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TRANSACTIONS w7Ww63

OF THE

WISCONSIN ACADEMY

SCIENCES, ARTS, AND LETTERS.

Vor. II. 1875—76.

Published by Authority of Law.

MADISON, Wis.:

E. B. BOLENS, STATE PRINTER.

1876.

CONTENTS.

TITLES OF PAPERS PUBLISHED IN THIS VOLUME

DEPARTMENT OF THE NATURAL SCIENCES.

oO fF ww

13.

14.

. Kaolin in Wisconsin. By Roland Irving, A. M. E.M..........

. Oconomowoc and other Small Lakes of Wisconsin. By I.A.Lapham

. Fish Culture. By P. R. Hoy, M. D.....-... eee eee eee eee eee

. Notes on the Geology of Northern Wisconsin. By E. T. Sweet, M.S

. The rapid disappearance of Wisconsin Wild-flowers. By Thure

IRM 6 peo dou oes sooo Osseo Une Od oDOUUO DUONOUOS UP conOoG

. The Ancient Civilization of America. By W. J. L. Nicodemus,

_ Extent of the Wisconsin Fisheries. By P. R. Hoy, M. D.....- °

. Leveling with the Barometer. By John Nader, C. E........--.

. On Kerosene Oil. By E. T. Sweet, M.S. ....---eeeee eee eee

. The Improvement of the Mouth of the Mississippi River. By

John Nader, C. H..... 0. ccc ee cece eee e reece eres eee eee

_ The Catocale of Racine County. By P. R. Hoy, M. 2...

. Copper-tools found in the State of Wisconsin. By J. D. But-

ise, 1U)Up IDs So apnb ode nsoooddeuC bonus ne OUUD OO Qn 0006. nUGb.

Report of Committee on Exploration of Indian Mounds in the Vi-

cinity of Madison. ..... 02.2: eee eee e tenes cere ee eee e eens

TA. Wapham, LE. Di 2.5.2 wees eee es eee eet weno

DEPARTMENT OF LETTERS.

1. Studies in Comparative Grammar. By J. B. Feuling, Ph. D...

DEPARTMENT OF THE SociaAL AND PoLiTicaAL SCIENCES.

1. United States’ Sovereignty: whence derived and when vested.

By Prof. W. F. Allen... 22... 0.2252 esten sere seeceerserecee

_ The Formal Commendation of Government Officials. By J. W.

lon

j=}

Qu.

foe

iS)

leo)

ie)

[o}

ise]

ee)

ra)

ie]

jo}

—_

i=)

eveecrcpeveperece

‘a

(42)

fo}

uo}

(a)

bs}

j=}

28)

r=)

ise)

)

(4?)

l=}

Embryonic Development the same in Plants as in Animals. By

37-39

40-55

56-57

58-64

65-67

68-76

7-83

84-95

96-98

99-104

105-109

110-113

117-121

125-132

133-135

136-142

143-150

4 CONTENTS.

- Page.

5. The Boa-Constrictor of Politics. By Rev. F. M. Holland...... 151-160

6. The Revolutionary Movement among Women. By J. W. Hoyt,

INE SAD icc oie othco: Slo'sccle ts Daveraree-o'e wlaielgy oie eis ates ave le cae eee eer 161-176

DEPARTMENT OF SPECULATIVE PHILOSOPHY.

1. Were the Stoics Utilitarians? By Rev. F. M. Holland..,...... 179-195

2. An Examination of Prof. 8. H. Carpenter’s Theory of Evolution.

By Herbert 22 Hubbel, Wanonali. « < «0. lent teeter 196-202

MATHEMATICAL AND PHYSICAL PAPERS.

- 1 Recent Progress in: Theoretical Physics. By John E. Davies,

J \ap i he Ue ae nOneE ERT coRAGod cock soo wodonds 205-221

PROCEEDINGS OF THE ACADEMY.

IReportion the) President. << <1 <1.) 21 =\\s elimieltel tei ete ee 225-229

Report of the Secretary =) <j. - « oye = </alclote n'a area ee tte eerste 230

Pifth Reeular/Amnuall Meeting,y.)./j10i)-\1c/elel-lole => eletalsieecielereist steers 231-232

Sixth Regular Annual Meeting..... dw wie bs lia aps ah) CORSE een 233-237

Report of the Librarian....... Weuedpododaeo coosoc ¢ nddooo bor 238-239

CHARTER, CONSTITUTION AND By-Laws.

peg Hartenstein -l-)-1-1-1- Jar aer'a ugyes aie 18 017 Blache OCR ICR Ne aeeeaeae 251-252

Wonstitution sey sicseites choses doen asd So's vie dueleie ls Soo ere Ae oe ee 253-255

BY STAWSo oer oe 15.0, 015. die ee ni ele elaleialca.s 0+ sole Srei ete Se ene eee 255-256

IREPORT OF ‘THE COUNCID: «6.0 ois :..cjcteisidieinc © sieehe eee ae eee 257

Prof.) Peter Englemann. | {By 1: R--belands-)----ere eee eee eee 258-263

Tnerease A. Lapham, bh... .By P:R. Hoy.- steric eee 264-267

Inerease A. Lapham, LL. D. By E.R. Leland...........-..+-- 268-269

GENERAL OFFICERS § ACADEMY.

PRESIDENT:

Dr. P. R. HOY, Racine.

VICE-PRESIDENTS:

Dr. S. H. CARPENTER, - - - - - Madison.

Pror. T. C. CHAMBERLIN. - - - - - Beloit.

Rey. G. M. STEELE, D. D. - - - - - Appleton.

Hon. J. I. CASE, - - - - - - - Racine.

Rey. A. L. CHAPIN, D. D. - - - - - Beloit.

Dre. W.. HOYT, - - - - - - Madison

GENERAL SECRETARY:

Pror. J. KE. DAVIES, M. D., University of Wisconsin. _

TREASURER:

GEO. P. DELAPLAINE, Esq., Madison.

DIRECTOR OF THE MUSEUM:

K. T. SWEET, Esq., Sun Prairie.

LIBRARIAN:

CHARLES N. GREGORY, Madison.

COUNSELORS EX-OFFICIO:

HIS EXCELLENCY THE GOVERNOR OF THE STATE.

THE LIEUTENANT GOVERNOR.

THE SUPERINTENDENT OF PUBLIC INSTRUCTION.

THE PRESIDENT OF THE STATE UNIVERSITY.

THE PRESIDENT OF THE STATE AGRICULTURAL SOCIETY.

THE SECRETARY OF THE STATE AGRICULTURAL SOCIETY.

OFFICERSOF THE DEPARTM ENS

Department of Speculative Philosophy.

President Hx-Oficio—THE PRESIDENT OF THE ACADEMY.

Vice-President.—_S. H. CARPENTER, LL. D., State University.

Secretary. REV. F. M. HOLLAND, Baraboo.

Counselors —PRESIDENT BASCOM, State University, PROF. O. AREY,

Whitewater, and REV. A. O. WRIGHT, Fez Lake.

Department of the Natural Sciences.

President Ex-Oficio.—THE PRESIDENT OF THE ACADEMY.

Vice-President. PROF. T. C. CHAMBERLIN, Beloit.

Secretary. PROF. J. H. EATON, Beloit.

Counselors—PROF. W. W. DANIELLS, State University, PROF. J. C. FOYE,

Appleton, and PROF. THURE KUMLEIN, Albion College.

Department of the Social and Political Sciences.

President Ex-Officio THE PRESIDENT OF THE ACADEMY.

Vice-President—_REV. G. M. STEELE, Appleton.

Secretary.—K. R. LELAND, Haw Claire.

Counselors.—DR. E. B. WOLCOTT, Milwaukee, REV. CHARLES CAVENRO,

Lombard, Ili., and PROF. J. B. PARKINSON, Madison.

Department of the Mechanic Arts

President Lx-Oficico THE PRESIDENT OF THE ACADEMY.

Vice-President —J. 1. CASE, Racine.

Secretary — PROF. W J. lL. NICODEMUS, State University.

Counselors CHAS. H. HASKINS, Milwaukee, HON. J. L. MITCHELL, Mil-

waukee, and CAPT. JOHN NADER, Madison.

Department of Letters.

President Ex-Oficio THE PRESIDENT OF THE ACADEMY.

Vice-President. REV. A. L. CHAPIN, D. D., Beloit.

Secretary.— PROF. J. B. FEULING, State University.

Counselors—PROF. W. F: ALLEN, Madisun, PROF. EMERSON, Beloit, and

HON. L. C. DRAPER, Madison.

Department of the Fine Arts.

President Ex-Oficio THE PRESIDENT OF THE ACADEMY.

Vice-President —DR. J. W. HOYT, Madison.

Secretary.— HON. J. EK. THOMAS, Sheboygan.

Counselore—J. R. STUART, MRS. S. F. DEAN, and MRS. H. M. LEWIS,

Hadison.

= c oOo

DEPARTMENT OF

UREN INGLE AL iSelences.

TITLES OF PAPERS READ BEFORE THIS DEPARTMENT.

. Kaolin in Wisconsin. By Rotanp Irvine, A. M., E. M.

. Oconomowoc and Other Small Lakes of Wisconsin. By I. A. LAPHAM.

. Fish-culture. By P. R. Hoy, M. D.

. Notes on the Geology of Northern Wisconsin. By E. T. SwEeEt, M. S.

. On the Rapid Disappearance of Wisconsin Wild-flowers; a Contrast of the Pres-

ent Time with Thirty Years Ago. By Toure KUMLEIN.

. On the Ancient Civilization of America. By W.J.L. Nicoprmus, A. M.,C. E.

. Extent of Wisconsin Fisheries. By P. R. Hoy, M. D. |

. Leveling with the Barometer. By Jonn Naver, C. E.

. On Kerosene Oil. . By E. T. Sweet, M. S.

. Improvement of the Mouth of the Mississippi River. By Jomn NAveEr, C. E.

. On the Catocale of Racine County. By P. R. Hoy, M. D.

. Copper-tools found in the State of Wisconsin. By Prof. J. D. Burien, LL. D.

. Report of Committee on Exploration of Indian Mounds in Vicinity of Madison.

Department of Natural Sciences.

ON KAOLIN IN WISCONSIN.

BY ROLAND IRVING, A. M., E. M.

Professor of Geology, ete., in the State University.

I.—NATURE, ORIGIN, AND OCCURRENCE OF KAOLIN. :

Origin of the word “ kaolin.’—The word kaolin is a corruption

of the Chinese kao-ling* or kau-ling,’ meaning “ high-ridge,” the

name of a place near Jauchau Fu, in China, where for many centu-

ries the Chinese have obtained the material for the manufacture of

their famous porcelain. According to Von Richthofen,{ however,

the Chinese material is not the same as that to which the term

kaolin is applied in Europe and America, but is on the contrary

a solid rock, which is exported in a pulverized condition under the

name of kao-ling. The application of this name to the European

porcelain-clay by Berzelius, was, according to Von Richthofen, made

on the erroneous supposition that the white powder which he re-

ceived from China occurred naturally in that state.

_ What is kaolin?—However this may be, since Berzelius, the

word has been applied in Hurope to a white clay-like substance which,

from its peculiar composition and freedom from any ingredients

tending to lessen the whiteness of the wares burnt from it, or its

refractoriness to heat, is especially adapted to form the base of the

finer kinds of pottery known as porcelain, whence its name of

* Baron Von Richthofen, American Journal Science, ‘‘ On the Porcelain Rocks

of China,’ III i 179. Comp. also Percy’s Metallurgy, volume on Fuels, p. 92.

7Dana’s “‘ System of Mineralogy,’’ p. 75—S. W. Williams’ ‘‘ Middle Kingdom,”

WO, LOT oe iG.

t Loe: cit.

= WISCONSIN ACADEMY SCIENCES, ARTS, AND LETTERS.

“ yorcelain-clay.”” An exact statement of the geological and chem-

ical application of the term is not so easily given. Geologists have

commonly designated as kaolins only those clays resulting directly

from the disintegration of felspar-bearing rocks in place, as distin-

guished from the bedded orsedimentary clays. It is true that most

all of the kaolins used for porcelain making are obtained from de-

posits of the former nature, but it is equally true that beds, or

patches in beds, of sedimentary clays have the same composition

and properties as the ordinary kaolins. It has long been noticed

that clays possessing these properties tend to approach a type com-

position, and that they are frequently separable by a process of ley-

igation into a fine white scaly clay, and a sand composed of parti-

cles of quartz and undecomposed felspar. The white clay thus sep-

arable has always a definite composition, and, as shown by Messrs.

Johnson and Blake,* is seen under the microscope to consist of

translucent or transparent, rhomboidal or hexagonal plates, which

are flexible and inelastic, isolated or aggregated in prismatic, curved,

or fan-shaped bundles, and referable to the orthorhombic system.

The bases of these scales are marked with lines arismg from the

edges of super-imposed laminae. The hardness varies from that

of tale to about midway between that of selenite and calcite.

The mineral whose existence is thus rendered certain, has been

designated as kaolinite by these gentlemen, from the kaolin

in which it is most commonly found. ‘These crystalline scales

are however found to occur, not only in the real kaolins, which

they chiefly make up, but also in small quantities in many ordi-

nary sedimentary fire-clays, or even in common brick-clays. In

these, however, they appear to be associated with other silicates

of alumina, or at least with an excess of silica over the amount

necessary to form kaolinite, which cannot be proved to exist

in the free state. The ordinary clays cannot therefore as yet be re-

garded as having a base of kaolinite. The composition of kaolin-

ite, Messrs. Johnson and Blake showed to be as follows:

a P. cent

MSU GaS reer tetera rete acer eter aise ar Mae ou cocadee cee eet toe ogee 25 46.3

GAL tara TAS eevee Wis eed hatchs, btohe oie. le dees aga eds. RACER 0 ee ane a aL ae ad 39.8

VV ST eer co 2ll, covey see Et ee etiece le 13.9

100.0

*“ On Kaoliniteand Pholerite.’”” Am. Jour. Sci. IT. xliii. p. 391 et seq, as quot-

ed in Percy, p. 92 volume on Fuels ete.

KAOLIN IN WISCONSIN. 5

These figures correspond to the formula Alz Os, 2 Si Oz + 2 He O,

one deduced by Forchhammer for kaolin as long ago as 1830, from

a comparison of a series of analyses of crude and washed articles.

We may then designate as kaolin any native hydrated silicate of

alumina having the above percentage composition, or any native

material composed of a mixture of such a silicate with quartz

fragments, and fragments of undecomposed rock. Some of the

raw kaolins are almost pure kaolinite, whilst others contain as

much as fifty to sixty per cent. of foreign matter.

Origin of Kaolinite—The mineral kaolinite, when considered as

the base of large clay masses, appears always to have resulted from

the decomposition of minerals of the felspar group. In very small

quantities, it is true, the same substance is known to be an altera-

tion product of other minerals than the felspars, e.g. beryl, stauro-

lite, leucite; still all of the large kaolinite masses have originated

by the alteration of some of the felspars. This alteration may have

been caused by several agents, by far the most important of which

has, however, been carbonated water, or water carrying carbonic

acid in solution. ‘The felspars are silicates of alumina with an al-

kaline ingredient, which may be either potash, soda, or lime. Ob-

taining carbonic acid from the atmosphere, and to some slight ex-

tent from direct organic decay, the surface waters, thus reinforced,

infiltrating through the seams of the felspar-bearing rocks, (gran-

ite, gneiss, porphyry,) act gradually upon the alkaline silicates,

forming first carbonate of lime, if lime be present in the rock,

which dissolving as bicarbonate in the carbonated water, is carried

away. Moreslowly are taken up and leeched out the alkalies as car-

bonates, or as silicates, if the amount of carbonic acid is only small,

which will be the more usual case. Part of the silica thus set free

always remains as colloid or hydrated silica, and may be detected

in samples by its solubility in alkali. The amount of colloid sil-

icay remaining will depend directly on the supply of carbonic acid,

being greater as the carbonic acid is more plenty. Still remaining

after the leeching process are now certain proportions of alumina

and silica, to which is added a certain proportion of water. These

three combining and crystallizing, form the hydrated silicate of al-

umina, kaolinite. The theoretical change from orthoclase felspar

* Dana’s Mineralogy—under orthoclase, p. 361.

, 7 Bischof Chem. Geol. Vol. II, p. 183.

6 WISCONSIN ACADEMY SCIENCES, ARTS, AND LETTERS.

to kaolinite is well shown by the following figures, which are per-

centages by weight, calculated on the original orthoclase:

{ : Fe ET |

Constituents. Orthoclase.} Removed.| Remain. | Added. | Kaolinite.

OUIVCAlRr ue ees Aeros e 64.6 43.1 QED) Oy Pha ee 21.5

Ylhohaan ee) asc ao Soe mec Theses ail feaeheey enc aie bese 9 Mee (eR Eeok ches 18.5

PR Otashimemee tet eines cess 16.9 1 ee ee MIE ocdllia cana daosot

AVG Pe Ty eect oscce: I Sioenul naeterercte ac AIM ic He ic Pree a ae 7.4 eee

Total enlace 100.0 60 40 7.4 AT 4

The last column corresponds to the composition already given

for kaolinite, viz., silica, 43.3; alumina, 39.8; water, 13.9. The

change may also be conveniently indicated from the formulae as

follows:

Orthoclase = ~ = = = 6K,0+6A1,0,7-86510,

Removed - - = - - - 6K,0+ i 24510,

Mer ns ees he May OME 6A1,0,+128i0,

Which corresponds to PON gee fy hi A],0,2810,

Added - - - = = = 2H,0

Resulting Kaolinite - = = = Al,0,,2510,+-2H 0

These calculations are made on the assumption that the alumina

is not removed. It appears however in some cases to be partially

removed.* The soluble substances resulting from this decomposi-

tion, the carbonates and silicates of potash and soda, and the bi-

carbonate of lime, pass off with the infiltrating waters, and reach-

ing the surface again, give rise to mineral springs, or add to the

solid contents of the drainage waters of the region. The felspar

may alter so as to produce certain zeolites when all of the protoxyd

bases are not removed,+ and if the infiltrating waters carry mag-

nesia in traces a steatitic change may result. These are however

much rarer changes, and do not affect the object of the present

paper.

Should the felspathic rock be contaminated with iron pyrites;

its decay may be much hastened.{ This may be in part due to

a direct action upon the silicate by the acid waters resulting from

* Dana, loc. cit.

7 Bischof. Chem. Geol., p. 211—Dana, loc. cit.

{ Dana’s Mineralogy, p. 360. Geology of New Jersey, p. 68.

KAOLIN IN WISCONSIN. ie

oxydation of the sulphid, but is rather due chiefly to the disintegra-

tion of the rock produced by this oxydation, which leaves it more

easily permeable to the carbonated waters.

The felspars which appear especially to have given rise to kao-

lin masses are orthoclase and albite, the potash and soda felspars.

This must be attributed rather to their greater abundance as com-

pared with oligoclase and andesite—the soda-lime felspars—since

these latter change much more easily to kaolin, whilst orthoclase

changes with the least readiness of any of the felspars, being found

often unaltered, when oligoclase occurring in the same rock is com-

pletely kaolinized.* Labradorite does not commonly alter to ka-

olinite.t .

Origin of clay deposits in general.—All clays and indeed most

shales (clay shales) may be said to have resulted primarily from the

alteration more or less completely carried out, of the felspar of

felspar bearing rocks. The disintegrated material resultmg from

this alteration may either have remained where formed, still occu-

pying the position and retaining the lamination of the original

unchanged rock, or may have been subsequently removed by the

ordinary eroding forces and deposited elsewhere as a bedded clay.

This removal, if merely for a short distance, may have been unac-

companied by any assorting of the clay and rocky materials; as for

instance is obseryed in the “kaolin” of the Cretaceous beds of

eastern New Jersey. Such an assorting appears however most

commonly to have taken place, the clay having been washed out

from the quartz and undecomposed rock fragments accompanying

it, having had more or less of foreign material mingled with it

during the process of sedimentation, and having thus resulted in a

bed of ordinary clay. Again in other cases the action of eroding

forces on the unaltered felspathic rocks may have resulted in a sed-

iment of powdered felspathic material which by subsequent altera-

tion has become a clay. In some one of these ways all true clays

would seem to haye been formed. Fragments ‘of felspar still re-

maining in many of them, and the alkaline ingredients shown by

analyses, testifiy to this general origin. Of course bedded clays

may have been again and again removed and redeposited, mingled

with various impurities, or introduced as impurity into other’ sedi-

em aS A align eae EE At eT I A

* Dana, p. 348. 7 Dana, p, 361.

8 WISCONSIN ACADEMY SCIENCES, ARTS, AND LETTERS.

ments—e. g. limestone—by whose subsequent solution and removal

the clay may be left alone and pure.

Whatever the exact origin, we may then group all clays conven-

iently into the bedded clays, and the clays accurring as disintegrated

rocks in place. In both of these ways kaolin occurs. A brief con-

sideration of each mode of occurrence will be of interest in the

present connection.

Kaolin as a disintegrated rock in place-—Most kaolin of com-

merce comes from this kind of a deposit. Gneissic and other

felspathic rocks, frequently placed with their bedding planes verti-

cal, admit of deep penetration by the surface carbonated waters.

Their felspathic ingredient being thus decomposed, the whole rock

is converted into a soft admixture of kaolinite, quartz fragments,

particles of partly decomposed, and entirely undecomposed felspar,

and more or less altered particles of mica. This alteration has

been noticed to as great a depth as seventy feet and over. The

eneissic rocks of the Blue Ridge in Virginia, North Carolina, and

Georgia, are found altered to this depth over considerable areas, re-

taining still their original lamination and highly inclined position.*

Similar changes and to much greater depth are reported from Bra-

zil.t In such cases the once quartz veins are often seen occupying

their original position as great sheets in the soft clay.

Should now the felspar be a largely predominating constituent

of the rock, or should the mica be present in inconsiderable quan-

tities only, there will result on decomposition a mixture of a very

pure white kaolinite with more or less quartz sand and undecom-

posed felspar fragments, which can readily be removed by leviga-

tion, and a valuable article obtained. Should, on the other hand,

the mica be largely present, or should there be any quantity of

hornblende or pyrite in the rock, the resulting clay will be largely

contaminated with non-separable alkalies from the mica, or oxyd

of iron fromthe mica, hornblende or pyrite, and will be a mere red

brick-clay of no value. Thus it happens that whilst many locali-

ties of disintegrating granite are known, but few of them yield

good kaolin. In the case of much pyrite or other ferruginous con-

stituent in the rock, the weathering and leeching by the carbon-

ated waters, may result in the formation of deposits of the hydrat-

ed sesquioxyd of iron, in the shape of “ bog iron ore.” Such Dr.

* Am. Jour. Sci. III. vii p. 60. 7 Hartt as quoted by Hunt, Loe. cit.

KAOLIN IN WISCONSIN. 9

T. 8. Hunt* regards as having been the origin of some of the bog-

ore deposits in the vicinity of the disintegrating gneissic rocks of

the Southern States. I allude to this here since it is a fact that

bog-ores of considerable value occurs in the Wisconsin kaolin dis-

trict and may be supposed to have had a similar origin.

In as much as the decomposition of the felspar in such a process

is hardly ever so completely carried out as to leave none of it un-

altered, it results that the kaolins used in the arts show either in

their crude or washed state almost always a certain amount of al-

kali on analysis. This alkali may be present partly as entirely un-

decomposed felspar fragments, in which state it can be completely

removed by levigation, and partly as felspar in different degrees of

change. All of the latter cannot be separated.

Many of the best kaolins aspear to have resulted from the decom-

position of a rock consisting chiefly of felspar with as small admix-

ture of quartz and no mica, known as peginatite.y These, from their

great richness in felspar, tend to produced an especially pure kao-

lin. The ordinary gneisses and granites on the other hand, by their

decay yield a very coarse sandy clay, which may be quite impure

from foreign admixtures, or if free from any hurtful impurity, so

largely mingled with quartz, as to be very lean in pure kaolinite.

In some regions it is noticed that those granitic or gneissic layers

more largely composed of felspar than the adjoining beds, tend to

alter whilst the rest stand firm. Since these alternating beds are al-

ways inclined at high angles, their outcropping edges strike across

the country in groups of narrow parallel bands. Thus it comes

that kaolin is sometimes found following long straight lines, hav-

ing aconstant bearing. This fact may be made use of in “ prospect-

ing” for kaolin.

Examples of the occurrence of kaolinized rock.—Most of the

authorities that I have been able to consult agree in describing the

Chinese kaolin. used many centuries before porcelain-making was

introduced into Europe, as a result of the disintegration of a grani-

toid rock, though I have not seen any detailed account. A recent

paper{ by Baron Von Richthroten, as already said, gives a different

account of the nature of the Chinese article. He says: “I visited

* * * * the famous King-te-chin, where the Chinese have

made nearly all their porcelain for almost three thousand years. I

* Loe. cit. + Von Cotta’s Lithology p. 206, English Ed. { Am. Jour. Sci., cit.

10 WISCONSIN ACADEMY SCIENCES, ARTS, AND LETTERS.

examined the places from which they take the material. * * *

T have to record the unexpected fact that the material from which

the porcelain of King-te-chin is made, is taken from certain strata

intercalated between these slates, and occurring at several places,

separated ‘from each other laterally, 1. e., at right angles; with the

strike of the rocks. It is a rock of the hardness of felspar (inferior

kinds are not so hard) and of a green color, which gives 1b to some

extent, the appearence of jade to which the Chinese too, compare

it. The rock is reduced by stamping to a white powder, of which

the finest portion is ingeniously and repeatedly separated. ‘This is

then moulded into small bricks. The Chinese distinguish chiefly

two kinds of this material. Hither of them is sold in King-te-chin

in the shape of bricks, and as either is a white earth, they offer no

visible differences. ‘They are made in different places by pounding

hard rock, but the aspect of the rock is alike in both cases. For

one of these two kinds of material, the place “ Kaoling ” was in an-

cient times in high repute, * * * * and the Chinese still

designate by the name “ kaoling” the kind of earth which was for-

merly derived fromthere. * “* * * The second kind of

material bears the name pe-tun-tse, (‘‘ white clay.”) 5S. W Will-

iams, in his “ Middle Kingdom,” speaks* of the kaolin as a dis-

integrated granite, which is almost all felspar—and of the “ pe-

tun-tse "as nearly pure quartz—but his account does not appear to

be based on personal inspection.

One of the most famous kaolin localities of Europe is that at St.

Yrieix-la-perche, near Limoges, in France. Here is obtained the

material for the famous Sevres porcelain manufactory.+ The kaolin

occurs as a result of the disintegration of masses of pegmatite

partly interstratified with the gneiss and partly intersecting it in

cross veins. ‘The gneiss is also decomposed, but to a red clayey

mass of no value. The pegmatite, consisting chiefly of felspar,

wherever decomposed has given rise to an excellent kaolin, moder-

ately free from quartz and rocky particles, these forming only

about ten per cent. of the whole.

Another famous Huropean occurrence of kaolin is that of the

vicinity of St. Austlein Cornwall. This is a weathered mixture of

orthoclase and quartz, chiefly on Tregoning hill near Helstone,{ in

eh Mop Goes

} Dana’s Mineralogy, p.475; Knapp’s ‘Chemis’y Applied to Arts,” vol. fi, p. 230.

{ Wagner's Chem. Technol, Eng. Ed. Sia, »P

KAOLIN IN WISCONSIN. al

various stages of decomposition. The kaolinite portion is removed

from the weathered rock by allowing streams of water to run over

it. The clay thus washed out settles in a series of large catch-pools.

The weathered rock itself is used to a considerable extent in the

ceramic arts in England, under the name of Cornish stone.

At Aue in Saxony the source of the kaolin was a rounded mass

of granite very much decomposed on the surface and surrounded

by the kaolin as by a cap.* The deposit is exhausted. At Mionia

im Saxony, the kaolin is decomposed porphyry, and is used in the

Dresden inanufactories.- At the Hinigheit mine near Freiberg,

Saxony, it is in nests in gneiss.[ The kaolin of La Bresse, France,

is an altered andesite.|| That of Bayonne, France, is a graphic

granite in every stage of decomposition.4{ At Passau the occur-

rence is exactly like that of St. Yrieix in France.§

The following are analyses of crude European kaolins:**

Place. eck | Silica. | Alumina.| Water.

Shin: NCIGISTDS, OSC RCRA Ia Es REN Cet 9.7 41.9 34.6 1G)

Cormac cela iie ose ese ereiaviels 19.6 46.5 24.0 Say

ID CHO MBNC Sig BORGO UMA OS abe ons 4.3 44,1 26.8 19,7

YNDVE Ss det oes I ONTO ORES AE RIES AA 18.0 385.9 34.1 11.0

RAGSAUIEN Ve ree eee a ete 4.5 46.4 BY AA) 12.8

Mort near Hralle............ ba eae 43.8 26.0 Op) 15) Tab

A few occurrences of kaolinized rock are known in the United

States, of such a nature as to supply a good article. An excellent

material is found in the graphic granite of Brunswick, Maine, and

also at Haddam, Connecticut. At each place the rock is a coarse

mixture of very pure quartz and felspar. At the latter locality it

has been of late mined and broken up for making kaolin for white

ware at Williamsburg, N. Y.tr Near Trenton in New Jersey the

gneissic rocks are more felspathic than usual in the region, and the

felspar is entirely changed to kaolin, which is dug to be used in

making fire-brick.j{ This clay contains zirconia.

Kaolin as a bedded clay.—As x bedded clay kaolin is known in

* Knapp, vol. I, p. 230. { Knapp, Loe. cit.

+ Wagner Chem. Technol, p. 230. ? Dana’s Mineralogy, p. 348.

t Percy’s Metallurgy, Vol. on Fuels, p. 96. ** Wagner, Loc. cit. }

|| Ure’s Dictionary, Vol. 1, p. 427. ++ Appleton’s Encyclopedia, Art. Clay.

tt Geology of New Jersey, p. 323.

12 WISCONSIN ACADEMY SCIENCES, ARTS, AND LETTERS.

two occurrences: (1) as a coarse admixture of felspar, kaolinite ete.

removed but a short distance from where it resulted by disintegra-

tion; and (2) as a fine-grained clay washed from its coarse material,

and not directly traceable to its origin. In New Jersey the great

thicknesses of plastic clays, forming the lowest member of the Cre-

taceous series, stretch in a wide band south westward across the

state from Staten Island Sound to the Delaware River. In places

these clays come into contact with the gneisses of the Archaean

belt crossing the state from northeast to southwest, and have eyi-

dently derived their material from the wear of the previously dis-

integrated gneissic rocks. In these clay beds kaolin-like clays oc-

cur both in the assorted and unassorted conditions. The coarse or

unassorted kaolin * is dug at several places on both the main land

and island sides of Staten Island Sound. The bed is from two to

twelve feet thick, and is composed of coarse angular fragments of

quartz mingled with decomposed felspar and mica scales. It is

interstratified with other clay and sand layers, and lignite. The

finer New Jersey clays of the same series are largely used for mak-

ing fire-brick and the rougher kinds of pottery. Some of them ap-

pear to be sufficiently pure for the manufacture of porcelain. Or-

dinary stoneware, porcelain knobs ete. are extensively manufac™

tured at Trenton.t The purity of these bedded clays as compared

with most others would appear to be directly due to their deriva-

tion from the disintegration of the eneissic rocks of the region, and

deposition near by where first formed.

A recent discovery in Indiana has brought to light what appears

to be a valuable bedded clay, occurring under peculiar circum-

stances. The kaolin bed lies at the base of the coal measure con-

elomerate, in Lawrence county, Indiana, having a thickness of five

to six feet, one of which is pure white kaolin, the remainder being

more or less stained with iron and manganese oxides. Immediate-

ly beneath the clay is a bed of Jimonite iron ore. This clay appears

to replace a bed of limestone which has been dissolved away by

the action of carbonated waters. It has almost exactly the com-

position of kaolinite. With it are found lumps of the mineral

allophane, another hydrated silicate of alumina, with a larger per-

centage of water than kaolinite.

* Geology of New Jersey p. 249. _ +t Geology of New Jersey loc. cit.

t Geology of New Jersey p. 685.

KAOLIN IN WISCONSIN. if

ey)

A similar occurrence to the one just described is mentioned by

Jukes* as existing in the tilted bottom-beds of the Carboniferous

Limestone, on Cork Harbor, Ireland. Here, over a small area, the

limestone has been almost entirely removed, leaving the clay-like

substance behind. This clay has been used considerably in the Eng-

lish potteries. The following are analyses of those of the Indiana

and New Jersey bedded clays, which approach to kaolinite in com-

position:

Constituents. I. Mt. II. IV.

Sle appraiser evr sicosi yates faites cusverous erate alee 43.2 45.30 45.90 47.05

Alumina........ 5 Cone DOMODOUDSdSaOs0000 39.71 37.10 40.34 37.14

\WEMIGE on So pO Cae AOC EORTC aera 14.25 1SR40F | 135260 labo

Otel erotm Wan Sameser tral asaya acini stereo sco jelllece sree heel ysieeigeraieveillnoe are e 0s 0.03

DESUMORV OP OPMMITOME sie < ce wicie a wees ee tele 0.74 Hae alaniae Heal eae

I2GIEREIN. Sone 4 docs BODO OCR eee ees 37 U1 Op tWaccvesson t-te Daley eevege

MPETGNO. 5 6) odO0b OS EOS OO Oe eo Mone barat al lun sia Bee On PBR Nobnlon ood U

TUTTO! sol go OCOD COD CCI CRE ae (erie eee ORL eee { 0.08

PREC OMI 5 ccs.0ie =): APT r eee esi ekeusk oral ate vousvave for oi tus 1.40 MAO lies exctets: sosyliotstatebeyas

MO taller sak Mavscere the wisies eevee susieve tlecaie 99.67 100.19 99.50 99.80

I. is a fine white clay from Burts Creek, near South Amboy, New

Jersey, analysed just as it came from the pit. II. is a kaolin-like

clay analyzed after washing to free from particles of quartz, mica, and

feldspar. It is from Trenton, New Jersey. III. and IV. are the

Lawrence county, Indiana, kaolin, analyzed without washing.

II.—KAOLIN IN WISCONSIN.

Geographical position of the kaolin district—The fact of the exis-

tence of kaolin in Wisconsin has been known for many years.

The material has however only very recently attracted much atten-

tion and become the object of actual exploitation. The first pub-

lished mention I find of it is in the report of Dr. J. G. Norwood in

Owen’s Geological Survey of Minesota, lowa, and Wisconsin.t He

says, in describing the last Archaean exposure seen in descending the

Wisconsin River: “ Above the granite at the old mill-dam,f{ is a

bed of ferruginous argillite four feet thick, succeeded by five feet of

decomposed felspar, above which is a bed two feet thick of well di-

gested kaolin, or porcelain clay, with * * * ™* quartz dissemi-

nated through it in veins and containing a notable quantity of

*Jukes and Geikie’s Manual of Geology, p. 130. ire eels

¢ Near Point Bass, Wood county.

14 WISCONSIN ACADEMY SCIENCES, ARTS, AND LETTERS.

pyrites. Then succeeds a variegated white and yellow sand-stone

* * * * 77 Th this account Dr. Norwood conveys the erroneous

impression that the kaolin of the Wisconsin occurs as a bedded clay,

which it does not do.

The various localities at which kaolin has been noticed in the state,

so far-as my knowledge extends, all occur in a belt of country about

fifty miles in length and fifteen in breadth, stretching eastward

from Black river in Jackson county to the Wisconsin, in the vicin-

ity of the city of Grand Rapids, in Wood county. This district in-

cludes more or less of townships 21, 22, and 23 north, and ranges

1, 2, 3,4 west, and 1, 2,3, 4, 5, 6, 7 east,“of the meridian. It is

crossed from north to south by three streams of considerable size;

Black River on the west, the Wisconsin on the east, and Yellow

River towards the centre. The kaolin discoveries have, I believe

been made almost entirely in the vicinity of these streams.

Geology of the kaolin district—The district thus described, lies

for most of its extent just south of the main boundary-line between

the Potsdam sandstone, which underlies so large an area to the

south, east, and west, and the Archaean rocks, which form the

sub-structure of all the region to the northward. In places the

boundary, which is a very irregular one, lies within this district.

The country in this part of the state is generally level, with a

gradual rise to the northward. In the more southern portion of

the belt, the sandstone is nearly everywhere the surface rock, ex-

cept along the beds of the rivers, where the strata of Archaean gneiss

granite and diorite are laid bare. The sandstone is therefore, where

it occurs, only a very thin covering over the crystalline rocks, and

indeed these occasionally rise through it in bold isolated bluffs of

eranite and quartzite, which, though sometimes as much as two

hundred feet in height, cover but a small area. Interspersed with

these are other bluffs of similar height and dimensions, of horizon-

tal sandstone, bearing witness to the great thickness of that rock

which has suffered denudation. Further north, the gradual rise of

the country seems to be due in some measure to the shape of the

surface of the underlying Archaean rocks, which finally rise from

beneath the sandstone and become the surface formation. The

boundary between the two terranes is traced with great difficulty.

Barometrical elevations are no guide at all. for the sandstone hay-

ing once covered the region so deeply may be found at the very

KAOLIN IN WISCONSIN. 15

highest levels, whilst the irregular upper surface of the gneissic

rocks is apt to bring them up through the sandstone at any place.

A geological map, including Portage, Wood, Clark, and Jackson

counties, would show on the south the sandstone as the surface

formation, on the north the crystalline rocks, whilst where the

two meet they would be shown dovetailing into each other, the

Archaean extending many miles south in the stream beds, the sand-

stone penetrating as far north on the divides. As we trace the

rivers southward towards where the last crystalline rocks are seen,

these are found confining themselves more and more closely to the

vicinity of the streams until they are finally restricted to their

beds, the sandstone forming the banks. Thus the Wisconsin

River, for ten miles above Point Bass, and the Black for a greater

distance above the falls, present strips of crystalline rocks only

as wide as their own currents.

Another feature in the geology of the kaolin district seems

worthy of notice in the present connection. I refer to the fact that

the boundary line between the ‘“‘driftless”” area of the south west-

ern quarter of the State, and the “ drift-bearing ” area to the north

and east, crosses the district in a nearly east and west line from

Grand Rapids to Black River Station, on Black river.

Nature and mode of occurrence of the Wisconsin kaolin.—The

Wisconsin kaolin occurs entirely as ‘“ kaolinized” rock. As al-

ready stated it has been noticed only in the vicinity of the large

streams. This is so because elsewhere the crystalline rocks are for

the most part covered by the sandstone. Nearly always it occupies

exactly the original position, retaining sometimes even the minute

structure, of the unaltered rock. A few cases were noticed im-

mediately on the river banks, where the structure of the clay

seemed to have been modified slightly by water action. The rocks

from which the kaolin has been formed, and into which it can fre-

quently be traced throush every degree of alteration, are beds inter-

stratified with the series of Archean strata which have over wide

areas a common strike. Only the out-cropping edges of these beds

are decomposed, and as a consequence it follows that the resulting

kaolin forms narrow bands crossing the country in straight lines

parallel to the general strike. It is exceedingly common to find

overlying the kaolin a few layers of sandstone, sometimes a few

inches only, at others, a score or so of feet. In such cases the

16 WISCONSIN ACADEMY SCIENCES, ARTS, AND LETTERS.

purer kaolin is found immediately below the sandstone, next be-

low a partially kaolinized rock, and next below again the entirely

unaltered rock. Such sections are common in the district.

The kaolin localities appear to be almost entirely within the drift-

less area, or at least where the drift is very thin and the glacial

action has been insignificant, This fact becomes a significant one,

when we consider that over all the great Archaean region of the

north half of the state, which is drift covered, no occurrence of

kaolin is known; all the known occurrences being confined to that

comparatively small district where the Archaean rocks are found

within the driftless area. I am inclined to attribute this absence

of kaolinized rock in the northern portion of the state to the de-

nuding agency of the drift forces, following Dr. T. 5. Hunt, who

has made the same suggestion™ in explanation of the non-disinte-

grated condition of the gneissic rocks of the Blue Ridge in the

northern Atlantic States, the same rocks further south being con-

stantly found decomposed to considerable depths.

Where and how to search for kaolin in Wisconsin.—If it be a fact that

the drift forces have removed all kaolinized rock they have encoun-

tered, then at once we may conclude that search at any considera-

ble distance north of the drift limit is not lkely to be rewarded

with success. An exception to this might be where the kaolin has

been formed underneath protecting masses of sandstone. Within the

thus restricted district, moreover, the labor of the search may be much

lessened by the recognition of a few simple guiding facts. The ex-

plorer should visit the known outcrops of kaolin, note the rock

from which it has decomposed, measure carefully its strike and

then follow the line thus obtained until other patches are found.

Having once noted the kind of rock tending to produce the kaolin,

(in this region usually a pinkish felspathic gneiss or granite,) by

following the strike of any similar bed kaolin will probably sooner

or later be found. The search would be best made with a boring-

tool of some simple kind. Should sandstone be struck in the bor-

ing the kaolin may yet underlie it. The explorer should at

the outset divest himself of the idea that the kaolin occurs in a

continuous horizontal bed.

Kaolin on the Wisconsin River.—The best known kaolin deposits

in Wisconsin are those that occur on and near the Wisconsin Riy-

* Loe. cit.

KAOLIN IN WISCONSIN. IY(

er, in the vicinity of the city of Grand Rapids, in Wood county.

The Archaean gneissic rocks here occur chiefly in the bed of the

stream, which for many miles makes bold rapids over their upturned

edges. Elsewhere they are mostly covered with sandstone. The

predominating gneissic rocks have associated with them both inter-

bedded, and clearly intrusive granite and diorite. Of the gneiss and

granite there are many varieties, according to the predominance

of one or other mineral ingredient, both rocks being formed

sometimes of a largely predominating pinkish felspar. These

beds are the ones most commonly weathered, though some of the

dark micaceous kinds show the same tendency. All of the beds

strike between N. 50° E. and N. 80° K. with a dip of about 50° ei-

ther 8. E. or N. W.

On the southwest quarter of section 5, town 22, range 6

east, on the land of Mr. Garrison, considerable digging has been

done in borrowing for the road-bed of the railroad near by. The

removal of about two feet of earth has exposed the kaolin in a

number of places extending along the railroad for some rods.

The clay is here in some places quite white, in others much

stained with iron sesquixoyd, the stained portions being those

nearest the surface. Much of it appears to have lost all sign of

the original rock structure, whilst in many places the spade

turned up masses as distinctly laminated as any of the gneiss in the

vicinity. All of the kaolin here is quite gritty from the presence

of quartz and undecomposed felspar fragments, a statement which

will apply to all of the Wisconsin kaolins that have come under my

notice. Scales of silvery mica appear to be largely present. Aver-

age samples of the whiter clay, selected by the writer, yielded Mr.

Sweet, of the State Geological Survey, by whom all the analyses

of Wisconsin kaolins quoted in this paper were made, the following

results:

2——W AS

18 WISCONSIN ACADEMY SCIENCES, ARTS, AND LETTERS.

Constituents. : J. UL, II.

STUTKCR YS BiG od dea Gee OR ECICRDT Ete ETO nee cic ot Orci COloNa.ad.3.c 78.83 | 49.94 92.86

GAVIA EL Penne See DE Rate sc) cn cata Bp, seve revanetete Aa rated eReete retetehetione 13.43 | 36.80 2.08

Sesquiomy@ lof Tron... 2.0.0 ens «ines wie isle mmielalels 0.74 mle 74

A hisa(sveie tere SEER CMRP eae atric St Roin a picket Cit dis ecuintraoce 0.64] trace .96

WEIN as Sage PosaseonEses bor sooocdobdsoeagonan OsO i eies5 oc 5 10

(POtASHRR ees eich viele Sit eee Ree ole eee AGI 51 .28

GO awe ee cneatis, lashes SRO ae Eee aes ac .07 .08 .05

GarbontevAcids:2 fel Saget ee Re eee 201 |. scaler

Water tise oc kaa BUS See eee eer ee 5.45 | 11.62 2.53

EO tall ee Shae er evens avai ARE ee ene eR eae To ea 99.60 | 99.67 99.60

SJAAOUUG Carhniny Aaescodgaooudsobo osaaninoodqoBdono€ Deol || eee 2.749

I. is the clay just as it came from the pit, after drying at 100°

C. If. is the fine or kaolinite portion of I. washed from the

coarse matter by repeated decantation and stirring. The separa-

tion is not perfect, but imitates what would be done in washing on

a large scale. III. is the coarse residue from this washing, its com-

position being calculated from the two preceding analyses after

finding that it constituted 67.1 per cent. of the whole clay. The

carbonic acid remains as a silent witness of the agency by which

the clay was formed. The following show II. and IIL., caleulated

in percentages on the original unwashed clay, and indicate how the

various ingredients distribute themselves between.the fine clay and

coarse residue:

TT. Til. if

RIGA siciate. “or ecyemecievaletd alte wl eeteete ne eae eee 16.33+62 .50=78.83

MUTI AL ae aap ehe Souter EEE A bip\odial oro oo oc 12.03-+ 1.40=13.43

DesQuiox Miron. ih, ak eile Ja dts Weiiee a ee 241 © .50= .74

MGA 7. Jaroiale wee ees b's sve a Keo aot ea Eee .00+ .64= .64

IMAP NESIR Eo Ugare ey selina a done.) ele Caen ee 00+ .07= .07

Tots Ay Siis'e ose Sic ales. ehciask eit agate aie: UE See 12+ .25= .37

OOS sie eter egtere sii) dycsaprieieis: han ne a siento oie ee 038+ .04= .07

WV GET Micrieler ia. siete lois sais evap Gree cohen ee 3.754+. 17.0= 5.45

GUC ENDS Lc OE MNOMP mer hl EN 32.50-1-67.10=99. 60

KAOLIN IN WISCONSIN. 19

The fluxing ingredients, iron oxide, lime, magnesia, potash, soda,

very small in the original clay, have thus been removed largely

(five-sixths) by washing. The following are other determinations

made on saniples from the same locality, all in the raw state:

Constituents. IV. Vv. VI. WAU

Sesquioxyd of limon... ... 6.2.56... 1.69 DinSe esterase ae a ates

TRG Gg dees a ge 0a ea area Cote iW 78 2.14

SOG Es bo SSSI ais OS SIG I RO ETO EAS Arner oar (ape ate .03 330i

NINVERIIGIE, (G6 oso, ch a see Sue a RAS Ce Nes PES SC DO Os ee ee eee 56

IV. is the bright yellowish clay from near the surface; V. is some-

what less yellow but apparently more ferruginous. It is the most

abundant kind. VI. is white clay, still retaining, to a marked de-

gree, the lamination of the original rock. It would appear, how-

ever, to be much more thoroughly decomposed than much of the

more homogeneous clay of the region. VII. is a highly micaceous

weathering granite from the river bank near by the kaolin pits.

On the northwest quarter of the southwest qnarter of section 4,

town 22, range 6 east, on the east side of the Wisconsin river, near

the centre of the section, kaolin occurs overlaid by ten feet of friable

sandstone. Most of it has lost the rock structure, though this ap-

pears very distinctly in places. This clay is one of the whitest

looking noticed. It has been used for making hearth at the Grand

Rapids foundry. The following are Mr. Sweet’s analyses of sam-

ples from this place:

Constituents. VIII. IX. xe XI.

HOEK WECSTIONC Ls ss). 2 elves sees ADRS OM ey atersrresnaea eteyenee trance evel leteneie «axons

PINE PPOLUOM Acs aces Loi ose saith BST Asde ee arta call eta Ag Net ells aon ws esacere os

HES OLAS ie et orcy esos: Se dvajones ale aieconsysl|isiaietetedearete 0.38 1.21 .87

OCP Re elec areola eiaiierore ihe avail ovary yeeros 0.08 0.46 00

VIII. is the raw clay; 1X. the same washed. X. is raw clay taken

from the box at the foundry, and said to come from the same place;

XI is the fine portion of X. The removal of alkalies by washing

is here evident.

20 WISCONSIN ACADEMY SCIENCES, ARTS, AND LETTERS.

In digging for the turn-table at the Green Bay and Min-

uj nesota depot, at Grand Rapids, a few lay-

I| ers of compact sandstone were first pene-

E Ys au trated, this giving place suddenly to a

J. = ‘ white kaolin through which piles had to

Ne Gi vu be driven five or six feet (?) before becom-

WeYye & & ing firmly placed

ae Ia ing firmly placed.

S Ao Immediately north of the Rablin House,

ae at Grand Rapids, kaolin is exposed in the

a7 ral dss cut made for grading the street, which

re : é here runs immediately along the river bank.

x 3 s e The following section was obtained at this

iS K & me point—Fig. 1—:*

RK Vy The decomposed rock is in most places

3 \{I))) quite firm, though often a soft clay. It is

all whitish, aud without any appearance of

the unaltered rock except the lamination.

= A specimen of the former kind yielded:

XII

S Potash. siaie.s ties ois eeeyeteteleterers leis elec teeter tee Relea 7.56

= Sodas. ccniee gals cand oletsiee wacbeee pel ee eee 5.03

SWIAteD’. Sioteic su sie, olan lercleis slenetace lolehetotelo vers letete lene teneeas 3.55

S The decomposition had not yet removed

= = much of the alkalies, although the rock

was quite white.

On lot 5, section 24, town 22,range 5east, onthe westside of the

river, on the land of Mr. L. P. Powers, kaolin occurs in the river bank.

The clay has been dug here to aconsiderableextent. Itshows here

as elsewhere every degree of decomposition. The pure white is of

inconsiderable thickness before a firmer rocky kind is reached. At

the waters edge below are seen ledges of unchanged rock. At the

time of my examination the locality had been less developed than

since that time; but the several outcrops along the river bank in-

dicated a considerable quantity. From this place all of the clay

that has been shipped away from Grand Rapids has been taken.

Places were noticed here where bunches of highly ferruginous clay

*The engraver has omitted the word ‘kaolin,’ in Fig. 1, underneath “ sand-

stone,”? and also the word ‘gneiss ”’ after ‘‘ decomposed.’’? ‘‘ Unaltered gneis”’

should read, “‘ unaltered gneiss.’

KAOLIN IN WISCONSIN. a

occurred in the midst of the whiter kind. The following are analy-

ses of samples from this place:

earthen: XII. | XIV. XY. XVI. | XVIL. | XVITI.} XIX.

ROilGalt. be sveiels as FOE Soe |Pyetare tote rell Moca ahora: Nase lDerelanaiuiceare Tea) i Gomedc 69.34

Alumina ...... SOS A Weeca el els evens s0.heee te wtegiy Sele Wi. GSy \tenoenci < 19,19

Sesquiox. Iron.! 1.24 |........ Boal) IIsadooon Pigses ll se Sco at Hee

1 Dra oa easton UU) lh acti at le Macs oe Deane N83} Wscbosooo 0.44

Magnesia...... @ 02 Iocooncuallooococ dolacouucer INA ON Wee seperevet= 0.31

‘Potash! fas. ose: 2.49 1.22 2.30 1.96 1.69 O) 333) 3.30

Sodantaeseoe 0.10 | trace trace 0.05 0.39 10 2.43

Carbonic acid .. OR OD iy aeeycaiees ON pie Cal aA Oe traces lee ec Aeece | pee evetees

Wraters.o.2..%: 5.45 OAM Pa wrath ota ciel Shere coesve.s SGI leas Neate 2ECT

“WomMlasoese 99.31 10.06 4.60 2.01 99.76 2.43 99.43

XIII. is the raw clay from the exposure furthest down stream.

It was averaged from an apparent thickness of three feet. XIV. is

the fine portion of XIII. XV. is the raw clay from the next ex-

posure above along the river bank. It represents an approximate

thickness of two and a half feet. XVI. is the fine portion of XV.

XVII. and XVIII. are the raw and washed clay from the exposure

furthest up stream, still showing the rock structure. XIX. is only

partly kaolinized rock from thesame place. These analyses nearly

all indicate the material lessening in percentage of the alkalies ef

fected by levigation.

On the west side of the northeast quarter of section 26, town 22,

range 5 east, on Mr. Canning’s land, several pits and a well have

been sunk into kaolinized rock. The decomposition did not appear

to extend to any great depth. The following are analyses:

Constituents. PRONG | RONG |S NENG PRONG

ane F

SHEED. ood 50.5 Sb BE be EE SEU bid UBIGGO ng tian IMnitre iairol Inseclactiercc Iorerscioion 54.87

DARL LITANIA RMA hy Pa te eClub tree ses, alah alle evel a.ajeyaiel|'s: oveleiel'eeleslaysrerate: ele 28 .87

Sesquioxyd of Iron..............- Mesogeon eee alleeG anes bl lgonouaoS 1.54

lPigorenaGl Gr IKON 5 sooneosD boob ovODOUDOCOdOODE oPhe Payer ovepay aval ci cuctejistotare .95

JDINIG.S Song Che eee NS haere ears literati sta tararaves lire eiaterere aleve eveeeverel= 1.62

MIGGRIGSIBS |, 5 so obo ORDA DODD ne OOO ERE e Oe IOC DO Cnn bu oooan Copm Onion .99

TPO EA © cod 5 Sate Bo Eee ODODE pee oa 1.84 2.65 2.95 2.57

SOON 3S BORo io oO OUOS CHEE RS DD De tieioerar 0.27 21 83 07

\AVattigie Ghb.Bs So's Ceara SEO tore Oo Cae ero rol Lao nomic Te QO) lis evarteyotans - 69.48

ANGeallsdoncegadcos aon oSURboREouDOcr 4.06 10.35 3.78 100.56

22 WISCONSIN ACADEMY SCIENCES, ARTS, AND LETTERS.

XX. and XXI. are crude and washed clay from Mr. Canning’s

well. XXII. and XXIII. are both washed samples, from different

pits. XXIII. was 43.39 per cent. of the unwashed clay. All of

these clays are very white, but appear to be much charged with

alkali even after washing.

On the northwest quarter of section 10, town 21, range 5 east,

on the land of Mr. Moses M. Strong, on the west bank of the river,

kaolin occurs underlying sandstone. ‘The clay shows at a number

of places at different levels above the water, but these do not prob-

ably indicate’ a continuous mass. Two samples were taken from

the opening at this place, one at a higher level than the other.

The following are analyses:

Constituents. XXIV.| XXV. | XXVI.|XXVII.

IROtaSW ere ysialesie wie eats < ein Ree en Cae 1.25 2.18 1.51 1.54

SOU: te vatatels cwiste else asld s bette eine ere ents 0.08 trace. 0.81 0.22

XXIV. and XXV.are the sameclay, before and after washing,

taken from the upper portion of the opening. XX VI. and XXVII.

are crude and washed clay from a lower level. The percentage of

alkalies does not appear to be lessened by washing.

About half a mile below this place the last Archaean rocks are

seen in the bed of the stream, and resting directly upon them the

sandstone. Sections showing the exact junction of the two ter-

ranes are common in this vicinity. A detatied section across the

river was taken at one place, the water being very low. It is an

interesting one, and I have condensed it in Fig. 2.

KAOLIN IN WISCONSIN. 93

Kaolin on Yellow River.—Kaolin is reported in quantity on Yel-

low River. The localities are above Dexterville in Wood county.

The Archaean rocks are exposed finely Si

for many miles along the bed of the |

stream. They show everywhere a ten-

dency to weather, consisting largely

71°

of a pinkish felspar. In places I no-

ticed the weathermg carried to the

condition of clay, but did not see any

of the white clay that is said to exist.

Kaolin on Black River.—On this

stream, in Jackson county, kaolin oc-

curs between Black River Falls and

Black River Station. As on the Wis-

consin, the Archaean rocks are found

here forming the bed of the stream,

the sandstone overlying them in the

banks. In many places the gneissic

rocks are decomposed. At the lower

end of the rapidsat the town of Black

River Falls, the gneisses disappear be-

neath the sandstone. A section very

like that on the Wisconsin, at Point

Bas, occurs here; and exhibits the

mode of formation of the kaolin hand-

somely.

usjony if

“ISUDOIST/| auUOISPURS Ve

AOATY

GC PLT

UID

On the west bank of the river at

Ledyard’s old mill, is a high cliff of

sandstone overlying gneiss, (Fig. 3.,) g

the exposures of both rocks extend- \&

ing seyeral hundred feet. The surface AN

of the gneiss is irregular, its de- N

pressions being filled by the over- e ‘

lymg sandstone. The gneisS is very 3

1°)

/auunya

distinctly seamed—the seams striking

north 37 degrees west, (magnetic,) and

dipping southwest about sixty de-

grees—is moderately coarse, micace-

ous, and has much pinkish orthoclase felspar, which occurs some-

euoIspUuDS —

24 WISCONSIN ACADEMY SCIENCHS, ARTS, AND LETTERS.

times in nests of some size. Near the water-level the gneiss is but

little changed, but as as it is traced up to the sandstone it is found

getting more and more decomposed, until it becomes a soft, grey-

ish kaolin, retaining most markedly the laminated structure of the

eneiss.

FTE. 3

Bary j

Sandstone

cliff 20’

Conglomerate 8

Kaolinized rock 52

Sa \\\\ \ ne

ANY

&; Quantity of kaolin obtainable in Wisconsin.—Taking the whole

district together, a very large amount of kaolin undoubtedly exists.

There is no reason why what has been seen should he all there is.

It must always however be expected that any one deposit will vary

much in character, both as to purity, and as to thickness. Num-

bers of instances came to my notice where boring showed two

feet of kaolin, and no kaolin at all, within afew feet of one another.

The fact that the kaolin is apt to occur in continuous lines will

however counter-balance the disadvantage of its lack of uniformity,

since it can be searched for with assurance of success. In my

opinion the indications are such as would warrant the outlay of

money in exploitation.

TII.—USES OF KAOLIN.

Having thus shown the existence of kaolin in Wisconsin in

quantity, it becomes pertinent to ask what it is good for. Its chief

KAOLIN IN WISCONSIN. BS

use has always been in the ceramic arts. It is also used to make

fire-brick and refractory vessels, and to some extent in making

alum. The two former of these uses are the important ones.

Use of kaolin in the ceramic arts —For making the finer kinds

of pottery the important qualities of the kaolin are its color after

burning; plasticity; and capacity of hardening well under heat

without fusion. The plasticity is necessary for the moulding, the

last named property for the perfect retention of the moulded form.

Pure kaolinite is almost absolutely infusible under heat, simply

losing its water and becoming an anhydrous silicate of alumina.

This refractory property is lessened by the addition of any other

bases; least by magnesia, more by lime, still more by iron oxyds,

and most by the alkalies. The table of analyses of foreign clays

given below, will serve to indicate how the Wisconsin clays rank

in this regard.

% The many kinds of clay-ware may be grouped conveniently into

the dense and porous kinds,* according to the internal texture of

the mass. Certain kinds of the dense wares are the ones for which

kaolin is chiefly used. The ordinary “true” or “hard” porcelain

consists of (1) a body of previously washed kaolin, and (2) a fusi-

ble binding material, which by its fusion fills the pores of the baked

clay and thus renders the ware homogeneous and translucent.

This binding material, or ‘‘ flux,” is composed chiefly of felspar, to

which are added other ingredients, such as quartz, gypsum, ete. In

general, the three ingredients of porcelain are kaolin, felspar and

quartz. ‘True porcelain has usually no external glaze placed upon

it, its glaze being imparted by the flux which renders it translu-

cent. To give an idea of the amount of kaolin needed in making

porcelain, I select the following admixtures used at some of the

famous Huropean manufactories:}

* Wagner’s Chemical Technology. + Knapp. Chem. app. to Arts p. 229,

26 WISCONSIN ACADEMY SCIENCES, ARTS, AND.LETTERS.

o a g = £0

Hieila]s E

Constituents. S| ae a es 3 2 os

A ie) a 5 mm | 3

eles | 1 4 eels

= 32) - Ss o oe =

el\ei2| 2 | 2/613) 8 | &

ea |] A | Ae (eo aaa

AON 4138. cacys tise eee 7176 |72| 87 | 72 | 48/50 | 65] 40

IRE EVE GaGo Baodocapadooead0s os TUS IT O42 lth OCs eS le 12"). QDiti|sle cake aes

QuieiRid eGgccugaakenos aeoanaso5ce Oe eeallaoas Sie oe Ne piay |) DI 33

1 ihn ae eA ASG Ser oS Noch coe Ibo daloooaltar ot VE ASMA SSB Goal) sacl ose

(End GUSSsboon den odGHus0 Qos allnods\lo0 sollooaclonouce 4 5

Chalk iis 2Obs We ree anal eae dspace) [cues liaise cases 4. ||:siaverell Moneta nls

Broken ware.......... La eieres ae ltomenalnieees 9 Be ea Cm aly 5

Sand separated from kaolin.......|....|.-..|..-.|....04 -.| 48 4

POA vets Saks Geir 100 {100 |100 | 100 {100 |100 /100 |100 | 100

Kaolin is used to a considerable extent also for other dense wares

than true porcelain. In the manufacture of the so called English

or “tender” porcelain are used kaolin, plastic clay, ‘* Cornish stone, ”

burnt bones, and steatite. The ‘*Cornish stone” is the partially

weathered granite, which by its complete kaolinization affords the

famous kaolin of Cornwall.

Preparation of kaolin for porcelain making.—The crude kaolin is

always first washed to free it from quartz and felspar fragments.

This is effected by simply breaking up the clay, stirring in water,

and decanting the suspended matter. The coarse residue from

this washing is frequently of value, since it contains two essential

ingredients of the porcelain, viz. felspar and quartz.

Use of kaolin as a refractory material—As a-fire clay or for

making fire-clay articles, I cannot find that kaolinized rock has

been much used. The chief difficulties in the way of such use ap-

pear to lie in the lack of uniformity so characteristic of this kind

of deposit, and in the fact that where of fine quality the material

is too valuable for other purposes. The use of kaolinized rock from

near Trenton, New Jersey, as an ingredient of fire-bricks, has al-

ready been alluded to. The only other instance I find recorded is

that of the so-called ‘‘ Lee Moor Porcelain Brick,’ made in Deyon-

shire, England, by mixing a small quantity of inferior kaolin with

an excess of the coarse residue obtained from washing the same

kaolm. This residue consists chiefly of angular fragments of

KAOLIN IN WISCONSIN. 27

quartz. The bricks are reported as of extraordinary refractoriness,

and are even compared with the famous Dinas silica bricks.

Practical suggestions as to the use of the Wisconsin kaolin to

make fire-brick.—There appears to be every reason why a kaolin

brick, if properly made, should be of unusual value. A few sug-

gestions are given here as to its manufacture. First, then, the clay

must be selected in the pit, the red and bluish portions being re-

jected. The pure white are the best kinds, whilst some of the yel-

lowish kinds are much better than they appear at first sight. After

selecting, the kaolin should always be washed, to free it from fels-

pathic particles, which contain a large amount of fluxing alkalies.

The raw clay will never prove uniform in its capacity of withstand-

ing heat. This is what theory would teach, and, as [ am informed

by Mr. J. J. Hagerman, of the Milwaukee Iron Works, is found in

practice to be the chief obstacle in the way of using the Wiscon-

sin clay. The fine clay obtained by washing should next be mixed

with a large excess of tolerably coarse angular quartz, for which

might be substituted in part, fragments of fire-brick. The mass

should now be moulded or baked carefully. In this way I am per-

suaded that an unusually good quality of biick might be prepared.

It will not do to make brick from this clay as the ordinary fire-

brick are made, on account of its extraordinary shrinkage on heat-

ing. Prepared in the manner I have suggested the kaolin brick

would far excel: ordinary fire-brick for all purposes, save where

contact with a highly basic slag is necessary, when it would be

inapplicahle on account of its high content of free silica. I might

say in this connection that a number of places exist in Wisconsin

where the quartz for mixing with the kaolin might be obtained.

I am informed that since my examination of the Grand Rapids lo-

calities, a number of fire-brick have been made without great suc-

cess, the clay being used raw and mixed with wood-ashes as a coun-

ter-shrinkage ingredient. No worse admixture, of course, could be

imagined, since the ingredient most desirable to avoid is thus di-

rectly introduced into the clay.

IV.—TABLES OF ANALYSES OF WISCONSIN AND FOREIGN KAOLINS AND

FIRE CLAYS.

These tables are given so that a comparison between the Wis-

consin clays and the already well known clays of Europe and the

28 WISCONSIN ACADEMY SCIENCES, ARTS, AND LETTERS.

United States may be readily made. The analyses in Table I of

Wisconsin kaolins are those already giyen, and have the same num-

bers as before.

In Table II., analyses J.,1L., U1.,1V., V., VI., and VIL, are taken

from the “ Geology of New Jersey, pp 683-688. J.is the average

composition of the best white clay of the Cretaceous, near South

Amboy, analyzed just as taken from the pit. II. is the clay from

Trenton, New Jersey, analyzed after washing to free from quartz

sand, also Cretaceous. III. and IV. ure clays imported from Coblentz,

Germany, for making glass-pots. V. and VI. are the St. Louis, Mo.,

glass-pot clay, raw and prepared. VII. and VIII. are New Jersey

potters-clays (Cretaceous), and undergo some vitrification on burn-

ing. Analyses IX. to XIX. are taken are taken from Percy’s Metal-

lurgy, Volume on Fuels, p. 99. IX. is a true kaolin from Pool, Dor-

setshire, used in making Cornish crucibles. X.is also a true kaolin,

from Ireland. Small crucibles made from it were kept for

hours with melted steel in them, without changing form. XI. is

also an Irish kaolin. XII. and XIII. are the finest Cornish kaolin;

analyzed by different chemists—washed before analyzing. XIV, is

the best Stourbridge fire-clay; XV. a poorer kind of Stourbridge

clay. XVI. is the best Dowlais clay; XVII. a poorer Dowlais clay.

XVIII. is a greenish kaolin, with red spots, from Neweastle, Dela-

ware; used for making glass-pots and porcelain saggars. Analyses

XIX. to XXV. are from the Indiana Geological Report for 1874.

XIX., XX., and XXT. are the Lawrence county, Indiana, porcelain

clay, analyzed raw. XXII. is from Golconda, Illinois; oceurs in

pockets in the Carboniferous rocks. XXIII, is washed Chinese

kaolin. XXIV. is washed kaolin from St. Yrieix, France. XXV. is

Missouri “ ball clay.” XX VI. and XXVII. are kaolins from Saarau,

Silesia, analysed raw and washed; quoted from the second supple-

ment to Watt’s Chemical Dictionary p. 354. In comparing the

Wisconsin clay with these foreign clays it should be borne in mind

that for porcelain making the qualities desired are whiteness after

burning and refractoriness to heat; and for making firebrick refrac-

toriness only. The coloration will increase directly with the con-

tent of oxyds of iron. The refractoriness will decrease* with the

increase of the ratio of fluxes (iron protoxyd, lime, magnesia, pot-

* Watt’s Chem. Dictionary, Second Supplament, p. 354.

KAOLIN IN WISCONSIN. 29

ash, and soda) to the silica and alumina together, and with the dec-

rease of the proportion of the alumina to the silica. Of the fluxes

the alkalies are the most, the alkaline earths the least harmful.

TasLE I1.—Wéisconsin kaolins.

(Analysed by HE. T. Sweet, M. 8.)

Constituents. Ne JOE, JY Vi. Velie) |) VUES eS TEXe: x.

Sula Revav.cccuceerssoeettesss

IROtaSh rc eeeccleeccsskoe secs

Protoxyd ef Iron.

Carbonic acid.............008

HOLE cone bepeee cere eee

Coarse sand

SHIN =CVAY ta oersis cesses se aces

Constituents. | XI. | XITIT. | XIV. | XV. | XVI. | XVID. |XVIIT.| XIX.

SITING Seasntenoa neh encene aor el nau 70.83 OE2 DY eeeeneeecee 69.3

PAV raniateee: Syicecscsaceucestiel| Covccucasese 18.98 WG Bint esses ees “19.19

Sesquioxyd of Iron........]...........- 1.24 DEB SAE eee. 1.75

Lime 03335 | eae 0.44

Magnesia EAGT |e 0.31

Potash 4 i 1.22 2.30 1.96 1.69 2.33 3.00

Soda es d i Trace | Trace 0.05 0.39 0.10 2.43

Water So OH Eee eeAM loner eepreees OS OLE | eee 2.67

(Obie S@HaI KOR YONG arreeeaoearosseol Aasoup sooo enn 770l lAsanqueoasdal eesaeeped lscddaacaceen MR eEEXeX Sin age eeeeescl debe: Baosteo

eye ei || Miee seers [bosveseeess GOTO ees acteeess 99.42

WowEseySantGicsac.ccenscccecees Sp fc [fee oe a [Reel Pepe ee a ene aie ARE ie ae

TRIG OAC? oleqcacn so W Sie RN eRe RM | ARE Bm a Bee aS een eee eececeeed| |coenoancecea! cboscceaceno) ocde ceca

PROT ch ers eee ee elle eee nal aleaics koa Mc eeat halted | Bene ay, ateal lant. Sycpea lider ctreieoni| eteemeccacrall casleeazetens

TO LOmy Avatar Omen nice in |orececey cenllbaneocve cose neesesv ees SO syoolge! 5. NOMS cl Us toa a | ee

(CRE S@TTING GiGi sen oc oateecol eoaceebeacen | Ceocneen duel leecooeecoec | Isccaaceeonen| |cscca-ecaasal lascect odesoo! esscoceedoolc-rccochec oo

MG talpewaleckse EF Pe FA tes Ee TUOLGGY Nelost ied eau cate | Opes tes | abana

Woarse Sand nee e i csce. sone al. Seal acta Eee ~ 56.61 es Sued. seteae SPA Be Gre aaitca| Deeeeeer eats [pene eees ans:

PHN = Clay, Meee ee ete eal onacesesceoslneStosccests ZIG} a ia ean see InR Ol Beeeecoscecna| lecececicceL ea

ARG alter ates vceee teers llésbasoosveseliuccestedees TUCO 00)" | cet ere aetel (ee eetecoas| UseccBeeeecral lacteooe seca |-cearéeresnd

WISCONSIN ACADEMY SCIENCES, ARTS, AND, LETTERS.

Taste IL—VFire-clays and kaolins from various localities.

if,

Constituents.

CoH

eaceodcee tac

Sesquiox

Lime...

why tont to

AYA AIT) Psa: Resaeeeere

Protox. Iron. ...

ZixcCON1a.. ...+-+s.

Sulphur, .........

Phosphoricacid

SMG eee agescess

Combin’d water

Hygros’pic wa’r |...

Organic matter

Total

100.00

100.32

Constituents. Ke BAIT

UMCB cota sssnceces 78 40 74.44

J nile carb eehs Sereercno 12.25 19.04

Sesquiox. [ron.. 1.30 0.61

bynes) Saa-crrcenporro 0.50 0.45

Maegnesia.........]..... 2

Potash

Soda

Wialter eo .ccses

Protox. Iron. ..

Zirconia ..........|..

Sail har ee eseescesceselllecceses

Phosphoricacid |\......::....|/...ccnenese

OATES Bee 2 ae vee it eaareeseae es

Combin’d water 5.20 5.71

ye TrOSADIChWaic las sealenssa|lesceseuesees

Oxeamichma iberiliee veces dee saseece een

Mota cceseee 98.65 | 100.59

SRST. | XSI TSG | EXSY

46.32 46.29 | 65.10

39.74 | 40.09 | 22.22

se weeceer see | weweeeeseeee

Cree

eles

Wali.

59.60

26.41

1.61

1.00

0.07

0,29

0.19

10.36

VEL. || YeEDE |) eee:

71.80 | 65.62 48.99

19.95 | 20,88 32.11

1.31 1.23 2.54

OFS seeaeaeesees 0.34

0.79 0.30 0.22

0.61 1.95 3.3

2.33

99.88

KY.

99.95 | 98.08'} 99.36

XVL. | XVUL XV ILE.

67.12 | 44.25 72.23

21,18} 354.75 16.75

1.85 3.41 1,29

0.32 0.34 2.00

0.84 1,18 0.07

2.02 5

Constituents. | XIX. | XX.

SHU rcnncbecs 45.90 47.05

Alumina.......... 40.34 37.14

Sesquiox. Iron..}......... trace

UMN eee coca eee trace

Magnesia.........| .ccccacee ; 0.03

Potashy teense

Soda Mv es Mere ol Neer ters ee es scence noe

IWiaiber is ctectere: sce 13.26 | 15.55

POLO Xe PUOM erase beret altace ol. ceece

Zireouia....

Sulphur...

Phosph’ric acid

Sardseae eee ,

Combin’d water |.

Hygros’pic wa’r |.

Organic matter

99.50

XXII.

47.13 42.28 50.50

36.76 43.05 33.70

traAce:|| Pees 1.80

0,04 | trace 0.80

Peeerrrcel oecelccca 1.90

15.13 14.66 11.22

XXVIJXXVIT

48.37 | 65.69 | 19.99 45.39

34.95 | 24.87 | 17.31 39.34

1.26 2.54 0.56 1.23

DAD ae vasetaaes 0.46 1.04

12.62 | 16.60 5.70 12.95

99.91 | 100.00

SScuxx

——s

LZ cM. & St.P Raitway

i) y,

? h

a, |

& .

Pas) “o }

6 a z j

Abe a 2

ot a : oS

wm adh %6

= \ oO Sir,

N}),

(POLE >

5) \

ae ‘\ ind B

me : A

SP? fs

} PP PSS

=I \ ate aa \

Scale

Two utes to

one jiile

OCONOMOWOC LAKE, ETC. dl

OCONOMOWOC LAKE, AND OTHER SMALL LAKES OF

WISCONSIN, CONSIDERED WITH REFERENCE TO

THEIR CAPACITY FOR FISH-PRODUCTION.

BY I. A. LAPHAM.

The Oconomowoc Lake in Waukesha county, on the line of the

Chicago, Milwaukee and St. Paul Railway, is one of those beauti-

ful sheets of clear, cold water that may be taken as a type or repre-

sentative of hundreds of others within the State of Wisconsin. A

few facts and observations in regard to this lake may therefore be

of interest to the Fish Commissioners, and to all who desire to en-

courage the increase of fish-production. .

As shown upon the plats of the government land surveys, it has

a length of two miles; breadth, three-fourths of a mile; a shore

line of six and a half miles; covering an area of 830 acres, or one

and three-tenths square miles.

Its elevation above Lake Michigan, as ascertained many years

ago, in making the survey of the Milwaukee and Rock River

Canal, is two hundred and eighty-two feet. Its irregular form ean

best be seen by reference to the accompanying chart.

The Oconomowoc River, a small stream which is the outlet of

several other lakes, enters it on the north shore and leaves it at the

northwest corner. So irregular is the shape of this lake that it

might be taken to illustrate geographical terms, as gulf, bay, point,

cape, promontory, peninsula; it has also straits, channels, bars,

shoals and its coast-line. :

The banks of the lake consist mostly of high grounds which are

selected as sites of beautiful, often costly residences, which, especi-

ally when duplicated by reflection from the smooth surface of the

water, form landscapes worthy of the pencil of the painter.

The lines of figures on the accompanying chart show the depth

of the water as measured in 1875. They indicate three principal

depressions, the deepest being 66 feet,* the mean of all the sound-

ings is 39 feet.

* The greatest depths measured in other lakes in the vicinity were:

Fest. Feet.

Bile ovyic Kieilnaenneteamen cate Out UPS ee sot bay HOOP ilbar ellen ee acer oe code. o ecco varesaranendce 45

Upper Nashotah ...... ney DOM MOU Vex Wal Ovccksssusacascetuwessaccseccoccussecee uence 4)

Lower Nashotah...... 5 HOM We Wiper Geese: src cnsascneecsstcssasneseeesee 39

IPE EUR GT a as pe Mk Sau nies ER re SOM Powers aM aMDIT seta cecsserstereserctceesustnce 3

32 WISCONSIN ACADEMY SCIENCES, ARTS, AND LETTERS.

There are several shoals with from two to six feet depth of water.

There is no deposit of mud or sand brought into the lake by the

river; the water-supply both from the river and from the numerous

springs on the shore, being always clean and pure. One of these

springs on the south shore, known by its Indian name Minnewoe,

(place of waters,) has been analyzed by Mr. G. Bode, of Milwaukee,

Chemist of the Wisconsin Geological Survey, with the following

result:

Chloride of sodiuiinas ci. 0 5 2 ee SR ale ae ate wave ere toieia ie colt cio Sie Se ee ee 0.129

Sulphate;of soda. i. 278. .4) oe, ciyeias Miele isles telbtesete = nis isles ele et Ge 0.627

Bicarbonate of soda, x, 2 0 2i...0 Sakacis tre treo eikonal etoichoee i eee Ee 1.041

Bicarbonate otdime? ce ovacseen eee one Ae Aros Coc 9.638

Bicarbonate of maenesia 5b. o. bse icinielsls wlcseie' © « Fieqere eialsl sein. «cle eee 6.138

Bicarbonate of irom .2 5 ./fs 0s3 gore ys. ces ae Oe ele eile Moiese ene aE EE 0.129

ATMA. 6 ca bree sie avg id A eclosrels Shelton hile Detect Ee Bhat Ac 0.067

Sili Gaeta en Cape ine aoe eee Vic eRe A ee 0.879

Total i(grains in‘one gallom) <2 cams cic ecoye eke elles oe aero eee 18.648

It will be seen that the chief ingredients, asin most Wisconsin

waters, are lime or magnesia, derived doubtless directly from the

magnesian limestone rocks and pebbles buried beneath the soil.

This analysis also shows that the water does not differ essentially

from those having great reputation for their medicinal virtues.

The lime from the springs is deposited, under favorable cireum-

stances, upon the bottom of the lake forming beds of pure white

marl; a process which is materially assisted by the secretions of

mollusks aud aquatic plants, especially the chara and alge.

The temperature of the water, being an important item in fish

culture, was taken at different times near the surface, where it had

considerable depth, with the followiug result: :

Ma NT yeep jotta esses Akt Oe Ok 20 ae a ee 41° Fahr.

ST ra FYING He acssde cE: Need ais 2 sven n wie tn ie oloeeas ee G3

a diallyaeeeei bees cles cette fsck ee a eee decom Gon Poe ee

Tin GAUGUSheN octet ieelete le vest e baie ss s+ ce ete eh eee ener (pay ee

In ‘Septemiber eee sumtin: vo el. aon tan eee cA Ree Marerntee ieee a teiate ater 72

Imt@ctobern Sir eee ee

(Jy)

i ee cy

An attempt was naade to find the temperature at the bottom in

deep water and resulted in showing at some times no differences, at

other times one or two degrees warmer or colder; though the deep

OCONOMOWOC LAKE, ETC. 33

water is popularly believed to be much colder than that at the

surface.

The strong wind blowing over the lake causes a surface current

which must be balanced by a counter current below, and thus by a

constant interchange of water equalizes the temperature. If the

day is warm with but little wind, the surface water will become

the warmest; at night the surface cools down so that in the early

morning it is colder than at the bottom.

The deep-water fishes do not, therefore, seek that locality on ac-

count of diminished temperature.

Mne lake is said to have remained open nearly all winter; the

cold weather having been accompanied by high wind, which pre-

vented the water from freezing.

When the surface is once covered with ice the currents cease,

and ice 1s formed of great depth and of crystal transparency and

purity.

The temperature of the spring-water along the shores remain

nearly uniform throughout the year, varying from 47 to 49 degrees,

which is not far from the mean temperature of this locality.

The currents caused by the wind blowing over the surface of the

lake, act upon the bottom and shores, causing abrasious at some

places and accumulations at others, very much as by the larger

currents of the ocean. This is quite apparent at two points on the

channel between the lake and the large bay at the northeast angle.

The current flowing into the bay from the lake causes an eddy at

these points from which are deposited long narrow bars projecting

from the shore. This channel it will be seen is quite narrow and

the water in it shallow.

These currents also cause accumulations of beach sand and

gravel at certain points along the shore; separating and assorting

the material upon a small scale, precisely as is done on a larger

scale by the currents in the great lakes, and in the ocean.

While white shell marl is accumulating in some portions of the

Sy AS

34 WISCONSIN ACADEMY SCIENCES, ARTS, AND LETTERS.

lake, soft muck resulting from the annual decay of aquatic vege-

tation is accumulating in others. Some of the lakes, especially

those not connected with a stream of running water, are thus be-

coming rapidly filled with marl and peat, causing changes that be-

come apparent after long intervals of time. Some small shallow

lakes have thus been changed to meadows within the recollection

of the first settlers of the county only 38 years ago.

The government plats represent some lakes in 1835, which are

now only known as marshes or wet meadows. One called “ Soft

Water Lake,” was a clean sheet of water only four years ago, but is

now nearly covered with the leaves of the yellow pond lily (Nu-

phar) and other water plants. Soon if will cease to be known as a

lake.

There are also some changes of the level of some of these lakes,

indicating a less amount of water than formerly. Sand bars for-

merly covered with water are now dry, and in one case the bar extends

quite across the lake, thus dividing it into two. Another proof of

a diminished supply of water is afforded by the occurrence of an-

cient beaver dams in places where no pond could be formed at the

present time, for want of running water.

The time may come when by the use of some simple, easily worked

dredge, the marl, and muck may be removed from the bottom of

some of the more important of these lakes, to be used as a fertilizer

of the neighboring farms; especially as the beauty of the lakes

would be increased by deepening the water, and by the consequent

removal of the unsightly vegetable growth along their shallow

margins.

Ice ridges are formed at certain places around the shore, some of

them double, or triple, and varying in height up to ten feet. These

ridges are formed by the expansion of the ice during the winter,

pushing the materials of the beach in-land. They consist of sand,

gravel, or boulders; in the latter case they constitute the so-called

‘walled lakes.” If the banks are high and steep at the edge of the

water, no ridge can be formed, but wherever low grounds or marshes

approach the lake, they may be looked for. Where springs enter

the lake, no ridges are formed, the water remaining above the freez-

ing point all winter. Trees are often found with their roots crowded

inland by the ice-expansion; their tops leaning over the water.

These ridges make excellent road-beds, and are often used for that

purpose.

OCONOMOWOC LAKE, ETC. 35

The ancient mound-builders, that mysterious people who pre-

ceded the present Indian races, once occupied the banks of these

lakes as is clearly shown by their numerous works; and they prob-

ably derived no inconsiderable portion of their subsistence from fish.

No shell-heaps have been found to indicate their use of the abund-

ance of Unio and Anodons found in these lakes. The works of the

mound-builders are rapidly disappearing, being levelled by the plow

of the farmer.

Besides the Unios, these lakes abound in other bivalve and uni-

valve mollusks; crustaceans and worms, and the larve of insects

appear in wonderful numbers. These, with the innumerable min-

nows found in shallow waters, afford at all times an abundant

supply of food for the larger fishes. Loons, geese. ducks, gulls,

plover, and many other birds swim upon the waters or wade along

the margin.

Among the fishes to be found are the following:

Peroux, Perca flayescens, Cuvier.

WALL-EYED Pixz, Lucoperea americana.

Srrirep Bass, Roccus chrysops, Girary.

Rock Bass.

Stone-Roiuer, Htheostonia.

Brack Bass, Micropluas nigricans, Agassiz.

Sun-FisH, Pomotis.

PUMPKINSEED.

SHINER.

SHEEPHEAD, Haploidonotus grunnieus.

SrickLE-BACK, Applissinconstans, Kirtland.

PICKEREL, Hsox, Lesueur.

Sisco, Argysosomus sisco, Jordan Am. Nat,, 1875, p. 185, Ind.

Geol. rep. 1875, p. 190.

Sucker, Catastomus.

Rep-Horssg, Plychostonus.

Cat-FIsH, Amiurus catus, Cuvier.

Buri-Heap.

Biiu-F isu, Lepidosteus oxyurus, Rafinesque.

The Salmon and Brook-trout are reared artifically, and have been

introduced into some of the lakes.

Young salmon (Salmo salar) and the brook-trout_ (5. fontinalis,)

36 WISCONSIN ACADEMY SCIENCES, ARTS, AND LETTERS.

have been introduced into this lake, but so far as known they have

not increased. '

From the data given above one will be able to decide whether it

would be advisable for the State to attempt to stock this lake with

fish; and if so, the kinds best adapted to the conditions named.

The natural supply of fish has been drawn upon so heavily that

the present yield is quite small, compared with what it was a dozen

or more years ago; and hence the necessity of some effort for the

restoration of the supply of the better kinds.

co |

FISH-CULTURE.

BY P. R. HOY, M. D., RACINE.

Jt is of the first importance to ascertain the nature of the water

which we desire to stock with fish, its depth, temperature and

chemical character; also, the nature of the bottom, and of the shore,

how supplied, and what becomes of the surplus water; what species

of fish, crustacea, mollusks, annelida, and insect larvae are found

in the water and in the mud of the bottom; what ‘aquatic plants

are found growing in the water, and on the margin of the lake,

pond or stream. An intelligent answer to these several interroza~

tiyes would furnish data, that will enable us to escape the danger

of certain failure. For it is evident to the most careless, that these

conditions should agree with the iustincts, habits, and way of life

of the animals to be developed there. The neglect to observe, or

properly appreciate these natural conditions has, in many instances,

been the cause of total failure of fish culture, even when in other

respects, the men have been skillful pisciculturists. All our lakes

should be surveyed in the most careful manner, under the supervis-

ion of men fitted for such investigations. ‘The paper prepared by

the lamented Dr. Lapham, on Lake Oconomowoc, is a model in al-

most all points. It only remains for us to dredge the bottom in

order to secure the lower forms of life, to ascertain their species and

abundance, so that in all future time it can be known to a scientific

certainty what valuable species of fish will thrive in its waters.

What species of fish are best to cultivate in order to stock our

hundreds of small inland lakes? This is a question of great mo-

ment, and one that should be answered with caution in any given

case. I will however in a general way state a few of the species

that will be suitable for many of these charming sheets of water.

W hite-fish.—The genus Coregonus includes the true white-fish of

the great lakes. They may be known by their blunt nose and

short underjaw. These fish are, undoubtedly, superior as an arti-

cle of diet to any other fresh-water fish. They feed on small crus-

38 WISCONSIN ACADEMY SCIENCES, ARTS, AND LETTERS.

tacea and occasionally on the larve of insects. Whether this fish

will thrive in any of these smaller lakes is still doubtftl. How-

ever, it is worth the trial surely. The genus Argyrosomus includes

those smaller species of whitefish, having a sharp nose and project-

ing underjaw. There are atleast four species known, three of them

are found only in the largest lakes. The fourth, the Sisco, inhab-

its several of the smaller lakes. There is at least one species, the Lake-

herring, a. cluperiformis, that can be transferred to all of those lakes

where the Sisco is now found. All of these small whitefish take the

baited hook at certain seasons of the year. The other two species

inhabit the profound depths of Lakes Michigan and Superior, and will

not flourish if taken from these waters. ‘The Salmon trout—-Sal-

mo namaycush is one of the largest and best of the fresh

water salmon; a species that is one ot the easiest to propagate ar-

tificially, the egg being large and hardy. We have many lakes,

undoubtedly, where this great gamefish would multiply and be at

home. Why should we be running after strange gods, when we

have such a treasure at home? At Racine and Milwaukee the egg

can be procured in any numbers desired.

The so-called brook-trout (Salmo fontinalis) are just the thing

for ponds supplied by free flowing springs of pure cold water. For

this purpose they have no equal, bnt it is probable that it would be

hardly expedient to use this species for stocking public waters.

There is a species of salmon that has lost the instincts of its

distant relation, the salmo salor, so that it has no longer a de-

sire to visit the ocean. The ‘“ land-locked salmon” (Salmo sebago)

is not quite one half as large as the salmon trout, butis an excellent

game fish; one that will thrive inanumber of the lakes. We have quite

a number now in the State of Wisconsin, and hope soon to be able to

stock some of the lakes with this fish. The black bass (Micropterus

nigricans and M. Salmoides), ave excellent fish, but difficult to

propagate in consequence of their eggs having a mucous coat that

causes them to adhere in packets. There is an interesting paper

published in the U. 8. Fish Commissioners Report, for 1872 and

1878, on page 567, by Rudolph Hessel, of Germany, ‘On methods

of treating adhesive eggs of certain fishes in artificial propagation.”

Hessel, it is hoped, has struck the right method, and we hope that

in a short time we shall be able to propagate bass, and especially

the European Carp, (Cyprinus carpio and other species) which de-

FISH-CULTURE. 39

posits her eggs on the underside of submerged aquatic plants, only

an inch or two under the surface of the water. The Carp is extre-

mely tenacious of life, but flourishes in shaliow lakes with muddy

bottom and partly filled with vegetation. We have numerous lakes

of this discription where the bass will not thrive, but where all

the conditions are favorable for the healthy development of the

Carp. I look with great hope in that direction. Prof. Baird will

secure abundance of Carp spawn as soon as it is proven that we can

manage them artificially. When you can go with hook and line

and bag ten pound specimens of that most desirable fish, the carp,

then you will feel like thanking the men who have so persistently

persevered in investigating every condition that can secure benefits

so great. These waters that now produce so slender a supply of

ordinary fish, then will teem with the best; such as but few men

can now afford to eat.

AQ) WISCONSIN ACADEMY SCIENCES, ARTS, AND LETTERS.

NOTES ON THE GEOLOGY OF NORTHERN WISCONSIN.

BY E. T. SWEET, M. S.

Assistant on the Geological Survey of Wisconsin.

During the summer months of 1873 and 1875, I was occupied,

mainly in northern and northwestern Wisconsin, assisting in the

prosecution of the field-work of the State Geological Survey. The

greater part of the season of 1873 was devoted to an examination of

the Penokie Iron Range, including incidental observations upon the

geology of Ashland county, under the direction of Professor Ir-

ving. Late in the season I received instructions from our la-

mented chief geologist, Dr. Lapham, to examine and report upon

the ‘Copper Ranges ” of Douglas county. My visit to the northern

part of the State during the season of 1875 consisted of a reconnoi-

sance of northern Wisconsin, under the direction of Dr. Wight,

the State Geologist. Canoe-trips were made from St. Croix Falls,

nearly to the source of the St. Croix river; from the head of the

Chippewa river to Chippewa Falls; from Jenny up the Wisconsin

and Pelican Rivers, and from Post Lake down the Wolf River to

Shawano. The total distance traveled by the party, during two

months, mainly upon these streams, was about 700 miles.

The main results obtained in Ashland and Douglas counties the

first season, have already been made public by Professor Irving,

through the second volume of the Transactions of the Academy. I

wish to call particular attention to the Professor’s paper on ‘* Some

Points in the Geology of Northern Wisconsin,” and to the conclu-

sions reached by him; for, in many respects, this paper may be con-

sidered merely a supplement to that. His general conclusions will

be accepted and quoted without reiterating the proof upon which

they are based. Several points alluded to in his paper, I wish to

still further elaborate in connection with the presentation of facts

which were observed for the first time during the reconnoissance.

In this paper I shall especially discuss the main features in the ge-

ology of the region immediately bordering the St. Croix river from

St. Croix Falls to the head of that stream, and shall also frequently

GEOLOGY OF NORTHERN WISCONSIN. 41

refer to other localities in northern Wisconsin and Michigan, in

order to present new facts, or to quote those already known, which

bear upon points in the geology of the above mentioned district.

Four great geological formations are represented in northern

Wisconsin.

1. Granitic and gneissic rocks supposed to be the equivalents of

the Canadian Laurentian.

2. The Huronian magnetic schists, quartzites slates and diorites-

3. A great variety of rocks lithologically distinct, among which

are diabase, melaphyres, porphyries, conglomerates, shales and sand -

stones, known as the Copper Bearing Series.

4. The Lower Silurian Sandstones.

Of these formations, the Laurentian and Huronian are not known

to occur in the vicinity of the St. Croix River. The first proba-

bly will not be found nearer than twenty-five or thirty miles to the

St. Croix, while the existence of the second, as shown below, may

be proven much closer to that stream.

1. Laurentian.—The rocks of this, the most ancient geological

age of which we have any knowledge, although very interesting to

the geologist, are in northern Wisconsin of comparatively little

importance. In this state we have no evidence of the occurrence

of useful minerals in these rocks,in anything like workable quan-

tities. Gold, however, has been reported in very small quantities

from Oconto county. Professor Irving reports traces of gold

and silver in quartz from Clark county, which is probably of this

age. The Laurentian rocks are usually granites, passing tnrough

the fine and medium grained to very coarse grained varieties.

Rocks of this age, with a single exception, were found to occur the

entire distance passed over in the reconnaissance of the Chippewa,

Wisconsin, Pelican and Wolf Rivers. Upon the Chippewa and

and Wisconsin Rivers, numerous exposures of syenitic and horn-

blende rocks occur interstratified with granite aud gneiss rocks.

The bedding of the strata along these streams can usually be deter-

mined with a great degree of certainty. A remarkable uniformity

in the strike of the rocks of this region has been proven to exist.

There is scarcely an exposure along the banks of the Chippewa or

Wisconsin upon which the strike can be made out, that does not

fall within the are included between north sixty degrees east and.

49 WISCONSIN ACADEMY SCIENCES, ARTS, AND LETTERS.

east and west. The dip is always at a high angle either to the

north or south.

The Laurentian rocks of Wolf River are very uniform in charac-

ter. From Post Lake to Keshena, a distance of about seventy-five

miles, the rocks are all exceedingly coarse grained feldspathic gran-

ite. The erystals of orthoclase are often several inches across.

Biotite, a variety of black mica, appears to be a characteristic of

these rocks. At localities it is the exclusive variety of mica found.

At Post Lake dam, on section 9, town 33, range 12 east, a ledge of

hornblendic schist gives a strike of north, fifty degrees east. With

this exception no undoubted strike or dip was observed in the rocks

in the vicinity of Wolf River. A few miles above Keshena the sur-

face of the granitic fields has been worn by glacial action into

knolls and knobs which present the characteristic appearance of

‘Roches Montonnees.” Large boulders of uniform, coarse grained

granite are of frequent occurrence in the channel of Wolf river

from Post Lake dam to Keshena. Many boulders also, of immense

size have been transported from this region, far to the southward,

aud deposited in Waushara and adjoining counties.

2. Huronian.—Several new and interesting points showing the re-

lationship between the Laurentian and Huronian formations were

observed at Penokie Gap, by Mr. C. E. Wright, of Marquette, Mich-

igan, and myself, during the season of 1875. Wespent nearly three

days at the “ Gap” and succeeded in making several important ad-

ditions to the geological section of the ‘“‘ Range,” taken two years

before at that point, by Professor Irving and myself. The section

referred to accompanies Professor irving’s manuscript report on

the Penokie Range now in the office of the Secretary of State. It

extends from the fine grained white quartz and siliceous slates on

the south to the massive diorites on the north, a distance across the

formation, at right angles to the dip, of about four thousand feet.

Mr. Wright and myseif extended this southward a short distance to

the Laurentian gneiss and granite, and northward over two thou-

sand feet, probably to the lowest member of the Copper-Bearing

Series.

' The juuction between the Laurentian and Huronian isin the

southern part of section 14, town 44, range 3 west. At this point

Bad River passes through a narrow gorge having nearly vertical

walls on either side. In the left or northern wall of the gorge, fine

GEOLOGY OF NORTHERN WISCONSIN. 43

grained white quartz with a vitreous coating and slaty siliceous

schist occur, showing a strike nearly east and west, and dip of sixty-

six degrees to the north. The quartz represents the lowest mem-

ber of the Penokie system examined by the party in 1873. Upon

examining the opposite wall of the gorge siliceous marble was dis-

covered for the first time to be one of the beds of the Penokie sys-

tem, lying below the iron bearing beds.* A similar arrangement

has long been known to exist in the Huronian of the Marquette

district, which has led to the suspicion of its existence in Wiscon-

sin. The thickness of the siliceous marble is about fifty feet. It

is usually fine grained and grayish in color. Small erystals of eal-

cite and dolomite however can be observed irregularly disseminated.

An analysis of a specimen taken from the ledge afforded me the fol-

lowing result:

Percent.

Gampomareno lle muy is recent My ape: avieteveun oksiei eou@ievae slate ace aueteze revere Stay/eneid sya ies 50.52

Se AG OM HUE RO He VIL OMCSIA a ot leleie ey sueve to cl cistelcis/eleleic)c ete/als) oy aio\s eis/ers's sala tip injnels 33.41

insoluble victors orto ytrs ahs elo cctetecetareea cove din ccaletaleralereie dia coy gaatoriocetaes| enavonets 13.85

Oszicle OF Iitarthes Sood cig Hee SO OER EOSIN OCCUR SRR Racha coi cicie penn eae 1.70

IM IGetermiimedyecust cranes tore atuie wih revelomre ale orateveea o:alov ote leva: suecaiclehele) Sieleloieteamrenerneans 52

ANOLE bon eles Site dta Aida Ba Soi Se DEORE ICRC PRO AIO TORO ene RCP eR ea 100.00

The analysis shows that the proper name for the rock is siliceous

dolomitic marble. In the Marquette region the Morgan furnace

limestone but very little purer than this has been extensively used

as a flux. One hundred feet southeast from the exposure of sil-

iceous marble, there is a large ledge of gneissoid granite showing a

well defined dip of seventy-seven degrees to the south, and strike

of north, seventy-five degrees west. In following the strike west,

one passes within twenty-five feet of the outcrop of siliceous mar-

ble which has a northerly dip. Between one and two hundred

feet south, on the line of the railroad, other large exposures of

gneissoid granite are found having essentially the same bedding as

that mentioned above. When the railroad cutis completed at this

locality, the absolute junction of the Laurentian and oyerlying

Huronian will doubtless be exposed. There can be no doubt of the

unconformability of these formations, approaching each other as

* J will say in this connection that the facility for making observations at this lo-

eality have been greatly increased since Professor Irving’s examination of the ‘* Gap.”

Excavations have been made at the gorge for a railroad bridge and the earth and

roots which formerly overhung the face of the wall removed. The rocks are now

plainly exposed aad. are easily accessible.

pa WISCONSIN ACADEMY SCIENCES, ARTS, AND LETTERS.

they do with a persistent opposite dip and somewhat different strike.

Unconformability has been shown to exist between the Laurentian

and Huronian in Michigan, but this is the first time that it has

been proven in Wisconsin. Northward from the granites the sec-

tion has been completed for over sixteen hundred feet. In this

space are included two ‘magnetic ore” beds, the southern one

hundred and thirty and the northern over five hundred feet thick.

Directly above or north from the northern ‘‘ ore ” bed there isa

space of fourteen hundred feet upon which exposures have not been

found. Above this blank, recent railroad excavations enabled Mr.

Wright and myself to subdivide and extend the belt of four hun-

dred feet, supposed to be the uppermost member of the Penokie sys-

tem, into: a. siliceous schists, one hundred feet; b. blank, (Bad River,)

seventy-five feet; c. contorted black slate, two hundred and fifty feet;

d. diorites, seventy-five feet; and e. black porphyritic slates, fifty feet.

Owing to the heavy deposits of drift we were unable to find expos-

ures for thirteen hundred feet north from the black porphyritic slates.

We then found what are probably the latest beds of the Huronian

formation, g. black slate, forty feet ,h. quartzite, about two hundred

and fifty feet, 1. slaty amygdaloid seventy-five feet.

The thickness of the formation, I estimate at something over five-

thousand feet. The dip is about sixty-six degrees to the north

showing entire conformability throughout.

Tt will be observed from this brief outline of the geological sec-

tion at Penokie Gap, that there are two important belts left blank.

There is no attraction of the needle upon either, which would lead

one to suspect the presence of magnetic deposits. But the red or

hematite ores have no influence on the magnetic needle, they are

soft and easily worn away,and never outcrop naturally in the Mar-

quette region. Consequently although not exposed on the Penokie

range they may yet be found in one of these blank spaces. Represen-

tatives of most of the beds of the Marquette system occur at Penokie

gap. This is a strong argument in favor of the existence of the

soft or hematite ores in the unexplored belts of the Wisconsin Hu-

ronian.

An accurate geological section ought to be constructed entirely

across the Penokie Range at some point fromthe granites on the

south to the undoubted Copper-Bearing Series on the north, even

GEOLOGY OF NORTHERN WISCONSIN. 45

should it be found necessary to do a little testpitting in order to ex-

pose representatives of each member of the system.

A new quartzite locality was discovered on section 6, town 382,

range 6, west, during the descent of the Chippewa. It forms a hill

about three hundred feet in height, and three or four miles in cir-

cumference. The lowest stratum of the formation is reddish met-

amorphic conglomerate, having a thickness of three hundred feet.

The pebbles are seldom over an inch in diameter and are either jas-

per or amorphous quartz. The matrix consists of reddish grains

of quartz. Above the conglomerate is a bed of reddish quartzite

four hundred feet thick. The grains of quartz of which the layers

are composed are much more distinct than in specimens of quartzite

from the Baraboo Hills of Sauk county. Also the rock has a much

deeper red color than most of the Sauk county quartz. A depres-

sion in the side hill one thousand feet across, comes in above this

quartzite upon which exposures were not found. The space is

probably occupied by some softer rock than quartzite. Above this

arises the main hill of quartzite. In every respect the rock is sim-

ilar to that mentioned above. The entire thickness of the forma-

tion is not far from five thousand feet. Both the conglomerate

and quartzite are distinctly and heavily bedded. Thestrike is north

twelve degrees, west, and the dip sixty degrees to the west. Care-

ful observations were taken with the dip compass, and also with

the magnetic needle, with a view to discovering magnetic ore de-

posits. No undue attraction, however, was observed.

One and three-quarters miles from the exposures of quartzite,

syenitic granites which may be assumed Laurentian in age, were

found in the banks of the Chippewa striking north, fifty degrees

east, and dipping high to the north. From the persistency of the

strike here and at Little Falls, two miles below, it may be assumed

that the quartzites and conglomerates unconformably overlie the

Laurentian granites and syenites.

No evidences were observed along the Wolf River, of the crossing

of that stream by the Huronian.

3. Copper-bearing serics—The only examinations upon the

Copper-Bearing Series during the reconnaissance, were made i

the ascent of the St. Croix River. At St. Croix Falls there are sev-

eral well defined ridges of Copper-Bearing rocks trending east north

east. It is not known, however how far to the eastward they ex-

46 WISCONSIN ACADEMY SCIENCES, ARTS, AND LETTERS.

tend. Neither has their relationship to the Lake Superior Copper-

Bearing System yet been made out. The bedding,if it exists, is

very indistinct. Across the formation at right angles to the ap-

parent strike, the distance is between four and five miles. In lith-

ological character the rock differs from any I have noticed in the

Lake Superior region. lt is usually very fine grained, dark gray

in color, and is apparently made up of feldspar, hornblende and

quartz. Some varieties are porphyritic, other amygdaloidal. At

the falls and dalles of the St. Croix these rocks are largely exposed.

A mine at Taylov’s Falls, near the dalles, has been worked to a con-

siderable extent in this rock for metallic copper. It is said en-

couraging results have been obtained.

After leaving the St. Croix Falls range, nothing more is seen of

the copper-bearing rocks along the river to a point thirty miles

north from the Falls. A short distance north of the mouth of

Snake River Cupriferous rocks again come in. They are mainly

melaphyrs and amygdaloids, and are overlaid by horizontal beds of

light colored Potsdam sandstone. A few miles to the north, con-

glomerates and reddish shales conformably overlie the Cupriferous

strata. The dip, so far as can be made out, is slight, and to the

northwest. The conglomerate is heavily bedded, but does not cover

the melaphyrs and amygdaloids at all points. It appears rather to

fill pockets and depressions in the underlying rocks than to be intr-

stratified with them. The pebbles of the conglomerate are usually

very large, some of them being over a foot in diametor. ‘They

have all evidently been derived from the underlying Cupriferous

rocks. The matrix consists of reddish grains of quartz, similar to

the Lake Superior sandstone. A short distance above the mouth

of Kettle River, the most northern exposure of the Kettle Riyer

range is found. Across the formation at right angles to its trend,

the distance is four and one half miles. Copper has been discovered

and locations have been marked upon this range near the St. Croix

River. The conglomerates and shales associated with the melaphyrs

and amygdaloids of the Kettle River range occupy the same strati-

grapical position, and are in every respect, except in the degree of

inclination, similar to those of the copper range of Ashland county,

exposed on Bad River at the mouth of Tylers’ Fork. On Bad

River the dip is nearly vertical to the northwest, while on the St.

Croix it is but a few degrees in the same direction. Between these

GEOLOGY OF NORTHERN WISCONSIN. 47

localities the upper conglomerates and sandstones accompanying

the Copper-Bearing series have not been seen. For asserting that

they are the representatives of each other—I have among others,

the following reasons:

1. Cupriferous strata have been traced uninterruptedly from the

extreme end of Keweenaw Point to Long Lake in Bayfield county

a distance of over 200 miles. The apparent thickness of the for-

mation is never less than 20,000 feet, and is often even 60,000 feet.

Fifteen miles west from Long Lake, Dr. Wight found the Cuprifer-

ous series represented at the Hau Claire Lakes. From here, in the same

general southwesterly direction, the distance to the out-crops on the

St. Croix is about 60 miles. Exposures of “trap-rocks,” have been re-

ported by explorers at numerous localities between the two points.

There can be no doubt then, that the Kettle River Range is merely

a westward prolongation of, and is directly connected with, the

“mineral range ” ot Keweenaw Point, upon which the most famous

copper mines of the world are located. From facts which have

been obtained mainly from explorers, and also from Dr. Owen’s re-

port, I am satisfied that the range extends forty or fifty miles into

Minnesota before it is covered by later strata.

2. The region has been very little examined, and the conglomer-

ates might escape observation.

3. There is probably a gradual thinning out of the conglomer-

ates towards the west. At the mouth of the Montreal River, the

conglomerates and interstratified sandstones and shales havea thick-

ness of 10,000 feet, while on Bad River, but eighteen miles to the

west, the exposed thickness is but a few hundred feet. On the St.

Croix River the thickness is still less. Owing to this thinning out

they have been largely removed by erosion.

Northeast from the Kettle River range there is a space of forty

miles along the St. Croix River, although only about four miles at

right angles to the trend of the formations, upon which rocks in

place were not observed. At Sawyer’s dam, on section 16, towa

49, range 14, west, southward dipping sandstones and shales were

found. For fourteen miles along the stream, in a southeast direc-

tion, the strike and dip are very persistent. The strike corrected

for variation is north sixty degrees east, and the dip fourteen de-

erees to the southeast. The greatest horizontal distance across the

formation is three miles. A trigonometrical calculation therefore

48 WISCONSIN ACADEMY SCIENCES, ARTS, AND LETTERS.

gives 3,949 feet for the thickness of the bed. The sandstone is red-

dish, fine grained and argillaceous. Flakes and concretions of in-

durated reddish clay are of frequent occurrence in the layers. The

most northern exposure is near Chase’s dam on section 36, town

44, range 13, west. Above here, on the St. Croix, no rock in place

has been found. Two localities of southward dipping sandstone

are known in Ashland county —the first at Lehigh’s, on Bad

River, where the thickness is 2,000 feet, and the second twelve

miles southwest from Lehigh’s—at Welton’s, on White River—

where only a few huudred feet are exposed. Owen, in an old execu-

tive document, reports southward dipping sandstone, at the head

of White River, twenty miles still farther southwest. From here

it is only 32 miles in the direction of the general trend of the for-

mation to the southward dipping sandstones of the St. Croix, at

Chase’s dam. It is therefore probable that the bed extends entirely

across the State from the St. Croix River to Lake Superior, enter-

ing the Lake at the mouth of the Montreal River. Owen reports

southward dipping sandstones in Minnesota, on Kettle River, six

miles above the falls of that stream. These exposures may be a

westward continuation of the same bed.

The southward dipping sandstones and shales, form with the

northward dipping sandstones, shales and conglomerates, a syncli-

nal extending entirely across the State, the opposite edges of which

approach on the west within four miles of each other, but on the

east are separated by eight or nine miles. From this fact and oth-

ers to be given, the conclusion may be assumed that the northward

and southward dipping beds are the equivalents of each other. As

both are largely represented on Bad River, and, moreover, as it was

upon that stream that the southward dipping bed was first ob-

served, I propose the name of Bad River sandstone for these, the

upper beds of the copper-bearing , Series.

4.Lake Superior sandstone This term is generally employed

to designate the reddish aluminous sandstones which nearly eyery-

where border the south shore of Lake Superior. They also form

the basement rock of the Apostle Islands. They have never been

found in a tilted conditiony The interesting question of their age

has been ably discussed by numerous writers upon the geology of

Lake Superior. Without commenting upon the opinions which

have been advocated upon this subject, some referring them to the

GEOLOGY OF NORTHERN WISCONSIN. 49

‘Triassic, others to the Potsdam, we may regard the question as defi-

nitely settled by the investigations of Dr. Rominger, of the Mich-

igan Geological Survey, and others, that they are the downward

continuation of the light colored Potsdam sandstones of the Mis-

sissippi valiey. No fosils have ever been obtained from these sand-

stones. In the eastern part of the upper peninsula of Michigan

they are found directly underlying light colored sandstones and

Calciferous strata. A large area of Lake Superior sandstone ex-

tends southwesterly from Keweenaw Bay nearly to the Montreal

River. The distance from the western end of this area to the ex-

posures of horizontal red sandstone on the Wisconsin shore of

Lake Superior is about 30 miles. From their proximity to each

other, and also from a similarity in lithological characters,and in

stratigraphical relations to the underlying formations, it may be

asserted that the red sandstones Skirting the lake shore from near

Ashland to the St. Louis River, at the western end of the lake, and

those of the Apostle Islands, are of the same age as those east of

Keweenaw Point.

Upon the St. Croix River the Lake Superior sanestone does not

occur. Only the light colored Potsdam and Bad River sandstones

are represented upon that stream. It has been shown by Professor

Irving that the dipping sandstones, shales, and conglomerates, as-

sociated with the Cupriferous rocks, very much ante-date the hori-

zontal sandstones of Lake Superior in age. This being the case

no satisfactory evidence can be drawn of the age of the horizontal

sandstones from the stratigraphical relations which occur in the

vicinity of the St. Croix River. The conclusions of Dr. Owen

upon the “Age of the Lake Superior Sandstones,” are based mainly

upon the fact that the Bad River sandstones dip beneath, and are

overlaid by light colored Potsdam sandstones. He did not realize that

there is a vast difference in age between these and the true Lake

Superior sandstone. There is no known locality west of Kewee-

naw Point, where the Lake Superior sandstone and Potsdam of the

Mississippi valley are not separated by many miles.

The Lake Superior sandstones usually contain a large per cent., of

alumina and sesquioxide of iron, which it has been observed were

derived from the wearing down of the highly aluminous and ferrug-

inous Copper-Bearing rocks.

4 waAs

50 WISCONSIN ACADEMY SCIENCES, ARTS, AND LETTERS.

The following analyses, made by me for the State Geological Sur-

vey, show at a glance, the change in chemical composition which

has taken place in the process of the formation of the sandstones

from the Cupriferous rocks:

SSS

CLeAWILY- «ic siabine ae gk Sen ee OER RE MEE oe 2.92 | 12.69 | o7aa0) \ioamie

Per cent.| Per cent. | Per cent. | Per cent.

Sulicayseiva fawaiceiorehe trohetievarceeeanetate euaveretemierare 48.28 53.69 69.78 87.02

IAD: Se ayaie cates ls to yonele aars o Gustave ese este eaicfel 17.35 22.10 15.43 7.17

Reroxy dyotelmonu ey teenie eee reece 11.43 8.53 198 al

Protoxyd otuliion epic. see eee eee eee 4.02 3.65 |< bth etl eterno

WAlIMe eee s caveicic de isso veanco neve ots lensho rere mmtencer techs 6.27 4.31 .49 11

Weer po onsgosongodenoo od aoddmd obobdeS 6.58 2.09 ea 06

PPOWAGSA iSite satis w peseisilersun le sevoveretetonansleteetele teleneycrere 1.14 1.39 2.64 1.43

Oa Rer reveevereiolsversie lowlls cvetecereteteboroteteketartoteter share 1.83 1.99 2.42 22

TWiaiters. ape dic tere she chs atartereete eterno: Crttetererteiote 2.66 2.61 | Trace | Trace

MD Ota 3s ei5. es wel s- oe ovate statotetaneperenetettereyare 99.56 | 100.36 | 99.86 99.92

No. 1. (239, of the survey collection) is a fine-grained greenish

gray diabase, from the Fond du Lac copper mine, Douglas county.

It contains a trace of metallic copper. No. 2, (40 of the collection),

is brownish-black melaphyre from the Ashland copper mine, near

the mouth of Tyler’s Fork, Ashland county. No. 3, (44) is coarse

grained, reddish, Bad River sandstone, from Lehighs, Bad River.

Crystals of feldspar can easily be distinguished in the specimen.

No.4. Typical Lake Superior sandstone from a large quarry on

Basswood Island, Lake Superior. It is extensively used as a build-

ing stone. The material for the walls of the Milwaukee court-

house was obtained from this quarry.

5. Potsdam sandstone-—At St. Croix Falls, Potsdam sandstones,

characteristic of the light-colored Primordial sandstones of the

Mississippi valley, come in contact with the Cupriferous rocks at

numerous localities. At the Falls they are usually fine-grained,

and are also of ten aluminous and somewhat shaly. The shaly

beds are often highly fossiliferous. Dr. Owen states that at St.

Croix Falls, ‘‘ the oldest Palaeozoic fossils of this continent, if not

of the world, are found.” At the western end of the old St. Croix

dam about one half mile above the village of Taylor’s Falls any

number of shaly slabs may be obtained almost entirely made up of

GHOLOGY OF NORTHERN WISCONSIN. 51

iarge Lingulas. Fossils are also numerous at other localities. At

Osceola, six miles from the Falls, trilobite fragments are especially

abundant. Among others, I was able to detect the following:

Conocephalites binodosus. C. diadematus, Illaenurus quadratus,

Agnostus disparilis, and Dikelocephalites osceola. Associated with

them is a very large gasteropod, believed to be new to science..

Dr. Owen, whose observations only have been published upon

the geology of the St. Croix, considered the crystalline rocks at the

Falls and Dalles of the St. Croix, of igneous origin, and of more

recent age than the contiguous sandstones. I submit the following

reasons for differing with him upon the question of age:

1. So far as can be determined, the sandstones are perfectly hori-

zontal, and show no signs whatever of ever having been subjected

tc igneous or metamorphic action, or even of ever having been in

contact with highly heated rocks.

2. Horizontal layers of fossiliferous sandstone occur a few feet

from Cupriferous rocks, and in two instances perfect specimens of

Obolella polita and Lingulepis pinnaeformis were found in a film of

sandstone, not over one eighth of an inch from the absolute base

of the formation at those points. In other instances shells were

obtained from sandstone largely made up from the unaltered grains

of the underlying formation. ‘These shells certainly would have

been destroyed, thus near highly-heated rocks.

3. Depressions and pockets in the surface of the Copper-Bear-

ing rocks are often found filled or partially filled with horizontal

layers of sandstone.

4, Grains from the crystalline rocks appear in the layers of sand-

stone at a distance of several rods from ledges of the former, thus

showing that part of their material at least was derived from the

Copper-Bearing rocks. The layers of sandstone were deposited

therefore after the Cupriferous strata had assumed nearly their

present condition.

Occasional outcrops of the Potsdam occur along the banks of the

St. Croix for nearly forty miles above the Falls. A short distance

below the mouth of Kettle River, on section 16, town 39, range 19

west, the most northern exposures of light colored sandstone were

found. The outcrops are in the banks of the stream from ten to

forty feet above the surface of the water. They are underlaid by

melaphyrs, amygdaloids, conglomerates and fragments of aluminous

52 WISCONSIN ACADEMY SCIENCES, ARTS, AND LETTERS.

red sandstone. Owing to the haste with which the expedition

moved, the actual junction was not observed.

The Lake Superior Synclinal.—Foster and Whitney first painted

out the existence of a synclinal between Keweenaw Point and Isle

Royale. Professor Irving has suggested that this extends into

Ashland and Bayfield counties. I think it has been pretty satis-

factorially shown in this paper that it extends uninterruptedly

westward, entirely across the state of Wisconsin, and enters the state

of Minnesota. A general geological section across the formations

represented upon the upper St. Croix, is very similar to onefrom Le-

high’s, on Bad River, extending southeasterly across the formations

to the Penokie Range. Starting from Chase’s dam on the St. Croix,

and from Lehigh’s, on Bad River, the formations to the south are as

follows:

1. A bed of southward dipping sandstones. About four thou-

sand feet are exposed on the St. Croix, and two thousand on Bad

River.

9. Trough of the synclinal; four miles across at the Sb. Croix,

and about nine, in the vicinity of Bad River. Lake Superior sand-

stone may fill the trough of the syuclinal. At present only one

small exposure of horizontal red sandstone is known to occur in it.

3. Northward dipping sandstones, shales and conglomerates. On

the St, Croix they are but a few feet thick; on Bad River probably

1,000 feet are exposed; at the mouth of the Montreal the thickness

is fully 10,000 feet.

4, Amygdaloids, melaphyrs, porphyries. etc. On the St. Croix

the dip is slight to the northwest. Across the belt, the distance is

four and one half miles. At the Montreal River the distance across

the formation is about ten miles, and as the dip is nearly vertical,

the apparent thickness is, in round numbers, 50,000 feet. If the

rocks are of igneous origin, it is not difficult to account for this

seemingly enormous thickness.

In Douglas and Bayfield counties, the Copper-Bearing strata have

a dip to the south, and probably conformably underlie the south-

ward dipping Bad river sandstone. If this is the case they are the

representatives, in the northern edge of the synclinal of the Ashland

and Burnett county copper series. The distance across the forma-

tion in Douglas county is about 30 miles; allowing a dip of fourteen

GEOLOGY OF NORTHERN WISCONSIN. 53

degrees, which is that of the sandstones on the S&. Croix, the thick-

ness is not far from 40,000 feet.

The dimensions of the Lake Superior Synclinal, as thus made out,

are simply enormous. It is over 300 miles in length, and from 30

to 50 miles in width. Over 4,000 square miles of territory are oc-

cupied in Wisconsin alone, by rocks belonging to its northern or

southern edge. It can only be compared to an extensive, inverted

range of mountains.

Westward extension of the Penokie range—TYhe Penokie system

lies directly below, or geographically, south, from the Copper-Bear-

ing series. The two formations are intimately connected, the strike

and dip conforming throughout. The eastern end of the Penolie

Range is near Lake Gogebic, in Michigan, nearly 100 miles from

the famous Marquette iron region. It extends westerly without

break to a point seven miles west from Penokie Gap. In Ashland

county it forms a bold, high ridge, over thirty miles in length, and

never more than two miles in width. In the western part of the

county the range appears to break down and become lost for a dis-

tance of ten miles, when it appears again at two localities near At-

kins Lake. The question of its westward extension from Atkins

Lake, is one of great economic as well as of scientific importance.

The country between the supposed end of the range and the St.

Croix River has never been visited by a geologist. On account of

its poverty in pine, it is comparatively unknown to woodsmen and

explorers. That the formation does extend westward, probably to

the vicinity of the St. Croix, I have strong presumptive evidence,

but of course not absolute proof. I do not intend to assert that the

Huronian belt extends uninterruptedly from the Penokie Range to

the St. Croix. On the contrary, it has doubtless been subjected to

extensive denudation, and large portions of it may no longer re-

main. Large sections of it are probably buried deep beneath accu-

mulations of drift. The space of ten miles between the western

end of the main range and the outcrops near Atkins’ Lake, has

been largely removed by erosion. but it is more than probable that

below the deposits of drift the downward extension of the members

of the system may still be found. The arguments in favor of the

westward continuation of the Huronian schists in a more or less in-

terrupted belt, are the following:

54 WISCONSIN ACADEMY SCIENCES, ARTS, AND LETTERS.

1. The westward extension, to the St. Croix River, of all the for-

mations found north of the Penokie Range to Lake Superior.

¥. If the iron bearing belt extends westward, it doubtless follows

the southern boundary of the Cupriferous formation. It would

therefore cross the St. Croix River some distance below the mouth

of Snake River. Then, in the neighborhood of a line drawn from

the mouth of Snake River to Penokie Gap, one would expect to

find indications of the Huronian magnetic schists. Iron ore is re-

ported in place, at several localities in the vicinity of this line.

Explorers report its occurrence near the southern end of Long

Lake, also on section 18, town 43, range 19 west, and from the

northern part of Burnett county. On the original survey plat of

town 38, range 19 west, I find on section 19, topographical lines

indicating a ledge, and the words “‘iron ore.” The locality has not

been examined by members of the Geological Survey.

3. The non-occurrence of ranges or marked ridges in the St,

Croix country may be cited in this connection, and reasons given

why they should not be expected. In the eastern part of Ashland

county the high ridge formed by the Penokie range is due to the

nearly vertical dip of the strata. As the formation of northern

Wisconsin extend westward the dip gradually decreases and they

more nearly approach horizontality. Brooks reports the dip of the

Huronian schists in the vicinity of Black River in Michigan, some-

times as great as 90°. At the gorge of Tyler’s Fork I found the dip

75° to the northwest. At Penokie Gap the dip is 66° while at At-

kins Lake the inclination is only 45° tothe northwest. The upper

members of the Copper-Bearing series, which have an almost verti-

cal dip on the Montreal River and at the mouth of Tyler’s Fork,

have only a slight dip to the northwest on the St. Croix River. At

Lehigh’s, on Bad River, the southward dipping sandstones incline

38° to the southeast. At Welton’s the dip is 25°, while on the St.

Croix it is but 14° to the southeast. As the formations approach

the St. Croix they do not form bold ridges, but cover a much wider

extent of territory than in the eastern part of the State, and conse-

quently the opposite edges of the synclinal are found much closer

to each other than farther eastward.

4. The occurrence of small angular boulders of magnetic rock

and iron ore in the drift at numerous localities in Polk and Bur-

nett counties.

GEOLOGY IN NORTHERN WISCONSIN. 55

In Michigan, and in all regions where magnetic ore is found

much reliance in exploring is placed upon magnetic surveys. Val-

uable mines have been discovered by noting the abnormal deflec-

tion of a delicate magnetic needle in crossing the formation at

right angles to its trend. This method often succeeds when the

dip compass fails. Although magnetic surveys have not been made

in the region under consideration, linear surveys have, and the va-

riation at several points upon each section recorded upon the town-

ship plats. In the township through which the Huronian belt is

supposed to pass, the difference between the maximum and mimi,

mum deflection of the needle from the magnetic meridian is much

greater than in townships known to be distant from local magnetic

influences. For instance, in township 37, range 20 west, the dif-

ference is 5 degrees, 30 minutes. Numerous other examples might

be mentioned. The fluctuations of the needle from a fixed point

under ordinary circumstances, and in ordinary townships, is not

usually over one or two degrees. Investigations with a dip com-

pass, and with an instrument for making accurate magnetic sur-

veys, will certainly settle the question of the western prolongation

of the magnetic schists. It will be necessary to go over a consid-

erable portion of Burnett county, the southwest of Ashland, and

southeast of Bayfield, and possibly the northern part of Polk very

earefully. It is an important question, worthy of thorough inves-

tigation, and one which should be definitely decided as soon as pos-

sible by the Geological Corps.

OO ee

56 WISCONSIN ACADEMY SCIENCES, ARTS, AND LETTERS.

ON THE RAPID DISAPPEARANCE OF WISCONSIN WILD

FLOWERS; A CONTRAST OF THE PRESENT TIME

WITH THIRTY YEARS AGO.

BY THURE KUMLEIN.

For the last thirty-two years | have resided in the vicinity of

Lake Koshkonong, in Jefferson county, Wisconsin, and have dur-

ing that time paid some attention to the Fauna and Flora of that

locality, and have collected somewhat extensively in nearly all the

branches of Natural History, particularly Ornithology and Botany:

When first I came here in 1843, a young and enthusiastic na-

turalist, fresh from the university at Upsala, Sweden, the great

abundance of wild plants, most of them new to me, made a deep

impression on my mind, but during these thirty-two years a large

number of our plants have gradually became rare and some even

completely eradicated.

When first I visited the place where I now live, the grass in the

adjoining low-lands was five and six feet high, and now in the same

locality, the ground is nearly bare, having only a thin sprinkling

of June grass, Juncus tenuis and J. bufonius, Cyperus Castaneus,

here and there a thistle ora patch of mullein and in the lowest with

parts some Carices. As the land gradually became settled, each

settler fencing in his field and his stock increased, some plants be-

came less common, and some few rare ones disappeared; Lupinus

perennis, among the first. But when all the land was taken up

by actual settlers, and each one fenced in all his land and used it as

fields or as pastures for as many cattle, horses, sheep, and hogs as

could live on it without actual starvation, botanizing in this vicin-

ity became comparatively poor.

In the oak openings, besides grasses of several species there were

an abundance of other plants of which I will mention only some

Orchids from a small piece of opening-land near my residence: Pogo-

nia, pendula, Goodyeara pubescens, Corallorhiza odontorhiza, Aplect-

rum hyemale, Liparis lilifolia, Orchis spectabilis and Plalanthera

bracteata, of these only one or two can be found ix the same local-

ity now.

DISAPPEARANCE OF WISCONSIN WILD-FLOWERS. 57

In the thick timber along the Koshkonong Creek, there is now

but one lot of about 40 acres where the plants can yet be found

nearly as abundant as formerly. There can yet be had Phlox di-

varicata, Laphami. Allium tricoceum, Erythronium albidum, Den-

taria laciniata, Asarum canadense and many other interesting plants.

A Tamarack marsh held out the longest; it was not visited by cat-

tle till, for want of pasture elswhere they were obliged to cross its

miry borders. In this marsh, or on its borders, were formerly

growing, Microstylis ophioglossoides, Liparis loeselii, Gymnadenia

tridenta, Platanthera leucophoea, lacera and orbiculata, Are-

thusa bulbosa, Pogonia ophioglossoides, Calopogon pulchellus, Cyp-

ripedium pubescens, Parviflorum candidum and spectabile, Tofiel-

dia glutinosa, Drosera linearis, Lobelia kalimi, Ophioglossum vul-

gatum, Schoenus albus, Schenchzeria palustris, Triglochin palustre,

and many Carices among which Carex oligosporma. Now of all

these and many other interesting plants formerly growing in this

marsh or near it some have become very rare and some are totally

eradicated.

On a small prairie, too stoney and gravelly for cultivation, there

can yet be found Geum triflorum, Aster obtusifolius and ptarmi-

coides, Lithospermum hirtum and longiflorum, Castileja sessiiflora,

Linum boothi, Gentiana puberula, Ranunculus rhomboideus, Hier-

acium longipilum, Draba caroliniana, Arubis lyrata, Arenaria,

stricta, Mich. and Diplopappus which on gravel hills grows only

two to three inches high, with leaves very stiff and narrow, but the

flower large, having somewhat the aspect of an Alpine plant. A

list of the plants of this vicinity, giving the plants of to-day, would

be a comparatively meagre one and nearly useless, as their number

is lessening every year, and a list of the plants of thirty years ago

would perhaps have no other than a small historical value.

These observations, though made in only this locality, do prob-

ably apply to all the settled portions of the State.

58 WISCONSIN ACADEMY SCIENCES, ARTS, AND LETTERS.

ON THE ANCIENT CIVILIZATION OF AMERICA.

BY PROF. W. J. L. NICODEMUS, A. M., C. E.

The ancient works divide themselves into three great geographi-

cal divisions, viz., South America on the west coast between Chili,

and the second degree of north latitude; Central America and Mex-

ico, and the valleys of the Mississippi and Ohio.

The ruins of ancient Peru, which form the first, division, are

found chiefly on the elevated table-lands of the Andes, between

Quito and Lake Titacaca, but they can be traced five hundred miles

further south to Chili and throughout the region connecting these

high plateaus with the Pacific coast. The entire district extends

north and south about two thousand miles.

Before the Spanish conquest the whole country was the seat of a

populous and prosperous empire, rich in its industries and far ad-

vanced in civilization. It is now accepted that the Peruvian an-

tiquities represent two distinct periods in their ancient history, one

being much older than the other, one before and the other after the

first Inca. Among the ruins which belong to the older civiliza-

tion are those of Lake Titicaca, old Huanaco, Tiahuanaco, and

Gran-Chimu, and probably the roads and aqueducts were originated

by it. On Titicaca Island are the ruins of an edifice supposed to

be a palace or temple. It was built of hewn stone, and had doors

and windows, with posts. sills, and thresholds of stone. At Tiah-

uanaco, a few miles from Lake Titicaca are what are supposed to

be the oldest ruins in Peru. They are described by Cieca de Leon,

who accompanied Pizarro. He mentions great edifices “ that were

in ruins,” two stone idols resembling the human figure, and appar-

ently made by skillful artificers.”. These idols were great statues,

ten or twelve feet high. He describes large gateways with hinges,

platforms, and porches, each made of a single stone, some of which

were thirty feet long, fifteen high, and six thick. Along the whole

length of some above the stone ran a cornice covered with sculp-

tured figures. “The whole neighborhood,” says Mr. Squier, “is

ANCIENT CIVILIZATION OF AMERICA. Ao)

strewn with immense blocks of stone, elaborately wrought, equal-

ling, if not surpassing in size, any known to exist in Egypt or

India.”

At Cusco, about two degrees north of Lake Titicaca, are the

ruins of buildings that were occupied until the rule of the Incas

was overthrown. The Temple of the Sun was surrounded by a

great wall built of cut-stone. Near by this is the extensive ruins

of the palace of the Incas. The objective points to notice about

both these periods of ancient civilization are, the absence of in-

scription; little or no decoration; method of building peculiar; their

constructions including cities, temples, palaces, other edifices of

various kinds; fortresses, aqueducts, (one, four hundred and fifty

miles long,) great roads, (extending the whole length of the em-

pire,) and terraces on the sides of mountains, built of cut-

stone laidin mortar or cement, sometimes ornamented, but gener-

ally plain in style and always massive.

The Peruvians were highly skilled in agriculture and in some

Kinds of manufactures. hey excelled in the arts of spinning,

weaving, and dyeing. They had great skill in working metals;

especially gold and silver. They excelled in the manufacture of ar-

ticles of pottery. They had some knowledge of engineering as evi-

denced by their roads and aqueducts. They had some idea of astron-

omy. They divided the year into twelve months; and are sup-

posed to have had something in the form of a telescope for study-

ing the heavens, as a silver figure of a man holding a tube to his

eye, has been discovered in one of the old tombs.

MEXICO AND CENTRAL AMERICA.

We now come to our second geological division, Mexico and

Central America. Here we trace four distinct eras of civilization,

which we will mark by describing a ruin belonging to each era.

In the order of antiquity comes Quirigua. It is situated on the

right bank of the River Motagna, in the State of Guatemala. It

covers a large area of ground. We have described a pyramidal

structure with flichts of steps, and monoliths larger and higher

than those at Copan. Though the sculptures are in the same gen-

eral style, they are in lower relief and hardly so rich in design.

One of the obelisks is twenty feet high, five feet six inches wide,

and two feet eight inches thick. The chief figures carved on it are

60 WISCONSIN ACADEMY SCIENCES, ARTS, AND LETTERS.

a man and woman on the front and back, while the sides are coy-

ered with inscriptions similar to those at Copan. Other obelisks

are higher than this. The ruins of Copan that mark the second era

are situated in the extreme western end of Honduras. Owing to

the hostility of natives these ruins have not been very carefully ex-

plored. A stone wall from sixty to ninety feet high is described

asrunning along the River Copan six hundred and twenty-four

feet, in some places fallen and in others entire, which supported

the rear side of the elevated foundation of a great edifice. It was

made of blocks of cut stone six feet long, well laid in mortar or ce-

ment. The chief peculiarity of Copan was the namber of sculptured

inscribed pillars. In speaking of these, Mr. Squier says the ruins

of Copan are distinguished by singular and elaborately carved mon-

oliths, which seem to have been replaced at Pelenque by equally elab-

orate basso relievos, belonging, it would seem, to a later and more

advanced period of art. Palacios, who described these ruins three

hundred years ago, speaks of an enormous eagle carved in stone?

which bore a square shield on its breast carved with undecipherable

characters; of a stone giant; a stone cross; a plaza circular in form

surrounded by ranges of steps or seats, as many as eighty ranges

remaining in some places. This plaza was paved with beautiful

stones, all square and well worked.

The next era is represented by the ruins of Palenque situated in the

northern part of the Mexican State of Chiapa. The largest known

building is called the ‘‘ Palace.” I¢ stands near the River Chacamas»

on a terraced pyrmidal foundation, forty feet high and three hundred

and ten feet long, by two hundred and sixty broad at the base. The

edifice itself is two hundred and twenty- eight feet long, one hundred

and eighty wide, and twenty-five feet high. It faces the east, and has

fourteen doorways on each side, with eleven at the ends. It is

buiit of hewn stone laid in mortar of the best quality. It has four

interior courts, the largest being seventy by eighty feetin extent.

These are surrounded by corridors, and the architectural work fac-

ing them is richly dezorated. Within the building were many

rooms. The piers around the courts are covered with figures in

stucco, or plaster. There is evidence of painting being used for

decoration, but the architectural effect of the stone-work and the

beautifully executed sculptures, particularly strike attention. The

walls and piers are covered with ornamentation. Mr. Stephens

ANCIENT CLEYILIZATION OF AMERICA. 61

thinks that the sculptured human figures, fragments of which are

found, must have approached in justuess of proportien and sym-

metry, the Greek models.

The ruins of Uxmal represent the fourth and last era of the

ancient civilization of Mexico and Central America. This brings

us down to the time of the Spanish conquest. At that time it had

begun to be a ruin whieh was complete in 1673.

The most important edifice was named by the Spaniards ‘* Casa

del Gobernador.” It is 320 feet long, and was built of hewn stone,

laid in mortar or cement. The faces of the walls are smooth up to

the cornice. There follows on all four sides, one solid mass of rich,

complicated, and elaborately sculptured ornaments, forming a sort

of arabesque.

Before leaving this geological division, mention should be made

of the astronomical monument, described by Captain Dupaix.

In the Mexican State of Oaxaca, near the village of Mecamecan

is an isolated granite rock, which was artificially formed into a

kind of pyramid, with six hewn steps facing the east. The summit

of this structure is a platform, well adapted to observation of the

stars on every side. Ii is supposed that this very ancient monu-

ment was devoted to astronomical observations. On the south side

of the rock are sculptured several hieroglyphical figures, having

relation to astronomy. The most striking figure ia the group isa

man in profile, standing erect, and directing his view to the rising

stars in the sky. He holds to his eye a tube or optical instrument.

Below his feet is a frieze divided into six compartments, with as

many celestial signs carved on its surface.

Our third geographical division, the valleys of the Mississippi

and Ohio Rivers, includes the remains of the ancient people called

the Mound-Builders. Their ruins are the most numerous in the

south, extending from the Gulf of Mexico, to West Virginia, Ohio,

Michigan, Wisconsin, Nebraska, and probably further west. They

consist of mounds and inclosures. In these mounds have been

found ornaments and implements made of copper, silver, obsidean,

porphy, and greenstone, finely wrought. Also, axes, single and

double; adzes, chisels, drills, or gravers, lance-heads, knives, bra-

celets, pendants, beads, and the like, made of copper; articles of

pottery, eleeantly designed and finished; ornaments of bone, mica

from the Alleghanies, and shells from the Gulf of Mexico. Por-

62 WISCONSIN ACADEMY SCIENCES, ARTS, AND LETTERS.

phyry is a very hard stone and could only have been worked with

tools made of the hardest material. Obsidean is of volcanic origin

and much used by the Peruvians and Mexicans for arms and cutting

instruments. It is found in its natural state no nearer the Missis-

sippi Valley than the Mexican mountains of Cerro Gordo. The

art of spinning and weaving was known to them as evidenced by

the cloth found in the mounds.

Before any evidence of ancient mining was discovered in the

Lake Superior copper region, pieces of copper with blotches of sil-

ver appearing to be welded to it but not alloyed with it, had been

dug from mounds. As this condition is peculiar to the Lake Su-

perior copper, it was supposed that the Mound-Builders were ac-

quainted with the art of mining. This was proven to be so in

1848. The modern mining works are mostly confined to that part

of the copper region known as Keeweenaw Point. This is a pro-

jection of land extending into Lake Superior. It is about eighty

miles in length, and at the point where it joins the main-land,

about forty-five miles in width. All through this district, where-

ever modern miners haye worked, remains of ancient mining works

are abundant; and they are extensive on the adjacent island, known

as Isle Royale.

The area covered by the ancient works 1s greater than that which

includes the modern mines, as they are known to exist in the dense

forests of other district where modern mining has not as yet extend-

ed. Their mining was chiefly surface work; that is, they worked the

surface of the veins in open pits and trenches. The mounds differ

greatly in size. At Grave Creek, West Virginia, there is one 70

feet high and 1,000 feet in circumference. One at Miamisburg,

Ohio, 68 feet high and 852 feet in circumference. Another at Ca-

hokia, Illinois, is 700 feet long, 500 wide, and 90 feet high. They

range generally from 5 to 30 feet in height. It is supposed that

the lower mounds were used for the same purposes as the mounds.

in Mexico and Central America, for the foundation of their princi-

ple buildings. But these buildings, having been built of wood, soon

perished, leaving no trace behind them save this earthen base. The

high mounds are pyramidal in shape and have level summits of

considerable extent, which were reached by stairways on the out-

side as those at Miamisburg, Ohio, and Grave Creek, West Virginia,

which resemble the grext mounds at Chichen, Itza, and Mayapan,

ANCIENT CIVILIZATION OF AMERICA. 63

in Yucatan, the first 75 feet.high and the last two each 60 feet high.

These Yucatan mounds were evidently constructed for religious

uses as upon the summits of the first two are the ruins of stone tem-

ples. On the third the edifice has disappeared, as in all probability

those upon the high mounds in this division, being built of the

same material, wood.

In one of the mounds of the Ohio Valley there were found the

timber-wails of two chambers and arched ceilings, with overlapping

stones, precisely like those in,Central America.

The Natchez Indians, on the lower Mississippi, had temples and

sacred buildings, in which the “perpetual fire” was maintained.

They were sun-worshipers, their chief claiming descent from the

sun. Their traditions connected them with Mexico. By some

they are classed as the Nahuatl, or Toltee race.

According to the Central American books, the Toltees came from

““Huehue Tlapalan,” a distant country in the northeast, long pre-

vious to the Christian era. Here they dwelt in a high state of civ-

ilization for along period, were overthrowu by the Aztecs, who in

turn were conquered by the Spaniards.

All indications aeem to warrant the conclusion that the mound-

builders and the palace-builders, if we may be permitted to use this

term, of Mexico and Central America, belonged to the same race.

They must have left the United States on or before the advent of

the wild Indians. This emigration south may have been voluntary

to seek a more congenial clime, or may have been forced by the sav-

ages from the north. Fragments would seem to have been incorpo-

rated with the Indidns, as for instance the Mandan Indians, a sup-

posed branch of the Dacotahs. They differed im many respects

from the other Indians, being of lighter color and peculiar in man-

ners and customs. We suppose the mound-builders came to the

United States from the south, entering the country near the Gulf

of Mexico, where they were the most populous, and then gradually

throwing out colonies, extended their sway, with sparser population

to the northward.

They were eminently an agricultural people. Maize is supposed

to have been their chief grain. Having fulfilled their mission

here, they returned to Mexico and Central America.

The time of their disappearance is estimated to be about two

thousand years ago. The appearance of the wild Indian is located

64 WISCONSIN ACADEMY SCIENCES, ARTS, AND LETTERS.

at or after this time. In him we find an original barbarian with

no signs of ever being connected with civilization. Besides, his

traditions connect him with the northwest, from which direction

he is supposed to have entered North America.

A strong fact in support of this view is that there are several

tribes, the nomadic Koraks and Chookchees, found in Eastern Si-

beria, throughout the region that extends to Behring’s Strait, who

have a strong resemblauce to the wild Indian, and may well repre-

sent the common parent stock.

A few words in regard to the points relied upon to establish the

antiquity of the mound-builders.

1. As no mounds are built upon the lowest formed of the river-

terraces, it is presumed the mounds were built prior to their forma-

tion. These rivers show four successive terraces in their subsi-

dence to their present channels. It is not possible to say what an-

tiquity this would indicate, but at least a great one.

2. Sound and well preserved skeletons known to be two thous-

and years old have been taken from burial places in England and

other European countries, less favorable to their preservation than

the burial places of the mound-builders. Hence, it is supposed

that the decayed skeletons taken from the mounds are more than

two thousand years old.

I. The great age of the mounds are shown by their relation to

the forests which must have sprung up after the disappearance of

this eminently agricultural people. In conclusion, I will merely

add that many theories, some plausible and others very absurd, have

been invented as to the origin of the ancient civilization of Central

America, and Peru. Authorities differ as to whether these two are

distinct and if not which is the oldest. The weight of authority

inclines to the opinion that they were originated by the same peo-

ple and that of Central America is the most ancient.

Mr. Baldwin, an eminent writer on Archeology, after reviewing

the principal theories as to the origin of this ancient civilzation, ar-

rives at the conclusion that it was an original civilization. This is

certainly a very safe theory and till more light is thrown upon this

subject, seems to have as much to be said in its favor as any other

hypothesis.

EXTENT OF WISCONSIN FISHERIES. 65

ON THE EXTENT OF THE WISCONSIN FISHERIES.

(An abstract of notes sent by Dr. P. R. Hoy to the President of the Acadamy.)

There are thirty-six locations on Lake Michigan, and two or three

on Lake Superior, which are merely headquarters for the fishermen

for a large extent of shore, inthe vicinity of the Apostle Islands,

and the shore immediately east of Duluth.

In these regions there are employed about 148 pound-nets, 48

bearing gill-net stocks, and 212 lighting gill-net stocks, valued, at a

low estimate, at $200,000.

To carry on fishing, there are proprietors and men, but a small

proportion of the number Of men on wages—about 800 men.

The production of the Wisconsin nets, it would be difficult for

me to separate from the total Michigan, Wisconsin, and Illinois

fisheries; Chicago sales of lake fish amount to over a half million of

dollars, of which, of course, a large quantity come from Wisconsin,

as they recover into Milwaukee dealers, the whole of the Lake Su-

perior catch, on the Wisconsin shores. Milwaukee inspection re-

ports have reached about 17,500 half-barrels of lake-fish, worth

$87,900. Other points in Wisconsin, placing salt-fish on the east-

ern market, would swell the amount to about $40,000 more. The

interest of the fisheries, probably brings into the State every year

about $350,000. These estimates are made with the fizures in my

possession of statistics of the lake receipts of fish, for 1872, includ-

ing the handling of fish in the markets, which has never been com-

piled before.

The evidences are very apparent, and universally acknowledged

by fishermen, that the food fishes of the lakes are decreasing to an

alarming extent.

The purpose of the United States Commission was first to inves-

tigate the decrease, its causes, and the remedies to be applied to

arrest the decrease, and restore the fishes to their former numbers;

in other words, to increase the product of the fisheries of the

United States. |

5——_wWwas

66 WISCONSIN ACADEMY SCIENCES, ARTS, AND LETTERS.

From careful investigation, itis evident that the first and prin-

cipal means is artificial propagation, with judicious protective laws

as an anxiliary.

The State commissions have given special attention to propaga-

tion, with the most encouraging results. The shad, in the Con-

necticut River, where they had been nearly exterminated, are now

more plentiful than in the period of 70 previous years. Last sea-

son there was a large increase in the Hudson River, the result of

the successful work of Seth Green, three years ago. In Canada,

Samuel Wilmot, the government breeder, has restored the salmon

in large numbers. Kxperiments have been made by three promi-

nent fish culturists in the propagation of the white-fish, and their

efforts are now crowned with complete success. Mr. N. W. Clark,

of Clarkston, has carried three-quarters of a million of eggs be-

yond the stage of danger, and Seth Green has a large quantity

hatched and is distributing them to inland lakes in large numbers.

Seth Green has been equally successful with lake-trout.

The advantage of artificial culture is in the fact, that almost the

entire number of eggs are hatched, while in a state of nature, but a

very small proportion are hatched. This is especiallly true in the

lakes, where there are so many species of fish who make the ova of

fishes their food, and where the continual stormy weather, at cer-

tain seasons, carries the sediment from the clay-banks, outward,

and deposits it on the spawning beds.

A bill has passed in the State of Michigan, providing for a fish

commission and making an appropriation for the expenses of their

work.

The State of Michigan has enacted that:

“It shall be the duty of the governor, to appoint three commis-

sioners of fisheries, whose terms of office shall be, respectively, two

four, and six years, and their successors appointed, two years there-

after.”

(As I cannot follow the detail of the bill, from memory, I will

give the character of the different sections.)

The duties of the commissions were provided for in the second sec-

tion 7. e., to propagate white-fish, and such other food-fishes as they

saw fit,providing for two breeding-establishments, one in the eastern

and one in the western portion of the State.

The third section provides that they should have the privilege of

EXTENT OF WISCONSIN FISHERIES. 67

taking in any manner any fish they choose, for the purposes of

propagation or scientific purposes.

Another section provides that the pay should be three dollars

per day and necessary traveling expenses, for expenses actually in-

curred, and for time actually employed. The pay should be drawn

on a properly sworn voucher, from the auditor of the State. A

clause gives the governor authority for directing concurrent action

with other States. It has been drawn as conciosly as possible, and em-

braces nothing but the provision for commissioners work, as it was

deemed best to let the bill stand on its own merits, and not in-

volve protective legislation or anything else.

68 WISCONSIN ACADEMY SCIENCES, ARTS, AND LETTERS.

LEVELING, AND USE OF THE BAROMETER.

BY JOHN NADER, C. E.

The term leveling is used to denote the art of determining the

difference of level between two objects or of one object with refer-

ence to some fixed or known object.

Leveling is one of the most difficult branches of surveying, in as

much as it is impossible to detect or correct an error as may be

done insome other branches without again repeating the whole

work.

The term level is also applied to the position of an apparent hor-

izontal plane. The object desired may be attained in various ways

depending upon the purpose of the work and the amount of accur-

acy required, and also upon the instruments which may be avail-

able.

The art of leveling is based upon invariable natural laws, 7. e.,

the horizontality of a body which yields to the fullest extent to the

force of gravity, such as a liquid under favorable circumstances, or

a body freely suspended and submitted to the action of gravity.

It would hence be an easy matter to assume a horizontal plane

and refer objects to the same were it not that a number of influ-

ences come to bear upon the results which often differ widely from

the truth.

‘The principal influences are the following: Mechanical imper-

fections; errors of observation; effects of temperature; curvature

of the earth and atmospheric refraction.

I will here notice the latter. When an object is viewed obliquely

through a transparent medium of any nature whatever, it does not

oceupy the position in which it appears, the rays being bent by re-

fraction. If the medium be of a uniform density throughout the

ray will pass through in a straight line, but if the density of the

medjum is variable, the line will be irregular, and as in the case of

the atmosphere, whose density is as its height, the line of refraction

will be a curve, and since the denser medium will have the greater

LEVELING, AND USE OF BAROMETER. 69

refractive power the rays become bent more and more as they ap-

proach the earth, and the curve as arule will be concave towards

the earth.

it would appear an easy matter to determine this curve, but in

attempting to do so we at once find acomplication and uncertainty

arising from accidental causes; a variation of temperature and of

the amount of moisture held in suspension, will both separately

and combined, cause a variation in the density of the atmosphere,

and especially affect Barometric Leveling and often render the

results uncertain aud unreliable.

According to “ Bessel” the atmospheric refraction amounts to

nearly thirty-five minutes of are at the horizon and diminishes

towards and becomes nil at the zenith.

Cases may occur where the refraction is negative, 7. e., when the

curve is convex towards the earth. This happens when the higher

strata are condensed, while the lower recieve the heat previously ab-

sorbed by the earth or ocean. I have had the opportunity of ob-

serving some remarkable cases of negative refraction. In the one

ease the exhaust of the high-pressure engine of a tug-boat, distant

about two miles, stood up distinctly lke a row of columns from

forty to sixty feet high apparently, at the same time the scragg

cedars four or five miles off appeared like great poplars. In another

ease the full moon, rising from the horizon of the ocean, presented

a remarkable phenomenon; it came up depressed on its upper edge,

and continued to rise with its sides perpendicular until the whole

disc should have been above the horizon, then it began to assume

the form of a balloon until the disc should have been about one-

fourth its diameter above the horizon at which time the lower edge

left the water, and the disc assumed its usual circular form. This

occurred in August, 1867, after a very hot day, the atmosphere, from

some cause or another was very much reduced in temperature in the

evening, while at the same time the sea was giving out the heat ab-

sorbed during the day.

A singular ease occurred to one of the assistants of the Lake

Survey. While engaged in taking soundings with two boats within

speaking distance, his second boat, seen and spoken but shortly be-

fore, suddenly disappeared; upon arising, the boat was plainly visi-

ble, whilst sitting it could not be seen. I will not attempt to ex-

plain this phenomenon, but I have it from a gentleman of veracity

70 WISCONSIN ACADEMY SCIENCES, ARTS, AND LETTERS.

In leveling operations where great accuracy is required, there is

occasional need of correcting for curvature of the earth and atmo-

spheric refraction. The curvature amounts to about eight inches

per mile, and increases as the square of the distance; the refraction

is dependent on the distance, and, as will appear from previous re-

marks, will vary with different conditions of the atmosphere. Since

refraction as arule makes objects appear higher than they really

are, it serves to reduce the errors due to curvature, and according to

Bessel’s coefficient of 0,0685, it amounts to a little more than one-

seventh of the curvature.

As the earth is not a true sphere its diameter cannot be equal in

all places, yet this will make no practical difference in most opera-

tions, but it would be well in all cases to give the basis upon which

tables are computed. I give the following tables for corrections for

curvature and refraction fora mean diameter of 7925,646 statute

miles, or 41,847,247 feet. The quantities are computed to six and

seven places of decimals and corrected for second differences:

Formula C= 0,4315 e?

Distance e. Curvature h.|Refraction f.| —/=C.

Feet. Feet. Feet.

100 yards........ deobomatGoanoodoooDCUNED 0.0021 0.0003 0.0019

QOO) BAAS ie: 5 a cvleteraheiaiere crc leseeorevedonsiale ele letere rats 0.0086 0.0012 0.0074

SOO ards xt: Mic tropipecte emery aloe siete 0.0194 0.0026 0.0167

AO OBA Sa eoysseccentec it creche ute ete terete orators 0.0344 0.0047 0.0297

HOO vards ia ees oat Me aon lic eure ne eiae eae 0.0538 0.0074 0.0464

COO uy ards. ae Cee eeucvthee eine aie see 0.0774 0.0106 0.0668

OOM yards reat. Souk sale abs, ees ve serene ieee einen 0.1054 0.0144 0.0909

SOO Shia hae tate AP NA aS COTA Serie 0.1376 0.0188 0.1188

DOO AROS oie aeed hs LOUR ebe yh ale ceuder tem atlanta 0.1742 0.0238 0.1503

AWOOO ByacU Ss srs lactone + enioe = atte mack die iee ec eierare 0.2151 0.0295 0.1856

AG AUO Oya slers svace's Giaveioteisberci alba touche, olevoke arate eae 0.2602 0.0356 | 0.2146

IOUND: VERO RIE Sopa Ron OOO Geno Same a ard ox 0.3097 Q.0424 0.2673

APSO O By ards cies h cle chaste siete eis een eee e 0.3635 0.0498 0.3137

AP AQ ORY AMC SER ame atti: ie! s\eke cisictots eisuete siete eke oe 0.4215 0.0577 . 8638

1500 pyardstte See t. cee ene eeem 0.4839 0.0663 | 0.4176

ARO) syenlss So cocacbsoddocehucnocosdoodgGes 0.5506 0.0754 0.4752

IL S7OO) SBIR oo odo apanbosenboaeadcoGaaoOOR 0.6215 0.0851 0.5364

A), frre ep ee meee as teneie tacs otis elses arelesasetereuooe 0.6662 0.0913 0.5749

11g males ga oa cisire eiicemcye louie seats araeyae 1.0409 0.1426 0.8983

LDA. smiles ay aiteivors wictoeiee ie le te ler s dees eyoketetel eto 1.4989 0.2053 1.2936

NEA MIME aos Cobos ébunogbe aud UoGobobe aces 2.0402 0.2795 1.7607

De he aMA DT S e eeNN retaaeWee Later Wiel tere exe qnie clevese olor 2.6648 0.3650 2.2997

Baie sc OS aye Cutan atedoueneetcvereietstsaensopeicinle iatevsioraters 5.9957 0.8213 5.1744

7 ee Nl (SGM AIA Ba meals Koco OCG Baca ae cs 10.6591 1.4601 9.1989

Dros SMMALES eich sa ialeiatalcee nee rte eke ls eas ale ets Son6 16.6548 2.2815 | 14.3734

Gl Sect eS Ho aya ihge, anes kare ete cteyais lintels olan kahh ce 24.9829 3.2853 | 20.6976

LEVELING, AND USE OF BAROMETER. 71

The object sought viz: The difference of altitude of objects

may be attained in various ways depending upon the degree of ac-

curacy required and the instruments at hand.

The masons level, the builders level, and the surveyors level al

serve their purpose in their respective places. The construction

and value of these instruments varies with their real worth as com-

pared with their requirements.

The Theodolite and Sextant are sometimes used in leveling, in

such case it is nothing more or less than a vertical triangulation

and is treated and computed as such.

In connection with the sextant there is used an artificial horizon.

This is simply a reflecting liquid by means of which the direct and

reflected images of an object are brought in contact in the horizon

elass of the sextant and the angular distance measured, the angle

as a matter of course is double the angle of elevation above the ap-

parant horizon. Mercury is most generally used, but oxidises rap-

idly when in contact with air, and althoughavery dense substance

is most easily disturbed by the slightes breeze. Ou1, colored with

lamp-black or molasses, are about as convenient and reliable as any-

thing for the purpose, and being inexpensive can be renewed when-

ever desirable.

In measuring great differences of altitude recourse is had to

the barometer. It is not reliable for small differences as its motion

is but one-tenth of an inch for altitudes of from 96 to 110 feet and

1s moreover afiected by every change of temperature and the con-

sequent change of density of the atmosphere.

Operations with the barometer are based upon the principle of

the Torricellian vacuum which is simply a measure of the weight

of the atmosphere. If now according to Marriot’s law “the density

of one and the same quantity of air is proportional to its tension.”

we have at once a means of measuring the difference of heights by

the tension of the atmosphere, for as we ascend, the density de-

creases as the column.

This motion as before stated is so gradual (one inch for 1,000

feet) and affected by so many contingencies that the barometer has

always, and now is, looked upon as a very uncertain and unreliable

leveling instrument.

This, however, will vanish with experience, and with proper care

and application the barometer will be found very useful and quite

72 WISCONSIN ACADEMY SCIENCES, ARTS, AND LETTERS.

reliable. The distrust generally arises from an insuilicient ac-

quaintance with the instrument and its defects. For instance, a

mercuriat barometer may be taken from one temperature to a

higher, and instead of rising as it should do the mercury may fall;

everything else being correct, the vacuum cannot be perfect, a small

quantity of air is above the mercury which expands according to Gay

Lussac’s law with the increase of temperature and hence instead of

rising, as the mercury should from expansion, it falls.

The barometer consists of two parts;a tube anda basin. The

tube is first filled with mercury and then the open end is inserted

into the basin of mercury, the other, or upper end, being closed in

the manufacture. The mercury in the tube will now descend until

the height of the column measured from one surface to the other,

is just in equilibrium with the weight of the atmosphere. It makes

no difference how long the tube may be, whether three feet or three

hundred, the difference of level will measure the weight of the at-

mosphere. If the tube is inserted deeper into the basin a corres-

ponding rise will take place in the tube. Such being the case, how

does the expansion of the mercury have an influence on the height

of the column as we have seen that the quantity has nothing what-

ever to do with the same; this will be accounted for from the fact

that the mercury has lost in specific weight, in other words, has

breome lighter and the atmosphere is consequently enabled to sup-

port a correspondingly greater column of equal weight. L would

here remark that the greatest distrust to the barometer may prob-

ably arise from too many observations being made indoors, for al-

though the detached thermometer would indicate a dilation of the

atmosphere, yet this local dilation does not affect the tension but

acts merely as a cushion. Cases may occur, however, where the

atmosphere of a room may be in an abnormal condition, that is

when the heat currents are such as to carry small objects as though

supported by a denser medium.

I have under such circumstances found a difference of tempera-

ture between the upper and lower ends of the instrument amount-

ing sometimes to as much as ten degrees. At such times the bar-

ometer is very seriously affected and is entirely unreliable.

In making observations for heights, the same should be made

simultaneously at both stations, as the density sometimes changes

as much as 200 feet in a few hours; the instruments should be care-

LEVELING, AND USE OF BAROMETER. 73

fully compared before starting, one remaining at the lower station

while the other should receive sufficient time to reach the upper,

the observations to begin at a certain time and repeated at inter-

vals previously agreed upon, and continued until it is certain that

the distant party may have had time to make the necessary repeti-

tions. When not too distant a gunshot may answer for signal, if

beyond hearing distance the smoke from a fire may answer the pur-

pose, the signals applicable will generally depend upon the situa-

tion.

Repetitions are necessary for several reasons. An imperfect con-

tact of the vernier scale or local and wave-like disturbances may

all tend to make the observation doubtful unless repeated, or the ap-

paratus may not yet have partaken entirely of the local tempera-

ture. After carefully adjusting the index of the vernier to the top

of the column, the scale shouid be read, recorded, and the yernier

displaced, a second or third reading may verify the first, or one

another. The barometer requires two thermometers, one attached

to show the temperature of the mercury, (it being impossibe to in-

sert the attached thermometer into the mercury, it is only neces-

sary to place the same under as nearly as possible the same condi-

tions,) and one detached which should be moved about to give the

temperature of the atmosphere. Above all it appears necessary to

be well supplied with instruments when starting for a different al-

titude. Assistant Edwards, of the coast survey, started for the top

of a mountain in California with six barometers and arrived at his

station with one, one of the original syphons of which he carried

the mereury in a flask in his pocket.

It may be observed that valleys and abrupt inclinations should

be avoided, and isolated stations chosen where the atmosphere ap-

pears undisturbed.

For reducing the observations the formula published in the

United States Coast Survey reports is most convenient in ordinary

cases, this is arranged for a mean temperature of fifty-five degrees

Fah., and is the product of the constant 55,000 multiplied by the

quotient of the difference of the Barometer readings divided by

their sum, [55000 fant and differs but little from the truth.

When we desire to make more accurate measurements, we find

the matter proportionately complicated. If we assume that the

74 WISCONSIN ACADEMY SCIENCES, ARTs, AND LETTERS.

atmosphere is of a uniform temperature, we may take the difference

of level of any two stations according to the equilibrium of elastic

fluids equal to a constant 60200 (at 32°) multiplied by the difference

of the logarithms of the readings in inches, thus:

(c =k (Log. B. — Log. b);)

Since the height of the mercury is affected by temperature, it is

necessary to reduce the observations to a common temperature.

Mercury expands at 32° Fahr., about .0001 of its bulk for every

degree of heat, the rate of expansion varies, but this will not be

sensibly felt under ordinary circumstances. Itis most easy, and

hence most proper to reduce the temperature of one reading to

that of the other, rather than to reduce both to anormal, and it will

be most convenient to reduce that which has the lowest tempera-

ture, which, as arule, is at the highest station.

The difference of temperature which will affect the height of the

mercury by expausion, will also affect it further by affecting the

density of the atmosphere.

Air expands about .0021 of its bulk for every degree from 32°

Fahr., and although this rate is not regular, it is safe to assume it

as such when applying to mean temperature.

Where the distance between stations is great, or that the lati-

ude differs much from 45%, a correction must be made on account

of the difference of the force of gravity. Taking one practical ex-

ample and applying the two formule before mentioned, the first

gives an altitude of 6143.50 feet, and the second 5960.1622 feet, both

of which are fair approximations.

LHzample.

THERMOMETERS.

Stations. aoa, | ——— Latitude.

Detached. Attached.

N. lower.,..... B=28,94 in. T=760 T’=68 440_A\)/

Vi. tipper. dete b=23,12 in. =A7o io 450-10/

ai +t (2) oO 1 ! ea eQ !

5) O29 99 Dae i 5 ; 2 Lat.—89°.50

B—b

Ist. 55,000 — 6143 50.

: Beeb ;

2d. 60200 (Log. B—log. b)—5960, 1622.

LEVELING, AND USE OF BAROMETER. (6)

Taking the 2d formula and correcting b the upper reading for

difference of temperature of mercury by (1 + 0,0001. 1y—t’,) gives

5831.014 feet, here we have lost, as we have reduced by the differ-

ence of temperature of mercury which was lower at the upper sta-

tion, and consequently indicated a greater altitude.

Tf now acorrection for dilation of atmosphere is made by

1 + 0,0021 ie = “22, :

we obtain 6192.21 feet, this correction necessarily increases the dif-

ference of the readings and consequently the altitude. The third

correction of 1—(0.0028 Cos. 2 Lat.) reduces the result only one

hundreth of a foot. This example gives 106.5 feet for every one-

tenth of an inch of difference of barometers, and it will be observed

that the result differs by but 0.78 feet in one hundred from the first

formula, which is arranged for a mean of 55° Fah. and by 3.70 in

one hundred from the second, which is for a mean of 320 Fah.

The complete formula with three corrections reads:

al B T+t

Hes e108 b(+0,0001.(T'—t')) x 1 +(0,0021 (—3-— 82 )) x

1—(0,0028 Cos. 2 Lat.),

The following form is convenient:

B=28 ,94 - - - - - - - log.=1 ,461499

b= 23,13 - : : - : - log=1,363988

1-+(0,0001152)—=1,0015 - 2 - log.=0,000650

Sum—= \ 1 364638

Difterence= 0 ,0096861

Difference=0 ,096861 log—= —-- = 3 “= 2 -. 2,986148

k=60200 lop—= - - = = = - - 4779596

1-1 (0,00215<29,5°)=1 ,06195 log = - : : 5 - 0026102

1—(0 ,0028><Cos. 89° 50’)=0 ,99999 log—= : 3 : T ,999999

z==6196 ,20 feet from sum of logs—= . - - - : 3 , 791844

The aneroid barometer is coming into general favor perhaps

more from convenience than any other reason, as it is imposible to

read as small fraction from the index as from the vernier of the

mercurial barometer.

From observations made in two different rooms at temperatures

of 542 and 65° respectively, a difference was found amounting to

ten feet, but since this was eqnal to the probable error of observa-

76 WISCONSIN ACADEMY SCIENCES, ARTS, AND LETTERS.

tion of the scale of the instrument used, the result might be taken

as a test of the accuracy of the formula.

Whenever observations are made in a room of moderate tem-

perature, the detached thermometer should be placed in the open

air in a sheltered place, and from the temperature obtained the cor-

rections for dilation may be made with accuracy, for expansion of

mercury, the temperature as shown by the attached thermometer

must necessarily be taken for corrections of the same.

The barometer is subject to regular periodical oscillations in con-

sequence of variable temperature of the earth and the consequent

air currents. A very small diurnal barometric wave exists which

may be traced with great accuracy. The laws which control the

regular motions will soon be thoroughly understood from the re-

sults of a recording apparatus in use for the several years by which

a diagram is photographed which gives an accurate continuous

record day or night.

The thermo-barometer and other useful and interesting matter

is omitted for want of the time necessary to prepare the same.

ON KEROSENE OIL. UG

ON KEROSENE OIL.

BY E. T. SWEET, M. 8.

The introduction of kerosene as an illuminating agent has be-

came so general, that the leading charicteristics of a safe and val-

uable oil, should be well understood by consumers. It was with

this idea in mind that I commenced the preparation of the follow-

ing paper. As the sources of information in regard to the methods

of detecting dangerous burning fluids, are exceedingly limited, I

shall, after briefly referring to the manufacture of kerosene, and

summing up the results of a number of evperiments made at the

University of Wisconsin, in January, 1878, upon different samples

of commercial kerosene, particularly refer to the proper manner of

testing oils. Whiie nothing original is claimed for this article it is

thought that its perusal will give general knowledge of the princi-

ples of testing burning fluids, and may awaken an interest in the

subject, and indirectly lead to the consumption of a higher grade

and safer kerosene than is at present in use.

The fire-test is the only efficient method of distinguishing be-

tween a safe and a dangerous hydro-carbon oil.. Experiment shows

that but very few samples of commercial kerosene will stand the

tests required by law. Consequently instead of perfectly safe burn-

ing fluids, as dealers nearly always represent, immense quantities

of inferior oil are sold, which are liable to become ignited at any

maoment, when heated a few degrees above the temperature of an

ordinary room.

Crude petroleum as it comes from the earth is a dark colored

fluid, consisting of many hydro-carbons, compoundsof hydrogen

and carbon. It has a density of about .880, water being 1,000.

The raw or crude material is placed in immense iron retorts,

holding from fifteent to twenty thousand gallons each, and dis-

tilled. The distillation is eminently destructive, for it “ cracks’

or breaks up the oil into lighter hydro-carbons, which have differ-

ent boiling points, and consequently pass off in vapor at different

78 WISCONSIN ACADEMY SCIENCES, ARTS, AND LETTERS.

temperatures. The vapors are condensed in an iron coil passing

through water and collected in separate reservoirs. The products.

of the distillation taken in order, as they are driven off, are as fol--

lows:

Name. Grayity. |Boiling point..

| °F.

(Ghicosnenunoucoouncaue 40 oc bolodosocanonoLodoudouD .665 120

IS ROHOR) 5a.60000 00000 00000000009 000800 000005000000IC 709 180

IBANVAINE cabaooddcondcs «| apdssoquopdabooNdoOOKOBOC 721 216

IKigoRaGiaceh acon Gas goodSL bon eododaCoobO DONO ODDS 804 350

Menexrallgsperminoul: tele rtete leet tetcti terettekedelskeleretstetetereteicto= .857 A425

Iuiloricatimaxoul: soi ce emicen teksckek ened terteekcomtactst: F .883 575

Rhigolene is a very volatile hydro-carbon, produced by the re-

peated distillation of gasolene. In consequence of its rapid evapor-

ation, its boiling point being but 65° F., it is used in surgery for

producing ‘* local anzesthesia.” Paraffine, another product of petro-

leum, is a solid. It is used principally in the manufacture of can-

dles, chewing gum, and water-proof cloth.

About ten per cent. of the native petroleum consists of gasolene,

naptha, and benzene. They pass from the still first, and are nearly

valueless, being sold for from five to ten cents per gallon. Allread-

ily ignite at ordinary atmospheric temperature, therefore are highly

dangerous for illuminating purposes. After the light hydro-carbons

have been driven off, the remaining fluid in the still is generally

transferred to smaller retorts, the temperature raised, and safe ker-

osene distilled. A ‘heavy black residue remains, which is prinei-

pally manufactured into paraftine and lubricating oil. On aecount

of the poor market for the light oils, and as they afford even a more

brilliant flame than safe kerosene, there is a strong tendency on the

part of unscrupulous manufacturers to commence the collection of

burning fluid before the less dense oils have entirely passed off. This

is the primary cause of the many fatal accidents that yearly occur

from the use of kerosene.

Kerosene oil has no constant composition. Like petroleum, it

consists of a great number of liquid hydro-carbons. Most of the

higher combinations of these elements found in kerosene, have a

low specific gravity, and are very volatile. They pass off in vapors

at comparatively low temperatures. As a burning fluid contains a

large or asmali proportion of these volatile compounds, it is said

ON KEROSENE OIL. 79

to be alight or a dense oil; those known as light being regarded

dangerous, while the heavy oils are called safe. But the specific

gravity of kerosene, as shown below, is not an invariable indica-

tion of its purity.

Soon after the introduction of kerosene as a burning fluid, a

method called the “ fire-test ’ was devised for the detection of dan-

gerous oils. It consists in determining the temperature at which

an inflamable vapor is evolved, or the “flashing point;” and also

the temperature at which the fluid becomes ignited from the flash

of the vapor and continues to burn, or the “ burning point.” The

flashing point is determined by inserting the bulb of a thermome-

ter half an inch below the surface of the Huid to be tested, and

gradually raising the temperature from sixty or seventy degrees, to

the point at which a pale blue flicker is observed to pass across the

surface upon the approach of a small flame or lighted match. The

burning point is usually from ten to fifteen degrees above the

flashing point.

Tf an oil gives off a combustible vapor, or flashes, at a low tem-

perature, there is danger of forming a very explosive mixture with

about four volumes of atmospheric air, especially in a confined

space. This mixture is often formed in a kerosene lamp, contain-

ing a small quantity of oil, in attempting to refill it while still

burning. It is also formed if the temperature of a partially filled

lamp is suddenly lowered by changing it from a warm to a cool

room, or by allowing a cold draught of air to come in contact with

it. In these cases a part of the vapor above the oil condenses, air

rushes in to fili the partial vacuum, the flame has a tendency to

descend and an explosion is apt to take place. The oil itself never

explodes, it is a mixture of vapor and atmospheric air that bursts

the lamp and kindles the flame, hence the necessity of keeping

lamps well filled and uniform temperatures.

Laws have been enacted by several State legislatures, and a spec-

ial act was passed by congress March 2, 1867, which however, has

since been declared unconstitutional, fixing the temperature at

which hydro-carbon oil may be deemed safe and merchantable, at

not less than one hundred degrees Fahrenheit, for the flashing

point, nor below one hundred and ten degrees Fahrenheit for the

burning point. An oil which will stand these tests may be regard-

ed as perfectly safe. The results of my observations show that

WISCONSIN ACADEMY SCIENCES, ARTS, AND LETTERS.

such a burning fluid in the ordinary market is of rare occurrence.

Of twenty-seven samples of kerosene collected in this city, and ex-

amined, but two were found to stand the test required by law. The

following are the results of the examinations referred to:

b Ral

Brand.

ANETOSENC.. cee eee errcessecerseaa cretssevere

yo onl)

edd hehtrotle ie see enc cise selene eee eee

point.

Deg. F.| Deg. F.

Flashing} Burning | Epecific

gravity.

797

-(99

.798

797

796

.799

ON KEROSENE OIL. 81

In order to determine the proportion of contaminating fluids

contained in the oils, several samples were subjected to a fractional

distillation, which gave the following important results:

ee) [os

FA Brand. 2s oD

a Lrg =

I og Ss

2 ae

Ai O ca)

I, Oli |) 12, Cb

Pa HPISCETOSE MOV anti eLOEmi AN mM i pa iN ice a Ne 12 88

9 SCG) BBS isha IP Ba ate ig Al a CaS eco a a 5 87

15 (UO SEE IS Ai aici as Okey SRT LA SS ie IE ENS SCL a a 4 96

5Q Sib, OKO) CRSA Role tei rare encanta Hoiclomiae emia mee arc 3 97

SO) i) IMChae ell Syerereitl 6 Se GeechS sage eMicomal ae Sooplooonhode 0 10¢

It will be observed from these results that but two of the twenty

seven samples of kerosene may be regarded as safe burning fluids.

Of seventeen samples of kerosene tested in the city of La Crosse,

by myself, in December, 1873, but one was found to answer the

requirements of law.

Headlight-oil was originally manufactured for lanterns used on

locomotives.

Mineral Sperm oil owes its name te the odor and color of the

fluid. The process of manufactaring it was discovered in 1872, by

Mr. Joshua Merrill, at the Downer Oil-Works, in Boston, Massachu-

setts. In the notice of its discovery Mr. Merrill says: ‘‘ Flames of

considerable size, such as a large ball of wicking yarn saturated

with oil and ignited, when plunged beneath the surface of this oil,

previously heated to the temperature of boiling water are extin-

guished at once.”

It is estimated that about one-fourth of the production of petro-

leum may be manufactured into this beautiful and safe illuminat-

ing agent. No danger, whatever, need be anticipated from mineral

sperm or headlight oil, even though alamp containing either should

be accidentally broken while in use. The flame at the end of the

wick would probably be extinguished, but if circumstances the

most favorable should happen for igniting the oil, fire could not

possibly be communicated to it until the temperature of the sur-

rounding fluid became raised to its vaporizing point. The flame

6 was

82 WISCONSIN ACADEMY SCIENCES, ARTS, AND LETTERS.

would then gradually spread over the surface of the oil in an en-

larging circle, and no sudden flash would be observed, asin the case

when a lamp is broken containing oil heated above the temperature

at which it evolyes a combnstible vapor. It is certainly to be hop-

ed that these perfectly safe oils will soon come into general use,

The lamp in which kerosene is burned, often has an important bear-

ing upon the temperature of the oil which is contamed init. I

can not better convey an idea of the effect of the lamp upon the

temperature of the oil, than to quote from a reporé upon the sub-

ject, submitted to the Metropolitan Board of Health, in 1870, by

Professor C. ¥. Chandler, of Columbia College, and chemist to the

board. He says, “in continuing the investigation with regard to

dangerous kerosene, it was thought a matter of importance to

ascertain the temperature to which the oil is heated in lamps while

they are burning, as a knowledge of this point is obviously a pre-

liminary to the establishment of a proper standard for sate oil. ‘To

this end twenty-three ordinary lamps were purchased. Kleven were

of metal, mostly brass; twelve were of glass. They were filled

with the same oil and allowed to burn for seven hours; the tem-

perature of the room during the experiment was nearly constant,

varying from 73° to 74° Fah. The temperature in the eleven metal

lamps varied from 76° to 100°, the average being 86° Fah. The

temperature in the twelve glass lamps varied form 76° to 86°, the

average being 81° Fah. The average temperature of all the ob-

servations on all the lamps was 83° Fah.

These experiments show, that an oil which does not give off an

inflammable vapor below 100° F., may be regarded as perfectly

safe. They also show that the average temperature of the oil in

the lamp is about 8 ° above the temperature of the room in which

it is burning, hence if the temperature of a room in which an oil

is burning is 74° , and the flashing point of the oil is 80 °, a vapor

is constantly passing off, and there is danger, upon suddenly cool-

ing the lamp, of an explosion.

Testing the oil is a very simple operation. A rough method of

detecting dangerous kerosene is to pour out a small quantity of the

oil into a saucer, and attempt to ignite it with a lighted match. If

the flame is not at once extinguished, on being plunged beneath the

surface of the fluid, the oil is highly dangerous, and should at once

be consumed. By this means cheap burning fluids, usually bearing

ON KEROSENE OIL. 83

fancy names, as “ Hureka,’ “Sunlight Oil,” ‘“ Danforth’s Fluid,”

‘“ Non-explosive Chemical Spirit,” etc., may easily be detected.

When a thermometer is at hand the temperature of the oil may be

raised by cautiously heating the saucer over a stove, and for every

two or three degrees rise, a lighted match may be passed rapidly

across the saucer, one-fourth of an inch above the surface of the

fluid. Ifthe oil becomes ignited, a slight puff of the breath will

extinguish the flame. Of all the methods devised for testing kero-

sene, the most approved is that used by the British government in

applying the “ fire-test ” to hydro-carbon oil. The only apparatus

required, 1s a tester, thermometer and spirit lamp or candle.

The tester consists of a tin vessel four and one-half inches deep,

with the same diameter. A cover fits this, which supports another

small vessel of tin, two inches in depth and two inches in diameter.

When the cover is placed in position, the small vessel descends into

the larger vessel. The cover also has an elevated rim about the

circumference, one-fourth of an inch in height. Stretching across

the top of the rim is a wire, which passes over the center of the

small vessel containing the fluid to be tested. Water at 60° or

70 ° is placed in the large vessel and slowly warmed from under-

neath by the flame of a lamp or candle. The cover, containing the

small vessel filled with oil,is put on, and the bulb of a thermome-

ter is introduced one-half inch below the surface of the fluid. For

every rise of two or three degrees in the mercury, a minute gas-

flame, or lighted match, is passed along the wire a quarter of an

inch above the surface of the oil, which is repeated until a pale blue

flicker is observed to pass across the surface of the fluid, when the

flashing point is reached. The temperature is then increased until

the oil will take fire from the flash and continue to burn. The

temperature of this is the burning point.

84 WISCONSIN ACADEMY SCIENCES, ARTS, AND LETTERS.

IMPROVEMENT OF THE MOUTH OF THE MISSISSIPPI

RIVER.

BY JOHN NADER, C. E.

The improvement of the mouth of the Mississippi, the free and

unobstructed outlet of a great national highway equal in extent to

that which forms the subject of this paper, can certainly not be

over-estimated. A number of important producing States depend

mainly upon this highway to dispose of their productions, and aiso

to obtain through the same those imports which are necessary for

manufactures, arts, and comforts of life. The river, very properly

denominated the father of rivers, flows in a north and south line

through a fertile tract of country, partaking of varieties of climate

and embracing the extremes of latitude of ihe United States. Its

tributaries are numerous, and some are ef considerable magnitude;

its productions embrace the extremes, its commerce concerns the

world at large, and the national character of this great highway

demands free and unobstructed passage for the largest ships sailing

the ocean.

Before entering upon any plan of improvement, we will first

examine the physical and hydrological conditions of the river in

question.

The Mississippi River is one of the great working-rivers of the

world, and compares with the ‘“ Nile,” the ‘ Po,” the ‘‘ Rhone,”

the ‘* Danube,” and others. By working-rivers, we understand

those rivers which deposit large quantities of alluvium in deltas at

their outlets to the ocean or seas.

The working of rivers is due only to natural forces, and in order

to remedy any resulting difficulties it 1s necessary to amend these

forces, but in order to master the forces of nature and to use them

to our advantage, the first condition is that we should well under-

stand them.

In examining a map of portions of the Mississippi valley, we can

conclude, by observing the form of sloughs, bayous and annular

lakes, that the river which occupies a very inconsiderable portion

of the valley, has at some time occupied in turn nearly every por-

IMPROVEMENT OF MOUTH OF MISSISSIPPI RIVER. 85

tion of the same. The matter is very plain when we observe the

present working of the river; an abrasion takes place on one side,

while a corresponding accretion takes place on the other, and in

this manner a constant lateral motion takes place which may con-

tinue in one direction for an indefinite period, until from some

cause or other the motion is changed.

Ii is not difficult to comprehend the movement of an island

down stream, or the shifting of the point of bifurcation. The

upper end of the island is worn away by the current, while at the

same time the lower end grows by deposits which take place in the

still water. The movement of berids, on the other hand, partakes

of an entirely different nature; these must be destroyed before they

can reform. The peninsula like portion of land projecting into

the bend is abraded on both the upper and lower side, until it is

finally cut off, the old river bed is abandoned and a new one is

formed; the regimen of the river thus disturbed, at once seeks to

readjust itself and hence the fearful inroads consequent upon a

natural or artificial cut-off. The causes are plain, the absolute

slope, and consequently the velocity is increased, while at the same

time the reciprocity of curves is broken, and a new bend must re-

sult. The remedy in this case is plainly the preservation of the

natural bends.

My object in dwelling upon the foregoing, although foreign to

the subject, was simply to illustrate the source of the material re-

quisite to form the delta. The material which is carried along by

the action of the current, will be found to differ very materially

along the course of the stream, on the upper portions it is com-

posed of sand and gravel, this will be found reduced by attrition as

we descend the river, until it is finally reduced to impalpable mud;

decomposed vegetation is added by the draining of the forests, and

of this composition the delta is formed. I can give no better illus-

tration of the delta than the following from a translation of a

work by ‘“* Reclus.” He says:

“These narrow embankments of mud, brought down into the open

sea by the fresh water, present a striking spectacle. in several

places these banks are only a few yards thick, and during storms

the waves of the sea eurl over the narrow belt of shore, and min-

ele with the river. The soil of the banks becomes perfectly spongy;

it is not firm enough to allow even willows to take root, and the

8&6 WISCONSIN ACADEMY SCIENCHS, ARTS, AND LETTERS.

only vegetation is a species of tall reed, the fibrous roots of which

give alittle cohesion to the ooze, and prevent its being dissolved

and washed away by the succession of tides. Farther down the reeds

disappear, and the banks of mud form, are washed away and form

again, wandering, so to speak, between the river and the sea, at the

will of the winds and tide. On the left bank of the southwest pas-

sage, which is used for the largest ships, the plank built huts of a

small pilots village have been fixed asdelicately as possible. These

constructions are so light, and the ground that carries them is so

unstable, that they have been compelled to anchor them like ships,

fearing that a hurricane might blow them away; still, the force of

the wind often makes them drag on their anchors. Below, the

banks of the Mississippi are reduced to a mere belt of reddish mud,

cut through at intervals by wide cross streams; still farther down

even this narrow belt comes to an end, and the banks of the river

are indicated by nothing but islets, which rise at increasing dis-

tances from one another, like the crests of submarine dunes. Soon

the summits of these islets assume the appearance of a thin, yellow

palm floating on the surface of the water. Then all is mud; the

land is so inundated with water that it resembles the sea, and the

seais so saturated with mud that it resembles the land. Finally, all

trace of the banks disappears, and the thick water spreads freely

over the ocean. After getting clear of the bar, the sheet of water

which was the Mississippi preserves, during floods, the yellowish

color by which it can be distinguished for about twenty miles, but

it loses in depth all that it gains in extent, and, gradually deposit-

ing the earthy matter which it holds in suspension, becomes ulti-

mately mingled with the sea.”

This beautiful illustration gives one at once an idea of the diffi-

culties of navigating the Delta, which in storms and dark weather

becomes uncertain and dangerous even with the assistance of expert

pilots. Now, in connection with the above, if we consider the in-

sufficient depth of channel, our problem at once becomes manifest.

Before however entering upon the solution of the problem, we will

examine the working of rivers, and the means applied to remove

the resulting obstruction in the deltas and mouths of rivers.

The amount of alluvion brought down and deposited in the gulf

annually is estimated equal to a mass one mile square and 268 feet

high. The ‘“* Hoangho,” which probably carries more alluvium than

IMPROVEMENT OF MOUTH OF MISSISSIPPI RIVER. 87

any river in the old world, has formed a deta which extends over a

space of over 90,000 square miles, and constitutes one of the most

important provinces of China. It is estimated that the alluvion of

this river would in the course of sixty days, form an island a mile

square and over 100 feet in depth. According to Rennell, the

Ganges conveys from five to six cubic yards per second, or from

forty to fifty thousand cubic yards per day. The Nile, scarcely

comparing with rivers of an inferior class, advances but slowly, yet

its Delta measures nearly 200 miles on its front and increases over

seventy acres in a year.

The “Po” is considered one of the most remarkable working-

rivers in the world, although a constant subsidence is taking place;

the river is nevertheless continually encroaching upon the Adriatic,

its deposits being estimated at over 15 million cubic yards every

year.

The Rhone deposits an estimated mass of 22 million cubic yards

every year.

I have here given a fair idea of the enormous amount of work

done by rivers, in order to show what we have to deal with.

Considering the enormous masses which form the obstructions

which we wish to remedy, it may be well to examine the manner in

which they are disposed of by nature, and how these obstructions,

are formed. I will here return directly to the river in question—

the Mississippi.

It will be observed that two parallel banks, confining the river,

stretch out into the gulf over 60 miles; these finally become irreg-

ular, and the stream is divided into numerous branches and out-

lets. It is asserted that the Delta proper commences only at the

head of the passes. I would, however, consider the entire projec-

tion as belonging to the same. The first formation was on the

shallow coast of the gulf, removed from the destructive force of the

ocean waves; the river here asserted its rights and pushed boldly

on, every freshet increasing and fortifying the narrow causeways

forming its banks, which the waves would, in my estimation, only

tend to solidify by impact and by incorporating denser substances

eroded from the gulf-shores.

The west side of these advancing banks is by some considered

part of the gulf shore, whereas it appears to me to be an accretion,

formed by the littoral current, such as would occur in the case of a

88 WISCONSIN ACADEMY SCIENCES, ARTS, AND LETTERS.

jettee’. In fact it appears that at one time the Delta was being

forced to the east, as may be observed at Bird Island, where the

motion must at some time have been decidedly east. As soon,

however, as the delta had advanced far enough to stop the erasion

of the shores, the accretion ceased, and the shoals produced by the

previous easterly motion gave a tendency to a contrary motion.

During freshets the alluvion is precipitated on the banks which

thereby continue to rise and to assume a more substantial consist-

ance.

In building a dyke, or causeway of earth, the same is self-sustain-

ing to a considerable height; even in shallow water the same can be

formed, but when the saturated portion becomes considerable, it

finally loses the cohesion necessary to support the superincumbent

weight and partakes of a lateral motion, or in other words, spreads

out, until the submerged portion attains sufficient resistance to pro-

duce an equilibrium.

The alluvion of the delta after reaching deep water, and not being

fortified by any material denser than its own impalpable mud, must

necessarily spread out until the lateral resistance would prevent mo-

tion. The river also would become wider, and lose in depth what

gains in extent. Now, considering the foregoing facts, it is

not at all surprising that the delta of the Mississippi encroaches on

the gulf and presents the difficulties with which we are already fa-

milar.

The estimated discharge of alluvion of the South Pass is about

22,000,000 cubic yards per annum, and the advance of the delta is

put at 100 feet.

As the delta advances, its progress will decrease in proportion as

the depth of the gulf increases; the difficulties of navigation

- would increase in the same ratio in this wide-spread bed of alluvion.

In order to estimate the result of this progressive motion, we must

consider that the discharge of a stream is the product of two

quantities, viz., the cross-section and mean velocity (Q—F. Vo) and

that the latter depends principally upon the absolute slope;

hn3e

hence the lengthening of the river would diminish the slope, and

since the natural supply must of necessity be discharged, the slope

must of necessity adjust itself for the performance of the work.

IMPROVEMENT OF MOUTH OF MISSISSIPPI RIVER. 89

It is for this reason that we find that the Mississippi, which at first

most naturally flowed in the lowest portion of the valley, is now at

places over fifteen feet above the abjacent flood plains. On the im-

provement of the Rhine, the entire river has been lowered as much

as six feet in places by increasing the slope by means of cut-ofls,

and large tracts of land have been reclaimed which had become

entirely worthless.

On the majority of “working-rivers,’ we find very little differ-

ence in the ultimate result, unless they are interfered with by arti-

ficial contrivances, or that the natural forces find a new field of

operations. After what has been observed, I will endeavor to re-

view what has been done up to the present time to remedy the

difficulties arismg from the detritus deposited at the mouths of

rivers.

The first, and most natural conception, was to endeavor to im-

prove the natural outlets of the rivers, but this plan has been at-

tended with varied results, and in some cases the very action of

nature suggested the contrary.

In the case of the Vistula, every attempt to improve the mouth

failed; a new outlet was formed and the old channel was converted

into a canal which gives the necessary water to Dantzic. At the

mouth of the Danube the Jetties gave success, but they were ap-

plied to the “Soulina Pass,’ a comparatively new branch of the

river, far removed from the actual delta. The Jetties were carried

out into the sea to a point where a current passes from north to

south in the Black Sea; this current receives and carries all the

aliuvium brought down by the river, and prevents the formation

of abar. The channel has been deepened from nine feet, to six-

teen and one-half feet by this means, since the works were con-

structed. It is very properly presumed that the encroachment of

the whole delta will have the effect of crowding the current farther

into the sea, and finally a bar will form as heretofore.

The improvement of the mouth of the “Adour ” was accomplished

by means of Jetties, but this river differs very materially from

what we consider ‘ working-rivers.” The difficulty in this case

was, that the obstructions cast up by the Atlantic forced the river

in a direction parallel to the shore until its banks were no longer

able to contain it; at such times the river would break out and

form anew mouth. The mouth below “ Bayonne” was improved

90 WISCONSIN ACADEMY SCIENCES, ARTS, AND LETTERS.

precisely upon the plan of our own lake shore harbors. Parallel

dykes are carried out to adepth where the action of the waves

cease to disturb the bottom, which is in about eighteen feet, the

channel is cleared by dredging and the natural current of the river

maintains the same, the detsitus moved down by the river is car-

ried off by the littorral current into deep water. The question as

to how long these artificial structures will serve their purpose, is a

matter not yet determined. Operations were carried on for many

years at the mouth of the Rhone by dykes and jetties, which plan

had finally to be abandoned. It was hoped that by closing the

lateral outlets, and by confining the channel between contracted

banks that a sufficient depth might be obtained, but the works

were not carried out to a sufficient depth, and the mass of allu-

vium carried down, left the outlet in about the same condition as it

was before the improvement. Finally, a canal was constructed to

the “Gulf de Fos” so called from a former canal constructed by

Marius. This canal (St. Louis) is entirely sufficient for the require-

ments of commerce. In connection with this canal there is a very

extensive basin to serve the purpose of trans-shipment to the steam-

ers nayagating the shallow portions of the river.

It appears that a system of jettees is the plan that has most gen-

erally been resorted to by engineers for the improvement of the

mouths of rivers. In some cases they have been attended with

partial success, and in others the enormous expense invoived did

not warrant the completion of the experiment.

An attempt was made about 1857 to improve the Southwest

Pass of the Mississippi, but a tempest swept away a jettee of over

a mile in length.

In reviewing the subject, we may safely conclude that the jetty

system would give but temporary relief in working rivers, although

the plan has succeeded admirably in the majority of our inland

harbors where the same was applied.

Returning directly to our own subject, we find the Mississippi

one of the most active working-rivers in the world. The South

Pass increases at the rate of one hundred feet annually, and the

other principal passes even more.

From the manner in which it is brought before the public we

know that it is obstructed to a great degree and requires a remedy.

For years the government has been engaged, and with considerable

IMPROVEMENT OF MOUTH OF MISSISSIPPI RIVER. on

success, in improving the Delta. The method applied has been a

peculiar kind of dredging. Boats of considerable power were pro-

vided with a movable propeller, which could be lowered to the

required depth. The boat was run down stream into the bar, the

excavator was agitated, and the aliuvion was given to the current.

This process most naturally required constant repetition, but on

the whole was not of sufficient capacity to satisfy commerce. I

am reliably informed that the depth of water maintained in the

Southwest Pass at present varies from fourteen to eighteen feet,

rarely, however, less than sixteen feet. But that, on account of

this lack of sufficient water, many of the larger sailing vessels and

steamboats have been withdrawn from the trade, and my informant

says: “I believe that one German line has been discontinued on

account of the difficulties, dangers, and delays at the mouth of the

Mississippi.”

Now, when we consider the foregoing, together with the fact

that for the past twelve months the port of New Orleans reports a

total export in cotton, tobacco, grain in bulk, sugar, and sundries

of $100,000,000, and total imports, foreign and coastwise, of

$60,000,000, notwithstanding the many drawbacks, we no longer

wonder that the nation calls for improvements.

Now, the question arises, as to the kind and extent of improve-

ment to satisfy the requirements of commerce. Although the

Government, with an annual expenditure of about $100,000, has

failed to maintain a reliable 18-feet channel, while commerce de-

mands at least 24 feet, still the problem is one that must and can be

solved. There are however other difficulties of a local nature

which I would wish to exhibit. Captain C. H. Howell, of the

Corps of Engineers, makes the following statement in his report

for the fiscal year ending June 30, 1873:

‘“Hiven the popular prejudice against dredging has been over-

come, and the people of New Orleans most interested to-day ac-

knowledge the good done. So far, so well; but there is a powerful

monopoly, known as the Tow-boat Association, domiciled in New

Orleans, controlling its commerce, opposed to the improvement of

the channels across the bars at the mouth of the Mississippi, and

having in its power at any time to render valueless any improve-

ment attempted. This association has, time and again, willfully

92 WISCONSIN ACADEMY SCIENCES, ARTS, AND LETTERS.

and maliciously retarded my work, and damaged and destroyed its

fruits.”

This monopoly really forced the dredges from the Southwest

Pass to Pass al’Outre, in April of 1873, according to the engineer's

report. Science may overcome the natural difficulties, but those

just mentioned can only be overcome by prompt and positive legis-

lation.

From what we know of this matter, it appears that the nation

is prepared to do the work; the only question has been as to the

plan which would, with the greatest certainty of success, and at a

warrantable cost, satisfy the wants of commerce, and which could

be maintained with a reasonable expense.

A board of engineers was appointed in compliance with an act

of Congress of June, 1874, to examine and report a plan with esti-

mates for obtaining and maintaining sufficient depth of water to

tne Mississippi for purposes of commerce. The plan to be either a

canal, or the improvement of one or more natural outlets.

The board has completed its labors and has reported in fayor of

the Jetty-system, according to the idea of Captain Hads, (of St.

Louis bridge fame,) with this difference, that they reccommend the

South instead of the Southwest Pass. In this connection I agree

with the committee, as the South Pass is several miles the shortest

and debouches, into deeper water than the others, although some

work will he required at the head of the passes to make a sufficient

depth to the entry of the pass. The committee discussed several

canal plans, the Fort St. Philip plan receiving the preference, but

on account of the greater cost was rejected, and the improvement

of the south pass by means of Jettees and dredging was finally

recommended.

The estimated cost of construction and maintenance of this plan

is $7,942,110, and the estimate for the Southwest Pass is $16,053,124,

and that of the Ft. St. Philip Canal $11,514,200. Now as to the

relative merits of the different plans without regard to cost of con-

struction or maintenance, the improvement of the South Pass would

open the Delta in the middle and vessels going either way would

not be obliged to make a detour, while at the same time it is the

shortest and most direct route to the river; on the other hand Capt.

Kads may have counted on the more stable bottom of the South-

west Pass to support the Jettees. In either case it would require a

IMPROVEMENT OF MOUTH OF MISSISSIPPI RIVER. 93

large annual expenditure to lengthen the Jetiees as the delta ad-

vanced, and to dredge out the bars.

If we should now consider the Jetty-system to succeed, the dan-

ger of entering is still not removed. It will be necessary, in a storm,

to find an entrance to a gap of only 300 yards among mud-lumps

and mud-banks, none of which are more than three feet above still

water, and although the channel may be boyed and marked and

lighted, still more than ordinary skill would be required, while at

the same time the entry would be subjected to the severest storms

and waves of the ocean.

As reported, one member of the board concurred only in so far as

the selection cf the south pass for the trial of the Jetty-system if

that be adopted, as the chances of success of the improvement of

the natural outlets do not in his judgment jastify recommendation;

and since the canal plan offers reasonable chances of success, he

gives this his preference.

New Orleans being the second city for value of her exports and

sixth in the value of her imports in the United States and promises

fair to improve with sufficient navigation, it is important that the

plan offermg the'greatest chances of success should by all means

be the one to be adopted.

From the quotation which I have used to give a general idea of

the appearance and consistence of the delta, and by examining a

map of the same, the difficulties to be encountered are very appar-

ent. Placed, I might say, in an open sea, a hundred feet deep of

mud, of insufficient consistence to sustain itself, ever seeking an

equilibrium, some sinking, some rising, moving, oozing, never at

rest; volumes at times lashed into foam by the fury of the ocean

waves.

Considering the unstable foundation upon which we would have

to construct, and the fact, that the Jetty-plan has been attended

with success in only afew and special cases, it is but proper that

we should adopt some other and more certain method to obtain the

end in view.

The plan known as the Fort St. Philip Canai, has always ap-

peared to me to be most reliable method of opening the Miss. The

river at this point is deep and safe; the banks, although not more

than a few feet above the level of the river, have assumed sufficient

stability to admit of constructions; the whole length between ex-

94 WISCONSIN ACADEMY SCIENCES, ARTS, AND LETTERS.

tremes of excavtion will be about six miles; the river at this point

never rises more than seven feet above the level of the gulf, and is

seldom lower than the same. The gulf-end is sheltered by the

arms of the delta, and by a number of islands, and will give a safe

outlet of 26 feet, which is sufficient to admit the jiargest class of sea-

going vessels. Several locations of canals have been advanced, but

all seem to be encumbered with the same objections excepting the

Fort St. Philip Canal.

One plan has been to leave the Pass a l’Outre six miles inside of

its bar and reach deep water to the north; another, of leaving the

Southeast Pass about six miles above its bar and make deep water

towards the east. Both these plans have this disadvantage; al-

though the slope is inconsiderate, yet without locks, there is a possi-

bility of the canals becoming a branch of the Delta; on the other

hand, it may be that the stability of the banks is insufficient to sup-

port the construction of locks, or resist the pressure during freshets.

Another plan has been considered, which is the closing of the

head of the South Pass by means of adam, and entermg the Pass

through a channel from the Southwest Pass. In this case the dif-

ficulty would be the keeping open of the mouth of the pass by

dredging away the bar which would be thrown up by the ocean

waves. It appears to me, that the plan of the Fort St. Philip

Canal is the most reliable plan of producing uninterrupted naviga-

tion to the Mississippi, and the only plan which promises positive

success. ‘This canal would be in the extreme six’and one-half miles

long and should be 300 feet wide at the bottom, with sloping banks

of not less than two horizontal to one perpendicular. The lift

to be overcome would never exceed seven feet; the locks should be

of the greatest capacity, say 500 feet long and 80 feet wide, so as to

enable the largest class of vessels to enter without difficulty, or to

pass a fleet of small vessels at the same time. I would recommend

at least two locks, in order not to impede navigation in the leasi

degree; at the same time if one lock should in any manner be im-

paired, commerce would not be impeded.

I have not the slightest doubt that such a canal could be

constructed at a cost not to exceed that estimated for the improve-

ment of the South Pass, say $8,000,000 in round numbers with a

certainty of success which no other plan promises. An annual

expenditure of $25,000 or $30,000 may be required to maintain the

IMPROVEMENT OF MOUTH OF MISSISSIPPI RIVER. 95

work, still this is no comparison to the $100,000 or $300,000 re-

quired to extend the jetties per annum, provided that science and

determination should exist in sufficient abundance to produce the

same on the ground which would have to be occupied, and of sufi-

cient stability to escape the fate of the jettee of 1857.

96 WISCONSIN ACADEMY SCIENCES, ARTS, AND LETTERS,

ON THE CATOCALA OF RACINE COUNTY.

BY P. R. HOY, M. D., RACINE.

There is an interesting group of large showy Lepidoptera, be-

longing to the great family of Nocturnidac, included in which is the

genus Catocala. The larve feed on the leaves of various shrnbs

and trees. In the United States this genus is largely represented.

The accomplished entomologist Augustus B. Grote, has catalogued

sixty-four species. Many more undoubtedly remain to be caught

and described. There has not yet been a locality discovered where

Catocalas are so numerous as they are in the vicinity of Racine.

During the summer and fall of 1874, there were taken within a,

space, bounded on the north by Ninth street, on the south by Ever-

green Cemetery, on the east by the Lake shore, and west by College

Avenue, being one and a half miles long by forty rods wide, no.

less than six hundred specimens, belonging to forty species. The

abundance of insects found in the vicinity of Racine College, may

be accounted for by the numerous and great variety of plants,

shrubs, and trees cultivated, as well as the scarcity of summer birds.

The birds have been driven off by the boys belonging to the:

college, who for several years past robbed, indiscriminately, every

birds’ nest found, and their sharp lookout leaves very few undis-

covered.

The consequence of this egging mania has directly diminished

the number of birds, and indirectly vastly multiplied insects.

The following catalogue includes only those taken at Racine, all

captured with two exceptions within the past year, (1874.)

-CatocaLaz, Hpion, Drury.

i insolabilis, Guen.

residna, Grote.

obscura, Streck.

a viduata, Guen.

ji desperata, Guen.

a retecta, Grote.

i Flebilis, Grote.

CATACOLZ OF RACINE COUNTY. 97

CATACOL®, relicta, Walker.

unyuga, Walker.

of Meskei, Grote.

Briseis, Hdw.

parta, Guen.

coccinata, Grote.

ultronia, Hubn.

concubens, Walker.

amatrix, Hubn.

nurus, Walker,

eara, Guen.

ilia, Cramer.

inubens, Guen.

Var. scintillans, Grote and Robison.

cereogama, Guen. f

neogame, Gwen.

subnata, Grote.

platrix, Grote.

“ . palaeogama, Guen.

ie Var. phatanga, Grote.

habilis, Grote.

consors, Abb. and Smith.

ponderosa, Grote and Robison.

badia, Girote and Robison.

antinymptha, Hub.

levettei, Grote.

serena, Hdwards.

nuptialis, Walker.

polygama, Gwen.

grynea, Cramer.

nuptula, Walker.

fratercula, Grote and Robison.

androphila, Guen.

ON A MASTODON FOUND IN RACINE COUNTY.

Everything relating to those great animals that in the distant

past inhabited this country, is of interest. This paper is presented

for the purpose of recording the facts and conditions under which

the bones of a mastodon were found on the farm of H. Hoffman,

7——WaAs

98 WISCONSIN ACADEMY SCIENCES, ARTS, AND LETTERS.

southwest quarter of section 68, in the town of Dover, Racine county,

Wis., on the 12th day of November, 1874. These remains were

exhumed by F. Wells and F. 8. Perkins, of Burlington. I am in-

debted to Mr. Perkins for a minute account of the soil and condi-

tion in which the bones were found. They excavated a piece of

ground 15x20 feet, to the depth of four feet from the surface. They

passed through first fifteen inches of peat, then through a bed of

yellowish sand quite compact and hard, of a uniform thickness of

six inches, Below this stratum of sand isa bed of light-colored de-

posit, of sticky clay, intermingled with fine sand, all of which was

of the consistency of soft putty. The depth of this deposit was not

ascertained, as they could not reach bottom with an iron rod ten

feet in length.

The most superficial of these bones was found only six inches be-

low the sand—twenty-seven inches from the top af the peat.

The greatest depth at which any were found was four feet from

the surface. They procured many fragments of broken ribs, sey-

eral vertebra, the right scapula, a fibula and two tusks. All the

bones were much decayed, and of little value. However, by the ex-

ercise of great care and skill, one of the tusks was taken out and so

prepared, that it is now the most perfect specimen I ever saw.

There is not a fraction wanting. Even the sharp edge of that por-

tion entering the socket in the jaw is complete.

This tusk is four feet eight inches in length and fitteen inches in

circumference. No teeth were found. All the lower bones were

found in great disorder; the tusks were separated ten feet apart, and

each resting on fragments of ribs.

The peat-swamp, in which the bones were found, is 200 feet wide,

by 800 long, surrounded by high ground with the exception of a

narrow outlet. This marsh was undoubtedly once a small lake,

now filled with the wash from the adjacent elevated grounds.

The scattered condition in which the bones were found may be

accounted for by the agency of ice. The water freezing to the bot-

tom would include the skeleton. Then when the ice broke up it

would transport the bones to various parts of the lake. Possibly,

however, animals, or even man, have had to do with separating the

various parts of the skeleton.

COPPER TOOLS FOUND IN WISCONSIN.

Tos)

re)

COPPER TOOLS FOUND IN THE STATE OF WISCONSIN.

BY PROK. J. D:|/ BUTLER, Lis D

Implements of unalloyed copper are among the most rare and

curious of archeological findings. The exhibit of these articles

now made at the Philadelphia Centennial comprises the largest

collection ever brought together. The copper age proper, in dis-

tinction from the age of bronze, forms a link in the chain of hu-

man development which according to Sir John Lubbock, ‘is scarce-

ly traceable in Europe.” The only European museum known to

that distinguished archeologist which contains any copper tools is

the Royal Academy at Dublin. The number there was thirty till

within a year or two, when five were received from Gunjera—a

provinee in India north of Bombay.

The articles now on view at the Centennial are as follows: In

the Government building, from the Smithsonian Institution, seven_

teen real tools, besides casts of several others, and various copper

trinkets. In the same building two articles, much corroded, owned

in the State of Vermont.

In the mineral annex. [rom Ohio eight implements; from Mich-

igan nineteen, and from Wisconsin, one hundred and sixty four.

The whole number from all quarters is two hundred and ten.

I made notes regarding all the exhibits, but having lost them;

can only describe the show from Wisconsin. But the coppers

from that State are nearly four times as many as all the rest of the

world has sent to Philadelphia, and they surpass others in size, va-

riety, and perfection of preservation, as much as in number. The

only instrument from any other source, not represented among

Wisconsin Coppers, is a crescent about six inches long—perhaps

intended for a knife, though it has no handle.

Among the varieties in the Wisconsin exhibit—which is made

by the State Historical Society—are the following:

Ninety-five spear-heads. Of these the larger number are what

some antiquarians called “ winged,” that is the sides of the base are

rolled up towards each other so as to form asocket to receive a shaft.

Some of these sockets are quite perfect, and all are ingeniously

swaged. Sixteen of them are punched each with a hole, round,

100 WISCONSIN ACADEMY SCIENCES, ARTS, AND LETTERS.

square, or oblong, for a pin to fasten the shaft, and one of the cop-

per pins still sticks fast in its place. Twenty-three of the spear-

biades swell on one side something like bayonets, the rest are flat.

Three are marked with seven dents apiece, and one with nine; in-

dentatious which have been fancied to indicate the number of

beasts, or men, the weapons had killed. Nine spear-heads have

round tangs which are so long, smooth and sharp, that they may

well have been used as awls and gimlets. The blades of these nine

spears swell in the middle of each side. Their shape is a beautiful

oval. The largest specimen of this class is about a foot in length.

In the middle of its blade there is a hole as large as a pipe-stem,

which may have been drilled for putting in a cord to recover the

spear when it had been thrown into the water. One spear has a

unilateral barb. This, meeting with unequal resistence, will not

go straight in water, so we think it of an absurd pattern. But the

truth is that if aimed at a fish where he looks to be, it will hit him

where he is—though, owing to the refraction of light in water, he

is not where he looks to be. One barb is then better than two, and

we are the fools after all. Spears of asimilar pattern, though of other

material haye been exhumed in France and California, and are still

used in Terra del Fuego. Specimens in bone from Santa Barbara

may be seen in the Smithsonian exhibit. Thirteen spears have flat

tangs to thrust into shafts. Six of these tangs are serrated or

notched like the necks of flint weapous for binding about with sin-

ews. They seem to mark the very point of transition from one

material to another—from mineral to metal.

There are fifteen knives. Most of these were intended to be

stuck in handles, but one of them has a handle rolled out of the

same piece of copper with its blade. Another has its copper han-

dle bent into a hook. There are several gads, or wedges, to be

driven. There are three adzes—tools beyeled only on one side of

their edges, and with broad sockets for handles. There are eleven

chisels, some as heavy as those we now use. There are twelve axes,

one weighing three and three-quarter pounds is exactly the weight

of those common among Wisconsin lumbermen to-day. Another,

which is a pound heavier, is the largest specimen of wrought cop-

per that has ever been brought to light. There is one hook, and

a square rod. There are more than half a dozen borers of various

sizes. One may be called an auger, being sixteen inches long and

COPPER TOOLS FOUND IN WISCONSIN. 101

three in circumference. There is a dagger ten inches long with a

blade an inch wide. These, with various anomalous articles, com-

plete the catalogue.

For the conservation and display of this unique copper treasure

the State of Wisconsin has set apart one of the towers of the Cap-

itol in Madison. There they will be daily open for inspection, and

will no doubt be a magnet attracting to themselves other curios-

ities of like nature.

The question is always asked, “* Where did these coppers come

from?” Jt cannot be so definitely answered as is to be desired.

Nevertheless something is known in respect to the finding of them.

They were all discovered within the limits of Wisconsin—while the

Smithsonian specimens—less than one eighth as many, were

gleaned from eight different States. Nearly all of them have come

to light in eleven southeastern counties of Wisconsin. Only in

those counties has much search becn made.

Most of the Wisconsin coppers were brought together into one

collection by the zeal and perseverance of one single man, Freder-

ick S. Perkins of Racine county. Five years ago this gentleman,

though he had long been forming a museum of stone implements,

had never seen one of copper. On the 25th of November, 1871, he

was first shown such an antique. It was a large spear-head that

had been exhumed three miles north of his residence in Burling-

ton, Wisconsin. That November date marks the birthday of his

interest in copper—or his transition from the stone to the copper

age. His enthusiasm which had been great for the former became

greater for the the latter. He had leisure—or lie made it, to ride

over county after county on every road, waylaying every pedlar,

calling at every school, every store, at almost every house. He

advertised in newspapers, he threw tempting baits abroad on all

waters. He found what he sought, where noone else would have

looked for such a prize, and where many proved to him that it

could not be found. He has recorded the name and residence, by

county and town, of onehundred and twenty-one persons from

whom he obtained pre-historic coppers, as well as of three hun-

dred and twenty-five others who furnished him stone antiques, but

had no coppers to furnish. This record shows how thorough and

wide-spread were his researches. Indeed, although the Wisconsin

Historical Society has bought the bulk of his findings, some of them

102 WISCONSIN ACADEMY SCIENCES, ARTS, AND LETTERS.

are scattered far and wide. Five of them are in the Central Park

museum, others in the Metropolitan in New York, cthers I think

have enriched the Smithsonian. A further guestion which must

occur to every investigator, is, where were these implements ob-

tained by those from whom Mr. Perkins obtained them? On this

point my information is more scanty than it would be were not

Mr. Perkins now in Europe, and than it will be on his return.

Large numbers of the tools were turned up in plowing or hoeing.

Others at greater depth in digging foundations of houses or sink-

ing wells. Nota few have come to light in burial mounds close

by skeletons. In one such mound at Prairie du Chien an axe weigh-

ing two and seven-sixteenths pounds and eight inches long was

discovered lying ona large flint spade, fourteen feet below the top

of the mound, and seven feet below the level of the earth around,

and among human bones. Another axe, with other coppers, was

taken from a similar mound in Barron county. The only socket

spear-head which shows its rivet still in its place, was found on a

knoll in plowed land by James Driscollin May, 1874, at Lake Five,

Waukesha county. One knife was dug out of a mound by a dog

while hunting, in 1860,in Troy, Waukesha county. One chisel

was met with ten feet below the surface in cutting a road through

a bluff at Cedarburg, Ozaukee county, in 1871. One of the most

remarkable articles, a sort of copper pike, was dug up three feet

under ground on the bank of Pike Lake, Hartford, Washington

county, by Samuel Mowry in 1865. One massive celt, at first

turned up in Merton, Waukesha county, a pedlar had preserved

for twenty years. Several knives and other implements found near

lakes and rivers appear to have been washed out of their banks. A

lance-head found at Rubicon, Dodge county, in 1869, has a lump

or stud of silver on one side of it.

But we cannot fail to ask, ‘‘ who made these copper instruments?

was it Indians or some pre-Indian race?” It has been argued that

they are of pre-Indian origin because the skeletons with which

they are discovered in burial mounds are not of the Indian type,

but of a very different cranial development. Again, as the mounds,

multitudinous and often of vast size, are beyond Indian industry,

so the tools seem beyond Indian ingenuity. Most of them indeed,

are hammered, and so show copper used rather as a mineral than as

ametal. Others of the coppers betray no marks of hammering, no

COPPER TOOLS FOUND IN WISCONSIN. 103

laminations or flaws. Practical foundrymen detect on them mould-

marks where the halves of a flask united, and so declare them

smelted. Others they hold were run in a sand-mold. These indi-

cations of casting are plainest on the largest piercer and on one of

the chisels, except perhaps on certain implements which Mr. Per-

kins has carried abroad for the conversion to his views of trans-

Atlantic skeptics regarding our pre-historic metallurgy. All proofs

that our coppers were cast, tend to show that they are not the

handiwork of Indians.

Our early annals indicate that our copper implements were a pre-

Indian mauufacture. They testify that the earliest travelers in

Wisconsin found the Indians using copper, if at all, only for trin-

kets and totems, but not for implements either of war or of peace.

Thus La Salle on his last expedition through this region, well nigh

two centuries ago, says of the Indians: “The extremity of their

arrows is armed, instead of iron, with a sharp stone or the tooth of

some animal. Their buffalo-arrow is nothing else but a stone or

bone, or sometimes a piece of very hard wood.” Charlevoix, writ-

ing about 1720, mentions Indian “ hatchets of flint which take a

great deal of time to sharpen, as the only mode of cutting down

trees.” “To fix them in the handle,” says he, “they cut off the

head of a young tree, and make a notch in it in which they thrust

the head of the hatchet. After some time the tree by growing to-

gether keeps the hatchet so fixed that it cannot come out. They

then cut the tree to such a length as they would have the handle.”

‘Both their arrows and javelins,” he adds, ‘“‘ are armed with a point

of bone wrought in different shapes.” According to Hennepin

about 1680, (2.103) “the Indians, instead of hatchets and knives,

made use of sharp stones which they fastened in a cleft piece of

wood with leather thongs, and instead of awls they made a certain

sharp bone to serve.” The Jesuit Father Allouez, writing about

1660, says: I have seen in the hands of the savages, pieces of cop-

per weighing from ten to twenty pounds. They esteem them as

divinities or as presents made them by the gods. For this reason

they preserve them wrapped up with the most precious things, and

have sometimes kept them time out of mind.” In none of these

or other early chronicles do I find any mention of any copper tool

whatever. Pre-historic mines about Lake Superior are a proof that

our copper implements are not Indian work. No tradition of such

104 WISCONSIN ACADEMY SCIENCES, ARTS, AND LETTERS.

mines was brought to light by early adventurers among Indians.

But if excavated by them to such an extent as we see them, and for

ages, how could they have been given up and even forgotten? On

the whole the evidence now before us tends to show that our cop-

per tools are the work of some pre-Indian race. The success of Mr.

Perkins in unearthing coppers in unlooked for numbers should

raise up a legion of copper-hunters. For encouraging such investi-

gators still more, my last words shall be regarding the greater har-

vest than has crowned his labors which seems to me ripe for their

sickles.

Indieations are not wanting that our past prizes in copper-hunts,

are all as nothing to what is in store for us. Pre-historic mining-

pits honeycomb Isle Royal all over. Along the south shore of

Lake Superior they are frequent for a hundred miles. They were

every one rich pockets. Their yield of copper must have been

many times enough for sheathing the British navy. What has be-

come of this copper? It cannot have vanished like iron in oxidiz-

ing rust. 1t must still exist, and lurk all around us. At Assouan

the quarries prove to a stranger that Egypt must be rich in grani-

tic monoliths, for there we see the rock whence they were hewn.

Spanish treasure-ships sunk in the Carribbean ages ago, still teach

divers where to ply their sub-marine machinery for richest spoils.

In Greece, the Styx, and other catabothra, or lost rivers—emptying

into subterranean abysses, suggested to the ancients streams that

girdled the whole undereworld. So our mining shafts sunk time

out of mind are a prophecy and an assurance of copper bon-

anzas for explorers in the future so vast as will make us utterly for-

get whatever has been discovered. All hail such 2 ressurrection of

the copper age. The longer it has been lost the more welcome will

it be when found again.

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EXPLORATION OF INDIAN MOUNDS. 105

REPORT OF COMMITTEE ON EXPLORATION OF IN-

DIAN MOUNDS.

The committee, on exploration of Indian mounds in the vicinity

of Madison, Wisconsin, have the honor to report, that they have

explored three mounds.

These mounds are situated upon the crest of the peculiar ridge

of glacial drift, which separates Lakes Monona and Wingra, known

as Dead Lake Ridge.

Mound No. 1 is pear-shaped, and runs‘east 30 degrees north, by

west 30 degrees south, being in this direction 78 feet long and

in a line through center, perpendicular to this, 55 feet.

eg at center and proceeding inward, alternate layers of

mould and clay, very dry and compact, were

penetrated to a depth of six feet, then a layer

of gravel, a foot thick in center, gradually re-

deems to four inches in thickness at the base:

having the natural slope of gravel thrown down

at center. ‘To this succeeded alternate layers

of clay and mould to a depth of nine and one-

half feet from the surface to the natural sur-

face, (see Figs. 1 and 2;) a. represents mould,

b. clay, and c. gravel. The penetration was

carried three feet below the natural surface

threngh layers of boulders and coarse gravel.

A fire-place, 2x24 feet, with a layer of charcoal

Nand ashes four inches in thickness, was found

at a depth of five feet. In this was a piece of cloth partially

burnt, which for the most part crumbled to pow-

der on exposure to the air. A small piece was

preserved. Both on the north and south sides, frag-

ments of bones occurred at three to five feet from sur_

face in an advanced stage of decomposition. A chert

arrow-head was found three feet below surface

opposite the center on the north side. In the

center at two feet above natural surface were ob-

tained, nearly broken down by decomposition,

the femurs, tibize and fibule of a single skeleton corresponding to

a height of six and one-half feet in the living subject.

106 WISCONSIN ACADEMY SCIENCES, ARTS, AND LETTERS.

Mound No. 2, (see Figs. 3 and 4,) is a round mound 40 feet in di-

ameter, and sloping to the base of No.1. The

line joining their centers runs east 30 degrees

south, by west 30 degrees north, and is 64 feet

long. In opening this mound obscure alterna-

tions of mould and clay were pierced to a depth

of 83 feet.

Two fire-places were found, one at 3 feet, and

the other at 5 feet below surface. Dimensions

the same in each, 3 by 6 feet. In the lower one

was partially burnt bone in the ashes. At 6 feet

were found some pieces of pottery and a bundle

of bones, consisting of fragments of four or more

skeletons inatolerably good state of preservation,

corresponding to heights from 5 feet 8 inches to

6 feet 6 inches in the living subject. Photo-

graphs are transmitted herewith, which give

forms of two crania secured.

Mound No. 3 is alow mound about 200 yards

south of No.2, on the same ridge, forming a

mere swell upon the surface. About 2 feet below the surface, in

the center, occurred partially decomposed bones of a single skele-

ton. Below that the mould and clay of natural surface.

Comparative measurement of crania, above referred to, as being

found in Mound No. 2.

Description. No. 1.} No. 2

NGonertucumall diameter). ge mw ale ele nje le cles one)al ayaa letetePereier er gimpsisieye =e Peay | 6.4 6.5

Mantels poamete heal ae tee. yer oie et overe @ «ahs ciel ete he etaie hte UenEI-Ran Stet =f mete atisee b)2) 5.

Acre nella 4 Ue oto it SA EPPA IOD OIE ONS Nobo dc albin as Goma aTOOOIE 5) 6.0

IRON, sdoaccuges COUR OUD Co OMeUUnboS aot adod co sded uo GHomadin 4.2 4.5

Enternaastordanchampnierin ice sceiiatetnegdepaenibtetterete mya iaeln acheter 14.9} 15.0

lintel lmascdo gees sooPeesuen donb eodadAAnogs bode aaerE oc 4.1 4.2

Occipitotrontalgar cl sees eine oleh) o/c a1 sitehe el dette elanteiertensyefe meters 12.0} 12.5

Horizontal periphery........... tana 4 Me ate ierosi ese iaimbncetayan tue fe iors” 19 6 | 20.2

IDEOIL sas 5 aoe Yooduenesbogbooosdoencusoeencdonolddoneas 70° 750

Imternalicapactiye cei m eet: erlecniaci elite ee rirn tet. alter 81 85

Plan. of Mound No. 2,

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Fig.

Section of Mound No. 2.

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107

EXPLORATION OF INDIAN MOUNDS.

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ats

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ania No. 1.)

(Cr

108 WISCONSIN ACADEMY SCIENCES, ARTS, AND LETTERS.

(Crania No, 2.)

EXPLORATION OF INDIAN MOUNDS. 109

The committee have not thought it advisable to do more in this

report than to state the mere facts of the exploration, leaving to

individual members of the academy the opportunity of pointing

out the bearing of these facts.

The thanks of the committee are due Messrs. Delaplaine and

Burdick, on whose lands the explored mounds are located, for per-

mission to open them, to Mr. James KR. Stuart, artist, for assistance

in superintending the exploration, and to Mr. N. B. Van Slyke,

chairman of the executive committee of the Board of Regents of

the State University, for furnishing tools and workmen from the

university farm.

Photographs of the arrow-head, cloth, pottery, and crania, two of

the pottery and three of the others, with four drawings of mounds

Nos. 1 and 2, and an account of expenditures are herewith trans-

mitted, as also the specimens of the first three articles named.

Respectfully submitted.

W. J. L. NICODEMUS,

J. B. FEULING,

ROLAND D. IRVING,

I. A. LAPHAM,

G. P. DELAPLAINE.

M apison, W1s., Nov. 18, 1874.

110 WISCONSIN ACADEMY SCIENCES, ARTS, AND LETTERS.

THE LAW OF EMBRYONIC DEVELOPMENT—THE SAME

IN PLANTS AS IN ANIMALS.

BY I. A. LAPHAM, LL.D.

It is now generally admitted that there is a law in the animal

kingdom, that the young or embryonic state of the higher orders,

of animals resemble the full grown animals of the lower orders.

As examples of this law we have the tadpole, which is a young

frog with gills and a tail, resembling the fishes which stand lower

in the scale than the reptiles; and the caterpillar, which has the

characteristics of a worm, but which is the immature state of the

higher class butterflies.

The discovery of this important law, and its application to par-

ticular cases, has been one of the causes of the recent rapid pro-

gress in the study of the animal kingdom; it has enabled natural-

ists to determine the proper place of certain species in the grand

scale of beings, and thus to correct their systems of classification;

it has enabled geologists to decide upon the relative age of rocks in

some otherwise doubtful cases. It has also given occasion for much

speculation, which may have its use in directing the attention of

men to the wonderous works of the Creator.

It is the purpose of this letter to show, as briefly as possible, that

the same law of resemblance between the immature of one order,

and the mature of a lower order of animals,is equally true in the

vegetable kingdom, where its study may hereafter lead to results of

equal importance.

To understand what follows it will be necessary to recall certain

facts respecting the growth, development, organs, etc., of plants of

the higher orders.

They grow from seed planted in the ground, have roots, stem,

branches, leaves; they produce flowers with calyx and corolla, and

the more essential organs—stamens and pistils; they bear fruit with

seed after their kind, which, when planted, swell and become other

plants.

THE LAW OF EMBRYONIC DEVELOPMENT. 111

The stamens have, at the top, a sack, (the anther,) completely

filled with grains, (Fig. 2,) nicely packed; each of which proves on

examination to be a smaller sack, (the pollen,) filled with a viscous

fluid matter, in which is floating exceedingly small grains, called

fovilla.

These are all essential organs in the re-production of plants, and

must perform their functions before the seed can be matured. We

may increase and multiply plants by layers, cuttings, budding, etc.,

but to re-produce a new plant, the agency of the stamens, pollen,

and fovilla, as well as of the seed, is needed.

Under a good microscope this fovilla may be seen in any ripe

pollen-grains, but the particles are among the most minute things

-we are called upon to examine, requiring the higher powers of the

instrument even to see them; and what seems truly wonderful,

these minute particles are found to have a proper motion of their

own. hey move forward, backward, or side-ways, but never make

much progress in any direction; the motion appears to be object-

less, like that of an animal seeking food.

The cause of this motion is not known; it is called molecular

motion, and may be the effect of some chemical action, but is more

probably due to the mysterious vital force.

From the bottom of ponds of stagnant water, and [from springy

places, we may bring up plants so minute that no unaided human

eye has ever seen them; they consist of a single cell; they are the

smallest and the very lowest grade of plant-life, the Desmidece, and

yet they are full-grown plants. They never grow to be. anything

else; they are only Desmidece, and nothing more. They are true

plants, and not animals, as was once supposed.

These minute, though fuli-grown plants, will be found actually

moving forward and backward and sidewise; making no progress;

appearing to have no aim, no object; precisely like the little par-

ticle of fovilla from the'pollen-grains of the highest orders of plants.

Here, then, we have the first proof of the existence of the law in

the vegetable kingdom; the wonderful motion, both of the full-

crown plant of the lowest vegetable race, and of the particles, which

may be regarded as one of the first steps toward the reproduction

of the plants of the highest type.

Arctic and Alpine travelers report the snow as sometimes red,

and we know that our stagnant waters aresometimes green. These

a2, WISCONSIN ACADEMY SCIENCES, ARTS, AND LETTERS.

colors are found, upon close examination, to be owing to other

minute one-celled plants, called Protococcus.

They are little sacks or cells, contaming particles of a brilliant

Se carmine red, or a beautiful green color. Hach particle

within the cell is destined to become a new plant, and then

again to give origin to others.

The analogy between these full-grown plants of an exceedingly

low grade and the pollen-grains of a rose, standing at or near

the head of the plant-kingdom, is at once apparent. They Ei

contain particles (fovilla) destined to the same office of re- @

production. One wood-cut serves to represent both.

The Botrydium (Fig. 3) may be deemed a plant only a little

higher than the Protococcus. It consists like that.

of a single cell; but this cell sends down a tube

which is often branched, extending off in various.

directions, very much lke roots in search of vege-.

~~ table food. The cell proper is filled as usual with.

dA f gi () the reproductive particles, and some of the branches.

4 become enlarged, (as shown in the figure,) develop:

other particles, and soon separate to form new plants of the same:

kind.

In this, and in many similar full-grown plants of the lower orders,

there is a very striking correspondence with the pollen-grains after

they have fallen upon the stigma, and developed the pollen-

tubes, (Fig. 4.) In both cases we have a cell with a tube ex-

tending downwards from one side, with the vegetable par-

ticles and fovilla; and in both, these minute bodies are sup-

posed to pass down the tube to perform their office of origi-

nating a new plant.

Here, again, the full grown Botrydium corresponds with

the embryonic pollen-tubes of higher plants, and we have a

third proof of the existence of the law.

‘| Fungi are plants of a higher grade than the Algz, the Protococcus ,.

and Botrydium. Instead of a single cell, they consist of an aggre-

gation of cells; and they produce a number of little cases or sacks,

filled with grains called spores.

shatter

Fig. 1. Protococcus. Fig. 2. Pollen-grain.

Fig. 3. Botrydium. Fig. 4. Pollen-tube.

THE LAW OF EMBRYONIC DEVELOPMENT. ans

Here (Fig. 5) is a figure of the mould that grows upon bread in

adamp cellar. It consists of a single stem, made up

of cells placed one upon another, and a single globu-

lar spore-case at the top.® The spores are liberated when

ripe, and blown to the four quarters of the world,

by the wind. Wherever they ‘alight, (circumstances

_being favorable, as bread in a damp cellar,) they

grow and become mould/again.

Compare this, which is one of the lowest of the

fungi, with a stamen (Fig. 6) growing in one of the most perfect

of flowers. It has its filament (stem) supporting a case or sack (the

anther) filled with pollen-grains, (which I compare with the

2 spores of the fungi,) and which, when fully mature, are liber-

ated and scattered about by the wind, or are carried by in-

6 || sects. Under favorable circumstances (falling upon the stig_

ma) they also grow and become new plants.

These examples are sufficient for the present purpose; they

show clearly the existence of this important law in the vege-

table as well as in the animal kingdom.

Many similar analogies might be found throughout the whole

course of vegetable life, had we time to pursue the subject.

We have here one more connecting link between the two great

kingdoms of organized nature; and another proof of the unity of

design of the Creator.

Fig. 5. Mucor, (mould.)

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DEPARTMENT OF

TTD GE STD Toe

TITLES OF PAPERS READ BEFORE THIS DAPARTMENT

Studies in Comparative Grammar, by J. B. Fruuine, Pu. D., Professor of

Comparative Philology, in the University of Wisconsin.

Department of Letters.

STUDIES IN COMPARATIVE GRAMMAR.

BY J. B. FEULING, Ph. D.,

Professor of Modern Languages and Comparative Philology, in the University of

Wisconsin.

1.—SOME WEAK VERBS IN THE GERMANIC DIALECTS.

A few weak verbs in the 1st class in ia (j) present some peculi-

arities due to euphonic changes, on account of which most gram-

marians class them with the “irregular” verbs, or place them with

the modal auxiliaries (praeterito-praesentia) in the mixed conjuga-

tion, because “they unite in themselves something of the features

of the strong and weak verbs.” See Earle, Philology of the Eng-

lish Tongue, p. 246. Dr. F. A. March classifies correctly those of

the Anglo-Saxon dialect in his A. 8. Grammar (209), though follow-

ing tradition he mentions them again among the so-called irregular

verbs, (216). They are also correctly classified by Dr. 8. H. Carpen-

ter, in his “Introduction to the Study of the Anglo-Saxon Lan-

guage.” In the “ Transactions of the American Philological Asso-

ciation, 1872, (Article IX, ‘Some irregular verbs in Anglo-Saxon’’)

Dr. March has given an explanation of these verbs. A comparison

with the other dialects shows not only the correctness of Dr.

March’s views, but also the fact that there is nothing anomalous

in the conjugation of these verbs. All dialects have in common

the syncope of the derivative 7 (7, e) in the preterite, and the letter-

changes incident to this syncope are in harmony with the euphoniec

laws of the respective dialects.

In Gothic these verbs are: briggan for braggjan, to bring; brak-

jan, to use, want; bugjan, to buy; katpatjan for katlpatjan;

118 WISCONSIN ACADEMY SCIENCES, ARTS, AND LETTERS.

varkjan, to work; thagkjan, to think; thuggkjan or thugkjan, videri.

Thed of the preterite-suffix da can only stand after n, 1, / and z, (the

only exceptions are: gahugds, ajukduths); it changes to ¢ after ¢

which becomes s, and after , g which become h, hence gd and

kd—ht, td—=st. The nasal g (n) disappears before h, which causes

the lengthening of the preceding vowel. The preterite of these

verbs is, therefore, as follows: brdhta <braghta <braggda <brag-

gida; brithta <brikta <brikda <brikida; bathta <bugta <bugda

<bugida, short u before h (r) has the breaking aw; katpasta <kat-

patta <katipatda <katpatida; vatrhta; thahta <thdkta <thdkda

<thag(nJkda <thagkida; thahta for thugkida> thugkda, ete. The

consonant-changes are due partly to assimilation, partly to dissimi-

lation. In briggan (root brag, ef. fra-n-go), the 7 is a weakening of

the originala. Inthe other dialects the derivative 7 (7) caused Um-

laut in the present which remained after the j had disappeared

(after stems long by nature or position) by syncope as in Old High

German, or by assimilation as in the Anglo-Saxon. Butin the pre-

terite Riick-umlaut takes place on account of the syncopated 7, which

vowel-change, in addition to the consonant-changes, forms the

peculiar characteristic of these verbs. This vowel-change is not

the Ablaut, as some grammarians teach. ;

Old High German—prenkan (prinkan), pret. prahta, p. p. praht.

This verb belonged originally to the strong conjugation, (Class

XII, Grimm), for we find the following forms: prank, prunkumés,

prunkan; in the Gothic documents strong forms do not oceur. Its

present stem was formed with the infix -na-, shortened -n-, which

was originally a suffix. This verb is an example of a primitive

verb in the transition-period to the weak conjugation, and Language

remained conscious of its primitive character in retaining the strong

form which occurs for the pret. participle in the dialects of New

High German. Denchan (thenkan), pret. ddhta, p. p daht and

denchit; dunchan, dithta, dtht; furhtan or forhtan, forhta, forht

and furhtit; wurchan (wirchan), worhta, worht and wurchit (wurht).

Old High German rejects the Umlaut of «; forhta and worhta have ~

weakened ~ into 0 on account of the following a, but when the

succeeding syllable has 2, the original w reappears in the root, hence

Surhtit and wurchit.

In Middle High German the vowels 7 and w are sheltered by the

liquids m and n, followed by another consonant. While the Um-

STUDIES IN COMPARATIVE GRAMMAR. 119

laut wis unknown in Old High German, it appears in Middle High

German without excluding entirely « (0); we observe therefore a

fluctuation between w (0) and. Bringen, brdhte, brdht; the strong

forms branq, brungen are occasionally found in documents of the

twelfth century. The strong pret. participle ge-brunge(n) by the

side of gebrocht for gebracht is found in dialects of New High Ger-

man. Denken, ddhte, ge-daht (gedenkt, New High German patois);

dunken, dihte (dunkte). gedtht (gedunket); viirhten, vurhten, vorh-

ten, pret. vorhie, p. p. gevorht, geviirhtet, gevorhten; the o flattened

into d(d), continues in New High German patois. Warken, wurken,

wirken, pret. worhte, (warhte) wurhte, p. p. geworht, gewurht, ge-

wiirket.

In Anglo-Saxon the a has weakened into 2, as in Gothic, e.g.

bringan. The 7, not only original, but also weakened, passes into

e, hence the form brengan, by the side of bringan; the ein brengan

might be considered as the Umlaut of the original a, on account

of the syncopated derivative 7. I prefer, however, to take e asa

weakening of 7, because this verb does not seem to have established

itself entirely as a weal verb, as indicated by the existence of the

strong forms brang, brungon. It forms the preterite bréhte, not

brohte, as the comparison with other dialects shows. Although the

Anglo-Saxon 6 is identical with the Gothic 6, it corresponds here to

the Gothic @; an interchange between 6 and 4 is peculiar to Anglo-

Saxon (Low German.) In bycgan the y is Umlaut of the original

u, which passes into oin the preterite. The consonant combination

eg represents the gemination of g, which takes place before a

syncopated j according to Holtzmann, Altdeutsche Grammatik, p.

919, 5. But it is preferable to assume an assimilation of the deri-

vated j to the preceding g: bygjan> byggan> bycgan. This deri-

vative g (assimilated 7) is dropped before the suffix of the preterite,

which causes the reappearance of the original w—weakened 0:

boc(q )-de> boc-te>boh-te; the sonant d is assimilated to the surd

c, and “when two mutes come together, one of them often becomes

continuous for more easy utterance.” Of hycgan <hygjan we

should expect, after the analogy of bohte, the preterite hohte, but

we find hygde or hogde. It formed the preterite from the unassim-

ilated hyg-jan either without Riick-umlaut hygde, or with Riick-

umlaut hogde (hugde); in either case it dropped the derivative J,

being treated as a stem long by position. If it had formed the pre-

120 WISCONSIN ACADEMY SCIENCES, ARTS, AND LETTERS.

terite from the assimilated hycgan, we would have hycde> hycte>

hyhte, which could not have been distinguished from hyhte, the

preterite of hyhtan, to hope. It is evident that hogde with the

Riick-umlaut is a later form than hygde, if not, there is no reason

why we should not have hohte. The cognate hogjan (Class II.),

pret. hogéde, may have been the cause, that hygde adopted Riick-

umlaut. In thyncan the y is Umlaut of wu; in the preterite Riick-

umlaut takes place; thahte <thicte <thuncte. In wyrcan the y is

Umlaut of 0, weakened from uw; as y and 7 are interchanged, we

find sometimes wircan, which has the breaking weorcan, but wircan

and weorcan are bad spelling, for while y might always replace 7,

the reverse could happen only after it had been forgotten that y

was the Umlaut of u (0). In the preterite the original vowel reap-

pears regularly, as worcte>worhte; the o is therefore not the effect

of the h, as Dr. March assumes in the article above mentioned, (p.

112, 3); for the original yi would have the breaking eo. The

lecgan and secgan arise through assimilation and umlaut from

lagjan and sagjan. As the derivative j (g), Anglo-Saxon e, disap-

pears in the preterite of stems long by nature or position, which

causes Riick-umlaut,—the preterite of these verbs is “lagede,*sagede

>laegde, saegde, contra., laéde, saéde; ae is the regular weakening

of a. The e in segede, legde is bad spelling for ae.

In Old Norse we observe similar euphonic changes, e. g. sockja

from sékja, oe (ae) being umlaut of ¢, forms the preterite with

Riick-umlaut sétta. We should expect sékta, tor kt never assimi-

lates into tf, as Helfenstein says; but as & represents an original h,

which with ¢ assimilates into tt, the form sdtta is entirely regular.

In Old Swedish we find sékt by the side of sott. In yrkja y is

the umlaut of o (a); its preterite is orta and orkta (varkta). Of

three consonants one is sometimes dropped, cf. mart for margt;

morni for morgni, apni for aptni; thykkja or thykja, kk—nk, pret.

thétta from théhta< tkok(n)hta; thekkja, e is the umlaut of a,

pret. thdtta from thahta<thok(n )hta.

2.—THE USE OF THE INFINITIVE OF MODAL VERBS INSTEAD OF THE

PRETERITE PARTICIPLE IN NEW HIGH GERMAN,

Fred. Miinch, a well known German-American writer, advanced

lately the opinion that it was a blunder to say, “ich habe es tun

konnen,” instead of “ich habe es tun gekonnt.” In reference to

STUDIES IN COMPARATIVE GRAMMAR. 191

this construction I found in Professor Whitney’s German Grammar,

p. 109, the following note: ‘This is asimple grammatical anomaly,

an original blunder of construction, though now sanctioned by

universal use; it was apparently caused by the influence of the

other neighboring infinitive, which attracted the auxiliary into a

correspondence of form with itself.” It will appear from the fol-

lowing remarks, that the infinitive is not an ‘“‘original blunder of

construction,” but represents the ancient preterite participle.

1. The prefix ge was originally not a necessary element in the

formation of the Germanic preterite participle. Afterwards some

dialects used or omitted it as special prefix to the pret. part. It is

a characteristic feature of the German and English languages, that

Middle German developed the tendency to adopt this prefix, and

Middle English (1100 to about 1250) to drop it, after it had been

weakened to z(y); yet it continued to hold its ground for some

time; cf. Corson’s Note to “The Legende of Goode Women,” Prol. —

v.6. In the Nibelungenlied the participles braht, komen, laszen

(/én) never take ge, so that in M. H. German the context decides,

whether komen, etc., stand in the infinitive or in the pret. parti-

ciple.

2. The verbs diirfen, kénnen, mégen, méiszen, sollen, wollen are

originally strong preterites, but later used as presents, after their

own present had been lost (praeterito-praesentia). The strong pret.

participle took the place of the infinitive and was replaced by the

formation of a weak participle. It is probable, that the dialects,

those faithful wardens of ancient forms of speech, retained the

original participle with the former freedom to omit the prefix ge,

as often as an infinitive preceded it, so that in the sentence, “ich babe

es tun kénnen,” kénnen is not the infinitive, but the old participle.

Cf. Grimm, D. W, vol. v., p. 74.

3. Owing to a false analogy the verbs héren, lehren, lernen, laszen,

heiszen, sehen, employ the infinitive instead of the participle, when

preceded by another infinitive. The last three verbs could easily

be “attracted” by the neighboring infinitive, because their partici-

ple, the prefix ge being omitted, is identical with the infinitive. It

is, however, a better usage, to employ the participle of the verbs

lehren and lernen in such a construction.

{ , ¢ Seis sah T \ f yi :

We f ”

X ; r zt \ A “#4

4 \ i es

as eA cone a ie

v te yw

oad ¥ Merv eet

: a atuahehigett e epvrenany

; pe At, bad ee HOO hi

‘ aaah AM ae PEN NR Sh at BAG

: ~ ’ f

oF ‘ ie

aN Uneaes ag

rh erry

y f

Mi tothe

: be gi]

3 vp

yret)

‘

ema Pe

vis

DEPARTMENT OF

mOElOLl Go -OLLELCAL SCLETLCES:

TH oO me ©

TITLES OF PAPERS READ BEFORE THIS DEPARTMENT.

. United States Sovereignty; whence derived and where vested. By W. F. At-

LEN, A. M., Professor of History and Latin in the University of Wisconsin.

. Formal Commendation of Government Officials. By J. W. Hoyt, M. D.

. Industrial Education. By Rey. F. M. Houuanp, Baraboo.

. The People and the Rail Roads. By Rey. C. Caverno, Lombard, Illinois.

. The Boa Constrictor of Politics. By Rev. F. M. HoLtuanp.

. The Revolutionary Movementamong Women. By Dr. J. W. Hoy7, President

of the Academy.

Department of Social and Political

Science.

UNITED STATES SOVEREIGNTY—WHENCE DERIVED,

AND WHERE VESTED.

BY W.F. ALLEN, A. M.,

Professor of History and Latin in the University of Wisconsin.

The late war brought to an end the long and fierce controversy

as to the nature of the Federal Union. What argumeut had not

been able to decide, was decided by arms; and the United States

are recognized as a Nation, possessed of sovereignty. With the

determination of this controversy, however, another question has

coms into prominence, as to the origin of thissovereignty. Before

the ar it was commonly held that the act which severed the col-

onies from the mother country had as its effect the creation of

thirteen independent and sovereign States; and that it was not

until the formation of the Federal Constitution that sovereignty

was conferred upon the central government. This doctrine, how-

ever, of the original sovereignty of the States, has been thought to

afford some foundation for the doctrine of Secession. Some of the

most ardent advocates, therefore, of the national and sovereign

character of our Union, have, since the war, brought into great

prominence the theory that the Nation was not created by the

States, but the States by the Nation; that the States were never,

in any true sense of the term, sovereign, but that the act of inde-

pendence created at once a sovereign Nation. This view has been

most fully elaborated in a series of articles in the first volume (1865)

of the Nation, by Hon. Geo. P. Marsh, United States minister to

Italy; it is presented also by Professor Pomeroy in his “ Introduc-

tion to Constitutional Law.” In this work the authority of Ham-

126 WISCONSIN ACADEMY SCIENCES, ARTS, AND LETTERS

ilton, Jay, Marshall, Story and Webster is claimed for this theory.

I do not think, however, that Marshall and Webster can fairly be

cited as its adherents. Mr. Pomeroy has given no citations in sup-

port of his view, and on the other hand both these jurists have ex-

pressed themselves unequivocally in favor of the original sovereignty

of the States. Webster says, of the Confederation: “it wasa league,

and nothing but a league.”* Chief Justice Marshalls’ language is:

‘it has been said, that they [the States under the Confederation |

were sovereign, were completely independent, and were connected

with each other only by aleague. This is true.”+

Admitting, therefore, that the one theory has in its behalf the

authority of Jay, Hamilton, Story and Kent, the other has the

equally high authority of Marshall, Madison and Webster. We

may. therefore, where authorities disagree, proceed to examine the

arguments with perfect freedom from bias. The question is emi-

nently an historical one—that is, a question of facts, not of theory,

Sovereignty being the supreme power to command, it is simply a

question of fact what organization was found in possession of

this power, when it ceased to be exercised by Great Britain.

It requires no argument to show that before the Revolution the

colonies were absolutely dependent upon Great Britain; whatever

powers of government they severally possessed was in virtue purely

of sufferance or explicit grant, on the part of the mother country.

It is equally clear that the colonies were connected with one an-

other by no crganic bond. There was no government of the united

colonies; each colony had its own government; and if sometimes,.

for the convenience of administration, two or more colonies were

united under the same royal governor, this was simply an adminis-

trative union—one official managing two independent governments.

at a time, not a single government resulting from the fusion or

union of two individual ones. There were thirteen organized com-.

munities, standing in a condition of coequal dependence upon the

government of Great Britain. This tie of dependence was severed

by the Deciaration of Independence, July 4, 1776, sustained, as this

act was, by armed force.

Two points fall here under consideration: first, the power which

severed the tie; second, the logical effects of the act of severance.

*Speech on ‘ The Constitution not a Compact,’’ Works, iii. 454.

+Ogden vs. Gibbons, 9 Wheaton, 187.

UNITED STATES SOVEREIGNTY. 197

First, the power that performed the act of severance was the

Continental Congress. But by what authority, and in virtue of

what delegation of power did the Continental Congress act? Was

the Congress the organ of the several States, or of the ‘“ people at

large” (to use Mr. Marsh’s expression)?* ‘To answer this question,

which rests at the bottom of the argument, we must trace briefly

the history of this Congress.

In the year 1764, upon motion of James Otis, the General Court

of Massachusetts passed a resolution proposing to the other colo-

nies to form a union for the purpose of resisting the acts of the

British government. This proposition was accepted, first by Vir-

ginia, then by the other colonies. The Congress met the next

year (1765), and shortly afterward, as a result of the spirit thus

manifested, the Stamp Act was repealed. The Second Continental

Congress met in 1774, called in a precisely similar manner. In

both cases the members of the Congress were elected by the several

colonies, and in both cases it was only a portion of the colonies—

nine the first time, twelve the second—that were represented. Now

so long as Georgia staid away, it is clear that not “the people at

large of the United States,” but only the people of twelve colonies,

were engaged in formal acts of resistance. In the assembly thus

composed of delegates from the several colonies, the colonies voted

as such; no measure was adopted by a majority of votes, as would

have been the case if they had been considered to represent the

people at large; a majority of the colonies must always decide. It

was by colonies that the Declaration of Independence was passed,

and in this document the several colonies are declared to be “ free

and independent States.”

Let us pause a moment upon this word “State,” which thus

makes its appearance in our political vocabulary. The great con-

venience of having a different term to denote the units which com-

pose our federal government from that which designates the federal

government itself, has established, in American constitutional law,

a fundamental difference in the meaning of the respective terms.

By State we understand a political organization inferior to the Naticn.

But this distinction is peculiar to American public law. Tie two

terms are originally identical in meaning, or rather in application;

being applied indifferently to the same object, but from different

Rie M INN GSN oerTRONadonl Noles) SOP tay

128 WISCONSIN ACADEMY SCIENCES, ARTS, AND LETTERS.

points of view. A State is, in public law, a Nation, regarded from

the point of view of its organization; a Nation is a State, regarded

from the point of view of its individuality. We must not, there-

fore, suppose that when the colonies, in 1876, declared themselves

to be free and independent States, they attributed to the word State

the same inferiority which we now associate with the word. They

understood by it, a sovereign political organization. That they

selected this term, rather than Nation, is no doubt partly due to

its expressing more distinctly the idea of organization; partly, I

am ready to admit, to the feeling that Nation was a larger term,

and that a higher organization, which should embrace all these

individuals in one whole, was destined to result. Nay, we meet the

term Nation very early, as applied to the united body.

That the Congress considered itself as acting as the organ of the

colonies or States, and not of the people at large, appears mani-

fest from the language habitually used. On the tenth of May,

1776 Congress resolved to “recommend” to the “respective assemblies

and conventions of the United Colonies,” to form permanent goy-

ernments. August 21, of the same year, it made use of the ex-

pression: ‘‘ All persons not members of, nor owing allegiance to

any of the United States of America,”’—showing that allegiance

was regarded as due to the several States. Its constant title for

itself was “the United States in Congress assembled "—a term

which plainly recognizes that the United States, as an organized

body, has no existence except in the Congress, which Congress, as

we have seen, acted purely as the organ of the several States.

I pass now to the nature and effect of the act of severance.

This act was in the first place purely negative in its intrinsic

character. It simply put an end toa certain previously existing

relation—that by which the colonies individually depended upon

the British sovereignty. The relations of the several colonies to

one another could not be affected by it. If before the act they

formed a united, organized body, this united body, in virtue of the

act of independence, succeeded to the sovereignty surrendered by

the mother country; if they were individual and disconnected be-

fore, they remained so after the act, and each individual passed into

the full enjoyment of sovereignty. :

Now I have shown first, that before the revolution the colonies

had no organic connection with one another, but only with the

UNITED STATES SOVEREIGNTY. 129

mother country; second, that the union which they formed for pur-

poses of resistance professed to be nothing but a voluntary, incom-

plete and temporary association, with only limited and temporary

aims, possessing none of the essentials of a permanent government,

capable, it is true, of developing into a complete sovereignty, but in

all its acts and words appearing as notitself an organic body,

but the representative of certain organie bodies. ‘The United

States in Congress assembled,” made no claim to individual or in-

denendent existence, but acted avowedly asa mere intermediary or

instrument of joint action for organisms which did possess individ-

ual existence. And this practical independence accrued to the se-

veral colonies simply from the fact that. upon the severance of the

tie which connected them severally tothe mother country,each was

left standing legally alone; and, standing alone,having no legal supe-

rior, but possessing a complete and adequate organization of its own,

each colony passed into the undisputed enjoyment of sovereignty.

Neither before nor after the commencement of the revolution,

therefore, did there exist any united organic body which could

supersede the several colonies, and assert a claim to the lapsed sov-

erelgnty of Great Britain. Andif this is true for the per‘od of in-

choate nationality which intervened between the first acts of resist-

ance and the practical establishment of independence, still mere is

it true for the ensuing period of the Confederation. It needs no

argument to show that the States were at this time recognized as

fully and exclusively sovereign; its Articles explicitly provide

‘that each state retains its sovereignty and power which is not by

this Confederation expressly delegated to the United States in Con-

gress assembled.” All that can be said in opposition to this view is

that this was a‘ palpable usurpation,*” set on foot during this

“embryonic or inchoate periody”; and their arguments plainly

imply that they understand the Articles of Confederation

to represent a different phase of national life from the Dee-

laration of Independence, and as regniring therefore to be

construed from a different point of views; they were adopted

by Congress sixteen munths lJat-rthan the other ee‘, (Nov.

15, 1777.) and in this period of time, it is hinted, the ‘flow

of enthusiasm.” nnder which the united act of independ-nce had

* Pomeroy, p. 48. 7~Mr. Marsh, in the Nation, No. 1.

9 WAS

130 WISCONSIN ACADEMY SCIENCES, ARTS, AND LETTERS.

been accomplished, ‘ receded,” and selfish and local prejudices took

its place. Now, if the Articles of Confederation were:really drawn

up ayear and ahalf after the Declaration of Independence, this

reasoning would have much weight. But the date here given is

only that of the adoption of the articles by Congress. They were

reported to Congress July 1%, 1776, just a week after the Declara-

tion—the preliminary steps, indeed, were taken in June, before the

passage of the act of independence. It is therefore perfectly legit-

imate to interpret the act of independence in the light of the goy-

ernment which was established after it. The two acts were to all

intents and purposes parts of one and the same act. In the very

act of declaring their independence, the States formed themselves

into a Federal Union; and in this Union the several States were ex-

plicitly declared to be independent and sovereign; from which it

necessarily follows that the Union thus formed, was, in Webster's

words, ‘‘a league and nothing but a league.”

Tt will be seen that the whole controversy turns upon the period

between the suspension of the royal authority and the establish-

ment of the confederation. While the royal anthority continued

to be recognized, sovereignty of course belonged to Great Britain;

after the establishment of the Confederation, it as manifestly be-

longed to the several States. Was there an interval during which

it was possessed by the United Colonies? Mr. Marsh says:* * it

was not fora moment imagined that the sovereignty was in the

interim lodged anywhere except in the whole people of the United

Colonies.” But he brings ne facts to prove this assertion.

At the beginning of this discussion it was remarked that the

question was essentially an historical one, and must find its decis-

ion in historical facts—that is, in the series of events by which

the sovereignty was transferred from Great Britain to the United

States; and I think I have shown that, as a matter of fact, this

transfer was not made at one stroke, but that the sovereignty was

actually possesed for a while by the several States, before it was

transferred by a deliberate act to the nation. There remain, how-

ever, some theoretical objections to this view, which it will be ne-

cessary to consider.

Mr. Pomeroy states these theoretical objections in the tollowing

strong terms: “Grant that in the beginning the several states

* The Nation. No. 21.

UNITED STATES SOVEREIGNTY. eel

were, in any true sense independent sovereignties, and I see no

escape from the extreme positions reached by Mr. Calhoun.”* No

arguments are presented in support of this startling assertion, ex-

cept the doctrine that among the attributes of sovereignty, “the

one which underlies all others, and is, in fact, necessarily implied

in the very conception of separate nationality, is that of supreme

continued self-existence. This inherent right can only be destroyed

by overwhelming opposing fore2; it crano$ ba permanently parted

with by any constitution, treaty, league, or bargain, which shall

forever completely resign or essentially limit their sovereignty, and

restrain the people from asserting it.” There is no attempt made

to prove this doctrine; it rests simply npon Mr. Pomeroy’s assertion,

backed by references to the works of half a dozen European pub-

liests. According to this doctrine Texas was never annexed; if the

United States had conquered her, and forced her into the Union,

her status would have been a legal one; but as she came in volun-

tarily, surrendering her sovereignty and individual existence, the act

was null and void. According to this doctrine the act of union by

which, in 1708, England and Scotland surrendered their individual

sovereignty, and united into the new sovereignty of Great Britain,

was an impossible act; and Scotland might now, if she chose, re-es-

tablish her Parliament at Elinburgh, and crown a Presbyterian

King at Scone. Again; on this theory, what are we to do with

Rhode Island and North Carolina in the interval between the es-

tablishment of the Federal Government, and their accession to it?

They were certainly not members of the new Union; which made

no claim to extenl its power over them. The Confederation of

which they had been members, no longer existed. There is but

one answer to the this question. They were indep2ndent, sovereign

States, as independent and as sovereign as Costa Rica, or San Ma-

rino, or the Free City of Hamburg.

In arguing for the original sovereignty of the States, I would not

be understood to advocate the modern doctrine of State Rights. I

hold with Murshall, Webster and Story, with Mr. Marsh and

Mr. Pomeroy, that the United States form a nation, and possess full

powors of sovereignty. But I hold that this sovereignty was formally

and voluntarily conferred upon them by the States in the act of

forming the Federal Constitution. The doctrine advanced by Mr.

*p. 39

1382 WISCONSIN ACADEMY SCIENCES, ARTS, AND LETTERS.

Pomeroy* as to the relation of the States to the United States,

which is essentially that of Mr. Anstin, I fully accept. ‘ The peo-

ple of the United States, as a nation, is the ultimate source of all

power, both that conferred upon the General Government, that

conferred upon each State as a sepurate political society, and that

retained by themselves.” Oualy, by “ultimate source,’ I do not

understand historical filiation, but legal authority, under the eon-

stitution; the States—meaning by that the people of the several

States—formed themselves, by this act, into “the People of the

United States;” and this sovereign people, as organised in States,

exercises its sovereign powers by the two-fold instrumentality of

the National Government and the States’ Governments, distribut-

in these powers between these two instrument vities as seems most

expedient. Thus the States are as much sovereign as the Nation;

but in truth neither is sovereign. but each is an organization for

the exercise of a certain definite portion of the powers of govern-

meut. The soyereignty is not divided between States and Nation,

because sovereignty is indivisible and absolute; but the functions

of government, in which consists-the exercise of the powers of

sovereignuy, Gan be divided, and are divided between these two or-

ganizations.

* Page 23.

FORMAL COMMENDATION OF OFFICIALS. 133

ON THE FORMAL COMMENDATION OF GOVERNMENT

OFFICIALS.

J. W. HOYT, M. D.

It has been customary in all countries, and in all ages, for both

people and government, in extraordinary cases, to take formal ne-

tice of distinguished services in the publicinterest. Sometimes hy

statue or monument, after death, as a means of perpetuating the

meniory of noble deeds through succeeding generations; sometimes

by commendation of him who rendered the service, through de-

eree of sovereign or vote of parliament, congress, or legislature,

while yet living.

There has been, of course, no prescribed rule of action in any

‘time or country, for the guidance of sovereign or people in such

matters. In general, however, the distinctions have been con-

ferred for cause so patent and so sufficient that the thing done

amounted to a demand that left no room for question.

Commendation of the kinds mentioned have perhaps been more

common under monarchies, where the sovereign is not always free

from the motive of strengthening himself by the accession of

faithful supporters, than in a republic, where titles of nobility are

forbidden and decorations are unknown. But even there, they are

usually confined to cases where the recipient has, in matters of

public moment, transcended the line of mere official duty, doing

more than could of right have been expected, or has made volun-

tary contributions of an important character to the welfare of

his country or the general progress of mankind.

In the early days of American history, there wis a severity of

practice in these regards that comported well with the stern virtues

‘an high moral standards of the heroic people who planted the

colonies, defended them so grandly against foreign encroachments,

and fiaally founted the Republic, now closing its first century.

In the light of more recent times, and at the distance we now

‘stand from the leading actors in those great events of American

134 WISCONSIN ACADEMY SCIENCES, ARTS, AND LETTERS.

history, one is even ready to wish there had been a less exacting

standard for our early heroes. For, if ever men deserved the for-

mal and cordial commendation of a people by resolutions or other-

wise, it was they who,in the face of so great a personal and

common peril, pledged ‘* their lives, their fortunes, and their sacred

honor” io the establishment. and maintenance of American Inde-

pendence. Nobly in the great drama of the Revolution, and no

less nobly in the founding of the Federal Government, they played

their part. Yet, where are recorded the thanks of the Federal

Congress, or of legislative assemblies in the States whereon they

shed the lustre of their names?

What, then, does it mean that to-day, in face of this example of

the Fathers, ere the close of the first hundred years of our national

existence, and ere the completion of the only national monument

to the Father of his country, we hear of legislative resolutions

thanking the Chief Magistrate of a nation, second in resources and

power to none other on the face of the earth, and his Secretury of

the Treasury, with others of lower official rank, for that,in the

fulness of time—when all honest patriots are alarmed, if not ap-

palled at the corruption seen and suspected on every hand; when

venality, theft, and robbery staik abroad and threaten a universal

disgrace as well as national ruin;—they, the President and a high

cabinet officer of his appointment, have shown a disposition to.

bring the villains to justice? It means a demoralization of the

public sentiment, the cause of which, and the remedy for which

demand a most serious consideration.

A people may very properly, even in the most formal manner, as

by legislative resolution or enactment, express their grateful ap-

preciation of an important public service, when such service illus-

trates a superior wisdom supported by an exalted virtue. An occa-

sion for such expression is furnished when, in the time of public

danger or national trial, an officer charged with discretionary au-

thority, steadily holds his intellectual powers to the forming of just

judgments and lofty purposes, uninfluenced by personal prejudice:

or popular clamor, and bravely leads his countrymen and kind to:

take new steps on the road to a higher civilization. But surely an

sceasion is not furnished when a public officer merely fulfills his

sworn duty as the executor of a plainly written statute of the land,

whether it be a law against frauds on the ballot-box or on the pub—

FORMAL COMMENDATION OF OFFICIALS. 135

lic revenues. A vote of thanks by the representatives of the peo-

ple for such a cause proves one of two things: that the popular

idea of duty has become wofully debased, so that not to wink at

crimes against the general weal is evidence of superior virtue on

the part of the highest officers of the government; or, that the po-

litical parties of the country have grown so corrupt and reckless

that for mere short-lived partisan advantage they are willing to

at once poison the fountains of virtue for the youth of the land,

and put a tarnish upon the national honor.

Accepting either alteraative, there is ground of anxiety for the

future. There is need of a resolute purpose among honest citizens

everywhere to stem the swift current of immorality and to raise up

the old, or yet better, standards of both public and private virtue.

It should be settled at once and forever that no public officer, be

his rank as low as the lowest, should be formally commended by

the people or their representatives for doing, however thoroughly

and well, what was a manifest duty, what not to have done would

have justly subjected him to condemnation and punishment.

And it should also be settled as a principle, and deeply engraven

on the hearts of the people both young and old, that such com-

mendation of an officer whose duties are of so grave a character

that honor is the only secnrity demanded for their fulfiliment, is a

reflection upon those who offer it, and an imputation upon that in-

tegrity and high sense of honor which, in the public mind, should

be inseparable from every public trust.

126 WISCONSIN ACADEMY SCIENCES, ARTS, AND LETTERS.

INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION.

BY F. M. HOLLAND, BARABOO.

This is a topic peculiarly appropriate here, in an association

wh'c1 is the pinnacle of the State temple of public instruction,

Our public school system is enlarging its field of force so rapidly,

that it is well to enquire if the improvement in quality keeps pace

with that in quantity.

We shall probably soon imitate the example of the States that

have established compulsory, or as it might better be called, guar-

anteed education, a measnre for which there need be given no other

argument than Professor Huxleys, ‘“ If my neighbor brings up his

children untaught and untrained, to earn their living, he is doing

his best to destroy my freedom by increasing the burden of taxa-

tion for the support of jails and work-houses for which I have to

pay.

The force of this argument, however, depends on the extent to

which the children are really trained to earn their living in the

public schools. Andso does much of the force of all arguments

for public schools at which attendance is voluntary. The fact

that we are taxed to keep up these schools gives us a right to re-

quire that the instruction be made as practically useful and gen-

erally valuable as possible.

Of course, the whole aim of the public school should not be to

teach children to earn their living, but this is certainly a part of

the legitimate aim and might be largely developed in harmony with

other parts, as is actually the practice in Hurope.

No knowledge of any kind can be acquired without increasing

all the powers of usefulness, but some kinds of knowledge do im-

mensely more than others to develop particular powers. A law

student would learn more in a theological seminary than in a fac-

tory, but not so much in a year as he would in a law school in a

single month. Neither law school nor theological seminary would

particularly increase the skill of the mechanic. These seem tru-

isms, but just consider how much better fitted our public schools

INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION. 137

are to prepare men to be law and theological students than to be

farmers or mechanics. It is these branches of mannal labor that

most of the boys are to go into, but their schooling does not teach

them how to use their hands and muscles. bunt rather their brains.

Our publie school system would be practically perfect, provided

all the pupils were going to be clergymen, lawyers, doctors, or

teachers. Indeed, the village schools under my own observation

seem to aim mainly at turning ont school teachers. Every girl, at

least, who graduates, tries immediately to get a school, for her

training has exactly fitted her to earn her living in just that and

no other way. No wonder teachers wages are low, when the num-

ber of teachers is thus continually increased.

In view of this lowness of wages. as well as the pressing demand

for skilled workers in many other fields, it seems to me that some-

thing might be done in our public schools to fit pupils to earn

their living in other ways. If our schools are merely going to ed-

ucate teachers, and these to educate still other teachers, the whole

system might be compared to a grist mill. of which the wheel is so

large and the stones so heavy that the foree of the stream is spent

in turning them around, without grinding any grist.

Even if the aims of the public school are legitimate enough, there

seems to me much room for improvement in the choice of means.

Let me quote from Dr. Bartol, who says; “ He that can sketch an

object with a pencil understands it better than he who recites all

its titles in the epoch of every tribe under the sun.

Possibly we have yet to learn what education is beyond a series

of tasks in sentences and mathematical figures. Was Horatio

Greenough educated, when glued to the bench for a Latin recita-

tion, or loath to demonstrate the sum of degrees in a triangle, and

not when he picked up a piece of plaster in the streets to carve the

head of a Roman Emperor?

Michelet says a man always clears his mind by doing some-

thing with his hands. The poor girl goes to school with the rich,

and learns to scorn her mother who cannot read, to envy her

‘mates’ costlier dress, and to steer for means of like adornment

into temptation in the course of study. The education is a curse

that puts notions into her head but no skill into her hand. Tanght

to create value, she would disown the tempter.” (Rising Faith, p.

iLL)

138 WISCONSIN ACADEMY SCIENCES, ARTS, AND LETTERS.

The possibility of making Wisconsin a great manufacturing State

gives peculiar importance to the immense results achieved in Ku-

rope by [ndustrial or asit is sometimes called, ** Technical Educa-

tion.” For instance the great iron works of Creuzat. France, which

in 1867 employed 10.000 workmen and turned out $3,000,000 worth

of products annually, rose from small beginnings through the sys-

tematic training of laborers in schools opened for this purpose more

than thirty years ago.

When the first International Exposition was held in London, in

1851, English workmen excelled in ninety departments out of one

hundred; but, in the Paris Exposition of 1867, England

curied off 10 per cent. instead of 90 per cent. of the honors.

The introduction of drawing into the public schools, with the

opening of special schools in all the great centres of industry in

France, Germany, Switzeriand and Austria. had made these coun-

tries equal to Great Britain where she had hitherto reigned su-

preme. The British Government took the alarm, and made gen*

eral inquiries, to which the Birmingham Chamber of Commerce

replied that every trade in Birmingham suffered from lack of tech-

nical education. Similar answers came from Sheffield, Kendall

and Staffordshire, except that the potteries in the last district were

found to be kept up by the importation of properly educated for-

elgners.

Active exertions have since been made in Great Britain to re-

cover the lost sceptre by imitating the course adopted on the conti-

nent, but the Swiss, French and German workman are still supe-

rior in training, not only to the British but to the American ones,

according to the report of the Massachusetts Commissioners of

Education for 1873. These Commissioners report that in Pennsyl-

yania the great body of skilled artisans are foreigners. Mr. Stetson,

in a work on Technical Education, published during the year 1874,

declares “it is not the pauper labor but the educated labor of Hu-

rope which America has good reason to fear.” A eountry, nineteen

twentieths of whose artisans are unable to work from drawings,

has good reason to dread the rivalry of countries where a mechanic

who cannot draw is a rare exception.

When we consider, further, that as good a judge as Mr. Russell,

the builder of the Great Eastern, declares that if in Great Britain,

one-half the laborers were as highly skilled as one-quarter of them

INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION. 139

are at present, the change would be worth 50,000,000 pounds ster-

ling, or onr quarter of a billion dollars a year, as it would enable

the mechanical power of the kingdom to be used to three or four

times as great advantage as at present, we can imagine what a mine

of wealth hes almost unbroken at our feet. And again from the

fact that in this conntry the highly skilled worker earns $3 where

the utterly unskilled laborer earns $1, we can see how immensely

the condition of our laboring classes is capable of being improved

at little cost.

One of the principal means has been already mentioned; this is

drawing, knowledge of which helps a mechanic to work from plans,

and trains eye and hand to actin union. Four or five years ago

this branch was introduced into the public schools of Massachus-

etts, New York and Connecticut, and the example is being gener-

ally followed all over the country. The lack, however, not only of

properly qualified teachers, but of sufficient public interest, often

prevents the instruction from being much better than nominal.

We are very far behind the French practice of teaching every

scholar seven years old, to draw and write simultaneously, so that

each of the twe acquirements may help the other. The Swiss

and German primary schools also give to drawing a prominent

place. So small a part of the primary school session in this coun:

try is spent in actual study, that not only drawing but object les-

sons and Kindergarten exercises, as well as needle work for the

girls, might be introduced for two or three hours a day without

hindrance to the present instruction, and with immense gain not

only to the discipline but to the intellectual spirit of the school.

Enough free hand drawing should be taught in the primary

schools to enable the pupils in the grammar schools to use drawing

instruments, draft plans, and copy geometrical solids, and it is very

important that they should be restricted to these and similar

branches of purely industrial drawing; otherwise the desire to make

@ show at exhibitions, to get something pretty to hang up in the

parlor, and to amuse oneself with little efforts, will tempt both

pupils and teachers into giving their attention almost exclusively

to fancy drawing of too little industrial value to be paid for justly

out of tha school fund. And in the grammar schools might also

be given some knowledge of the practical teachings of chemistry,

such as would be of assistance not only to the bleacher, dyer, foun-

140 WISCONSIN ACADEMY SCIENCES, ARTS, AND LETTERS.

der, miner, and machinist, but to every farmer and housekeeper.

The high school should continue the instruction in chemistry and

drawing,

mechanical proportion. Of course these high school studies should

be electives, alternatives with Latin and Greek perhaps.

It would also be possible for instruction in one or two trades to

he given to a few of the most skillful pupils in every high school.

One teacher in the girls’ high school of Boston has introduced the

study of photography, mainly at her one expense. Other trades

which might be taught with advantage, are telegraphing, wood-

carving, engraving stenography, dress-making, watch-making,phar-

and add the study of perspective, descriptive geometry and

macy, designing and painting. I mean of course not artistic but

industrial painting; not painting pictures, but furniture and signs,

and I speak particularly of this branch because it might be taught

with advantage to the community in most of the village high

schools.

The industrial course in our public schools would then be: Prim-

ary School, drawing, sewing, and kindergarten lessons; Grammar

School, mechanical drawing and chemistry; High School, chemis-

try, drawing, perspective, geometry. and some special trade.

The papils, who need this teaching most, would not, however,

be able to go through the high school course, and special trade

schools should be opened to allow them to pass through the whole

course in two or three years after leaving the primary school.

The same teachers could carry on the instruction in drawing

and other industrial studies in the common schools and also in the

trade schools, where the training could be made extremely practi-

cal. One of the highest class of trade schools, which might well

be imitated in America, is that for the French watchmakers at

Besancon. The course is three years; first year mechanical draw-

ing and general principles of the trade; the second year adds

geometry, designing various parts of the watch and modelling the

tools used; the third year adds the study of mechanics and practice

in modelling various parts of the watch, mechanical drawing and

designing being continued. Among the industrial schools espec-

ially worthy of note, are those for carpenters and builders held in

the large cities of Germany for four or five months, beginning

with the first of November, and giving instructions in “elements

of physics and knowledge of materials, details of the art of build-

INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION. 141

ing, plotting, geometrical and ornamental drawing and modelling ”

and other practical studies, described at length on page 124 of the

report on education made in 1870 by Dr. Hoyt, who wisely recom-

mends the opening of such schools in all the cities of the United

Ssates. Similar schools might be opened at the same season for

tie improvement of farmers. There are also many laborers who

cannot attend any day school, even an industrial one, but who

would go to an evening school gladly. The workman who is too

tired to study anything else has been found able to learn drawing

in such a school with great advantage.

A State which has so manv Germin and Scandinavian inhabit-

ants as Wisconsin really seems to me also bound to give the men

aad women some such facilities for perfecting their knowledge of

the English language. Allow me to suggest further, that in a

great railroad centre, like Madison, evening schools should be

opened to teach railroad hands, and workers in machine shops, me-

chanical drawing, modelling, the use of every part of the steam en-

gine and all the scientific principles involved in the running of

railway trains and the manufacturing of cars and locomotives.

The gain merely to the morals of the pupils, by removing them

from temptation, would fully justify all the outlay necessary. [

am glad to hear that twenty-nine evening schools for adults are in

successful operation in Philadelphia, and hope the time will come

when similar statistics can be furnished by Chicago, Milwaukee and

Madison,

In one point we are already wiser in Americathan they are in Great

Britain, or on the continent of Europe. Searcely any industrial

schools for women have been opened there, or seem likely to be.

Of what little has been done in the United States, woman has had

her full share. A prominent place in the Boston public school sys-

tem is occupied by wnat are called the “designing voung Jadies;”

and the ph‘lanthropie women in that city are attempting to follow

the examople of their sisters in New York, who have for the last

two years been giving instruction in running sewing machines,

housework, sewing of all kinds, laundry work, cooking, book-keep-

ing. proof-reading and other useful employ ments with great success.

Of the many female colleges springing up all over the land. none

deserve more praise than that already founded by John Simmo:s,

of Boston, who bequeathed $1,400,009 ‘to provide for the teaching

142 WISCONSIN ACADEMY SCIENCES, ARTS, AND LETTERS.

of medicine, music, drawing. designing, telegraphing and other

branches of art, science and industry best calculated to enable the

scholars to acquire an independent livelihood.”

Among the branchesin which women might engage with advan-

tage are those pursued by decorators of glass, porcelain, and china,

artificial flower makers, feather colorers, retouchers of photographs,

wood carvers, fan and toy makers, watchmakers, jewelers, lapidaries

and cameo cutters, workers in wax, plaster and ivory, glass cutters

and grinders, piano tuners, designers, engravers, telegraph opera-

tors, compositors, druggists, photographers, florists, dentists and

journalists. Indeed all the arts in which a good eye for color is

needed, seem to be especially suited for women.

And let me here suggest that our State University, having shown

its enterprise in establishing departments of law, military science,

agriculture, civil engineering and mining and metallurgy, should

give similar attention to the industrial education of the “ better

half” of its pupils, by opening one or more departments especially

adapted for training women in some of the occupations just men-

tioned. In closing I would say that no industria] training is com-

plete withont artistic culture, which, though never its equivalent,

should always be its inspiration.

THR PEOPLE AND THE RAILROADS. 143

THE PEOPLE AND THE RAILROADS.

kY REV. C. CAVERNO, LOMBARD, ILL.

The following are some views connected with the railway ques-

tion. It is not pretended that there are not other views, but these

lie near the base of the subject, and cannot be disregarded.

The transportation question is one to which we must in the fu-

ture give close attention, if we would properly discharge our duties

as American citizens. Whether we are to exist as a united nation

or not, may depend upon our views and practice respecting rights

and rates of transportation.

Macaulay says that of all modern inventions, those which abridge

distance are of first civil and social import. The South failed to

detach the West from the East in the rebellion because the men of

the West had come from the Hast. But generations are to come

after us who were not born at the East. Whether the sympathies

of the various sections of our country are to flow together in time

to come will depend upon the amount of communication there is

between them. That will depend upon facilities and rates of tran-

sit. Weshall be a united people if we are a traveling people.

It is a patriot’s duty to see that the conditions are supplied which

will create mutual interest and sympathy between all sections of

the Republic. Once there was but one name for stranger and ene-

my. The fact is of deep significance. Given no strangers under

the government flags, and there will be no enemies. Among iso-

lated people springs up the tendency to rebel.

The question then before us touches not alone the pocket; it

touches the heart as well. It is a question not merely of rates on

exchange of produce, but one of rates on svcial exchange—an ex-

change of ideas.

Just now the item of freight is the one uppermost in the public

attention. But if we look deep enough we shall see that the mat-

ter of passenger rates is one of tremendous import.

Just where we are in the whole matter can best be brought out

by the statement of a single fact. A few weeks ago the telegraph

144 WISCONSIN ACADEMY SCIENCES, ARTS, AND LETTERS.

informed us that the Freight and Passenger Agents of the vamous

main lines of railroad ranning across the country, were in Pitts-

burg in consultation upon the rates of freight and p.issenger tran-

sit over those lines. It was stated that they were sitting with

closed dvors.

That is something which happens once or twice a year. Con-

sidered asa telegraph report that makes but asmail item. But

think what it means. Think of all the vast interests that centre

around the matter of freight and passenger communication be-

tween the Mississippi valley and tide water. It is a matter of as

much concern to the people of the nation as the question of the

currency, or the right to declare war and make peace. In fact the

currency question is one subordinate to the transportation question.

We are interested in the currency only as a subsidiary agent in

transportation. Currency is of value only as it helps persons and

property to change place. Yet the subsidiary question goes to an

open congress of the nation—the main question to irresponsible

corporation clerks wao sit with closed doors.

We convulse the nation in our politics on some issue of tithing

mint, anise and cumin, while we neglect the weightier matters of

the law.

It would seem fair that the public should have some voice in fix-:

ing rates since they are the one factor out of whom rates are to be

raised. A matter of such importance vught to be open for diseus-.

sion and settlement before representative men of the nation.

The men who actually sit upon it are not even the representa-

tive men in their various corporations. They are the mere man--

dataries of the few capitalists who control the corporations. No:

questions of public right or interest are ever submitted to them.

As mathematicians. they cipher in aid of the schemes of the stock

operators who control the roads.

Rates of transportation are a tax upon the people.

Unquestionably the people ought to pry some tax—a righteous:

tax for transportation. But that a body of irresponsible and un-.

known men. the mere agents of a few private capitalists, should

have the right, im secret session, to levy this tax on the whole:

American people is an anomaly in the practice of this nation, be--

fore which, one muy well stand in blank astonishment. !

‘his nation declared its independence and fought to its liberty

THA PEOPLE AND THE RAILROADS. 145

on the foundation. “No taxation without representation.” But

here is taxation, and that too without representative voice in it

before which, that against which the patriots of the Revolution

fought, pales into nothingness.

We never could have come where we are in respect to the mat-

ter of transportation, had we not practically lost sight of one of

the most fundamental principles of common law.

The right of the people to transit was a right that the common

law always asserted and protected. It said the rivers should be the

people’s free highways. It has kept them open up to to-day.

The common law was always a jealous protector of the right

of private property in land. But beyond any right which a man

might have in his acres, it asserted the right of the people some-

how and somewhere to find transit over them as their needs might

require.

Behind every individual mght lay the public right of eminent

domain for the purposes of transit. The river was open to the peo-

ple; any man might put his boat thereon and go up or down the

stream at his pleasure. The road was opei to the people; any man

might put his carriage thereon and go whither he would.

In the development of human industry and art a new method of

transit has come into use which supercedes both the old methods.

The simple question at issue is, whether the people are to preserve

any of their old rights of transit in this new mode of transportation,

or whether they are all to be swallowed up in the private interests of

the capital that built and manages the roads.

Have the masses at large any rights in the new inventions which

revolutionize modes of communication and commerce? Did Watt

think out the steam engine in the interests of capital only? Did

the old vegetation of the coal measures “suck the fire of forgotten

suns’ only to lodge in the hands of a fortunate few the power to

obliterate one of the most cherished rights of the people.

It is no answer to this inquiry to say that the river and the road

are still open to the people, and they can travel on them as of old.

The new mode of transit has rendered the old compartively useless.

The humblest living cannot be earned without making use of the

new system of communication. The right of the people to transit

it a right inhering in them as to all modes of transit.

10 was

146 WISCONSIN ACADEMY SCIENCES, ARTS, AND LETTERS.

If the river and the road were theirs they have the right to the

new method of accomplishing the ends they executed on river and

road.

The practical point is to find a way of asserting the rights of the

people—to put into practical shape the old right of eminent do-

main for transit under the new. method of locomotion. §o long as

private corporations are concerned with the business of transporta-

tion as they now are, it is hard to see how the public ean realize any of

its ancient right except it have some voice in the determination of

rates of transportation.

From the nature of the new mode of locomotion a man must

travel or put his freight in such vehicles as the companies may

provide and at such times as they may designate. He may not put

his own conveyance upon railway track as he formerly might put

his boat on the stream er his carriage on the road. .

Now if the officers of the corporation may say, “* you may have

transportation but only at such rates as we choose to fix” the old

right of eminent domain which was maintained to secure free com-

munication amoug the people is annihilated.

The people travel no longer on any right of their own but simply

on the mercy of the corporation. The selfishness of corporations

may be enlightened enough not to fix rates that will prohibit travel.

That does not alter the fact thatit is by their will alone, practically,

that travel by the new mode of transportation exists.

If a private corporation makes a railway bed, and puts upon it

rolling stock, itis but just that the people using the method of

conveyance provided should-pay proper chaiges therefor. Bu it is

unjust that in or about the rates coilected there should not be some

element which should represent the old right of the people to locomo-

tion. The right of transit is of as high order as any right of prop-

erty in road-bed or vehicles of transit. The right of thé public to

a voice in respect to the rates of transportation is at least equal to the

right of the corporation for moneys expended.

The recent legislation of the Western States may,in fact, be un-

just. Ii so, it must and it wiil be made just. It would be strange

if the first attempts at regulation in a matter so immense and so

novel, had hit the exact line of justice. But this legislation is cor-

rect in theory. In attempting to regulate rates of transportation,

it asserts, in the only practical way. the people’s right to transpor-

THE PEOPLE AND THE RAILROADS. 147

tation—the right to it in the freest way—in the cheapest way con-

sistent with justice to the capital invested in transportation enter-

prise.

We are in our present imbroglio, in respect to railroads, because:

we have lost sight of the fact that there are two distinct interests.

vested in them.

The people have not heretofore asserted their rights; and, of the

people’s rights, the railroad corporations have been willingly igno-

rant.

The railroad position, at least in the northwest to-day, is that of

denial of all public right in the railways and of defiance of all con-

trol over them.

The open contempt exhibited by the railway companies for the

recent legislation of the people, and the tone and import of the

latest reports of the presidents of the leading railroad companies is

the sufficient evidence of this fact. The issueis joined on this plain

question—whether railroads are a private concern entirely. The

people maintain that the railroad corporations stand in a relation

of trust to themselves to whom they must give account of the deeds

done in their corporate body, as well as the operators who manip-

ulate their stocks. The people maintain that railroad property is

not private property, like a farm or .astock of goods in a store.

Whatever of private property there is in them ¢s property laid down

on the foundation of a public use as no other property.is. tis prop-

erty Jaid down over an old time right of the people—a right that

permeates it every where.

De Witt Clinton’s idea was that transportation was wholly a

public business. It would be instructive to have the history of our

unfortunate departure from the principles and practices of De Witt

Clinton. Our recent legislation is charged in certain quarters with

being an unjustifiable attack on the rights of private property. |

The Hon. David A. Wells says that objection to that legislation

is founded ultimately on the command“ thou shalt not steal.” It

ill becomes those who are attempting to convert an old time com-

mon law right of the people to their own especial use and behoof,

to talk about theft.

As between the obliteration of aright and the reeulation of a

rate it does not require much ability to decide where the most; wan-

ton meddlesomeness lies.

148 WISCONSIN ACADEMY SCIENCES, ARTS, AND LETTERS.

The people mean no injustice to property invested in railroads.

It is that which is not invested that they desire to make some in-

quiries about. They want to know what the fictitious elements are

which they sustain by taxation levied in the shape of rates. In

Illinois there are roads that cost but $16,000 per mile on which

rates are collected on a basis of cost at $32,000 per mile.

When we want to get to tide water if we go over the New York

Central, or Erie, or the Pennsylvania Central, we have to pay rates

to support stocks tbat represent an average cost of $107,000 per

mile on those roads. It is well enough known that not one-half

of that amount per mile was paid to build and equip those roads.

The people have no desire to convert private property into a pub-

lic use, but they do not want to be taxed from year to year to make

that preperty which is no property.

It is “watered stock,” stock, that represents no money advanced,

that the people are at war with. If a farmer had the privilege of

taxing the community to make up to himself any sum which he

might name, he would only be doing as the railroads have had the

privilege to do in ‘“‘ watering” their stocks and in issuing stock

dividends. No wonder that railroad operators have become rich

men.

It may be difficult even impossible at this date to eliminate tuis

no property element. But that is no reason why we should not

look steadily at it till we know what it is, and till we find out where

it came from. It is an element, that beginning with credit mobil-

ier contracts in the construction of roads, has by various modes of

‘watering’ and mortgage ** loading” increased, till it may be round-

ly stated as constituting half of the burden against which the peo-

ple lift, in the payment of rates of transportation. If the past

cannot be rectified the future can be secured. If it cannot, then,

farewell to the prospects of honest industry.

Everything cannot be swallowed up by the men who do not earn

but invent property.

Besides being property laid down on the foundation of a public

right as no other property is, railroads should be subject to the

public control for the reason that they are supported by public taxa-

tion as no other property is.

The President of one of our railway companies in a recent report

maintains, that the railway companies should have aright to the in-

THE PEOPLE AND THE RAILROADS. 149

creased value of their property. Certainly, if they want to sell it.

But certainly not if they want to make that increased value a basis

for levying rates upon the people. No farmer has the right to tax

the community to make good tu him a dividend on the increased

value of his farm. When holders of other property can have this

right it will be time enough to grant it to the railroad corporations.

If new property appears on a railroad it got there either by the

earnings of the road which have been raised out of rates assessed

upon the people, or it is there because loaned money has put it

there, the interest upon which, and ultimately the principle of

which, is paid by rates assessed upon the people. It is not right

that the people should be again taxed upon property which they

have already paid for. The owners of no other species of prop rt 7

have yet found out a way to derive an increased value of their

property while they themselves retained possession of it.

We cannot build new railroads all over the country to compete

with those which already exist. The people are not driven to that

resort. ‘They have their rights and they should prosecute them in

those roads which already exist.

The farmers movement will not rectify the situation. The

Grange may be of value to the farmer in many directions. Possi-

bly it may be an element helpful in the solution of this problem,

but it can only be subsidiary at best.

New times and new conditions demand new measures. Courts

and legislatures, as now constituted, are inadeqnate to the solution

of the railroad problem. We need commissioners, State and

National, with legislative and law powers ample enough to meet

the demands of the situation. The constant increase of the trans-

portation business will make such commission a permanent

necessity.

Those who control the private interests invested in railroads are

at all times alert to their interests. The people should have what

would be equivalent to an always open court and ever sitting leg-

islature to attend to their interests in the roads. These commis-

sions should have full powers of instant action. We have not ex-

hausted the resources of society in the establishment of a Circuit

Court and a State Legislature. When a new business attains to

such gigantic dimensions as the transportation business has reach-

ed, there ought to spring up a new tribunal to attend to it—a tri-

150 WISCONSIN ACADEMY SCIENCES, ARTS, AND LETTERS.

bunal that should stand on its own basis, not being the mere crea-

ture of some other department.

Our Comnnissioners onght to be the courts of last resort in rail-

road matters, and no more amenable to the State Legislature than

the judiciary is now. Mr. Windom’s proposition for a Railroad

Bureau is in the right direction, but it is not radical enough as he

has up to this time developed it. The first work of such a commis-

sion would be an investigation of all the elements which figure in

the sums on which it is claimed dividends should be paid out of the

rates assessed, and the remorseless rejection of all the no-property

which is now confounded with property, when such rejection can

with justice be done. ‘Then a proper basis will be laid for a just as-

sessment of rates. We have long been running a reckless race,

careless how we lost our rights, or who picked them up. It will

be a long way back to the correct position. But courage, persist-

ence and honesty will take us there.

THE BOA CONSTRICTOR OF POLITICS. 151

THE BOA CONSTRICTOR OF POLITICS.

BY REY. F. M. HOLLAND, BARABOO.

Recent elections show how generally our polities are believed to

be corrupt. But merely changing the party in power will not pur-

ify them. Great as is the need of civil service reform, we can no

more expect either party to be the first to refuse to favor its fol-

lowers. than we can expect an army to spike its cannon before it

goes into battle.

We may blame the practice of passing by wisdom and purity to

nominate popular mediocrity or unprincipled brilhancy, but it is

plain that the policy of nominating only the most popular candi-

date would have the same advantage over that of preferring men,

whose height of principle and intellect excited enmity, which the

Prussian weedle-gun had over the Austrian musket. And for any

party to dismiss an able and popular leader on account of private

immorality would, to borrow President Grant’s comparison, be

like relieving a general under the fire of the enemy. And so will

a party that forbids any severe criticism on its leaders within the

ranks, meet one that permitsit, just asan army meets a mob. Pop-

ular enthusiasm may give the mob the victory, but only excep-

tionally. On the whole, the more a party is like an army, the

stronger it will be, and therefore party suecess requires that the

management be centralized in a few men of experience, enough to

set up the platform, and candidates most likely to catch votes.

“The ring” has a terrible sound, but a party without a ‘ring ”

would be pretty apt to be beaten by any party with one. Indeed

a party without a “ ring” is like a barrel without a hoop.

These facts are not pleasant ones, but we need to keep them in

mind in order to see that to purify polities we must change our

system so deeply as to lessen the power of parties, and no longer

enable the one, which happens to gain even the smallest majority,

from sweeping all the presidential electors, members of congress,

state legislatures, judges, and county officers into its jaws and swal-

152 WISCONSIN ACADEMY SCIENCES, ARTS, AND LETTERS.

lowing them as completely as a boa-constrictor engulphs a rabbit.

And, as a rabbit, shut up with two such monsters, can simply flee

from one to the other until it is taken, so third parties have to

choose by which of the two stronger ones they will be devoured,

before the Jarger one shall swallow up the other, or, in other words,

carry the state.

There is only too much evidence to show how far we fall short

of Lincoln’s ideal of a government of the people, by the people,

and for the people. In beth the Forty-second and Forty-third

Congresses, whose successive sesstons extend over the four years

closing March 4, 1875, the Republicans have had more than two-

thirds of the representatives, though they polled but little more

than one-half the votes, so that a majority of 35 or 36 per cent. in

the House has been gained by one of 7 or 8 per cent. at the polls;

and this injustice is not lessened by the fact that no delegates to

the Forty-third Congress were sent by the supporters of the ad-

ministration in Kentucky or Texas, but it is much increased hy the

allotment of not a single delegate to its opponents in Jowa, Kan-

sas, Louisiana, Maine, Massachusetts, Michigan, Minnesota, South

Carolina and Vermont. This disproportionate strength of the Re-

publican party increases the apparent magnitude of the change in

1874, when no Republicans were elected to the Forty-fourth Con-

gress, either by the Republicans of Arkansas, Georgia, Mary-

land, Missonri, Texas or Western Virginia, who cast 351.764

votes, or by the Democrats of Maine, Rhode Island, Florida and

Minnesota, who cast 104,510; and when of the 255 delegates from

28 states, all then voting except Louisiana and the four one-mem-

ber states, 97 represent 2, 30,300 supporters of the administration,

and 168 represent 8,410,535 of its opponents, whereas the former

are really entitled to 122,and the latter to but 143. The democrats

have thus obtained nearly two-thirds of the House by little more

than one-half the votes, or more exactly, 64 per cent. of these 265

menibers by 59 per cent. of the votes, a majority of 23 per cent. in

the House representing one of 8 per cent at the polls. These esti-

mates are from the Tribune Almanae for 1875, and in some cases

only approximative, though it is sufficiently plain that the mem-

bers of one party or the other in sixteen of these twenty-eight

states will be virtually unrepresented in this Congress, since the Re-

publicans have three members less than their share in Tennessee

THE BOA CONSTRICTOR OF POLITICS. 153

and Virginia, two less in Kentucky, North Carolina and Alabama,

besides being wholly unrepresented in the six states above men-

tioned; and their opponents three members less than their share

in Iowa, besides being unrepresented in four states as mentioned.

In a seventeenth state, Wisconsin, the party actually in the major-

ity was able to elect but one third of the State Assembly and but

three out of the eight Congressmen, while the republican minority

claims to have carried the state and may yet succeed in getting a

sixth Congressmen. In Florida, where the parties are almost bal-

anced, the majority gets both the Congressmen, but has a minority

in the state legislature, a double injustice. In New York, Massa-

chusetts and Kansas the assembly men are unfairly distributed, so

there are but two states among the twenty-eight where the elec-

tions did justice to both parties, Vermont and Illinois, in the latter

of which a new system has been introduced as we shall soon see.

Three presidents, Taylor in 1848, Bachanan in 1856, and Lincoln

in 1860, secured large majorities in the electoral college, though

none of them had one half of the popular vote. In 1834, indeed,

Lincoln got a little more than half the votes and this gave him ten-

elevenths of the electors, but if McClellan had received 35,000 of

the votes given to leeeole he might hive gained the majority of

the electors and become president, though he would still have been

in the minority at the polls.

It is plain that the people are very imperfectly represented and

that neither party gets its fair share of the power. It is also plain

that corruption is much facilitated by the extreme difficulty of set-

ting aside the nominations of either party except in favor of those

of the other, perhaps equally bad. Parties would be slow to nom-

inate men who oppose civil service reform or lack character and

ability, or are mere tools of the ring, if such candidates could be de-

feated easily. This can now be done only when the bolters form

the majority of the district, and many a patriotic statesman, who

has friends enough to send him to Washington if they could act

together, stays at home because he cannot carry the district where

he resides. What we want is a system of voting which will give a

fair share of power not only to each party but to every combina-

tion of independent voters, so that, for instance, of the one hundred

members of the assembly, in Wisconsin, forty, fifty, or sixty would

come from each party according as it polls forty, fifty or sixty per

154 WISCONSIN ACADEMY SCIENCES, ARTS, AND LETTERS.

cent. of the votes, and any independent candidate would be elected

who gets his one per cent.—more indeed than is now requisite, so

that the voting districts must be enlarged greatly to enable any

one to obtainit. This system is ineant to give no special favor to

individuals or minorities, but only such justice to all the candidates,

that its proper name js not Personal or Minority, but Proportional

Representation.

There are several plans for doing this, the best known being the

cumulative, advocated by Horace Greeley twenty years ago, and

now in use in I]linois, as well as in England, where, as the London

Times says, “it has made its way by its inherent justice.” In Ilhi-

nois it was enacted in 1870 that the 153 legislative districts, form-

erly sending each a representative to the legislature, should be con-

solidated into 51, with three memberseach. ach voter casts three

votes, which he can concentrate on one candidate or distribute

among two or three, as he prefers. This plan was first tried in

1872, when, as Mr. Medill stated in the Cincinnati Commercial, of

December 2, 1872, ‘for the first time each party is represented from

every part of the State, and the aggregate representation is exactly

in preportion to the numerical strength of each party. Jor the

first time since the Repnblican party was organized in Illinois

(1854), have the Democrats secured a representation from North-

ern, or the Republicans from Southern, Illinois, with rare excep-

tions. The bitterest Democratic districts down in Egypt now, for

the first time in the history of existing parties, elected Republi-

cans.” The Chicago Tribune adds: ‘On the whole, it has worked

admirably; it has secured the great end sought, and has enabled

the people, in many instances, to defeat the objectionable candi-

date,” which is a fulfillment of the prediction of John Stuart Mill,

that “those who would be favored by the cumulative vote would

generally be the persons of the greatest real or reputed virtue or

talents.” (Thoughts on Parliamentary Reform.)

It was further noticed that in thirty-three of these fifty-one dis-

tricts, the republicans were in the majority, so that by the usnal,

or as the Chicago Times aptly called it, the ‘“‘jug handle” method,

there would have been ninety-nine of one party to fifty-four of the

other, whereas the estimated proportion was eighty-five to sixty-

eight, and the actual result nearly the same, eighty-six to sixty-

seven. At the last-election in 1874, when the old plan would have

THE BOA CONSTRICTOR OF POLITICS. 155

elected fifty-four republicans to ninety-nine of their opponents,

the new one gave seventy of the former to eighty-three of the lat-

ter, of whom indeed there were twenty-seven independents and

fifty-six democrats, almost exactly the allotment justitied by the

vote. ;

Seven of the districts, however failed to get their exact share,

most of these discrepancies being due to the voters scattering their

ballots among too many candidates. In Hngland, however, at an

election of the Birmingham school board, the Liberals, though

slightly in the minority, tried to elect all the fitteen members and

so got in only six, while really entitled to seven. Such failures of

this method can be prevented only by strict party discipline, though

they would be much less frequent if no voter were allowed to vote

for more than the majority of the candidates, or indeed, where their

number is even, for more than one half of them. Thus no voter

in Illinois should be allowed to vote for more than two of his three

representatives, and the one hundred assembly districts in Wiscon-

sin might well be consolidated into ten, in each of which there

would be ten candidates to be elected, and five votes to be distribut-

by each. citizen.

All the essential advantages of the cumulative plan would thus

be preserved, and it would become still better fitted for electing

members of congress than the form recommended by Senator Buck-

alew in 1869, which, for instance, would give each New Yorker

thirty-three votes for representative, whereas he would have exact-

ly as much power if he had but seventeen, and any independent

candidate getting above three per cent. of the vote would be equally

sure of election under either arrangement. It would, however, be

better still to have three districts, each sending eleven delegates

and allowing six votes.

This restriction of the number of votes would lessen immensely

the difficulty of counting them, and the distribution bv the indi-

vidual would b2 much easier when the parties were equally

balanced, while the labor of marshalling the voters of a party large-

ly in the majority, so as to get all the benefit of them, would not

be increased.

Neither form of cumulative vote would be likely to abolish the

eaucus, which indeed can scarcely be spared, but either form would

restrain its abuse, by the facility it would offer for defeating its c.n-

156 WISCONSIN ACADEMY SCIENCES, ARTS, AND LETTERS.

didates, and electing those nominated by boards of trade or mass

meetings called by leading newspapers. This is most easily done

when the districts are the largest, hence the advantuge of the pro-

posed restriction, which makes the distribution and counting of

vit:s but one-half as laborious as would be the case where the same

number of voters were to choose the same number cf representa-

tives by the ordinary form or the cumulative vote.

A further restriction of each voter to one vote would indeed make

counting them still easier, but render the distribution, when the

number of candidates is large, extremely difficult and precarious.

Hither of these plans might, however, be used in choosing directors

of corporations and stock companies, and thus enable the holders

of a comparatively small quantity of stock to have their own repre-

sentative to protect their interests. In such elections compara-

tively few votes would probably be thrown away; but at the polls

there is great risk, not only of the votes being too much scattered,

but of their being too much concentrated. 7

Thus the Democrats. in two of the Illinois districts in 1874, gave

all their votes to one man when they might have elected two, and

at an election of the Marylebone school board, in England, Miss

Garrett got more than twice as many votes as she needed, and more

than half of them were thrown away. Nowif Miss Garrett’s friends

could have placed her on a ticket with several other of their candi-

dates, and couid have had every vote not needed by her transferred

to her associates, they would have been much more fairly repre-

sented.

A plan which would have done this, and which is known as the

preferential method, has actually been in use for twenty years in

Denmark, and was several times employed in the nomination of over-

seers of Harvard University. Many English liberals favor it, and

John Stuart Mill places it among the very greatest improvements

yet made in the theory and practice of government, “and therefore

of civilization.” Mr. Thomas Hare, after whom this plan 1s often

named, says: ‘In framing this system I have always looked for-

ward to its reception by the American people with an anxious hope.

Surpassing all other people in the arts of peace as they minister to

the universal comfort and well being. attaining a not less distin-

guished though unhappy eminence in the arts of war, a nobler

work remains tothem * * * that they become the leaders® of

mankind in the far greater art of government.” .

THE BOA CONSTRICTOR OF POLITICS. 157

This plan is sometimes called too difficult, but Mr. Mill declared

that it is as easy as the multiplication table. The voting is easy

enough. Miss Garrett's friends would have deposited ballots on

which her name was marked. ‘First choice,’ while those candi-

dates woull be named as second or third choice, ete., to whom that

vote should be transferred if not needed for her election. The votes

are first counted so as to show the ful! number, which divided by

the number of candidates to be elected, gives the quota required

for the election. Then the ballots are recounted for the first choice.

As soon as Miss Garrett had reached her quota, her name would

have been cancelled on all the other ballots of her friends, and these

votes would be counted for the second choice, and if that candidate

aiso gained the quota, for the third. The same process heing applied

to all the ballots, it would have happened in this case as in most

others, that there would be a vacaney or two'left to be filled from

among candidates, none of whom had the quota. Mr. Hare’s last

decision seems to be, that in such cases the name having least votes

be cancelled, and these ballots redistributed until the quota is reach-

ed. Other authorities are in favor of giving the preference in such

eases to the plurality, or of getting a smaller quota by methods, of

which it is enought to say that they would much prolong the labor

of counting the votes, a task already so difficult as to give great

opportunity for fraud.

Indeed there is one case in which dishonesty would be peculiarly

easy and justice almost impossible.

Suppose these Illinois Democrats and Liberals, who elected one

representative when they might have got two, had used Hare’s

plan, and all of them made Brown their first choice, while, for the

second choice, the ballots were divided between Jones and Robin-

son. Now if Jones’ votes were counted first, Brown would be

elected and his name caneelled on a!l other ballots, which would

thus elect Robinson also, whereas if the Robinson ballots were

counted first the choice would be Brown and Jones. Hither Jones

or Robinson coull secure the seat by persuading the inspectors of

the votes to shuffle them, so that his name would be counted last

while if these officers were too honest for this, their decision would

be merely a matter of chance, and either chance or fraud might

elect Jones, when he had less than half as many votes as Robinson.

The Hare plan should not therefore be adopted, if we can find any

158 WISCONSIN ACADEMY SCIENCES, ARTS, AND LETTERS.

other which could not be so perverted, but which would be equally

likely to prevent any vote from being lost.

Ta: teug pli should always mik? as exict an apportionment as

Huire’s can ever do, work as simoly as the cumulative method, and

nave the additional alvantage over both these plans of always ap-

pointing in advance, for every vacancy during the term of office, a

substitute representing the same constituency. Sach a plan was

actually invented in 1866, by M. Morin, of Switzerland, in which

country if is termed the the “‘free list,’ though American writers

eall it the independent or list system. It is really Hare’s pl in sim-

plified. The ballots are very similar, namely, lists of names ar-

ranged in order of preference, but marked list number one, two, 2 e,

according to the order in which they have been recorded. The

quota is obtained in the same way, but there is only one counting

of the vote, of which the number cast for each list is ascertained,

at the same time as the whole numbers of votes polled. I[t is then

only necessary to divide the number east for each list by the quota,

to know how many of the candidates on that list are elected, the

names being taken in order as they stand.

By this system, if the list contuining three names headed by Miss

Garrett had obtaine | three times the quota,all three would have been

elected. In the States of Kentucky and Tennessee, each of which

now has ten representatives in Congress, the quota would be ten

per cent. of the vote polled. Any party would have three, four or

five representatives according as it had thirty, forty or fifty per

cent. of the vote, and any independent candidate would be elected

who got his ten per cent. This way of reckoning would give the

Republicans three from the former and four from the latter State,

instead of one member in each actully electel to the forty-fourth

Congress.

This method favors independent candidiutes even more than the

cumulative, for there is much less danger of votes being thrown

away. Thereis the same probability as under Hare’s plan, that

every baliot wili count, but not the same possibility of tae inter-_

ference of chance or fraud. The imaginary votes for Brown, Jones

and Robinson would be classed as so many for list one, Brown and

Jones, and so many for list two, Brown and Robinsoa, and the sec-

ond man would be taken from the list best supported, while the few

cases of an exact tie could safely be referred to the legislature.

THE BOA CONSTRICTOR OF POLITICS. 159

With this slight exception. the results would be quickly made

known and easily verified. If a member of Congress dies in office

his successor would be the first man left on the list from which he

was taken constituents would continue to be represent-

ed by a candidate of their own choice.

Under the list system the nominating power of the caucus would

be the same as with the cumulative or preferential plan, except

that its advocates have proposed a restriction which might well be

incorporated with any method of election, even the boa-constrictor

one, namely, the condition that all the nominations should be re-

corded and published long enough beforehand. to give the citizens

time for independent action. There is some difference of opinion

as to how long the time should be, and how: great should be the

possibility ot offering and altering lists by individuals. It seems to

me that it would be best to provide that any list, signed by the

secretary of any couvention of delegates or any mass-meeting, or

by one hundred voters individually, and sent at least thirty days

before the election, should be numbered, registered, and published

at once; that lists signed by any citizen and wholly made up of

names already presented should be received, numbered and pub-

lished as above, until fifteen days before the election; and that all

ballots should be counted according to the registered number; al-

terations being disregarded and unregistered lists treated as blanks.

I think such restrictions would simply exclude scattering votes and

chances of mistake in the count. But these details are of little im-

portance and may easily be adjusted.

It will beseen that this method 1s peculiarly adopted to the choice

of members of Congress and presidential electors, while the cumu-

lative plan works best in districts where the number of eandidates

and of votes is small.

Still more complete representation of the whole people than at

present, would be attained, if either system were employed in elect-

ing committees who should take the place of the President’s Cahi-

net, and form, with him, a national council; whose unanimous

vote should be necessary for the appointment of judges, ministers

and heads of departments, while other high officials might be ap-

pointed by a two-thirds vote, which should also be requisite for

vetoes, suspension of the habeas corpus act, etc. It would be easy

to change our civil service from apartisan to a national bulwark, if

160 WISCONSIN ACADEMY SCIENCES, ARTS, AND LETTERS

all minor officials were under the control of supervisors appointed

and retained in office by such a council. while not only the leaders

of both parties, but the great men outside of party lines could

thus take their rightful places beside the President. It will easily

be seen that State and city councils might be formed on the same

plan.

Some may think these changes too radical; but every reader will

see the advantages, in other respects, of the list system over any

other method of proportional representation, though any of these

methods would be an immeasurable improvement over the present

plan, by which a party but slightly in the majority, or perhaps not

having a majority of votes, but only one of districts, can crush and

swallow up its opponents in true boa-constrictor fashion.

Note.—A member of the last Constitutional Convention of Missouri, to whom I

sent a copy of this essay, informs me that its main principles have been ‘‘ adopted

n private corporation elections.”

THE REVOLUTIONARY MOVEMENT AMONG WOMEN. 161

ON THE REVOLUTIONARY MOVEMENT AMONG

WOMEN.

BY JOHN W. HOYT, A. M., M. D., LL. D., PRESIDENT OF THE

ACADEMY.

The work of civilization is the work of individualization: The

problem of the ages in the interest of mankind is the problem of

the soul at work in its own consciousness. Man’s service to man

in attempt to harmonize universal need is not greater, nor is ib

other than this—the attempt of the individual to find himself his

proper place. The accomplishment of this by the few is that which

makes any advancement possible, and it is the accomplishment of

it by all that must-merge the missicn in the fulfilment of eiviliza-

tion.

But the unit man is able to open the eyes of his fellow men to

this greatening of power and privilege only as he is able to help

them to alike experience of it. Soon it is found that thought-

level and class-level coincide—that one cannot at once get beyond

the charter or the decree, and that progress is chronicled by caste

and special end.

This parcelling out the rights of the individual has had the effect

to make advances slow and partial; for in the same breath that

makes the declaration, “thus far will we come!” there is heard the

limitation, ‘“‘we and no others

There are two thoughts that run along so parallel to any retro-

spect made of the progress of the race that they seem a part of all

other thought upon this subject. They are distinctly these: that

whatever has been gained has been wrung from those withholding

11 WaAs

162 WISCONSIN ACADEMY SCIENCES, ARTS, AND LETTERS.

as long as it was possible to do so, and that these gains haye been

so generally in the interest of man, that woman has remained out-

side of any considerable advantage. And yet, after all these gener-

ations of steady advancement for man, the burden-bearer of the

world, how little he is advanced, at the best of his aspirations and

means! The marvel that he has not been goaded to a fuller con-

quest of all barring the way to his rights of manhood and possible

achievement stands face to face with that of woman, now moving

in her own interest to the most complete and far-reaching revolu-

tion the world has yet seen.

That man, with his constitutional aggressiveness, his aptness for

organization, the clear field with nothing but himself to oppose,

should up to this hour have missed so much, is not more surpris-

than that woman, unaggressive by nature, unsuited to organization

and with universal history, precedent, and prevailing philosophy

against her, shoul] have undertaken at one move, the sum of all

revolutions. And yet there it stands, the most conspicuous fact

of the times touching either a moral or a political future for so-

ciety.

A demand for rights of one kind and another—in the home, in

the schools, in the occupations and professions, with a more equal

control of property, and lastly, use of the ballot, as covering all

these—has characterized this movement from the beginning. The

wholeness of this demand makes the requisite reconstruction easy.

Could anything be more simple? The haif of society claiming to

speak for the whole population, and hitherto exercising that pre-

rogative have but to draw a pen across a few prescribing words in

statute and constituticn, and there is freedom for the whole people

to be and do, each according to capacity and power. To the

thoughtful and just man, it is strange that in the countries most

enlightened, especially in our own the very essence of whose institu-

tions is freedom without partiality, this sublimest act of emancipa-

tion that history can ever record should beso long delayed. For

what can be more profoundly moving to the justice and sympathy

of the universal mind than the spectacle of one-half of the great

people, through sheer force of muscle and ruder force of brain,

withholding from the other its dearly purchased and most sacred

immunities ?

All things considered, the success of the movement, at last be-

THE REVOLUTIONARY MOVEMENT AMONG WOMEN. 163

gun, is next to the fact of it noticeable. It has acquired a re-

spectable, not to say remarkable frontage in literature, on the ros-

trum, and in the halls of legislation. For thirty years, from pul-

pit, press and platform, in club and in social circle, it has had the

benefit and hindrance of approval, protest and discussion; enlisting

the dignity of conversation, the brilliancy of wit, the contempt of

sarcasm, the repartee of humor, and all the vicissitudes of a ques-

tion so much at home among the people as to be equally every-

body's and nobody’s business. And yet, should the history of this.

movement be attempted, the details would be found unsatisfactory,

its methods unattractive and its results vaguely defined.

UE,

Of the causes moving to this unrest and protest among women, the

difficulty of finding suitable and remunerative employment is con-

spicuous. Here, as in the beginning of human effort, the question

for woman is first one of shelter and sustenance, and without. the

world before her, as it has eyer been before man; for the great

highways of occupation are either positively or practically closed

to feminine industry; and in those open to women it is the almost

universal rule that they are met with less wages for the same work.

The best argument tor this inequality of compensation is based

upon the usual responsibility of man for the family maintenance.

This leads to the question, How, then, when a woman receives from

one-fourth to one-half of that paid a man for the same service, is

she to maintain a family left to her care? It seems very unsatis-

factory to be told that such persons are exceptions to the rule of

generally provided-for married women, and the case niust be met

insome other way than that of labor and compensation for it;"* or

that, “women left without natural protectors, must take upon

themselves the pursuits of men in order to live at all,” and that

‘tor these aberrations from general law special arrangements must

be made.” So far from staying this revolt, women are not even

pausing to press the old question, ** Gentlemen, what is this other

way. and when are those special arrangements to take effect?”

but sre moving upon results with the apparent purpose cf makmg

their own arrangements.

_ *“ Social Science and Women Suffiage.’”? By Rev. C. Caverno, Academy Trans-

actions, Vol. I.

164 WISCONSIN ACADEMY SCIENCES, ARTS, AND LETTERS.

There isnot a more pitiful proposition in the list of social im-

practicabilities than that of a mother turning to the occupations

of men and asking bread and education for her children. So far

as I am aware, the consideration of this struggle for existence

among dependent women has not advanced much beyond the ad-

mission that it is a case to be considered. And { would here sug-

gest, as a step toward something known, if not done, in this re-

gard, that through this organization for the advancement of knowl-

edge and social amelioration the Government be asked at the taking

of the next census, to inquire how many women there are in the

United States dependent upon themselves for support; and how

many, in addition to their own support, are charged with the

maintenance of children, aged parents or family relations dependent

upon their labor, with the occupations followed and the means ac-

cruing therefrom. This, with the number, sex, and age of children

and other statistics relating to the family, and a statement of such

partial means as have been left by deceased or are furnished by

incompetent natural providers, would throw much light upon re-

lated questions, while bringing this one of compensation for labor

with a new significance before the social philosopher who answers

the inquiry, Ought not the compensation of one person to be

equal to that of another for the same work?” by asking, “ Ought

not families to be supported

The question before us is not a divided one, but inseparable by

virtue of a higher law no political economy can permanently re-

sist. That ‘the laborer is worthy of his hire,’ stands denied by

Christian, as by Pagan communities, to the multiplication of poor-

houses and jails under sound of the Sabbath bells of all Christeu-

dom. This is no mere figure of speech; the logic of statistics

proving that in the so-called most Christian nation upon which

the sun shines, the pauper list, because of unremunerated employ-

ment, is greater than that fof any other country in the world.

And what is pauperism? Pauperism is the result of uncompensated

labor; and labor uncompensated is that the wages of which do not

furnish the means of keeping in repair the instruments of it.

Science and experience show that man, as a laborer, must receive

wages in advance of keeping himself in repair, or the instrument

he leaves to take his place must be a deteriorated one. This, be-

911%

* Social Science and Woman Suffrage, by Rey. C. Caverno. Vol. I. Academy

Transactions.

THE REVOLUTIONARY MOVEMENT AMONG WOMEN. 165

cause, while he Jabors he also becomes the father of children. This

deterioration, going on with each generation, at last reaches the

point where pauperism becomes a settled condition rather than an

eecasional and temporary result.

This monstrous evil, this unconvyicted crime, of labor without

adequate wages, it is plain to be seen, falls most heavily upon the

laboring woman who, least of all, is responsible for it. The inter-

ests of industry and the instincts of virtue unite in the condemna-

tion of such barbarism.

This question of family maintenance rests upon an arrangement

far below the righteous or unrighteous usages of society. In the

nature of things, the duty of maintenance belongs to that parent,

be it father or mother, best fitted for the fulfilment of it. Shall

the little one of any household in the Kingdom ef Christ go less

suitably fed, clothed and educated because the burden of this pro-

viding falls upon the mother, whose more brooding care and

greater tenderness. more fully symbolize those of the All-Father

for the child Humanity? Not always. Nor need the majority-

man, upon whose shoulders this burden usually falls, fail of cour-

age because ot this concession. He will find the problem most

easily solved by the rule of equal compensation. Women do not

go into the occupations of men, competing for wages, save from

necessity; remaining there the shortest possible time, and finding

themselves, when there, at disadvantage of natural and acquired

unfitness. Nevertheless, it is trae that women, thus thrust out of

their own into new and distasteful occupations, often accomplish as

much and as good work as men trained to its pursuit. This put-

ting of themselves so completely into their work, to secure this

result, must be exhausting beyond that of masculine services of

the same sort. For this reason, and for other very good reasons,

when women do go into the occupations of men for wages, they

ought to have at least as much, since in respect of need they have ,

the same—that of having others to support—and, in addition, this:

the care of the household, in cooking, sewing, nursing, and the

general responsibility of administering the affairs of the home.

This is so much extra burden laid upon the average laboring wom-

an beyond that performed by the average laboring man.

But the great reason, covering ail classes and all conditions of

each class is this—that women are not able to labor so continuously

166 WISCONSIN ACADEMY SCIENCES, ARTS, AND LETTERS.

as men. The disabilities that cut a man off from compensation for

labor he is not able to perform are possible and occasional; while

those thus hindering a woman are inevitable and periodical. And

this, most certainly, at that period of life when family mainte-

nance, if left to her, would, from the youth of her children, be the

heaviest. That physiology which stands with its protest at the

ballot-box may well take the initiative of protection for woman

against this iniquity of more work for the same wages. Fora

woman to do as much, and as gsod work as a man, at any contin-

uous employment, involves the using of her life-forces at the rate

of self-destruction. And for society to compel, or even permit,

this is to legalize by stronger than statutory provision the abroga-

tion of that law of self-preservation, and that duty of equal pro-

tection, for the enforcement of which society was formed.

Another and most prolific source of discontent is the want of

appreciation which everywhere meets women in the performance

of the ordinary and ever-recurring duties of domestic life.

This want of appreciation is apparently grounded, not so much

upon a depreciation of woman, herself, as of her occupation. It is

as wide-spread as domestic life, and asource of bitterness among

all classes not exempted from personal care in affairs of the house

by exceptional exaltation of rank. It is found equally among the

intelligent and the illiterate—a prevailing low estimate of home

duties. Strange as it may seem, this estimate steadily lowers as

the intelligence and pursuits of class advance; finding its ultimate

in the disdain of gentlemen of the best circles.

The fact that women do not complain of this very much, or

that, to many, if is not distinctly formulated in thought, is all the

more to the argument of its being a great wrong and working ser-

ious injury. Indeed, next to the fact itself, that it finds so little

expression isthe worst of it. It is a skeleton with a shadew for

every homely joy, dragging the body of its death, through the

weary round of woman's life.

The depreciation of whatever industry, art, or gift belongs to the

furtherance of purely domestic ends, such as thrift, organization,

and device in the household, has gone so steadily on since the days

of King Lemuel, that, taking it up as a cause of revolution among

women is, as if in obedience to the command, ‘Open thy mouth

THE REVOLUTIONARY MOVEMENT AMONG WOMEN. 167

for the dumb, in the cause of all such as are appointed to destruc-

tion.”

I am not unaware of the speculative nature of the theory that

measures the decay of woman’s interest in home by that of man’s

estimate of business, but I appeal to both to say whether as the

world enlarges to the one the home is not belittled to the other.

The house increases in dimensions, for there must be room for the

conveniences of art and a retinue for the service of means. But

the home atmosphere is dying out. In the language of one whose

celestial philosophy often touches practical life, “it is not known

* What is there in the well-

furnished modern home? Everything to make it comfortable but

comfort, Man, with his energy and skill, brings everything there

but an appreciation of what woman does to convert material into

beauty and use. Ignoring that the home contains in microcosm

every element of power with which he wrested from the world the

right to call it his own, with additional force of finesse and spirit-

uality of which he has little conception, he seats himself so in the

midst as to leave her pretty much out. How to organize the forces,

that there may be ordered without restraint; to harmonize the rest-

lessness of the child with the rest of the adult; to adjust the duties

and privileges of servants, the entertainment of friends, the courte-

any more what it is, or even that it is.’

sies of society, the calls of religion and charity, maintaining

through all her own individuality, «nd things, if possible, more

precious,—the saving from themselves of dearer ones by the con-

servation of all the powers through which the thoughtful woman

knows how to build with stones that need no smiting,—she knows

through what an incarnation of soul and sense these have come.

He does not. So far from this, he really thinks they have cost him

so much money. Are not these the receipts?

There is nothing more common than for the wife to discover that

her husband wonders what has become of her time. The mascu-

line judgment that money and hired service are sufficient to the

results a woman knows have commanded, not her time and _ fresh-

ness only, but as high an order of talent as was ever employed in

money-making or in State administration, is driving the wife of

- price beyond rubies out of the home and out of the world.

There is no mistaking either the fact or the effect of this. In

regard to the highest of these home duties, the care and training of

168 WISCONSIN ACADEMY SCIENCES, ARTS, AND LETTERS |

children, notwithstanding the theoretical value placed thereon, they

fall into the rut of a uniformly low estimate of what is properly

considered a woman’s work. Hvidence of this is found in the fact

of no provision made for the development of any practical efficiency

for their performance in the home, and in the placimg of children

under charge of the most incompetent and poorly paid teachers in

the schools.

Not until the best institutions that can be established make

ready the devoutly impressed and richly furnished young women

to become mothers will women believe there is any honest convic-

tion behind the complimentary speech with which this branch of

home service is taken out of the category of contempt. From the

eridiron and clothes line to the best possible administration oi the

heme, it is against this grinding sense of undervaluation of her

employments that woman makes her way through life.

Of education, as a cause of the present revolutionary movement,

it is more difficult to speak. I refer now to that wrong and inade-

quate education, of which girls get somuch that women find them-

selves practically without any. It commences early and continues

long, in that indirect tutelage found in the home, in institutions,

laws, literature and society, and which, between repression and

stimulation, becomes an almost systematic procedure for baffling

nature and substituting thestandards of art. And what do wesce?

Hearty, happy little girls? We see very little, any more, of that

phase of female loveliness. Preferences and tendencies are no

longer tolerated unless of clear beconiingness, according to esti-

mates as changing as the unreliable qualities they foster. ‘To atone

for this ever present repression in regard to food, frolic and devices

of taste, an eneryation of indulgence sets in, with corresponding

results to body and mind.

The law of nature, which is development and not hindrance, is

thus stimulated to over-activity among boys by the constant as-

sault upon its application to the girls of the household. Thus the

hard and aggressive nature of boys becomes harder and more ag-

gressive than nattre intended, resulting in injury to the female or-

ganism. Reference is had to that sort of imjury upon which the

discovered relations of physiology and psychology begin to throw

some light, and which is due to the more complete whoieness of

THE REVOLUTIONARY MOVEMENT AMONG WOMEN. 169

woman's structural development at any given time, and at the ear-

hest time, making the endurance of repression or the excess of stim-

ulation more hurtful to the childhood of girls than of boys.

The pernicious doctrine that women are made for sacrifice, with

the stimulus: of making this saerifice wholly acceptable

thas been the root and front of all falsity in relations . be-

tween the sexes. It begins in the family, teaching to the least

of them that brothers are to become whatever they ‘can make them-

selves through their gifts and opportunities, and that sisters are to

become what is neither in the way of nor unacceptable to their

brothers. ‘This subordination of one sex to the other teaches in-

feriority and breeds the pride of some sort of rivalry. The field of

this is soon found. there being much help to if; and the aim is

fixed to be a pleasure to the brother, as he is a power to her. If

this were all, little harm would come of it; since, at its height of

art and purpose, it is the gift of God—this art of a woman wholly

pleasing aman. But the end being presented, with no incentive

beyond 1t, the aim soon touches its depth of demoralization, through

the notion that methods are of less consequence than results, and

forgetting the purpose of appearing to be what she is not.

There is little room to doubt that this is a legitimate result of

early indirect training, and a fountain of that insincerity which is

so dark a shadow on female character. The affectation, instead of

the cultivation of gracious quality in the plastic years of childhood

ften remains but an affectation, to the wormwoodand gall of other

lives and latest years. It is because of exceptional nurturing of

truth and womanly quality, that society is saved from the full pen-

alty of the teaching that women are bound to please; and, pleas-

ing, it matters but little how. Grave as this charge seems, it is as

true as when made a quarter of a century ago by that illustrious

friend of man, Horace Mann, that, “ Through all time women have

been assiduously taught that the garniture of the body was more

precious than the vesture of the spirit; andin no age nor portion

of an age, in no country nor segment or a country, has woman

ever been elevated for her reflex power of elevating others.”

Under the conditions, it is not surprising that woman should

seize upon material ornamentation as accessory to the purpose of

making the most of herself; or that, as the sense of her moral re-

sponsibility is lowered, she should rely more and more upon these

170 WISCONSIN ACADEMY SCIENCES, ARTS, AND LETTERS.

allies of personal attractiveness. The surprise is, that, with any

moral sense left, she should not repudiate the putting of things

beautiful and appropriate, as aiding the expression of intrinsic

beauty and worth, in the place of these. Nevertheless, this js

done, and to such an extent that, just as the connection between

taste and morals disappears in modern feminine apparel, it reap-

pears in the spectacle of avery low standard of personal apprecia-

tion, expressing itself in the deformities of fashion. It is not

merely the empty head of the votary of conventional extremes

that measures the folly and wickedness of training up childhood

to such maidenhood; it isin the exhibition of moral unfitness su-

perinduced upon womanhood itself, and finding its moral expres-

sion in her attire, where the womanly art of decoration becomes

artifice. d

As life advances, the position and language of institutions re-

affirm to woman the humiliating proposition of her youth. At

the threshold of all higher power and privilege, she is met with

the denial of right, or the denial of capacity. There is not an in-

stitution, of the highest grade of its kind, in the world where a

woman can go for instruction, upon an equality with man; and in

those approximating this rank, where she finds admission, it 1s also

to find the atmosphere and hindrance of his supercilious toleration.

In the language of the law, she finds herself ranking first in the

list of natural and convicted incapables—‘‘women, children, crimi-

nals, idiots and slaves.’’ Moses placed her in the category of sub-

stance—property—and there she remains. Not long since Isaw in

an American newspaper an advertisement of the escape of a wife

who had been left as security for the payment of money, with no-

tice of penalties for harboring her. The property and the husband

are one, and not the husband and wife; for does not their relation

terminate upon the death of either, while the husband and his

horse go on together beyond the solenim event ?

In regard to the ownership of children, not the slave-mother

alone, but Ceesar’s wife may miss the infant from her side and

Cesar make no answer. Moses inaugurated this also, and time has

meddled but little with the policy.

In literature it is the same, and yet worse of the kind. The

voice of institutions and of law can be somewhat escaped, invading

the home bué occasionally. But literature, which is a woman’s re-

THE REVOLUTIONARY MOVEMENT AMONG WOMEN. 171

fuge, with its treasures of new and old, its enchanting fabrications

in story and verse, and its record of all that has been done, and

hoped, and failed,—it is here that woman finds herself in the full

habiliment of her subordination. It is not the bold avowal of her

inferiority and the scorn of her sphere, of which there is no lack;

it is not the meaningless paraded recognition of her charms and

gifts, as the decorator and subserver of his leisure, nor yet the vows

and homage accorded her as ministering angel of the house and

purifier of society; it is that inexpressible tone and spirit pervading

the whole, as she turns its pages, announcing everywhere to woman

the measure of her esteem among men. Out of literature proper

she is eased down into society—where the virus of all takes most

fatal effect—by the newspaper press. There is nothing more offen-

siye, and nothing more damaging to the moral sense of the average

reader, of either sex, than the manner in which woman is distorted

and bemeaned by the newspaper craft. Woman, the scandal of

the double-leaded column, the gist of every well-told tale, the butt

of the best joke, the glint of sarcasm, the ridicule of domestic dis-

content and diabolism, and the unknown quantity of all innuendo

and suspicion. And woman not at her best, or half best of admit-

ted worth, but at her worst of disadvantage.

In society, the attitude and the speech of man to woman is most

decorous; for itis here, in the presence of her physical charms, that

the fascinations of her intellectual and spiritual beauty unite in ap-

peal from the decrees of his calculating intellect. And yet it is

here that woman brings the largess of an unreserved sacrifice—her

time, labor, means, capability, her health, herself.

As a last cause distinctively considered, we have the direct edu-

cation furnished in schouls for girls. And it may be that here

will be found the chief cause of the attempt of women to revolu-

tionize public sentiment in their interest, since the language of

positive education is the plainest possible statement to woman of

the inferiority of her duties and of herself.

The rule of less compensation for labor may come in part from

a mistaken judgment as to the number of dependent women; the

depreciation of home duties from an imperfect knowledge of do-

mestic economy; and much of indirect teaching may be the half

unconscious growth of a belief that, things being as they are, it is

172 WISCONSIN ACADEMY SCIENCES, ARTS, AND. LETTERS.

best to make the most of conditions found. Even. the injustice of

her legal status may be glossed over by the assumption that the

responsibilities of equality would overbalance its additional secu-

rity. Such conclusions are compatible with a rather fair estimate

of women taken out of the intricacies of relations which it is diffi-

cult to estimate. But that direct education, which is neither for

public nor professional service, comes to woman with a denial of

the right to it or capacity for it. If one could lay upon the page,

or place before the eye, a picture representing the hemispheres of

time occupied by men and women respectively, and teuch them

with light and shade, according to the measure of education that

has been furnished each, the eye might help the mind in gaining a

conception of the extent to which woman has been denied a know-

ledge of herself and of the world in which she lives. But Art has

not the gift, as eloquence has been in vain, to arouse man to the

wrong of deaying to woman an equal share in whatever education

can give as a preparation for life. Because there is a difference be-

tween the present and the practice of earliest times, 1b 1s not to be

lost sight of that the difference in the opportunities afforded young

men and women respectively, has not been diminished in propor-

tion to general educational advancement; so that it remains, to the

dishonor of all time and countries. Using again the Janguage of

Horace Mann, “In estimating the number of heroic souls who

have languished out their lives in dungeon eells, or fallen beneath

the axe of the oppressor, we count by hundreds and by thousands;

in summing up the multitudes whom conguerors have subjugated

and enslaved, we count by nations and races of men; but, in enu-

merating the women whom man has visited with injustice and per-

sistent wrong in the rights of education, we express ourselves by a

unit, but that unit is the world. And this, notwithstanding that

human reason seeks in vain for a reason why there should be this

difference of education and no education between the sexes.”

Tt is incredible that women have not been taking note of these

things through much time of both experience and retrospect; and

that they are not more moved to protest and revolution to-day, in

the flush of modern enlightment, than when abiding in the thicker

darkness of the past. Nor is it wonderful that this revolution,

having its root and furtherance in the Enghsh-speaking countries,

where progress has done the most for men, should find just here,

THE REVOLUTIONARY MOVEMENT AMONG WOMEN. ie

where their education has most advanced, most bitter cause of

complaint.

JUOL.

Of the aims and methods there is but time for the most general

mention.

The aim is to take woman out of the condition of subordination

to one of equality with man. As an aim if is all that it could be

—a whole, a wise, and a just one.

Of the methods, it must be said, they have ofteu been mistaken

ones, hindering the eause. But they are explained as being the

only ones turnished as models—the means used by man in further-

ance of similar objects. .

IV.

The supposed results being the hydra-headed confusion and des-

olation of the social scheme, it is well to look a little carefully at

what they would probably be. And, first, they must appear in

woman herself more than in man. The mere fact of equality be-

fore the law wouid vitalize her intellectual being, through an

added sense of power, not likely to awaken at once a correspond-

ing sense of responsibility. This has been the history of all class

advancement, and especially when advancing upon privileges long

withheld, and if cannot be doubted that the entire body of women,!

mean all classes of them, would be thus affected—first by the priv-

ileges, rather than by the duties, of the new position. Nor could

this fail to brmg about great social injury, involving the neglect

of children and homes, domestic industries and charities, differences

between husbands and wives, and disaster to private and public

business. As the direct result of the independence of woman, this

would be bad enough; but it would undoubtedly be followed by the

darker shades of increased licentiousness among both women and

men. Political power, and political power alone, as furnishing the

means of protecting himself against the inflictions which may

come of it, has been the bulwark of man’s prerogative and prac-

tice of vice. It has done more and worse than this; it has com-

pelled, whenever his interests were subserved thereby, a participa-

tion by woman in his vice, while meeting out direst penalties for

tie same when it did not so subserve his purposes.

174 WISCONSIN ACADEMY SCIENCES, ARTS, AND LETTERS.

The revulsion from all this, with co-ordinate power and privi-

lege, will most assuredly work to the debasement of female char-

acter, checked only by her natural superiority of instinctive virtue,

and by the increased security against temptation found in her en-

larged material independence. The tendency to this growth of

vice among men would also find restraint in their increased respect

for women, because of their independence, and in the elevation of

sentiment inspired by them through better culture and the conse-

quent ability to turn the excess of masculine passion into virtuous

and useful channels.

Another powerful, and, it may be, more immediate check to

either the ordinary or increased licentiousness of men wouid be the

alarm seizing upon all but the most depraved circles of society, at

the spectacle of woman becoming the instrument of so appalling a

measure of retributive justice. Nor can it be doubted that this

spectacle would become a measure of extraordinary enlightenment

to him concerning the whole nature of the sexual passion and of

the non-sexual character of morality tn extenso.

An increase of divorce legitimate to this state of things would

ere long be corrected by enabling women to enter upon marriage

more considerately than uow; while marriage itself would be stead-

ily gaining in digmty and security, as the elevation and responsi-

bility of enfranchised women began to take effect upon the general

quality of men, as well.

This movement, would, however, beyond all question, show itself

to have been a great and just movement in the result of better

educated women. Through the independence of equality in edu-

cation, better women; and after that a better race of men, better

rearing, better society, better government, and a nobler civiliza-

otin. ~

That women desire an equality with men to the end of entrance

upon public life, or of competing with them in the affairs of busi-

ness, is as far as possible from the truth. Thereis much apprehen-

sion as to the subversion of social order, while insisting upon obe-

dience to the law of nature in the parcelling out of duties and

relations between men and women; and yet the entire proceeding

of the civil structure of man in this regard is as if nature had fur-

nished no law not in need of the sanction of hisenforcement. But

if there is one law of the intellectual constitution of sex more clearly

THE REVOLUTIONARY MOVEMENT AMONG WOMEN. 175

defined than another, it is this: That man is intended for massing

himself with his fellows in organization, and woman for abiding in

the unity of selfhood. Man for openly aggressive, and woman for

silent, vower is the daw of power; each after its fitness and its des-

tiny. Since the world was, man has appeared best in activity,

woman in repose. Instance the testimony of all marble and can-

vas, as well as of literature, and observe it in the daily round where

the self-blinded eyes of men begin to see this open secret of the

social disorder.

Women do not crave a public career, nor would they remain long

in public life if its paths were fully open to them. They do not

seek the ballot to thisend. Even the majority of the leaders of

this movement desire nothing so much as the protection a domes-

tic sphere and home-life theory promise them. As before the Magi

of the old, a woman stands to-day before the law maker of this new

time questioned as to what most pleases woman. And thus has

she always stood, answering in the language of the myth, ‘To be

loved, to be studied by her husband, and to be mistress of the

house.”

The difference between the women of that and this time is in

the manner of the response. The Persian representative of her

sex stood in the twilight of the world, asking for a veil behind

which to hide from even the gods, who held in their keeping such

precious gifts, her sacred joy in anticipation of their bestowal;

while the representative-movement woman of. to-day stands on

platform and in press in the emphasis of her determination to have

something better than the prom/se of these good things.

To be loved, to be studied, and to be mistress of the home where

strength and henor are her clothing, this has always been and

always will be the joy and crown of woman. By the laws of her

physicat and spiritual being, as well as by intellectual preferences,

she is wedded to her motherhood. But she never has been, and

never can be, true to it under the imposition of conditions depen-

dent upon the will of man.

Ideal freedom, which 1s the birthright of every human soul, is

more necessary and more possible to woman than to man, if any

compurison can be made. Alone with herself, ia the unity of that

mysterious bend which binds a finite to an infinite being, woman

becomes a power for buffling evil and furthering good. But under

176 WISCONSIN ACADEMY SCIENCES, ARTS, AND LETTERS.

the ban and surveillance of her master, she is not able to realize,

much less to find, her place.

The final cause of this movement is that of all real progress,

and in the nature of things it cannet fail. That women will ac-

cept less than the obliteration of the last jot and title of man’s ungra-

ciousness to her is not possible, as it is not possible for a law to be and

not to be at the same moment. Ways and means ure nothing, as

condition and precedent are nothing. Through folly and through

wisdom, through strength and through weakness, moves on the

perfect plan to perfect ends.

BEFORE THIS DEPARTMENT.

ns)

ies)

1. Were the Stoics Uiilitarians? By Rey. F. M. Ho~uanp, Baraboo.

2. ies Examination of Prof. 8. Hf. Carpenter’s Position in regard to Evolution.

By Herserr P. Hupsexty, Winona, Minn.

WERE THE STOICS UTILITARIANS? L79

WERE THE STOICS UTILITARIANS ?

BY F. M. HOLLAND, BARABOO.

The practical value of Stoicism was long ago fully demonstrated

in the energy, justice and philanthropy with which, for more than

eighty years after the death of its worst enemy, Domitian, five of

its pupils successively ruled the Roman Empire. It is well to ask

uf the philosophy, for which Nerva went into exile at the same time

as Epictetus, in which the latter, with Dion Chrysostom and Arrian,

instructed Trajan, Hadrian and Antoninus Pius, and of which

Marcus Aurelius made himself the grandest embodiment, has still a

place among living systems of ethics.

The few writers who have tried to find such a place for the Stoies

differ widely. Mr. Lecky and Miss Cobbe labor to array them among

the transcendentalists, the History of European Morals asserting

that of “the two rival theories, one is generally described as the

stoical. the intuitive, the independent or the sentimental—the other

as the epicureai, the inductive, the utilitarian, the selfish,” (vol. i. p.

3,) while the Hssay on Intuitive Morals frequently appeais to the

authority of the Stoics, in quotations, for the most part mistrans-

lated, as is especially that from Lucan, ix., 573, (Am. Hd., page 120,)

which owes its significance wholly to the words, “inborn precepts,”

which are rightly italicized by Miss Cobbe, tor they are not con-

tained in the original Latin printed beneath them. This liberty,

like the similar ones with Marcus Aurelius, I. 18; and V. 27, was

undoubtedly taken in the firm belief, that the real views of the auth-

ors were thus fully manifested. Even J. S. Mill so far agrees with

his two antagonists, as to speak of ‘‘eyery writer, from Epicurus to

Bentham, who maintained the theory of utility,” and to say “let

utilitarians never cease to claim the morality of self-devotion as a

possession which belongs by as good a right to them, as either to

the Stoic or to the Transcendentalist.” (Utilitarianism, Ch. IT.)

Everybody knows Jeremy Bentham’s hatred of “the sort of trash

which a set of people used to amuse themselves with talking, while

parading backward and forward in colonnades called porches,” but

everybody does not know that Alexander Bain, who is, except Her-

bert Spencer, the ablest living advocate of utilitarianism, declares

180 WISCONSIN ACADEMY SCIENCES, ARTS, AND LETTERS.

that “* = oicism and Kpicureanism are both included in its compass.”

(Moral Science, Am. Ed., p. 16.) Mr. Bain, however, gives no evi-

dence for this statement, and takes little pains to show the proper

place of the Stoics among the happiness moralists.

These differences of opimon make it necessary to examine care-

fully the statements of Stoicism, made by its principal teachers,

Seneca, Epictetus and Mareus Aurelius, as well as the accounts of

the opinions of still earlier authors by Diogenes Laertius and Cicero

Such an examination will show that the Stoics never were led

by their belief. that every soul isa part of the cupreme and All-

pervading Intelligence, to suppose themselves thus endowed with

an infallible moral guide, and raised ayn necessity of learning

what is right and wrong by observation and experience.

Seneca, in his 120th letter, s * Nature could not teach us the

first ideas of goodness and virtue. She gave us the germs of

knowledge, but not knowledge itself. Our -shilass be holds that

these ideas come by observation and comparison of our daily deeds,

and that goodness and virtue are known by analogy.”

Epictetus devotes the eleventh chapter of the second book of his

Discourses to proying that we are not so well provided with innate

ideas of good and evil, as to be able to distinguish right from

wrong without some rule, balance or standard, such as philosophy

alone can give, the knowledge of which inability he calls “the be-

ginning of Wisdom.” (See pages 124, 5,6 of Higginson’s spirited

translation.”

He complains not only that ‘

man is faithless,” but that pecple no

ignorant of “the essence of good and evil, and act rashly and by

guess;” ‘that contradiction among the generality of mankind. by

which they differ concerning good and evil,’ showing that moral

knowledge can be acquired only by tuition, as was also the opinion

of the earliest Stoics.*

The fundamental distinction, however, between the intuitional-

ists and their rivals. is that the former believe the mural sentiment

to be innate, in lependent and incapable of analysis, while the lat-

ter are satisfied that it can be analyzed into simpler elements, and

therefore claim the title of derivative moralists, a name which the

the governing faculty of a bad

t instructed in philosophy are

* See Higzinson’s Epictetus, pp. 48, 62, 65, 74, 76, $3, 101-2, 145-53, 175-6,

185-6, 208, 224, 245-7, 299, 315, 335, 245, 324. Diogenes Laertius, Zeno LLY, p.

292, Bohn.

WERE THE STOICS UTILITARIANS ? 181

Westminster Review decidedly prefers to that of utilitarian.* In

this respect 16 is very significant that the founder of Stocism intro-

duced a new word for duty, kathekon, containing a preposition de-

noting relation or derivation, and that the last defender of the

Portico gives a similar term, katorthoseis, for those actions ‘* which

proceed by the straight path from a kindred principle to the end

appointed.”*y

Cicero,{ however, considers that the preposition in these terms

for right actions, denotes simply their accordance with nature.

Nature was, indeed, the supreme authority of the Stoics, whose

“follow n: coe did not mean “follow con-

92 asserts on pages 142-3 of Tutuitive Morals,

where she imagines that a proves it by a remarkably incomplete

quotation from Dicgenes Laertius, who makes much more refer-

ence, in her extract,to universal nature, an oracle to which

he Hipicureans appealed as constantly as their stern ee without

ever attempting to receive its revelations intuitively. The philos-

ophers of both schools agreed with most of their contemporaries in

Se acisine as ine ultimate souree of right and wrong in

morals, and therefore in institutions, the imaginary law of the im-

aginary being, Nature.’ (Mill on Comte, p 65.) And this fallacy

was aceepted as the ultimate analysis by nearly every moralist who

oe ae for fifteen centuries after the death of Marcus Aurelius.

Indeed, the error still shows itself in the current.loose talk about

natural rights and desires, unnatural conduct, ete. The fact that

the Stoics lived in what Mull ealls the abstractional, or ontological,

and Comte the metaphysical period of ethics, should not prevent

our recognizing them as faithful followers of the derivation method

according to their light, as is proved by the following quotations,

some of which even show that their authors were in advance of

the age and almost Severe the discoveries of modern Utilitari-

ans, while other passages indicate a habit of estimating the moral-

ity of an action aint to its tendencies and usefulness.

‘In order to distinguish good from evil you should consider not

whence it comes, but whither it tends.

“ Whatever makes life happy is gocd by its own right and can-

not become evil.” (Seneca.Cp.44.section 6.) “Only th at which makes

® See the article on the Natural History of Morals, puvlished October, 1369, in

Vol. XCII, p. 237, 52. Am. Ed.

sce Diogenes Laertius, Zeno LXIL, p. 298, and Marcus Aurelius, V. 14.

Rata phisin. See De Finibus, ILf, 14.

182 WISCONSIN ACADEMY SCIENCES, ARTS, AND LETTERS.

us happy 1s good.” (do 85, 20 and 115, 15.) “In being useful the

soul moves according to nature.” (do 109, 12.) ‘* Whatever is good

is always profitable. If it be not profitable, it is not good; if it be

it is so.” (do 117, 27.) “Utility is the standard of necessity,” (or

conformity to nature, do 39,6.) ‘“‘Publie and private utility are

inseparable.” (do 16,10.) ‘The only proper aim of the giver is

the advantage of the receiver.” (De Benificiis iv, 9, 1.) “Our duty

certainly is to be useful to other human beings and to as many as

possible, for in doing good to others we perform the common

work.” (De Otio iii, 5.) ‘‘ Punish without anger, not as 1f revenge

were sweet, and only so far as it is useful.” (De Ira, Lib. ii, 33, 1.)

‘‘ All men seek what is useful and according to nature.” (Epictetus,

Discourses, 1.18.) ‘“ No one can thiuk anything really usefui and

not choose it.” (dei, 28.) °**When therefore any one identifies his

interest with those of sanctity, virtue, country, parents, and

friends, all these are secured, but whenever he places his interest

in anything else than friends, country, family, and justice, then

these all give way, borne down by the weight of self-interest. for

wherever I and mine are placed, thither must every living being

eravitate.” do i, 22, Higginson p. 174.) “Why did Agamemnon

and Achilles disagree? Because they did not know what is useful

and what is useless.” (do ii, 24.) ‘Consider the antecedents and

the consequences of every action.” (do ii, 15, alsoin the Eucheir-

idion, xxix.) ‘Every creature is formed by nature for pursuing

and admiring the things which appear beneficial.” (Ench. xxxi.)

When you imagine any pleasure, don’t be carried away by it, but

wait awhile. Then think how you will grieve and blame yourself

for enjoying it, and how you will rejoice and please yourself for

having abstained.” (Ench. xxxiv.) ‘This above all is the busi-

ness of nature, to correct and apply the active powers to what ap-

pears fit and beneficial.” (Fragment lxiv in Higginson’s Epictetus,

lxix in Didot’s, Paris, 1842.) *

Notr.—tThe first ninety-one of these fragments, as Higginson gives them, and

some later ones are from Stobaeus, who lived about 300 years after Epictetus, but

who shared his vsews so far, and has received such general confidence, that I quote

all he furnishes cf importance. Others are from Maximus and contain nothing to

the purpose. The rest are from Antonius Melissa, a work in the dark ages, some

600 or 1000 years later than than the philosopher whom he quotes at second hand,

through the untri stworthy medium of the church fathers. To his extracts I shall

make no further reference except to mention that one passage (Higginson cyv.;) 18

decidedly derivative and may fairly be paired off with another, (Higginson xcii,)

which is the only expresssion of intuitionalism I have found among the sayings

ascribed to Epictetus.

WERE THE STOICS UTILITARIANS? 183

‘Don’t consider what others say, do or think, unless it is very

necessary and for the common good.” (Marcus Aurelius, Commen-

taries, iii, 4.) ‘* Never labor without regard to the general interest.”

(do i, 5.) “Choose the better part. But that which is useful is the

better part.” (do iti, 6.) ‘‘ Let no act be done without a purpose.”

(do vi, 2, Long’s translation.) ‘“ Do only what is useful to men.”

do iv, 12.) ‘* Turn the present to profit by aid of wisdom and jus-

tice.” (do iv, 26.) ‘‘ How cruel it is not to allow men to strive af-

ter what seems to them natural and useful.” (do vi, 27.) “ What-

ever I can do, ought to be directed to this end alone, usefulness to

the community.” (do vii, 5.) ‘A rational nature goes on its way

well when it directs its movements only to actions universally bene-

ficial, ete. (do viii, 7.) ‘Repentance is a kind of self-reproof for

having neglected something useful.” (do viii, 10, Compare Darwin,

Descent of man I, 87.) ‘Let every action be a complete part of

social life. Every act of thine, which has no immediate or ulti-

mate reference to a public end, tears thy lite asunder.” (do ix, 23.)

‘Let there be effort and exertion resulting in acting for the com-

mon good, for this too is according to thy nature.”) do ix, 31.) “HH

I remember that I am a part of the whole I shall do nothing un-

social, but shall turn all my efforts to the commen interest.” (do

x, 6, Long, abridged.) ‘Thy charge is to provide in every way what

is useful to the State.” (do xi,13.) ‘‘ Our object should be the good

of the State, and of mankind also.” (do xi, 21.) ‘ First, do noth-

ing inconsiderately, nor without a purpose; Second, make thy acts

refer to nothing else than a social end.” (do xii, 20, Long.) “And

anything which is useful to the universe, is always good and in

season.” (do xii, 23, Long.)

“The Stoics say that men ave created for the sake of mankind,

to be useful to each other. Thus we are commanded to follow

nature in being mutually and universally useful.” (Cicero de Off-

ciis, i, 1,5.) ‘Those in charge of public business should look at

the advantage of the citizens, and consult that in all they do, for-

getting their own interests. A public trust should be administered

for the benefit of those giving it, not of him to whom it is given.”

(do., i, 25, 1 and 2.) ‘‘True philosophers have not neglected the

advantage and interests of mankind.” (do.,i, 54,1.) “ Nothing

does more to deprave human conduct, than the belief that any-

thing is virtuous which is not virtuous.” (do., ii, 3,3.) “The

184 WISCONSIN ACADEMY SCIENCES, ARTS, AND LETTERS

q 4

Stoies agree that whatever is virtuous is useful, and that nothing

is useful which is not virtuous.” (do., iii, 8,4, and 4,15.) ‘ Pa-

neetius taught that virtue onght to he en P because ib is the

cause of utility, that it is never at variance with real but only with

imaginary utility, that nothing is useful which is not also right, or

right which is not also useful, and that no worse disease has ever

invaded human life, than the theory which disjoined these two

ideas.” (do., ili, 38,5, and 7.6.) ‘The !aw of nature watches over

and holds together the interests of mankind.” (D>»., ii, 6, 14.)

* Duty is always performed when the advantage of mankind is con-

sulted.” (Do., in, 6, 15.) “Although nothing is so contrary to

nature as depravity, yet nothing is so much in accordanee with

nature as utility, and certainly depravity and utility cannot be

found together.” (Do., mi, 8,2.) ‘This is the law of nature which

you should obey and follow, that your interest is the universal, and

the universal one your own.” (Do., i, 12, 7, and 6, 1.) “ Heis a

good man who bene efits as many people as possible and harms no-

body.” (Do., mi, 18, 9.) ‘ Those who separate utility and morality

overthrow ey fu me principles of nature. We all seek ntil-

ity, are carried away by it, and cannot do otherwise. For who

flees away from what is oe Who does not rather pursue ib

most diligently?” (Do., 11, 25. 1,2.) ‘*‘ Whatever is useful is vir-

tuous, though if does not at fis rst seem so.” (Do.; ii, 28, 9, and 30,

10.)

These quotations show how fully the Stoies reeognized utility as

the imseparable and characteristic result of virtue; though their

position cannot be further explained, until we have considered

their language about happiness and pleasure. .

The following passages are in harmony with the two about hap-

piness, already quoted from Seneca.

‘All men wish to live happily bat cannot discern the proper

way.’ (Seneca, De Vita Beata, I. 1.) “To live happily is the

same as to live according to nature.” (do, do, 8, 3, also 3, 3, and

Kp. 124, 7.) ‘“ He has reached the perfection of wisdom, who dees

not place his happiness in another’s power.” (do, Ep. 23, 2.)

‘* Make yourself happy.” (do Ep. 31,9.) ‘‘ All men seek happiness.

In what do they err? In taking its conditions for itself.” (do Ep.

44.7.) “He who is not happy, has not attained the supreme good.”

(do Ep. 71, 18.) What is the business of virtue? A life truly

WERE THE STOICS UTILITARIANS? 185

prosperous.” (Hpictetus, Dise. I, 4, Higginson, p. 14) ‘Suppose

then, I should prove to you that you are deficient in what is most

necessary and important to happiness, and that hitherto you haye

taken care ot everything rather than your duty.” (doii, 14, Hig-

einson, p. 137.) “Show me some one who is always happy, for I

long to see a Stoic.” (do 1,19) ‘You were not created to be de-

eraded or miserable with others, but to be happy with them. For

God made all men to enjoy happiness and peace.” (do iii, 24, 1.)

“ Be contented with asound mind and a happy life.” (do ui, 24, 118.)

* Our struggle is for prosperity and happiness itself.” (do iii, 25.)

“You have applied yourself to philosophy only in name, and lave

disgraced her principles, as much as you could, by showing that

they are unprofitable and useless to these who study them. You

have never made peace, tranquillity and equanimity the object of

your desires.” (do ii, 26, 13.) * What isthe object you should seek

except a happy life?” (do iv, 4, 4) “ Be mindful, morning, noon

and night, that the only way to happiness is this.” (do iv, 4, 39.)

“Meditate upon your actions. What have [ omitted that is con-

ducive to happiness? What have I done contrary to the interests

of my friends or of my race? (do iv, 6,85.) ‘“ It is better that your

servant should be bad than you unhappy.” (do HEnehiridion xii,

Higeinson, p. 379.) “To be happy is.a good object and in your

own power.” (do Fragment, xix Didot.) ‘It is better to contract

yourself within the compass of asmall fortune and be happy, than

to have a great one and be wretched.” (do Frag. xxiv, Didot, xxi,

Higginson.) |

In the original of the last passage the verb is the one translated

be of good cheer, or be merry, in our Bible, (Acts xxvii, 22 and 25;

James v., 13.) and corresponding to the adverb rendered cheerfully

(Acts xxiv., 10), as well as to the noun selected by Democritus, as

the mark of the system thence called Huthumism by Miss Cuobbe,

(Essay on Intuitive Morals, p. 221.) and signifying “the pursuit

of virtue for its intrinsic 7. e. moral pleasure.” In the other quota-

tion from Stobseus, and in all those from the third book, the terms

are those familiar ones, whose use by the ancient advocates of Util-

itarianism,leads Miss Cobbe to eall thats ystem Hudaimonism, mean-

ing “the pursuit of virtue for the sake of the extrinsic, affectional,

intellectual and sensual pleasure resulting from it’ (do. p. 219).

In other passages, however, isfound a word peculiar to the Stoics,

186 WISCONSIN ACADEMY SCIENCES, ARTS, AND LETTERS.

who thought so much of happiness that they invented for it a new

term, Huroia. Their yiews of this favorite idea appear nowhere

more clearly than in a long passage of Epictetus (Discourses,

book II, ch. xvii., Higg'nson, p. 151), where the student, who has

learned to desire nothing but freedom from passion and trouble, is

said to have passed through the first class in philosophy, whence

he enters the second class in his desire to know his duties to for-

eigners, his country, his parents and the Gods. Thus the first de-

gree in Stoicism was to make one’s self hsppy, and the second to

be useful to others; which second and higher degree is that mainly

dwelt on by Cicero and Mareus Aurelius, as has been already

shown.

The Tusculan Disputations and De Finibus of Cicero state at

some length, that the Stoics agreed with the Peripatetics, Hpicu-

reans and other acknowledged Utilitarians, in honoring happiness

as the greatest good and highest aim of man, and differed from

them mainly in declaring that the sole and sufficient means of ac-

quiring it was virtue, or, in other words, both active and submis-

sive obedience to the commands, prohibitions and decrees of nature,

their favorite watchword being “ sustine et abstine.”

The peculiar bitterness of the controversy between the Stoics and

Epicureans was partly due to the attempts made by the latter, to

overthrow the established opinions about theology, politics and

metaphysics, and partly to their assertions, that pleasure was not

only the means but the synonyme of happiness, that the virtues are

chosen for the sake of pleasure and not on their own account.*

It does not appear from Lucretius, Diogenes Laertius, or Cicero,

that regard to any happiness but our own was ever inculeated by

the Epicureans, and it is certain that they committed the danger-

ous error of using Greek and Latiu terms for pleasure which have

an extremely sensual signification, hedone being rightly trans-

lated lust in our New Testament, (Titus Iil, 3, James IV, 13,)

and voluptas bemg used in a sense even grosser than that of our

derivative voluptuous. Mr. J. §. Mill does not “‘consider the Hpicu-

reans to have been by any means faultless in drawing out their

scheme of consequences froin the utilitarian principle” (Utilitarian-

ism p. 11;) Professor Bain “* cannot but remark that the title or for-

mula of the theory was ill chosen, and was really a misnomer,”

*See Diogenes Laertius, p. 470—3.

WERE THE STOICS UTILITARIANS? 187

(Moral Science, p. 140.) Bishop Cumberland, one of the earliest

modern advocates of the greatest happiness principle, attacks Kpi-

curus and his followers vigorously, and two of the best known

among the ancient expounders of that principle, Aristotle and

Theophrastus, take similar ground, the former denying that pleasure

is the chief good or synonyme of happiness and warning his disci-

ples against snares, (Hthics I, 9, and X,3,) while the latter speaks so

strongly of the peculiar guilt of sins committed with pleasure, that

his language is quoted with hearty approval by Marcus Aurelius

(Ii, 10.) Weshould not therefore infer that the Stoics were not

Utilitarians, because they opposed Hpicureanism, which system in-

deed had become, before any exposition ot their views now extant

was written, little else than a cloak for indolenee, servility, protl-

gacy, and indifference to the claims of patriotism and philanthropy,

as indeed the lives and writings of the best known of the successors of

Hpicurus prove only too plainly.

Marcus Aurelius, Epictetus and Seneca saw these facts so clearly,

and loved practical morality so faithfully, as often to speak of pleasure

with unqualified aversion. Seneca, however, frequently distinguish-

es the voluptas which is brevis, tenuis, corporalis, vana, nimia,

poenitenda ac in contrarium abitura, from that which is vera, sta-

bilis, naturalis, necessaria, in animo, ete., (De Vita Beata iv, 2; vi,

1; Ep. 18,10: 21, 11; 78, 22;) and Epictetus uses hedone with sim-

ilar caution (Disc. ui, 7.) These two terms are also employed in

some remarkable passages which may be regarded as foreshadowing

the discovery, now the bulwark of utilitarianism, that pains are

the correlatives of actions injurious to the organism, while pleasures

are the correlatives of actions conducive to its welfare. ‘Pleasures

are the incentives to life-supporting acts, and pains the deterrents

from life-destroying acts. (Herbert Spencer’s Psychology, Ed. of

1872, Vol. i, p. 279-284.) With these statements should be care-

fully compared the following:

‘Nature has mingled pleasure with necessary actions, not in or-

der to have us seek after it, but that what we cannot live without

may with this addition, become more attractive.” (Seneca Hp. 116

3.) Pleasure is the companion, though not the leader, of a virtu-

ous will. When virtue leads, pleasure follows like a shadow.” (do,

de Vita Beata, viii, 1 and xiii, 5.) ‘“ Our nature is to be free, noble

and modest. And pleasure should be subjected to these virtues, as

188 WISCONSIN ACADEMY SCIENCES, ARTS, AND LETTERS.

a servant and assistant, and sustain us in doing what is commanded

by nature.” (Epictetus, Discourses im, 7, 28.) ‘ We do not think

that pleasure is commanded us by ae . but that it is a result of

what is so commanded, namely. justice, temperance, and freedom.”

(do Fragment lu, Didot.)

soe who speak thus cannot be charged with ignoring

the value of pleasure, which indeed they sometimes acknowledge

even more ds

‘Our pleasure is doing good.” (Seneea, De Beneficiis iv, 13, 2.)

* We shall not have any the less pleasure for giving virtue the pre-

cedence, but shall be its masters and governors.” ‘(do De Vita

Beata xiv, 1.) ‘It is a great pleasure for me to think of the charac-

ter of Scipio.” (do Hp. 86,5.) “I permit you to enjoy pleasures,

which will come to you more plentifully if yon rule them than if

you obey them.” (do Ep. 116, 1.)

Usually, however, terms, which denote only mental pleasure,

like gaudium, leetitia and various forms and derivatives of the

verbs chairo and euphraino are preferred, of which common prac-

tice a few instances will be given.

“ He has reached the height of wisdom who knows what to re-

joice in. Learn this, first of all, O Tene (Seneca Ep., 23, 2.)

‘*T am not depriving you of many pleasures” ae ‘but

desiring that joy may never fail you.” (Do. Ep., 23,3.) “ Nothing

which-is not right can please anybody sara (Do. Ep., 20, 5.)

You can see that you are not yet sufficiently wise, for the wise

man is always joyous. Joy belongs to ae alone, and this is the

reason that you should wish for wisdom.” (Do. Ep., 59, see. 2, 14

and 16.) ‘“ The wicked find a fleeting aa eset in what gives the

wise man enduring joy.” (Do. Ep., 59, 24.) “It is right and natu-

al for the good man to be joyful.” (Do. De iis 6.5.) 7% Min=

joy the present and accept all things in their season.” (Epictetus’

night

My Oe

Dise. [V, 4,45.) “ Take continua] pleasure in passing from one

philanthropic action to ae thinking of God.” (Mareus Aure-

lius VI., 7.) ‘* What remains, except to enjoy life by joming one

good thing to another, so as not to leave even the scale interval

between.” (Do., XII, 29. Long. See also VIIT, 26, and X 33.)

The reader may charge the Stoics with self-contradiction in their

language about mental pleasure, but he can find none in their re-

fusal to admit bodily pleasure as a legitimate motive or as any part

WERE THE STOICS UTILITARIANS? 189

of happiness. Here, indeed, they differed from the Epicureans, but

they agreed fully with the keen-signted Peripatetics. The philoso-

phers of both these schools were wise enough to know that the

best way to be happy is to disregard bodily pains and pleasures,

and cultivate ec: kindness of heart, and nobleness of

though. I[é was also characteristic of both Stoics and Peripatetics,

hough no&of the Epicureans, to aim at universal, and not merely

personal happiness, and to believe that virtue should be practised

for its own sake, that is simply on account of its ees with

the laws of nature. Indeed, the Peripateties charged the Stoies

with stealing all their teachings, merely altering the terms, as

thieves do the ear-murks of stolen cattie.*

The position that virtue is su ficient oe happpiness. however, was

further differed from the Peripateties

eonfined to the Stoies, who

as did the Epicure sans also, in refusing to accept the judgment of

the wisest as the moral standard, and spa all other ptiloso-

phers. nob only in teaching disinterestedness, but in importing that

regard for all the interests of their race which has Since been called

the enthusiasm of humanity.

Stoicisim is thus seen to have preierred universal to individual

happiness, disregarded bodily pleasures. demurred to accepting even

mental ones as motives. believed in following virtue for her own

sake, and placed morality on a disinterested basis, scarcely any ot

which views would be thought compatible with being utilitarian

by those who, hke Mr. Lecky, consider that term as a synonyme of

selfish. Even he, however, makes some discrimination in favor of

what he calls “the refined sensuality ” of the Mills, Tucker and

Anstin, while Miss Cobbe distinguishes plainly between the two

schools of Private and Public Hudaimonists, as she styles them, in

a description much coufased by her taking, as the representative of

the last named class, Jereny Bentham, who really belongs, with

Paley, the French naturalists of the last century, and the Epicu-

reans, among what we may call the self-regarding or individualistic

Utilitarians, who did not believe in disinterestedness or in caring

for others’ happiness except as a condition of one’s own. No won-

der that Stoicism appeared trash to a man who finaliy discarded

the last four words of his own famous formula, ‘‘ the greatest hap-

* See Ac. Quaest. 115. De Finibus II, 23, 27. ILI, 3. IV, 26, 28: V, 13,

16, 17, 25, 26, 29.

190 WISCONSIN ACADEMY SCIENCES, ARTS, AND LETTERS.

piness of the greatest number,” and who, if we may trust the Deon-

tology so far, even declared that “‘ A man can no more cast off re-

gard to his own happiness, meaning the happiness of the moment,

than he can cast Off his own skin.”

The progress of psychology is rapidly destroying the arguments

on which these egotists rested, and showing that the real repre-

sentatiyes of Utilitarianism are those who, like Bain, Mill, Spencer

and others of its most recent advocates, plant themselves on disin-

terested social sympathy so firmly, and teach regard to universal

happiness so plainly, that they deserve no worse epithet than that

of humanitarian or philanthropic. Their position is so little un-

derstood, that a few characteristic passages must here be quoted

from the little book, called “ Utilitarianism,” by John Stuart Mill,

published in 1863, and since reprinted among the Dissertations and

Discussions.

‘This it is, which, when once the general happiness is recogniz-

ed as the ethical standard, will constitute the strength ot the utili-

tarian morality. This firm foundation is that of the social feelings

of mankind, the desire to be in unity with our fellow creatures,

&e., (p. 45).

“Rew but those whose mind is a moral blank, could bear to lay

out their course of life on the plan of paying no regard to others

except so far as their own private interests compels” (Do. end ch.

iii., p. 50.) “ The utilitarian standard is not the agent’s own great-

est happiness, but the greatest amount of happiness altogether ”’

(Do. p. 16). The happiness which forms the utilitarian standard

of what is right in conduct, is not the agent’s own happiness, but

that of ail concerned. As between his own happiness and that of

others, utilitarianism requires him to be as strictly impartial as a

disinterested and benevolent specator. In the gelden rule of Jesus

of Nazareth, we read the complete spirit of the ethics of utility,”

(p. 24). “ Utilitarianism could only attain its end by the general

cultivation of nobleness of character” (p. 16). “ It maintains not

only that virtue is to be desired, but that it is to be desired disin-

terestedly, for itself” (p' 53). ‘‘ Readiness to serve the happiness of

others by the absolute sacrifice of his own, is the highest virtue

which can be found in man ” (p. 23), “ Virtue in those who love

t disinterestedly is desired and cherished, not as a means to happi-

WERE THE STOICS UTILITARIANS? 191

ness, but as a part of their happiness” (p. 538-4). “Virtue, above all

things important to the general happiness” (p. 58).

With the above passages should b2 cited these two from the

articles on Comte. “ No one, who understands any morality at all,

would object to the proposition that egoism is bound, and should

always be taught to give way to the well understood interests of

enlarged altruism. It is an error often, but falsely, charged against

the whole class of utilitarian moralists” to require ‘ that the test

of conduct should also be the exclusive motive to it” (p. 125-6 of

the Reprint).

Sir James Mackintosh also maintained (according to Bain’s Moral

Science, p. 264), that ** the utility is the remote and final justifica-

tion of ali actions accounted right, but not the immediate motive

in the mind of the agent.”

These passages give, with but incidental differences, the views

not only of Bain and Spencer, but of Hume, Locke and Cumber-

land, and with these philanthropic utilitarians, the Stoics and Per-

ipatetics would have agreed much more readily than the Hpicure-

ans. ‘The Stoical literature is especially rich in passages honoring

the social feelings and teaching universal philanthropy.

“Nature endears man to man,” (De officiis I. 44.) “ Nothing is

more natural to man than kindness,” (do J, 14,1.) ‘All men are

plainly in union with each other,” (do I, 16, 5.) “Knowledge 1s

empty and isolated, unless accompanied by Jove of all mankind,

and of universal brotherhood,” (do I. 44,8.) ‘The brotherhood of

the whole human race is especially in accordance with nature.”

(do [il. 5, 2.) They say that we should love our fel ow citizens,

but not foreigners, destroy the universal fellowship of mankind,

with which would perish kindness, benovolence and justice,” (do

1il. 6, 6.) “The same law of nature joins us all together,” (do ILI.

6.3) “Care for other men and serve the human brotherhood,”

(do JIL. 12, 7.) ‘‘Nature has inclined us to love our fellow men, and

this is the foundation of the law.” (De Legibus1, 15.) ‘* Nature so

endears us to each other that no man should ever be unfriendly to

another, simply because he is a man,” (De Finibus III. 19.) “Nature

bids us prefer the general advantage to our own; for all the uni-

yerse is one common city of men and gods,” (do do.) ‘ We are im-

pelled by nature to benefit as many people as possible, born for hu-

man brotherhood, and joined together in one great community,”

192 WISCONSIN ACADEMY SCIENCES, ARTS, AND LETTERS.

(do 20.) “The aim of the Stoic is to be useful. not to himself alone

but to all men, both collectively and individually, (Seneca, De Clem.

Il. 5,3.) “Guard religiously the bond which unites man to man

and establishes the common rights of all the race,” (do ep., 48, 3.)

raphy bilesop ey teaches reverence for the gods and love of man, (do ep.,

90,3.) “This isthe rule of duty. Nature has made us kindred,

implanted in as mutual love, and made us kindly affectioned, so

ful for us to injure than to be injured. She bids

that it is more pain

our heipfui hands be ever ready. Have this verse ever on your lips

and in your heart. ‘lam human, and [think no other maa a

strang ty We are born to live together. Humanity is an areh

which falls unless each part sustaias the rest,” (do ep. 95, 52, 3.)

‘The wise man thinks himself the citizen and soldier of the uni-

verse, and labors as if under orders.” (do ep. 120, 12.) “IT owe

more to the human race than to any individual, (do De Ben., VIL.

19, 9.) **Men by mattis endeared to each other,” (Epictetus Il, 24.

Higginson, p. 266.) ‘“ Man’s nature is to be gentle and sociable,and

to do good,” (do IV. 1, 122, 6.) “U would have death find me doing

something benovelent, public-spirited, noble. (do 1V 10, 12.) “Noth-

a is nobler than magnanimity, meekness, and philanthropy,”

lo Fragment LL.) ‘I would lay aside all self love, (Marcus Au-

oe IL. 5.) “ Rational creatures exist for each other,’ (do IV. 3.)

* The sole fruit of this’earthly life is a pious disposition and philan-

thropie activity, (do VI. 39.) “Oaly what is useful to Rome and

to the universe is useful to me,” (do VL. 44.) “One thing here is of

great worth, to live in fellowship with trath and justice, and yet be

benovelent to Hars and unjust men,” (do VI. 47.) “tis peculiarly

human to love even those who ilo wrong,” (do, Vil. 22.) ‘ Love

mankind,” (do VIL. 31. ‘ Benevolence to our fellow men is peeu-

liarly human,” (VU. 26.) “Itis not fit that I should give my-elf

pain, for I have never given pain intentionally to anyone else,”

(do VILL 42.) “ Among the properties of the rational son! is love

of one’s neighbor,” (do X.1,1.) “Have I done anything for the

general interest? I have had my reward,” (do XI. 4.)

No wonder that J’ S. Mill calls the commentaries of Mareus Au-

relius ‘‘ the highest ethical product of the ancient mind.” Indeed

the writings of these two philosophers are admirably in harmony,

like their lives.

It is true that before the discovery, but little more than a cen-

WERE THE STOICS UTILITARIANS? 193

tury ago, of the doctrine of association of ideas, so liltle was known

of the process by which we rise, from desiring certain qualities, as

means to happiness, to desiring them for their own sake, and rec-

ognizing them as virtuous, that the Stoics were obliged to content

themselves with sometimes enjoining disinterestedness, but not

giving any adequate reason, and sometimes demonstrating the ten-

dency of virtue to produce happiness without showing how knowl-

edge of this is compatible with the duty of being disinterested.

Similar ignorance of the fact, perhaps never yet made sufficiently

prominent, that no happiness can be universal, except that which

consists mostly in the enjoyment of the higher pleasures, because

these are the only ones which can become objects of common de-

sire, without exciting general strife, compelled the defenders of the

Portico to maintain that virtue was the only means of happiness,

though they occasionally admitted that mental pleasure can become

felicity. In the same way their tack of knowledge of the full psy-

chological value of pleasure, as an indication of utility, as well as of

the distinction afterwards made by Mill and Mackintosh, between

taking utility as a test or as a motive, forced them either to deny as

stoutly that it is the best motive as to disparage its value as a test,

or else to use 1: as a test so inconsiderately as almost to sanction it

as a motive. They stated all the facts in turn of the Utilitarian

theory, as held by its most advanced modern advocate, but without

being able to see the relations of these parts so accurately as to

present the whole truth. Their zeal for practical moral culture

and universal progress in virtue was another chief cause of these

inconsistencies, which, indeed, in that age could scarcely be avoided,

except either by the recklessness with which the Epicureans de-

clared pleasure to be the best of motives as well as tests, and even

in its grossest forms the equivalent of happiness, or by the insipid

understatements which prevented the Peripatetics, despite the

consummate genius of their mighty founder, from leaving any deep

imprint, except his own, on either literature or history.

The tact that only one school of ancient philosophy was able to

produce a crowded series of noble patriots and philanthrophists,

among whom Tiberius Gracchus, Cato, Portia, Thrasea, Epictetus,

Dion Chrysostom, the younger Pliny, Trajan, Antoninus Pius, and

Marcus Aurelius are merely the best known instances, shows that

stoicism was able to do the practical work of utilitarianism with a

13 Was

194 WISCONSIN ACADEMY SCIENCES, ARTS, AND LETTERS.

success so peculiar as searcely to be compatible with serious defects

in theory. But these heroes became martyrs so commonly, and

uniformly struggled agamst tyranny and profligacy with such self-

denial and self-devotion, as necessarily gave the Stoics a peculiar

tendency to asceticism, which, indeed, never hindered their being

studious, patriotic and philanthropic beyond comparison, but which

often prevented them from weighing the worth of pleasure with

scientific accuracy.

Of these struggles and martyrdoms, Mr. Lecky has given us so

beautiful, and, despite mistakes, like calling Brutus a Stoic,so val-

uabie a narrative in his History of European Morals, that it is all

the more remarkable that he did not see how completely he has

answered his own arguments against the value of utilitarianism,

which fill a large part of his first volume, by showing, in the re-

muinder of it, what a noble work was done by the obnoxious

theory, in the ethical elevation and influence of the most zealous

of its ancient advocates. Failure to see the resemblance of stoic-

ista to utilitarianismis, however, to be expected from a writer who

so far ignored the position of Mill, Bain, and Spencer, as to call

the system, of which they were the leading expositors, selfish.

And this failure was much more excusable in works written, like

Miss Cobbe’s essay on Intuitive Morals, before the broad school of

happiness moralists had gained its present prominence. How early

in life J. 8. Mill accepted Hpicurus as the first utilitarian in pre-

ference even to Aristotle, we need not inquire, nor how far this

view was imbibed from Jeremy Bentham.

The common misunderstanding of the true relationship of the

Stoies has been much promoted, among other causes, by the fact

that, like other ancient philosophers, they paid such regard to what

they called Nature, as to satisty themselves with appealing to her

fancied authority instead of pushing derivative analysis to the last

results. Hvidence has, however, already been offered to prove that

in following Nature the Stoies not only conformed to the principal

precepts of the most enlightened Utilitarians, but even used their

method, so far as to call only useful qualities and actions natural,

a term by which, indeed, they meant little more than that the origin

of the claims of utility was a sacred mystery. Indeed, modern

science has been obliged to exert all her powers in order to solve

this mystery so far as to show that the enlargement and ennoble-

’

WERE THE STOICS UTILITARIANS ? 195

ment of human happiness is the realization of all our finest im-

pulses, dearest wishes and highest hopes.

Ancient philosophers, however, were so blinded by this illusion,

as Well as so ignorant of the real value of pleasure, that perhaps

none of them can, in strictness, be called utilitarian, and it is

“searcely worth our while to consider whether the title of founder

of the greatest happiness theory should be given, on acount of pri-

ority of time, to Aristotle, rather than to either EKpicurus or Zeno,

or whether his claim also should yield to that of Socrates, whose

regard for utility appears in many passages of the Memorabilia.

It is enough to say that the Stoics, despite their noble inconsist-

ences, maintained the most important principles of Utilitarianism

in such purity and power, that they must hold the highest place

among its forerunners, if not among its originators. Recognition

of this fact would not only encourage the use of their writings as

introductions, and even in some respects as supplements to those

of Mill and Spencer, but would help us value justly the system of

philanthropic Utilitarianism by showing how much was done for

moral culture by one of its rudimentary forms.

196 WISCONSIN ACADEMY SCIENCES, ARTS, AND LETTERS.

AN EXAMINATION OF PROF. 5. H. CARPENTER’S POSI-

TION IN REGARD TO EVOLUTION.

BY HERBERT P. HUBBELL, WINONA, MINN.

If we were called upon to define the position oceupied by Dr.

Carpenter, in his paper before the February meeting of the Acade-

my of Seience, Arts and Latters, we should say that he was an Evo-

lutionist bub not a Darwinian.

To make this distinction plain, and to show more clearly his po-

sition, we should say that an eyolutionist, as generally understood,

is one- who believes in evolution as taught by Spencer; that is to

say, that matter, inorganic and organic, has arrived at its present

degree of complexity by evolution from a simple state through a

series of differentiations governed by some unknown law. That

countless facts in nature substantiate this position, and that whilst

recognizing the present state of nature as forming one extreme of

the series, it finds, at present at least, in nebulous matter the other

extreme.

Starting as it does with matter in its highest state of complexity it

pursues it, by a process of strict inductive reasoning through its ever-

varying phases of decreasing complexity until the mind loses itself in

an an illimitable expanse of nebulous matter. Darwinism is an at-

tempt to show that in so far as organic nature is concerned, evolution

is dependent upon some occult law of generation co-operating with

those conditions in nature necessary toits developmen. Evolution

and Darwinianism, then, are in one sense materialistic; they deal

wholly with the facts of nature and look to material causes to pro-

duce material effects. But Dr. Carpenter does not de this.

Though he believes that in nature there is an evolution of matter,

the recognition of this fact does not suffice: he goes beyond matter,

beyond its nebulous state and finds there 1 Supreme Intelligence

‘¢ which is the highest generalization of which matter and mind are

capable of.” This Intelligence, like all intelligences, must be, and

is, governed by the laws of rationality, and must in its mental ac-

EXAMINATION OF PROF. CARPENTERS EVOLUTION. 197

tion, proceed either inductively or deductively. Constituting as it

does the highest generalization, it is debarred from mental activity

in the énductive direction, and is, consequently, obliged to manifest

itself deductively. But mind is subjective. 1t can only manifest

itself objectively, and hence, nvitter is such objective manifestation.

Matter, therefore, on this hypothesis becomes nothing

but the symbol of thought. The Supreme mind man-

festing itself according to deductive laws proceeds in a series from

the simple to the complex. Hence, matter symbolizing this thought

will proceed in the same manner. Differentiations then in matter

are not due to generative forces residing in “the organism but to

thought existing in the supreme mind. And thus it is that Dr.

Carpenter is an Evolulionist but not a Darwinian.

The key-stone of Dr. Carpenter’s logic is found in a Supreme In-

telligence,—not the Supreme Intelligence as generally conceived,

but as specially conceived by men, that is to say, as being the high-

est possible generalization—as governed by the same rational laws

that govern us—and as manifesting his thoughts in material forms.

It is evident that the surest way to weaken this logical structure will

be to weaken this conception.

Let us grant that the mind must proceed either deductively or

inductively, the question arises which process has precedence.

Is it possible to reason deductively before we have inductively

arrived at our deductive stand point, or to reason inductively be-

fore we have deductively reached our induction stand point?

or in other words do we reason naturally from the particular to the -

general or from the general to the particular? A moments consid-

eration will inform us that before we can reason deductively, we

must have reasoned inductively. The growth of the child’s mind

is the natural growth, and it is from the individual to the general.

The individual facts begiu to form into groups of animate and in-

animate, and these into subordinate groups, and these into others;

there is in fact a constant sinking of individual characteristics into

those that are specific, and of these latter into those that are gen-

eric, and of these into broader divisions, and thus, step by step,

the highesé generalization of which matter is capable is reached,

which is, as Dr. Carpenter truly says, the highest knowledge. No

deductive standpoint, therefore, can be reached save only through

induction; but once attained through the instrumentality of a few

facts, we may use the deductive method to discover the many.

198 WISCONSIN ACADEMY SCIENCES, ARTS, AND LETTERS.

_ “Comp*ete generalization is complete knowledge” not because

the generalization contains the potential attributes necessary to

constitute individualities, but because it is the generaliza-

tion stripped of its individualizing attributes. The indi-

vidual must exist before the genus, there can be no generaliza-

tion unless there be a preceding individualization. The individ-

ual is lost in the species, the species in the genus, the genus in the

order, the order in the class, and the class in the kingdom. The

two kingdoms, vegetable and animal, have properties in common

which classify them as organic. Organic and inorganic bedies hav®

elements in common which unite them under the head of matter.

Matter has weight and density and dimension; if we rise in our

generalization we must in some measure eliminate these properties

these individualities. In order to do this we conceive of matter

reduced to a state of the greatest rarity—as filling all space—as be-

ing, in fact, a homogeneous, illimitabie, imponderable. chaotic mass.

But let our conceptions be at their best we must still think of mat-

ter as having limits, elements and adegree of density. Our high-

est generalization is reached when we think of matter as existing

in this nebulous state.

Now, conceive a Supreme Intelligence, and what is the effect in

ourmind? Immediately, our conceptions from being most indis-

tinct and general, are concentrated upon one object having many

attributes. For we cannot think of intelligence apart from mind,

of mind apart from body, of body apart from members and of mem-

bers apart from functions. In what sense then can the Supreme

Intelligence be considered the * highest generalization,” surely not

in a logical one, for instead of widening our generalization it nar-

rows it. Following the strict rules of inductive reasoning we must

stop with nebulous matter. A Supreme Intelligence is not a higher

generalization. Ifsought by reason at all it must be teleologically

and not by the rules of induction.

Assuming, however, that the Supreme Intelligence exists and that

it is absolutely the highest generalizatiou possible, are we to con-

sider it as a generalization containing potential individualizations,

or as a generalization stripped of its individualizing attributes? It

is evident from Dr. Carpenter’s reasoning that he considers it the

former, whereas, if it could be reached by a process of inductive

reasoning, as he assumes, it is equally evident that it would be the

EXAMINATION OF PROF. CARPENTER’S EVOLUTION. 199

latter. Can we conceive of a Supreme intelligence as being sub-

ject to the laws of mental growth—of beiug wiser to-day than yes-

terday? Is not the wisdom infinite, and the same yesterday, to-day.

and forever? How then can we conceive of potentialities? Or on

the other hand can we think of any attributes which could be

added to it? Is net the Divine mind perfect in all things so far as

our conceptions go? How, then, if we can conceive of nothing

which can be added to it, can we conceive of it as existing stripped

- of attributes? The Supreme Intelligence is not a generalization,

but is, on the contrary, so to speak, @ strongly individualized human

intelligence. Vivery mental faculty which we possess we conceive

as being held by the Divine Mind in a perfected state. Wisdom,

knowledge, justice, in infinite c.mpleteness go to make up our con-

ception of God. If we increase in wisdom, knowledge and justice,

we advance towards him; thats to say, the more strongly individu-

alized our minds become, the nearer do we approach in likeness

unto God. But if God were the “highest generalization” the

more individualized we became the farther would we be from Him,

and this is doubtless a result which Dr. Carpenter would be among

the last to desire.

“Tf the Supreme Intelligence is to communicate with man,”

says Dr. Carpenter, “it must be in obedience to the laws which con-

trol onr mental activities. The divine thought must then, like

human conceptions, be communicated by means of physical sym-

bols.” The error, (for we think there is one.) which lurks in this

assumption is the error of all theologians, and forms the basis of

all their reasonings and of all their conceptions; viz: That man is

the object of creation—the end sought through the formation of mat-

ter, and that the Supreme Intelligence is desirous of conveying his

thoughts to the consciousness of man. Dr. Carpenter had just been

speaking of the purely subjective nature of the conceptions of the

artists, and that it was necessary before those conceptions could be

communicated to others, that they should, through the instrumen-

tality of the canvas or the marble, seek an objective expression, and

to follow this remark with-that above quoted is to place the Sup-

preme Intelligence in the artist’s position with conceptions to com-

municate, and implies, before they can be communicated, an object-

ive medium and another consciousness to which the communication

is to be made. If man is the highest product of matter—of creative

200 WISCONSIN ACADEMY SCIENCES, ARTS, AND LETTERS.

forces—and if we assume a Supreme Intelligence, then the object

of creation, if discoverable at all, is discoverable by man, or at least

it is complete in him. But if, taking the other view, we look upon

man as but a link in the chain of being—if we conceive of the

forces of nature which in the past have evolved a higher type of

matter as working for the same end to-day, our thoughts cease to

dwell upon the present, and project themselves into a distant, but

ever-perfecting future. The imperfections which surround us and

which are the stumbling-blocks in the way to our conception of a

perfect God, fade out, in the evolving ages, and the mind rests in

the thought of a coming time when the divine idea shall be accom-

plished and when the mysteries which now shroud all things shall

have passed away and the “ glory of the Lord” shall be revealed.

Prof. Carpenter admits an evoiucion of matter; he even admits that

man is the highest product of evolution; he believes that the su-

preme intelligence existed alone in his own consciousness, and that

before he could exist in any other consciousness he must seek an

objective material medium through which to express himself. If

the supreme intelligence is purely subjective, as Dr. Carpenter

claims, then anything external to and apart from that intelligence

must be objective. Man, then, whether considered as matter or

mind, is objective. The object of creation, according to Dr. Car-

penter, is to communicate subjectivity to subjectivity through ob-

jectivity, or in other words the divine conceptions to consciousness

through matter. But human consciousness, as we have just seen,

is objective to the divine consciousness; hence, the object of crea-

tion is not to communicate subjectivity to subjectivity, but subjec-

tivity to objectivity through objectivity, which is nothing more

than saying that man is but one of the nicer touches from the hand

of the painter; one of the finishing strokes from the hand of the

sculptor; one of the pages from the book of the thinker. God is

the artist, the universe, the canvas, and man but a pigment which,

with other material, goes to further the divine conception.

If matter is objective and the expression of thought, then man,

being matter, is objective and an expression of thought. If he is

an expression of thought he stands in the same relation to the su-

preme intelligence that any expression of thought stands. Every

ovject in nature, on Dr. Carpenter’s hypothesis, is an expression of

thought. Man, then, bears to the supreme intelligence the same

EXAMINATION OF PROF. CARPENTERS EVOLUTION. 201

relation that any animal or any plant bears. That relation is

inscrutible, aud so is the relation of man.

We believe in a Supreme Intelligence, and we believe in Hvolu-

tion. We also believe that evolution in nature exists because the

Supreme Intelligence has willed that it should exist; but we can-

not believe with Dr. Carpenter that it exists, because there was no

other way by which the Supreme Intelligence could manifest itself.

For this would be to prescribe bounds for that which is infinite. It

is true that we cannot think of God asa rational being without

thinking of him as governed by the laws of rationality, nor can we

think of Him as a just God, without being governed by the laws of

justice, nor can we think of Him as possessing any mental! attribute

without thinking of the law governing the manifestation of it. Yet

these conceptions of God ,are but human, they are efforts of the

finite to measure the Infinite, and taking them at their best, our

reason tells us that they fall far short of God himself. It is true

that in nature there is such an orderly sequence of events, that in

recognizing it, we call it law, but to say that this law-exists because

God designed it, and to say that it exists. becanse a rational God

cannot manifest himself in any other way, are two very different

things. Nor can we see, if the Supreme Intelligence is governed

by the law of rationality, and if it manifest itself in material form,

why there should be such enormous interyals of time between the

different steps in the divine consciousness as is evidenced by the

physical symbols. For if evolution in matter is but the reflection

of evolution in the Divine mind, as Dr. Carpenter teaches, then ev-

olution in both is simultaneous. There could, consequently, have

been no conception of man in the Divine consciousness before his

advent physically—for his advent physically is but the reflection of

an evolved conecpt in the Divine mind. There could, therefore,

have been no plan of creation embracing man, for man is the last of

the series—is the complex as opposed to the simple—the particular

as opposed to the general. But the last term in a deductive series

must be reached by the law of rationality, that is to say, it must be

derived from the first term by a differentiating process, consisting

in the addition af attributes not found in the preceding terms. Ac-

cording to Dr. Carpenter, if man had been conceived by the Divine

consciousness it must have been by some rational process and such

process would have been immediately symbolized in matter. But

202 WISCONSIN ACADEMY SCIENCES, ARTS, AND LETTERS.

because it was not thus symbolfzed we are bound to believe that no

conception of man existed in the Divine mind until the time of his

physical advent.

But we cannot assent to this conclusion; we prefer to believe

that before the nebulous mist arose, there existed in the Divine

Consciousness a perfect conception of creation—the end to be com-

passed, and the means to accomplish it. That when the fiat went

forth, matter became endowed with certain principles which, act-

ing constantly and uniformly, have evolved the countless forms

that people the universe; and that they will continue to be evolved

until the divine conception is wrought out. We recognize the ge-

netic force as one of those principle; we recognize the tendency of

organisms occasionally to depart slightly from their parent forms

as the natural result of this principle; we can believe a departure

from this departure as natural; and if we recognize two variations,

we can recognize a third—a fourth—and any number. We can

conceive it possible that a departure, and a continnal redeparture

from the parent form might give rise to varieties so different as to

be classed as species; we can conceive of species varying to such a

degree as to constitute genera; and we can conceive of this “ func-

tional impulse” working through countless ages with ever varying

effects, as redounding more to the wisdom and glory of God than

any number of successive creations, be they of the nature of dis-

tinct fiats, or the symbols of evolution in the Divine Conscious-

ness.

SECTION OF THE

Mathematical and Physt-

Cal SCLeTLces.

TITLE OF PAPER READ BEFORE THIS SECTION

Recent Progress in Theoretical Physics. By John E. Davies, A. M., M. D.

Professor of Physics in the University of Wisconsin.

RECENT PROGRESS IN THEORETICAL PHYSICS. - 205

RECENT PROGRESS IN THEORETICAL PHYSICS.

BY JOHN E. DAVIES, A. M., M. D.,

Professor of Physics in the University of Wisconsin.

The present paper is the first of a series intended to give, in a

collected and condensed form, the results of recent theoretical ad-

vances in the Physical Sciences. The researches by which these

advances have been made are partly experimental and partly math-

ematical. Some of them are most lucidly presented by Prof. P. G.

Tait in his ‘Recent Advances in Physical Science,” while those which

I skall present are only briefly mentioned by him, or else are omit-

ted altogether. Prof. Tait, however, alludes to those which he

does mention, in such terms as to imply that he regards them,

nevertheless, as of the greatest importance, and te be omitted

chiefly on account of want of time.

A complete review of these researches would include Clausius'’

remarkable theorems upon the mechanics of a great number of

molecules, and Boltzmann’s results in the same direction, together

with their application to the theory of heat; the studies of Helmholtz

and Thompson upon the vortex motion of fluids and their analogues

among magnetic forces and electric currents; Thompson's ex-

planation of the magnetic rotation of the plane of polarization

of circularly polarized light, first experimentally shown by Fara-

day; the experimental researches of Jamin, Rowland, Stoletow,

Bouty, and others, in magnetism; Rankine’s hypothesis of molecu-

lar vortices; Clerk Maxwell’s wonderful electro-magnetic theory

of light, with the experimental researches thereon by Boltzmann

and others; the explanation of anomalous dispersion by Ketteler

of Bonn; the mathematical relations of vibratory and translatory

motions in fluids, by Challis; the explanation of the blue color

and polarization of the sky by Lord Rayleigh; as also his remarka-

ble results upon Resonance and Sound generally; the mathe-

206 WISCONSIN ACADEMY SCIENCES, ARTS, AND LETTERS.

matico-physical discoveries of Kirchoff; the Kinetic Theory ot

Diffusion, Conduction and Radiation by Maxwell; the thermo-

electrical researches of ‘Tait; and many other researches as well,

all tending to the simplification and unity of the Physical Sciences,

by showing a probable similarity or identity of cause for the most

diverse phenomena.

In the present paper I shall merely begin with certain remarika-

ble relations between the formule of electro-magnetism and those

of fluid motion, first pointed out, so far as I know, by Helmholtz.*

VORTEX MOTION.

In magnetism we have the following formula for the value of V

the SCALAR POTENTIAL of a magnet of finite dimensions

Dene O 9

VaSf GIS4AS Sf dadyde A.

x,y, and z, being the coordinates of any point of the magnetic

mass,

6, being what is called the surface density of the mag-

netic matter, and,

9, the volume density of the same.

The surface density 6, is the resolved part of the intensity of

magnetization in the direction of anormal to the surface of the

magnet, and the volume-density 9, is what Maxwell has designated

as the ‘‘ convergence ” of the magnetization at a given point within

the magnet.

This expression for V is similar to that for the electric potential

at any point, due to the electrification of a body on whose surface

there is electricity of density 6, and within its substance a bodily

electrification whose density is 9. In both cases, V satisfies La-

place’s equation for points outside of the electrical or magnetic

mass, and Poisson’s equation for points inside of the same. That

is, for the first case,

CV eV, eV 2

de! apt dz

* In the paper as read before the Academy, a somewhat complete synopsis was

given of Thompson’s explanation of Faraday’ 3 experiment on the Magnetic Rotation

of Polarized Light; of Clerk Maxwell’s Electro- -magnetic Theory of. Light; and of

the Hypothesis of Molecular Vortices. Many points, also, only briefly summar-

ized in this printed paper were elaborated by oral explanations and diagrams, and

the terms used in the paper were for the most part carefully defined.

RECENT PROGRESS IN THEORHTICAL PHYSICS. 207

and, for the second case,

= — 4tn*9 C.

The ordinary magnetic and electric forces are derived from these

potentials by the application of Hamilton’s operator,

5 @! NG d

== k 2

Vise pa au! ap =

that is, to find the magnetic or electrical attraction or repulsion

along a line, we take the differential coefficient of the potential

(magnetic or electrical) with reference to the direction of that line.

For ordinary magnets the potential V,is single-valued for any

given point of space; for electro-magnets V is many-valued like

—ly

tan having, in fact, an infinite series of values at any given

point; these values differing by 4n*? where? is the intensity, or

strength of the electric current in the electro-magnetic wire.

Carefully to be distinguished from V is another quantity, which.

in the case of solenoidal distributions of magnetism at least, also

fulfills Laplace’s Equation. This quantity may be designated by I.

Lis a quantity so related to the magnetization that, calling the

components of the latter in three directions at right angles to each

other, A, B, and C, we have

ReaD Bay all nal D.

A “Ge” B dy .

I, which determines the magnetization (not the magnetic force )

at any point, is called the Potential of Magnetization.

i» But, besides the scanar (or non-directed) POTENTIAL, V. and the

Potential of Magnetization, I, mentioned above, we have, when con-

sidering not only the magnetic force but likewise also the magnetic

induction, a VECTOR (or directed) POTENTIAL. The magnetic znduction

is derived from this VECTOR POTENTIAL in a precisely similar man-

ner to the derivation of the magnetic force from the SCALAR PO-

TENTIAL, namely: by the application of Hamilton’s operator Vy,

If three quantities /’, G, and H, be regarded as the components,

in three directions, at right angles to each other, of the scalar

*Qwing to the want of Greek type the printer has placed this letter n to represent 3.1416

the ratio of the circumference ofa circle to its diameter.

203 WISCONSIN ACADEMY SCIENCES, ARTS, AND LETTERS.

potential V, then these quantities wili satisfy the following con-

ditions:

dH aG dF di dG dF

dx ‘ay

=(. &£.

But if /, G, H, be taken to represent the components of the

vector-potential, they will satisfy the conditions

GBEE NV GON vo oe a dr all fe ge dG dF

dy dz ; dz dx ; dz dy

where a, b, c, are the components of the magnetic induction.

In words, the line integral of the vector-potential round a closed

curve representing any circuit, is numerically equal to the surface-

integral of the magnetic induction over a surface, bounded by the

curve representing the circuit.

We have also, if a, b, ¢, represent components of magnetic force,

and u,v, w, components of electric current,

a de db

4n*u = dy a

; da de

4n*v = om : G.

db da

Si a END ied

Am *y = Te a

as the equations of electric currents: or, in words, the line-integral

of magnetic force round aclosed curve is numerically equal to the

current through the closed curve multiplied by 4*.

The values of I’, G, H, are also given by the following equations

Gaff f — dz dy dz H.

1 w

Haff f — % dy dz

where xu is the quantity known as the specific inductive capacity of

a medium. or its permeahility to mugnetic lines of force.

*The letter m is put for 3.1416.

RECENT PROGRESS IN THEORETICAL PHYSICS. 209

The components of the vector-potential are related to those of

the sealar- potential as follows:

ET Gan dV

dy dz dz

dF ad dV

2a8 aia a I

dz dx dy

qaG dF VG

dz dy Raa cae i

a, b, ¢, being as before the components of magnetic force, derived

from the scalar-potential V by differentiation along LY, 2

The components of the electric current, w, v,w, are known to

satisfy the condition

The components of magnetic induction a, b, ¢, also satisfy asim-

ilar equation

On a careful study of these formule, which have been deduced

for the potentials and forces of ordinary magnets and electro-

magnets, we are impressed with their similarity to the formule that

express the ordinary motions of an incompressible frictionless fluid.

For example, in fluid motion, where w, v, and 1, represent the

component velocities of an élement of he fluid in Gr ree rectangu-

lar directions, and D represents the density of the fluid, we have

the following so-called ‘“‘ Equation of Continuity” of the fluid:

Gap eh) Gl 10) dD , J.

feds

Digt Bra jtete We v5 oe =0.

This equation is proven for ordinary motions of fluids, in all

works upon the dynamics of fluids. It is merely an analytical

statement that in all motions of fluids, however they may expand

or contract, and move about in currents or otherwise, there is no

change in the mass of the fluid caused by such motions. If the

fluid be incompressible, there can also be no variation in its

14——_w AB

210 WISCONSIN ACADEMY SCIENCES, ARTS, AND LETTERS.

density, caused either by its own motions or by the lapse of time.

Then, the total differential of D in the preceding equation, will be

zero, and there will be left

du dv dw te K.

dx dig eda: ees

which is the simplified form of the ‘equation of continuity” for in-

incompressible fluids. KHquation (K), is an equation of condition

which all incompressible fluids are required to fulfill.

If u, v, w, be made to depend upon the variations of a quantity

Q, such that

aQ d@ ae 0,

PTE Mag eos altuna 2 Waa

we may call Q the velocity potential of the velocities wu, v, and w; be-

cause it is a quantity the first differential co-efficient of which along

a line, x, y, or 2, gives the velocity of the fluid along that line. This

quantity Y, must, in incompressible fluids, which, since w, v, w, as

has been said, satisfy Equation (K), therefore also give

2 2 2

ds2 dy2 dz2 ;

or, in other words, like the scalar magnetic and electric potential

V,or the potential of magnetization I,it must satisfy Laplace’s

equation.

Returning to magnets, and electro-magnets, we have seen that

the general expression for the value of the potential of any magnet

of finite dimensions, at any point in space whose co-ordinates are

x’, y’, 2’, is, designating the potential by V,

Vi = Sf 2a 84 Pacayaz

where the surface part of the integral extends over the whole sur-

face of the magnet, designated by S, and the solid part of it (every

element of which =dz, dy, dz) extends to all portions within the

surface.

r= the distance from the magnet to the point, x’, y’, 2’, where

the value of VF is taken;

I[=l1A+ mB + nC i. e., the intensity of magnetization normal to

the surface of the magnet; because

RECENT PROGRESS IN THEORETICAL PHYSICS. 211

A, B, and C, represent the intensities of the magnetization, along

the three co-ordinate axes; and

l,m, n, are the direction-cosines with reference to these axes, of.

anormal to the surface.

6 is often called, as was said betore, the surface-density of the

magnetic matter; and

9=interior-density of magnetic matter;—9 is also

@A @B dC

See ay ae 0,

when the magnetization is solenoidal.

Now, since A, B, C, are the components of the magnetization of the

magnet, if we take a quantity J such that

dl dl dl

—— : n= JR 8 —— = (CO).

dx # dy

then, also, as was said before, I may be called the potential of mag-

netization, and it is evident that when the magnetization is sole-

noidal, we shali here also have the condition

(a a

dx? ' dy?" dz? —

as in the case given above, [Hquation (M)], of the velocity potential

of fluid flow.

Hence the velocities «, v, w, in the case of fluid flow in incompres-

sible fluids, are the analogues of the electric and magnetic

forces in free space, and of the components of magnetization in the

case of solenoidal magnets. At least, all three sets of quantities

are subject to the same analytical conditions. I the Potential of

Magnetization gives,

Ul Soe

dx2 dy2 dz

Q, the Velocity Potential of an incompressible fluid, gives

HQ PQ ql a2O Vn.

dz? ee dy? a az 9.

V, the electric potential gives

dV , d#V, d?V

aa" age ae — ©

In magnetic and electric distributions, the rate at which V varies

along a line, determines the electric or magnetic force in free space

along that line.

J12 WISCONSIN ACADEMY SCIENCES, ARTS, AND LETTERS.

In magnetization, the rate at which I varies along a line, determ-

ines the intensity of the magnetization, at any given point

within the magnet, in the direction of that line.

In fluid motion, the rate at which Q varies along a line, determ-

ines the velocity of the fluid, at any given point, in the direction

of that line.

In the case of ordinary fluid motion, moreover, if the conditions

d¢ d d

Fi paige penne. pees. O

Ep dz

an. had uin Vn diei dies dg ines yh da ae ee

as 1s well known.

We have seen [| Eqs. (D) and (E] that precisely similar conditions

obtain in the case cf ordinary distributions of electricity and mag-

netism, so long as we confine ourselves to the space outside of that

which contains the so-called magnetic or electric matter.

The motions of fluids heretofore discussed in treatises on the

dynamics of fluids are such as fulfill the conditions imposed by

equations (O) and(P.) They are motions of translation, or of expansion

and contraction; oscillatory movements being merely periodic

movements of translation, of greater or less extent. All such mo-

tions have assumed for them a velocity potential, the differential coef-

ficients of which with reference to the coordinates, are the com-

ponent velocities of the fluid in the direction of the zoordinates.

The assumption of a velocity potential necessitates the set of

conditions given above in equations (OQ) and (P.)

But Helmholtz in a remarkable memoir on “ Integrals Express-

ing Vortex Motion” to be found translated by Prof. Tait, in the

Philosophical Mag., for 1887, has shown that these conditions do not

hold if there be some of the elements of the fluid in rotation. In such

cases if w', w”, w*, represent the angular velocities of the rotating

fluid element about the coordinate axes, then we have

du au, ae A

i 2w

dw du

dz dz 0 Q

dv d

— — — = Dy}

RECENT PROGRESS IN THEORETICAL PHYSICS. 213

For these cases there is no velocity potential. ‘It is only when

there is no velocity potential that some fluid elements can rotate

and that others can move round along a closed curve in a simply-

connected space.”

Helmholtz calls the motions that have no velocity potential,

generally, vortex motions.

He shows that in a frictionless fluid, these vortices when once

instituted in the fluid, have a wonderful tenacity of existence;

that they may go on widening, changing their form under

the influence of other vortices, moving about, attracting and re-

pelling each other in consequence of combining their motions; and

that they may play amongst themselves all sorts of fantastic eames,

yet preserve unchanged their identity and living force (i. e. their

kinetic energy) so as to be the very types of the unchanging atoms

of matter, which are never destroyed.

One simple instance of Helmholtz’ results I will state, to make

the matter plain. If there be, for example, a single circular vortex

ring set up in an indefinitely extended fluid, the center of gravity of

the section of the ring (section supposed small) will have from the

commencement an approximately constant and very great velocity

parallel to the axis of the ring, and this will be directed toward

the side to which the fluid flows through the ring.

Two ring-formed vortex-filaments having the same axis would

mutually affect each other, since each, in addition to its own proper

motion has that of its elements of fluid as produced by the other.

If they have the same direction of rotation, they travel in the same

direction; the foremost ring widens and travels more slowly, the

pursuer shrinks and travels faster, till finally, if their velocities are

not too different, it overtakes the first and penetrates it. Then the

same game goes on in the opposite order, so that the rings pass

through each other alternately. If they have equal radii and equal

and opposite angular velocities, they will approach each other and

widen oue another. So also one will widen on coming to a fixed

wall. ‘The motions of circular vortex rings can be studied by

drawing rapidly for a short space along the surface of a fluid a

half immersed circular disk, or the nearly semi-circular point of a

spoon, and quickly withdrawing it. There remain in the fluid

half-vortex rings whose axis isin the free surface. These vortex

rings travel and widen when they come to a wall, and are widened

214 WISCONSIN ACADEMY SCIENCES, ARTS, AND LETTERS.

or contracted by other vortex rings exactly as deduced from

theory.”*

In this memoir it is also demonstrated that the product of the ve-

locity of rotation into the cross section of a vortex-filament is constant

throughout the whole length of the filament. Moreover, that a

vortex-filament can never end within a fluid, but must either re-

turn ring shaped into itself within the fluid, or reach to the bound-

aries of the fluid.

Precisely similar theorems had been announced by Sir Wm.

Thompson in a paper on the Mathematical Theory of Electro-

Magnetism in 1847. Thompson, in this paper, designates the

strength of an electric current by ({, and then says: “In a con-

tinuous current this quantity is of course the same for every section;

and, as it is impossible that a continuons stream of electricity can

emanate from one body, and be discharged into another, the current

must be 7¢e-entering, or every continuous current must form what

is called ‘*a closed circuit.” It is found by experiment that what-

ever be the dimensions or material of the different parts of the

conductor along which the current flows, provided always the di-

mensions of the section be sma!l compared with the distances

through which the electro-magnetic action is observed, the quan-

tity ( has the same value for all parts of it; and even in the

places where the electro-motive force operates, as has been shown

by Faraday, as in the liquid of any ordinary galvanic battery, or

in a conductor in motion in the neighborhood of a magnet, the

electro-magnetic effects are observable, and, probably to exactly the

same degree; so that it would probably be found that a galvanic

circuit, consisting of a battery of small cells, arranged in a cireu-

Jar arc, and a wire completing the circuit by joining the poles,

would produce the same electro-magnetic effects at all points sym-

metrically situated with reference to the circle, irrespectively of the

part of the circuit, wnether the cells or the wire; provided always,

that the distanees considered be great, compared with either the

dimensions of a,section of the wire, or of any of the cells made by

planes perpendicular to the plane of the circle, through its cen ter.”’

* Professor Tait’s book on ‘‘ The Recent Advances in Physical Science’? has two

figures, one showing how these vortex rings can be produced, and the other what

he direztions of rotation anl move n2at will be in a ring once formal.

+ See Thompson’s ‘‘ Reprint of Papers on Electro-Statics and Magnetism’’—p.

409 et seq.

{For current strength Thompson uses the Greek letter gamma.

RECENT PROGRESS IN THEORETICAL PHYSICS. 215

The precise character of the movement within the wire, is also

shown to be entirely irrelevant in this estimate of the current

strength. For “in the theory of electro-magnetism it is unnecessary

to adopt any such hypothesis as this [ that the electric current consists

of matter flowing, | however probable or improbable it may be as an

ulterior theory; and all that we could introduce as depending up-

on it is that, for a linear circuit of varying section or material, the

quantity () is the same throughout the circuit, and that all finite

circuits possessing continuous currents are necessarily closed; two

facts which cannot be assumed a priori, but which are in reality

established by satisfactory experimental evidence.’’*

{, the current strength here alluded to, is the product of the so

ealled intensity of the current, into the area of the cross-section of

the conductor. It may be measured of course by the work it will

do in a definite time, either as electrolysis, heat, or other form of

work. Helmholtz’ angular velocity of the vortex-filament in a

fluid, affords a means of forming a mental conception of intensity

of current, in electricity. by assimilating it to the rotatory energy

in a vortex-filament, which is far superior to any of the illustra-

tions ordinarily used; and this without in any way necessarily

implying that the electric current actually involves such rotating

elements, although this may really be.

As a linear electro-magnet is com pletely specified when the form

of the closed curve of the current, and , the strength, are given;

so also a vortex filament is completely specified when the form of

its axis and the product of its angular velocity into the area of its

cross section are given.

In electro-magnetism we have 7A=7'A’ for the same circuit. In

vortex filaments qA=q'A' for the same filament; g being the an-

gular velocity; A, A,’ areas of cross sections; 7,2’, current intensi-

ties. In electricity, magnets are known to circulate around cur-

rent-conducting wires, and wires reciprocally around magnets. In

fluids, vortex-filaments that are straight circulate around each other

and their mutual center of gravity; vortex filaments that are cir-

cular also revolve around each other, as is shown by the peculiar

action described above where the rings alternately pass through

each other, by contracting and accelerating their speed, and then wid-

ening and moving slower, while the one following contracts and

passes throngh in turn.

* Reprint—p. 410

216 WISCONSIN ACADEMY SCIENCES, ARTS, AND LETTERS.

Helmholtz further shows, in the memoir above alluded to, how

to find the velocities, w, v, w, of any portion or element of the fluid

when we know w’, w’, w*, the angular velocities of a vortex-fila-

ment established in it, by the following method:

Let there be given within a mass of fluid which includes the

space §, the values of w’, w’, w*, satisfying the “equation of conti-

nuity ”

dw} dw2 dw

a =e a ail: (1)

Also, u, v, and 2, must satisfy a similar equation,

du dv dw és

Wea dy dee (2)

And likewise also, these conditions,

dv dw j dw du cares du dita aut

SSS SE dye tute (ae (3)

== 74!

dz Per idipena 2? ide dz

The conditions for the bounding surface S are supposed to be

given according to the particular problem. a, b, c, can be taken as

the three angles made with a normal to the surface S; q as the re-

sultant angular velocity of the three components ww’, w*, w®; 7, the

angle between the normalsto the surface S and the axis of the ro-

tating filament; then we shall have

wl cos a + w? cos b + w cos c = q cos. T= 0.

over the whole of this surface S, or if this surface S cuts any of

he vortex-filaments, over the whole of some larger surface S', which

includes all the filaments, and their continuations, if there be any»

in the first surface S.

Now we can find values of w, v, and w, satisfying equations (2)

and (8), if

ge ec ec (4)

RECENT PROGRESS IN THEORETICAL PHYSICS. DT

and if the functions L, MW, N, and P, be taken so as to satisfy also

within the larger space 8’, the couditions

7L Ly 2L

du? a dy? a dz= ~~ aw

d?M d? AL d?M a

=v gp oo te

(5)

aN dN d2N 2

— ZW

dx? a dy? a dz? 2

@P @P a2P

aah Srey an ap

dx dy dz

The analogy of these equations (5) to Poisson’s equation (C) is at

once apparent if

wi w2 w?

Qny Qn? 2m’

be each taken equal to 9. L,M, N, are quantities which satisfy the

same equations as the vector potentials of electric currents. They stand

in the same relation, in vortex fluid motion, to the angular velocities

of the core of the vortex filament, as do in electricity the vector-

potentials of electric currents, to what might guardedly be called

the mass of the currents which give rise to these potentials; thus

again showing the help we may derive in our notions of electrical

strength, mass, density, or whatever we choose to call it, by com-

paring the ‘‘current-penetrated space,” to the core of a vortex fila-

ment. It moreover prominently calls our altention to what may

be going on in the space outside the wire, as well as in the sub-

stance of the wire itself. Indeed, if + be the distance of a point

a, b, c, from a point x, y, 2, on the axis of a vortex-filament; andif

wi, w2, w, be the values which w!, w?, w*, have at this point, a, 0, c,

then we will have

| 1 AoE

Le Ml dadbde

1, » Wa 6

Ma — 1 * yp “edadbac (6)

N SE ig dbde

P54) ¢ Rs

—_———

* n represents the ratio 3.1416.

218 WISCONSIN ACADEMY SCIENCES, ARTS, AND LETTERS.

Equations which are analogous to equations init which suggest

that, since Tina here takes the place of ame % in those equations,

M, or the magnetic permeability, may be equal to w* wu’, divided

by 9, generally, while here definitely equal to the fi 2

That equation (2) is satished by the values of w, v, and w given

above in equations (4) is shown by differentiating equations (4) and

adding; we thus get

Ghiy | GRIP Oy CVE dw dP

first ee a aaa ay oe an = eauame

dx dx dy dy dz dz" 1

then, on adding

dz dy dz

That equations (3) are likewise satisfied, 1s also shown by differen-

tiating equations (4), and then making the necessary subtractions;

noticing the values Qu”, 2w*, 2w*, given by equations (5).

We thus get:

do_dw oa 4 [ab aM, aw

2 ahi dz | dx dy dz }

Cian Ny a Ae raee ania (7)

dz” dz dy | dx dy dz J

du _W@ os d (dL , dM, dN)

Se ee — +

dy dz dy |\dx — dy dy J

which, if the second terms of the second members are zero, show

equations (3), and likewise equations (Q), to be completely satisfied.

That these second terms are zero is shown by first differentiating

equations (6) with respect to x, y, and 2 successively; thus getting

results of the form

1 —

hi See da db de

for each coordinate. And then, on integrating these latter results

by parts, we get the following three equations:

w 1 dw3

en gal Bae MY Ge 88

dM 1 we dwz

ayer 2 da ade — fff —. 8 dadb de (8)

aN a apes i ie

dz 27 iL Tr dadb — on SIF ai See db de

Paces eee eer ean ee eS eS ee

*The letter n represents the ratio 3.1416.

RECENT PROGRESS IN THEORETICAL PHYSICS. 219

which, if added, and dS be put for the element of surface, give

es Sh \w8 cos. 1+ w2 cos. b+ wa cos. ¢ dS

=== fiir = [e xg Le Bae dwwa va Ala, 6b lp.

In the second member of this last equation the factors in paren-

theses in each of the two terms, are known to be equal to zero; con-

sequently,

dL dM

dx a dy dz = 0.

Therefore the equations

dv dw z dw du eat du dv

— —— = 2; SS SSS = SSS SSS SP

dz Dyn ee ea, ieee sa Gent eh et we

give correctly the relations between the angular velocities of the

core of a vortex-filament, and the velocities in the fluid at points

outside of, but surrounding the core.

The values of L, M. N, taken from equations (6), being substitut-

ed in equations (4), give certain results, the interpretation of which

will appear from the next paragraph. These results are

Au(zt—a)+ Av (y—b)+ Av (2—e) =0, (9)

indicative of a right angle with 7’;

waht + warv-+ waav=0, (10)

indicative of aright angle with the axis of the rotating filament;

and

gr. cosV = (x —a)wa + (y—b)wg + (2 —c) wg (12)

Where q is the resultant of wa, 2, Wa, and V the angle which q

makes with the radius-vector 1.

Now it is proven in works on electricity and magnetism* that “the

vector-potential at a given point, due to a magnetized particle placed

at the origin of co-ordinates, is numerically equal to the magnetic

moment of the particle, divided by the square of the radius vector

to the point, and multiplied by the sine of the angle between the

* Clerk Maxwell’s ‘‘Electricity and Magnetism,’ Vol. i1., p. 28.

220 WISCONSIN ACADEMY SCIENCES, ARTS, AND LETTERS.

axis of magnetization and the radius vector; and the direction of

the vector-potential is perpendicular to the plane of the axis of

magnetization and the radius-vector, and is such that to an eye

looking in the positive direction along the axis of magnetization,

the vector-potential will be drawn in the direction of rotation of the

hands of a watch.’ The results just referred to above, show

that the distance-action of vortex-filaments is similar to the electro-

magnetic action of current-conducting wires; for they prove that

“each rotating element of fluid (a) implies in each other element (b)

of the same fluid mass, a velocity whose direction is perpendicular to

the plane through (b) and the axis of rotation (a). The magnitude

of this velocity is directly proportional to the volume of (a), iis angu-

lar velocity. and the sine of the angle between the line (a) (b) and that

axis of rotation, and inversely proportional to the square of the dis-

tance between (a) and (b).”

Thus the vector-potential of the electric-current, in free space

surrounding the wire, has for its analogue the velocity of the fluid

element, due to a vortex-filament supposed to occupy the place of

the current.

Many other curious analogies between vortex-motions in fluids

and the action of magnets and electric currents have been pointed

cut by Sir Wm. Thompson.*

Of course it_is possible that these analogies may be merely for-

mal, and that they arise from the fulfillment of similar mathematical

conditions by both the electric current and vortex-motion in fluids.

But whether the relationship shall or shall not ultimately be

found to consist in a closer connection than mere formal analogy,

one thing is certain. The discoyery of the laws governing vortex-

motion in fluids constitutes an era in physical science. The differen-

tial equations of the motions of fluids although*handled by such

masters as LaGrange, LaPlace, Euler, and Green, had only been in-

tegrated on the special assumption of a velocity-potential; which

condition we have seen to hold only in the space outside of those

portions ot the fluid which are in rotation. It remained for Helmholtz

to make the next great step by integrating these equations under the

supposition that no velocity-potential exists; and to show that while

the establishment of vertex-motion in fluids, is, on the one hand,

a consequence of fluid friction, on the other.that when vortex-fila-

* Sir Wm. Thompson’s “Papers on Electrostatics and Magnetism.’

RECENT PROGRESS IN THEORETICAL PHYSICS. 991

ments are once set up in a frictionless fluid they are absolutely in-

destructible save by the power that originated them. Only an in-

finite power can set up vortex movement in a perfect fluid without

friction,and only an infinite power can destroy such motion when once

set up. On this idea Sir Wm. Thompson has based his famous spec-

ulation that the atoms of matter are merely so many vortex-rings of

variable but definite shape for each elementary kind of matter. Such

rings possess all the qualities usually attributed to the atoms of.

matter, being absolutely impenetrable, and possessing when set in

vibration that characteristic periodicity of vibration which the spec-

troscope shows to be the case with the atoms of the elements of matter,

As Professor Tait says, ‘* not only can these vortex-rings in a perfect

fluid not be cut, but we cannot even so much as get at them, to try

to cut them.” They rebound from the sharpest edge.

Thus it will be seen that there is at least an analogy between vor-

tex-filaments in a perfect fluid and magnetism caused by electric

currents. The equations of the electro-magnetic field show this,

when compared with the equations of vortex filaments. But this

is by no means all.

In Faraday’s beautiful experiment of the rotation of the plane of

polarized light when passing through a medium which is under the

influence of magnetic strain, we have a means of testing whether any-

thing of the nature of rotation of small elements, either of gross mat-

ter or of some incompressible frictionless fluid be going on in the

magnetic field. For, if the magnetic force be in any way the con-

sequence of such minute rotations, we might expect a@ priori that

the minute motions which cause light, at least those circular oscil-

lations that constitute circularly polarized light, could in some way

be compounded with the minute rotations involved in magnetic

phenomena, and be influenced by them. And thus, although we

could not directly observe these vortex movements by the senses,

we yet might have the means of exploring the magnetic field, by

an agent of almost superhuman delicacy in the shape of the oscilla-

tions of light. The possibility of the compounding of the mag-

netic rotations with those of circularly polarized light, which con-

stitutes the explanation Thompson gives of the Magnetic Rotation

of Polarized Light, I will take up next.*

* This subject was fully treated in the paper as read before the Academy, but its

publication is delayed until cuts can be prepared to illustrate it, and Greek type

obtained for the formulz.

nd Be

3 h a

with

1 Ue

sige

ae -

PROCHEDINGS

OF THE

OLA 1G NEW

SINCE

FEBRUARY, 1874.

Report of the President.

His Excertency Harrison Lupineron,

Governor of Wisconsin:

SIR:—Since the date of my last report, the Wisconsin Academy

of Sciences, Arts, and Letters has steadily advanced in prosperity.

It has not made large additions to its permanent fund, nor greatly

increased the list of its working members. But the very consid-

erable number of scholars and scientists holding memberships, have

devoted themselves with increased zeal to the work of the work of

the Academy in original investigation, and have produced payers

embodying the results of their inquiries which are of cons:derable

value, and must yet more favorably commend the Academy to the

respect and confidence of the literary and scientific public.

The Academy is no longer an experiment. The past six years

have demonstrated; first, that Wisconsin embraces a large number

of persons both competent and experienced as laborers in various

fields of research and investigation; and secondly, that it is posible

and easy, through such an organization as this, to hold them to-

gether in systematic and profitable oc-operation, for the advance-

ment of the arts and sciences. as well as for the intellectual and

social progress of the commonwealth.

The present volume of transactions will be found to consist

largely of papers in the Department of the Natural Sciences.

While all are interesting and valuable, it will appear upon exami-

nation that some of these are the fruit of extensive observations in

the field, as well as of laborious investigations in the laboratory.

Since it is this department which so directly touches the material

progress of the State, and which would also especially contribute

to the establishment of advantageous relations with kindred organ-

izations in all parts of the world, it will be to the friends and pat-

15——-w as

226 WISCONSIN ACADEMY SCIENCES, ARTS, AND LETTERS.

rons of the academy a ground of satisfaction that its development

has been characterized by so strong a bent in this particular direc-

tion.

In the other departments there have been fewer laborers. Still,

it will not escape observation that many of the best thinkers and

investigators of the State have given to the Academy the results of

careful and protracted inquiry in the several feids embraced within

the broad domain of the Academy.

In this country, Speculative Philosophy finds comparatively lit-

tle recognition as a means of scientific progress, and is therefore

without the cultivation it merits. Nevertheless, it is not without

creditable representation in this, as it was not in our last volume ~

of Transactions.

The Department of Social and Political Sciences embraces so vast

a range of subjects for inquiry, and appeals so directly and strongly

tothe public mind that a more rapid growth of it might reasonably

have been expected. It is not wanting in activity, however, and

gives promise of more substantial progress in the future, through

the reinforcements hkely to come to it from the learned professions

and from special students of Social Philosophy, and of statesman-

ship.

The Department of Letters is also in need of reinforcements.

The contributions heretofore made have been both interesting and

valuable, however; some of them justly insuring commendation

from distinguished European savans.

At the late annual meeting, the department of the arts was di-

vided into the ** Department of Practical Arts” and the ‘“* Depart-

ment of the Fine Arts.” Neither of these has yet received much

development. Still itis believed that the creation of separate de-

partments will prove advantageous. ‘There are numerous invent-

ors, scientific artizans and practical observers and experimenters in

Wisconsin, who, if brought together within the pale of. a depart-

ment of the Academy exclusively devoted to the progress of the

useful arts, would make it eminently successful. So, too, there are

artists and cultivators of art in sufficient number, if united, to make

the Department of the Fine Arts at once a means of mutual advan-

tage, and of increasing art culture in the State, as well as of initia-

ting the formation at the seat of the Academy, and in joint con-

nection with it and the State University, of a alley of Art, coupled

with an Academy of Design.

REPORT OF THE PRESIDENT. _ 997

Leaving out of view the present paucity of artists within our

own State, and the difficulty, supposed to be necessary, of finding

adequate patronage outside of the cities, there could hardly be

found anywhere in this country, a more suitable or more desira-

ble spot for an institution of the kind suggested. And even the

objection alluded to would affect only such artists as are limited to

one or two of the several branches of art. The landscape painter,

the historic artist, and the idealist in either painting or sculpture,

wouldeach find themselves happily placed here, in an exception-

ally pure atmosphere, in a region remarkable for its healthfulness,

and in the midst of scenery unparalled for beauty. As this is a

matter in which the Academy, the State University, artists of the

Northwest, and the friends of Art generally, must all feel an inter-

est, we are not without hope that practical results of some im-

portance will follow the effort thus systematically begun.

The Library of the Academy is under the management of a com-

petent and zealous librarian, through whose efforts it must make

steady, if not rapid growth. As was stated in my first report (for

1870-72) it has not been, and is not now, the purpose of the

Academy to build up a general Jibrary, separate and distinct from

that of the State Historical Society, which is fast hecoming the

great general library of the State, but rather to supplement the

forces therein at work by efforts to make collections especially rich

in the publications of learned, scientific and other kindred socie-

ties and associations of all countries, and in works generally which

properly belong to the several departments embraced within the

Academy, and which are not likely to be supplied otherwise.

Large results in this direction have not been accomplished, but the

agencies are at work, and will yield fruits more abundant as the

years goon. Regarding the Academy from this standpoint, it is

quite desirable that its Transactions should be published annually,

instead of biennially; for such more frequent publication would

render it-easier to effect exchanges with other institutions of like

character, as well as with the periodical press of the world.

The Museum of the Academy is making more growth than out-

wardly appears. For, owing to the connection of several of the

members most active in making collections, with the Geological

Survey, now in progress, much of the material which would other-

wise have come directly to the Museum, has very naturally and

228 WISCONSIN ACADEMY SCIENCES, ARTS, AND LETTERS.

properly gone to the State Geologist, for classification, and has not

as yet reached its final destination under the law creating the sur-

vey, which provides that specimens of all the material collected

during its progress shall be deposited with the Academy. It may

also be remarked that the officers of the Academy are yet expect-

ing that large contributions will soon be made to the Museum from

the considerable number of private collections heretofore formed

within this State.

The report of the treasurer, herewith incorporated, sets forth

the financial transactions of the Academy for the years 1875 and

1876, together with the condition of its funds ut the date of the

last annual meeting, just concluded:

WISCONSIN ACADEMY SCIENCE, ARTS AND LETTERS,

TREASURER’S OFFICE,

Maopison, February 13, 1877.

Hon. J. W. Hoyt, President:

I haye the honor to report the financial condition of the Academy, as follows:

Total amount of fees and dues received from 58 members............. $778 25

Total fees received from 10 life members........00scsececereecccreee 1,000 00

liienesrOnlipiesapdopoccasdoncqossnd 24 770g ooougdos0ecos coer. < 370 00

2,148 25

Total amount disbursed in payment of warrants to date............--- 177 97

Balancerimh treasury. aie cietei\e orelers sinker toa ioleuetei= ie eotereiers here aaa 1,370 28

GEO. P. DELAPLAINE,

Treasurer.

The following is a list of the papers read since the date or our

last publication:

‘Views connected with the Railroad Question,” by Rey. Chas.

Caverno.

“On Industrial Education,” by Rev. F. M. Holland.

“ \ Mastodon found in Racine County,” by Dr. P. R. Hoy.

‘* A Turtle Mound found in Beloit,” by Prof. Eaton.

“The Improvement of the Mouth of the Mississippi River,” by

~ Capt. John Nader.

The * Elementary Stratification of the Lower Silurian Rocks in

South-Central Wisconsin,” by Prof. R. D. Irving.

The ‘* Hibernation of the Striped Gopher,” by Dr. P. R. Hoy.

“The Law of Embryonic Development the same in Plants as in

Animals,” by Dr. I. A. Lapham.

“Were the Stoics Utilitarians?” by Rev. F. M. Holiand.

“On the Ancient Civilization of America,” by Prof. Nicodemus.

REPORT OF THE PRESIDENT. 429

* An Account of Recent Examinations of the Ancient Earthworks

in Rock county, Wis.,” by W. P. Clark, Esq.

* Drift-notes,” by Prof. Eaton.

*Minority or Proportional Representation,” by Rev. F. M. Hol-

land.

“On the Fishes best suited to stock the small lakes of Wisconsin,"

ley LDre, TRE Tite Lalo

“ Oconomowoc Lake,” by the late Dr. I. A. Lapham.

“On United States’ Sovereignty; whence derived and when vested,”

by Pref. Alien.

“The Barometer in Leveling.” by Capt. Nader.

“On River Engineering,’ by Capt. Nader.

“The instrument of Exchange,” by President G. M. Steele.

“The Inter-convertible Note Scheme,” by EK. R. Leland, Esq.

“ The Kaolin of Wisconsin,’ by Professor Irving.

“The Revolutionary Movement Among Women,” by Dr. J. W.

Hoyt.

**An Account of the Aid Rendered by Various Governments

to Science and Eilucation,’ by James D. Batler, LL. D.

“Geological Reconnoisances in Northern Wisconsin,” E, T. Sweet,

M.S.

“The Encouragement of Art Culture by the State,” by Dr. J. W.

Hoyt.

“Some new and Remarkable Features of the Lower Magnesian

Limestone, and St. Peter Sandstone in Eastern Wisconsin,”

by Prof. T. C. Chamberlain.

“ The Origin of the Present-Infinitive-Passive in Latin and Greek,”

by Prof. Feuling.

“The Significance of Faraday’s Experiment upon the Magnetic

Rotatory Polarization of Light; and upon Helmholtz Paper on

the Integrals of Vortex Motion; also upon the Theory of Mag-

netism,” by Prof. Davies.

“On Duplex Telegraphy,” by Chas. H. Haskins.

In the confident belief that the Academy has before it a career

of great usefulness. and that to this end it will be more and more

encouraged by an intelligent public, as well as liberally fostered by

the State, I have the honor to be, in its behalf,

Very respectfully,

TOHIN: Wa, ELON

: President.

Madison, February, 1876.

Report ot the Sechetame

SPECIAL MEETING OF THE ACADEMY.

SEPTEMBER 16, 1874.

The members of the Academy met in their rooms at Ty P. M.

The following resolutions were passed:

Resolved, That we sincerely lament the death of John Y. Smith,

in whom our Society has lost an active and honored member, and

the science of political economy one of its most devoted and useful

followers.

Resolved, That the President of the Academy be requested to

appoint a member of the Academy to prepare a sketch of his lite

and works

Resolved, That these resolutions be published in each of the

daily papers of this city, and that the General Secretary be re-

quested to forward a copy of these proceedings to the family of

the deceased.

The President of the Academy eulogised highly the meee of

the deceased member.

The death of Prof. Peter Engelman, of Milwaukee, was an-

nounced by Dr. I. A. Lapham, who pronounced a high elogium

upon the scientific character of the deceased.

The following resolutions were also passed:

Resolved, That in the death of Prof. Peter Engleman the Acade-

my has lost a valued member, and the cause of education one of its

most active promoters.

Resolved, That the President of this Academy is hereby requested

to appoint some member to prepare, for the next regular meeting

of the Academy, a memoir of his life and labors.

Resolved, That these resolutions be published in ie Ee geese

of the Academy.

The Treasurer of the Academy, G. P. Delaplaine, Esq., aes

the attention of members to a remarkable mound, supposed to be

very ancient, in the vicinity of the city of Madison.

Prof. Nicodemus, of the State University of Wisconsin, Dr. I.

A. Lapham, of Milwaukee, Geo. P. Delaplaine, Esq., of Madison,

REPORT OF-THE SECRETARY. 931

and Prof. Irving, of the University, were appointed a committee to

investigate the mound and furnish to the Academy a report there-

on, at an expense to the Academy not exceeding $25.00.

JouHn EK. Davtss,

General Secretary.

FIFTH REGULAR ANNUAL MERTING.

First Session.

Acaprmy Rooms, Feb. 9, 1875, 74, Pp. u.

The fifth annual meeting of the Academy was commenced in

their rooms ou Tuesday evening, February 9, 1875, at 74 o'clock;

there being a large attendance of members and citizens; the Presi-

dent, Dr. J. W. Hoyt, in the chair; the Secretary, Prof. J. H. Davies.

absent by reason of severe illness.

In the absence of the secretary, Prof. James Haton, of Beloit

College, was appointed secretary pro. tem.

The treasurer's report was read and referred to an auditing com-

mittee consisting of Prof. Nicodemus, Dr. Hoy, and Hiisha Bur-

dick, Esq.

The librarian’s report was read and accepted.

The rules were suspended and Messrs. H. T. Sweet, R. H. Brown,

J.T. Dodge, and Charles N. Gregory were elected annual mem-

bers.

The first paper of the meeting was read by the Rev. Charles

Cav yerno, on ‘* Views connected with the Railroad Questicn.”

Twenty-three members were present at this meeting of the

Academy.

Second Session.

FEBRUARY 10, 9.45 A. w.

During the absence of the President, the chair was occupied by

I. A. Lapham, Vice-President of the Academy.

The report of the secretary was read.

The following papers were read and discussed:

On “ Industrial Education,” by Rev. F. M. Holland, of Baraboo.

232 WISCONSIN ACADEMY SCIENCES, ARTS, AND LETTERS.

“A Mastodon found in Racine County,” by Dr. P. R. Hoy, of

Raeine.

Dr. Holland called attention to a number of bones of a Mastodon

found in Baraboo thirty years ago.

A paper was read on “A Turtle Mound in Beloit,” by Prof. Haton

of Beloit.

E. R. Leland, of Kau Claire, read a memoir upon the late Peter

Engelman, of Milwaukee, a member of this Academy.

Adjourned till 2:30, p. m.

Third Session.

Frpruary 10, 2:30, Pp. mu.

The Academy met pursuant to adjournment, with a large attend-

ance.

Dr. I. A. Lapham, Vice-President, in the chair.

Papers were read as follows:

On the “Improvement of the Mouth of the Mississippi River,”

by Capt. Nader.

On * The Elementary Stratification of the Lower Silurian Rocks

in South-Central Wisconsin,” by Prof. Irving.

On “The Hibernation of the Striped Gopher,” and on “The Cato-

calue of Racine County,” by Dr. Hoy, of Racine.

On “The Law of Embryonic Development, the same in Plants

as in Animals,’ by Dr. I. A. Lapham, of Milwaukee.

The committee appointed to audit the Treasurer’s Report gave

in their report, which was read and accepted. '

The meeting then adjourned till 7:30, p. o.

Fourth Session.

Frsrvary 10, 7:30 Pp. 1.

The Academy met pursuant to adjournment; with a full attend-

ance.

Prof. 5S. H. Carpenter, Vice President in the chair. Papers were

read as follows:

* Were the Stoics Utiliturians?” by Rev. F. M. Holland of Bar-

aboc.

REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. 933

On “ The Ancient Civilization of America,” by Professor Nico-

demus, of the University of Wisconsin.

“An account of Recent Examinations of the Ancient Earthworks

in Rock county, Wisconsin,” by W. B. Clark Esq.

* Drift notes” by Prof. James Eaton.

SIXTH ANNUAL MEETING.

First Session.

Acanemuy Rooms, Feb. 8, 1876, 7:30 P. mu.

The sixth annual meeting of the Academy was convened in their

rooms on Tuesday evening February 8th, 1876, at 74 o'clock; there

being a large attendance of members and citizens of Madison; the

President, Dr. J. W. Hoyt, in the chair.

The minutes of the last previous meeting were read by the Sec-

retury and approved.

After a few remarks by the President of the Academy, on the

general progress and success of the Academy during the year, the

reports of the Secretary, Treasurer, and Librarian of the Academy

were read, accepted and referred to appropriate committees.

The President of the Academy announced that the Hon. George

H. Paul, of Milwaukee, Railroad Commissioner for Wisconsin had

consented to donate $100 to the Academy, and thereby become a

Life Member.

The following gentlemen were elected members.

For Corresponding Members.—Dr. Joseph Buchanan of Louis-

ville, Ky., and 8. W. Burnham Esq., Chicago, F. R. A. 8. London.

For Annual Members.—K. i. Woodman, Esq., of Baraboo, Wis.;

Prof. W. C. Sawyer, of Appleton, Wis.; Hon. Peter Doyle, Secre-

tary of State for Wisconsin; C. H. Haskins, Esq., of Milwaukee,

Gen'l. Supt. Northwestern Telegraph Co.; Right Rev. H. R. Welles

of Milwaukee, Protestant Episcopal Bishop of Wisconsin; Hon.

Harlow 8. Orton, of Madison; Gen. Hi. E. Bryant, of Madison; Hon.

S. U. Pinney, of Madison; Hon. J. C. Gregory, of Madison; Rev.

John Wilkinson, of Madiscn; Sumuel Shaw, Esq., Principal of

High Schoo!, Madison; J. W. Wood, Esq., Baraboo; J. O. Culver,

Esq., Madison; S. G. Lapham, Esq., of Milwaukee; E. 8. Searing,

234 WISCONSIN ACADEMY SCIENCES, ARTS, AND LETTERS.

Esq.,0f Madison; Hon. I ©. Sloan, of Madison; Josiah E. Cass,

Esq., of Eau Claire; HE. A. Birge, State University; T. G. Atwood,

Esq., Albion, Wis; J. W. Stuart, Esq., of Madison.

Dr. P. R. Hoy, of Racine, Chairman of the committee appointed

to prepare a sketch of the life and character of Hon. I. A. Lapham,

LL. D., late Vice President of the Academy, read an exceedingly

interesting paper upon the general life and scientific labors of Dr.

Lapham. Dr. Hoy feelingly referred to a friendship prolonged for

Over thirty years. He summed up the important labors of Dr.

Lapham by reading the following letter from Prof. Joseph Henry:

SMITHSONION INSTITUTE, U

Washington, feb. 3, 1876. §

Dr. P. R. Hoy, Raciae, Wis.: :

Dear Sir: Your letter was received during a great pressure of business, and 1

now embrace the first opportunity to give ita reply.

The action of Congress in regard to the signal service was due to the immediate

exertions of Mr. Lapham through the member of Congress from his district, Gen-

eral Payne, in setting forth the advantages of the system to the ee inter-

ests of the great lakes.

Yours very truly,

[ Signed. ] JOSEPH HENRY.

Secretary.

E. R. Leland, Hsq., of Eau Claire, spoke very eloquently of the

virtues, public and private, of the deceased Vice- Been whom

he had known intimately for many years.

Remarks were also made by Prof. T. C. Chamberlain, of Beloit,

Dr. Lapham’s successor as Director of the Geological Survey, of

the State, and R. D. Irving, Professor of Geology in the University

of Wisconsin.

. Dr. S. H. Carpenter, Professor of Logie and English Literature

im the University of Wisconsin, read an admirable review of the

life, mental characteristics, and writings of the late Hon. John Y.

Smith. Dr. Carpenter showed him to be a man of unusual power

of mind and great clearness of thought. Prof. W. F. Allen, Pro-

fessor of Latin and History in the University of Wisconsin, also

added his testimony to the statements made in Dr. Carpenter’s pa-

per. tes

A paper upon “ Minority or Proportional Representation,” by

Rev. F. M. Holland, of Baraboo, was then read by Prof. Allen.

Adjourned till Wednesday morning, 9 a. m.

-REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. 935

Second Session.

WEDNESDAY Morninag, 94, o'clock, February 9, 1876.

The Academy met pursuant to adjournment; the President Dr.

J. W. Hoyt in the chair. The following papers were then read:

“On the Pre-Historic Copper Implements found in Wisconsin,”

by James D. Butler, LL. D., of Madison.” This paper was read by

Professor W. W. Daniells, of the State University of Wisconsin.

“On the Fishes best suited to stock the small lakes of Wisconsin,

by Dr. P. R. Hoy, of Racine. Dr. Hoy also read a paper on the

Oconomowoe Lakes,” prepared by Dr. I. A. Lapham, just before his

death.

“United States Sovereignty—wheunce derived and where vested,”

by Professor W. F. Allen, of the State University.”

“The Barometer in Leveling,” by Captain John Nader.

“On River Hngineering,” a translation from the German, by

Captain John Nader, of Madison.

Adjourned till 25 P. M.

Third Session.

Wepnespay AFrrernoon, 24 P. M.—Feb. 9, 1876.

The Academy met pursuant to adjournment, the President Dr.

J. W. Hoyt in the chair. The following papers were then read

and discussed:

‘‘On the Instrument of Exchange,” by G. M. Steele, DD.,

President of Lawrence University.

“The Interconvertible Note Scheme,” by E. R. Leland, Esq., of

Eau Claire.

“On Kaolin in Wisconsin,” by Professor R. D. Irving, of the

University of Wisconsin.

The Academy then adjourned until 7 o’clock P. M.

Fourth Session.

Frsruary 7th, 74 o'clock P. M.

The Academy met pursuant to adjournment, the president Dr.

J. W. Hoyt in the chair.

Dr. P. R. Hoy then made some popular remarks on the ‘* General

Classification of Animals.”

236 WISCONSIN ACADEMY SCIENCES, ARTS, AND LETTERS.

Dr. J. W. Hoyt then read a carefully prepared paper on “ The

Revolutionary Movement among Women.”

Adjourned 9 A. M.

Fifth Session.

TuurspDay, February 10, 9 A. M.

The Academy met pursuant to adjournment. The President Dr.

J. W. Hoyt in the chair. The tollowing papers were then read and

discussed.

“An Account of the aid rendered by Various Governments to Sci-

ence and Education,’ by James D. Butler, LL. D.

* Geological Reconnoisances in Northern Wisconsin,” by Mr. E.

T. Sweet, Assistant on the Geological Survey.

“The Encouragement of Art Culture by the State,” by Dr. J.

W. Hoyt.

‘*On some new and remarkable features of the Lower Magnesian

Limestone, and St. Peter’s Sandstone in Eastern Wisconsin, by Prof.

T. C. Chamberlin, Director of the Geological Survey.

Adjourned till 2 o’clock P. M.

Sizth Session.

Monpay, February 10, 2 o’clock P. M.

Academy met pursuant to adjournment. President J. W. Hoyt

in the chair. The following papers were then read and discussed.

“The origin of the Present-Infinitve-Passive in Latin and Greek.”

by Prof. J. B. Feuling Ph. D., of the University of Wisconsin.

“The Significance of Faraday’s Experiment upon the Magnetic

Rotatory Polarization of Light,” by Prof. J. EH. Davies, M. D., of

the State University.

“ Helmholtz’ Paper upon the Integrals of Vortex Motion; and

the significance of these Integrals in the theory of Magnetism,” by

Prof. Davies.

“On Duplex Telegraphy,” by Charles H. Haskins, General

Superintendent of the Northwestern Telegraph Company, Milwau-

kee.

The reading of the papers prepared for this meeting having been

concluded, the Academy prepared to ballot for the election of offi-

cers for the next three years.

REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. 937

The following gentlemen were unanimously elected.

For President, P. R. Hoy, M. D. Racine.

For General Secretary, J. HE. Davies, M. D., Madison.

For Vice President of Department of Speculative Philosophy,

8. H. Carpenter, LL. D., Madison.

For Vice President of Department of Natural Science, Prof. T.

C. Chamberlin, Beloit.

For Vice President of the Department of Social and Political Sci-

ences, Rev. G. M. Steele, D. D. Appleton.

For Vice Presidentof the Department of the Mechanic Arts, Hon.

J. I. Case Racine.

For Vice President of the Department of Letters, Rev. A. L. Cha-

pin, D. D. Beloit.

For Vice President of the Department of the Fine Arts, Dr. J. W.

Hoyt, Madison.

For Treasurer Geo. P. Delaplaine, Esq., Madison.

For Director of Museum E. T. Sweet, M.E., Sun Prairie.

For Librarian, Charles N. Gregory, M. S., Madison.

After the transaction of other minor business, the Academy ad~

journed sine die. .

JouNn EK. Davirs,

General Secretary.

| Report of the Librarian.

To the President of the Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts and

Letters:

Srr:—I have the honor to report the receipt of the following

contributions to the library of the Academy, which have been for-

warded by the courtesy of the Smithsonian Institute, Washington

IDB Oe

Bremen Natural Science Society.—Vol. 3, parts 1 and 2, 1872.

Vol. 4, part 4, 1875. Vol. 4, part 1, 1876. Supplement No. 4, 1874-5,

Supplement No. 5, 1876.

Amiens Linnean Society of the North of France—Monthly bul-

letins from May, 1875 to June, 1876, inclusive. .

Munich Royal Bavarian Academy of Science.—Transactions for

1875, parts 1 and 2. Two pamphlets on Chemistry. One pamphlet

on Schelling. i

Harlem Netherlands Society for the Fostering of Industry.—

Transactions for 1474, transactions for 1875, and six pamphlets.

Lyons Academy of Science, Belles-Letters and Arts——Memoirs

Volume 16, for 1874-5.

Dresden Society of Natural History.—Transactions for 1875.

Vienna Imperial Royal Zoological and Botanical Society.—Trans- _

actions Volume 25, for 1876.

Brunn Natural Historical Society —Proceedings Volume 13, 1875.

Catalogue of Library 1874.

Halle Journal of the Natural Sciences by Dr. Giebel.—Volumes

11 and 12, 1875. :

Bern, Swiss Society of Natural History.—Proceedings for 1876.

Menaoirs.

Bern, Society of Natural Science at Bern.—Transactions 1874,

1875.

London Royal Society.—Volume 23, of Proceedings. Nos. 153

to 163 inclusive. ‘On the Tides of the Arctic Seas,” from Philo-

sophical Transactions of Royal Society.

Neuchatel, Society of Natural Science.—Bulletin received March

REPORT OF THE LIBRARIAN. 939

Natural Historical Society of Prussian Rhineland and Westpha-

lia.—Transactions for 30th year 1874, aad 31st year 1875.

Konigsberg. Publications of Society of Physical Heconomy.—

Parts one and two, 1873 and 1874.

Gottingen, Royal Society of Learning etc.—Transactions for

1875.

Harlem, Archives of the, “* Musee Teyler’—Vol. 1, 2 and 3, and

1st part of vol. 4.

Amsterdam, Royal Academy of Science—Publications from 1865

to 1876 iueclusive, in 2! pamphlets.

Belgium, Royal Society of Botany—History of Roses, by Francis

Crepin; extract from Bulletin.

Danzig, Natural Historical Society; Transactions—Vol. 3, part 4.

Freiburg, Society of Natural History; Transactions—V ol. 6, part 4.

St. Petersburg, Physical Central Observatory—Annals for, 1874.

Instructions for Meteorological stations, by H. Wilde.

Andennatt, Swiss Society of Natural Philosophy—Report 1874

and 1875.

Bamberg, Society of ‘Natural Philosophy—Tenth report, 1874

and 1874.

Stockholm, The Royal Swedish Academy of Science—Memoir by

S. Loren on ‘* Hchinoidea,”’ 1875. Transactions for 1872. t1th

volume of Synopsis of Transactions, 1875 and 1876. Appendix to

Transactions, volume 3, part 1. List of Swedish and Norse mem-

bers May, 1876.

I haye also received, by the kindness of Professor Alexander

Agassiz,

Cambridge, Mass., Museum of Comparative Zoology at Harvard

College—Bulletin Volume 3, Nos. 11 to 16; volume 4, No. 10.

Also from the State Library of New York,

87th Report of the Regents of the State of New York.

Report of New York State Library for 1875.

Report of New York State Museum of Natural History.

Biographical sketch of Increase A. Lapham, read before the Old

Settlers Club; by the kindness of Mr. Seneca Lapham, of Milwaukee.

All of which is most respectfully submitted.

With great respect,

CHARLES N. GREGORY,

Librarian.

List of Officers and Members

OF THE

ACADEMY, 1876.

16——_ was

GENERAL OFFICERS § ACADEMY.

PRESIDENT:

Dr. P. R. HOY, Racine.

VICE-PRESIDENTS:

Dr. S. H. CARPENTER, - - < = = Madison.

Pror. T. C. CHAMBERLIN. - - - - - - Beloit.

Rey. G. M. STEELE, D. D. - - - - - Appleton.

Hon. J. I. CASE, - - - - = - - Racine.

REywA. Ll. CHAPIN, D. D.. - - = = - Belvit.

Dr. J. W. HOYT, - - = s : - Madison.

GENERAL SECRETARY:

Pror. J. . DAVIES, M. D., University of Wisconsin.

TREASURER:

GEO. P. DELAPLAINE, Esq., Madison.

DIRECTOR OF THE MUSEUM:

KE. T. SWEET, Esq., Sun Prairie.

LIBRARIAN: |

CHARLES N. GREGORY, Madison.

COUNSELORS EX-OFFICIO:

HIS EXCELLENCY THE GOVERNOR OF THE STATE.

THE LIEUTENANT GOVERNOR.

THE SUPERINTENDENT OF PUBLIC INSTRUCTION.

THE PRESIDENT OF THE STATE UNIVERSITY.

THE PRESIDENT OF THE STATE AGRICULTURAL SOCIETY.

THE SECRETARY OF THE STATE AGRICULTURAL SOCIETY.

OF FICERSOF THE DEPART Mia

DEPARTMENT OF SPECULATIVE PHILOSOPHY.

President.—S. H. Carpenter, LL. D., Madison.

Seeretary.—Rev. F. M. Holland, Baraboo.

Counsellors.—Dr. John Bascom, President University of Wiscon-

sin; President Oliver Arey, Whitewater, and Rev. A. O. Wright,

Fox Lake.

DEPARTMENT OF NATURAL SCIENCES.

President.—Prof. T. C. Chamberlin. Beloit.

Secretary.—Prot. James H. Haton. Beloit.

Counsellors.—Prof. W. W. Daniells. of the University of Wis-

consin; Prof. Foye, of Appleton, and Prof. Thure Kumilein, of

Albion.

DEPARTMENT OF SOCIAL AND POLITICAL SCIENCES.

President.—Rev. G. M. Steele, D. D. Appleton.

Secretary.—H. R. Leland, Esq., of Han Claire.

Counsellors.—Dr. HE. B. Wolcott, Milwaukee; Rev. Charles Ca-

verno, Lombard, Ill., and J. B. Parkinson, of Madison.

DEPARTMENT OF THE MECHANIC ARTS.

President.—Hon. J. I. Case, Racine.

Secretary.—Prof. W. J. L. Nicodemus, of the University of Wis-

consin.

Counsellors.—Charles H. Haskins, of Milwankee; Hon. J.

Mitchell, of Milwaukee, and Capt. John Nader, of Madison.

DEPARTMENT Of THE FINE ARTS.

President.—Dr. J. W. Hoyt, Madison.

Secretary.—Hon. J. EK. Thomas, of Sheboygan.

Counsellors.—Mrs. S. F. Dean, Madison; J. R. Stuart Esq., Mad-

ison, and Mrs. H. M. Lewis, Madison.

DEPARTMENT OF LETTERS.

President.—Rev. A. L. Chapin. D. D., Beloit.

Secretary.—Prof. J. B. Feuling, of the University of Wisconsin.

Counsellers.—Prof. W. I*. Allen, of the University of Wisconsin:

Piof. Emerson, Beloit College, and Hon. L. C. Draper, Madison.

MEMBERS OF THE ACADEMY.

ANNUAL MEMBERS.

Allen, W. F., A. M., Professor of Latin and History in tne University of Wis-

consin.

Arey, Oliver, A. M., President State Normal School, Whitewater, Wis.

Atwood, T. G., Esq., Albion. Wis.

Bascom, John, LL. D., President of the University of Wisconsin.

Bashford, R. Mo) A. M. , Madison, Wis.

Ballentine, W. G. , Ripon, Wis.

Butler, J. B., Die Dy. Madison, Wis.

Bryant, KE. D.. Hon., Madison, Wis.

Birge, EH. A., A. M., Instructor in Zoology in the University of Wisconsin.

Carpenter, s. JElS5 ite D., Professor of English Literature and Logic, in the Uni-

versity of Wi isconsin.

Chamberlin, T. C., A. M.. Professor of Natural History Beloit College, and Di-

rector of the Geological Survey of Wisconsin.

Caverno, Charles, Rev.. Lombard, Ll.

Chapin, A. L., D. D., President Beloit College, Beloit, Wis.

Charlton, E. A., A. M., President State Normal School, Platteville, Wis.

Cole, Theo. L., M. S., LaCrosse, Wis.

Copeland, H. E., Whitewater.

Conover, O. M., A. M., Madison, Wis.

Cass, Josiah E., Eau Ch: aire, Wis.

Daniells, W. W., Wile Shoe IP rof. of Chemistry in the University of Wiscousin.

Davies, a Ky., A. M. M. D., Prof. of Astronomy and Physics in the University

of Wisconsin.

Delaplaine, Geo. P., Madison, Wis.

De La Matyr, W. A., Mazomanie, Wis.

Dudley, Wm, Madison, Wis.,

Durrie, D. S., Librarian Wisconsin State Historical Society.

Doyle, Peter Hon. ., Secretary of the State of Wisconsin.

Eaton, James H., Ph. D., Prof. Chemistry Beloit College, Beloit, Wis.

Feuling, J. B., bh. D., Prof. Comparative Philology and Modern Languages in

the University of Wisconsin.

Foye, J. C., A. M., Prof. Physics, Lawrence University, Appleton, Wis.

Gregory, J. C., Madison, Wis.

Gregory, Chas. N. A. M., Madison, Wis.

Holland, Ph. M. Reyv., A. M., Baraboo, Wis.

Hauser, igs Rey., A.M. , Milwaukee, Wis.

Hawley, C T., Milwaukee, Wis.

Holton, E. D. ‘Hon., Milwaukee, Wis.

Hoy, P. BK. MoD. President Wisconsin Academy Sciences, Arts, and Letters,

Racine, Wis.

Hoyt, J. W., M. D., Madison, Wis.

Haskins, C. nae General Superintendent Northwestern Telegraph Company,

Milwaukee, Wis.

246 WISCONSIN ACADEMY SCIENCES, ARTS, AND LETTERS.

Irving, R. D., A. M.M.E., Prof. of Geology and Mining in the University of Wis-

consin.

Kumlein, Thure, Prof. Albion College, Albion, Wis.

Kingston, J. T., Necedah, Wis.

Kerr, Alex., A. M., Prof. Greek in the University of Wisconsin.

Leland, 1B Late Ean Claire, Wis.

Lapham, Se Milwaukee, Wis.

Marks, Solon, M. D., Milwaukee, Wis.

Mason, R. Z., LL. D., Appleton, Wis.

Nicod emus, W.J.L.,C. i., Prof. of Civil and Mechanical Engineering in the

University of Wisconsin.

Nader, John, C. E., Madison, Wis.

Orton, Harlow Ss Hon. ss Madison, Wis.

Parkinson, J. By oA: ii tah Madison, Wis.

Pradt, J. B. Rey., A. M., Madison, Wis.

Preusser, Charles, President Natural History Society, Milwaukee, Wis.

Pinney, 8. U, Fon. , Madison, Wis.

Reed, Geo. ; Hon. ., Manitowoe, Wis.

Roby, H. W., Milwaukee, Wis.

Reade, E. D., C. E., Milwaukee, Wis.

Steele, Rev. Geo., M., D.D., President of Lawrence University, Appleton, Wis.

Shipman, S. V., Chicago, lil.

Smith, Wm. E. Hon., Milwaukee, Wis.

Searing, Edward, A, M., Superintendent of Public Instruction for the State of

Wisconsin.

Sawyer, W. C., Prof. Lawrence University, Appleton, Wis.

Shaw, Samuel, "A. M., Principal of High School and City Superintendent of Pub-

lie Schools ,M adison, Wis.

Stuart, J. R.A. M. Madison, Wis.

Sloan, iC! Hon., Madison, Wis.

Whitford, Wei. AC Me, President of Milton College, Milton, Wis.

Wright, A. O. Rev.. Fox Lake, Wis.

Welles, E. R., Rt. Rev. S. T. D., Episcopal Bishop of Wisconsin.

Wilkinson, John. Rev. A. M., Madison, Wis.

Wood, J. W., Barahoo, Wis.

Woodman, E. K., Bar aboo, Wis.

CORRESPONDING MEMBERS.

Andrews, E. B., LL. D., Prof. Marietta College, Ohio.

Andrews, dmund, A.M. M. D., Prof. Chicago 1 Medical College, Chicago, 11.

Biossom, T., M. E., School of Mines, Columbia College, New York.

Bridge, Norman, M. D., Chicago, Ill.

Brinton, JG M. 1D Philadelphia, Par

Buchanan, Joseph, M_D., Louisville, Kentucky.

Burnham, 8. W., F. R. A. S., Chicage, Ill.

Carr, E. S., M. D., Superintendent Public Instruction, California.

Ebener, F., Ph. D., Baltimore, Md.

Freer, J. C., M. D., President Rush Medical College, Chicago, Ill.

Gatechell, H. P., M. D., Kenosha, Wis.

Gilman, D. C., President John Hopkins’ University.

Gill, Theo., M D. , Smithsonian Institution, Washington, D. C.

Hopkins, KF. Was M. D., Baton Rouge, La.

Haldeman. 8. Se LL. D., Prof. University of Pennsylvania, Chickis, Pa.

Horr, Asa, M. Da President Iowa Institute of Arts and Sciences, Dubuque, I iowa.

Harris, WT, iGiUID. , st. Louis, Mo.

MEMBERS OF THE ACADEMY. IAT

Hubbell, H. P., Winona, Minn.

Jewell, J. S., A. M. M. D., Evanston, Il.

Morgan, L. H., LL. D., Rochester, Il.

Marcy, Oliver, LL. D., Prof. Northwestern University, Evanston, Ill.

McCabe, L. D., D. D., Prof. Wesleyan University, Delaware, Ohio.

McAllister, J. H., Philadelphia, Pa.

Newberry, J. S., LL. D., Prof. Columbia College, New York.

Orton, E., A. M., Prestdent Antioch College, Yellow Springs, Ohio.

Porter, W. B., Prof., St. Louis. Mo.

Le Barron, Wm., State Entomologist, Geneva, New York.

ao T. H., Director of the Astronomical Observatory of the University of

nicago.

Shaler, N. S., A. M., Professor Harvard University, Cambridge, Mass.

Schele, De Vere M., LL. D., Prof. University of Virginia, Charlotteville, Va.

Thornton, J. Wingate, Boston, Mass.

Trumbull, J. H., LL. D., Hartford, Conn.

Verrill, A. E., A. M., Prof. Yale College, New Haven, Conn.

Van De Warker, Eli, M. D., Syracuse, N. Y.

Seon: James, A. M., Director of the Astronomical Observatory at Ann Arbor,

Tichigan.

Whitney, W. D , Prof. Yale College, New Haven, Conn.

Winchell, Alex. LL. D. Chancelor Syracuse University, Syracuse, N. Y.

LIFE MEMBERS.

Case, J. I., Hon., Racine, Wis.

Dewey, Nelson, Ex-Governor of Wisconsin, Madison, Wis.

Hagerman, J. J. Esq. Milwaukee, Wis.

Hoyt, J. W., M. D., Madison Wis.

* Lapham, I. A. LL. D, Milwaukee, Wis.

Lawler, John, Esq , Prairie du Chien, Wis.

Mitchel!, J. L., Hon., Milwaukee, Wis.

Noonan, J. A. Esq., Milwaukee, Wis.

Paul, G. H., Hon., Milwaukee, Wis.

Thomas, J. E., Hon. Sheboygan Falls, Wis.

Thorpe, J. G., Hon., Eau Claire, Wis.

White, S. A., Hon., Whitewater, Wis.

MEMBERS DECEASED SINCE THE ORGANIZATION OF THE ACADEMY IN 1870.

Rt. Rev. Wm. E. Armitage, 8. T. D., Bishop of Wisconsin, and late Vice-Presi-

dent of the Academy of Sciences, died December 7, 1873.

Prof. Peter Engelmann, Milwaukee, Wisconsin. : :

J. W. Foster, LL. D., late Professor in the University of Chicago, Chicago, Il.

J. A. Lapham, LL. D., Milwaukee, Wisconsin, First Secretary Wisconsim

Academy Science Arts and Letters. j ; t

Wm. Stimpson, M. D., late Secretary Chicago Academy of Sciences, Chicago,

Illinois.

Hon. John Y. Smith, Madison, Wisconsin.

Hon. A. S. McDill, M. D., Madison, Wisconsin.

RRR aber arian Wi ea ks el

* Deceased.

CHARTER, CONSTITUTION AND BY-LAWS

. OF THE

Academy of Sciences, Arts and Letters,

OP WISCONSIN

With the Amendments thereto, up to February, 1876.

CHARTER:

AN ACT TO INCORPORATE THE “WISCONSIN ACADEMY OF

SCIENCES ARTS AND LETTERS.

The people of the State of Wisconsin, represented in Senate and Assembly, do enact

as follows:

Section. 1 Lucius Fairchild, Nelson Dewey, John W. Hoyt, Increase A. Lap-

ham, Alexander Mitchell, Wm. Pitt Lynde, Joseph Hobbins, 4. B. Wolcott, Solon

Marks, R. Z. Mason, G. M. Steele, T. C Chamberlin, James H. Eaton, A. L.

Chapin, Samuel Fallows, Charles Preuser, Wm. E. Smith, J. C. Foye, Wm. Dud-

ley, P. Englemann, A. 8. MeDill, John Murrish, Geo. P. Delaplaine, J. G. Knapp,

8. V. Shipman, #&dward D. Holton, P. R. Hoy, Thaddeus C. Pound, Charles E.

Bross, Lyman C. Draper, John A. Byrne, O. R. Smith, J. M. Bingham, Henry

Betz, Li. Breese, Thos. S. Allen, S.S. Barlow, Chas. R. Gill,C. L. Harris,

George Reed, J. G. Thorp, William Wilson, Samuel D. Hastings, and D. A. Bald-

win, at present being members and officers of an association known as ‘‘ The Wis-

consin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters,’”? located at the city of Madison, to-

gether with their future associates and successors forever, are hereby created a body

corporate by the name and style of the ‘- Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and

Letters,’’ and by that name shall have perpetual succession; shall be capable in law

of contracting and being contracted with, of suing and being sued, of pleading and

being impleaded in all courts of competent jurisdiction; and may do and perform

such acts as are usually performed by like corporate bodies.

SectTron 2. The general objects of the Academy shall be to encourage investiga-

tion and disseminate correct views in the various departments of science, literature

and the arts. Among the specific objects of the academy shall be embraced the

following:

1. Researches and investigations in the various departments of the material, meta-

physical, ethical, ethnological and social sciences.

2. A progressive and thorough scientific survey of the State, with a view of determ-

ining its mineral, agricultural and other resources.

3. The advancement of the useful arts, through the applications of science, and

by the encouragement of original invention.

4. The encouragement of the fine arts, by means of honors and prizes awarded to

artists for original works of superior merit.

5. The formation of scientific, economical and art museums.

6. fhe encouragement of philological and historical research, the collection and

preservation of historic records, and the formation of a general library.

7. The diffusion of knowledge by the publication of original contributions to

science, literature and the arts.

Suction 3, Said Academy may have 2 common seal and alter the same at pleas-

ure; may ordain and enforce such constitution, regulations and by-laws as may be

necessary, and alter the same at pleasure; may receive and hold real and personal

property, and may use and dispose of the same at pleasuty; provided, that it shall

not divert any donation or bequest from the uses and objects proposed by the donor,

and that none of the property acquired hy it shall, in any manner, be alienated other

than in the way of an exchange of duplicate specimens, books, and other effects, with

similar institutions and in the manner specified in the next section of this act, with-

out the consent of the legislature.

252 WISCONSIN ACADEMY SCIENCES, ARTS, AND LETTERS.

Section 4. It shall be the duty of the said Academy, so far as the same may be

done without detriment to its own collections, to furnish, at the discretion of its offi-

cers, duplicate typical specimens of objects in natural history to the University of

Wisconsin, and to the other schools and colleges of the State.

Ssecrion 5. It shall be the duty of said Academy to keep a careful record of all

its financial and other transactions, and, at the close of each fiscal year, the Presi-

dent thereof shall report the same to the Governor of the State, to be by him laid

before the Legislature.

Sec7ion 6. The constitution and by-laws cf said Academy now in force shall

govern the corporation hereby created, until regularly altered or repealed; and the

present officers of said Academy shall be officers of the corporation hereby created,

until their respective terms of oflico shall regularly expire, or until their places

shall be otherwise vacated. “

Secrion 7. Any existing society or institution having like objects embraced by

said Academy, may be constituted a departinent thereof, or be otherwise connected

therewith, on terms mutually s»tisfactory to the governing bodies of the said Acade-

my and such other society or institution.

Section 8. For the proper preservation of such scientific specimens, books and

other collections as suid Academy may make, the Governor shall prepare such

apartment or apartment in the Capitol as may be so occupied without inconveni-

ence to the State. :

Secrion 9. This act shall take effect and be in force from and after its passage.

Approved March 16, 1870.

CONS TLV RIO:

NAME AND LOCATION.

SecTION 1. This association shall be called ‘“‘ The Wisconsin Academy of

Sciences, Arts and Letters,’’ and shall be located at the city of Madison.

GENERAL OBJECTS.

Section 2. The general object of the Academy shall be to enconrage investiga-

tions and disseminate correct views in the various departments of Science, Litera-

ture and the Arts.

DEPARTMENTS.

Section 38. The Academy shall comprise separate Departments, not less than

three in number, of which those first organized shall be:

Ist. The Department of Speculative Philosophy—

Embracing:

Metaphysics;

Ethics.

2@. The Department of the Social and Political Sciences—

Embracing:

Jurisprudence;

Political Science;

Education;

Public Health;

Social Economy.

3d. The Department of the Natural Sciences—

Embracing:

The Mathematical and Physical Sciences;

Natural History;

The Anthropological and Ethnological Sciences,

4th. The Department of the Arts—

Embracing:

The Practical Arts;

The Fine Arts. -

5th. The Department of Letters—

Embracing:

Language;

Literature;

Criticism ;

History.

254 WISCONSIN ACADEMY SCIENCES, ARTS, AND LEITERS.

Section 4. Any branch of these Departments may be constituted a section; and

any section or groupe of sections may be expanded into a full department, whenever

such expansion shall be deemed important.

Section 5. Any existing society or institution may be constituted a Department,

on terms approved by two-thirds of the voting members present at two successive

regular meetings of the Academy.

SPECIAL OBJECTS OF THE DEPARTMENTS.

Section 6. The specific objects of the Department of Sciences shall be:

1. General Scientific Research.

2. A progressive and thorough Scientific Survey of the State, under the direction

of the Officers of the Academy.

3. The formation of a Scientific Museum.

4. The Diffusion of Knowledge by the publication of Original Contributions to

Science

The objects of the Department of the Arts shall be:

1. The Advancement of the Useful Arts, through the Applications of Science

and the Kncouragement of Original Invention.

2. The Encouragement of the Fine Arts and the Improvement of the Public

Taste, by means of Honors and Prizes awarded to Works of Superior Merit, by

Original Contributions to Art, and the formation of an Art Museum.

The objects of the Department of Letters, shall be:

The Encouragement of Philological and Historical Research.

The Improvement of the English Language.

The Collection and Preservation of Historic Records.

The Formation of a General Library.

LCOS

MEMBERSHIP. ‘

Section 7. The Academy shall embrace four classes of governing members who

shall be admitted by vote ot the Academy, in the manner to be prescribed in the

By-Laws:

Ist. Annual Members, who shall pay an initiation fee of five dollars, and there- °

after an annual fee of two dollars.

2d. Members for Life, who shall pay a fee of one hundred dollars.

3d. Patrons, whose contributions shall not be less than five hundred dollars.

Ath. Founders, whose contributions shall not be less than the sum of one thous-

and dollars.

Provision may also be made for the election of Honorary and Corresponding

Members,*as may be directed in the By-Laws of the Academy.

MANAGEMENT.

Srection 8. The management of the Academy shall be entrusted to a General

Council; the immediate control of each Department to a Department Council.

The General Council shall consist of the officers of the Academy, the officers of the

Departments, the Governor and Lieutenant Governor, the Superintendent of Public

Instruction, and the President of the State University, the President and Secretary

of the State Agricultural Society, the President and Secretary of the State Histori-

cal Society, Counselors ez-officiis, and three Counselors to be eleccted for each De-

partment. The Department Councils shall consist of the President and Secretary

of the Academy, the officers of the Department, and three Counselors to be chosen

by the Department.

OFFICERS.

Srcrion 9. The officers of the Academy shall be: a President, who shall be ez-

officio President of each of the Departments; one Vice-President for each Depart-

ment; a Geneial Secretary; a General Treasurer; a Director of the Museum, and a

General Librarian.

Srcrron 10. The officers of each Department shall be a Vice-President, who

shall be ex-officio a Vice-President of the Academy; a Secretary and such other offi-

cers as may be created by the General Council.

CONSTITUTION AND BY-LAWS. 255

Section 11. The officers of the Academy and the Departments shall hold their

respective offices for the term of three vears and until their successors are elected.

Secrion 12. The first election of officers under this Constitution shall be by its

members at the first meeting of the Academy.

Section 13. The duties of the officers and the mode of their election, after the

first election, as likewise the frequency, place and date of all meetings, shall be pre-

scribed in the By-Laws of the Academy, which shall be framed and adopted by the

General Council.

Suction 14. No compensation shall be paid to any person whatever, and no ex-

pence ocurred for any person or object whatever, except under the authority of the

ouncil.

RELATING TO AMENDMENTS.

Srcrion 15. Every proposition to aiter or amend this constitution shall be sub-

mittted in writing at a regular meeting; and if two thirds of the members present at

the next regular meeting vote in the affirmative, it shall be adopted.

AMENDMENTS TO THE CONSTITUTION.

Amendment to Section 8: ‘‘ The Department of the Arts shall be hereafter di-

vided into the Department of the Mechanic Arts and the Department of the Fine

Arts.’? i Passed February 14, 1876.

BY-LAWS.

ELECTION OF MEMPERS.

1. Candidates for membership must be proposed in writing, by a member, to the

General Council and referred to a Committee on Nominations, which Committee

may nominate to the Academy. A majority vote shall elect. Honorary and cor-

responding members must be persons who have rendered some marked service to

Science, the Arts, or Letters, or to the Academy.

ELECTION OF OFFICERS.

2. All officers of the Academy shall be elected by ballot.

MEETINGS.

3. The regular meetings of the Academy shall be held as follows:

On the 2d Tuesday in February, at the seat of the Academy; and in July, at

such place and exact date as shall be fixed by the Council; the first named to be

the Annual Meeting. The hour shall be designated by the Secretary in the notice

of the meeting. At any regular meeting, ten membersshall constitute a quorum for

the transaction of business. Special meetings may be called by the President at his

discretion, or by request of any five members of the General Council.

DUTIES OF OFFICERS.

4. The President, Vice-President, Secretaries, Treasurer, Director of the Museum

and Librarian shall perform the duties usually appertaining to their respective of-

fices, or such as shall be required by the Council. The Treasurer shall give such

security as shall be satisfactory to the Council, and pay such rate of intere-t on finds

held by him as the Council shall determine. Five members of the General Council

shall constitute a quorum.

256 WISCONSIN ACADEMY SCIENCES, ARTS, AND LETTERS.

COMMITTEES.

5. There shall be the following Standing Committees, to consist of three members

each, when no other nu.nber is specified:

On Nominations.

On Papers presented to the Academy.

On Finance.

On the Museum.

On the Library.

On the Scientific Survey of the State; which Commiitee shall consist

of the Governor, the President of the State University, and the

President of this Academy.

On Publication; which Committee shall consist of the President of the.

Academy, the Vice-Presidents, and the General Secretary.

MUSEUM AND LIBRARY.

6. No books shall be taken from the Library, or works or specimens from the:

Museum, except by authority of the General Council; but it shall be the duty of

said Council to provide for the distribution to the State University and to the Colleges

and public Schools of the State, of such duplicates of typical specimens in Natural:

History as the Academy may be able to supply without detriment to its collections.

ORDER OF BUSINESS.

7. The order of business at all regular meetings of the Academy or of any Depart-

ment, shall be as follows:

Reading minutes of previous meeting.

Reception of donations.

Reports of officers and cemunittees.

Deferred business.

New business.

Reading and discussion of papers.

SUSPENSION AND AMENDMENT OF BY-LAWS.

8 The By-Laws may be suspended by a unanimous vote, and in case of the order

of business a majority miy snspend. They may be amended in the same manner ag.

is provided for in the Constitution, for its amendment.

Report of the Council.

Since the last Report of the Council on February 11, 1874, the

Academy has lost by death three of its most active members: Hon.

I. A. Lapham, LL D., of Milwaukee, late Chief Geolegist of Wis-

consin, Prof. Peter Engelman of Milwaukee, and Hon. John Y.

Smith of Madison, the latter noted for his sound views and able

writings in Political Economy.

A short account of the life and character of Dr. Lapham, by E.

R. Leland, Esq., of Hau Claire, also one by P. R. Hoy, M. D. Presi-

dent elect of the Academy will be found at the end of this volume.

A sketch of Prof. Peter Engelmann, by Mr. Leland will also be

found in the same place.

An account of the life of Hon. John Y. Smith. will be found in

the Wisconsin State Historical Society’s Report for 187¢.

17———-w as

IN MEMORIAM.

PROF. PETER ENGELMANN.

oY E. R. LELAND, EsSQ., OF EAU CLAIRE.

Peter Engelmann was born on the 24th of January, 1823, and on the 17th of May,

1874, the died, before he had conipleted his fifty-second year. The object of this

memoir is to give aslight sketch of this existence which was so suddenly cut short

at the moment of bearing its best fruit.

It is due to his memory that [should disclaim my fitness for this task, which

was only undertaken upon the assurance that else it would remain undone. With-

out other qualification than the admiration and respect resulting from a rather lim-

ited acquaintance—with but meagre details of his life at my command, I shall at-

tempt no adequate biographical sketch, but simply try to declare what the man was.

Hlis birthplace was the village of Argenthal, in Rhenish-Prussia. His parents

were farmers, as were his elder brothers, and of him they desired to make a farmer

also; but in farm life he felt little interest even in boyhood, while, as soon as he

could read, he was hungry for books, and eager in his search of knowledge. But

social lines are drawn with rigor in Germany, and distinctions of caste observed al-

most as scrupuously as they are in India, and it was only through the intervention

of a fortunate circumstance that he was enabled to escape from the irksome pursuit

‘of the plow and follow his natural bent for learning. The Protestant clergyman of

the village, and the superintendent, interested in the boy, on account of his rapid

progress under inferior instruction, pursuaded his parents to send hina to a better

school. To this they finally consented, in the hope to see their son gain the pulpit—

than which they had for him no higher ambition—and he was sent to the ‘*Hochere

Buergerschule’’ at Simmern. He went there from his ninth to his fifteenth year,

walking a distance of four miles each way every day. When he reached home

after his four-mile walk he had his ‘‘ chores’’ to do, and then to get his lessons.

But he had energy and dilligence enough to overcome these disadvantages, and he

received the highest certificates as to his proficiency.

At this time he had no other aim than to gratify the piousambition of his parents;

but this was not to remain the case very long. In 1838 he was—thanks to the aid

of his teachers at Simmer, of whom he always spoke with tenderuess and gratitude

—fitted to be received in the secunda of the gymnasium, at Kreuznach. It was

wwhile here, although all his surroundings were calculated to impress his mind with

PROF. PETER ENGELMANN. 259

re igious faith, that he felt constrained io give up the plan of becominz a pastor; the

critical bias of his intellect constantly prompting him to question theologians and de-

man | explanation of the contradictions in their teachings, until finally the old mys-

tic creed of his fathers, lost every title of its influence and authority, and he ceased

then, and forever after, to be swayed by its absurd hopes or childish fears.

After studying at Kreuznach for the four years necessary to go through the Secunda

and Prima, he passed a successful examination in 1842. The study of history and

the natural sciences only served to strengthen his convictions, and, ever frank and

outspoken, he found himself in antagouism to his bound-to-be-pious teachers. They

could not, howeyer, help giving him in his certificate the most excellent notes in re-

gard to diligence, progress, moral character and good nature. The theologian, in-

serted the admonition that “he must not forget that nature and her laws are not

higher than their Creator.?’

He went away to the Universities. Of his life there I know little. He joined a

secret revolutionary society; but neither revolutionary zeal nor the temptations of

student life diverted him from his work. There is evidence that his course was

marked by the same good conduct and steadfast industry; for there, as at Kreuznach

he was the object of high praise. ‘The certificate given him at Berlin where he

studied three years, after one year at Heidelberg, contains twenty notes from various

professors, among them Encke, Poggendorf, Dove, Ehrenberg, and Dirichlet, all

unanimous in commendation.

On leaving the University there were two courses open to him. One was to choose

Astronomy as his calling, which he had studied theoretically and practically under

Encke, but this he had not the means to pursue without aid, and he would not as

he wrote in his journal “‘ beg protection.”? The other was to become a teacher at

some gymnasium. He decided to apply for a State teacher’s examination and passed

successfully, though he looked forward to it with apprehension, several of bis friends

haying failed but a short time previously. The theologianamong the examiners, to

whom he frankly confessed his unbelief, while giving him credit for his knowledge,

decided that ‘‘ he could not teach religiun because he did not accept the bible as the

source of truth. Royal commissioners in Prussia are very anxious to see that the

youth are not misled by unbelieving teachers. Fortunately the result depended,

not upon the theologian, Mr. Teressen, but mainly upon Schellbach, Rose, and Ehren-

berg, and so he was granted the “ facultus docenti.’’

He then went to the Kreuznach Gymnasium, where he taught for a year anda half

with marked success. Here again his frankness stood in the way of his preferment

—his vutspoken declarations for republicanism preventing him from being regularly

installed as a teacher.

When in February 1848 the revolntion broke out in France, he hailed it with en-

thusiasm, and with all the fervent zeal and energy of his nature agitated for the re-

publican idea among the people of Kreuznach. Jvintly with some friends he found-

ed a Turn-verein (gymnastic society) and a Buergen-verein (citizens’ society) and

wrought a radical change in the public opinion. He was given to understan | that

if he would “hush” he should have a desirable situation, and the Chief Director of

Education of the Rhenish Provinces summoned him to an interview and advised

him to desist. His answer was an increased revolutionary activity. With a few

230 WISCONSIN ACADEMY SCIENCES, ARTS, AND LETTERS.

friends of the cause he founded a democratic club and began publishing a reyolu-

tionary paper. The first editor was soon compelled to flee. Engelman succeeded

him in Febiuary 1849 and conducted the paper till May, when he too, had to leave

his Fatherland to escape the dungeon. Another of the friends then continued the

paper until it was suppressed by Prussian soldiery.

In Augnst, 1849, Englemann reached New York in a destitute condition. He

joined an acquaintance to try ‘Latin farming’? near Marshall, Michigan. The re-

sult was as discouraging as might have been expected. One of his first acts was to

take out his naturalization papers, for he burned with impatience to “renounce for-

ever his allegiance to the King of Prussia,’’? and to become a citizen of the Re-

public. After working for awhile as a furm-hand. he went to Milwaukee, and

thence to Oshkosh. At the latter place he was taken sick, and lay prostrate for

eight weeks, without friend or farthing. Returning to Milwaukee, he was again

taken sick; and without money for support, or a single acquaintance, his situation

and frame of mind may be more easily imagined than described.

Whea partially restored, he was engaged by a farmer, three miles from Milwau-

kee, to instruct two boys for his board. Soon after, he was engaged as teacher for a

district school. His success as a teacher soon became manifest, so that children

were sent from the city to partake of his instrnctiou. After the close of the term,

although the district sought to retain him at double his former salary, he went back

to Milwaukee to seck a more extended field for his educational woik. Then it was

that the German and English Academy was founded. It commenced school July 1,

1851, giving its director a salary of $25 per month. Tere he reinained nntil death

closed his arduous and unselfish duties.

His plans were far more comprehensive than his achievements. He was not to

be permitted to carry them out, but he lived to see his academy advance in mem-

bers and eduzational results until it gained the reputation of being one of the best

schools of its grade in the Union, a result which it is no exaggeration to say was

due to his labors. Engleman was one of the pioneers in the United States cf mod-

ern rational pedzgogy, as opposed to the old school routine of memorizing and recit-

Ing; his aim was more to edueate and train the young mind for self-instruction, than

to cram with undigested knowledge. His methods were based upon the ideas of

Pestalozzie and Froebel—though he was a routine follower of no man’s lead. It

had Jong been his intention to publish a number of hand-bouks for the use of

sohools, among them one of Universal History, and he was about to prepare a

teachers manual for mathematics. In this respect his premature death is a serious

loss to the cause of education, for his metnod, based upon his rational views, have

proved highly satisfactory and successful. In mora! teachings he avoided making

them repugnant to the pupils by dry catechism, but taught them to love virtue by

examples taken from history which were emphasized by his own excellent example.

He introduced natural sciences more largely than is conimon, that his scholars

might learn how t» observe—how to read and question the works of nature for

themselves, and to apply the scientific methods of investigation to all things; and

lastly, he ever songht to transplant his own humane sentim n‘s; his own chivalrous

love for liberty and justice into the minds of the embryo citizens entruste! to his

care. One of the good results of hisschool was the elevation—by a spirit of emu-

PROF. PETER ENGELMANN. 261

lation—of the standard of the public schools of Milwaukee, to a much higher level

than they would have otherwise attained.

But the care of this Academy, absorbing as it was, by no means bounded the

sphere of his activity. He and his friend Dr. A. Luning, were the principal found-

ers ot the Natural History Society of Wisconsin, and he the Curator of its now very

valuable museum from the beginning. He bestowed a great amount of labor upon

it; zoalously collecting himself, and inciting others to follow his example. Who-

ever might be lukewarm; he was not. He never wearied of the work; he shrank

from no dru:lgery connected with it. Much, perhaps most of his leisure was given

to the work of determining, labeling and arranging specimens. Nor was he niggardly

of his precious time to either the mere curiosity gazer, the inquiring voung student,

or the amateur dabbler in science. The courtesy and kindly interest with which he

welcomed all comers, I have occasion to gratefully remember. Since his death, the

museum bears his name.

In spite of this exhausting and absorbing professional work, he found time to

write many articles for liberal papers, and to give numerous lectures before radica

and scientific societies, always withort pay, and often illustrated by experiments at

his own expense. In short, he sought knowledge, not for the personal gratification

which it affords, but to the end that he might aid in its general diffusion, or make

some practical application of it for the good of his fellows, and he carried these dis-

interested labors to an extreme that many of his thrifty countrymen could not un-

derstand, and they were, some of them, inclined to call him visionary and a fanatic.

Te was neither. Je had sterling good sense, and he rode no hobbies. His mo-

tives lay upon the surface, and if men could not read them aright it was their own

oblique vision that was at fault. Tis whole life was given to the advaneement of

the race, to liberty of thought, of speech, of life—with a devotion that most men

will admire and few have the courage to imitate.

His last illness was a sharp attack of congestion of the lungs, under which hesank

very rapidly, retaining consciousness to the last. He died, as he had lived, bravely

and calmly; without fear or regret. With characteristic modesty he directed that

his funeral should be free from formal obsequies. There were none of the conven-

tional forms, but hundreds followed him to his grave and hid it with flowers as a

last feeble tribute to his worth, and, few indeed are the men who havea place in

the tender memories of so many hearts as this self-sacrificing teacher. The future

of his beloved enterprises—concerning which he had many and ambitious hopes—is

now in other hands. They may not suffer, but it will be a long search to find one

man who can fill his place.

This, in brief, and most imperfect outline. was the life of Peter Engelmann. It

was not, as we have seen an eventful one. Jlis name never became famons, for his

were not the qualities which gain fame—as the world goes. Self abnegation, honest

steadfastness of purpose, devotion to principal, are prized and valued but are not

loudly praised. it is the bold dogmatist, the skilled rhetorician, the sagacious trim-

mer of sails to the breeze of public opinion, that wins applause.

This modest pedagogue knew none of these tricks of success. With rare rectitude

‘he, in early manhood, put aside a brilliant scientific career, because he prized inde-

pendence, self-respect, the approval of his conscience, more highly than place and

262 WISCONSIN ACADEMY SCIENCES, ARTS, AND LETTERS.

profit and fame; and from his devotion to principle the very nature of his religious

belief, removed all taint or suspicion of selfishness, even of the most refined and

spiritual sort, for he was an uncompromising materialist.

Forced to the conclusion, that so far as human reason, arguing from the facts of

life, can form any judgment on the subject, a self-conscious existence hereafter is

an impossibility; he declined to follow these who assume that there is a higher

mode of apprehending these facts than reason supplies. He would allow no attri-

butes—cherish no hopes that demanded the sanction of something higher than his

understanding; and whatever may be our private beliefs, it is difficult to see how

the logical soundness of this position can be assailed.

His belief gives the clue to his aims und his labors. Feeling that the assump-

tions of the so-called, higher modes of cognition were gratuitous and mischievous, he

wotked so far as he could for their downfall—but he did not stop here, he was not

a mere iconoclast. He saw, what all must see, that there is a growing disposition

to question these assumptions, and he was not blind to the dangers of states of trans-

ition. He could use no other than the materialistic formula, but with that he did

what in him Jay to revolutionize and humanize political and social life, so as to fit

it toa higher creed. Ile worked tothe end that when men should no longer obey,

through fear or hope, the mystical, external commands, that they should already

be, through a love of goodness for itself, obedient to the higher, internal commands.

Ge apprehended no danger to morality, for he well knew that morality is not the

fruit of any creed, but the sum of human experience. His last work in this direc-

tion, was an answer to an attempt, by one Pastor Streissguth, to prove that material-

ism was error and tended to immorality. The pamphlet has been published since

his death, by the Wisconsin Union of Liberal Societies; he therein refutes by unan-

swerable arguments, as he had by his piure and blameless life, the silly and inecon-

sequent slander, that the morality which flows from scientific materialism can be

comprehended in the words, “Let us eat and drink, for to-morrow wedie.”’ Ifa

man believes that his sentient existence is restricted to the three-score years on

earth, will he therefore anticipate the nothingness of the future by becoming a sot

in the present? or will he use his best endeavor to husband this handful of years

and make them yield to him the greatest measure of spiritual life?

To say nothing of the many good and able men who cannot base their theory of

life upon a belief in a future individuality; there are outside the limits of Christen-

dom millions of human beings who look forward to forgetfulness, and whose lives are

by no means marked by a devotion to the grosser pleasures of the world. The as-

sertion, or rather the inference—for it oftenest comes in that shape—that a man will

be good only in proportion as he has a lively sense cf the pleasures of a coming

heaven, or the pains of an inevitable hell, is a rank calumny upon our moral nature.

It is safe to assert that no man of noble instincts, pure aspirations, or high moral

principle will be demoralized by the contemplation of a limited existence; nor will

the brute be ennobled by the prospect which the church presents to his debased im-

agination.

I will make no apology for thus lamely intruding these truisms. There is need of

their occasional reiteration.

PROF. PETER ENGELMANN. 263

No good and pure man lives without divinities—and Engleman’s were; humanity,

progress, a realization of the high ideals to which his philosophy pointed. Brave

an{ outspoken in uttering his convictions when need was, he was never dogmatic.

He did his work in a spirit of true humanity—a humanity that was content cheer-

fully to accept the place which he believed he held in nature, that of a stepping-

stone—one of the myriads by which the race is to gain a glorious future. But he

had none of the assumed, servile, oriental abjectures that leads man to revile him-

self as a worthless worm of the dust, and in the same breath demand, with sublime

egotism, why he was created, with his lofty purposes and high aspirations, if he is

to have a glorious and an undying future? That leads him to deem himself defrauded

if, with his matchless intellect, he is not to know a state of being far transcending

anything which earth affords, more or less ineffable and gorgeous as his ideas are

spiritual and his imagination vivid.

The man who holds and promulgates ideas that are in opposition to the popular

beliefs of his age, can scarcely live a bright and cheerful life; but it may contain

much of nobleness that compensates for the loss of worldly pleasures. Engelmann

was aserious but nota sad man. He bore a burden common to many, but he stood

upright under it. He answered the question which man is ever asking ‘* What am

1?”) by saying ‘‘ my consciousness isa mere resultant of force acting upon matter

and at the death of the fiesh it will revert to its former conditions,.as sounds revert

back to the air in which they were born.’’?’ We may answer it differently, but we

cannot demonstrate that he was mistaken; and we must admire his attitude when

brought face to face with a great problem.

Tt was with eyes open and head erect—true to his creed to the last—hugging ng

delusive dreams—his highest conception of truth upon his lips. No man can meet

death better!

He is at peace, and if it be that the universe holds greater possibilities than were

acknowledged in his philosophy, we may be sure, as has beon said of one whom in

many things he resembled:

‘Wherever there is knowledge,

Wherever there is virtue,

Wherever there is beauty,

Ife will find a home.”’

INCREASE A. LAPHAM, LL. D.

BY P. R. HOY, M. D., RACINE.

PRESIDENT OF THE ACADEMY.

It becomes my duty, as chairman of the committee appointed for the purpose, ot -

report on the life and labors of I. A. Lapham, LL. D., one of the organic members

and the first Secretary of our Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters.

I perform this duty with greater willingness, and, indeed, with a mournful pleasure,

yemembering Dr. Lapham as a long and well-tried friend. Engaged in similar sci-

entific pursuits, there sprang up between us a close friendship, cemented by sympa-

thy, which lasted nearly thirty years, until his death.

IT shall not attempt a complete chronological history of his life, as that has already

been so well done by S. S. Sherman for the Old Settlers’ Club of Milwaukee, but

shall speak principally from personal knowledge, merely introducing a short sketch

of his early life by way of preface.

Increase Allen Lapham, whose memory we wish to bonor. was born of Quaker

parents, in Palmyra, Wayne Co., N. Y., on the 7th of March, 1811. After receiv-

ing a common school training he began the study of Engineering under his father’s

instructions. ;

When but sixteen years of age he went to Louisville and was employed on the

ship canal around the Falls of the Ohio.

At this early date he began the study of Botany, Conchology, and Geology, which

he prosecuted as a youthful lover of nature with the enthusiastic zeal which charac-

terized his work during all the years that followed, up to the hour of his death.

While in Louisville he wrote his first scientific paper entitled, ‘‘ A Notice of the

Louisville and Shipping-Port Canal, and the Geology of the Vicinity,’? which was

published in the American Journal of Science and Arts.

This first offering contained many new facts and was highly eommended by the

elder Silliman as a valuable contribution, coming as it did froma mere boy, what

might not be expected from the pen of riper years, wider experience and greater

knowledge?

When the canal was completed, young Lapham became assistant engineer of the

Ohio canal, which position he held until his appointment in 1833 as Secretary of

the State Canal Board of Commissioners, when he moved to Columbns. Here he

found time to devote to his specialty, Botany, and formed the acquaintance of many

eminent scientific men, among them Prof. J. B. Kirtland.

In the spring of I836 he landed at the straggling village of Milwaukee, in the

then Territory of Michigan, where he continued to live and study for the remaining

thirty-nine years of his active and useful life.

INCREASE A. LAPHAM, LL. D. 265

My first acqnaintance with Dr. Lapham was in 1846, when one morning there

Janded from the steamer Sultana a small man witha huge collecting box hanging at

his side.

{Te came from Milwaukee and intended returning on foot along the lake-shore

in order to collect plants and shelis, no easy journey, encumbered, as he soon

would be, with a well filled specimen box He spoke lightly of the undertaking,

saying he had performed similar feats befure Truly where the heart is in the woik

and the mind is fully occupied, labor becomes mere play, and what otherwise

would seem drudgery is performed with ease and pleasure.

In after years we were often together, studying the mounds, quarries, forest trees

etc., near Racine, and my first impressions of his energy, persevorance, enthusiasm,

accuracy and extent of information were all deepened by our subsequent meetings.

He was a quiet unassuming gentleman, benevolent and most hospitable, as both

strangers and friends can abundantly testify. He had not the advantages of com-

manding presence, and was not gifted in public speaking, and being modest toa

fiualt, always inclined to underrate his own abilities and labors. he often did not re-

ceive that recognition which his knowledge demanded and which would have been

quickly yielded had he possessed more self-assertion or a more combative temper-

ament. Yet, his hight could not be hidden, though he succeeded sometimes in

shadowiny it, and he soon became ¢he authority on all scientific subjects, and was

eften appealed to from city, state and country for information which he alone could

furnish.

His politeness and patience under the infliction of ignorant question-askers who

often trespassed upon his valuable time with matters of little importance, and his

rule of always answering letters asking information, no matter how trifling, show his

kind heartedness and unselfishness.

No one could doubt his industry who saw his large, valuable, and well used li-

brary, and his extensive and systematically arranged collection of minerals, fossils,

shells and antiquities; or who examined his Herbarium of three thousand spect-

mens—the finest in the Northwest—and thea remembered in connection with all

this his work in other directions. Iis idea of rest was characteristically shown by

his once cataloguing my hundreds of insects for future use in some publication, at

atime when he visited me under his physicians’ orders to take a needed rest and

abstain from business.

He was no politician and never sought office. Such offices as he held sought him.

Among the many services he has rendered to science not the least, is his work in

establishing the Signal Service, which has already worked such good in saving

wealth and precious lives. As his connection with this enterprise seems to have

been enveloped in doubt with some, I wrote to Prof. Henry, Secretary of the Smith-

sonian for information. In reply I received the following:

"The action of Congress in securing the Signal Service was due to the immediate

exertions of Dr. Lapham through the member of Congress from his district, Gen.

Payne, in setting forth the advantage of the system in the commervial interest of the

Great Lakes.” So this matter is settled as Prof. Henry is the end of the law in

meteorological affairs,

Was Lapham a self-made man?

266 WISCONSIN ACADEMY SCIENCES, ARTS, AND LETTERS.

Yes, all men are self-made, in one sense, for there can be no unusual attainments

without close and persistent study. Lapham, however, never had the advantages of

a college education. But was not the book of nature ever open to impart instruction

to this student who knew how to read its pages with delight and profit? To his ex-

tensive reading and close observation of nature we must not omit to add as an educa-

tional element in iis life, scarcely to he overestimated, his long continued correspond-

ence with such men as Henry, Baird, Leidy, LeConte, Haldeman, Cassin, Hall,

Morton, Kirtland, Agassiz, Gray, Eaton, Silliman, Rogers, Hitchcock, Torrey, Harris

and a host of others eminent in science and arts. Another means of improvement, not

neglected by Dr. Lapham, was attendance of meetings of societies devoted to the dis-

cussion of his loved studies, and where mind comes in contact with mind, with mutual

benefit. He was a member of most of the scientific associations of the country, and gave

them many valuable written contributions. Some of his articles are published by

the Wisconsin Academy, in the Wisconsin and Illinois Agricultural Reports, Agri-

cultural Department of the Patent Office, Historical publications, Smithsonian Con-

tributions to Knowledge, Proceedings of the American Association for the Ad-

vancement of Science, American Naturalist, Geological Reports, ete., ete. Besides,

he published many pamphlets and maps, both topographical and geological. His

writings were brief, clear and devoid of high-sounding words used for effect—he was

above such trickery.

In order to judge correctly of men, we must know them under those circum-

stances and in that place where nature and education have best fitted them to act.

To know Dr. Lapham, we must go with him to his workshop—the great out-doors.

We stroll out on the prairies. He pulls up the grass and discourses familiarly of

the spikes and spikelets, the rachis and glume, inspects the roots, digs down and ex-

amines the soil from which they spring. His tongue is unloosed, and: he becomes

eloquent in spite of himseif. We go into the forest. He talks of the various spe-

cies of trees, the vines that clamber up their trunks and nestle in their branches.

He inspects the lichens that grow on the rough bark, examines the moss that ad-

heres to the roots, and unearths a tiny helix that has found a home there. We go

to the rapids, and he immediately interests himself in the rare ferns that festoon the

rocks with their graceful fronds; or clambers among the quarries, marks the strati-

fication of the Silurian rocks, and chips out rare forms of Crinoids and Trilobites—

those wonderful representations of the ocean fauna of the dim past. We seek the

mounds—those records of a pre-historic race—dig beneath their foundations and

wrest from them their secrets. The position of the bones is carefully noted, their

rude pottery restored, the curious stone implements treasured up, and 128 mounds

are surveyed and mapped. We stand upon our lake shore and he discourses of the

force of the waves, and describes the ingenious contrivance by which he detected

the lake’s minature lunarwaves. He talks of the force of the winds and their

velocity and direction and then looks up the clouds and iells their indications, and

speaks of the annual rainfall and of the average temperature of the seasons for the

last thirty years, during which time he had kept a faithful record of these phenom-

ena.

His last paper, ‘‘ Oconomowoc and the Small Lakes of Wisconsin,’’ was prepared

for me. The ink was scarcely dry before his soul passed over to the ‘‘ Shining

INCREASE A. LAPHAM, LL. D. 267

Shore,’ that lovely day, September 14, 1875, was the last of earth to Dr. I. A. Lap-

ham.

The State has Jost the service of one who knew more of her Geology, Topography

and Botany than any man living, and one who contributed largely to her early pros-

perity. Milwaukee has lost one of her oldest and best cltizens, an upright and hon-

est man. His children have lost a luving father end his accquaintances a devoted

friend.

ADDITIONAL TRIBUTE TO THE MEMORY OF DR. LAPHAM.

BY E. R. LELAND, ESQ., EAU CLAIRE, WIS.

Mr. Presiprnt:—I cannot let this oceasion go by without trying to pay some

tribute to the memory of our lamented and revered fellow-member, whom it was

tong my privilege to call a friend.

Known to the world as an able scientist; to the many who casually met him, as a

modest, manly, cultured gentleman; by the few he was honored and beloved as it

falls to the lot of few men to be, fur virtues that were not worn upon his sleeve—for

# nobility that intimacy alone could reveal.

I do not, however stand here as his eulogist. I should feel that to be a sort of im-

pertinence in me—even if the work had not already been done far better than I

could hope to do it.

I desire only to make some acknowledgement of the obligation—now never to be

discharged— which Dr. Lapham has laid upon me by many acts of kindness and as-

sistance through all the years since I first knew him. An obligation which, I think

many others must share with me, for he was ever ready with kind and helpful sym-

pathy for all. The merest tyro in natural history was sure of warm welcome and

encouragement at his hands, and his collection, his library, and above all his valua-

ble time and experience were placed freely at the disposal of the seeker for knowl-

edge.

And he taught wisely; for his nature had nothing of the pedant, his spirit nothing

of dogmatism. His was the open mind; ready to learn from all sources, not prone

to theorizing nor swift to draw conclusions. He had learned to wait—and there was

in his attitude no posturing, nor bidding for popular applause in anything which he

did. He toiled for science, from a love of Science, but with a thorough and intelli-

gent comprehension of the great possibilities that lie in this field of research.

And it has always seemed tu me that when he came to die, the manner of his

death was a serene and most fit ending of a life thus spent. No prolonged, distress-

ful struggle, no whispering, crowded room; there were bending over him no beloved

faces, agonized with a grief which he could do nothing to assuage. Nodoctor came,

““With phrase and fame,

To shake his sapient head and give

The ill he could not name;

* * € * * *

No brother doctor of the soul,

To canvass with official breath,

The future and the viewless things,

Which one whofe Is death’s winnowing wings,

Must needs read clearer, sure, than hel’

TRIBUTE TO DR. LAPHAM. 269

He was alone and face to face wit Nature, whose life-long lover he had been.

Fanned by her softest airs, lulled by her gentlest song, his last conscious act, per-

haps, a fresh effort to trace her endless clue, and he passed on, with swift and pang-

less transition, to the solution of the wonderful mystery which enyelups all.

TRANSACTIONS

OF THE

WISCONSIN ACADEMY

SCIENCES, ARTS, AND LETTERS.

Vou. IV. 1876-77.

“ MATOS

Oo NE OA

Po oe A ~

a S* ‘< a™

Le : ON

\ AA A R 8 1889 : ws

Nag Re ee ,

NY yn Soh

Published by Authority of Law.

MADISON, WIS.:

DAVID ATWOOD, STATE PRINTER,

CONTENTS.

TITLES OF PAPERS PUBLISHED IN THIS VOLUME.

DEPARTMENT OF SOCIAL AND PoLiTICAL SCIENCES. Page.

1. Peasant Communities in France. By Wm. F. Allen, A. M... 1-6

2. The Abolition of the Jury System. By Rev. Chas. Caverno.. 7-18

3. The Origin of the Freeholders. By Wm. F. Allen, A. M.... 19-24

4. The Duty of the State in its Treatment of the Deaf and Dumb,

the Blind, the Idiotic, the Crippled and Deformed, and the

Imsanes > yz kr Ze Mason Le Denies nssaccjeic tiers cists c sistcrers 25-30

DEPARTMENT OF ARTS.

1. Art as Education. By Alford Payne, S. T.D...... Saqbobood 31-43

2. The Harmonic Method in Greek Art. By J. R.Stuart, A.M. 44-49

DEPARTMENT OF LETTERS. :

1. Letters an Embarrassment to Literature. By Prof. W. C.

SEMAVGEo Oca OE ooodoDOORS ofelereassett wrcrohelsieleisieveusceinye-elteeveneterores 50-55

DEPARTMENT OF SPECULATIVE PHILOSOPHY.

1. Mr. Spencer’s Social Anatomy. By Rev. H. M.Simmons.... 56-61

2. Nature and Freedom. By J.J. Elmendorf, S.T.D.......... 62-76

DEPARTMENT OF NATURAL SCIENCES.

1. Notes on Cladocera. By Edward A. Birge, Ph. D........... V7-112

2. On the Fauna of the Niagara and Upper Silurian Rocks, as

Exhibited in Milwaukee county, Wisconsin, and in Counties

Contiguous thereto. By Fs oH. Day, M.Di oo ay nse e ee 113-125

3. Discoveries Illustrating the Literature and Religion of the

Mound Builders. By Edmund Andrews, 4. M.,M.D...... 126-131

4. How Did the Aborigines of this Country Fabricate Copper

implements? By PR. Hoy, Mie Deo.) 2 cine oe Ssoa8e 132-137

5. Remarks on the Descent of Animals. By Prof. H. Oldenhage. 138-146

6. Why are there no Upper Incisors in the Ruminantia? By P.

LES Lovee Mami eater atata\leia!s, wvoic'-: cial a Wetyel seevotare theisies) s\clsielt @) so) .»-. 147-150

ipoler Explosions.. By Chas..l) Kings saes kos. loess ao ces .. 151-168

8. Mind in the Lower Animals. By J.S. Jewell, M. D........ 164-187

9. The Antiquities and Platycnemism of the Mound Builders of

Wasconsin) eByJIN De Hart, My Ds. s 2). 5.2 sss. ctctesse 188-200

10. On the Extent and Significance of the Wisconsin Kettle Mo-

raine: By T CuChambpberliny AVM, 2.5 5. <i. sicle. s aeeisew cle 201-234

4 Contents.

DEPARTMENT OF THE MATHEMATICAL AND PuysicaL SCIENCES. Page. .

1. Rotation as a Factor of Motion. By Prof. J. G. McMurphy. 2385-240

9, Recent Progress in Theoretical Physics. Part II— Magnetic

Rotatory Polarization of Light. By J. E. Davies, A. M.,

DM Dee ce dee Meeialene b/sietoinle rm slege wietelahersercistofatals BDIIOnGCG co 241-264

PROCEEDINGS OF THE ACADEMY.

REPORT OF THE PRESIDENT ..--eseeeeeceeceees cleciets wes Risener 267-268

REPORT OF THE SECRETARY.

Seventh Regular Annual Meeting. Held at Madison ........ .- 269- 71

Seventh Regular Semi-annual Meeting. Held at Racine....... 271-275

Eighth Regular Annual Meeting. Held at Madison .........+- 276-277

Hightn Regular Semi-annual Meeting. Held at Milwaukee.... 277-280

REPORT OF THE LIBRARIAN.

Catalogue of Books in the Library......--. ale leleiele state intern eoseee 201-289

REPORT OF THE COUNCIL ...----++--e+ee NNT |e en ap ak etaney Miele eterna : 290

LIST OF OFFICERS AND MEMBERS.

General Officers of the Academy, 1875-8...... sje pelea eee 293

Officers of the Departments, 1875-8..........--.- Layeleleyetepotereelens 295

General Officers of the Academy, 1878-81 ......-2ee-e-eeeerees 294

Members of the Academy ..-..--seecececnececcceecseeeeerees 296

Members Deceased since the Organization of the Academy .... 301

Members of Standing Committees.......- .sseeee eeeeseeees 302

CHARTER, CONSTITUTION AND BY-LAWS.

Charters cs cic selec cc o.oo oe + bee o 0 eine on ae ce nlnele eGjnrsies mnieisin oleieieiis 305

Constitution .....-ceccecccccceccessc rs ccecerersecssces a Sisbeiorens 307

WSyelbaws erence ee ete BLM aates Hee Lobb he ge oiats eal eae dis 310

IN MEMORIAM.

James H. Eaton, Ph.D. By T. C. Chamberlin........-.-+++- abe 314

John B, Feuling, Ph. D. By 8S. H. Carpenter......----+-++-+-- 316

Stephen H. Carpenter, LL.D. From Wisconsin State Journal. 318

DEPARTMENT OF SOCIAL AND POLITICAL SCIENCES.

PEASANT COMMUNITIES IN FRANCE.

By WILLIAM F. ALLEN,

Professor of Latin and History in the Uuiversity of Wisconsin.

The investigations into the system of collective property in land,

which have recently thrown so much light upon the early history

of institutions, have been for the most part confined to the Teu-

tonic and Slavonic nations of Hurope. Among these nations, col-

lective property in land has been found to have been nearly uni-

versal in early times, and in many of these, clear traces of it exist

to the present day. In regard to the nations of southern Europe,

the field has hardly been explored at all. Mr. Maine, in his last

work, ‘‘The Early History of Institutions,” says, in relation to

France, that ‘this darkness has recently given signs of lfting”’

(p. 5), and that ‘‘M. Le Play and others have come upon plain

traces of such communities in several parts of France.’ Bonne-

mere, in his ‘Histoire des Paysans,”’ devotes a chapter to these

communities; La Chavanne, in his “ Histoire des classes agri-

coles,” discusses them at some length; and Laveleye, in his

“Primitive Property,’ describes them in two or three very inter-

esting chapters. Nevertheless, there has been no systematic and

exhaustive examination of this subject for France, such as the

works of von Maurer and Thudichum for Germany, and of Nasse

for England.

Some light may perhaps be thrown upon this inquiry by an ex-

amination of such registers of seignorial estates as are accessible,

to ascertain whether any traces are discernible in them of a sys-

tematic organization of the peasantry, such as is manifest to the most

superficial glancein England. I have, in former years, read to this

2 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters.

society the results of an examination of such English documents of

this class as I had within reach, from which it appeared that the peas-

antry, down to the fourteenth century, fell into regular organized

classes, holding their lands in a precise manner and in uniform

parcels. As a modest contribution to the investigation, I propose

to present the results of a similar examination into such French

documents as have come within my reach.

It should be remarked at the outset, that the probabilities are

against any such uniformity, whether in France or in any other of

the countries occupied by the so-called Latin nations. The Teu-

tonic and Slavonic nations are on the whole homogeneous in race,

and as arule have occupied the territories where they are now

found from the very beginning of our historical knowledge of

them. The population of France, on the other hand, is not only

mixed, but has been subjected at several times to violent and

sweeping revolutions. It was, no doubt, practically a homogene-

ous people when conquered by the Romans 2,000 years ago.

The Gauls, a Celtic nation cognate to thé Gaels of Scotland, are

found in clans somewhat similar to those of Scotland— clans

which appear to rest upon a common origin, either real or as-

sumed, like the original subdivisions of most primitive peoples.

But this primitive and homogeneous people, with its primitive

and uniform institutions, has been at different times subdued by

at least two great conquests: first by the Romans, then by the

German tribes. It has changed its language, its religion and its

customs, and it is fair to assume that it has modified its internal

organization and its mode of holding land as well. Assuming,

as we are perhaps entitled to do, that the Gallic tribes in Czesar’s

time held their land in common, it is still probable, first: that this

tenure of land was not held in village communities, like the Ger-

mans and Slavonians, but in clans, like the Celts of Britain; and

secondly, that even this degree of community of tenure was

broken up in a large degree by the shock of successive conquests.

Wherever, on the soil of France, we find a Germanic colonization

on a large scale, we may expect to find village communities; else-

where, we may expect an irregular and unorganized peasantry,

the result of disturbing influences from without— precisely as |

Peasant Communities in France. 8

similar cases have now at leneth brought about a similar irregu-

larity and unorganized tenure of the soil in Germanic countries.

Tt confirms this expectation, that the greater part of the village

communities, described by Bonnemere and La Chavanne, as exist-

ing in France, are found in the essentially Teutonic portions of

France, like Franche Comté; but it would not militate with this

view if such communities were found sporadically in every part

of France, because there were, as a matter of fact, extensive set-

tlements of Germans scattered all over France.

The documents which I have been able to examine in this in-

vestigation belong entirely to the ninth, tenth and eleventh

centuries: toa period, that is, before the full establishment of

feudalism, and in which, therefore, we may expect, if anywhere,

to find the primitive organization of the community.

Of these documents, the first is the most important and instruc-

tive for my point of view. It is the Polyptichum of the Abbot

Irmino; a register of the estates belonging to the Abbey of St.

Germain des Pres in the time of Charlemagne. In the fullness

and minutetness of this survey, we are reminded of the greatest

medieval work of this character, the Domesday Book of William

the Conqueror; but this Polyptichum is confined to only a small

part of France, all within forty leaguesof Paris. Moreover, Dom-

esday Book isa public document, drawn up for the use of the

government, while this is a private register of the estates belong-

ing to a religious corporation.

The first point that strikes one on examining this register is

that the estates are not enumerated according ta public divisions

of the territory, but are grouped into what are called /iscs : in this

grouping, there is the greatest irregaiarity,* bits of land scattered

here and therein different villages, being combined merely for

purposes of administration. Now, in English documents of this

nature, we find the public divisions uniformely observed, even

in reference to private estates. What is of even more importance,

is that tenures of land in England are always given in hydes or

aliquot parts of the hyde — the hyde being the part of land fall-

ing to a full member of an organized community; in the French

- *Prolegomena, p. 30.

4 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters.

documents, on the other hand, estates are given by their dimen-

sions, which vary very greatly.

For example:* Hrlenteus and his wife Hildegarde hold one

mansus (peasant’s holding) containing six bunuaria about [five

acres] of arable land, three aripenni [thirty-six rods] of vineyard,

and two and one half of meadow;; besides this, he has of allodial

property three bunwaria of arable land, and one aripennus of

meadow. And so throughout: land is held not in uniform and

equal portions, but always in specified and varying amounts.

In ten holdings, for example, in Vheodaxium,t the bunuaria of

arable land range from two to twelve; the aripenni of vineyard

from two and one half to four and one half the artpenni of

meadow from one and one half to two and one half.

Nearly contemporary with this document in date, is the Polyp-

tichum of the Abbey of St. Remi, at Rheims. In this register we

find a totally different system. Hach estate is given under the

term mansus, and the size of the mansus is not described. Itisa

natural inference, therefore, that that mans? were of uniform ex-

tent, corresponding, therefore, to the Mnelish hyde. Now these

lands, being in the neighborhood of Rheims, at a considerable dis-

tance to the east of Paris, may very easily have been settled un-

der a different system. Moreover, being near the German fron-

tier, there was in all likelihood a larger proportion of German

population than in the neighborhood of Paris. However this may

be, we find, in the dissimilarity of. these nearly contemporaneous

records, a confirmation of the a priort probability that the tenure

of land in France would be irregular or heterogeneous.

Appended to the Polyptichum of St. Remi are fragments of

a rather later date, of the description of some estates in the neigh-

borhood of Treves, still further east, and in a country of nearly

pure German population. Here, as might be expected, we find a

complete uniformity in the tenures, so far as the incompleteness

of the documents permits us toform a judgment. The mansz are

spoken of as being themselves definite and uniform quantities of

land, like the English hyde; and their extent, in acres, bunuaria

or aripenni, is not alluded to.

*Book XXV. 8. +Book XIV.

Peasant Communities in France. 5

There remain two documents considerably later and far less ;

complete in this respect than the two Polypticha, but which com-

pletely support the view already taken, that there is not likely to

be found any near approach to uniformity in the peasants’ hold-

ings. In the Cartulary of the Abbey of St. Pere de Chartres

there is a complete lack of uniformity. Grants of land are, to be

sure, usually stated in mansz; but mansus has not necessarily, like

hyde, the meaning of a definite share in a village community, but

means a peasant’s property of whatever extent. And when we

come to the detailed description of estates, there is hardly a ves-

tige of uniformity as between the several estates. This descrip-

tion is very meagre in amount, and is copied into the Cartulary

from some old papers, the copyist himself professing himself unable

wholly to understand them. The date of these document is as-

signed by the learned editor, Guérard, to some time before A. D.,

1000.

In one or two of the estates there are to be sure some indica-

tions of uniformity in the condition of the peasants of the same

estate: e. g., in Cavanuis Vilia (p. 87), are given the names of

twenty-one peasants (agricol«), all of whom paid the same dues

to the convent; nothing is said as to the size of their holdings.

In Cipedum there are ten peasants, all paying the same dues.

But next follows Comonis Villa, with four peasants, two holding

five bunuaria and paying three measures of corn; two holding six

bunwaria and paying four measures. On the next page, Abbonis

Villa has thirty-three peasants; twenty-one of these paid one

shilling, and the rest sums varying from six pence to three shil-

ings. On page 40 begins the enumeration of seventeen holdings,

paying ten different sums, varying from six pence to fifteen shil-

lings. Only two of these, to be sure, are called mansz, but these

two pay respectively two and five shillings, and one mansellus

three shillings.

There remains the Cartulary of the Monastery of St. Bertin

at St. Omer, in the extreme north of France, therefore in a terri-

tory largely settled by Germans. The date of these registers is

about the middle of the ninth century. Here we find, as might

be expected, a uniformity almost as great as in England. The

6 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters.

estates are regularly stated in some such manner as this: “d/ansa

XV per bunaria XI, et ille dimidius per bunaria VI” —“ fifteen

mansi of twelve bunuaria each, and a half one of six bunuaria.”’

The size of the mansus varies exactly as that of the virgate in

English manors*; that is, it is generally uniform in the same

villa, but ranges in the different villas from ten to twenty-four

bunuaria, with sometimes, however, two or three different stand-

ards in the same villa. For example, in Pupurninga there are ten

manst of twenty-four bunuaria; ten of twenty; ten of fifteen ;

seventeen of thirteen, and one-half mans? of eight. We find also

a large number of peasants with independent holdings, not given

as mansa, and very irregular in amount; like the freeholders of

England.

The result of this inquiry, which embraces all the documents

relating to France which I have been able to examine, is com-

pletely to confirm the expectations which appeared probable on

general grounds. We find here and there, especially in those

provinces which had a considerable German element in the popu-

lation, decided indications of uniformity in single villages or

estates, sometimes even on a larger scale. But as a whole, uni-

formity is not the rule but the exception; the communities, if

they were such, appear to have been isolated and scattered amid

a population which was prevailingly irregular and heterogeneous.

*See Transactions, Vol. I, p. 223.

The Abolition of the Jury System. 7

THE ABOLITION OF THE JURY SYSTEM.

BY CHARLES CAVERNO.

Lombard, Du Page County, Ill.

It may seem a bold project to advocate the abolition of the jury

system. We have been taught to regard the writ of habeas cor-

pus and the trial by jury, as little less than gifts of Divine inspira-

tion. The writ of habeas corpus may stillstand. The TimeSpirit

has not passed adversely upon that, and is not likely to.

But candid examination will hardly be able to resist the con-

clusion that, in this country, trial by jury has outlived its use-

fulness.

The history of trial by jury will here be treated of only incidental -

ly. Sources of information respecting the history of the jury system

are in the hands of the legal profession, and lie open to all. Few

other institutions have undergone so many changes as this. To

speak of trial by jury is to speak of something whose content of

meaning depends upon time. The institution has taken on a new

phase and parted with an old one, in almost every century since

the Norman conquest.

Jurors were originally summoned to aid a court in a matter of

dispute, by a declaration of facts within their own knowledge.

Now it is legally a disqualification fora man to know anything

about the case in hand — practically, a disqualification for him to

know anything else. When the court could put men of the vi-

cinage on oath, to help it with a statement of the facts they knew,

there was life and health in the jury system. Later, when this

group of witnesses took on the further function (that out of which

the grand jury grew), of suggesting to the court matters in their

vicinage, connected with the public weal or the public peace, which

they thought the court should look after, there was life and health

in the system.

But when now the court has to inform the jury of the facts, and

§ Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters.

then tell them substantially what facts they shall hand back to it,

as found by them, it is apparent that we have an institution which

has little setting in reason and, as matter of fact, has little respect

with those familiar with it in practice.

In trial by jury to-day we have a marked instance of an insti-

tution, sapped of its strength by the growth about it of a multitude

of petty restrictive details. Force that does not go to stalk, goes

to shoot, till life is smothered by its own abaormities.

IN CIVIL CASKS.

That trial by jury in civil cases is not an essential element of

civilization, and is not necessary to industry and commerce, is appar-

ent when the fact is known that jury trial in such cases has never had

place on the continent of Kurope, was not in fact introduced into

Scotland till a period within the memory of men still living.

Lord Mansfield, toward the close of his illustrious career at the

end of the last century, advised against the introduction of the

jury in civil cases into Scotland.

Lord Campbell said that the principles underlying Mansfield’s

objections were unfortunately overlooked when jury trial in civil

cases, in 1807, was introduced into Scotland. He further adds,

“The experiment, [am afraid, has proved a failure, and Lord Mans-

field’s objections been fatally verified.”

While as much as this would not beallowed by all Scotch law-

yers to-day, yet the claim is distinctly made, that all the advan-

tages which have arisen in Scotland with the introduction of the

Jury system are not due to that system at all, but are due to a con-

temporaneous rectification of the Scotch system of pleadings.

Trial by jury in civil cases is distinctively English in origin and

limited in practice to England and the colonies — Scotland being

allowed for as above stated.

Great Britain and America do not transact all the business of

the world. There has been done and is doing a vast deal of busi-

ness on the continent of Europe. Ifall this business has been

transacted without the jury system in legal matters, we may at

least conclude that that system is no social necessity.

If there has been and is no call for the establishment of the

The Abslition of the Jury System. 9

system on the continent, by the commerce there located, then we

may judge that the system, in such cases, is not even of apparent

social convenience. But the argument against the system is only

partially made when you look at continental commerce. In Hn-

gland itself the tendency has been, in the growth of legal practice

to wrest department after department from under the incubus of

the jury system. Just think how much business is covered by

equity, probate, and admiralty. Yet they are exempted from the

jury system.

Lord Mansfield said that equity grew up in England to rectify

abuses resulting from the jury system. This statement at once

explains why it is that England and her colonies are the only

countries where law and equity have been divided and assigned to

separate courts. The jury system was only adapted to coarse,

crude business. Anything requiring care or nice discrimination

had to be sent to another court, which, significantly enough, was

called a court of equity, as though something like even justice

might be there expected. How important the equity side of law

is, lawyers understand. The stretch of equity over legal business

must increase more and more with the growing complexity of civ-

ilization.

Take probate business; as a rule, that is exempt from the jury

system. The statutes sometimes commit special matters to juries,

or they are found by way of appeals to other courts. But what

a reach there is to probate business. All the property of a coun-

try passes through probate, generation by generation. Yet the

difficulties of this huge business are normally met without the

intervention of a jury. The value at stake in matters passed upon

in common law actions cannot compare with the values that are

adjusted in probate, nor do such common law actions present

problems of greater interest or intricacy.

To admiralty in England, and usually in this country, the jury

system is not applied. ‘ Britannia rules the waves.” The jury

system is peculiarly a British institution, yet Britain has taken

good care that the right arm of her power and prosperity should

not be fettered by the jury system. She has followed the adage,

“ Ne entor ultra crepidam.”

10+ Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letlers.

Trial by jury may be a palladium of British liberty, but Brit-

ain has had wit enough not to trust her invaluable marine inter-

ests to landlubber juries. It is readily apparent why this excep-

tion is made. The ordinary citizen cannot pass understandingly

upon matters so technical and peculiar as maritime business in-

volves.

But then, is it not apparent that all business is rapidly tending

to infold the same difficulty? Can marine affairs present any

greater difficulties to an ordinary jury than arise out of the in-

dustries we are now plying on land? If it is undesirable to have

juries pass upon shipping interests, how comes it desirable to

have them pass upon cases which spring out of railway business,

out of manufacturing, patents, telezraphy, banking?

Is not commerce by land becoming as technical and peculiar as

commerce by sea?

If there were no objections to the character of juries as ordi-

narily raised, yet the tendency of all business to what Herbert

Spencer would call greater ‘ heterogeneity,” is reason enough for

the abolition of the jury system in all civil cases.

The lot cannot any longer be expected to select a man fora

juror who can in any wise be of any assistance to a court or to

parties litigant. Originally the jury was called not only to aid

the court with information which they possessed, instead of being

instructed by the court, as now, by the impartation of both fact

and law, but for generations it was only upon one kind of matter

of dispute that the aid of a jury was sought.

(Questions respecting titles to land called into existence the in-

stitution of the jury. The expression, “a jury of the vicinage,”

preserves to us a reminiscence of the day when the sole business

of a jury was to give the court information in respect to posses-

sion and reputed title to land in their vicinage.

In the commotions consequent upon the Norman conquest,

questions of this kind were frequent.

Titles rested not in record but in possession. Twelve men

from the vicinage could tell the court who had been in pos-

session of a certain piece of land, or along what line of de-

scent ib was reputed among them that possession came. That

The Abolition of the Jury System. 41

was a simple office, easily discharged. In Hngland, and in this

country, wherever the old common law forms are used, the

writs summoning juries still preserve the direction to summon

men from the vicinage, when knowledge of matters naturally con-

sequent upon being of the vicinage disqualifies the juror for the

very service to which he is impliedly called, and sends him from

the jury panel to the witness box. It isa long tale to tell how

legal practice wandered from that to this. Is it to severe too say

that there was sense in that, but that reason has dropped out by

the way to this ?

But the argument against juries in civil cases can be strength-

ened by still other considerations.

There is a constant endeavor to escape them by trials by the

court alone or by references-from the court. Generally, it may

be stated that a jury is the terror of a good cause and the hope

ofa bad one. A case that wantsa jury usually has an eye to pos-

sible aid from that peculiar character— the twelfth juryman.

Arbitration is growing more and more frequent as a means of

escape from the jury system. Various guilds and associations in

the industries and in commerce, make as part of their constitu-

tion, provision for the settlement of disputes that may arise among

their members. With higher moral culture, more and more will

be made of the principle and practice of arbitration. Where

juries are preserved, ultimate confidence in no case is placed in

them. Provision is always made to review their work by another

tribunal. It is not worth while for society in any civil matters to

preserve so cumbrous and expensive a system in which after all

it puts so little trust.

It is good theory to say that the province of the court is to pass

on law and that of the jury on fact. But it is often a question

of law what facts shall be taken into consideration, and often a

question of fact what the law is.

This division between fact and law is one which can rarely be

clearly made in practice.

Alexander Hamilton says: “Though the true province of

juries be to determine matters of fact, yet in most cases legal con-

sequences are complicated with fact in such a manner as to render

12 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Leiters.

a separation impracticable.” When the court gives the law tothe

jury, the court has already inferentially found the facts, and when

the jury find the facts they inferentially apply the law. uct and

law are so involved that they belong to one mind.

There is a constant tendency for fact to pass up into the order

of law. A few facts make a custom, and custom is law. It is

hard to say where fact leaves off and law begins. The tendency

of civilization is to make law at the expense of fact.

In the subdivision of labor in law, lawyers do not attempt to

cover all the realm included in their profession. One devotes him-

self to the law of Patents, another to the law of Railways, another

to the law of Real Estate. Yet we take indiscrimiuately from the

mass of the people juries to sit indifferently, now on the delicate

interests involved in one of these great departments, and the next

moment on those of another. We seta hod-carrier to pass upon

facts (as, for instance, upon those which constitute negligence)

upon which a lawyer would give no opinion unless he had made

them a life study.

We have no need here to discuss the character of our jury ser-

vice. The service itself, as we practice it in civil cases, is inher-

ently absurd.

IN CRIMINAL GASES.

Trial by jury in criminal cases, at various dates within a cen-

tury, has been introduced into many of the ations on the conti-

nent of Europe. It caine in, in several instances, as a result of

the political commotions of 1848.

The popularity of trial by jury is in its application to criminal

eases. But a little study detects the fact, that this popularity has

arisen out of one peculiar class of cases.

When Hallam eulogizes Magna Charta, especially the clause

which is supposed to establish the right of trial by jury, he lets

us see from what quarter the popularity of this institution has

come. He calls it “The Keystone of English Liberty,” and says

that it is one of “the bold features which distinguish a free from

a despotic monarchy.”

It is because of its political service in monarchical or aristo-

The Abolition of the Jury System. 15

cratic governments that the jury system has come by its high

reputation.

Tocqueville sees this and says, that ‘trial by jury is emphatic-

ally a political institution.”

You detect the ring of political intent in the speeches of the

continental orators advocating the introduction of trial by jury

into their several countries.

It is easy to see how this comes about. Monarchies and aris-

tocracies often make political crimes out of what men of progres-

sive and democratic tendencies consider the liberties of the citi-

zen.

The jury becomes popular because, taken from the people, it

naturally will be a defense against conviction of these political

crimes.

But in this country, we are expected yet to glorify an institu-

tion which has lost all significance and appreciation as a protection

of liberty. We have no monarch to declare the liberties of the

citizen political crimes. We have no ranks in society who can

make crimes out of encroachments by the lower orders upon the

claims of privilege. The ballot has taken the wind from the sails

of trial by jury as a defense of liberty, and left it as

“ Tdle as a painted ship

Upon a painted ocean.”

Trial by jury has not had a cargo to carry in the interest of

liberty since the government was founded, and it cannot get one.

The social conditions in this country are such that trials like

the famous state trials in England — Horne Tooke’s and Hone’s

for example —can never arise; and if they should, the ballot will

always be the swiftest instrument to cut the knot which they pre-

sent. Political rights with us find their solution in suffrage, not

in jury trials. Politics settles political rights, courts assenting or

dissenting. As long as the courts are in the hands of the people,

politics may be trusted to take care of political rights. If it could

be shown that courts have stood in the breach for hberty, it will

be found that any effective service has been rendered by courts

of last resort, where juries never come.

14 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters.

In this country, then, trial by jury, considered as a bulwark of

political liberty, is serviceless. The only remaining function of

the jury is to do justice in cases of accusation of universally ac-

knowledged crime. Weare to inquire whether itis fulfilling that

office. Itis high time we looked this institution straight in the

face—high time that we stripped it of the glamour in which it

is clothed, brought from other ages and other circumstances.

There is one plain question to beasked of it, ts tt protecting society

in cases of crime? Ifit is not doing that, its sole occupation is

gone.

We have few statistics to help us to a judgment on this matter,

and from the nature of the case, if we had, they could never be

conclusive. ‘There must be a problematical element in all our

judgments on the subject.

Quetelet gives us one set, however, that are very suggestive.

In 1880, on the introduction of trial by jury into Belgium, the

ratio of acquitted to accused in that country was found to be just

‘doubled. Now no mancan demonstrate that this result madea gainst

social protection, and did not make in favor of protection of inno-

cence; but one familiar with the history of criminal trials in this

country for the last quarter of a century will judge that this re-

sult did make against social protection and in the interest of crime.

Common fame may be trusted for the assertion that for a gener-

ation there has been a substantial failure of justice in this country

in criminal trials. The rule is that great criminals escape.

Jury trial has come to protect criminals and not society. Ifa

criminal fails to be protected, it is simply because the resources

offered by the jury system have not been well worked —wit and

money fail him, not opportunities for their successful use.

Look along the line on which the criminal can operate. If we

had arranged it with special eye to the disaster of society and the

defense of crime, we could scarcely have done better. Juries take

their rise in boards which, in the large cities, have been delivered

to ‘‘the bondage of corruption.”

Out of the same board of supervisors came forth the Tweed

frauds and juries. In such extremity of virtue, if crime does

not find its opportunity, it is modest. When we are star-gazing,

The Abolition of the Jury System. 15

we bring up in pit-falls at our feet. We can see jobbery in con-

gress, but we stumble heedlessly over it in our primary represen-

tative bodies. The original constitution of the jury in the great

centres of population is in low, bad hands. Judges have been

found with self respect enough to dismiss whole panels as unfit

and unsafe for public service. The whole list often fills Horne

Tooke’s bill against a jury list in his day —‘“‘a basket of rotten

oranges from which one has his choice.” No rational account can

be given of some juries, but that they are of the criminal class,

put in by the criminal class, for the benefit of the criminal class.

Then comes the facility of tampering with juries through the-

sherift’s office. The reputation of that office is not immaculate.

No office in the gift of the people lies so open to temptation from:

rascality. Itis a place of peculiar attraction to the “ rough” ele-.

ment. They furnish more candidates for this office than for any

other, and succeed usually in having some representative in it.

That element will serve itself and its own. A great outlay of

effort is not required. A shrug of the shoulder or a wink, and

there is a dead lock in the jury.

Then society breaks its own center in the provision for sum-

moning talesmen. ‘The men who are anxious to serve somebody

are always on hand. The old jury soldier is a well known char-

acter. Whether he is one of the devil’s poor or a poor devil, he

is equally open to the use of artful crime.

Finally, add the technics of judicial procedure, especially as

they find expression in the ignorance and indifference, (qualifica-

tions in some states now abolished by express statute), by which

jurymen are secured who are too ignorant to know of crimes com-

mitted about them in society, and too callous, morally, to express

any opinion concerniug them if they do, and there seems to be no

special reason why crime should not secure immunity and society

fail to be protected. The system, as we have it, is a standing

peril to society. _

If it be said that the service must be reformed, the reply is that

all attempts at reform will necessarily be partial, spasmodic. The

line is too long to guaad, and then it isnot worth guarding. Soci-

ety has lost interest in the institution. The attitude of business

16 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters.

men toward jury service plainly shows that the system has out-

lived its usefulness. Judges scold and fine, yet business men

slip through their fingers, and the old soldiers take their accus-

tomed seats. It is not worth while to try to reform an institution

whose service is so universally distasteful to men of character and

occupation. The only question deserving consideration is, whether

practical injustice would be likely to result to those accused of

crime from the abolition of the trial by jury.

Presentment by grand jury was once thought to be as essential

to the protection of thoge accused of crime as final trial by petit

jury. Yet the grand jury has gone by the board in many states,

to nobody’s damage. ‘The petit jury might follow it with as little

injury. Any man accused of crime could find security enough

in the ordinary course of law without the jury system. He can

have as many new trials as he can show reason for. If capital

punishment were abolished in all of the states, as it is in many?

then we could say that in all cases, as long as natural lfe might

last, courts would be open to applfcation for new trial on the

eround of newly discovered evidence.

Granting these privileges, society would be likely to mete jus-

tice as evenly and unerringly as is possible to man.

Why should everything about crime be adapted to and man-

aged in the interest of criminals? Is not society’s right to protec-

tion as high as the individual’s right to protection ?

An individual has no right as against society to that which prac-

tically leaves it defenseless. It is an incidental matter but I can-

not forbear to mention the probable influence on the bar of the

abolition of jury trials.

The morals and manners of equity practice are certainly heaven-

high over those nist prius or of criminal courts. There is no rea-

son why theattempt to get at facts in cases civiland criminal cases

should corrupt the manners and morals of the bar any more than

the attempt to get at law, and yet every body knows that it does.

The cause of it is in the standing temptation there is in the jury.

A good illustration of the nature of this temptation and of what

it can lead lawyers to do is well set forth, in a few words of Sir

Nicholas Throckmorton, who was tried for high treason in 1554.

The Abolition of the Jury System. 17

‘ MASTER SERJEANT, I know how by persuasions, enforcements

presumptions, applying, implying, inferring, conjecturing, dedu-’

cing of arguments, wresting and exceeding the law, the circum-

stances, the depositions, and confessions, unlearned men may be

enchanted to think and judge those that be things indifferent or

at the worst oversights, may be great treasons. Such power, ora-

tors have, and such ignorance the unlearned have.”

But the processes that win with a jury are powerless with the

court. It would be a happy result for the bar if all possible

temptation to such processes were removed.

We have instances enough to show that a master of rhetoric can

convince a jury that it is perfectly natural for men to unjoint

their heads and carry them under their arms during a shower.

But whether it is worth while for society to tax itself heavily to

support an institution for the sake of giving such rhetoricians ex.

ercise, 1s or is not much of a question, according as it is viewed.

The jury system has indeed such age as it has to recom-

mend it.

But, as Forsyth well says: ‘‘ A better reason for the continu.

ance of an institution must be given than that it has been handed

down to us by our forefathers.”

Professor Christian has expressed the opinion that the rule of

unanimity in verdicts could not have been introduced in any age

by deliberate act of the legislature.

If it were an original question with us, whether to introduce

jury trial as we have it, either in civil or criminal cases, the propo-

sition would fail to find respectable support.

POSTSCRIPT.

The abolition of term sentences in criminal cases, recommended.

by the governor of Wisconsin, Hon. W. E. Smith, in his first an-

nual message, has a bearing upon the abolition of the jury system

in such cases, to which attention is invited.

The board having the charge of criminals must always have be-

fore them the question of the actual guilt of a prisoner, as well

as the equities existing in case of clearly ascertained crime. Such

18 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters.

board would always be in position to pass upon a question upon

which a jury can pass only once, and at once.

Those accused of crime, and against whom a prima facie case is

made out before a judge, have in such a board the benefit of a

standing jury.

The abolition of term sentences is a step in the right direction ;

but, once taken, it reduces the jury system to the position of the

fifth wheel to the social coach.

Jan’y 21, 1878. C.,C.

The Origin of the Freeholders. 19

THE ORIGIN OF THE FREEHOLDERS.

BY WILLIAM F. ALLEN,

Professor of Latin and History in the University of Wisconsin.

{This is a portion of a paper read at Racine, July 11, 1877, revised and enlarged. ]

The accepted view at present as to the origin of the class of free-

holders is, that they represented the old viliage community, and

that their court, the Court Baron, represented the old village as-

sembly. Sir Henry Maine says (Village Communities, p. 187):

“We cannot doubt that the freeholders of the Tenemental lands

correspond in the main to the free heads of households composing

the old village community.” Prof. Stubbs speaks (Constitution-

al History, Vol. I, p. 899) of the “court baron, the ancient gemot —

of the township.” And Mr. Digby says (Introduction to the His-

tory oi the Law of Real Property, p. 38): ‘There can be little

doubt that tenure in socage [that is, freehold] is the successor of

the allodial proprietorship of early times.” And again (p. 48):

‘The manor court is the successor of the ancient assembly of the

village or township.” :

In opposition to this view, I undertook to show in a previous

paper * that the so-called customary tenants, who were as a rule

serfs, were the representatives of the old village community ; and

suggested that the tenants in socage, or freeholders, were

“specially privileged villanz.” I propose at present to develop

this last point further, and show that free socage was in its nature

a feudal tenure and that the freeholders as a class had a feudal

origin.

First, it should be noted that free tenure was of two kinds: by

chivalry or knight’s service, and by socage or agricultural service;

and that the two classes of tenants, although differing widely in

the form of their services andin social position, formed neverthe-

* See Transactions of the Academy, Vol. II, p. 220.

20 Wssconsin Academy of Sciennes, Arts, and Letters.

less legally one class. The lists of free tenants, libere tenentes, al-

ways begin, as is natural, with the most honorable class, the ten-

ants by knights’ service, and then continue without a break with

the tenants by socage. And all the freeholders, omnes libere ten-

entes, comp sed the court baron of the manor, and owed suit to

the court of the hundred and the shire. Now, as the two catego-

ries of freeholders composed but one class in law, it is natural to

suppose that they had the same origin. ‘The tenants by chivalry

were of course a purely feudal class, holding their estates by the

strictly feudal tenure of military service. The tenants by socage,

it is natural to suppose, may have had a similar origin.

As a matter of fact, the two classes came into existence at the

same time. Tenur? by chivalry was, as a matter of course, intro-

duced when the feudal system was introduced. The precise time

and manner of this is still a matter of uncertainty. What is cer-

tain is that feudalism, in its complete form, did not exist in Hng-

land at the time of the Norman Conquest (1066), but that it is

found completely developed at the accession of the House of

Anjou (Henry IL), in 1154. Now this interval of about a hun-

dred years is precisely the time in which the tenure by free socage

and the class of tenants by socage made their appearance.

Even as late as Domesday Book (1086) there was no freehold

(except by military tenure), and no class of rural freeholders.

But the Boldon Book (1183), and the Abingdon Cartulary, of

about the same time, contain lists of freeholders of both the mili-

tary and the agricultural class, and standing above the mass of

servile tenants. It is therefore a priory probable that the tenure

by free socage and the class of free socagers came into existence in

connection with the establishment of feudalism, and as a part of

this process. It is true, as I pointed out in a former paper,* that

there is a large class of sochemanni enumerated in Domesday Book ;

but, first, this class is confined to a few counties in the east of

England; and, secondly, it appears to have been a class of per-

sons, not a category of tenure;——there were sochemanni, but no

socagium. There was likewise found in the eastern counties a

class of freemen, liberi homines; but they appear to have been

*Transactions, Voi. I, p. 167.

The Origin of the Freeholders. 21

allodial proprietors, not free tenants.* Whatever, therefore, the

origin and status of these two classes may have been, they could

have had no Azstorical connection with the later freeholders. Even

the county of Kent, where villenage in its proper form is said

never to have existed, had neither liber? homines nor sochemanni

in Domesday Book.

I will now take up in succession the several features in which

the free socagers stood related to the manor and its lord.

Hirst, their tenure was in its form strictly feudal. They were

formally enfeoffed with their lands, by “livery of seisin,” were

subject to most of the feudal incidents, and were regarded as hav-

ing a definite legal interest; while the serfs or customary tenants

held their lands by prescriptive title, and were in strictness of

law only tenants at will, not being “ regarded as having any legal

interest in the land at all.” Their estates, as I have shown on

another occasion, were exceedingly variable in size and nature;

but often they were regular portions of the customary lands,

which they held upon the performance of the customary services,

or a part of them.t It was not uncommon for one of the cus-

tomary tenants to have also a freehold. ¢

Next to the tenure of land comes the manorial court, in which

the jurisdiction of the manor was exercised. This was known as

the Court Baron, and its judges were the free tenants of the man-

or, whether by chivalry or by socage. The constitution of the

court was strictly feudal.§ Every feudal lord had his feudal

court, composed of his immediate vassals, those, that is, who were

peers of one another. ‘The feudal court required, for its mainten-

*“Tt is characteristic of the growth of tenure that in Domesday (if the in-

dex is correct) we hear of different classes of tenants, but not of different

species of tenure; of lzberz homines, but not of ldberum tenementum,; of mili-

tes, but not of tenure per militiam,; of sochemanni, but not of socagium; of

villanz, but not of villenagium.” Digby, p. 40, n. 1.

+“ The tenure of a certain number of these fields is freehold.’’— Maine,

Vill. Comm., p. 187.

¢ In the manor of Ledene, out of nine customary tenants, each holding a

virgate of fifty acres, six also had freeholds, varying from one to thirteen

acres.— Gloucester Cartulary, iii, 126.

§ The lzbert homines are almost confined to Norfolk and Suffolk; the soche-

manné to these counties and Nottingham, Northampton, Leicester and Lin-

coln.

22 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters.

ance, a minimum of tenants. Now the Court Baron of the Hng-

lish manor fell if there were not at least two freeholders to take

part in it. It followed, moreover, the feudal rule, that the judg-

ment, both as tu law and to fact, was given by the tenants, the suitors

or peersof the court—the lord or his steward only presiding. The

name, moreover, Court Baron, is hard to explain by English

etymology ; but, as the French manorial court was called Cour

de Baronnie, it is easy to suppose that the name was introduced

along with the feudal system itself. On the other hand the cus-

tomary tenants, the compact and organic body of the peasantry,

had no function in this court, except that of lookers-on. They

had their own court—the Customary Court — whose powers

were “administrative rather than judicial,” + in which, therefore,

they had no real power, such as the freeholders had in the Court

Baron, being hardly more than witnesses.

This was, in short, such an assembly as that of the members of

a corporation might be expected to be after the corporation had

lost its effective powers; we may, therefore, consider it to repre-

sent the assembly of the mark or village community, reduced to a

servile status. The freeholders, it should be remarked, “ are not,

generally speaking, suitors at the Customary Court,” from which it

follows, almost of necessity, that they did not, as freeholders, have

any shere in the administration of the community, but only in so

far as they held customary lands.

In the next place, the rights of the two classes in the waste dif-

fered : each had the right of common appendant to his arable land,

but that of the copyholder or customary tenant was by the cus-

tom of the manor, while that of the freeholder was “ by virtue of

his individual grant, and as incident thereto.”* This would show

that here too the customary tenants represented immemorial anti-

quity, the freeholders a special and recent grant.

It remains to supplement these general arguments by special

examples of the genesis of freehold. This is not easy to do, inas-

muchas the period of the development of this class, the cen-

tury following the Norman Conquest—is very barren in docu-

¢ Digby, p. 216.

*Digby, p. 215. Williams, Law of Real Property, 467, compare, 485.

The Origin of the Freeholders. 23

ments of the required character. When we begin to meet with

rent-rolls and other records of the manors, the freeholders are al-

ready a large and recognized class. There are, nevertheless, a

few statistics which appear fully to prove the point in question.

The manor of Beauchamp, in Hssex, was the property of the

Chapter of St. Panl. At the time of the Exchequer Domesday

(1086) it contatned twenty-four villani, ten bordari and five servi ;

no freeholders. In 1222, in the document known as the Domes-

day of St. Paul, there were thirty-four libere tenentes. This class,

therefore, had come into existence in this interval. Now it so

happens that for this manor we have the fragment of a record,

of the year 1181, known as the Domesday of Ralph of Diceto.

Its importance can be judged from the fact that this is the only

manor I have been able to find, of which there is a rent-roll in ex-

istence at two different periods; by means of this we are able to

compare the condition of the manor at an interval of forty-one

years. Unfortunately the list of the operarz (as the customary

tenants are here called) is incomplete; the ibere tenentes are eighteen

in number. From this it appears that the class of freeholders was

not merely a new class, originating in the century after the Nor-

man Conquest, but that it was a class that was steadily added to,

having more than doubled its numbers in less than fifty years.

Nor was this wholly by dividing the estates; for the lands held by

them were, during this period, increased from 667 acres to 744.

The continuousness of the tenures is shown very clearly by

these lists; more than half of the estates of both classes can be

traced from father to son, or other relative, even after the long

space of forty-one years. In only one case isthe same tenant found.

Robert, son of Wlurun, a customary tenant, held, in 1181, an en-

tire virgate of land. In 1222, he appears as holding only a half

virgate of customary land; but his name stands also in the list of

new freeholders, as holding another half virgate. Hvidently be-

ing one of the richest and most prominent of the serfs, he had

been converted into a freeman and a freeholder by being enfeoffed

with half of his customary estate, the other half remaining in

villenage. Lambert Gross, in 1181, held two half virgates of cus-

tomary land. In 1222, his widow, Alice, held one half virgate by

24 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters.

the same tenure, and his son William the other half, asa freehold.

Here are twoclear cases of the conversion of serfs into freemen,

and of customary tenure into freehold.

It would appear, therefore, to be proved that the freeholders,

or tenants by free socage, were, as a class, the creation of feudal-

ism; that the feudalization of England was accompanied, or rather

accomplished in detail, by the creation of a body of immediate

tenants to the lords of the manors, who, without these, would have

had no complete jurisdiction. The tenure itself would appear to be

simply the French censzve, or agricultural fief, which is in its nature .

and form wholly analogous with the fief proper; it may also have

had some analogy to the tenure by which the sochemanni of the

eastern counties held their land, and from this to hayereceived the

name socagium. If this view is correct, it would follow that the

feudalization of the township, its conversion into the manor, con-

sisted in the introduction of this new class of tenants, holding by

anew tenure. For this purpose leading villeins would naturally

be selected, and the cases of Robert son of Wlurund and Lambert

Gross show very clearly the process. That this class, new and

of foreign and feudal origin, became the most valuable and char-

acteristic of the English institutions, is due to the strong vitality

and power of assimilation of the English constitution, whose trial

by jury was also of foreign origin, and which even turned an ex-

ceptionally despotic royalty into an instrument of freedom.

The Duty of the State to the Insane, etc. 25

THE DUTY OF THE STATE IN ITS TREATMENT OF

THE DEAF AND DUMB, THE BLIND, THE IDIOTIC,

THE CRIPPLED AND DEFORMED, AND THE IN-

SANE.

BY R. Z. MASON.

In the progress of modern civilization, the state has come slowly

to a recognition of certain duties and obligations to these unfor-

tunate classes. At present we take up the subject in the interests

not only of humanity and of sound political philosophy, but also

in the interests and light of modern science. Perhaps we shall

commit a grave mistake in venturing to draw our conclusions

solely from the cold suggestions which the teachings of the most

advanced investigators in science might supply. Humanity cer-

tainly has claims upon us which the dictates of our spiritual na-

tures must respect. Shall we adopt the modern theories of evo-

lution and the language of Herbert Spencer, “ the fittest shail

survive,” and be induced thereby to turn out the unfortunate idiot,

the insane or the deformed cripple, with nothing but his own

resources to depend upon, to compel him to struggle for a precari-

ous existence by battling with the relentless forces of nature, and

sharp competition with the fierce selfishness of individual life?

Would this course be in accordance with the instincts of man’s

better and higher nature? Whatever theories we may adopt as

to our origin, we cannot ignore the fact that we belong now to

a cultured race, to those whose gentle humanities are to be as

much regarded as the mere elements of physical strength or intel-

lectual acumen. If we did spring from the brute, we cannot

afford to act quite like him. But the subject has another phase

which it is proper we should carefully examine. The question

arises, whether the state shall expend its hundreds of thousands

of dollars per annum in the almost hopeless effort to correct con-

genital malformations, to subdue the frantic manifestations of in-

26 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters.

sanity, to counteract the subtle forms of organic disease, and to

educate the feeble-minded and still allow these pre-natal and con-

stitutional disorders to flow on through countless generations of

the unborn. Of course we assume in our argument, that it is the

province of the state, acting from considerations of the highest

political economy, to care by systematized and organized effort, for

such of the unfortunate as cannot care for themselves, or whose

wants friends cannot supply. The insane can, not unfrequently

be rendered happy and useful, but even sane. The idiotic can, by

skillful treatment of the educator be developed into the self-re-

liant, self-sustaining intelligent being. The orthopedic surgeon can

bring beauty out of deformity, and can so change those flexures

that deform and weaken the physical anatomy, as to bring nature

to her true and original lines, and impart a new strength and yi-

tality.

But the prosecution of all these lines of experiment and modes

of rendering the combined skill of the civilized world available,

require large outlays of time and money. And is it not vastly

better that the state, acting in her organic capacity as the agent of

human society, should encourage and aid by her own means, the

foundation of institutions for such purposes, rather than to leave

the large numbers of these unfortunate people to the ill-directed

and uncertain efforts of poor, and often unintelligent families, to ~

get along with their herculean difficulties as best they may? is

it not better, therefore, that the state should tax herself a little to

help the blind to become an intelligent, self-sustaining member

of society, or to cure achild of some dwarfing deformity or seme

smiting paralytic stroke, rather than tax herself much by and by

in maintaining these victims of relentless misfortune in poor-

houses in the long years of their future? Such a question can, I

apprehend, have but one answer.

But above and beyond all this, the state has another and more

important duty to perform. to society, than that of merely taking

care of such as have come into the world under the blight of some

terrible misfortune. This other and higher duty is so to modify

its legislation as to prevent the propagation of congenital idiocy,

deformipg insanity and organic disease. I know that in venturing

The Duty of the State to the Insane, ete. 27

to discuss this subject by treating it asa function properly belong-

ing to the state, I may be assuming what will not be readily

conceded. ‘T'o prevent, if possible, these serious misfortunes, is

unquestionably the duty of somebody. Or must we admit that

man, intelligent and immortal, is such a creature of blind and

reckless passion, that he must be permitted to go on through the

vast ceons of the future as he has done in the past, reproducing

himself, depraved and demoralized as he is, transmitting his ana-

tomical defects, his physiological zdiosyncrasies, his organic imper-

fections, in the most marked manner, in order that posterity may

have the opportunity to cultivate the moral virtues by taking hu-

mane care of the insane, the blind, the deformed and the idiotic.

It is not too early in the history of man, I more fear it is too late,

to ask the question, should a radically defective organization be

allowed to perpetuate itself by reproduction? ‘To this I would

answer, that for the good of the race it should not. ‘This must be

our conclusion unless we are prepared to adopt the modern school

of Euthanasists, who take the ground, that when a human being

cannot live and be happy, he has the right to claim of society the

boon of death, legally administered. I would modify the proposi-

tion by saying rather, that such an unfortunate had a right not to

be born; yet, having been born, perhaps the Huthanasist may say

that he has the right to ask the privilege of an early, painless

death. Yet the original question still recurs, What is the duty of

the state towards this large and constantly increasing class of in-

curables and unfortunates ?

First, I answer as to those in existence. Let them be taken

care of in the most economical and best systematized way which

science, art and experience can devise. let alms-houses, the in-

sane hospital, the.deaf and dumb, and blind asylums, still stand as

monuments of the generous and humane spirit of the age. Let

the crippled and deformed have ready access, if need be, by pub-

lic charity, to all sources of relief which the world’s best wisdom

can supply. It is better that the state pay the expense of putting

a man in a condition so that he can take care of himself, than to

tax the public through an entire generation for the support of a

cripple in the poor house. But secondly, I propose to show a

28 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters.

rational answer, it may be imperfectly and impractically, to the

second branch of this question, to wit: the duty of the state to the

unborn generations, with which our successors will have to deal

The state establishes a state board of health, to whom it commits

the various questions concerning the public health. It requires

the individual to conform to such sanitary regulations as are

found necessary to protect life, health and property. But is there

any more reason why the state should see that offensive and me-

phitic vapors and gases should be promptly neutralized by chemi-

cal agents, why nuisances should be abated or removed from civ-

ilized communities, than there is why the state should interfere to

arrest the descent, through long lines of generations, of the germs

of incurable diseases, which are sure to become the object of the

world’s pity when allowed to develop into the full proportions

which we witness in our hospitals and public alms houses?

Should it be the province of a state board of health to tell me that

my sewers need chloride of lime or carbolic acid, and not be their

function to tell me that my posterity will be smitten with incur-

able insanity, provided a contemplated marriage is consummated ?

Should he be allowed to intrude into my back yards and order

me to remove the offal, which carries on its wings the pestilence

and plague, and yet must not be allowed to have at least some

voice in arresting, by counsel or by law, the descent of those con-

genital disorders, that prey at an earlier or later date on half the

population of the civilized world.

We take remarkable pains in selecting and crossing breeds of

the domestic animals. Here at least we try to study and harmo-

nize with the laws of nature. The royal and aristocratic families

of Kurope are very strict in the marriages of their sons and daugh-

ters. We recognize the universal Jaw that physical qualities,

character, breeding and education begin long anterior to birth.

But junfortunately for the ruling classes of Kurope, the primary

principle on which their intermarriages are based, is not in respect

to the laws of nature. Their idea isa purely conventional one,

and their society is purely artificial, where nature and her economy

in the processes of reproduction, are as much ignored as with the

bulk of mankind elsewhere. Their intermarraiges come from

The Duty of the State to the Insane, ete. 29

rank, based on wealth, and on freedom from the restraints of law

and labor; a condition of things best calculated to deteriorate what

there is good in any generation of men. If the doctrine is true,

that the fittest only should live, then it follows as a rational corol-

lary that, in a society of rational men, where the interests of a race

capable of indefinite development are blended, that “ the fittest

only should be born.” ‘'T’o reproduce and fill the world with pos-

terity is not always aduty. Certainly not always a privilege.

The law makes it a crime where the parties have not taken the

legal steps to provide, as far as may be for the protection, the edu-

cation and general wellbeing of future offspring. Why should

not the law adopt the sound maxim, that no person has the right

to throw upon the charities of the world, his diseased, deformed

and insane offspring.

The laws of generation are now sufficiently well established so

that good scientific and medical authority can determine with

tolerable certainty the probable issue of a given marriage, so far

as health isconcerned. Yet, even this generation continues to in-

troduce into the world, children marked with these congenitial

defects, as if it were a matter of the slightest concern whether

children were well or ill born. Society should here erect an im-

passable barrier, so that no person, man or woman, who failed to

present the requisite credentials of a sound mind in a sound body,

free from all forms of congenital and organic disease, no matter

what social standing or wealth might distinguish them, should

become the head of a family of children. This is the aristocracy

of nature. No man is well born who inherits the appetite of a

drunkard or the feebleness and frailties of a consumptive. No

person is ill born who comes into the world with all his mental

and physical faculties bright with the bloom of health and vigor.

All theories of progress and true social development are useless

and abortive unless these ends are first secured.

But should our legislators see practical difficulties in the way

of a system of legislation so radical and revolutionary in the so-

cial life and economy of the people as the above programme would

indicate, still the least it can do is to introduce these biological

remedies to the attention of the public, in the education of the

30 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Leilers.

young. It is ignorance that has destroyed us in generations past.

It is ignorance of the functions of life and of the laws of repro-

duction that destroys us to-day. We cultivate with more skill

even the grapes and grains than we do the propagation and re-

production of our own species. Marriage is a hap-hazard affair,

the result of caprice or fancy, instead of being the result of judg-

ment and knowledge of the fundamental laws of being. Science

and the public law, are alone, perhaps insufficient to do justice to

this noble cause. They invoke the aid and co-operation of the

pulpit and of the public teacher. A wise supervision of this sub-

ject is indispensable to the future wellbeing of the race. False

standards of delicacy must be set aside. Morbid sentimentalism

must give way to the suggestions of common sense and a rational

philosophy.

DEPARTMENT OF ARTS.

ART AS EDUCATION.

BY ALFORD PAYNE.

INTRODUCTION.

Having been asked to prepare a paper for this scientific assem-

blage, I have chosen as a subject, Art asa means of Education.

But why comes one, unpractical, unscientific, into this learned

body? The answer is, he comes in all sincerity to commend to .

popular notice, through the prestige given by your academy, a

class of truths, as educational, which he thinks are not valued as

they should be.

Are we not generally liable, if not to overestimate our own

special lines of study, at least to undervalue the departments of

knowledge which we have not much considered? Rare is the

man, who, with Lord Bacon can make all departments of knowl-

edge his province. The clergyman is thought to live too exclu-

sively in dogmatic theology; the lawyer sees this, and listens with

a critical sharpness based on a conviction of the immense value

of a knowledge of jurisprudence, coupled with thorough legal

training ; and he may, perchance, undervalue theology, for, lke

the physician in Chaucer, his study may be ‘but little in the

Bible.” We may trace this tendency in all classes of men, even,

it may be, amongst students of physics and artists, and so on till

we find it illustrated in the shoemaker who knew there was noth-

wg lke leather. Realizing this tendency in myself, but earnestly

desiring to value every department of knowledge justly, and feel -

oz Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters.

ing that in this regard, I could ask no better or fitter audience, I

ask your attention to Art as a means of Hducation.

Of the mechanic arts, admirable as are their results, we do not

now speak. But our concern on this occasion is with those arts

which are called par eminence Fine Arts, or more commonly “ Art.”

These serve not for mere material uses, for our comfort, or con-

venience, or for the facilitation of business; not to sustain the nat-

ural life, or even to promote in any way mere physical well-being;

but they speak directly to the intellectual and moral nature of

man, adding to his stock of knowledge, educating or leading forth

his noblest powers, conducting him both onward and upward, by

inciting to love and delight in the beautiful and good. How nec-

essary is this moral elevation, we realize from the words of the

poet, ‘‘unless above himself he can erect himself, how mean a

thing is man!” Art, so understood, is the embodiment or utter-

ance of those ideas modified by the imagination, whose nature it

is to awaken sensibility or emotion.

Then how widethe realm of art! Hvery object in nature, every

fact in history, every truth in science, and nearly al! such have

their poetic aspects, whose tendency it is to awaken feeling, may

become the subject of art. Nay, the realm of art extends above

and beyond nature; every thought and imagination concerning

the mind of man, and its relations; concerning the supernatural ;

concerning other states of existence; concerning God himself, is

the legitimate subject of art. Still more, every influence given to

these thoughts and imaginations by our moods and feelings be-

comes in itself poetic.

The chief elements of art are the sublime, the beautiful, the

characteristic, the humorous, the fantastic and the grotesque.

The particular modes of manifestation of art-feeling, or language

of art, are poetry, painting, statuary, music, and architecture.

Poetry is art in articulate language; painting, in color, form,

light and shadow; statuary, in form only; music, in sound; and

architecture is art in the application of beautiful and grand forms

to uses, in the construction of buildings.

Having defined art generally, let us now look more particularly

-at art-ideas as differenced in kind from truths of science. Scien-

Art as Hducation. 33

tific truth is statement of that which zs ; it derives its character as

truth by virtue of its agreement with things as they really exist.

Art-truth is statement always with regard to these qualities of

things, which have power to move our affiections. Scientific truth

is the actual food of the mind. Being appropriated and assimi-

lated, it becomes actually a part of our intellectual being. By it

we grow. By it we advance. By it the world indeed moves.

Nearly all scientific truths, have, as before said, their poetic side,

and, so considered, become art truths.

The function of truths, of art, is especially to elevate the mind

and to develop or educate its powers. But the value of art gen-

erally, and of art ideas particularly, can only be properly estimated

by those who have the noblest and most exalted conception of the

human’soul and its interests. We wish to be in the highest de

gree practical; and to be so, we must exalt those truths which

tend to the greatest good. Alas! many, who are often considered

practical, value those truths only which serve merely as the means

of life, and entirely ignore or despise that higher class of truths

- which concern intimately the objects of life, the very purpose of

existence. ‘T'hese men speak,’ as Ruskin says, “ when they

speak from their hearts, as if houses, and food, and raiment, were

alone useful, and as if sight, and thought, and admiration were

all profitless; men who insolently cal! themselves utilitarians, and,

if they had their way, would turn themselves and their race into

vegetables; men who think, as far as such can be said to think—

that the meat is more than life, and the raiment than the body;

who look to the earth as a stable, and to its fruit as fodder; and

so comes upon us that woe of the preacher, that though God hath

made everything beautiful in his time, also he hath set the world

in their hearts so that no man can find out the work that God

maketh from the beginning to the end.”

Now, that is most practical, which is most useful; and that is

most useful, which best serves the purposes of existence; and all

admit that those purposes are best served by the most perfect

education. This most perfect education is the leading forth, the

fullest development of all our powers, and pre-eminently of the

noblest powers of our whole nature.

o4 Wisconsin Academy of Sctences, Arts, and Letters.

This education, art claims as its direct function. To man alone,

of created beings, does art speak.

“Tn industry thou’rt mastered by the bee;

The worm more skillfulness than thine hath shown;

Thy knowledge, all high spirits share with thee,

But Art, Oh! man, hast thou alone.”

Man has the mind possessed by the animals, and he has more.

He has powers far removed from theirs and different in kind. He

has an understanding trammeled and limited by the senses, as

they have; and he has a judgment which uses the senses for its

expression, which is not limited by them, but which makes its

affirmations positively, independently, and often in opposition to

their dictation.

Sharing the judgment in common with the lower animals, where

shall we find the distinction between usand them? Shall we not

find it in this, that we possess a moral sense, or the power of con-

ceiving right and wrong abstractly as principles; that we possess —

imagination, that high imagination which “ bodies forth the forms

of things unknown,” as essential to the man of science as to the

poet, to a Lord Bacon, as to John Milton; and above all, that

power of affirming principles or laws, so surely that we never

question them; principles which are the grounds of all mathe-

matical, metaphysical and ethical science; that power whose as-

sertions are as postive and undeniable as that ‘ God liveth.”

These faculties we know we possess, and we have as yet no

reasons for supposing they pertain to inferior creatures.

Plato taught that in the mind of the Creator, there existed ideas

which were the types or patterns of all his creations. Also that

human souls are so formed in the Divine image, and so partake of

his nature, that they also perceive and delight in these divine

forms. Here we have the source of all transcendental philosophy.

It accords also with scriptural teaching, for we are told that man

was made in the image of God, and this image must have been of

the Divine mind. The adoption of this conception underlies the

philosophy of a majority of the greatest minds which have been

vouchsafed to us. That this faculty of intuition, or direct behold-

Art as Education. 35

ing of essential truth, does exist in us, was ‘held also by Lord

Bacon, Dr. Ralph Cudworth, Kepler, Luther, Hooker, Pascal,

Leibnitz, Fenelon, Immanuel Kant, Sir Wni. Hamilton, Cousin,

Wordsworth, Coleridge, Mrs. Browning, and a host of other minds

most influential. Coleridge says, “it is evident that there is an

intuition, or immediate beholding, accompanied by a conviction

of the necessity and, universality of the truth so beholden, not

derived from the senses, which intuition gives birth to the science

of mathematics; and when applied to objects supersensuous or

spiritual, is the organ of theology and philosophy.

This higher power is the source of all art; and to this faculty

all art is addressed. So, the radical meaning of the word poet is,

maker, and the art faculty is universally called the creative faculty.

Goethe sings—

“ Oh that the true creative power

Through all my sense were ringing,

Like juices ready for the fiower,

From out my fingers springing.”

It is apparent that all the forms of musical art, all the sublime

conceptions of the great masters, are purely creations. They seem

the most spiritual of all the forms of art; there is in them no fit-

ness to awaken emotions either painful or unpleasant; they serve

only to elevate and delight us. This is indeed the true end of all

art. It may be depraved, as may all things pure; it may even

be forced into the service of vice; but the associati :n is so incon-

gruous, that to the reflecting mind, evil is made only the more

revolting. Itis a question whether any subject which is toa

greater extent painful than otherwise, should ever be embodied

in art; for example, Landseer’s ‘Death of the Stag,” and the

group of the Laocoon, and only the beauties developed in their

treatment can reconcile us to them.

The scientific man compares truth with truth, fact with fact,

and, by a process of induction, arrives at general propositions, or

laws; he uses the judgment in accordance with sense, in observ-

ing and comparing, and he uses the higher faculty of his reason,

in establishing principles. The artist observes particular objects

36 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letiers.

in nature, forms in*his mind a general conception of his proposed

subject, selects, arranges, modifies, and refers all to the standard

in his mind, which is his ideal of beauty, or grace, or power, or

whatever quality he may require, and so forms a perfect whole,

based indeed on nature, conforming Jo it, but which is not nature,

not imitation, not reproduction, but, as far as it is art at all, as his

creation. Intimately concerned in this creation is the principle

we call taste. Taste is the power of perception of those qualities,

which, inhering in thoughts and things, render them fit subjects

for art. This taste is not judgment, we must carefully avoid this

notion, but by it the mind affirms directly and positively. It is

to the mind in regard to qualities in truths, what the bodily senses

are in regard to sensidle qualities of material things, such as flay-

ors, odors, and the like.

We pronounce as positively and independently of judgment,

concerning the beauty of a flower, the grace of a musical melody,

or the grandeur of a thought, as concerning the sweetness of su-

gar, or the sourness of vinegar.

To all it is not given to perceive these qualities in the same

variety, and with equal accuracy ; just as we may vary in per-

ceiving sensible qualities. Yet, these qualities remain, and do not

vary ; sweet is sweet, and sour is sour; and hence, from the un-

varying nature of these qualities, arises truth or untruth in the

expression of them. Hence, we have truth of beauty, of humor,

of power, or of any other element of art.

Possessed with this thought, hear Schiller—

The truth which had for Centuries to wait,

The truth which reason had grown old to find,

Lay in the symbol of the fazr and great,

Felt from the first by every child-like mind.

T’ was virtue’s beauty made her honored so:

A finer instinct shrunk back, when it saw,

The ugliness of sin, ere Solon made the law,

- Forcing the plant unwillingly to grow.

Long ere the thinker’s intellect severe

The notion of eternal space could win,

Whoever gazed up at yon starry sphere,

That did not feel it prophesied within!

Art as Education. 3t

A glory of Orion round her head,

Behold her in her majesty!

Her keen glance all but purer Demons dread,

Consuming where she looks, she rides on high.

Above the stars, upon her sunny throne,

Urania — the stately, the severe!

But she has laid aside her blazing crown,

And stands — in Beauty’s form, before us here.

She puts on loveliness’ enchanted belt,

Becomes a child, is hailed by simplest youth.

What here as Peauty we have felt,

Shall one day come to us as 7’ruth.

Now let us consider briefly, the influence of art in educating

and elevating the mind. An artist, gifted with a soul alive to all

the influences of sight, and sound, and thought, around and within

him, produces a work: it may be an Oratorio; Handel’s Messiah ;

a statue, The Night, or the Day, of Michael Angelo; a painting,

The Last Supper, by Da Vinci; a temple, The Parthenon; a poem,

or any one of the myriad works which make up the true wealth

of the world! In the production of such a work, the artist, by

his innate love for, and sympathy with the elements of which we

have spoken, perceives them intuitively in objects of nature or in

thought, or from his own mind creating these qualities, clothes

the thoughts he presents with them, and thus we, who of our-

selves might not perceive these poetic qualities, or create them,

have them forced upon us, and the art faculty is gradually awak-

ened and developed within us.

And the great art-work which has served us, once created, lives

forever. Lives to delight and quicken the souls through all the

ages. .

That the art sense is so gradually produced, that this is the

general process of art-education is I think, the experience of all

artists, and we have upon it the testimony of so consummate an

artist as Goethe, who gives as his own experience

“ For when I think how, year by year,

This sense hath kept unfolding;

Where once the barren heath spread drear,

Now springs of joy beholding.”’

38 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters.

This sense, he speaks of in the verse just preceding, as the

“Creative power.” And this sense is not unfolded, and these

springs of joy are not disclosed, except to the earnest humble vo-

tary who waits upon the oracle within. This also, Goethe shows

in his enigmatic —

PARABLE.

Poems are colored window-glasses!

Look iuto the church from the market-square:

Nothing but gloom and darkness there!

Shrewd Sir Philistine sees things so:

Well may he narrow and captious grow,

Who all his life on the outside passes.

But come, now, and inside we'll go!

Now round the holy chapel gaze;

Tis all one many colored blaze;

Story and emblem, a pictured maze,

Flash by you: —’tis a noble show.

Here feel as sons of God baptized,

With hearts exalted and surprised.

Art does not only awaken this art-power, but with this awaken-

ing comes constantly delight, admiration, love, and all the nobler

emotions, purifying and li‘ting the whole being. Coleridge says

of poetry (and what is true of poetry is true of all forms of art),

‘poetry has been to me its own exceeding great reward; it has

multiplied my enjoyments, it has soothed my affections, it has en-

deared solitude, and it has given me the habit of wishing to dis-

cover the good and beautiful in all that meets and surrounds me.”

De Quincy divides all literature into two classes; one is of 7n-

formation, the other is of power. The one speaks to the under-

standing; the other, to the higher faculty we have been consider-

ing, and always through affections of pleasure and sympathy.

‘Remotely it may travel towards objects in the Lumen Siccum,

a phrase of Lord Bacon for the pure reason, but proximately, it

must act, or it loses its character as literature of power, in and

through that humid light, which illuminates the mists, the irrides-

cent hues, and the glittering points of human passions, desires,

and genial emotions,”

Art as Education. 39

Lord Bacon speaks thus of the influence of poetry: ‘“ Poetry

serveth and conferreth to magnanimity, and therefore it was ever

thought to have some participation of divineness, because it doth

raise and erect the mind, by submitting the shows of things, to

the desires of the mind. Milton speaks of, ‘‘our sage and serious

poet Spencer, whom, he adds, ‘I dare be known to think a better

teacher than Scotus and Aquinas.’”

Nothing has yet been said of the extent of the influence; its na-

ture only has been notived; but where does it not extend, it is

every where; we cannot excuse art’s influence. It is in our books,

our periodical literature, the ornamentation of clothing and furni-

ture, the decoration and refinements of our homes, in music, all

rural adornments, in the beautiful commingling of exquisite build-

ings and gardens, with natural scenery in the suburbs of cities.

It is in all architecture, from the most primitive, through the sim-

ple but sublime forms of Egyptian art, the chaste and classic ele-

gance of Grecian, to the wonderful variety and exquisite beauty

of the finest Gothic cathedrals.

Even the art of past ages, which has been long buried, is being

constantly exhumed for us; and as the Palimpsest, or old parch-

ment, from which the original treatise has been obliterated to give

place to the chronicles of after times, and to which, art can restore

the original writing, so almost all the habitable earth has in it,

concealed by the deposition of ages, the life and art of a by-gone

world. And these are being constantly revealed to us by exhu-

mation, in Rome, in Greece, in Pompeii, in Egypt, in Assyria, etc.,

and most recently on the site of ancient Troy, by the wonderful

“finds” of Dr. Schlieman.

All this influence is education. The perception of truth in the

simplest forms of art always gives enjoyment, and the realization

of the various truths of beanty, grace, and power, which combine

in any perfect work, carries the mind beyond delight, to gratitude,

admiration, and even adoration. And the “human soul is in the

most exalted position, when it reverences; when it adores.” This

is the education art accomplishes for us; what do we for art ?

How long has it, or any branch of it been considered an essen-

tial part of an educational course? ‘Thirty years ago, the most

40 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters.

done in this direction was through the professorship of Belles

lettres in our colleges. This comprised instruction in Rhetoric,

and on English authors of all classes; but without any consider-

ation of literature as educational, or any recognition of the value

of art in mental development. In the English universities, there

was a professorship of poetry, but regarded mostly as a sinecure.

In some select schools, young ladies seminaries, etc. claim was

made to an art department, because young ladies were there misled

and corrupted in their natural feeling for art, by exercises in

water-colors, Grecian painting, scratching off marble dust, and

other puerile quackeries. In our cities the rudiments and practice

of vocal music have been not uncommon; but there never yet has

‘been, and there is not now, any practice or teaching of the princi-

ples and value of any form of art, in our common schools, in any

part of this land, except in a very few instances, which shall soon

be noticed. More than this, the most astonishing ignorance pre-

vails generally, not only with the advanced scholars, but among

the teachers. It is frequently the experience of artists, that visi-

tors to their studios, occupying high place in the professions, show

a wise modesty in the expression of judgment, or show that mod-

esty would have been wise. Critics generally get no farther than

to think close imitation the best art: and tell of the birds pluck-

ing at painted grapes. Yet this proves not that the art was good;

“but,” says Goethe, “that the critics were only poor birds.”

Too often our critics look into the church from the market-

square; they do not step within.

With the teaching of Ruskin a ‘‘new departure” is taking

place. Schools of design, with special reference to art in manu-

factures, and ornamentation have been put in operation in several

English cities. A professorship of art has been established in

Oxford, which is filled by Mr. Ruskin; who teaches the cultured

young men of England, the supreme value of the arts in all the

refinements of life, and in that development of the intellect and

the moral natnre, for which alone life is given, as has never before

been done in the history of the world.

In this country, three or four years ago, Walter Smith from

London, England, was appointed ‘state director of art-education

Art as Education. A}

for maps, in the common schools of the state.” A manual of his

system has been published, which consists of graded exercises in

ornamental and symmetrical forms. These forms are to a great

extent idealized forms of natural objects, or as he calls them, con-

ventionalized forms. He has taught many of the teachers, and is

still directing thezr teaching. Some of his pupils are now engaged

in introducing his system in the larger cities of the Union, when

they can find favor in the eyes of boards of education, as lately in

the city of Chicago.

This teaching, as a beginning, I regard as of inestimable value

in disciplining the hand and eye, and awakening the mind to the

perception of beauty in line and form. Yet in this system, the

‘picture element” is almost entirely excluded. Light and shadow

color, composition, expression and most of the essentials of picto-

rial art are not at all studied. All this must follow, and this

leads me to consider lastly the best means of bringing this wealth

of knowledge and feeling home to the minds and hearts of the

people; and in this connection, the universality of the faculty to

receive it.

Time was, when all science was mystery, and secret guilds mo-

nopolized the arts. The philosopher was in league with the

evil one. The church said, “thus far shalt thou go, and no far-

ther.” All research was unpractical.. ‘‘What nature hides with-

in,” O thou philistine! No finite mind can know.

“Now that for sixty years I’ve heard repeated,

And oft’ as heard, with silent curses greeted,

I whisper o’er and o’er this truth eternal :—

Nature doth freely all things tell;

Nature hath neither shell nor kernel.

Whole everywhere, at each point thou canst learn all ;

Only examine thine own heart,

Whether thou shell or kernel art.”

Where is the kernel of nature? say, but in man’s heart.

This element of sincerity with one’s self is the first requisite

for progress, either in science or art.

Not long since, no one could sing without some special gift.

42 Wisconsin Acudemy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters.

Now, all can learn to sing, except some rare individual with im-

perfect organ of hearing or voice. Not long since, no one could

learn to draw, without a special gift, and now, if a boy shows some

aptitude to imitate nature, the fond parents and friends say,

“what a gift the boy has!” Whata genius he is! Because, per-

haps he has drawn a cat or a candlestick so that one may almost

immediately say that it was not intended for either a cow or a cap-

stan. A few years back, John. 8. Chapman, artist, uttered the

truth, that ‘‘any one who can learn to write, can learn to draw.”

And this we now begin to understand. Of course we require

eifts; and thank God we have, all of us; and one of the best

gifts we have, is the love of beauty, beauty in all its manifesta-

tions, in flowers, animal life, in trees and rocks, in streams and

skies, in form, and sound, and thought, and Jie 2s full of it. And

the power of enjoyment — which means the art-faculty is as uni-

versal as the material provided for it.

‘“T know I could never be an artist.” No, sir, you do not. “I

know I have not the gift.” Dear Madam, you are full of gifts.

You do not know what gifts you have; and your knowledge of

them can come only by your development of them.

Of course, these gifts vary in power, as do other gifts, which

are presumed to exist in all; the judgment, memory, power of

comparison, etc. It often happens, however, that the person most

gifted, your genius, will be satisfied with mediocrity, and the

humble, slow, but earnest seeker for excellence will go far be-

yond him. “Nothing” says Sir Joshua Reynolds, is ever denied

to well directed effort. When Domenichino was called ‘ the ox,”

by his fellow students, for his slowness and lack of gifts, his mas-

ter, Aunibal Carracci said, “he isan ox who will till well the

field he plows,” and he surpassed them all.

What is needed, in my judgment, to make our system of edu-

cation more complete, so that we may be less onesided, and our

powers may be symmetrically developed, so that, as men and

women, we m y be rich with wealth, which long lay in us all un-

consciously is, 1. To introduce generally in our primary and

graded schools, such system of drawing, as that of Mr. Walter

Smith, supplemented by simple picturesque designs, with some

Art as Hducation. , 43

effect of light and shadow; slight artistic sketches of natural ob-

jects. 2. In higher schools, practice on more complex designs

from nature, and on good copies from antique and modern statu-

ary; this should be accompanied by some instruction in the first

principles of art, and the connection between the arts in their na-

ture and influence. 38. Connected with every state system of edu-

cation, should be an art professorship. The incumbent should

devote all his time to the duties of his office, instructing teachers

in the cities, and students in the normal schools, visiting them

periodically, lecturing on the elements of art, and directing them

in their practice. He should also attend all educational conven-

tions within the limits of his state, and create and continue an

interest on this important matter; and, 4. In each of our colleges

and universities, should be an Art Department, supplied with a

museum of works of art, of all kinds; these should be added to

constantly, by gifts from all sides, and the collection would grow

with the institution. Hach institution should support a professor

of the history and principles of art; and lectures and systematic

teaching of the history of schools and styles should be given, and

of the philosophy of all the arts, illustrated by specimens always

af hand, in the museum.

When this state of things exists, the reproach of such general

ignorance will pass away; and this will be the smallest gain.

Then love of art will be sincere, and intelligent; and love of na-

ture also will increase. Then will beauty come to us as truth.

Then will we feel and know the truth, that —

“Freely through Beauty’s morning gate,

Canst thou to knowledge penetrate ;

The mind, to face truth’s higher glances,

Must swim sometime in Beauty’s trances ;

The heavenly harping of the muses,

Whose sweetest trembling through thee rings

A higher life into the soul infuses,

And wings the upward to thee soul of things.”’

44 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters.

THE HARMONIC METHOD IN GREEK ART.

BY MR. J. R. STUART.

A great deal is said in a vague way of the ideal in Greek art,

as if that ideal were a fixed form or pattern, by which the artist

worked out his statues. Were this possible, the art would become

a manufacture and we should have statues turned out by the lot,

like so much furniture, of the correct pattern. Whereas, the work

of the Greek sculptors was the result of constant, earnest study

and observation. A lifetime was sometimes devoted to a single

work, and, among the thousands of statues produced, there was an

infinite variety in the model. The massive muscle of Hercules,

the superhuman grace and greatness of Apollo, the matronly Juno

and lovely Venus are each a distinctive type. ‘To combine these

types, to place the head of Hercules on the body of Apollo, for

instance, we feel at once would produce a monster. Hach statue

must be in harmony with itself, and this leads us to what Walker,

in his ‘ Analysis of Beauty,’ has called the “harmonic method” of

the Greeks.

There are certain general, proportional measures used by artists

in constructing their figures, such as eight heads to the whole

height, which was sometimes varied as low as seven and a half

heads. Six feet (lengths of the foot) to the height, as Vituvius

tells us, was the practice of ancient artists. A man standing with

arms extended; the extreme extent of his arms is equal to his

height. So, also, the measure from the centre of one mamma to

the centre of the other, equal to the distance from each to the pit

above the breastbone.

There is something needed, however, beyond these rules of gen-

eral application, and we now approach the chief difficulty, which evi-

dently found a stumbling block to even Leonardo da Vina. That

harmonic method which, strange as it may appear, will be found ~

to afford rules that are at once perfectly precise and infinitely vari-

able. Says Walker. The harmonic method of the Greeks — that

The Harmonic Method in Greek Art. 45

measure which Leonardo called ‘the true proportion ;” “ the pro-

portion of an individual in regard to himself. ;” “which should

be different in all the individuals of a species,” but in which “all

the parts of any animal should be compared to the whole;” and

which, as Bossi adds, “‘ Varies in every figure, according to the

age, circumstances and particular character of each.” In short,

this method for the harmony of parts in each distinct individual ;

this method, presenting rules perfectly precise, yet infinitely vari-

able, has, in all its elements, been clearly laid down before the

reader (though not enunciated as a rule) in the locomotive, nutritive

and thinking systems, or, generally speaking, of the limbs, the

trunk and the head, and in the three species of beauty founded on

them.

These, it is evident, present to the philosophic observer, the sole

means of judging beauty by harmonic rule, the great object of

Leonardo da Vinci's desires and regrets. They present the great

features of the Greek method, if that method conformed to truth

and nature, as it undoubtedly did. This will be rendered clearer

by a single example.

Thus, if any individual be characterized by the development of

the nutritive system, this harmonic rule of nature demands, not

only that, as in the Saxon English, the Dutch and many Germans,

the trunk shall be large, but consequently that the other two por-

tions, the head and the limbs shall be relatively small. That the

calvarium shall be small and round and the intellectual powers

restricted ; that the head shall nevertheless be broad, because the

vital cavities of the head are large, and because large jaws and

muscles of mastication are necessary to the supply of such a sys-

tem; that the neck shall be short, because the locomotive system

is little developed; that it shall be thick, because the vessels

which connect the head to the trunk are large and full, the former

being only an appendage to the latter. That the lower limbs

shall be both short and slender; that the calves of the legs shall

be small and high; that the feet shall be little turned out, ete.

So, also, if any individual be characterized by the locomotive

system, the harmonic rule demands not only that the limbs shall

be large, but consequently that the other two portions, the head

46 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters.

and trunk, shall be relatively small; that the calvarium shall be

small and long, and the intellectual powers limited; that the head

shall be long, because the jaws and the muscles are extended.

Again, likewise, if any individual be characterized by the de-

velopment of the thinking system, the harmonic rule demands,

not only that the head shall be large, but consequently that the

other two portions, the trunk and limbs, shall be relatively small ;

that the head shall not only be large, but that the upper part, the

calvarium, shall be largest, giving a pyramidal appearance to the

head; that the trunk and limbs, however elegantly formed, shall

be relatively feeble, the former often lable to disease, the latter to

accident.

It must be borne in mind, however, that there may be innu-

merable combinations and modifications of these characteristics,

certain greater ones, nevertheless, generally predominating.

The following are some of the principal rules, which, either by

intuition or distinctly defined, guided the practice of the ancient

Greeks :

First, in regard to the thinking system. In the head, in partic-

ular, may be observed character, or a permanent and invariable

form, which defines its capabilities and expression or temporary

and variable forms, which indicate its actual functions. As char-

acter is permanent and invariable, it depends fundamentally on

permanent and invariable parts, the Jones. And as expression is

temporary and variable, it depends-on the shifting and vital parts,

the muscles.

The suggestion of the bony structure, then, giving character,

and of the action of the muscles, giving expression, we find al-

ways represented in a masterly manner by the Greeks, minuter

forms which are universal, and without which nature is imper-

fectly represented. These are details of the highest order, because

the means of expressing intellect, emotion or passion. Between

these intellectual means, these higher details and those of a lower

order, the great artists of Greece distinguished. The lower details,

such as wrinkles and folds of the skin, projecting veins, peculiari-

ties of the hair, beard, ete, these have always characterized in-

ferior artists and decadent art.

The Harmonic Method in Greek Art. 47

‘When the ancient artists increased the facial angle beyond eighty

degrees, they believed that an increase of intelligence corresponded

to that conformation. By increasing the angle beyond eighty-five

degrees they impressed upon their figures the grandest character,

as in the Apollo, Venus and others, whose facial angle extends to

or exceeds ninety degrees.

Observing the nature of the angle, we perceive that it tended

in no way to raise the forehead, but to throw it forward or to

lengthen it. Whence the expression of long head for wise head,

which has not yet given place to broad head, preferred by German

craniologists in compliment to their own organization. The gen-

eral rule was, that the forehead’s height should equal the space

from the forehead to the bottom of the nose, or from the nose to

the bottom of the chin.

The next rule is in regard to the form of the nose, in nearly the

same line with the forehead, and with very little indentation be-

tween the parts.

The nose is the inlet of vital emotion or pleasure, the eye of

mental emotion, while the passions depend on the mouth and

ear. The emotional, the higher faculties, were expanded by this

raising of the junction of the forehead and nose, while the lower

faculties of passion, the mouth and ear were relatively decreased.

While developing the higher organs of emotion all impassioned

expression was suppressed, and thence the bestowal of that calm-

ness and simple grace, which is the highest quality in all repre-

sentation. In inferior beings, however, when passion is expressed,

the features are varied by the Greek artists, as they are in na-

ture. Such are the great ideal rules for the head and functions

of thought.

As regards the nutritive system, the vital and reproductive, the

Greeks similarily idealize. The Venus of Milo may be taken as

the type of this system. The head and torso are all that is visible

of the body. The head presents ali the loftier qualities already

discribed in the intellectual and emotional, but calm, sweet and

self-poised, while in the torso, the nutritive system is perfectly

developed in the full expansive forms and exquisitely rounded

costumes. A representation of eternal perfected womanhood and

feminine loveliness. |

48 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters.

Next of the locomotive system and the ideal rules for zts treat-

ment by the Greeks.

Of the works of ancient art which have been preserved, the

Apollo Belvidere is conceded to possess the highest qualities. In

this statue we find all of these principles developed and combined.

The full intellectual brow, the thin, quivering nostril and fine yet

sensitive lips, the column-like throat, the well developed limbs

and trunk, but the last subordinated to the first, the higher facul-

ties of the intellect.

The Antinous is unsurpassed among ancient statues for grace

and beauty. But in comparing the Antinous with the Apollo we

find, that, when the former fills us with admiration only, the Apollo

strikes us with surprise. ‘To, at least, as much grace and beauty

as is found in the former, there is a superaddition of greatness, an

appearance of something more than human, which one is at a loss

to describe. This is the more surprising when we find, that the

legs and thighs are too long and too large for the upper parts.

Now, Hogarth suggests that this has been done with a purpose,

and that this greatness is really owing to what has been considered

a blemish. The Apollo is greater in size than the Antinous, but

if we consider a moment, we feel that were the Antinous enlarged

to the Apollo’s height, this would not produce the superiority of

effect. Says Hogarth: ‘The Antinous being allowed to have the

" justest proportion possible, let us see what addition, upon the prin-

ciple of quantity can be made to it, without taking away any of

its beauty. If we imagine an addition of dimension to the head,

we shall immediately conceive, that it would only deform. If to

the hands or feet we are sensible of something gross and ungen-

teel. If to the whole length of the arms, they would be dangling

and awkward. If by an addition of length or breadth to the

body, we know it would appear heavy and clumsy. ‘There re-

mains then only the neck with the legs and thighs to speak of To

these, we find, that not only certain additions may be admitted

without causing any disagreeable effect, but that thereby, great-

ness, the last perfection as to proportion is given to the human

form, as is evidently expressed in the Apollo.”

This is well done by Hogarth (says Walker). It requires but

little anatomical knowledge to see the reason of this. The length

The Harmonic Method in Greek Art. 49

of the neck, by which the head is further detached from the trunk,

shows the independence of the higher intellectual system upon

the lower one of mere nutrition and the length of the limbs shows,

that the mind had ready obedience in locomotive power. Here

again we find the expansion of the higher faculties and the sub-

ordination of the lower.

This principle that all the parts of any animal should corre-

spond to the whole, is the same adopted by comparative anato-

mists in their constructions. But in representing the human form,

the Greeks had an insuperable advantage over the modern. Now

only were the opportunities for observation and comparison in-

finitely better, from the habits and costume of the people, but the

Greek man himself was undoubtedly developed to a far higher

state of perfection, than has been done either before or since by

any other people. Jaine has given in his art in Greece a very ex-

haustive treatise on the mode of life and training which produced

such results, the perfect model and thence the perfect statue. It

is probable that we can never equal them in their particular

branch of sculpture, but by following the method practiced by

them, our own work will certainly be more perfect.

We have something analogous to it in the training and improve-

ment in the breeding of horses. The heavy Clydesdale or Nor-

man horse with massive limbs and muscles, at once suggests his

fitness for the laborers of Hercules, to whom he is analogous in

form, while the lithe form, clean limbs, broad front and quivering

nostrils of the Knglish thoroughbred, or the Arab of the Nedjid,

suggests the warrior and hunter, the very Apollo of horses. With-

out doubt, as our jockeys are connoisseurs in the points of horse

flesh, so were the ancient Greeks in the points of man flesh, and

the method of their artists was based upon such knowledge, cul-

tivated by centuries of observation and experience.

DEPARTMENT OF LETTERS.

LETTERS AN EMBARRASSMENT TO LITERATURE.

By PROF. W. C. SAWYER, of Lawrence University.

Without letters there could be no literature; but with them,

its development must be in proportion to the facility with which

they symbolize and record our thoughts. Intellectual activity is

stimulated through the eye quite as readily as through the ear, and

recorded thought stirs the soul only less potently than the human

voice.

The utterances of the tongue — not the traces of the pen and

the impressions of the types — constitute language. Speech is

made up of the symbols of thought; literature, of the symbols

of speech, and is, accordingly, two removes from the energies of

the soul itself. The tones of the voice, however, travel but a short

way and perish before they have reached more than a few thousand

ears — not allowing for the possibilities of the telephone — while

the recorded words and deeds of buried generations will perpet-

uate their memory, in many lands and literatures, to the end of

time.

There are some reasons for supposing that the present advant-

age of writing, over speech, may be increased tenfold with the in-

creasing facilities for the production, distribution, and consump-

tion of literature. The chief obstacle to the growth and perfec-

tion of our literature is in the mechanical difficulty of writing,

together with the consequent evil effects upon reading and general

culture.

Leibnitz has said, “ Give me a good alphabet and I will show

you a good language.’’ The world has been suffering for cen-

turies from the vain endeavor to form good languages — or litera-

Letters an Embarrassment to Literature. 51

tures rather, for the languages have almost formed themselves —

without the least regard to the sort of alphabet used. A single

language exhausts our score and six letters, and the next is forced

to fit this same garment to its altered proportions.

Human speech is made up of the various phonetic effects of

the air passing through the mouth and nose, as modified by the

tongue, the teeth, the lips, the uvula, and the vocal chords. We

know, by the physical laws of phonetic change, that every modi-

fication of these physiological organs must produce a distinct

sound. No language uses nearly all the possible voice modifica-

tions; but each one employs a certain definite number of them —

our own using about forty —and makes up for the deficiency of

symbols by arbitrarily assigning some group of letters to represent

the phonetic elements of each word of the language. One result

of this practice is, that in different languages, different powers are

given to the same letter. This is rapidly becoming a greater and

greater evil, as the study of the languages, especially the modern,

becomes more general and more necessary. It is not easy to over-

come the power of a fixed habit and give a new sound to a famil-

iar letter. specially is this difficult when the new power of the

letter differs but little from the old, as when, for instance, we learn

the continental o — a simple sound — or when a student from the

Continent learns our o—a diphthong. I set this fault of the al-

phatet among the chief reasons why we come so far short of

mastering the orthoépy of foreign languages. The importance

of this feature of linguistic study cannot well be overestimated.

The fact that there are less letters in the alphabet than there are

elementary sounds in our language leads to the fatal necessity of

employing the same letter in different capacities. This unsettles

the powers of the alphabet, and disturbs the logical order of edu-

cation, even for the children in our common schools. Unfortu-

nately the confusion thus necessitated does not stop with the limit

of the necessity. The demoralization consequent upon the un-

systematic use of letters with variable powers has greatly increased

the burden of a common education. The first letter of the alpha-

bet is given, by some careful orthoépists, nine distinct sounds, as

in ale, any, care, pan, pass, arm, idea, what and all. The same

52 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters.

uncertainty attends all the vowels, though the variations are most

numerous in the case cited. This leads to the extraordinary phe-

nomenon of representing about fifteen elementary vowel sounds

in about forty-seven different ways in the same language. The

consonants afford but little relief, the simple surd palatal sibilant

being represented in twenty-two ways, requiring in all forty-seven

letters. The language affords many examples of sounds variously

represented by dissimilar characters, among both vowels and con-

sonants. The habit of representing simple sounds by digraphs

like ph, sh, th, ng, wh, ah, aw, etc., 1s very expensive and by no

means luxurious. ‘The various spellings of the same syllables, as

in tion, sion, con and shun ; the various pronunciation of the same

combinations of letter, as ough in though, through, bought, plough,

cough and enough ; and the hundred and twenty-four silent letters

out of every thousand in an average book, constitute a material

and moral burden that the age can ill afford to carry.

Our alphabet could be employed to far better advantage than

at present; but its erudeness discourages all refinement in its use.

It is barbarous in both its origin and its character. It mingles

surds, sonants, gutterals, dentals, labials, and vowels and conson-

ants in such perfect confusion that to inquire for their principle of

arrangement could be understood only as a jest.

A startling statement has been made by Mr. James W. Shearer,

that only five words in the English language are pronounced as

they are spelled. The word ois among the number. It hasa

consonant that is nearly, though not quite, uniform in its use.

But the vowel o as heard in this word, represents two elementary

vowel sounds —the first being the exact contenental o and the

other a short vanishing w, like the vowel of moon. This combi-

nation corresponds with the name of the letter and its popular

“long” sound.

In this word, the sound of 0, which Mr. Shearer, in all proba-

bility, has set down as the proper sound occurs, according to Pro-

fessor Whitney’s table of frequency, only one hundred and sey-

enty-six times in ten thousand words, while ‘short 0,” as in not,

occurs two hundred and fifty-nine times. Strictly speaking, there

isno knowing when a word 7s “‘ pronounced as spelled” in our

Letters an Hmbarrassment to Literature. 53

lancuage, though we can generally be sure that our words are not

pronounced as spelled.

One of the chief elements of elocution is orthoépy. A careful

and correct articulation marks refinement and scholarship every-

where. Nothing is better established in philology than the unti-

versal indolence of the organs of speech. ‘This is attested by all

forms of assimilation, as well as by the dropped syllables of all

the uncuitivated Teutonic and other dialects. It is not for eu-

phony that we say collateral for con-lateral, but for economy of ar-

ticulation. The » contact, of the whole tongue with the hard

palate, completely obstructing the passage of the breath by the

mouth, is unlike that of 7 by only a part of the contact, the sides

of the tongue being withdrawn from the palate or teeth, while the

lips remain as before. ‘I'o save the effort of this slight variation

of the position of the tongue, we assimilate the n to the. This

disintegrat.ng tendency is a force that operates perpetually against |

the correctness of our pronunciation. Some of the corruptions of

utterance are attended with corresponding changes of orthography ;

but these changes have been capricious, and spelling and pronun-

ciation have become so completely divorced that no rules can

longer account for all the disagreements between orthography and

orthoépy.

If the symbols of our writing were exact, all the tendency of

reading would be toward purifying, instead of corrupting, our

utterances. A distinct symbol for every sound in our speech,

with its power fully described and thoroughly practiced in con-

nection with learning the forms of the letters, would correct every

error of pronunciation Hvery written or printed word would then

suggest and impress its proper sounds, and reading and elocution

could not fail to make the most rapid advance. The orthoépy of

our language is demoralized by its barbarous alphabet, and, till

that is reformed, it cannot expect to recover any fair standing.

One of our literary disabilities which we charge, with some as-

perity of feeling, to our orthography, is the difficulty of rapidly

reading, or skimming, books to gain their leading thoughts, or to

discover their views upon some special subject. Even under its

54° Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters.

present difficulties, this method enables a student to make a far

wider acquaintance with literature, and to give a better authority

to his authorship, than if he should read altogether by the delib-

erate examination of every page and word.

The mechanical difficulty of rapid writing also, troublesome in

every literary pursuit, is peculiarly so in the higher education.

The use of lectures, in university instruction, is embarrassed so

much by the necessarily slow and burdensome process of writing

out the lectures of the professors that we cannot afford to make

that use of lectures which is so popular in Germany, and which,

but for this obstacle, might be very useful in our own educational

methods.

Only five or ten years ago, spelling reform was looked upon as

the impracticable notion of a few dreamers. At present, it has

the support of the leading philologists of England and America.

Indeed, the only work in this interest which is likely to abide, has

been done by our foremost linguistic scholars. Reports very fa-

vorable to this reform have been made by committees of both the

American Philological Association and the National Educational As-

sociation. Some special organizations have been formed, both in

this country and in England, to promote this same end. The

Germans also have taken active measures to correct the compara-

tively few and slight orthographic defects of their language. The

Royal Commission, appointed by Minister Falk, reported such

modifications as violate the historic spelling just about as often as

they violate phonetic principles. Such a compromise, though now

the law of the Empire, could not hope for great popularity; but

it is noteworthy that the complaint that reaches our ears is chiefly

on account of the half-way character of the reform, rather than

because the sacred order of the letters has been disturbed. Under

such sentiments, a Reform League has been formed in Germany

aiming to complete the reform, and introduce it into common use.

They make a forcible showing of some of the advantages of the

reform, in the following mathematical fashion :

‘Tf, after the adoption of phonetic spelling, each child at school

were to save only one lesson in spelling every week, that, for sixty

millions of Germans, would amount to a saving of five million

Letters an Hinbarrassment to Interature. 5d

years. Hach child would save forty-eight hours in a year, which,

if we reckon each day as consisting of twelve working hours,

would give four days in a year, or thirty-two days during the eight |

years spent at school. ach child would therefore save about one

month at school, twelve children one year, sixty millions of Ger-

man children five millions of years. These might be applied to

some better purposes than to find out whether we should write

libe or liebe.”

These same considerations apply in English with tenfold more

force. If, therefore, the Germans will not tolerate even a moiety

of the few phonetic defects of their orthography, what satisfaction

can we expect from a half-and-half reform of our own? But our

reformers are inquiring not how little change will satisfy the peo-

ple, but how much they will suffer. They put too low an esti-

mate upon the public intelligence, and are far too sensitive about

being compared with Josh. Billings and other gentlemen who spell

better in jest than other people in earnest. Fortunately the pub-

le is conservative enough to cling to the old system till a better

one is found. A reform that needs reforming must always be un-

satisfactory. Several systems of spelling by the aid of the old

alphabet, with or without modifications, are now before the public.

They exhibit evidence of careful study and economy almost he-

roic. But economy, carried to the pitch of saving a few new

symbols at the expense of saddling upon unborn generations

another irrational method of writing, becomes a groveling parsi-

mony.

Mr. Bell’s system of “ Visible Speech” is the most thorough-

going attempt yet made to form a simple, exact, and universal

system of phonetic rotation. This was never intended for general

use, and, as Prof. W. D. Whitney has shown, is not perfectly

adapted to replace the alphabet; but it has demonstrated the grand

possibilities of phonetic symbolism.

Thanks to such men as Mr. Bell, Mr. Ellis, and Profs. Halde-

mann, March, and Whitney, we have at last a rapidly maturing

phonetic science, which is both the indispensable sone nie, and

the sure promise, of a rational alphabet.

DEPARTMENT OF SPECULATIVE PHILOSOREie

MR. SPENCER'S SOCIAL ANATOMY.

By H. M. SIMMONS, of Kenosha.

The ancient and hackneyed simile comparing social to animal

structure, at length assumes scientific form in Herbert Spencer’s

last volume (‘‘ Principles of Sociology”). His comparison is very

ingenious. Individuals are the cells of the social structure ;

although not in physical contact like animal cells, still through

language and various influences they become virtually in contact.

The earlest social organizations are small and loose groups where

each individual retains a large measure of independence; like a

cluster of vorticellae or a sponge, where each cell retains its sep-

arate life. But with advancing society the organizations grow

larger, population like animal tissue grows denser, and the indi-

vidual like the cell becomes more dependent on the aggregate, as

the differentiation of structure and function advances. A savage

tribe, like a rhizopod, is homogeneous, each part serving for any kind

of work at demand. But with advance society separates into

classes, with increasing division of labor, just as rising animal

structure shows its increase of organs.

The first differentiation in Mr. Spencer's analysis is between out-

side and inside. In the animal, outside hardens and assumes

organs of defense and attack, while inside becomes stomach and

varied alimentary system. So society separates into an outer

class of masters, warriors, and rulers for protection, and an inner

class of slaves and laborers for procuring and preparing sustenance.

Between inside and outside must be another system to distribute

the sustenance when prepared. This becomes circulation in the

animal and commerce in the state. Finally in the outer layer of

Mr. Spencer's Social Anatomy. 57

the animal arises a varied nervous system, with organs of sense

and will for the regulation of the whole; so in the dominant class

in the state arises government with its varied means for obtaining

information and executing orders for the regulation of the whole.

So in social as in animal structure, Mr. Spencer traces three sys-

tems: first, the inner sustaining system, — alimentation in the ani-

mal, and productive industries in the state; second, the distributing

system, —circulation in the animal and commerce ia the state ;

third, the regulating system, — the nervous structure of the animal

and the government in the state.

Mr. Spencer traces the analogies in detail. As the simple al-

imentary canal becomes divided into organs for mastication, disin-

tegration and the various processes of digestion; so the rude in-

dustries of a savage tribe grow diverse in the arts of civilization,

with the same method. As for instance, the liver originating in

separate bile-secreting cells scattered along the intestine, becomes

at length concentrated in a viscus with direct and ramifying

branches; so an industry commencing with separate workmen

scattered through the community, gradually becomes concentrated

in factories and a great manufacturing center.

The distributing system shows still more remarkable parallels.

Commerce commences with shifting paths through forests and

prairies, like the unwalled and changing lacunee in animal tissue.

But with advance the paths grow straight, and fixed in fenced

roads, like the walled blood vessels; and culminate in the double-

tracked railroads separating the outgoing and incoming currents, —

the arteries and veins of the social structure. These great chan-

nels of distribution in their ever-ramifying divisons grow smaller

in roads and lanes, and end in unfenced cart-tracks across the fields,

—the capillaries of commerce. As circulation commences in the

lower animals feeble and irregular, but culminates in the steady

pulse of the mammal; so commerce commences in feeble barter,

and rising through the irregular fair, comes at last to the steady

pulse of the daily market. Here and there a manufacture, like a

secreting gland, draws from the current the crude material, which

it works over into more refined products and then returns to the

circulation. So in the animal and social economy alike, the sus-

tenance is carried where needed.

58 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Leters.

The regulating system shows a like parallel in details. The

lowest tribes are nearly without government, as the lowest animals

without nerves. Then comes the rude chief, like a simple gan-

glion. Then comes the union of tribes, with one and its chief

raised to a kind of leadership, like the lower articulate with seg-

ments partially subordinate to the head. Then comes monarchy,

with its king controlling all subordinate rulers and members, like

a vertebrate with its nervous system fully centered in the brain.

But, as in the rising nervous structure, cerebrum and cerebellum,

the deliberative centers, imperceptibly arising, come to over-

shadow and control the sensory centers; so in the state, delibera-

tive assembiies, imperceptibly arising, come to overshadow and

control the personal will of the monarch, and government becomes

constitutional instead of autocratic, reasonable instead of impul-

sive and passionate. Jinally, as in the animal, the internal func-

tions are regulated by the sympathetic and vaso-motor systems

acting automatically; so the internal functions of the state, its

industry and commerce, come to be self-regulating, and need no in-

terference from the government.

These comparisons, doubtless, seem fanciful to many. But if

life is one, as we are learning, then such resemblances are natural.

Of course such parallelisms must not be pressed to details of

structure ; but in functions, they are not only natural but neces-

sary. - Society, like any other living thing, must have its suste-

nance and distribution, and its organs for these functions; and Mr.

Spencer’s analysis seems in general not only ingenious but true.

But, on a few points, Mr. Spencer seems open to criticism. ‘The

animal digestive system seems to correspond not to all the pro-

ductive industries of tne state, but only to the manufacturing in-

dustries. Digestion, like manufacture, takes the raw materials of

nature second-hand and prepares them for use. Hence digestion

is only part of the sustaining function. Beyond the secondary

process of preparing the sustenance lies the primary process of

getting it. Outside the animal digestive system are organs for

gathering food for digestion; and outside of manufactures are the

various agricultural, mining, lumbering, and other industries, for

gathering from nature the material for manufacture. All these

processes, of course, belong to the sustaining system. So the sus”

Mr. Spencer's Social Anatonry. 59

taining system is not all inside, as Mr. Spencer makes it, but

partly outside. It is outside before it isinside. The protozoon

is sustained by absorption through the surface, before stomach

cavity arises; and a savage tribe is sustained by the external in-

dustries of fishing and hunting before manufactures arise.

- This criticism does not injure the parallel, but helps it.» In this

external part of the sustaining system, we may also trace the an-

alogies between the animal and social structures. As the sustain-

ing system of the rhizopod is a mere surface folding around the

food coming in its way; so the lowest savages merely absorb the

uncooked roots, berries and molluscs that chance brings them.

But with the beginnings of stomach come cilia to entrap and ab-

sorb food, and tentacles to range through the water at random and

capture prey; so with the beginning of domestic life and the arts,

some men become hunters and fishers, the tentacles of the tribe

roving at random to entrap and capture game. With advance in

the animal, the external organs become fierce with appendages for

fichting; so advancing society produces its warrior class to win

sustenance by attack and plunder, —the claws and fangs of the

social body, growing more deadly as they become pointed with

bronze and steel. But asin the rising animal scale, fierce claws

at length give way to supple hands and cunning fingers, gathering

a better sustenance; so in the social body, the military class in

time give place to the industrial, and what was once the claws of

the state become the productive hand of civilization, peacefully

gathering from field, forest, earth and sea a far richer sustenance

than war can steal.

Again, one is forced to ask why Mr. Spencer has said nothing

of the respiratory system. Respiration is the function most char-

acteristic of and most essential to animal life. The sustaining

and distributing systems of which he says so much are purely

vegetative, — belong toa tree as much as to a man. But one

of the chief differences separating the animal from the vegetable

is respiration. ‘The animal absorbs oxygen, and the higher he is

in the scale, the more perfect his organs for absorbing it. In the

lowest animal the oxygen is absorbed from the water through the

general surface of the body; then through specialized places on

60 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters,

the surface, which in time fold and branch into gills; finally it is

absorbed more rapidly from the air through the perfect lung of

bird and mammal. Respiration seems the special mark of the

rising animal, and comes to be the most important function of

all. Hating may be omitted and the sustaining system lie idle

for days; but not breathing. Consciousness may be suspended

and the regulating system deranged: but the respiration must

goon. From respiration, too, come the warmth and energy of

higher life. The contrast between the torpid reptile and the

frigate bird which, as Michelet says, “ takes his breakfast on the

Senegal and dines in America,” comes largely from the contrast

in breathing powers. Even that higher life we call spiritual is as

closely linked with the breath as its name imphes. Foul air dulls

and fresh air quickens the thought. Even moral excellence seems

somewhat dependent on good breath. “Let everythiog that hath

breath praise the Lord,” says the Psalmist, and probably nothing

else will. The old fabulists were wise to figure Satan as a dragon,

— a poor-lunged creature, perhaps one of ‘the extinct gilled hali-

saurians. High life comes with breathing. To the sustaining

and distributing systems of the vegetable, must be added a re-

spiratory to make the animal; and it seems strange that Mr. Spen-

cer should have omitted this from his parallel.

We may not be able to trace the social gills and lungs or any

details of the respiratory structure, but the respiratory function is

plain in society. Respiration means consumption. Breathing is

burning, and the different methods are only so many ways of

keeping the fire. Gills furnish a poor draft; perfect lunes show

pipes, chimney, and heaving bellows at the bottom, and keep the

animal well burnt out. Stomach and lungs balance each other.

Stomach feeds and lungs eat; stomach accumulates and lungs con-

sume. The tree gathers and keeps, and so grows bigger every

year; the animal gathers and spends itself, turns its fiber into

force, warmth and action, and so after a little does not grow big-

ger, but grows better, ever burning out the old and keeping

itself renewed. Respiration means consumption of old tissue.

Society shows this process,— not the mere consum ption of which

the political economist speak, but the deeper consumption of the

Mr. Spencer's Social Anatomy. 61

social tissue itself. Men whose work is done are removed like

worn-out cells from the body. As even the older and solider

framework of the body is slowly removed, and our very bones

change; so even the older and more fundamental institutions are

slowly consumed and renovated in a healthy state that breathes

and lives. As this process of consumption works in nerve and

brain more rapidly than anywhere else; so in a healthy so-

ciety, thought and opinion show still more rapid change, as old

errors are abandoned and new knowledge gained. ‘This respira-

tion in society as in the animal, brings higher life by removing

the effete and poisonous elements from our institutions. Buckle

said the best work of legislators had been in undoing the work

of their predecessors. Advancing knowledge and thought do, in-

deed, eat away old opinions as oxygen consumes the brain, but

like that, for good. No need to restrict thought. There may, in-

deed, be social stages to which knowledge is fatal, as free air is to

fish. But we need not on that account restrict thought, any more

than we enact laws to keep fish in the water. Few men are too eager

to come out into the higher air, and whoever will, let him. Some

think this is the way lungs have come. It is safe for society to

absorb its gills and develop lungs as fast as it will. Knowledge

and thought do indeed, like oxygen, burn out old errors; but like

that, respect life, and harm nothing good. In state and body

alike the organism’s own vitality is ever renewing the wasted tissue,

and giving us better than we lost. The respiration which con-

sumes is yet the breath of life.

With all these parallels between the animal and social struc-

ture, we should note one contrast, to which Mr. Spencer refers.

Consciousness does not become centralized io the state. There is

no social sensorium. In the social body, unlike the animal, con-

sciousness is retained in each individual cell. So much does in-

dividualization seem to be one of the ends of nature. Constitut-

ing one body, we yet remain separate persons. Growing ever more

organized in one social structure, we become ever more personal too.

These two processes go on side by side, — the organization of the

whole and the perfection of the parts.

62 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters.

NATURE AND FREEDOM.

BY JOHN J. ELMENDORYF, S. T. D.,

Professor in Racine College.

Problems which concern the will have always been favorite

questions with American psychologists. There has seemed to be

a special fascination in the problem of reconciling the thought

of an infinite, omnipotent Being with what men know, or think

that they know of freedom in themselves? I do not hope to

add anything towards the solution of the question; on the con-

trary, I only allude to it because I desire, as far as possible, to

exclude it, in order to consider the relations of man to nature, of

the free thinker to that phenomenal world which is one of the

most attractive objects of his contemplation and study.

I notice at present a wide divergence between philosophy in its

strictest sense, as based on analysis of the necessary thought of

the free ego, and sciences of nature; 1. e., of the world of phenom-

ena which are observed, classified, aud made the objects of induc-

tion, along with an attempt at founding a philosophy upon them

exclusively.

The spheres of the two seem to me to be far apart, and their

methods, though each involving the other, essentialiy different.

On the one side is the domain of intelligence, freedom, wiil, con-

sciousness, morality, duty, activity. Here is an intelligence so

absolute that it hardly seems to be individual, because its note is

an absolute oneness in all men; here is a will, an activity, which

is identified with our own personality which attends to and observes

all outward phenomena, all inward states, seeks to find their unity

and their laws, and demands the how and the why in all things.

It criticises itself, and sits in judgment on its own faculties. ‘To

understand it, our method is necessarily introspective, and ana-

lytic of any concrete act of volition or of intelligence.

On the other side isa world of phenomena in which apparently

rule blind necessity, unvarying, inflexible order. We are sensi-

Nature and Freedom. 63

tive, but passive beings in their presence. It is the realm of

effects which we are regarding, effects transferred, transmuted,

but, so far as we can discover, unalterable. We see how, condi-

tions varying, the consequent varies, and therefore can conceive of

unlimited change. But because nothing is self-moved, we must

regard this phenomenal world as passive. (If we apply to it the

term activity, we merely mean the transfer of an impulse received,

not self-produced, and measure the result by the antecedent.) Its

characteristic note is individuality; generality, law, is the mind’s

discovery, and what the mind reads on that printed page of na-

ture. If we seem to find intelligent will any where, there we know

or assume a second ego like ourself.

Our method is inductive from these phenomena. Analysis, if

employed, is for reducing the complex to the simple, nothing more;

we group and classify, and, by induction, construct our chain of

antecedents and consequents. Further than this we cannot go,

and even the very validity of our inductive process itself car-

ries us out of this phenomenal sphere into the other on which it

rests.

Here then are these two spheres so unlike to be received. What

is their unity? How shall the man who is exclusively devoted to

one of them ‘“‘s’ orienter,” by getting a fairer and fuller view of

the truth. Can the scientist reconcile himself with the philoso-

pher; the believer in human freedom, morality, divine law of

conscience, intelligence, obligation, the student of metaphysics,

the ‘‘science of the sciences,’ with the strictly scientific observer

whose mind looks outward at phenomena reflected in impressions

on himself? The problem opened isa wide one. I desire to offer

only a few matters of thought.

But, as preliminary to the discussion, it may be well to notice

the wide difference in the very nature and habits of men them-

selves, in the tendency of different eras. One man; and such will

be a leading representative of our own age, is a most acute ob-

server of natural phenomena; from earliest childhood he has

been observing, collecting, comparing, trying experiments; and

his whole end is given to his noble work. Bring before him a

new fact, a trifling variation in a familiar species, the prospect of

64 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters.

some new discovery in nature, and to the eagerness of a child is

added the prompt grasp, the far-reaching vision of the scientist of

our day. But try him with some philosophical theorem, the very

one, it may be, which he himself is unconsciously assuming; it

elides off from the surface of his mind, making no impression

there; or, if he venture on philosophical statement at all, it is of

the crudest, most disjointed, or even inconsistent nature. He

would not be the true scientist, which he is, if he were equally

prompt and clear in the sphere of metaphysics. On the other

hand, there have been certain periods when men would haye found

these remarkable facts about the moons of Mars, or the fossils of

the far West, the most barren or trifling topics for a rational man’s

interest, and viewed with a smile or with pity the busy triflers who

so wasted their time. Instead of the fact, they could have de-

manded the universal, the idea. Until they had found that, they

would seem to themselves to have no place on which to plant

their feet, and would totter as on quicksands. We must willingly

accept these differences, cheerfully grant to each class its sphere

and only desire that each should kindly recognize the other. Let

the scientist, like the shoemaker, “stick to his last,” see where

the limits of his science are, wide enough, indeed, for any mortal

man, but that outside of them lies a “science of the sciences,”

which criticises, regulates, judges his conclusions, so far as they

can be abstracted from the particular facts where he alone is su-

preme.

I begin with a brief

HISTORICAL RETROSPECT.

In the Nicomachean ethics the profoundest thinker of antiquity

only incidentally touches the question before us, while seeking to

ground the principles of virtue and vice, of responsibility, of re-

wards and punishments, on the free, active principles in man,

because the passive, 1. e., impressions, sensitiveness, ‘‘ nervous

shocks,” as Spencer calls them, are not in our own power, and

they therefore contain no foundation for responsibility. With

his strong, good sense, Aristotle simply regards as voluntary what

we know in consciousness to have an intrinsic principle of action,

Nature and Freedom. 65

and consciousness is accepted as an ultimate criterion in all knowl-

edge, without any attempt to discriminate between the conceivable,

and the objectively true. We originate our own neutral action

or energy. Whatever be the motives, or “con-causes,” the mind

is known in consciousness to be active; and not, as it might ap-

pear from another point of view, the merely passive recipient of

impressions coming from without, which it in turn communicates,

as a sort of electric telegraph.

The involuntary is found where the passive predominates, i. e.,

where the principle of motion is from without. Aristotle also

makes a distinction, instructive enough, between (1) will, as above

described, seeking an end prescribed by nature, an end necessarily

sought, 1. e., a will, “determined ;” (2) will, Bovdjorc, which adds

hope of obtaining that end, (8) deliberate preferences zpoatoeacc,

which is the intelligent choice of particular means for getting

that end, the intelligent action of a rational man knowing what

he wills, ana selecting the means, which can be clearly distin-

guished from irrational desire in man and brute, which pushes

equally both of them towards an end, with apparently the same

determined necessity as the unknown force by which a crystal is

shaped into one form end cannot take another.

This being the free man, as Aristotle views him, his reason

which is hardly personal and individual in his proper self, dis-

cerns certain necessary principles, apodeictic truths, no matter

how he got them, assumed in every thought. They are not de-

rived from any special science, but underlie all sciences. They

admit of investigation, analysis, rigid statement not of proof.

They constitute the first philosophy.

In Aristotle’s physical treatises, we find the objective world, as

far as the thinking mind, had then explored it. Thus, the prob-

lem is opened; Epicurean and Stoical morals, necessarily touched

the question before us; I am not aware that any step further was

made towards an answer.

Christian dogmas necessarily give an added importance to the

question, and it is prominent enough, from St. Augustine’s time,

through the middle ages; but the aim was, not to reconcile free-

dom and nature, but to find how the infinite and absolute stand,

66 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters.

towards the finite and relative. The question of determinism and

liberty, of indifference, which I have said is not before us, other-

wise Aristotle’s analysis of will, rules eighteen centuries; to

move voluntarily, is to move, a principio intrinsico ; man judges

of the means to attain ends, which he understands, and selects

those means.

But when the tendency of thought began to desert the ‘‘ Gnothi

seauton”’ the one aim of so many ages, and to attend to the phe-

nomena of an outer world, revealed in consciousness through our

senses, phenomena, so strangely undervalued, by many leading

minds before; then necessarily arose a new impulse to thought,

concerning nature and freedom. I regard Hobbes, as the repre-

sentative thinker of the newera. It is well to place him with

reference to his age and circumstances. He is secretary to the

Lord Chaucellor, who collects ‘‘centuries” of observations on

sounds, fruits, plants, etc., and who without discovery or original

thought, gives a new impulse to empirical science, showing us the

‘promised land,” which he did not enter, and calls metaphysics,

a spinning of spiders’ webs out of the thinker’s brain. Kepler

was dead only some ten years. Galileo, was just buried. The

Royal Society, itself, just founded, along with other such societies

throughout Europe, is the clearest indication of men’s minds, out-

ward to the phenomena of nature. A philosophy for their science

was indispensable, and Hobbes provided it, the “‘ patriarch of pos-

itive philosophy,” as Comte calls him. We know only, says he.

phenomena and tieir chain of sequences. Contrast this, with the

previous philosophy of which Dante is the popular representative.

Proceeding to nature from what is known in consciousness of the

active ego, and reasoning by analogy, there would be nothing un-

philosophical in the assumption, that natural phenomena are caused

by the active and productive power of spirits like us; and this is

Dante’s theory. How different with Hobbes! The phenomena

of the active ego, are by him, little regarded. The mind is almost

or altogether a passive thing, moved as other passive things are

moved. So it takes its place in nature’s chain of many links, pull

on any one, the whole is moved; or rather, this chain pulls itself ;

freedom has disappeared.

Nature and Freedom. 67

And yet the opposite aspect of the truth obtrudes itself once

more, under the name of “ force,” only there is no honest analysis

of the meaning of that convenient symbol; no strict interrogation

of consciousness, no straightforward endeavor to ascertain what it

is, of which we are conscious; what phenomena, what processes,

what results. The belief that our thought, our mental act, the

force we exert is free, is itself a phenomenon the most constant of

all phenomena ; it requires to be accounted for. If our conscious-

ness is false here, it may be false in any thing. ‘I will,” “I will

not,’ a child’s word, clearly distinguishable from, ‘‘ I want to ete,”

‘“T do not want to, etc.,” raises three questions to which Hobbes,

gives no answer. 1. What doesit mean? 2. Where did the reality

it expresses begin? 3. How, by introspection, do we become

aware of it, and try to account forit? While Hobbes fails us

here, it may be doubtful whether his method, though developed,

has since yielded a better or a different result.

Locke, with his analysis of power, as ‘“‘a simple mode, whose

idea is derived from choice or determination,” evidently seems to

be reinstating freedom once more. But the mind is regarded as

passive in the formation of ideas, and Hume’s subtile criticism

causes it to disappear altogether. So the question of its freedom

necessarily vanishes with it; and as for metaphysics, the best

synonym for them, is a want of common sense. We owe to two

men, it seems to me, deliverance from this excessive preponderance

of the phenomenal, the passive, as a factor in thought —to Reid

and Kant. ‘The latter, perhaps will give an impulse to thought,

in which objective nature will once more disappear, remaining

only as modes of the ego, so that we shall merge the objective in

an extreme idealism; but the sharp distinction in self, of desire,

from rational will, the clear discrimination of the empirical, both

as object and as method, the domain of the sciences, from the uni-

versal; the domain of philosophy with its own special method of

analysis, of institutions and interrogation of consciousness, these,

if once grasped, are an anchorage amid these fluctuating waves of

thought.

But to Reid’s strong Scotch common sense, albeit somewhat

superficial, we owe some principles which we are not likely to lose:

68 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters.

1. Already intimidated by Locke, that active power is conceiv-

able only in a being possessed of will and intelligence. Whence

came the ready inferences; a, that sciences of practice, deal only

with a series of consecutive phenomena ; 8, that cause, either effi-

cient or final, is not an element of those sciences; c, that in such

sciences, force is a mere abstraction, an unknown, undiscoverable ;

force necessarily assumed throughout, since we are studying its

effects, but left as an unknown quantity without inquiring what

more it means than what we see; andd, that Prof. Tyndall, has -

made a mistake when he wandered from heat, sound and glaciers,

which he understands, to dabble in philosophy, and will prove

himself a true scientist by confining himself to his proper work,

where he will have all the honor and success which he so justly

deserves.

2. We have learned through Kant and Reid, that law or will

in nature, is fundamentally different from cause or force; the one, .

which J. S. Mill has so well analyzed, the invariable sequence of

phenomena; the other, a thing incapable of definition, perhaps,

as being an ultimate principle, yet, found everywhere in language,

because, in its concrete reality, it is in all men’s thoughts and ex-

perience. ;

8. That free choice is directed to an action willed, being the

choice of means to an end, while desire is of an end.

4, That will, by repeated actions, creates habits, not instinct,

which is a name for another unknown ~ in the sphere of nature,

not of consciousness. I mean that a certain series of effects are

seen in brutes, and something like them in men. Not knowing

any more, we group them and then call their unknown cause in-

stinct. :

5. As the result of all these, that metaphysics, philosophy,

has its own sphere, as the sciences have theirs, and we shall do

well to separate them.

Finally, to conclude our historical retrospect, we have Spencer,

with his American disciple, Fiske, endeavoring once more to con-

struct a philosophy of the phenomenal in aid of contemporary

science. That both of these writers fail te give an account of the

phenomena of consciousness is a verdict which cannot here be

Nature and Freedom. 69

justified. That the problem of nature and conscious freedom is

not to be solved by annihilating one of its factors, I will not re-

peat; but will only ask that an analysis of mind, whose ultimate

point, is element of mind equals nervous shock, even if it allow Mr.

Fiske to substitute “psychical shock” must necessarily fail to satisfy

many who earnestly seek for truth. For it leads us to ask,

1. What are elements of mind in me, whose self is kuown, if

known at all, as an enduring, invisible unit; at least that is what

I mean when I say “J,” and you must first prove that Iam

wrong; and in doing it, you also will use the same word, and I

shall understand the same enduring, indivisible unit in you.

2. What one-sided tendency led a writer on psychology to

employ nervous shock as the ultimate element of mind?

8. Call it psychical shock, and what is the thing that is

shocked, notknown apart from its shocks ; but known as shocked?

Or, if the question be relegated to the unknowable, how is a -

shock of self related to a perceived shock of the air, or the in-

ferred shock of an electrified body? A figure of speech settles

nothing in philosophy or science. One of the above is a fact of

consciousness referred to self; the other, to something outside of

ego; the air, when the brain is shocked.

4. Granting that Spencer and Fiske have rendered some ac-

count of the passive factor in phenomena, what is to be said of

the active, which our consciousness reveals and Mr. S., we pre-

sume, employed in finding out his explanation ?

An historical retrospect is instructive as showing the tendencies

of thought, and giving some account of opinions now prevailing.

I come to the

PRESENT STATE OF THE QUESTION,

Is any reconciliation possible where there is such wide diverg-

ence? Only, I maintain, when we acknowledge and keep steaidly

in view the dual aspect of the truth. This is not by any means

a fundamental dualism, from the metaphysical point of view.

But sciences of phenomena, as the accidents of true being, may be

separated by their objects and methods, from the science of true

being with its proper method; whether we are dualists or monists,

70 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Ledters.

while we still recognize the mutual dependence of the two spheres

of knowledge which necessarily involve one another. Entire disre-

gard of either side, subjective, or objective, active or passive, phe-

nominal or real, material or formal, to employ the old phraseology,

widens the gulf of separation. Frank acceptance of different

methods in different spheres for different ends may aid both par-

ties in reaching the common meeting place.

Nature is all around us, and reflected within us, inviting us to

investigate, to master it. Phenomena are to be carefully observed,

experimentally produced, classified, and referred to general laws.

This is the objective, the passive, which the free conscious thought

of man is reducing to order within him by discerning the order

in it, and without him. Thence come to us the notions of con-

straint, of necessity, of energy communicated to something which

is passively removed, and of invariable sequence. And this is all

that the mind thus knows. It knows no power, no cause; but

only a transfer, merely of sensible effects, whose resultant always

remains the same, and it arrives at that consumation of physical

discovery, the conservation of energy. Thus far I believe all are

agreed, for the analysis of the empiricist himself finds nothing

more than this in cause or force. The mind indeed requires an

attraction called “force” to account for these effects, because the

free soul demands that they shall be accounted for. But it will

only confuse language and thought, to confound such an assump-

tion, giving unity to sensible results, with intellicent will in our-

self as a name for our spontaneous activity’ which we know in

exercising it, or with cause as expressing a notion derived from

our own spontaneous and productive activity; which also we

know in exercising it.

Let one travel on the road of the senses as far as he may, he is

still at an infinite distance from the infinite form which christians

call God, and from his own free self. For no agerecate of phe-

nomena is any more than an aggregate, even when it vanishes in

the indefinite, which we are so apt to confound with the infinite ;

this indefinite sam of phenomena has not led usa step towards

active being, finite or infinite.

Beside nature, then, is this active ego of ours, attending by

Nature and Freedom. 71

its intelligent will, to this wonderful world of phenomena; con-

scious that itself chooses to regard, now this one, now that one of

its own passive sensations and feelings; that it actively moves

from within to meet influences which ié does not produces, and in-

telligently applying rational laws to their investigation. The free

soul is conscious, indeed, of motives to ends which it cannot help

desiring ; but it intelligently chooses means to reach those ends.

In concrete application, it were folly to deny this. It is only

the abstract and universal form of it which the student of nature

may ignore or oppose. Here there are facts of a different order

from those phenomena, from even those phenomena of sensibility,

which also consciouness reveals to the attending mind for its scien-

tific inductions, inductions which themselves are based on those

higher truths.

To develop this point may delay usa moment. And avoiding

as far as I may, any metaphysical question connected with the

will, I offer, as a test of the distinction between nature and self-

freedom, our intelligent consciousness of motives and of purposes

in our mental action. It is evidently possible to overlook the

very starting point of investigation, which is that, in mind, as a

unit are the willing, the motive, and the purpose. While even

so subtle a thinker as Edwards, analyzing what is essentially one,

may put metives on the one side, the eyo on the other, and calcu-

late the force which one part of an indivisible entity exerts on

another, as if he had a problem in mechanics to solve, and may

easily prove that the movable part is moved in the direction of

least resistance, or strongest repulsive force. But “ determin-

ism’’ is not our subject. The facts given in consciousness are

these. We know what end we seek, i. e., we know our motive;

we choose the means with deliberation, in our own purposes look

forward to the future, and determine our future acts. Language

informs us that other men do the same.

But pass to the sphere of nature, of objective phenomena, and

internal, passive states. It is necessarily present. Its past is in

memory,in our mind. Its future only prophetically there. There

is no possible induction which can put motives or purposes there,

until we introduce the notion of an intelligent being ruling na-

72 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters.

ture. Anthropomorphically, poetically, or philosophically, if you

will, it may be affirmed, but no inductive science can inclose con-

scious intelligence within a crystal or an art, as certainly as we

know our own in considering our motives. For who pretends

that when a Colorado beetle lays its eggs on a potato leaf, it has

in view the prospective comfort of future larvae?

Motives, then, may be regarded as “‘ con-causes,” as conditions

of natural action, for this intelligent ego of ours acting, but not

acting towards anything or for anything, is inconceivable; it is

nonsense. And we know also that we do not create the ends

which we seek. But, on the other hand, to consider motives with-

out regarding the mind’s assent would contradict our continual

experience. We may, if we will, ask what causes the assent;

but we shall find no answer. To transfer physical associations to

the facts of self-consciousness would be unscientific. We can

have no induction from phenomena, because the very concept of

power of cause is notin them. Experience simply tells us that

we will, assent, move mentally, and then something outward

follows. But it is a universal experience that when we do not

assent, we do respect, when we assent, it is mental motion, when we

energetically assent, we act energetically.

I work, finally, to obviate some possible misapprehension, and

anticipate some objections. In the appeal to consciousness, noth-

ing is said of the sphere of the unconscious in its relations to

mind, because the question belongs to philosophy; the inductive

sciences as such have nothing to do with it. Neither is a dual-

ism in the sphere of being either maintained or denied, but only

the contrast between inductive sciences based on a series of con-

secutive, and, so far as we see, inseparable phenomena, and the

philosophy of the free self, its thought, its intelligence, its rela-

tions to nature on the one side, and the Infinite and Absolute on

the other.

1. We hear much of the universality | of law. But, on find-

ing by our analysis, as an ultimate factor of consciousness a free

self, energizing from within, we do not find its freedom to be an

exemption from law. Biichner, in his “ Matter and Force,”’ most

unjustifiably assumes this. The error is like that in theology of

Nature and Freedom. 73

assuming that the miracle is a violation of Jaw. If this were the

case, then the contrast between the free subject, and the passive

object in which we always discover law, would be greater. But

exemption from law would be irrational, immoral, blind chance,

precisely what the soul is not. But this freedom is consciously

and intelligently taking to one’s self a law which, as the “ catego-

rical imperative,” is reason’s universal law, this free self-discovery.

It is by this that we are brought into due relation to the world

of rational beings, and freely take our place among them, citizens,

not slaves, in that illustrious commonwealth.

It is ego, also, which discerns law in nature, and, by assenting

puts its free self under that, using nature’s laws for its own ends

and purposes. Because freedom is not iti nature, we could not

think of advising crystals how to form, nor of counseling the so-

ciety of bees, nor of exhorting the birds; though we may sepa-

rate and combine the energies of these slaves of nature to serve

our plans. But because we believe that other men also have self-

freedom, and language utters free thought, we speak of nights,

justice, counsel, advice for free men. If sciences of nature have

no place for these, and Ido not see that consistently they have

any, then empirical, inductive sciences are not exhaustive of truth;

and, instead of awkward attempts to insert them where they do

not belong, it would be better frankly to acknowledge the two-

sided aspect of the truth.

2. It may be objected that if a man’s character, if all his ante-

cedents, circumstances, motives, were known, his actions could be

infallibly predicted, and, consequently, he is a part of nature, and

his mind wholly an object of scientific induction.

But I reply:

1. That this proposition itself is nota scientific induction from

observed facts. For these are only of the present; the past is re-

tained by mind; the future is not given at all. Neither in this

case can we verify our prophecies, and so confirm our hypothesis,

‘since all turns upon an 7. ‘The subjective sphere to which the

objector refers is only known in our own consciousness; so he

either begs the question, or asserts only that self, under these con-

ditions can predict its own acts.

74. Wisconsin Academy of Sctences, Arts, and Letters.

2. If the objection states a fact, it means only that self-free-

dom is moral and rational, logical and orderly, and so ego freely

assents to and follows its own laws. If we knew the order, and

could look forward through the aims and intentions, i. e., if we

were the very individual in question, we could predict his course,

presuming him to be as rational as ourself. How this resembles

the prediction of an eclipse, where the phenomena are objective,

are before the eyes of all, I fail to see.

3. Lastly, it may be said that, after all, the problem is not

solved. I do not say that from the metaphysical standpoint, con-

sciousness spans the gulf between mind and matter; between sub-

ject and object. It is sufficient for my purpose, in pointing out

the limits of the sciences of nature, that those sciences being

purely inductive from phenomena, whether of external sense, or

of internal sensibility, raust regulate these critical questions to

philosophy as being out of their sphere. The moment we regard

the results of will in our own limits, we have passed into the

sphere of nature aud the sciences; we are to search for the invari-

able antecedents of the lifting of our arm, and may, possibly have

a regret ad inf. in the transmutatious of energy. We find no pro-

duction; action and reaction are equal. Perhaps a molecular vi-

bration in the brain is transmitted into motion in the fingers,

which vibration has also its antecedent, loosely called, its cause.

But what we know in the mental spheres, is pure and true activ-

ity. We not only desired to move our arm for rational ends, we

willed it. Experience only has shown its result in the outward

sphere, etc., that the arm moved. We might have willed and no

such result have followed. But, the antecedents being there, we

expect the consequent, and even introduce that strange word

necessity, the consequents must follow, which surely the experi-

ence does not contain.

Consciousness does not span this gulf; the objection is ad-

mitted; yet as a known fact, the free self directs its act towards

this other phenomenal world, even in examining it, classifying its

phenomena, and reasoning upon them. How, then, can he who

explores the heavens, ignore the existence of his telescope? In

other words, how can the devotee of nature ignore his own men-

Nature and Freedom. 75

tal existence, while in every word, he is declring his own spir-

itual activity and freedom ?

Consciousness may not tell us how we pass from subject to

spirit ; from mind to matter, though it may clearly reveal the fact ;

but to make the ego convertible with a nervous shock or any

part, or the whole sum of sensible or conceivably sensible phe-

nomena is spanning the gulf by ignoring one side of it. Spencer

and Fiske try to translate the force, the active, into the passive,

the externally necessitated; une proportion, I act, I am acted

upon; and so thought becomes confusion, language, empty bab-

ble. We know not how to argue with certain thinkers; for we

find ourselves carried back to the premises which we, with the

rest of mankind, have assumed as not needing proof. Premises

are treated as assumptions, till finally nothing remains admissible

except individual impressions, ‘‘ psychical shocks,” and we do not

know why we shouid admit these, since there is nothing left to be

shocked, or what to infer from them, since we ourselves, the ob-

server and the reasoner, are only a series of these shocks.

In summing up then, I find the position of Reid, for the scient-

ist, a sufficient and practical foundation. In nature, causes so

called, J. S. Mill, has well enough analyzed, as invariable se-

quences. I see no occasion for controversey, if we understand

our terms. But the constant use of such words as “causes,”

“force,” in different sense, seems to me to aid the old logomachy.

Causes, in the sense of efficient and productive power, or purposes

intelligently aimed at @ ¢., final causes we see not in nature. But

consciousness goes along with our observations; consciousness of

voluntary attending, generalizing, inferring; ego a mirror reflect-

ing the objective, but arriving at results in another sphere than

that of images, and attaining ends which we aim at or produce.

Hrom language we cannot elminate this side of the truth; “TI

make,” ‘I produce,” “I cause.” - Something sensible, indeed

may follow, but “I will this volition” is an ultimate fact, admit-

ting of no further analysis, except it be that of Des cartes’ “ cogzto.”

If it be itself, an effect, no consciousness declares it to be so,

therefore we have no object of scientific inductions, the subject-

matter belongs to philosophy. Motions are not causes; neither

76 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters.

of them are invariable sequences. The two former are in the ~

mind, as aspects of the active self, and by its own laws referred

to other beings, es similar activities: the latter are in the mind

as observers of passive results which it only observes.

As there has been a senseless irrational antagonism between

science and the christian faith, whose methods and spheres differ

so widely, so these may seem to be between the empirical road,

the broad high-way of the science, and the narrow, difficult path

of metaphysics. But the antagonism is not real. The aims are

different, the mental powers employed are distinct, the method,

consequently, is different. The instrument of the one is induc-

tion, of the other analysis. The scientist has sometimes vexed

us, sometimes provoked a smile, by the assumption that all things

in heaven and earth are subject to him. But we have looked

again, and there was speaking another free, proud self, like us;

he has been taking for granted what we wished to understand, or,

at least, to investigate more closely by asking, how he knew, and

with what, and by what does he know anything, and so we only

smiled at him, and said, let us both go our several ways, and do

the best we can for the truth.

DEPARTMENT OF NATURAL SCIENCES:

NOTES ON CLADOCERA.

By EDWARD A. BIRGE, Pu. D.

During the past three years I have collected Cladocera at inter-

vals. The group has been little studied in this country, though

thoroughly worked up in Hurope. I have found several new

forms, including one new genus, and now publish a synopsis of

the work hitherto done by me.

I give only the more important references under the synonymy

The works most useful for reference on this group are:

O. F. Miller, Zoologize Danicee Prodromus. 1776.

st Entomostraca. 1785.

Jurine, Hist. d. Monocles qui se trouvent aux environs de Geneve. 1820.

Liéven, Branchiopoden der Danziger Gegend. 1818.

Baird, Natural History of the British Entromostraca. 1850.

Fischer, Ueber die Crustaceen aus den Ordnungen der Branch. und Ento-

mos. 1851.

“ Erganzungen, Berichtigungen und Fortsetzung zu der Abhi. ii. d. in

der Umg. von St. Petersburg vorkommenden Crustaceen. 1854.

Liljeborg, De Crustaceis ex ordinibus tribus; Cladocera, etc. 1853.

Koch, Deutschlands Crustaceen, etc. 1835.

Schédier, Neue Beitrage zur Naturgeschichte der Cladoceren. 1863.

oe Die Cladoceren des frischen Hafts. 1863.

a Zur Naturgeschichte der Daphniden. 1877.

Leydig, Naturgeschichte der Daphniden. 1860.

P. E. Miiller, Danmarks Cladocera, 1868..

Kurz, Dodekas neuer Cladoceren. 1874.

Weissman is now contributing some very valuable papers on structure and

physiology to the Zeitschrift fiir Wissenschaftliche Zoologie.

In my notes, all the above papers are cited by the name of the

author, or, if necessary, by adding to his name a single word.

78 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters.

SECTION 1. CALYPTOMERA. Sars.

Family 1. Sidide.

CENUS: i

SIDA. Strauss, 1820.

Srpa, Strauss, 1820. (Mem. sur les Daph. Mem. Nat. Hist., VI, 157.)

Liéven, Liljeborg, Leydig, Baird, Schédler, Sars, P. E. Miller, Kurz.

Spa, Fischer. :

SPECIES 1.

SIDA CRYSTALLINA. O. F. Miiller.

Dapune Crystatiina, O. F. M. Zool. Dan. Prod., 2405.

For the long synonymy of this species, see P. E. Miiller, Danmarks Clado-

cera, p. 101-2.

There appears to be no well marked difference between our

species and that of EKurope. I wish to notice only one or two

points with regard to it. Claus (Zeit. Wiss. Zool. Vol. XX Va

asserts that he has seen a second maxilla in Sida. I have looked

for it carefully, and under most favorable circumstances, but have

failed to find it. I am inclined to question its existence. The

appendage has been seen by no other observer, not even G. O,

Sars.

The projection on the inside of the basal joint of the legs

(“processus maxillaris,” Sars), is triangular in shape, with ten

stout spines and a large number of sete. This may be homolo-

gous to the “appendix interior” (P. E. Miiller) in Pollyphemus.

Cambridge and Southampton, Mass.; Madison, Wis. Quite

plenty everywhere.

GENUS 2.

DAPHNELLA. Baird, 1850.

DaPuHNELLA, Baird, Schédler, Sars, P. L. Miiller, Kurz.

DrarHaNosoma, Fischer.

Notes on Cladocera. 79

SPECIES 1.

Plate II. Figs. 1-4.

DAPHNELLA EXSPINOSA. sp. Nov.

Length, circ. 0.85. mm.; height, 0.4 mm.

Length of head, 0.25 mm.; of valves, 0.60 mm.

Diameter of eye, 0.07 mm.

Length of head less than half that of the valves. Antennz

reaching only about two-thirds the length of the valves when

bent backward. Post-abdomen without caudal teeth. Hye large.

The valves are marked only by the ends of the “‘stutz-balken.”

Their edges bear numerous small, movable spines (0.0018 mm.

long). The shape and general proportions resembles those of D.

brachyura (Liéven). There are, however, marked differences in

details.

The indentation between head and body is greater than in D.

brachyura. ‘The post-abdomen has no caudal teeth. The termi-

nal claws have three teeth and are not serrate. The appendages

of the male, in which the vasa deferentia open, do not reach so

far as the base of the terminal claws. In D. brachyura they reach

beyond the claws. The vas deferens opens, not near the heel of

the foot-shaped termination, but below the instep. The anten-

nules of the male are longer proportionately.

Southampton, Mass., 1878. Common.

Family 2. Daphnide.

GENUS 1.

Morna. Baird, 1850.

SPECIES 1.

Moinsa BRACHIATA. Jurine.

For synonymy of genus and species, see P. E. Miiller, pp. 1382-133.

Pool beside railroad, near Yahara river, Madison, Wis., July,

1877. Present in immense numbers.

80 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters.

GENUS 2.

CERIODAPHNIA. Dana.

CERIODAPHNIA, Dana. U.S. Expl. Ex. Crustacea, Vol. II, p. 1265.

ss Sars, P. E. Miller, Kurz.

SPECIES 1.

PlateI. Figs. 1-2.

CERIODAPHNIA DENTATA. sp. nov.

Head angulated in front of antennules. Shell reticulated with

hexagonal meshes. Terminal claws with a row of teeth on out-

side and finely serrate inside.

The head is prolonged, and is distinctly angulated in front of

the antennules. The shell of the head and body is reticulated

with hexagonal meshes. The lines of reticulation vary from al-

most imperceptible to very strongly marked, in different speci-

mens. ‘The shell may be transparent or opaque. ‘There is a dis-

tinct projection at the junction of the dorsal and posterior mar-

gins, almost aspine. The fornices are broad and projecting, but

are smoothly rounded over and have no angular projection. The

post-abdomen is of moderate size, truncate, with seven or eight

caudal teeth on each size, and with scattered, very fine hairs. The

terminal claws are armed with from 0 to 8 (usually 6) teeth on

the outer side. The teeth vary much in size, are often exceed-

ingly fine, and rarely altogether absent. There is also a row of

very fine teeth extending to the tip of the claw. This is only to

be seen in good specimens and with a high power (4 Wales), and

sometimes, though rarely, cannot be seen at all. The abdominal

process is rather blunt, and has fine hairs scattered upon its sur-

face, as has also that part of the abdomen behind it. Cambridge.

Southampton and vicinity, Mass.; Madison, Wis. Male not geen.

C. reticulata (Jurine) has the terminal claws provided with teeth,

but in this species the fornices are “permagnee et valide promi-

nentes ” (P. H. M.), and have a sort-of triangular projection in front.

The fornices in this species are of medium size, and have no such

Notes on Cladocera. 81

projection. C. reticulata has the head “obscure angulatum” in

front of the antennules; this is manifestly so. Finally, C. reticu-

lata has no fine teeth on the terminal claw. C. nitida (Schédler)

(= quadrangula, Leydig) has the armature of the terminal claws,

but is reticulated with quadrangular meshes. The name is given

on account of the teeth on the terminal claws.

SPECIES 2.

Plate I. Figs. 3-4.

CERIODAPHNIA CONSORS. sp. nov.

Length cire. 0.5 mm.

The head is prolonged, rounded at the apex, not angulated in

front of the antennules. The shell of the body is large, round, or

square with rounded angles, but with a more or less prominent

angle behind, as in the preceding species. The shell is strongly

marked with a reticulation of hexagonal meshes. ‘he fornices

project moderately, but are rounded and smooth. The post-ab-

domen is broad, not narrowed toward the apex, but is obliquely

truncated, so that the caudal teeth lie on the lower margins. There

are about eight of these moderately large, recurved teeth on each

side. ‘The terminal claws are large and smooth. ‘The color is

transparent or opaque, passing through a reddish brown to nearly

black. A variety has the areas of the meshes marked by little

rounded prominences. Male not seen. Madison, 1877, with the

preceding species, in pools of tolerably clear water; not common.

The shape of the post-abdomen distinguishes this species from

all but C. rotunda, Straus. It is plainly not that species, as that

has the shell of the head bent into a right angle below the eye,

and ornamented with spines. The specific name is given from its

habit of associating with the preceding species. I have never

found it alone.

82 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letlers.

SPECIES 3.

Plate II. Figs. 8, 9.

CERIODAPHNIA CRISTATA. sp. nov.

Length, circ. 0.7 mm.

Head not angulated in front of antennules. Post-abdomen

with a dorsal row of teeth. Valves with irregular meshes around

the edges and perpendicular striz across the middle, as in Simo-

cephalus.

In general shape this species resembles C. dentata. The head

is rounded regularly over in front, not angulated in front of the

antennules. ‘The valves are marked much as in Simocephalus.

The post-abdomen is broad, somewhat truncate below, with

large, smooth terminal claws, and four teeth on each side of the

arms. ‘T’he dorsal margin of the post-abdomen is produced into a

crest which bears eight or nine teeth, largest at the distal end of

the row. The apices of these teeth are directed upward. ‘This

feature curiously recalls the teeth of the post-abdomen in Hury-

cercus.

The eye is very large; the macula nigra is of moderate size,

and is angular.

The name is given on account of the crest on the post-abdomen.

Southampton, Mass., 1878. Rare.

GENUS 3.

SIMOCEPHALUS. Schédler, 1858.

SIMOCEPHALUS, Schédler, Branch. der Umg. von Berlin, p: 17.

ut Sars, P. E. Miiller, Kurz. .

SPECIES 1.

Plate I. Fig. 6.

SIMOCEPHALUS AMERICANUS. sp. nov.

Length, 1.5-2.5 or 3.5 mm.

Head angulated in front, with three or more teeth at the angle.

Notes on Cladocera. 83

Terminal claws long and slender, with a row of fine teeth on each

side. Teeth of equal size in each row. Macula nigra rhom-

boidal.

The head is separated from the body by an obvious depression.

Its upper margin curves pretty regularly downward to the point

where the fornices approach it more closely, where it bends down-

ward abruptly, and after a short distance is bent again, so as to

form almost anacute angle with the front margin. At this angle

are three or more short teeth. The fornices project considerably.

The superior margin of the valves is arched, serrate, and produced

into a short spine behind. In old animals the back is so much

arched as to bring the spine near the middle of the hinder edge.

In the young it is near the top of the hinder edge. The posterior

and part of the ventral margins are serrate. The anterior margin

is concave. ‘The valves have the markings characteristic of the

genus. ‘The abdomen has two blunt, weak processes.

The post-abdomen is broad, compressed and truncate. Its

greatest width at the top is often greater than its length to the in-

sertion of the terminal claws. These are long and slender, with a

row of fine teeth on each side. The teeth are of equal size in both

rows, and are about 0.01 mm. long. There are eight or nine cau-

dal teeth in each row, geniculate, and bearing a row of fine sete.

Besides these, there are often five or six other very fine teeth,

completing the row across the post-abdomen. .

The antennules are freely movable, shehtly curved, shaped like

a truncated cone, and ornamented with several short cross rows

of fine teeth. The antennze and their branches bear the same or-

nament, and on the basal joint are a pair of short, two jointed

set, projecting upward from a slight elevation, and a similar seta

near the insertion of the branches.

The macula nigra, as seen from the side, is rhomboidal, with

the upper angle sometimes a little prolonged.

A rudimentary haft-organ is found in young animals, but dis-

appears in the adults.

The male resembles in general the young female. The testicle

is very large, extending the whole length of the body. The vasa

deferentia open on both sides of the post-abdomen, at the angle

84 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters.

opposite the insertion of the terminal claws. They thus cross

the intestine in their course. .

Color, corneous to opaque yellow. Calcareous concretions are

sometimes, though rarely, found in the valves.

Everywhere common.

This species combines the characteristics of several Huropean

species. In general appearance it resembles S. serrulatus (Koch).

The post-abdomen is more like that of S. exspinosus (Koch), as

is also the macula nigra. The serration of the terminal claws re-

sembles that of S. vetulus (O. F. Miiller). It thus differs from

S. serrulatus in two of its characteristic peculiarities — the shape

of the macula nigra and the serration of the terminal claws.

SPECIES 2.

SIMOCEPHALUS VeETULUS.. O. F. Miiller.

DAPHNE VETULA. O.F. Miiller, Zod]. Dan. Prod., N. 2399.

DAPHNIA SIMA. Liéven, Fischer, Liljeborg, Leydig.

¢ VETULA. Baird, 1. c., p. 95, P. X, fig. I.

SIMOCEPHALUS VETULUS. Schdédler, Branch, p. 18.

Dace ac P. E. Miiller, 1. c., p. 122, Pl. I, figs. 26-27.

ce a Kurz iver) p. 29)

Very common everywhere, with the preceding species. Both

species are almost always taken at the same time, but the number

of individuals of S. Americanus is usually greater.

GENUS 4.

SCAPHOLEBERIS. Schédler, 1858.

SPECIES 1.

Plates: nario igs

SCAPHOLEBERIS Mucronata (?) O. F. Miiller.

DAPHNE MucRONATA, O. F. Miller. Zool. Dan. Prod. WNo. 2404.

Monocutus & Jurine. Monocles, etc., p. 137.

DAPHNIA cf Ineven=) lye.) pp. 30) a avalide opines

a tf Liljeborg. 1.c., p. 44, T. IIT, fig. 6.

SCAPHOLEBERIS “ Schodler. 1c, pee:

DAPHNIA ss Leydig. 1. c., p. 187.

BS P. HE. Miller. 1. c., p. 124.

“ Kurz. 1. c¢., p. 28.

Length, 0.7-0.8 mm.

I give references for the variety “fronte leyi” only, since

Notes on Cladocera. 85

Schédler (Zur Naturgeschichte der Daphniden, 1877, p. 24) is

very positive in his statements that the variety ‘‘ fronte cornuto”’

is a distinct species. All the specimens which I have seen want

the horn.

P. H. Miiller says of the genus, of which he has seen only this

species, “‘ Antennz: immobiles.” So Liéven, ‘ Die Tastantennen

kommen mit denen dieser Art. (D. pulex) tiberein.” Other au-

thors are silent on the subject, though it might possibly be in-

ferred from Fischer’s figures that he considered the antennules to

be movable. They are always free in the specimens which I

have seen. he correspondence in other respects with 8S. mucro-

nata is so great that I do not like to make this a new species. It

is, at least, a marked variety, to which the name “fusca” might

be appropriately applied.

My specimens have all the different markings which, in differ-

ent Huropean localities, are considered characteristic of the spe-

cies. Thus Miller says, “ Areis hexagonalibus reticulata.”

Schédler says: ‘‘ Hine reticulirte Cuticula ist nur auf dem Kopfe,

-namentlich um den Riisse] herum, deutlich wahrzunehmen: der

Schalenklappen entbehren derselben, sind aber in der vorderen

Partie leistenartig gestreift. Diese Leisten verlaufen in ziemlich

gleicher Richtung mit dem Vorderande, und gehen, namentlich

gegen den Unterrand, mehrfach in einander iiber. Die Mitte der

Schalenklappen aber liasst nur eine feinkérnige Cuticula unter-

scheiden.” I have seen specimens from the same pool which ex-

hibited markings agreeing with both these descriptions, and other

specimens which showed still other variations.

SPECIES 2.

Plate I. Figs. 8, 9, 10, 10a.

SCAPHOLEBERIS NASUTA. sp. nov.

Length, circ. 1 mm.

Rostrum pointed, antennules large and movable. Shell of

valves covered with pointed elevations.

The head is separated from the body by a marked depression.

The lower margin of the head is slightly concave. The rostrum

86 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letiers.

is prolonged into a rather sharp beak, at whose apex the continu-

ations of the fornices unite. The beak does not project down-

ward, as in S. mucronata, but backward, and in its natural posi-

tion lies between the valves. The valves closely resemble in

shape those of S. mucronata. The shell of the head is reticu-

lated, as is also that of the area a (Plate I, Fig. 9). The area d

has a few strong strize and a few cross markings connecting these.

There are only one or two strizw parallel to the lower edge of the

shell, and occasionally, in large specimens, two or three parallel

to the hinder edge. The rest of the valves bear numerous small

pointed projections. The “ mucro” is short and blunt. The an-

tennules are much larger than in S. mucronata, thongh they do

not project beyond the rostrum. They have a flagellum and a

cluster of knobbed sense hairs, and are freely movable. The

rami of the antenne are never opaque. The macula nigra is long

and large, and somewhat resembles that of Simocephalus vetulus.

The post-abdomen has the same general shape as that of the pre:

ceding species, but is not opaque. The terminal claws have sev-

eral fine teeth on their outer sides.

The male has the continuation of the fornices prolonged into a

rounded projection on each side of the rostrum. These protect

the large curved antennules, which are abundantly provided with

sense hairs. The vas deferens opens close behind the terminal

claws.

Color greenish white, varying to opaque, but usually quite

transparent.

In antennules and macula nigra this species resembles Simo-

cephalus much more closely than does the preceding species.

Hmbryos very closely resemble those of Simocephalus.

GENUS 5.

DAPHNIA. Schédler, 1858.

Dapunta, Schédler. Branch. der Umg. von Berlin, p. 10.

ae Sars, P. E. Miiller, Kurz.

s and HyaLopapunra, Schédler. Cladoceren des frischen Haffs,

p. 16.

Daphnia, as thus limited, forms a very natural group. It con-

Notes on Cladocera. 87

tains the crested forms of the Daphninz, and thus recalls the

genera Acroperus and Camptocercus, among the Lynceide. Like

those genera, too, the members of this group are transparent, and

their post-abdomen is narrow and elongated, although by no

means to so great an extent as in the Lynceid genera.

No subsequent writer has agreed with Schédler in distinguish-

ing Hyalodaphnia from Daphnia. And with good reason, since

the sole characteristic of the genus is the absence of the macula

nigra ; and as this structure is small or rudimentary in all the spe-

cies of Daphnia, its absence does not form a generic difference.

Daphnia is not a genus typical of the sub-family Daphnine,

but is rather an extreme form. Moina is the least specialized.

SPECIES 1.

late plc bes mele

DAPHNIA PuLEX. De Geer, var. denticulata. var. nov.

For the long synonymy of this oldest and best known of Clado-

cera, see Baird, British Entomostraca, and P. E. Miller, Dan-

mark’s Cladocera, p. 110.

In size, shape and markings, this animal agrees with D. pulex.

There are, however, some differences. The lower margin of the

head is not so convex as in D. pulex. The abdominal processes

are very slightly hairy, or not at all so, instead of being covered

with hairs. The terminal claws, lke those of D. pulex, are

armed with teeth at their base, but have besides a row of very

fine teeth extending along the whole length of the claw. The

number of abdominal teeth is greater than has been noted in

D. pulex, being 18-20 instead of 15, the highest number noted in

D. pulex (P. EH. Miller, T. I, fig. 4). On these grounds I make

it a distinct variety, named from the teeth on the terminal claw.

Cambridge, Mass.; Madison, Wis.

I have seen a blind specimen of this species. The eye-capsule

was ruptured, and the lenses and pigment scattered in the cavity

of the head. The optic muscles and ganglion were in great

part absorbed. It was a large and healthy animal and lived

nearly a week in captivity, when it was eaten by a neuropterous

88 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters.

larva accidentally put into its glass. It had a marked peculiarity

in its motion. It frequently turned four or five somersaults in

rapid succession, and invariably went through similar gyrations

on coming in contact with any object. The eye was probably

ruptured while moulting, as deformities of the head from this

source are not uncommon. I have seen a deformed Simoceph-

alus, in which the eye had evidently been destroyed by the same

cause, which had elongated and compressed the head.

This is perhaps the species found in Lake Superior, and noted

by S. L Smith (Fish Commission Report, 1872-38, p. 696).

SPECIES 2.

Plate II. Figs. 5-7.

DapHniA L&VIS. sp. nov.

Length, 2-3 mm, exclusive of spine.

Transparent, crested, head rounded in front, not prolonged into

an angle. Terminal claws smooth. Abdominal processes sepa-

rate. Macula nigra present.

The spine may be as long as the body in young animals, or

short and blunt in old individuals. The outline of the head is

angular in embryos and young animals, but is regularly curved

in adult specimens. A marked crest, more prominent in young

than in old animals, runs along the front and top of the head.

Below, the outline of the head is nearly straight, sometimes a lt-

tle concave in the middle, prolonged behind into a sharp rostrum,

whose apex lies close to the edge of the valves. The outline of

the valves is on the whole elliptical, nearly resembling that of

the preceding species. The spine, however, is attached at about

the middle of the distance from the dorsal to the ventral edges.

The spine has two rows of teeth, one above and one below. Ex-

ceptionally, there may be also a row on each side. The lower

margin has a row of short spines. The markings of the valves,

the antennules, antennee and post abdomen, resemble the corre-

sponding parts of D. pulex. There are about nine caudal

teeth in each row. The terminal claws are smooth. The abdom-

inal processes are not united. The macula nigra is small. The

Notes on Cladocera. 89

hepatic coeca are quite small, often rudimentary, being greatly

reduced in size, their cavity obliterated and their tissue degen-

erated. Specimens of-every age, except very young, may show

this peculiarity. The “ haft-organ”’ is wanting in adults, though

found in embryos.

The male resembles in shape the new born female. The an-

tennules are movable, short and stout, with a flagellum, and a

cluster of sense-hairs, not on the end of the antennule, but a ht-

tle proximad. The “ haft-organ”’ is present.

So far as I know, this is the only crested species with a macula

nigra in which the terminal claws are smooth. The name is

given on account of this peculiarity.

I found this very beautiful species only in a small, muddy pool

near Mt. Auburn Station, Watertown, Mass. 1875. It was pres-

ent in great numbers, and with a copepod formed the entire crus-

tacean life of the pool.

Sub-family 2. Lyncodaphnine.

GENUS 1.

LATHONURA. Liljeborg, 1858.

Latuonura, Liljeborg. 1. c., p. 55.

a Schédler, Sars, P. E. Miller.

PasirHeEa, Koch, Leydig, Liéven.

Daruni4,e.p. O. F. Miiller.

SPECIES 1.

LATHONURA ReEcTIROsTRIS. O. F. Miller.

DAPHNIA RECTIROSTRIS, O. F. Miller. Entomostraca, p. 92, Tab. XII, fig.

1-3.

PASITHEA « Koch? (li cyiiiyo;ylaby SX.

se ‘S Liéven. 1. c., p. 42, Tab. XI, fig. 1-3.

LATHONURA us Liljeborg. 1. c., p. 57, Tab. IV, fig. 8-11; V, 2;

XXIII, 12-18.

. a P. EK. Miiller. 1. c., p. 189.

The male of this species I have once seen. It is smaller than

the female, being about 0.5 mm. in length, while the female may

90 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters.

be 0.8 mm. Its back is less arched than that of the female and

its ventral margin more convex. The valves gape widely below.

The testicle has a thick coat of muscular fibres, both circular and

longitudinal, and the vas deferens opens just in front of the anus.

The antennules of the male resemble those of the other sex, and

the feet of the first pair have a moderately large hook, but no

flagellum or a rudimentary one.

Cambridge, Mass., 1876. Rare.

GENUS 2.

Macrorurix. Baird, 1848.

MAcroTHRIx, Baird. Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist., Vol. XI, p. 87, 1843.

‘ Liljeborg, SchGdler, et al.

CHINISCA, Liéven.

SPECIES 1.

Plate I. Figs. 12-13.

MAcRoTHRIX ROSEA. Jurine.

MoNOcULUS ROSEUS, Jurine. 1. c., p. 150, Tab. XV.

EcHINISCA ROSEA, Liéven l.c., p. 31, Tab. VIII, figs. 3-7.

MacroTurix “ Baird. Brit. Ent., p. 104.

fe “ Liljeborg. 1. c., p. 4%, Tab. IV, figs. 1-2; Tab. V,

fig. 1. ;

“Pf. E. Miiller, p. 186, Tab. ITI, figs. 1-4.

My specimens agree closely with Miiller’s description. He

says, however, “Der findes et lidet udviklet Hefteapparat paa

samme sted og af samme Bygning som hos Eurycercus.” In

these specimens it is considerably larger than in Hurycercus, and

lies decidedly further back.

I have seen one male of this species. It is about 0.38 mm. long.

The antennules are curved as in the female, and besides, curved

outward toward the base, and again inward toward the apex, so

as to appear somewhat bow-shaped, as seen from the front. They

have five cross-rows of stout, short, black hairs on the outside of

each antennule, and a rather long flagellum near the base. The

sense-hairs are short and curved inward. The first feet have a

very long hook, stout at the base, its apex projecting from be-

Notes on Cladocera. 91

tween the valves and bent inward toward the median line, so that

the ends of the two hooks are almost in contact when at rest.

The ends are covered with fine teeth. The post-abdomen has the

same general shape as that of the female. The hairs on it are

finer, hardly perceptible. There are no terminal claws, and the

post-abdomen is prolonged into an elevation about 0.05 mm.

long, on whose summit the vas deferens opens.

Madison, Wis., 1877. Not rare in shallow and weedy water.

Sub-family 3. Bosminine.

GENUS 1.

Bosmina. Baird, 1850.

SPECIES 1. |

Bosmina Lonerrostris. O. F. Miller.

LYNCEUS LONGIROSTRIS, O. F, Miiller. Entomostraca, p. 76, Tab. X, figs. 7-8.

BosMINA “ Sars, 1. c., p. 1538.

‘¢ Schédler. Cladoceren des frischen Haffs. p. 45, figs.

16-17.

ce a P. HE. Miller. 1. c., p. 146, Tab. III, figs. 8-9.

ce “ Kurz. l.c., p. 29.

Length, circ. 0.39 mm.

These specimens agree with Bosmina longirostris in all respects

except size, which is considerably greater in our form.

Cambridge and Southampton, Mass.; Madison, Wis. Rather

rare.

SPECIES 2.

BosMINA CORNUTA. Jurine.

Plate 11. Fig. 10.

MonocuLus cornutus, Jurine. 1. c., p. 142, Tab. 14, figs. 8-10.

EKUNICA LONGIROSTRIS, Koch. 1. c., H. 35, Tab. XXIII.

BOSMINA CORNUTA, Sars. 1, c., p. 280.

wegiie: « Schédler. Clad. fr. Haffs. p. 49, Tab. III, figs. 18-22.

* cs P. E. Miller, 1. c., p. 147.

Specimens belonging to this species were found at Hasthamp-

ton, Mass., Aug., 1878. Length, 0.8 mm.

92 | Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters.

FAMILY 3. LYNCEIDA.

Sub-family 1. Eurycercine.

Sole genus and species.

Kurycercus LAMELLATUS. O. F. Miller.

For the synonymy of this species, see P. EH. Miiller, 1. c. p. 162.

Fischer’s L. laticaudatus is the only instance where the animal

has been described under a specific name different from Miiller’s.

I wish to note only a few points in the anatomy of this species.

The ventral margin of the valves is set with short, stout, movable

spines. These bear near near the base a row of backward pro-

jecting hairs. ‘The antennules have a crown of long teeth around

the apex, from within which rise the sense-hairs. On the basal

joint of the antennz, about the middle of its hinder side, is a

large tubercle, covered with short, stout, black spines. The an-

terior margin of the valves is strongly convex, and the lower

loop of the shell-gland is prolonged into the convexity, thus mak-

ing an open loop, whose long axis is parallel to that of the body.

Leydig’s figure of the animal is quite incorrect in this particular,

and indeed, his figures in general, so excellent in other respects,

are little to be trusted in this. His figure of the legs of this spe-

cies is very accurate.

Sub-family Lynceinaz.

GENUS 1.

PLEURoXxUS. P. KE. Miller, 1868.

LYNCEUS. e. p. autorum.

PLEUROXUS ET PERACANTHA. Baird.

a : ET RayPoPHinus. Schédler.

‘ e Sars, Kurz.

SPECIES 1.

Plate I. Figs. 19-20.

PLEUROXUS PRocURVUS. sp. nov.

Length, 0.5 mm.

Rostrum bent forward and upward at tip. Hinder margin and

anterior margin armed with teeth. Walves striate around edges.

Notes on Cladocera. 93

The shape in general is oval. The dorsal margin is high,

arched, sloping steeply toward the posterior margin, with which it

forms a sharp angle, almost a tooth. The posterior margin is

short, straight, and has seven or eight teeth. Of these, the first

uppsr tooth points obliquely upwards, the succeeding two also

upwards, though less steeply, and the rest either outward or

slightly downwards. ‘The posterior margin joins the ventral in a

rounded angle. The ventral margin is concave, and has some-

what sparse, abundantly plumose, sete. The forward margin is

strongly convex, and has numerous small teeth on its lower half.

These point downward or backward. The valves are marked

by strize, which are very plain around the edges. At the upper

part of the posterior margin they are parallel to the back, grad-

ually changing their course so as to become perpendicular to the

ventral margin about its center. The succeeding striz incline

backward, and become at last parallel to the anterior margin.

There is an area in the center of the valves which is either ob-

securely reticulated or smooth. The rostrum is long, stout, and

abruptly bent outwards into a hook at its tip. The post-abdo-

men is long, laterally compressed, truncated, with a dorsal row of

teeth, consisting of a cluster of four or five stout and long spines

at the lower corner, and eight or ten teeth following these, ar-

ranged somewhat in pairs. In this and all other cases of a dorsal

row ot teeth, which I have seen, except in Hurycercus, the teeth are

not exactly on the dorsal margin of the post-abdomen, but are

set on the sides, usually each alternate tooth on the same side, so

that there are really two rows of teeth. The keel of the labrum

is somewhat tongue-shaped, running into a long, rounded projec-

tion behind. The ephippium forms on the rear upper part of the

shell. It contains one egg. ‘Two summer eggs are produced at

one time. The color is yellowish, but remarkably transparent.

‘The male was not seen.

Glacialis, Cambridge, Mass., two specimens, 1875. Southamp-

ton, Mass., 1878; common. Madison, Wis. July and August,

1877; common.

The teeth on the posterior and anterior margins of shell at once

distinguish this species from all others with recurved rostrum. It

94 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters.

combines the general appearance of Pleuroxus with the rostrum

of Rhypophilus, and the anterior and posterior marginal teeth of

_Peracantha. The name is given from the shape of the rostrum.

SPECIES 2.

Piate II. Fig. 11.

PLEUROXUS STRAMINIUS. sp. nov.

Length, circ. 0.6.mm. Height, 0.85 mm.

Post-abdomen slender, its dorsal side concave. Valves marked

by hexagonal meshes.

The dorsal margin is not greatly arched. It forms a short but

well marked projection at its junction with the posterior margin.

A similar projection, not a tooth, is seen at the junction of the

posterior and ventral margins. Rarely, a very small tooth is

present there. The valves are marked by elongated, hexagonal

or irregular meshes. The rows run obliquely downward and back-

ward. The surface is also marked by the “ stiitz-balken” and by

minute striz. These last are coifined to the meshes and do not

cross the lines of reticulation. The post-abdomen is long, slen-

der, somewhat curved, truncated at the end, with a large number

of fine, slender teeth on the dorsal row. The terminal claws

have the usual two spines, and are serrate. This last character-

istic is not always to be seen. The antennules have six or eight

sense-hairs besides the flagellum. The eye is much larger than

the macula nigra.

The rostrum of the male is much shorter than that of the fe-

male, the post-abdomen is more slender, and the terminal claws

are very slightly removed from its ventral edge. The vas defe-

rens thus opens between or slightly above the terminal claws.

Except for the regular sexual difference, it otherwise resembles

the female. Color, straw-yellow, opaque.

P. straminius is most nearly allied to P. hastatus (Sars). The

females are nearly the same. They differ in proportions, hastatus

being higher proportionately. The lines of reticulation are hori-

zontal in P. hastatus, oblique in straminius. The former is “ eine

der durchsichtigsten Species’ (Kurz), while the latter is just the

Notes on Caldocera. 95:

reverse. The valves differ widely. In P. hastatus the head is.

very small, the rostrum slender and strongly curved, and the

post-abdomen tapers gradually to a point. In P. straminius the

head is longer, the rostrum short, blunt, not much curved, and the

abdomen shorter and truncated at the end.

Cambridge, Mass., 1875; common. Not found in Madison,

Wis., where its place seems to be taken by P. procurvus and P.

denticulatus, which are far more common there than in Cam-

bridge.

The name is given on account of the color.

SPECIES 3.

Plater Heide.

- PLEUROXUS INSCULPTUS. sp. nov.

Length, cire.0.27 mm. Height, 0.18 mm.

Valves strongly marked by hexagonal reticulations. One tooth:

at lower posterior angle of valves.

This is by far the smallest species that I have seen. The dor--

sal margin is little arched, so that the hinder margin is not much

shorter than the height of the valves. At the junction of the

posterior and ventral margins, there is a strong tooth formed by a

semi-circular incision in the posterior margin. Sometimes there-

is a second very small tooth above it. The ventral margin of

the female is very slightly concave, the concavity lying in the

rear half of the margin. The shell is marked as in the pre-

ceding species, but the lines are much more distinct. At first.

sight only the diagonal strize are manifest. Closer inspection dis-

closes the true nature of the sculpture. The rostrum is rather:

short, the fornices quite broad. The post-abdomen is short, broad,.

truncated, with a dorsal row of eight or ten teeth. The ter-

minal claws are serrated and have the usual two basal spines.

The last (eighth) seta of the antennze is not always to be found..

The eye is quite large; the macula nigra much smaller. The

male is narrower proportionately. Its rostrum is short and

‘‘stumpy.” The post-abdomen is strongly concave below, dorsally;

with about the same number of teeth as in the female. The end:

96 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Leilers.

is somewhat rounded. The terminal claws have very small basal

spines and no serration.

The name is given on account of the deeply cut reticulations.

Cambridge, Mass. Glacialis, 1876. Rather scarce. Southamp-

ton, Mass., 1878. Not uncommon.

SPECIES 4.

Plate I. Fig, 21.

PLEUROXUS DENTICULATUS. sp. nov.

Length, 0.5-0.6 mm. Height, 0.35-0.45 mm.

Anterior margin of valves armed with small, backwardly pro-

jecting teeth. Rostrum not bent forward.

The dorsal margin is very convex, descending rapidly to the

posterior margin, which is consequently relatively short. At the

- junction of the posterior and ventral margins, there are two, three

or (usually) four teeth, or in young specimens none. Of these, the

upper tooth curves upward, the others outward, or the lowest a

little downward. ‘There is a series of fine teeth on the lower part

of the anterior margin, directed downward or backward. These

lie inside the row of setze. The shell is marked as in P. procur-

vus. There are also strize on the head, of which the lower run

parallel to the edge of the fornix, the upper parallel to the outline

of head. The rostrum is long, pointed, and curves backward. The

post-abdomen resembles almost exactly that of P. procurvus.

There is often a black pigment deposited in its lower part. The

male has a shorter rostrum, hairs instead of teeth on the post-ab-

domen, whose lower angle is rounded. Color, greenish or yellow-

ish. |

Glacialis, Cambridge, 1876. In muddy or clear water. Madi-

ison, 1877. Common.

This species is allied to P. trigonellus (O. F. Miller), from

which it differs in shell markings, and very greatly in the male.

(Vid Kurz, Pl. III, fig. 2.) P. Bairdii, Schédler (= P. trigonel-

lus, Baird) has the strize all parallel and extending over the shell,

a rounded and gibbous post-abdomen, and other differences. It

differs from these and all other species of Pleuroxus, in its lim-

Notes on Cladocera. 97

ited sense, by the possession of teeth on the anterior margin.

From this fact, I have named the species P. denticulatus.

SPECIES 5.

Plate I. Fig. 22.

PLEUROXUS UNIDENS. sp. noy.

Length, 0.85 mm. Height, 0.46 mm.

Shell little arched on dorsal margin. Lower posterior corner

of valves rounded. A tooth justin frontof the corner. Valves

marked by striz.

In its proportions, this species approaches P. straminius, the

back being comparatively little arched, so that the height is about

one-half the length. In the shape of the front part of the ani-

mal, there is also a close resemblance to P. straminius, and in the

relative length of the post-abdomen. ‘There are, however, great

differences. The upper posterior angle is prolonged into a

projection, quite characteristic, seen, I believe, in no other species.

The lower corner is rounded, not angulated. Some distance be-

fore it is placed a single minute tooth. From this peculiarity, the

species has received its name. The bristies of the lower edge are

much larger in front. They become very small behind, and

seem to be smooth there instead of plumose. The valves are

marked by striz. One set occupies the upper half of the valves

and runs approximately parallel to the back. A second set runs

nearly parallel to the lower edge. The upper striaof this set is com-

plete, and those of the upper set run into it where their curvature

will not permit them to reach the posterior margin without meeting

it. At the front part of the valve is a set parallel to the forward

edge. ‘These meet the second set in an area which is irregularly .

reticulated. The striation is very plainly marked. The post-ab-

domen is long and stout. The hinder end is truncated, but the

corner is slightly rounded off. There are two rows of 18 or 20

pointed, rather long, caudal teeth. The terminal claws have the

usual two basal spines, and are serrate. There are two small pro-

jections (one of which is shown in the figure) on the abdomen,

98 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters.

which can hardly be anything else than a rudimentary sixth pair

of legs, although they are situated some way back of the fifth

pair. It was wanting in one of the dozen specimens which I ex-

amined, or at least I could not find it. If it is a rudimentary

sixth leg, this is the first case in which this structure has been

found in the Lynceine. It confirms the opinion which I had

formed on other grounds, that Pleuroxus is the genus which

stands as the most generalized type of this sub-faumily. Color,

yellowish, transparent. Male not seen. y

Lake Wingra, Madison, Wis., Sept, 1877. Rare, only about

fifteen specimens found.

This is the largest species of Pleuroxus yet seen, and P. stra-

minius seems to be the next in size.

SPECIES 6.

Plate II. Figs. 18, 14.

PLEUROXUS HAMATUS. sp. nov.

Length, 0.4-0.45 mm. Height, 0.21-0.25 mm.

General shape like that of P. unidens. Valves marked by

oblique strize, and by short, irregular, horizontal striz.

In general shape this species approaches closely to P. unidens,

though the back is somewhat more arched. The posterior mar-

gin of the valves is concave, the lower angle rounded, and en-

tirely without teeth. The valves are marked by striz running as

in P. denticulatus, and by short, faintly marked striee, which run

nearly horizontally. These cross the oblique strize, and are found

all over the shelt of valves and head. The species is, in mark-

ings, the third of a series. P. unidens has only striz, and those

continued quite across the valves. P. denticulatus and P. pro-

curvus have strize at the edges and irregular markings in center,

while the present species has strie around the edges of valves,

and also the short markings all over them.

The post-abdomen closely resembles that of P. denticulatus.

The feet of the first pair in the female are furnished with a tol-

erably stout hook, of which a sketch is given in PI. II, fig. 14.

Notes on Cladocera. 99

This is, I think, the only case where this distinctively male ap-

pendage is found in the female.

Southampton, Mass., Aug., 1877. Not rare.

SPECIES 7.

Plate II. Fig. 15.

PLEUROXUS ACUTIROSTRIS. sp. nov.

Length, 0.35 mm. Height, 0.22 mm.

Beak, long, pointed, and bent backward at the tip. Teeth of

post-abdomen very fine. Bristles of lower margin of valves stout

and plumose.

In general shape this species closely recalls P. hamatus. It is

readily distinguished by the long, pointed rostrum, whose apex

nearly meets the valves when in its natural position. ‘The valves

are reticulated as in P. insculptus, although not so plainly. There

are no teeth on their ventral margin.

The post-abdomen is broad, compressed, truncated, with numer-

ous fine caudal teeth. The terminal claws have only one basal

spine.

In rostrum this species closely approaches Harporhynchus

(Sars), as also in the single basal spine of the terminal claws. In

general, however, the species is so thoroughly Pleuroxus-like in

appearance, that I keep it under that genus for the present.

Southampton, Mass., July, 1878. Very rare.

GENUS 2.

Cuyporus. Leach. 1816.

Cuyporvs, Leach. Sup. Brit. Encyc., Art. Annulosa.*

6 Baird, Schodler, Sars, Kurz, P. E. Miiller.

SPECIES I.

Plate Ii (Biss 19:

Cuyporus SpH#ricus. O. F. Miiller.

One of the oldest and best known species of Cladocera For

* Teste P. E. Miiller.

100 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters.

synonymy, see Kurz (1. c.,"p. 77). The mandibles are articulated,

not where the fornix joins the valve, but behind this point. This

fact is noted by Kurz in C. ovalis, and his figures show that the

same is true of CO. globosus; although his description of C. glo-

bosus would imply otherwise. A chitinous ridge runs from the

the point of articulation of the mandible, above the junction of

the fornix and the valve, along the under side of the fornix to the

rostrum. It does not stop at the junction of fornix and valve, as

figured by Kurz in C. ovalis. ;

This species is common wherever I have collected, and is pres-

ent in dense swarms near the surface of the water on bright,

warm, calm days. It is one of the earliest of the Lyncein to ap-

pear in the spring.

SPECIES 2.

CHuypborus GuLososus. Baird.

For synonymy, see Kurz (1. «, p. 18).

One specimen from Lake Wingra, Madison, Wis., Sept., 1877.

GENUS 3.

CREPIDOCERCUs. gen. nov.*

The head is immovable. The rostrum is sharp, but does not

extend downward for more than half the distance between the ar-

ticulation of the mandible and the ventral edge. The dorsal

margin is much arched, and rounds evenly over, terminating be-

hind iu a somewhat sharp angle. ‘he posterior margin is sinu-

ate, concave above, then convex. Just in front of the junction of

the posterior and ventral margins is a single strong, recurved

tooth. The ventral margin is slightly concave and the anterior

margin strongly convex. The valves are marked by the “ stiitz-

balken,” as in all Cladocera, and by an obscure reticulation of ir-

regular hexagonal meshes, most clearly marked in the hinder

portion of the valves, where the longer axis of the meshes runs

obliquely downward and backward.

% y hon 3

* From 4077(¢, shoe, and *€x0¢, iail.

Notes on Cladocera. 101

The upper part of the dorsal margin of the post-abdomen is

prolonged, and runs nearly parallel to the posterior margin of the

valves, while the lower part is parallel to the ventral margin, and

makes nearly aright angle with the upper part. The apex is

rounded and bears two small! terminal claws, each of which has a

small basal spine.

The general shape of the post-abdomen is like that of a shoe,

whence the generic name. It is much compressed laterally, and

its armature consists of numerous bristles scattered somewhat ir-

regularly over its surface.

The usual pair of setze project backward from the post-abdo-

men; and the ventral margin of the valves is fringed with some-

what long, plumose setze.

The antennules are of moderate size, do not reach to the end of

the rostrum, and have a flagellum and eight to nine sense-hairs.

The antennz are about as large as in Pleuroxus, and bear eight

setze (32°) and three spines (424), The keel of the labrum is some-

what prolonged backward, as in Pleuroxus, but not to so great an

extent.

The eye, macula nigra, intestine, anal coecum and shell-gland

present no points of especial interest.

The shape from above is an elongated oval, broadest through

tne fornices. ‘The valves gape considerably below.

The animal moves by strong and sudden blows of the anten-

ne. With a single stroke it darts for a short distance, and then

returns to rest, ordinarily not moving again until disturbed. It

may, however, swim for a considerable distance by repeated

strokes of the antennx, but on the whole is decidedly sluggish,

remaining for hours at rest. The extreme suddenness with which

it starts into motion is very remarkable. The antennz are ordi-

narily bent downward along the anterior margin of the valves,

and I have never been able to see them raised preparatory to a

saart. It passes instantaneously from rest to motion, and, with-

out any warning, is gone from the field of view in the microscope.

It can aiso move slowly, as I have noticed, by strokes of the ab-

dominal feet upon the cover of the live box in which it is kept.

The post-abdomen does not seem to be employed as an aid to lo-

comotion.

102 Wssconsin Academy of Sciennes, Arts, and Letters.

SPECIES I.

Plate.) Bie. 118)

CREPIDOCERCUS SETIGER. sp. nov.

Length, 0.4-0.5 mm. Height, 0.27-0.32 mm.

Measurements from one specimen.

Length, 0.87 mm. Height, 0.25 mm. Length of hind margin,

0.12 mm. Leneth of spine of ventral margin, 0.017 mm. Length

of sete of ventral margin, 0.02-0.04 mm. Diameter of eye,

0.028 mm. Diameter of macula nigra, 0.01. Length of anten-

nule, 0.044 mm. Length of post-abdomen from “ heel” to “toe,”

0.11 mm. Length of terminal claw, 0.016 mm. This specimen

was rather below the average in size.

The color is yellow, rather opaque. The specific name is taken

from the sete: with which the post-abdomen is armed. Mad-

ison, Wis. Rare. Male not seen.

This species is to some degree intermediate between Alona and

Pleuroxus. It resembles the first in the size of the rostrum and

the single basal spine of the terminal claws. In general shape

and markings it recalls Pleuroxus. Graptoleberis is the only

form whose post-abdomen at all resembles that of Crepidocereus.

The mode of motion is quite peculiar.

GENUS 4.

GRAPTOLEBERIS. Sars, 1867.

GRAPTOLEBERIS. Kurz.

ALONA,e. p. Baird, Schédler, P. E. Miiller.

Lyncevs, e.p. Leydig, Liljeborg, Fischer et al.

SPECIES 1.

Plate Bier alae

GRAPTOLEBERIS INERMIS. sp. nov.

Length, 0.6-0.8 mm. Height, 0.30-0.35 mm.

There is no indentation at the junction of head and thorax, but

the dorsal margin rounds regularly over from the point of the

Notes on Cladocera. 103

rostrum to the posterior margin. The junction here is not well

marked, and at the lower corner the posterior margin does not

form a sharp angle. with the ventral. The corner is rounded, but

on it are two strong teeth like those of G. testudinarius (Fscher).

The ventral margin is straight. The front half bears long, straight,

closely set, plumose setze, while those on the hinder part are shorter

and more scattered. The meshes of the reticulation are mostly

hexagonal on the head, quadrangnlar or irregular on the body.

The lines of the network in the front and lower part of the valves

radiate from the junction of valve and fornix. The first few rows

run to the ventral margin. The succeeding rows bend and run

parallel to that edge. Those on the upper half of the valyes are

parallel to the dorsal margin, and there are one or two imperfect

rows in the middle of the valves where the two sets meet. The

upper set are continued on to the head, running around parallel

to the edge of the fornix. The lower, dorsal, margin of the post-

abdomen bends upwards just below the anus, and thus makes the

apex pointed. There are about eight clusters of three or four

hairs each, on each side. The terminal claws are small and un-

armed. ‘The eye is only of moderate size, smaller proportionally

than in Alona. While in Alona the diameter of the eye, in an

average specimen may equal +4, of the total length, in G. inermis, it ~

equals only 34-5, of the length. The macula nigra is about

two-thirds as large as the eye, a little smaller than in Alona.

Male not seen.

This species resembles G. testudinarius in most particulars (see

the excellent description of this species, Kurz, 1. ¢, pp. 50-53).

The differences are, the eye in this species is small instead of

large ; its shape is rounded, not “ nearly triangular ;” the macula

nigra is not greatly smaller than the eye; the terminal claws are

smooth and not “ornamented with teeth;” there is no trace

of an elevation on the back, where the outline of the head meets

that of the back; the posterior lower corner is rounded, though

armed with teeth, and not prolonged into a sharp angle.

The outline in general more closely resembles that of G. reticu-

latus than that of G. testudinarius. In most respects, however, it

more closely approaches the latter species.

104 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters.

Cambridge, Mass., 1876, two specimens.

Madison, Wis., Sept., 1877, Third Lake. Rare.

Southampton, Mass., 1878. Rare.

GENUS 5.

ALONA. Sars, 1862.

This genus was first established by Baird, 1850, but was lim-

ited to a small portion of its former extent by Sars. I am not

sure that Alonella should have been separated from Alona, but

on the whole, prefer to keep the genus as Sars left it.

SPECIES 1.

Plate TI. “Pig. 16.

ALONA ANGULATA. sp. nov.

Length, 04mm. Height, 0.25 m.

Shell marked by rectangular meshes.

The dorsal margin is considerably arched, terminating in a ©

more or less obvious angle at the hinder corner. The hinder edge

is convex, as is also the front margin, The ventral margin is

provided with plumose sets. The rostrum is pointed, as seen

from the side, and extends down nearly to the ventral edge of the

shell. The fornices are broad, the distance between their edges

being nearly equal to the greatest distance between the valves.

They are extended forward to the end of the rostrum. The shelt

is obviously striated, the strize running obliquely downward and

backward. Close inspection discloses a set of cross markings,

making the shell reticulated with oblong meshes. The post-abdo-

men is broad, and truncated at the end. It has a row of about

twelve teeth on each side, inserted a little way from its lower, dor-

sal, edge, and their points project behind it. Along the middle

of the post-abdomen, on each side, runs a row of very small

scales furnished with clusters of short hairs. The antennules are

rounded at the end, and the sense-hairs are set-around the end, not

uponit. They have besides a flagellum. The basal joint of the an-

tennze reaches about to the edge of the fornix, the branches nearly

Notes on Cladocera. 105

to the lower edge of the shell. They have 39° seta and 48° spines.

The last seta is, as usual, very much smaller than the others. The

macula nigra is much smaller than the eye, about one-third as .

large in diameter. Two young are produced at once. A very

young specimen showed no striz. In the adult, these are about

0.025 mm. apart.

The male is somewhat smaller than the female and of slightly

different proportions. It is 0.85 mm. long and 0.2 mm. bigh.

The rostrum projects farther forward and not so far down-

wards. The post-abdomen is rounded at the end, without teeth,

but with a row of fine hairs. The vas deferens opens below the

terminal claws. ‘The body behind the heart rises up to the top

of the cavity of the valves. This position makes the abdomen

hang down nearly perpendicularly when at rest. Thecoils of the

intestine are larger than in the female, and the testicle lies imme-

diately on them. The front legs have the usual hook. The

cross markings of the sculpture are scarcely to be seen; otherwise

it resembles the female.

The reticulation of this species excludes it from all others of this

genus except A. guttata (Sars, Crust. Clad. i Omen. of Christiania,

p. 287). In that species, however, the rostrum is shorter, the ma-

cula nigra much larger (” oculo parvo minor,” Miiller), the post-

abdomen “‘apice rotundato,’ and its teeth much smaller. The

general outline, too, is different, and the reticulation, instead of

running obliquely across the valves, is horizontal. It is also one-

fourth larger: 0.5 mm. instead of 0.4. A. reticulata (Schédler,

Neue Beitr., etc., p. 25), if not identical with A. guttata, is even

more unlike the present species.

Cambridge, Mass., 1876. Not rare.

SPECIES 2.

Plate I. Fig. 16.

ALONA PORRECTA. sp. nov.

Length, 0.34mm, Height, 0.19 mm.

Anterior portion of valve with a sinus. Lower angle of post-

abdomen acute. Shell striated with horizontal lines.

106 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters.

This and the following species will be more briefly described.

‘There is no evident angle at the junction of the ‘dorsal and pos-

terior margins. The lower edge bears sete and has no sinns.

The front edge has a very slight sinus, or none at all. The

valves are marked by faint horizontal strize. The rostrum does

not extend so far downwards as in the preceding species. The

post-abdomen has its usual claws, each with its basal spine, which

is not serrate. The teeth of the post-abdomen are about twelve

tm each row; three or four at the end are larger than the rest.

There is besides, a row of hairs above the row of teeth. The

lower angle of the post-abdomen is not rounded. The male is of

the same general shape as the female. Length, 0.34, height,

0.18 mm. In the armature of the post-abdomen this species ap-

proaches nearest to A. tenuicaudis (Sars); but in other respects,

e. g. shape of shell, and especially of post-abdomen, is quite dif-

ferent.

Cambridge, Mass., 1876.; Madison, Wis., July, 1877. Not com-

mon.

SPECIES 3.

ALONA GLACIALIS. sp. nov.

Length, 0.3mm. Height, 0.19 mm.

Anterior margin of valves without sinus. Valves horizontally

striated. Lower corner of post-abdomen rounded.

This species differs from the preceding chiefly in the post-ab-

domen. This is rounded at the lower angle, and the teeth, about

fourteen in number, are of equal size. There is also a second row

of hairs.) The forward edge of vaive is strongly convex, other-

wise much like A. porrecta. This species approaches perhaps most

nearly to A. lineata (Fischer). There are, however, great dif-

ferences. The size of A. lineata is nearly twice as great. The

post-abdomen has, according to Miiller and Schédler, only one

row of teeth and no hairs. According to Kurz, it has hairs, but a

deep incision in the lower end. In either case the dtfference is

well marked. The shape is also different. A. glacialis is rela-

tively much broader behind than A. lineata (vid. Schédler).

Notes on Claclocera. 107

Glacialis, Cambridge, Mass., 1876.; rare. Male not seen. The

“specific name is taken from the pond in which it was chiefly

found.

SPECIES 4.

ALONA SPINIFERA. Schédler.

ALONA SPINIFERA. Schédler (Neue Beitriige, p. 18, Pl. I, fig. 17-22).

Specimens belonging to this species were scantily found in

Madison, Wis., and were quite common in Southampton, Mass.

SPECIES 5.

ALoNA Oxptonca. P. EH. Miller.

ALONA OBLONGA. P. E. Miiller, 1. c., p. 175, Pl. IIT, fig. 22-28.

Length, 0.9 mm.

One specimen, closely agreeing with Miller’s description, was

found in Merrill’s Springs, near Lake Mendota, Madison, Wis.,

Sept., 1877.

On the front side of the second joint of the outer antennary

branch was a cluster of spines. In this it differed from Miller's

description.

SPECIES 6.

ALONA T'UBERCULATA. Kurz.

ALONA TUBERCULATA. Kurz, l.c., p. 51, Tab. II, fig. 3.

The chief difference between my specimens and Kurz’s, seems

to be that mine have a greater number of rounded elevations

than his.

The shape of the post-abdomen does not appear to be identical,

but so brief is his description that I am not sure of any differ-

ence. I therefore prefer to leave it under that species for the

present.

Southampton, Mass., 1878. Rather common.

108 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Leiters.

GENUS 6.

ALONOPSIS. Sars, 1862.

ACROPERUS, e. p. Schédler.

Atonopsis. P. E. Miiller, Kurz.

SPECIES I.

Plate I. Fig. 14-15.

ALONOPSIS MEDIA. sp. nov.

Length, 0.55 mm. Height, 0.85 mm.

Length of male, 0.4 mm.

Rostrum prolonged and shell sharp, somewhat quadrangular

in shape, marked by strize.

The dorsal margin is convex, the hinder margin nearly straight.

Its lower angle is rounded and without teeth. The lower margin

is concave, and has long, plumose sete. The front margin is

strongly convex. The post-abdomen is long and slender, resem-

bling that of Camptocercus, and is notched at the distal extremity.

It has two rows of fine teeth and some small scales above them.

The terminal claws are long, slender, with a basal spine, a spine

in the middle, and are serrated. The antennules are long and

slender, but do not reach to the end of the rostrum. They have

each a flagellum and sense-hairs. The antennze are small and

have eight ($22) setze and two (42°) spines. The labrum resem-

bles that of A. leucocephalus, but is slightly prolonged at its

apex. The intestine, coecum, and color resemble those of Acro-

perus. There is a trace of .a keel present on the back.

This species is in some retpects intermediate between A. elon-

gata (Sars) and A. latissima (Kurz). In general shape, rostrum

and marking of valves, it most nearly approaches the former,

while it approaches the latter in the post-abdomen, its shape, teeth

and armature of terutinal claws. Hence I call the species A. me-

dia.

Notes on Cladocera. 109

GENUS 7.

ACROPERUS. Baird, 1850.

ACROPERUS, e. p. Schodler.

AcrorERus. Miiller, Sars, Kurz.

SPECIES 1.

AGROPERUS LEUSOCEPHALUS. Koch.

LYNCEUS LEUCOCEPHALUS, Koch. 1. c., H. 36, Pl. X.

2A. HARP. Baird, 1. c., p. 129, Pl. XVI, fig. 5.

L. LEUcocEPHALUS. Fischer, Ergainzung, u. s. w., 1854, p. 11, Pl. ITI,

fig. 6-9.

A. LEUCOCEPHALUS. Schédler, Miller, Kurz.

Cambridge, Mass., Madison, Wis. Common.

Kurz says: ‘‘ Die Acroperus-arten sind die besten Schwimmer

unter den Lynceiden.” This is not true of our species, which is

far inferior in strength and rapidity of motion to both Crepido-

cercus and Pleuroxus. The same is true of Alonopsis and Alona.

The last genus, indeed, is given to haunting the bottom of the

water, and often is found resting among the debris at the bottom

of the jar in which it is kept.

GENUS 9.

CAMPTOCERCUS. Baird, 1851.

CamptTocEercus. Baird, Sars, Schédler, P. E. Miiller, Kurz.

SPECIES 1.

Camptocercus Macrurus. O. F. Miiller.

Length, about 1 mm.

LyNcEUs MAcRURUS. O. F. Miiller, Prod. No. 2897.

ee Liljeborg, 1. c., p. 89, Pl. VII, figs. 2, 3.

CAMPTOCERCUS “ Schédler, Neue Beitr., p. 35, Pl. II, figs. 39-41.

ob & P. E. Miller, 1. c., p. 164, Pl. III, fig. 12.

Cambridge, Mass., Madison, Wis. Not common.

SECTION II. GYMNOMERA. Sars.

PoLYyPHEMUS PeEpicuLtus. De Geer.

One specimen only. Cambridge, Mass., Oct., 1876.

EXPLANATION OF PLATH &

Fig. 1. Ceriodaphnia dentata, fem. Head x 80.

2 se . Post-abdomen x 180.

3 consors, ‘ Head x 80.

4, cs <r “ Post-abdomen X 1380.

5. Simocephalusvetulus, “ | Macula nigra x 260.

6 i Americanus, fem. Macula nigra x 260.

7%. Scapholeberis mucronata, fem. Head from below x 160.

8 s nasuta, male. Head seen obliquely from below x 260.

9. re “fem. Head xX 80.

LOMO ae cs “fem. Macula nigra from side and from be-

low X 260.

11. Daphnia pulex. Terminal claw.

12. Macrothrix rosea, male. Post-abdomen > 260.

13. i " “ Antennule x 260.

14. Alonopsis media, “ Post-abdomen x 160.

15. e “fem. ac x 150.

16. Alona porrecta, male. x 150.

1%. -Graptoleberis inermis, fem. Post-abdomen x 150.

18. Crepidocercus setiger, fem. X 148.

19. Pleuroxus procurvus, fem. Front part of animal x 150.

20. oy rf fem. Hind part of valve x 150.

ila ameta * denticulatus, fem. Post-abdomen x 150. -

22. a unidens, fem. Hind part of body and valves « 95.

THE HELIOTYPE PRITING CO. 220 DEvoNsHIRE Sr. Boston

EXPLANATION OF PLATE IL

Fig. 1. Daphnella exspinosa, fem. Antennule x 140.

9. 66 cc male. «“ 66

3. s 6 s Post-abdomen x 140.

4, 66 (79 ce a (73

5. Daphnia levis, fem. “ a

Giekipers cS ee Embryo, outline of head.

6b, b’. “ “ « Young, «

6c. S a “ Adult, ec

Te ss “ male. Antennule x 140.

8. Ceriodaphnia cristata, fem. Head x 130.

9. i “ “ Post-abdomen X 180.

10. Bosmina cornuta, fem. Head, etc., x 150.

11. Plevroxus straminius, fem. Post-abdomen x 140.

12. cc insculptus, ‘“ Details of marking.

18. se hamatus, “ “

14. € fe sf First foot « 148.

15. ec acutirostris ‘* < 1385.

16. Aloma angulata, fem. x 1385.

17. “ tuberculata, fem. x 135.

18. st male. Post-abdomen x 140.

19. Chydorus sphericus, male. x 150.

Plate I.

THE HELIOTYPE PRINTING CO. 220 DEVONSHIRE ST. Boston.

Ihe, es

TAT Haves ox

Fauna of the Magara and Upper Silurian focks. 118

ON THE FAUNA OF THE NIAGARA AND UPPER

SILURIAN ROCKS AS EXHIBITED IN MILWAU-

KEE COUNTY, WISCONSIN, AND IN COUNTIES

CONTIGUOUS THERETO.

BY F. H. DAY, M. D.

Wauwatosa, Wis., Dec. 27, 1877.

It is stated as an axiom by high paleontological authority,—

that ‘‘Since rocks are identified more by their fossil contents, than

by their lithological character, a name descriptive of the latter

is of less importance than formerly, when fossils were the sub-

ordinate characters of a mass;” and although paleozoic char-

acters have assumed the supremacy over all others in distinguish-

ing sedimentary strata, “still the lithological terms must not be

overlooked; for if properly understood, they will be unerring

cuides in tracing the condition of the surface, for more than hun-

dreds of miles in extent.”

Changes in the lithological features of a rock which may render

observations unsatisfactory, are accompanied by greater or less

variation in the nature of the fossils. It is therefore of the high-

est importance in the examination of sedimentary rocks to be gov-

erned by three essential facts, which are:

1st. The lithological character.

2d. The order of the superposition.

3d. The contained characteristic fossils.

By an observance of such precepts geologists have been enabled

to forma reliable anda systematic geological history, which is ar-

ranged into natural distinctions of ages, periods, epochs, and eras,

with the capability to trace from one portion of country to another,

through all intricate phases, types and characters, the rocks con-

taining remains, images or casts of paleozoic life.

It is thus we determine the first appearance in the world’s his-

tory of organized beings, as exemplified in thecommencement of

114 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters.

the Silurian age— usually termed the Lower Silurian, where by

successive layers or strata of calcareous or siliceous sedimentary

* matter, we trace each order of life through distinctive periods, and

epochs, until progressive organization culminated in the era of

man. :

The nomenclature adopted by tacit consent of paleontologists,

to be applied to rocks, is that of the locality where the exposure of

a specified rock exists in its best state of preservation and can be

carefully examined and studied.

In this manner are the terms derived, Canadian, Trenton, Nia-

gara, Salina, Lower and Upper Helderberg and Hamilton, with

the subdivisions of Quebec, Galena, Waukesha, Racine and St.

Claire.

But it is the three principal periods: the Trenton, Niagara and

Salina which particularly interest a paleontologist when making

collections of paleozoic remains from the eastern portions of Wis-

consin, and therefore the foregoing explanatory observations

seemed to be necessary to elucidate what seemed to befog or de:

ter some of our leading state geologists in arriving at definite sat-

isfactory conclusions.

For if you examine the strata of rocks, with their fossiliferous

contents, as exhibited in various exposures by quarrying or from

other causes in Milwaukee county within a radius of twenty miles,

it is difficult to apply the foregoing mentioned, or geological ax-

ioms. In a single quarry containing a coralline limestone near

Wauwatosa I have obtained several thousand specimens within the

past twenty years, and from among them I can show you repre-

sentative fossils delineated and described as belonging to the com-

mencement of the primordial time or Lower Silurian age, intermin-

gled with many fossils characteristic of the Upper Silurian, the

Guelph and the beginning of the Devonian age. However, ‘Prof.

Dana asserts that there is no evidence that a species existed in

the latter half of the Upper Silurian, that was alive in the latter

half of the Lower Silurian.” The fossils of the Niagara fauna

being mostly casts of the interior, it is more of an exception to

- find the shell or testaceous covering in a perfect state of preser-

vation thereby making our investigations accompanied with many

Fauna of the Niagara and Upper Silurian Rocks. 115

difficulties, nevertheless Hastern Wisconsin has a fauna which in

variety, beauty, perfection and numbers cannot be excelled by

a similar collection, within the same extent of country on either

hemisphere. :

Could the distinguished Prof. L. Aggasiz have examined our

corals, Hchinoderms, Brachiopoda, Lamellibranchs, Gasteropoda,

Cephalopoda and Trilobita, no doubt he would have exclaimed,

‘why sir, the sight of this display would make an eastern natur-

alist crazy.”

On one occasion after arecent excavation by blasting at Schoon-

macker’s quarry, | measured a coral disk about twenty feet in

diameter, three feet in height, and more than sixty feet in circum-

ference. The surface was made up of beautiful concentric layers,

like the flattened whorls of a gasteropod, and were covered by very

pretty Heleolites.

Cruising around such coral eminences, were the “lords of the

invertebrates,” the Orthoceratites, the straight variety of Cephalo-

poda, measuring over twelve feet in length and twenty inches in

circumference, and having siphuneles so peculiar in shape and ex-

pansion, that Prof. H. A. Ward, notwithstanding his large ex-

perience and observation, declared these different from any species

he had seen in the old or new world, because the pyrimidal-cone-

shaped siphuncle of the base, or last chamber, resembled much

the contour of a Belemnite. ;

Here also was the gigantic Phragmoceras having a base twenty

one inches ir circumference, six inches deep, and a seven inches lat-

itudinal aperture, and extremely macrochcilus or long lip, for per-

fect specimens collected of five species of Phragmoceras make Prof.

Hall’s description of a single specimen of our species, compara-

tively a myth, and his Phragmoceras nestor is simply a descrip-

tion of a mutilated specimen of a Phragmoceras macrocheilus.

Prof. Hall’s Gomphoceras septoris has the curvilinear figure of a

Phragmoceras, er Cyrtoceras, and in general aspect much resem-

bles a Phragmoceras callistoma (Barrande), delineated in Wood-

ward’s Modern and Fossil Shells. Of the four varieties of Gompho-

ceras, one may prove to be G. serinvum or G. Marcyi of Winchell.

The gasteropoda of the Lower and Upper Silurian and Hamilton

116 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters.

cementare found much larger and in a more perfect condition than

those pictured and described in reports of previous geological sur-

veys. A magnificent and perfect Plewrotomaria perlaia five inches

in diameter, found in the Niagara shale, and also in the Guelph

or Gault, a Zrochoceras, Gebhardit, six inches in diameter, from the

cement rocks, besides many others, claim honorable mention. In

no other place are such unique lamellibranchiata to be found,

particularly the Moceraunas and Amphicelia, Ambonychia, and

Paleocardia. Ihave quite a number of perfect specimens, retain-

ing the whole or parts of their beautiful striated shells.

It is in Schoonmaker’s Quarry that several distinct species of

trilobites belong which are not found elsewhere—in any fossilifer-

ous formation.

Prof. J. Hall, in his description of the fauna of Wisconsin, was

often obliged to make use of imperfect material, and in resorting

to the very unsatisfactory mode of delineating restored parts, or

“supposed differences,” he would naturally be much disappointed

and mortified to find his opinions erroneous upon the subsequent

discovery of perfect specimens, which were heretofore entirely

new, or but little known. On this account it is questionable

whether Hall’s synonyms for fossils like the Jdlenus, Spherexo-

chus, Phragmoceras, et cetera, when perfect specimens prove them

to be so radically different from Hall’s descriptions, should be

‘saddled ” with the names he intended should be applied to them,

especially when his opinions are based upon a single part or frag-

ment of a perfect specimen, and also when the synonym is foreign

to the idea suggestive of its character. or example, the pygidium

of the Jllenus cuniculus is confounded with the Bridgeport and

Waukesha Jllenus armatus, which is probably an adult speci-

men of Illenus insignis, or Illenus Worthmanus of Winchell, or

Llloenus Springfieldensis, of Meek. There are other species of

the Lllenus, or Asaphus, to which the glabella has a slight re-

semblance to Hall’s description, but otherwise are totally different.

The pygidium of Hall’s Sphoerexochus Romingert is simply a

mutilated specimen of a pygidium of S& mirus of Beyrich. I

am induced to make these assertions after a careful comparison

with perfect specimens in my cabinet. Allow me, also, to state

Fauna of the Niagara and Upper Silurian Rocks. 117

that I have never seen a single specimen of Jlloenus roxus, found

in Schoonmaker’s Quarry, notwithstanding Prof. Hall’s mention

that it is of frequent occurrence, and Prof. T. C. Chamberlaiu

identifies it as belonging to this quarry.

A nearly perfect head and pygidium of an Aczdaspis Danat

make the specimen quite different from Winchell’s Acidaspis Jda.

Extraordinary sized Ceraurus insignis are occasionally found

and well marked parts of Brontews Acmas, Harpes, Lichas, Dalma-

nia, wew species of Lllenus, Asaphus, besides quite a number of

as yet undetermined varieties of trilobites, which are “new or but

little known.”

Fine specimens of //loenus ioxus are found in Waukesha and

and Greenfield, but it is in the Racine quarries that the grand pa-

triarchial zovus assumed his supremacy. Specimens of heads

over five inches wide and three inches deep, and joined to thoracic

segments, and pygidium will make full-sized specimens, more

than one foot in length. The Acidaspis and several other very re-

markable varieties of trilobites are also found, beautiful as well as

unique, and unsurpassed. But it is in the the Wauwatosa quar-

ries that the best documents are produced to illustrate the com-

parative anatomy and physiology of the trilobite. A critical ex-

amination of fossil specimens of this invertebrate animal reveals

a bundle of contradictions on account of its possessing many at-

tributes belonging to several orders, which cause the trilobite to

assume as uncertain a position among the invertebrates as a Chei-

roptera does among vertebrates ‘“‘ which can claim a habitation

neither with birds or beasts.”’

All the parts of the trilobite, as found at Wauwatosa, béing

‘casts of the interior,’ reveal an internal mechanism which re-

quires no more stretch of the imagination to localize and impute cer-

tain actions to different parts, than for an anatomist to explain

definitely and intelligently the properties and powers pertaining

to the skeleton of a vertebrate.

Precisely in similar manner do the casts of the trilobite illus-

trate its organism, habits and locomotion. Like some species of

Entromostracans, it was capable of being dismembered into sev-

eral parts and had the attributes of Crustaceans, Mollusks and

Worms. Its ambulatory movements were performed in a similar

118 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters.

manner to the larvze of insects, but its exterior covering of crusta-

ceous segments, united by chitine, enabled it to move rapidly in

the water similar to the molluscan Chiton. It also possessed the

same natatory powers as the Crustacean Macrurans. or it could

assume a spherical form like an Isopod, or lepidoptera hairy larva.

By the action of its extension or flexor muscles, the trilobite was

enabled to elongate or contract its size from several inches in

length to one-third its longitudinal extension capacity, and did

not possess a single attribute of an arachnoid. If a name were

required for such an organization, it would be one suggestive of

three orders of genera, combined in one, indicative of an annelid,

a Mollusk, and a Crustacean. Such a proposition is the result of

a careful examination of many thousand specimens of several

genera and species of trilobites, and I am induced to believe that

this peculiar invertebrate lived, at certain distinct periods of time,

so well defined, as to indicate a sufficient reason for making a

change in the ages of Geological History. For instead of classi-

fying the Silurian age as one of Mollusks, and the Devonian as

Fone of Fishes, substitute a Trilobite age. For Mollusks existed

through all ages, and fishes first appeared in the later part of the

Silurian, and assumed a prominence in subsequent ages, like the

Devonian, Carboniferous, etcetera, but the Trilobite is identified at

the commencement, and became extinct at the close of paleozoic

life. In a paper like this, treating: of a miscellaneous fauna, I can

only thus give a brief synopsis of the component parts of Trilo-

_ bite, which, like the Crustacea, by aid of muscular action could

be ‘sessile or stalked eyed,” and its having a chitine carapace

nnited by sutures, was provided with processes, and sinuses for

the attachment and action of muscles, and it could be readily dis-

membered at its dissolution into cheeks, glabellz, hypostoma,

thoracic segments and pygidium, that were held in proper posi-

tion by a chitinous bond of union, which enabled the trilobite to

perform its wormlike motions by expansion, adhesion and contrac-

tions, or to fold its extremities together as the caterpillar larva, or

wood louse when alarmed, or if attacked as a means of defense, or

could move swiftly through the water, like the Molluscous Ohiton

or Crustacean crawfish.

After many years of patient research and with the aid of

Fauna of the Niagara and Upper Silurian Rocks. 119

largely magnifying optical instruments, I have been unable with

the single exception of the seta filaments at the extremities of the

thoracic segments of Culymene — to discover any apppearance

having the slightest resemblance to the strong jointed legs; char-

acteristic of the limulus group.

Since preparing this society paper, I have received from Mr.

C. D. Walcott, Curator State Museum Natural History, Albany,

N. Y., two pamphlets on the organism of the trilobite, entitled “a

preliminary notice of the discovery of the natatory and branchial

appendages of the trilobite,” also an explanatory letter from the

author respecting the uncertanty of his discoveries, but hopeful

of a final satisfactory result.

A copy of the twenty-eighth Regents’ New York Report by Prof. ©

Hall, with reference to plate 34, fig. 14, illustrating points of at-

tachment for supposed natatory organs, also fig. 13, which might

be a sub-section in conjunction with other parts of a folded speci-

men, could be readily construed into a semblance of strong

jointed legs, resembling the limuloid species. Mr. Wélcott’s theo-

ries are formed from incised specimens of ‘‘casts of the exterior,”

while my conclusions are the result of examinations made of ‘‘casts

of the interior.”

In our investigations, Mr. Wolcott and myself may be ina

chameleon sense, right or wrong, as to the opinions we may

form, being largely influenced by the circumstances which govern

our actions in a similar manner —as several years ago — adiver-

sity of opinion existed between Professors Billings, Woodward,

Verrill and Dana. -

Permit me to simply state that I think I have conclusive a

dence, that “ trilobites did not swim on their backs,” they did not

have stout jointed legs, they did not rest with their dorsal surface

downwards, and they did not belong to the higher order of entro-

mostracans. But more extended and fully explanatory views

concerning the trilobite, will appear in a work I am now prepar-

ing for the press.

But whatever the result may be of our persevering labors, nat-

ural science will no doubt be benefited by our efforts to solve

what have been so long problematical statements.

120 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters.

It is said to be a trite saying of the Icelander, that the “sun

shines on no country equal to his own.” In like manner we may

boast or as Virgil, “sing praises,” not of “men and arms,” but

of the richness and variety of the “paleozoic treasures of Mil-

waukee County, and other counties contiguous thereto,” fora nat-

uralist will examine with ecstatic delight, the unexcelled crinoids,

as found in the quarries of Raeine, Waukesha, Bridgeport and

Greenville. Probably in no other fossiliferous localities are there

to be found such rich collections of Silurian echinodermata. Quite

a number of them are delineated and described in part 8 of Hall’s

Paleontology of Wisconsin, 1871. ;

But since the publication of that work, more perfect specimens

and new genera and species have been added to private collec-

tions, like that of our worthy president, Dr. P. R. Hoy.

If I claim.to have unravelled some of the many perplexing and

doubtful theories concerning the organism of the trilobite, Presi-

dent Hoy can claim equal success as regards the habits and inter-

nal structures of Wisconsin Niagara Echinoderms.

Although a large proportion of the crinoidea may be found at

Racine, a majority of the Cystidea are found in Waukesha and

Milwaukee counties.

For Racine, besides her unsurpassed Echinoderms, has a won-

derful genera, and species of other paleozoic fossils, trilobite heads

and pygidia, equal to the largest size yet published or described.

Specimens are found of the very peculiar Acidaspis, Dalmanites,

Bronteus, Lichas, Spheroxochus, Lilenus, Calymene and Asaphus

Flarpes.

Exquisitively beautiful is the internal structure of several vari-

ties of Cephalopods, that of the Orthoceras abnorme, with a si-

phuncle, having a central siphuncle, composed of minute cyclindri-

cal ramifications which reach to the outer walls of the siphon.

Also several varities of the Orthocerta, like the O. angulatum,

O. columnnre, O. crebescens, O. Laphami, on account of their pecu-

liarly constructed chambers, bases or siphuncles, have some re-

semblance to Hndoceras.

Quite a number of the Gasteropods claim our attention, as the

_Pleurotomaria occidens, Trochoceras costatum, Tremanotus, Tremano-

tus alphenus, Pleurotomarial Hoyt and P. Halli.

Fauna of the Niagara and Upper Silurian Rocks. 121

Principal among the Brachiopods are the Osotus conradt,

Spirifer nobilis, Spirifer plicatella, Strophodonta pavfunda, Pen-

tamarella ventrecosus, Pentamarus oblongus. In an inspection

of the fossils of Hastern Wisconsin, it is naturally expected by

every votary of natural science, that an identity of fossiliferous

bearing rocks should be established with some age or period.

' But it appears from the published expressed opinions of those

appointed to execute the geological state surveys, that there are

many complications and difficulties intervening, in localizing, in

accordance with established rules and methods, definite ages and

periods, for the strata of rocks as exhibited in Hastern Wisconsin.

In 1862, the first plausible or rational theories were published

by Wisconsin legislative enactments concerning the parallelism of

New York paleontology, with the same fossiliferous bearing rocks

of the northwestern states, — more particularly the eastern por-

tions of Wisconsin, ——especially Milwaukee, Racine and Wauke-

sha counties.

Notwithstanding the conclusions reached were far from satis-

factory, still some system was established, which enabled the

student of Paleontology to profit by his investigations, and may

have been the means of stimulating such inquiries and experi-

ments, as resulted in establishing a great commercial and profita-

ble branch of industry, which may give to Milwaukee a reputa-

tion for hydraulic cement products, second to none in the Union,

and eventually first in the world.

No doubt this most gratifying success was accomplished through

the suggestions and persevering investigations of the late Dr. I. A.

Lapham, one of the chief pioneers of natural history.

SCIENCE IN WISCONSIN.

Yet, a certain amount of credit is due to the Superintendent of

the Geological Survey of Wisconsin (Prof. James Hall) of 1862,

for the opinions he expressed in that work, and also for the theo-

ries similarly advanced in Vol. III, Paleontology of New York,

and part 3d, Paleontology of Wisconsin, 171, in the introductory

chapters, having reference to the hydraulic cement character, of

122 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Leiters.

the calciferous formations of the Upper Silurian age of rocks, as

exhibited in the vicinity of Milwaukee.

Prof. Hall, also in his statements in Vol. I, Geology of Wiscon-

sin, represents the strata of rocks lying above the Niagara, as the

equivalent of the Salina or Onondaga Salt group of New York,

or the Guelph, or Gault, of Canada, and the Le Claire, of Iowa.

Notwithstanding, he was unable to trace the characteristic fossil,

Hurypterus remipes of the Water-Lime Group. Similar views are

expressed by him in his prefatory remarks in his paleontology of

Wisconsin, also see Paleontology of New York, Vol. III Like-

wise what are called, on page 72, Vol. I, Geology of Wisconsin, the

upper Helderberg. and Hamilton groups, have proved to be what is

‘Geolocy-of ithe- Hamilton cement, of 8 ase, in Vok-ti-ot

now termed’ Wiseonsing elit, 4 otelogy 05 1200 Cane

An analytical examination of the pies sentiments of the

authorsin Volumes first and second of Geology of Wisconsin, con-

cerning the lithological character of the rocks containing the fauna

of Wisconsin, especially its eastern portion, shows no very marked

distinction or discrepancy, for their final summation respecting

the area, the age, and periods, embracing the characteristic epochs,

as generally admitted in American Geology.

To the general student of Natural History, the previous class-

ification established by Hall, on 447 page, of Vol. I, of Geology

of Wisconsin, comprehensively covers the synonymous terms of

Mayville and Byron beds, and upper and lower coral beds, lying

below the Waukesha limestone. For the Hamilton cement, the

Le Claire, the Racine and Waukesha limestones, embrace all the

fauna belonging to that portion of the Upper Silurian, equivalent

to the Salina, Lower Helderberg and Hamilton.

Such an increase of synonyms has a tendency to embarrass

the student in his study of paleozoic life, notwithstanding. Prof.

Chamberlin, while reiterating the ideas advanced by Prof. Hall, has

invested them, in a fuller and more interesting phraseology. But

some facts concerning the quarries in Milwaukee county do not sub-

stantiate the correctness of Prof. Chamberlin’s views, that the three

classes of limestone, Mayville, Waukesha and Racine, lying above

the Trenton period of rocks, were formed simultaneously.

Fauna of the Niagara and Upper Silurian Rocks. 128

If we examine the lowest depths of the sole of Schoonmaker’s

quarry, we find the same characteristic rock, containing the Zere-

bratulous fossil, Gypidean occidentalis, belonging to the Byron

division of the Mayville bed. This formation was quarried to

some extent, and formed dressed stones, for bases to grave-stones,

and window caps and sills.

This stratum terminated abruptly in an ancient river bed, the bot-

tom of which is smooth and polished, grooved and scratched by

the drift of the glacial action or era, for huge granite boulders were

excavated during the process of quarrying.

Above this stratum, are regular even layers of a glazed, compact,

metalic ringing, cherty limestone, of several inches in thickness,

which is quarried in regular rectangular forms, and is utilized as a

durable pavement on the side walks, or macadamized streets of

Milwaukee and Waukesha. This formation was covered with ani-

mal life, similar to that, so extensively intermixed in the strata or '

groups overlying it, and is well exhibited at every exposure of

this rock, in all the quarries in Milwaukee, Racine and Wauke-

sha counties. But the fauna which covered the surface of the

Waukesha limestone, at Cook’s, Hadfield’s and Pelton’s, in Wau-

kesha county, or Trimbone’s, Swan’s, Busack’s, Schwackhart’s

and Story’s in Milwaukee county; or Ives’, Horlick’s and others,

in Racine county; or Cook and Mc’Henry counties in Illinois,

are in an exceedingly compressed stratum, and in many instances

the fossils are in such a state as to be but little better defined, than

well marked outlines of the original plant or invertebrate animal.

In several of the quarries, as Story’s, Schewickhart’s, Busack’s

and Cook’s, the Bryozoa, Cephalopoda, Gasteropoda, Brachiopoda

and Crustacea, are so intensely compressed and distorted and glaz-

ened as often to give the appearance of different genera or species.

In seeking an elucidation of the age and character of the dolo-

mitic formations in eastern Wisconsin, and in taking into consid-

eration the totality of their surroundings, a plausible, perhaps a

correct theory is established from these facts. Adopting the axi-

oms, that the predominating fossil contents of rocks determine

their age and character, we find lying above the regular strati-

fied rocks of the Niagara period, and termed the Waukesha lime-

124 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters.

stone, soft, porous, and in places, easily disintegrated coral form-

ations, termed by Profs. Hall and Chamberlin, coral reefs, which

were formed on the top of sedimentary rocks, less than one hun-

dred feet deep, in an ancient sea.

That these coral reefs extended from the south of Kewaunee,

Wisconsin, in a southerly direction, below Bridgport, Illinois; a

distance of more than two hundred miles, and westerly, to Le

Claire, Towa. . |

That at certain points in Milwaukee, Waukesha, and Racine,

these coral reefs became more prominent and formed, as termed

by Prof. J. Dana, atolls, bordering on lagoons, which upon the

receding of the ancient sea, formed the fiords vallies, now occu-

pied by the numerous rivers of Wisconsin.

Subsequently in the vicinity or same direction of these fiord

vallies, glacial vallies were formed at frequent intervals for long

lines of granitic boulders, of the Archean age are found, some

measuring many tons, in size and weight; they no doubt had

an agency in producing the grooves, scratches and polished sur-

face, exhibited on the tops and sides of the ledges of the com-

pact and fine grained limestone. The compressed condition of the

fossils appears to be due to an upward pressure from an upheaval

at the era of Silurian eruption, from which the same cause may

have changed portions of the sedimentary dolomitic strata,

either by igneous action or by solution into metamorphic beauti-

ful calcite, or strontianite. Such a theory would account for

the extraordinary compressed condition of fossil Cephalopoda,

and other genera, and calcite crystals in the Waukesha lime-

stone, and at the quarries in Wauwatosa, Racine and elsewhere

in the state. An equally plausible theory is, that by a grad-

ual submergence, or subsidence; and also from erosion, by the

waves and currents of the ancient sea upon portions of the found-

ation or base of the coral reefs, certain parts were undermined, caus-

ing the superior portion of the rocks to tilt over and slide down

in huge blocks, which give the appearance, upon exposure by

quarrying, of an upheaval of the strata. Such causes, explain

somewhat, the deep vertical fissures and seams, which permeate

every portion of the Wauwatosa reefs, and this situation is taken

Fauna of the Niagara and Upper Silurian Rocks. 125

advantage of by workmen, in the process of quarrying, by blast-

ing and excavating. ;

In certain parts of the reefs are coves, or pockets, which contain

remains of distinct colonies of paleozoic life. For in one cove,

you will chiefly find Foraminifera and Zoophyta. In another

cove, the Brachiopoda; in another the Crustacea, and so on with

each class and species of fossils. A similar state exists in other

of the coral reefs; for the trilobites of Wauwatosa are not found

at Waukesha. ‘The magnificent and peculiar Echinoderms of

Racine, are not found in other reef formations; and the trilobite

species, [llenus imperator, Illenus armatus, are found in the

southerly reefs of Burlington, Bridgeport and Algonquin.

From the foregoing considerations, aided by geological axioms

and other published opinions of accepted paleontological authority,

we offer these suggestions, as an effort to supply the “ missing

links” in our research, as to the age, period and epoch, wherein

once lived, moved and had a being, “the fauna of Niagara and

Upper Silurian rocks, as exhibited in Milwaukee county, Wiscon-

sin, and ijn counties contiguous thereto.”’

126 Wisconsin Academy of Sctences, Arts, and Letters.

DISCOVERIES ILLUSTRATING THE LITERATURE

AND RELIGION OF THE MOUND BUILDERS.

BY EDMUND ANDREWS, A. M.. M. D.,

Prof. of Surgery in Chicago Medical College.

Looking back into the dawn of American history, we see certain

figures stalking dim and phanton-like across the horizon. So

unreal do they appear, that were it not for the massive earthworks

they have left behind them, we might well disbelieve their ex-

istence.

Little by little we have gained information respecting them.

They were miners and coppersmiths of considerable skill, but

apparently wrought their metal solely by hammering, yet they

occasionally had molten bronze chisels, which they probably im-

ported from Mexico. They possessed shells from the sea, plates

of mica from the Alleghanies, and Obsidian from the Rocky Moun-

tains. They probably sent copper to Mexico, and in the graves of

Yucatan have been found heads of their Lake Superior chloras-

tralite. They were farmers, and cultivated broad fields with hoes

and spades made of flint and wood. They wove cloth, made pot-

tery, and erected earthworks of such enormous size and number

as to astonish even the white men who now occupy their deserted

cities. Their skeletons often exceed six feet in height, their skulls,

which are generally brachycephalic, are flattened at the occupit

like those of the modern Indians, but enclosed a large sized brain.

This comprises nearly all that we have hitherto known about the

vanished races.

The exploration of the interiors of their mounds has generally

been conducted in a very slovenly and inefficient way. It would

seem that in sacrificial mounds, the builders were accustomed to

deposit sacred records inscribed on stone, but so incomplete have

been our examinations, that hitherto only a few of them have been

_disinterred, and these more by accident than by any real skill of

the discoverers.

Literature and Religion of the Mound Builder's. 127

The first one that came to my knowledge was found in a town-

ship called Savannah, on the Tennessee river, in the state of Ten-

nessee. A mound existed here so broad that a company of cav-

alry and all their horses, in the late war, encamped on its summit.

Subsequently the men removed their tents from it and systemati-

cally dug away the whole structure. A small slab of stone was

found with a drawing upon it representing an altar with the body

of some animal upon it enveloped in flames, while the sun was

depicted above. It evidently represented a sacrifice to the deity

residing in that luminacy. I have not yet succeeded in securing

a copy of this stone.

The second was near Rockford, Illinois. A large mound was

examined there, and yielded a small stone of crystalline marble

containing a figure of the sun supported as if on a pedestal, with

a column of hieroglyphics on either side consisting of twelve char-

acters, in all. A fac similie marked No. one, is transmitted with

this paper. The left hand column shows at the top a segment of

acircle. Next below is a trianyle, next a snake, a lizard, and last

a flower. The right hand column consists of a sigmoid line, a

line like the letter U, a minute cross, head of a rabbit, two objects

whose significance I am unable to make out, anda fish. The

disk of the sun has a human face drawn on it, and on the fore-

head of the face is the disk of a crescent moon, with as much of

an imitation of a face on the latter as there was room to portray.

It may be remarked here that the Aztecs, according to Prescott,

(Conquest of Mexico, vol. 1, p. 122), understood the agency of

the moon in producing eclipses, and portrayed these events by

drawing a moon on the disk of the sun. ‘This stone, therefore,

may be the record of an eclipse. It is not possible yet to translate

the twelve hieroglyphic signs upon it.

The third discovery of this sort also occurred near Rockford.

There were hieroglyphics found on some stones excavated from a

mound, but I have not yet succeeded in obtaining a copy.

The fourth inscribed object was an ornament of shell found in

a Mound Builder's grave, near Hast St. Louis. It contained only

four characters.

The fifth discovery was made last month at Davenport, Iowa,

128 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts,\and Letlers.

by the Rey. Mr. Gass, a trustworthy Lutheran clergyman, with

his friends. Fac similes hae been sent me by Mr. Pratt, Secre-

tary of the Davenport Academy of Sciences, and copies are sent

herewith, numbered two, three and four. Numbers two and three

are on opposite sides of the same stone. The drawing is exces-

sively rude and far inferior to the work of some modern Indians.

It is a sacrificial scene, taking place on the summit of a mound.

At the bottom is the mound itself, on it blazes a large fire, and

near it lie the bodies of three human victims. Around it standa

circle of worshipers clasping each others hands, while the smoke

curls upward from the flame. Above at the right hand is the

sun; at the left hand is the moon, with a human face portrayed

on its disk, and between are the stars, over all arches the sky. On

the upper part of the slab are about one hundred characters, which

are evidently a record of something which we at present cannot

read. (The irregular line from the top to the bottom represents

only a fracture in the stone).

The opposite side of the same slab seems to be a rude repre-

sentation of a wooded country, full of game of every description,

which a few lucky hunters are killing with the greatest ease.

There are deer, bears, buffaloes, fish, birds, and nondescript ani-

mals, possibly intended for a musk ox and a turtle. As the op-

posite side was a sacred scene, this side is probably a religious

delineation also, and may, perhaps, represent the famous “ happy

hunting grounds” of departed souls. Two-thirds of the way up

the slab, a line of hieroglyphics runs across it containing, like the

Rockford stone, twelve characters, four of which are identical

with those on the Rockford stone. It is to be observed, also, that

the two lines of characters carried along the arch of the sky on

the other side of the slab, each contain twice twelve characters,

and in fac similie number four, we again find twelve hieroglyphics,

so that this number seems to have some special significance in their

system.

Number four shows a central round spot, surrounded by four

concentric circles. Between the two outer circles are ranged

very regularly the twelve hieroglyphic characters just mentioned.

They are very hastily drawn as if the priests had long been fa-

Interature and Religion of the Mound Builders. 129

miliar with them and only felt it necessary to slightly imitate the

forms. Above are two round spots, intended, perhaps, to signify

the sun and the moon. It seems difficult to avoid the impression

that this inscription is some sort of a calendar. The stones lay

one on the top of the other at the bottom of the mound, on the

original surface of the ground, and were surrounded by a circle

of small rounded stones, each about four inches in diameter.

No one can inspect these fac similies without the conviction

that we have before us rude specimens of literature, which some

future investigation may yet translate. Meantime the sacrificial

mounds should be ransacked in every part, instead of being care-

lessly dug into, for the only hope of being able to translate these

inscriptions rests on the discovery of more of them for compari-

son and study.

In concluding this paper I desire to call attention to some neg-

lected evidences, which seem to indicate that the Mound Builders

are not extinct, as popularly supposed, but still exist among our

Indian tribes.

Squier, after investigating carefully the mounds of western New

York, found himself driven very unexpectedly to the conclusion

that ‘‘ they were erected by the Iroquois, or their western neigh-

bors.”

Purchens, writing two hundred and fifty vears ago, said “The

Troquois have no Townes: their dwellings and Forts are three or

foure stories high, as in New Mexico.”’

Greenhalgh, one hundred years ago, made a statement about

the commercial houses of the Senecas, which shows them to haye

been somewhat like those of New Mexico in plan.

Foster is of the opinion that the mounds thirty miles south-

west of Natchez, were erected, by the Natchez Indians, and states

that the trees on them were younger than on the adjacent grounds.

Lasalle, nearly two hundred years ago, visited the Natchez In-

dians, and his companion, Touty, says their town was surrounded

by a strong earthwork, defended by stakes, on which were stuck

the skulls of enemies ‘sacrificed to the sun. They also kept a

perpetual fire burning on a mound forty-five feet high. They,

therefore, made use of mounds and earth fortifications and sacri-

130 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters.

ficed human victims to the sun, like the Mound Builders of Daven-

port. In fact they were Mound Builders themselves.

The Smithsonian Reports state that at the bottom of a mound,

near Savannah, an iron sword was found with an oak handle, in-

dicating communication with white men.

Bartram (Antiq. Southr. Indians, p. 131), says that in his day

the Choctaws erected mounds over the collected bones of their

dead, and that the chief, To-mo-chi-chi, pointed out the large

mound in which were the bones of a chief who had entertained

a great white man with a red beard, who came into Savannah river

in a ship.

It is well proved that the southern Indians, like the Mound

Buiiders, possessed the art of weaving cloth, which Foster erro-

neously attributes to the Mound Builders alone.

I have just received a letter from the Rey. A. L. Riggs, a mis-

sionary among the Nebraska Indians, respecting the use of earth-

works among the western tribes. He says:

“ Along the Missouri river, at least from Sioux City to its head,

are many remains of villages and fortifications. They are all

traceable to tribes now in existence, chiefly to Poncas, Rees, and

Mandans, and were built within two hundred and fifty years. The

large circular dirt houses still to be seen at Fort Berthold, among

the Mandans and Gros-ventres, were once built by the Poneas, also.

‘“‘T remember the site of an old fort on the Minnesota river, near

the Yellow Medicine. It was on the edge of the western bluffs.

Three sides had been protected by a ditch, and probably by palis-

ades. It enclosed, as I remember, an acre. This fort was said to

have been built by the Pawnees, or else the Omahas. This was

before the Dakotas occupied the country.”

It appears, therefore, that a considerable number of tribes still

exist, and some of them are now well civilized, who were Mound

Builders when the white men first met them. These facts may

destroy some of the poetry of the mounds, but we must look

at things as they are. The theories of ethnology have grown too

much under blue glass, swelling to an unhealthy size, which can-

not be maintained under white sunlight. We shall get on faster,

if we move slower.

Interature and Religion of the Mound Builders. 131

The next grand effort should be to disinter more of this buried

literature, and see whether by the study of it, some genuine

knowledge of the past can be made to rise from these tombs.

It is also necessary to make a thorough study of the dialects of

those tribes, who seem to be descended from the Mound Builders,

for they will furnish a necessary stepping stone to the interpreta-

tion of the inscriptions, just as the study of Coptic was an essential

pre-requisite to the translation of the Egyptian hieroglyphics.

No. 6, Sixteenth street, Chicago, Feb. 8, 1877.

182 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters.

HOW DID THE ABORIGINES OF THIS COUNTRY

FABRICATE COPPER IMPLEMENTS.

BY P. R. HOY, M.D., President Wisconsin Academy of Sciences.

I propose to consider the manner in which the ancient inhabitants

of this country fabricated those curious copper implements which

the plow and spade turn up all over Wisconsin and the adjacent

states. These copper tools are objects of great interest to the

archaeologist, and it is a matter of pride that the Wisconsin His-

torical Suciety has the largest and best collection to be found in

any state.

A few of the specimens, upon a superficial examination, seem

to be cast. This point will first be considered: Did these pre-

historic people possess the skill and intelligence requisite to cast

articles of pure copper ?

Before a cast can be made, it is necessary to have an exact copy

moulded, either in sand, plaster, clay, metal, or other suitable

substance. The formation of sand moulds is by no means so

simple an affair as it seems at first thought. It requires long

practical experience to overcome the disadvantages attendant upon

the materials used. The moulds must be sufficiently strong to

withstand the action of the fluid metal perfectly, and at the same

time to permit the egress of the gases formed by the action of the

metal on the sand. If the material is air-tight, then danger would

come from pressure, arising from the rapidity of the generating

of the gases, and the casting would be spoiled, and probably the

operator injured. If the gases are locked up within the mould,

the general result is what moulders term blown casting, that is, the

surface becomes filled with bubbles of air. The preparation of

sand and loam used in forming the mould must be carefully con-

sidered. The greater the quantity of sand the more easily will

the gases escape and the less liability is there of fracture of the

casting. On the other hand, if the loam predominate, the im-

pression of the pattern will be better, but a far greater liability of

injury to the casting will be incurred from the impermeable na-

ture of the moulding material. In moulding an accurate pattern

Copper Implements. 133

must be made, generally in two or more parts. Pattern making

involyes much knowledge and skill.

I enumerate these difficulties in order to show that it was not

likely that 2 rude people possessed that amount of knowledge and

skill adequate to overcome these obstacles.

I pass over all other modes of forming moulds, and speak only

of those formed in stone. Almost all savage tribes possess the

skill to fashion stone into various tools, and we are forced to ad-

mire the workmanship displayed in working the hardest materials,

such as flint, quartz, granite, greenstone, etc. In contemplating

these evidences of patient toil, we are assured that they could

readily work out suitable moulds in stone in which castings might

be made.

Copper is a refractory metal, which melts at from 2200 to 2600

degrees, a temperature that can be reached only ina furnace, as-

sisted by some form of coal and an artificial blast. We must

have good evidence before we assert that these dwellers by the

lake possessed these indispensable auxiliaries to successful work-

ing in metals. ‘Copper, when melted, is thick and pasty, and

without the addition of some other metal, will not run into the

cavities and sinuosities of the mould.”

In consulting with an intelligent and skillful brass-founder, I

was shown a hammer weighing three pounds, cast of pure copper,

and was assured that this was the smallest casting he could make

of this metal. The addition of one pound of zine to ten of cop-

per makes an alloy that will melt at less than half the tempera-

ture of copper, and will flow freely.

In casting im copper it is positively necessary to put the ma-

terials in a crucible, and that the surface of the melting mass be

covered with a flux in order to effectually defend the melting

metal from the action of the atmosphere.

A word about crucibles. The manufacturing of good crucibles,

such as will withstand the heat necessary to melt the more re-

fractory metals, involves such a degree of knowledge, that for

many generations the entire civilized world was dependent on a

small section of Germany; and even now Hessian crucibles are

unsurpassed. In England there are now several manufactories

184 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters.

which turn out excellent articles, one in London which makes

the celebrated Plumbago crucible. It will sufficiently indieate

the difficulties involved, when I state that America, to-day, is de-

pendent upon Europe for the immense number of crucibles used

in this country. Iam aware there is a manufactory established

in Connecticut, but the quality is so inferior that they are only

used for the more easily fused metals. I experimented with frag-

ments of pottery taken from the ancient mounds near Racine, in

order to determine the degree of heat they would stand. The

result was they were melted long before the copper was —

fused.

A majority of copper implements found have specks or points

of pure silver scattered over their services. I am prepared to

prove by the best authority in America, James ©. Booth, and

Thomas H. Garrett, U. S. assayers at Philadelphia, that one sin-

gle speck of pure silver, visible even with the microscope, is

positive evidence that the specimen was never melted.

Copper unites intimately with nearly all metals, thus form-

ing homogeneous alloys — with zine forming brass, with tin,

bronze, and so on. The only apparent exception to this law is

where large masses are fused and at rest fora long time. In these

cases the heavier metals gravitate and separate more or less, but

never perfectly. When large brass cannon are cast, in consequence

of the great quantity of metal fused, together with the additional

circumstance that the mould is made in the earth and hence re-

quires days to cool, “blotches of lighter color are occasionally:

found on the surface of the guns, indicating a segregation of the

metals. A fibrous texture is another evidence that these imple-

ments were hammered or rolled out. This (brous quality is well

exhibited by the action of strong acids on the Specimens. On

articles that are cast, the acid acts in a uniform manner, revealing

no striae or hard bands. The absence of the slightest indication

of a sprue—the opening where the metal is poured — is also, to

say the least, suggestive. We certainly would expect to find in-

dications of this necessary blemish in specimens so carelessly fin-

ished that the mould marks remain conspicuous. If these pro-

jections are the remains of the imprint of the mould, the specimen

Copper Implements. Dies

is of recent casting, for it is evident that these delicate marks

would be the first to be corroded by the tooth of time.

I make a short extract from a paper entitled “The Ancient

Men of the Great Lakes,’ read by Henry Gilman at the Detroit

meeting of the American Association for the Advancement of

Science. Mr. Gilman isa close observer, and an accomplished

archaeologist, and has made the ancient mines of Lake Superior

aspecialty. He says: ‘I cannot close, however, without express-

ing my wondering admiration of a relic, which, taken in connec-

tion with our former discoveries, affords some of the most import-

ant evidences of the character of the ancient miners, the nature

of their work, and the richness of the mineral field selected for

their labors, at Isle Royale. On cleaning out of the pit the ac-

cumulated debris, this mass was found at the bottom, at the depth

of sixteen and one-half feet. Itis of a crescent-like shape and

weighs nearly three tons, or exactly 5,720 pounds. Such a huge

mass was evidently beyond the ability of those ancient men to

remove. They could only deal with it as best they knew how.

And as to their mode of procedure, the surroundings in the pit,

and the corrugated surface of the mass itself, bear ample testi-

mony. The large quantities of ashes and charcoal lying round it

show that the action of fire had been brought to bear onit. A

| great number of the stone hammers, or mauls, were also found

near by, many of them fractured from use. With these the sur-

face of the mass had evidently been beaten up into projecting

ridges and broken off. The entire upper face and sides of the

relic present repeated instances of this; the depressions, several

inches deep, and the intervening elevations with their fractured

summits covering every foot of the exposed superficies. How

much of the original mass was removed in the manner described,

it is of course impossible to say. But from appearances, in all

probability it had at least been one third larger. Innumerable

fragments of copper chips lay strewn on all sides, and even the

scales of fish, evidently the remnants of the meals of the miners,

were recovered from the pit.”

Mr. Gilman was asked if there were in or about any of these

ancient mines any indications of the copper having been melted.

He replied: ‘Not the least.” And now, were not these innumer-

136 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters.

able copper chips that were strewn on every side additional evi-

dence that these ancient men know nothing about casting in

copper? ‘Those fragments would have been the most suitable to

melt, as in all metals the smaller the fragments the more easily

they melt. It is evident that those chips, being too small to

make any form of their implements, were abandoned as useless.

Finally, How were they made if not cast? I believe that I

have the key, and can fabricate any form of these ancient imple-

ments so exactly as to deceive even my learned friend, Dr. Butler.*

These ancient Indians, for I believe they were Indians, used fire

in their mining operations. The vein-rock was made hot by

building a fire on or against it; then, by dashing on water, the

rock would not only be fractured, but the exposed pieces of copper

be softened, so that it could be beaten into shape. Then the metal

became hard, in consequence of its being pounded; it was again

heated and plunged into cold water; for copper is, in this respect,

the opposite of steel; the one is softened, while the other is render-

ed hard. In this way copper was fashioned simply by pounding.

' In addition to the hammering process, cylindrical articles were

evidently rolled between two flat rocks, which is the manner in

which several of the articles in the historical collection might be

made. Some of those implements that have been supposed to be

cast, were, I think, swedged; that is, a matrix was excavated in

stone, into which the rudely fashioned copper was placed, and

then by repeated blows the article would be made to assume the

exact shape of the mould. Nearly all those plano-convex arti-

cles could be made in thismanner. Of twenty axes taken from

mounds near Davenport nearly three-fourths were of this pattern.

I will repeat a few lines of an interesting paper read at the De

troit meeting of the American Association, by R. H. Farquharson,

on “ Recent Explorations of Mounds near Davenport, Iowa.”

“The Davenport collection of copper implements consists, at

present, of twenty axes, six of which were more or less covered

with cloth, four copper awls or borers, over one hundred beads,

and a curiously spoon-shaped implement. The axes are all of

two forms, one plano-convex, the other with flat sides. They are

*Dr. Butler, who was present, has held strongly for the casting of these copper tools.— ED

Copper Implements. 137

all cold-wrought by hammering. Some retaining the original

scales or lamina on the surface; none of them show signs of use,

and are notably harder on the edge than elsewhere.”

All of these interesting implements are figured in the proceed-

ings of the American Association at the Detroit meeting, page 304.

We can learn more from this Davenport collection than from

any other, because of the perfect condition of The specimens, be-

ing unused and in some degree protected by their coverings.

Besides this half swedging process, I am persuaded that, in a

few instances at least, there was a complete mould worked out in

halves, on the face of two flat stones, so that by placing a suitable

piece of copper between them and giving it repeared heavy blows

the copper was made to fill the mould accurately.

Last September, while watching some workmen engaged in fill-

ing the cribs of the harbor pier with stone, my attention was

directed to a slight excavation on the face of a large granite

boulder. On careful inspection I found that it was undoubtedly

the work of man; although but a partof the excavation was left,

the rock having suffered fractures, there was enough, neverthe-

less, to enable me to make out the original form. We attempted

to chip off the specimen with a heavy stone hammer, but failed,

as the cleavage was in the wrong direction, and the mould was

obliterated. I however worked out a pattern as nearly accurate

as I could, representing the excavation. I took this pattera to a

stone cutter, for the purpose of having a mould cut in granite.

Upon consultation it was decided that the mould would have to

be cut in halves in large granite boulders in order to insure suc-

cess, which would be costly and incoavenient, and for the pur-

pose of illustrating the subject it would be as well to havea

mould cast in iron. This was done, and a beautiful ax swedged

out of cold native copper was the result. This cylindrical speci-

men* was made out of a piece of float copper, hammered with a

stone ax into partial shape, and then finished by rolling between

heavy flat stones.

(The author exhibited plain convex and double convex hatchets,

as well as a long cylindrical implement tapering regularly from

the centre to the point, that were fabricated by him in the man- —

ner stated). ©The specimens referred to was exhibited to the Academy.

188. Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters.

REMARKS ON THE DESCENT OF ANIMALS.

BY PROF. H. OLDENHAGE, MitwavKkezez.

Whether species ‘are constant and have been created with the

same specific characteristics they now possess, or whether they are

variable and have desended from common ancestors, is the point

at issue between the defendants of special creation and the evolu-

tionists. Since Linne first introduced the idea of species into

Botany and Zoology, many attempts have been made to define in

an exact mauner, what we are to understand by the term species;

but when a systematizer underakes to apply these definitions, it is

at once seen that they are either glittering generalities, or unmean-

ing phrases. Among the most recent, and no doubt the ablest of

these attempts, is Agassiz’s ‘‘ Hssay on Classification,” the dogmat-

ism and fulitity of which, Heckel has so thoroughly exposed in

his “ Generelle Morphologie.”

‘ven before the appearance of Darwin’s work on the ‘Origin

of Species,’” says Oscar Schmidt, “‘ Carpenter, in the course of his

researches on the Foraminifera, arrived at the conclusion, proved

in special instances, that in this group of low organisms, which

secrete the most delicate calcareous shells, there could be no ques-

tion of “species,” but only of “series of forms.” Forms which

the systematizer, had reduced to different genera and families, he

beheld developing themselves from one another” (Descent and

Darwinism., p. 92). But as these Foraminifera are “‘so simple in

structure, and so little is known of their individual development,

the defenders of the persistency of species might claim, that

Carpenter's series of forms are mere varieties, and only prove that

the true ‘species’ have not yet been found.” To determine this.

point, however, the researches of Oscar Schmidt and Heeckel, on

sponges, have been of the greatest importance. Oscar Schmidt

shows, that “ we arrive gradually at the conviction, that no rea-

sonable dependence can be placed on any ‘characteristic;’ that

with a certain constancy in microscopic constituents, the outward

Remarks on the Descent of Animals. 139

bodily form, with its coarser distinctive marks, varies beyond the

limits of the so called species and genera; and that, with like

external habits, the internal particles which we looked upon as

specific, are transformed into others, as it were under our hands.”

“ Any one,” thus concludes this section of Schmidt’s work on the

Fauna of the Atlantic Sponges, ‘who with regard to sponges,

makes his chief business the manufacture of species and genera,

is reduced ad absurdum, as Heeckel has shown with exquisite irony

in his Prodrome to the Monograph in the Calcareous Sponges.”’

‘In my specific researches,’’ continues Schmidt, “I confined

myself essentially to the siliceous sponges, and by thousands of

microscropic observations, by measurements, by drawings, by

facts and inferences, have produced evidences, which acute oppo-

~nents of the immutability of species had not brought forward

before me, that in these sponges, species and genera, and conse-

quently fixed systematic unities in general have no existence.

The other division of the same class, the calcareous sponges, had

been treated with unrivaled mastery by Haeckel in his mono-

graph.”

Heckel was not only able to confirm Oscar Schmidt’s state-

ments, ‘‘ but, owing to the smaller compass and the greater facil-

ity of observing the groups selected for study, to advance with

more sequence and continuity, from the observation of details to

the whole, to portray its morphology, physiology, and evolution-

ary history, with the utmost completeness.’”” He sums up his. con-

clusions as follows: (Preface to American Hdition of History of

Creation, p, 15.) ‘ For five consecutive years I have investigated

this small but highly instructive group of animals in all its forms

in the most careful manner, and I venture to maintain that the

monograph, which is the result of these studies, is the most com-

plete and accurate morphological analysis of an entire organic

group, which has up to this time been made. Provided with the

whole of the material for study, as yet brought together, and as-

sisted by numerous contributions from all parts of the world, I

was able to work over the whole group of organic forms, known

as the Calcareous Sponges, in the greatest possible degree of full-

ness, which appeared indispensable for the proof of the common

140 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters.

origin of its species. This particular animal group is especially

fitted for the analytical solution of the species problem, because

it presents exceedingly simple conditions of organization ; because

in it, the morphological conditions possess a greatly superior, and

the physiological conditions are inferior, in part, and because all

species of the Calcispongiz are remarkable for the fluidity and

plasticity of their form. With a view to these facts, I made two

journeys to the sea-coast (1869 to Norway; 1871 to Dalmatia),

in order to study as large a number of individuals as possible, in

their natural circumstances, and to collect specimens for compari-

sons. Of many species, I compared several hundred individuals

in the most careful way. I examined with the microscope, and

measured in the most accurate manner, the details of form of all the

species. As the final result of these exhaustive and almost end-

less examinations and measurements, it appeared that ‘good

species,’ in the ordinary dogmatic sense of the systematists, have

no existence at all among the Calcareous Sponges; that the most

different forms are connected, one with another,-by numberless

gradational transition forms; and that all the different species of

Calcareous Sponges are derived from a single exceedingly simple

ancestral form, the Olynthus. If we take for the limitation of

genera and species, an average standard, derived from the actual

practice of naturalists, and apply this to the whole of the Calcare-

ous Sponges at present known, we can distinguish about 21 genera

with 111 species. [I have however, shown that we may draw up,

in addition to this, another systematic arrangement, which gives

29 genera and 289 species. A systematist, who givesa more lim-

ited extension to the ideal species, might arrange the same series

of forms in 43 genera, and 381 species, or even in 113 genera and

590 species ; another systematist, on the other hand, who takes a

wider limit for the abstract ‘‘ species,” would use in arranging the

same series of forms, only 3 genera, with 21 species, or might even

satisfy himself with 2 genera and 7 species. This appears to be

so arbitrary a matter, on account of endless varieties and transi-

tional forms in this group, that their number is entirely left to the

subjective taste of the individual systematist.”

“In point of fact,” he continues, “I haye a right to expect of

Remarks on the Descent of Animals. 141

my opponents, that they shall carefully consider the exact ‘em-

pirical proof’ here brought forward for them, as they have so

eagerly demanded. May they, however, spare me the empty,

though by even respectable naturalists the oft repeated phrase,

that the monistic nature-philosophy, as expounded in the ‘Gen-

eral Morphology,’ and in the‘ History of Creation,’ is wanting in

actual proof. Precisely that exact form of analytical proof, which

the opponents of the direct theory demand is to be found, by any-

body who wishes to find it, in the ‘ Monograph of the Caleareous

Sponges.’”” “This mutability of the Spongiadee”’ adds Oscar

Schmidt, “affords the extremely important evidence that, so to

speak, an entire class has even now, not attained a state of com-

parative repose.” But to prove the variability of species satisfac-

torily, ‘‘the transition of the forms succeeding one another his-

torically in the strata of the earth” must be shown.

The researches of Waagen, Zittel, Neumayr and Wiirtenberger

have proven, in the most conclusive manner, “at least with

respect to the important division of the Ammonites, the utter im-

possibility of separating them into species.” ‘“ Neumayr is such a

cool and cautious observer, that he allows nothing to pass current,

but that which is absolutely certain.”’ It is trne he holds it to be

‘extraordinarily probable, that in al] forms these gradual trans-

itious have taken place, yet in one case only does he demand un-

qualified assent; namely, that he has proven ‘that Perisphinctes

aurigerus of the Bathoniaus, and Perisphinctes curvirostris of

the zone of the Cosmoceras Jason, are connected in such a man-

ner by intermediate occurrences that it is impossible to draw a

limit.’ ”

Wiirtenberger’s studies were applied to thousands of specimens

from the groups of the Planulate Ammonites, with ribbed shells,

and of the Armate Ammonites with prickly shells. In summing

up his results he says: ‘‘In groups of fossil organisms, in which,

as in the present case, so many connecting links between the most

extreme forms are actually before us, that the transition is regu-

larly carried on, the species is far less susceptible of apprehension

than in the organic forrus of the present world, which at least de-

note the existing limits of the great pedigree of the organic world.

142 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters.

With respect to these fossil forms, it is fundamentally indifferent

whether a very short, or a somewhat longer portion of any branch

be honored by a special name, and looked upon asa species. The

prickly Ammonites, classified under the name Armata, are so in-

trinsically connected, that it becomes an impossibility to separate

sharply, the accepted species from one another. The same obser-

vation applies also to the group of which the manifold forms are

distinguished by their ribbed shells, and termed Planulata.

This is sufficient to show why modern inquiry “sets aside the

phantom of ‘species,’ and to judge what series of observations are

opposed to the assertion, that in no single case has evidence been

given of the transition of one species into another.” ‘ The fact

is,’ says Huxley, “that if the objections which are raised to the

general doctrine of evolution were not theological objections, their

utter childishness would be manifest even to the most childlike

of believers.’ ”

“Scarcely a single fact,” says that most careful observer Neu-

mayr, ‘‘speaks more decisively in favor of the correctness of the

theory of descent, than the existence of series of forms in the man-

ner in which they have already been proved in many cases, and

will, no doubt, be now found more frequently, since attention has

been called to this point.’ ”’

But it is not only among the lower animals that these transition

forms have been found. Even among vertebrates, and what is the

more important, between those classes, orders and families, which

at present are separated very widely from one another, these con-

necting links multiply almost daily, bearing in mind, of course,

the great imperfection of the geological record.

“The class of birds and reptiles as now living,” says Prof.

Marsh, of Yale College, to whom paleontology owes so many im-

portant discoveries, “are separated by a gulf so profound, that a

few years since it was cited by the opponents of evolution as the

most important break in the animal series, and one which that

doctrine could not bridge over. Since then, as Huxley has clearly

shown, this gap has been virtually filled by the discovery of bird-

like reptiles and reptilian birds.’ ”’

In 1860, shortly after the appearance of Darwin's “ Origin of

Remarks on the Descent of Animals. 148

Species,” a remarkable bird was found in the lithographic slates of

Solenhofen, Bavaria, the head of which was unfortunately crushed

beyond recognition. Recently, however, another specimen has

been found in the same formation, at Hichstadt, Bavaria, with a

well preserved head. The celebrated comparative anatomist,

Owen, of London, described this bird and called it Archaeopteryx.

“There is this wonderful peculiarity about this creature, that so

far as its feet are known, it has all the characters of a bird, all

those peculiarities by which a bird is distinguished from a reptile.

Nevertheless, in other respects, it is unlike a bird and like a rep-

tile. There is a long series of caudal vertebrae. The wing differs

in some very remarkable respects from the structure it presents in

a true bird. In a true bird the wing answers to the thumb and

two fingers of the hand, the metacarpal bones are pressed together

into one mass, and the whole apparatus, except the thumb, is

bound up in a sheath of integument, and the edge of the hand

carries the principal quill feathers. It isin that way that the

bird’s wing becomes the instrument of flight. In the archaeop-

teryx, the upper arm bone is like that of a bird; the two forearm

bones are more or less like those of a bird, but the fingers are not

bound together — they are free, and they are all terminated

by strong claws, not like such as are sometimes found in birds,

but by such as reptiles possess; so that in the archaeopteryx we

have an animal which, to a certain extent, occupies a place mid-

way between a bird and areptile. It isa bird so far as its foot

and sundry other parts of its skeleton are concerned ; it is essen-

tially and thoroughly a bird, in the fact that it possesses feathers ;

but it is much more properly a reptile, in the fact that what rep-

resents the hand has separate bones resembling that which termi-

nate the fore-limb of a reptile. Moreover, it had a long tail with

a fringe of feathers on each side. From this description it is seen

that the archaeopteryx is about three-fourths bird and one-fourth

reptile.”

Prof. Marsh has found during the last few years very remark-

able forms of birds in the Chalk of Kansas. In the Hesperornis,

‘says Marsh,” “we have a large aquatic bird, nearly six feet in

length, with a strange combination of characters. The jaws are pro-

144 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Leilers.

vided with teeth set in grooves; the wings were rudimentary and

useless, while the legs were very similar to those of modern diy-

ing birds. Ichthyornis, a small flying bird, was stranger still, as

the teeth were in sockets, and the vertebrae biconcave, as in fishes

and a few reptiles.”

“Tt is obvious,” says Huxley, “that the contrast between the

crocodile’s leg on the one hand, and the bird’s leg on the cther,

is very striking. But this interval is completely filled up when

you study the character of the hinder extremities of those ancient

reptiles which are called the Dinosauria. In some of these, the

bones of the pelvis, and those of the hind limb, became extraordi-

narily similar to birds, especially to those of young or foetal birds.

Furthermore, in some of these reptiles, the fore-limbs become

smaller and smaller, and thus the suspicion naturally arises, that

they may have assumed the erect position. That view was en-

tertained by Mantel, and was also demonstrated to be probable

by your own distinguished anatomist, Leidy, but the discoveries of

late years show that in some of these forms the fact was actually

so; that reptiles once existed which walked upon their hind-legs as

birds now do. The Compsognathus longipes (Wagner) must as-

suredly have walked about upon its hind-legs, bird’fashion. Add

to this feathers, and the transition would be complete.”

It is now generally admitted by biologists “‘ who have made a

study of the vertebrates,” continues Marsh, “that birds have come

down to us through the Dinosaurs, and the close affinity of the

latter with recent struthious birds will hardly be questioned. The

case amounts almost to a demonstration, if we compare with Di-

nosaurs, their contemporaries, the Mezozoic birds. Compsognathus

and Archaeopteryx of the old world, and Ichthyornis and Hes-

perornis of the new, are the stepping-stones by which the evolu-

tionist of to-day leads the doubting brother across the shallow

remnant of the gulf, once thought impossible.”

Although this kind of evidence is far weightier than that upon

which men generally base their conclusions regarding important

propositions, it is not that kind of evidence which might be called

demonstrative. That is to say, it might be demanded “ that we

should find the series of gradations between one group of animals

Remarks on the Descent of Animals. 145

and another in such order as they must have followed if they had

constituted a succession of stages, in time of the development of

the form at which they ultimately arrive.” In short, it would

have to be shown, that, with reference to birds and reptiles, for

instance, ‘‘that in some ancient formation reptiles alone should

be found; in some later formations birds should first be met with;

and in the intermediate strata we should discover in regular suc-

cession the forms which are intermediate between reptiles and

birds.” .

Precisely this kind of evidence has of late years been accumu-

lating rapidly respecting many groups of the animal kingdom.

The development of the horse offers us, perhaps, the best illustra-

tion of this kind of evidence, and J give the substance of “ these

thoroughly and patiently worked-out investigations of Prof.

Marsh,” in his own words. Hesays: ‘I have unearthed with

my own hands not less than thirty distinct species of the horse

tribe, in the tertiary deposits of the west alone.

“The oldest representation of the horse at present known is the

diminutive Hohippus, from the lower Kocene. Several species

have been found, all about the size of a fox. Like most of the

early mammals, the ungulates had forty-four teeth, the molars with

short crowns, and quite distinct in form from the premolars. The

ulna and the fibula were entire and distinct, and there were four

well-developed toes, and the rudiment of another on the fore-feet,

and three toes behind. In the structure of the feet and in the

teeth, the Hohippus indicates unmistakably that the direct ances-

tral line to the modern horse has already separated from the other

perissodactyles. In the next higher division of the Hocene, an-

other genus (Orohippus) makes its appearance, replacing Hohip-

pus, and showing a greater, although still distant, resemblance to

the equine type. The rudimentary first digit of the fore-foot has

disappeared, and the last premolar has gone over to the molar

series. Orohippus was but little larger than Hohippus; in most

other respects very similar. Near the base of the Miocene, we

find a third: closely allied species, Mesohippus, which is about

as large as a sheep, and one stage nearer the horse. There are

only three toes and a rudimentary splint bone on the fore-leg, and

146 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters.

three toes behind. ‘Two of the premolar teeth are quite like the

molars. The ulna is no longer distinct, or the fibula entire, and

other characters show clearly that the transition is advancing. In

the upper Miocene Mesohippus is not found, but in its place a

fourth form, Miohippus, continues the line. The three toes in

each foot are more nearly of a size, and a rudiment of the fifth

metacarpal bone is retained. All the known species of this genus

are larger than those of Mesohippus, and none pass above the

Miocene.”’

“The genus Protohippus of the lower Pliocene is far more

equine, and some of its species equalled the assin size. There

are still three toes on each foot, but only the middle one, corre-

sponding to the single toe of the horse, comes to the ground. In

the Pliocene we have the last stage of the series before reaching

the horse, in the genus Pliohippus, which has lost the small hoof-

‘lets, and in other respects is very equine. Only in the upper

Pliocene does the true Equus (horse) appear and complete the

genealogy of the horse, which in the post-tertiary roamed over

the whole of South and North America, and soon after became

extinct. Besides the characters I have mentioned there are many

others in the skeleton, skull, teeth, and brain of the forty or more

intermediate species, which show that the transition from the

Kocene Eohippus to the modern horse has taken place in the

order indicated, and I believe the specimens now at New Haven

will demonstrate the fact to any anatomist. ‘They certainly car-

ried prompt conviction to the first of anatomists (Huxley), whose

genius had already indicated the later genealogy of the horse in

Europe, and whose own researches so well qualified him to appre-

ciate the evidence here laid before him.”

Basing his conclusion on these facts, Huxley says: ‘‘ The

doctrine of Evolution at the present time rests upon exactly as

secure a foundation as the Copernican theory of the motion of

the heavenly bodies. In fact, the whole evidence is in favor of

Evolution, and there is none against it.”

Another class of facts, considered equally conclusive in favor

of the Theory of Descent, are the results of Embryology.

Norz.— Prof. Oldenhage had only written thus far when he was seized with an illness

which speedily terminated a most promising life.

Why Are There No Upper Incisors in the Ruminatia? 147

WHY ARE THERE NO UPPER INCISORS IN THE

RUMINANTIA ?

BY P. 2. HOY, M. D., PREST. ACADEMY.

In studying the anatomy and physiology of animals, we become

intensely interested in the various modifications of parts, so as to

exactly fit them, to perform the office assigned them. In other

words, the structures are so altered as to correspond to the mode

of life which the animal pursues.

Perhaps no part of vertebrates is as significant as the apparatus

of the mouth, for obvious reasons, as it performs an important

part in nutrition, the function which strikes at the very founda-

tion of life.

Every vertebrate has his 67 of fure written in indelible charac-

ters on his teeth. They not only indicate the food on which the

animal subsists, but with few exceptions, the mode of procuring

that food, as well.

All those animals having no incisors in the upper jaw, and pro-

vided with eight placed obliquely outward in the lower jaw, have

evenly divided hoofs, complicated stomachs, and chew the cud.

I am satisfied that there isa deep meaning conveyed in the absence

of upper incisors in ruminantia, if the fact is correctly interpreted.

In the first place, all true ruminants have a prehensile tongue.

We will take one of the most familiar examples, the cow, and

what is true of this domestic animal, will apply equally well, not

only to the entire boss family, but with slight modification, to the

entire ruminantia. The tongue is large and muscular, weighing

from three to five pounds, the upper surface, dorsum, is covered

with a dense, almost horny skin, especially at the point; the

mucous coat, covering the tongue and lingual glands, pours out an

abundance of mucus and saliva to keep the organ moist and plia-

ble. itis capable of being thrust out beyond the lips to the dis-

tance of from six to eight inches. In protruding the tongue it Is

pressed firmly against the hardened gum of the upper jaw, then it

148 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters.

is coiled around the morsel, the tongue curves upwards bringing

the food into the mouth rasping, as it were, the upper jaw.

In grazing, the tongue is lapped around a wisp of grass, which

is brought into the front of the mouth, and held in its grasp

against the upper jaw, when by a quick motion of the head, the

sharp chisel-teeth in the under jaw, clip off the herbage. In these

motions we see the great advantage of the outer direction of the

under incisors.

In studying these movements of the tongue, we become con-

vinced that upper front teeth would not only seriously interfere

with its motion in protrusion by lacerating its upper surface, but

would positively arrest the morsel against the upper incisors, if

there were any, and thus impose a barrier against the use of the

tongue in prehension.

In the deer tribe, cervidae, the tongue is longer in proportion to

its weight, than in the ox. Deer are mostly browsing animals,

feeding on leavesand branches of shrubs and small trees; for this

purpose the long flexible tongue is especially well adapted. Deer

have the longest tongue of any of the ruminants, if we except the

giraffe, whose tongue is simply enormous. With its extensive

tongue, and long neck, this singular animal is enabled to reach

branches of considerable elevation.

Antelopes, for the most part, have moderately sized tongues,

yet not a few have the organ largely developed ; in fact the tongues

vary nearly as much as do these ill-assorted animals themselves.

For the genus antelope is a kind of zoological retreat for the re-

ception of those outcast hollow-horned ruminants which do not

belong, either to the ox, sheep, or goat species.

Goats have a moderately developed tongue, fully capable, how-

ever, of procuring food in the same manner as the preceding tribes.

Sheep have this organ less developed than in any other of the

true ruminants. It is capable of being protruded not over three

inches beyond the lips. In grazing on short pasturage, the point

of the tongue is only used to fix the short grass to the upper gum,

while the under teeth are made to sever the herbage. In our wild

sheep of the Rocky mountains, ovis montana, the tongue is more

developed than in the domestic animal. Is it not more than prob-

Why Are There No Upper Incisors in the Ruminantia? 149

able that the domestic sheep, having been confined to short past-

ure for a long series of generations, have lost, in length, a portion

of their tongues ?

In the camels, including the lamas, there is a wide departure

from the typical ruminants. In fact anatomically, the camel fami-

ly show a marked affinity to the pachyderms. They stand on the

border line of the ruminants where they join the pachydermata,

possessing characteristics of each. Their lips are large and fleshy,

the upper one cleft. ‘Their dentition is peculiar, the young pos-

sessing a full set of incisors in the upper jaw, which fall out as the

animal approaches maturity, save the two latter ones, which are

permanent.

We have here perfect corresponding relations between the im-

perfect set of upper front-teeth and the partly prehensile tongue

which they possess. The lips and tongue are nearly equally use-

ful in seizing and conveying food to the mouth.

On the lowest round looking up towards the ruminants, stand

the kangaroos. These herbivorous marsupials do chew the cud,

though imperfectly, as they possess saculated stomachs approach-

ing the multiple condition of the typical ruminants. It is inter-

esting to find that these wonderful animals, of a wonderful country,

do not possess a prehensile tongue, but have instead, a full, strong

set of incisors in the upper jaw. Here we have then, one of the

best proofs that the use of the tongue regulates the presence of

incisors.

Insectivorous edentata, embracing the armadillos, and ant-eaters

of South America, and the Panoglins and Ard-vark of India and

Africa — in these quadrupeds, the tongue is long and cylindrical,

and is protruded directly forwards, so that front teeth in either

jaw, would interfere with the necessary rapid motions of the

tongue in feeding. Hence, the total absence of front teeth in

either jaw, and in fact the ant-eaters have no teeth whatever,

being strictly edentate. These animals furnish us with another

proof that prehensile tongues are antagonistic to front teeth.

Tf a prehensile tongue be cylindrical, then we will have a total

absence of front teeth; if flat and coiled upward in using, then

we will find incisors only in the under jaw.

150 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters.

§ [May it not be true that the absence of upper incisors in the ru-

minants, and the total want of front teeth in the edentata, are the

result of long ages of disuse, accompanied with the almost con-

stant friction and presure against them, which might injure and

ultimately destroy the germs of the useless teeth, until their

absence becomes an hereditary peculiarity, as a final result?

Boiler Haplosions. 151

BOILER EXPLOSIONS.

BY CHAS. I. KING,

Szaperintendent University Machine Shop.

In considering the subject of Boiler Explosions, I am aware

that it has heretofore received the attention of many able theorists

and mechanical engineers who do not agree in their conclusions.

That such diversity of opinion exists, is natural from the various

conditions of the matter discussed.

What is here prepared may not be new, but the subject is of

such vast importance, that even repetition may be pardonabie.

If we fora moment consider the field, we find that its extension

precludes comprehending the whole in one short paper, which

covers thé subject proportionally, as the hand might cover a

table. That the astonishing developments, attained by the use of

steam in the various industries throughout the country, must be

ascribed to its universal success as a moderately cheap prime

mover none can deny; and the facility with which it can be em-

ployed in any section of the land enables the manufacturer to locate

his mills wherever desirable, and then transport to them the mo

tive power.

Without it, he must be content with the water courses wherever

they may be found, and ever after transport the material of man-

ufacture to and from the market.

Without it many of our large cities and manufacturing centers

could not exist to-day. Only while it is considered less danger-

ous or less expensive than other agents, can steam maintain its

now prominent position of principal motive power for nearly all

branches of manufacture, transportation, ete.

There are considerations in connection with the present methods

of utilizing steam, which, looked upon from every point, would

indicate clearly that we are justified by no means in accepting it

as the most economical prime mover obtainable. Many unsuc-

152 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Leiters.

cessful attempts have been made to discover a substitute for steam

as a source of power, there always having been found insurmount-

able obstacles, inseparably connected with the use of all other

agents; difficulties which science and the best mechanical skill

have failed to overcome. Quite a number of years will probably

yet elapse, ere these hindrances are pushed aside by the spirit of

investigation and invention which pervades the age in all civilized

countries. But supposing the successful employment of a more

suitable and economical motor might be rendered practicable,

during the coming week, month or year, the expense necessary to

secure the change would preclude its rapid adoption by many

using the present devices. It would in fact be so long before the

present arrangements could be superseded that it must still be

worth our time to strive for improvements in the manner of em-

ploying the power we now have, and to gain some knowledge in

which direction, further improvement in its safe and economical

use may tend.

Practical experience has taught us, in the past twenty-five years,

that there was no economy in the “old time practice” of using

steam at a low temperature and pressure for all purposes. The

direct advantages accruing from its use at high pressure, securing

high piston speeds, and expanding the steam to nearly zero, have

been very large. This change came gradually. Many improve-

ments were necessitated, but now the six to fifteen pound pres-

sures of forty-five years ago, and large unsightly engines are sup-

planted by pressures of fifty to two hundred pounds, and engines

of half the size which give the same equivalent of work. As the

economy of the higher temperatures becomes generally appreci-

ated, the greater the demand will be for them.

The principal impediment still existing to progress in this di-

rection is due to the limited strength of the present forms of the

steam generators. The boilers of the future must be improved

so that safety may be insured, being either constructed in sec-

tions, or of material with greater strength, also not complicated

in design and of moderate cost. That the most important of

these requirements have not been realized, is only too apparent

from the many accidents continually occurring in different sec-

Boiler Eeplosions. 158

tions of the country. That some boilers will explode is perhaps

inevitable. The increase in the number of those accidents is, in

a measure, owing to the increase of the number of boilers in use,

and to the greater demand made of them in sustaining high pres-

sure. The inference is plain, that improvements in manufacture

have not kept pace with this demand. That all boiler explosions

are due directly to the inability of the vessel to retain the enor-

mous pressure generated just prior to the rupture, all will admit,

but indirectly there are many primary causes traceable. Of the

vast number of boilers in use, but comparatively few explode; for-

tunately they are the exceptions. Something certainly enters

into the conditions where explosions oceur different from those in

which they do not. Boilers are in use under so many varying

circumstances, that two explosions are seldom traceable to exactly

the same causes. Instances are known where boilers have been

in constant use tor twenty years, and almost without repairs,

while others fail in as many weeks or months. This difference

must be due to material, workmanship, quality of water, and the

attention they receive. We know that certain causes produce

certain effects, and that neglect and carelessness have no business

in mechanical matters at all, much less should they be seen about

our steam generators. It is simply astounding to know the extent

to which ignorance and incapacity are placed in charge of these

agents of the public service, which, in the hands of incom-

petent men, are about as dangerous as a package of dynamite.

That all boiler explosions are due to carelessness and ignorance

we do not mean to assert, but that about nine-tenths of them are,

is beyond question.

People are accustomed to think i any thing constructed of

iron should “‘endure forever,” merely because made of iron. Well,

such an hypothesis may answer in some cases. Experience in the

past year alone, however, has taught us, that it is an exceeding

unsafe one in connection with steam boilers. That so many in-

competent men are found in charge of so many boilers and en-

gines, is principally owing to the fact that they are cheap. Cheap-

ness seems to be the only required qualification. The scale bal-

ances up and down like the beam of a steelyard, intelligence and

154 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters.

suitable compensation usually being found at the upper end. Pos-

sibly some employers prefer this class of help lest they might

learn some disagreeable truths concerning their steam generators.

There is, however, one very important point in this connection

which is usually lost sight of. There seems to be an inexorable

law in force in these cases as in many others. There is a mini-

mum cost in the management of machinery, which cannot be re-

duced even by machinery. And if the steam user will employ

incompetent labor because it is cheap, then the difference between

its cost and that of a higher grade of intelligence must certainly

be given to the boiler-maker and machinist by way of repairs,

and to the coal dealer for extra fuel, as a skillful fireman will

save from five to twenty per cent. over an untrained one. I call

to mind a striking illustration of the case, that of a manufacturer

in an eastern state, who, though a most successful business man

otherwise, possessed a remarkable faculty for utilizing every piece

of old iron he could obtain, and the extra work on which, in put-

ting it in suitable condition, always cost him more than the new

material. His annual loss from breakage and wear, making no

account of time when the machinery was idle, due to the employ-

ing of a one dollar man where a two dollar one was required, was at

least three times the difference in cost of one or two reliable men.

A very common practice, and one most reprehensible withal, is

that of employers compelling their engineers and firemen (often

these consist of but one man) to do their legitimate work and that

of two or three others, frequently being called to distant parts of

the building. No man can attend to too many duties well; it is

in the nature of things that some will be forgotten, and under

these circumstances it is just as likely to be the most important as

any other.

Boilers are constructed from a great variety of designs. Those

found in more common use are of the locomotive type, and the

plain cylinder with closed ends. The material usually is from

1-4 to 8-8 inches thick. As a conductor of heat, iron stands low in

the scale, gold being as 1000, copper 898, and iron but 347. Now

with iron but 1-4 inch in thickness, a great amount of heat is lost

in boilers, owing to the inability to transfer all the heat produced

Boiler Haplosions. : 155

to the water. Hence it is seen we cannot gain security by use

of heavier material without a sacrifice of fuel. Small boilers,

as a rule, are safer than large ones, 1f builtin proportion, as they

have a less number of square inches exposed to pressure. ‘Tak-

ing a hasty glance at some of the practices in vogue in the construc-

tion of boilers, one of the most objectionable features in this asin

many other things, is the too general tendency to obtain our

goods at a price below a fair market value, and the custom of let-

lng these contracts to the lowest bidder often works to the disad-

vantage of both parties. In this business, of all others, the cus-

tom should be discontinued. It is fair toassume that boiler mak-

ers are as fallible as any other class of business men. Men do

not do business for nothing, asa rule, neither for pleasure. ‘“Hach°

trade has its trick,”’ and the purchasing party who obtains his boiler

for less than the market rate, may seek consolation in the fact

that he has been ‘“‘sold’’ somewhere in his purchase.

In my own experience, I have known boilers constructed under

these conditions of so poor material, that the plates did not have

the manufacturers’ brand on their surface. It may not be out of

place to add that the builders of those boilers have had no less

than four explosions of boilers of their construction in the past

five years. From the time the boiler material is placed in the

hands of the workman, it is constantly growing weaker, until

thrown aside as old iron. The width of the iron in common use

is three feet. Along each edge and across the ends, holes are cut

or punched for rivets, after which the sheets are rolled to an ap-

proximation of a cylinder. When these cylinders are slipped to-

gether, all of the rivet holes should coincide. That they do not

is a source of much trouble. The positions of these holes are

marked through a wooden templet, which will be about three

inches wide by 1-2 in thickness, and of such length as each par-

ticular case may require. Along theedges of this templet holes

are bored, one set answering for the inside cylinder and the other

for the outside. In spacing these holes, about six times the

thickness of iron is allowed for difference in length, and the

same number of holes must appear in each sheet, only in the short

ones they are nearer together. The operation of punching the

156 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters.

holes is a rather haphazard one at best, so far as accuracy iscon-

cerned.

There are two chances for error by the time the plates are

rolled. First. The holes will not all be made exactly where

marked; if one whole is punched slightly one side of its mark,

and the one which it should match the other way, the error is

Fig. 1.

multiplied. Moreover, it is quite impossible to produce these

plates and have them perfectly homogeneous. There will be hard

and soft places. The great pressure from the rolls in making the

plates cylindrical will cause changes in distance between some

of the holes, as the temper of the plate varies. When the cylin-

ders are placed together for riveting, many holes will shut past

Fig. 2. Fig. 8. Fig. 4.

one another from 1-16 of an inch to 1-2 or 2-3 their diameter.

This, in itself, is objectionable enough, but the case is aggravated.

The overlapping metal should all be removed by the reamer and

the hole filled by a suitable rivet. If the overlapping of the holes

is not such as to compel the use of the reamer, a most objection-

able resort is the tool known in shop parlance as a “ drift pin,”

which is nothing more than a steel pin, slightly tapering, and when

well oiled can be driven in with such force that the solid iron is

Boiler Explosions. 157

often compressed and cracked, and pieces of the plate may be

forced out. Fig. 1 is intended to illustrate the overlapping holes,

and figs, 2, 3 and 4 the effects of the use of the ‘drift pin.” An-

other difficulty here presents itself, arising chiefly from careless-

ness and poor workmanship. Often the sheets do not come in

contact, and especially at the heads or ends of the boilers, on which

the flanges are turned, is this the case, and also on internal fire-box

work. When the rivets are driven, the iron acts as a spring, and

vibrates back and forth from the blows of the hammer. The riv-

ets too, will ‘ upset” in between the plates if much apart.

Rivets driven in this way can never be made tight, neither will

Fig. 5. the caulking chisel

remedy the defect

for when the caulk.

ing is done, the iron

is driven back be-

tween the plates

forming a thin nar-

row ridge under

which the pressure

will soon force the

water or steam, Fig. 5, is a fair illustration of the case.

To this defect are due, many of the mysterious leaks in new

boilers, when but a short time in use. Often rivets are improp-

erly supported or “ backed” when being riveted, which causes

leaks; or riveted when too cold, causing crystalization to such an

extent that often a slight jar will cause the heads to drop off.

The outer corner of the outside cylinder must be chamfered to an

angle of about fifteen degrees, thus leaving a sharp edge where

the cylinders join, for caulking. In many large shops this is

done by machinery before the plates are rolled, in others before

the cylinders are placed together. In many, it is done after the

riveting, and thus the lower sheet is more or less cut by the corner

of the chisel, the greatest care cannot prevent it. With many

boiler-makers, this is of minor consideration, but the fact that

many exploded boilers have given way at this point should draw

attention toit. The following account of an experiment made at

158 Wisconsin Academy of Sctences, Arts, and Lelters.

the University machine shop shows well the effect of cutting

through the outside of the iron. A piece of common five-eighths

square iron was cut on the four sides with a cold chisel, so that it

was well marked. A slight blow from the hammer caused it to

break, the ends showing crystalization. A second piece was

marked on but one side, which on being broken, was crystalized

about half through, the rest showing the fibre undisturbed, and

tearing out toe iron for half an inch up the bar. It has been

claimed that the principal strength of iron is destroyed by cutting

through the “skin,” yet, a piece of this same bar marked as in the

first instance, was placed in the lathe and the marks turned out,

after which it was bent to more than ninety degrees before break-

ing.

It is estimated that about forty-four per cent. of the original

strength of the material has been destroyed by the time a boiler

is ready for riveting. Theaxiom that the “strength of any struct-

ure must be estimated from the weakest point,” isa good one.

By these various operations, six per cent. more will be of ques-

tionable value. Repeat them at every joint in a boiler twelve to

twenty-four feet long, and who will tell where the weakest point

may be? Imagine if you can a boiler so constructed of any flexi-

ble material, it would contain more kinks and puckers and gath-

ers than a fashionable dress. New boilers are often submitted to

the hydraulic test, which consists of forcing in cold water to a cer-

tain pressure, and then assuming it safe to carry one-third or two-

thirds as much steam pressure. I believe it a questionable method

and an unsafe assumption. If there are blisters or imperfect.

_ welds in the plates it may develop them. A careful inspection

would probably accomplish the same result. But in these tests

the boiler is subjected to strains under conditions which do not

occur in actual use. The water and iron are both cold, stay rods

and braces are loosened which do not again come tight of their

own accord. Further, most boiler iron, as demonstrated by the

experiments of the Franklin Institute Committee and Fairbairn, a

noted English mechanical engineer, has a greater tensile strength

with an elevation of temperature, some proving stronger at 600°

Fahrenheit, than at any lower point. Now it is quite certain that

Boiler Explosions. 159

testing with cold water has not rendered the weakest point of the

vessel much stronger. .

As soon as a boiler is in use, the agents of destruction incident

thereto begin their work. Probably chief among these, is the

steam itself, The unit of elasticity, by which the expansive force

of elastic fluids is measured, is for popular use, one pound on one

square inch of surface. We glance at a steam guage and the little

hand may indicate fifty. Let us ascertain what that means. If

a boiler is twelve feet long and three feet in diameter (very com-

mon dimensions) and contains thirty-four three inch tubes, the

two heads with tube surface deducted have remaining 1,864

square inches. The cylinder of the boiler contains 16,280, equal-

ing in all 18,150 square inches which, multiplied by fifty pounds

pressure, give a total of nearly one million pounds, or a fraction

over 450 tons, continually tending to rend the cylinder. Boilers

are made round or approximately so, for two reasons. It is the

cheaper form and one naturally self-supporting. I say approxi-

mately round, for they are not a true circle and cannot be made

so owing to the lap of the longitudinal seams. Now this enorm-

ous pressure, tends to force the shell of the boiler to a true circle.

The pressure is never constant. Great and unequal strains are pro-

duced along the under edge of the lap, which vary from time to

time according to the different degree of pressure. In effect it is

similar to bending a piece of iron back and forth in the hands,

only on amore minute scale. In time the same result will be

effected, destruction of the fibre of the iron.

Many purchasers of these steam generators commit the serious

mistake of selecting boilers of insufficient capacity, simply because

one or two hundred dollars cheaper. In so doing, the door is

opened through which many dollars will pass in the way of fuel

without an adequate return. But when a boiler has just the ca-

pacity to supply the demand by forcing the fires, a nearly full

opening of all passages to the engine will result. The steam flows

rapidly through them, twice at every revolution of the engine,

this flow is suddenly and positively checked. While so checked,

there is a rapid accumulation of steam from the forced fires. The

boiler expands to the greatest limit in retaining the increasing

160 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters.

pressure. The opening of the passage way again affords a tempo-

rary relief. Thus the boiler dilates and contracts to such an ex-

tent that the movements are sometimes visible to the eye, and they

have been compared to the breathing of some large animal.

With this slow and continuous change, there is no wonder that

boilers eventually “give out.’’ If there is any mystery in the

case, it is that they last so long and serve so well as they dv.

That steam and water in pipes not properly drained have great

percussive action, may be readily seen from the jumping and

snapping of the pipes under these conditions, and many serious

accidents have occured from pipes and fittings bursting, even loss

of life resulting in some cases. With these facts before us, great

care should be exercised, not to open the steam passages from the

boiler, too suddenly, on account of the danger arising from re-

lieving the pressure on the water.

What effect might be caused by such lack of care, may be seen

in the following deduction.

The heat required to raise one pound of water through one de-

gree of temperature is termed a unit of heat, or its equivalent,

100 pounds of water through one-tenth of a degree, or one-tenth

of a pound through 100 degrees. ‘This quantity of heat possesses

the same amount of power as would be required to raise 772

pounds, one foot, or one pound 772 feet. This is termed the

mechanical equivalent of heat. Now if the addition of one de-

gree of heat to one pound of water, be such an accession of force,

the addition of 100 degrees to 500 pounds of water is an equiva-

lent of a half million times that force. In practice, the combus-

tion of a pound of coal imparts to the water in a good boiler

about 10,000 units of heat, and evaporates eight or nine pounds

of water of usual temperature. With all the losses and disad-

vantages considered, a pound of coal exerts about one-fourth of

a horse power per hour, fifteen horse power for a minute or 900

for one second. The heat absorbed by 5,000 pounds of water in

raising it through 100 degrees, is really twelve and a half horse

power for an hour, 750 for a minute or 45,000 horse power for a

second. The amount of heat absorbed by 5,000 pounds of water

in raising it through 100 degrees, is but a small portion of the

Bowler Hxplosions. 161

quantity in any boiler in common use, yet fifty pounds of coal

are required to cause it, and the imparted heat is equal to the

amount expended to convert about 430 pounds of water at common

temperature to steam. By a too sudden release of pressure, this

latent heat might all be released in one or two seconds, and there-

by cause an explosion. The idea quite generally prevails that all

boiler explosions are due to low water. ‘That might cause such

a disaster, but that alone I think seldom does. Often, no doubt,

boilers are seriously injured by the plates being burned. Burned

plates lose about one-half their strength. Repeat the operation

often enough and it is only a question of time, and a rather lim-

ited time, too, when the boiler will be ruined.

Several years since, the United States government squandered

about $100,000 at Sandy Hook and Pittsburg, trying to determine

the cause of boiler explosions. ‘The experiments were under con-

ditions which were almost totally different from those under which

boilers are used. Hence, practically, they were nearly failures.

Two things were discovered, however; one, that a boiler will not

explode when you want it to, and that water, pumped in on plates

red hot, would all run out through the seams, which were caused

to open from the rapid contraction, or else escape through the

safety valve as steam. This operation was repeated three times

to produce an explosion.

Boiler plates are burned oftener from incrustation than from low

water. Wherever this formation is thick enough to prevent the

water from coming in close contact with the iron, that must be

the result, and if from this cause the plates when in use become

Fig. 6. sufficiently hot to weaken the ten-

sile strength in a place of any large

area, a rupture will surely follow.

Fig. 6 shows a section of a feed

pipe filled with lime in the short

space of three months. A few years

since I had an opportunity to exam-

ine a case of this kind. The boiler

was of the locomotive type, and

was not under cover. The plate over the fire had been forced

162 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters.

down gradually, and in shape like the bottom of a wash-bowl,

becoming thinner at the lowest point until finally breaking open,

it left rough, ragged edges and a hole about eight inches in diame-

ter. The whole weight of three and a half tons was raised about

thirty feet and thrown over back, striking the ground at an

angle of about thirty degrees, and sliding along, tore off every

particle of the engine.

These deposits in boilers are the most difficult matters steam

users have to contend with, but its formation to a dangerous thick-

ness can be prevented by frequent cleaning out, also by frequently

letting out a little water through the day when the boiler is under

pressure. It is a bad practice, and, of course, a common one, to

let the water all blow out of the boiler, after the fires are out and

before sufficiently cooled. The heat retained in the metal and

‘vinsly)

COS FEE

surrounding walls will cause the deposit to bake to the iron so

that nothing less than a hammer and chisel will remove it. Gare

should be exercised in setting boilers so that they may be examined

at different times, and to keep them in places as dry as possible.

Tron wastes away fast enough at best, and if leaks occur where

the boiler is in contact with brick and mortar, corrosion goes on

so rapidly that the best boilers may be rendered unsafe in a year

or two. When leaks are discovered they should be considered

signs of wearing out, and should receive attention at once. Usu-

ally, however, because it is small or does not let out the water faster

than it can be replaced, it is allowed to go. It is treading ona

dangerous path.

Bowler Explosions. 163

Often, when very impure water is used, boil-

ers are attacked by internal corrosion. Usually

it is found at the edge of the sheets, along the

seams and around the rivet heads. Sometimes

different plates in the boiler will be corroded,

while others will be found in good condition.

With all this evidence of the dangerous pro-

cesses going on both without and within a boil-

er, 1t seems very plainly indicated, that too

much eare and attention cannot be given them.

Marine boilers are of the most dangerous class,

but they seldom explode. The reason is evi-

dent. First-class men, and none others, are

placed in charge of them. The statistics show

that in the decade from 1865 to 1875, there

was an average of about one explosion every

i three days, and it would seem that the public

ff had the right to demand some system whereby

‘i a little higher grade of intelligence could be

! placed in charge of these, now, indispensable

agents of the public service.

From the use of impure water results a pro-

cess called “ pitting.’ Small holes quite near

together are eaten into the plates, and often a

pitted plate and a sound one will be found side

by side. This is probabiy due to a chemical

difference in the iron, and the pitting may be

caused by galvanic action. Pitted plates re-

semble very much the partly consumed zines

from a battery. Hxperiments were made with

pieces of iron cut from pitted plates, and

those which were not, taken from the same boiler and placed ina

bath of acidulated water, when connected with a galvanometer,

the pieces excited sufficient action to sensibly deflect the needle.

Fig. 7 * shows a case of pitting, and fig. 8 represents a corroded

brace or stay rod, so much of which is destroyed that it became

entirely useless.

* Figs, 7 and 8 are taken from’ Reports of Hariford Boiler Insurance Company.

164 Wisconsin Academy of Sctences, Arts, and Letters.

MIND IN THE LOWER ANIMALS.

BY J. S. JEWELL, M. D.,

Professor of Mental and Nervous Diseases in the Chicago Medical Coliege, and Correspond-

ing Member of the Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts and Letters.

My subject is that of “ the evidences of mind in the lower ani-

mals.” ‘The first thing to be done, in a case like the present,

is to define the meaning of the leading terms. This is one of

the golden rules of discussion. Then, what is mind? Before

trying to answer this question, which, by the way, is not a new

one, I should tell you that it was not my plan to determine, ex-

cept in a superficial sort of way, what mind really is. It would

require more than one lecture to deal adequately with that

question. or my present purpose, it is sufficient to assume the

existence of something, which may be called mind, whether mo-

tional or immotional, the presence and action of which is known

usually by certain signs, by which beings possessed of mind are

commonly distinguished from those that do not have it. It is

with these signs, rather than the mind itself, that I am to deal.

But once again, what is mind? It is much easier to ask this

question than it is to answer it. You all know it has been, and

at this hour it would be answered very differently by various

persons, who have given themselves (following different methods)

to its study. .

But taking all these answers together, aside from unessential

particulars, they may be divided into two principal classes, which

are susceptible again of division into sub-classes. But I am to

call your attention to the two principal classes mentioned. They

may be described as follows:

In the one case, the phenomena called mental are not attributed

to any other agent or source than the material organism itself.

In this view there is no such being as a mind numerically differ-

ent from the body of the animal, neither before nor after death.

The word mind is simply a name for the aggregate of functions

of the nervous system, at any rate of its higher functions. There

is no actual proof of the existence of any such immaterial, immor-

tal entity, as that usually designated by the terms, mind, soul,

Mind in the Lower Animals. 165

spirit. Mind is simply brain action. When the brain is disor-

dered, mind is disordered. When the brain is healthy, the mind

is healthy. When the brain is imperfect in its development and

structure, as it 1s in idiots, then the action of the mind is hope-

lessly imperfect. But when, on the contrary, its development

and structure are the most perfect, uniformly its action is the

most perfect.

Moreover, when the brain perishes as it does after death, all

mental action ceases, or at least all evidences of it. In short, all

that we knew as mind before the death of the individual, perishes

with the brain. Any opinion that there is a being so distinct

from the body, as to continue to survive after its death, is a mere

creation of the fancy, at the dictates of the baseless aspirations or

traditions of mankind.

Mind is, hence, absolutely dependent on the body, and without

it has no existence. It is simply a combination of physical forces,

which return to their primitive condition after death, ready to

enter into new combinations of any or all kinds. Such, in outline,

is one class of opinions as to mind. ‘They are what have been

called matervalistic. If this class of opinions were true, there could

hardly be any difference among thinking people as to whether the

lower animals are possessed of minds, as well as man. In point

of fact, persons who hold to the view just described, generally

admit that animals share in the possession of mind with men.

By the other class, mind is regarded as something substantially

different from the physical organism, or body, though closely as-

sociated with it during the corporeal life of the individual, from

which, however, it becomes separated in what is called death, of

which this supposed separation is held to be the principal event.

After this, the organization of the body indeed perishes, but not

so the mind; for the latter is believed to continue to exist, as

mind, in some other state. It is farther conceived, that the mind

is an imperishable existence, possessed always of the same facul-

ties of knowledge which distinguished it while yet connected with

the body, but deprived, perhaps, of the means of mechanism furn-

ished by the latter for obtaining a knowledge of the physical

world, as well as for manifesting its own existence, or its invisible

166 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters.

states or acts, as depicted or represented in the changes of the

body. It is also held to be not simply numerically different from

the body, but radically different in substance. The body is said

to be material, the mind immaterial. It cannot, therefore, possess

the properties of matter. If not, then it cannot, by the terms of

the case, be made cognizable by the senses, since they appear to

be fitted to reach only to material impressions. Mind therefore,

as mind, cannot be submitted to physical tests or examination,

though the body can be. Its acts and states cannot be directly

made known by such means. They can only be made known to

other minds by certain signs, or in other words, certain acts and

states of the body which is regarded in a certain sense as an in-

strument of the mind. But these signs would be without any

significance whatever, if it was not for certain modes of interpre-

tation possessed by animals, and in various degrees of perfection.

The only way, so far as is known, that they have for finding out

the meaning of these signs, is by their own experience. They

find by observation that the mutual acts and states are more or

less invariably associated with certain states or acts of the body.

So when they observe other animals in the same bodily states, or

performing the same acts, they infer the corresponding mutual

states that they have found connected therewith, in their own ex-

perience. In this indirect way alone can they discover the men-

tal condition of other animals.

One mind cannot, so far as we know, commune directly, unless

under rare circumstances, with another, during the continuance of

physical life. But ordinarily, each individual mind may know

directly, without the intervention of such signs, many, if not most,

of its own states and acts. They take place in what is called self-con-

scvousness, which is, in my opinion, the chief, if not the only kind of

consciousness we have. These mutual states and acts then, though

they cannot be directly reached by physical tests, and are not

open to sense observations as physical objects are, may neverthe-

less be submitted to the tests of immediaté self-observation. We

can secretly know often what passes in our own minds, and with

the utmost clearness, while the observer, who looks upon our

bodies from without, cannot many times so much as suspect what

Mind tn the Lower Animals. L67

is passing within us. ‘There are two ways then of studying mind.

One of them is applicable to ourselves alone, and is confined to

the states and acts of our own mind. This is the method of in-

trospection, or of looking within our own minds, to directly ob-

serve our own mental acts and states, and not the signs of them.

The other method is also in a measure applicable to our own

bodies. Itis the objective method. Itis from first to last di-

rectly compared with the signs of mental states and acts. It is the

only method by which we can study the mental states and acts

of other individuals, whether man or animals. And the only way

in which we can make our observations useful or intelligible is,

by a recurrence to our own internal experience, our self observa-

tions, which have taught us in various degrees of fullness and per-

fection, that certain internal, and hence invisible, mental states

and acts, are either preceded or followed by certain bodily condi-

tions and signs. The key of the interpretation lies within. If

this is true, then it may happen that we would be lable to be

deceived by persons who in some way exhibit the signs of

thought or feeling, and yet do not truly experience the states or

the mental acts, which in a truthful experience the signs represent.

And this is sadly too true, as nearly all can testify. Hence, it

happens that a mask, a statue, a picture, may exhibit the szgns of

feeling, for example, so perfectly as to excite the same state in

ourselves, notwithstanding the object has only the signs, and not

the fact of thought or feeling. This, I say, is the only method ap-

plicable directly to the study of tne minds of other beings. It is

the one that must therefore be applied to the study of animals.

All we can do is to observe them, under varying conditions, and

see how they act, or what they do, and then interpret their actions

by appeals to our own personal experience in similar conditions.

And this, as I have said, is the way in which one must study

other men.

But to return from this partial discussion. By persons of this

second class, mind is held to be the invisible, intelligent energy,

with which, in connection with the body, we truly feel, will, and

think, and which permeates the body, possibly only the brain, and

uses it, for sake of illustration, as the invisible magnet force, which

168 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letlers.

inheres in a visible portion of magnetic ore, or of steel, causes

movements of the same. In short, mind is the immaterial, imper-

ishable, sensitive, intelligent being, which feels, and wills, and

thinks, suffers and enjoys, within the body, which though living,

would be an unintelligent, or unthinking, possibly unfeeling

organism without it.

Now in the sense that it is held and understood by this class,

do the lower animals have minds? In relation to this question,

and for various reasons, persons differ widely in opinion. Some

think they have, others think they have not. And itis to the

possession of mind, at any rate, or rather the signs of it in this

sense, by the lower animals, that I wish to call your attention this

evening.

IT know as well as I can ever know, that it is a serious question

with many, whether even man possesses mind in the sense just

indicated. But I wish for the time, to assume without contro-

versy, as a hypothesis, if you please, that they do, and my present

inquiry, I repeat, is whether the lower animals show clear signs of

having the same; and if this is refused, I wish to inquire what we

are to include as to the mental natures of the lower animals, or

how we can explain the phenomena which they present to any in-

telligent observer. By the phrase “ lower animals” I should say,

in passing, I mean the whole animal kingdom. I do not include

simply the higher vertebrates, but the entire class. For, as we

shall see perhaps, even the humbler types of the animal kingdom

present us with striking exhibitions of intelligence.

In dealing with this matter, it might be expected that I would

lay out some division of the faculties of the mind, as a scheme

under which examples from among the lower animals might be

ranged. But it is deemed the best way to proceed at once to

adduce suitable and well authenticated instances of phenomena,

which show in fair measure whether or not animals do possess

minds. In doing this, the trouble is not to find such examples,

but out of the mass of such cases to make a selection. I have

collected from various works under my hands many hundreds,

and I might truthfully say, thousands of cases of interest. I might

occupy hours detailing and discussing my own personal observa-

Mind in the Lower Animals. 169

tions. But I do not have time to do either the one or the

other.

But to begin, take this case: A naturalist friend of mine was

one day walking along a road, and saw as he walked one of those

familar road beetles, rolling its ball of compost. He stopped and

watched it for a few moments, and then with a pin, made the ball

fast to the ground. The beetle seemed surprised at this turn in

its affairs, but soon recovered itself, and endeavored as before to

push its ball; but it was not able todoso. It crawled over and

round it, and appeared to carefully inspect the situation, and at

the same time made strenuous efforts from all points to move its

ball; still it could not move it. It then climed up on its ball,

and sat there for a few moments, quietly moving its antennz as

if in a sort of reverie, and then rose on its wings and flew away.

The gentleman much interested in what he saw, thought he would

tarry a while and see what would come to pass. He had not

waited many minutes, until he heard the familiar hum of two

beetles. They circled about, as is their custom, and finally they

both alighted near the ball. One of them was recognized as being

the same beetle that had been first observed. It was known by

a speck on one of its wing cases. The two immediately went to

the ball and united their efforts to move it, the one pushing, and

the other pulling, But after various trials, they ceased, and ht-

erally putting their heads together, they seemed to be in consul-

tation. During this time the gentleman quietly removed the pin

and left the ball free. They at last went back to the ball, and

tried to move it, and of course succeeded. Whereupon beetle

number two rose up on its wings and disappeared, while beetle

number one rolled its bal! along without farther interruption.

Now Iam quite well aware that this is a simple story, but it is

none the less interesting to one who will consent to think on it

without prejudice. A hundred histories of this kind would really

not be any better than one.

Let us examine this case a little more closely. It might be said,

with more or less propriety, that the beetle formed its ball as a

nidus for its young, and then sought a proper place in which to

bury it away, guided solely by instinct. But I do not think it

170 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters.

could be maintained successfully that many of the later perform-

ances of the creature were in the proper sense of the word in-

stinctive. It seemed as if, when it found itself unable to move

its ball, —I say it seemed to stop and deliberate as to what should

be done. It seemed to have found a place of securing aid from

some other beetle. For, after a short absence, it returned with a

companion. It seemed to have gone purposely to find it. It must

have communicated in some way a knowledge of its wants, for the

other beetle seemed to understand the case. They had a common

purpose, as was evidenced by their united action toward the same

end. They seemed to consult, when they found themselves unable

to move the ball. They seemed by common consent to conclude

to make another effort. When the ball was found movable again,

beetle number two seemed to know that it was needed no longer,

and probably returned to its own occupations. Certainly this

cannot have been all due to instinct. It has the plain mark of

the presence and action of mind, no less so because the signs of

purposive acts were done by beetles instead of men. The signs

cf mind are much the same as they would have been under simi-

lar circumstances among men.

As has been already intimated, one case well studied is as good

asa hundred. But though this is so, I shall now proceed to ad-

vance other examples from the animal kingdom, apparently in-

volving mental action.

For example, let us consider points in the history and doings

of ants, as we have given much observation and study to these

most singular little creatures. On one occasion, as I was passing

along a road, my attention was attracted by a company of large,

pale red ants hurrying across the way, the whole company follow-

ing what seemed to be a leader, who was much in the advance. I

stopped and followed them through the grass and weeds for full

fifty yards, when they suddenly came to a halt, and collected in a

circle in the space beneath the bending spires of grass. mmedi-

ately one of the ants disappeared in a hole in the ground, only to

be followed with every appearance of precipitation by one after

another of the company. At this moment a smaller ant, but of a

similar color, entered on the scene, and rushed for the hole in the

Mind in the Lower Animals. 171

ground, but it was instantly seized by one of the marauders, and

a fierce struggle ensued, which was not terminated while I watched

them. But in a few seconds, as I watched the hole down which

most of the company had disappeared one by one, I saw an ant

come strugeling out, in a state of great excitement. It was of a

smaller kind than those which I had watched cross the road. Pres-

ently it was foilowed by another of the same kind, in (as I was

about to say) much the same excited state, and as time passed

on these two were joined by others. The place evidently belonged

to them. They ran violently about the hole, and even up to the

top of the blades of grass, and then jumped off to the ground ina

distracted and reckless manner. At times two of them would meet

and, apparently, stop fora hurried exchange of ideas, and then they

would run about in the same frantic manner. Meantime all the

larger ants had gone down into the hole. Ina few moments, how-

ever, these latter ants began to reappear, one by one, each bearing

a white ege not far from hatching, as the outline of the young ant

could be seen through the cuticle. But no sooner had these latter

ants reached the open day with their booty than they were fero-

ciously attacked by the smaller ones, to whom the eggs properly

belonged. And here began a series of struggles of the most ani-

mated and interesting character— one set of ants striving, by

might and main, to get away with their booty, the other set strilk-

ing for their altars and fires. But aftersome time had been spent

in this way, the larger and stronger got away, each one, on his

own hook, traveling with great speed, on the back track, bear-

ing an egg in its jaws. But now began a scene of evident

distress among the smaller ants whose home had just been

robbed in so miserable a manner. They ran round and round, in

helpless bewilderment, meeting and consulting (apparently) and

passing each other, and diving into their den, and then out

again. And in this distressing condition I left them. [I fol-

lowed on after the marauders, and found most of them already

across the road. At last, fully sixty yards from the scene of

the robbery, they came to their own den, and carried the eggs

down into a special chamber, as I afterwards found. After the

eggs had been deposited below, the ants of the expedition came

172 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters.

up, and with a seeming air of satisfaction at their exploit, passed

their time in rubbing off their bodies, cleaning and polishing their

limbs and mandibles. ‘This was an instance of the doings of slave-

making ants.

In this case, there can be no reasonable doubt but that one of

the party which composed the expedition had made a discovery

of the colony that was to be raided. The ant returned to its com-

panions, reported its discovery, a party was organized, led by the

discoverer, the colony was robbed, a conflict ensued, and finally

the spoils were carried home.

This whole performance looks very like what men have done

in all ages. But when done by men such actions are not ascribed

to instinct, but to mind. But let them be done by even one of

the higher animals, not to say an ant, and they are loosely at-

tributed to instinct. But why so, where the signs are essentially

the same ?

But I have not done with the history of the singular doings of

ants, which seem to indicate the presence of mind. ‘To do this

fully would require several lectures. I have watched ants on the

hunt for colonies of aphides or plant lice. I have watched them

after discovering such a colony. They station guards over them,

to dispute the entrance of any other ants, on theirdomain. They

carefully tend the aphides, as a shepherd would his flock. If one

of the clumsy creatures of their charge gets off its plumb, and

is in danger of falling, a guardian ant takes and tenderly places

it in position. The ants step around, among and over the mem-

bers of their flock with every sign of care. But why? Let any

one see. They do not do that to feed on them, but they use them

in a sense asmen usecows. An ant will stand astride of, or behind

the plant louse, and with its pointed feet will seize the little aphid

underneath tbe abdomen, and by a motion of combined pressure

and tickling, induces it to issue amethystine drops from its

back, from a little bag. The ant watches for this, and when it

appears, stoops and drinks it with apparent gusto, and then goes

his way. The only ants that have this privilege are those which

belong to the colony — they alone have the passport.

Ants have armies, commanded, it seems, by officers who seem-

Mind tin the Lower Animals. 173

ingly issue their orders, insist upon obedience, and will not permit

any of the privates to stray from the ranks. There are some

ants which till the ground, plant the particular grain on which

they feed, cut it when ripe, and store it away in subterranean

granaries. ‘I'here are ants which bury their dead. There are ants

who have slaves, as already intimated, and compel them to labor

while their masters live on its proceeds, just as we have known

of man. How can we attribute all these things to instinct? If

so, let us call the whole thing instinct, and so end it.

Take the case of the bee. It has required a small volume in

which to record the doings of these little creatures, which, to say

the least, are curious. Take the case of weak hives, which on

that account are hable to the incursions of more powerful neigh-

bors, who are ever ready to appropriate the works of the thrift of

their less powerful neighbors. In such cases, it has been fre-

quently observed that the weaker colony casts up a cross within

the entrance or hallyport to their hive, a wall of wax, etc., called,

I believe, a traverse, in engineering parlance. Upon entering, the

bee is at once confronted by this traverse, and is obliged to turn

either to the right or left to enter the hive proper. But in so doing

it must pass a very narrow way at either end of the traverse. By

this means a few bees can defend a hive against the assault of a

very large number of marauding bees. Butall hives donot have

this traverse, and why not? Is it made in obedience to a blind

tendency, such as an instinct is ordinarily held to be? If so, why

do not all hives have the traverse? It seems to me, the only

natural way is to admit that such doings are an evidence of the

possession of mind.

Sometime since a gentleman was struck by a happy thought,

viz.: one in which he could utilize bees. He formed the design

of exporting a number of hives to the island of Hawaii, where

there are flowers all the year round. His thought appears to have

been that, as bees gather honey guided solely by a blind tendency

or an instinct, that they would work all the year round, and hence

make honey all the year, and if so, become a source of no small

profit. If they gathered honey wholly from a mere blind im-

pulse, his expectations would have been fulfilled. But in the

174 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Leilers.

course of a few years the bees learned somehow that it was un-

necessary to lay up honey as in climates where flowering plants

exist only a part of the year, and they became valueless from an

economical point of view. Was this due to instinct, or to educa-

tion? If to the latter, is mind involved in the case? I must

confess, it seems so to me.

Take the following anecdote from many hundreds of others

of various kinds, in respect to dogs :

‘There is a water mill on the Tweed in Scotland called Max-

wellhaugh, by the road between Kelso and Trovist. It is driven

by a sluice of water from the Trovist, just before it joins the

Tweed, and consists of two flats. The upper flat, or story, is on

a level with the public road, and is called the “ upper mill,” while

entrance to the lower story was reached by a lath road descending

from the highway. The first thing the miller did in the morning

was to unchain the dog. The dog immediately placed himself

across the upper doorway, while the miller proceeded with his

work in the lower mill. As soon asthe miller had finished his

work there, and removed to the upper mill, the dog, without being

told, set off to the milier’s house, and in two journeys brought his

master’s breakfast, — namely, milk in a pitcher and porridge in a

‘bicker,’ tied up in a towel.

‘On one occasion, when the Trovist and the Tweed were in a

flood, a little dog ventured incautiously into the Tweed, and was

carried rapidly down the stream, struggling and yelping as it was

hurried along. It so happened that the miller’s dog, while carry-

ing his master’s breakfast to him, saw the little dog in distress.

He immediately put down his burden, and set off at full gallop

down the stream. When he had got well below the drowning

dog, he sprung into the river, swam across, and so exactly had he

calculated the rapidity of the river and his own speed, that he in.

tercepted the little dog as it was being helplessly swept down the

current, and brought it safely to land.

‘‘ When he got his burden safely on shore, the dog, instead of

displaying the least affection for it, cuffed it, first with one paw

and then with the other, and returned to the spot where he had

deposited his master’s breakfast and carried it to him, as usual.

Mind in the Lower Animals. 175

“ How is it possible,” says the author of the anecdote, to ‘ re-

fer the proceedings of this animal to mere instinct? Had anegro

slave performed them, we should have used them (and with per-

fect justice) as arguments, that so intellectual and trustworthy a

man ought not to be the property of an irresponsible master.’

“The whole behavior of the dog is exactly like that of a burly,

kindly and rugged barger, possessed of cool judgment and rapid

action, willing to risk his life for another, and then to make light

of the whole business.

‘The process of reasoning that took place in the dog’s mind is

as evident as if the brain had been that of a man and not a dog.

The animal exhibited self-denial, presence of mind, and fore-

thought. Had he jumped into the water at once, he could not

have caught the little dog; but by galloping down the stream,

getting ahead of the drowning animal, and then stemming the cur-

rent until it was swept within his reach, he made sure of his ob-

ject; and no man could have done better if he had tried to save

a drowning child ?”

There are hundreds of cases, from among not only the almost

innumerable species of lower animals, but also, so to speak, of the

higher, such as birds of many kinds, cats, dogs, horses, elephants,

and monkeys. But, manifestly, I cannot refer to them to-night;

nor, indeed, is it necessary to do so after what has been said, and

when it is remembered that it is probably true that there is not

one person present but has had opportunities for making interest-

ing personal observations bearing on this question.

Contenting myself, therefore, I will pass at once to a discussion

of the subject in various of its aspects. Tor my own part, I am

led to hold to the position provisionally, that the lower animals are

possessed of minds, the same in kind as those of men. I haye

said, this is my provisional opinion, for it has become, after much

endeavor, a habit of mine to adopt opinions with care, and if

not well founded, to try and remember that they are not well

founded. Such opinions I try to be ready to drop at the first

occasion which seems truly to require me to do so, even if I am left

without opinions, as, indeed, I have come to be, in relation to

many things. I will now proceed to give you some of the rea-

176 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters.

sons which seem to me to justify me in adopting the opinion to

which I have here given expression.

i, One strong proof of this position is to be gained from such

facts as I have been relating in your hearing. An unprejudiced

and attentive examination of the mental phenomena of lower

animals, shows them to have in some measure most, if not all, the

mental capacities or faculties which distinguish men. But let us

for a moment go even back of this. The nervous system, the ad-

mitted instrument of mind, in its intimate structure, is essentially

the same ; even the drain of man and the lower animals agree so

closely as to render all but futile the elaborate attempt of Prof.

Owen to establish a separate class, the archencephale, of which man

is held to be the sole member. The agreements in general, and

even in details, are surprisingly close, whether in gross form or

in minute texture, between the brains of men and the anthropoid

apes. Then the lower animals have the same extrinsic means

for acquiring a knowledge of the outer world that man has. But

why have they the sense apparatuses of vision, hearing, touch,

taste, smell, the muscular sense, etc., unless for the same purposes

that they subserve in men? But to come nearer. The lower

animals experience sensations both agreeable and the contrary,

they enjoy sense-perception, and in many cases far beyond what

is true for man. They have frequently as perfect, and often a

more elaborate muscular system than man, which is exercised and

controlled by means of the same kind of nervous mechanism, and

is devoted to similar purposes. They have often well marked

and very tenacious memories, so far as we can tell, the same as

that which belongs to man. They can reason also, or compare

the perceptions they have or have had, and many times in a surpris-

ing degree. They have most certainly a will, and hence power

to choose from among alternatives, the story of Buridan’s ass to

the contrary notwithstanding. They display all the principal quali-

ties and passions which belong to man, such as parental affection,

jealousy, anger, fear, courage, constancy, fidelity, friendship, ill-

temper, hope, despair (for animals have been known to commit

suicide), pride, self-importance, caution, trickery, maliciousness, ete.

examples of all of which it would be easy to give and of many

Mind in the Lower Animals. aber

of them to multiply. They can certainly learn and improve, even

in many such actions as have been called instructive. They even

show abuse of humor and fun, some appreciation of the beautiful,

and would appear in some instances to have a knowledge of right

and wrong. It is admitted that the moral sense, if developed at

all in the lower animals, is very rudimentary. But the same may

be said with some degree of seriousness of many human beings,

especially of young children and idiots. A young child, if arrest-

ed in its moral development at an early period, would, so far as

signs can show, be a mere human animal, not equal perhaps to

an intelligent monkey. It might be expected a prior, that if the

lower animals should fail anywhere in a comparison with man, it

would be in respect to the higher faculties. And this is found

to be actually true. Butif the lower animals show but little, if

any evidence of possessing a moral and especially a religious sense

and capacity, let it be remembered, as already said, that some

time elapses in the human being before the conscience is developed

so as to beget what is called accountability. A young child is not

held to be accountable for its acts, when they lead to bad conse-

quences, any more than isa mere animal. So after all, it would

seem from the confessedly superficial view of the case, we cannot

refuse to admit that the lower animals have minds similar to men,

at least in kind, on the score of radical difference in their mental

phenomena.

2. Then to what shall we ascribe the mental phenomena ex-

hibited by the lower animals, if not to mind? It has been the

custom to refer them to what has been called mstinct. But what is

instinct? When an act is performed by an animal without hav-

ing learned to perform it, as when a bird builds a nest without

ever having learned to do it, or when a bee builds its cell of a cer-

tain geometrical figure without any previous instruction or de-

monstrable plan to follow, or when a pig will begin twenty-four

hours before an approaching storm to gather materials for a bed,

and in making which, it will heap them up on the side from which

the storm is to approach, etc., such actions are called enstinctive or

automatic. The animal does them without purpose or design.

Many such actions are performed like the leaping of a headless

178 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters.

frog, when, according to ordinary experience, the mind would

seem to have been removed. But take the case of a bird build-

ing its nest. This is said to be instinctive. If this means any-

thing, it means that the animal is fitted prior to experience, and

independently of all knowledge, to build its nest. It is created

from the start with a nest-building tendency, which is the soul so

to speak, of a nest-building mechanism, which at some peculiar

conjunction in its affairs impels and guides the bird, it knows not

how or why, to build the nest, which it is under the necessity of

building on account of the fixed conditions and modes of action

of its nest-building apparatus, and in a certain way and none

other. Hence the individual members of the same species will

build their nests after a peculiar pattern or of peculiar materials,

so much so, that it is enough for the observant naturalist simply

to see the nest, in many cases, to name the bird. But the case is,

or seems to be different, with the architect who plans and builds

a house, as every one knows. But let us look more closely at

this instinctive act of nest building. One thing is certain, there

must be a plan somewhere, consciously or unconsciously followed,

for the nests of the same species are made alike, or after a common

type or plan. The only possible places (so to speak) in which

the plan can inhere, are either just in the mechanism or organism

of the bird itself, in which case it would have to be assumed that

it was constructed to work of itself, in the absence of a mind. It

would work then, for example, like a watch, or better yet, if you

please, like a pin or match machine, which is fitted to take the

raw material at one end, and give out at the other the finished

product. It cannot in the nature of its case make anything but

tacks. Any power which can set it in motion, no matter from

what source, may, through the agency of the mechanism, bring

about the result; or the plan may inhere in the mind of the ani-

mal, as well asthe apparatus to which the mechanism corresponds.

Why should wz deny the presence of mind, in a given case, be-

cause it works through an apparatus, even if the latter is auto-

matically perfect from the outset? Can mind not work through

such mechanism as well as through one which for certain reasons

is imperfect at the start, and has to be developed by purposive

Mind in the Lower Animals. 179

use? In the latter case the evidence of mind may be clearer, but

in the other, is it absent? Or, finally, the act called instinctive

may be attributed to the immediate presence and action of the

Divine mind. But in some form or other, mind must be present,

and we cannot escape it, as some seem to imagine they do by call-

ing certain cases in which it seems to be present, instinctive. The

bird must choose a place in which to build her nest. Is this in-

stinctive? Think of it a moment. How should a bird be pre-

arranged to select, from thousands of places in which her nest

might be securely built, the one she does select? Does she

not look about, and aiter considerable search and consideration,

at last fix upon the spot which, upon the whole, she likes best.

Then again, is her search for and choice of materials a blind

one, in which she follows, mechanically, the unvarying condi-

tions of a fated or at any rate a fixed mechanism? No, it must

be that however perfectly the material organism is prearranged

for action, under favoring conditions, that it has within it a mind,

which, it is true, has a less sphere of spontaneity than belongs

to man, and which works therefore under more rigid condi-

tions than in man; but still mind isthere. By the limitations

of its automatic organism, it 1s made unnecessary for it to go the

round of experience to learn, for it begins where man ends, or

tends to end; that is, with an organism, embodying an organized

experience prior to the fact. By this means, the lower animals

whose lives are short, are enabled to begin their life-work at once,

and from the first to avoid mistakes asa rule. But coupled with

this freedom from errors in their acts, is the corresponding inabil-

ity to perceive or correct them when they have been made. Just

in proportion as automatic action prevails, does spontaneity and

inventive capacity and adaptability disappear. Hence, these lat-

ter elements are found in the greatest measure in man, and in the

least in the lower animals. But this is to be remembered, that

by attributing the actions of the lower animals to instinct, we do

not therefore exclude the mind, though this is commonly sup-

posed to have been done in such acase. LHven in view of those

actions, then, which are most clearly automatic, mind is probably

present, and hence by this mode of reasoning we cannot exclude

the lower animals from participating in it, in common with man.

180 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Leiters.

Then again there is the question of the ¢mmortality of the minds

of the lower animals. It has been thought if the admission is

made that the lower animals have minds, that this will oblige us

to concede to them immortality, equally with man. But why not

do this? What harm could come of such an admission? What

forbids it? Would it be contrary to scripture, to reason, to the

true interests of men present or to come, or would it conflict with

any well authenticated facts? Would it be degrading to men,

or cheapen future existence? But if we refuse it, what shall we

do with the intelligent principle, whatever it may be, which feels,

and thinks, and wills, and suffers, and enjoys, and remembers, in

the lower animals? What is it in them that appeals in hunger

and distress, or is the spring of pride or joy, or satisfaction, or

fidelity, that devises expedients, draws conclusions, etc.? If it

perishes with the body, on what logical grounds can we refuse to

surrender the mind of man toa similar fate? If we can do all

the things done by the animals by means of a perishable combina-

tion of physical and vital forces, why not join in with the so-called

muterialists, and do the same for mind in man? If. not, why not?

But suppose the ground is taken, that we must attribute all the

phenomena bearing the marks of mind exhibited by the lower

animals to the immediate presence and action of the Divine mind,

how shall we reclaim the human mind from being swallowed up

in the Divine mind, thus destroying all except the shadow or pre-

tense of individuality ? Hence, on such grounds as these, it

seems hardly possible to refuse to the lower animals the pos-

session of mind in the same sense, but not necessarily in the same

degree as in man.

Of course there are many other reasons which may be used in

support of the position that the lower animals have minds, but I

cannot refer toall of them, or indeed to any, except in a brief way.

But I will call your attention to two or three of the stronger

reasons that may be urged against this view. I will state and

briefly discuss them before I close.

One of the objections which may be raised is to this effect:

1. That there is no real proof that animals possess immortal

spirits, or minds. Without a revelation we could not really know,

except on the grounds of a frail inference, that the mind of ani-

Mind in the Lower Animals. L81

mals survives the destruction of their bodies. But we have no

clear revelation on this subject. The Bible, the only pretended

source of authority on such subjects, so far as revelation is con-

cerned in them, makes no statement bearing on it, at least none

equaling in clearness those made in respect to the future existence

of the spirits of men. It would seem not unreasonable, that if the

spirits or minds of the lower animals are endowed with immor-

tality, that it would have been for some purpose, probably a

moral one. And since men and the lower animals sustain to each

other such close relations in this life, the purpose in conferring

immortality on the souls of the beasts would probably have some

relation to man, and hence, would naturally find some expression

in the Bible, which has so much to say of the hereafter of men.

But no such statements occur. Bya mere observation of animals,

and a simple scientific study of the phenomena they present, it is

not possible to arrive at clear and logical conclusions on this sub-

ject, unless, perhaps of a kind unfavorable to the view which

affirms their immortality. It is true, such modes of reasoning do

not prove that animals do not have immortal souls, but it at least

raises a reasonable presumption against such a view.

2. Again it is said, that the mental phenomena of lower animals

do not require the agency of mind to explain them, for they have

been referred almost by common consent, from the earliest times,

to instinct. Men and animals differ, as regards their actions and

their knowledge, chiefly in this: Animals do not as a rule

learn to do, or to know what their modes of existence require

them to know, or do what they need to do, and their actions there-

fore are usually as well performed at first as at last. Their actions

are automatic, or they are done without purpose or foresight of the

animal. Itis thus with the walking of animals when first born,

with their breathing or their sucking. A chicken, not yet out of

its shell, will peck at, and swallow a fly; a serpent, when it first

escapes from its egg, will on the instant, seek a retreat under a

stone, or stick, or clod, if there is any show of violence or danger.

The bee builds its cel], the bird its nest, the spider weaves its

web, just as perfectly at first as at last. All these things and

thousands more are done by these and other animals prior to ex-

182 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters.

perience. They were never learned. In one sense the animal

does not know how to do them, viz.: in the sense of having learned

to do them. It does them moved by an zmpulse, rather than de-

terminate thought. It obeys a mere blind, but cogent propensity,

rather than a rational conclusion, viz.: one deduced by logical

processes from ascertained and definite premises. These mere

propensities arise in, and then reach on, are apparatus, or mechan-

ism, which is often perfect at birth, or before it. In such cases as

those, in which the animal does not begin the performance of cer-

tain acts or to manifest certain tendencies until late in life, the

reason is to be found in the lateness of development of the ap-

propriate mechanism through which the acts in question are ac-

complished. The case is in nowise different from that in which the

apparatus is perfect at birth. No matter how late in life it is that

the animal begins to do what it does, this much is clear, that the

apparatus was not developed by educative processes, as is so gen-

erally the case in man. To all appearances the development is

spontaneous. The animal seems to acquiesce, without purpose, and

hence unconsciously its capacities to do. It does whatever it does

as a rule, from the first, with automatic precision. But while this

is the rule with the lower animals, the contrary is true of man.

He has the smallest possible stock of instinctive or automatic

acts to begin with, and those few of the lowest and simplest kind.

Whatever he does or knows he has to learn to do or know as a

rule, by or through slow, educative processes.

The point in this case is as follows: As respects the lower ani-

mals, they are provided by their Creator from the first with com-

plete mechanisms, fitted to reach in a determinate way to various

stimuli, external and internal, while the development and perfec-

tion in structure and working of the nervous mechanisms in man

are conditional on their determinate purposive use or education. If

not so used, or, in other words, educated, they are never devel-

oped. Hence we may have ignorant and incapable men, as com-

pared with each other, but not ignorant and incapable animals, as

compared with their kind. Hence arises a duty on the part of men

to develop themselves, and if they do not discharge that duty we

blame them, as in the scripture parable of the talents. But not

Mind in the Lower Animals. 183

so in the lower animals. But why these remarkable differences

between men and animals if they both have minds of the same

kind? Te only way in which they may be explained is to ad-

mit that in the one case there is a rational mind or spirit, which

can feel and know, and can use the mechanisms with which it

stands connected, so as to lead to their development in many ways

and degrees, and in varying propertions to each other, while in the

lower animals, the nervous and other mechanisms are developed

as a rule in some other way than by their use. They are devel

oped prior to or independently of use, but not so in man, as a rule.

In the one case there is a mind to use the imperfect apparatus, and,

according to the degree and kind of the use, to develop it in

various ways and degrees; but in beasts this is not so, only ina

low degree. Hence animals of the same kind are more nearly

equal in their development, and men less so. Hence man is ina

measure the master of his own higher development, and is, there-

fore, charged with a duty in this connection; but not so the ani-

mals below him. Out of such considerations, if time permitted,

it would seem that quite a presumption could be raised up in favor

of the view that the lower animals do not have minds as men do.

But to pass on, it may be urged,

3. That any necessity which might seem to arise for admit-

ting the lower animals to have mind with man, may be met,

or at least justly avoided, by certain ‘distinctions which have

been long recognized by many writers. It has been maintained

by many, from the time of Aristotle, that in man we may discern

at least two forms of mind. The one is conveyed with the objects

of sense, and our relations in space and time. To it belongs the

sense of perception, the capacity for comparing sense perceptions, or

to think on them, and also our nerve propensities, and certain emo-

tions not ordinarily classed with propensities or appetites. ‘This,

it is admitted, is possessed in kind by animalsas well as men. It

has been called the psyche. The other is superior to the psyche, and

has relations not only to the psyche, but also to the body. It is that

form of mind by which we become related to God, and which is

the seat of conscience.. By it we are enabled to discern right from

wrong, good from evil, the beautiful from its contrary, and by this

184 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters.

we obtain motives to action, not only for the present but the dis-

tant future, not only in accordance with, but often in opposition

to the mere teachings of sense, or the mere impulses of appetite

or of the bodily passions, in obedience to which the lower animals

act. This is the home of the reason, of even the ‘ Pure Reason”

of Kant, of the moral sense, and the true seat of the religious life,

to all of which the lower animals are strangers. This form or

part of mind is called the pneuma. It is the possession of this

part which chiefly distinguishes men from the lower animals. It

is this part which it may be most truly offered is immortal, with-

out contesting for the immortality of the psyche, which the lower

animals possess in common with man. This latter part may

perish possibly, and if so, we need not trouble ourselves about

the question as to whether the mind of animals may continue to

survive after the death of their bodies. But that these two forms of

mind may be separable from each other would seem to be possi-

ble from the fact, as they may be assumed to be, that the lower

animals have what corresponds to the psyche without the pneuma

in man, and from the fact, that forms of mind seem to relate to:

wholly different objects, and from the further fact, as it seems to:

be in the moral and religious history of mankind, that the pneuma

may be either dead or alive to the proper moral and spiritual ob-

jects and relations, without involving any corresponding or other

change in the psyche. This is the part of a man’s nature which

seems of all others the most susceptible of cultivation and ex-

pansion, and which the advance of age, which seems to involve

so serlously the body and the psyche, does not often affect. It is

par excellence, the progressive part of man, the most human-like,

nay, God-like, part of man; that it is within its domain that

these aspirations take their origin, which at once imply and de-

mand a life hereafter, as the only one which does not mark them,

and in which alone it would seem possible for them to find satis-

fying objects. By making some such distinction as has been

hinted at, it would seem possible to admit a form of mind as

common to man and animals, the admission of which would be

perfectly compatible with a denial of its immortality, or at least

with a doubt on this subject, and also with a claim for man of a

Mind in the Lower Animals. 185

form of mind which, so far as the signs go, may be denied to the

lower animals.

4, But finally, it may objected that it cannot be sustained on

the score of utility. Of what use would a hereafter be to crea-

tures who do not show any signs of needing or wanting it, and

who show so little capacity for improving it, to be of any good

end? Notwithstanding the acknowledged possibility of educating

certain animals, yet the great fact remains, that the lives of all

the lower animals are almost wholly automatic. Their lives are

not spent in struggles after the practical attainments of ideals,

and in an apparent sacrifice of the present for the future, in a pur-

posive exercise of will, to the end of the chastening and subjection

of their sensual natures, and the elevation, expansion, unlimited

refinement and development of their higher faculties — faculties

which, indeed, they do not have as compared with men—in the

pursuit of moral and esthetic good, which often have their final

object concealed, either in the immediate future or even in another

state of existence, and in a rational sacrifice of self for others.

I say the great fact remains, that the lives of beasts are not open

to any such way, but in following out the dictates of mere pro-

pensities, and these are usually, though not always, selfish. Their

lives and faculties are developed for them, rather than by them.

Of what use would a future life be to such creatures? It is true

there may be a use for them hereafter which we do know of,

but we are not permitted to go outside of our knowledge for pos-

itive purposes. We should never permit ourselves to use a mere

negation in a positive manner; we cannot properly use our ignor-

ance as against our knowledge, however imperiect that knowledge

may be. We do not know, ascompared with men, that the lower

animals show no signs of desiring a future life, only at best a de-

sire for a continuance of the present one, and they do not show

any considerable capacities for improvement or rational enjoy-

ment. But it has been and is different with men in all ages.

We all have, I hope, a desire to live hereafter, that is, after

death ; and as arule men have in their average estate shown capaci-

ties for the acquisition and use of knowledge and for enjoyment

which are too vast for the short and uncertain measure of this life.

186 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters.

But why, if there is no hereafter? This desire which men have

for immortality, which is shown in so many ways, and which must

have an object somewhere, has its birth in the pnewma rather than

the psyche; and hence, if the distinction between these two forms

of mind is admissible, and men and animals participate in the

psyche, but notin the pneuma, we can see why animals should not

have this desire.

Such are a few among the many reasons which may be offered for

refusing to admit the view that the lower animals have minds the

same in kind as men, differing only in degree of development.

The reasons that have been given have been selected rather than

-others, because it was supposed their discussion would prove the

most suggestive. I say suggestive, because my opinion is, that if

what is said on such an occasion as this is said only to convey

mere information, rather than to provoke and direct thought, we

come together for little purpose.

But it is impossible in one short discourse to adequately state,

much less discuss, in a satisfactory manner, such a theme as this.

As a result of my studies, which have been long turned in this

‘direction, I have been led to admit that the lower animals, even

the lowest, have minds generally the same in kind as men, but

with important differences.

In the lower animals, the mental faculties involved in percep-

‘tion and memory, and the instincts and propensities, and the lower

phases of moral sentiment, may be compared with men, in

the natural state, viz.: with the savages. But in the higher prov-

inces of mind, especially those which are the seats of the esthetic,

moral and religious activities, the lower animals are separated

from man by a vast difference in degree of development, if not of

kind. It is on these latter grounds that the distinction is the

most profound as between men and the lower animals when com-

pared mutually.

Why should we deny that animals have minds? Why deny

that they are immortal? By admitting these positions no harm

is done, so far as I can see, and we avoid thereby a host of un-

-co mfortable questions and inferences, which we can neither an-

‘wer nor parry in a rational manner, and many of which strike at

Mind in the Lower Animals. 187

the heart of the immortality of the human soul. Whether the

spirits of animals, if they are immortal, will be with us hereaiter

as at present, or will be somewhere else, is a question about which

no one knows anything, and about which no one need concern

himself. It may be thatthe old and yet living doctrine of the

transmigration of the spirits of animals points to the true solution

of this question.

188 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters.

THE ANTIQUITIES AND PLATYCNEMISM OF THE

MOUND BUILDERS OF WISCONSIN.

BY J. M. De HART, M. D.

The vast difference that has been found to exist between the

mounds of Wisconsin and those of other parts of the United

States, both in their form and variety of structure, have led many

archeologists to infer that they were constructed by a different

race; but such eminent authority as the late Dr. Lapham, has

dispelled these views, and finds in them sufficient evidence to

prove that they are of a common origin. The animal mounds,

located a few miles west of the four lakes, near Madison, were

first described by Squier and Davis, in their contributions to the

Smithsonian Institution, in 1848, and also by R. C. Taylor, in

Siuliman’s Journal.

Dr. Locke, in the Geological Report of Iowa and Wisconsin,

furnished information which greatly increased our knowledge of

these structures; but Dr. Lapham, in his contributions to the

Smithsonian Institution and American Antiquarian Society, has

done more than any other writer, in furnishing evidence of their

conformation and general character.

Most of these mounds consist of imitations, on a gigantic scale,

of animate objects, which were characteristic of the region, such

as the bear, buffalo and deer, among the mammals; of the turtle

and lizard, among the reptiles, and the night hawk and eagle,

among the birds; and, in a few instances, of the human form.

The animal mounds seldom exceed five feet in height, while some

of them were only one or two feet high, above the surrounding

ground. From the fact that the mounds were nearly always

located near the great rivers, and in the vicinity of the lakes, we

are led to infer that the mound-builders availed themselves of the

natural advantages of the country — ready access to living water,

natural highways, streams abounding with fish, and the adjacent

forests with game.

Antiquities and Platycnemism. 189

Many of the mounds are built on high bluffs, from which an

extensive view may be obtained of the surrounding country,

diversified by wooded steeps and rolling prairies, with, in many

instances, a broad river meandering through the landscape, or a

beautiful lake, with its placid waters ever abounding with fish in

great quantity.

Peschel of Leipsic, in his “‘ Races of Man,” says that in North

Fg. 1.

oie

It has a

Fig. I represents an eagle, with a body 100 ft. long, and winga cxpanded 300 {t. on either side of it.

well-defined beak, and a tail 40 ft. wide.

America the aborigines made dome

shaped tumuli, round, flat topped

mounds and circular earth works;

some of them contain graves and

covered passages. ‘T'hese are very

scarce in the New England states,

and are rarely found west of the

Mississippi, but extend from the up-

per course of the Missouri and the

great lakes, to the south, on both

slopes of the Alleghanies, as far as

Florida. Most archeologists have

ascribed them to an extinct race of

Mound-builders, who are supposed

to have migrated from Mexico. The

builders of these mounds were, there-

fore, the predecessors of the Indians,

and these latter were supplanted by

Kuropeans. Wisconsin furnishes

many evidences of the existence up-

on its soil of a prehistoric race,

known as the Mound-builder. Along

the northern shore of Lake Mendota,

many mounds may be (found. The

animal mounds found in this vicinity

represent a bear, deer, squirrel, and

other mammals now extinct; while

a few of the mounds are made in

the form of birds, some of which are very large, and three of

them are located in close proximity to one another, and resemble

190 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letlers.

an eagle with expanded wings. The largest of these birds has a

body 100 ft. long, whose expanded wings measure 300 feet on

either side of his body, while the tail is 40 ft. wide. The head is

quite perfectly formed, so that the outline of the beak is 15 ft.

in length. [#%g. 1.] The form of a deer, about three feet high, is

found near the left wing of the gigantic bird. The body of the

deer measures 65 ft. Fig. 2.

and the legs are 14 f} f

measures 12 ft. from Ye

ft. long; the head Y,

the tip of the nose Hy CA

to the origin of the ~~ \

antlers. These lat- A

ter are each 10 ft

Jong, and have a ro.

branch extending at BRS

right angles from xs

their center. [ Lig. BRON

CORED

2.| Near the left

wing of the other BS SS NN

bird there is the Fig. 2. represents a deer, whose body measures 65 ft., with

legs 14 ft. long. The antlers are each 10 ft. long, with branches

form of a bear, with from each.

a well defined body, head and legs. [ig. aes

Fig. 3.

Near Grand river, in Green Lake

county, there is a collection of about

fy one hundred mounds, mostly of a

conical or circular form. One of

these resembles the form of a man,

S with arms of an unequal length.

WON " The head points to the south, and

towards a high hill, called Mt. Moriah. As these mounds are

composed of a sandy soil, they do not preserve their form as well

as the mounds in other localities, which are composed of adjacent

soil and clay.

In the vicinity of Fox river there are several mounds, some of

which resemble racoons and bears, while the remainder are ob-

Antiquities and Platycnemism. 194

long and circular mounds. One mound in this vicinity represents

an animal whose genus and species could not be ascertained.

Fig. 4. While many animal mounds.

are found near Lake Mendota,

there are also circular and ob-

long mounds. On the follow-

ing page there is a diagrara

showing the location and ele-

vation of eight ancient mounds.

on the northern shores of this

lake. Their elevation varies

from 93 to 96 feet above the

lake, and on some of them

trees are growing, measuring”

five and a half feet in circum-

ference. [Mg. 5.] The larg-

est circular mound of this

group measures 188 feet in

circumference, and 85 feet

from the base to its summit’

It is the highest mound in this group, and from its elevated posi-

tion, could have been used for observation, and as a means of com-

munication by signal with other mounds in the adjacent country.

From its summit you have an extended view of the surrounding:

country for many miles in all directions.

This mound was the first one of the series explored, and on the

following page a diagram of the manner of exploration is given,

together with the location of the skeletons and other relics found

therein. [ig. 6.]

In commencing the work, it was thought best to sink a perpen-

dicular shaft, about six feet square, through the centre of the

mound, from the apex to the bottom of the tumulus. After re-

moving the surface, a black earth, similar to what is found on the:

shore of the lake when muck accumulates, or on the prairie bot-

tom, was removed to the depth of five feet. At this depth, and

on the western side of the shaft, a group of stones, consisting of

magnesia limestone, yellow und red sandstone were found. Some

192 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters.

of these stones were flat, while others were irregular in shape, and

bear indications of having been obtained from the limestone

quarry along the shore of the lake, where the water had worn

away portions of them. Underneath this course of earth there

was a layer of yellow clay, about four feet in depth, through

which a similar course of stones, arranged in a semi-circular man- ~

ner, and passing off to the opposite side of the shaft, were en-

countered. Another layer of black earth was found underneath

this course of yellow clay, about five and a half feet in depth,

after removing two feet of this deposit, ashes, charcoal, and de-

cayed wood, with small pieces of flint were discovered. A few

stones were removed directly below these, and the earth under-

neath was so hard and dry, that it had the appearance of having

been baked, another foot of earth was then removed, when the

skeleton of an adult mound-builder was discovered in a sitting

posture, at the southeastern corner of the shaft, several pieces

of the cranium, vertebra, the body of the inferior maxillary,

with the alveolar process quite complete, ribs, and bones of the

extremeties were found, but none of them were wholly perfect.

Where the cranium had lain, there was a perfectly formed

mould, but only a few pieces of the bones were found. Had I

thought to measure this mould I could have obtained some idea

of the dimensions of the skull. The vertebra were very large

and indicated the existence of a race larger than the Indian; of

the bones of the upper extremity that were found, that of the

humerus presented a feature which is regarded as characteristic of

the ancient Mound-builder. There was a perforation through its

inferior extremity, as shown in the accompanying illustration. In

all instances where the inferior extremity of the humerus has

been found in mounds, this perforation has been observed to exist,

and hence it may be called a natural communication existing

between the olecranon depression on the one side and the coronal

and radial depression on the opposite side, in the humerus of the

Mound-builder. This perforation is found to exist in the chim-

panzee, ape and other animals, who go about on all four of their

extremities.

As shown in the accompanying illustration, the specimen found

Fig. 5.

a) FPA Ga Ae

SHOWING THE

LOCATION AND ELEVATION OF THE MOUNDS AND THEIR ELEVATION

ABOVE LAKE. :

No.1. The Mound first examined Xx 96 above the Lake.

No. 2. The second Mound examined X 95 above the Lake.

The other six Mounds have not been examined.

No. 4. Represents an animal of some kind, probably a Turtle.

Lf,

WwW,

to Represent Magnesian Limestone.

Bae Rcearies Represent a bed of gravel.

Rs)

GS @ Represent a few trees on the Mounds and bot})m. No Mounds and Lake.

ee ge

These marks the elevation above the Lake.

Vee aa” IK OP OC

7. fp 4] Leary | ley 227 9

$$ A) or LT e rx

194 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters,

in this mound, presents on

its anterior surface a per-

foration, which is sur-

HES) rounded by a gradually

eH) receding margin, which is

not so great as that sur-

rounding the perforation

on the opposite or poste-

rior surface, of the same

bone. In the human sub-

ject, the anterior surface

of the inferior extremity

of the humerus presents

a ridge of bones, which

separates the coronal and

Sie

255

are,

==.

—

raw

rae;

ery

—e-

——*

ae,

aaa

a aa

——

—

rar

radial depressions.

This bone is, no doubt,

of great antiquity and-was

very much decayed, the

superior extremity having

disappeared. In no case

did I find any of the long

bones of the extremities

wholly perfect, but all of

them were broken near

the center of the shaft, the

other extremity not being

an,

ZI>

ZeS

ee hee

Pare

MAE oh I

to some superstitious rite or custom, connected with the sepulture

of the dead, among the ancient Mound-builders,

This was the only humerus found, with either extremity nearly

perfect.

The shafts of two tibias, found in this mound presented another

characteristic of the Mound-builder. They were both remark-

ably flat, and this peculiarity is termed Platycnemism. In the

Smithsonian Annual Report of 1873, Mr. H. Gilman, of Michi-

Antiquities and Platycnemeism. 195

gan, furnishes six comparative tables, which give the dimensions

of some forty specimens of Platycnemism, and in these tables the

tibias found in the mound near Rogue river, Michigan, present

the greatest amount of flatness. In comparing the specimens

found in this mound near Lake Mendota, with those reported by

Mr. Gilman, I find that while his measure forty-eighth one hun-

dredths of an inch in comparing their antero-posterior diameter

with the transverse diameter, my specimens measure fifty-two one-

hundredths and fifty-four one-hundredths of an inch respectively,

in comparing the same diameters. This flatness of the tibia has

been recognized in the skeletons found in many ancient mounds,

not only in this country but also in England and Wales, and

might, therefore, be justly regarded as another characteristic feature

of the osteology of the Mound-builder.

Prof. Buck regards Platyenemism as being characteristic of re-

mote antiquity.

Prof. Gilman says further, that it is impossible to give the cor-

rect age of the mounds in Michigan, but from an examination of

the trees growing on them, it was evident that they were either

planted, or had taken root there, from 750 to 1,000 years ago. It

was, therefore, beyond his observation to give anything like an

aproximate age of the mounds, because they existed before the

trees grew.

Beneath the skeleton of this Mound-builder, there was a few

inches of earth, and then a course of stones similar to those pre-

viously described, resting upon a bed of yellow clay. As there

were no evidences that this had ever been disturbed, and it being

one and a half feet below the level of the surface, it was not thought

best to sink the shaft any deeper.

As shown in fig. 6, a drift was then made into the side of this

mound, three feet above the level of the surface, and about eight

feet wide. After the removal of several feet of earth, a similar

course of stones, was found, which could be traced to the group

of stones on the west side of the shaft. These were removed, and

large quantities of ashes, charcoal, and pieces of flint were found

near them. Qn continuing the drift towards the center of the

tumulus, and near the shaft, the skeleton of a young Mound-

196 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Lelters.

builder, was discovered in a sitting posture. He was probably

not more than six years of age, judging from the condition of the

bones, a few pieces of the cranium, several vertebra, portions of

the long bones of the extremities, and the superior and inferior

maxillary were removed; several teeth were still in the alercolar

process of the superior maxillary, several pieces of flintshell beads,

two large teeth, of some animal, and small arrow heads were found

in close proximity. Quite near these remains, three pieces of

ancient pottery were discovered ; the largest piece measuring four

and a half or five and a half inches, and about a quarter of an

inch in thickness. It was smooth on its internal surface, and

marked externally by raised lines running obliquely across it,

such as are frequently seen upon ancient pottery found in

drug. 8. mounds. I give

NM = VFL Muastration

CRO SS EN Rai

We ; LEVER RM i Of this piece of

YW, He :

er sp Dp 4

=a Gj. er with a stone

LL = i

KOK pA, SY OY ie sen eile:

WG) Ze ea

4 UM) / \ 7 YY it

AGG: 4, Yf

SAY fp Eek LESS

d Gy, WUE SS implement, re-

7 => y Prez: = :

SESS pe SS sembling a ham-

mer, found in this mound. The drift was carried forward as far

as the shaft, and then downwards to the natural bed of yellow

clay. Just before striking the shaft, and near the bottom of the

tumulus, the skeleton of a second adult was found, only a very

few pieces of the cranium and two pieces of the femur were dis-

covered. After removing some very dry and hard earth another

course of stones were removed, which bore evidences of having

been exposed to fire. Ashes, charcoal, and decayed wood in quite

large pieces, one foot long by four inches thick, and plants were

found quite near the stones. Many of the stones crumbled to

pieces on handling. On removing the pillar of earth formed by

the junction of the drift with the perpendicular shaft, a flat dise

of stone, quarter of an inch in thickness and four inches in diam-

eter was, found. Similar stone dics were found by Squier and

Davis, and were called by them discoidal stones. They have

been found in the other parts of the northwest, and were sup-

posed by them to have been used by the Mound-builders in play-

ing games,

Antiquities and Platycnemism. 197

Another mound circular in form, and located a few yards from

number one, and marked number two in the diagram, on page

Fig. 9. 7, was that examined.

This mound was about

five feet high and 125

feet in circumference. A

drift was made into the

side of this mound on a

level with the surround-

ing ground, and six feet

yin width. <A section of

this mound, with the

eee

TLS =

lH-—fL,

mode of exploration is

given on the opposite

page. After removing

the surface a layer of gravel one foot in depth, and on the sum-

mit a course of sand dipping downwards into the layer of earth

beneath it, was found. The Jayer of black earth was three feet

deep, and this was followed by another course of gravel and then

a layer of earth one foot deep. A thin stratum of gravel was

removed, which was followed by finding ashes, charcoal, decayed

wood, and flint. These lay upon an altar of stones, composed of

limestone, yellow and red sandstone, resting upon a bed of yellow

clay. This altar was about one anda half feet below the sur-

rounding surface, and measured three and a half feet in length

by one and a half feet in height and two feet in width. The ex-

cavation was continued downwards to the depth of three feet, but

nothing was found.

Two feet from the summit of this mound, there was a tree

growing which measured five feet in circumference. In the side

of this tree, and fastened in the back, was a stone pestle, which

had undoubtedly been carried upward through the mound, during

the growth of this tree. This pestle was composed of granite,

with a layer of quartz running through it. It measured six by

eight inches.

Owing tothe approach of winter no further explorations were

made of these mounds, but next spring it is my intention to con-

Antiquities and Platyenemism. 199

tinue the examination of them, and hope to find on them more

evidences of the Prehistoric race, known as the Mound-builder.

Fig. 11.

aR Re: VNC SSO ERR

RPO

Fs SEAS IRR KI .:

y Nobo NON

Netopia

The question has, no doubt, occurred to many archeologists and

antiquarians, who have examined these ancient land-marks, as to

who were the people, or what race, built them; but, so far, no

possible knowledge has been obtained as to their origin. The

Indian tribes, who have lived in the vicinity of them for the past

few centuries, know nothing of them.

The Winnebagos, who were the

last Indian occupants of the Ancient

Works at Aztalan, in Jefferson county,

would always answer in the negatives

by a significant shake of the head,

when asked if they could tell who

erected them.

TAIN { While Nott and Glidden, in their

SS | work, the ‘“ Indigenous* Races of the

IT ST Karth,”’ refer to the Mound-builders,

~UTTTITNSy : as belonging to a race far higher in

civilization than the hunting tribes of America.” They call them

Mound-builders, from the regular fortifications, which they have

erected, in several of the Western and Southern States. The

Natchez, destroyed by the French of Louisiana, in the last cen-

tnry, seem, in fact, to have belonged to them.

200 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters.

Among the many relics of this ancient race, which were found

by Squier, during his explorations of the valley of the Missis-

sippi, was a most characteristic head, made of red pipe clay, the

workmanship of these unknown builders, which exhibits the pecu-

liar Indian features.

He says further, “‘ that this discovery proves that these ‘ Mound-

builders’ were American Indians, or type; that time has not.

changed the type of this indigenous group of races; and that the

‘Mound-builders’ were probably acquainted with no other race,

but themselves. In every way proving the views of author of

Crania Americans.”

Fig. 12 represents above overturned head, formed by squares.

DIAGRAM

showing

Glacial Movements

tre

og &

(ples One 1S

Bpies

wees

won

foo

m HY

< SY

Nn tal

fz]

FOTHOTW tex ¥

wte p

“porphyry ~

B. Aizob of Ortare

A.. Kn06b of Quan

Tue Muwarcer Intu,.<.Exen Co,

DEPARTMENT

OF THE MATHEMATICAL AND PHYSICAL SCIENCES.

ON. THE EXTENT AND SIGNIFICANCE OF THE WIS.-

CONSIN KETTLE MORAINE.

By T. C. CHAMBERLIN, A. M.,

State Geologist, and Professor of Geolcgy in Beloit College !

At the meeting of the Academy, three years since, I took the

liberty of occupying the attention of the members by the presen-

tation of some observations and conclusions in reference to a pe-

culiar series of drift hills and ridges in eastern Wisconsin, known

as the Kettle range, and the views then advanced afterwards found

a place in my report on the geology of eastern Wisconsin.” Sim-

ilar observations were subsequently made by Professor Roland

D. Irving, of the Wisconsin survey, and his conclusions are in per-

fect agreement with my own.®

‘In neither case, however, was any attempt made to show the

full extent of the formation outside of the districts reported upon, or

to point out its theoretical significance, the chapters being intended

only as contributions to local geology, made under somewhat se-

vere limitations as to space.

It is not now possible to map, or even safely conjecture, the

complete extent and limitations of the formation; but it is the

purpose of this article to add such trustworthy observations as

have since been made, and to gather such evidence as may justify

a provisional mapping of the range, where it has not been actually

1] have taken advantage of the interval between the date of reading and the printing to

introduce new matter. T.C.C.

2 Geology of Wis., Vol. II, 1877 (revised edition 1878), pp. 205-215.

3 Geology of Wis., Vol. II, 1877 (revised edition 1878), pp. 608-635.

202 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters.

traced. A portion of the paper will, therefore, relate to well as-

certained facts, while other portions will be in various degrees

hypothetical. If care is taken to distinguish between these por-

tions, no harm can arise from their association; while the provis-

ional mapping will, it is hoped, prove of service in both stimu-

lating and guiding further investigation. The extent of the range

is likely to prove too great for the immediate time and means of

a single observer; while the broad and irregular, and sometimes

obscure, character of the belt is such that it is likely to be over-

looked, as a continuous range, as experience has shown, unless at-

tention be called to it, or the observer be keenly alive to distinc-

tions in drift topography. It is believed, therefore, that the pre-

sentation of some things that are only probable, not certain, will

not be without value. %

It will be advisable to consider first, somewhat critically, the char-

acter of the formation. The following description, which is based

upon careful observation, relates more specifically to the moraine

in Wisconsin, where it is usually well developed, and may require

some modification in its application to the range where sub-aque-

ous deposits overlap or encroach upon it, and in other special sit-

uations.

Surface Features.— The superficial aspect of the formation is

that of an irregular, intricate series of drift ridges and hills

of rapidly, but often very gracefully, undulating contour, consist-

ing of rounded domes, conical peaks, winding and, occasionally,

geniculated ridges, short, sharp spurs, mounds, knolls and hum-

mocks, promiscuously arranged, accompanied by corresponding

depressions, that are even more striking in character. These

depressions, which, to casual observation, constitute the most pe-

culiar and obtrusive feature of the range, and give rise to its de-

seriptive name in Wisconsin, are variously known as “ Potash

kettles,” ‘“ Pot holes,” ‘‘ Pots and kettles,” “Sinks,” etc. Those

that have most arrested popular attention are circular in outline

and symmetrical in form, not unlike the homely utensils that

have given them names. But it is important to observe that

the most of these depressions are not so symmetrical as to merit

the application of these terms. Occasionally, they approach the

Wisconsin Kettle Moraine. 203

form of a funnel, or of an inverted bell, while the shallow ones

are mere saucer-like hollows, and others are rudely oval, oblong,

elliptical, or are extended into trough-like, or even winding hol-

lows, while irregular departures from all these forms are most

common. In depth, these cavities vary from the merest indenta-

tion of the surface to bowls sixty feet or more deep, while in the

irregular forms the descent is not unfrequently one hundred feet

or more. The slope of the sides varies greatly, but in the deeper

ones it very often reaches an angle of 80° or 35° with the horizon,

or, in other words, is about as steep as the material will lic. In

horizontal dimensions, those that are popularly recognized as

“ kettles” seldom exceed 500 feet in diameter, but, structurally

considered, they cannot be limited to this dimension, and it may

be difficult to assign definite limits to them. One of the peculiar-

ities of the range is the large number of small lakes, without inlet

or outlet, that dot its course. Some of these are mere ponds of

water at the bottom of typical kettles, and, from this, they gradu-

ate by imperceptible degrees into lakes of two or three miles in

diameter. These are simply kettles on a large scale.

Next to the depressions themselves, the most striking feature of

this singular formation is their counterpart in the form of rounded

hills and hillocks, that may, not inaptly, be styled invezted ket-

tles. These give to the surface an irregularity sometimes fittingly

designated “knobby drift.” The trough-like, winding hollows

have their correlatives in sharp serpentine ridges. The combined

effect of these elevations and depressions is to give to the surface

an entirely distinctive character.

These features may be regarded, however, as subordinate ele-

ments of the main range, since these hillocks and hollows are

variously distributed over its surface. They are usually most

abundant upon the more abrupt face of the range, but occur, in

greater or less degree, on all sides of it, and in various situations.

Not unfrequently, they occur distributed over comparatively level

areas, adjacent tothe range. Sometimes the kettles prevail in the

valleys, the adjacent ridges being free from them; and, again, the

reverse is the case, or they are promiscuously distributed over

both. These facts are important in considering the question of

their origin.

204 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letlers.

The range itself is of composite character, being made up of a

series of rudely parallel ridges, that unite, interlock, separate,

appear and disappear in an eccentric and intricate manner.

Several of these subordinate ridges are often clearly discernible.

It is usually between the component ridges, and occupying de-

pressions, evidently caused by their divergence, that most of the

larger lakes associated with the rangearefound. Ridges, running

acro:s the trend of the range, as well as traverse spurs extending

out from it, are not uncommon features. The component ridges

are themselves exceedingly irregular in height and breadth, being

often much broken and interrupted. The united effect of all the

foregoing features 1s to give to the formation a strikingly irregular

and complicated aspect.

This peculiar topography, however, finds a miniature represen-

tative in the terminal moraines of certain Alpine glaciers. Most

of the glaciers of Switzerland, at present, terminate in narrow

valleys, on very steep slopes, and leave their debris in the form of

lateral ridges, or a torrentially washed valley deposit. A portion

of them, however, in their recently advanced state, descended into

comparatively open valleys of gentle decline, and left typical, ter-

minal moraines, formed from the ground moraines of the glaciers,

and only slightly obscured by the medial and lateral morainic

products, which have little or no representative in the Quaternary

formations. The Rhone glacier has left three such ridges, sepa-

rated by a few rods interval, that are strikingly similar in topo-

graphical eccentricities to the formation under discussion, save in

their diminutive size. ‘The two outer ones have been modified

by the action of the elements, and covered by grass and shrubs,

while the inner one remains still largely bare, and, as they have

been cut across by the outflowing glacial streams, they are exceed-

ingly instructive as to glacial action under these circumstances.

The inner one graduates in an interesting way into the wide-

spread ground moraine, which occupies the interval between it and

the retreating glacier, where not swept by floods, and which pre-

sents a different surface contour, illustrative of Till topography.

The two Grindelwald glaciers have left similar moraines; those of

the upper one, being the more massive, and being driven closer to-

gether, present an almost perfect analogy to the Kettle ranges.

Wisconsin Kettle Moraine. 205

The Glacier du Bois, the terminal portion of the Mer de Glace,

the Argentiére, and, less obviously, the Findelen, and others, so

far as their situation favored, have developed similar moraines,

and indicate that this is tae usual method of deposit under these

conditions. Reference is here made only to the terminal deposit

of the ground moraine, eliminating, as it is quite possible to do,

for the most part, the material borne on the suriace of the glacier.

The Material of the Formation. —This topic, which is one of

primary importance in determining the origin of the deposit,

readily divides itself into three subordinate ones, all of which

need discriminative attention; (1) the form of the constituents, (2)

their arrangement as deposited, and (8) their sowrce.

(1) Premising that the Kames, and those deposits which have

been associated with them in the literature of the subject, are

described as composed mainly of sand and gravel, it is to be

remarked, in distinction, that a// the four forms of material com-

mon to drift, viz.: clay, sand, gravel, and boulders, enter largely

into the constitution of the Kettle range, in its typical develop-

ment. Of these, gravel is the most conspicuous element, exposed

to observation. This qualification is an important one in forming

an adequate conception of the true structure of the formation.

It is to be noticed that the belt, at many points, exhibits two dis-

tinct formations. The uppermost —but not occupying the heights

of the range — consists almost wholly of sand and gravel, and

lies, like an irregular, undulating sheet, over portions of the true

original deposit. This superficial formation is confined mainly to

the slopes and flanks of the range, and to depressed areas between

its constituent ridges ; though, when the whole belt is low, it often

spreads extensively over it, so as sometimes to be quite deceptive.

But, where the range is developed in force, this superficial deposit

is so limited and interrupted, as to be quite insignificant, and not

at all misleading; and, at some points, where it is more widely

developed, excavations reveal unequivocally its relationship to

the subjacent accumulations. In such cases, the lower formation

shows a more uneven surface than the upper one, indicating

that the effect of the latter is to mask the irregular contour of

the lower and main formation. Notwithstanding this, the upper

206 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters.

sands and gravels are often undulatory, and even strongly bil-

lowy, and the bowls and basins in it commonly have more than

usual symmetry. A not uncommon arrangement of this stratum

is found in an undulating margin on the flank of a ridge of the

main formation, from which it stretches away into a sand flat or a

gravel plain.

Setting aside this, which is manifestly a secondary formation,

it is still true that gravel forms a large constituent of the forma-

tion. Some of the minor knolls and ridges are almost wholly

composed of sand and gravel, the elements of which are usually

very irregular in size, frequently including many boulders. But,

notwithstanding these qualifications, the great core of the range, as

shown by the deeper excavations, and by the prominent hills and

ridges, that have not been masked by superficial modifications,

consists of a confused commingling of clay, sand, gravel, and boulders,

of the most pronounced type. ‘There is every gradation of material,

from boulders several feet in diameter, down to the finest rock

flour. The erratics present all degrees of angularity, from those

that are scarcely abraded at all, to thoroughly rounded boulders.

The cobble stones are spherically rounded, rather than flat, as is

common with beach gravel, where the attrition is produced largely

by sliding, rather than rolling.

Stratification. — As indicated above, the heart of the range is

essentially unstratified. There is, however, much stratified ma-

terial intimately associated with it, a part of which, if my dis-

criminations are correct, was formed simultaneously with the pro-

duction of the unstratified portion, and the rest is due to subse-

quent modification. The local overlying beds, previously men-

tioned, are obviously stratified, the bedding lines being often

inclined, rather than horizontal, and frequently discordant, undu-

latory or irregular.

The Source of the Material. — This, so far as the range in Wis-

consin is concerned, admits of the most unequivocal demonstra-

tion. The large amount of coarse rock present renders identifica-

tion easy, and the average abrasion that has been suffered indicates,

measurably, the relative distance that has been traveled. The

range winds over the rock formations in a peculiar manner, so as

Wisconsin Kettle Moraine. 207

to furnish fine opportunities for decisive investigation. Of the

many details collected, there is room here for a single illustrative

case only. The Green Bay loop of the range surrounds on all

sides, save the north, several scattered knobs of quartzite, por-

phyry and granite, that protrude through the prevailing lime-

stones and sandstones of the region. These make their several

contributions to the material of the range, but only to a limited

section of wt, and that invariably in the direction of glacial striation.

Any given segment of the range shows a notable proportion of

material derived from the formation adjacent to it, in the direc-

tion of striation; and a less proportion, generally speaking, from

the succeeding formations that lie beyond it, backward along the

line of glacial movement for three hundred miles or more. It is

undeniable, that the agency, which produced the range, gathered its

material all along its course for at lewst three hundred miles to the

northward, and its largest accumulations were in the immediate

vicinity of the deposit. For this reason, as the range is traced along

its course, its material is found to change, both lithologically and

physically, corresponding to the formation from which it was

derived.

These facts find ample parallel in the moraines of Switzerland.

The marginal portion of the great moraine of the ancient expanded

glaciers, on the flanks of the Juras, is composed, very largely, of

boulder clay, derived from the limestones that lie in its vicinity,

while the quantity of material derived from the more distant for-

mations of the Alps is quite subordinate. Of the more recently

formed moraines, those derived from the Bois, Viesch, Rhone,

Aar, and other glaciers, which pass over granitic rocks, consist

quite largely of sand, gravel, and boulders, clay being subordinate,

while those glaciers of the Zermatt region, that pass mainly over

schistose rocks, and the Grindelwald glaciers, that, in the lower

part of their course, traverse limestone, give rise to a decided

amount of clay. The moraines, previously referred to as minia-

ture kettle ridges, are composed of commingled unstratified debris,

in the main, but there are instances of assorted and strat'fied

material. The inner moraine of the upper Grindelwald gl cier

presents much fine assorted gravel and coarse sand, heaped up,

208 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters.

very curiously, into peaks and ridges, in various attitudes on the

summit and sides of the moraine. |

Relations to Drift Movements. — This is manifestly of most vital

consideration. The course of drift movement may be determined,

(1) by the grooving of the rock surface, (2) by the direction in

which the material has been transported, (8) by the abrasion which

rock prominences have suffered, (4) by the trend of elongated

domes of polished rock, and, (5) less decisively, by the arrange-

ment of the deposited material and the resulting topography.

Recourse has been had to all these means of determination, in

that portion of the range that has been carefully investigated, and

their individual testimony is entirely harmonious, and their com-

bined force is overwhelming. Hxceptional opportunity for positive

determination is afforded by the protruding knobs of Archzean

rocks before alluded to, from which trains of erratics stretch away

in definite lines, continuous with the striation on the parent knobs,

and parallel to that of the region, as well as concordant with the

general system. The united import of all observations, in eastern

Wisconsin, testifies to the following remarkable movements, which

may be taken as typical, and which are here given, because they

have been determined with much care. Between Lake Michigan

and the adjacent Kettle range, the direction was obliquely up the

slope, as now situated, southwestward, towards the range. On

the opposite side, between the Green Bay valley and the range, the

course was, after surmounting the cliff bordering the valley, ob-

liquely down the slope, southeastward, toward the range. In the

Gren Bay trough, the ice stream moved up the valley to its

watershed, and then descended divergingly the Rock river valley.

Between the Green Bay valley and the Kettle belt on the west,

the course was up the slope, westward, or southwestward, accord-

ing to position. These movements, which are imperfectly shown

on the diagram, exhibit a remarkable divergence from the main

channel toward the margin of the striated area, marked by the

Kettle range.

Much of the data relating to the movements, outside of Wis-

consin, has been derived from a study of publications relating to

the geology of the several states, to whose authors I am indebted,

MAG BNW EMALO) VO) Aah

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Wisconsin Kettle Moraine. 209

but who should not be held responsible for the special collocation

presented in the accompanying diagram, which, in some of its

details, may prudently be held as somewhat tentative, until more

rigorously verified. But the grand features of these movements,

which may be confidently accepted, are very striking, and are

very singularly related to the great basins of the lake region.

The three main channels were the troughs of the great lakes,

Superior, Michigan, and the couplet, Erie and Ontario, while be-

tween these lay three subordinate ones in the basins of the great

bays, Saginaw, Green and Keweenaw.

The divergence of the striations from the main channels toward

the range, in the case of the Green Bay valley, and, so far as the

evidence goes, in other troughs, was an unexpected result, developed

by combining individual observations; but, when the method of

wasting and disappearance of a glacier is studiously considered,

appears not only intelligible, but a necessary result, and one which

finds partial illustration among existing glaciers.

Topographical Relations and Distribution. —The topographical

relations of the formation are an essential consideration, but may

be best apprehended in connection with its geographical exten-

sion, which now claims our attention. If westart with the north-

ern extremity of the long known Potash Kettle Range, in Wis-

consin, we find ourselves about midway between the southern

extremity of Green Bay and Lake Michigan, and on an eastward

sloping, rocky incline. The base of the range is here less than

200 feet above Lake Michigan, and is flanked on either side by

the lacustrine red clays of the region; and seems, in some measure,

to be obscured by them. From this point, it stretches away in a

general south-southwestward direction, for about 185 miles, as-

cending gradually, and obliquely, the rocky slope, until it rests

directly on its crest.

When within about twenty miles of the Illinois line, zt divides,

one portion passing southward into that state, and the other,

which we will follow, curves tothe westward, and crosses the Rock

river valley. A profile of the rock surface across this valley,

beneath the range, would show a downward curve of more than

300 feet. The range should not, perhaps, be regarded as sagging

210 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters.

more than half that amount, however, in crossing the valley, as

the canon-like channel of the pre-glacial river, seems to have

been filled without much affecting the surface contour of the

drift. But the fact of undulation to conform to an irregular sur-

face, produced by erosion, and not by flexure of the strata, is a

point to be noted, as it is a serious obstacle in the way of any ex-

planation that is only applicable on the supposition that the for-

mation was in a horizontal position when formed, es the view that.

it was produced by beach action, or the stranding of icebergs.

After crossing Rock river, the range curves gradually to the

northward, passing over the watershed between the Rock and

Wisconsin rivers, ‘“ descends abruptly 200 feet into the low ground

of the valley of the Wisconsin,”! crosses the great bend of the

river, sweeping directly over the quartzite ranges, according to

Prof. Irving, with a vertical undulation of over 700 feet, after

which it gradually ascends the watershed between the Mississippi

and St. Lawrence drainage systems, until its base reaches an esti-

mated elevation of 700 to 800 feet above Lake Michigan.- From

thence it has been traced across the headwaters of the Wisconsin

river, by Mr. A. Clark, under my direction.”

Within the Chippewa valley, it has been observed by Prof. F.

H. King, of the Wisconsin Survey, and I have observed it in the

vicinity of the Wisconsin Central railroad. This region is cov-

ered by an immense forest, mainly unsettled and untraversed, even

by foot paths, so that geological exploration is difficult and ex-

pensive, and, as no industrial importance attaches to it, and the rock

below is deeply concealed by it, I have not deemed it sufficiently

important to trace the belt continuously to justify the large ex-

penditure of time and means requisite, especially as I entertain

no serious doubts as to its continuity and general position. The

observations tnade, indicate that it descends obliquely the east-

1 Prof. Irving, Geol. of Wis., Vo}. II, 1877, page 616.

2To the eastward of the range, as thus traced, Col. Whittlesey describes (Smithsonian

Contributions, 1866) a similar formation in Oconto county. I have observed the same at

several points. Mr. EH. E. Breed informs me that it occurs on the watershed between the

Wolf and Oconto rivers, but it has‘not yet been traced through the wilderness, to any

connection with the main range, and it is uncertain whether it Is so connected or constitutes

a later formation, as such later moraines have been observed at other points.

Wisconsin Kettle Moraine. pala

ern slope of the Chippewa valley, and crosses the river below the

great bend (T' 32, R. Gand 7), near which the Flambeau, Jump,

and several smaller streams gather themselves together, in a man-

ner very similar to that of the branches of the Rock and Upper

Wisconsin rivers, just above the point where they are crossed by

the range. From this point the belt appears to curve rapidly to

the northward, forming the western watershed of the Chippewa.

It is joined in eastern Burnett county by a portion of the

range coming up from the southwest, the two uniting to form a

common range, analogous to that of eastern Wisconsin. The

conjoint range thus formed, extends along the watershed of the

Chippewa and Nemakagon rivers, to the vicinity of Long and

Nemakagon lakes, on the watershed of Lake Superior. This part

is given mainly on the authority of Mr. D. A. Caneday, who vis-

ited a portion of the formation with me, and whose discrimina-

tion can, I think, be trusted. Mr. EH. T. Sweet, of the Wisconsin

Survey, describes! a kettle range as lying along the axis of the

Bayfield peninsula, but it has not been ascertained that this is

connected with the belt under consideration.

Returning to the junction of the two ranges in eastern Burnett

county, I have traced the belt thence southwestward through Polk

and St. Croix counties to St. Croix lake, on the boundary of the

state. The lower portion of this has also been studied by Prof.

L. C. Wooster, of the Wisconsin Survey. Thesoutheastern range

of the belt may be conveniently seen on the: North Wisconsin rail-

road, near Deer Park, and on the Chicago, St. Paul & Minneap-

olis line, to the west of the station Turner, but only in moderate

force.

If a good surface map of Minnesota be consulted, it will be

seen that there liesalong the watershed, between the Upper Mis-

sissippi and the conjoint valleys of the Minnesota and Red rivers,

a remarkable curving belt of small lakes. Along this line, lies a

chain of drift hills, known m its northwestern extension as the

Leaf hills) Inthe Sixth Annual Report of the Geological Survey

of Minnesota, received just as this article is going to the printer,

1 Manascript report on Douglas and Bayfield counties, to form a part of Vol. III, Geol. of

Wis.

212 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters.

Prof. N. H. Winchell, speaking of the great moraines of the north-

west, says: ‘ There are two such that cross Minnesota, the older

being the Coteau and the younger, the Leaf nills. Corresponding to

the latter, the Kettle Range in Wisconsin seems a parallel phe-

nomenon.’ I have seen this belt, west of Minneapolis, and concur

in Prof. Winchell’s opinion. I have also observed, hastily, what

I regard as portions of it — dissevered by the river channels—on

the peninsula formed by the bend of the Mississippi and the Min-

nesota, south of St. Paul, and on the similar peninsula between

the Mississippi and Lake St. Croix; and this seems to be the line

of connection between the Wisconsin and Minnesota ranges. It

appears to me, therefore, well nigh certain, that the Leaf hills of

Minnesota are not only analogous to the Wisconsin Kettle range,

but are portions of the same linear formation.

The multitude of small lakes, found in Wisconsin, lie almost

exclusively either along the Kettle belt itself, or in the area

within, or north of it. The surface outside has a much more per-

fect system of drainage, and is almost entirely free from lakelets.

The Kettle range constitutes the margin of the lakedistrict. But

in Minnesota, south of the Leaf hills, there is an extensive lake

region stretching southward in a broad tongue, nearly to the

center of Iowa, though the lakes are not very numerous in the

latter state. The question naturally arises, whether this lake dis-

trict is likewise bordered by similar drift accumulations, and this

question, though not essential to the present discussion, has much

interest in connection with it. In respect to this, I can only give

some detached observations and quotations. As already stated,

accumulations of this character oceur south of St. Paul. Still

further to the southward, in the town of Aurora, Steel county,

there is a moderate exhibition of gravelly boulder-bearing hill-

ocks and ridges, accompanied by shallow basins and irregular

marshes, much after the manner of the formation in question.

From the descriptions of Prof. Harrington,* these features appear

1 Sixth Annual Rept. Geol. & Nat. Hist. Sur. Minn., p. 106. The R. R. profiles crossing

this belt furnish valuable data. See Ann. Rept. for 1872, pp. 53 and 57, and Sixth Aun. Rept.,

pp. 47 and 156.

? Geol. and Nat. Hist. Sur. Minn., Ann. Rept. 1875, pp. 103 e¢ seq.

Wisconsin Kettle Moraine. 213

to characterize the county somewhat widely, especially in the

southern part. Near Albert Lea, in the adjoining county, on the

south, and only a few miles from the Iowa line, there is a more

prominent development of similar features, the ridges having a

southwestward trend. Dr. C. A. White, in the Geology of Iowa,.

describes a terrace in the northern part of the state, which, in its

eastern extension, ‘‘ becomes broken up into a well marked strip

of ‘knobby country.’ Here it consists of elevated knobs and

short, ridges, wholly composed of drift, and usually containing

more than an average proportion of gravel and boulders. Inter-

spersed among these knobs.and ridges, are many of the peat

marshes of the region.”? One knob he estimates as rising 300

feet above the stream at its base. This area lies in the line of the

preceding localities, and near the Minnesota border. Between

this “knobby country” and the Algoma branch of the C., M. &

St. P. R. R., and stretching southwestward from the latter, there isa

broad belt of low mounds and ridges, some of which show the

structure and composition common to the Kettle moraine,

while others present externally only a pebble clay, similar to that

which characterizes the level country to the west of it. The

whole presents the appearance of a low range modified by lacus-

trine deposits.

Near the center of the state, Dr. White describes a second range

under the name of ‘“ Mineral Ridge,”*as consisting, ‘‘ to a consid-

erable extent, of a collection of slightly raised ridges and knolls,

sometimes interspersed with small, shallow ponds, the whole

having an elevation, probably, nowhere exceeding 50 feet above

the general surface, but, being in an open prairie region, it attracts

attention at a considerable distance.” Both these ridges, Dr.

White classes as probable moraines.

This Mineral ridge lies south of the lake district, and may be

regarded as forming its margin in that direction. On the western

border, Dr. White describes ‘‘ knobby drift,” in Dickinson county,

which, however, is ‘“‘ without perceptible order or system of ar-

rangement.’’? To the northwest from this, we soon encounter the

1 Geol. of Iowa, 1870, p. 99. 2 Loc. cit. 3 Geol. of Iowa, Vol. II, p. 221.

214 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters.

morainic accumulations of the ‘‘Coteac de Prairie,” * and the

“Cobble Knolls” and “ Antelope Hills.”

These observations do not indicate a continuous, well defined

range, but seem rather to point to a half-buried moraine, that

only here and there, along its course, protrudes conspicuously, and

this is the impression gained from an inspection of the formation.

It is to be noted, as supporting this view, that, at least so far as’

the eastern side is concerned, this supposed moraine is flanked on

the exterior by level plains, of smooth surface, often underlaid by

sand and gravel, that seemingly owe their origin to broad rivers

or lakes that fringed the border of the glacier, in its advanced

state, when it probably discharged its waters over the moraine at

numerous points, rather than at one, or a few, selected points, as

would more likely be the case during its retreat, when accumula-

tions of water could gather along its foot, within the moraine, and

large areas be discharged at some single favorable point. But

on the inner side of the moraine, the surface, although nearly

level, in its general aspect, undulates in minor swells and sags, and

the drainage is imperfect. The substratum, instead of being gravel,

sand, or laminated clay, is generally a pebble or boulder clay.

Outside of the moraine, the existing surface contour was formed in

the presence, and, to some extent, under the modifying influence,

of a fairly established drainage system. But on the znterior, the

drainage system has not, even yet, become fully established, much

less impressed itself upon the surface configuration, except in the

vicinity of the main rivers.

The terrace-like ridge mentioned by Dr. White, and some of

the lines of hills described by Prof. Winchell in Minnesota, as

running in a similar direction, may be perhaps regarded as minor

morainic lines, stretching across the glacial pathway and marking

oscillations in its retreat, analogous to some quite clearly made

out in Wisconsin.?

This southern morainic loop is, of course, presumed to be older

than the Kettle range, and is here discussed because of the inter-

1 See note of Prof. Mather, Nat. Hist. Sur. 1st Dist. N. Y., p. 193. See also 2d Annual Re-

port Geol. and Nat. His. Sur. Minnesota, by N. H. Winchell, pp.193 to 195; also loc cit., ante.

2 Geol. of Wis., Vol. II, 1876, p. 215 ef seg.

Wisconsin Kettle Moraine. 215

esting way in which it is associated with the latter formation, and

the suggestions it may contribute to the final solution of the main

problem, to which the special one under discussion is only a trib-

utary, viz.: the definite history of the Quatenary formations.

Returning to the branching of the range in southeastern Wis-

consin, we find the left arm, or that nearest Lake Michigan, strik-

ing southward into Illinois. If we lay before us Prof. Worthen’s

geological map of that state, and attentively observe its topo-

graphical features and its drainage systems, it will be observed

that nearly all the lakelets, the greater part of the marshes, and

most of the region of abnormal drainage may be included in a

curving line, rudely concentric with the shore of Lake Michigan,

starting near the center of McHenry county, on the} Wiscon-

sin line, and ending in Vermillion county, on the Indiana border.

It may also be observed, on a similar inspection of Indiana, that

nearly all the lake district lies north of the Wabash.

In Wiseonsin, as already stated, we have found this area bor-

dered by the Kettle range, which is itself notably lake-bearing.

The range continues to sustain this relationship in Illinois, so far

as I know it to be directly continuous. It exhibits a progressive

broadening, and flattening, as it enters upon the level country

that encompasses the head of Lake Michigan. The pebble clay

deposit — not coarse boulder clay —that characterizes the flat

couatry, and which, to the north, has been separated from the

range by a belt of coarse boulder clay, here approaches, and ap-

pears, to some extent, to overlap the range, and to be one cause of

its less conspicuous character. From what I have seen of the

region south of Lake Michigan, and from all I can find in geologi-

cal reports relating to the region, I gather that the range, so far

as it escaped the destructive action of the floods issuing from the

Lake Michigan basin, both while occupied by ice, and subse-

quently, is, to a large extent, buried beneath later deposits, or so

modified as to be inconspicuous. Whatever the correct interpre-

tation, it remains a fact beyond question, that the belt becomes

very obscure, compared with its development to the northward.

Dr. E. Andrews says: ‘As we trace it southward, the material

‘becomes finer, and the hills lower, until they shade off impercepti-

216 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters.

bly into the drift clay, of the Illinois prairies.” The members

of the geological corps of Illinois did not recognize it distinctively,

in the sense in which it is now considered, but Dr. Bannister, in

his report on Lake county, says: “ In the western part of the

county, near the Fox river, we find the ridges, in some places, to

be largely composed of rolled limestone boulders. The same

character has been observed further south along the same stream

and remarked upon in the chapter on Cook county.”* In respect

to McHenry county he says: “In the vicinity of the Fox river,

the same kind of gravel ridges are met with as those which have

been described as occurring in the western part of Lake county.” ®

This lies in the belt identified by me, from personal observation,

as belonging to the Kettle range.

Concerning the district farther south, he says: ‘‘ Boulders of

granite, quartzite, greenstone, and various other rocks are abund-

ant in various localities on the surface of the ground, and are

frequently met with in excavations for wells, etc., and large de-

posits of rolled boulders, chiefly of limestone from the under-

lying Niagara beds, similar to those already described in the

report on Cook county, occur in the drift deposits of the adjoin-

ing portions of Kane and Du Page counties.”* Concerning the

topography, the same writer says: ‘ Along some of the prin-

cipal streams, and especially the Fox river in Kane county, the

country is more roughly broken, and can, in some parts, even be

called hilly, although the more abrupt elevations seldom exceed

eighty or one hundred feet above their immediate base.”° This

broken country, if we may judge from what is true of the rough

country along the same river to the north of this, it not due so

much to the drainage erosion of the river as to the original depo-

sition of the drift. The same features are said to continue into

Kendall county, next south, which brings us to the vicinity of

the ancient outlet of Lake Michigan, where, of course, the mo-

raine is locally swept away. Still farther south, in Livingston

county, Mr. H. C. Freeman mentions a ridge running southeast-

* On Western Boulder Drift, Am. Jour. Sci., Sept., 1869, p. 176.

peel: Sur. of Ill., Vol. IV, p. 130. 4Geol. Surv. of Ill., Part IV, p. 113.

Loc. cit., p. 131. *Geol. Sury. of I., Part TV, p. 112.

Wisconsin Keitle Moraine. ONG

erly from a point in La Salle county, to near Chatsworth, a dis-

tance of about forty miles. ‘This is gravelly and sandy, giving

it a distinctive character as compared with the adjacent prairie.” *

This is quite too meager to base an identification upon, but I have

thought it worthy of quotation here. At Odell, which lies near

this ridge, the drift is said to be 350 feet deep.”

On the railroad line from Chicago to Kankakee, there is no

recognizable indication of the formation under consideration.

Southwestward from Kankakee, on the line to La Fayette, Ind.,

there are a few mounds and ridges that bear a somewhat mo-

rainic aspect, but they are isolated in a generally level tract of

lacustrine, rather than glacial, topography. They are, perhaps,

remnants of a formation that has been largely eroded or buried.

Near Fowler, in Benton county, Indiana, there isa belt of low

mounds and ridges, accompanied by shallow depressions, that

quite closely resemble the Kettle range in its more modified

phases. Boulders appear upon the surface, and, in the more im-

mediate vicinity of the village, are large and numerous. ‘This is

probably a portion of the “stream of boulders two miles wide,”

which Mr. F. H. Bradley mentions as extending through the

eastern part of Iroquois county, Illinois, and the central part of

Benton county, Indiana,? and which he attributes to floating ice.

He does not, however, mention the associated topography or un-

derlying drift formation. South of this low range, the country

again becomeslevel, or gently undwiiting, as far as the Wabash.”

The Indiana geologists have not yet critically examined the

heavy drift region in the northern part of the state, through

which the moraine might be supposed to pass, but in such prelim-

inary inspection as has been made, they have not recognized any

prominent moraine-like accumulation. The superficial expres-

sion of the region is quite monotonous, and presents to view de-

posits cf sand, gravel, lacustrine or pebble clays, but more

rarely the coarse boulder clay or mixed material, that I regard as

the unmodified ground moraine. The modifying agencies which

produced this phase of the deposits, would be antagonistic to

1Geol. Surv. of Ill., Vol. IV, p. 227. 2.Geo]. Surv. of Ill., Vol. VI, p. 237.

$Geol. Surv of Ill., Vol. VI, p. 236.

218 Wisconsin Acudemy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters.

ridge-like morainic accumulations, and their presence, in sharp

outline, is not to be expected. Inthe vicinity of Ligonier, in

Noble county, there is a feeble, butsomewhat characteristic devel-

opment of some of the features of the formation. So also, in

the vicinity of Rome and La Grange tothe northeast. Between

La Port and Otis there isa kindred, though somewhat peculiar

formation, but I am in doubt as to its true character.

On entering Michigan, we find the formation more unequivo-

cally developed. Just north of Sturgis, which is near the south-

ern line of the state, the formation appears in marked develop-

ment. It does not attain a great altitude, but presents the

peculiar strongly undulating and hummocky contour, and the

coarse, mingled material, characteristic of the deposit. It may

be seen to advantage on the line of the Grand Rapids & Indiana

R. R. To the northeast in the vicinity of Albion, it may beseen

from Springport on the north, to Condit on the south. It is here

broad and flat, and superficially composed of gravel, for the

greater part, but some of the deeper excavations reveal the char-

acteristic coarser material. Onthe Michigan Central R. R., the

formation may be observed between Jackson and Dexter, the

most prominent portion being between the stations Francisco and

Chelsea. It isnot very prominent on the immediate line of the

road, which was doubtless selected to avoid it, butin the vicinity

it rises into prominent hills and ridges. Some of these, on the

north, are conspicuous objects at considerable distances. Still

farther to the northeast, my friend, Dr. D. F. Boughton, whose

identifications I have elsewhere verified, informs me that the

range is well developed in Oakland county, and is finely exhib-

ited near the line of the Flint & Pere Marquette R. R., between

Plymouth and Holly. Still farther to the northeast, it may be

seen at great convenience and advantage, along the Detroit &

Milwaukee R. R. from Birmingham, below Pontiac, to Holly. On

the flanks, its features are subdued, the hills and ridges being

rather low, with more or less level surface between them, and the

superficial sands and gravels are prevalent; but from Waterford

to beyond Clarkston, the range has a fine, though irregular devel-

opment. ‘The hills rise with characteristic contours, to an esti-

Wisconsin Kettle Moraine. 219

mated altitude of 200 feet or more above the surface of the beau-

tiful lakelets embosomed at their base. The deep cuts near the

latter station, amply exhibit the coarse, commingled material,

characteristic of the core of the range.

Putting the foregoing observations together, they seem to es-

tablish beyond reasonable doubt the existence of a broad, massive

belt stretching northeastward on the highland between the Sagi-

naw and Hrie basins.

If we return again to the southwestern part of the state, we

are informed by Dr. Boughton that we shall find a similar accu-

mulation at, and in the vicinity of, Kalamazoo. To the north-

northeast, in Barry county, the Thorn Apple river cuts across this

range between Sheridan and Middleville. This belt here, though

broad, presents a more prominent and ridge-like aspect, with bet-

ter defined limits than elsewhere observed in Michigan. ‘To the

north of this, opposite Saginaw bay, there occurs, near Farwell,

broken, rough country and abundant coarse drift, that probably

belongs to the belt in question, but my opportunity for observa-

tion was unsatisfactory. Beyond this point, I have no definite

information, but I deem it highly probable that the moraine will

be found extending some distance farther, on the highlands of the

Peninsula. _

The lake survey charts show that Grand Traverse bay has the

remarkable depth of over 600 feet. This great depth, together

with its linear character, and the form and arrangement of the

associated inlets and lakes, has suggested that it may have been

the channel of a separate minor glacier, analogous to that of

Green Bay on the opposite side of the great lake, but I have no

direct evidence that such was the fact.

In the reports of the geological survey of Ohio, a formation of

nearly, or quite, identical characteristics is carefully described by

the several writers whose districts embraced it. In the second

volume,’ Dr. Newberry gives, under the name of “ Kames,” an

excellent summary of its leading features. These harmonize very

nearly with those of the Kettle belt. The main points of differ-

1Pages 41-47. See also ‘“‘Surface Geology of Northwestern Ohio,” Proc. Am. Assoc. Ad.

Sci., 1872, by Prof. N. H. Winchell, under heads of St. Johns and Wabash Ridges.

220 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Leiters.

ence are the less conspicuous character and massiveness of the

Ohio range, and the greater prevalence of :ssorted and stratified

material; in other words, its features are the same that the Kettle

range presents in its more subdued aspects, especially where it is

formed in a comparatively smooth country, and is flanked by

pebble clays, with level surface, instead of coarse boulder clay,

with ridged, or mammillary, contour. I cannot turn aside, here,

to define, with sufficient cireumspection, the distinction between

these clays, further than to indicate my belief that the former are

sub-aqueous, and the latter sub-erial, or, if you please, sub-

glacial, deposits."

Where I have seen the Ohio formation, it presents almost pre-

cisely the characteristics that are exhibited by the Kettle range

in northern Illinois, where it is similarly related to plane topog-

raphy and pebble clays, and it is also very similar to the same

formation opposite Green Bay, where it is bordered on both sides

by red lacustrine clays of later date. Dr. Newberry quite clearly

recognizes the parallelism, but perhaps not the identity, of the

formations. Col. C. Whittlesey, in his article on the ‘“‘ Fresh

Water Glacial Drift of the Northwestern States,’? classes the

formations together as identical in character, though he does not

seem to have considered them members of a continuous forma-

tion, and could not well do so with the prevalent view, which he

somewhat emphasizes, that it is peculiarly a summzt formation. It

very often does occupy the summit of a rock terrane, and it some-

times forms a watershed by its own massiveness, but it likewise

occupies slopes and crosses valleys, as shown in detail in the Wis-

consin report. Prof. Andrews of the Ohio survey, in a personal

communication, adds his conviction that the Ohio and Wisconsin

deposits are parallel formations. It would seem, then, that the

only question relates to the continiity of the belts. Unfortunately

there intervenes the Wabash valley, the ancient drainage channel

1T have mapped these formations separately in Eastern Wisconsin. See Atlas accompa-

nying Vol. II, Geol. of Wis., 1877, {Plate III, Map of Quaternary formations. See, also,

p. 225 of the volume.

* Geol. Surv. of Ohio, Vol. II, pp. 4. 5, and 43. Dr. Newberry’s views as to the origin of

the Ohio ‘‘ Kame” belt are ct variance with those here presented.

3 Smithsonian Contributions, 1866.

Wisconsin Kettle Moraine. 221

of the Erie basin. Absolute continuity undoubtedly does not

exist. Jf my views are correct, this was the great —not exclu-

sive — channel of discharge of the glacial floods, at the very time

the moraine was being formed, where it could be formed, and, for

that reason, the debris was swept away or leveled. In addition to

this, the region has been subjected to the vicissitudes of erosion, of

a reversal of drainage systems, and of lacustrine and fluviatile accu-

mulation. Itis to be presumed, therefore, that a portion of the

range, where once formed, has been lost, leveled, or buried. Some

remnant indications of the range, on the upper slopes, might,

however, rationally be presumed to exist. But, awaiting a criti-

cal examination of the region, we must confess a want of direct

evidence. The belt stretches entirely across Ohio and enters In-

diana, but has not been traced farther.

In the line of indirect testimony, however, some facts may be

noticed. Prof. N. H. Winchell describes in the Ohio reports! six

ridges running parallel to Lake Hrie, and Mr. G. K. Gilbert has

described that portion of these which lie in the more immediate

Maumee valley.” -T'wo of the inner ones are conceded to be lake

beaches. ‘The two outer ones are members of the ‘‘ Kame,” or Ket-

tle belt, according to Dr. Newberry.* The one next within, the

St. Mary’s ridge, Prof. Newberry distinguishes, apparently, with

justness, from both the other classes. Mr. Gilbert gives a clear

and discriminating description of this, and expresses the convic-

tion that it is ‘‘ the superficial representation of a terminal glacial

moraine, that rests directly on the rock bed and is covered by a

heavy sheet of Hrie clay, a subsequent aqueous and iceberg de-

posit.”* The views of Professors Newberry and Winchell, while

they each differ somewhat, agree with this in the only point essen-

tial to the present discussion, viz.: that this ridge represents the mar-

gin of the glacier at the time tt was formed. This shows the glacier

to havebeen a tongue or lobe of ice, differentiated from the sup-

posed continental glacier, and having its axis coincident with the

Maumee valley, and, withal, capable of forming a morainic ac-

cumulation on both sides. The St. Mary’s ridge crosses the

1 See also Proc. Am. Assoc. Ad. Sci., 1872. 2 Geol. Surv. Ohio, Yol. I, pp. 537 ef seq.

3 Geol. Sur. Ohio, Yol. II, pp. 56 and 57. * Loe. cit.

222 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences,“Arts, and Letters.

Maumee - Wabash valley — the glacial trough — and, recurving

upon itself, bears away to the northeast, approximately parallel

to the Kettle belt already described in southeastern Michigan.

This wing of the St. Mary’s ridge bears the same relation to the

Kettle belt bordering the Erie basin on the Michigan side, that

the opposite wing does to the “‘ Kame” belt on the south side. The

force of this relationship is not easily escaped.

If my viewsare correct, that this Michigan belt was formed

along the right hand margin of the Erie glacier (conjointly with

the Saginaw glacier), just as the “ Kame” belt was formed on the

left hand margin, then its composition should give evidence of

the fact. In the case of the Green Bay glacier, I have shown

that the lines of striation and transportation diverge from the

main axis toward the margin,’ and, so far as the paths of other

glaciers lie within Wisconsin, the observations made upon them,

imply the same method of movement, and this habit finds partial

exemplification among the glaciers of the Alps— partial, be-

cause their contracted valleys and steep slopes afford little oppor-

tunity to deploy in this fashion. If this manner of movement

holds true with the Hrie glacier, material from its trough will be

found to have been transported westward and northwestward

toward the moraine. Thirteen years ago, in an article in the

American Journal of Science, entitled, ‘‘ Some Indications of a

Northward Transportation of Drift Material in the Lower Penin-

sular of Michigan,”’® Professor Alexander Winchell called atten-

tion, with much detail and precision, to a large mass of evidence,

which finds, for the first time, so farasI am aware, satisfactory

explanation in the view now presented, and, in return, has

the force of confirmatory evidence. It appears that immense,

and often but slightly eroded masses of Corniferous limestone,

have been borne in the direction indicated, and scattered over the

areas of the Hamilton group, the Marshall sandstone, and the

Subcarboniferous limestone; that similar blocks of Hamilton rock

have been deposited over the two last named formations and even

beyond ; that the Marshall sandstone has likewise been borne on

to the Carboniferous limestone, and that this transportation has

1Geol. of Wis., Vol. Il, pp. 199 et seq. 2 Am. Jour. of Sci., Vol. XL, Noy., 1865,

Wisconsin Kettle Moraine. 223

been from lower to higher levels, as the strata now lie, and are

presumed to have lain, since the basin is one of excavation and

not of flexure. These phenomena, in all their details, are pre-

cisely what we should expect from the action of a glacier advane-

ing through the Hrie valley, and moving in a manner analogous

to that of the Green Bay glacier. That a glacier moved through

this valley has been abundantly shown by the Ohio geologists.

The only labor of this article is to show that it was an individual-

ized stream, forming the Ohio ‘‘ Kame” beit on one side, and the

Michigan on the other, simultaneously, and that they are collat-

eral members of a common moraine.

Eastward from Ohio, there has been, so far as I am aware, no

definite attempt to trace out the extent of the belt. In western

New York, Prof. Hall mentions, as one of the three general as-

pects of the superficial deposits, a surface “ broken into irregular

hills or ridges, with deep bow]l-shaped depressions, or long valleys,

which often communicate in more extensive ones, or are enclosed

on all sides by drift,” * but he does not definitely locate the forma-

tion, or indicate whether it assumes the form of a belt, or other-

wise. In central New York, Prof. Vanuxem says: “There is

another class of deposits, well defined as to position, but irreg-

ular as to composition, which ure worthy of note. They occur in

the north and south valleys, which are on the south of the Mo-

hawk river, or the great level.” “The whole of these deposits

have a common character. They are in short hills, quite high for

their base and are usually in considerable numbers.” “ They con-

sist of gravel, of stones also of greater size, sand and earth.’’2

These, he says, greatly resemble the “ deluvial elevations” no-

ticed in the survey of Massachusetts,’ the dezeription of which is

perfectly applicable to the formation under consideration. Fur-

thermore, Prof. F. H. King, of the Wisconsin survey, has exam-

ined the same deposits in the vicinity of Ithaca, and recognizes

their identity in kind. Neither of these observers, however, dis-

cern a definite belt, although Prof. Vanuxem destroys the force

of his apparent limitation of the formation to the valleys, by stat-

1 Nat. Hist. Surv. 4th Dist., Geol., Pt. LV, pp. 320, 321.

2Nat. Hist. Surv. N. Y., 3d Dist., p. 218. 5 Geol. of Mass., E. Hitchcock, 1833, p. 144,

224 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters.

ing that there are numerous points where it has formed over the

hill sides, and by associating in mention with it accumulations

on the “heights, apparently in no regular order.” * As these are

deep, canon-like valleys, they would probably modify in some de-

gree, the comparatively thin margin of the glacier, giving it a

somewhat digitate outline, and the greatest accumulations would

take place near the extremities of the tongues, in the valleys, so

far as drainave permitted; while the connecting chains would

form retreating lines, and be less conspicuous, and might, there-

fore, escape observation not definitely turned to the subject. This,

at least, is suggested by some observations of my own in similar

situations. Such valley accumulations, however, do occur at the

extremities of linear glacial lakes that are unconnected witha

definite belt, as in the case of Green Lake, Wisconsin.”

On the line of the Erie R. R., along the small tributary of the

Delaware river that is followed up, westward, from Deposit, I

have observed winding Osar-like ridges, parallel to the valley,

and Kame-like hills upon the slope, up to the watershed of the

Delaware and Susquehanna; likewise in the valley of the latter,

at and near the village of Susquehanna, but I have no knowledge

of their intimate structure, extent, or relations.

In the southeastern district of New York, Prof. Mather recog-

nizes the distinctive aspect of this class of accumulations.® He

cites several instances of its occurrence on the east side of the

Hudson, leaving the impression that they are local features. But

on Long Island, it forms ‘‘an elevated ridge, called by some,

‘Green Mountains,’ and by others, the ‘ Backbone’ of theisland.” 4

This he describes in detail and maps, showing thatit branches at

the east, one chain extending along the southern peninsula to

Montauk Point, and the other, along the northern to its extremity,

and, theoretically, to the islands beyond.

Professors Cook and Smock have recently examined this, and

have shown its connection with a similar moraine, that stretches

across the northern part of New Jersey, from Perth Amboy to

1 Loe. cit., p. 219. 2 Geol. of Wis., 1877, Vol. IT, p. 138.

3 Nat. Hist. Surv. N, Y., Ist Dist., Pt. LV, p. 212. 4 Loc. cit., p. 161.

Wisconsin Kettle Moraine. 295

the Delaware river, below Belvidere. The descriptions of this

range tally quite perfectly with that of the Kettle moraine. This

range, however, lies on the margin of the area of northern drift,

while the western one is medial in position, and at some points is

quite distant from the margin. It will be observed, nevertheless,

that this distance is greatest, in general, at the west, and that in

‘Ohio it becomes very greatly reduced, so that the fact of coinci-

dence on the Atlantic coast, presents no reason for supposing the

ranges to be distinct. But, whether distinct or not, is a matter

to be settled by observation, and it is to be hoped that it will not

- long remain undecided for want of it. The extension of the New

Jersey moraine westward has not, so far as I can learn, yet been

traced, but the survey of Pennsylvania, in progress, will, doubt-

less, soon leave nothing to be desired, so far as that State is in-

volved.

To the eastward, Mr. Warren Upham has recently been en-

gaged in studying its probable continuation in southeastern Mas-

sachusetts. In a personal communication he writes: ‘ A very

clear line of terminal moraine extends along the chain of the

Elizabeth islands southeast of Buzzard’s Bay ; thence it bends to

the northeast and north as far as to North Sandwich, when 7 turns

at a right angle to the east, and extends through Barnstable and

other towns to Orleans, running along the east and west portion

of Cape Cod, and terminating at its east shore.’ ‘This terminal

moraine, like the ‘ Kettle moraine’, is not at the outmost limit

reached ‘by the ice-sheet; for hills, in series nearly parallel to the

moraine. already described, and similarly composed of glacial

drift with many boulders, occur on Martha’s Vineyard and Nan-

tucket islands, corresponding, perhaps, to the terminal moraine

which forms the ‘backbone’ of Long Island. * * The moraine

of the Elizabeth islands and Cape Cod has a length of about 65

miles.” It may be suggested that the range along the Hlizabeth

islands may correspond to the northern branch of the Long Island

moraine described by Prof. Mather, and that, as Mr. Upham sug-

gests, that of Martha’s Vineyard and Nantucket corresponds to

the southern.

1 Ann. Rept. of State Geologist, N. J., 1377, pp. 9¢t seq.

226 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters.

Dr. E. Hitchcock refers to these accumulations in his report on

the geology of Massachusetts,’ and classes with them “diluvial

elevations and depressions,” occurring at other points in that and.

adjoining States. It would appear, from the geological reports of

the Eastern States that analogous, though not certainly identical

formations, occur locally, more frequently than in the interior,

and this, from the mountainous nature of the country, is not

strange; but no continuous massive range seems to have been

discerned, except the southern one already described.

In the interior, so far as yet ascertained, the drift limit is not

marked by any such persistent ridge-like accumulation, but grad-

ually dies away or is buried by later deposits, so that the precise

limit of glacial advance is not easily determined. The only ap-

proach to an exception to this, known to me, is the case of the

Kettle moraine in Central Wisconsin, where it lies near the border

of the driftless area. Elsewhere around that area, the drift thins

out very gradually, so as to render the mapping of its margin a

work of close inspection ; and, as the region presents no evidence

of subsequent submersion, or any other special modifying agency,

except the usual meteorological forces, this would seem to repre-

sent approximately the original form of deposit.

It is evident from the foregoing sketch that much observation

remains to be made before the complete geography of this forma-

tion is determined. The conjectural lines on the map are only

theoretical suggestions, preliminary to observation.

Summary.— It may be helpful at this point to summarize, and

bring into close juxtaposition, in thought, the leading characteristics

of this remarkable formation.

1. Its linear extent is very great, whatever its final limits may

be found to be.

2. It has a width of from one to thirty miles.

3. Its average vertical thickness can only be very roughly esti-

mated, but may, very prudently, be placed at 200 or 300 feet.

4. Its surface configuration is peculiarly irregular, and denotes

an extraordinary origin.

1Geol. of Mass. 1833, pp. 144 ed seq.

Wisconsin Kettle Moraine. : PAT]

5. It is a complex range, the component ridges being often ar-

ranged in rude parallelism.

6. A distinction is usually to be observed between the super-

ficial and lateral portions of the deposit on the one hand, and the

central, underlying one on the other, the former being chiefly

sand and gravel, the latter complex commingled debris.

7. The superficial sands and gravels are usually stratified in

various attitudes, but the core of the range is mainly unstratified.

8. The irregularities of the range are most conspicuous where

the superficial sands and gravels are least abundant.

9. The material was derived, in part, conspicuously so, from

the vicinity of the range, and, in part, from the formations lying

backward along the line of drift movement for at least 300 miles.

10. A portion of the material is spherically rounded, a part is

scratched and polished, and some is little affected, though some-

times soft or friable, the latter being usually from adjacent for-

mations.

11. The range is tortuous in its course, but sustains a remark-

able and significant relationship to the great lake basins.

12. It undulates over the face of the country, varying at least

800 feet in its vertical oscillations.

13. It does not sustain any uniform relation to present, or what

are presumed to have been, preglacial drainage systems in their

details. In some portions, it occupies water-partings; in others,

lies on slopes; and in still others, stretches across valleys.

14. It crosses, in its course, all the indurated formations, from

the Laurentian to the Coal measures, but exhibits no specific rela-

tion to their strike or dip.

15. It sustains a definite and most important relationship to the

lines of general drift movement.

16. The range is frequently flanked on its southern, or outer

edge, by level areas of sand aiid gravel, of greater or less extent.

These also occur between the component ridges of the belt, and

on the inner flank, but less frequently.

17. The surface contour of the adjacent region within, or north

of, the belt, usually, though not invariably, has a less perfect

drainage system, and exhibits less noticeably the effects of super-

ficial modification, than the outer side.

228 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters.

Origin.-— Waiving, for the present, some further generalizations,

it is thought that the foregoing phenomena present a specific com-

bination which points unequivocally to a morainic origin. ‘To the

writer, familiar with the multitudinous details, that cannot here

find a place, and having studied recent moraines with special refer-

ence to this formation, they have a force little less then demon-

strative. The range is confidently regarded as a moraine formed

at the margin of a group of glaciers — which may be regarded as

a single lobate one —and marking a definite stage of their history.

A more vivid and graphic view of the outline and movements of

these glaciers, than can be given in words, may be obtained from

Ahe accompanying map, from which it will appear that through

each of the great lake troughs there poured an ice stream, at-

tended by minor currents through the lesser channels.

Its Medial Position.— It has already been remarked that, in the

interior, this moraine does not mark the extreme limit of glacial

advance. Numerous striations, and other evidences of glaciation,

occur on the south side of it. A line has been drawn on the inap

intended to indicate the approximate limit of northern drift, based

on several authorities! How nearly this shows the limit of actual

glacial progress, in distinction from other means of transportation, is

not, I think, as yet definitely ascertained, but the general fact of

progress, to a considerable distance beyond the Kettle moraine, is

sufficiently established. 'The moraine was, therefore, formed after

the retreat of the glacier had commenced, and marks a certain stage of

ats subsequent history.

Glacial Movements before the Formation of the Moraine.—It be-—

comes an interesting question to ascertain whether the glacial

movements were the same before the formation of the moraine, as

afterwards. Fortunately, in southern Wisconsin, we have very

definite and specific evidence bearing on this question. In the

towns of Portland and Waterloo, which lie within the area of

the Green Bay glacier, and from twenty-five to thirty miles distant.

from the moraine, there are several domes of quartzite that rise

through the horizontal sandstones and limestones, which occupy

the surrounding region. These domes are glacially abraded and

grooved in a direction S. 80° W., and trains of quartzite boulders

1Tesiey, Newberry, Cox, and assistants, Worthen, Swallow, and Mudge.

Wisconsin Kettle Moraine. 229

stretch away in that direction to the moraine, and, mingling with

it, pass onward to an equal distance beyond. At the same time

there is abundant evidence from the material of the drift, from the

surface contour and from striation, recently observed by Mr. I. M.

Buell, that the westerly movement of the Lake Michigan glacier,

near the Illinois line, extended to the west side of Rock River,

and that the line of junction of the two glaciers was on the west

sideof thatstream. It appears then, that in this region, the move-

ments were in the same general direction before and after the

formation of the moraine, but that there were changes in the de-

tails, and that the relative size and position of the glaciers were

somewhat different, the Green Bay glacier being relatively smaller

in the earlier epoch. ‘Testimony of similar general import, but

less specific, may be gleamed from the reports of the other states

involved.

Method of Formation.— Tf, then, the glacial movements were the

same, in general, before and after the formation of the moraine,

and yet the minor movements and relative size of the glaciers

somewhat different, how was the moraine formed? A halt in the

retreat of the glaciers, by which their confluent margin should re-

main stationary for a period, would doubtless cause an unusual

accumulation of debris, but this would fail to aecount for the

varying width or irregularities of the moraine. The structure of

the range seems to indicate an alternating retreat and advance of

the ice mass. During the former, debris was thrust out at the

foot of the melting mass, which, when the glacier advanced, was

plowed up into immense ridges. If this process be repeated

several times paralled ranges will be accounted for, and the irreg-

ularities incident to such advance and retreat will explain the

complexity of the range. Where the later advances were equal

to the earlier ones, the accumulation of drift material would be

forced into a single massive ridge. Where any advance failed to

equal a former one, an interval between the accumulations of the

two would result, giving rise toa depression whose form would

depend upon the relations of the two accumulations, but would in.

general be more or less trough-like in character. Where tongues

of ice were thrust into the accumulated material an irregular or

230 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters.

broken outline would be the result. If masses of the ice becama

incorporated in the drift, as has been suggested, their melting

would give rise to depressions, constituting one form of the kettles

that characterize the range. The suggestion Just made, with ref-

erence to the irregular advance of the ice mass, accounts for other

forms, and, at the same time, for the irregular hills, mounds, and

hillocks. Certain of the kettles may be due to underdrainage,

through the action of strong underground streams that occasion-

ally flow, as full brooklets, from its base. The drainage of the

glacier, while it was advancing and pushing the debris betore it,

was probably quite general and promiscuous over the moraine, and

this would give rise to the stratified sands or gravels, and other

evidences of the action of water, among which may perhaps, be

reckoned some of the minor mounds, ridges and depressions.

The changing attitudes, which the debris would be likely to as-

sume, as it was forced along, would, perhaps, give peculiar force

to torrential effects.

The gaps in the range, attended by plains, or long streams

of gravel and sand, appear to represent the more considerable

points of discharge of the glacial floods. When the surface

about the margin of the glacier permitted the accumulation of

water, the moraine would doubtless be much modified by it and

present a subdued aspect.

The Alpine moraines, above referred to, are regarded as minia-

ture exemplifications of the process by which the Kettle moraine

was formed.

Bet, in addition to the structure of the range, the change in the

relative position of the Green Bay and Lake Michigan glaciers,

already alluded to, affords evidence of an exceedingly interesting

character, which has a significance much beyond what can be here

indicated. It appears that the junction between the Green Bay

and Lake Michigan glaciers at the last observable stage, preceding

the formation of the Kettle moraine, was about twenty-five miles

farther west, than at the time of the latter’s formation, or, in other

words, there is an abrupt easterly shift of the line of junction. It

appears, also, that the width of the ante-morainic Green Bay

glacier, measured just south of the Kettle moraine, was only half

that of the post-morainic glacier, north of it, measured at a dis-

tance just far enough to escape the terminal curvature. An in-

spection of the outline of the Green Bay glacier shows that this

eastward shift of the junction of the two glaciers was not due

simply to encroachment on the Lake Michigan stream, nor to a

common movement of both in that direction, for the opposite

margin of the Green Bay glacier lay close upon the borders of

the driftless region, demonstrating that there was no eastward

swaying on that side. Indeed, the indenture of the outline of

the driftless area strongly suggests actual encroachment on that

side also, and this view is not without independent support.

In harmony with these phenomena are the fiords of the Green

Bay perinsula, which indicate that the Green Bay ice stream over-

flowed into the basin of Lake Michigan. These facts, taken al-

together, seem to warrant the belief that both glaciers retreated

sufficiently far to the northward, and within their respective

basins, to allow time and opportunity for the change in the rela-

tive size and position of the two ice streams, and that, under

slightly changed conditions that favored the Green Bay glacier,

they advanced to the position of the Kettle moraine, and, after a

series of oscillations, retreated permanently. This view seems

also to be demanded by certain details in the distribution of the

drift material that are otherwise enigmatical, but whose discussion

would too much extend this article.

Significance.—As forty-five years have passed since Dr. Hitch-

cock called attention to some of the phenomena under consider-

ation, or, at least, to some distinctly related to it, and yet, the matter

has received so little consideration, that our present knowledge is

limited to such a degree, that I lay myself liable to the charge of

undue temerity in attempting to correlate the observations, | may

be pardoned in attempting to indicate, briefly, something of the

significance and importance the foregoing conclusions, if sus-

tained, have in relation to the Quaternary history of the region

involved. The moraine constitutes a definite historical datum line,

in the midst of the glacial epoch, and becomes a basis of reference

and correlation for adjacent formations. It isan historicalrampart,

outlining the great dynamic agency of the period, at an important

232 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters.

stage of its activity, and separating the formations on either hand

by a chronological barrier. It is manifest that the true Boulder

Clay, or ground moraine, south of the belt, must have been formed

earlier than that north of it, and that the two portions are not at

all synchronous. In sedimentary formations synchronism is found

in horizontal strata, but in glacial deposits it is to be sought in

linear belts, concentric with the margin of the glacier. This fact

finds illustration, and emphasis, in the demarcation introduced by

this singular corrugation of the wide-spread glacial sheet. It is

difficult to limit the value of such a determinate line, in the midst

of the complex drift formations, if fully established, and should

similar belts be found to mark other steges of glaciation, there

would be opened a definite line of investigation that promises

much assistance in unraveling the gnarled skein of Quaternary

history.

While it does not follow, necessarily, that all formations over-

laying the true glacial clay, south of the Kettle moraine, are older:

than those occupying similar relations to the newer Till, north of

it, it is clear, that similarity of stratigraphical sequence is not, by

any means, sufficient ground for assuming chronological equiva-

lence. It is evident, that all endeavors at correlation between the:

superficial deposits, on the opposite sides of the moraine, should

be attempted with much cireumspection.

These suggestions have especial application to the discussion of

the vegetal deposits, so frequently found in the later Quaternary

formations. By many writers, the various deposits of this kind,

in the Mississippi basin, have been, very naturally, in the present.

state of our knowledge, grouped together without reference to the

necessary discriminations above indicated, and, as a result, beds.

of diverse age are referred to a common stratum. A general dis-

cussion of these deposits is not sufficiently germane to our sub-

ject to be fittingly introduced here, but it is appropriate to point.

out the fact that some of the vegetal strata sustain such a relation

to the Kettle moraine, that they must be widely separated from

others, in the date of their accumulation and burial. Some of

these organic strata lie at the immediate foot of the moraine, be-

neath fluviatile and lacustrine deposits that, I am confident, began

Wisconsin Kettle Moraine. 233

to be accumulated during the accumulation of the moraine, and

through the agency of glacial floods; while it is even more cer-

tain, that other vegetal deposits accumulated much subsequently,

as those found in the red clays of Wisconsin, which are lacustrine

deposits of the great lakes formed after the recession of the glacier.

It would be too much to assume that all plant remains, found

south of the moraine, antedate its formation, but it is safe to

affirm that, with only phenomenal exceptions, e. g., such as escaped

glacial abrasion, all north of it are more recent.

The bearing of these definite determinations of the glacial outlines

and movements upon the question of the origin of the remarkable

driftless area of Wisconsin, Minnesota, Iowa and Illinois (see map)

was early perceived, and it was clearly foreseen that this line of

investigation promised a demonstrative solution of the problem.

The driftless area manifestly owes its origin to the divergence of

the glaciers through the Lake Superior channel, on the one hand,

and that of Green Bay and Lake Michigan, on the other, and to

the obstacle presented by the highlands of northern Wisconsin

and Michigan. This obstacle the glacier surmounted, and passed

some distance down the southern slope, but apparently not in

sufficient thickness to overcome the melting and wasting to which

it was subjected, and so it terminated midway the slope. But

the deep, massive ice currents of the great channels pushed far

on to the south, converging toward each other; and, if they did

not actually unite, at least commingled their debris south of the

driftless area.’ An instance closely similar to this, considered

from a dynamical point of view, may be seen, at the present

termination of the Viesch glacier, and illustrations of the general

principles involved in the explanation may be seen in connection

with several other Alpine glaciers.

If the evidence adduced to show that the Kettle moraine was

due to an advance of the glaciers be trustworthy, then, to the

extent of that advance, whether much or little, the moraine marks

a secondary period of glaciation, with an interval of deglaciation

1Compare N. H. Winchell in An. Rep., Geol. of Minn., 1876, and R. D. Irving, Geol. of

Wis., Vol. II, 1877, whose views are closely analogous to the above and each to the other but,

are not strictly identical. See, alzo, J. D. Dana, Am. Jour. Sci., April, 1878.

234 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters.

between it and the epoch of extreme advance. Its great extent

indicates that whatever agency caused the advance was very wide

spread, if not continental in its influence. The moraine, there-

fore, may be worthy of study in its bearings upon the interesting

question of glacial and interglacial periods.

It will also furnish definite data bearing upon the somewhat

mooted question of the origin of the Great Lakes, as well as other

questions involving both perglacial and postglacial topography.

DEPARTMENT

OF THE

MATHEMATICAL AND PHYSICAL SCIENCES.

ROTATION AS A FACTOR OF MOTION.

By PRoFessor J. G. MCMURPHY, KEnosHa.

When an elastic ball is thrown against a plane surface it re-

bounds from that-surface according to certain fixed laws. Its

position at any moment will depend on certain conditions. The

elasticity of the ball, the angle of projection, the rotation of the

ball on its own axis, the velocity, will all of them affect the re-

bounding of the ball. Velocity and elasticity affect the distance

to which it will rebound; the angle of projection and angular mo-

tion will affect the direction of rebounding.

A ball projected perpendicularly against a plane surface will re-

bound in the same line, making due allowance for the attraction

of gravitation, which finally comes and controls its motion. The

resistance of the air is no inconsiderable factor. (In point of fact,

it is the latter only which is opposed to the force with which the

ball rebounds, for gravity acts at right angles to this force and is

not opposed to it.)

Tf the ball, without rotation, is projected against the plane sur-

face at any angle, excepting ninety degrees, it will rebound so

that the- angle of reflection shall be equal to the angle of inci-

dence ; modified, of course, by gravitation and the resistance of

the air.

Let us add another factor and examine the result. Given a hori-

zontal plane surface in front of the vertical plane. Let the ball

236 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters.

be placed upon it and propelled perpendicularly against the ver-

trical plane by a blow, which takes effect above its center of grav-

ity. Such a blow will impart to the ball a rotary motion, together

with an onward motion or translation. When the ball reaches

the vertical plane its rebounding force, due to translation, will tend

to make it retrace its path, while the force due to its rotation will

tend to make it climb the vertical plane. It is actuated by the

resultant of these two forces, and rebounds through the air, in

the plane of those forces following the diagonal of the rectangle

of forces,

The following diagram* may serve to make the explanation more

apparent: Let A, B, C, D, be the vertical plane; C, D, H, F, the

horizontal plane ;

_ Let a be the point

from which the

ball d is propelled

on a-b; the ball es we,

having a forward DS eS a ee

rotary motion; b-d del

the distance the ve

ball would re- One

bound by virtue ®

A B

of its rectilinear motion; 0-c the distance it would climb by vir-

tue of its angular motion. Then will it be found somewhere on

the line b-e. Being a rectangle of forces, the resultant may be

expressed by the formula b-e = /(-c)+(6-d).

If the ball is propelled from a point to the right of its center

of gravity, and constrained to keep the same perpendicular course,

it will have a negative or left-hand rotation ; when it strikes the

vertical plane it will not return in the same path, but will be re-

flected to the right, so that the angle of reflection is not equal to

the angle of incidence. But just as before, the path of the re-

turning ball is the resultant of two forces acting at right angles —

to each other. If the angular velocity is very great, compared

*No cuts having been furnished by the author, the printer has been obliged to construct the

accompanying figures, which are necessarily very imperfect.

Rotation as a Factor of Motion. 237

with the velocity of translation the deflection from a perpendicu-

lar will be very great and vice versa.

When the ball is propelled against the vertical plane at any

other angle than a right angle with a rotary motion besides, the

problem becomes somewhat more complicated. Let the ball

be propelled from a Es Blau ool sens) Cah 9 aa

with a positive rota-

tion. By its motion of

translation it ought

to rebound in the

path which makes it : + c

the angle of reflec- ae | ~

tion, equal to the. salt is, Soo

angle of incidence oa

But by its rotation » a

against the fixed point, 6, it would tend toward c; hence it

will take the direction b-e, and be measured by the diagonal

parallelogram of forces, represented by b-a@ and 6c. Here it is

plain that the angle of reflection is much less than the angle of

incidence. If the rotation be a negative or left-hand rotation

from the same point, a, following the same path, a-d, the result-

ant will be nearer a perpendicular — that is, the angle of reflec-

tion will be greater than the angle of incidence.

If a ball be thrown perpendicularly against a vertical plane sur-

face with a positive rotation it will rebound to the left, if the rota-

tion be negative it will rebound to the right, if the rotation be for-

ward the ball will rise, if backward it will fall. If the ball be

thrown obliquely to the left, with positive rotation, the angle of

reflection will be less than that of incidence. If thrown obliquely

to the right, with same rotation, the angle of reflection will be

greater than that of incidence. The combinations are almost in-

finite, and afford a variety of valuable observations.

There are some very curious and interesting experiments in

compound direct motion. If a ball lying upon a plane surface be

struck by a mallet so as to produce translation with forward rota-

tion on its horizontal transverse axis, and at the same time a ro-

tation about a vertical axis, the ball will neither rotate upon the

238 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters.

one nor the other, but upon a new axis intermediate between the

vertical and horizontal axes, pointed out by the resultant of the

parallelogram of angular forces. This is the principle illustrated

by the Gyroscope. The ball will describe a curve upon the plane

in the same way that a truck rolled upon the ground when the

axes cease to be level, begins to curveits path; of course the two

cases are quite different, because the curve made by a ball is much

less marked than that made by a truck or wheel. |

There is something of a similar nature seen when a ball is pro-

jected from a gun or cast from the hand. Since the middle of

the sixteenth century, it has been known that the path of a pro-

jectile is a parabola, if no account is taken of the resistance of the

air. Templehoff was the first to take into consideration this ele-

ment in calculating for projectiles. ‘The resistance of the air in-

creases with the square of the velocity until the velocity exceeds

1,300 feet per second, when the resistance is much greater.

In experimenting with smooth-bored guns, it was found that

rotation had much to do with the motion of the projectile from

the muzzle. The only rotation which aided in aiming the gun,

and in making calculations reliable, was the axial rotation, which

was attained by grooving the interior of the barrel. .

In the practice of gunnery with a smooth-bored gun there was

allowed enough space around the ball for free and easy motion. It

was called windage. This windage allowed the ball to ballot

slightly from side to side as it passed through the barrel. At

each point of balloting the ball received a rotary motion by being

retarded on that side next the tangent barrel. The last touch

imparted the final rotation, or that which continued through the

space traversed by the ball. If the last ballot was upon the right

side of the barrel the ball received a right hand rotation. Italso

received an impulse toward the left of the mark aimed at by the

touch on the right side. But while the left side of the ball is

moving forward at a much greater velocity than the center on ac-

count of the right hand rotation, the right side is moving much

slower than the center on account of the same rotation. The left

side, therefore, encounters a greater resistance than the right side.

The air in front and to the left is compressed, and accumulated

Rotation as a Factor of Motion. 239

resistance finally throws the ball to the right. If the ball had

balloted on the left side last, in leaving the muzzle, it would have

been deflected to the right by touch and afterwards to the left by

resistance and reaction of the compressed air. Thus it is possible

with a smooth-bored gun to “shoot round” a nearer object in

direct line and hit a more remote object behind it.

I wish to give but one more instance of the effect of rotation

on direct motion. It is vulgarly called ‘curved ball.” It may

be witnessed in any good base-ball match. The pitcher desires

to elude the strokes of the batter; after delivering a few balls in

simple parabolic curves or with axial rotations, he will deliver the

ball from the hand in such a way that when the ball leaves the

hand the fingers touch it from below, causing the underside to be

retarded while the upperside moves forward. Then the ball ro-

tates upon a horizontal transverse axis, relative to its motion of

translation. The greatest resistance from compressed air is in

front and above the moving ball. The ball seeks a path of less

resistance, preserving its plane of rotation and drops enough to

form a depressed curve. By a skillful adjustment of rotation and

translation, the pitcher is able to produce about such 9 curve as

he wishes. ‘To the batter the ball seems coming toward a point

it is destined to fall short of. Again, by delivering the ball from

the hand with the fingers touching above, a backward rotation is

produced on the top of the ball and a forward motion to the under

side. Such a ball continues its course until accumulated resist-

ance of air from ahead and below throws it upward. So the

batter sees the ball coming toward a point it is destined to pass

clearly above. By skillful manipulation the right side of the de-

liverer the ball may be retarded, and the ball will curve to the

right, and by retarding the left side it will curve to the left. The

amount of curvature is variously estimated by different persons.

With the rotation or twist of the best pitcher, it is no uncommon

thing to make a ball curve a yard from its direct path, while many

cannot effect any curve.

This purports to be only the outline of a subject worthy of

much greater investigation, in its relation to great scientific prob-

lems.

240 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters.

Mr. President, members of the academy and others, my subject

does not admit of a brilliant introduction nor of a grand perora-

tion. It is the simple statement of the effect of rotation as an

element of curvelinear and rectilinear motion.

recent Progress in Theoretical Physics. 241

REPORT ON RECENT PROGRESS IN THEORETICAL

PHYSICS.

By J. EK. DAVIES, A. M., M. D.,

Professor of Physics in the University of Wisconsin.

PART Die

THE MAGNETIC ROTATORY POLARIZATION OF LIGHT.

It is a well known fact that a ray of plane polarized light,

vibrating in any azimuth, will, on passing through a lamina of

quartz, have the azimuth of that vibration changed by an amount

depending upon the thickness of the lamina, and the wave length

of the particular kind of light employed. The direction, right or

left, of this rotation of the plane of vibration depends upon the

———

Nore To PREvIouS PAPER On “ VoRTEX Morton.”

For the production of large-sized vortex rings, the device shown in Fig. 1

is used by Prof. Tait. It isan ordinary wooden box, with a large circular

hole cut out of one end, and the other covered tightly with elastic cloth. It

can be filled with

smoke from a

@ ,. couple of retorts,

@ @ one containing

@) Ammonia and the

other Hydrochlor-

ic Acid. This will

give copious

clouds of chloride

of Ammonium,

which are driven

outjin vortex rings, on striking the elastic cloth. It has been objected that

the rings thus produced do not behave as Helmholtz’ mathematical results

imply. It is not to be expected that they should; for Helmholtz’ investiga-

tion upon vortex motion expressly assumes that the medium in which the

rings are formed is a fréctdonless fluid, which air is not. The rings are truly

air rings, the accompanying smoke merely serving to make them visible.

This is finely shown by sending air rings from a second box against the

smoke rings already formed. The invisible air rings are made manifest by

the jostling of the smoke rings as they are struck by them. The suddenness

of this movement is often very striking.

as.

I DU OA

\ \

eww

Fig.

242 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters.

quartz employed, some being right-handed and some left-handed.

Certain substances such as quinine, turpentine, tartaric acid, cane

——

Fig. 2, shows the direction of the motion at each point around and close to

the core, or circular axis of a vortex ring.

Fig. 3, shows the relation between the di-

rection of motion of the entire ring and

the direction of

rotation around

the core. It is

seen to be in a

direction “ per-

pendicular to

the plane of the

ring, towards

the side towards

Fig. 2. which the ro- Fig. 3.

tatory motion carries the znner parts of the ring.” The direction of the motion

of the fluid in which the vortex ring exists, at different distances from the

axis of the ring, both within the ring and without it, corresponds to the dzrec-

tion of the lines of magnetic

force around a circular con

ductor in which an electrical

current is maintained, (like

the ring of a tangent galvan-

ometer, for example,) and the

velocities of the fluid in va-

rious parts, will be in propor-

tion to the ¢ntensitées of the

magnetic forces around this Ce |

circular conductor, in va-

rious parts of the magnetic Vie =

field, which is due to the elec. M, ie

tric current passing through

\\|

7 || Sh

the conductor, WG : SO? Wy Ly / as

The directions of these WSS LIK |

, SS

YOSSEES Z ‘

lines of magnetic force, sur. ieee? SX. LX

rounding a circular conduct. iS Seee Oe \ \

or are shown in Fig. 4, taken HH [acs \ \ "

from Prof. Clerk Maxwell's cal \ \

admirable treatise upon Elec- Fig. 4.

tricity and Magnetism. The small circle represents a section of the circular

conductor conveying the electric current, while the oval lines represent the

lines of magnetic force surrounding it. Were the conductor merely a

Straight wire, the lines of magnetic force would be circles surrounding it.

recent Progress in Theoretical Physics. 243

and other sugars, are also known to possess this property to a

greater or less degree.

Here the conductor is supposed to be bent in a ring placed vertically, and the

plane of the paper, a section through it. The section and lines of one side

only are shown. These lines would therefore represent the directions of the lines

of flow in the fluid surrounding a vortex ring of which the small circle is a

section of the core. The intensity of the magnetic force at any point of one of

these lines would also be proportional to the velocity of the fluid at a corres-

ponding point around the vortex.

= Perhaps Figs. 5 and 6

will help to a better under

standing of the relations

contemplated.

DirectionofE lectrie

Carrent

Direction of

"xyz Maguctic Force,

F%g. 5. Fig. 6

The behaviour of two vortex rings gyrating in the same or in opposite di-

rections, in a frictionless fluid, are shown for rings gyrating in the same

direction by Nos. 1, 2, 3 and 4 of Fig. 7;

AWD Hod

Fig. 7.

and for rings gyrating in opposite directions by Nos. 1, 2 and 3 of Fig. 8.

A N03

| LLt/f

244 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters.

Faraday, in 1845, showed that this rotation of the azimuth of

vibration could also be produced in substances not otherwise pos-

sessing it, by subjecting them to strong electro-magnetic influence,

something after the manner shown in Fig. 9, where N is the polar-

Fig. 9.

izer which reduces the vibrations to a definite azimuth; G is the

substance subjected to electro-magnetic strain; a and 0 are the

“ Where the rings have equal radii and equal and opposite angular velocities,

they will approach each other and widen one another; so that finally when they

are very near each other, their velocity of approach becomes continually small-

er and smaller, and their rates of widening faster and faster.. If they are per-

fectly symmetrical, the velocity of fluid elements midway between them,

parallel to the axis, is zero, and here we might imagine a rigid plane to be in-

serted, which would not disturb the motion, and so obtain the case of a vortex

ring which encounters a fixed obstacle. If the rings have the same direc-

tion of rotation, they travel in the same direction; the foremost widens and

travels more slowly, the pursuer shrinks and travels faster, till finally, if their

velocities are not too different, it overtakes the first and penetrates it. So the

rings pass through each other alternately.”

In Fig. 7, No. 1 represents the rings rotating in the same direction at start

ing; No. 2 shows the forward ring, A, slackening itsspeed and dilating; No.

3, the B ring contracting, accelerating its speed and passing through. Ring

£ then slackens its speed, and dilates in turn, while A contracts.

In Fig. 8, the gradual approach of the rings gyrating oppositely is not well

shown. The long arrows are intended to show the direction in which the rings

would move, in virtue of their respective rotations, were they not influenced by

each other.

The motions of the fluids at,various points surrounding a vortex filament

in the shape of aring, are best traced by means of Elliptic Integrals of the

Recent Progress in Theoretical Physics. 245

two poles of the electro-magnet, bored through for the reception

of the substance and the passage of the light, and N, is the anal-

yzer by which the position of the azimuth of the light reaching

it is determined. When G is a determinate length of ‘heavy

class” (a silico-borate of lead), the analyzer requires a rotation of

6° on producing the electro-magnetism, in order to be placed in

the same relation to the azimuth of vibration of the light reaching

it, as it was in, before the circuit was closed. That is, if the posi-

tion of the analyzer is such before the electro-magnetic circuit is

closed, that the field is dark, on closing the circuit, and thus plac-

ing the glass in a strong field of magnetic force, the azimuth of

the polarized light is so changed that a perceptible amount gets

through, and the analyzer must be rotated 6° in order to again cut

it off and render the field dark as before. This angle through

which the light is turned, is, however, in addition to the length of

the stratum of the medium through which it is compelled to pass,

directly proportional to the strength of the current producing the

magnetism (or rather to that resolved part of the magnetic force

produced by the current, which is in the direction of the ray).

The amount of the rotation also depends upon the refractive

energy of the medium subjected to the magnetic strain. The rela-

tion is sometimes stated thus: “ The angular rotation of the plane

of polarization is numerically equal to the amount by which the

magnetic potential increases from the point at which the ray enters

the medium to that at which it leaves it, multiplied by a coéffi-

cient, which, for diamagnetic media (like glass), is generally posi-

tive.” — Maxwell. 3

first and second kind. An elementary discussion of the principal features of

vortex motion, involving only the simplest Quarternion notions, is given in

Prof. Clifford’s recently published ‘ Elements of Dynamics — Part I,” page

191, et seg. Sir Wm. Thompson has also published an extensive paper in the

Trans. of the Royal Soc., Edin. Vol. 8 for 1869, in which many new theories

are established and many illustrations of vortex motions in fluids are given,

by means of real or or ideal electro-magnets variously arranged. A sum-

mary of several of these theories and analogies will be found in Thompson’s

“Reprint of Papers on Electro-statics, and Magnetism.’’— London, 1872. An

earlier ‘paper, suggesting the idea of vortex atoms, was published in Vol. 34,

p. 15, of the Phil. Mag., 1867. London, Dublin and Edinburgh.

246 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Lelters.

Under the same circumstances, where “heavy glass” would

produce a rotation of 6°, Bisulphide of Carbon would produce a

rotation of 8°; flint glass, 2° 8’; rock salt, 2° 2’; water, 1°.

The behavior of a large number of substances under the simul-

taneous influence of magnetism and circularly polarized light of

different colors was examined by Verdet in 1863. He found the

results of his experiment to agree very well with the formula:

G = mer ci ( 1—A =) Moe) eee (1.)

where @ is the angular rotation of the plane of polarization; ma

constant (the coéfficient of magnetic rotation of the medium); 7

the intensity of the magnetic force resolved in the direction of the

ray; cthe length of the ray within the medium ; / the wave length

in air, of the particular kind of light employed; 7 its index of

refraction in the medium. /

For Creosote there was considerable deviation from the formula.

On account of the mixed nature of Creosote, being an aggregate of

Carbolic Acid and several other substances, this might have been

expected, even if the above were the true formula representing

the relation between the rotation, magnetic force, wave length,

and refractive index.

Verdet has summed up his results as follows:

Ist. ““The magnetic rotations of the planes of polarization for

light of different colors are approximately as the inverse square

of the wave length of the light employed.

2nd. “The exact law is that the product of the rotation of the

square of the wave length, increases from the least refrangible to

the most refrangible end of the spectrum.”

ord. “The substances for which this increase is most sensible

are also those which have the greatest dispersive power.”

The formula (1) may be derived from the following more gen-

eral formula

d 4x eae: i \=——

cy & ie c / BM = l—2rCy 2 (2.)

vor

which Prof. Clerk Maxwell has shown to be a consequence of Sir

Wm. Thompson’s assumption that the only dynamical explana-

Recent Progress in Theoretical Physics. 247

tion possible for the magnetic rotation of the plane of polarized

light is that, in magnetization there must be molecular electrical

currents, and that the components of these currentscan bedynam-

ically compounded with the angular velocity acquired by an ele-

ment of the medium, during the passage through itof a ray of

circularly-polarized light.

4 C

and neglecting 220; —— :

On making in formula (2), m =

because it is very small, being essentially the amount of the rota-

tion of the plane of polarization after passing through a thickness

of the medium only equal to half a wave length of the light em-

ployed, we have formula (1).

Before showing the manner in which formula (2) is eaonaed by

Maxwell, from Thompson's explanation of the magnetic rotation

of the plane of polarized hght, it may be best to recall one or two

elementary propositions relating to polarized light, and also to

circular motion. In the first place, experiment shows that two

rays of light circularly polarized in opposite directions, and

of the same intensity, become, when united, a plane polarized

ray, the plane of polarization of which will depend upon whether

the periods of the component circular vibrations are the same or

not. If, from any cause, the phase of one of the circularly-polar-

ized rays is accelerated, then the plane of polarization of the re-

sultant ray, is turned round through an angle equal to half the

angle of acceleration of the phase.

So also in certain cases, such as reflection from metallic sur-

faces, or total reflection in glass at certain angles, as in Fresnel’s

rhombs, or in the passage of light through thin laminz of double

refracting crystals, as in quarter-wave laminz of mica, two plane

vibrations may give rise to one circular one, right handed or left-

handed, according as one or the other plane component is ad-

vanced in phase by a quarter of a complete oscillation.

This is only what might be expected from the well-known

theorem in pure motion, that ‘two uniform circular vibrations of

the same amplitude, having the same periodic time and in the

same plane, but revolving in opposite directions, are equivalent,

248 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters.

when compounded together, to a rectilinear vibration. The peri-

odic time of this plane vibration is equal to that of the circular

vibrations, its amplitude is double, and its direction is in the line

joining the points at which two particles describing the circular

vibrations, in opposite directions round the same circle, would

meet.”

The theorem may be illustrated as follows:

Tf, in any space like that represented in Fig. 10, we have a great

Fig. 10. number of spins, more or less

completely filling the space en-

closed by the larger circle, and

about axes perpendicular to the

plane of the paper, the resultant

will be equivalent to a spin of

' definite magnitude about some

single axis likewise perpendic-

ular,to the to the plane of the

paper; the magnitude of this

resultant spin being determined

by the intensity, relative dis-

tances, and number, of the component spins which go to make it

up. Regarding this resultant spin only, the velocity of a particle

at any distance from the axis can be decomposed into component

F%g. 11.

velocities, asin Fig, 11, where

the uniform circular motion Y

of I’, from X to Y, can be de-

composed into =r. cos dand

7=r. sin #,in such a man-

ner that the motion of D, to

and fro on the line X, and

the motion of E to and fro on

on the line Y, correspond

constantly in position to the

motion of F around the cir-

cle. In such a case, we say

that the circular harmonic

motion of F is compounded of two rectilinear harmonic motions

along X and Y, of equal periods and amplitude, but differing by

Recent Progress in Theoretical Physics. 249

a quarter of a complete oscillation. If there be two equal and op-

posite tendencies operating upon F, one to carry it toward Y,

and the other toward X, the result will be, that the tangential

tendencies at I’ will neutralize each other, while the normal com-

ponents will coincide and carry the particle towards C along r (Fig.

11), and a rectilinear motion Fig. 13.

will be the result, as in Fig.

12 or Fig. 13. Thus two tend-

encies to gyrate in opposite

directions may result in mere

rectilinear vibrations. Ifone

Hig. 12. of these

tenden-

cies be

stronger

than the

other, so

that of it-

self it would produce a more rapid rotation in zs direction, than

the other component in its, then the motion will be elliptical in an

orbit of which the major axis changes at each complete oscillation

Hig. 15. by some angle @, the magnitude

of which will depend upon the

excess of velocity in one direc-

tion over that in the opposite.

This is easily seen by reference

to Figs. 14 or

15, where the

motion would

be along ad, /

were both cir- |

Fig. 142

cular compo- \

me nents equal,

| we)

Ved Loy whereas the b

'The engraver has very imperfectly copied the original drawings for this

& §

as for some of the other figures.

*For c in the figure, read f, and for a and 6 at the extremities of one of the

diameters, read a’ and 0’, respectively.

250 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters.

excess of that towards a’ carries towards a’ during the first part of

the virtual motion along ab, and towards 0’ during the part from 8

to b; that is, on account of the shorter time required to complete

an oscillation in the direction from a’ to U’, around the circle, than

in the opposite direction, there is an acceleration of phase in that

direction. Hence, aslong as the tendency to increased rapidity of

one component over that of the other continues, so long will there

be a change in the position of the line ab.

The application of these principles to the rotation of the plane of

polarization as it occurs in quartz, will be clearly shown by the

following extract and diagram, taken from Prest. Barnard’s excel-

lent “Lectures on the Undulatory Theory of Light,” Smithsonian

Annual Report for 1862.

After a general discussion of circular and elliptical polenta ta

by reflection, Prest. Barnard says:

‘“‘ We are now perhaps prepared to understand the reason of the

rotation of the plane of polarization of a ray transmitted along the

axis of a crystal of quartz. We have seen that Fresnel, by an in-

genious combination of prisms, succeeded in demonstrating the

existence within the crystal of two circularly polarized rays, gyrat-

rig. 16. ing in opposite directions. And we have

seen that the resultant effect of two oppo-

site gyrations, is to produce a movement

in a plane. The gyratory movements

within the crystal are then not actual but

virtual —in other words, there are forces

constantly tending to produce these gyra-

tions, which hold each other im equilibrio,

or at least nearly so. We must consider

these forces as successively traversing

all azimuths within the length of each un-

dulation. If the wave were of the same

length in both gyrations, the forces being

presumed equal, the molecular move-

ment would be constantly rectilinear, and

the plane of polarization would not

change. But, as the plane does in fact change, we are led to infer

Recent Progress in Theoretical Physics. Z2o1

that the undulation lengths for the two rays are not equal. The

annexed figure may serve to illustrate the mutual action of these

rays. Suppose M A D B, to be the orbit in which a force P tends

to urge a molecule M, to revolve around the center C, to which it

is drawn by the force MC. Suppose the equal force Q to urge

the same molecule to describe the same orbit in the opposite

direction. These forces holding each other 7n equilibrio, the mole-

cule will follow the direction of the third force, M C.

Now suppose the force Q suspended, the molecule will take

the direction of the circle A D B, and will continue to revolve in

it so long as the force P (supposed always tangential) continues

to act. But its movemehts will impart to the molecule next

below it a similar motion, and that to the next, and so on; so that,

as these successive molecules take up their movements later and

later, there will be a series in different degrees of advancement in

their several circles, forming a spiral; and when the molecule M

shall have returned to its original position, the series will occupy

a position like the curve MF L N’OR. If, now, P besupposed

to be in turn suspended, while the force Q continues to act, the

effect of Q will be to produce a contrary spiral, which may be

represented by MS KTV. If{MD bea diameter of the circle

M A DB, drawn from M, and DH N’ bea line parallel to the

axis OC G of the cylindrical surface, which is the locus of the

spirals, then, if the undulating lengths are the same for both

movements, the two spirals will intersect D H in the same point,

the intersection marking the completions of a half undulation for

each. But if these lengths be unequal, the intersection with D H

will take place at different points as N and N’.

Let now a plane intersect the cylinder at any distance below

M A DB, as at H, parallel to M A DB. It is conceivable that

this plane may be made to pass through the point where the

spirals intersect each other. Jf I mark the point of intersection,

and we draw the tangents I P’ and I Q’ in the plane of the circle

E HI, then there will be a molecule at the point I which wiil be

in the circumstances of the molecule in [Fig. 12 at the point a] —

that is to say, solicited by three forces, of which two, I P’ and I Q’

are equal and opposite, and the third is directed in the ine 1G

252 Wisconsin Acadetay of Sciences, Arts, and Letters.

towards the center. The molecule will, therefore move in this

line, and not in a circle; and if the plane of the circle H H I H’

be the bounding surface of the crystal, or the surface of emer-

gence of the light, 1 G will mark the azimuth of the molecular

movements of the emergent ray.

But if the planes of EH H I H do not pass through the point of

intersection of the spirals it must cut each spiral in a different

point. The figure is drawn to represent this more general case,

the points of intersection with the spirals being severally L and K.

By joining L K and drawing the radius G I perpendicular to it,

G I will bisect the angle G L K and M’, at the intersection of G

JT and L K will be the position of the molecule in the plane H H

LIK, which, if the tangential force P only were acting, would be

at L, and if the tangential force Q only were acting, would be at

K. The tangential forces acting at the moment on this molecule

will not be represented by I P’ and I Q’, but will be tangents at K

and L.

Now, as D H, the distance between the planes AD B and EH H

J, is a larger part of the length of an entire turn of the spiral MS

N K than of the spiral M F L N’, the line G I will fall on the

right of G H, the position it would occupy if the two undulations

were equal in length. We may therefore say, as before, that if

the plane EK H I were the surface of emergence of a ray from a

erystal, in which it had been subject to the action of the forces

supposed, its plane of polarization, G I, would be turned towards

the right from its original azimuth. The plane of polarization

turns, therefore, in the direction of the winding of the closest spi-

ral, or of the ray of shortest undulation; but it turns in the direc

tion of the gyration of the ray of longest undulation.

This rotation of the plane, thus demonstrates that the two rays

advance with unequal velocities in the axis of quartz —a remark-

able fact which is not true of any crystal which produces plane

polarization only. It also enables us to determine the relative

velocities, or to ascertain the index of rotatory polarization. For

since G I bisects the angle between the points K and L, which

mark the relative degrees of advancement of the two rays in their

respective rotations, if we take a thickness 6, which produces a

Recent Progress in Theoretical Physics. 253

rotation of 90°, we know that the difference of phase is then one-

halfan undulation. If A£ denote the length of the longer undula-

tion, and 1, that of the shorter, then ——

uns

G=mi= (m+ $)X; or as = ae 2a

A m 2m

As — = m,and 4 may be determined by experiments in refrac-

‘

tion, the value of m is known when @ is measured. By pursuing

this method, Mr. Babinet found the value of 7 = 1.00008; a

‘S

value which, small as it is, is the largest known for [non-magnetic]

rotatory polarization.”

The first mathematical explanation of rotatory polarization as it

occurs in quartz, appears to have been given by MacCullagh, in

1836 (Trans. R. Irish Acad., XVII). He succeeded perfectly in

explaining the phenomena as they occur in uniaxial crystals, by

introducing into the ordinary equations of vibratory motion in

fluids, terms of the form c es So that the equations become:

ae are a*y ,

muita Seer Rope

DE ree

ay may dn A OFS

Gio dz dz

Cauchy also appears to have furnished similar equations to M.

Jamin, at the request of the latter, who compared them carefully

with experiments, and found a perfect agreement so far as uniaxial

crystals are concerned (Verdet—Lecons D’Optique Physique, Vol.

IT, p. 323). For biaxial erystals Verdet says: ‘Za methode de

MacCullagh est tres-remarquable : c'est un bel exemple de ce qu’ on

peut faire quand on est réduit a de simples conjectures.”

The matter has since been treated by M. Briot in an “ Mssud

sur la theorie mathematique dela lumiere.” He supposes a forced

distribution of the ether in rotatory crystals, so that the lines of

ethereal molecules are arranged in elliptic helices. This supposi-

tion introduces into the differential equations of vibratory move

ment, differential coefficients of odd orders, the presence of which

indicates the rotatory power.

Airy has suggested similar equations for the rotation produced

}

254. Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters.

by magnetism, “not as giving a mechanical explanation of the phe-

nomena, but as showing that the phenomena may be explained

by equations, which equations appear to be such as might possi-

bly be deduced frem some plausible mechanical assumption,

although no such assumption has been made.”

This explanation of what rotatory polarization is, as it occurs in

bodies which of themselves rotate the plane of polarization, may

Fig. 16. help to an understanding of Fig. it.

the manner in which an |

electric current, circulating the

around a medium through

which circularly polarized

light is passing, may possi-

bly affect the velocity of

either circular component of the polarized light, and thus, accord-

ing as the direction of the current is with a circular component,

as in Fig. 16, or against it, as in Fig. 17, produce a right-handed

or a left-handed rotation, according to the direction in which the

current circulates around the medium.

Of this latter, Sir Wm. Thompson, in 1856, made the important

observation,’ which Prof. Clerk Maxwell has elaborated into the

“The magnetic influence on light, discovered by Faraday, depends on the

direction of motion of moving particles. For instance, in a medium possess-

ing it, particles in a straight line parallel to the lines of magnetic force, dis-

placed to a helix round this line ag axis, and then projected tangentially with

such velocities as to describe circles, will have different velocities, according

as their motions are round in one direction (the same as the nominal direc-

tion of the galvanic current in the magnetizing coil) or in the contrary direc-

tion. But the elastic reaction of the medium must be the same for the same

displacements, whatever be the velocities and directions of the particles; that

is to say, the forces which are balanced by centrifugal force of the cireular

motions are equal, while the luminiferous motions are unequal. The absolute

circular motions being therefore either equal or such as to transmit equal cen.

trifugal forces to the particles initially considered, it follows that the lumi-

niferous motions are only components of the whole motion; and that a less

luminiferous component in one direction, compounded with a motion ex-

isting in the medium when transmitting no light, gives an equal resultant to

that of a greater luminiferous motion in the contrary direction compounded

With the same non-luminous motion. I think it is not only impossible to

conceive any other than this dynamical explanation of the fact that circularly-

Recent Progress in Theoretical Physics. _ 250

fundamental equation with which we began this article, and

which the experiments of Verdet so remarkably corroborate.

“he disturbance which constitutes ght, whatever its physical

nature may be, is of the nature of a vector, perpendicular to the

direction of the ray. This is proved from the fact of the interfer-

ence of two rays of light, which, under certain conditions, pro-

duces darkness, combined with the fact of the non-interference of

two rays polarized in planes perpendicular to to each other. For,

since the interference depends on the angular position of the planes

of polarization, the disturbance must be a directed quantity or

vector, and since the interference ceases when the planes of polar-

ization are at right angles, the vector representing the disturbance

must be perpendicular to the line of intersection of these planes,

that is, to the direction of the ray.

The disturbance, being a vector, can be resolved into compo-

nents parallel to x and y, the axis of z being parallel to the direc-

tion of theray. Let and 7 be these components; then, in the case

of a ray of homogeneous circularly-polarized light,

€ =7rcos G, f= ew (1)

where @=nt —qz +a. (2)

In these expressions, 7 denotes the magnitude of the vector, and

@ the angle which it makes with the direction of the axis of x.

The periodic time, t, of the disturbance is such that

(Ne = 2s: (3)

The wave-length, A, of the disturbance is such that

Mh eg. (4)

The velocity of propagation is ~

The phase of the disturbance when ¢ and z are both zero is a.

The circularly-polarized light is right-handed or left-handed

according as q is negative or positive.

polarized light transmitted through magnetized glass, parallel to the lines

of magnetizing force, with the same quality, right-handed always or left-

handed always, is propagated at different rates, according as its course is in

the direction or is contrary to the direction in which a north magnetic pole

is drawn; but I believe it can be demonstrated that no other explanation of

that fact is possible. Hence it appears that Faraday’s optical discovery

affords a demonstration of the reality of Ampere’s explanation of the ulti-

mate nature of magnetism.” — Srr Wa. THOMPSON.

256 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters.

Its vibrations are in the positive or the negative direction of rota-

tion in the plane of (a, y), according as n is positive or negative.

The light is propagated in the positive or the negative direction

of the axis of z, according as n and g are of the same or of oppo-

site signs.

In all media n varies when qg varies, and i is always of the

. . n

same sign with —.

Hence, if for a given numerical value of n, the value of —

is greater when 7 is positive than when 7 is negative, it rollers

that for a given value of g, given both in magnitude and sign, the

positive value of m will be greater than the negative value.

Now this is what is observed in a diamagnetic medium, acted

on by a magnetic force, 7, in the direction of z. Of the two cir-

cularly-polarized rays of a given period, that is accelerated of

which the direction of rotation in the plane of (a, y) is positive.

Hence, of two circularly polarized rays, both left-handed, whose

wave-length within the medium is the same, that has the shortest

period whose direction of rotation in the plane of (a, y) is positive,

that is, the ray which is propagated in the positive direction of z

from south to north. We have, therefore, to account for the fact

that when in the equations of the system g and r are given, two -

values of 2 will satisfy the equations, one positive and the other

negative, the positive value being numerically greater than the

negative.

We may obtain the equations of motion from a consideration of

the potential and kinetic energies of the medium. The potential

energy, V, of the system, depends on its configuration, that is, on

the relative position of its parts. In so far as it depends on the

disturbance due to circularly-polarized light, it must be a a func-

tion of 7, the amplitude, and gq, the coefficient of torsion, only. It

may be different for positive and negative values of qg of equal

numerical value, and it probably is so in the case of media, which

of themselves rotate the plane of polarization.

The kinetic energy, Z, of the system, is a homogeneous function

of the second degree of the velocities of thesystem, the coefficients

of the different terms being functions of the coordinates.

Recent Progress in Theoretical Physics. 257

Let us consider the dynamical condition that the ray may be of

constant intensity, that is, that 7 may be constant.

Lagrange’s equation for the force in r becomes

Oh GHE CLT OV

Gi INO nat Cp

Since 7 is constant the first term vanishes. We have therefore

the equation

0. (5)

ie Pa 9) (6)

dr dr

in which g is supposed to be given, and we are to determine the

value of the angular velocity 0, which we may denote by its actual

value, n.

The kinetic energy, 7, contains one term involving n*; other

terms may contain products of n with other velocities, and the

rest of the terms are independent of n. The potential energy, V,

is entirely independent of n. ‘The equation is, therefore of the

form

Alig ae Jey se (GSU) (7)

This being a quadratic equation, gives two values of x. It ap-

pears from experiment that both values are real, that one is posi-

tive and the other negative, and that the positive value is numeri-

cally the greater. Hence, if A is positive, both Band C are neg-

ative ; for, if n, and m, are the roots of the equation,

A(n, + m) + B= 0. (8)

The coefficient B, therefore, is not zero, at least when magnetic

force acts on the medium. We have, therefore, to consider the

expression Bn, which is the part of the kinetic energy involving

the first power of n, the angular velocity of the disturbance.

Every term of 7’ is of two dimensions as regards velocity.

Hence the terms involving n must involve some other velocity.

This velocity cannot be r or g, because, in the case we consider,

y and g are constant. Hence it is a velocity which exists in the

medium independently of that motion which constitutes light. It

must also be a velocity related to n in such way that when it is

multiplied by » the result is a scalar quantity, for only scalar

quantities can occur as terms in the value of 7, which is itself

1”

258 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters.

scalar. Hence this velocity must be in the same direction as n, or

in the opposite direction, that is, it must be an angular velocity

about the axis of z.

Again, this velocity cannot be independent of the magnetic

force, for if it were related to a direction fixed in the medium, the

phenomenon would be different if we turned the medium end for

end, which is not the case.

We are therefore led to the conclusion that this velocity is an

invariable accompaniment of the magnetic force in those media

which exhibit the magnetic rotation of the plane of polarization.

We have been hitherto obliged to use language which is, per-

haps, too suggestive of the ordinary hypothesis of motion in the

undulatory theory. It is easy, however, to state our result ina

form free from this hypothesis.

Whatever light is, at each point of space there is something

going on, whether displacement or rotation, or something not yet.

imagined, which is certainly of the nature of a vector or directed

quantity, the direction of which is normal to the direction of the

ray. This is completely proved by the phenomenon of inter-

ference.

In the case of circuilarly-polarized light, the magnitude of this

vector remains always the same, but its direction rotates round

the direction of the ray so as to complete a revolution in the peri-

odic time of the wave. The uncertainty which exists as to whether

this vector is in the plane of polarization or perpendicular to it,

does not extend to our knowledge of the direction in which it rotates

in right handed and left: handed circularly-polarized light respee-

tively. The direction and the angular velocity of this vector are

perfectly known, though the physical nature of the vector and

its absolute direction at a given instant are uncertain.

When a ray of cireularly-polarized light falls on a medium un-

der the action of magnetic force, its propagation within the me-

dium is affected by the relation of the direction of rotation of the

light to the direction of the magnetic force. From this we conclude

that in the medium, when under the action of magnetic force, some

rotatory motion is going on, the axis of rotation being in the direc-

tion of the magnetic forces; and that the rate of propagation of cir-

Recent Progress in Theoretical Physics. 259

cularly-polarized light, when the direction of its vibratory rotation

and the direction of the magnetic rotation of the medium are the

same, is different from the rate of propagation when these direc

tions are opposite.

The only resemblance which we can trace between a medium

through which circularly-polarized light is propagated, and a me-

dium through which lines of magnetic force pass, is that in both there

is a motion of rotation about an axis. But here the resemblance

stops, for the rotation in the optical phenomenon is that of the

vector which represents the disturbance. This vector is always

perpendicular to the direction of the ray, and rotates about ita

known number of times in a second. In the magnetic phenome-

non, that which rotates has no properties by which its sides

can be distinguished, so that we cannot determine how many

times it rotates in a second.

There is nothing, therefore, in the magnetic phenomenon which

corresponds to the wave-lensth and the wave-propagation in the

optical phenomenon. A medium in which a constant magnetic

force is acting, is not, in consequence of that force, filled with

waves traveling in one direction, as when light is propagated

through it.

The only resemblance between the optical and the magnetic

phenomenon is, that at each point of the medium something exists

of the nature of an angular velocity about an axis in the direction

of the magnetic force.

ON THE HYPOTHESIS OF MOLECULAR VORTICES.

The consideration of the action of magnetism upon polarized

light leads, as we have seen, to the conclusion that in a medium

under the action of magnetic force something belonging to the same

mathematical class as an angular velocity, whose axis is in the

direction of the magnetic force, forms a part of the phenomenon.

This angular velocity cannot be that of any portion of the me-

dium of sensible dimensions rotating as a whole. We must,

therefore, conceive the rotation to be that of very small portions

of the medium, each rotating on its own axis. This is the hypoth-

esis of molecular vortices.

CS A i

260 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters.

The motion of these vortices, though, as we have shown, it does

not sensibly affect the visible motions of large bodies, may be such

as to affect that vibratory motion on which the propagation of

light, according to the undulatory theory, depends. The dis-

placements of the medium, during the propagation of leht, will

produce a disturbance of the vortices, and the vortices, when so

disturbed, may re-act on the medium so as to affect the mode of

propagation of the ray.

It is impossible, in our present state of ignorance as to the na-

ture of the vortices, to assign the form of the law which connects

the displacement of the medium with the variation of the vortices.

We shall therefore assume that the variation of the vortices,

caused by the displacement of the medium, is subject to the same

conditions which Helmholtz, in his great memoir on Vortex-mo-

tion, has shown to regulate the variation of the vortices of a per-

fect liquid.

Helmholtz’s law may be stated as

, follows: — Let P and @ be two neigh-

i boring particles in the axis of a vortex,

EG then, if in consequence of the motion

of the fluid these particles arrive at

the points P’ Y, the line P’ Y will rep-

resent the new direction of the axis of the vortex, and its streneth

will be altered in the ratio of P’ Y to P Q.

Hence if a, 8, 7 denote the components of the strength of the

vortex, and if €, 7, € denote the displacements of the medium, the

value of a will become

a=a4 pes | ie 7 a&

da: dy dz

dy d: di

(me ( aynaeedl es eel ed

ene aie da dy USE (1)

, dt ag de

=rtaS 4 pte 4,7

aes! ” des ; dy de

We now assume that the same condition is satisfied during the

small displacements of a medium in which a, f, 7 represent, not

Recent Progress of Theoretical Physics. 261

the components of the strength of an ordinary vortex, but the

components of magnetic force.

The components of the angular velocity of an element of the

medium are

(2)

dt \ dz dc

mn d i sui dé }

ae \ ag dy

The next step in our hypothesis is the assumption that the

kinetic energy of the medium contains a term of the form:

2 C(aw, + Bo, + 703). (38)

This is equivalent to supposing that the angular velocity ac-

quired by the element of the medium during the propagation of

light is a quantity which may enter into combination with that

motion by which magnetic phenomena are explained.

In order to form the equations of motion of the medium, we

must express its kinetic energy in terms of the velocity of its

parts, the components of which are = - = We therefore

integrate by parts, and find

2 0 J. We - (Gah Ae Clas ck any) Oe Gh ee

=0f f(r; ABS) dy e+ Off (a8 —7E) dea

ae of] (8 oa ae dy + CLL, : — =)

a dy — fi) in de ( me da th ay ob (4)

dt \ dz da aD Neier SCO)

' The double integrals refer to the bounding surface, which may

be supposed at an infinite distance. We may, therefore, while

investigating what takes p'ace in the interior of the medium, con-

fine our attention to the triple integral.

262 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, und Letters.

The part of the kinetic energy in unit of volume, expressed by

this triple integral, may be written

4x0 (& eae 6)

where u, v, w are the components of the Be current.

It appears from this that our hypothesis is equivalent to the as-

sumption that the velocity of the particle of the ‘medium whose

dé oy dé

di? dt’ dt’

components are , is a quantity which may enter into

v, W.

Returning to the expression under the sign of triple integration

in (4), substituting for the value of a, 8,7, those of a’, f, 7’, as

given by equation (1), and writing

d d d d

see SHORE (= a en 6

a eR ce (6)

the expression under the sign of integration becomes

Ges (a a) + dt - =)

(dt dh\dy — dz didh\dz dz dt dh \dx

In the case of waves in planes normal to the axis of z the dis-

placements are functions of 2 and ¢ only so that & = _ and

this expression is reduced to

US dn in Oy as

C | Py Oe)

"leu ea 8)

The kinetic energy per unit of volume, so far as it depends on

the velocities of displacement, may now be written

at dé Ge dnl Gane

T= = +t A C i eae fo

hee e TAO Cr | a eae ae

where p is the density of the medium.

The components, X and Y, of the impressed force, referred to

unit of volume, may be deduced from this by Lagrange’s equations

aE a?

xe Ley ae

p dt r dz2-dt u

a? ae

V = 92 Oe

lim au FREE a)

Recent Progress in Theoretical Physics. 263

These forces arise from the action of the remainder of the

medium on the element under consideration, and must in the case

of an isotropic medium be of the form indicated by Cauchy,

X A, So + AS 1 Bie (12)

Viz ye coe cic (13)

If we now take the case of a circularly-polarized ray for which

E = reos (nt — qz), 7 =r sin (nt—qz), (14)

we find for the kinetic energy in unit of volume

hi 5) Onn CO rieg 7. (15)

and for the potential energy in unit of volume

VS PAW = 4uG 2 aie) =a (16)

where @ is a function of q’.

The condition of free propagation of the ray given in equation

(6), is

ian Ve

xesins gy —— eI lf

dr dr ae

which gives

on? — 2Cr7n = Q, (18)

whence the value of n may be found in terms of ¢.

But in the case of a ray of given wave-period, acted on by mag-

ene de

netic force, what we want to determine is the value of oe when n

is constant, in terms of — when; is constant. Differentiating (18)

{20n — 2Cyrq") dn — ee + 4Crqn op Gornene == 0), «(AIG

d Cyn d

e thus fin e is Chae Gl (20)

If 2 is the wave-length in air, and 7 the corresponding index of

refraction in the medium

Gh = Diet nA = Div:

The change in the value of g, due to magnetic action is in every

case an exceedingly small fraction of its own value, so that we

may write

Y= + ay”

264 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters.

where g, is the value of g when the magetic force is zero. The

angle, 0, through which the plane of polarization is turned in pass-

ing through a thickness, c, of the medium, is half the sum of the

positive and negative values of q c, the sign of the result being

changed, because the sign of ¢ is negative in equations (14). We

thus obtain

Tame gee ole) ART 1 — any

which is the complete form of the equation for determining the

angle, through which the plane of polarization has been turned

by the magnetic force while passing through a thickness of the

medium equal to ¢, and is, in its modified form the one with which

Verdet’s results have been compared. From this comparison of

the consequences of assuming the motions of light to be capable

of composition with the motions caused by electric currents, with

what experiment shows to be true of bodies conveying circularly

polarized light when also placed under magnetic strain, we have

probably good evidence for the opinion that some phenomenon of

rotation is going on in the magnetic field, that this rotation is per-

formed by a great number of very small portions of matter each

rotating on its own axis, this axis being parallel to the direction

of the magnetic force, and that the rotations of these different.

vortices are made to depend on one another by means of some

kind of mechanism connecting them. The problem of determining

the mechanism required to establish a given species of connection

between the motions of the parts of a system always admits of

an infinite number of solutions. Of these some may be more

clumsy than others, but all must satisfy the conditions of mechan-

ism in general.” — MAxweLL — Electricity and Magnetism, Chap.

>O-dh

clip EO i)

Norr.— On page 246 the radical sign (¥v) should be the Greek letter

gamma Ga in formula No. (2).

PROCEEDINGS OF THE ACADEMY

SINCE FEBRUARY, 1876.

REPORI OF THE PRESIDENT.

To His Excellency, WILLIAM KH. SMITH,

Governor of the State of Wisconsin:

Sir :—It affords me great pleasure to be able to report that the

Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters is in a flourish-

ing condition, steadily gaining in membership and usefulness. |

Every college and educational institution of high grade in the

state is now represented in the Academy; thus bringing together

many of the ablest men in science, literature and art. The sum-

mer meetings held ia Racine and Milwaukee were well attended

and were instrumental in exciting a lively interest in the society

and its aims. We are satisfied that in inaugurating this summer

migratory meeting, the society acted wisely, and that these ses-

sions will be productive of good.

At the Milwaukee meeting, a number of ladies were elected

members, several of whom are not unknown to science and litera-

ture. In electing these ladies, tae Academy has gained valuable

working members and hasadded nota little to its well-being, intel-

. lectually as well as socially. The society acted on the broad prin-

ciple that science and letters, have neither country, color or sex:

The straight-jacket of superstition and bigotry no longer cramps

and cripples investigation in any department of kaowledge.

The report of the librarian shows the extent and value of our

exchanges from this and foreign countries.

We have already formed the nucleus of a valuable library.

The finances are in a healthy condition, the funds are not large, but

sufficient for the workings of the society, aside from the publish-

ing of the proceedings, which is justly done by the state.

268 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters.

We are in need of suitable rooms to accommodate the society,

We want space sufficient to display and securely keep a cabinet

such as will certainly come into our possession as soon as we have

permanent accommodations. ;

The usefulness of the Academy will be greatly enhanced by

the possession of suitable rooms for cabinet and library.

Very respectfully,

P. BR. HOY, Presedent.

PROCEEDINGS OF THE ACADEMY.

[Since February, 1876.]

REPORT OF THE SECRETARY.

Rooms oF WIsconsIN ACADEMY OF SCIENCE, ARTS AND LETTERS,

CaPiToL, Maptson, WISCONSIN.

SEVENTH ANNUAL MEETING.

Held at Madison, Wisconsin.

FIRST SESSION.

February 13, 1877.

Academy met at 7:30 P. M. Usual routine of business. Prof. Davies,

General Secretary, called attention to the many valuable exchanges received

from foreign and American societies, and the urgent necessity of providing

proper rooms and cases for them. Prof. Allen, Prof. Chamberlin and Gen.

Delaplaine were appointed a committee for such purpose.

Remarks were made by Prof. Carpenter upon the death of Prof. J. H. Eaton,

of Beloit, and a committee consisting of Dr. Chapin, Prof. Chamberlin, of

Beloit and Dr. 8. H. Carpenter, of Madison, were appointed to draw up an

account of the life and work of Prof. Eaton.

A very interesting paper on a wmode of illustrating Phylotaxis, by means

of a model, was read by E. A. Birge, Hsq., of the University of Wisconsin.

Dr. P. R. Hoy, President of the Academy, read a paper upon an elephant’s

tooth containing an iron bullet. He explained how the bullet sank into the

pulp and appeared in another part of the tooth three feet off.

Profs. Chamberlin and Allen, and Gen. Delaplaine were appointed a com-

mittee to memorialize the Governor in regard to more ample room for the

accommodation of the books and specimens of the Academy.

SECOND SESSION.

February 14, 1877.

Academy met at 9:30 A. M., President Hoy in the chair. On account of

the unavoidable absence of the secretary, Hon. E, E. Woodman, of Baraboo,

was chosen Secretary pro tem.

270 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Leiters.

On motion of Prof. Davies, the following gentlemen were chosen annual

members:

Dr. Clark Gapen, of Madison, Wis.

Mr. W. A. P. Morris, of Madison, Wis.

Dr. BE. W. Bartlett, of Milwaukee, Wis.

W. F. Bundy, Esq., of Sauk City, read a paper on the “ Crustacea of Wis-

consin.” Mr. James R. Stuart, of Madison, read a paper on “ Art Instruc-

tion.”’

Prof. Davies showed the ‘‘ Application of Fourier’s Theorem to the Phe-

nomena of Composite Sounds.”

Adjournment, to meet at 2:30 P. M.

THIRD SESSION.

February 14, 2:30 P. M.

Gen. Ed. E. Bryant read a paper on the “ Cost of Government.” Dr. Clark

Gapen read one on “Hereditary Insanity,” which was discussed at great

length by President Bascom, Prof. S. H. Carpenter and Dr. Gapen.

Prof. Wright, of Fox Lake, read a paper on “ The Philosophy of History.”

FOURTH SESSION.

300s Me

Mr. E. A. Birge read a finely illustrated paper upon the the habits and

structure of the ‘Cladocera, a minute crustacean of our fresh water lakes.’”

Many points of its structure were shown to be exceedingly curious.

Hon. E. E. Woodman, of Baraboo, read a valuable paper on “The Pipe-

stone of Devil’s Juake.”

Dr. E. Andrews being detained at Chicago by important surgical cases, his

paper was read by Prof. Davies. It gave a history of the present descendants

of the mound-builders, considering the latter as still not entirely extinct. The

paper elicited a great deal of discussion by Dr. Hoy, Prof. Butler, Mr. Wood_

man éf al.

FIFTH SESSION.

February 15, 9:30 A. M.

Mr. E. T. Sweet read a valuable paper containing results of analysis of the

Milwaukee brick clay.

The following business was then transacted: First, the summer meeting

for July, 1877, was appointed to be held at Racine on the third Tuesday of

July; the autumn meeting being entirely set aside for the future.

F. H. Day, M. D., of Wauwatosa, Wis.

Prof. George W. Peckham, of Milwaukee,

Prof. W. Bundy, of Sauk City,

Hon. W.C. Allen, of Racine,

Rey. H. M. Simmons, of Kenosha,

were elected as annual members. :

John W. Barrow, of No. 313 E. Seventeenth street New York city was

elected a corresponding member.

The following amendments to the By-laws were offered for one year’s con-

sideration, according to the provisions of the constitution. By-law No. II to

be amended so as to read as follows: “The regular annual meeting to take

Proceedings of the Academy. 271

place herexfter on the last Wednesday and Thursday of December, at Madison

and the summer annual meeting to be held on the third Tuesday in July,

at such place as shall be fixed upon at the regular annual meeting in De-

cember.

Special meetings may be called by the President at his discretion, or by

request of any five members of the council.

By-law, Art. I, sec. 7, to be amended to make the fee of annual members

three dollars in place of two. '

The resignation of the Librarian was accepted, and the Secretary was re-

quested to act as Librarian until the next election of officers.

The Department of Fine Arts was regularly organized.

Hon. Joseph Hamilton, of Milwaukee, was elected an Honorary member of

the Academy. Hon. J.C. Ford, of Madison, an annual member.

The report of the treasurer was then read as follows:

WIsconsIN ACADEMY OF SCIENCE, ARTS AND LETTERS,

TREASURER’S OFFICE, Madison, Dec. 18, 1877.

Hon. P. R. Hoy, President :

I have the honor to report the financial condition of the Academy as fol-

lows:

Total amount of fees and dues received from 58 members........ $778 25

Total fees received from 10 life members....... MN atePaloparwistotersts; serene 1,000 00

MT ERES TOM OI secret Sete Tiere ei cre hale & eicmmiea tele eae aieie sala oa ea eyichees 370 00

Total amoant disbursed in payment of warrants, to date.......... ae OF

a DIeuU CMEC AGU: efotaseinisieycieve sis orefaninfetnfsteieiniets\cie nfeesla/elnyalere laren teiars 1,370 28

Signed, GEORGE P. DELAPLAINE,

Treasurer.

The Academy then adjourned. to meet at Racine upon the 10th of July

following.

FIRST SUMMER MEETING.

Held at Racine, Wisconsin.

First Semi-ANNUAL MEETING.

July 10, 11 and 12, 1877.

W. A. Germain, Acting Secretary.

FIRST SESSION.

Racine, July 10, 7:30 P. M.

The Academy met at 7: 30, P M., President Hoy in the chair.

Dr. Meachem, mayor of the city, delivered an address of welcome. Rev

Dr. Steele, of Appleton, responded.

Prof. Chamberlin then read a Eulozy on the late Prof. James Eaton, of

Beloit, which was ordered printed in the transactions.

Rev. Dr. James DeKoven, Pres’t Racine Coilege, then read a paper on “ Re-

ligion as an Element in Education.”

The Academy adjourned to meet next morning at nine o’clock.

272 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters.

SECOND SESSION.

July 11,9:00 A. M.

Academy met pursuant to adjournment. Minutes of the last annual meet-

ing read.

Prof. Butler called attention to the fact that notice of Prof. Wright’s paper

on “ Philosophy of History,” had been omitted. Correction was made by the

Acting Secretary.

Attention was called by President Hoy to the amendments offered at the

last regular meeting.

-To amend sec. 3 of the by-laws so as to read:

1. The regular annual meeting to take place on the last Wednesday and

Thursday of December, at Madison, and the summer annual meeting to be

held on the third Tuesday of July at such place as shall be fixed at the reg-

ular annual meeting in December.

2. Special meetings may be called by the President at his discretion, or by

the request of any five members of the council.

3. Article I of sec. 7 of the constitution to be amended to make the fee of

annual members three dollars in place of two dollars.

Prof. Allen moved the adoption of the amendments.

Dr. Steele moved to amend so as to read, in place of “the regular annual

meeting shall take place, etc.,” the following:

“The reguiar annual meeting shall take place during the last week of De-

cember, the days to be appointed by the council.”

Amendment carried.

The resolutions were then adopted unanimously as amendments to the

by-laws.

The following persons were then elected as annual members:

Rev. J. L. Jones, Janesville, Wis.

Rev. 8. A. Griffith, Milwaukee.

Rev. A. P. Meade, Racine.

Rey. Dr. James DeKoven, Racine.

Prof. J. J. Elmendorf, Racine.

Prof. H. F. Oldenbage, Milwaukee.

Prof. F. W. Falk, Ph. D., Racine.

Dr. E. H. Merrell, Ripon.

Rev. G. E. Gordon, Milwaukee.

Hon. Edward Martin, Kenosha.

Prof. G. D. Swezey, A. M., Beloit.

Prof. Peter Henrickson, Beloit.

Prof. G. R. Kleeberger, Whitewater.

R. W. Reynolds, La Crosse

W. A. Germain, Delafield.

Prof. C. A. Kenaston, Ripon.

Prof. W. M. Hailman, Milwaukee.

Prof. G. W. Gerry, Ripon.

Prof. J. McMurphy, Kenosha.

Frank Head, Esq., Kenosha.

Prof. J. P. Marriett, Kenosha.

Hon. J. H. Howe, Kenosha.

Dr. J. G@. Meachem, Racine.

Dr. J. G. Meachem, Jr., Racine.

Proceedings of the Academy. 273

As Corresponding members:

Dr. C. C. Abbott, Trenton, New Jersey.

Alford Paine, 8. T. D., of Hinsdale, I11.

As Honorary member,

Prof. Spencer Baird, M. D., LL. D., of Washington, D. C.

Prof. Alien, chairman of the committee appointed to see about securing

rooms for the Academy, reported that the rooms of the Railroad Commis-

sioners could be secured in December. The report accepted, and the com-

mittee continued. Prof. Allen then read a paper on “Early Form of Land

Tenure.”

Dr. Falk made extended remarks on Prof. Allen’s paper, and gave a review

ef the feudal relations in Germany.

Prof. McMurphy read a paper on “ Rotation as a Factor of Motion.”

The President then read the following communication from Captain

Nader, C. E., on “The Balloon in Meteorology.”

Mapison, Wis., June 20, 1877.

Dr. P. R. Hoy, Racine, Wis.:

DEAR AND ReEspEcTED Str: Your very kind note of invitation of

the 7th instant was duly received, and while I regret very much

that I shall be unable to partake of the proffered hospitality of the

people of Racine, I feel very thankful for your kind remembrance.

My duties here render my time uncertain, and occupy my atten-

tion so much that I shall not be able to attend the meeting, which

no doubt will be pleasant and instructive. I shall be unable to

produce anything in time. I was preparing a letter to you, when I

received your note, on a subject which may be interesting, and

which I will now give you as briefly as possible.

It is but a short time since an idea occurred to me which I be-

lieve to be novel, and perhaps of scientific import, and should you

consider it of sufficient importance, I beg you would please present

the same for discussion at the meeting.

The object is to explore the atmosphere, so far as may be prac-

ticable, without the risk of life and limb. This I propose to do in

the following manner: In the first place, I resort to a gas balloon

to carry up my apparatus, and since there is no danger of any irre-

parable damage, the same may be constructed as light as possible,

even frail, | may say; and since the charge is not required to endure

very long, small ieaks need not be noticed, and I believe such a

balloon may be constructed at a nominal cost.

Kach cubic foot of gas of specific gravity, say 0.6, will displace

about 530 grains of air, and deducting its weight, 32 grains, will

274 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters.

support a weight of 498 grains, so that 1,000 cubic feet will carry

about 70 pounds weight, which is the displacement of a balloon of

less than 13 feet diameter.

The balloon is allowed to rise at pleasure by means of a cord of

sufficient strength to support considerable more than its own weight,

of the desired length or height. The lateral motion, while rising,

will indicate the direction of the currents; the height is computed

at any time by its position.

The principal apparatus will be that for recording the tempera-

ture and barometrical changes. This is done by a clock-work ar-

rangement carrying a strip of highly sensitised paper, with a regular

motion, so that. the condition of both instruments is photographed

at each instant of time. The observation having commenced, it is

only necessary to note the time and corresponding altitude, and ob-

tain the corresponding phenomena when the apparatus is recovered.

Under favorable circumstances, the balloon may be brought to rest

at different altitudes, in order to give the instruments time to as-

sume local conditions. To the apparatus is attached a parachute,

so that the same may be recovered in case of collapse or other acci-

dent. I have thought some of adding a magnetic apparatus, but

have not had time to develop the idea.

This might possibly throw some light on the possibility of aerial

navigation, and also be worthy of consideration in other respects.

Hoping you will have an interesting and pleasant meeting, I

remain, most respectfully, your obedient servant,

JOHN NADER.

THIRD SESSION.

July 11, 2.30 P. M.

Rev. H. M. Simmons read a paper on “ The Social Organism.”

Prof. Hailman delivered a lecture on “The Kindergartens.”

Judge Allen then read a paper prepared by Dr. Mason, on the “ Duty of the

State to its Unfortunate Classes.”

Prof. Butler read a paper on “ American Pre-Revolutionary Bibliography.”’

FOURTH SESSION.

7.30 P. M.

Prof. Jewell, of Chicago, read a paper on “ Mind in the Inferior Animals.”

Academy adjourned to attend a reception given by Mayor Meacham in

honor of the members.

Proceedings of the Academy. 275

FIFTH SESSION.

9:30 A. M.

The Academy met pursuant to adjournment.

Prof. Luther, of Racine, was elected an annual member.

Dr. Hoy, President of the Academy, delivered a lecture on the “ Disappear

ance of Large Animals in Wisconsin.’

Rev. C. Caverno read a paper on “ Abolition of the Jury System.”

Dr. Elmendorf read a paper on “ Nature and Freedom.’’

SIXTH SESSION.

2:30 P. M.

Prof. Stuart read a paper on “ Harmonic Method in Greek Art.”

Prof. Butler then read a paper on “ The Mosque of Omar at Jerusalem.”

Mr. A. Paine, read a paper on “ Art as Education.”

The following resolutions were then proposed by Prof. Butler, and seconded

by Prof. Caverno, and unanimously adopted:

“ Resolved, That the Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts and Letters begs

to tender its grateful acknowledgments te the mayor of Racine for his cor-

dial greeting in the Court House, and reception at his mansion, as well as to

the citizens of the city for their generous huspitalities, and for their attendance

on the sessions.

“Resolved, That the Wisconsin Central,and Western Union railroads, which

have facilitated our convening in the ,interest of science, are hereby thanked

for their kind courtesies.

“ Resolved, That the sheriff and county commissioners, by placing at our

disposal their new and noble court house, have done a service to science and

shall be remembered by us with gratitude.

“ Resolved, That the hearty thanks of the Academy are hereby presented

to Dr. DeKoven, as well as the Professors of Racine College and other gen-

tlemen for their able lectures, with which they have honored, entertained and

instructed our Association.

“ Resolved, That these resolutions be presented to the newspapers of this

city for publication.”

Prof. Perkins, in behalf of the Association, expressed the sincere thanks

of the Academy to Dr. Hoy, President, for his earnest efforts to promote its

interests.

The Academy then adjourned to meet in Madison on the 26th of December

following, according to the change in the by-law regulating the time of the

Regular Annual Meetings.

276 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters.

EIGHTH REGULAR ANNUAL MEETING,

Held at Madison, Wisconsin, December 26th, 27th and 28th, 1877.

WEDNESDAY, Dec. 16, 1877.

The Eighth Regular Annual Meeting was opened at 2:30 P. M., there being

a Jarge attendance.

Dr. Hoy, President of the Academy, in the chair.

The minutes of the Racine Semi-annual Meeting were read, and the amend-

ments to the Constitution and the By-laws then made, commented upon and

formally ratified.

The Secretary gave notice that a complete catalogue of all books and

pamphlets thus far received by the Academy was completed, and would be

published in the forthcoming Vol. IV of the Transactions.

The Treasurer made the following report:

TREASURER’S OFFICH,

Wisconsin Academy of Sciencies, Arts and Letters, .

Mapison, Dec. 26, 1877.

P. R. Hoy, M. D., President of the Wisconsin Academy of Scionces, Arts and

Letters:

I have the honor to report the financial condition of the Academy, as fol-

lows:

Total amount of fees and dues from 62 members................. $817 25

Total feesttromil. OlifetmMennib ersey crap selslcietiefetelaleeteleie hehe lot eletle nate 1,000 00

Total interest on loan ....-..... ialopeldicaiets decraleve a eee more RS ct, 440 00

$2,259 25

Total amount disbursed in payment of warrants to date.......... $855 17

Balan Cemimitneasumiyye rr) oie rereieret eetelots) tel elelerel etic) eiette elie r ieee $1, 402 08

(Signed) G.P. DELAPLAINHE, Treasurer.

The Treasurer urged greater promptitude on the part of members in the

payment of their dues. Only 62 members out of about 200 have paid any dues

whatsoever thus far.

The following papers were read and dicussed during the session:

How Did the Aborigines of this Country Fabricate the Copper Implements ?

By P. R. Hoy, M. D., President of the Academy.

Some Remarks on the Descent of Animals. By Prof. Oldenhage, of Mil-

waukee.

Why Have the Ruminants no Upper Incisors. By P. R. Hoy, M. D., Pres-

ident of the Academy.

Boiler Explosions. By Chas. I. King, Superintendent University Machine

Shop.

Proceedings of the Academy. 277

Antiquities and Platycnemism of the Mound Builders. By J. N. De Hart

M. D.

Extent and Significance of the Wisconsin Kettle Moraine. By T. C. Cham-

berlin, A. M., State Geologist.

The German, French, English and American Press. By Hon. Joseph

Hamilton, of Milwaukee, Honorary Member of the Academy.

The Ethical Bearings of the Doctrine of Evolution. By Rev. Jenk. Ll.

Jones.

Mr. C. H. Haskins, of Milwaukee, gave a very interesting description of

the Bell Speaking Telephone, illustrating his remarks by experimental dem-

onstrations.

A paper on the Fauna of the Niagara and Upper Silurian rocks in Milwau-

kee county, by F. H. Day, M. D., was read by title only, not being received in

time to be read in full.

The death of Prof. Oldenhage of Milwaukee was announced and his paper

read by Prof. Peckham.

Profs. Peckham, Rogers and McAllister, of Milwaukee, were appointed a

committee to presenta memoir of Prof. Oldenhage, for publication in Vol.

IV of the Transactions of the Academy.

The following gentlemen and ladies were elected annual members of the

Academy:

J. 8. Westcott, Superintendent of City Schools, Racine.

J.T. Lovewell, Female College, Milwaukee.

Albert Hardy, Principal High School, Milwaukee.

Rufus B. Smith, Madison.

Willett S. Main, Madison.

Geo. B. Smith, Madison.

P. B. Parsons, Madison.

B. EH. Hutchinson, Madison.

Mrs. 8. F. Dean, Madison.

Mrs. H. M. Lewis, Madison.

Miss Ella Giles, Madison.

J. N. DeHart, M. D., Madison.

J.J. Saylor of Cleveland, Ohio, was elected a corresponding member of

the Academy.

Academy adjourned to meet in Milwaukee, at a time to be specified by the

President of the Academy after consultation with the officers of the Scientific

Club.

SECOND SEMI-ANNUAL MEETING,

Held at Milwaukee, Wisconsin.

FEMALE COLLEGE,

MILWAUKEE, July 23, 1878.

Pursuant to a notice given by the Milwaukee Scientific Club, the second

semi-annual (or summer) meeting of the Wisconsin Academy of Science,

Arts and Letters was convened in the Female College, Milwaukee, at 7:30

o’clock, P.M. President P. R. Hoy, of Racine, in the chair. Hon. Har-

978 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters.

of welcome. P.R. Hoy responded.

Prof. J.J. Elmendorf, 8. T. D., of Racine, then read a paper on the “ Popular

Epics of the Middle Ages as Aids to Historic Study.”

TuurspDay, July 24, 1878.

Academy met at9o’clock A. M. President P. R. Hoy in the chair, Prof.

J..E. Davies, acting as Recording Secretary.

The following persons were elected annual members of the Academy. The

president of the academy prefacing the ballot with the remark that “ science

knows no distinction of race, color, or sex: ”’

Mrs. Laura J. Wolcott, M. D., 471 Milwaukee St., Milwaukee, Wis.

Mrs. Charles Farrar, 614 Milwaukee St., Milwaukee, Wis.

Miss Brooks, 614 Milwaukee St., Milwaukee, Wis.

Miss Marion Stewart, 469 Marshall St., Milwaukee, Wis.

Mrs. Emery McClintock, 507 Astor St., Milwaukee, Wis.

Mrs. George Gordon, Humboldt Av., Milwaukee, Wis.

Miss Frank Whitnall, Humbolt Av., Milwaukee, Wis.

Mrs. A. M. Thomson, 459 Cass St., Milwaukee, Wis.

Mrs. A. W. Bate, 320 Terrace Av., Milwaukee, Wis.

Mrs. Celia C. Wooley, Sec. Philosophical Society, Chicago, Ill.

Mrs. P. Abboit, cor. Jackson and Division Sts., Milwaukee, Wis.

Mrs. Lewis Sherman, 171 Wisconsin St., Milwaukee, Wis.

Mrs. Dr. Marks, Prospect Av., Milwaukee, Wis.

Mrs. Carl Deerflinger, 707 Jefferson St., Milwaukee, Wis.

Mrs. Matilda F. Anneke, 269 Ninth St., Milwaukee, Wis.

Mrs. Julia Ford, 375 Greenbush St., Milwaukee, Wis.

Mrs. N. H. Adsit, 268 Knapp St., Milwaukee, Wis.

Mrs. R. C. Spencer, 275 Prospect Av., Milwaukee, Wis.

Mrs. Edward P. Allis, 381 Prospect Av., Milwaukee, Wis.

Mrs. D. A. Olin, Racine, Wis.

Mrs. Frackleton, 469 Marshall St., Milwaukee, Wis.

Mrs. Olympia Brown Willis, Racine, Wis.

Mrs. J.G. McMurphy, Racine, Wis.

Mi s Jeuny Hoy, Racine, Wis.

Miss Mary J. Lapham, Summit, Wis.

Prof. Robert C. Hindley, Racine College, Wis.

Mr. Eugene B. Winship, Racine College, Wis.

Mr. Charles Mann, Milwaukee, Wis.

Mr. Wm. P. Merrill, Milwaukee, Wis.

Dr. G. A. Stark, Milwaukee, Wis.

Mr. James S. Buck, Milwaukee, Wis.

Mr. George Gordon, Milwaukee, Wis.

Dr. Thomas A. Green, 146 Martin St., Milwaukee, Wis.

Prof. Charles A. Farrar, Milwaukee College, Wis.

Mr. H.S. Durand, Racine, Wis.

Mrs. H. 8. Durand, Racine, Wis.

Miss Frankie Durand, Racine, Wis.

Rev. F. 8. Luther, Racine Ccllege, Wis.

Dr. R. M. Byraness, Cincinnati, O., was elected corresponding member.

At the suggestion of Prof. J. J. Elmendorf, a resolution was framed and

adopted to the effect, that all books that are now in the possession of the Aca-

demy, may be loaned, for one year, to any of the members desiring them.

A request was a'so made by Prof, J. E: Davies, that all members contem-

Proceedings of the Academy. 279

piating readiny papers notify him of the same, for the purpose of facilitating

the arrangement for the annual meeting.

An invitation was received from Dr. Day, soliciting the members to visit

his cabinet at Wauwatosa.

A committee, consisting of Prof. S. H. Carpenter, Prof. Ailen, and Prof.

J. E. Davies, was appointed, to report, at the next meeting, a suitable memoir

of the late Dr. Feuling.

Judge W.C. Allen, of Racine, then read a paper entitled, “ The Accounta-

bility of Public Officials.”

President Chapin, of Beloit College, read a paper on the “Nature and

Functions of Credit.”

This was followed by an extempore history of credit in Wisconsin, by Mr.

Chapman.

At the afternoon session, the following papers were read:

“ Drinking Water,” by Dr J. G. Meacham, of Racine.

‘‘ Mental Hospitality,’ by Miss Ella Giles, of Madison.

“Scientific Housekeeping,” by Mrs. A. W. Bate, of Milwaukee.

“The Origin of Certain Constellations,” by the Rev. H. M. Simmons, of

Kenosha.

The Academy then adjourned to attendat the invitation of the resident

members and committee of arrangements, a banquet given in the evening at

the Plankington House. ‘

The following account of the banquet is taken from the Milwaukee News,

of Thursday, July 25th, 1878:

“ By invitation of the committee of arrangements, W. P. McLaren acted as

President of the evening. At his right, sat President Chapin, of Beloit Col-

lege, and at his left Dr. Hoy, president of the Academy. President Chapin

asked Divine blessing on the gathering, after which an unusually long time

was spent in disposing of the long and palatable list of dishes on the bill of

fare. Mr. McLaren finally called the gathering to order and, in a neat and

well-timed speech, introduced the first sentiment on the programme, “The

State of Wisconsin.” It was expected that the Hon. George H. Paul would

respond to this, but,in Mr. Paul’s absence, Judge Allen, of Racine, was

called. The Judge gave a highly interesting account of the growth and pro-

gress of the state from the small beginnings of forty years ago, when he first

came into this section of the country.

To the second toast, “The City of Milwaukee,” the Hon. E. D. Holton re-

sponded, drawing parallels from history and from the present condition of

cities in other parts of the world, to show the great advantages which Milwau-

kee possesses and the magnificent promises of the future. Dr. Hoy responded

for “The Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Art and Letters,’? very briefly

sketching the objects and work of the society. To the fifth sentiment, ““Amer-

ican Science,” it was expected that Dr. Kempster would respond. But that

gentleman was not present, and Prof. Davies, of our State University was

called upon. Prof. Davies’ speech was short, but full of the most interesting

matter, and clothed in well-chosen words.

280 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Leiters.

One of the best speeches of the evening was that of ex-Superintendent

MacAllister, who answered for ‘Our Public Schoals.” President Chapin

responded in an eloquent and logical manner to the seventh toast, ‘‘ Arts and

Letters.” M.Almy Aldrich spoke for “The Press,” and the regular senti-

ments closed with “‘Our New Associate Members,” to which Mrs. Amelia

Bate responded in a manner that elicited the heartiest applause and warmest

commendations on all sides. Brief speeches followed by the Rey. Messrs.

Gordon and Livermore, Dr. Wight, Dr. Elmendorf, Mr. Buck and others; and

the gathering broke up about 11 o’clock.

Fourth Session, Jory 25, 1878.

Academy met at 9 o’clock A. M. President P. R. Hoy in the chair, Dr. J.

E. Davies acting as recording secretary. :

A resolution offered by Prof. Elmendorf, that in the appendix of the trans-

actions shall be printed a list of the public and private collections of books

within the state, as available for the use of members, to aid in the work of the

society, was referred to Prof. Elmendorf and Prof. W. C. Allen, for further

consideration.

A motion made by Mr. Peckham, that the secretary of the society be allowed

to expend one hundred dollars ($100) for binding pamphlets belonging to the

academy, was unanimously carried.

Dr. J. N. De Hart, of Madison insane asylum, then read a paper on the

” Microscope and its Benefits to Science.”

Rev. C. Caverno, of Lombard, Ill., read a paper entitled ‘“ Savings Banks

and the Industrial Classes.”’

A paper entitled “ The Relics of a Prehistoric Race,” prepared by Dr. De

Hart, was read by Rey. G. E. Gordon, as Dr. De Hart was suffering from a

severe cold.

Mr. A. R. Sprague, of Evansville, Wisconsin.

Mr. W. P. McLaren, Milwaukee, Wisconsin.

Dr. D. W. Perkins, Milwaukee, Wisconsin,

Were elected annual members of the Academy.

After the morning session the members adjourned to meet at the Planking-

ton House at 3 o’clock P. M., where the resident members of the Academy

and citizens of Milwaukee nad provided carriages for a drive around the

city. The members were taken through the handsomest residence streets of

Milwaukee, were shown the elegant grounds and conservatory of Mr. Alex.

Mitchell, and then taken to the National Soldier’s Home near the city, where

they were introduced to Genl. E. W. Hincks, commandant of the Home, who

gave them a most cordial welcome. They were then returned to the Plank-

ington House, having spent a most enjoyable afternoon.

Academy adjourned, to meet in Madison on the 26th and 27th of December,

1878,

J. E. DAVIES,

General Secretary-

REPORT OF THE LIBRARIAN.

To the President of the Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts and Letters:

Sir: At the suggestion of the General Secretary, Dr. Davies, I have made

a complete revision of the library of the Academy. This work has been of

considerable difficulty, owing to the fact that the bulk of the library consists

of pamphlets, and the unbound publications of the various scientific associ-

ations in our own and foreign countries. Many of these are exceedingly

valuable. Many of them contain the summation of the life-long investiga-

tions of specialists in their particular department of the vast field of science.

Owing to their not being sufficiently well bound, few of these are at present

available to the members of the Academy —a thing to be deeply regretted,

since these publications are to be found in no other library of the State, that

of the Academy filling a distinct and separate purpose, being, to a large

extent, supplementary to the State Historical Library. Taking these things

into consideration, it seems advisable that a certain sum should be set aside

annually for the purpose of preserving these various publications in a more

substantial binding,

The library of the Academy contains seven hundred and forty-four volumes,

including pamphlets. Under the present system of exchange, it is rapidly

growing. I herewith transmit a complete catalogue, embracing all publica-

tions received up to the present time (June 15th, 1878). The greater part of

those from foreign societies have been forwarded by the courtesy of the Smith-

sonian Institute, at Washington, D. C.

W. A. GERMAIN, Acting Librarian. .

PUBLICATIONS OF LEARNED SOCIETIES.

Now inthe library of the Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts and Letters.

EUROPEAN.

BELGIUM,

Musee Teyler — Archives —

Vol. I, Pts. 1, 2,38 and 4.

Vol IT, Pts. 1, 2, 3 and 4.

Vol. III, Pts. 1,2, 3 and 4.

Vol. IV, Pts. 1 and 2.

Hainaut Academy of Science, Arts and Letters —

Memoirs for 1871, 1872, 1873, 1874, 1875, 1876 and 1877.

282 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters.

FRANCE.

National Academy of Caen ,—

Memoirs, Vols. I, II, III, IV, V, VI and VII — 1871-6.

Academy of Bordeaux —

Acts de L’Academie, 8d Series, 1872-3.

Acts de L’Academie, 3d Series, i872.

Academy of Lyons —

Memoirs, Vols. XV, XVI, XVIII, XIX — 1870-75.

Academy of Metz —

Memoirs — 1871-2, 1872-3, 1874-5, 1875-6.

Tables Generales de |’ Academie, 1819-71.

Montpellier Academy of Science, Arts and Letters —

Transactions, Vols. IV, V, VI, VII and VIII — 1868-76.

Agricultural and Scientific Society of the Sarthe —

Bulletins, Vol. XIII, Parts 1,2 and 3, 18%1—2;

“ Se SVE Ape oss

So) EXERT Sa:

ie ee OGL SIGE

Amiens Linnean Society of the North of France —

Monthly Bulletins, from May, 1875, to December, 1877,

ITALY.

Royal Instetute of Lombardy —

Transactions for 1873, Vol. VI; 1874, Vol. VII; 1875, Vol. VII; Memoirs |

Vols. XIII, XIV and Xy.

Academy of Modena —

Memoirs, Vol. XVI.

Royal Geological Commission of I taly —

Bulletines, Nos. 1 to 12, 1874.

Publication of 1875.

NETHERLANDS,

Nederlandsch Meteorologroca.

id Jaarboeck, 1868.

id Jaarboeck, 1871.

Royal Academy of Amsterdam —

Transactions, Vol. I, P’ts 1, 2,3 and 4, 1865-7; Vol. II, P’ts 1, 2 and 3

1867-8; Vol. III, P’ts 1, 2 and 3, 1868-9; Vol. EV Pts 1 2 eand 2

1869-70; Vol. V, 1871: Vol. VI, 1871-2; Vol. VII, 1873; Vol. VIII,

1874; Vol. IX, 1875: Vol. XIII, 1874; Vol. XIV, 1875; Vol. XV, 1875.

Year Book, 1873 and 1874.

Catalogue of the library of the Academy, 1877.

Proceedings of the Academy. 288

Netherland Society for the Encouragement of Industry —

Records, 1873, 1874, 1875 and 1876.

Proceedings, 1874, 1875 and 1876.

Amsterdam Royal Society of Physical Science —

Transactions, Vols. I, II, III, IV, V, VI, VII, VII, IX, 1868-76.

Holland Society of Scvence —

Transactions, 1873, 1874, 1875, 1876 and 1877.

Catalogue of members, 1877.

Provincial Society of Arts and Scvences —

Publications, 1872, 1878, 1874, 1875 and 1876.

Royal Netherland Meteorological Institute —

Meteorological Observations, 1873.

Year Books for 1868, 1871 and 1874.

RUSSIA.

Royal Academy of Sciences of St. Petersburgh —

Repertorium of Meteorology, 1874, 1875 and 1876.

Royal Academy of Finland —

Natur och Folk, 1871, 1872, 1878, 1874 and 1875.

Imperial Physical Observatory —

Dorput Publications, Vols. I, II and III.

Annalen, 1875 and 1876.

SWEDEN AND NORWAY.

Kongliga Swenska Vetanschaps Academensis.

The Royal Swedish Academy —

Transactions, Vol. III, 1874.

Memoirs, 1875, 1876 and 1877.

University of Upsala —

Meteorological Observations, Vols. IV, V and VI.

Royal Society of Upsala —

Transactions for 1874, 1875 and 1876.

Royal Academy of Science of Christiana —

Enumeratio Insectorium Norvyicorum, 1874, 1875, 1876 and 1877.

University of Christiana —

Publications for 1873, 1874, 1875 and 1876.

Physiological Studies, by J. W. Muller.

Researches in Egyptian Chronology.

Official Statistics of Norway, 1870, 1871, 1872.

284 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters.

GERMANY.

Academy of Natural Sctences of Munich —

Transactions for 1871, 1872, 1873, 1874, 1875 and 1876.

Gottingen Royal Society —

Transactions for 1875, 1876 and 1877.

Royal Observatory, near Munich —

Annals, XX. Vol.

Mannheim Academy of Natural Sciences —

Transactions for 1870, 1871, 1872, 1873 and 1874.

Academy of Sciences of Heidelberg —

Transactions for 1874, 1875, 1876 and 1877.

Silesian Society, Breslau —

Transactions for 1873 and 1874.

dist Annual Report, 1873.

o2d Annual Report, 1874.

53d Annual Report, 1875.

o4th Annual Report, 1876.

Academy of Natural Science— Bremen —

Transactions for 1872-1873 and 1874,

Tables, etc., 1873, Parts I and II ; 1874, Parts I and II, Vol. IV.

ings, Part I, 1876.

Supplement to same, 1876.

Rhenish Prussia and Westphalia Soctety of Sciences —

Transactions — 9th year, 1872.

a 10th “ Part I, 1873; Part II, 1878.

“ Part I, 1874; Part II, 1874,

sh Part I, 1875; Part IT, 1875.

- Part I, 1876.

Giessen Society of Science, Arts and Letters —

Transactions for 1876 and 1877.

Halle Journal of Natural Science — Berlin—

Transactions — Vols. IX to XIV, 1874-5 and 6.

Natural History Society of Dresden —

Transactions for 1876,

Isis Academy of Natural Science — Dresden —

Transactions for 1874, 1875, 1876 and 1877.

Polytechnic School at Hi anover —

Programme for 1874, 1875, 1876 and 1877.

Natural Science Society of Freiburg —

Transactions, 1874, 1875 and 1876. .

Proceed-

Proceedings of the Academy. 285

Academy of Eldena —

Transactions for 1870.

Royal Phys.-Heon. Society of Konigsberg —

Publications for 1878, 1874, 1875 and 1876.

Natural Science Society of Gorlitz —

Transactions, XV. Vol., 1875.

Society of Naturalists, Dantzig—

Publications for 1872, 1873, 1874, 1875 and 1876.

Munich Royal Bavarian Academy of Science —

Transactions for 1875, Parts I and II.; 1876, Part I.

SWITZERLAND.

Zurich Academy of Natural Science —

Transactions for 1873-1874, and 1875.

St. Galle Natural Science Society —

Transactions for 1874 and 1875.

Natural Science Society of Buasel—

Transactions for 1874, 1875, 1876, 1877 and 1878.

Natural Science Society, Neuchatel —

Transactions for 1875, 1876 and 1877.

Natural Science Society of Berne —

Transactions for 1873, 1874, 1875, 1876 and 1877.

Natural Science Society of Schaffenhausen —

Transactions for 1872 and 1873.

Natural Science Society of Chur —

Transactions for 1873 and 1874.

Natural Science Society of Luzerne —

Transactions for 1576.

Academy of Vaudoise —

Transactions, Vols. XIV and XV, 1877-8.

Bulletin for 1877.

ENGLAND.

Philosophical Society of Manchester —

' Memoirs, Vols. XII, XIII, XIN, XV — 1872-6.

Catalogue, 1875.

London Royal Society — Proceedings —

Vol. XXII, Nos. 158-155; Vol. XXIII, Nos. 156-163; Vol. XXIV, Nos-

164-170; Vol. XXV, Nos. 171-179; Vol. XXVI, Nos. 179-183.

286 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters.

DENMARK.

Royal Society of Denmark —

Transactions for 1874, 1875, 1876 and 1877.

Bulletin for 1877, No. I.

Royal Academy of Copenhagen —

Bulletins for 1876, Nos. I and II.

AUSTRALIA.

Public Library of Melbourne —

Mines and Min. Statistics of New South Wales.

Treatise on New South Wales.

Nat. Industrial Resources of New South Wales.

Ann. Rept. of the Dept. of Mines.

MEXICO.

Natural Museum of Mexico —

Annals, Vol. I, 1877.

SPAIN 4 ND PORTUGAL.

Royal Academy of Lisbon —

Transactions for 1875.

SOUTH AMERICA.

Venezuela Monthly Gazette for 1877 and 1878.

ISLAND OF MAURITIUS.

Academy of Mauritius —

Transactions, Vol. IX, 1876.

IRELAND.

Royal Dublin Society —

Journal for 1870-1875.

AUSTRIA.

Academy of Natural Sciences of Vienna—

Transactions, 1872, 1878, 1874, 1875 and 1876.

Royal Zoological and Botanical Society of Vienna—

Publications, 1872, 1873, 1874, 1875, 1876 and 1877.

Hmden Natural-Philosophy Society —

Transactions for 1872, 1878, 1874, 1875, 1876 and 1877.

Society of Natural History, Brunn—

Transactions, Vols. XII and XIII, 1873.

Catalogue of the Library, 1874.

Proceedings of the Academy. 287

AMERICAN SOCIETIES.

Boston Society of Natural History —

Proceedings — Vol. 17, Parts II, III and IV, 1874.

Vol. 18, Parts I, II, III and IV, 1875-6.

Vol. 19, Parts I and II, 1877.

Buffalo Academy of Natural Science—

Bulletin — Vol. I, No. I, 1873.

Vol. I, Nos. II, III and IV, 1874.

Vol. II, Nos. I, II and ITI, 1874.

Huseum of Comparative Zodlogy — Harvard University —

Bulletin— Vol. II, Nos. 1-10, 1876.

Vol. III, Nos. 11-14, 1876.

Vol. III, Nos. 15-16, 1876.

Annual Report of Trustees, 1874.

St. Louis Academy of Science —

Vol. III. Nos. I, If, I1f, LV, 1873-1875-1876-1878.

Quarterly Journal of Conchology —

For 1874, 1875 and 1876.

Philadelphia Academy of Natural Science —

Proceedings. Parts I and [I, 1877.

New York State Museum of Natural History —-

Twenty-fifth Annual Report of Regents.

American Academy of Science — Proceedings —

Vol. IV, from May, 1876, to May, 1877.

Kansas Academy of Science—

Vol. IV, 1875.

Vol. V, 1876, Birds of Kansas (Snow), 1875.

American Association for the Advancement of Scieace — Proceedings —

Buffalo, 1876.

Cleveland Academy of Science —

Proceeedings, 1845-1859.

288 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters.

BOUND VOLUMES AND MISCELLANEOUS PAMPHLETS.

Wells, Walter, Water Power of Maine.

Durrie, D. §., Cat. State Hist. Society, Vol. I, 1873.

Durrie, D. S., Cat. State Hist. Society, Vol. II, 1873.

Driunellette, P. S., Epistola.

Museum of Natural History of New York.

Munsel, J., Chronology of Paper Making,

Dudley Observatory, Annals of, Vol. II .

Cabinet of Natural History, New York.

Munsel, J. Manual of the Lutheran Church.

University of the State of New York, 85th Rep’t, 1872.

Noye, W. Maxims of the Laws of England.

Ill. R. R. Commissioner’s Rep’t, 1871.

Department of Agriculture, Washington, Report, 1871.

Smithsonian Report, 1871.

Land Office Report, 1870.

DeCosta, B. F., Hudson’s Sailing Directions.

Tophographic Survey of Adriondic Wilderness.

Natural History and Geology of Maine for 1863.

University of State of New York, 1873.

R. R. Commissioner’s Report, Ill., 1872.

Same for 1873.

Transactions of the Wisconsin Agricu'tural Society, 1869.

Transactions of the Wisconsin Agricultural Society, 1870.

Transactions of the Wisconsin Agricultural Society, 1871.

Transactions of the Wisconsin Agricultural Society, 1872-3.

Transactions of the Wisconsin Agricultural Society, 1873-4.

Transactions of the Wisconsin Agricultural Society, 1874-5.

Transactions of the Wisconsin Agricultural Society, 1875-6.

Public Libraries of the United States, Part I, 1876.

Report Speciale Sur Immigration, 1872. :

Raymond — Min. Resources West of the Rocky Mountains, 1872.

Raymoad — Min. Resources West of the Rocky Mountains, 1878.

Finance Report of 1876. -

Compendium of the United States Census, 1870.

Memoirs Manchester Phil. Society, Vol. V.

Mines and River Resources of New South Wales, 1875.

Report of the Chief of Statistics, Washington, 1876.

Commerce and Navigation, Washington, 1876.

Proceedings of the Academy, 289

Wisconsin Agriculture, 1876-7.

Hayden — U. 8. Geological Survey, Washington, 1877.

Birds of the Northwest — Qoues.

Museum of Natural History, New York, 1872.

New York State Library, 57th Report.

Patent Office Report, Vol. I, 1869.

Patent Office Report, Vol. II, 1869.

Patent Office Report, Vol III, 1869.

Report of Commissioner of Education, Washington, 1871.

Explorations in Nevada and Arizona.

Ninth Census of the U. S.

Hayden, F. V., Geological Survey, Vol. II, 1875.

Hayden, F. V., Geological Survey, 1867-8-9.

Hayden, F. V., Geological Survey, 1870.

Hayden, F. V., Geological Survey, 1871.

Hayden, F. V., Geological Survey, 1872.

Hayden, F. V., Geological Survey, 1873.

Hayden, F. V., Geological Survey, 1874.

International Exhibition, London, 1862

Powell. B. P., Geology of the Uinta Mts.

Hayden., U.S. Geol. Survey, 1874.

Hayden, U.S Geol. Survey, 1876.

Hayden, U.S. Geol. Survey, 1876.

Powell, B. P., Colorado River Exploraitions, 1873.

Memoriam — Increase A. Lapham.

New England and the English Commowealth.

Fur-bearing Animals of the Northwest — Cowes.

Powell, J. W., American Ethnology.

Hayden, F. V., U.S. Geol. Survey, ,Vol. XI.

Hayden, F. V., U.S. Geol. Survey of 1875.

Memoirs, Vol. I, 1875.

Memoirs, Vol. II, 1875.

U.S. Geol. Exploration of 9th Par., C. King, 1875.

Department of Agriculture, 1875.

Department of Agriculture, 1876.

Commercial Relations, 1875.

Messages and Documen's U. S., 1871.

Commerce and Navigation, Part I, 1876.

Commerce and Navigation, Part II, 1876.

The Electoral Count of 1876.

Leading Cases in International Law (Digest).

Western Review of Science and Industry. Theo. 8. Case, Kansas City,

Mo. Vols. I and II.

Medical Investigator, 1878 to 1878.

290 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Aris, and Letters.

REPORT OF THE COUNCIL.

Since the last report of the Council, on February 138, 1876, the Academy

has lost by death the following members:

James H. Eaton, Ph. D.,,for many years Professor of Chemistry in Beloit

College, and one of the most valuable contributors to the Transactions of the

Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts and Letters. A memoir of Professor

Eaton, contributed by his colleague, Professor T. C. Chamberlin, will be

found at the end of this volume.

H. E. Copeland, A. M., Professor of Natural Sciences in the Whitewater

State Normal School. No memoir of Professor Copeland has yet been pre-

sented.

John B. Feuling, Ph. D., Professor of Comparative Philology and Modern

Languages in the University of Wisconsin, a memoir of whom, by his col-

league, Professor 8. H. Carpenter, will be found at the end of this volume.

Stephen H. Carpenter, LL. D., Professor of Logic and English Literature

in the University of Wisconsin, whose sudden death has taken place while

the last pages of this volume were in press. A brief sketch of his life, taken

from the Wisconsin State Journal, will be found at the end of this volume.

J. E. DAVIES,

General Secretary.

LIST OF OFFICERS AND MEMBERS

OF THE

ACADEMY, 1878,

GENERAL OFFICERS OF THE ACADEMY,

(Term expires Dec. 27, 1878.)

PRESIDENT:

Dr. P. R. HOY, Racine.

VICE-PRESIDENTS :

Dr. 5S. H. CARPENTER, - : - - - MAnDISoN.

Pror. T.C. CHAMBERLIN, - - - - BELOIT.

Rey. G. M. STEELE, D. D., - - - - APPLETON.

How. J. I. CASE, = - = - - RACINE.

Rey. A. L. CHAPIN, D. D., - - - - BEnorr.

Dr. J. W. HOYT, - - - - - MADISON.

GENERAL SECRETARY:

Pror. J. E. DAVIES, M. D., Untversity or WISCONSIN.

TREASURER:

GEO. P. DELAPLAINE, Esq., Mapison.

DIRECTOR OF THE MUSEUM:

LIBRARIAN:

MEMBERS OF THE COMMITTEE EX-OFFICIO:

HIS EXCELLENCY THE GOVERNOR OF THE STATE.

THE LIEUTENANT GOVERNOR.

THE SUPERINTENDENT OF PUBLIC INSTRUCTION.

THE PRESIDENT OF THE STATH UNIVERSITY.

THE PRESIDENT OF THE STATE AGRICULTURAL SOCIETY.

THE SECRETARY OF THE STATE AGRICULTURAL SOCIETY.

THE PRESIDENT OF THE STATE HISTORICAL SOCIETY.

THE SECRETARY OF THE STATE HISTORICAL SOCIETY.

294 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters.

GENERAL OFFICERS OF THE ACADEMY.

* Term expires Dec. 27, 1881.

PRESIDENT:

A. L. CHAPIN, Benorr.

VICE PRESIDENTS:

Pror. R. D. IRVING, A. M., M. E., = - Mapison.

Hon. G. H. PAUL, - = - - MILWAUKEE.

G. M. STEELE, D. D.,_ - 2 - - APPLETON.

GENERAL SECRETARY:

Pror. J. E. DAVIES, A. M., M. D.,

University otf Wisconsin.

TREASURER:

Hon. 8. D. HASTINGS, Manison.

DIRECTOR OF THE MUSEUM:

Pror. G. W. PECKHAM, M. D., MinwavuKeEr.

LIBRARIAN:

E. A. BIRGE, Pu. D., Manison.

* Owing to the unusual delay in the publication of the present yolume of Transactions, it

was thought advisable to print the above list ot General Officers of the Academy, who were

elected at the Regular Annual Meeting, held at Madison, Dec. 27, 1878.

Officers of the Departments. 295

OFFICERS OF THE DEPARTMENTS.

Department of Speculative Philosophy.

President Ex-Oficio—THE PRESIDENT OF THE ACADEMY.

Vice-President —S. H. CARPENTER, LL. D., State University.

Secretary — REY. F. M. HOLLAND, Baraboo

Counselors — PRESIDENT BASCOM, State University, PROF. O. AREY,

Whitewater, and REV. A. O. WRIGHT, Hox Lake.

Depariment of the Natural Sciences.

President Hx-Oficio— THE PRESIDENT OF THE ACADEMY.

Vice-President — PROF. T. C. CHAMBERLIN, Belozt.

Secretary — PROF. J. H. EATON, Beloit.

Counselors —PROF. W. W. DANIELLS, State University, PROF. J. C..

FOYE, Appleton, and PROF. THURE KUMLEIN, Albion College.

Department of the Social and Political Sciences.

President Hx-Oficio —THE PRESIDENT OF THE ACADEMY.

Vice-President — REV. G. M. STEELE, Appleton.

re — a LELAND, Hau Claire.

ounselors — DR. E. B. WOLCOTT, Milwaukee, REV. CHAS. CA

Lombard, Ili., and PROF. J. B. PARKINSON, Madison. Mes

Department of the Mechanic Arts,

President Hz-Oficio —THE PRESIDENT OF THE ACADEMY

Vice-President — J. 1. CASE, Racine. 3

Secretary — PROF. W. J. L. NICODEMUS, State University.

Counselors — CHAS. H. HASKINS, Milhoaukee, HON. J. L. MITCHELL

Milwaukee, and CAPT. JOHN NADER, Madison.

Department of Letters.

President Ex-Officio —THE PRESIDENT OF THE ACADEMY.

Vice-President — REY. A. L. CHAPIN, D. D., Belozt.

Bee — eee FUNG: State University.

ounselors — . W. F. ALLEN, Madison, PROF. EMER‘ }

PLO. LC! DRAPHR aici veo) mie ee

Department of the Fine Arts.

President Hz-Oficio—THE PRESIDENT OF THE ACADEMY.

Vice-President — DR. J. W. HOYT, Madison.

Secretary — HON. J. E. THOMAS, Sheboygan.

POU a R. STUART, MRS. 8S. F. DEAN, and MRS. H. M. LEWIS

adison. ;

296 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters.

MEMBERS OF THE ACADEMY.

LIFE MEMBERS.

Case, J. I., Hon., Racine, Wis.

Dewey, Nelson, Ex-Governor of Wisconsin, Madison, Wis.

Hagerman, J. J., Esq., Milwaukee, Wis.

Hoyt, J. W., M. D., Governor of Wyoming Territory.

Lawler, John, Esq., Prairie du Chien, Wis.

Mitchell, J. L., Hon., Milwaukee, Wis.

Noonan, J. A., Esq., Milwaukee, Wis.

_ Paul, G. H., Hon., Milwaukee, Wis.

Thomas, J. E., Hon., Sheboygan Falls, Wis.

Thorpe, J. G., Hon., Hau Claire, Wis.

White, 8. A., Hon., Whitewater, Wis.

ANNUAL MEMBERS.

Adsit, N. H., Mrs., Milwaukee, Wis.

Allen, W. C., Hon., Racine, Wis.

Alien, W. F., A. M., Professor of Latin and History in the University of Wis-

consin.

Bartlett, E. W., M. D., Milwaukee, Wis.

' Bascom, John, LL. D., President of the University of Wisconsin.

Bashford, R. M., A. M., Madison, Wis.

Bate, A. W., Mrs., Milwaukee, Wis.

Birge, E. A., Ph. D., Instructor in Zoology in the University of Wisconsin.

Bryant, Ed. H., Hon., Madison, Wis.

Buck, James 8., Milwaukee, Wis.

Bundy, W. F., A. M., Sauk City, Wis.

Butler, J. D., LL. D., Madison, Wis.

Cass, Josiah E., Eau Claire, Wis.

Caverno, Chas., Rev., Lombard, III.

Chamberlin, T. C., A. M., Professor of Natural History in Beloit College, and

Director of the Geological Survey of Wisconsin.

Chapin, A. L., D. D., President of Beloit College, Beloit, Wis.

Conover, O. M., A. M., Madison Wis.

Daniells, W. W., M. S., Professor of Chemistry in the University of Wis-

consin.

Members of the Academy. 297

Davies, J. E., A. M., M. D., Professor of Physics in the University of Wisconsin.

Day, F. H., M. D., Wauwatosa, Wis.

Dean, 8. F., Mrs., Madison. Wis.

DeHart, J.N., M D., Madison, Wis.

De Koven, James, Rev. Dr., Racine, Wis.

De La Matyr, W. A., Spring Green, Wis.

Delaplaine, Geo. P., Madison, Wis.

Doerflinger, Carl, Mrs., Milwaukee, Wis.

Doyle, Peter, Hon., Secretary of State of Wisconsin.

Draper, L. C., Hon., Madison, Wis.

Dudley, Wm., Madison, Wis.

Durand, H.S8., Racine, Wis.

Durand, H.S8., Mrs., Racine, Wis. 6

Durand, Frankie, Miss, Racine, Wis.

Durrie, D. 8., Librarian Wisconsin State Histurical Society, Madison, Wis.

Elmendorf, J. J., 8. T. D., Professor in Racine College.

Emerson, Prof., Beloit College, ‘Wis.

Falk, F. W., Ph. D., Professor in Racine College, Racine, Wis.

Farrar, Chas. A., Prest. Milwaukee College, Milwaukee Wis.

Farrar, Chas., Mrs., Milwaukee, Wis.

Ford, J. C., Hon., Madison, Wis.

Ford, Julia, Mrs., Milwaukee, Wis.

Foye, J. C., A. M., Professor of Physics in Lawrence University, Appleton,

Wis.

Frackleton, Mrs., Milwaukee, Wis.

Gapen, Clark, M. D., Madison, Wis.

Germain, W. A., Delafield, Wis.

Giles, Elia, Miss, Madison, Wis.

Gordon, Geo., Milwaukee, Wis.

Gordon, Geo., Mrs., Milwaukee, Wis.

Gordon, G. E., Rev., Milwaukee, Wis.

Gregory, Chas. N., A. M., Madison, Wis.

Hailman, W. M., Milwaukee, Wis.

Hardy, Albert, Principal High School, Milwaukee, Wis.

Haskins, C. H., General Superintendent Northwestern Telegraph Company,

Milwaukee, Wis.

Hastings, 8. D., Hen., Madison, Wis.

Hawley, C. T., Milwaukee, Wis.

Henrickson, Peter, Prof., Beloit College, Beloit, Wis.

Holland, F. M., Rev., A. M., Baraboo, Wis.

Holton, HE. D., Hon., Milwaukee, Wis.

Hoy, P. R., M. D., Racine, Wis.

Hoy, Jenny, Miss, Racine, Wis.

Hutchinson, B. E., Hon., Madison, Wis.

Irving, R. D., A. M., M. E., Professor of Geology and Mining Engineering

. in the University ef Wisconsin.

298 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters.

Jones, Jenk. Ll., Rev., Janesville, Wis.

Kenaston, C. A., Ripon, Wis.

Kerr, Alex., A. M., Professor of Greek in the University of Wisconsin.

King, Chas. I., Superintendent Machine Shop, University of Wisconsin.

Kingston, J. P., Necedah, Wis.

Kleeberger, G. R., Whitewater, Wis.

Kumlein, Thure, Prof., Albion College, Albany, Wis.

Lapham, Mary J., Miss, Summit, Wis.

Lapham, 8. G., Milwaukee, Wis.

Leland, E. R., Eau Claire, Wis.

Lewis, H. M., Mrs., Madison, Wis.

Lovewell, J. T., Professor in Female College, Milwaukee, Wis.

Luther, F.S., Rev., Racine College, Racine, Wis.

Mann, Chas., Milwaukee, Wis.

Marks, Solon, M. D., Milwaukee, Wis.

Mason, R. Z., LL. D., Appleton, Wis.

McLaren, W. P., Milwaukee, Wis.

McMurphy, J. G., Prof., Racine, Wis.

Meacham, J. G., M. D., Racine, Wis.

Meacham, J. G., Jr., M. D., Racine, Wis.

Merrill, Wm. P., Hon., Milwaukee, Wis.

Morris, W. A. P., Hon., Madison, Wis.

Nader, John, C. E., Madison, Wis.

Nicodemus, W. J. L., A. M., C. E., Professor of Civil and Mechanical Engin-.

eering in the University of Wisconsin.

Olin, D. A., Mrs., Racine, Wis.

Orton, Harlow S., Hon., Judge of Supreme Court of Wisconsin, Madison, Wis.

Parkinson, J. B., A. M., Professor of Civil Polity and Political Economy in

the University of Wisconsin.

Parsons, P. B,, Madison, Wis.

Peckham, Geo. W., Professor of Natural Science in the Milwaukee High

School, Milwaukee, Wis.

Perkins, D. W., M. D., Milwaukee, Wis.

Pinney, S. U., Hon., Madison, Wis.

Pradt, J. B., Rev., A. M., Madison, Wis.

Preusser, Chas., President of Natural History Society, Milwaukee, Wis.

Sawyer, W. C., Professor, in Lawrence University, Appleton, Wis.

Shaw, Samuel, A. M., Principal High School, and City Superintendent of

Public Schools, Madison, Wis.

Shipman, 8. V., Chicago, Il.

Simmons, H. M., Rev., Kenosha, Wis.

Sloan, I. C., Hon., Madison, Wis.

Smith, R. B., Attorney at Law, Madison, Wis.

Smith, Wm. E., Governor of Wisconsin.

Sprague, A. R., Evansville, Wis.

Stark, G. A., M. D., Milwaukee, Wis.

Members of the Academy. 299

Steele, Geo. M., Rev., D. D., President of Lawrence University, Appleton,

Wis.

Stuart, J. R., A. M., Madison, Wis.

Swezey, G. D., A. M., Professor in Beloit College, Beloit, Wis.

Whitford, W. C., A. M., Superintendent of Public Instruction of the State_of

Wisconsin.

Wilkinson, John, Rev., A. M., Madison, Wis.

Willis, Olympia Brown, Mrs., Racine, Wis.

Winship, Eugene B., Racine College, Racine, Wis.

Wolcott, E. B., M. D., Milwaukee, Wis.

Wolcott, Laura J., Mrs., Milwaukee, Wis.

Wood, J. W., Baraboo, Wis.

Woodman, E. E., Baraboo, Wis.

Wright, A. O., Rev., Fox Lake, Wis.

CORRESPONDING MEMBERS.

Abbett, C. C., M. D., Trenton, New Jersey.

Andrews, Edmund, A. M., M. D., Professor in Chicago Medical College,

Chicago, I11.

Barrow, John W., No. 313 East Seventeenth street, New York city.

Bridge, Norman, M. D., Chicago, Ill.

Brinton, J. G., M. D., Philadelphia, Pa.

Buchanan, Joseph, M. D., Louisville, Ky.

Burnham, S. W., F. R. A. S., Chicago, Ill.

Byrness, R. M., M. D., Cincinnati, Ohio.

Carr, E. 8., M. D., Superintendent Public Instruction, California.

Ebener, F., Ph. D., Baltimore, Md.

Gatchell, H. P., M. D., Kenosha, Wis.

Gill, Theo., M. D., Smithsonian Institute, Washington, 1D. Ce

Gilman, D. C., President John Hopkins’ University.

Haldeman, 8. 8., LL. D., Professor in University of Pennsylvania, Chickis,

Penn.

Harris, W. T., LL. D., St. Louis, Mo.

Hopkins, F. V., M. D., Baton Rouge, La.

‘Horr, Asa, M. D., President Iowa Institute of Arts and Sciences, Dubuque,

Towa.

Hubbell, H. P., Winona, Minn.

Jewell, J.S.,A. M., M. D., Professor in Chicago Medical College, Chicago, Ill.

Le Barron, Wm., State Entomologist, Geneva, New York.

Marcy, Oliver, LL. D., Prof., Northwestern University, Evanston, Ill.

Morgan, L. H., LL. D., Rochester, Ill.

Newberry, J. S., LL. D., Prof., Columbia College, New York.

Orton, E., A. M,, President Antioch College, Yellow Springs, Ohio.

Paine, Alford, 8. T. D., Hinsdale, Ill.

800 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters.

Porter, W. B., Prof., St. Louis,Mo.

Safford, T. H., Director of the Astronomical Observatory of Williams College,

Williamstown, Mass.

Schele, De Vere M., L. L. D., Prof. University of Viriginia, Charlotteville,

Va.

Shaler, N.S., A. M., Prof. Harvard University, Cambridge, Mass.

Trumbull, J. H., LL. D., Hartford, Conn.

Verrill, A. E., A. M., Prof. Yale College, New Haven, Conn.

Van DeWarker, Eli, M. D., Syracuse, New York.

Watson, James C., A. M., Director of the Washburn Astronomical Observa-

tory at Madison, Wis.

Whitney, W. D., Prof. Yale College, New Haven, Conn.

Winchell, Alex., LL. D., Chancelor of Syracuse University, Syracuse, N. Y.

HONORARY MEMBERS.

Baird, Spencer, F. M. D., LL. D., Washington, D. C.

Hamilton, Joseph, Hon., Milwaukee, Wis.

NotE— Members of the Academy will confer a favor upon the secretary by communicating

to him their full postoffice address, and by giving him timely notice of any permanent

change of residence on their part; also by pointing out any corrections needed in the fore-

going listz of members.

Members Deceased. 3801

MEMBERS DECEASED

Since the Organization of the Academy in 1870.

Wm. Stimpson, M. D., Late Secretary Chicago Academy of Sciences, Chi-

cago, Ill.

J. W. Foster, LL. D., late Professor in the University of Chicago, Chicago

il. Died June 29, 1878.

Rt. Rev. Wm. E. Armitage, 8. T. D., Bishop of Wisconsin, and for a term

Vice President of the Academy of Sciences. Died Dec. %, 1873.

Hon. John Y. Smith, Madison, Wis. Died May 5, 1874.

Prof. Peter Englemann, Milwaukee, Wis. Died May 17, 1874.

I. A. Lapham, LL. D., Milwaukee, Wis. First Secretary of the Wisconsin

Academy of Sciences, Arts and Letters. Died Sept. 14, 1875.

Hon. A. 8. McDill, M. D., Madison, Wis. Died Nov. 12, 1875.

Prof. H. E. Copeland, Whitewater State Normal School, Whitewater, Wis.

James H. Eaton, late Professor of Chemistry in Beloit College, Beloit, Wis.

Died Jan. 5, 1877.

J. C. Freer, late President Rush Medical College, Chicago, Ill. Died April

12, 1877.

Thos. Blossom, M. E., School of Mines, Columbia College, New York. Cor-

responding member of the Academy.

Prof. H. F. Oldenhage, Milwaukee High School, Milwaukee, Wis.

J. B. Feuling, Ph. D., late Professor of Modern Languages and Comparatiye

Philology in the University of Wisconsin. Died March 10, 1878.

J. Wingate Thornton, Boston, Mass. Corresponding member of the Acad-

emy. Died June 6, 1878.

8. H. Carpenter, LL. D., late Professor of Logic and English Literature in

the University of Wisconsin. Died Dec. 7, 1878.

302 = Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters.

COMMITTEES OF THE ACADEMY.

By-law No. 5, states that there shall be the following Standing Commit.

tees, to consist of three members each, when ne other number is specified:

1. On Nominations.

2. On Papers presented to the Academy.

3. On Finance.

4. On the Museum.

5. On the Library.

6. On the Scientific Survey of the State; which committee shall consist of

the Governor, the President of the State University, and the President of this

Academy.

7. On Publication; which committee shall consist of the President of the

Academy, the Vice-Presidents, and the Genera] Secretary.

Under this by-law it has been customary to appoint, on the first committee,

three members of the Academy present at the beginning of the regular meet-

ing, at which the nominations are made.

The President and General Secretary of the Academy constitute the second.

The committee on Finance, to whom is referred the report of the Treasurer,

Consists of three members of the Academy, appointed by the President at

the regular annual meeting in February or December.

The committee on the Museum at present consists of Professors T. C.

Chamberlin, R. D. Irving and J. OC. Foye.

The committee on the Library consists of Prof. W. F. Allen, Gen. Geo. B.

Delaplaine and Gen. Ed. E. Bryant.

CHARTER, CONSTITUTION AND BY-LAWS

OF THE

ACADEMY OF

SCIENCES, ARTS, AND LETTERS,

OF WISCONSIN

With the Amendments thereto, up to February, 1878.

CHARTER.

AN ACT TO INCORPORATE THE “WISCONSIN ACADEMY OF

SCIENCKHS, ARTS AND LETTERS,

The people of the State of Wisconsin, represented in Senate and Assembly, do

enact as foliows :

Section 1. Lucius Fairchild, Nelson Dewey, Jchn W. Hoyt, Increase A.

Lapham, Alexander Mitchell, Wm. Pitt Lynde, Joseph Hobbins, E. B. Wol-

cott, Solon Marks, R. Z. Mason, G. M. Steele, T. C. Chamberlin, James H.

Eaton, A. L. Chapin, Samuel Fallows, Charles Preuser, Wm. KE. Smith, J. C.

Foye, Wm. Dudley, P. Englemann, A. 8S. McDill, John Murrish, Geo. P. Del-

aplaine, J. G. Knapp, 8. V. Shipman, Edward D. Holton, P. R. Hoy, Thaddeus

C. Pound, Charles E. Bross, Lyman C. Draper, John A. Byrne, O. R. Smith,

J.M. Bingham, Henry Betz, Ll. Breese, Thos. 8. Allen, 8. S. Barlow, Chas.

R. Gill, C. L. Harris, George Reed, J. G. Thorp, William Wilson, Samuel D.

Ilastings, and D. A. Baldwin, at present being members and officers of an

association known as “The Wlsconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts and Let-

ters,” located at the city of Madison, together with their future associates and

successors forever, are hereby created a body corporate by the name and style

ot “The Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts and Letters,” and by that

name shall have perpetual succession; shall be capable in law of contracting

and being contracted with, of suing and being sued, of pleading and being

impleaded in all courts of competent jurisdiction; and may do and perform

such acts as are usually performed by like corporate bodies.

SEcTION 2. The general objects of the Academy shall be to encourage

investigation and disseminate correct views in the various departments of

science, literature and the arts. Among the specific objects of the academy

shall be embraced the following: ~

1. Researches and investigations in the various departments of the material,

metaphysical, ethical, ethnological and social science.

2. A progressive and thorough scientific survey of the state, with a view of

determining its mineral, agricultural and other resources.

3. The advancement of the useful arts, through the applications of science,

and by the encouragement of original invention.

4. The encouragement of the fine arts, by means of honors and prizes

awarded to artists for original works of superior merit

5. The formation of scientific, economical and art museums.

6. The encouragement of philological and historical research, the collec-

tion and preservation of historic records, and the formation of a general

library.

SECON 3. Said Academy may have acommon seal and alter the same at

pleasure; may ordain and euforce such constitution, regulations and by-laws

as may be necessary, and alter the same at pleasure; may receive and hold

real and personal property, and may use and dispose of the same at pleasure ;

provided, that it shall not divert any donation or bequest from the uses and

objects proposed by the donor, and that none of the property acquired by it

shall, in any manner, be alienated other than in the way of an exchange of

duplicate specimens, books, and other effects, with similar institutions and

in the manner specified in the next section of this act, without the consent ot

the legislature.

806 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters.

Section 4. It shall be the duty of said Academy, so far as the same may

be done without detriment to its own collections, to furnish, at the discretion

of its officers, duplicate typical specimens of its objects in natural history to

the University of Wisconsin, and to the other schools and colleges of the

state. :

Sxctron 5. It shall be the duty of said Academy to keep a careful record

of allits financial and other transactions, and, at the close of each fiscal.

year, the president thereof shall report the same to the governor of the state,

to be by him laid before the legislature.

Sxcrion 6. The constitution and by-laws of said Academy now in force

shall govern the corporation hereby created, until regularly altered or re-

pealed; and the present officers of said Academy shall be officers of the cor-

poration hereby created until their respective terms of office shall regularly

expire, or until their places shall be otherwise vacated.

Section 7. Any existing society or institution having like objects em-

braced by said Academy, may be constituted a department thereof, or be

otherwise connected therewith, on terms mutually satisfactory to the govern-

ing bodies of the said Academy and such other society or institution.

Section 8. For the proper preservation of such scientific specimens,

books and other collections as said Academy may make, the governor shall

prepare such apartment or apartments in the capitol as may be so occupied

without inconvenience to the state.

SEcTIon 9. This act shall take effect and be in force from and after its

passage.

Approved March 16, 1870.

Constitution. 307

CONSTITUTION.

NAME AND LOCATION.

Snorron 1. This association shall be called “The Wisconsin Academy of

Sciences, Arts and Letters,” and shall be located at the city of Madison.

GENERAL OBJECTS,

Section 2. The general object of the Academy shall be to encourage in-.

vestigations and disseminate correct views in the various departments of Sci-.

ence, Literature and the Arts.

DEPARTMENTS.

Section 8. The Academy shall comprise separate Departments, not less;

than three in number, of which those first organized shall be:

1st. The Department of Speculative Philosphy —

Embracing:

Metaphysics;

Ethics.

2d. The Department of the Social and Political Sciences —

Embracing:

Jurisprudence;

Political Science;

Education ;

Public Health;

Social Economy. -

3d. The Department of Natural Sciences —

Embracing:

The Mathematical and Physical Sciences:

Natural History ;

The Anthropological and Ethnological Sciences.

4th. The Department of Arts —

Embracing:

The Practical Arts;

The Fine Arts.

oth. The Department of Letters —

Embracing:

Language;

Literature ;

Criticism;

History.

Srction 4. Any branch of these Departments may be consti

‘ y ) ituted a sec-

tion; and any section or group of sections may be deennded into a full De

partment, whenever such expansion shall be deemed important.

308 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters.

Section 6. Any existing society or institution mey be constituted a De-

partment, on terms approved by two-thirds of the voting members present at

two successive regular meetings of the Academy.

SPECIAL OBJECTS OF THE DEPARTMENTS.

Sxction 6. The specific objects of the Department of Sciences shall be:

1. General Scientific Research.

2. A progressive and thorough Scientific Survey of the State, under the di-

rection of the Officers of the Academy.

3. The formation of.a Scientific Museum.

4, The Diffusion of Knowledge by the publication of Original Contribu-

tions to Science.

The object of the Department of the Arts shall be:

1. The Advancement of the Useful Arts, through the Application of Sci-

ence and the Encouragement of Original Invention.

2. The Encouragement of the Fine Arts and the Iinprovement of the Public

Taste, by means of Honors and Prizes awarded to Works of Superior Merit,

by Original Contributions to Art, and the Formation of an Art Museum.

The objects of the Department of Letters, shall be:

1, The Encouragement of Philological and Historical Research.

2. The Improvement of the English Language.

3. The Collection and Preservation of Historic Records.

4, The Formation of a General Library.

MEMBERSHIP.

Srctron 7. The Academy shall embrace four classes of governing mem-

‘pers who shall be admitted by vote of the Academy, in the manner to be

prescribed in the By-Laws:

1st. Annual Members, who shall pay an initiation fee of five dollars, and

thereafter'an annual fee of two dollars.

2d. Members for Life, who shall pay a fee of one hundred dollars.

3d. Patrons, whose contributions shall not be less than five hundred dollars.

4th. Founders, whose contributions shall not be less than the sum of one

thousand dollars.

Provisions may also be made for the election of honorary and correspond-

ing members, as may be directed by the by-laws of the Academy.

MANAGEMENT.

Srcrion 8. The management of the Academy shall be intrusted to a gen-

eral council; the immediate control of each Department to a Department

Council. The General Council shall cons'st of the officers of the Academy,

the officers of the Departments, the Governor and Lieutenant Governor, the

Superintendent of Public Instruction, and the President of the State Univer-

sity, the President and Secretary of the State Agricultural Society, the Presi-

dent and Secretary of the State Historical Society. Counselors ew-officids, and

three Counselors to be elected for each Department. The Department Coun-

cils shall consist of the President and Secretary of the Academy, the officers

of the Department, and three Counselors to be chosen by the Department.

OFFICERS.

Section 9. The officers of the Academy shall be: a President, who shall

be ew-officto President of each of the Departments; one Vice-President for

each Department; a General Secretary; a General Treasurer; a Director of

the Museum, and a Genera] Librarian.

Section 10. The officers of each Department shall be a Vice-President,

who shall be ev-officio a Vice-President of the Academy; a Secretary and such

other officers as may be created by the General Council.

Constitution. 3809

SEcTION 11. The officers of the Academy and the Departments shall hold

their respective offices for the term of three years and until their successors

are elected.

SecTion 12. The first election of officers under this Constitution shall be

by its members at the first meeting of the Academy.

Section 13. The duties of the officers and the mode of their election,

after the first election, as likewise the frequency, place and date of all meet-

ings, shall be prescribed in the By-Laws of the Academy, which shall be

framed and adopted by the General Council.

SEcTION 14. No compensation shall be paid to any person whatever, and

no expenses incurred for any person or object whatever, except under the

authority of the Council.

RELATING TO AMENDMENTS.

Section 15. Every proposition to alter or amend this constitution shall

be submitted in writing at a regular meeting; and if two-thirds of the mem-

bers present at the next regular meeting vote in the affirmative, it shall be

adopted.

AMENDMENTS TO THE CONSTITUTION.

Amendment to Section 3: “ The Department of the Arts shall be hereafter

divided into the Department of the Mechanic Arts and the Department of

the Fine Arts,” Passed February 14, 1876.

810 Wrsconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters.

DB WSEAN iS:

ELECTION OF MEMBERS.

1. Candidates for membership must be proposed in writing, by a member,

to the General Council and referred to the committee on Nominations, which

committee may nominate to the Academy. A majority vote shall elect. Hon-

orary and corresponding members must be persons who have rendered some

marked service to Science, the Arts, or Letters, or to the Academy.

ELECTION OF OFFICERS.

2. All officers of the Academy shall be elected by ballot.

MEETINGS.

3. The regular meetings of the Academy shall be as follows:

On the 2d Tuesday in February, at the seat of the Academy; and in July,

at such place and exact date as shall be fixed by the Council; the first named

to be the Annual Meeting. The hour shall be designated by the Secretary in’

the notice of the meeting.- At any regular meeting, ten members shall con-

stitute a quorum for the transaction of business. Special meetings may be

called by the President at his discretion, or by request of any five members of

the General Council.

Amended at Racine, July 10, 1878, as follows:

The regular Annual Meeting of the Academy, shall be held as follows:

On the last Wednesday and Thursday in December, at the seat of the Acad-

emy; and the regular Semd-annual Meeting shall be held in July, at such time

and place as shall be determined upon at the previous regular Annual Meet-

ing in December. The hour shall be designated by the Secretary in the no-

tice of the meeting.

Special meetings may be called by the President or the General Secretary,

at their discretion or by request of any five members of the General Council.

DUTIES OF OFFICERS.

4. The President, Vice-President, Secretaries, Treasurer, Director of the

M useum and Librarian shall perform the duties usually appertaining to their

respective offices, or such as shal? be required by the Council. The Treas.

urer shall give such security as shall be satisfactory to the Council, and pay

such rete of interest on funds held by him as the Council shall determine.

Five members of the General Council shall constitute a quorum.

COMMITTERS.

5, There shall be the following Standing Committees, to consist of three

members each, when no other number is specified:

On Nominations.

On Papers presented to the Academy.

On Finance.

By-Laws. 311

On the Museum.

On the Library.

On the Scientific Survey of the State; which Committee shall

consist of the Governor, the President of the State University

and the President of this Academy.

On Publication; which Committee shall consist of the President

of the Academy, the Vice-Presidents, and the General Sec- _

retary.

MUSEUM AND LIBRARY.

6. No books shall be taken from the Library, or works or specimens from

the Museum, except by authority of the General Council; but it shall be the

duty of said Council, to provide for the distribution to the State University

and to the Colleges and public Schools of the State, of such duplicates of

typical specimens in Natural History as the Academy may be able to supply

without detriment to its collections.

ORDER OF BUSINESS.

%. The order of business at all regular meetings of the Academy or of any

Department, shall be as follows:

Reading minutes of previous meeting.

Reception of conations.

Reports of officers and committees.

Deferred business.

New business.

Reading and discussion of papers.

SUSPENSION AND AMENDMENT OF BY-LAWS.

8. The By-Laws may be suspended by a unanimous vote, and in case of the

order of business a majority may suspend. They may be amended in the

same manner as is provided for in the Constitution, for its amendment.

IN MEMORIAM.

PROF. JAMES. H. EATON, Pa D.

Late Professor of Chemistry and Physics in Beloit College.

By T. C. CHAMBERLIN.

Once and again, a seventh time and an eighth, has our Society been called

upon to lament the departure of an esteemed and honored member.

An Armitage, an Engleman, a Foster, a Lapham, a Stimpson, a Smith, and

a McDill have passed in turn from our number and have left vacancies we

may not hope to fill, losses we may not hope to repair. Esteemed and

mourned, as these have been, the more esteemed and the more lamented as

we have known them the more intimately, our sorrow is no less profound,

our bereavement is even yet sadder, as we realize the loss of a younger and

no less earnest co-laborer, the devoted Eaton.

The 21st of June, 1842, marked the beginning, and the morning of the 5th

of January, 1877, beheld the close of the life of Prof. James H. Eaton, a

span of thirty-four years — twenty-five years of preparation, nine years of

work, -

To his father, at once a scholar, a teacher and an author, he owed much of

that firm intellectual foundation upon which he erected so true and trust-

worthy a scholarship. His early training was received in earth’s best and

truest university, the home, a cultured, Christian home. To this was added

the vigorous discipline of Phillip’s Academy, the wider culture of Amherst

College and the technical training of Géttingen University. The fruitage of

these rare opportunities was everywhere manifest in the ‘mental acquisitions

of Prof. Eaton. His academic scholarship was thorough and accurate, firm

and solid. There was no weakness or unsoundness in the foundation, We

could admire the symmetrical shaft, the ornate capital, and the chaste en-

tablature of the intellectual column, with no misgiving lest a weak or

crumbling pedestal should work its ruin.

His culture was broad and catholic. Because he was a chemist, he did not

find it necessary tu despise the linguist. Because he traced and taught the

history of an atom, he did not deprecate the merits of those who taught the

history of man, or of his institutions. Because he could give visible demon-

stration of the laws of the physical elements, he did not disparage the more

occult sanctions of civil, moral and religious laws. Because he dealt with

the material, he did not scorn the spiritual.

In Memoriam. 315

While pot an omniverous student, the bounds of his special investigations

did not constitute for him the horizon of truth. He believed in the rotundity

of the intellectual world; that, to whatever eminence, as an explorer of truth,

he might climb, and however much his vision might thereby be amplified,

there was yet beyond a wider circumference, and, however antipodal some

phenomena might seem, they were still embraced in the sphericity of truth.

How often in our judgment of truth do we forget that the completeness and

perfection of the whole involves contrast and antagonism of the parts.

These enlarged views found expression in the opinions and efforts of Prof.

Eaton as an educator. While an enthusiastic devotee of science, thoroughly

impressed with its value as an educational agency, he at the same time fully

recognized the importance of co-ordinate literary, ethical, and esthetical cul-

ture. He extended neither sympathy nor fellowship toward the educational.

one-ideaism that finds expression in tke average scientific course. It was

largely due to his influence that the so-called Scientific course of Beloit Col-

lege was abolished, while he gave a hearty support to the broader and more

symmetrical Philosophical course, which is producing so much richer fruit.

As an educator he despised narrowness, whetber it were vertical or horizontal

whether it arose from building upon a constricted foundation or from the

tenuity of superficial diffuseness, and so he stood opposed alike to efforts to

confine education to a single or a few lines of thought, on the one hand, and

attempts, on the other hand, to spread the curriculum over the whole surface

of knowledge without giving thorough or adequate instruction in any

department of it.

One of the most prominent characteristics of Prof. Eaton, as a scientist

and as a man, was his perfect sincerity and scrupulous conscientiousness.

A worshiper of the truth, he spurned hypocrisy. A firm believer in the

potency and permanence of truth, he scorned to erect a fabric of fallacy for

personal or politic purposes. If error marked his views, it was the error of

mistake, and not the aberration of guile. If, as all original investigators do,

he gathered misconceptions, mingled with his gathering of facts, they were

no sooner discovered than cast aside, however much they may have been

interwoven with the fabric of his thought, and however much his personal

feelings may lave been involved by their publication. It requires courage

and a conscience to do this.

His mental vision was marked by clearness and accuracy, the outgrowth in

part of native endowments, and in no small part, we judge, of that consci

entiousness we so much admired. How easy it is to deflect our intellectual

sight and warp the native integrity of our judgment. The rays of truth

have come to few through purer and clearer lens or one kept more perfect by

conscientious care.

Patient industry marked all his endeavors and secured for him honors as a

student, respect and confidence as a teacher, and esteem as a scientist.

Painstaking preparation for every undertaking was a conspicuous trait. The

summation of his life is but a type of his daily habit — twenty-five years of

preparation, nine years of work.

316 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters.

To these mental and moral characters there was added religious belief and

religious culture. He seemed to us to exemplify in an e ninent degree the

true attitude of faith and science. They appeared the right hand and the

left hand of his being; set over against each other, indeed, antagonizing

each other’s action in a sense, yet both working together in mutual confi-

dence and love for the good of the whole being.

His religious views never seemed to hamper his scientific conceptions, nor

his science circumscribe the domain of his faith. He never seemed to hope

or fear that his crucible would analyze the human soul, but in quiet and

courageous trust he lived a true scientist and a true Christian.

His scientific labors have been so interwoven with the history of this

Society that they do not need formal memorial here. We but repeat the

spontaneous judgment of those most intimately associated with his investi-

gations, as well as those who have listened to his productions, when we

characterize them in terms of high esteem and admiration.

JOHN BAPTIST PRWLEING.. bb)

BY STEPHEN H. CARPENTER, LL. D.

Professor of Logn and English Liierature in the University of Wisconsin.

Dr. Joun Baptist Freurrne, Professor of Modern Languages and Compar-

ative Philology in the University of Wisconsin, died at Fayette, lowa, March

10, 1878, after a lingering illness of more than six months.

Dr. Feuling was born ia the classic city of Worms, Germany, February 12th,

1838. He attended the public schoo} until his tenth year. In 1848 he entered

the Gymnasium, from which he graduated nine years after, in 1857, with a

first degree, and entered the University at Giessen to study Philology. His

studies at the University were interrupted by being called to serve in the

army, but after two months’ service, he returned, and passed his public exami-

nation in 1860. While at the University he gave private instruction, and after

leaving, he accepted a position in the Institute of St. Gowishausen, on the

Rhine, as teacher of Latin and Greek. During 1861 he spent six months at

the Bibliotheque Imperiale, at Paris, mainly in the study of Philology, and in

acquiring a conversational mastery of the French language.

He came to this country in 1865, landing at Portland, Maine, April 14th. He

went directly to New York, where he remained some time. He then spent a

year at Toledo, Ohio, where he opened a French and German Academy. Not

succeeding in this enterprise, he came west, and was employed for a time at

Racine College in giving instruction in the classic languages, from which

place he was called by President Chadbourne to the chair of Modern Lan-

guages and Comparative Philology, at the University of Wisconsin, in the

spring of 1868 — which position he filled at the time of his death. Shortly

after his accession to his professorship here, he was invited to the Professor-

In Memoriam. 3817

ship of Ancient Languages in the University of Louisiana, at Baton Rouge,

and visited that place on a tour of inspection. The position was held open

for him one year, when he finally declined it, preferring to remain here, al-

though his preference was for the chair of Ancient Languages.

Dr. Fueling was married November 21st, 1868, to Miss Laura H. Aldrich,

whose care and devotion have smoothed his dying pillow, and ministered to

every want.

In 1876 he visited his old world home on a brief tour, but returned heartily

in sympathy with American ways, and our systems of education, after having

had the opportunity of comparing the two systems with his matured judg-

ment. Indeei, he remarked to the writer of this sketch that his views as to

the expediency of adopting the German method in this country had undergone

a complete change — that while the German system carried a few students

further, the American system carried the mass of students to a practical edu-

cation unknown to the German system. The word “ university ”’ not desig-

nating the same grade of institution here as in Germany, it took him some

time to adjust himself to the wants of the students that he here met, but dur-

ing the last years of his life he was thoroughly in sympathy with his work

and with the students under nis charge.

The published works of Dr. Feuling are few. Shortly after coming to Madi-

son he published an edition of the Poems Admoniturium of Phocylides, pre-

facing the Greek text with an introduction written in fluent Latin. This was

dedicated to the American Philological Association, of which he was an

active member, and before which he read several papers. He was also a mem-

ber of the Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts and Letters, and contributed

several philological papers to its transactions. He has left several works in

manuscript — “ The Homeric Hymns,” with notes; Montesquieu’s “ Consider-

ations,’ with notes and a glossary, intended as a French Reading Book, which

is nearly ready for the press; also “An Historical Outline of Germanic Ac-

cidence,” which was nearly completed at his death. All these works show

on every page his profound and thorough scholarship, and leave no room for

doubt that had he lived he would have gained a lasting reputation in his

chosen field of study. With him, teaching was not a drudgery; he felt proud

of his profession, and discharged his duty with a conscientious fidelity.

As a man, he was genial, companionable and trustful. With an ardent

temperament, his likes and dislikes were strong, and sometimes strongly ex-

pressed, but withal, he was free from baseless prejudices. He wasas prompt

to acknowledge a fault as to forgive a wrong. He had warm friends, and this

is one of the best tests of manhood.

As a Christian, he kept the taith. He was brought upin the Roman Catho-

lic Church, but on coming to this country he identified himself with the

Episcopal Church, of which he was a constant communicant until his death,

He died in Christian charity towards all, and let the living exercise the same

charity towards whatever faults in human fraility,he may have had. He died

in the Christian’s hope of a blessed immortality.

318 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters.

In the summer of 1877 he felt the premonitions of the fatal disease to which

he finally succumbed. It appeared first as a paralysis of the right hand,

which he naturally attributed to excessive use of his arm in writing, but the

steady advance of the paralysis soon left no doubt that the disease was seated

in the brain, and that no human agency could arrest its progress. For some

three weeks he attempted to carry on his work, but was then forced to cease

his labor in the hope that rest and quiet would restore his health; but disease

had too firm a hold upon his system, and he steadily failed. In January he

was removed to Fayette, lowa, the residence of his wife’s parents, in the faint

hope that a removal from the scene of his labor would lessen the irritation

that a man of his active temperament must. have felt at being laid aside from

duty; and, that care and quiet and the constant medical attendance of his

wife’s father might have a beneficial effect. But all was in vain, he failed ;

struggled with disease, and rallied, only to fall back beaten by his powerful

antagonist. The disease of the brain steadily progressed, extinguishing one

after another of his faculties; his speech gradually failed; then his sight;

and at last he gave no signs of consciousness; and so life ebbed away, and

death baffled all human effort. Love could not hold him, but Love can cher-

ish the memory of his life.

His remains were brought for interment to Madison, where he wished to be

buried. On abright spring-like day a large concourse of mourners, composed

of the Faculty and students of the University, and a large number of personal

friends, gathered at his late residence, and followed his remains to the Epis-

copal church, where the solemn but hopeful and impressive service cf the

churce he so loved was held by Rev. Mr. Wilkinson, assisted by Rev. J. B.

Pradt, after which his body was laid to rest in Forest Hill Cemetery, in sight

of the city that he loved as his earthly home, and of the University, the scene

of the labors of his active life; and there he rests, awaiting the resurrection of

the just. Regudescat in pace!

Nore. — It was Prof. Carpenter’s intention to have completely re-written and extended the

above notice of the life and death of Dr. Feuling, and he had promised the Secretary of the

Academy to do s0, only a few days before he was nimeelf seized with the illness which so :

suddenly terminated his own life. ‘‘In the midst of life we are in Geath.”’

DEATH OF PROFESSOR 8S. H. CARPENTER.

[Prom the State Journal (Madison) of Dec. %, 1878.]

Professor Stephen Haskins Carpenter, of the University of Wisconsin, died

at half-past five o’clock on the morning of December 7, 1878, at Geneva, N.

Y., of diphtheria, which had already proved fatal to his brother and nephew,

a few days before.

Professor Carpenter’s death is one of the saddest events we have ever been

called on to chronicle. He was widely and favorably known, not only in

In Memoriam. 819

this state, where he had devoted the best part of his life to the State Uni-

versity, but throughout the literary and educational circles of the country.

As an educator he stood among the foremost, and in all matters pertaining

to that avocation, his large experience and sound judgment stamped his

opinions with unquestioned authority. He was devoted to the University,

and rejected many tempting offers from other colleges, that he might retain

his chair in her Faculty avd continue to labor for her. He had seen the

University grow from a mere academy to a great and prosperous institution,

and this growth was due in a large part to his devotion to her, and to his zeal

in her behalf. The institution with which he, with others, had so long been

identified, is a memorial of his and their services and devotion. In every-

day life, Professor Carpenter took a busy part; his acquaintance was large,

and he was connected with other interests than the University. He was

esteemed by all who met and knew him in these outside interests. But by

the hundreds of students whom he has taught for so many years past, he was

peculiarly loved. His associates have not failed to receive the respect of the

students, bul perhaps none have ever attained that position in their affection

which Professor Carpenter has always held; and the announcement of his

sudden death was received with exquisite sorrow by the alumni of the Uni-

versity, who had learned to love him while under his instruction, and by the

undergraduate students from whom he parted but a week before his death.

Professor Carpenter was born August 7, 1831, at Little Falls, Herkimer

county, N. Y., and his early education was obtained at his own home, his

preparation for college being obtained at Munro Academy, Elbridge, N. Y.

In 1848, he entered the Freshman class of the Madison University, at Hamil-

ton, N. Y., where he remained two years, when he entered the University of

Rochester, from which. he took the degree of A. B. in 1852; A. M. in 1855,

and in 1872, the degree of LL. D. was conferred upon him by his alma mater.

He came to Wisconsin in 1852, and held the office of tutor for two years in

its University. From 1858 to 1860 he was Assistant Superintendent of Public

Instruction, and did much towards systematizing that office. In 1860, he was

elected Professor of Ancient Languages in St. Paul’s College, Palmyra, Mo.

which position he held until the rebellion broke up the institution. He

then returned north, taught select schoo: one winter, and afterward worked

at the printer’s trade, devoting his spare time to literary pursuits. He held

the office of city clerk of Madison from 1864 to 1868, but was all the time en-

gaged in educational enterprises, as County Superintendent of Schools and

member of the City Board of Education. In 1866, he’ was appointed by the

Regents of the University to the chair vacated by Prof. Read, who had been

called to the presidency of the Missouri University; in 1868, he was elected

Professor of Rhetoric and English Literature, since which time his connec-

tion with the University has been continuous, but the title of his professor-

ship was changed to that of Logic and English Literature. In 1875, he was

elected President of Kansas University, but declined.

As a writer, he has contributed very largely to the religious and educa-

320 Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters.

tional periodicals of the country. Ten of his educational addresses have been

published and highly commended by literary authorities. His lectures»

twelve in number, on the evidence of Christianity, were published a few years

since, and have been well received. He has also been quite a translator from

the French language, of which he was master. His articles on metaphysical

subjects published in the Transactions of the Wisconsin Academy of Sciences,

Arts and Letters, have attracted a good ‘deal of attention, and been favorably

reviewed in the periodical reviews of the country. But what has contributed

most to his fame as a scholar and an educationist, is his proficiency in tha

Anglo-Saxon and early English languages. In 1872, he published a book, en-

titled “ English of the Fourteenth Century,” containing a critical examination

of the English of Chaucer. In 1875, he published “An Introduction to the

Study of the Anglo-Saxon,” as a text-book, which has passed through several

editions, and which the London School Board Chronicle has noticed in the

most complimentary terms. His“ Klements of English Analysis” published

in 1877, is already in its second edition. His literary and scholarly abilities

were of constant growth, and his fame was far from having reached its zenith.

The loss to the Wisconsin University, in his death, is an irreparable one,

and the world of letters has been bereft of one of its most brilliant writers and

thinkers. No words are adequate to offer solace to the bereaved wife — the

balm of a religious hope, the consolations of a gospel, which he sincerely be*

lieved and ably defended, and the hope of a blessed reunion in n brighter and

better world, must supply what nothing earthly can do.

eo.

ERRATA.

Page 188, for “J. M. De Hart,” read “ J. N. De Hart.”

190, 14th line from bottom, for “[ Fig. 3-4]” read “| F7g. 3.]”

193, under the figure insert:

A. Shaft six feet square.

B. E. Groups of stones.

C. Drift into side of the tumulus.

D. Bottom of tumulus.

F. Skeletons of adults.

G. Skeleton of child.

H. Fragment of pottery.

K. Surface of adjoining ground.

196, 5th line from top, for “ alercolar” read “ alveolar.”

196, 5th line from bottom, for “dics” read “ discs.”

197, 2d-3d line from top, for ‘on page 7” read “opposite page 192.”

197, 3d line from top, for “ that ” read “ then.”

197, 3rd line from bottom, after “ inches,” insert “ (#%g. 11).”

198, under the figure insert:

. Layer of gravel one foot thick.

. Course of dark loam three feet thick

. Layer of gravel.

. Loam.

. Gravel.

. Stone altar three feet high.

. Tree growing from the mound.

200, 2d line from bottom, for ‘‘ Americans” read “ Americana.”

200, last line, for “ above overturned” read “ cast of,” and for “ formed

by squares” read “‘ found by Squier.”

201, heading— “ Department of the Mathematical and Physical Sci-

ences,”’ — should be omitted.

_ 235, after name of author, for “Kenosha” read “ Racine.”

246, 7th line from top, for ‘experiment ”’ read “ experiments,”

QHAvonP