have its

own public gardens and gi'ounds conveniently situated in the

outskirts where it will interfere with no worship ; made as

beautiful and attractive as possible, and on Sunday under

special police regulations and oversight The Germans at

home have their beer gardens, private establishments, and al-

so palace gardens and such public parks where no beer is sold

no amusements provided, nothing but the heightened beauties

of nature and convenient seats and look-out places, and so on

to enable all to enjoy them. Now let the public provide the

the latter kind of resort here. Our own mechanics and la-

borers need it, shut up as they are on all working days, and

having but confined and close homes. Suppress with a strong

hand the sale of liquor, and indeed all buying and selling on

the grounds and in the vicinity, and everything like disorder^

Then all that is innocent and valuable in the German custom

will be within reach, while the vicious of their own and other

The German Sunday. 71

nationalities will be kept down. And the only servants of the

crowd who will lose the day of rest which mere human exper-

ience, apart fi-om the Divine Law, has j)ronounced to be abso-

lutely necessary, will be the police, whose apportionment of duty

may save them even that loss. If any are disturbed by the

suggestion of allowing and encouraging such laxity as this,

I have only to say that having made this provision to prevent

a great abuse, it will then be the field of effort of all christians

of all names in this free country to bring the people up to the

standard of religious observance, w^hich they may severally

regard, as a matter of obligation under Divine Law. It does

not follow in every instance that a man's view of the Sabbath,

or the Lord's day, is such that he can win the others to its

adoption. And it may be that the reason is in the view it-

sel£

I have wished, in this paper, to indicate what seems to me

the right line of argument on a difficult question, and to con-

demn the one which is usually taken as impolitic and unjust.

It is one of a great number of topics belonging to this section

of the Academy, growing out of the relations of our Ameri-

can and foreign born citizens. And on all those topics I

venture to lay down a proposition by no means new, and yet

being constantly forgotten, in legislation and in social prob-

lems, one under which all that I have said, when restraining my-

self from religious arguments, might perhaps have been inclu-

ded— that foreigners, on becoming citizens, should become

Americans as far as possible — that neither in language, nor

schools, nor churches, nor in other social or political relations,

should they be encouraged to perpetuate their nationalities.

It is true that they must mingle with us in a generation or two,

but no little evil is caused by their efforts to keep themselves

apart and by the politician's concessions to this natural but

mistaken desire.

72 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences^ Arts^ and Letters.

SOCIAL SCIENCE AND WOMAN SUFFEAGE.

BY REV. CHARLES CAVERNO, A. M..

Amboy, 111.

The English periodical, Nature^ reviewing an essay of Hux-

ley's on what it calls "the irrepressible woman question,"

makes the following statement . " We are confident that this

question is one which must be ultimately settled mainly upon

physiological grounds, and it is just because the conventions

of society very rightly do not admit of the full and fair discus-

sion of those grounds before mixed audiences that the extreme

emancipationists have been enabled to obtain for their theory

the amount of currency which has fallen to its lot." It would

seem, however, if the conventions of society forbid the discus-

sion on the platform and in the parlor of the most fundamental

aspects of one of our gravest social problems, that there ought

to be some method devised by which such material matters

may be brought prominently before the public mind. Human

society cannot be preserved if matters which are of primary im-

port cannot somehow be subject to open and general consider-

ation. Social Science, if it is to have any value at all, ought

to adapt itself to such exigency. The object of this essay will

be to suggest thought mainly upon the physiological features

of the question of suffrage for woman.

So far as the advocates of political fi-anchise for woman have

gone, their position seems, in the main, to be correct. We ac-

cept the most radical theories of " rights " that have been pro-

pounded. We maintain that "governments derive their just

powers from the consent of the governed."

Social Science and Woman Suffrage. 73

We have no confidence in the distinction so often sought to

to be made between natural and political rights. Political

rights grow only out of natural rights, and of these latter wo-

man has as many and as comprehensive as man. And if the

agitation which we are having on this subject shall explode

the notion that man has some royal political prerogatives over

woman, it will have done a good work toward settling a basis

of correct ideal of the relation which should exist between the

sexes.

We challenge also another of our political aphorisms com-

monly regarded as axiomatic ; to wit — that rights and duties

con'espond. This is only ideally true. It cannot be pressed

in practical life. We may have rights by the score without

duties attached. The man who stays by the bedside of a sick

wife or child, may have the right to vote. The duty may be

not to vote. So long as it is a question of "rights," we are

convinced that the right of a woman to vote is as good as that

of a man. But we have not solved the problem of society

when we have thought along the single line of personal rights.

When in practical life all questions are considered, it may

not appear to be the duty of woman to assume active partici-

pation in politics. With the same inherent right to have share

in political affau's as man, woman may nevertheless refuse to

consider it to be her duty, either • from the consciousness that

nature has assigned her sufficient duties of another character,

or that she has already assumed a sufficient number of her

own choice.

We see no insuperable obstacle why government may not

sit finnly in the " consent of the governed," though half of

the governed be women without the ballot, not even if

the statute gives the ballot to males exclusively. That statute

may and ought to express the consent and conviction of wo-

man as well as of man. We hope the discussion respecting

"rights " will be continued till this result is attained. Let no

government over woman rest on the suspicion of might or of

74 Wisconsiyi Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters.

prescription. If man retains the sole agency of society in po-

litical affairs, let it be only upon assent by woman after ex-

amination of the whole matter had. "We predict that such

assent will ultimately be given.

We discard all theories of woman's inferiority. We believe

that woman can do what man can do. Possibly man may

have some advantage in power of brain or brawn, and in en-

durance. But the advantage is not so great that woman can-

not keep near enough to him in any kind of activity to be a

helpmeet for him. And it is a matter of common observation

that the helper is often in all respects superior to the helped. If

in anywise woman be inferior to man, we regard her as having

also compensating superiorities. We do not oppose the entry

of woman into politics, because we suspect her of incapability

for its emergencies. Given a common field to woman and to

man, and we will grant substantially equal results.

But if woman is to be a wife and mother, the inquiry arises :

Does she want a common field ? Is it wise or prudent to at-

tempt to cover the ground of all man's activities, and dis-

charge the functions of motherhood beside ?

Marriage constitutes a special condition for woman, as it

does not for man. Yet the vast majority of women pass into

this special condition. Married woman is the dominant and

representative element in th6 class woman. A social scheme

for woman, founded on her condition as femme sole would be

playing Hamlet with the part of Hamlet left out. The bear-

ing which the assumption of political duties by woman will

have uj)on this special condition, needs to be closely scruti-

nized. Suffrage, and all the burdens that follow with it, will

be opened to woman near the years in which, as a rule, she en-

ters upon the responsibilities of marriage. The question is,

does woman, as she enters upon those responsibilities, want to

assume the department of politics beside? If the married

woman does not, is it wise to open the department to women

at all ?

Sociul Science and Woman Suffrage. 75

The cry of tlie mother from an average home now is of

over work. Grant that this comes from the ignorance and sin

of man, yet woman's assumption of the right of suffrage will

not put the millenium in his heart. It will not take an ounce

from the burdens already pressing. It will simply add the

distraction of one more. The great source of misery to a

married woman now is that her maternity is regarded as only

an incident in her life, while during the months and years in

which her vitality is consumed by it, it should be regarded as

the sole end. Maternity is duty assigned and enough of duty.

Instead of asking if woman cannot assume some other duty,

the attention of society should be directed to devising meth-

ods of relief from the necessities that now press upon her.

Beyond what natu^re imposes, a mother's duties should be op-

tional. And yet she is asked to assume another duty which

ought to be inexorable wherever it falls.

We see often 'in the high quarters of the advocacy of suf-

frage for woman an ignorance or an ignoring of the physiologic-

al bearing of the question that is astonishing. A far-famed

and much respected supporter of the so-called reform hails the

good time coming when " marriage and motherhood no more

complete a woman's mission to the world than marriage and

fatherhood complete a man's." We grant that a married wo-

man may have other aims in view besides what maternity im-

poses, hut she cannot have such aims on equal footing ivith man.

If she is to be a mother, these other aims must be held by her

in a comparatively subordinate position to that in which they

may be held by man. Mamage and motherhood do complete

a woman's mission to the world more than marriage and

fatherhood can complete the mission of a man. It would be

impossible to secure equality between the sexes here, even

with "just men made perfect." God has drawn the fiber of

woman around motherhood with a tension he has not pat upon

the paternity of man. Marriage assigns function and destiny

to woman as it does not to man. What kind of wild reason-

76 Wisconsin Academy of /Sciences, Arts, and Letters.

ino- may we not expect when the enormous difference between

the physiology of maternity and of paternity is sunk from

sight ?

The entry of woman into political life means burden, if the

event is to have any significance at all. If woman is not going

to reform politics and government, she might as well let them

alone. But if she is going into the work of political reform,

she will find there is something to be done beside the holiday

sport of riding to the polls at elections in gaily -bedecked car-

riages, with streamers flying,

"All the while

Sonorous metal blowing martial sounds."

If she is to improve the present condition of things, she

must master the science of government and the arts of politics ;

she must attend caucuses, and plod through the weary work

of the investigating committee. Unless she does this with an

energy and purpose not now practiced by men, where will be

the gain to society from her advent into politics ? Kemember

now the fact that the strain in politics comes in just those

years when the functions of maternity make their demands.

If woman is to be a helpful element in political affairs, she

must be a constant element in it. One of the most serious por-

tents of our politics now is the lack in men of steady and per-

sistent action. Senator Wilson, of Massachusetts, in a late

review of the situation of affairs in the city of New York, puts

the responsibility for the disgraceful condition of things there

existing upon the men who were entitled to the right of

suffrage and did not use it. But all motherhood ought to

have no sense of care or responsibility for politics. It is idle

to say that those upon whom the burdens of maternity are

actually resting, either prenatal or past natal, may be allowed

the privilege of retiracy. If fi'om time to time, as she emerges

from retirement, a mother is to be of any help in politics, it

must be because she has the while canied it along with her.

Social Science and Woman Suffrage. 77

Two years of dismissal of it from the mind in tliese days is to

take a Eip Van Winkle sleep upon it. It may be said tliat

men neglect politics when they please ; and it may be asked

why women may not do so also. The answer is, men do neg-

lect it ; mothers ought to.

The appearance of woman in politics then means her constant

agency in it. It must take that form or our politics will be

swept by the lower stratum of society with majorities such as

we never heard of before. The mothers there will be govern-

ed by neither reason nor delicacy. They will appear at the

polls let what will of maternity betide. And then must come

our appeals to the mothers of culture and refinement not to

allow our system to be swamped by the votes of the stolid and

ignorant. Now remember that woman is particularly im-

pressible to duty. Remember that motherhood from its pecul-

iar physiological conditions is especially sensitive to excite-

ment ; then think of a presidential campaign and ask if the

considerations from physiology alone are not sufficient to war-

rant shutting the gate against the possibility of bringing the

sense of duty to bear on the mothers of our land, in such times

of passion and agitation ? The Independent^ a firm and reason-

able advocate of woman suffrage, says with respect to suffrage

as it now exists : " Not to vote is an offence against society as

stealing is an offence." That is right. And that is bringing

the sense of duty home to men as it ought to be brought.

But will you lash motherhood to political action with any such

scorpion ? Yet it must be done if she is to step into the polit-

ical arena to take equal responsibilities with man. Voting is

not all of the matter. Behind the vote must be planning and

care and anxiety and effort that the election go rightly.

The physiology of this matter must somehow be brought to

the front in the public consideration, unless we are willing to

take a Niagara plunge on folded oar.

To ask woman to take up the department of politics ought

to be considered an imposition upon her.

78 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences^ Arts, and Letters.

Our civilization or our barbarism lias already added too

mucli to lier duties. We liave added now so mucli that she

lias to let department after department of culture and social

activity drop from lier grasp wlien she takes up from nature the

great office of maternity, and they lie in neglect and confusion

around her. And yet we have the coolness to ask her if she

could not possibly stagger under an additional burden.

" The harp that once through Tara's halls

The soul of music shed,

Now hangs as mute on Tara's walls

As if that soul were fled,"

is the requiem that almost every young mother has to sing

over many a discontinued accomplishment. With no time

now for music, art and literature, we propose to ask her if she

will not spend a few days on an investigating committee, on

the accounts of the keeper of the house of correction, or pre-

pare a speech for the next ward caucus in favor of vacating an

alley in somebody's addition.

The matter seems ridiculous. But Just where ridicule seems

now to come in it is more than possible that a cleft might be

made for the entrance of the sense of duty if suffrage be opened

for woman.

Woman must stop somewhere or break. She cannot dis-

charge the functions of maternity and assume all the depart-

ments of man's activity beside. This is as sure as the doc-

trine of the conservation of force. In fact that doctrine under-

lies the whole matter. When the forces of the system are

taxed to their utmost in one direction, if severe efforts in other

directions are assumed, it is in vain to expect to avoid catas-

trophe.

Right here is the place to look at the bearing of this matter

of suffrage upon the question of the education of woman. We

are now attempting to carry up the public education of our

young women to the same grade as that of young men. We

believe with due care for health and physical development, this

Social Science and Woman Suffrage. 79

may safely be done. But even this will be pliysiologically de-

fensible only on the ground that the young woman's competi-

tion with the young man shall cease when she enters the mar-

riage relation and the forces of her system are directed by na-

ture to maternity. Woe betide the day to her offspring if she

attempt to carry it on then. There is exhaustion in any sys-

tem of education. It may be but healthy exhaustion if we

stop where nature has marked a pause. Your high systems

of culture for women will take their place only as part of a

general system of physical debilitation, if the struggle for

equality with man is to continue under the extraordinary tax

of maternity.

Why woman needs a culture equal with man before mar-

riage, is because she must or ought to cease when she comes to

motherhood, from the efforts he can continue to make. If the

same tension that he can endure is kept on her continually,

and then she assume maternity beside, her thread will part.

By and by, if we are not wise, we shall have a rebellion

against the attempt to open our higher systems of education to

woman, when the real trouble may not lie in this preliminary

work of life, but in the attempt to run an equal race, canying

double burdens afterwards.

Kow if there is any one department of man's activity that

woman can afford to let him bear alone, it is this one of poli-

tics. She ought not to be so alien to her own nature but that

the sweet influences of maternity can compensate her for any-

thing man finds in political life. Politics is but pure drudg-

ery to the mass of men. So much is this so, that the great

difficulty is now to get intelligent men to endure its irksome-

ness. Doubtless almost anyone would be willing to accept

some office high in rank and flush with salary. But these

places are only for one in hundreds of thousands of men now,

and a mother would rarely or never see them if woman had

suffrage and was eligible to office. Motherhood in solid pha-

lanx would be remanded to the wearisome, distasteful tug of

80 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters.

work to wliicli most educated men are bound only by a sense

of duty. It is not the highest style of manhood that is led

captive by politics ; and how a woman can become enamored

of it is "passing strange."

Politics represents rather the friction of society than its con-

served energy. It is a low state of civilization where much

of social power is turned into its channels. When you hear a

great din in politics you are only listening to the creaking of

the wheels of state. When politics runs high, arts, industries,

sciences and education are apt to be running low. You can

see this illustrated in the difference between the south and

north divisions of our own union. The south for generations

has consumed its energies in politics. It has simply been

burnt up in its own excitement, and it has nothing to show for

it. The great unfilled vacancies of the south on a railroad

map, are testimonies to the desolation that results when soci-

ety makes politics a prime ambition. Viewed as an industry,

it is the most precarious of all methods of meeting the prob-

lem of subsistence. What chances it offers could scarcely be

open to mothers at all.

Neither need unmarried women look in this quarter for any

hope of solution of their difficulties. One of the most pitiable

objects among men is the stranded politician. If a woman has

failed to secure a life companion, she need not give her heart

to politics. Politics can jilt as well as an individual. It is

proverbially fickle. Heaven forefend an unmarried woman

from adding to her man-forsaken plight the condition of a

bankrupt politician, forsaken of the gods. Politics is not an

industry. As an industry it has done nothing for man. It

can do nothing for woman. At any rate it has nothing for

motherhood but burden.

The prizes which a few women might possibly draw in poli-

tics cannot compensate the disaster of precipitating the incu-

bus of its dull, repugnant, fruitless toil on the great mass

already oppressed.

Social Science and Woman Suffrage. 81

Why sliould women attempt to cany along eveiytliing?

Men cannot do it. Tlae advocates of woman suifrage often

attempt to ridicule woman because of her ignorance of politics

and related subjects. They attempt to constrain her to de-

mand suffrage, to save the point of their lampoons.

But why may not women let a department go as well as

men ? Why may there not be some departments that they

may not care to assume just because they are women ?

In this age we are making our great strides in progress be-

cause we are respecting the principle of the division of labor.

Is it inconceivable that that principle should sometimes fall

between woman and man as it does between woman and wo-

man and man and man ? A genius cannot prosecute every-

thing in these days. It was no disgrace to Senator Carpenter,

to say, as he did the other day, that he knew nothing of chem-

istry. A professional man cannot cover the ground of all the

outside knowledge there is in the world. Nay, even a man

cannot carry all that was once reckoned as belonging to his

own profession or handicraft.

We are gaining success in our civilization just because we

are specializing so much.

One of the foremost lawyers in Boston recently remarked

that he hardly knew the meaning of facts in admiralty. He

had devoted himself largely to the law of patents. " The dog

that ran after two hares caught neither," is the expression of

some very old wisdom. But oj^portunities for its application

are multij^lying every day in the increasing complexity of civ-

ilization. Suppose woman is ignorant of politics ! It is just

possible that it may not be worth her while to know much

about it. It is possible she can put her mind and energies to

some other matter to better advantage to herself and society.

We do not believe there can be any very serious conviction

among women that they need suffrage for their political or le-

gal protection. Certainly the legislation of this country for the

past generation has been swift to enact every well defined wish

82 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences^ Aris^ and Letters.

of woman. If not every wrong wliich tlie clearest minded

can see that legislation can touch is instantly righted, all can

see that there is a tendency in legislation in the hands in which

it is now placed, to rectify all known injustice to woman.

But legislation has not yet managed to anticipate all the wants

of man. It will hardly be able to do so in the case of women.

If women have wrongs that are subject to remedy by legisla-

tion, let it be remembered that the general law is that wrongs

must be endured till they are smitten into the general sense .of

society as wrongs, before it is wise for legislation to meddle

with them. We have been so hasty to execute any wish

of woman that the wisdom of some things done is questioned.

If any thing has appeared clear, it is the right of a woman to

dispose of her own property. But even the wisdom of that

was challenged by a woman the other day in a prominent pe-

riodical.

It was claimed that the right of a widow to dispose of her

homestead, in practice brought evil, and that such right should

be taken from her. Let it be generally felt throughout socie-

ty that it is an evil, and does any one doubt that its correction

can be secured through the present system of legislation;

though to do so would be just to box the compass in the at-

tempt of legislation to meet the wants of woman. The ques-

tion recurs, do women to secure fitting legislation for them-

selves as a class need to assume the burdens of suffrage ?

There is one other respect in which the physiology of moth-

erhood is seen to have even a more important bearing upon

this suffrage question than in the matters already considered.

What has thus far been treated relates almost entirely to the

welfare of the mother herself. We shall look now to the wel-

fare of her offspring. The Saviour, on an important occasion

in his teaching, took a little child and "set him in the midst."

If we oftener imitated his example in social questions, we

should less often commit blunders. The child is the key to

the whole position. If we are worthy the name of Social

Social Science and Woman Suffrage. 83

Scientists we shall look to tlie well-being of tlie coming gener-

ations. If we do this we shall see why it is that the -mother

comes to the fore front in the consideration of the question of

suffrage for women. The next generation is the gift of the

motherhood of this. We need to scrutinize this movement

for suffrage to see if it does not have more particular reference

to those who are not mothers, than to those who are — to wo-

man out of the ordinary family relation rather than to those in

it. If it does, the probabilities are decidedly against it as a

movement in the interest of posterity. The very first claim

that one generation has upon that which precedes it, is the

transmission to it of sound physical constitutions. Unless this

is done, the gift of being under ever so favorable a condition

of "rights," will hardly be worth thanks.

The question is one of direction of vital force. Where shall

a mother's energies, go — to politics or to her children ? Is our

j^olitics m such need of the efforts of mothers in it, that to rec-

tify it we must rob our children of the flush of vitality?

Of course this argument is good for nothing if no power is to

be put forth in politics. But if power is not to be put forth,

again we ask what significance there is in woman's entry upon

it ? This argument too has no validity, unless the mother in

an average home is already an over-burdened factor in society.

We desire here to give credit to Gail Hamilton as the only

writer whose works we have read who seems to have a proper

conception of this matter we are now considering. To the

often asked question why the women of this generation cannot

do the work of their mothers, Gail Hamilton replies " We can-

not do the day's works our mothers did because \X\e,j did them."

We regard that reply as containing philosophy enough to cov-

er this whole suffrage question. The spinning wheel and loom

of our mothers consumed vitality that should have come to

us. There is an everlasting weariness on us all who came out

of the average well-to-do homes of the past generation — the

legacy of the over- work of our mothers. The mothers "ate

84 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences^ Arts, and Letters.

sour grapes and tlie children's teetli are set on edge. " Not only

tlie iniquity but even the frugality and industry of mothers

may appear in curse upon their offspring. You cannot cheat

the law of the conservation of force. You cannot break the line

of continuity between generations. Nature goes down through

all and if she cannot collect her forfeitures of the guilty she

will of innocent offspring. We are convinced that before suf-

frage is taken up by woman we need a great deal more of con-

sideration given to the probable influence of the assumption by

motherhood of greater work than she now performs upon the

well-being of posterity.

It is not simply the " personal rights " of the generation on

the stage that is concerned in this matter. We stand in thought-

ful pause before a question Coleridge asks : " Can anything

be more dreadful than the thought that an innocent child has

inherited from you a disease or a weakness, the penalty in

yourself of sin or want of caution? "

We question whether our social or domestic life would gain

anything in value from bringing forward politics as a more

prominent element in them, as must be the result if woman is

compelled to take up this new department.

After a mother has performed the home duties which the

day imposes, we question whether it would be profitable for

her to spend her time in studying and expounding to her fam-

ily questions pertaining to tariffs or civil service. It probably

is important to determine how much a sheriff's fees should be

or whether the government duty on indigo should be two shil-

lings or two and six per pound. But we question whether it

would be a step upward for a mother and her children to pass

to these matters fr'om the music, art and literature which now

adorn or ought to adorn our homes.

There is one collateral matter to which we desire to allude,

and that is the matter of inequality of wages. Now we do

not for a moment argue that there cannot be nearer approxi-

mations made to justice in this matter than we now make.

Social Science and Woman Suffrage. 85

But as a general rule, is there not justice in the present an-ange-

ment that a man should receive more pay for the same work

even, than a woman ? Ought not family wages to be more

than the wages of an individual ? And ought not a husband

to be charged with the responsibility of earning the family

wages ? The working factor of the family ought not to be the

wife. The line of labor through which the family living comes,

ought not to be prosecuted by the wife. Saying nothing of sen-

timent, physiology forbids it. The man who goes forth to work,

represents not only his own needs, but those of wife and children

behind him. He must receive more wages for his work

than an unmarried female who is his competitor, or the possi-

bility of maintaining the family relation in society is at an end.

It may be asked, why speak of his competition with an un-

married female? why not look at the case of a widow with

children to support ? The reason is because the case of a

widow with a family to care for, is an exception to the rule in

the case of families. "We should occasion more misery than we

should relieve if we were to equalize wages to meet her diffi-

culty. Her case must be met in some other way than by put-

ting all the families of the land down upon the footing of com-

petition with those who have only the needs of a unit to

supply.

If it be asked, why not give the unmarried of each sex

equality of wages ? The answer will be that this in effect will

only be to make them both competitors against families at

lower rates than those on which families can be supported.

And a further answer is because the adumbration of marriage

is over them both. If man ought to earn the money from

which the support of families comes, it is difficult to see how

the general rule can be otherwise than that the wages of man

ought to be greater than those of his female competitor. The

main work of life for which wages is paid is done or ouglit to

be done by married men. If young men unmarried, as against

young women unmarried, so far as wages are concerned, are

G.

86 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences^ Arts, and Letters.

reckoned with married men, it is because "coming events cast

their shadows before." They may both be reckoned now for

what, as a rule, they are to be. The injustice is not great in

reckoning man from the beginning as the wages-producer and

compensating him as putatively responsible for the mainten-

ance of a family. The wife at marriage enters into the enjoy-

ment of any surplus the husband may have gained. If this

discussion is not understood, we would like to ask a question

Vfhich, we think, can be understood.

When the wages of women are everywhere equal to those

of men, how can a mechanic hire the female assistance which

Ms wife again and again in her motherhood must need ? His

'day's wages can only offset the wages of the help he hires and

then where shall the family subsistence come from ?

Unjust as the present system of wages may often seem to be

to woman, it is questionable where we can put our hand in to

remedy it, without doing more damage than benefit. We are

convinced that no system of reform respecting wages can be

sound which does not plant itself immovably by the side of

woman married and regulate everything primarily in the light

of her highest interests.

We are pushing the principle of inviduality to a destructive

extreme. It is a surface question in sociology to ask simply if

the wages of one individual ought not to be equal to that of an-

other for the same work. Behind this lies the question " ought

not families to be supported, and how can this be done ?"

Business with its great motto, " You buy best where you

buy cheapest," has respect only to this principle of individ-

uality. But the interests of business are a narrow foundation

on which to rest a social system. A society that followed

business maxims only, would be barbarous, infernal. If social

science desires to be of service to humanity, it must impress

society with the idea that the necessities of families must

be looked to in settling the principles of compensation for work.

When this is done, other things being equal, we shall find that

Social Science and Woman Suffrage. 87

in competition for employment, preference will be given to

married men, and that there will be discrimination in the rate

of wages in their favor. Thus shall we render aid to the

greatest number of women, and to the class most sorely need-

ing it. Here let it be said that the great social question

before us is not how units of either sex can take care of them-

selves. The subject of prime importance pressing upon us is

not the matter of opening new avenues of employment to

women who are out of the ordinary family relations. So far as

the "struggle for existence " is concerned, there is no one now

in our society more favorably situated than an unmarried

female willing to work, no one who has less difficulty in main-

taining an honored social position The great social qmsiion is

hoiv to lighten the burdens of women in an average home^ how

the wives of farmers, of mechanics, of laborers, of men on

small salaries and men with moderate incomes may assume

motherhood, without the grave or an insane asylum in the

near prospect. In other words, the great question is how a

married man can properly provide for his family.

We want to enter a protest against the philosophy of John

Stuart Mill respecting the social position of woman. He asserts

that because woman has never been on practical, political

equality with man, that therefore we know nothing about her

or about her appropriate social position and function. That

we have nothing for it but to try her in every new position as

it is proposed. But if all human experience has gone for

nothing, all human experience will go for nothing. If the

human race has not hit the high road of nature in this matter

hitherto, there is little likelihood of its ever striking it, or of

ever knowing it if it did. If something like the great law

which has prevailed in all time, across the whole social scale,

from the wigwam to the palace, by which the exoteric duties

of a home have been assigned to man and the esoteric to wo-

man, we may despair of being able to find any regulative prin-

ciples whatever. It has not yet become folly in other depart-

88 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences^ Arts, and Letters.

ments of our social life to be guided mainly by experience and

to attempt the untried only with circumspection.

The great body of our liberties stands in common law. Our

special chartei-s have added little or nothing to them. There is

little in Declarations or Bills of Rights or constitutions that would

not have been law without them. These gi'eat documents that

we invest with so much of historic interest were but little more

than codifications and reaffirmations of existing liberties. Yet

our common law so rich for us in its beneficent privileges is

based on the fundamental principle of respect for past experience.

Its first motto has been and always will be "stare decisis."

Its first principle of philosophy has been that human experi-

ence is a safer guide than human speculation. True it has

adopted new principles under new exigencies, but never with-

out an examination that sifted the elements of the case to the

bottom, and subjected the finest comminution to inspection,

A man who thinks he has a new principle to engraft on com-

mon law may look upon himself as one of the elect of the ages.

So thoroughly are our liberties grounded in experience. Yet

in a social matter of as much importance to our happiness as

anything the common law secures, Mr. Mill advises us to launch

out on an " unknown sea " without chart or compass from ex-

perience and make what port we may. And there seems some

danger that we may follow his wild philosophy. So far the ques-

tion of suffrage for woman has had little but superficial treat-

ment. The fundamental questions involved have hardly

caught the public attention. That there are evils attending the

adjustment of the social relations of the sexes we do not deny.

That some of these evils may be removed and perhaps all

mitigated, we do not deny. But we can hardly expect to rem-

edy all at once by an inversion of the foundations on which

society has hitherto rested. We shall do better to do as has

been done in common law — (and by the doing of which it has

earned the name of common sense), look at our specific evil

and apply a specific remedy and then stop. The most daring

Social Science and Woman Suffrage. 89

innovator in common law, Lord Mansfield or Byron Paine,

never dreamed of revolutionizing the wliole legal fabric wlien

it was necessary to reverse a former decision or lay down a new

principle. He pruned simply what was effete. He intro-

duced just what was required for the case in hand. He did

not try to make his reform so broad as to cover all possible con-

tingencies of the need of reform.

The evil of this suffrage movement for woman is that it asks

for more than is needed. In the attempt to relieve certain

evils it brings greater calamities than it cures. It prays for

the deluge, to carry on irrigation. The question of woman's

wrongs needs to be divided and considered item by item.

Ee medics can then be devised that will meet intelligently the

case in hand. If it seem best, we can advance so far as to

make woman eligible to all office. We can do this without

compelling the whole class to take up suffrage. If a woman

wants to enter political life let it be a matter of option with

herself without compelling all womanhood to drag through

the drudgery of politics for her sake.

While society exists in anything like its present conditions,

suffrage ought not to be imposed upon woman. The only re-

sult will be to add to an already oppressed class the heavy

burdens of our political system.

90 Wisconsin Academy of ^Sciences, Arts, mid Letters.

THE PRESENT CONDITION OF THE COMMON

JAILS OF THE COUNTRY.

BY SAMUEL D. HASTINGS,

Secretary Wisconsiu Board of Charities and lleform.

The questions as to wliat shall be done with the criminal

classes ? how can society be best protected from their depreda-

tions ? how can their numbers be decreased ? what can be done

for their reforaiation ? how can their condition be improved ?

and others of a similar character have occupied the thoughts

of not a few of the statesmen, philanthropists, and christians,

not only of our own country but of all the civilized countries

of the world. Prison associations have been organized in dif-

ferent States of the Union and in different countries of Eu-

rope ; able reports have been made by these associations and

by legislative committees ; a national prison congress was held

in the city of Cincinnati, in the month of October, 1870, from

which emanated papers prepared by some of the ablest and

most learned men of this country and of Europe. Through

these various instrumentalities, and through these different

sources, much valuable information, in answer to the import-

ant questions suggested, has been spread abroad, and much

has been done to enlighten the public mind touching these

great matters.

One of the results of the national prison congi'css held at

Cincinnati was the adoption of initiatory measures for the call-

ing of an international congress.

The Rev. Dr. E. C. Wines, for many years the correspond-

ing secretary of the Prison Association of New York, was a]3-

pointed a commissioner or agent to make the necessary arrange-

Condition of the Common Jails. 91

ments for the holding of such an international congress. He

has since visited the different governments of Europe, and has

everywhere found an entire willingness on the part of these

governments to co-operate in the movement, and, as a result,

arrangements have been made for the assembling of such a con-

gress in the city of London, on the 3d day of July of the pres-

ent year.

There is but little doubt that all the governments of Europe

will be represented in this body, and it is earnestly hoped that

representatives from all the States of the Union will also be

present.

As one of the results of the investigations which have been

made in relation to the condition and wants of the criminal

classes, some most astounding developments have been made

as to the condition and influence of the common jails of the

land.

In a brief paper of this character, I shall attempt nothing

more than to present, chiefly in the language of others, a few

facts and suggestions touching the matter under discussion.

In the report of the " Special commissioners to examine the

penal reformatory and charitable institutions " of the state of

Michigan, made to the Governor of that state during the past

year, is found the following :

" Ours lias been the experience of all who have undertaken to examine

the actual condition of county jails, whether in this or in other states.

" Their condition is wretched beyond all power of description, and be-

yond all conception of those who have not had the experience of their

own senses in the matter. ,

" There are, of course, marked differences in the condition of the jails ;

some few, a very few, are subject only in a slight degree to the sanitary

objections made, but we speak of their condition in general.

" The defects in them are not owing so much to the manner in which

they are kept, as to inherent defects in their construction, their dilapida-

ted condition, and a fatal vice in the common jail system.

" For the most part, our sheriffs are both humane and competent men,

and as a general rule the prisoners are well fed, and treated with a rea-

sonable degree of personal kindness.

92 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences^ Arts, and Letters.

It is an acknowledged fact, that light and fresh air in generous meas"

ure are absolutely essential to a healthful condition of both body and

mind. For the most part, our jails seem ingeniously constructed to ex-

clude as much of these essential elements of health as is possible without

destroying life.

" Nor is any proper provision made for cleanliness of person. Many

prisoners come to the jail filthy in person and in clothing. They are

thrust into long, narrow, dimly-lighted, badly ventilated corridors, from

which open the cells. There are no bathing requirements or facilities,

and prisoners are not always required even to wash their hands and faces.

This corridor is used as the sitting and eating room of all the prisoners,

clean and unclean, and is often also, the privy and water closet of all ; and

if not, the privy is closely adjoining, and the corridor is filled with its

fetid and sickening odor.

" The cells are very small, usually not exceeding in size four or five

feet by eight, and seven feet in height ; without ventilating flues, and

with absolutely no light or air except such as steals through the iron

grates of the narrow doors opening into the corridors. No breath of pure,

fresh air ever reaches the inmates. Yet in these cells, alive with vermin,

poisoned with the stagnant, fetid air, the prisoners spend one half of their

time ; and when too sick to creep out into the corridor, the whole of it. *

" The larger proportion of the pereons confined in our county jails are

confined awaiting trial, and they are often detained month after month.

" Tliey are not convicts and the law presumes them innocent. Expe-

rience shows that a portion of them are innocent of the crimes with

which they are charged, while a much larger portion of them are never

convicted.

" The power to arrest and detain persons charged with crimes is one

essential to the public good, but it is one that is often abused by the

malice of accusers and the reckless carelessness or corruption of oQicers ;

and innocent persons are not unfrequently the victims. But we submit

that whatever right the state may have to punish convicts by depriving

them of sunlight and pure air, thus destroying health of body and mind

by such incarceration, it has no right thus to treat persons who are

simply accused of crime and are awaiting trial. T7iei/, at least, are

entitled to such of the decencies and ordinaiy comforts of life as may be

consistent with safe detention.

" The moral condition of our jails is infinitely worse than their sani-

tary condition, and after a full examination and careful consideration, we

have come to the clear and jjainful conviction, that they are the very hot-

beds and nurseries of vice and crime, and that the state is directlj^

responsible for a large share of crime which it seeks to punish.

Condition of the Gammon Jails. 93

"The general plan upon whicli jails are constructed is that of corri-

dors, with cells opening therefrom. The prisoners are locked in their

cells at night, but during the day they congregate in the corridors, with-

out employment and without oversight or restriction as to intercourse.

" There is no separation of the convicts from persons merely accused of

crime. Here, often, are gathered those old and hardened in villany,

lost to shame, proud and boastful of their crimes ; those who have com-

mitted their first crime under the influence of some strong temptation ;

those who have committed some venial offense while under the influence

of intoxicating liquors or some sudden passion; mere children in the

paths of vice ; those who are accused, but are entirely innocent of any

crime ; and those who are arrested on civil process and are unable to find

bail.

" If the wisdom of the*State had been exercised to devise a school of

crime, it would have been diflicult to devise a more efficient one. Here

are the competent teachers, the tractable pupils, the largest opportunities

for instruction, with nothing to distract attention from the lessons. Those

merely accused and those guilty of a first offense, however venial, are

taught that the mere fact of an imprisonment has shut them out from all

the avenues of respectable industry ; that there is no hope in that direc-

tion ; that society has become their enemy ; and that the only course open

to them is to become the enemy of society. They are taught how to do

this most effectually, and that the chance of detection and punishment

decreases just as one becomes skilful in crime; and all the arts, devices

and exploits of the experts are taught in detail to listening and wondering

ears, who soon learn to admire the audacity and skill described, and to

long to imitate and excel such display of them.

" Gambling is a common amusement, and the tricks of professional

gamblers are learned. The j ails are often so arranged that the male pris-

oners can converse with female prisoners, and occasional access to the

rooms of the latter has been obtained. * * *

" As a rule, the prisoners have access to no books, no efforts of any kind

are made for their intellectual or moral improvement, and no interest

shown in their welfare. * * *

" Can it be wondered at that the universal experience is that this treat-

ment tends |to make men criminals instead of reforming them ? These

evils are not peculiar to our own State. They exist elsewhere, and all

who have turned their thoughtful attention to the subject, whether as

practical men or philanthropists, unite in the opinion that our present

county-jail system is an unmitigated evil and ought to be abated."

Sucli is the testimony as to the condition and influence of

the jails in the state of Michigan, as given after personal

94 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters.

examination, by gentlemen every way competent to form cor-

rect opinions.

In the report of tlie State Board of Charities of the state

of Illinois we find the evidence that the jails in that state are

equally obnoxious to unfavorable criticism. This Board in

their report say :

" The prisoners, iu nearly every instance, are absolutely without em-

ployment for mind or body. There are no libraries in the jails; even a

Bible is ordinarily wanting ; papers are rarely furnished, and no work is

provided for the prisoners, much less required of them. Idleness is a

fruitful source of vice ; and enforced idleness has developed, and always

will, the most debasing passions and habits. * *

" The efforts made at reformation of criminals in the jails of this state

are unsystematic, unintelligent, fitful, and in the most of the counties

wholly wanting. * * *

"There are three objects in view in all criminal legislation— ^?'S<, the

satisfaction of justice; second^ the protection of society; tliird, the reform-

ation of the offender.

"As to the first of these ends, vengeance is a divine prerogative. The

second and third are the only ends which society has the right to seek to

accomplish. But be it so. Admit for argument's sake that the public

has a right to torture the criminal in its power, simply because he

deserves torture. What then ? Then let the law prescribe what and how

he shall suffer. If he is worthy of death, hang or behead him ; but do

not, without color of law, kill him by inches by refusing him air to

breath. If he has taken his neighbor's goods, let him by hard labor

atone for the act. Let him make restitution. But do not deny him the

light of day ; do not compel him to be idle, for weeks and months ; do not

disgrace our boasted christian civilization, by forcing him to live over an

open privy-vault used by a score of prisoners. But a county jail is not

solely or principally a place of punishment. It is more properly a

place for safe-keeping of persons awaiting trial, about one-third of whom

are, upon trial, declared to be innocent. The jail is also used for the

detention of the insane and of witnesses — persons not suspected of crime.

That a person guiltless of crime should be forced into such a place, and

there confined for weeks or months, his health destroyed, and all his finer

feelings outraged, is itself a crime against humanity. Such a policy

makes great criminals out of little ones."

We have testimony from Ohio showing that the common

jail system in that State is similar in its developments as in

other States.

Condition of the Common Jails. 95

The Ohio Board of State Charities, in their second annual

report, in speaking of their county jails, use the following em-

phatic language :

" It is a startling and terrible proposition, sustained by this report (the

report of their secretary), that Ohio is to-day siipporting, at public ex-

pense, as base ' seminaries of crime ' as are to be found in any civilized

community. Children, youth, the young man, the middle aged, the old,

all at the first simply accused of crime, and more or less wrongfully ac-

cused—many for their first ott'ense, some old ofienders, some debauched,

cunning corrupters of men, — representatives of each of these classes are

found congregated in our jails. And to perfect the -wrong they are crowded

often into an ill-ventilated, dirty, dark prison, where the whole being,

physical, mental and moral, is soon fitted to receive all ' uncleanness with

greediness.' With bad air, vile quarters and depraved associates, little

can be added to hasten the perfection of the student in crime. And these

schools of crime are to-day found in every county in the State, sustained

under form of law, and at the expense of the public."

The Committee on Prisons, of the late Constitutional Con-

vention of New York, in a report to that body, sum up the

result of their investigations as follows :

" That there is no one of the sources of crime which is more operative

in the multiplication of thieves and burglars than the common jails of

the State, as at present organized."

The Committee of the Prison Association of New York, in

their report for 1867, speaking of the jails of that State, say :

" They are, indeed, as now constructed and managed, nothing less thaa

seminaries of vice and nurseries of crime."

Miss Dix, the eminent philanthropist, after an extended ob-

servation, says :

"If it were the deliberate purpose of society to establish criminals in

all that is evil, and to root out the last remains of virtuous inclination,

this purpose could not be more eff"ectually accomplished than by incar-

ceration in the county jails, as they are, with few exceptions, constructed

and governed."

From the report of the Prison Association of New York for

1870, we find that but little improvement has been made in

the condition of the jails of that state, although the attention

96 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences^ Arts, and Letters.

of the legislature and the people was called to the matter sev-

eral years. Abraham Beale, the General Agent of the Asso-

ciation, in his report to the Executive Committee, says :

"That he is more than ever confirmed in the opinion that the best side

of a prison is tlie outside, and that tliere exists hut little within calcu-

lated to make men hetter ; and this applies especially to our county jails.

* * Nothing is done to elevate the moral condition of the prisoners —

not a friend to visit them ; not a book for their perusal ; not a rebuke or

admonition ; not a word to the innocent; not a moral lesson given ; not a

sermon preached; not a prayer offered; no anxiety or solicitude ex-

pressed either by the church or the world, for the reformation and salva-

tion of those unfortunates; hence so few reform."

John D. Gruscom, M. D., in his report to the same body of

his inspection of the jails of several of the counties in the state

of New York, during the year 1870, says :

" They remain much the same as heretofore ; and it would be a waste

of time and paper to repeat details, which have been given, again and

again, on former occasions. Their internal arrangements are for the

most part inconvenient and unsatisfactory ; old and young, novices and

professional criminals, the innocent and the guilty, are generally hud-

dled together in the day time, and imperfectly separated at night; there

is but little in jails of what may be called discipline, and less of moral

agencies for the benefit of their inmates ; the prisoners have no regular

employment, no secular instruction, no libraries, and generally, no pro-

vision is made for a due supply of their religious wants ; * * such is

the detail — by no means an exhaustive one — of the imperfections, defects,

and objectionable features of our system of common jails."

One more brief quotation fi'om a report of the New Prison

Association — one of the highest authorities on the subject in

the land :

"In the association of prisoners in our common jails the promiscuous

intercourse of all classes, all ages, and to a certain extent, we are sorry

to add, of both sexes, we have the great evil, the very Pandora's box of

the system ; the fountain head of pernicious influences, not simply to the

inmates themselves, but to the whole community as well, in the midst of

which the jail happens to be situated. If an institution should be estab-

lished in every county of the state, with the inscription over the door

"Vice and crime taught here" and the processes within corresponded to

the announcement without, this committee is impressed with the convic

Condition of the Common Jails. 97

tion that the work of manufacturing criminals could scarcely be more

effectually done than it is by our jail system as at present organized and

managed. This is strong language but it is not lightly used. There is

we think, no proposition more true, than that our present jail system is

deeply depraving to the prisoner, and a positive evil to the community."

Were tlie inmates of our jails tlie worst of criminals, were

tliey in all cases persons who had been charged with the most

heinous crimes, who had been fairly tried, found guilty and

justly sentenced, it would be an outrage upon their manhood,

a disgrace to the people of the state, and a reproach to the civil-

zation of the nineteenth century to confine them in such places

as are many of our jails ; but when we remember that the oc-

cupants of our jails are mostly persons simply charged with

crime, and that too of the milder types, and that the trial often

shows them to have been innocent, that sometimes they are

merely witnesses, or persons sentenced for a few days or a few

months for some minor offence, sometimes mere boys and girls,

the outrage, the disgrace and the reproach seem a thousand

fold intensified. The chief trouble seems to be inherent in our

present criminal system as connected with our jails. The

whole system is a relic of the barbarous ages of the past, and

the great wonder is that it should have been allowed to remain

so long unchallenged.

I have briefly called attention to the condition of the com-

mon jails of the country. Their real condition must be under-

stood and appreciated before any great improvement can be

made. The remedy for the evils and defects which have been

pointed out, will form an appropriate subject for another paper

on some future occasion.

DEPARTMENT OF NATURAL SCIENCE.

DEEP-WATER FAUNA OF LAKE MICHIGAN.

BY P. E. HOY, M. D., RACINE.

At a distance of sixteen to twenty miles off Racine the

water in Lake Michigan is from fifty to seventy fathoms deep.

The bottom, at these depths, is composed of an impalpable,

dark-colored mud, interspersed with depressions containing

quantities of partially decayed leaves intermingled with the

muddy deposits. It is on these " mud flats " that the fisher-

men capture, in gill-nets, the largest and finest white-fish and

trout.

The food of the white-fish had never been ascertained. In

order to solve this problem, I secured large quantities of the

stomachs of fish caught in various depths; by diluting the

ingesta I was enabled to determine on what the fish subsisted.

During these investigations I became deeply interested in the

new forms of animal life that swarmed in the deep water — fish

that never visit the shore ; crustaceans, that live only in the

profound depths of the lake. I discovered three species of

fish, four species of small crustaceans and one mollusk — all new

to science. The fish I sent to the Smithsonian Institute at

'Washington. They were placed in the hands of that accom-

jDlished naturalist. Prof. Theodore Gill, who described and

named them.

When I sent the fish to Prof. Bau'd I asked him to whom I

should send the crustaceans ? Who was the best authority on

that branch of natural history ? His answer was we had in the

West the very man, the best authority in America on the

Deep- Water Fauna of Lake Micliujan. 99

Crustacea^ Dr. William Stimpson, Secretary of tlie Chicago

Academy of Science. I record here this fact in justice to

Prof. Stimpson and the West,

Two of the fish belong to the genus Argyi-osomus, a genus

l^roposed by Agassiz to include that section of white-fish hav-

ing a projecting under jaw.

The Argyrosomus Hoyi^ Gill, is the smallest of the white-fish so

far found in any of the great lakes, it being only about eight inches

in length, and weighing one-fourth of a pound. The Mooneye, as

called by the fishermen, is an excellent jDan-fish, but its small

size renders its unsuitable for market. Trout devour large

numbers of these little beauties, as they constitute a large

share of their food. The Mooneye is only found in water over

forty fathoms.

The black-fin, Argyrosomus Nigripinnis, Gill, is a large and

beautiful fish, having black fins. It has never been caught in

less than sixty, and does not occur abundantly in less than

seventy fathoms. During the summer of 1871 there was not

a single black-fin taken off Racine, as the fishermen did not

go as far into the lake as they did the previous season.

The third species of fish was taken from the stomach of a

trout, caught in the deepest water. It belongs to the Coitus

family, and is closely allied to Triglopsis Thompsonii, Girard,

if not identical. Triglopsis Thompsonii was taken from the

stomach of a Lota Maculosa (by Prof. Baird) caught in Lake

Ontario in 1850, since which time not a specimen has been

taken, I am informed by the Professor, unless this be the same

fish taken now from the trout, as before mentioned. Prof. Gill

thinks it is probably an undescribed species, near T. Thomp-

sonii. If this prove so on further investigation, it will be

named Triglopsis Stimpsonii. What is peculiarly interesting

about this small fish is, that it is a salt water rather than a

fresh water form. Judging from the quantity of fragments

belonging to this species, obtained from the stomachs of trout

caught in the deep water, it must by no means be rare.

100 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Aois, cmd Letters.

I submitted tlie minute crustaceans to Dr. Stimpson, wlio

detected three species of fresh water shrimps, belonging to the

genus gammarius, and one species of mysis, a marine genus,

many species of which are found in the Northern Atlantic and

Arctic oceans. The small shell found with the crustaceans, in

the stomachs of the white-fish, proved to be an undescribed

species of pisidium.

These discoveries were considered of sufhcient importance

to Justify the undertaking of a dredging expedition. Profess-

ors Stimpson and Andrews, with Mr. Blatcliford, of Chicago,

represented the Chicago Academy of Science, while Drs. Lap-

ham and Hoy represented the Wisconsin Academy of Arts

and Letters.

_0n the 24th of June, 1870, we steamed into the lake, out of

sight of land, and spent the entire day in dredging in a most

enjoyable, and to science profitable, manner. We procured

living specimens of those crustaceans which I had previously

obtained from the stomachs of white-fish. But, with every

exertion, we were not able to keep them alive above a few

hours. Fitted, as they are, to sustain the great pressure of from

fifty to seventy fathoms of water, when this was taken off death

was the inevitable result.

I here subjoin a catalogue of all the animals thus far known

to inhabit the deep water off Racine :

Salmo amethystus — Mitchel

Coregonus sapidissimus — Agassiz.

Coregonus lattor — Agassiz.

Argyrosomus Hoyi — Gill.

Argyrosomus nigiipinnis — Gill.

Triglopsis Thompsonii — Girard,

Gammarius Hoyi — Stimpson.

Gammarius brevistilus — Stimpson.

Gammarius filicornis — Stimpson.

Mysis diluvianus — Stimpson.

Pisidium abysomus — Stimpson.

Dee;p- Water Fauna of Lake Michigan. 101

Also one species of parasite leech, found fastened to wliite-

fisli, and a small wMte Planaria.

In conclusion, tlie occurrence of marine foi-ms {my sis and

iriglopsis) go far to prove tliat Lake Michigan was once salt ;

had direct communication with the ocean. As it gradually

became elevated above the sea it would naturally take many

years to expel the salt water, especially as its greater specific

gravity would cause it to sink and remain long in the lake

— time sufficient for the animals to become acclimated to the

changed condition of things. It is barely possible that salt

springs at the bottom of the lake may have materially retarded

the change ; and that even now there may be brackish water

in the greatest depths. This seems the more probable since

the salt-bearing strata occurs in Michigan. We made an effort

to solve the query, but owing to the imperfection of the appa-

ratus I am not certain that the negative was proved.

H.

102 Wisconsin Academy of /Sciences^ Aiis, and Letters.

ON THE CLASSIFICATION OF PLANTS.

BY I. A. LAPHAM, LL. D.,

Milwaukee.

Animals in the hands of Cuvier and Agassiz, and minerals

by Dana and others, have been well and scientifically arranged

into natural divisions with their proper order of succession.

But plants, especially in the higher divisions of classes and

their subdivisions, still need the attention of a systematist.

It has been supposed that since De Candolle introduced into

botany the idea of Exogens, (outside growers), and Endogens,

(inside growers,) the classification of plants was complete. It

is proposed to show that this supposition is eiToneous, and has

led to incongruous results needing reformation. It may be

claimed as true that, so far as regards the description of spe-

cies, and their grouping into genera and families, botany is the

most advanced and perfect of any of the natural sciences ; but

as regards the limitations of classes and orders it is the least

advanced. It is only in relation to these larger divisions of

the vegetable kingdom that any suggestions will be made in

the present paper.

The most important of all plant-products — important to the

very life and continuance of the plant is the seed, the organ in

which one individual plant terminates, and another begins. It

is the ultimate product, and the one towards the perfection of

which all other vegetable organs and processes seem to con-

spire. Near the close of the growing season, the whole plant-

energy is concentrated upon the seed ; the seed is perfected

and the plant dies.

As the grand divisions of the vegetable kingdom must rest

On the Classification of Plants. 103

upon the most important characters, it is quite obvious that

we must look to the character of the seed for this purpose.

Less important characters will do for the minor divisions, but

not for the higher.

The seed contains, as its most important — most essential part

an embryo^ consisting of the radicle, cotyledons and plumule.

This is usually surrounded with a store-house of food

for its future use in germination, called albumen. Two

envelopes or coverings protect these more essential parts

of the seed. These several parts are subject to various

modifications ; the cotyledons may be single, double, or

; the albumen may be stored within the body of the

embryo, etc. — though thus modified they are essentially the

same. Thus the seed contains, already, a little plant that only

requires the proper conditions to be enlarged into an oak, a

lily, or some other plant.

But seeds are not the only reproductive bodies among j^lants ;

there are others, not so familiarly known to us, called spores.

They are simple cells filled with minute dots, and have

the power of sending out little shoots, which grow and

Fig- 3. become new plants. All spores send forth these little

tubes, almost exactly alike, apparently, and yet one will grow

to be a mushroom, another a moss, and another a fern.

There are essential differences between seeds and spores ;

while one has buried in its substance an embryo, which is

enlarged in germination into a perfect plant, the other contains

no embryo ; the seed always grows from a definite point, but

the spore sends out its tube from any part of its surface ; in

the seed, the new plant has already made considerable progress •

in the spore, re-production has not yet taken place. The seed,

then, is a more advanced body than the spore and indicates a

higher order of plants. All plants produce either seeds or

spores.

Fig. 1— a seed with its embryo.

Fig. 2— a spore, magnified.

r

10-i Wisconsin Academy of Sciences^ Arts^ and Letters.

Here, tlien, we have tlie basis of our first grand division of

the vegetable kingdom into two very distinct and easily recog-

nizable parts ; the one contains the spore-bearing plants (Spo-

eifer.e), the other includes the seed-bearing plants (Spermi-

FER^). This corresponds exactly with the division generally

adopted, into flowerless and flowering plants. But these names

are objectionable, especially for the higher orders of spore,

bearers, the mosses, ferns, etc., which have organs so analogous

to true flowers that we cannot say they are really flowerless.

Recent botanical writers are hardly consistent in describing the

inflorescence, or mode of flowering of these so-called flowerless

plants. They all produce and are propagated by spores, and

hence we not only avoid this absurdity but follow nature more

closely by calling them spore-bearing (Sporiferous) plants.

Just in proportion as we value a thing, so do we provide for

its care and protection ; and so in nature the seeds and spores

■of the higher classes of plants are provided with coverings for

their protection, while those of the lower classes are left almost

or quite naked. We thus have not only a basis for the next

subdivision of the vegetable kingdom, but a sure indication of

the relative position of these subdivisions in rank and import-

ance.

I. The lowest class of spore-bearing plants — the Algge,

^Fungi and Lichens — produce spores directly upon or within

the body of the plant, without special provision for

covering or inclosing them ; hence these may be

called Gymnospor^ or naked-spore-bearing plants.

The asci in which spores are found are mere open-

ings or sacks, and can hardly be called capsules or

''^' spore covers. These are the lowest and most sim-

ple plants ; they stand at the bottom of the scale of vegetable

life.

II. The second class of plants we will call Angiospor^,

because the spores are covered or provided with little cups

Fig. 3— lichen, magnified.

On Ihe Classification of Plants.

105

Fig. 4.

witli lids in wliicli tliej are closely packed awaj. This

class of the spore-bearers includes the Liverworts,

Mosses, Ferns, Lycopods and Equisetac£e. They are

the higher families of the Cryptogams.

III. The seed-bearing plants we may divide in the

same way : first we have the Gymnosperm^, or naked

seeds, in the Coniferas, (pines, etc.,) and in the Cycadacece,

tropical plants, but little known here.

In all these plants there are no proper seed ves-

sels. They are, therefore, the lowest class of the

seed-bearers, Spermifer^.

IV. Next and last we have the Angiosper-

Fig. 5. M^, or plants with seeds that are covered, such as

the pea and most of our familiar fruits. This is the most

highly organized class of plants, standing at the head of the

list in all modern botanical works.

We have, then, two grand divisions and four minor divis-

ions or classes of plants, all based upon the reproductive

organs

thus

Sporifer^,

Spore-bearing.

Spermifer^,

Seed-bearing.

GyinnosiJorcB^i

Naked spores.

Angiosporoe^i

Covered spores.

Oymn osj)erm a,

Naked seeds.

A7igiospermai^

Covered seeds.

The beauty and simplicity of this arrangement is apparent,

and may be deemed a sufficient proof that it is in accordance

with nature, which is always simple, methodical, and progTess-

ive ; and yet it differs essentially from any heretofore adopted,

in placing the Gymnosperms (conifers, etc.) below all the

Angiosperms, whether of exogenous or endogenous structure.

Fig. 4— theca or capsule of a moss.

Fig. 5— scale from a pine core showing the two naked seeds.

106 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences^ Arts^ and Letters.

It remains to be seen whether tliis classifieation, so simple

and logical, is sustained by the consideration of other charac-

teristics. •

Spores and Seeds —

Class 1. Has spores only.

2. Same,

3. Cotyledons indefinite in number.

4. Cotyledons definite ; either one or two.

In all proper systems of classification the indefinite is deemed

inferior to the definite, and hence our 3d class, the plants with

naked seeds, falls below the whole of class 4.

Mowers —

These also show a regular progression through the several

classes :

Class 1. Flowers obscure or none.

2. Without proper stamens and pistils.

3. Without pistils, (stamens only.)

4. With both stamens and pistils.

Leaves —

Class 1. Leaves none.

2. With the venation dichotomous.

3. Venation both dichotomous and parallel.

4. Yenation parallel and netted.

Structure —

Class 1. Cellular.

2. Cellular with a few woody fibres.

3. Cellular with woody fibres ; cells with discs.

4. With woody and vascular fibres.

Mode of groioth —

Class 1. Irregular ; no distinction of stem and leaf. Thallogens.

2. A regular ascending axis ; growth at apex. Acrogens.

3. By external layers. Exogens (in part).

4. By both internal and external layers. Endogens and

Exogens

On the Classification of Plants. 107

Geological age —

Class 1. Found in tlie Lower Silurian age.

2. First found in the Upper Silurian.

3. First in tlie Devonian.

4. First in the Carboniferous.

So it will be seen that whether we regard the character of

the seed, the flowers, the leaves, the structure ; whether we

regard the mode of growth or the relative age of the world at

which each class was introduced, we equally find that, with

this arrangement, there is a regular progression from the more

simple to the more highly organized ; and fi'om the oldest to

the most recent. It is therefore the most natural and proper

classification of plants.

But to find this regular progression we have been obliged to

disregard one character usually deemed of the highest import-

ance. Plants with the exogenous mode of growth are divided

and placed in two different classes. We are thus compelled, ,

in this new classification, to consider the mode of growth or

internal structure of stems as of only secondary importance.

The Grymnosperms are shown to be inferior to all the Angio-

sperms by their indefinite number of cotyledons ; by their

flowers without pistils ; by their dichotomously veined leaves,

which allies them with the ferns ; by their want of vascular

fibres in the structure of the stem ; and by the earlier epoch of

their creation. Hence it must be right to reduce these plants

to a position below that of the palms, the lily, and the orchids.

When Cuvier found that the anatomy, the internal structure

of animals indicated their relative position in the scale of ani-

mal beings, the conclusion was very natural that the same law

existed with regard to plants ; and hence the prominence given

by De Candolle to the exogenous and the endogenous struct-

ure in his classification. But this must be regarded as one of

the most unfortunate ideas ever introduced into botany ; for it

requires that we rank the Gymnosj)erms above the Monocoty-

ledonous plants, though their affinities are thus clearly shown

108 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters.

to be more nearly with the Angiospores, (the Lycopods, etc.)

Botanical writers generally, admit this defect in the present

arrangement, and yet persist in perpetuating it ; such is the

disposition to follow authority without examination. The

doctrine that "the king can do no wrong" is equally delete-

rious in botany and in politics !

If the more simple forms of plants were first created, to

which were added, from time to time, those of more compli-

cated structure ; and if the arrangement of classes must corres-

pond with that of their introduction in geologic time, we must

adopt this new classification ; for it is found that the Coniferoe

existed in the Devonian age, while the Monocotyledons extend

back only to that of the Carboniferous.

By thus removing the Gymnosperms from between the

Dicotyledonous and the Monocotyledonous plants we bring

these two nearly related grand divisions of the Angiosperms

together ; thus while we separate the Exogens, part into one

class and part into another, we at the same time unite and

bring together the Angiosperms, which have been unnaturally

separated. By the divorce of an unnatural union we secure

another, more congenial.

In the following table an attempt is made to represent, in a

compact form, the ideas I have thus attempted to explain ; and

also to show how each class may be divided into two well

characterized groups.

On the Classification of Plants.

109

110 Wisconsin Academy of iSliejices, Arts, and Letters.

INSECTS INJUKIOUS TO AGEICULTUEE.

APHIDES, (plant LICE,)

BY P. R. HOY, M. D., Racine.

Entomology, the history of insects, tlieir metamorplioses,

habits, relation to plants, etc., is a branch of natural history

which has peculiar claims on the agriculturist. In view of the

millions of dollars annually lost to the state by the deprecia-

tions of insects, it becomes an interesting problem how to dis-

tinguish in all stages of growth, our insect friends from our

insect foes, that we may be better fitted to cherish the one and

destroy the other.

When will the representatives of the people understand that

Wisconsin can ill afford to dispense with the invaluable ser-

vices of a state entomologist? We have a host of insects,

peculiarly destructive, waiting for careful study, the better to

enable us to counteract their evil work. Not the least of the

advantages to be derived from the labors of an active, enthusi-

astic state entomologist, is the education of the farmers by

personal contact ; thus teaching them how to distinguish the

various insects by which they are surrounded, in their different

stages, so that this practical knowledge may be of value to

themselves and to their neighbors.

Plant Lice. — Small, green, brown, black or white, soft

bodied insects, with or without wings ; crowding together on

leaves, stems, bark or roots of various trees and herbs. Many

species are covered with a white cottony substance, hence called

Woolly Aphides. The number of species is very large, not a

genus of plants that has not its peculiar species ; many, more

than. one. The apple alone, according to Fitch, has not less

Insects Injurious to Agriculture. Ill

than five species of plant lice. One of the most common

infests tlie tender leaves of tlie apple, tlie Aphis Mali, Fab.

This species is green, egg-shaped, one-tenth of an inch in

length ; it is either with or without wings. They are provided

with two spurs, or nectaries, which originate near the center

of the body. These nectaries secrete a fluid as sweet as honey.

So astonishingly prolific is this insect, that the increase of one

single egg, it has been estimated, in seven generations, would

be 729 millions! If it were not for the good offices of those

animals which prey upon plant lice, every thing green on the

face of the globe, would, in a short time, be covered with these

voracious insects. They crowd as thick as they can stand,

their long suckers inserted into the succulent young shoots

and leaves, pumping up the juice. If disturbed, they jerk up

their bodies in a comical way and emit, from their nectaries, a

shower of honey, apparently to bribe the intruder with this

sweet fluid. Not unfrequently they kick up their hind feet in

unison, impelled by an excess of animal spirits, from very joy

of existence.

The history of this species is extremely interesting. In the

spring, as soon as the young leaves appear, the eggs hid away

in the crevices of the bark, hatch. The young creep to the

extremity of the branch and fasten on the young shoots. In a

few days the louse is fully grown. All the eggs laid in

autumn produce wingless females, and these females do not

lay eggs, but bring forth livi7ig young which are also females.

The young when first born are milk white, but change in a

few hours to the color of the parent. In a very few days

these young lice produce living progeny also. And so on for

from fifteen to twenty generations, each individual louse pro-

ducing from five to ten each day, all without the presence of a

single male ; for in fact there is not a male in existence ! A

few winged females appear occasionally, which take wing and

plant new colonies. Thus goes on this remarkable form of

reproduction till fall, when there apj)ears a brood of winged

112 Wiscojisin Academy of Sciences^ Ai^is, and Letters.

males and females wliicli pair, in tlie usual manner. The

result of this union is not living aphides, but eggs, which in

the month of October the females deposit in the crevices and

cracks on the bark of apple trees. Soon after this the lice all

perish. The eggs remain securely hid away during winter, to

be called, by the warm days of another spring, into life, again

to repeat this wonderful phenomenon.

Aphis Peotectors. — Ants are almost always seen busily

running up and down trees and plants infested by the aphis.

These ants take charge of the lice, guard them from harm with

zealous care ; for which good services they are amply paid in

honey, by the plant lice. The ants approach the lice, and if

there is not an accumulated supjDly, they touch them with

their antennae by way of reminding them of their wants ; at

once the lice respond with a drop of their sweet fluid. For

this reason plant lice are humorously called Ant Cows. It is

a well known fact, that colonies of aphides attended by ants

thrive better and are more prolific than those which the ants

have not found.

Aphis Enemies. — Now for the Aphis foes, and conse-

quently our friends. We place first on the roll of honor, the

larvae of the Lace- wing flies, which are called Plant Lice Lions,

a name well deserved. Lace- wings belong to the family He-

merobdia, order Neuroptera. There are many species of

Lace- wings ; they are mostly not over half an inch in length ;

color, pale green, or yellowish brown, with conspicuously

prominent golden eyes, for which reason they are sometimes

called Golden Eyes. They are provided with four large wings,

which expand a little over one inch. These wings are netted

in a beautiful manner, resembling the finest lace, hence the

name. These flies may be met with during the entire summer,

in the vicinity of trees infested with lice. They are nocturnal

in their habits.

The manner in which the female Lace-wing deposits her

Insects Injurious to Agriculture. 113

eggs cliallenges our admiration at the beautiful adaptation of

means to tlie accomplisliment of important ends. Nature lias

furnished this insect with a fluid analogou.s to that of the spi-

der for spinning her web. When ready to deposit an egg, this

insect touches the end of her body to a branch or leaf, and

then elevates the abdomen, drawing out a pure white thread,

half an inch in length, which hardens instantly, on the sum-

mit of which she fixes an egg. This being repeated, from 10 to

20 eggs are thus placed on slender threads. The eggs when

first deposited are pale gi-een, becoming opaqu.e before hatching.

Now the object of thus placing the eggs on these hairs is evi-

dent. Were they placed in reach the first larva that escaped

from an egg would devour the remainder. So nature has well

guarded the continuance of the species.

The larvte of the various species of Lace-wings differ con-

siderably in color. They are mostly of a reddish brown, light-

er on the sides, with a dark line down the back. The body is

long, wrinkled, short hairs projecting from each segment ; has

six legs, and is armed with a pair of formidable, sickle

shaped jaws, which project conspicuously in front. Thus

armed these lions hurry about in one continual state of activity

day and night in quest of plant lice, their legitimate prey.

They seize the lice with their tongs, and elevate them, till they

have sucked every particle of substance from the bodies, then

giving the skins a toss, resume their search for more victims.

It is astonishing how many lice are destroyed by a single aphis-

lion.

Having attained its growth, the lion make the last meal an

excessive one, remains torpid for a day or two, then spins a

circular cocoon in which the insect is entombed during the win-

ter. The first warm day of spring calls them out. So open-

ing a small door, in this temporary grave, emerges a beautiful

Lady Lace- wing, dressed up in the most extravagant finery.

Lady Birds. — Family CoccineUidce, order Coleoptera^ small,

114 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences^ Arts, and Letters.

nearly round beetles, ornamented mostly with spots of various

colors on tlie elytra.

There are about one hundred species described as belonging

to the United States. In my collection alone there are no less

than twenty species, obtained near Racine. So Wisconsin is

not deficient in these valuable insects. These beetles deposit

their eggs in clusters on the under side of leaves on various

plants. Their eggs are of a shining, golden yellow, resembling

those of the Colorado potato beetle. In a few days they hatch

out six legged, dark colored, long bodied larvge. Their jaws

are short, but sufficiently long, however, to be of good service

in killing aphides.

These larvae are nearly, if ngt quite, equal to the aphis lions

in destroying plant lice. Dr. Fitch, New York state entomol-

ogist, so faithfully describes the habits of i}ns> plant lice wolf, as it

miglit appropriately be named, that I adopt his language.

When first hatched, "it walks about with much animation,

and coming to a plant louse, much larger than itself it may

be, the little hero, though only a few minutes old, boldly seizes

the louse, which, like a cowardly poltroon, makes no resistance

except trying to pull himself away. But the little assailant

hangs lustily to him, preventing his advancing a single step

further, and using his anterior legs as arms, he commonly raises

the louse off from the leaf and leisurely devours his body,

leaving only the empty skin remaining. As he grows, the

sides, and in some species the whole surface, becomes diversi-

fied with bright red and yellow spots with rows of tubercles or

elevated points. He is a most active voracious little creature,

running briskly over the limbs and leaves in search of his prey,

and consuming hundreds of aphides. He grows to about a

quarter of an inch in length in the course of two or three

weeks ; he then fixes himself by his tail to a leaf, or the limb

or trunk of a tree, and hanging with his head downwards the

skin cracks open along the middle of his back, and the smooth

back of the pupa protrudes partly out of the prickly skin of

Insects Injurious to Agriculture. 115

the larva, and thus remains, the old larva skin continuing to

cover the pupa on each side and beneath. The insect remains

dormant in its pupa state about a fortnight, when its hard

exterior shell cracks open, and from it crawls a small shining

beetle nearly the shape of a half pea, though often much

smaller than this."

The Agents Within Ouk Control for Destroying

Plant Lice. — The smoke of tobacco, when it is possible to

confine it for a time, is undoubtedly one of the most efficient

remedies for extinguishing these pests. In green houses,

graperies, consei-vatories, etc., the smoke is always potent.

Small out-door plants can be covered with boxes, barrels, or

even umbrellas, or anything that will form a temporary cover,

will answer, and insure the destruction of the aphides with

tobacco smoke. But on large trees, and vines, smoking is not

practicable. The next best thing is a thorough drenching

with strong tobacco water ; say one-fourth of a pound of

tobacco to one gallon of boiling water. Soap suds has been

used with good results. A strong decoction of quassia wood

has also been attended with some benefit. But of all reme-

dies for out-door trees and \dnes, I prefer collecting, with a

net, by sweeping bushes and coarse weeds, the several larv»

described in this article — cqohis-lions and aphis-ioolves.

Several years ago a fine balsam fir, fifteen feet in height,

standing in my grounds, became overrun with a species of

woolly aphis, which deformed the leaves, and there was dan-

ger of the tree being destroyed by them. With a net I col-

lected a brave lot of the larvae of lady birds, and placed them

on the lousy tree ; at the same time I noticed several packets

of lace-wing eggs. The combined labors of these soon des-

troyed every single louse. The tree, now sixty feet in height,

has never, to my knowledge, had an aphis on it since.

Last year my out-door gTapes became badly infested with

lice ; I secured many aphis-wolves and aphis-lions, which I

116 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences^ Avis, and Letters.

transferred to the vines ; in less than two weeks the grapes were

entirely free of these pests, without resorting to other means.

I know of many incidents illustrating the woful ignorance

of persons otherwise intelligent, who were waging an exter-

minating war against insects and birds, at the very time they

were engaged in the good work of devouring noxious insects.

Coniferce of the Rochy Mountains. 117

CONIFERS OF THE EOCKY MOUNTAINS.

BY J. G. KNAPP, ESQ., MADISON.

Mr. President and Gentlemen : — I have the pleasure of pre-

senting you some seeds — nuts you may call them — which as

you perceive are somewhat irregular in form, one-half inch in

length, and one-third in thickness. Generally they are of a

pale brown color. The testa, outer shell, of a very peculiar

texture, is neither woody nor leathery, but a mixture of both,

and about .02 of an inch in thickness. It is easily broken in

fragmentary pieces, though in germination it parts in two equal

valves. When this testa is removed, the inner integument of

a slight drab color, and gauze-like texture is exposed. Beneath

this is formed the kernel. The body is of a pearly whiteness,

cylindrical, two and a half times as long as thick, with a light

brown apex. On cutting this through the centre longitudin-

ally, the cylindrical embryo or embryos, are seen occupying

nearly the entire length of the albumen, and one-third the face

of the hemi-cylinder. The cotyledons vary from three to

twelve, and are arranged around and cover the apex of a cen-

tral shaft, the radicle occupying the opposite extremity. This

nut is therefore the fi*uit of some acrogens, or is nearly allied

to such plants. The whole of this kernel is gorged with a

remarkably sweet oil, and is perhaps the most delicately

flavored of any nut in North America, if not in the world.

When the inner integument is eaten with the kernel, it imparts

to it a balsamic flavor.

These are the nuts of a pine tree, although there is no trace

of the fragile wing with which the nutlets of the coniferse are

I.

118 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences^ Arts., and Letters.

usually furnislied. Sucli a wing in this case, unless it were

very large, would answer but a poor purpose in floating tliese

nuts from tlie tree. Tliese nuts came from New Mexico, and

are tlie produce of the 'pinus edulis^ or the pinon of the Mexi"

can. I shall ask you to receive and preserve these in your

cabinet.

I think I see in this kernel and embryo another evidence of

the necessity of revising the botanical classification of our

plants, and of separating the coniferae from the dicotyledonous

plants, since they do not agree with the condition, two in the

number of cotyledons ; or from the exogenous trees, where

they disagree in the form of the fibre of the wood ; and arrang-

ing them in a class by themselves, between the exogens and

acrogens.

The tree on which these nuts gi'ow is botanically named

from the edible nuts ; but one is at loss to know why the Mex-

ican has called it the pinon, large or big pine, unless we are to

suppose he has transfei-red the large or big nut of this pine

[pineo] to the tree itself. It is usually a small tree, short-

bodied, with numerous crooked branches, and a dense foliage.

The wood is very hard and full of pitch, compact and brittle,

and when dry is equal to the best of hickory for fuel.

Observers must have discovered that many of the evergreens

in cultivation in this region, are failing for some cause not

apparent to everybody. I attribute much of this failure to a

want of sufficient moisture in the atmos|)here. The native

habitat of our cultivated coniferse is in regions of great moist-

ure, where the mosses abound. The climate here is different ;

and as our fruit-growers have been taught lessons in the

expensive school of experience, so the grower of evergreens

must expect to pay dearly for knowledge, when he seeks to

transplant the trees of damp Europe and wooded America, to

the dry regions of Wisconsin, and its sister states. We are

not yet prepared, nor need we ever be, to give up the idea of

growing evergreens ; but it becomes the thoughtful inquirer,

Cdniferm of the Rocky Mountains. 119

in seeking to remedy the difficulties of rearing tlie evergreens

now under cultivation, to look toward the dry cold mountain

region on our west, and see if lie cannot there find trees more

suitable for his wants — trees that can endure the great extremes

of heat, cold and droughts of this climate. This consideration

induces me to describe these evergreens of the Rocky Moun-

tains with a little more minuteness.

The Pinus Edulis is first seen near the foot hills of the

mountains, on rocky points, and ridges, and in the out-lying

hills, where it can receive but a scant supply of moisture.

Grain in its neighborhood is only grown by irrigation. Here

the summers are only long enough to ripen beans, and the

smallest, and earliest variety of corn. The best trees are

found in regions too elevated to produce any cultivated

crop. It avoids the beds of the streams, and is seldom found

in the bottoms of the valleys, where water from melting snows

or rains may run. On the high table lands, ridges, and steep

rocky mountain sides, it takes its strongest hold, and flourishes

best. The leaves are in pairs, two inches long, dark green,

coarse and ridged, and are persistent for two or more years.

The tree gives a dense shade, and makes an excellent wind

breaker. It is of too slow growth for general use, as an orna-

mental or forest tree ; but on hard, rocky, dry ridges, and at the

brow of steep table lands, it would thrive well. When at the

end a hundred years, the tree has reached thirty or forty feet

in height, and as many in the diameter of its rounded top, it

possesses great beauty, and gives its biennial crop of nuts, and

would then be greatly esteemed. It would never suft'er from

the droughts of summer, or be likely to perish from the cold,

or winds of winter as it thrives to the very highest limit of

the pines, and nearly to the line of dayly fi'osts.

Pinus Englemani^ Engleman's pine is most deserving of

attention. This is also found in the foot hills and out-lying

mountains, but it is within, and high up the steep and pre-

cipitous snow-capped ranges, where it grows in greatest per-

120 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, J.rte, and Letters.

fection. . From a resemblance in tlie color of bark, and the

ger^.ral configuration of tlie tree, wlien seen at a distance to

the pinus resinosa, it has been named by the immigrants from

the eastern states, yellow and pitch pine. The trees grow tall

and straight, with smooth stems, and produce a yellowish

wood not unlike the wood of the 2>. Resinosa. Though the

wood is hard, the tree has but little sap wood, and in most

trees it is tolerably clear of pitch. When sawed the timber is

applied to all purposes where white pine is used by us, and it

may be reckoned as a good building material. The cones are

about the size of the pitch pine of the south, three inches by

two. The nutlets are armed with a wing an inch long, that

floats them to a great distance fi'om the parent tree. The

lea'ves are short, dark green throughout the year, grow in pairs,

and are often six inches long. It is a rapidly growing tree,

and more ornamental than the Austrian, or the red pine.

Thousands of these pines have been peeled by the Indians in

times of famine with them, for the sake of the cambrium,

which is sweet and nuritious, and used by them for food. In

this respect it seems allied to the pinus Lamberti, sugar pine

of California. This species has been the great source from

which the ties, bridge and other timber for the Pacific railroad

have been obtained.

Pinus flexilis is the white pine of the Kocky mountains. In

contour it resembles the white pine of the northern states, ^jmws

strohus. The dark green leaves grow in fives, and are six inches

in length, fine, and flexile, hence its name. The bark of old

trees is dark, and deeply furrowed. The cones are beautifully

formed, four inches long and three in their greatest diameter ;

seeds are large as peas, sweet, oily and edible. The wood

is white, but the tree produces so mu.ch sap wood, that it is

of less value than i:lie pinus Engelmani, for building timber,

and is as hard, hence it is not often sawed into timber. The

tree is a large one, often reaching one hundred feet in height,

with limbs starting out at about twenty feet fi'om the ground.

Coniferce of the Rocky Mountains. 121

It grows in the same dry lands as tlie otlier pines of tlie region,

and readies from the foot-hills to the line of daily frosts. 'his

would make a highly ornamental tree where a dark shade was

desired, and its long flexile leaves, and large cones give it great

beauty when near at hand, and its conical formed top and dark

green foliage make it a graceful feature in the landscape. It

would make an excellent shelter as a wind breaker to protect

buildings, crops and animals, from the effects of the wind.

Abies Douglassi, Douglas spruce, is a tall straight tree where it

grows in thickets, or has a fair supply of water, as in the canons

of the mountains. In dry and open grounds, it holds its long

horizontal limbs near the ground, and with these forms a per-

fect conical top, with a diameter nearly equal to its altitude.

The foliage is dense and dark green. The leaves are one and

one-half inches long, gTowing in two ranks as a slender spray,

much like the Hemlock, Abies Canadense. The bark is thicker

and rougher than the hemlock, and contains a larger per cent-

age of tannin. The cones are cylindrical, three inches long

and three-fourths in diameter, and being colored during the

first year are highly ornamental. The timber resembles the

other spruces, and is strong and elastic ; a good building mate-

rial but not as durable as the pines. I know of no spruce that

would be as valuable an acquisition to our ornamental trees

and tree belts, as this would be, especially for dry situations.

The wood burns with great heat when dry, but crackles badly,

in an open fire. The long periods of drought in its native

habitat do not affect it ; and it flourishes above the pines ;

thus proving incontestibly its hardy character. We may there-

fore safely conclude that the Douglas sprace, would thrive,

where all the other species of the family would fail from the

effects of drought and cold.

Abies Nea Mexicana (?) Eocky Mountain fir, so I have ven-

ventured to name this beautiful species. The leaves are twice

the length of the Abies balsamea, and the cones bear the same

increased proportions, being often two inches long. I have

122 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters.

ventured to give it the specific name of New Mexican, since I

do not find it described by any of our botanists, and when

the spray and leaves were shown to ToiTcy in 1857, he doubted

its identity with the halsamea, but retained that name on the

authority of Bigelow. This tree is associated with Douglas

spruce, in its growth, and is in all respects the most beautiful

of the fir tribe. I first observed it on the 19th of Sept., 1861,

near the summit of the Sarigre de Crista pass in Colorado, at an

elevation of about 11,000 feet above the level of the sea, and

thus wrote of it the time : "I passed -through the yellow pines,

{Pinus Englemani), and turning a sharp angle in the road, saw

such a balsam tree as would have been the making of a Wis-

consin nurseryman, or the pride of the most ornamental park

in an eastern city. Its leaves were twice as long and three

times as dense as any tree of the family I have ever seen. A

little further up all of the trees were of this same beautiful spe-

cies. Another half mile and the firs gave way to spruces,

{Douglassi) of equally brilliant foliage." The timber of this

fir is like the whole tribe, of little value, except as fuel ; and

even in the dry climate where it grows, is durable only under

cover.

Four species of the juniper grow among these pines and

spruces, which show gi'eat ability to endure the gi'eatest

extremes of heat, cold, droughts and severe winds. These are

found on rocky points furthest out on the dry, windy plains,

of all trees. Though dwarfed and stunted, they sometimes

attain a diameter of two feet ; but commonly they produce

clumps of a dozen or more trees springing from a common

root, which spread out laterally as far as high, forming a hem-

isphere of yellowish-green foliage, and pale blue berries. All

are densely leaved, and yield an abundance of berry -like cones,

which are sweet and greedily devoured by the bears and birds

in winter. Hunters and Indians have been known to subsist

upon these cones, for several days at a time. At least two

Aaluable species might be selected from these junipers, well

Coniferce of the Rochy Mountains. 123

adapted for wind breakers, if not for live hedges on dry, hard

lands.

Juniperus pachypliylcBa, thick bark cedar, is the best species

of the red cedar I ever met with. I found this tree growing

in the spurs of the White mountains of New Mexico, at an

elevation of about 10,000 feet. Could it be introduced, it

would be not only a decided curiosity, but a worthy acquisi-

tion to our list of evergreens. The coriaceous bark is cracked

and seamed into cubical forms of two inches. The fibrous

exfoliation of the other j\inipers is entirely wanting in this

tree. The trees were growing among the Engleman pines,

with smooth straight trunks, often thirty feet to a limb, clear

of knots and three feet thick. The wood is close and compact,

of a rich mahogany color, otherwise it resembles the wood of

our red cedar, Juniperus Virginiana. From its habitat, where

I saw it, I should think it would thrive in Wisconsin.

124 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters.

KEPOET ON THE GEOLOGY OF THE REGION

ABOUT DEVIL'S LAKE.

BY PROFESSOR JAMES H. EATOU, A. M.,

Of Beloit College.

Topography. — The formation of Sauk county is the Pots-

dam sandstone. (Potsdam epoch of the N. Y. Survey.) It

lies nearly horizontal, with a gentle dip to the southeast. The

higher elevations, especially in the southern part of the county,

are capped with conformable layers of the lower magnesian

limestone. (Calcareous epoch of the N. Y. surveys.) Run-

ning east and west through the center of the county are two

parallel ridges, with an average elevation of 400 to 500 feet,

and a base of two to four miles. The distance between them is

three to four miles. The Baraboo river runs in this valley

and empties east into the Wisconsin. A north and south val-

ley cuts half way through the eastern end of the southern

ridge, and then trends east towards the valley of the Wiscon-

sin. In the north end of this valley lies Devil's Lake.

LiTHOLOGY OF THE RiDGES. — They are a comjmct, crystal-

ine sandstone, without cement, or quartzite. The predominant

colors are pink and red, often banded with straight or con-

torted parallel lines of lighter and darker colors. In some

places the rock is an homogeneous white quartz, with distinct

and well formed crystals.

Origin of the Quartzite. — Both the nature of the rock

and its position give evidence that it is metamorphic Potsdam

sandstone. The rock presents all gradations from the simple

sandstone to the perfectly crystallized quartz. The Potsdam

Oeology of the Region About DeviVs Lake. 125

sandstone consists of small rounded gi*ains of quartz, and is

very loosely cemented. It can easily be crumbled with the

fingers. Hand pieces of the quartzite may be obtained in all

stages from tMs friable sandstone to that wbere the grains are

apparent and the rock is less friable, to that where the homo-

geneousness is here nearly approached but the small grains

can still be seen, and finally to the perfect homogeneous

quartz. No sharp geographical line of demarcation between

the sandstone and quartzite, and no gradation in any direction

was observed.

The homogeneousness of the colored quartzite is not as per-

fect as it appears. Whenever a surface has been subjected to

the weather, the small grains come to view again.

The bandings of the quartzite are yqvj similar to those in

the undisturbed sandstone. These bands sometimes consist of

layers of fine grains of sand.

Some of the great blocks of quartzite, which have fallen

down the sides of the valley are most beautifully covered with

regular ripple marks. They must have been first made in the

moving sands.

The layers are nearly as perfect as in the sandstone, and

have a dip equal to the inclination of the ridges. The dip on

either side can be seen best from the opposite side. The anti-

clinal ridge on the east side of the lake is removed by the

valley, which trends to the east, and on the west by another

valley, which comes down to the lake. Vertical joints also

lead to the conclusion that the ridge has been formed by the

upheaval of the horizontal layers of sandstone. The layers

were not traced north and south to determine whether they

are continuous horizontally.

How WAS THE Sandstone Changed ? — Both the nature of

the rock and its position forbid the idea of aqueous fusion or

active volcanic agency. The change must have taken place by

the purely wet way of partial solution and crystallization, or

126 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences^ Aris, and Letters.

by a low degree of heat, working for a long series of years

through the moisture in the sandstone, probably aided by the

pressure which lifted the ridges. If the latter, the change and

elevation of the rock took place at the same time, and both

effects were produced with extreme slowness.

When was the Eidge Eaised ? — Before the glacial epoch.

Wm. H. Caniield, Esq., of Baraboo, has found abundant proof s

of the movement of glaciers over the rock since it has been

metamorphosed. In many places on the elevated portions

smoothly polished surfaces of quartz of great extent have been

exposed by removing the soil. Before the glacial epoch, there

seem to be no data for fixing the time of the elevating and

metamorphic action. There has therefore been ample time for

metamorphic action of the most extreme slowness.

Where and How was the Yalley of Devil's Lake

Formed ?— At a previous meeting Dr. Lapham, Secretary of

the Academy, advanced in a paper the view, that Baraboo

river once ran through this valley on its way to the Wis-

consin, and was turned from its former course into its present

one by glacial drift. If this view is coiTCct, as the facts seem

to warrant, this valley may have been made at any time fi'om

the Lower Silurian up to the glacial period. It is not neces-

sary to introduce any great convulsion. The regularity of the

layers would forbid any sudden and violent upheaval and

cracldng of the rock. During the slow process of upheaval, a

greater extent than the others, perhaps of nearly the present

width of the valley, may have been made. The slowly acting

agencies of the atmosphere and of water can have widened the

fissure and thrown down the great mass of debris which lies

on the south of the valley. The valley is about half a mile

wide. The sides slope up from 200 to 300 feet, as steep as the

large blocks will lie upon each other, and the remaining

height is a perpendicular wall cut by vertical fissures into

most fantastic shapes, with natural fortifications and castles,

Geology of the Region About DeviV s Lake. 127

turrets and towers, making one of tlie most cliarming bits of

landscape in our state.

Change in Course and Bed of Baraboo Eiver. — A

word in evidence that tlie Baraboo river formerly ran through

the valley and was turned aside by the glacier drift. The

surface of the lake is thirty feet above the court house at Bar-

aboo, and one hundred and sixty feet above the Wisconsin

river to the south. (These figures are Mr. Canfield's.) The

lake is more than thirty feet deep and has a bottom of sand-

There is therefore a sufficient descent. The valley is a natu-

ral course for the river, and running water would have given

it some of the features of its present form. In the valley, both

north and south of the lake, there is an abundance of drift.

In a few hours a large variety of northern rocks was collected,

granite, syenite and Lake Superior rocks. They, with sand,

have filled up a deeper valley to such a height that the river

finds a new course to the Wisconsin.

There is another point of great interest in this region, which

does not appear to be easy of solution. On the top of the

ridge and in lines running north and south are conglomerated

boulders. These are local and do not extend far to the south

of the southern ridge. They consist of rounded, water- worn

pebbles, and large boulders of quartzite imbedded in a friable

sandstone. Some of these conglomerated boulders weigh many

tons. They are evidently deposited at a very little distance

from the place of their origin. Evidently, in this immediate

neighborhood, pieces of quartzite have been for a long time

subjected to running water, and have found themselves in a

bed of sand, which has been hardened, and some moving

cause has carried them into their present positions. The place

and time and agencies which have produced these effects,

demand a more careful and close study, such as it is the object

of the Academy to encourage. There are also signs of a sec-

128 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences^ Aris^ and Letters.

ondary metamorpliic action in some of the quartzite. A num-

ber of specimens were obtained wbicb were homogeneous, but

contained large numbers of rounded pebbles, of the same

quartzite or of white quartz, firmly imbedded in them.

Age of the Quartzites, SchistSj Mc, of /Sauk Co. 129

THE AGE OF THE QUARTZITES, SCHISTS AND

CONGLOMERATES OF SAUK CO,, WIS.*

BY ROLAND IRVING, E. M.

Professor of Geology, Mining and Metallurgy. at the University of Wisconsin.

Througli tlie central portion of the county of Sauk, Wis-

consin, run two ranges of hills or ridges, having an east and

west trend, and a height varying from a mere rise above the

general prairie to an altitude of five hundred feet. The width

from north to south never exceeds three or four miles, and in

places is much less than one mile. The total lengths from east

to west, or rather, the exact points at which the peculiar rocks

which make up the ridges give place to the ordinary country

rock, are not as yet accurately known. These lengths, however,

seem to be from fifteen to twenty miles.

The rock material of the ridges is mainly a hard dark-colored

quartzite ; with this in some places are siliceous and talco-silice-

ous schists, and two or three kinds of conglomerate. The dip

of the strata, which, though in some places obscure, is in others

very marked — and can everyivhere be determined by careful

observation — is uniformly toward the north. The angle varies

from 20 deg. to 25 deg. in the south range, to 75 deg. to 80 deg.

in the north.

The occurrence of these bold ridges in the midst of a prairie

country, together with the marked contrast between their up-

turned and metamorphosed layers and the entirely undisturbed

strata of the Potsdam and Calciferous epochs, which for miles

around form the country rock, has caused much speculation

and discussion. From time to time, during the past twenty

* This paper has already been published, with some slight differences, In the American Jour-

nal of Science and Art for February, 18T2.

130 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters.

years, brief notices have appeared in various journals and re-

ports, but no careful investigation of the localities in question

seems ever to have been attempted. In most of these notices,

or rather in most of those that are not absurdly inaccurate in

their statements and wild in their ideas, the main point under

discussion has been the relative age of the metamorphic strata.

Do they, or do they not, antedate the Potsdam period ? Are

they the results of local metamorphism on the Potsdam sand-

stones, or are they the remnants of pre-existing rocks ? The

advocates of the former theory have had the last word in the

discussion.

The facts recorded in the present article are the results of a

series of visits made to the localities by the writer, during the

months of September, October and November of this year

(1871,) and they will, I think, be seen to prove beyond all

doubt or cavil, that the quartzites and schists antedate entirely

the Potsdam epoch, i. e., are either Huronian or Lauren tian in

age.

Of all of the notices mentioned, none are more than brief

mentions and only a few seem to have any value at all. Dr.

Shummard, in Owen's report on Wisconsin, Iowa and Minne-

sota, makes the first mention of the quartzite. He gives no

opinion. Dr. James G. Perceval, in the report of progress of

the Wisconsin survey for 1856, refers again to the quartzites,

calling them merely " metamorphic sandstones," but intimating

that they result from a change on the Potsdam sandstones. Mr.

James Hall, in his report of progress to the Grovernor of Wis-

consin for 1860, gives by far the most accurate description I

have been able to find. He refers the quartzites unhesitatingly

to the Huronian — but gives no proofs whatever. His pam-

phlet did not fall into my hands until after my own investiga-

tions were entirely completed. In the first volume of his final

report, Mr. Hall again mentions the quartzites, but still more

briefly, expressing the same opinion as before, and still giving

no proofs. In 1864 there appeared in the American Journal of

Age of the Quarizites^ jSchists, Etc., oj Sauk Co. 131

Science and Art (II, vol. xxxvii, p. 226) an article by Mr.

Alexander Wincliell of Michigan, in wliich lie describes, among

others, some fossils fi'om the conglomerates overlying the

qnartzites ; and npon them bases his claim that the quartzites

are a downward continuation of the Potsdam sandstones. He

himself never visited the localities. Finally, Mr. James H. .

Eaton of Beloit College, in a paper read before the Wisconsin

Academy of Science, in February, 1871, expresses the same

opinion though on somewhat different grounds. The foregoing

list includes everything of any value that has been published

on the subject.

The accompanying map includes those portions of the two

ridges where most of my observations have been made.

I. The South Eange, to which my attention was first

directed, presents, on approaching it from Sauk Prairie on the

south, a bold, and, in places, precipitous rise from the plain of

from 350-450 feet. The northern side of this ridge has how-

ever, in all places as yet studied, a much more gradual slope

down to the valley of the Baraboo river, this slope being in

many places determined by the northward dip. Punning en-

tirely through this ridge is a deeply cut valley, which has at

first for about two miles, a direction slightly north of west,

and then turns due north quite abruptly. This northern end

holds the Devil's Lake, which entirely fills the valley from

side to side. Throughout its whole length the sides of this

cleft are precipitous masses of quartzite rising everywhere more

than four hundred feet above the bottom, and reaching at the

lake an altitude of 501 feet above its level, and of 1,474 feet

above the sea. The bottom of the valley is covered with a

heavy mass of Drift material, and the lake is held in its position

by low Drift hills at its northern and southeastern extremities.

The bottom of the lake itself seems to be in a Drift sand, and

is over most of its area about thirty feet below the surface of

the water. The lake has no outlet ; but draining as it does

a very small amount of surface, the extraordinary evaporation

132 Wisconsin Academy of /Sciences, Arts, and Letters.

caused by reflection from tlie cliffs above, togetlier with tlie

liigli winds of Wisconsin, is quite sufficient to account for its

maintenance of level ; wliilst tlie character of tlie surrounding

rock shows readily the reason for its not becoming saline.

The great exposures of cliff at this locality, and the deep rock

cuttings on the newly-opened railroad, afford most excellent

opportunities for study. The change of direction, too, of the

valley, gives facilities for approaching the rocks from different

sides, not elsewhere easily obtainable.

The rock here is mainly a hard, dark-colored, very compact

quartzite, though the colors vary from a very light gi-ey in

places to deep brownish-red. The bedding joints of the

quartzite are in some places rather obscure, but the railroad

cuttings have so far exposed them, that with a little care I was

able readily to ascertain the dip. This on both sides, and

throughout the whole length, of the valley, is uniformly about

20 to 25 degrees a little west of north. Some of the writers

mentioned, and notably Winchell, have described this valley as

corresponding to an old anticlinal axis, but the uniform dip of

the strata throughout its length proves, of course, that this is

not the case.

Section 1.— North and south through the south range on section line 1 of map. A,

quartzites ; A', quartzites with some schists ; C, conglomerate ; S. P., Sauk Prairie ; B. V .,

Baraboo Valley ; L, level of lake.

The quartzite, although often looking massive, shows in

many places, on weathered surfaces, the lamination and cross-

lamination of more modem sandstones. Many of the fallen

masses show, too, on exposed surfaces of lamination, the most

distinct ripple markings I have ever seen. On the shallow

sandy bottom at the north end of the lake below, may be found

their very counterparts. Between the beds of quartzite, in

Age of the Quartzites^ Schists^ Etc.^ of Sauh Co. 133

many places, are thin layers of a schist principally siliceous,

but having always some talcose material. These correspond

apparently to the clayey or shaly layers between the beds of

sand now represented by the quartzite. In some places these

layers seem to be merely a thinly laminated qu.artzite, with

talcose films covering the laminae ; in others, the talcose mate-

rial pervades and gives character to the whole mass, the sili-

ceous material, however, always being present.

The most remarkable feature of this locality is, however, the

very striking system of vertical joints which everywhere inter-

sect the quartzite. The bearings of these joints, taken in some

fifty or sixty different localities, I found to be unifonnly KB.

and S.W. and S.E. and N.W., the variations in a few places

being evidently due to local displacement. On the cliff sides,

and more especially about the lake, these joints, together with

the bedding joints, have so cut the rock into separate blocks,

that these have from time to time been thrown down the bluff

by frost and atmospheric agencies in huge rectangular masses,

weighing by calculation from seventy -five to two hundred tons

apiece.

In many places along the north flank of thi^ ridge and lying

always above the quartzite, are outcrops of a conglomerate,

containing pebbles unmistakably from the quartzite below,

always rounded, and in size varying from a few lines to four or

five inches in diameter. In some few places there seems to be

a second conglomerate in which the sandy cement itself appears

altered to a quartzite. This is a point, however, deserving of

further investigation. There are also places where distinct

layers of coarse and fine conglomerate occur, the latter always

above and gi-aduating into a simple sandstone.

In this conglomerate are found in one locality just northeast

of the lake, the Potsdam fossils described by Mr. Winchell in

the article referred to, viz. : ScoUthus linearis Hall, Orihis Bara-

huensis Hall, Delphinocephalus Minnesotensis Owen, etc. I have

examined a collection of these fossils from the above locality,

134 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters.

in tlie possession of Dr. Lapliam, of Milwaukee, and have seen

tlie fossils and qiiartzite pebbles in the same fragments side by

side.

II. The observations on the North Eange were made about

the Lower Narrows of the Baraboo river and westward from

there about half a mile. This north range seems to be less

continuous both as to elevation and as to the character of its

rock material. I am told by Dr. Lapham that it seems rather

to be made up of detached masses of metamorphic rocks.

The rising ground, however, never entirely disappears, and the

quartzite seems to be found as far to the east and west as in

the south range. At the Baraboo Narrows the metamorphic

rocks are in great force, the cliffs on either side the river, which

here makes a direct cut through the range from south to north.

Section 2.— Through North range at W. Bluff of Baraboo Narrows. A, thick-bedded

dark colored quartzites, with some talco siliceous schist; B, siliceous schist; C, hori-

zontal sandstone; B. V, Baraboo Valley.

being as much as four hundred feet in height. The body of

the bluff on the west side is made up of heavy beds of quartz-

ite, with, in places, intercalated beds of metamorphic conglom-

erate, and of a talcose schist like that in the south range. These

beds all stand at a very high angle, between 75 and 80 degs.

from the horizontal, the dip being north, with possibly a slight

inclination to the east. At the bottom of the hill on the south

side is an exposure of a peculiar light-colored siliceous schist,

entirely different from any of the other rocks of the series. An

old shaft sunk some thirty feet on the schist, affords most

Age of the Quartzites^ Schists, Mc.j of Sauk Co. 135

excellent opportunity for examination. Tlie total thickness

seen was about twelve feet, tlie layers varying in thickness

from a few lines to four or five inches. Very thin films of a

talcose material sometimes appear between the layers. Directly

above this schist, I found a horizontal undisturbed sandstone,

laid open for some distance by quarrying. The beds are gen-

erally a foot or two in thickness. In the loose pieces near by

is found Scolithus linearis. The sandstone is, of course, the

Potsdam of the surrounding valleys. Section 2 will serve to

give a clear idea of the structure of this bluff.

The narrow detached ridge just to the westward, represented

on the map, is also made up of horizontal Potsdam sandstone.

There are many other such detached ridges along the Baraboo

valley, bearing the same relation to the quartzite ranges, and

showing the same horizontality of strata.

The following arguments in favor of the priority of these

rocks to the Potsdam period will, I think, after what has been

said, be admitted as valid. 1 give them in the order in which

they became apparent to me.

1st. The limited area of disturbance ; the undisturbed Potsdam

and Calciferous strata being found north, south, and between

the ridges, and in close proximity to them.

2d. The absence of any anticlinal axes. Dipping as the rocks

do uniformly to the north, in order to place them in the Pots-

dam category, we must imagine a metamorphism of the strata,

accompanied by a great fault, having on one side the unchanged

sandstones, and on the other the tilted quartzites and schists,

an idea new, I think, to geology.

3d. Tlie occurrence of rounded pebbles of quartzite in the con^

glomerate on the south side of tlie south range. To suppose this

conglomerate, which by its fossils is unmistakably Potsdam,

to be of the same period as the quartzites below, we must sup-

pose that period to have lasted long enough to cover the depo-

sition of the quartzites as sandstones, their metamorphism, and

the rounding of the pebbles by beach action, before the forma '

136 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters.

tion of the conglomerate ; not to speak of the time sufficient to

erase all signs of an anticlinal.

4th. The occurrence of horizontal sandstones resting unconform-

aUy on the flanks of the tilted strata. This last is, of course,

absolutely conclusive as to the north range, but lest it might

be claimed that the two are independent, I have given the

others.

Mr, Winchell argues that, since Mr. Hall states that the

fossils I have mentioned as occurring in the conglomerate are

restricted to the Middle Potsdam, either this statement must

be untrue or the quartzite must be the downward continuation

of this formation. This argument, however, loses all force

when we regard these ranges as high ridges in the Potsdam

seas, never having been entirely covered by these seas, but

having merely had the new sandstones and conglomerates

deposited about their flanks. The place where these fossils

were found must be at least 200 feet above the base of the sand-

stones of the surrounding country. A single glance at Dr.

Lapham's geological map of Wisconsin will show this. The

conglomerate is by no means necessarily the hase of the Pots-

dam because it rests immediately on Huronian or Laurentian

rocks.

In the final report of Mr. Hall already referred to, he men-

tions a low hill north of Baraboo, in which the middle of the

hill is quartzite, and the flanks conglomerate and sandstones

graduating upward into calcareo-sandy layers, without giving

any further explanation. This statement, before somewhat

unintelligible to me, now throws further light on my own

results.

To my mind these ridges were unquestionably islands in the

Potsdam sea, and a more beautiful illustration than is furnished

by the sandstones and conglomerates of wave action on a rocky

coast, can hardly be imagined.

There are many very interesting details of structure in these

ridges which would repay thorough study. The points pre-

Age of the Quartziies, Schists, Etc., of SauTc Co. 137

sented in tlie present paper are only those necessary to sliow

the age of the rocks.

There are several more of these scattered qnartzite ranges in

Wisconsin, all but one of them occurring within the Potsdam

and Calciferous areas. During the coming season I hope to be

able to make a connected study of them.

University op Wisconsin, November 18, 1871.

138 Wisco7isin Academy of /Sciences, J.rfe, and Letters.

SUGGESTIONS AS TO A BASIS FOE THE GRA-

DATION OF THE VERTEBRATA.*

BY T. C. CHAMBERLIN, A. M.,

Professor of Natural Science in the State Normal School, Whitewater.

Some of the leading principles stated in tliis scheme have

been advanced by others, and form important considerations

in the several classifications advocated by our leading natural-

ists, yet the author has seen no systematic scheme embodying

them as a basis for gradation as distinguished frora classificatio7i,

and some of the principles have not, to his knowledge, been

previously stated. To whom credit is due in reference to par-

ticular facts or principles cannot readily be stated. The author

advances it with deference, because he cannot command that

multitude of facts that are necessary to establish the claims of

any system in zoology. Great difficulties arise to the amateur

student away from the great libraries from the state of zoolog-

ical literature, and under any circumstances from the want of

sufficiently full and accurate observations on the nervous sys-

tem. It is not intended to advance assertions, but suggestions.

The suggestions here made, if of value at all, may be of value

beyond the vertebrata.

This scheme differs from most others in being founded on a

single organism, the nervous. This, at first thought may seem

a fatal objection. But it must be remembered that there

should be a clear distinction drawn between ra^ih and classifi-

cation. It will doubtless be conceded that a cephalopod ranks

* This Hubject was originally presented to the Academy in the extemporaneous style

from notes and diasrrams. The notes, which were not closely followed, constitute the

abstract which appeared in the Bulletin. As it is impossible now to reproduce the

actual presentation, and as it ia of no importance in preparing this article for publica-

tion here, I have taken all the liberties of original presentation.

Gradation of the Vertebrata. 139

liiglier than an annelid, and on tlie other hand that the insectea

outrank the bryozoa. Yet the first is classified with the last

and the second with the third, the rank and the classification

resting on entirely different grounds. While it must be admit-

ted that a classification based upon a single portion of the

j^hysical system would be of little value, it does not follow

that this is true of gradation. It is true, a classification may

be made on the basis of rank, but it is manifest such a classifi-

cation would be most arbitrary and unnatural. Array all the

animal kingdom in a line according to rank from the lowest to

the highest, and then cut that line into as many or as few

pieces as you please, and cut it where you please, and it is

evident that the classes thus formed would be heterogeneous

and unnatural. Radiates, mollusks, and articulates would be

mingled confusedly with each other, and, doubtless, even with

the vertebrata. And even though a classification be based

upon rank, it would not make the two synonymous. Classifi.

cation would then simply be founded on rank as it is com-

monly founded on structure. This distinction between grada-

tion and classification does not seem to have been apprehended

in its full force. A true classification must he based upon differ-

ences in hind^ a true gradation upon differences in degree^ dif-

ferences in kind being reduced to a common standard by

some system of equivalents. In establishing this system of

equivalents lies the great difficulty of gi'adation. The mani-

fest problem when we attempt to determine rank by speciali-

zation or otherwise in the various organs, lies in determining

the comparative value of such indications. How much will a

modification in locomotion weigh in the scale of rank when set

over against a modification in respiration f How much a men-

tal characteristic compared with a physical adaptation ? How

much of superior specialization in a limb will counterbalance

a given amount of intellectual^ m.oral or social development f It

is true, this difficulty arises to a certain extent when we take

for our basis the nervous system ; yet, I think, here nature has

140 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences^ Aris^ and Letters.

largely done this worh for us, has made the comparison and given

us the results, and herein lies its especial fitness to be our guide.

A mental power and a physical form are so diverse in tlieir

nature that, considered independently, it is not apparent how

they can be rationally compared at all. But the nervous sys-

tem is a common medium for their action and furnishes the

means of comparison. Where two organs of diverse natures

act by means of separate and exclusive ganglia, those ganglia,

it must be admitted, furnish the true means of comparison.

And though the ganglia presiding over the various organs

may not be thus distinct and exclusive in general, that does

not vitiate the principle, but only affects its application.

Furthermore, the objection to this single organism as a basis

is very much answered, so far as it has any bearing on grada-

tion, when it is remembered that the nervous system is com-

prehensive in its nature. It is headquarters and source of

co-ordination for all the functions of the whole system. It

in a sense comprehends them all. This is a fact of supreme

importance in gradation though it may be valueless in classifi-

cation.

The nervous system is likewise rep)resentative in its nature.

Complication in any other system of the body implies corre-

s]Donding complication of the nervous sj^stem, and implies it

in terms of the common standai'd.

Moreover, the nervous system comprises the highest fomi

of organized matter. We should then expect its forms to be

most indicative of rank.

And further, while it is generally conceded that intellectual

characteristics have little value in classification, if indeed they

should not be entirely ignored, they must from the very

nature of the case form a most important element in the esti-

mation of rank. Classification should be based upon struct-

ural affinities, gradation upon functional power. Classification,

if true, is but an interpretation of nature ; gradation is a judg-

ment passed upon it. Classification is natural ; gradation is

Gradation of ilie Vertebrata. 141

artificial. Gradation being thus a judgment must liave its

basis. Wlietlier it has been distinctly recognized or not, the

same one has been instinctively and universally adopted, viz :

power, physical and psychological, qualitatively as well as

qiiantitatively considered. This is made prominent in Prof.

Dana's articles on " Cephalization as a Basis of Classification,"

and is a clearly recognized ground- work of his ideas, so far as

they are gradational in their nature. Most writers, while con-

sciously or unconsciously recognizing the basis, have looked

to the principle of "division of labor" for a decision. While

this is an important element of power, it is not the sum total

nor any sure indication of it. But the point I wish to make

in this connection is this, power is by no means all physical.

Intellectual and moral forces cannot be ignored. A gradation

that does not recoscnize these is as false as a classification based

exclusively upon them. Now the nervous system is the

especial instrument of mental manifestation. Its forms indi-

cate, so far as they can be interpreted, the mental characteris-

tics. Are we not compelled then to seek in its forms, and in

its developments, that natural co-ordination of mental and

physical indices of rank which alone can form a rational basis

of gradation ? That the systems commonly relied upon do

not give us the truth approximately and in a general way is

by no means asserted. The general truth of their results is

assumed, and is made the basis of what arguments are here

presented.

The following are suggested as indicative points :

l-s^. Position of the general line of the cerebrospinal axis.

This is essentially horizontal in fish, acknowledged to be the

lowest of the vertebrates ; perpendicular in man, the highest ;

intermediate in a general sense in the intermediate orders.

These facts have been fi'equently noted and appealed to as

indicating rank. Some difficulties in application and sources

of error exist, owing to modifications due to habits of life and

142 \Visco7isin Academy of iSh'ences^ Arts, and Letters.

variety of posture. It is to be regarded as of only general

value. Stated as an affirmation, the first principle -will be :

The nearer the approach of the general line of the cerehro-spinal

.cuxis to the perpendicular^ the higher the rank.

2d. Angle formed by the axis of the spinal cord with the axis

of the encephalic ganglia.

The lines coincide approximately in fisli, are nearly at rigbt

angles in man, are intermediate in the intermediate orders.

This principle, like the preceding, can be regarded as of only

general value. The angle of these axes is manifestly depend-

ent in many cases upon the form and habitual position of the

animal. The angle is large in the mole, rat, and similar bur-

rowing animals for obvious reasons, and on the other hand

when the habits of the animal require the longitudinal axis of the

face to be more or less transverse to the cervical vertebrae, the

angle is modified accordingly. The facts under these two

heads then are rather representatives of the position and form

of the body in general, and of positional relations of the nerv-

ous system to it, than characteristic of the functional relations

of the system itself. Hence their inferior utility. Yet they

are not without their value, and they show the representative

character of our basis. Stated as a conclusion, the second

principle will be :

The 7iearer the approach to a right angle^ the higher the rank.

Sd. Degree of separation of the encephalic ganglia from each

other.

Ready and prompt inter-communication, with efficient co-or-

dination are necessary to the higher complex mental and phys-

ical manifestations. Positional concentration facilitates this.

So long as the nervous action is of the simple reflex nature,

the nearer the several ganglia are to the organs with which

they are connected, the more favorable their position for per-

forming their functions. But when co-ordination and combi-

Gradation of the Vertebrata. 143

nation of nervous action become predominant, the greater the

concentration, tlie more efficient the action. This co-ordination

will depend partly upon positional and partly upon commis-

sural relations. One element of position is degree of separation.

We should then, beforehand, expect to find those portions of

the nervous system which are devoted to local and, in a

measure, independent functions of the simple reflex nature

scattered more or less, their position being determined rather

by that of the organs whose action they control, than by their

relations to other parts of the nervous system ; while on the

other hand we should expect to find those parts whose office

is the organization of thought, feeling and co-ordinated motion,

or whose function is closely related to these, collected together,

forming a great nervous center, more and more concentrated

and compacted as the co-operation of parts becomes more

prompt and efficient. We find it to be so. It is but a com-

mon observation of naturalists, and to a greater or less extent

its gradational value has been recognized.

The scattered situation of the sympathetic ganglia is marked

as well as their separation from the encephalic centres. So of

articulata, mollusca and radiata. The spinal cord, regarded

as a nervous centre and performing functions a gi-ade higher,

has a better relationship but not a close one. In the lowest

vertebrata the encephalic ganglia are markedly separate. As

we proceed upward the separation is less and less marked, till

in man aggregation reaches its highest state.

The less the separation the higher the rank.

4:th. Relative position of the parts.

This is intimately connected with the preceding principle

and has the same general import, but yet is in a measure dis-

tinct from it. In the amphioxus the arrangement is purely

linear, and in all the cyclostomes there is little variation from

it. In the higher fishes there begins to appear what may be

termed a two-ranked arrangement, the cerebrum and cerebel-

144 Wisconsm Academy of Sciences^ Arts, and Letters.

lum being super-imposed upon the sensory ganglia and the

medulla oblongata. This two-ranked arrangement is persist-

ent in a more or less marked degree through all the higher orders,

rank being indicated by advance from a rectilinear to a curvi-

linear arrangement. In the lowest orders in which this

arrangement appears, lines drawn through the two series of

ganglia are approximately parallel straight lines, in the high-

est they are approximately concentric semi-circumferences.

This curvilinear arrangement has a double significance. It is

the combined result of a tendency to a compact arrangement and

a relatively large development of the upper series.

Much has been said on the relative position of the parts,

especially of the cerebrum and cerebellum and more or less

significance attached to this principle, yet observation in this

direction seems to have been special rather than comprehensive.

Position with reference to the head of the spinal cord is

worthy of especial attention. From a strictly posterior position,

the spinal axis passes, as we ascend in rank, through almost a

quadrant to a sub-central position beneath. The import of

this, as facilitating co-operative intercommunication is appa-

rent.

Embryology furnishes striking facts bearing upon this sub-

ject as it does upon other points discussed in this article. But

I shall not here insist upon them, for we are, perhaps, not safe,

as yet, in assuming that embryological development is along

a line of uniform gradational advancement, however true this

may be as a general fact. Until there shall be gi'eater uni-

formity of opinion as to the origin of species and the relations

of embryology to that subject, arguments based upon it must

be regarded as questionable to a certain extent. But its gen-

eral indications must be allowed considerable value, whatever

views of development may be entertained.

Stated as a deduction, the fourth principle will be.

The more compact the arrangement of the parts, the higher the

rank.

Gradation of the Vertehraia. 145

bill. Presence or absence of certain parts^ especially connecting

imrts.

The corpus callosum, wliicli in the higher mammalia is the

largest and most important mass of commissural fibers, is want-

ing below that class and has a markedly varied development

within it. The pons Varolii and other commissures are want-

ing in many of the lower forms, the anterior commissure

being the only one traceable in fishes. The absence of these

parts indicates want of association in action and consequent

want of jjower to perform the higher complex functions, either

mental or physical. A single illustration from Dr. Carpenter :

" It is interesting to observe that in many Lepidoptera and

Hymenoptera, which are remarkable for rapid and powerful

flight, the nerves supplying both pairs of wings, are nnited at

their origins. On the other hand, in many insects which are

not remarkable for velocity or equability of motion, the nerves

supplying each wing originate separately, and have little com-

munication, just as in the larva of the Sphinx ; and in the Col-

eoptera, in which the upper pair or elytra are motionless dur-

ing flight, the nerves frequently remain entirely separate."

Ahsence of commissural parts indicates low rank..

6th. Relative size (a) of ganglia of the same animal {h) of a

single ganglion to the lohole hody^ (c) of the encephalon and of the

entire nervous system to the whole hody — {d) of the parts of the

same ganglion., (e) of connecting parts.

(a) It will not be questioned that the several ganglia per-

form different functions, that some of these functions are higher

and some lower, that size, with modifications, indicates their

functional power, that the cerebrum performs the highest func-

tions, that there is a scale of rank for the others, whatever it

may be. It is almost axiomatic then to state that the larger

the ganglia of high functions the higher the animal's rank.

The cerebrum in the lowest vertebrates is entirely wanting, in

all the lower orders it is relatively small, in the higher

146 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arls, and Letters.

relatively large. In many jEishes the optic lobes alone are

larger than the cerebrum. In man, at the other end of the

series, the cerebrum is very much larger than all the remaining

encephalic ganglia combined. Between these extremes there

is every degree of gradation.

Under this head may be included the suggestion of Dr. Car-

penter, that a comparison of the bulk of the cerebrum with the

diameter of the spinal cord would give more accurate results

than a comparison with the whole body.

{b) Unsatisfactory as this comparison is in some respects,

and inferior as it may be to that suggested by Dr. Carpenter,

it yet has much value, and when its results have been care-

fully corrected, for density, quality, activity, etc., it will be

found fi-ee from most of the objections urged against it. It

must not be expected that any one comparison will show all

of the truth, especially when the truth is so complex as here.

Each one shows its peculiar phase. All must be combined to

give all phases and the true result.

With modifications, the larger the cerebrum, compared ^oith the

whole body, the higher the rank.

General estimates would seem to indicate that the law of the

cerebellum, considered individually, is the same, subject how-

ever to more important modifications.

(c) Comparisons of the cerebrum are especially indicative of

intelligence. But this is not the only element of the problem.

Power of the more physical kind must be computed and com-

bined with it to give correct results. Given two animals of

equal intelligence, the one which has the gi'eatest muscular

power, either quantitative or qualitative, must rank the higher.

Comparisons of the encephalic mass and of the entire nervous

system must be made, to connect errors arising fi'om this source.

(e) The size of connecting parts is an additional item bear-

ing upon the co-operation of the parts, and taken in connec-

tion with what has been said already, and with the fact that

the commissures are introduced at different points in the scale.

Oixidaiion of the Vertehraia. 147

and that their development is markedly varying, renders this

a most highly indicative item. Attention should be given to

longitudinal bands as well as transverse.

{d) The parts of a ganglion, especially of the larger, have dif-

ferent degrees of develoi3ment, and if, as many believe, the

different parts have different functions, the relative size of

each must be indicative, and, whether functional differences

are conceded or not, inductive study shows it to be true at

least in a general sense. The anterior lobe of the cerebrum is

much more developed in man than in the apes or any of the

higher mammals, and in these, than in the lower orders. The

posterior lobe, as such, does not appear at all except in the

highest mammals. Similar significant facts are presented by

the other lobes of the cerebrum and by those of the cerebel-

lum. The development of the anterior, upper, and posterior

parts of the cerebrum especially indicate high rank. This is

intimately associated with and in a measure determines the

form of the parts which, however, is thought worthy of being

considered under a separate head.

1th. Absolute size.

Given two animals, alike in every other respect, the one that

possesses the greatest nervous mass must rank the higher. Size

is one measure of power. Prof. Dana in his articles on "Ce-

phalization " has given to a somewhat different application of

this principle, the importance it merits, and which seem to have

been overlooked or disregarded by other systematists.

Qth. Form of the parts, especially of the cerebrum.

The attention that has been paid to the form of the skull by

ethnologists, indicates the value of this point ; but a higher

value, the author believes, attaches to the form of the brain

itself than to its representative, the skull. The deductions of

ethnologists fi*om the form of the skull, however, must be

accepted in general, when applied to the brain itself. What-

148 Wisconsm Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters.

ever may be thougiit of tlie teclmicalities of tlie doctrines of

Gall and Spurzlieim, the general truth that the form of the

brain indicates the form of the character can scarcely be ques-

tioned. The force of observations in this direction will be

measured somewhat accurately by the degree of develoj^ment

of the organ, the form being most significant when the devel-

opment is highest.

9th. Relative position and amount of grey and lohite matter.

The general position is not a variable element, but is worthy

of notice as indicating the functions of the several parts ; the

tendency of the grey matter being toward the outside for the

higher functions and toward the inside for the lower. No

especial value is attached to this.

The presence, number and depth of the convolutions have

been regarded as especially characteristic of rank. The varia-

tions of the human brain in this respect, and its correspond-

ence with character have been appealed to ; as also the fact of

their late introduction into the scale of creation. A compari-

son of man with other mammals, with birds, with reptiles, with

fishes, is conclusive as to the general truth that numerous and

deep convolutions signify elevation of rank. This rule, how-

ever, taken by itself would elevate the cerebellum above the

cerebrum, and, if the general way in which Prof. Huxley states

the facts does not deceive me, aquatic carnivora above terres-

trial, and would give a much higher rank to the cetacea than

is usually accorded them. But in the cetacea on the other

hand the limited development of the commissures indicates

low rank, so that here, as elsewhere, the indications of differ-

ent parts are not always in harmony, which shows the necessity

of collating and combining all the indices. On this subject a

word at the close of the article.

The amount of vesicular matter is an important item. The

functional power of the organ is doubtless more accurately

indicated by this than by the entire mass.

Gradation of the Veriehraia. 149

10//;. Density.

The actual amount of nervous matter is to be regarded

rather than the space it occupies. Some ganglia are hollow in

one order and solid in another. Errors are liable to arise from

this. Again the structure where solid may be more dense in

one case than in another. The specific gravity will be a valu-

able guide. Simple weight will not answer. A dense struct-

ure will unquestionably differ in functional power from a loose

one of equal weight.

lltJi. Quality of the nervous organization.

This, unquestionably, it is difficult to determine with cer-

tainty and precision, but its significance cannot be questioned.

It is a very important element in determining superiority

among men, where it can be estimated somewhat accurately,

and it is doubtless equally so among the whole class vertebrata.

A general harmony of structure pervades the organization of an

animal. Coarseness in one part is usually accompanied by

coarseness in all others, and vice versa. It is not difficult to

determine the general quality of the organization as a whole,

and thus we may form a general though somewhat uncertain

estimate of the quality of the nervous organization. What

assistance microscopic study may lend in this estimate is not

yet demonstrated. That it will be important, it is reasonable

to hope.

12th. Activity of the nervous system.

Like quality, this may be difficult to determine, but yet

it is important. Yet I think, in the amount and in the changes

of the blood sent to the brain, we have a reliable index of its

activity. I am not aware that any observations, save a few

by the author, have been made with this end in view. Yet

the value of such observations are apparent upon a mere state-

ment. And that value is not confined to the determination of

activity merely, but of the total amount of nervous force. The

K.

150 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters.

chemical and molecular changes of tlie blood sent to the nerv-

ous centres are regarded as the true measure of the nervovs

force generated. The amount of this force compared with the

amount of nervous substance should show the activity.

ISih.- Relative development of the spnjoalhetic and cerebro-

spinal systems.

The comparative rank of the two systems is unquestioned.

The distinct differentiation of the latter from the former marked

a large advance upon previous structures. The relations of

the two systems must then be indicative.

The indications of a single one of these rules alone is not to

be regarded as decisive. The fallacy of most of the objections

that have been urged against such of these rules as have been

previously advanced lies here. Because they have not been

universally decisive, their value within the sphere of their

application and with the modifications and corrections to wliich

they are subject, has been falsely estimated. That that sphere

and those modifications and corrections can be ascertained and

their relations adjusted, is the firm belief of the author. It is

the combined and corrected result of all these rules that is to

be decisive. And as their indications are not always harmo-

nious when two subjects are being compared, the question of

their relative value arises. This question, as I have attempted

to show, has not by any means the significance it has when

applied to a system based upon the various organs of the

system. But whether more or less significant, the author is

not yet prepared to answer it, except in generalities.

Ancient Lakes of Wisconsin. 151

ANCIENT LAKES OF WISCONSIN.

BY HON. J. G. KNAPP, MADISON.

Few persons liave reflected — probably because their atten-

tion has not been directed to the subject — upon what barri-

ers have been cast across the courses of our rivers ; and how

they have been removed by the action of water and drift, in

the long periods of the past ; what immense tracts were once

covered with water, forming fresh water lakes, where now men

plow, hoe and tend crops, and human habitations stand. To

enlarge or particularly define any locations is not intended,

but to call attention to a subject scarcely noted.

The Mississippi dam may be located just below the mouth

of the Wisconsin, where the strata of rocks rise on each side of

the river in unbroken series, several hundred feet. If these

strata were carried across the river, and the supposition is not

violent, since the strata are nearly horizontal, and there is no

evidence of violent teiTemotal action at this point to break

down the strata since their deposition, then both streams would

be backed up and made to cover their present valleys ; the

Mississippi to the Falls of St. Anthony and the Wisconsin to

the Baraboo bluffs. This barrier is out of the drift region,

and has been broken down by the action of water. If the next

supposition be warranted, the Wisconsin river was much smaller

than at present.

The Baraboo barrier next deserves attention. This elevation

was united with the high lands on the east of the Wisconsin in

the southern towns of Columbia county, thus forming a large

lake into which the Wisconsin, Baraboo, Duck creek and Fox

rivers emptied, and which then belonged with the Wolf river

to the Lake Michigan watershed, as the Fox yet does. The

152 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters.

Swan lake, east of tlie portage, and the deep holes in Big Slough

appear to be remnants of this lake. The ban-ier has been

broken down, and much of the filling up has been done by

glacial action, as here is near the western boundary of that

action. "Where the eastern boundary of this lake was located

we may 'never know, since all monuments of its former exist-

ence may have been swept away by the glacial action, which

spread over that whole region. For the same reason it will be

difficult to accurately determine the former character of the

lakes and valley of the Upper Fox and Wolf rivers ; whether

they are remnants of one immense lake or parts of several, or

whether they were deep cavities in the ancient Potsdam sand

rocks or scooped out during the glacial period, we may never

be able to detemiine with any degTce of exactitude.

Lake Winnebago was once much larger than at present.

The ancient boundaries may be readily traced, at about the

same level as the present clay banks at Appleton, which have

been cut through with the entire channel of the lower Fox

since the drift period, and the clay deposits. That higher

lake level may have been sufficient to have mingled the waters

of Lake Winnebago with the Horicon, during the existence of

the present fauna, since the fishes of Lake Winnebago and

Eock river, with few exceptions, are identical even to varieties.

The extensive lakes found in the drift, with the adjacent

wet meadows and swamps, owe ther origin to the glacial action,

and their drainage has been the work of water, and in most

cases so gradual, yet continuous, that the ancient beaches have

been obliterated, if ever fornied. These will each present

peculiar characteristics, and must be studied as individuals,

and not as a whole system.

The Upper and Lower Dells of the Wisconsin present us

with the result of the action of water in slowly cutting down

the sand rock, and emptying one of the most extensive of the

Wisconsin lakes. This lake, and the water-worn outlet was

-exterior to the drift range, and was one of the largest fresh-

Ancient Lakes of Wisconsin- 153

water lakes in the state. ' The existence of this lake will be

seen in the few shells that may be found imbedded beyond the

present beds of the river and its branches.

Other points might be mentioned, but the intention has been

only to direct attention to this subject, not to write an exactly

scientific paper.

154 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences^ Arts and Letters.

ON THE MINERAL WELL AT WATERLOO, WIS.

BY REV. O. A. WHIGHT, A. M., NEW LISBON.

Tlie well referred to in tliis paper was dug in tlie fall of

1857. A strong vein of water was found at about ten feet

below tbe surface, and in a stratum of sand some two feet thick.

The direction of its flow was from north to south — opposite

to the course of Waterloo creek. It flows from underneath a

ridge some twenty or thirty feet high, which seems to be noth-

ing more than the ordinary swell of the prairie, with nothing

peculiar in its geological formation, being mainly formed of

what is usually known as the glacial drift. The vein is not

inexhaustible, but gives the well a capacity of about twenty-

five barrels a day.

The mineral properties were first discovered when it acted

as a cathartic upon the horses that were watered at the well ;

this being the only purpose for which the well was used, on

account of its peculiar taste. A gallon of water was sent to

Mr. J. H. Tesch, of Milwaukee, by whose analysis it was

found to contain :

Grains.

Chloride of sodium 23,345

Chloride of potassium 7 ,060

Chloride of calcium 28 , 779

Chloride of lithium 12, 039

Nitrate of soda 36,017

Sulphate of magnesia 11 ,490

Bi-carbonate of magnesia 15 , 786

Bi-carbonate of lime 13 ,416

Silica 1, 343

Total 149, 275

On Potentials and their A'pplication. 155

ON POTENTIALS AND THEIR APPLICATION TO

PHYSICAL SCIENCE.

BY PKO-- ESSOK JOHN E. DA VIES, M. T>.

Of the Wisconsin State University.

In most of the recent Mathematical discussions of Phy-

sical Theories and Problems, or where laws of nature, first

established by observation or experiment, are afterwards

followed to their legitimate consequences by the applica-

tion of analysis, we find a certain Function used, which,

on account of the admirable simplicity it introduces, gives

great elegance and brevity to the demonstrations, and the

nature of which should, therefore, be thoroughly known.

For attracting bodies, we read of the Potential of the

attracting mass, at some given point external or internal

to the mass itself ; of Heat Potentials ; of Potentials of

Stress, Elasticity, &c., &c. In short, the Function is evi-

dently one of such great generality and power, as to be

adapted to most cases where the effects of any forms of

Force (attractive or repulsive) are to be considered. It is

thus of indispensable service in the Dynamical Theories

of Heat, Light, Electricity, &c., now so universally ac-

cepted as the true ones.

Any attempt, then, to present the exact meaning and

nature of this Function in a clear light, ought to be of

service to those who wish for that thorough comprehension

of Physical laws, which mathematical analysis so much

aids in giving.

The Potential Fanction for Gravitation was first intro-

duced by Laplace in discussing the attractions of Spheres

and Spheroids. (Mecanique Celeste, Book II, Chap. II,

156 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences^ Arts, and Letters.

§ 11, and Book 111, Chap. 1, § 4.) He makes use of it

afterwards in discussing the Moon's influence in deter-

mining a tide at any point on the surface of the Earth

(Book IV, Chap. I, § 1 et seq.) ; her influence on the pro-

tuberant mass about the Earth's equator, causing lunar

precession (Book Y, Chap. I, § 3 et seq.), and the recipro-

cal action of this mass in causing irregularities in the

orbital motion of the moon. (Book VII, Chap. II, § 20

et seq.)

The introduction of this function enabled him to do

away with difficult — in some cases impossible — integra-

tions, and to substitute therefor the comparatively easy

processes of difierentiation.

It seems to have been used by Laplace merely as an

Analytical artifice whereby to accomplish certain results

in the calculation of attractions, by substituting indirect ^

but, as it proves, easy methods for direct but very difiicult

ones. He applies it, of course, only to the force of grav-

itation.

Afterwards, in 1828, the term Potential Function was

applied to it by George Green, a poor operative, in Not-

tingham, England, whose mathematical labors in the in-

tervals of his other labor raised him to such notice as to

cause him to be sent to Cambridge at the age of forty ;

and to be now regarded as one of the greatest contributors

to Mathematical Physics. His paj)ers have recently been

published by Messrs. Macmillan & Co. in one volume,

edited by Prof. JST. M. Ferrers. They are models of ana-

lytical elegance and skill.

Green's treatment of the Potential is, however, purely

analytical. He seems, also, to take it for granted that all

that Laplace had already written upon the subject in the

case of gravitation was well known to those who heard or

read him. He first applies this function to distributions

ot Electricity and Magnetism over bodies of various form.

On Potentials and their Application. 157

The only interpretation Green gives to this Function is

that which Laplace had ah'eady given, viz. : that it is a

quantity such that its partial differential, with respect to

any co-ordinate x of a point p, will give the attraction

due to the mass along any line chosen for the co-ordinate

axis X ; that, letting x', y', z' be the rectangular co-ordi-

nates of a particle of any attracting or repelling mass, p'

its density, dx', dy', dz' its sides regarded as an elementary

jKirallelopipedon, r' the distance of this element of mass

from an attracted point p exterior to the body, then

Y = Potential Function of the whole mass at the point p

_ rp^ dx' dy' dz'

The integral comprehending every particle (or elementary

mass) in the entire mass.

Green's own words, in beginning his essay on Electri-

city, are : '■^It is well hriown, that nearly all the attractive

and repulsive forces existing in nature are such, that if we

consider any material point p, the effect, in a given direc-

tion, of all the forces acting upon that point, arising from

any system of bodies S under consideration, will be ex-

pressed by a partial differential of a certain function

[the Potential] of the co-ordinates which serve to define

the point's position in space. The consideration of this

function is of great importance in many inquiries, and

probably there are none in which its utility is more

marked than in those about to engage our attention. In

the sequel we shall often have occasion to speak of this

function, and will, therefore, for ahridgmejit, call it the

Potential Function arishig from the system S. If p 5(3 «

particle of positive electricity under the influence of

forces arising from any electrified' body, the function in

question, as is well hioivn, will be obtained by dividing

the quantity of electricity in each element of the body, by

its distance from the particle p, and taking the total sum

158 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters.

of these quotients for tlie whole body." [This is expressed

by the above integral]

It will thus be seen that Green's definition is purely

mathematical ; and, moreover, that he supposes the nature

of the function already well known. The object of his

essay was " to deduce certain relations between the values

of this function for different points, and the densities of

Electricity or Magnetism that give rise to these ' values.' "

The object of the present paper is to attempt to give a

Physical interpretation to this Function and to illustrate

it and its use by some simple example. Suppose, then, a

body, say a material particle, be lifted to any point p

above the surface of the earth ; the co-ordinates of this

point p, referred to the earth's center, being x, y, z. It

is e\-ident that, to do so, work must be done by some

agent against the earth's gravity; tlie amount of this

work depending solely on the distance of p and the total

attraction of the earth, the mass of the particle raised

being supposed constant. This particle contains this

work, as it were, stored in it, and will give it oif in over-

coming resistances on its way back to the earth. The

Sun expends work — its heat — in raising the waters of the

earth into clouds. These clouds overcome resistances, or,

in other words, do work on their way as cataracts back to

the sea. For all different values of the co-ordinates x, y, z,

of the point p, we shall have different values for the work

done against gravity in raising the particle to this point.

Were the particle to remain stationary a,t p, having con-

stant co-ordinates a, b, c, this work would chano-e in

amount also, by supposing the mass or attracting power

of the central body to change. There is thus seen to be a

certain definite quantity of worh-power between bodies

endowed with mutually attractive or repulsive forces,

which work-power depends in amount on the strength of

the mutual forces and the space separating the bodies of

On Potentials and their A2:)plication. 159

the system. This quantity^ thus shown to be a function

of both force and space, is the Potential Function. The

integral

dx', dy', dz'

y=JL

I>

is its analytical ex|Dression, and means what we have just

indicated. The Physical idea it represents is, therefore,

wo?'k, or energy.

It is a quantity representing not the actual energy of

work heing done, but the jpossible energy due to work

already done. It is a consequence of the inertia of matter

and the indestructibility of force. Energy exerted is not

energy lost, but energy stored or transformed. Potential

energy is energy stored. The Potential energy of Elasti-

city is, according to Rankine's definition, the worh which

a body, in a state of strain, is capable of performing in

returning to the free state. The Potential energy of Heat

is, according to Clausius, the work which the moving

molecules are capahle of performing in being brought to

a state of less energetic motion, or to rest ; and Mohr has

apparently shown that the Potential energy of Chemical

Afiiuity is due to atomic motions within the molecule,

which, on being lessened or destroyed, must be changed

to Heat, Light, Electricity, or Mechanical work. In all

these cases, the Potential Energy is a function of force

and space, or its correlative, time. When expressed

mathematically, it is the famous Potential Function^

and its value is determined by the special circumstances

of each particular case.

We will give an easy example of its application, in a

manner which all students of Analytical Geometry and

Elementary Mechanics will readily understand.

It is well known that if a material point whose co-ordi-

nates are f, g, h, be acted on by forces whose resultant P

may be regarded as emanating from 0, a point whose

160 Wisconsin Academy of /Sciences, Arts, and Letters.

co-ordinates are x, j, z, then J* may be resolved into

three component forces acting along axes at right angles

to each other, the values of which components will be

P cos a, P cos /3, P cos y — alpha, beta, gamma, denoting

the angles made by the direction of the force P, with the

three co-ordinate axes.

Let the straight line joining p and o be called P. Then

^ — V{i— x)' -f (g — y)* + (h — z)S ^■iid the expressions

for the component forces will then become

X = P

cos a

Y = P cos /3 = P

_ p (f-x)'

~ D

_-p (g-.y)

D

Z = P cos y = P

_-p (b-z)

D

which are to be made

negative when the force

(A) P is attractive towards

O, as it then tends io'dl-

minisli the distance D.

(A reference to Fig. 1 will show the applicability of

these formulae.)

If the force P be one which depends on the mass of a

solid, like gravity ; or, like Electricity or Magnetism, one

whose accumulation or density., as we may say, is greater at

some points than others ; and if it also depend in any man-

On Potentials and iheir Aj^p^icalion. 161

ner upon the distance D, then the most general form we

can give to P will be fffE-^^11^ :

p — denoting the varying density.

dx dy dz — the volume of an element of the solid or surface

whence the force emanates.

n being any number, positive or negative ; it will be posi-

tive in the above expression when the force varies in-

versely as some power of the distance ; negative when

the force varies directly as some power of the same ; n

being the degree of the power in either case.

The integration expressed in the equivalent value given

above for P, is to be within such limits as shall include

the entire volume of the attracting mass, or the entire

surface over which the force, e. g., Electricity, is dis-

tributed.

Substituting this value for P, the expressions (A) will

become

^^ r r rpdxdjdz({-x)

T = ///^-^#^)^ (B)

z = f f fP-^l^I^^^:zIl

In the case which is most common among natural forces,

n will be j^'^sitive and equal to 2. The force will then

vary inversely as the square of the distance.

Taking this case as the easiest apprehended, and sub-

stituting for D its value before given in tenns of f, g, h, —

X, y, z, equations (B) will become

X - c f f p ^^ ^y "^ ^^ ~ ^^

"^-J J J [(f _ x)= + (g-y; + (h - z/]

T - f C C P dx dy dz (g - y) ( ,^.

""-J J J [(f_x)'+(g-yy+(li-z7]^ ( '

7 _ r C f P dx dy dz (h - z)

'^-J J J [;(f_xy-|-(g-y)^-f(h-zy]t

162 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters.

If, then, we wish to ascertain the amount of attraction

or repulsion exerted upon some material point whose

co-ordinates are f, g, h, by a heterogeneous mass or an

electrified surface, the integrals (B) or (C) will enable us

to write down the values of the component attractions

along the axes X, Y, Z at once. But to evaluate these

integrals is always difficult ; in some cases impossible. A

careful inspection of them, however, will show that if we

separate out from each one of them the quantity

r r rpdxdjdz

_ r r r p dx dy dz

=Y, say, then

the whole expression for X = -j—

<( (( «

« Y = ^\ P)

^- dF

Here, then, is a quantity Y, which, when once a value

is found for it, will give us the values of the attractions

X, Y, Z, by a single differentiation of it with reference to

X, y, or z. Tills quantity is the Potential Function which

we have before explained ; as is evident on a comparison

of the two expressions.

To find Y is generally far easier than to directly inte-

grate the expressions for the components of force. Indeed,

Laplace has given a general mode of expanding Y into a

series, which is both simple and beautiful. To explain

methods of finding the value of Yin different cases, is not

the object of this paper ; * but merely to call the more

general attention of students of Physical science to the

* This is very fully done in Laplace (Book III, Chap. I, § 4) ; Green's

Matli. Papers, edited by Ferrers— Thompson & Tait's Nat. Phil., Vol. I.

On Potentials ara\ tlieir AppUcation. 163

importance of this Function by a simple explanation of

its nature and use.

As a further example, we will apply it to finding the

attractions of a Sphere, on an external or internal point.

This, it is true, is a case in which it is easier to integrate

directly the expressions for the attractions ; but we use it

merely as an example.

"We already know by other methods that these attrac-

tions will be

r'

for an external point = | Trp . —

" " internal " = 2 rrp r^ + 1 7rp . x

where r = radius of the sphere.

X = distance of attracted point from centre,

p == density of the sphere.

Let us get these values through the Potential Function

in each case.

If r, j[<, CO be the polar co-ordinates of any surface ele-

ment of the Sphere, referred to the centre of the Sphere

as origin ; — r being the radius ; jtt, the cosine of the latitude

(or better, the co-latitude) ; w, the longitude of the element ;

p, the density of the sphere ; then the

Mass of this element = p r* dr djw dw.

If in Fig. 2, x' = distance of this element from p, then

will, by ordinary Geometry,

1G4: Wisconsin Acadenvj of Sciences, Aiis, and Letters.

IS'ow by the definition of the Potential, it must be

(designating it by V) = T f ^ _£^^^_.

i. e., the sum of all the quotients arising by dividing each

element of the entire sphere by its distance (x') from the

attracted point.

Effecting this summation, we have

When p is without the sphere, V = f '—^ — .

« " within " " Y'=2 7rpr'-2Trp.x'.

ISTow it has been pointed out that when the Potential Y

has been found in any case, to get the attractions, we have

only to diflerentiate Y once ; hence, when p is without, the

.. .• 1 ^^ ddupr') . r^ ,,

attraction along x = -.r— = — ^— i — ^ = 4-^0 q^ ^he

° dx dx -^ X

attraction is directhj as the maci of the sphere, and in-

versehj as the square of the distance from the center ; the

known law.

When p is within the sphere, the attraction along x =

dY d (2 rrp r^ - I Trp . x^) . , , " , ,

-V- = — ^^ — T '- = 2 Tip r' + 4 TTp . X, the value

dx dx > d I ;

of which will depend only on x (the distance from the

center), since the first term is constant. The attraction

within the sphere will therefore be directly as the distance

from the center ; which is the knovjn law in this case also.

These simple examples, it is hoped, will sufiiciently

illustrate the nature, mode of application, and usefulness

of the Potential Function when once an expression for

that function has been found. And we have carefully in-

dicated where full expositions can be found of the mode

of calculating this most important function in all the

cases that are likely to occur in the solution of physical

problems.

DEPARTMENT OF THE ARTS.

VERMILLION BY A NEW PROCESS— ITS PHOTO-

GRAPHIC PROPERTIES.

Milwaukee, February 13, 1873.

Dr. J. W. HoYT, President Wisconsin Academy of Sciences^ Arts and Letters:

My Dear Sir : Enclosed I send you a sample of Vermillion

obtained by wbat I suppose to be a new process, without sub-

limation or heat, and without the use of an alkali, but directly

from solution by deposition. I find no account of its being

produced by such method in any work which I have been able

to consult. As produced by my process it has photographic

properties^ which fact, I believe, has never been noticed. If

deposited in a weak light, or in the dark, it turns much darker

on exposure to strong light while yet remaining in the solution

from which it was deposited. This property gives the sub-

stance great value in its application to photography, for prints

after being toned by the mercuric sulphide become more deeply

impressed after completion ; whereas by the usual method the

last thing done in the production of the print is to subject it

to the action of h3^po-sulphite of soda, which gTcatly weakens

the force with which it adheres to tlie organic surface. This

sulphide is a stable substance, does not dissolve in nitric, muri-

atic or sulphuric acid except by aid of heat, and is not affected

by ordinary conditions of the atmosphere ; and by enveloping

the silver and gold depositions composing the photographic

print, with it the print is thus enabled to resist the destructive

L.

166 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters.

agencies wMch otherwise would cause it to fade. The reac-

tions whicli take place in the formation of the sulphide in

question are probably represented by the following equation :

Na^ S^ O' + Hg CP + NH^ CI =

Hg S^ + 2(Na CI) + NH* Clo\

The Vermillion itself does not rival the commercial product

in beauty of color, but I think will do very well for the first

result of a new process. I expect to learn to produce a finer

article.

Until very recently, I had expected to be present at your

next meeting and present this matter in person to the Acad-

emy, together with illustrative specimens, but circumstances

will prevent.

Very truly yours,

W. H. SHERMAN.

DEPARTMENT OF LETTERS.

THE RURAL POPULATION OF ENGLAND,

AS CLASSIFIED IX DOMESDAY BOOK.

BY WILLIAM F. ALLEN, A. M.,

ProfesEor of Latin and History in the Univej-sity of WieconsiR.

Domesday Book is the record of a survey of the landed

property of England, made b}" William the Conqueror, when

he had been about twenty years on the throne ; it was com-

pleted in 1086. It contains a nearly complete census of the

rural population and property of the whole country, with the

exception of a few of the northern counties, which were in too

disorderly a condition to be reported in detail. For some parts

of the country there remain also the pieliminary memoranda,

which are considerably more detailed than the final report ;

these are the "Exeter Domesday," for the western counties,

and the "Ely Inquest," for the estates depending upon the

abbey of St. Ethelred of Ely. For the counties of Norfolk,

Suffolk and Essex, this preliminary register is all that is

extant.

These documents give us a more exact and detailed knowl-

edge of the condition of England at this early date, than we

possess for any other country of Europe. And, nevertheless,

such are the inherent difficulties in the way of understanding

the social condition of a period so far removed from our own,

and so meagre is our collateral knowledge of the matters

168 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters.

treated, that there are many questions raised by an examina-

tion of these documents, which have never been satisfactorily

answered. Among these is the precise status of the different

classes of population enumerated.

The whole population recorded in Domesday Book is 283,242 ;

the heads of families only, it will be remembered, and, in the

main, only of the rural parts of England. Tliese are enumer-

ated in several different classes, to the four largest of which

our attention will chiefly be confined. These are : the villam,

numbering 108,407 ; the hordarii, 82,119 ; the sochemanni,

23,072 ; the liheri homines (free men), 12,138. There are also

25,156 slaves ; but these do not come within the scope of our

inquiry.

[The pages wliicli discuss the mllam, bordaru and libei'i homines will

be omitted, except the summary which follows of the general results of

the inquiry.]

1. The villani appear to have been in the main the body of

the ceorls or common freemen ; the representative of the primi-

tive Tillage Communities (see Maine, Yill. Comm., p. 82).

" From all that we can gatlier on the subject, it seems that

they were situated on the outside of the demesne land, and in

'common-field ' culture." Larking's " Domesday Book of Kent,"

App., p. 30.

2. The hordarii were those who, through misfortune or im-

providence, had lost their little estates, and been reduced to

the condition of common laborers ; tog^ether with emancipated

slaves and such others as floated to the several localities from

one place or another. Tliese had cottages (horcT), not in the

" village " proper, but on the lord's demesne, or "in-land";

they became the villains in gross of feudal times, and their

holdings were in time transformed into copyholds (see again

Larking).

3. The liberi homines were independent freeholders, discon-

nected with the regular village or manorial organization of the

peasantry ; the large numbers of them that we find in Norfolk,,

The Rural Population of England. 169

Suffolk and Essex, are to be explained by supposing tliem to

be the descendants of tbe Danes of Gutliorm (see Lappenberg's

"JSTomian Kings of England," p. 202).

4. We come next to tlie sochemanni, who present undonbt-

edl}^ tlie most puzzling problem connected witli tliese inquiaies.

It seems to me, however, that the difficulty has arisen chiefly

from the attempt to identify them with the socage tenants of

later times, to whom also the term sochemanni was applied ;

and fi'om the further attempt to explain the word by socagium,

socage, which is itself a derived word, rather than by sac or

socha, from which both of these must have been derived. It

is easy to see how inadequate this method is. The tenants in

"free and common socage" made up the body of the freehold

tenants in all parts of England ; but the sochemanni of Domes-

day Book are found only in certain counties in the east of

England ; so that the -theory in question makes no provision for

the socagers of Wessex and western Mercia. Further, it has

been shown [in the pages omitted] that the villani held their

lands by a tenure which was, to all intents and purposes, free

and common socage, that is, a tenure "by any certain and de-

termined service."* The villani^ therefore, who are found in

all counties of England, must be, in part at least, the repre-

sentatives of the later socagers ; consequently the sochemanni

must have had something to distinguish them besides this

tenure.

We must, then, leave the late and derived word socagium^

and have recourse to the primitive soc or socha^ and determine

from this, on etymological grounds, the probable meaning of

sochemannus. Etymology is a very unsafe guide to the actual

meaning of a w^ord at any given time ; but it gives a certain

clue to what must have been its meaning at one time — to one

of the phases of meaning through which it must have passed.

Thus, the derivation of socage has been greatly disputed, and,

whatever this may have been, it is not at all a safe indication

* Blackstone.

170 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters.

to the meaning of socman ; for, altliougli the two words may

have been, and probably were, derived from the same source,

yet there is no likelihood that either was derived from the

other. Now it is probable that socagium (socage) was derived

from the Anglo-Saxon s6c ; but it is almost certain that soche-

inannus was so derived. From the meaning of s6c, therefore^

we can deduce, not what was the meaning of sochemanmis at

any particular epoch, whether at the time of the Conquest or

two hundred years later, but what must have been its meaning

when the word was first formed.

iSoc, in Latin Soclia, is the territory of the jurisdiction of a

thegn. As the village community was transformed into a

manor, its tenitoiy came to be regarded as the propert}^ of the

thegn or country gentleman, the " lord of the manor " of feudal

times. More than this, as the development of feudal institu-

tions went on, he became " not only a proprietor, but a prince,'"

and the villagers not only his tenants, but his subjects. This

was a gradual process. The rights of jurisdiction were at first

granted to individual thegns, as a special privilege, oy franchise

as it was called. Some received them, others did not. A law

of Edward the Confessor* contrasts " barones qui curias suas

habent de hominibus suis" with "barones qui judicia non

habent," Again, the franchise was not always in the same

degTee. Full powers of jurisdiction, civil and criminal, were

comprised under the terms " sac, soc, toll, team and infang-

thef"; a lesser degree, relating only to civil cases and j)etty

offences, was "sac and soc," or, very frequently, simply wc.

Domesday Book gives the names of 35 persons, thegus and

persons of high rank — among them Queen Edith and the

Bishop of Durham — who had "sac, soc, toll and team" in Lin-

colnshire ; but in the city of Lincoln alone there were 12 who

had " sac and soc " : one of them being mentioned specially as

having also " Toll and Theim." After the Norman Conquest,

when the feudal institutions had become fully developed, and

* Stubbs, Select Charters, p. 74.

The Rural Population of England. 171

the powers of jurisdiction had been parcelled out among tlie

feudal tenants, they were an essential adjunct to every manor ;

but at the time of the Conquest, as we must constantly bear in

mind, the system was still in j^rocess of development, and vari-

ous stages of it were in existence side by side.

/Sbc, then, is the territory within which a thegn possessed

jurisdiction ; and it is often put for the jurisdiction itself,

which was more properly expressed by sac. Illustrations of

this use of the word are common in all parts of Domesday

Book ; but they are most common in Lincolnshire and the

adjoining counties, in which the socmen are principally found.

A peculiarity of these counties is that nearly every manor has

enumerated as Soca a list of small detached tracts in other

manors. For example (I take a very simple case), the manor

of Tuxfame, in Nottinghamshire, has 32 villani and 2 hordarii.

As Soca belong ; 1, in Schidrinton and Walesbi, 2 hides of

land with 6 sochemanni and 1 bordanus;2, in Agemuntone, 11-2

hide with 1 sochemannus and 3 villani. Agemuntone has a

manor of its own, and in Tuxfarne itself is a soca of West-

marcham, containing 3 carucates of land, with 3 sochemanni

and 5 villani. Lincolnshire and Nottinghamshire, and to some

extent other counties in the neighborhood, are in this way cut

up in a remarkable degree into small places of detached juris-

diction. It should be remarked that the soc varies very much ;

it appears sometimes to belong to a person, sometimes to a

manor.

Now the term soc was not properly applied to the demesne

land, of which the lord of the manor was proprietor^ but to the

tenement lands, as they were called, of which he was the

prince. The lands of a manor were strictly divided into two

parts, both of which were essential to its existence. The

demesne land, or "in-land," as it was called in Anglo-Saxon

times, was the private estate or farm of the lord, where he had

his manor house or castle, and lived surrounded by his retain-

ers and serfs. This land was cultivated by slaves, or serfs

172 Wisconsi7i Academy of /Sciences, Arts, and Letters.

hardly bettor off than slaves ; and these serfs I have shown to

be probably the hordariioi Domesday Book. The " utdand "

[o^^^land, contrasted to wi-land] or upland, as it is generally

called, was that of which the lord was recognized as proprie-

tor, but only to the extent of receiving certain dues and ser-

vices, and exercising a certain degree of jurisdiction. Its

inhabitants were fi'cehold tenants, and it therefore came to be

known as the tenement lands ; these I have shown were proba-

bly the villani of Domesday Book. The upland, or tenement

lands, were also called the ybre?^w* land, as being in a certain

sense free and independent of the lord of the manor. Over

the demesne he was master ; over the tenement lands he was

onl}^ lord. The inhabitants of the inland or demesne were, so

to speak, members of his household ; those of the upland or

tenement lands came under his authority only in certain

specified points.

Now it was to the upland, not to the inland, that the term

socf was applied ; that is, to the legal and special jurisdiction

over freemen, not the irres^Donsible mastership over serfs and

slaves. But I have shown that the inhabitants of the upland

or tenement lands were the villani of Domesday Book ; these

were, therefore, within the soc of the thegn, and were strictly

socmen. I will go a step further, and anticipate a point which

does not properly fall within the limits of this jjaper, by say-

ing that because they lived within the s6c, they were called

socage tenants.

It appears then, from the etymology of the word, that the

sochemanni must have been people living within the soc or

jurisdiction of individual thegns, as contrasted with the slaves

and cottagers upon their demesne lands. It follows that the

villani, if they were, as I think is proved, the inhabitants of

the uplands, members of organized village communities, were

properly socmen, 2^'^ovided their thegn possessed the franchise of

sac and soc. Under the fully developed manorial system all

*Bxtenta Manerii, 4 Edw. 1.

t lu dominio aulte sunt x bovata de hac terra. Reliqua est soca./. 283a.

The Rural Population of England. 173

lords of manors possessed tliese franchises, and all inhabitants

of the tenement lands became socmen, or, as the terms were

then identical, socagers. But when the system was still in

process of development, only those villani would be socmen

whose thegns had obtained these franchises by special grant ;

and on the other- hand there might be tenants living within

the jurisdiction of a thegn, and thus properly socmen, who

were not members of the organized village communities. There

were therefore villnai who were not socmen, and there might

be socmen who were not villani. In a register like Domesday

Book it would be natural to enumerate a great class like the

villani^ which was found throughout England, under this, its

special name, and that whether they were strictly socmen or

not ; while the term socmen would be reserved for those who

were not villani^ and yet who stood like these under the soc of

a lord or a manor.

It appears probable, therefore, that the socJiemanni of Domes-

day Book were persons holding tracts of land independent of

the organized village communities, but coming like the villa-

gers under the jurisdiction of the thegn. We might, there-

fore, expect them to be a comparatively scattered and occasional

class ; and the record shows that as a matter of fact there was

a great disparity in their position and protection. We find 2

sochemanni of 24 acres of arable land, and 4 of meadow ; 14 of

9 acres ; 12 of 40 acres ; 5 of 20 acres ; 1 of 1-2 hide ; 3 of 1-2

hide, etc. Their position in the record varies also ; sometimes

they are enumerated with the other classes [2 sochemanni^ 1

villanus, and 1 hordarius — 25 sochemanni and 15 villani.~\ very

rarely standing last. Sometimes they are put by themselves

[5 sochemanni of 3 hides, and 35 villani and 20 hordarii.\ A

very common expression is, " There belonged to this manor so

many sochemanni.^'' Occasionally a socman seems to rank

almost as a thegn ; as " in Nortun, 1 sochemannus with 81 acres

of land, and 1 acre of meadow, and 1 villanus and 7 hordarii ;

and he was of a free man of Roger Bigod." Here we have

174 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters.

villani and hordarii under a socman, himself under a " free

man," who was the vassal of the great lord Roger Bigod,

Again, "7 sochemanni having 12 villani and 6 hordariV''

Also, sochemanni holding lands " in demesne," like lords of

the manor. Again, the introduction to the Ely Inquest pro-

poses to ascertain how many villani, how many cotarii, how

many slaves — then "how many free men, how many socmen."

The following is a fuller example of socmen from Cam-

bridgshire, a manor held by one Guido :

[In the time of King Edward] " sixteen sochemanni held

this land. Of these, 10 had 2 hides and 1-2 virgate* of the

soca of St. Ethelred of Ely, of whom one could not sell his

land, the other nine could sell to whom they wished, but the

soc of all remained to the church ; and 6 others held one hide

and 2 virgates of Count Algar, and could give or sell."

Of 24 socmen, " 1 held under Edith the fair — all the others

were socmen of King Edward."

We have thus ascertained the probable meaning of soche-

mannus, from its etymology, and found this to be supported by

the facts as recorded in the survey. Both etymology and evi-

dence go to show that this was a class in nearly the same

social position with the villani, but not like them members of

the village organizations ; that they were an occasional and

scattered body, and that they differed very widely from one

another in wealth and position. This theory finds a strong

support in a provision of the Laws of Edward the Confessorf

by which in the Danalagu the "manbote " of the sochemannus

and of the villanus is the same, while that of the " free man "

is twice as much. A class like this, equal in rank to the

members of the native organizations, but occasional, scattered,

and differing very widely in standing and wealth, can be best

explained by supjDOsing an intrusion, or an invasion and occu-

j^ation by the side of the old inhabitants.

* The virgate was 8 acres ; the hide 4 virgates.

tChsp. XII.

The Rural Population of England. 175

Having considered the probable meaning of the term, and

the way in which it is used in Domesday Book, let us consider

the geographical argument, the one which led Lappenberg to

so fruitful results in the case of the "free men." In what

counties of England do we find socmen ? and is there anything

that distinguishes these counties from other parts of England?

1. With very trifling exceptions, the socmen are found

exclusively to the north and east of Watling Street.

2. They are most numerous in Lincolnshire, and next to

this in the counties adjoining — Nottinghamshire, Leicester-

shire and Norfolk. In the counties next to these they are in

much smaller numbers. That is, they may be said to spread

out from Lincolnshire south and west, over the other counties

of the Danalagu.

8. In Lincolnshire, and in a less degree, in the adjoining

counties, we find that the sochen, or detached places under the

jurisdiction of the lord of the manor, are very numerous.

We might expect from this that the socmen would be found

exclusively in these sochen ; but,

4. Although these sochen almost always contain socmen,

they do not always contain these ; and on the other hand soc-

men are found in the manors themselves. This I shaU

attempt to explain presently ; so far as it goes, it is a fact of

some importance that socmen prevail in these sochen, even if

they are not found in them universally and exclusively.

The facts here given lead of themselves to the theory which

seems to me probable. Just as the liheri homines are found in

the counties occupied by the Danes of Guthorm, so the coun-

ties in which the sochemanni most abound are precisely those

in which the later settlements of Danes were principally made ;

we find the socmen most numerous exactly where we know

that these Danes were most numerous. I can hardly resist the

conclusion that the socmen were the descendants of these

Danes. When they conquered the country, they did not dis-

turb the organized village communities of the English, but —

176 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arls, and Letters.

there being plenty of unoccupied land — partly public land,

partly tbe waste of tlie several manors — assigned tracts to tbeir

followers from tins. The leaders became thegns, and under

their soc were two classes, equal in rank — the native villani,

and the svchemanni, the rank and file of their own army.

This will explain the irregularity and disparit}^ in the condi-

tion of the socmen.*

The theory that the socmen were the descendents of Danish

settlers, finds confirmation in a law of King Cnut, which fixes

the heriot, that is, "the military equipment of a vassal, which

on his death reverted to the lord " [Stubbs.] After giving

that of the three grades of nobility, the Earl, the King's thegn

and the medial thegn, it goes on : " and the heriot of a King's

thegn among the Danes, who has his soken, four pounds, "f

Now we have found soJcen, that is, detached places under the

jurisdiction of a thegn or manor, to be very abundant in the

counties where the Danes were found ; and the passage just

quoted proves some peculiar and special relation of the sesoken

to Danish thegns.

I have now shown : 1. From the meaning of the word soc, and

hs use as contrasted with the " inland " or demesne, that the

sochemanni were probably a somewhat scattered and irregular

class, under the jurisdiction of the several thegns. 2, From

the records of Domesday Book, that they were actu.ally a scat-

tered and irregular class, under the authority of individual

thegns, nobles and great persons. 3. From the Laws of

Edward the Confessor, that their rank was the same as that of

the villani, who were the native English peasantry, and were

likewise under the jurisdiction of their several tliegns. 4

That the existence of such a local and exceptional class as the

socmen can be best explained by supposing an intrusion from

some foreign country, which introduced an irregular body by

* When the Danisli counties were recovered by the English Kings, the Danish thegns

were not displaced, and says Palgrave, "as late as the reign of Ethelred, we can trace

their existence as a privileged community, distinct from the kingdom in which they

were included." A. S., p. 97.

t Stubbs, Select Charters, p. 73.

Tlie Ruaal Pojndaiion of England. 177

tlie side of tlic compact and organized one. 5. That we know

as a fact tliat there was sucli an intrusion of Danes, and that

the intruders had their centre and seat precisely in those

counties where we find the socmen. 6. That the Danish ori-

gin of the socmen is further sujiported by the passage in the

laws of King Cnut, wliich speak of Danish thegns who have

their soken, as well as the law of Edward the Confessor, which

speaks of sokemanni in the Danalagu, as contrasted with the

rest of England.

It does not follow from these arguments that all the soclie-

manni registered in Domesday Book were of Danish origin, or

that all of Danish origin were sochemanni or liheri homines.

The point to be explained is the existence of these two great

classes in a certain group of counties, by the side of the two

classes of viUani and hordari% which are found everywhere.

This circumstance is easiest explained by supposing a prevail-

ingly Danish origin. But the time when Domesday Book was

compiled, was a time of rapid and sweeping changes ; the Con-

quest must have acted powerfully in breaking up the old

organizations and mixing together the several classes of popu-

lation. After this time we find no mention of hordarii ; the

term villanus gradually lost its dignity and became equivalent

to "serf;" ^mKAq sochemanni were no longer confined to the

Danish counties, but the name came in time to be applied to

the bod}^ of the free peasantry in all parts of England.

178 Wiscoyisin Academy of Sciences^ Arts, and Letters.

ON THE PLACE OF THE INDIAN LANGUAGES IN

THE STUDY OF ETHNOLOGY.*

BY PROF. J. B. FETTLING PH. D.

Professor of Comparative Philology ia the University of Wisconsin.

Physical ethnology lias slaown tliat all the different tribes of

Indians constitute but one race from tlie Arctic Ocean to Cape

Horn. Bnt physical evidence of race is as incomplete without

tbe confirmation of linguistic evidence, as is tbe latter without

the former. Race and language run parallel only in prehis-

toric times, or at the very dawn of history. The connection

therefore between physical ethnology and linguistic ethnology

consists in giving mutual advice and suggestions. Accommo-

dation and mutual concessions should not enter here.

As languages change more rapidly than races, it seems often

impossible, even in languages whose current we are able to

ascend beyond the dawn of tradition, to gather up the con-

necting links between language and race, or to point out,

when, where or how they separated. Besides we must be

careful in drawing conclusions fi'om facts, which may be the

" result of accident." All this must be borne in mind by the

student the more carefully, as the philological details are very

scanty and insufhcient. Although the affinity between the

Indian languages, as determined by their vocabularies, is not

less real than that inferred from the analogies of their gram-

matical forms, it would not be a conclusive evidence for the

original unity of the various tribes, because we have no his-

torical documents, and tradition is silent as to the existence of

a " specific centre." If we had documentary evidence of the

* The loss, by accident, of this paper, as originally presented, has necessitated its pub-

lication in the form of a brief abstract.

The Place of the Indian Language^ etc. 179

intermediate dialects, we would be able, perhaps, to give a com-

plete account for tlie great dissimilarity of Indian languages.

For tbe present the question of their mutual relation and pos-

sible transmutation from a common prototype will best be

cleared up by a careful systematic study of the actually exist-

ing dialects.

Then followed a critical account of what had been accom-

plished in this field by eminent scholars, e. g. Gallatin, G,

Gibbs, E. G. Squier, Lewis H. Morgan, Dr. Brinton, J. Shea,

Dr. J. H. Trumbull and others ; the materials and theories of

Duponceau, Heckewelder, Schoolcraft, etc. are worthless.

Besides the importance of the Indian languages in an eth-

nological view, the possibility of an approach through them

to the great problem of the origin of language was pointed

out.

Mr. F. showed the duty of the Academy towards assisting

to secure from destruction the languages of the Indians of

America and to facilitate the work of the linguistic scholar

by collecting materials, as books, etc. In collecting materials

special attention should be paid to those tribes (about 26),

which, since our first knowledge of them (a. 1670), lived within

or passed through the State of Wisconsin. Attention was

called to Col. George Gibbs' " Instructions for research rela-

tive to the Ethnology and Philology of America " * and to

the hints given by Hon. J. H. Trumbull in a paper " On the

true method of studying the American Languages," read

before the American Philological Association, at Poughkeep-

sie, 1869. t

There are other monuments, besides languages, which claim

our attention in the elucidation of the ethnological problems

involved in the past history of America, — monuments left by

a people, whose very name has vanished. " Mound-Build-

ers" is a conventional name. Geology, and the extreme

* Smithsonian Miscellaneous Collections, (Vol. \ii., Art. xi.)

tThis valuable paper has been published since in the "Transactions of the American

Philol. Association," (Vol. I, Art. iv.)

180 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences^ Arts, and Letters.

decay in wliicli skeletons of Mound-buiklers are found, have

assisted in ascertaining tliat the mounds are of high antiquity,

which is also attested by their relation to forest-growths. It

is impossible to give any fixed data ; it is, however, safe to say

that 2000 years at least have passed since the disappearance of

a people which were not the ancestors of the wild Indians, as it

is commonly believed. For many reasons (mining operations,

etc.) the Mound-Builders must have been stationary and agri-

cultural in their habits. We may never be able to answer the

question, Who were these Mound-Builders or whence did

they come ? Still it is not impossible to find the thread which

connects these ancient monuments and their scanty relics with

those of Central America and, perhaps, with more distant

quarters, after their extent and contents, as well as their general

character, have been better understood.

We have a meritorious work by Dr. I. A. Lapham, " The

Antiquities of Wisconsin " (Smithsonian Contributions to

Knowledge, Vol. vii), which has however not made unnecessary

further exploration and study. There remain a great many

mounds unnoticed and unexplored, which may lead to more

important results. It is hoped that these mysterious antiqui-

ties within our State will be saved as sacred mementos of the

past from oblivion and destruction.

There is hardly a farmhouse in Wisconsin, where some kind

of relics, as stone-implements, etc., are not either kept as a

curiosities or thrown aside like so many other " useless things.''

Sufficient interest should be awakened among the people to

care for the preservation of such relics or to forward them

generously to some place of collection.*

Let us mark the words of William D. Whitney, safest and

surest of guides : " Our national duty and honor are pecu-

liarly concerned in this matter of the study of aboriginal

*Mr. F. S. Perkins of Burlington, Wis. , lias the largest collection of stone imple-

ments, beside that of the Sipithsonian Institute, and he spares neither time nor money,

in order to make new additions to his valuable collection. We hope that the St;ite may

be able to procure this collection some day, as the beginning of a State Museum of

American (Wisconsin) Antiquities.

The Place of the Indian Language^ etc. 181

American languages, as tlie most fertile and important branch

of American archasology. Europeans accuse us, witli too

mucli reason, of indifference and inefficiency with, regard to

preserving memorials of the races whom we have dispossessed

and are dispossessing, and to promoting a thorough comj^re-

hension of their history. Indian scholars, and associations

which devote themselves to gathering together and making

public linguistic and other archaeological materials for con-

struction of the proper ethnology of the continent, are far

rarer than they should be among us. " " So much the more

reason have we to be grateful to the few who are endeavoring

to make up our deficiencies by self -prompted study, and espe-

cially to those self-denying men who, under circumstances of

no small difficulty, are or have been devoting themselves to

the work of collecting and giving to the world original

materials."

M.

PROCEEDINGS.

[Conclensea from the Bvlletix.]

PROCEEDINGS OF THE CONVEXTION CALLED TO ORGAN-

IZE THE ACADEMY.

Pursuant to a call of citizens, issued February 1, 1870, a large

meeting of scientific, literary and other prominent men of the

State was convened in the State Agricultural Rooms, at Madi-

son, on the 16th of February, for the purj^ose of organizing an

association that should be devoted to original research and in-

vestigation.

The convention was called to order by Dr. J. W. Hoyt, who

read the call, and nominated Hon. W. P. Ljnide as temporary

chairman.

On assuming the chair, Senator Lynde declared his hearty ap-

proval of the objects of the meeting in a neat and eloquent

speech.

Prof. Foye, of Lawrence University, was appointed temporary

Secretary.

On motion, the President appointed Dr. R. Z. Mason, Dr.

Joseph Bobbins, and Rev, Samuel Fallows, to nominate perma-

nent officers of the Convention.

The committee made the following nominations:

President— Gov. L. Fairchild.

Vice Presidents— Ex-Gov . N. Dewey, and Dr. G. M. Steele.

Secretaries— T>r. I. A. Lapliam and Prof. T. C. Chamberlin.

Dr. Hoyt said:

He regretted that, while his Escellency, the Governor, heartily approved of the ohjects

of the Convention and had expressed iii* readiness to preside at its sessions, circum-

stances woiild necessitate his absence lor ,i time. He moved, therefor, that Ex-Gover-

nor Dewey, first on the list of Vice-Presidents, be requested to take the Chair.

On assuming the Chair, Gov. Dewey said:

He thanked the Convention for the honor conferred. Althou;ih not chximing to be a

man of science, he felt deep interest in every movement that promised to i.id in the ad-

vancement of Wisconsin. He had long recognized the importance of some institution

specially devoted to scientific investigation, aiid was heartily glad that so large a number

of the prominent men of the state had shown their appreciation of the elforts in that di-

rection by attendance upon the Convention. There was much that greatly needed to be

done, and there were competent men ready to undertake its accomplishment. The worK

and workers would at all times have his cordial support, and until the return of Gov.

Fairchild, who had very properly been chosen President of the Convention, lie would

have pleasure in serving them to the best of his ability.

184 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences^ Arts, and Letters.

Judge J. G. KnajDp offered the following resolvition :

nesolred. that we do organize an association under the name of " Wisconsin Academy

of Sciences, Arts, and Letters."

Dr. Hoyt stated that,

Tnasmuch as several of the gentlemen who had expressed cordial approval of the prop-

position to organize snch an Academy as was contemplated by the resolution just

ofi'cred, were unable to attend the Convention, it seemed proi)er that their views as pre-

sented in the communications he liad received from them, although probably not writ-

ten with reference to such use, should be laid before the Convention. Accordingly, with

the appro\al of its members, he would iiro'ceed to read at least such portions of some of

them as were likely to be of most interest.

Letters were accordingly read from the following gentlemen:

Hon. John G. McMynn, late Superintendent of Public Instruction; Prof. R. G. Hins-

dale, Racine College; Prof. J. J. Bushnell, Beloit College: Lt. Gen. Wyman Spooner;

H')n. Asahel Finch, Milwaukee; Prof W. Porter, Beloit College ; Rollin A. Smith, Esq \

Fond du Lac: Hon. W. W. Field, Boscobel; J Lawler, Esq., Prairie du Chien: Hon. I).

J. Pulliutr, Circuit Judge, Beaver Dam ; President W. C. Whitford, Milton College; Hon.

Anthony Van Wyck, Milwaukee; Professor A. K. Johnston, Mineral Point: Hon. M. K.

Young, Glen ILaven; Hon. John E. Thomas, Sheboygan Falls; J. H. Evans, Esq.,

Plattteville; President Lewis O. Thompson, Watertown; Hon. James H. Earoestl

Shnllsburg: Hon. Tim. O. Howe, U. S Senate; Hon. H. S. Baird, Green Bav: Dr. J. L.

Jenckes, Hazel Green; Dr. R. B. Treat, Janesville; Hon. J. H. Ronntree, Platteville;

Hon. G. W. Cate^ Circuit Judge, Amherst; Prof. S. S. Sherman, Milwaukee; Hon. David

W. Jones, Miueral Point.

The resolution was then unanimously adopted.

Dr. Hoyt moved the appointment, by the President, of a com-

mittee of five members to prepare and submit to the Convention

a ]ilan of organization for the Academy.

The chair appointed Dr. J. W. Hoyt, of Madison, President

G. M. Steele, of Lawrence University, President A. L. Chapin,

of Beloit College, Dr. Solon Marks, of Milwaukee, and Hon. J.

T. Mills, of Lancaster, as said committee, with instructions to

report, if possible, at the ensuing session.

Adjourned to 7^ o'clock, P. M.

The Convention met pursuant to adjournment.

On behalf of the committee on a plan of organization for the

Academy, Dr. Hoyt reported a Constitution, which, on motion,

was unanimously adopted.

[For Constitution see Bulletin No. 1.]

After the adoption and signing of the constitution, on motion

of Dr. E. B. Wolcott, of Milwaukee, the President was in-

structed to appoint a committee of five to nominate a President,

a General Secretary, and a Treasurer for the Academy. The

chair appointed as such committee. Dr. E. B. Wolcott, Geo. P.

Delaplaine, President G. M. Steele, President A. L. Chaj^in and

Professor T. C. Chamberlin.

The committee retired, and in due time returned and reported

the following nominations:

For President— T>T. J. W. Hoyt.

Foi- General Sicrf-tirri/—l)r. I. A. Lapham.

For Treasurer— Geo. P. Delaplaine.

The report of the committee was adopted.

The President of the Convention having, on motion, appointed

Proceedings of the Academy. 185

a committee consisting of Dr. E. B. Wolcott and Dr. -Joseph

Hobbins to notify the said officers of the Academy of their elec-

tion, and to conduct the President thereof to the chair,

The Convention dissolved.

FIRST MEETING OF THE ACADEMY.

Pursuant to call, made at the instant of the dissolution of the

convention of citizens met to organize the same, the Wisconsin

Academy of Sciences, Arts and Letters convened in the place

of said Convention at 9 o'clock P. M. of same day (Feb. 16.)

On assuming the chair, President Hoyt said:

While lie felt hii^iiiy honored by the iinanimoiis expression of the wish of its mem-

bers that he should preside over the Institution, in the I'ormation of which all gentlemen

present had shared, and was sincerely siratei'iil to them tor their confidence, he was pro-

foundly sensible of the grave responsibilities involved in an acceptance of the position.

Pioneer work was laborious in whatever field, but especially so in the founding and up-

building of institutions devoted to a work of which the body of the peoplecould hardly

be expected to have a just appreciation. Academics devoted to original recearch were

the forerunners of a hisher civilization. It was rarely that their services were recog-

nized at their tnje value at the time, but without them the world would make but slow

progress. He was glad that the proposition to loKnd such an institution in Wisconsin

liadbeen received with warm approbation, and desired to congratulate the members of

the Academy that it had pleased them to adopt a plan of organization so broad and com-

prehensive as to include every class of searchers after knowledge. The Convention had

manifested an intelligence, unanimity and enthusiasm worthy of the cause sought to be

advanced, and it now only remained to push on the work with vigor and resolution.

Each member must consider himself a committee responsible for the advance-

ment of the Academy's interests in his own locality as well as throughout the

range of his acquaintance, and by every means in his power. Should this be the case,

the organization of the Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts and Letters would be no-

table in the future as the inauguration of a new era in the history of the State. He ac-

cepted the responsible and laborious position of President, in the belief that he would

not be denied the hearty o-operation he so earnestly craved, and with the purpose to do

everything in his power to make the Academy successful in every respect and in an

eminent degree.

At the conclusion of the President's remarks, it was moved

by Ex. Gov. Dewey that the Academy proceed at once to the

election of a Director of the Museum, a Librarian, and of the

constitutional departmental officers for the Department of the

Sciences; and that, in the absence of By-Laws regulating the

mode of procedure, such election be viva voce., on nominations

made by any member of the Academy, The motion prevailed,

and the following officers were duly elected:

Director of the 3Iuseum—Wm. Dudley, Esq.

Librarian — Hon. .T. G, Knapp.

Vice President of the Department of Sciences^ and ex-officio a Vice President of the

Academy— JiT. P. R. Hoy.

Secretary of the Department of the Sciertces— Col. S. V. Shipmao.

Counsellors for the Department— Proi. T. C. Chamberlin, Dr. E. B. Wolcott, Dr. R. Z.

Mason.

The Treasurer was authorized to purchase the necessary books

of record.

The President having given notice that a meeting of the Gen-

eral Council would be held in this place at 9 o'clock on the fol-

lowing morning, for the purpose of adopting By-Laws for the

government of the institution, the Academy adjourned 0)'</?e c?ie.

186 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences^ Arts, and Letters.

FIRST MEETING OF THE GENERAL COUNCIL.

Adoption of By-Laws.

The General Council of the Wisconsin Academy of Sciences,

Arts and Letters, met pursuant to the call of the President, in

the State Agricultural Rooms, at 9 o'clock A. M., of February

17, 1870.

Present — Messrs. J. W. Hoyt, President, in the Chair, P. R,

Hoy, T. C. Pound, Geo. P. Delaplaine, Wm. Dudley, J. G.

Knapp, T. C. Chamberlin, R. Z. Mason, S. V. Shipman and I. A.

Lapham.

After due consideration, the Council adopted the following

By-Laws:

[For jjy-Ajiiv*'5, SGS xjULLetix 1\o, 1.]

On motion, the Chair appointed the following Standing Com-

mittees:

On Nominations— Dr. G. M. Steele, Dr. Solon Marks and Prof. Jas. H. Eaton.

On Papers Presented to the Academy— Br. A. L. Chapin, Dr. P. A. Chadbourne and Dr.

I. A. Lapham.

On Finance— Mow. Xelson Dewey, Hon. Alexander Mitchell and Hon. Wm. E. Smith.

On the Mustum— Dr. P. R. Hoy, Charles Preus-serand John Murrish.

On Library— ILon. Lyman C. Draper, Dr. Joseph Bobbins and Hon. Wm. Pitt Lynde.

The Council adjourned, " subject to call of the President."

SECOND MEETING OF THE ACADEMY.

First Session — Executive Proceedings.

The Second Regular Meeting of the Academy was held in the

rooms of the State Agricultural Society, at Madison, commenc-

ing on Tuesday, July 19; fifteen members being present. The

president. Dr. J. W. Hoyt, in the chair.

Letters were read from several members unable to be present.

Donations for the Museum were presented as follows:

A wolverine {Gulo Il'Scvs, Sabine), killed in Juneau county, and presented by Hon. J.

T. Kingston, of Necedah; and a lynx (L. Canadensis. Eatinesqiic), killed near Maditon,

and presented by Jacob Seller of that city; w..ich, on motion, \vere accepted, with the

thinks of the Academy.

Specimens of the rocks, minerals, ores, clay, etc., from Garrisonville, Sauk county,

presented by Mrs. Dr. Taylor of that place, were examined and commented upon.

The President submitted an informal report of what had been

done since the date of the last meetino-;

A liberal charter had been granted by the legislature, at its late ses.'jion, with author

ity to occupy apartments in the capitol, if not inconsistent with the public business of

the State; a law had been passed providing for a topographical survey of the lead dis-

trict, the specimens of minerals, rocks and fossils collected being required by law to be

deposited with the Academy; the publication oi a Bulletin had been commenced, in

which it was proposed to include such of the proceedings as seemed of sufficient import-

ance: and favorable responses, received from all parts of the Slate, gave encouraijemeut

to hope that the Academy would be sustained, and become an iDstitutlon of permanent

usefulness.

He then laid before the Academy the text of the Charter

granted by the State.

[See No" 1 of the Bulletin, p. 17; also General Laws of Wisconsin, 1870.]

Proceedings of the Academy. 187

The following persons were admitted to membership:

Life Members:— lion. J. B.Thomas, Sheboygan Falls ; N.S.Green, Esq., Milford;

Hon J. I. Case, Racine; Hon. Simeon Mills, Madison: Jas. L. Hill, Esq., Madison;

Hon. J. G. Thorp, Madison; John H. Van Dyck, Esq., Milwaukee; Jas. J. Hagerman,

Annu.'^l Members:— Rt. Rev. W. E. Armitage, Milwaukee; Pres. W. C. Whitford,

MiUon; Prof T. H. Litlle, Blind Asylum, Janesville : Samuel P. Gary, Esq., Oshkosh;

Rev Albert O.Wright, Waterloo; Mr. Cyrus T. Hawley, Milwaukee; Prof. John E.

Davies, State University, Madison; Rev. J. B. Pradt, Madison; Capt.W. A. DeLaMatyr,

Mazomanie; Eugene R. Leland, Esq., Milwaukee; Alex. Provis, Esq., Laneaster; Mr.

Jas. J. Cammack, Madison; Elisha Burdick, Esq., Madison; John R. Baltzel, Esq.,

Mudisou; Prof. R. G. Hinsdale, Racine College; Rev. J. C. C. Clarke, Madison; Hon. J.

T. Kingston, Necedah; Dr. Moses Barrett, Waukesha.

On motion of J. G. Knapp, it was

Resolved, That the fees for members for life be set apart as a permanent endowment

fund to be invested in Wisconsin State bonds, or other equally safe securities, and that

the proceeds of said fund, only, be used for the general purposes of the Academy.

A committee was appointed to apply to the Governor for the

assignment of apartments in the capitol for the proper preser-

vation of such scientific specimens, books, and other collections

as may become the property of the Academy.

The President and Secretary were authorized to continue,

from time to time, the publication of the Bulletin.

Adjourned till 9 o'ciock of the following morning.

Second Session — Communications.

The Academy met pursuant to adjournment, for the reading

and discussion of papers. There were present several additional

members ; the President in the Chair.

The following are the titles of papers presented and discussed

during the morning session, with the leading ideas contained:

1. On the Classification of the Sciences. By Rev. Albert

O. Wright, of Waterloo. Mr. Wright said in substance, that

Every science has two aspects, a concrete and an abstract. The logical order is from

the abstract to the concrete. But the order of discovery is first the practice of an art, then

the gathering of facts for the concrete science, then ordering the principles for the abstract

science. These last have an order among themselves, which the concrete sciences and

the arts follow. Rising from the lower to the higher, this order of the abstract sciences,

with their dependent sub-sciences, concrete sciences and practical arts is; Mathematics,

Astronomy, Physics, Chemistry, Biology, Psychology, Sociology, Theology. Each of

these sciences has a principle underlying it which we have discovered or hope to dis-

cover; and each science uses its own laws and the laws of all below it, but not of those

above it; and no science can be completed until the one next below it is. Commenc-

iuc with the science of Abstract Relations, by adding one law, we have the science of

celestial phenomena: by adding again one law, we have the science of terrestrial phe-

jiomena ; again adding one law, we have the science of chemical affinities ; at the next

step we enter the domain of i«7«, at the next that oi mind, at the next that of »u«d m

masses; and by the last and greatest step we rise to the Supreme of the Universe.

2. On the importance of more attention to the Preservation

and culture of Forest Trees in Wisconsin. By Mr. P. Engel-

mann. Secretary of the Natural History Society, Milwaukee.

The author commented on the rapid destruction of the forests in the State, now going

on with a geometrical ratio of progression that must, within comparatively a very few

years, bring not only a scarcity of timber, notwithstanding the munificent provisions of

Nature, but likewise important and unfavorable changes in the climate of the State. He

cited the governments of the Old World as examples of the provident care induced by

the lessons of experience, and also alluded to the wise legislative action of some of the

neighboring States of the Union in providing for even, the planting of forests whore they

have not existed heretofore. This seemed to be a matter of suflicient importance to receive

the present, and earnest consideration of the Academy and of the Legislature of the

State.

188 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters.

3. On the Coniferae of the Rocky Mountains, and their adapta-

tion to the Soil and Climate of AVisconsin. By J. G. Knapp,

Esq., Madison.

[Published in Transactions, p. 117.]

The Academy adjourned until 2 o'clock P. M.

Third Session — Communications.

The Academy met, pursuant to adjournment, for the reading

and discussion of the following papers:

4. On the Origin of the Potsdam Sandstone. By John Mur-

rish, State Commissioner for the Survey of the Lead Regions.

5. On the Importance and Practicability of a Unit of Force in

Physics that shall be of Universal Application. By Professor

John E. Davies, of the Wisconsin State University.

6. Abstract of a Paper On the Fauna of Lake Michigan off

Racine. By Dr. P. R. Hoy, of Racine.

[Published in full in the Transactions, p. 98.]

7. On the Age of the Quartzite of Baraboo. By Dr. I. A.

Lapham, of Milwaukee.

In 'this paper. Dr. Lapham described the <jeological character of the country about

Devil's Lake, Baraboo, and presented reasons tor concluding that the Decnhar formations

there bhould be attributed to the action of water.

8. On the Formation of Certain New Compounds of Manga-

nese. By Professor James H. Eaton, of Beloit College.

In this paper. Professor Eaton gave an account of some exceedingly interesting origi-

nal investigations into the chemical properties of mangsnese, with details of the steps

taken iu the formation of some new compounds analagous to the yellow and red prussi-

ates of iron, and observations upon the physical and chemical properties of such com-

pounds.

Adjourned till 8 o'clock P. M.

Fourth and Final Session.

The evening session was occupied mainly with an informal

discussion of various questions pertaining to the future of the

Academy, and the issuing of certificates of membership. His

Excellency, Governor Fairchild, was present, and took occasion

to express cordial sympathy with the important objects of the

Academy and to congratulate its members u^Don the success

of the present meeting.

The Academy then adjourned sine die.

THIRD MEETING OF THE ACADEMY.

First Session.

The third regular meeting of the Academy was convened in

the City Hall, at Milwaukee, on Tuesday, the 28th of Septem-

ber, at 2 o'clock P. M,; the President, Dr. J. W. Hoyt, in the

chair.

Proceedings of the Academy. 189

Owing to an error in the pviblished notices, which named the

29th as the date of the meeting, but few members were present.

And, accordingly, on motion of Dr. R. Z. Mason, an adjourn-

ment was taken until the following day, at 2 o'clock P. M.

Second Session — Executive Proceedings.

The Academy met pursuant to adjournment, and, in the

absence of the President, detained by pressing duties connected

with the State Indvistrial Exhibition, was called to order by Dr.

A. Lapham, General Secretary; vipon Avhose motion Dr. R. Z.

ason was elected temporary chairman.

Rev. C. Caverno, of Lake Mills, and Messrs. G. W. Chapman

and Amasa J. Finch, of Milwaukee, were pu^t in nomination

for membership, and, upon motion, were elected without dissent.

The following 23apers were read and discussed.

1. The Metamorphic Rocks in the town of Portland, Dodge

county. By A. O. Wright, of Waterloo.

He gave a description of the positiou and appearance of the rock formations in ques ,

tion. They were fractured, and presented, to his eye, indications of having been cracke ';'■

hy some subterranean force. The force that acted below sent up through the crevic^'^

steam and heat to the cxteut of transforming the sandstone into quartzite, and, in veins,

pure quartz. He also discovered here traces of the glacial period.

Dr. Lapham said this region had be on discovered many years ago by Dr. 'Thayer ; that

it was also mentioned in Owen's and Percival's report, wherein itwas staled that the

quartzite is modified sandstone of older formation.

Dr. Mason said, as the object of the Academy is investigation, he thought it would be

proper to invito s(.me one of experience to go to this place and gatlier facts, and give, as

far as can be ascertained, the geological appearance, with the theory of iheir causes.

On motion. Prof. Eaton \\'n.s selected as a committee to make the investigations, and

afterwards. Prof. Chamberlin was added to the committee.

2. The Metamorphic Rocks at Devil's Lake. By A. O. Wright,

of Waterloo.

3. Some Observations upon the Fauna of Mammoth Cave. By

P. Engelmann, Esq., Secretary of the German Natural History

Society, Milwaukee.

Mr. Engelmann's paper embraced an account of a late visit to Mammoth Cave, with

descriptions of various curious fishes found in its waters, specimens of which were dis-

played before the Academy.

At the conclusion of the readings and discussions, Prof. T.

C. Chamberlin, of the State Normal School at Whitewater, after

some remarks upon the importance of systematic work, offered

the following:

Resolved, That the Secretary be requested to present an outline of the scientific inves-

tigations tliat have been made in Wisconsin, and tliat he indicate what lines of investi-

gation it is most desirable to pursue, and that he be empowered to assign such portion

of its work to the various members of the Academy as may seem most desirable.

Which, on motion, was adopted.

Adjovirned, to meet again at 9 o'clock A. M. to-morrow.

Second Session — Papers and Discussions.

The Academy met pursuant to adjournment, J)v. R, Z. Mason

in the chair.

Papers were presented as follows:

100 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters.

4. On the Isothermal lines of the Northwest. By J, G. Knapp,

Esq., of Madison.

Tliis paper called attention to the climatic peculiarities of 'Wisconsin, as illustrated

by meteorological charts of Dr. J. W. Hoyt and Ur. I. A. Lapham, and sought to explaia

their relationto the actual distribution of vegetation, and to the agricultural and horti-

cultural capabilities of the State.

5. On the Nebular Hypothesis in Astronomy. By R. Z.

Mason, LL. D., of Appleton.

The author of this paper admitted tnat there was no conclusive evidence that the pro-

cess of world-formation from nebulous matter was actually going on at the present time.

There were, however, strong reasons in support of the nebular hypothesis; the first

being based on the constancy of the '•moment of inertia," the second on the identity of

composition of the earth and eisn as shown by the spectroscope, and the third on tl'e

corrslatiun of forces.

Adjourned until 2 o'clock, P. M.

Third Session.

The Academy met pursuant to adjournment at 2 o'clock, P. M.

Dr. R. Z. Mason in the chair.

The reading and discussion of papers were then resumed.

6. The Mineral Well at Waterloo, Wisconsin, By A. O.

Wright.

LPublished in the Transactions, p. 151.]

7. On the Classification of Plants. By Dr. I. A. Lapham, of

Milwaukee.

[Published in the Transactions, p. 102. ]

Mr. Groodwin Lowrie, of Helena, and Mr. Joseph S. Carr, of

Neilsville, were elected members.

Judge Knapp gave notice of an amendment to the by-law

requiring meetings of the Academy to be held during the

annual exhibitions of the State Agricultural Society.

An invitation from the directors of the Association for Natural

History, to visit their museum, in the building of the English

and German Academy, was received and accepted with thanks.

Adjourned sine die.

FIRST ANNUAL MEETING OF THE ACADEMY.

First Session.

The fourth regular and first annual meeting of the Academy

was convened in the rooms of the State Agricultural Society, at

Madison, commencing on the evening of February 14. A large

number of gentlemen were present from all parts of the State.

The President, Dr. J. W. Hoyt, in the chair.

Dr. I. A. Lapham, of Milwaukee, General Secretary of the

Academy, being absent. Prof. John E. Davies of the State Uni-

versity, was elected Secretary ^:)ro tern.

Donations to the Museum of the Academy were received

from ex-Governor L. J. Farwell, of Chicago.

Proceedings of the Academy. 191

The President of the Academy, Dr. Hoyt, gave

A seneral statement of work that bad been done since tlie last meeting, and recom-

mended tiie immediate orrranizatioiin of the proposed departments of Social Hcieiice, of

the Arts, and of Letters. He also reported that the Wisconsin State Agricultural Soci-

ety had passed resolutions expressive of their interest in the work undertaken by the

Academy, and tendering the use of their rooms for its meetings and the preser/ation of

its collections, and that said Society had, moreover, amended their constitution so as to

make the President and General Secretary of the Academy members ex-otlicio of the Ex-

ecutive Board of the Society.

Which generous action was recognized by a vote of thanks.

The Treasurer, George P. Delaplaine, reported as follows:

BECEIPTS.

To fees from thirty-four Annual Memberships ■$340 00

To fees from sis llife Memberships GOO 00

Total receipts -W

EXPENDITURES.

By sundry disbursements per order of the President, as per vouchers herewith

submitted 1156 70

Balance in the treasury .$783 30

The report was referred to the Finance Committee, by whom

it was examined and reported back with their ap^Droval.

The committee on the purchase of Mr. Deininger's Natural

History Collection, were, at their own request, allowed more

time for examination.

The names of several new members were proposed, and

referred to the Committee on Nominations.

A paper was then read by A. J. Finch, Esq., of Milwaukee,

1. On Metallic Veins and the Deposition of Minerals.

The object of this paper was to refute the Wernerian theory, and to prove that metals

found in situ were deposited from their gases originating in the interior of the earth.

On motion of J. G. Knapp, the following resolutions were

adopted.

liesolved, 1st. That active members of the Academy be each requested to report to the

President or Secretary of the Department of the Sciences, and designate the section of

the Department to which he will choose to belong.

2d. That if any member be present who does not desire to connect himself with the

Department of the Sciences in any of its sect ions, he be requested to report to the Gen-

eral Secretary of the Academy, and name the Department to which he desires to be

attached.

3d. So soon as the members shall have designated the Department or Sections to which

they desire to belong, such De^jartments and Sections shall meet together and assign to

the' members thereot their respective work.

Adjourned until 9 o'clock of the following morning.

Second Session.

The Academy met pursuant to adjoui'nment. The President

in the chair.

Donations of specimens of copper, iron, lead and graphite

were made to the Museum of the Academy by Hon. J. Mvirrish,

which were accepted with a vote of thanks.

On the recommendation of the Committee on Nominations,

the following gentlemen were elected members of the Academy:

Corresponding Members.— Prof. Ezr.i S. Carr, M. D., LL. D.. of the University of

California, Oakland, Cal.; Hon. J. Wingate Thornton, of Boston, Mass.

192 Wisconsin Academy of i^icisnces. Aris^ and Letters.

Annual Members. — Prof. R. Irving, E. M., Prof, of Geology in the University' of

Wisconsin; Maj. W. J. Nicodemus, U. S. A., Prof, of Military and Civil Engineering in

the University of Wisconsin; Daniel S. Dnrrie, Esq., Librarian of the Stafe Historical

Society, Madison, Wis.; Hon. J. A. Bate, Chippewa Falls, Wis.; Prof. F. W. Woodward,

£au Claire, Wis.; Oliver Arey, Prcst. State Normal School, Whitewater, Wis.

The following papers were then read and discussed:

2. On the Geology of the region about Devil's Lake, Sauk

county, Wisconsin; being a report of observations made at the

request of the Academy. By Prof. James H, Eaton, of Beloit

College.

[Published in full in the Transactions, p. 124.]

3. On the Relations between Social and Moral Science. By

Rev. Charles Caverno, of Lake Mills.

The leading ideas were these:

Wliatevs'r relates to the development and improvement of individual man or society

will fall under the purview of Social Science. Let Moral Science be taken to be that

which concerns itself with the sphere of right and wrong, with obligation, with the sense

of ought in reference to human actions. It is the object of this paper to show the mutual

dependence of these two sciences.

First, the dependence of Social upon Moral Science. To show men the better way, and

induce them to walk in it, these are the great end of Social Science. To eflect tliis last,

there is no leverage upon humanity like the sense of right. When a new social princi-

ple is discovered and its value ascertained, then will come the question of its enforce-

ment in society. But the chances are that it will not fall into place in society with its

mere enunciation. It will have privilege and prejudice and custom, perhaps appetite

and passion, to combat. To overcome these, it will have to establish itself in the forum

of the right, with the conviction once firmly established that a thing onght to lie done,

it holds men irresistibly to it until it is done. There is no such might of enforcement in

any other department of man's nature. It will be well for this new Social Science if in

does not discard this fundamental truth and seek to attain its objects on the basis of and

of the great fallacies which have led European reformers into such pitiful failures in the

past.

If, now, we tiirn to the other side of the subject we shall find the dependence of Moral

upon Social Science no less certain and considerable. The ought in many a subject is

struggling up to the horizon, but cannot yet be seen. All the conditions upon which it

depends are not mastered and systematized. What ought to be done will depend in

many cases upon the etfect which courses of action will have. Moral Science, in strict-

ness, is 1)0 investigator or experimenter. It comes in with the power of moral obliga-

tion on the known and determined. Not so of Social Science. Society, in its advance-

ment, is constantly brought in contact with questions in which the eflect of any proposed

method of action is problematical. The race has hitherto had scarcely any otiier way of

solving such questions than by blundering in actual experiment through all possible

evil colirses to that one, whichni the end, has shown itself to be good and right. Social

Science proposes to take up such questions to see if it be not possible to avoid <nuch of

this sad experience by trying these questions beforehand, in tribunal? removed as far as

possible from human "prejtidice and party feeling, by the light of the already accumulated

stock of human experience, by actual present investigatioii and experiment, and before

the prophetic power of sound'philosophy. When such investigations shall have been

had, if the conclusions arrived at by Social Science may not be considered as established

in the forum of right absolutely, this will be established— that it will be right to experi-

ment in a direction so indicated rather than in another.

And when, after due examination had of all the'elements that pertain to a matter. Social

Science shall have reached an ultimate judgment, let it hacd it over to Moral Science to

be enforced by the binding power of moral obligation.

Adjourned to 2 o'clock P- M.

Third Session.

The Academy met pursuant to adjournment. The President

in the chair.

Reading and discussion of papers resumed.

4. The Mammalia of Wisconsin. By Dr. P. R. Hoy, of Racine.

The Doctor said that the Elk existed in Wisconsin in 1863, but is now probably extinct

The moose still exists in numbers. The last bufl'alo was killed in 183-2. The antelope

was once in Wisconsin-at the time of Hennepin's voyage. The musk-ox, the mastodon

and the mammoth once existed here. The panther will soon disappear. It will be a

Proceedings of the Academy. 193

long time before the 'beaver will be exterminated. The otter will be retained longer.

The deer will soon be exterminated. The last wild turkey was killed in '4G, at which

date a llock was killed in Kacine.

5. On the climatic Relations of the Flora of Wisconsin, By

Hon. J. G. Knapp, of Madison,

6. On the Results of Recent Investigations in the Lead Re-

gions of Wisconsin. By J, Murrish, State Commissioner.

In entering upon the survey of the lead district, he found that, while there were con"

flicting opinions among miners in reference to the origin and nature of the fissures in

connection with which ore deposits were found, they were nevertheless all agreed on

this point, that there is a strong tendency in these fissures to an east and west direction.

They also recognized the fact that these so-called east and west fissures were occasion-

ally intersected by another set of fissures at right angles, thereby presenting the famil-

iar feature of mineral strata noticed in all mining regions,

In ex.nminiuing into these facts to satisfy himself in reference to their correctnese, he

had noticed, in looking over the various mines which had been opened, that, while the.

difl'erent mineral ranges and mining centers were separated from each other by a space

of barren ground, there was nevertheless a grouping of t ese ranges or mining centers

on the east and west direction.

Further observation proves that they were confined to certain belts of land having an

east and west bearing. For instance, if we commence in town six, with what mining

there is done in the town of Fernimore, in Grant county, and extend east wilh a stiip of

land three or four miles wide through a large portion of that county and the whole of

Iowa county to Blue Mounds, in Dane county, we shall include in that strip all the

mines of ^''ennimore, Wingville, Dodgeville, Ridgt-way, Porter's Grove and Blue

Mounds, giving us a belt of land through town six for a distance of over fifty miles.

If we extend our observations south from this belt to Mineral Point, we shall find our-

selves on tlie center of a parallel belt, extending east and west from that place. If from

thence to Platteville, in Grant county, on the third. If from taence to Hazel Green, we

shall find ourselves on the fourth, alT having about the same eastern and western exten-

sion. The lead district thus naturally divides itself into four distinct belts, conforming

evidently tn underlying causes, that have given origin to these peculiar phenomena.

But, striking as the evidences of the action of underlying physical forces along these

and west belts are, he was disposed, nevertheless, to regard them as subordinate to a

stronger line of forces that have acted in a north and south direction, across which these

belts are found at right angles. If, for example, we draw two lines from the eastern and

•western boundaries of the lead district, north and south, through the Mississippi valley,

we shall include with our own lead district the lead districts of Iowa and Illinois, also

the lead and iron mines of Missouri.

On the north, from what little we know along this line, we have a series of undulations

or anticlinal lims, along which large deposits of iron are found. Among the most noted

is the Penokee Iron Range, in town forty-four. These undulations of the strata, in their

bearin2 and extension, resemble very much the mineral belts of the lead districts, and

are collateral evidences, if nothing more, of an underlying north and south line of phy

sical forces of great extent.

7. On the Laws which Govern the Configuration of Comets,

By Hon. J. Y. Smith, of Madison,

This paper gave:

1st, A statement of some general facts concerning the constitution and form of comet-

ary bodies.

2d, A brief outline of the theory of Prof. Peirce, of Cambridge, concerning the forma-

tion of the tails or trains of comets, viz: That a power of repulsion in the comet itself

first throws oft' matter from the general mass as it approaches the sun, and that the sun

exerts a rejielling power upon the matter thus thrown off', driving it past the nucleus into

space and thus forming the train, so far as elongation is concerned— the curve being pro-

duced by the particles thrown into a wider orbit falling behind those pursuing a nar-

rower one.

3d. Three objections are brought against this theory, so far as the elongation is con-

cerned: First, that the laws which are supposed to produce the phenomenon of elonga-

tion are assumed, there being no positive evidence that any such power of repulsion ex-

ists, either in a comet in respect to its own matter, or in the sun in respect to the mate-

rial of a comet. Secondly, if the existence of these forces be admitted, still it is not

shown why they should take efi'ect upon one portion only of the cometic matter and not

upon the whole of i', nor what is to limit their ettect upon those portions uoon which

their power is exerted; and thirdly, that it ignores the existence and efficiency of well

known laws which must inevitably produce the phenomena in question, viz., tlio laws of

gravitation, acceleration and momentum acting upon extremely attenuated matter

movin<r in a highly eccentric orbit.

The theory advanced by Mr. Smith is, in substance, as follows: Cometary matter at

repose in space or but slightly acted on by solar attraction, (the latter being the condi-

tion of most comets at their aphelia,) possessing fluidity and gravity, however slight the

194 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters.

latter, tmisf assume a spherical, or nearly spherical, form. The orbit of a comet being

nsually highly eccentric, the body moves the greater part of the distance from the

aphelion to the perihelion almost in a direct line towards the sun and must, therefore,

be subject to the law of acceleration and the varying force of gravitation according to

the square of the distance. By this latter law the impulse of solar attraction will be

strongest on the side nearest the sun, and less on the opposite side. This, with the

slight gravitating power in the comet to hold its particles in a spherical form, must cause

the body to hold its particles in a spherical form, must cause the body to elongate to a

spheroidal form more and more as the difl'erence in the square of the distance between

the two extremes of the comet increases and the sqaure of the distance of the whole

from the sun diminishes. This elongating process must be assisted, to some extent, by

the resisting ether in space (if any such exists) acting upon so light a body.

As the comet approaches the sun from its intersection of the minor axis of the orbit,

the angle formed by the radius vector with the tangent of the orbit widens more and

more rapidly until they form a right angle at the perihelion. As this angle widens, the

centrifugal force comes into action in opposition to the centripetal and a new elongating

force is brought to bear upon the cometary mass. Thenceforward these two elongating

forces become subject to some curious modifications and transfers of power. "That

which results from simple solar Eravitation, or the accelerating force, goes on increasing

as the square of the distance diminishes, and diminishing as the angle of the radius

vector with the tangent of the orbit widens, till it reaches the perihelion where this force

is reduced to zero. At the same time that which results from the centripetal and centri-

fugal forces goes on increasing both as the square of the distance diminishes and as the

aforesaid angle widens, until, at the perihelion, this elongating lorce reaches its 7naxi-

mum power,

The curve of the train is the necessary result of ditferent parts of the body being com-

pelled by the elongating forces to pursue orbits of difterent breadths with no increase of

orbital motion iu the outer portions which must needs fall behind the inner and form

a curve. When the train becomes largely curved, the centripetal and ceatrifugal forces

are brought to bear transversely upon the train and it is spread and llattem. d, least at the

front and more and more at the rear. The elongation, the curving, the spreading and the

flattening by the action of these forces, must, necessarily, all take place in the plane of

the orbit.

When past the perihelion, the laws which brought the comet to its configuration at

that point being reversed in their action, their effects are reversed, of course, and the

body moves ofl", straightening, rounding and gathering up its train till it arrives at its

aphelion in the same form with which it left it.

Ajourned to 7|^ o'clock P. M.

Fourth Session.

The Academy met at the hour appointed; the President in

the chair.

The following persons were elected members of the Academy:

Corresponding Membsrs.— Wm Stirapson, M. D., Secretary of the Chicacro Academy

of Sciences; J. C. Freer, M. D., President of Rush College, Chicago; Prof. T.^'W. Saflord,

Director of Dearborn Observatory, Chicago; Prof. Alex. Winchetl, Universitv of Michi-

gan; Prof. James Watson, Diriector of Observatory at University of Michigan.

Annual Members.— II. W. Robv, Esq., Milwaukee; E. A. Charlton, President Platte-

ville State Normal School; Prof. Geo. Beck, State Normal School, Platteville.

Reading of papers resumed.

8. On the Kinetic Measures of Force. By Prof. John E,

Davies, Wisconsin State University.

9. On the Duty of the State to its Idiotic Children. By Prof.

O. R. Smith, Milwaukee.

This paper adduced evidence in favor of the capacity of the idiotic for receiving instruc

tion, and stronsly urged upon the State the importance of making provision for this

unfortunate class of persons, of whon statistics show the number to be much larger in

every community than is generally supposed

10. On the Place which the Study of the Indian Languages

should hold in Ethnology. By Prof. John B. Feuling, of Wis-

consin State University.

[Published in the Transactions p. 178.]

Adjourned to 9 A. M. of next day.

Proceedings of the Academy. 195

Fifth Session — Business Meeting.

The Academy met pursuant to adjournment; the President in

the Chair.

On motion it was resolved to organize a section of Social Sci-

ence; which, on subsequent motion, was expanded into a full

Department of the Social and Political Sciences, with the

following- officers:

Vice President— m. Rev. W. E. Armitage, Milwaukee.

Secretary— Rqw Charles Caverao, Lake Mills. _ , ^ „r • , 4.

Co;/«««;ors— President G. M. Steele, D. «., Lawrence University; Rev. A. O. Wnght,

Nev*^ Lisbon; Dr. A. S. McDill, State Hospital for the Insane.

On motion there was organized the Department of the

Arts, to the several constitutional offices in which the follow-

ing persons were duly elected:

Vice i»/Y.<:«rf«w/—Es-Qovernor Nelson Dewey. Cassville.

/S'ecr^^an/— Col. S. V. Shipman, Madison. , ^ . ^

Counselors— 3 . H. Van Dyke, Esq., Milwaukee; Mr. Alexander Provis, Lancaster;

Hon. J. I. Case, Racine.

On motion there was also organized the Department of Let-

ters, with the following officers:

Vice President— Rqv. Dr. A. L. Chapin, Beloit College.

Secretary— 7vof. John B. Feuliug, Wisconsin State University.

Counselors— Fvot Wm. P. Allen, State University; Dr. I. L. Hauser, Milwaukee; Hon.

Lyman C. Draper, State Historical Society.

The Academy adjourned sine die.

SIXTH MEETING OF THE ACADEMY.

The Academy met in their rooms, at 8 o'clock P. M. of July

18, 1871, the President, Dr. J. W. Hoyt, in the chair.

Adjourned to 9 o'clock A. M. of next day.

The Academy met pursuant to adjournment; the President in

the chair.

Letters were read from the following persons accepting mem-

bership:

Prof. Ezra S. Carr, Oakland, California; J. Wingate Thornton, Boston, Mass. ; Prof. T.

H.Safford, Chicago, 111.; Prof. James C. Watson, Ann Arbor, Mich.: Prof. Alex. Wm-

chcll,?Ann Arbor, Mich.

Mr. J. Murrish presented numerous specimens of the rocks,

minerals and fossils of the lead region of Wisconsin.

The President reported that his efforts, in regard to the scien-

tific exploration of the northern part of the state, the present

season, in connection with the railroad companies, had not been

successful.

The Treasurer reported

The amoiiiit of cash on hand at the date of his last report 'fTSS 30

Received for dues, &c 40 00

Total $823 30

Disbursed since last report 113 00

Balance on hand $'^'11 30

196 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences^ Arls, and Letters.

Of this balance, $600 received from Life Members constitutes

a permanent fund, the proceeds of which are only ajjplicable to

the general purposes of the Academy.

The proposition heretofore offered to amend section two of the

by-laws, relating to the meeting to be held at the time of the

exhibition of the State Agricultural Society, was considered and

indefinitely postponed.

The proposition, submitted at the last meeting, to amend sec-

tion eight of the Constitution, so as to provide that the Presi-

dent and Secretary of the State Agricultural Society shall be

ex-officio members of the Council for the Department of the

Arts was considered and adopted.

On motion, it was

JResolved, That the resolution requiring the investment of a permanent endowment

fund be so modified as to authorize the investment of the same iu any securities satis-

factory to the Committee on Finance.

The rules being unanimously suspended for the purpose, the

following named persons were duly elected members of the

Academy.

Life Members —John L. Mitchell, Esq., Milwaukee, Wis.

Annual Members.— Prof. W. P. Yocum, Appleton, Wis. ; G. F. Luders, Sauk City,

Wis. ; Kev. W. S. Alexander, Racine, Wis. ; Wm. 3. Sherman, Esq., Milwaukee, Wis. ;

H. K. Smith, Esq., Milwaukee, Wis.

Corresponding Members.— Hon. J.Hammond Trumbull, LL. D. , Hartford, Conn.;

Prof. S. S. Haldemann, State University of Pennsylvania. Philadelphia; F. Ebener, Ph.

D., Baltimore, Md. ; Prof. W D. Whitney, New Haven, Conn. ; Dr. J. G. Brintou, Phil-

adelphia, Pa.

It was resolved to publish another number of the Bulletin, to

include the proceedings of the last and present meetings.

Rev. C. Caverno announced that being about to leave the

state, it would be necessary to resign the office of Secretary of

the Social Science Department of the Academy.

The papers read at this meeting were as follows:

1, On the Clay Deposits and Fossils found therein, in the

Region about Appleton. By R. Z. Mason, LL. D., Appleton.

The geological characteristics of this region are, 1st. A thin stratum of the lower mag-

nesian limestone overlaying the Potsdam sandstone, all dipping at small angle to the

southeast. The limestone in the vicinity of Appleton grows thinner as we go westward,

and nearly disappears at the Wolf river, being replaced as a surface rock by the Potsdam

sandstone, between the Wolf and Wisconsin rivers. The Lower River flows over the

surface of the limestone at a level of about sixty feet below the general surface of the

clay deposits. These deposits, of clav mainly, are therefore about sixty to eighty feet

deep, and give every appearance of having been made iu quiet and shallow seas, inter-

mixed with these deposits of clay, are boulders, varying in size from a mere pebble to

those of many tons weight. These boulders, are granite, quartz, feldspar, hornblende,

and trap — the first and last most abundant.

Throughout this entire region there have also been found, at the depth of twenty,

forty and sixty feet, large fragments of timber, generally cedar, tamarack and other con-

ifers .

These seem to be the fragments of trees that have grown in this region at an early

period, when the temperature was lower than at present, and where the surface of the

ground was level and marshy.

The above inference is based on the fact that the forest trees of warmer latitudes and

higher regions, such as now grow there, to wit, the oak, the maple, the beech, etc., have

never been found in these clays. Nearly all the discoveries of this nature have been

made in the digging of wells.

2. On the Ancient Lakes of Wisconsin, By J. G. Knapp,

Esq., Madison.

[Published in the Transactions, p. 151.]

Proceedings of the Academy. 197

3. Suo-o-estions as to a Basis for the Gradation of the Verte-

brata. By Prof. T. C. Chamberlin, of the State Normal School,

Whitewater.

[Published iu the Transactions, p. 138. ]

5. Facts relating to the Local Geology of the Whitewater

Region. By Prof. T. C. Chamberlin, State Normal School,

Whitewater.

This paper consisted of remarks upon the Galena formation, to which the bed-rock at

Whitewater belongs, iii)on the chemical and physical characteristics of the rock, and

upon the paleontology of the region, including remarks upon the following fossil genera:

Eeceptacnlites chaetetes, Lingula, Rhynchonella, Orthis, Stropbomena Murchisonia,

Plenrotomaria, Orthoceras, and upon the questionable evidences of plants. The drift

phenomena of the region were made the subject of special description and explanation.

The peculiarities of its composition and the variety of formation, includin"; beds of clay,

of sand, of assorted sravel, of rounded boulders, of rounded and angular boulders, min-

gled and unclassifled forms, the striking features of the surface arrangement and the gla-

cial strips were particularly noticed.

6. On the Rocks and Mines of the Upper Wisconsin River.

By J. G. Knapp.

7. On the seventeen-year Cicada, its Geographical Distribu-

tion and Time of Appearance in this State. By Prof. T. C.

Chamberlin.

The Academy adjourned sine die.

SIXTH MEETING OF THE ACADEMY.

The sixth meeting of tne Academy was held at the City Hall,

Milwaukee, on the 26th of September, 1871. Owing to the pres-

ence of the State Fair in Milwavikee at the same date, and the

engagements of many members in connection therewith, the

attendance upon the first session was small. President Hoyt in

the chair.

The General Secretary being absent in Florida, on motion.

Dr. M. Barrett was chosen Secretary ^:)ro te^n.

Bishop W. E. Armitage moved that the Academy adjourn,

subject to the call of the General Council; which motion was

carried.

SECOND ANNUAL MEETING.

The Second Annual Meeting of the Academy was convened

at the State Agricultviral Rooms on the 13th of February, 1872,

at 5 o'clock P. M., a large number of members being present.

President Hoyt, on assuming the Chair, made some state-

ments concerning the work of the Academy during the year,

and said that.

Inasmuch as many members of the Legislature and other citizens would be pleased to

attend a general session, he had asked, and, by courtesy of the Assembly, had procured

the use ol' their hall lor the first evening session.

Adjourned to meet in the Assembly Chamber at 7^ o'clock

P. M.

N.

198 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences^ Arts^ and Letters.

The Academy met pursuant to adjournment. Attendance of

members and citizens large. The President, Dr. J. W. Hoyt,

having called the meeting to order, stated the object of the

Academy, in general terms, and annovmced the titles of the

papers to be read at this session, as follows:

1. On the German Sunday. By Rt. Rev. Bishop W. E. Armi-

tage. Vice President for the Department of the Social and Po-

litical Sciences.

[Published in full in Transactions, p. 62.]

2. On the Common Jail System of this Country. By Hon. S.

D. Hastings, Secretarj^ of the State Board of Charities and

Reform.

[Published, in abstract, in Transactions, p. 90. ]

3. On the Physical Basis of the Mineral Resources of Wis-

consin. By Hon. John Murrish, State Commissioner for the

Survey of the Lead Region.

This paper 'vas an elaboration, for the somewhat popular occasion on which it was

read, of the paper entitled " Results of Recent Investigations in the Lead Resion," read

1>y the same author at a previous meeting, and printed in abstract on a preceding page.

Adjourned to meet in the State Agricultural Rooms, at 9

o'clock of the next day.

Second Session.

The Academy met pursuant to adjournment; President Hoyt

in the chair.

The papers read the previous evening were briefly discussed.

Vice President Chapin moved that a committee of three be

appointed to wait upon the Governor _ and solicit accommoda-

tions for the Academy's collections. President appointed Dr.

Chapin, Wm. Dudley and John Murrish. On motion. President

Hoyt was added to the committee.

The following papers were read and discussed.

4. On Aphides observed in Wisconsin. By Dr. P. R. Hoy, Vice

President of the Department of Natural Sciences.

[Published in Transactions, p. 110.]

After the discussion of this paper the President called Dr.

Hoy to the chair.

5. On the Post Glacial Deposits of Dane county. By Hon.

J. G. Knapp, of Madison.

6. Are the great Plains to be always Treeless? By Hon. J.

G. Knapp.

Adjourned till 3 o'clock P. M.

Third Session.

The Academy met pursuant to adjournment; Vice Pi-esident

P. R. Hoy in the chair.

The following papers were read and discussed:

Proceedings of the Academy. 199

7. On the age of the Quartzites, Schists and Conglomerates

of Sauk county. By Prof. Roland Irving, M. E., State Univer-

sity.

[Published in full iu Transactions, p. 139.]

8. On a Modification of Grove's Battery for a Special Purpose.

By Prof. John E. Davies, M. D., State University.

9. On Potential Functions and their Application in Physics.

By Prof. John E. Davies, M. D., State University.

[Published in full iu Transactions, p. 111.]

Dr. Hoyt resigned the Chair to Vice President Dr. A. L. Chai^in.

10. On the Theory of Evolution, illustrated by the Science

of Language. By Prof. J. B. Feuling, Ph.D., Secretary of the

Department of Letters, State University.

11. On the Rural Population of England as classified in Domes-

day Book. By Prof. Wm. F. Allen, A. M., State University.

[Published iu Transactions, p. 167.]

Adjourned to meet at 7-|- P. M.

Fourth Session.

Academy met pursuant to adjournment; Rt. Rev. W. E.

Armitage, Vice President for the Department of the Social and

Political Sciences, in the Chair.

The following papers were read:

11. Social Science and Woman Suffrage. By Rev. Charles Cav-

erno, A. M., Secretary of the Department of the Social and

Political Sciences, Amboy, Illinois.

[Published in full in Transactions, p. 72. ]

12. The Relations of Labor and Capital. By Rev. A. L.

Chapin, D. D., President of Beloit College, Vice President of

the Academy for the Department of Letters.

(Published in full in Transactions, p. 45.]

13. Outline of a Plan for a National University. By Dr. J.

W. Hoyt, President of the Academy.

11. On the Coal Deposits of Colorado. By Dr. J. W. Hoyt.

[Eeadius; omitted by author owing to lateness of the hour. For substance of Paper 13,

see bill No. 1128 S., now pending in Congress.]

The Academy then went into 'session for the transaction of

special business.

The committee appointed to confer with the Governor con-

cerning provision for the Academy's Collections, reported that

his Excellency was desirous of doing everything in his power to

aid the Academy, and that he would order new cases so soon as

the plans were furnished him.

A majority of the committee appointed to consider the pro-

priety of soliciting aid from tlie State for canvassing the field

and other work designed to be vindertaken by the Academy,

200 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences^ Arts, and Letters.

reported in favor of asking- such aid. Prof. R. Irving, of the

said committee, made a minority report, urging- the inexpedi-

ency of making such a request at this time. The minority

report was adopted.

A vote of thanks was passed in favor of Messrs. Landruff and

Co., and to Mr. Hollyking-, of Highland, Iowa Co., for specimens

furnished the Academy's Museum.

A committee consisting- of President Hoyt, Dr. I. A. Lapham,

Prof. John E. Davies, Dr. A. L. Cliapin and Bishop Armitage,

was appointed to report any changes in the by-laws deemed

desirable, and to take action in regard to the publication of

the Transactions of the Academy.

The following persons, approved by the Committee on Nom-

inations, were elected members of the Academy.

Life Member:— Hon. S. A. White, Whitewater.

Annual Members:— Prof. S. H. Carpenter, LL. D., University of Wisconsin: Prof. J.

B. Parkinson, A. M., University of Wisconsin; Hou. H. D. Barron, Osceola; JJaniel S.

Durrie, State Historical Society; G. W. Rayner, Editor Madison Democrat.

Corresponding Members:— Dr. H, P. Gatchell, M. D„ Kenosha; Prof. Scheie DeVere,

Ph. D., University of Virgenia ; Prof. D. C. Oilman, A. M., Yale College ; Prof. N. S.

Shaler. A. M., Ph. D., Harvard University; Dr. J. L. Kewberry, Li^. D., Columbia Col-

lege; Prof. K. B. Andrews, Ohio Geological Survey; Prof. E. Orton, A. M., Antioch Col-

lege; Prof. T.M. Blossom, A. M., M. E., Columbia College; Prof. A. E. Verrill, A. M.,

Yale College; Prof. L. D. McOabe, D. D., Ohio VVesleyan University; Dr. G. Wood, LL.

D., President University of West Pensylvania; Dr. J. W. Poster, LL. D., Chicago Uni-

versity: Dr. N. Bridge, M, D., Chicago: Wm. Leijarrou, M. D., State Entomologist of

Illinois; Prof. Oliver Marcy, A. I\L, N. W. University; Prof. J. S. Jewell, M.D., N. W.

Univer.-ity.

Adjourned sine (lie.

.^.

S:^

n

^

TRANSACTIONS

d

OP THE

Wisconsin Academy

OF

SCIENCES, ARTS, AND LETTERS.

Vol. II. 1873-4.

Published by Order of the Legislature.

f-

■?t^w

MADISON, WIS.:

ATWOOD & CULVER, PRINTERS AND STEREOTYPERS.

1874.

r:B-=i-

1

■*'^

^^v

TRANSACTIONS

OF THE

Wisconsin Academy

OF

SCIENCES, ARTS, AND LETTERS.

Vol. II. 1873-4. N,t!f'^^'^^

• »0T •

Piihlished by Order of the Legislature.

•♦«»

MADISON, WIS.:

ATWOOD & CTXLTER, PRINTERS AND STEREOTYPERS.

1874.

CONTENTS.

I

Page.

1, LISTS OF OFFICERS AND MEMBERS 5-8

a. CHARTER OF THE ACADEMY 9-10

III. CONSTITUTION AND BY-LAWS 11-14

IV. REPORT OF THE PRESIDENT 15-23

Embracing:

1. General Condition 15

2. Condition and Progress of tlie several Departments 16

3. Tlie Library 18

4 . The S cientific Museum 18

5. Reports of the Treasurer 20, 244, 351

6. Results of Work done, as shown by the Titles and Papers read before the

Academy 20-22

V. TITLES OF PAPERS PUBLISHED IN THIS VOLUME.

DEPARTMENT OF SPECULATIVE PH1L080PHT.

1. The Metaphysical Basis of Science. By Prof. S. H. Carpenter, LL.D... 23 34

2. Vexed Questions in Ethics. By Rev. F. M. Holland, A. M 35-38

3. The Philosophy of Evolution. By Prof. S. H. Carpenter, LL. D 39-58

DEPARTMENT OP THE SOCIAL AMD POLITICAL BOIENCBS.

4. Population and Sustenance. By Dr. G. M. Steele, D. D 59-72

Cj[3 5. Records of Marriages. By Rev. F. M. Holland, A. M 73-76

CnI 6. Effect of the Duty on Imports on the Value of Gold. By John Y. Smith,

22 Esq 77-88

7. Requisites to a Reform of the Civil Service of the United States. By

^' Dr. John W. Hoyt, A.M., M. D 89-104

* 8. Natural History as a Branch of Elementary Education. By Dr. P. R.

yg* Hoy, M. D 105-106

^-^ DEPARTMENT OP THE NATURAL SCIENCES.

9. On some Points in the Geology of Northern Wisconsin. By Prof.

Roland Irving, A. M., M. E , 107-119

10. Some of the Peculiarities of the Fauna of Racine. By Dr. P, R.

Hoy, M. D 120-123

4 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters.

11. Relation of the Sandstones, Conglomerates and Limestones of Baraboo

Valley to each other and to the Azoic Quartzites. By Prof. James

H. Eaton, Ph.D. (Illustrated) 123-12T

12. Note on the Absorption of Arsenic by the Human Liver. By Prof. W.

W. Daniells, B. S 128

13. Some Evidences bearing upon the Method of the Upheaval of the

Quartzites of Sauli and Columbia counties. By Prof. T. C. Chamber-

lin,A.M. (Illustrated) 129-13a

14. On Fluctuations in Level of the Quartzites of Sauk and Columbia

Counties By Prof. T. C. Chamberliu, A.M. (Illustrated) 133-138

15. On a Hand Specimen showing the exact Junction of the Primordial

Sandstones and Huronian Schists. By Prol. Roland Irving, A. M.,

M. E ^^*

16. On the Occurrence of Gold and Silver in Minute Quantities in Quartz

from Clark County. By Prof. Roland Irving, A. M., M. E 140-141

DEPARTMENT OF THK ARTS.

17 On the Wisconsin River Improvement. By Prof. W. J. L. Nicodemus,

A.M.,C.E 142-15^

18. On the Strength of Materials as Applied to Engineering. By John

Nader, Asst. U. S. Engineer 153-160

19. Railway Gauges. By Prof. W. J. L. Nicodemus, A. M., C. E 161-177

DEPARTMENT OP LETTERS.

20. The Etymology of Church. By Prof. John B. Fenling, Ph. D 82-89

21 History of the Science of Hydraulics. By Prof. W. J. L. Nicodemus,

■ A.M.,C.E 193-302

22. The Naming of America. By Prof. J. D. Butler, LL. D 203-219

23 The Rural Classes of England in the 13th Century. By Prof. W. F.

■ „ . ,, 220-2:33

Allen, A. M

24 Ranks and Classes among the Anglo Saxons. By Prof. W. F. Allen,

. ^, 234-240

A. M

VI. PROCEEDINGS OF THE ACADEMY.

Eighth Meeting of the Acancmy ^ -^

Ninth Meeting of the Academy "

Third Annual Meeting

Treasurer's Report of 1^73

247

Eleventh Meeting of the Academy ,"!.,.,

Fourth Annual Meeting " *'

Treasurer's Report of 1874

Sketch of the Life and Character of Rt. Rev. Bishop W. E. Armitage, Vice

President for the Department of the Social aud Political Sciences 25a

ERRATA.

Page 104, 5th line from bottom, for " them " read " those."

105, hist line on page, for " ghicy " read " glassy."

108, 5tli line from top, place colon after " Wisconsin."

lOsi 8th line from top, and wherever else it occurs, for " copper

bearing rocks," read " Copper-Bearing."

108, 9th line from top, for " lower silurian " read " Lower Silu-

rian."

109, 7th line from top, for " rivers," read " rivers, — "

109, last line, for " its " read " their."

Ill, 5th line from top, for ' schists, one " read " schists. One."

Ill, 4th line from bottom, for " feet, a " read " teet. A."

Ill, 4th " " erase " its."

112' 17th " " for "Keweenau" read "Keweenaw."

II2I 8th " " for " northeasterly " read " northerly."

116* 15th " " for " occupies" read "occupy."

118, IBth " " for " it" read "they."

126 19th " " for " coglomerato " read "conglomer-

ate."'

127,12th " " for "d if;" read "drift."

132^ 11th " " for "phenomena" read "phenome-

non."

135, 7th " " for " five " read " fine."

141, 7th " top, for "silver. And " read "silver; and."

143, 14th " bottom, and elsewhere, for "tertiary" read

" Tertiary."

143, 9th and 10th line from bottom, for ""tcstiary "read "Tertiary."

150, 14th line from top, for " mates " read " mats."

150, last line, after " sand" insert "above."

152, 5th line from below, for "they" read " it."

193-202, wherever it occurs, for " Bouy's " read " Prony's."

198, 15th line from bottom, for " Hetz " read " Metz."

237, 6th line and elsewhere, for "Earl " read "Eorl."

4 Wisconsin Academy of /Sciences, Arts, and Letters.

4

GENERAL OFFICERS OF THE ACADEMY.

PRESIDENT :

Dr. J. W. HOYT, Madison

VICE PRESIDENTS :

Dr. S. H. CARPENTER, Madison.

Dr. P. R. HOY, Bacine.

Rev. Dr. G. M. STEELE, - . . . Appleton.

Dr. I. A. LAPHASI, Milwaukee.

Rev. Dr. A. L. CHAPIN, .... Beloit

GENERAL SECRETARY:

Dr. J. E. DAVIES, University of Wisconsin.

TREASURER :

GEO. p. DELAPLAINE, Esq., Madison.

DIRECTOR OF THE MUSEUM:

Prof. ROLAND IRVING, University of Wisconsin.

LIBRARIAN :

DANIEL S. DURRIE, Esq., Madison.

COUNSELORS EX-OFFICIO :

HIS EXCELLENCY THE GOVERNOR OF THE STATE.

THE LIEUTENANT GOVERNOR.

THE SUPERINTENDENT OF PUBLIC INSTRUCTION.

THE PRESIDENT OF THE STATE UNIVERSITY.

THE PRESIDENT OF THE STATE AGRICULTURAL SOCIETY.

THE SECRETARY OF THE STATE AGRICULTURAL SOCIETY.

6 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters.

OFFICERS OF THE DEPARTMENTS.

Departme7tt of Speculative Philosophy.

President E x -Officio. —TYL^ PRESIDENT OF THE ACADEMY.

Vice President. —Bn. S. H. CARPENTER, State University.

Secretary.— R^Y. F. M. HOLLAND, Baraboo.

Department of the Natural Sciences.

President Ex-Offlcio.—TB.'E PRESIDENT OF THE ACADEMY.

Vice President. — Dr. P. R. HOY, Racine.

Secretary.— PnoY. J. H. EATON, Beloit.

Counselors.— VnoY. P.ENGELMANN, Milwaukee; Prof. T. C. CHAM-

BERLIN, Beloit; Prop. J. C. FOYE, Appleton.

Department of the Social and Political Sciences.

President Ex-Offieio.—TR^ PRESIDENT OF THE ACADEMY.

Vice President.— Bky. Dr. G. M. STEELE, Ajipleton.

Secretary.— Rev. F. M. HOLLAND, Baraboo.

Counselors.— T>n. E. B. AVOLCOTT, Milwaukee; Rev. CHARLES

CAVERNO, Amboy III.; Hon. S. D. HASTINGS, Madison.

Department of the Arts.

President Bx-Officio.— THE PRESIDENT OF THE ACADEMY.

Vice President. — Dr. I. A. LAPHAM, Milwaukee.

Secretary.— Prof. W. J. L. NICODEMUS, State University.

Counselors.— ^M. DUDLEY, Esq., 3Iadison, Hon. J. I. CASE, Racine,

Capt. JOHN NADER, Madison.

Department of Letters.

President Ux-Officio.—T'RE PRESIDENT OF THE ACADEMY.

Vice President.— IIy,y. Dr. A. L. CHAPIN, Beloit College.

Secretary.— Prot?. JOHN B. FEULING, State University.

Counselors. — Prop. Joseph EMERSON, Beloit College; Prop. W. F.

ALLEN, State University; Hon. LYMAN C. DRAPER, State

Historical Society.

Corresponding Members.

MEMBERS OF THE ACADEMY.

CORRESPONDING MEMBERS.

Prof. E. B. Andrews, LL. D., Marietta College, Marietta, O.

T. Blossom, M. A., M. E., School ot Mines, Columbia College, N. Y.

Dr. N. Bridge, M. D., Chicago, III.

J. G. Brinton, M. D., Philadelphia, Penn.

Prof. E. S. Carr, M. D.,LL. D., University of California, Oakland, Cal,

F. Ebener, Ph. D., Baltimore, Md.

*J. W. Fos lER, LL. D., University of Chicago, Chicago, 111.

J. C. Freer, M. D., President of Rush Medical College, Chicago, 111.

H. P. Gatchell, a. M., M. D., Kenosha, Wis.

Prof. D. C. GiLMAN, President of the University of California, Oakland,

California.

Prof. S. S. Haldeman, LL. D., University of Pennsylvania, Chickis, Pa.

Asa Horr, M. D. President Iowa Institute of Arts and Sciences, Du-

buque, Iowa.

Prof. J. S. Jewell, M. D., Northwestern University, Evanston, 111.

Prof. Oliver Marcy,LL.D., Northwestern University, Evanston, 111.

Prof. L D. McCabe, D. D., Ohio Wesleyan University, Delaware. O.

Prof. .1. L. Neavberry, LL. D., Director of the Geological Survey of

Ohio, Columbia College, New York.

Prof. E. Orton, a. M., President Antioch College, Yellow Springs, O.

Prof. J. W. Safford, Director of the Astronomical Observatory at the

University of Chicago 111.

Wm. Le Barron, ;-'tate Entomologist, Geneva, 111.

*Wm. Stimson, M.D., Secretary Chicago Academy of Sciences, Chicago, 111

Prof. N. S. SiiALER, A. M., Harvard University, Cambridge, Mass.

J. WiNGATE TuoRNTON, Esq., Boston, Mass.

J. Hammond Trumkull, LL. D., Hartford, Conn.

Prof. M. ScHELE de Vere, LL. D., University of Virginia, Charlotte*

ville, Va.

Prof. A. E. Verrill, A. M., M. D., Yale College, New Haven, Conn.

Prof. James Watson, A, M., Director of the Astronomical Observatory at

Ann Arbor, Mich.

Prof. W. D. Whitney, Yale College, New Haven, Conn.

Prof. Alexander Winchell, LL. D., Chancellor of Syracuse University,

Syracuse, N. Y.

G. Ward, LL. D., President of the University of Western Pennsylvania,

Pittsburg, Penn.

Dr. Edmond'Andrews, A. M., M. D., Chicago Medical College.

Dr. TiiEO. Gill, M. D., Smithsonian Institution, Washington, D. C.

Dr. F.V. Hopkins, M. D., Baton Rouge, La.