volume 5, number 5

contents

3 Cats

6 Clouded Leopards

7 Tigers

10 Feline Faces

17 Lions

22 Atias Lions

25 The Mann Exhibit

31 BookNews

Front cover: Ice-blue eyes and chocolate

brown stripes give the Zoo’s rare white tigers

a dramatic look unmatched in the animal

kingdom.

Back cover: The Zoo’s pride of Atlas lions are

so rare that less than 40 specimens survive

in the world.

Design-Production:

Monica Johansen Morgan

Drawings on pp. 3, 4, 14 & 15 by Ben Butter-

field, photograph on p. 8 Courtesy of Bantam

Books Wild Cats by Michael Boorer, p. 9 by

Ray Faass, p. 10 bottom by Ed Livingston,

pp. 12, 13 & 16 by Everett Johnson, pp. 19, 20

& 23 by Smithsonian Institution Photo-

graphic Services, drawing on p. 24 courtesy

of Selmar Hess Publishers Animate Creation

by Reverend J. G. Wood, photograph on

p. 25 by Stewart Bros, Inc., Rockville, Md.;

all others by Francie Schroeder. 9/10-76.

Friends

of

the

National

is anon-profit organization of individuals and

families who are interested in supporting Zoo

education, research, and conservation.

FONZ Board of Directors 1976-77

Stephen T. Hosmer, President

John S. Brown, First Vice President

Nancy Porter, Second Vice President

M. Anthony Gould, Treasurer

Victor Delano, Secretary

Peter C. Andrews

Theodore Babbitt

Edward Boehm

Cecil McLelland

- Lavell Merritt

Robert Nelson

Montgomery S. Bradley John B. Oliver

Timothy V.A. Dillon Whayne Quin

Ronald Field Ted Rivinus

Donna K. Grosvenor Rebecca Schergens

Julie P. Hubbard Lee Talbot

Nella Manes Sally Tongren

FONZ Staff

Sabin Robbins, Executive Director

Dennis Baker, Associate Director

Office Heads

Susan Trencher, Education & Volunteer

Services

Monica Morgan, Membership & Publications .

Mike Gill, Food Services

Claire Farnsworth, Merchandising

Renee Caldwell, Trains & Parking

Norma Gay, Accountant

As a FONZ, you and your family receive many

benefits — publications, discount privileges, and

invitations to special programs and activities —to

make your zoogoing more enjoyable and educa-

tional.

THE ZOOGOER is published bi-monthly and

copyrighted © by Friends of the National Zoo,

c/o National Zoological Park, Washington, DC

20009, second class mailing permit approved at

the Washington, DC rate in the United States.

$3 a year (of annual dues).

Zoo Staff

Dr. Theodore H. Reed, Director

Mr. Edward Kohn, Deputy Director

Office Chiefs

Mr. Jaren Horsley, Animal Management

Dr. Christen Wemmer, Conservation &

Research Center

Dr. Mitchell Bush, Animal Health

Dr. Richard Montali, Pathology

Dr. John Eisenberg, Zoological Research

Mr. Emmanuel Petrella, Facilities Manage-

ment

Mr. Robert Engle, Construction Management

Mr. Joseph Reed, Management Services

Mr. Robert Mulcahy, Graphics & Exhibits

Ms. Judy White, Education & Information

Mr. Samuel Middleton, Police & Safety

The ancient Chinese came closest

to capturing the true essence of

cats, great or small. According to

their folklore, cats were the first

rulers of the world. They were

brilliant, could speak, and _ ad-

ministered the everyday affairs of

the planet. Humans were then

lowly creatures beneath notice.

One day, however, the cats decided

it was better to sit in the sun and

rest instead of rule. They looked

around and chose foolish man to

take their place. And that is why

cats always seem to be smiling at us

as we work and they rest!

In fact, cats are one of the most ef-

ficient predators ever evolved.

More than any other mammal, they

are specialized to pursue and cap-

ture living prey. It is as true of the

domestic tabby as a lion or tiger.

The ‘‘dreadful symmetry” of the

feline body represents the pinnacle

of a long evolutionary progression

toward greater hunting skills.

There are thirty-seven species in the

cat family—thirty-eight if one

classifies the house-cat as a

separate species from the European

and African wildcat that were its

ancestors. They range from five-

pound wild cats to 500-pound

tigers. A male bob cat weighs about

twenty-five pounds, a male cheetah

weighs about one hundred and ten

pounds, and a large male cougar will

weigh about two hundred pounds. In

each case, the female is somewhat

smaller than the male.

4

Every living species of cat has one

marking in common—the tear

stripe at the inner corner of each

eye. Most cats have long tails and

tawny coats. Many have spots or

stripes. Even young lions and

cougars are.spotted. The majority

of cats, whatever their size, use

similar “stalk and rush” hunting tech-

nique. It is used by a house cat to

catch a mouse or a tiger to bring

down an antelope.

A small cat usually lies motionless

in wait for its prey. When it hears a

mouse, for instance, the cat begins

to stalk, approaching cautiously

and nearly noiselessly before

making a final quick rush. During

the rush, which lasts no more than a

few seconds, the cat relies on speed

rather than stealth. The cat stops

the mouse with a paw, then kills it

with one swift bite of his long

Canine teeth.

In killing small prey, a tiger also

may sever the spinal cord with a

bite to the back of the neck.

However, some of the larger

Species on which a tiger preys have

specific adaptations that make

such a killing method next to im-

possible. Water buffalo and some

antelope, for instance, have ex-

tremely thick neck muscles protec-

ting the spinal cord. Such species

can also strike backwards with their

horns to ward off such an attack.

So, the tiger shifts his attack to the

front of the neck, opening major

blood vessels and perhaps severing

the wind pipe.

The cheetah is the one cat that uses

a different hunting strategy. It may

stalk its prey briefly if cover is

available, but stalking is relatively

unimportant. The crucial part of

the hunt is the rush. With speeds up

to 60-70 mph, the cheetah has

much less need of stealth than

other cats.

Cats typically don’t do much

chewing. They tear and gulp. A

cat’s jaws only work up and down.

Dogs and humans, in contrast, can

move their jaws sideways and so can

grind up bones.

In locating prey, a cat relies on

hearing, sight, smell, or all three.

In its final rush, the cat depends

primarily on sight. Cat’s eyes are

remarkable and apparently can

focus clearly at any distance. The

importance of sight is surprising,

since most wild cats hunt at night.

But cats have excellent night vision,

perhaps the best among mammals.

We sometimes say that a cat can

see “in the dark,” but, of course, no

animal can see in complete

darkness. A cat, however, can see

at very low light levels. When there

is no longer enough light for a man

to see, a cat’s eyes are still going

strong. Moonlight is usually more

than enough for a cat.

Cats owe their excellent night

vision to a remarkable structure

known as the tapetum lucidum.

This mirror-like layer of light-

reflecting cells located behind the

cat’s retina causes a cat’s eye to

glow when we shine a light into

them at night.

Night-hunting felines also depend

on touch. They use their whiskers to

feel their way silently through twigs

and leaves during a stalk.

Another specialized piece of equip-

ment common to all felines is an

abrasive tongue. It is covered with

small projections called papillae

which act like a rasp to clean their

body as well as lick flesh off the

bones of prey. Large canids’

tongues have the same_ horny

projections, or papillae, for the

same purpose.

The thirty-seven cat species are

grouped in a number of genera. We

need mertion only three—Felis,

Acinonyx, and Panthera. These

three genera contain most of the

more familiar cat species. The

genus Felis includes many of the

smaller cats such as the housecat

and its wild ancestor. The genus

Acinonyx contains a single species,

the cheetah. The genus Panthera in-

cludes the four species known as

the great cats—the lion, tiger,

leopard and jaguar.

The great cats possess a unique

vocal apparatus which makes them

the only cats able to roar. The

jaguar is a New World species

found throughout tropical America

as far north as Mexico and, rarely,

southernmost Texas. The lion and

leopard are found in both Asia and

Africa. The tiger inhabits only Asia.

The lion is the only social member

of the genus, and the only large

felid that has invaded grasslands to

any extent. The other three species

are solitary forest hunters. All four

species have great ecological im-

portance in the small number of

truly wild habitats where we have

allowed them to survive. We can

say that, as cats are the predators

par excellence among mammals,

the great cats are the predators par

excellence among cats.

Austin Hughes

Range Map of the Large Cats

en

Ste 9 BEF

== TIGER

ae LEOPARD

=== JAGUAR

Clouded Leopards

The strikingly beautiful clouded leop-

ard is something of a mystery species.

It occupies a unique position in

the cat family, since it is not really a

leopard. The true leopard (Panthera

pardus) is one of the great cats, closely

related to the lion and tiger. The

clouded leopard (Neofelis nebulosa)

belongs to a different genus. In fact, it

is the only species in its genus.

Scientists say the clouded leopard is a

“bridge” between the great and

smaller cats, since it shares

characteristics of both.

A native of Asian forests, it is found in

both frigid mountainous regions and

tropical lowlands, with a range that

includes Nepal, Southern China,

Burma, and Malaysia and the islands

of Taiwan, Sumatra, and Borneo. It is a

far better climber than any of the great

cats. In fact, very few of the smaller

cats can compare with the clouded

leopard as climbers. In the more

southerly portions of the species’

range, the clouded leopard often lives

in marshy regions where it rarely

descends from the trees.

The clouded leopard has relatively

shorter legs and a longer tail than any

of the great cats. Its unusually

powerful legs help it perform some

remarkable feats of arboreal

acrobatics. Clouded leopards can run

down tree trunks head first and can

climb upside-down along horizontal

branches. Hanging upside-down from

a horizontal branch, it can jump to the

ground landing on its feet. It can even

hang from a branch holding on by

means of a single hind paw, its strong

claws extended and gripping the bark.

Clouded leopards move in the trees

with such confidence that they

regularly stalk and catch monkeys,

squirrels, and birds. The species’ major

prey, however, are larger animals,

such as deer and wild boars. Clouded

leopards may catch such species by

jumping out of a tree directly on top of

them. Few other cats do this—not

even leopards, who also spend a lot of

time in trees. As an alternative tactic,

clouded leopards may stalk prey on

the ground in typical cat fashion.

Clouded leopards bear litters of two to

four young, usually in a large hollow

tree. At birth, the spots on the coat are

dark black. Later, the spots on the

flanks become lighter in the middle, as

they are in the adult. It is the lighter or

“clouded” appearance of these spots

that gives the species its name.

Austin Hughes

As playful cubs, the Zoo’s clouded leopards demonstrate the remarkable agility that makes them champion acrobats in the cat family. In the

wild, they scamper down trees head-first and climb upside-down along horizontal limbs.

The tiger looms large in the mythol-

ogy and legend of Asia. According to

one Indian tale, a bad tempered boy

was so thrashed by his master that he

turned into a tiger whose stripes, to

this day, reflect the severity of his

punishment. Malays believe that

those versed in the black arts are

able to turn themselves into tigers at

will for sinister purposes. The Man-

churian tiger is credited with mimic-

ing the call of a deer and by doing so

Previous page: The existence of white tigers

was not really confirmed until 1951 when the

first was captured by an Indian maharajah.

Captive breeding has increased the number

to about 30, five of whom now roam the

Zoo's Lion-Tiger Exhibit.

attracting his prey. Many tiger tales

may originate in fact. For example,

the ‘pook’ vocalization of the Bengal

tiger does have a resemblance to the

call of the Sambar deer. Several

observers claim that the transience of

color in a tiger moving through tall

grass during a stalk gives the animal

a ‘ghostly ability to transform itself

from one color and shape to another.’

As a predator, the tiger (Panthera

tigris) must kill animals to survive.

This has given it an infamous reputa-

tion. As its habitat alters and its nor-

mal prey species is eliminated, the

tiger has been forced to hunt where it

can. Although normally it avoids

Cat of the past, the saber-toothed “tiger” had fangs seven or eight inches long. These canine

teeth were probably used like daggers to slash and stab prey.

humans, the tiger has been forced

closer and closer to civilization and so

added domestic stock and occa-

sionally their owners to its menu. To

survive, the tiger has become a mar-

auder, maneater, and enemy of man

to be hunted to virtual extinction.

Scientists believe that tigers evolved

in northern Asia with a southward ex-

pansion during the Pleistocene. With-

in recent times, tigers roamed large

areas of Asia. In the last century, we

have seen the extinction of the Cas-

pian Tiger, the Bali Tiger, and decline

in the Siberian, Javan, Manchurian,

Chinese, Korean, and Afghanistan

races to remnant populations. Only in

the protected reserves of India and re-

mote parts of Sumatra are there sub-

stantial numbers of tigers remaining

but still only a few thousand.

The tiger breeds throughout the year

with birth peaks occurring in the

spring and fall. An average of two to

four cubs are born after a gestation of

95-108 days, but litters of up to seven

have been reported. Physical maturity

is reached at about 30 months. Cubs

stay with their mothers until the end

of their second year at which time

they are capable of killing on their

own. Sexual maturity is reached be-

tween four and five years on the

average although births have oc-

curred as early as 2% years. Females

are believed to litter once every 2-2/%

years for about ten years. Mortality

among cubs is believed to be as high

as 40% under normal conditions and

probably higher in times of food shor-

tage and drought. Nevertheless, the

Tiger cubs are raised solely by the mother with little or no contact with the father. Weighing

two to four pounds at birth, cubs stay with their mothers until their second year.

reproductive potential of tigers is

good since each female is capable of

rearing six to twelve cubs to weaning

age within her productive lifetime.

Cubs are usually born in a secluded

forested or rocky area where they can

be safely left in their helpless condi-

tion while the tigress goes off on her

hunting forays. The cubs are com-

pletely dependent on milk for the first

two months after which they begin

showing interest in portions of semi-

digested meat which their mother re-

gurgitates for them at the lair. At 3%

months, cubs accompany the mother

for short distances and actively feed

from her kills, although still too young

to participate in the hunt. By six

months, they are fully weaned and

are eating 10-20 pounds of meat per

day. Year-old cubs participate in the

hunt, even though they are not yet

able to kill effectively for themselves.

They are then consuming as much

meat per day as their mother— about

30-40 pounds. It is at this time, when

the tigress’ 2-4 cubs are still unable to

kill for themselves yet require size-

able portions of her kill, that the

tigress’ prey killing burden is greatest

and female mortality is believed to be

highest. The breakup of the family is

believed to coincide with the period

of the female’s inability to obtain

enough food for herself and her

almost mature young. The breakup

appears not to be due to an increase

in aggressiveness by the tigress

towards her young but rather to an

increasing tendency on the part of

each cub to become independent

after achieving the ability (through

necessity!) to secure its own food.

After independence, adult tigers lead

solitary but not unsociable lives,

meeting occasionally at kills, at

mating time, and sometimes consor-

ting together for years. Groups of in-

dividuals have been reported but

probably represent siblings that have

recently become independent from

their mothers. Although tigers are not

territorial, in the classical sense, they

do use a form of land tenure that

keeps individual ranges _ separate.

Sometimes, the home range of one

animal may overlap with others, but

neighbors keep out of each other’s

way through a system of smelling and

hearing cues. Urine mixed with anal

gland secretions, the deposition of

droppings in conspicuous locations,

vocalizations, and _ habitual claw

marking of certain trees all indicate

the recent presence of a tiger. This

9

Feline Faces

Cats have many lives at the National Zoo.

Tigers can swim in the moat and play witha

metal barrel. The clouded leopard poses

for a striking portrait. The Atlas lion opens

its mouth wider and wider for a roar—ora

yawn!

system of social signals is apparently

effective since few boundary disputes

have been recorded. The size of each

individual home range varies with the

sex of the animal, habitat quality,

food availability, and the wandering

habits of individuals. Ranges of males

may include those of several females.

Estrus females may wander widely

across those of several males before

returning to their homes. Some ani-

mals never establish a permanent

residence and are nomads.

Undoubtedly, this system of social

tolerance with mechanisms enabling

animals to remain separated in time

and/or space evolved in response to

an environment that included a plen-

tiful and uniform distribution of prey

and has resulted in a decrease in intra-

specific conflict for the tiger. It is

quite possible that man’s effect on the

environment has forced the tiger to

adopt new social strategies just as it

has been forced to prey on domestic

stock or, indeed, man himself.

The tiger’s legendary preference for

human flesh seems to vary from one

locale to another. In some regions of

India, in years past, it was rare. In

others, it was quite common, as in

one part of central India where 300

people were killed by marauding

tigers in 1856. That an animal with

such a_ reputation for cowardice

would deign to attack a human is

curious indeed. However, once the

habit is adopted, usually by a female,

the practice becomes rather wide-

spread within localized populations.

By the 1860’s, the problem of man-

eaters had reached such serious pro-

portions that many districts took to

Majestic in repose, the Zoo’s white tigers weigh up to 375 pounds and reach 11 feet from nose to tail tip.

surrounding villages with stockades

and special officers were hired, at

government expense, to eliminate the

problem animals.

At the turn of the century, the tiger

was coming under increasing attack,

first from the inhabitants who feared

for their lives and the lives of their

stock, then by local royalty who con-

sidered killing tigers a sign of high

rank, and finally by European ‘sports-

men’ who shot tigers wherever they

could be found.

Along with hunting and_ poisoning

came the destruction of the tigers

habitat. Forests were leveled for

farms, fuel, and building material to

serve an ever expanding human pop-

ulation. The sprawl of man into the

tiger's lair also brought hoards of

domestic stock that, for religious

reasons, wander in undernourished

and diseased condition after the end

of their productive years. Such live-

stock has competed with the tiger’s

natural prey and has further eroded

and destroyed the natural vegetation.

Cattle diseases such as rinderpest and

hoof and mouth disease have, from

time to time, killed off parts of the

wild ruminant populations.

Schaller believes that the wholesale

destruction of wildlife continued un-

abated until 1952 before even the

most perfunctory efforts at conser-

vation began. With the passage of the

Long, sharp teeth and strong, gripping jaws

help make tigers one of nature’s most

efficient predators. Like all cats, tigers are

meat-eaters.

13

a HG -

ey ;

with oe

i

’ ~

ty

. ,

j

i :

\ Hl ‘

os ;

ry :

§ »

r ; bs

fe . fT E , .

ar F ¢

i ial bs 4 ’

. . r 7 f

we

4%

‘ 1 :

i

. ; :

oo

4

’

- ; :

} "

; i

; P|

‘ , Pi

“

e i

a-% P erst

7 oe

: e

; -

a

i

14

Mont

lacws Los GR GR LR LR LR OR LR LR LR

24/73 - 5/73

S 3/10 - 7/11

White Tiger Genealogy Chart

Moh Int Samson ?

2 10/s8- F /955-66 |

Ramana Ramant Rajkumar

S' 1/64 - 6/74 2 [64-765 3 64 -1(65

un-named un-named Kesar(

love | A | ROR

2 2b6-2/66 L2/Ke6e—

un-named

S' 3/70 -3/70

un-named

2 3/0-3/10

Priya

fee Lor ewe PR fee BR La Gad Gk

2 6/74—

S 4/69-4/69

un-nNamed

2 3/70 -3/10

Bhard

2 6/74-

un-named

# 3/20 -3/10

Ranjit

Oo 6/74-

Peela

S 6/74

Marvin

2 4/73-

un-mamed

2 6/76 —

un-nimed

94/7 3-5/73

un-named

Poona

GR

from Chicage

BrookFjeld Zoo

un-named

2 4/73-5/73

un-me ured

2 6/7i-

un-named

2 6/76-

un-named

F 6/76-

un-named

F 4/73 -5(73

un-named

o' 6/76

Tony

Grok

from John Cuneo

Hawthorn Circus

un-named

3 4/73-5(73

Wild Animals and Wild Birds Protec-

tion Act and the formation of the

Indian Board for Wildlife, officials

began to protect local fauna and en-

force shooting regulations. By 1968,

the commercial export of tiger skins

was prohibited followed in 1970 by

the ban on personal export of all tiger

products by tourists. In the same year,

all states began a five-year morator-

ium on the shooting of tigers. The

legal tools for local park officials to

deal with poachers were also

strengthened. It is still too early to

judge what effect these measures will

have on the decline of Asia’s most

majestic predator. Only time will tell.

It can be seen that the tiger has be-

come victim not only of the direct

pressures of hunting, trapping, and

poisoning, but also of the indirect

pressures of human habitat alteration.

Such is the familiar progression of

ecological disturbance which ulti-

mately leads to the extinction of

species. Let us hope that for the

tiger we have saved enough time and

space to reverse the fatal process.

Miles S. Roberts,

‘Curator

As the genealogy chart so graphically

demonstrates, the Zoo’s first white tiger,

Mohini (meaning Enchantress) has spread her

rare white genes through generations of

tigers — normal-colored as well as white.

Mohini was first mated with Samson, a

known carrier of white genes.

Next page: Like ghosts on the alert, the

Zoo’s white tigers keep close watch on

their human watchers.

6

I

Zoogoers tend to associate lions with

Africa. But the “king of the beasts”

was once widespread on two other

continents. In Asia, lions prowled

from the Mid-East to northern India.

Today, only 150 Asiatic lions survive

precariously in the Gir Forest of India.

Lions were common in_ southern

Europe about 15,000 years ago, when

prehistoric man painted their like-

nesses on cave walls in France. Grad-

ually, Europe’s lions became scarce as

humans increased. The last ones were

killed in Greece about 100 A.D.

In Africa, lions have disappeared both

from regions north of the Sahara and

from the southernmost Cape of Good

Hope. But in forests and grasslands of

West, Central, and particularly East

Africa, there are still wide areas where

lions roam. The African lion today is

probably the most numerous of the

larger Old World cats. One reason is

that it has doubtless suffered less than

the tiger, leopard, or cheetah from

illegal hunting for the fur trade. The

lion has thus benefited from its lack

of spots or stripes.

The lion is truly unique because it is

the most social of the cats. Cats are

typically solitary animals that keep to

themselves and are rarely seen by

man even in areas where they are

common. In the National Parks of

East Africa, where lions are free from

Previous page: Pride of the National Zoo is

a pride of rare Atlas lions, the only ones of

their kind in America.

Grassy, tree-shaded terraces provide split-

level romping room for the Zoo’s pride of

rare Atlas lions.

human persecution, it is common to

see a large pride of lions lounging in

the open. It may have been this ap-

parent fearlessness, no less than the

lion’s strength and majestic appear-

ance, that led men to accord him a

royal place among animals.

Only in the past decade, through the

work of such scientists as George

Schaller and Brian Bertram, have we

begun to understand the inner work-

ings of lion society. What we have

found is a complex social system. Dr.

Schaller has expressed the opinion

that studying lions may tell us some-

thing about how human society

evolved. Early man was a hunter in-

habiting open grasslands like the lion,

he reasons. Our closest living rela-

tives, the great apes, on the other

hand, are vegetarians that inhabit

dense forests. Thus, Dr. Schaller

argues, we may be able to learn more

about ourselves from lions than from

the great apes. No doubt it is true that

lions and early man_ evolved in

response to a somewhat similar way

of life. But it is hard to escape the im-

pression that lion society has evolved

in avery different, very foreign way.

The basic lion social unit, or pride, has

sometimes been called a matriarchy,

even though females do not really

rule. More accurately, we may say

that lionesses provide stability and

continuity in the pride.

The nucleus of a pride consists of a

group of adult females along with

their cubs. One or two adult males

(less frequently, three or four) associ-

ate themselves with the pride and

mate with the females. The males’

association with the pride varies from

a few months to two years. Then, they

are driven away by one or two other

males. The new males, younger and

stronger than their predecessors, then

take over the pride.

Female offspring tend to stay with the

pride after they grow up. Thus, a typi-

cal pride will contain several middle-

aged females along with their grown

daughters. These older females will

themselves often be sisters, half-

sisters or cousins; they too will have

grown up in the pride together and

stayed with it as adults. Occasionally,

a grown female is driven from the

pride by the other lionesses and lives

out her life as a solitary nomad. Such

a nomadic female may sometimes be

permitted to join another pride.

The ruling males usually drive away

all males born in the pride by the time

they reach an age of about two-and-a-

half years. These young males may

become solitary nomads. Or a pair of

young males from the same pride

may remain together. Such a pair of

males, after several years without

female company, may eventually

take over a pride of their own. How-

ever, many males never manage to

win a pride.

A lioness with newborn cubs may be

separated from the pride when the

other members continue their usual

routine. Usually several females have

young cubs at the same time, and

The heavy bars and cramped quarters of the old Lion House came down in 1974 to make

room for a spacious and barless Lion-Tiger complex.

each female allows other females’

cubs to suckle her without discrimina-

tion. A lioness uses grunting vocaliza-

tions to urge her cubs to follow her. A

cub responds to the calling of any

pride lioness, not just his own mother.

Nonetheless, each lioness recognizes

her own cubs. If she feels her own

cubs are not getting enough milk, she

will chase other females’ cubs away

and not allow them to suckle.

Folklore has long held that the

females do most of the hunting, while

the males hang back and wait—only

to saunter over and take the “lion’s

share” of the kill. Detailed observa-

tions by scientists have shown that, in

this case, popular belief is not far

wrong. However, males that are not

associated with a pride must do their

own hunting. And even a pride male,

while he rarely engages in a strenuous

pursuit, does respond quickly and

effectively if a prey animal is driven

into his vicinity by the lionesses.

The lionesses of a pride often join

together in cooperative hunts. Char-

acteristically, they fan. out after

Even lion cubs carry the spots so typical of many cats. However, these spots will fade away

as they mature.

20

spotting potential prey, and attempt

to encircle their intended victim. As a

result, whichever way the prey breaks

when it finally spots or smells one of

the lionesses, it will run toward

another pride member.

Males seldom take an active part in

these hunts—but not through lazi-

ness. Their reluctance to participate

has a real adaptive significance.

Because of the male’s larger size and

his conspicuous mane, he would not

be able to hide from the prey as easily

as a female and thus might damage

the pride’s chances of success. More-

over, by staying behind, males can

protect the cubs from predators while

the lionesses are hunting.

Even pride lionesses often hunt alone

rather than in groups, using the classic

cat pattern of a stalk and rush. The

final rush usually only covers about

thirty yards, so the lion must get

about that close to the prey before

her presence is detected.

On the East African plains where the

habits have been best studied, lions

prey regularly on such hoofed mam-

mals -as zebra, wildebeest, gazelle,

impala, buffalo and warthog. On rare

occasions, they may attack ostriches,

flamingos, baboons or crocodiles.

Besides killing their own prey, lions

readily scavenge carcasses of animals

killed by other predators, by human

hunters, or by disease. Lions are par-

ticularly apt to steal carcasses from

hyenas. Hyenas, it seems, tend to flee

and abandon their kill when they see

a lion or a group of lions approaching.

Like a kitten lapping milk, a female Atlas lion crouches in a familiar stance to drink water from the Zoo’s encircling moat.

The hyenas rarely put up a fight even

if they heavily outnumber the lions,

although hyenas have been known to

drive a lone lion from its kill and they

regularly force cheetahs to abandon

their prey.

A lion can eat between twenty and

sixty pounds of meat at a meal, often

gorging itself until its stomach swells

grotesquely. A lion is thus able to eat

enough food for at least five days at a

single meal. Indeed, most wild lions

lead a life of feast or famine. They

can go without food for more than a

week without obvious ill-effect, but

on the average they feed once every

two or three days.

In parts of Africa that still support

healthy populations, the lions have an

extremely important impact on the

population of large hoofed mammals.

Their effect on prey species is, in the

long run, a beneficial one. Lions, like

all predators, eliminate sick and unfit

individuals and help keep the prey

population from growing too large for

the environment to support it. As

George Schaller expressed it, ‘“Preda-

tors are the best wildlife managers.”

Austin Hughes

21

Atlas Lions

Panthera leo leo, variously known as

the Atlas, Barbary, and North African

lion, once ranged extensively across

North Africa from Morocco to Egypt.

Today, it is extinct in the wild and less

than 40 survive in a few zoos.

The history and decline of the Atlas

lion have been dramatic. North Afri-

can Paleolithic paintings of lions

attacking local fauna indicate how

important these largest of African

predators were in North African wild-

life. The Atlas lion was the dominant

Carnivore in a unique faunal assem-

blage which included other larger

mammals found nowhere else—the

Barbary stag, Barbary sheep (aoudad),

Atlas gazelle, Barbary ape, and Atlas

bear, for example. All of these except

the bear were probably preyed upon

by Atlas lions.

It is said that the Atlas lion was once

sO numerous that in the first century

A.D. more than 50,000 were captured

over a 40-year period for use in the

Roman arenas and gladiatorial com-

bats. In the 16th century, the lions

were still so abundant that they were

commonly encountered near cities as

large as Tangier, Tunis, and Rabat.

However, with the spread of man, his

farms, and domestic stock, the noble

beasts’ range shrunk to the point that

Large, long, and dark manes that run along the back and extend the full length of the stomach set apart the Zoo’s male Atlas lion from the more

common East African subspecies.

22

by the mid 1800’s it was common only

in the remote regions of the Moroc-

can Atlas Mountains. By 1930 the last

wild Atlas lion was seen near the town

of Ouiouanne in the Moroccan Mid-

dle Atlas. Although a few may have

lingered on in remoter areas, it is cer-

tain that none survive in the wild.

Most of what little we know about the

natural history and ecology of the

Atlas lion was recorded during the

final years of its decline and is proba-

bly incomplete. Thus, while it is gen-

erally described as having lived in the

forested parts of the higher moun-

tains, there is no question that Atlas

lions also once occupied the flatter

plains between the mountains and

Mediterranean Sea. As the coastal

areas became more thickly settled

and people turned from a nomadic to

an agricultural subsistence, lions and

other animals that competed with

In contrast to the darker and more heavily maned Atlas lion, the East African or Serengeti lion

has a brighter reddish or sand yellow color and less conspicuous elbow and tail tufts.

man and his livestock were forced to

retreat into unsettled, agriculturally

unsuitable lands or eliminated.

The Atlas lion is considered one of the

most distinctive of the ten recognized

subspecies of Panthera leo. Adult

males are characterized by long

elbow tufts and heavy manes that

extend well past the shoulders and

along the full length of the belly. Both

sexes have richly colored greyish

tawny body fur that is over twice as

long as that of other African lions. The

depth and thickness of the fur no

doubt helped them withstand cold

North African winters. Certain skull

and body conformation characteris-

tics distinguish this cat from other

leos, but also show that the Atlas lion

is more closely related to the Asiatic

race than other African subspecies.

Today, museums have fewer than half

a dozen skins of adult Atlas lions

killed in the wild by hunters before

1930. This small number of skins

probably does not represent the full

range of variation in the subspecies.

Atlas lions are described as mostly

solitary and not prone to form the

groups or “prides” so typical of the

lions of east Africa and elsewhere.

However, this characterization is

based mostly on observations made in

the late 1800’s after the animal and its

natural prey had become scarce.

Atlas lions in the wild were also said

to breed usually in January and to

give birth to one or two cubs per litter.

The some thirty lions in the zoo at

23

Rabat, Morocco, are derived from

what was originally pure Atlas lion

stock bred over the last 150 years by

the royal family of Morocco. Unfor-

tunately, the pedigrees of most or all

of these animals now include some

mixing with the Senegal subspecies

that took place for a short time some

years ago but was discontinued about

1950. Since then, animals showing any

senegalensis characteristics have not

been used for breeding.

According to Dr. Paul Leyhausen, a

leading authority on large cats, and

others, ‘first grade’ or ‘class one”

“A terribly fearful opponent on a dark night” warned 19th century naturlists about the

imposing Atlas lions. Ancient Romans captured thousands for use in the Colosseum. By

1930, hunters, farmers, and the spread of man had wiped out the entire wild population.

Today, less than 40 survive in zoos.

lions among the Rabat stock closely

resemble Panthera leo leo as now

understood. They may be the last

hope for the Atlas lion’s survival.

In July 1976, arrangements were

made for the National Zoological

Park to receive one male and three

female lions from the Rabat Zoo as

the first step in an international breed-

ing program designed to perpetuate

and upgrade the remaining Atlas

lions. In August, the National Zoo

received one 16-year-old “class one”

male, Atlas; one 13-year-old ‘class

one” female, Aghbala; and two 10-

year-old “class two” females, Ouiou-

anne and Basra. Breeding has already

occurred. When their offspring are 4

to 5 years old, they will be carefully

judged and separated into classes

with only “class one” and “class two”

animals eligible for breeding stock.

It is hoped that through such a pro-

gram of careful management and hus-

bandry, the remaining Atlas lion stock

can be improved and “bred back”

close to the true Atlas type. If suc-

cessful, North Africa’s mightiest pred-

ator will survive, at least in captivity.

Harold J. Egoscue,

Mammologist and

Miles S. Roberts,

Curator

“Huge, ultramodern, luxury home

with every convenience: olympic-

size pool, night-lighting, central air-

conditioning, 27 bedrooms, radiant-

heated floors, electric doors, acres

of landscaped, terraced lawn, dra-

matic hilltop location overlooking

the capital. Must see to believe!”

So might a real estate agent describe

the National Zoo’s new home for its

rare white tigers and North African

lions. The Lion-Tiger Exhibit is unques-

tionably one of the finest facilities

ever built for large cats.

Previous page: Three pie-shaped and tiered

“theatres” fronted by water moats set the

viewing stage for the William M. Mann

Memorial Lion and Tiger Exhibit.

In addition to the dramatic, two acres

of outdoor, moated enclosures, the

complex includes glass-fronted indoor

enclosures, a stand-up mini-theatre,

offices and meeting rooms for Zoo

staff, and a maze of underground

holding cages and cubbing dens.

Everything —from electrically-

warmed outdoor dens to filtered

swimming water—has been designed

for the comfort of the cats, and the

enjoyment of the zoogoer.

Officially opened on May 25, 1976,

and dedicated to the late and long-

time director of the National Zoo, Dr.

William M. Mann, the Lion-Tiger

Exhibit represents more than five

years of creative and cooperative

effort between zoologists, architects,

Should any of the cats climb or jump over the exhibit walls, they would land in this holding

area enclosed by high fences. Gates permit the cats to be shunted safely back to the exhibit

area.

engineers, planning commissions, and

landscape architects.

The initial challenge was awesome:

create a spacious, “natural” environ-

ment to display cats; locate it on the

Z00’s most prominent hill where once

stood the old lion house, design it to

‘disappear’ into the landscape;

ensure full viewing by eliminating

bars or any other visual obstructions

yet make sure the cats are safely con-

tained; provide indoor viewing areas

for cubs; and hide from public view

mechanical equipment, keeper areas,

staff offices, and off-exhibit animal

holding areas necessary to make the

whole complex work efficiently.

Finally, combine all these elements

into a single viewing image of grass,

water, and animals. Nothing else must

distract the eye.

The solution was as deceptively sim-

ple as it was ingenious: A hilltop, out-

door exhibit composed of three, pie-

shaped “theatres” for public viewing.

Each theatre would be tiered, separ-

ated by dividing walls, and fronted by

curving moats filled with sky-reflec-

ting water. A visitor walkway around

the moats would provide dramatic

and unobstructed views across the

water to the animals.

Zoogoers, as a result, now can enjoy

three animal-filled theatres. Each

theatre consists of four terraced

levels, planted with grass and shade

trees. Large rocks and tree trunks

serve as steps as well as rubbing and

scratching posts. Underground sprink-

ler systems water the plants... and

Off limits to the public, underground corridors beneath the outdoor exhibit provide secure and comfortable holding areas where the cats are

fed and spend the night. Some enclosures are specially designed as cubbing areas.

have become intriguing toys for the

more playful cats! Dens built into the

terrace walls feature radiant-heated

floors for maximum comfort inwinter.

The curvilinear structure is shaped to

fit the natural topography of the hill-

top site. Since the hilltop is not a per-

fect circle, carpenters were chal-

lenged with creating a complex

arrangement of interlocking building

forms combining straight lines and cir-

cular segments.

How best to safely contain the cats

without obstructing viewing? Zoolo-

gists know that big cats can leap 20

feet or more. So, the moat was made

25 feet wide. The wall above the moat

is nine feet high and the water is seven

feet deep for a total of 16 feet from

pool bottom to freedom. However,

the water itself serves as a major de-

terrent since the cats can’t push off

the bottom with enough momentum

to clear the wall.

Should the cats successfully climb the

high, dividing walls on either side,

they would land in a holding area en-

closed by high fences. For added

safety, the top of the side walls are

steeply pitched and electrified.

In the beginning, the cats tested the

electric wires occasionally. Having

learned quickly, they have not at-

tempted to climb again.

The only indoor facilities for visitors

consist of two large, glass-fronted

cages for small cats and females with

cubs. Nearby are public restrooms,

27

Gauges that monitor temperature of the moat water; ready-to-serve feline dinners, a chute-

. like holding cage to link indoor and outdoor areas, and electric time switches all play a vital

“behind-the-scenes” role in providing comfort and safety for the cats— and the keepers!

telephones, drinking fountain, and a

small audio-visual room.

Unseen by the public is the under-

ground complex of 15 holding cages

and 12 cubbing dens, complete with

heated floors, that run below the out-

side divider strips. All these cages are

interconnected so that a cat can be

moved from any exhibit or cage to

any other within the entire facility.

Also out of public sight are food and

storage rooms, refrigerator and freez-

ing units big enough to hold a three-

day food supply to minimize deliver-

ies from the main commissary,

keeper's office, bathroom, locker

room, conference, and 11 staff offices

with windows that look onto the moat

at water level. It is not uncommon for

a zoo Staffer to look up from his work

and see a white tiger peer in as it

swims by!

Nearly half-a-million gallons of water

are needed to fill the three moats. A

complex filtration system auto-

matically recirculates the water every

24 hours. Since the tigers swim often

and defecate in the water, their units

must serve as both sewage treatment

plant and pool cleaner.

Emergency ladders and safety ropes

are provided in the unlikely event that

anyone falls in the water.

Construction of the three-acre exhibit

required almost two years and cost

three million dollars. The 4,000 cubic

yards of concrete alone cost more

than one million dollars. Earthwork,

planting, and paving accounted for

$500,000; mechanical systems,

$500,000; and electrical $240,000.

The end result has awed zoologists,

thrilled zoogoers, and produced an

extraordinary home for the National

Zoo’s collection of large cats.

Robert Engle,

NZP Construction Management

and |

Richard McEvoy,

Faulkner, Fryer, & Vanderpool

Architects

Windows that look onto water — and sometimes swimming tigers — are an unusual feature of the Zoo offices and meeting rooms in the new

Lion-Tiger complex.

BOOK\\\

Archeological exploration of set-

tlements dating from the seventh

millenium B.C. indicates that

villagers of this period not only

worshipped wild cats but kept

some of the smaller varieties as

pets, or at least in a state of semi-

domestication. Man’s fascination

with cats has endured to the

present day and this continued in-

terest has resulted in a great

variety of written information on

the subject. Three excellent books

on cats have been published

during the past year.

Wild Cats of the World

C.A.W. Guggisberg

Taplinger Publishing Co.

$15.95 328 pages.

Zoologists today recognize thirty

seven species of wild cats, ranging in

size from the tiny, four pound black-

footed cat of Africa to the majestic

Siberian tiger which may attain

weights over seven hundred pounds.

In Wild Cats of the World, noted

naturalist and author, C.A.W. Guggis-

berg, describes, in fascinating detail,

the characteristics, measurements,

distribution and habits of each

species. Most of the cats are also

represented in black and white photo-

graphs. Particularly interesting are

-accounts of the hunting techniques of

various cats.

These techniques not only vary

from species to species, but are

modified for the different kinds of

prey being hunted. A worthwhile

addition to the library of either

the professional or non-

professional with interest in cats.

The Cats

Time/Lite

$5.95

A superb collection of color

photographs is the outstanding

feature of the latest Time/Life

nature books. In the first volume

of this series, The Cats, all facts of

feline activity are amply

illustrated, from tiny lion cubs

playing with their mother or

proudly carrying off a feather

trophy, to a marvelous sequence

beween a snowshoe hare and a

bobcat on the snows of Colorado.

128 pages.

The Cats is based on the television

program Wide, Wide World of

Animals and includes a number of

film strips from this series. Un-

fortunately, these are so small

that a magnifying glass is

necessary for good viewing.

Emphasis is on the lion, tiger,

leopard, puma and cheetah, with

short sections on the smaller cats.

Cheetah Under the Sun

Nan Wrogemann

$14.95 159 pages.

Although the cheetah has been a

valued hunting companion of man

for some three thousand years, it

is still one of the least understood

of all the cats. Only in recent

years have serious observation in

the field and studies of captive

animals begun to reveal something

of the natural history of this

unique Cat.

In Cheetah Under the Sun, Mrs.

Wrogemann has collected in one

volume most of what is now

known about cheetahs. Ac-

companying the text are graphs,

charts, maps, drawings, and color

and black and white photographs,

including the only known picture

of a living king cheetah. Mrs.

Wrogemann is intensely interested

in conservation and places much

emphasis on the alarming decline

of the cheetah in this century,

mostly, if not entirely, due to ap-

propriation of their habitats by

man and the demand for skins by

the fur trade.

The last two chapters detail the

cheetah crisis and present some of

the unusual problems connected

with the conservation and protec-

tion of cheetah— nature’s most un-

catlike cat.

Some earlier outstanding works on

cats that are still in print include

Big Cats of the World with text by

Guido Badino, Eaton’s The

Cheetah, and Schaller’s The Deer

and The Tiger and The Serengeti

Lion. The last two are currently

available in paperback.

Nell Ball,

FONZ, House Guide

31