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“| NING /

ANNALS

NEW YORK

SCcADEMY OF SCIENCES

VOLUME XVI.

1905

Editor:

CHARLES LANE POOR

New York

Published by the Academy

The New Era Printing Company

Lancaster, Pa.

Peas

4 he

mat Hel

‘7.

TABLE OF CONTENTS OF Vou. XVI.

PAGE

1.—Dublin. Louis I. The History of the Germ

Cells in Pedicellina Americana (Leidy) . . 1-64

2.—Wilson J. Howard. Recent Journeys Among

Localities Noted for the Discovery of Remains

Pee MisOriC DEAT. Vek yf ys Oe OGK7A

3.—Martin, Daniel 8. Henry Carrington Bolton 75-81

4.Stevenson, John J. The Jurassic Coal of

Sree eee seer asd We i BB Oi

5.—Jochelson, Waldemar. Essay on the Grammar

of the Yukaghir Language 97-154

6.—Fishberg, Maurice. Materials for the Physical

Anthropology of the Eastern European Jews 155-297

7.—Bumpus, Hermon ©. Records of Meetings . 299-3806

8.—Julien, Alexis A. The Occlusion of Igneous

Rock Within Metamorphic Schists, as Illus-

trated on and near Manhattan Island, New

od eg ay 07S Lek RC Cans MMT hdl i MN Woe oS

9.—Osburn, Raymond ©. Adaptive Modifications

of the Limb Skeleton in Aquatic Reptiles and

MgC se ae B8

iter ke BBB Te

~ i

aii ZA

bit a .

VOL. XVI . PARTI

ANNALS

x z | OF THE

NEW YORK

ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

Editor:

CHARLES LANE POOR

New York

Published by the Academy —

The New Era Printing Company

Lancaster, Pa.

NEW YORK ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

OFFICERS, 1905

_ President—JameEs F. Kemp, Columbia University.

Recording Secretary—HERMoN C. Bumpus, American Museum.

Corresponding Secretary—RICHARD E. DopcE, Teachers College.

Treasurey—CHARLES F. Cox, Grand Central Depot.

Librarian—RaALreH W. Tower, American Museum.

FEditor—CHARLES LANE Poor, 4 East 48th Street.

SECTION OF ASTRONOMY, PHYSICS, AND CHEMISTRY

Chairman—ERNEST R. VON NARDROFF, 360 Tompkins Ave.,

Brooklyn.

C. C- TROWBRIDGE, Columbia University.

Secretary

SECTION: OF BIOLOGY

Chairman—W. M. WHEELER, American Museum.

M. A. Bicetow, Teachers College.

Secretary

SECTION OF GEOLOGY AND MINERALOGY

Chairman—EpDMUND O. Hovey, American Museum.

Secretary—A. W. GRABAU, Columbia University.

SECTION OF ANTHROPOLOGY AND PSYCHOLOGY

Chairman—F¥. J. E. WoopsribGE, Columbia University.

_ Secretary—R. S. Woopworth, Columbia University.

SESSION OF 1905

The Academy will meet on Monday evenings at 8.15 o’clock,

from October to May, in the American Museum of Natural

History, 77th Street and Central Park, West.

[ANNALS N. Y. Acap. Sci., VoL. XVI, No. 1, pp. 1-64, February 8, 1905. ]

De.

Ill.

eee HISTORY OF -THe GERM CELLS IN

PE DICELEIN: AaRICANA (LEIDY).

bouis. tT. Dwain.

CONTENTS.

(With Pl. I, II, III, and 2 figs. in text. )

pene YY HMM AME COL OUWe crassa cccneye sete wwetiene cusses ascgess es osseee

SE SiyGioe gt eg ERM SMU) tn

a. The Character of Testis and Extrusion of Spermatozoa..... ...........00..

See ien sovierall Generations Of SpErMatOGONIa........ <.ceccccseceni ova coanseeronss

e Dne Last Spermatogonial Division and Symapsis..............scc0cesescssess

peaeiae Hongitudinal Split in Chromosomes. ::.......2.06+.0cveeseeseeceeseeee cane

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Weehermiization and Cleavage. .......2...c.scaecencesenves oe SRC cee

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2 DUBLIN

PREFACE,

In the following study I have endeavored to follow out, as

fully as possible, the history of the germ cells in Pedicellina

from the point of view that has been suggested by the recent

work of Montgomery, Sutton and Boveri. In line with the

work of the first two, my principal aim has been to examine

the reduction problem and especially the process of synapsis,

where, according to these authors, the reduction occurs. It is

due to them that the proper attention has been attracted to the

study of the earlier generations of the germ cells where the

beginnings of the processes that culminate in the later matura-

tion phenomena may be observed. Such a study, as far as the

material permitted, I have attempted to make, and what are

perhaps the most significant results of this study were thus

obtained.

The conclusions of these authors involve as a fundamental

principle, the likeness of the processes in the history of the egg-

and the sperm-nuclei. Yet not since the work of Hertwig and

Boveri, more than a decade ago, has a work of any complete-

ness on both oogenesis and spermatogenesis, in the same ani-

mal, appeared. Indeed, with the exception of Ascaris and a

few other forms, on which isolated observations have been

made, in no one species has the history of the chromatin been

studied throughout. Forsuch a purpose Pedicellina americana

is in several respects very favorably adapted. While neither

the male nor the female germ-cells are in this form especially

large, all the stages in development from the larva to the ma-

ture polyp are available, making it possible to follow the pro-

cesses with comparative ease, from the very beginnings of the

differentiation of the germ-cells up to fertilization. Fertiliza-

tion and development of the embryo, moreover, occur within

the maternal brood pouch; and this, coupled with the com-

paratively small size of the individual polyp, makes possible a

very direct comparison between the nuclear changes in the so-

GERM CELLS IN PEDICELLINA AMERICANA 3

matic and germ-cells. The complete cycle of chromatic changes,

from one generation to the succeeding one, may therefore be

traced.

Under such conditions as these, it was my hope that Pedice/-

fina would be a favorable object for the further study of the

problem proposed by Hacker, viz., the fate of the maternal and

paternal chromatin elements in the offspring. This, however,

proved not to be the case, though some suggestive conditions

have been observed. My principal study has, therefore, been

devoted to the history of the chromatin of the germ-cells.

These show remarkable similarity in their development in the

two sexes, and give results corroborative of those of Mont-

gomery and Sutton. Finally, the processes of fertilization and

early cleavage are described ; attention is drawn to the character

of the nucleolus, and to the individuality of the chromosomes

throughout the whole course of development.

It gives me much pleasure to express my obligations to the

staff of the Department of Zoology in Columbia University, to

whom I owe my appointment as the John D. Jones Scholar at

the Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory ; but above all to Professor

E. B. Wilson, to whom my sincerest thanks are due. From

the very beginning he has spared neither time nor effort in his

guidance of the research; and to him also do I owe a careful

revision of my manuscript both in word and in substance.

I. MATERIAL AND METHODS.

The material for this study was obtained at Cold Spring Har-

bor, Long Island, where Pedicellina occurs at several places in

the harbor. Thanks to the kindly interest of Professor C. B.

Davenport, the Director of the laboratory, a most favorable

spot was located where the colonies could be obtained in great

abundance. This was in an oyster-bed, lying in a shallow

channel separating the inner from the outer harbor, where the

material could be collected at low tide, in any quantity, by

removal from the oyster-shells which the colonies encrusted.

The breeding season is a fairly long one ; beginning about the

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middle of June and continuing until the first week in August,

when most of the mature males were found almost entirely

spent and the free swimming larve were no longer in the tow.

Owing to the extremely delicate nature of the polyp, the mate-

rial was fixed immediately upon arrival at the laboratory. For

this purpose, corrosive sublimate with five per cent. acetic was

mainly employed and gave excellent results, the cells within

the ovary and testis showing almost no displacement or con-

traction.

Many stains were employed, among others, Heidenhain’s

hematoxylin, Auerbach’s fluid, thionin, and Flemming’s triple

stain, but the first gave by far the best results. In the study

of the spermatogenesis, this stain was indispensable. Thionin

gave very useful results, particularly in the maturation process

of the egg, since the large yolk spheres are almost unstained,

while the chromosomes are sharply brought out. By the

proper use of the Heidenhain’s hzemotoxylin, however, the

yolk could be made to take a dark brown, while the chromatin

stained intensely black. This method had the advantage of

permanency and of bringing out the achromatic structures which

the thionin could not be made to do. Auerbach’s fluid was

used mainly as a chromatin test and gave, on the whole, con-

sistent results. The colonies were imbedded and sectioned ez

masse (sections of 5 mi. thickness), and in this way there were

obtained on the same slide, male and female individuals of all

ages, sometimes presenting within the same field, nearly all the

phases with which this paper is concerned.

II. Sex RELATIONS WITHIN THE COLONY.

In Pedicellina americana, as in Ascopodaria macropus, another

of the Pedicellinide, described by Ehlers, ’90, both male and

female polypides may occur on the same stolon. Since the

colony arises through the budding of a single primary polyp,

the determination of sex in this form presents a somewhat

interesting problem, particularly from the point of view sug-

gested by the recent discussions on the question of sex by

Cuénot,. ‘99, Lenhossek, “oo, Castle, “63> Schultze; (04, eane

GERM CELLS IN PEDICELLINA AMERICANA 5

others, who have urged the probability that sex is not directly

subject to the action of external stimuli, but is rather inherent

in the germ-cells.

The relations described in Pedicellina may best be interpreted

in the light of the facts observed in other colonial forms.

Throughout the Ccelenterata, with the exception of such hema-

phrodites as Chrysaora and Hydra and such colonies as Cora/-

lium rubrum and some of the Sertularia (cf. Cuénot), the

individuals of a colony are all of the same sex. In the Ecto-

proctous Bryozoa and the Tunicates, on the other hand, the

conditions are still simpler, for among these the individuals are

all hermaphroditic. In the Endoprocta all possible conditions

as to sex exist, as the following resumé will show.

In Loxosoma anneluticola, the individuals, according to Prouho,

‘ol, are all of one and the same sex. No permanent colony is

formed. Loxrosoma davenporti, as described by Nickerson, ’o1,

is hermaphrodite throughout, but there is distinct proterogyny.

In like manner, Harmer, ’85, found in Z. pes and in other

species of this same genus, hermaphroditism, with a decided

proterandry. Finally, in Z. raja, as early described by Schmidt,

76, simple hermaphroditism prevails. In the genus Pedicellina

proper, like variations occur. According to both Nitsche, ’69,

and Hatschek, ’77, the individuals of P. echinata are herma-

phrodite, while according to the late investigation of Harmer

"85, and Foettinger, °87, they are of one sex. The weighty

opinion of Ehlers, ’90, however, who himself investigated the

problem, is on the side of the former. A like difference of

opinion is found in connection with P. denedeni which, according

to Foettinger, is dicecious, but by Ehlers is as positively regarded

as monoecious. PP. delgica, on the former authority, is also

dicecious, while on that of the latter, P. glabra, is moncecious.

Finally, in P. americana, and in the nearly allied Ascopodaria

macropus, the individuals are always either male or female, but

both may occur in the same colony.

The disagreement that exists among the different authorities

mentioned, concerning the sex of a considerable number of

forms, is a striking fact. It is difficult to suppose that good

6 DUBLIN

observers could have erred regarding the true condition of a

character so obvious in mature individuals of all of the Endo-

procta. It is more probable that in the disputed cases there is

true hermaphroditism disguised by proterandry or proterogyny.

Thus Ehlers, 90, suggests the possibility that, ‘in verschiedenen

Jahreszeiten, die Stocke etwa ungleich sexuirte Nahrthiere

erzeugten, so dass, zu der einen Zeit, gonochoristische (dice-

cious), zu einer anderen Zeit, hermaphroditische Kelche vorhan-

den sind.’”’ In like manner, Nickerson, ’o1I, points out that

“several periods of sexual activity, alternately male and female,

may occur in the same animal.”’

These explanations, if accepted, would add to the already

large number of cases of true hermaphroditism. For if an indi-

vidual, at one time male, can at a later period become female,

then it must be clear that the germ-cells of the two sexes really

occur side by side in the same polypide, but the height of the

developmental period of the two does not occur at the same

time. This would make it very probable that hermaphroditism

is the primitive condition among the Endoprocta from which,

the several exceptions have to a greater or less extent diverged.

It is this hypothesis which will be applied as an explanation

of the peculiar conditions observed in Pedicellina americana.

This species may be considered as hermaphrodite, but both

sexes do not develop at the same time, nor in the same indi-

vidual of the colony. There is in the very young primary poly-

pide a mosaic condition of the germ-cells, z. ¢., there are both

primary egg and sperm-cells present side by side. In the proc-

ess of growth, only one portion of these develops into a mature

ovary or testis, the other remaining indistinguishable as a few

primary germ-cells among the other embryonic cells of the

body. With the budding, which now ensues, these are carried

into the newly formed individual with some of the primary cells

of the other sex; but here, these may, in response to some

change in the local conditions, become active and the others

latent thus giving rise to a sex opposite to that of the preceding

individual. This process may, however, occur for the first

time, in the second or in some later budding in the life history

of the colony or, in some cases, not at all.

GERM CELLS IN PEDICELLINA AMERICANA i

That this view is probably expressive of the truth is to be

inferred from the existence, in the same and in allied genera, of

all the necessary transitions between the primitive conditions

observed in the majority of forms, on the one hand, and the

specialized condition of P. americana and Ascopodaria macropus

on the other. Beginning with P. glabra, where the individuals,

as well as the colony, are all moncecious, the series leads di-

rectly to those where, as in P. echimata proterandry or proter-

_ ogyny sets in, and finally becomes distinctive of the species.

In the genus Loxosoma, this is the all prevailing form in which

the hermaphroditism is found. Thus Harmer writes of this

genus: ‘I have invariably found that mature ovaries and testes

are mutually exclusive. It is easily shown that individuals

containing developing embryos in their vestibule are not pro-

vided with testes in the species of Loxosoma and Pediccllina which

I have examined. In some cases, a vesicula seminalis contain-

ing spermatozoa is found, although the testes seem to be com-

pletely absent. This fact, perhaps, indicates that the male

gonads, which must have been originally present, have atro-

phied in order to make room for the development of the ova-

ries.’’ We have now only to suppose that this proterandry or

proterogyny of the colony is distributed over several individuals

instead of being localized in one, and the condition found in

P. americana is obtained. The extension of the period between

the development of the germ-cells of the two sexes is probably

in response to some change in the relation of the zooids to the

colony as a whole in which process the latter becomes more

highly individualized.

This condition can finally be traced one step further where,

as in a form like P. delgica or Loxosoma annelidicola, one or the

other of the sexes never develops, leaving both the polyps and

the colony dicecious. This is the end of the series. It has

therefore been shown that in the Endoproctous Bryozoa, all

possible relations of the germ cells in single individuals and

groups of individuals exist, and that from the primitive condi-

tion of complete monceciousness, a full series of transitions can

be traced to as complete diceciousness. There is, however, an

8 ; DUBLIN

error into which it is easy to fall in considering the sex condi-

tions of P. americana, viz., to suppose, in the light of the Men-

delian principles expressed in Castle’s paper on the Heredity of

Sex, that there is an alternation of dominance and recession of

one sex or the other. This interpretation is made impossible

from the conditions described in the allied forms and one is

forced to the conclusion already adopted above, that there is a

true mosaic of sex in which the elements are widely scattered

in time and place. The colony as a whole, is now an hermaph-

roditic individual.

Ill. SPERMATOGENESIS.

The testis of Fedtcellina americana is a paired bilaterally

symmetrical organ situated in the space between the liver cells

and the atrium. At the center, between the two component

halves, lies the vas deferens, through which the ripe spermatozoa

make their way directly into the atrium and thence to the out-

side. The two halves are pear-shaped with the broader ends

closely apposed to the body wall of the polyp, from which they

are separated by a thin layer of epithelial cells surrounding the

entire structure. It is interesting, in the study of the living

individuals, to observe the mechanism by which the extrusion

of the spermatozoa is accomplished. Upon slight provocation,

such as touching the polyp with a needle point, the tentacles

are immediately drawn in, and simultaneously the calyx is much

contracted. This is followed by an extrusion of the ripe sper-

matozoa in dense clouds, through the atrium. During this proc-

ess of extrusion, also, the polyp is subjected to a change of

position by the rapid movements of the stalk.

In a longitudinal or transverse section of such a polyp, the

internal relations of the testis can be very readily made out.

There is nothing corresponding to a subdivision of this organ

into compartments, as in so many forms; nor is there any

arrangement of the germ cells with respect to age, the cells

lying scattered irregularly throughout. The great number of

developing cells is very striking. In a fairly large individual

the testes filled with densely crowded cells take up by far the

greatest portion of the calyx, and compress on all sides the

other organs of the body.

GERM CELLS IN PEDICELLINA AMERICANA 9

Under such conditions it is rather difficult to determine the

proper sequence of the divisions ; yet this difficulty can be, in

a great measure, overcome by examining the different degrees

of development within the different polypides. Thus, where

there is no line or series of progressive development within the

testis itself, an artificial series can be constructed from the

youngest to the oldest testes. Accordingly, I shall first

describe the condition to be found in a very young polyp— one

shortly after the period of metamorphosis. Here, lying in

their proper place, are the primary sperm cells from which all

the later generations will arise. These cells are nearly all in

the resting stage, and have not as yet sufficiently increased in

numbers to fill up the space inclosed by the germinal epithe-

lium. In a somewhat older individual, the majority of the germ

cells (Fig. 1, Pl. I) are much larger and now completely fill up

the halves of the small testis. They are, in size and general

appearance, like a great number of cells always found within

the testes of mature individuals, and are undcubtedly an early

generation of spermatogonia. In similar female polyps, the

corresponding germ-cells are always larger and are not so

closely crowded together. Comparatively few cells are in

division. The majority, as appears from the figure, remain for

considerable periods in the resting stage, and may be every-

where recognized by the large size of their nuclei in relation to

the cytoplasm, the lightly staining chromatin reticulum, and

finally by the presence of a pair of deeply staining plasmosomes

or nucleoli. These arise very early near opposite points on the

nuclear membrane as small bodies and increasing in size, make

their way to the center of the cell where they fuse into one

larger and more irregular mass.

With the increase in the size of the testis, it is quite clear,

from the several sizes of the cells, that there are several genera-

tions of spermatogonia. The largest, which predominates, is

in all respects like the first generation of spermatogonia

observed in the above Fig. 1. It is therefore clear that in the

transition between these two stages only a few of the early cells

divide at one time to give rise to the later generations. This

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fact is most strikingly brought out in connection with the older

testes. Here mature spermatozoa are often found surrounding

spermatogonia of this early generation. The latter evidently

remain latent and develop only when room is made for them by

the discharge of ripe spermatozoa.

Leaving out the slight differences in size, these different gen-

erations are all of the same type in both the resting and division

stages with the important exception of the one, which from its

smallest size, I take to be the last. In the prophases and meta-

phases of all but the last of these, the chromosomes appear

everywhere as V’s, with their apices directed toward the spindle,

(Figs. 2-6) and cannot be distinguished by any structural dif-

ferences from the figures in the somatic mitoses. The number

is clearly unreduced, and by the study of many division figures

is determined as twenty-two. They split longitudinally, and in

the anaphase (Fig. 7), are seen with their angles turned toward

the poles. In the telophase (Fig. 8), the twenty-two small

bodies are concentrated very closely, and with the chance

exception of some belated ones, cannot be made out individually.

In the last generation, the character of the mitosis shows a

marked contrast to the preceding ones. The chromosomes

are, in the metaphase, in nearly every case, no longer V-shaped

but thickened dumb-bell shaped bars (Figs. 9-12). It is im-

portant to observe that these often show a constriction in the

middle which, may correspond to the apex of the earlier V’s.

These split longitudinally, and in the early anaphase (Fig. 13)

the unreduced number of rods appears, presenting a striking

difference from the other previous spermatogonial figures. It

must be stated at this point, however, that in one or two

instances I have found one or two chromosomes in the meta-

phase of the last division not as yet converted into the bars.

This, together with the fact that some straight rods are occasion-

ally found in spindles, which, from consideration of size, I

think are of the penultimate generation, would tend to show

that this conversion of the type of the chromosome is not a

sudden process, but is perhaps carried over a considerable

period, being most pronounced and finding its completion in

GERM CELLS IN PEDICELLINA AMERICANA 1]

the last division. The chromosomes now come closer together

along the converging spindle-fibers (Figs. 14-16) and finally,

in the early telophase (Figs. 17-18), appear at each pole, in the

form of about eleven (the reduced number) of V’s. Owing to

the increased size of the individual chromosomes, and the cor-

responding halving of their number, the concentration in the

telophase into one impenetrable mass, so characteristic of the

earlier generations of spermatogonia, is not so marked. As the

several figures show, the chromosomes are, in most cases, indi-

vidually distinguishable, and (as in both cells of Fig. 18) can

readily be studied. The evidence therefore, unmistakably indi-

cates that the eleven V’s have arisen from the twenty-two rod-

shaped bodies, which have united end to end during the latter

part of the process of division; and that, as in Perzpatus and

the other forms studied by Montgomery, the reduction takes

place at this point. The true ‘‘synapsis’’ is therefore not to be

sought in some stage in the early growth period of the sper-

matocyte, but in the latter half of the last spermatogonial

division, as Montgomery and Sutton have insisted.

After the process of synapsis, the nuclear membrane reforms

and the spermatogonia are now spermatocytes (Fig. 19). These

are readily distinguished by a marked polarity, such as has

been described by most workers on spermatogenesis. The

nucleus, now takes up nearly the whole content of the cell and

the chromosomes, localized at one end of the nucleus, have re-

tained the same form in which they appeared in the preceding

telophase, z. ¢., as V’s. A growth period now sets in which,

judging from the great numbers of cells found in this stage and

from the complicated processes through which the chromatin

passes, must be one of considerable duration. The arm of the

V’s have already much increased in length, and are no longer

congested at one pole, the majority extending across the whole

breadth of the nucleus. The apices now touch the membrane

at many points (Fig. 20). It is interesting to observe also, that

the rate of growth in the several chromosomes varies consider-

ably. Thus Fig. 20 shows three bivalents of full size, while the

remaining ones are very little larger than at the beginning of

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the growth period. In cells of this small size, it is quite impos-

sible to trace anything corresponding to constant size differences

in the chromosomes. Yet it is clear both from the study of

the various spermatogonia and the spermatocytes that many

gradations actually exist.

A longitudinal splitting of the arms of the V’s now makes

itself apparent (Fig. 21). Appearing first at the lower end of

one of these larger bivalents, the split makes its way upward to

the apex, when the other arm becomes involved. Soon most

of the chromosomes show the same condition, and it appears

very much as though the V’s had each split longitudinally along

its whole length, the two sister portions remaining united at the

apices (Fig. 22). The process is, however, a very gradual one,

and all degrees of variation in the time of its occurrence are

present. The chromosomes at this point stain much less in-

tensely and are granular. Indeed, the cells in this stage can be

most readily distinguished without any closer study by their

lightly staining nuclei.

At the completion of the longitudinal splitting (Fig. 22) the

chromosomes are at their maximum length. The nucleus is

comparatively small and, as a consequence, the individual

chromosomes are much crowded and cross and recross each

other. This coupled with their granular appearance, and their

slight staining capacity, makes it extremely difficult to follow

the processes in which they are involved. I have succeeded,

however, in finding a considerable number of nuclei in which

this crowding is not so marked, and where, in consequence, the

more careful study of the individuals was possible. From such

cells (Fig. 23), it is quite clear that the chromosomes, now

longitudinally split along their entire length, are passing through

marked changes. The acute angle of the V’s gradually opens

out, until at a later period of development, the chromosomes

entirely lose their original form, and become pairs of sinuous or

nearly straight parallel rods. Fig. 23 shows this process in

all its stages (cf. Text-fig. I, p. 13). Tothe extreme left, a large

chromosome shows but a slight opening of the angle, while in

the center the very end of the process is already attained, z. ¢.,

GERM CELLS IN PEDICELLINA AMERICANA 1

where the parallel bivalents have united at both their ends to

form a much elongated ring. In Fig. 24 all the chromosomes

have opened and the bivalent arms twine around each other

several times. Finally Fig. 25 represents a somewhat later

stage in which nearly all the chromosomes are in the form of

elongated rings. In other cells, the elongated rings may be

less frequent (Fig. 26), their place being taken by the bars.

These represent the sister bivalents which have not opened out

to form a ring after the increase of the angle of the primary

-V’s, but have rather come into more intimate relations with

N Sup \isyp Woy?

To. p 2 fF Ve ali As

CY mee Saeme 3

TEXT-FIG. I.

Diagram of chromatic transformations from synapsis (@) to the first maturation

division (¢').

each other. It is important to observe that these bars are, at

this stage, about twice as thick as the elongated rings, show-

ing that they are double. What is more convincing, however,

is the fact that in some cases the longitudinal split may actually

be traced throughout their length: At the same time, the

chromosomes have considerably concentrated, so that the

changes within the nucleus can now be more easily determined.

From this point onward, the main changes consist in the

further concentration of the elongated figures into more perfect

rings and thickened double bars. Thus, as in Fig. 27, these

two main types, now staining intensely, are found side by side,

the double bars, present in the larger number, showing charac-

teristic bendings into thick U-shaped figures.

The spermatocytes are now at the end of the growth period,

and the eleven chromosomes distributed around the periphery

14. DUBLIN

are very nearly in the form in which they appear in the ensuing

division (Figs. 28-31). The cells are perfectly spherical with

the cytoplasm reduced to a very thin ring around the much

enlarged nucleus. In the cytoplasm, I have often observed a

deep staining granule, throughout the growth period, which

very probably is the centrosome. This rapidly divides, the

nucleus elongates and the prophase of the first maturation

division is attained. The types of chromosomes, viz., the rings

of various form and the double elongated bars are at this stage

found lying irregularly over the whole spindle (Figs. 32-34).

From these figures, two important conditions are clearly pre-

sented. Inthe first place, the longitudinal split shows distinctly

in many of the bars running throughout their length especially

in Fig. 34 and second, the several chromosomes, both bars and

rings, present remarkable size differences, some being as much

as three or four times the bulk of others.

The chromosomes now move uniformly into the equatorial

plate, giving in the metaphase pictures of striking clearness

(Figs. 35-40). There are at this point fewer rings in propor-

tion to the bars and these that still pérsist are much more

slender, showing that they are being converted, through elon-

gation, into the chromosomes of the other type. Finally, in a

considerable number of spindles, obviously of a later metaphase,

the bars alone exist and the time for division is at hand (Fig.

41). It is hardly necessary, at this point, to discuss the nature

of this division process. From the evidence presented, it has

been fully demonstrated, first, that the bar and ring-figures are

structurally tetrads, z. ¢., composed of four portions, a, 4, a, 0,

each of which is a quadrant (Text-fig. I, f and ¢), and second,

that the split running in the long axis of the figures is a longitudi-

nal one separating the sister bivalents. The extremities of the

figures are then the longitudinal ends, while those intermediate

between these, are the points of synapsis. It is obvious that

the long axis of the bars lies in the long axis of the spindle,

and that the points of synapsis are in the plane of the division.

This division is, therefore, transverse or reducing. On this

point there can be no room for doubt.

GERM CELLS IN PEDICELLINA AMERICANA 15

The spindles elongate, and the bars are drawn out across the

equator, a thin strand connecting the dyads. This soon disap-

pears, leaving the halves as thicker, almost spherical bodies

drawn out to an end in the direction of the division plane

(Figs. 41-42). While this is the usual form, in some instances,

other structures are presented in which the true double nature

of the bodies is more distinctly brought out. Thus, as in Fig.

43, one of the dyads is a short U. This is evidently a case

where the transverse division occurred before the ring had elon-

gated sufficiently into a bar. The dyads move to the poles,

and the first division is at an end (Figs. 44-46). Here the

chromosomes are densely crowded together, and in the late

telophase (Fig. 46) the study of the individual chromosomes is

quite impossible.

Judging from the rarity of its occurrence in the testis, this

stage is one of short duration. The second maturation figures

(Figs. 47-54) are about one half the size of those of the pre-

ceding division and are at this early period of a spindle shape.

The chromosomes appear as the reduced number of rods or bars,

showing a distinct constriction in the middle, and have arisen

by the further concentration of the dyads, very probably dur-

ing the last telophase. Ina cross section of the spindle in the

metaphase (Fig. 48) the eleven rods are even more distinctly

seen. These lie in the spindles that the constrictions are in the

plane of division. The chromosomes are therefore so directed

that this division is longitudinal, separating the sister monads

which had arisen by the splitting of the arms of the primary

V’s in the early periods of spermatocytic growth. In the early

anaphase, the two halves of the rods begin to move apart, leav-

ing a thin strand of chromatic substance between (Fig. 49). At

the same time, the monads still further condense, and with the

complete division, in the middle anaphase, give the appearance

of small spheres (Figs. 50—52),the chromosomes dividing quite

synchronously. In the telophase (Fig. 53) the spherules have

arrived at the poles, but do not as yet show any sign of fusing

into one mass. ‘This does not occur until a somewhat later

period (Fig. 54) when the cytoplasm shows the characteristic

constriction separating the two resulting spermatids.

16 DUBLIN

After the separation of the sister spermatids, a resting period

of considerable length occurs. The chromatin aggregated into

one spherical mass at the telophase, loses in staining capacity

and breaks up into small granules which extend throughout the

nucleus (Fig. 55). These granules may be of all sizes, and

evidently represent the different stages in the successive breaking

down of the large mass into its components. The nearly spher-

ical cells now begin to elongate along one axis, and the chro-

matin definitely localizes itself into two masses at two opposite

points along the axis of elongation, leaving only a few scattered

granules in the center (Fig. 56). In Fig. 57 the anterior end

of the head is clearly to be distinguished from the posterior

one. The former is drawn out to a point into which the chro-

matin is very densely crowded ; the latter is much rounder and

shows distinctly an end knob which, already existing in the

preceding stage, is the beginning of the formation of the middle

piece. Between the two ends the chromatin granules have

come together more closely (Figs. 57-58) and now form a

third deeply staining area (Fig. 59). With the further elon-

gation, the chromatin masses, before and behind, are pushed

out in the direction of the central strip with which they finally

come into contact. The chromatin is thus made continuous

throughout the head, although open spaces may still be made

out (Fig. 60). In the meantime the tail is increased in length,

and the whole structure takes on the appearance of the matured

spermatozoén. The spaces soon fill up, and the head, now

homogeneous, has reached the end of its development. The

middle piece however, is still of considerable breadth, nor has

the tail anything like its final form. These two structures

stand in a reciprocal relation to each other. What the middle

piece loses in size, shows in its increased length of the tail. This

process continues until the former is reduced to a small deeply

staining knob behind the head. In the final changes, not even

this persists, for in the great majority of cases the middle piece

and head fuse closely together, leaving not even a slight con-

striction to indicate the former independence of the two. The

mature sperm is thus a composite of two distinct portions, —a

GERM CELLS IN PEDICELLINA AMBRICANA 17

head (which is itself compound), and a long whip-like tail. The

latter is about three times as long as the head and becomes

continually narrower as it runs to its end (Fig. 61).

IV. OOGENESIS.

A median longitudinal section of a fairly large female polyp

often shows, in some one view, the completely developed ovary

with all the stages of egg development, through the oogonia

and the growing oécytes to the maturing ova (Text-fig. IJ).

This structure, situated in the space between the so-called

At tery oom @

Longitudinal section of ovary showing the various shapes in development of egg.

od, oviduct; oog., odgonia, oocy., odcytes; /.c., liver-cells.

‘“‘liver-cells’’ below, and the floor of the atrium above, is like

the testis, bilaterally symmetrical, each half being a pear-shaped

organ, the narrow end of which is at the center of the polyp in

connection with the oviduct, and widening as it extends outward

to the side of the body. In view of Ehlers’, ’90, comprehensive

description of this organ, it is unnecessary here to go into further

details of structure, except to note that as the full grown eggs

near the periphery become matured, they move back toward the

18 DUBLIN

center of the ovary and finally pass through the oviduct into the

brood-pouch formed in the lower portion of the atrium.

As in the Cofepod ovary, a continuous line of development

of the germ-cells can be traced from the center outward. We

accordingly find nearest the oviduct the smallest primary germ-

cells, which have persisted unchanged from the early stages of

the polyp. In these, division figures are never observed, except

in the youngest individuals. It may, therefore, be inferred that

the cells do not develop simultaneously. The nuclei, which

take up the greater part of the cell, are in the resting stage, the

chromatin being widely distributed in the form of a reticulum.

There are also at opposite ends of the nucleus two small nucleoli

which often move toward the center and fuse into one larger and

more irregular body. Altogether these cells are comparable to

those described by Hacker, ’g5, in the ovary of Canthocamptus

as the primitive egg cells (Uretzellen), and as this author states,

“are to be considered as the direct descendants of the primary

germ-cells of the embryo, and through active, apparently perio-

dic, divisions, give rise to the elements of the Ovary.”

Next in order come the odgonia (Text-fig. IT, Ong): = itere:

as in other forms, pass through several generations and division-

figures are common both in young and in older ovaries. Dis-

regarding for the moment the last generation of oogonia (more

fully described below), the other generations are in the main very

much alike with but slight differences in size, the cells becom-

ing smaller with the successive divisions, although there is a con-

siderable growth period between these. The divisions of these

oogonia are important for a comparison with the subsequent proc-

esses. Fig. 62 shows a cross-section of a metaphase of an early

generation. The chromosomes are as was observed in the early

spermatogonia slender, distinctly V-shaped bodies, with the

angle toward the spindle. Fig. 63 shows a longitudinal sec-

tion through a similar spindle. The 22 chromosomes are here

again V-shaped, and as such, they move toward their two re-

Spective centers where they concentrate into a very compact

deep staining mass (Fig. 64).

The most important of the odgonial divisions is, however,

GERM CELLS IN PEDICELLINA AMERICANA 19

what I believe to be the final one, difficult as it is to prove it to

be such by indirect evidence. Owing to the rapidity with

which this division is passed through, I am able to describe

only the metaphase and the late telophase. Yet these two

stages are sufficient, I believe, to show that here again, it is in

the process of the last division that the true reduction in the

number of chromosomes takes place. In the cross-section of

the metaphase, Fig. 65, the chromosomes are almost without

exception no longer the characteristic V’s of the preceding

odgonial generation but rods. Although I am unable to

describe the nature of this transformation in the egg save by

analogy of what was seen in the sperm, there can be no doubt

that this marked transformation has actually occurred. The

number of chromosomes is still unreduced, 22, and from the

comparatively small size of the cell, the stage most probably

represents the last generation. It is in the telophase of this

generation, however, that the contrast with the like phase of

the earlier generations is most striking (Fig. 66). The chro-

mosomes, in this preparation, are very fortunately not crowded

into one dense mass and may therefore be studied individually.

Such a study shows that in both of the daughter cells the

number of the V-shaped chromosomes is no longer that of

the foregoing metaphase, but is reduced to about eleven. It

is important to observe also, that these figures differ from those

of the preceding generations, showing in some cases, deeply

staining knobs at the apices. From both these latter consid-

erations, it appears with much probability that these eleven V’s

are each bivalvent and represent single chromosomes united end

to end.

This evidence in Pedicellina is strengthened by a comparison

of the somatic divisions. The chromosomes are in all cell-

generations V-shaped, sometimes appearing in the form of

temporary rings in the prophases andmetaphase. Anticipating

the fuller description of the somatic divisions, Figs. 107-

109, Pl. III, show clearly the presence of V’s, rings and

double V’s in the metaphase, and single V’s in the anaphase of

the first somatic division. This same type of cleavage has been

20 DUBLIN

traced to a late stage in the development of the embryo, and

in every case where the individual chromosomes could be

studied they appeared in a form quite like that found in the

earlier cleavages. The same condition prevails in the divisions

of the tissue cells. An instructive comparison can here be

made. Fig. 103, Pl. III, shows a cross section through a

“liver cell’ in the metaphase. Both the cell and the chromo-

somes are remarkably like what was found in corresponding

division figure of the early odgonium (Figs. 62-63). The

chromosomes are all distinct V’s, and are turned toward the

spindle. These split longitudinally and are in the late anaphase,

and finally in the telophase, still V’s (Fig. 104, Pl. III). Here

they are of about the same size and form as those observed in the

last odgonial telophase (synapsis) (Fig. 66) but in the former

case the number is very clearly double that in the latter.

Returning to the ovogenesis, it must be admitted that the

evidence is not as complete in the egg as it was in the sperm ;

yet there can be but little doubt that the reduction is here at-

tained in a like manner, z. ¢., by an end to end conjugation of

the individual chromosomes in the last odgonial telophase.

There is then, at the very beginning of the odcytic period, a

known constitution of the chromatin, making possible a proper

interpretation of the processes which now ensue.

The newly formed oécytes are now easily distinguished and,

in every regard, but size, resemble the youngest spermatocytes.

The chromosomes show the same polarity and the nucleus is

situated in like manner in reference to the cytoplasm (Figs.

67-69). Occasionally one or even two of the chromosomes

move away from the rest to the other end of the nucleus, but

as a rule, the apices are all directed away from the plane of the

last division, z. ¢., from the central end of the cell (Montgomery,

'99). At this, the earliest period of edcytie growth, the

angles of the V’s are large. One may however observe an oc-

casional crossing of the distal arms to form loop-shaped figures

(Figs. 70-71), but to this little significance can be attached.

There is, at every point, confirmation of Montgomery’s conten-

tion that the arms of the bivalent chromosomes are not sister-

GERM CELLS IN PEDICELLINA AMERICANA 21

chromosomes which have arisen through a longitudinal split,

and have remained attached at one end, but rather that these

represent the univalent chromosomes which united at the last

odgonial telophase.

As will appear from a closer examination of the figures there

are at the apices of the V’s, in a great number of cases, the deep

staining knobs (Figs. 67, 69, 70) which were described at the

same point in the V’s of the late synaptic telophase (Fig. 66).

Since that period the only new element that has appeared is the

nuclear membrane of the reconstructed nucleus. The chro-

mosomes have preserved not only their characteristic form, but

their position as well. The presence of these synaptic knobs

cannot by any possibility be interpreted as chance thickenings

along the chromosomes; the constancy of their location and

the frequency of their occurrence point very strongly to the

conclusion that they represent the points of union of the uni-

valent rods, and as such, they would correspond to the linin

fibers connecting the two arms at the apices of the V’s, as de-

scribed by Montgomery, first for Peripatus, ’99, and later for

the Amphibian spermatocyte, ’03.

As the growth period begins, the cytoplasm becomes easily

distinguishable in contrast with the previous stage, and the

chromosomes, moved away from the one end of the nucleus,

now lie apposed on nearly all sides to the nuclear membrane

(Figs. 71-72). There is as yet no sign of granulation of the

chromosomes. It is usually, also, at about this time (although

there is much variation in this regard) that a longitudinal split

in the arms of the V’s makes its appearance (Figs. 73-74).

The splitting often begins at one end of an arm and passes

upward toward the point of synapsis, though in many cases the

early splitting may occur in both arms at the same time (Fig.

75). Fig. 76 shows a little later stage where most of the

chromosomes are already divided and have begun to show a

distinctly granular appearance. This process, too, is extremely

variable in the time of its occurrence, and is not necessarily

connected with the longitudinal split, which, in most cases,

takes place before the granulation has begun. This is impor-

29 DUBLIN

tant, because from the works of several authors, it would ap-

pear that there was such a connection, and that the granules

first formed and divided each longitudinally to form the beaded

sister-arms.

The chromosomes have taken part in the growth so char-

acteristic of both cytoplasm and nucleus. As in Canthocamptus

and the Cofepods generally, there is no period of rest nor is

there a true chromatin-reticulum formed. The individual chro-

mosomes persist as such from the last odgonial telophase,

through the growth period of the odcyte into the maturation-

spindle, where they become the tetrads and rings to be described

later. Nor is there at any stage during the ege growth, a con-

tinuous spireme. In this regard Pedicellina is unlike such forms

as the Copepods and some other Crustacea, and resembles the

spermatocytes of Peripatus, Brachystola (Sutton); and Anasa

(Paulmier, ’99). There is, therefore, no possibility of the for-

mation of the bivalent chromosomes by the transverse division

of a continuous chromatin thread, as has been described in the

former of the above groups. The formation of a continuous

spireme appears even in these forms to be but a secondary

process, which may or may not occur, and as Hacker, Koy

points out, there is even in the same species a great amount of

variation in the time of its segmentation.

The cytoplasm has by this time increased in amount, and the

cells now have the characteristic appearance of oocytes (Fig.

77). The chromosomes show no order in their distribution,

and cross and intertwine among themselves. They have also

become extremely granular and ragged at this point, and in

some cases show distinct breaks in their course, making it often

difficult to follow the individual bivalents throughout. It is

then that the linin-reticulum in which the chromosomes are sus-

pended is most clearly visible. This new element has now

become of considerable importance. In the early stages of

growth there was next to nothing of the reticulum to be seen.

As the nucleus grows, it comes more and more into view, until

finally it appears much like a web, crossing the nucleus at all

points and serving as a support for the chromosome. With

GERM CELLS IN PEDICELLINA AMERICANA 23

Heidenhain’s hamatoxylin it can be made to stain intensely, so

that at times it becomes impossible to distinguish the chromo-

somes with which it is connected. On continuous extraction,

however, this difficulty can be readily overcome, and _ finally

nothing but the deep staining granular chromosomes remain in

view, with but the slightest trace of the linin, — sufficient only

to show the true relation existing between the former and the

latter.

Up to this point the development of the egg and the sperma-

tozodn has followed, very closely, along the same lines. In

the several generations and nature of the odgonia and sperma-

togonia; in the presence of the V’s in the last odgonial and

spermatogonial telophase, with its consequent reduction of the

chromosomal number ; in the further history of the bivalent V’s

thus formed; their lengthening, their irregular distribution

within the nucleus, and finally in the longitudinal splitting of

their arms, the early male and female germ cells are quite

alike. It is now necessary to trace those processes which from

this point onward, transform the longitudinally split bivalents

into the characteristic figures of the first maturation-division,

and to compare them with the corresponding changes in the

sperm.

The chromosomes, now longitudilly split along their entire

length, begin to show very characteristic changes. As in the

sperm, the acute angle of the V’s gradually opens out, until, at

a later period of development, it becomes equal to 180° and the

chromosomes become nearly straight longitudinally split bodies

(Figs. 78-79). In this movement the arms swing each around

the apex of the V (the point of synapsis). This process does

not occur at any fixed time, nor do all the chromosomes act

together in this regard. In the end, however, the changes in

all are quite alike. The chromosomes move toward the per-

iphery of the nucleus, Fig. 79, where they lie below the nuclear

membrane, in the form of almost straight longitudinally split

threads. Weare here again reminded of the observations in the

eggs of the Copepods, where Riickert, 94, and Hacker, ’92 and

’95, found the same conditions of the chromosomes (cf. Figs.

24 DUBLIN

7a and 7d, Pl. XXII) of Rickert’s memoir, “ Zur Eireifung

bei Copepoden.”’

The sister threads of a bivalent chromosome, now fully ex-

tended, may secondarily unite at one of these free ends and in

this way give rise to a new long-armed V (Figs. 80-81). This

figure must not, however, be confused with those observed be-

fore the opening up of the angle of the synaptic structures.

The arms of the early V’s are each longitudinally split, of which

condition there is not a trace in the later ones; and secondly,

while the arms of the former are univalent chromosomes which

have united in synapsis, those of the latter are bivalent sister

chromosomes which have become secondarily apposed at one

end. The middle point of the long arms of the second V’s,

therefore, corresponds to the apices of the V’s in the first (cf.

Text-fig. I, p. 13). In the greater number of cases the sister

bivalent chromosomes do not unite at one point alone, but often

twine around each other, thus forming 8’s and loops of many

types; in all, however, the same homologies pointed out above

must hold (Figs. 82-84).

The chromosomes, having lost somewhat in their staining

capacity during the last period, again increase in this regard

and lose at the same time their ragged appearance. ‘The linin,

staining very lightly, forms a fine meshwork over which the

chromosomes appear distributed, very different from the deep

staining reticulum of the earlier stages. The chromosomes are

in all stages of concentration and vary greatly in size (Fig. 84).

In general, the ensuing process may be summarized as follows :

The two sister threads unite at one of their ends, if they have

not at some earlier stage already done so, and then the second

or the free ends come into contact, forming a ring. Or the arms

may first cross and then unite at the ends; in this way are ob-

tained, I believe, the very common 8-shaped figures (Figs. 84—

85). In other cases the second pair of free ends may fail to

unite, but come close together, thus forming two thick bars in

the form of a V._ Finally (and this, as the figures show, is of

very frequent occurrence) the bivalents may fuse along their

whole length, forming long rods of considerable thickness.

GERM CELLS IN PEDICELLINA AMERICANA 25

The longitudinal split is in these most often completely ob-

scured, but I have been able, in a considerable number of

cases, to discern it at several points along the course of the

fusion (Fig. 84). These rods rarely remain extended, but

band into a variety of figures such as S’s and shallow U’s. In

the meantime, the chromosomes as a whole have much concen-

trated and are now not much longer than when they appear in

the early prophase of the first maturation mitosis.

Fig. 85 shows such a prophase. The single centrosome and

aster have already made their appearance The chromosomes

are all very much concentrated and are in just the form in which

many appear in the metaphase of the following division. We

observe here all the main types pointed out in the discussion of

the earlier prophases. There are thus the rings of various

forms and the much contracted bars. These are in most cases

of dumb-bell shape, showing a constriction in the middle and in

some cases a distinct longitudinal split. The chromosome to

the extreme left is of particular significance, in that it points out

that the rods are also formed by the secondary elongation of

the rings along one axis. In this particular instance, the upper

portion of the chromosome is already of bar form, while the

lower has as yet the form of a ring with the space showing very

distinctly. This accessory formation of thick rods from rings

is, I believe, of constant occurrence at this period.

Figs. 86-87 are early prophases and represent the two main

types of chromosome form in the first maturation. Thus, lying

side by side, irregularly distributed over the whole spindle, are

on the one hand the rings, more or less contracted, and on the

other, the bars, somewhat shorter and thicker than before, most

of them bent at the middle to form the figure~. This bending

in Pedicellina is comparable with the similar changes observed

by Paulmier, ’99, in Azasa, Griffin, ’99, in Zhalassema, and more

recently by Sutton, ’02, in Lrachystola. In these objects, this

secondary bending is often complete, thus forming a ring which

is split along its whole course. I have not, however, observed

any such process in Pedicellina, where the bending is never much

more advanced than to form a semi-circle.

26 DUBLIN

The chromosomes are now drawn more uniformly into the

equatorial plate, but there is a considerable amount of variation

in the development of the spindles at this stage. Thus, while

as in Fig. 88 the nuclear membrane still persists and the spindle

has not yet reached its maximum length, in Fig. 89, in contrast,

although the chromosomes are not as fully drawn into the equa-

tor, yet the spindle is in its final form. It is such stages as

these that make possibie a confusion with the later anaphases.

The shortened and bent bars, distributed on both sides of the

center, often give the appearance of dyads which might have

arisen by the cross division of the rings. Careful count of the

total number of chromosomes has, however, always given the

reduced number, and this, together with the fact that the spin-

dles have not as yet moved to the periphery, has convinced me

that the bars are not dyads but the same structures observed in

the immediately preceding prophases. It is at this point, too,

that the cross-chromosomes make their appearance. These, in

some instances, show an open space at the center. The arms

are of unequal size, and the larger lies in the long axis of the

spindles. These considerations would tend to show that these

figures had arisen, like those described by Griffin,’99, in Z/a/as-

sema and Zirphea, from double bars which had extended out

from the middle or more probably as Conklin, ’02, suggests, in

his work on Crepidula, by the flowing out of the substance of

the rings. In any case, it is hardly possible that the arms rep-

resent dyads which have prematurely separated and then ro-

tated on each other.

The spindle, as a whole, moves toward the periphery and the

metaphase of the first maturation division is attained (Figs. go—

94). The chromosomes elongate at the same time, and the

ring chromosomes of various form are now also observed as

thick rods in which the longitudinal split is more or less dis-

tinct. In spite of the former diversity, there is at this stage a

remarkable uniformity in the appearance of the chromosomes.

We may also, at this point, decide upon the nature of this di-

vision. It will be necessary, for this purpose, to review briefly

the history of the chromosomes (cf. Text-fig. I, p. 13). It was

GERM CELLS IN PEDICELLINA AMERICANA 27

pointed out in the discussion of the early prophases that the

bivalents appeared, first, as elongated bars with a split running

the length of the bar and, second, as rings of various forms.

The latter, in their further development, are often converted

into bars of the first type or into cross-shaped figures ; but in

both of the two main types, whatever be the individual pecu-

liarities, it is clearly seen, in the light of the earlier stages of

odcytic growth, that the space running along the long axis of

the figure is the longitudinal split separating sister bivalents.

The ends of the bars would then be the longitudinal ends and

the points intermediate at the middle on the sister bivalents

would thus be the points of synapsis. A division, therefore,

which passes through the former points would be longitudinal,

while one passing through the latter would be transverse or

reducing.

In Pedicellina, it is quite evident that the second of these

conditions is the actual one. In every instance of the consid-

erable number of late prophases and metaphases examined, I

have found the rods so placed that their long axis corresponded

with that of the spindle. The points of synapsis are, therefore,

in the equator and the division which now ensues passes through

these points, and separates the univalent chromosomes which

had remained united since the last odgonial telophase. In this

regard, the conditions in Pedicellina agree with the early obser-

vations of Henking, ’90, on Pyrrochoris, Paulmier, 99, on

Anasa and those of Montgomery, who in Peripatus and a large

number of other forms, always found the first the reducing

division. On the other hand, these results are opposed to the

conclusions of Rickert, ’94, and Hacker, ’95, and ’o2, on the

Copepods, of VomRath, ’92, on Gryllotalpa, of Griffin, 99, on

Thalassema, and the more recent ones of Sutton, ’o2, on

Brachystola, according to whom the first division is longitudinal.

- The dyads resulting from the first division are, in the main,

of one form in the early anaphase as were the tetrads in the

metaphase. As Fig. 95, a and 4, shows, there is often present

a thin strand of chromosomal substance connecting the dyads

across the center, but this soon disappears. In no case have I

28 DUBLIN

been able to make out the longitudinal split in these dyads,

which undoubtedly exists. In the excessive elongation of the

structures during the division process the two sister portions

have simply come into more intimate relation, thus giving to

the products of the division the appearance of homogeneous

knobs drawn out into a blunt end in the direction of the

equator.

Owing very probably to the rapidity with which the later

stages of this division are passed through, I have not found

among my many preparations any stages between these ana-

phases and the late telophases. By this time the spindle has

advanced even further toward the periphery, and the first polar

body is extruded. This structure is a comparatively large

sphere in which lie the eleven chromosomes, now much con-

centrated. At this stage these may be quadrupartite, spherical,

or even rod-like in structure, showing in this last instance a

very distinct constriction at the middle. This, preserved plainly

in the chromosomes of this form, represents the points of union

of the sister univalents which had arisen through the longitu-

dinal split in the early growth stages. As these chromosomes

later move apart in preparation for the division of the first polar

body, they show clearly bands of linin connecting them through-

out. In striking contrast with the egg, also, the polar body is

of pure cytoplasmic substance in which no yolk spheres are to

be found.

The first division completed, the chromosomes within the egg

very probably persist individually in the telophase without

forming a resting nucleus. The centrosome and aster also

divide very rapidly, forming the beginnings of a new spindle,

the long axis of which ist first go° to that of the preceding

one (Fig. 96). The chromosomes are distributed irregularly

over the whole of one side of the spindle, and are of the same

form as just described for their sister chromosomes of the first

polar body. In addition, however, there are also present a few

of distinctly U shape, the arms of which are rather close

together. The bend of the U would, in these, correspond to

the constrictions at the middle points of the bar shaped chromo-

GERM CELLS IN PEDICELLINA AMERICANA 29

somes. Altogether, there can be little doubt that these bodies

represent the knobs of the anaphase of the preceding division in

which the longitudinal split has reappeared, separating the two

sister univalent portions. It is also of interest to observe in

one arm of the clearest of these U’s a constriction at the middle

point. This corresponds to the secondary constrictions along

the univalent arms, which give rise to the quadrupartite bodies,

but here the processes are somewhat dissociated.

The spindle now rotates into a radial position (Fig. 97) with

the chromosomes more nearly in the equator. In this figure,

the chromosomes are cubical and thick rod-like bodies, and in

this regard agree in part with what was described by Conklin,

02, for Crepidula. It must not be inferred, however, that the

quadrupartite appearance of some, is an expression of the real

constitution of the bodies. The secondary pair of indentations

never cut deeply into the chromosomes and may be entirely

absent, leaving only the constrictions of the longitudinal split

and from what is known of the past history of the dyads, they

are probably of little significance in the interpretation of the

division in which they occur. The spindle now elongates con-

siderably and moves to the periphery (Fig. 98). The chromo-

somes bear the same relations to the spindle that was observed

in the slightly earlier stage of the preceding figure; for here,

too, the longitudinal constrictions, wherever they clearly occur,

are to be observed in the plane of division. The division

process which now follows passes through these points and the

second maturation is therefore longitudinal or equational. In

the middle anaphase (Fig. 99) the monads appear as small,

deeply staining spherules. As far as can be determined, they

are smaller than the chromosomes of the late prophase and in

the great number of instances are about one half as large as the

latter. There is, however, a considerable amount of variation

in the size of the individual chromosomes which makes such

an estimate of size relations very difficult. In the telophase,

the chromosomes (Fig. 100), show no change in form of any

significance, and are now aggregated around their respective

poles, the centers of which are almost entirely faded out. As

30 DUBLIN

in the first polar body formation, a cap of pure cytoplasm

appears at the periphery (Fig. 101) and into this the peripheral

chromosomes move to form the second polar body.

In the meanwhile, the first polar body has divided. This, in

Pedicellina, as in most other forms, Z7halassema (Griffin), Lamar

(Mark), etc., is a very common occurrence and is accomplished

by mitosis (Fig.,102). The chromosomes, of the same size and

form as those observed in the second maturation division, are so

placed in the spindle, that they are divided longitudinally like

the other bivalents in the egg. In the metaphase, a deep con-

striction occurs on both sides of the polar body which leads to

complete division. From the many cases of second maturation

spindles observed, it appears that the division of the first polar

body is accomplished very early ; indeed, is completed by the

time the second maturation division within the egg has reached

its metaphase.

A brief account of the cytoplasmic changes of the growing

egg may be appended. In the very youngest oécytes, after the

synaptic phase, the cytoplasm is but barely visible as a thin

layer around the newly reconstructed nuclear membrane.

This rapidly increases, especially at the pole opposite that of

chromatin concentration. Thus arises a cytoplasmic polarity

characteristic of the odcyte during the whole growth period.

The structure of the cytoplasm of the sublimate fixed material

appears as a mesh-work of fine microsomes or granules which

are imbedded in a continuous substratum. Later, a new ele-

ment makes its appearance in the form of large yolk granules

which arise at first on the periphery of the cell as deeply stain-

ing spheres of various sizes, and increase in numbers by the for-

mation of successive layers inward toward the nucleus. I am

unable to decide whether the yolk masses arise in situ or actually

move inward from the periphery where they are formed.

Of the considerable number of odcytes which begin their de-

velopment, only a portion reach maturity ; the remainder are

converted into nutritive cells. These may be distinguished very

early. Within the nucleus constant and distinct differences may

be observed. The chromatin is not in the form of distinct chro-

GERM CELLS IN PEDICELLINA AMERICANA O1

mosomes and stains rather lightly in comparison with that of

the true odcytes.

V. FERTILIZATION AND CLEAVAGE.

The ripe spermatozoa cast out into the water make their

way into the atrium of a female polyp, thence into the ovary,

where the eggs are fertilized. Spermatozoa are often founda

considerable distance within eggs where the chromatin is still

long before concentration (Fig. 80, Pl. II, sp.). In most cases,

however, fertilization occurs when the first polar spindle is

about to be formed. With the latter in the metaphase, the

fertilized egg makes its way through the oviduct, into the

atrium, where the brood pouch is formed. Here the remainder

of embryonic development is passed through until the free

swimming larva is attained.

In the act of fertilization, the head alone enters the egg (Fig.

80). The head, however, as was shown in the preceding sec-

tion, is a composite structure, containing at its posterior end

the middle piece with which it had fused. From the compar-

ison of many instances, it appears that the sperm may enter the

egg at any point. Once within, it makes its way through a

mass of yolk spheres, leaving behind it a track of pure cyto-

plasmic substance. It is in this area that the sperm-aster with

its centrosome and centriole lie. The head now concentrates

to an even smaller size, losing at the same time, its lanceolate

form and giving very much the appearance of one of the yolk

spheres among which it lies. The astral system is no longer to

be observed.

In the meantime the maturation processes are being passed

through. With these at an end, the sperm head swells up and

soon becomes of equal size with the female pronucleus from

which it can at this time be distinguished only by the proximity

of the latter to the newly formed polar bodies (Fig. 106).

Within both, the chromatin is often in the form of a finely di-

vided reticulum supported and connected throughout by a con-

tinuous linin system. As the nuclei approach each other they

grow larger and the chromatin reticulum concentrates into

32 DUBLIN

definite chromosomes. At first crowded together they soon

move apart, and appear in the reduced number in each in the

form of deeply staining 8- and V-shaped figures and even as

more or less straight rods. With the pronuclei apposed, the

membrane between them grows much fainter; the chromatin

within both, however, remaining quite distinct throughout. I

have not been able, in spite of the many cases studied, to dis-

cover any achromatic structures in the vicinity of the pronuclei.

At any rate, the first somatic spindle is very rapidly formed,

and, in the late prophase, the normal number of chromosomes

is clearly present. These are (Fig: 107) early all) V/s ayeie

the metaphase Fig. 108, they are longitudinally split, the sister

portions resulting, often remaining united at the ends, to give

the appearance of the heterotypic ring. In the anaphase (Fig.

109) the same V-form of the chromosomes is preserved and

the first somatic division is brought to a close.

VI. COMMENT.

At the present time, a very striking convergence of opinion

regarding the nature of the maturation processes is replacing

the wide differences which have until recently existed. The

view first clearly pointed out by Boveri, ’91, that the true solu-

tion of this problem is to be sought, not in the actual maturation

divisions but long before these, in the processes occurring in the

antepenultimate generation of cells (primary oocytes and sper-

matocytes) has received remarkable confirmation in the recent

works of Montgomery and Sutton among the zoologists, and

in those of Rosenberg, Farmer and Moore, Gregoire and

Berghs and finally Strasburger among the botanists. To

Montgomery especially is due the credit for having shown

that the key to the problem is to be sought in the so-called

‘«‘Synapsis-stage’’ and that the beginnings of synapsis lie even

further back than the stage so designated by Moore (’95) —z. ¢.,

in the closing phases of the last odgonial and spermatogonial

division. Even greater interest has been centered in this stage

through the remarkable conclusions of the above-mentioned

zodlogists, that at this period a pair-wise conjugation of corre-

GERM CELLS IN PEDICELLINA AMERICANA 33

sponding or homologous maternal and paternal chromosomes

occurs; for, as Sutton has pointed out, this phenomenon, if it

really occurs, gives the basis for a probable explanation of the

Mendelian phenomena of heredity.

In Pedicellina, the phenomena are such as to give no evidence

as.to whether such conjugation of paternal and maternal ele-

ments occurs, yet the facts give good ground for supporting

the more general conclusion that a union of chromosomes, two

by two, takes place at this period. In this way are produced

the bivalents of the long growth period, giving almost decisive

proof of the validity of Hacker’s early interpretation of the

chromosomes in the post-synaptic stages. If this be granted

there can be no escape from the conclusion, in the light of the

succeeding processes, that one of the maturation divisions is

transverse, separating pairs of identical (sister) chromosomes.

It is now well to review in greater detail, the various phases of

the development of both the egg and the sperm cells to see

more clearly the grounds for this accordance with the results of

the above.

(A) “ The [Individuahty of the Chromosomes.”

This hypothesis has recently received strong confirmation at

the hands of students of insect spermatogenesis (McClung,

Montgomery, Sutton, etc.). Not only have these authors ob-

served constant size differences in the chromosomes, but in

the case of certain peculiar elements, the so-called accessory

chromosomes, the persistence of the structures as such has

been traced throughout several generations of spermatogonia,

the two spermatocyte divisions and finally into the spermatids.

This is fully in harmony with the experimental results of

Boveri, who, in his remarkable paper on “‘ Multi-polar Mitoses’’

(02) was able to conclude “dass nur eine bestimmte Kombina-

tion von Chromosomen, wahrscheinlich nur die Gesamtheit der

in jedem Vorkern enthaltenen, das ganze Wesen der Organismen-

form, soweit dasselbe vom Kern aus bestimmt wird, reprasen-

tiert.”” and ‘‘dass nicht eine bestimmte Zahl, sondern eine be-

stimmte Kombination von Chromosomen zur norma-

34 DUBLIN

len Entwickelung notwendig ist, und dieses bedeutet nichts

anderes,. als dass die einzelnen Chromosomen wer

schiedene- Qualitaten besitzen mussen.

In Pedicellina throughout the long period of growth, from the

prophases of the last generation of oogonia and spermatogonia

through the maturation divisions, the chromosomes persist as

definite and distinct structures, and this in spite of the great

increase and subsequent condensation of the chromatin mass,

in many regards as marked as Ruckert, ’92, found in Pristiurus.

At no point is there any such marked disintegration of the

chromatin thread or any crowding together into one deeply

staining mass, as would make difficult the minute study of the

individuals. Nor is there any relation to the nucleolus such as

might throw uncertainty on the constitution of the chromo-

somes. While the latter, in their condensation, may give off

certain cleavage products to the substance of the egg nucleolus,

at no point have I found any evidence for the possibility of the

reversal of the process. In one more regard, the conditions

are significant. The several chromosomes in the young

oocytes and spermatocytes vary considerably in size, some being

fully three times as large as others. Though I am unable to

determine any constancy in this relation of certain definite

chromosomes to each other, as Sutton could in Lrachystola,

yet this proportionate diversity is obvious throughout the growth

period and most clear in the metaphase of the first and second

maturation divisions.

(B) Reduction.

As has been already remarked, it is in the matter of reduc-

tion that the most significant results of this paper were obtained.

Throughout the entire life cycle of somatic divisions the chro-

mosomes appear always in the form of V’s and occur in exactly

this form, in the several earlier generations of oogonia and

spermatogonia. Inthe last generation, however, my evidence

shows unmistakably both in the egg and sperm that a new type

of chromosome makes its appearance in the form of dumb-bell

shaped rods in which the angle of the previous V is almost

completely undone, the constriction in the middle of the straight

GERM CELLS IN PEDICELLINA AMERICANA S19)

rods very probably corresponding to the apices of the V. These

new structures divide, preserve their rod-like form in the ana-

phases (my evidence is complete for the sperm only, on this

point), and finally, in the telophases of both oédgonia and sper-

matogonia give rise to the reduced number of bivalents. What

can be the significance of this sudden change in the character

of the chromosomes of the last division? In the light of the evi-

dence here adduced, and of that from the other sources already

referred to, it is almost impossible to avoid the conclusion that

the change is a direct preparation for the process of reduction.

Were the V’s present in this last division also, twenty-two

V-shaped chromosomes would be found at the poles in the telo-

phase, instead of the eleven actually found. Under such con-

ditions, the appearance of the V’s in the post-synaptic phases

of the early oGcytes and spermatocytes, even if reduced in num-

ber, would throw no light on the character of the reduction

process. For, in such a case, the reduction might have been

attained in any one of a number of ways ; for example, by the

superposition and fusion of the V’s two by two, as some authors

actually conjecture to be the case. But in Pedicellina, the true

conditions are distinctly otherwise. The V’s are not present in

the latter half of the last division process and appear as such

only later in the telophases as new formations and clearly re-

duced in number.

Without undertaking a review of the already enormous liter-

ature on this period in the development of the germ cells, it is

here necessary only to point out that the ‘‘ synapsis-stage ’’ has

been observed in nearly every form in which the early proc-

esses of development have been studied. Thus, in such diverse

types of spermatogenesis and odgenesis as have been described

for the Amphibia, on the one hand, and the Cofepods on the

other, the close aggregation at one pole of the nucleus regularly

occurs. First designated by the appropriate term ‘‘Synapsis’’ by

Moore, ’95, this author laid the basis for all later progress in this

subject by associating this stage with the process of reduction.

To Montgomery, however, we owe the interpretation of synap-

sis in the form here adopted. Commenting on the occasional

36 DUBLIN

appearance of V’s in the anaphase of the last spermatogonial

division of Peripatus, 99, he says, “‘ This V-shaped approxima-

tion of the chromosomes into pairs is more than a mere coinci-

dence due to the crowding together of the chromosomes ; it iS,

I think, the first sign of the pairwise union of chromosomes by

which the reduction of their number is effected and which re-

sults in the formation of bivalent chromosomes.”’ But this V-

formation is, as he himself states, unusual at this point. That,

coupled with the fact that there intervenes between this and the

next appearance of the V’s, a stage in which the chromatin is

closely packed into one dark staining mass, and that the indi-

vidual chromosomes cannot, with any distinctness, be made out,

throws some uncertainty on the result. In Peadicelliina, on the

contrary, it is no difficult matter to so stain the young odgonia

and spermatogonia that at no stage do the chromosomes form a

close undecipherable mass. Thus Figs. 17-18 and 66 show that

while the chromosomes do group together, yet it is very appar-

ent that the individual chromosomes are in the form of V’s, of

which there are about eleven. The main difficulty observed in

the evidence from Peripatus is thus overcome. j

Strong support to Montgomery’s interpretation is given by

Sutton’s observations on Srachystola,’o1,’o2 and ’03. This

author observed constant size-differences in the spermatogonial

chromosomes and that these, with the exception of the single

accessory chromosome, were paired as regards size. This con-

dition persists throughout the eight successive generations of

spermatogonia, but is lost in the transition into spermatocytes,

in which the reduced number of chromosomes appears, but with

the same size-differences between the now bivalent chromosomes

that were so characteristic of the pairs of chromosomes in the

spermatogonia. ‘‘ These spiremes”’ (the reduced number), he

writes, ‘‘are graded as to size, just as were the chromosome

pairs of the spermatogonia.’”’ Further, “... .a division may

be noted separating the spireme into two distinct limbs of ap-

proximately equal size, which are frequently doubled on each

other at the point of union.”’ It is on this evidence alone very

difficult to disagree with Sutton that in the tetrads which later

GERM CELLS IN PEDICELLINA AMERICANA 3O7

form, “the transverse marking separates two spermatogonial

chromosomes which have conjugated end to end in synapsis.”’

Of very considerable interest in this connection is the still

more recent work of Miss Stevens, ’03, on the spermatogenesis

of Sagitta. This author, on good evidence, also decides for

synaptic-reduction. Thus: ‘“ Two types of spermatogonial divi-

sions are found . . .; one in which the daughter chromosomes

appear at the poles of the spindle as 18 rods . . .; and another

type, where a much smaller number of loops, probably nine,

are found at each pole... . These figures lead me to think

that the so-called synapsis stage occurs in Sagzéfa at the close

of the final spermatogonial division, the chromosomes uniting

in pairs at the poles of the spindle. There is so much variation

in the size of the spermatogonia, that it is impossible to be ab-

solutely certain that a resting stage where the chromosomes

are not visible does not intervene between this union of the

chromosomes”’ and the young spermatocytes ‘where usually

all the cells of a group contain nine distinct deeply staining loops

with a somewhat crenate or beaded outline.”’

Evidence of a more general nature is that afforded, as Mont-

gomery again points out, in his latest review of the subject, ’04,

by Ascaris megalocephala univalens, where only one chromosome

of large size occurs in the young spermatocyte in place of the

two present in the last spermatogonial division. Also, in those

cases where two chromatin nucleoli (accessory chromosomes,

McClung) appear in the spermatogonia and odgonia (Anasa)

only one of these bodies appears after the synapsis, and this is

then of a double character. At no point during this period is

there even a suggestion of the throwing out of chromatin from

the nucleus. It then seems evident in these cases, that the re-

duction is accomplished by the conjugation of the single indi-

viduals.

Still later is the preliminary report of A. & K. E. Schreiner,

04, on the Spermatogenesis in the Vertebrates, Myxine glutinosa

and Spinax niger, where immediately following the last sper--

matogonial division the chromosomes, in the form of extended

thin threads group at one pole of the reformed nucleus and

38 DUBLIN

unite into pairs along their whole length, reducing the number

to one half. This is in all regards similar to the description of

the same stage given by Van Winiwarter, ’02, in his excellent

work on the oogenesis of the rabbit and man and that of

Schoenfeld, ’o1, in the spermatogenesis of the ox.

The strongest corroboration of this main thesis, however, has

lately come from the botanists. Very striking is the work of Ros-

enberg, ’03 and’o04, on the chromosomes of the somatic and germ

cells of a hybrid between Drosera longifolia and Drosera rotun-

difolia. The former of these two species contains 40 chromo-

somes in its tissue cells and 20 in its germ cells, while the latter

contains but 20 and 10 in its soma and germ cells respectively.

In the hybrid, however, while the tissue cells contain 30 chro-

mosomes, the germ cells in both sexes contain not 15, as one

would expect, but 20. These 20 chromosomes, already pres-

ent in their definitive form in the earliest prophases of the first

maturation mitosis, are of two types: first, 10 large double

structures showing a constriction in the middle ; and second, 10

single ones. These are distributed irregularly over the spindle,

only the double structures being properly placed in the equator,

In the ensuing division, the latter 10 divide and pass to the

poles to form the daughter nuclei, sometimes taking with them

some of the irregularly placed ones which have not undergone

any division. The majority of the single chromosomes, how-

ever, are left out in the cytoplasm where, after forming dwarf

nuclei they degenerate. In the second division, the chromo-

somes split longitudinally and four daughter cells each contain-

ing, with but few exceptions, 10 chromosomes is the result.

From the above, there is but little doubt of the conclusion

drawn by Rosenberg: ‘‘ Es wird also in den Pollen- und Em-

bryo-sackmutterzellen etwa im Synapsisstadium ein von Dro-

sera longifolia stammendes Chromosom mit einem Chromosom

das von Drosera rotundifolia stammt vereinigt . . ., es konnen

hier also nur 10 Chromosomen von Drosera longifolia von 10

Chromosomen von Drosera rotundifolia sozusagen gebunden

werden. Die tbrigen 10 Drosera longifolia Chromosomen

finden keinen entsprechenden von Drosera rotundifolia und

GERM CELLS IN PEDICELLINA AMERICANA 39

mussen demnach als einfache Chromosomen neben den anderen

i0 Doppel Chromosomen vorhanden sein, was auch thatsachlich

gefunden worden ist. Ich finde also in dieser Erscheinung eine

Bestatigung der Ansicht, dass einerseits bei der Reducktion eine

Vereinigung von Chromosomen zu zwei und zwei stattfindet,

anderseits, dass hierbei Chromosomen sich paarweise von jedem

der Elternindividuen vereinigen.

In like manner, Cannon, ’03, in his study of the spermato-

genesis of the hybrid peas pointed out that as in Peripatus, etc.,

in the anaphases of the last sporogonous division of both hy-

brids and the pure form “ Fillbasket,’’ the chromosomes unite in

pairs, thus reducing the number to one half. No such associa-

tion into pairs is ever seen in the telophases of the normal

somatic mitoses.

Still further, Farmer and Moore, ’03, Lotsy, ’04, Gregory,

’04, Gregoire, ’04, and Berghs, ’o04, and finally Strasburger,

04, himself, have in a large number of forms with but slight

variations, found the same character of reducing process and

ascribe to the synaptic phase the same significance pointed out

above.

It is quite clear then, that in order to understand the reduction

process we must turn to the early germ-cells (the oogonia and

spermatogonial), and not to the oocytes and spermatocytes ; for,

in the latter, the number has already been reduced. There is,

therefore, at the very beginning of the growth period, a condi-

tion of the chromatin which is known, making possible the

study of the later processes. It is in this regard that the classic

work of Hacker, Rickert and the other pioneers in the minute

study of the chromatin of the germ-cells was weakest ; for cor-

rect as their interpretation of the bivalents is now seen to be,

the origin of these structures was based on a very broad as-

sumption which later research has entirely failed to confirm.

In the presence of the characteristic synaptic phases synchro-

nous with, or immediately following the last oogonial telophases,

in these several Copepods and the other Arthropods generally,

and from the subsequent appearance of the reduced number of

bivalents in the early growth period, it is quite evident that the

40 DUBLIN

phenomena in these groups where the processes are most fully

known fall in line with the conceptions of Montgomery and

Sutton.

C. Post-Synaptic Processes.

The reduction once accomplished, the chromosomes in the

form of V-shaped bivalents show again marked plasticity. The

arms of the V’s split longitudinally, producing two sister struc-

tures united at several points along their course, and then become

continuous through the increase of the angle to 180°. In this

way are produced the parallel bivalent threads, like those in the

Copepods or when the ends unite, the elongated rings described

in Gryllotalpa(Vom Rath, ’92). This extension of the angle is,

in reality, no new process. Changes very similar were described

by Vom Rath in Gvyllotalpa and later by Paulmier in Azasa —

cases from which that of Pedicellina differs only in that the

changes are somewhat more pronounced. The figures of

Hacker, moreover, point strongly to the probability that the

parallel bivalent threads of the Copepods are also so formed.

By the final concentration, these two types finally become in

Pedicellina the rings and the elongated bars of the prophases of

the first maturation division. But in either case, the structures

are equivalent to tetrads, the longitudinal split (most clearly

identified in the double bars) separating sister bivalents. We

are thus presented with a complicated series of changes, in

proper sequence, all leading to the formation of such a struc-

ture that its various parts may be distributed in the ensuing

maturation divisions to different cells.

In the formation of the longitudinally split bivalent chromo-

somes, Pedicellina throws light on the whole problem of chro-

mosome-development in the growing egg and sperm. Two

types have been recognized to exist, as regards the origin of

these bivalent chromosomes. In the first, a continuous spireme

is said to arise in the earliest oocytes, often already longitudi-

nally split, which later segments into one half the normal num-

ber of double bars (Cofepod type, Hacker). In the second, a

continuous spireme is never formed. The reduced number of

bivalent chromosomes appears at the very beginning in the form

GERM CELLS IN PEDICELLINA AMERICANA 4]

of V’s which later by the union of the free ends, form a ring.

By further concentration, this figure may become a dumb-bell-

shaped structure (Peripatus, Brachystola, etc.). In Pedicellina,

as has already been pointed out, there is no continuous spireme

and the early chromosomes are V’s, in all regards like those of

the second type, but by the opening up of the angle and the

subsequent continuity of the univalent rods, are converted into

the parallel bivalent bars of the first type. FPedicellina thus

presents conditions that bridge over the two classes and shows

clearly that these are really variations of one main type of chro-

matin formation.

In view of the foregoing facts, it may be questioned whether

a continuous spireme really ever occurs even in the Copepods,

as described by Hacker, ’95. The work of Rickert, ’94, does

not show a continuous spireme at any point in oocytic develop-

ment. The parallel bivalents appear in the very early oocytes

and arise not through any process of segmentation, but rather

by the moving apart, as growth proceeds, of the separate ele-

ments within the much crowded nuclei of the earliest period,

met the “synapsis” stage (cf. Figs. 1-2, Pl. XXI, ’94,

Anat. Hefte). Hacker’s own figures are far from proving his

contention, and are much more favorably adapted to an inter-

pretation in line with what is observed in the other forms, vzz.,

Peripatus, Brachystola and particularly Pedicellina. Thus neither

hie=.5) nor 6, Pl. XIV, A, M. A.,’95, representing the first

type, 7. ¢., where segmentation occurs before concentration, nor

Figs. 16-17, Pl. XV, of the second type, show continuous spi-

remes. They are more probably secondary appearances which

have arisen by the apposition end to end of a considerable

number of the parallel bivalents. This supposition is much

strengthened by the conditions presented in his Figs. 7-11, Pl.

XIV, where this apposition actually occurs to form not a con-

tinuous spireme, but rather, what Hacker designates as an

ophiuroid figure. The author looks upon these as secondary

unions, in contrast to the continuous spiremes which are pri-

mary structures; but he gives no evidence for this distinction.

The eggs are of the same age and the nuclei are in the same

42 DUBLIN

point of development. Altogether the evidence points to the

conclusion that the continuous spiremes and ophiuroid figures

are alike in nature and represent, in somewhat different detail,

the same process, viz., the secondary union of the ends of the

already formed bivalents. In the first case the apposition is

continuous, one bivalent being attached to the free end of the

preceding ; in the second, the ends of several bivalents are

united at the same point. The difficulty has arisen, I believe,

because Hacker has sought the process of reduction in the

period of oocytic growth when, as a matter of fact, it occurs at

a very much earlier period in the early telophase of the last

oogonial and spermatogonial divisions, where, through a proc-

ess of convergence and fusion of univalent elements into pairs,

the number is halved.

Once formed, the bivalents may persist individually as is so

clearly shown in Pedicellina, both in the egg and in the sperm,

or they may fuse into one deeply staining mass, emerging only

later in their true form as in Perzpatus. The Copepods are ap-

parently of the same type. The characteristic ‘‘ synapsis-stage”’

occurs, as Hacker himself asserts, and is clearly coincident with

the last oogonial telophase. Following this synapsis stage,

when the growth period sets in, the already formed bivalents

apparently increase in size, lose in staining capacity, and cross

and recross, giving rise to the confusing figure which Rickert

describes (cf. his Fig. 3, Pl. X XI), and from which, with the

growth of the nucleus, the parallel rods emerge. Before this

clearing-up process, however, when the chromosomes are still

much crowded, they may unite end to end in a long chain to

form the continuous spireme of which Hacker speaks. The con-

ditions in the spermatogenesis of the Amphibia present an inter-

esting corollary to the above discussion. Flemming, ’87, and a

number of others have described a continuous spireme in the

spermatocytes which segments, as in the Copepods, into the re-

duced number of bivalents. Montgomery has, however, in a

very recent work, been unable to find the continuous spireme

and describes a type of reduction quite similar to that he ob-

served in Peripatus. To this conclusion we shall return pres-

GERM CELLS IN PEDICELLINA AMERICANA 43

At the close of the growth period, the most striking elements

in the oocyte and spermatocyte nuclei of Pedicellina are the

several ring-and their equivalent double rod-figures. The former

of these recall the heterotypic mitoses observed in the Amphibia,

the Platodes and the flowering plants. In the first of these

groups, first Flemming, ’87, and later Hermann, ’g1, Meves,

'96, and others, interpreted the rings as having arisen, in the early

spermatocytes, through the opening up of the space between the

sister chromosomes which had separated in the early longitudi-

nal splitting of the spireme. On this interpretation, the space

within the ring is thus between like halves and from the relation

of the ring to the spindle, the subsequent division is necessarily

equational. According to Montgomery, on the other hand,

who has lately investigated this subject, the above authors, as

well as most others who have worked on Amphibian sperma-

togenesis, have overlooked some very essential stages in the

origin of these rings. Thus he maintains that what these authors

have taken for sister chromosomes in the early spermatocytes,

are really not such but different univalent chromosomes which

have, as in Peripatus, united end to end in the previous synapsis,

and that the true longitudinal split is of different origin. As has

been already observed, this author finds no continuous spireme

and consequently no segmentation of the latter into the reduced

number of bivalent longitudinally split threads as Flemming and

the rest have done. According to him, the young spermatocytes

show a reduced number of V-shaped chromosomes. These pres-

ent the same characteristic polarity, the connecting band of linin

at the apices and the wide extension of the angle described for

Peripatus. The true longitudinal split occurs very early along

each of the arms of the V or the U, soon, however, disappears,

only to reappear much later in the dyads of the anaphase of the

first maturation mitoses. The free ends of the longitudinally

split arms of the V’s now unite to form the rings of the meta-

phase. The first division would, on this hypothesis, obviously

be a reducing one.

Whatever be the true interpretation of these rings in the

Amphibia, they are in the maturation divisions of Pedicellina of

+4 DUBLIN

a very different nature, since they arise by the opening up of the

angle of the primary V’s to form the straight, bivalent, longitu-

dinally split, parallel rods which, by later uniting at both pairs

of ends form a ring, as in 7halassema or the Copepod. Each

quadrant is, therefore, in Pedicellina, a chromatid (McClung),

and not one half of one as appears in the Amphibia from both

Flemming’s and Montgomery’s interpretation. It may there-

fore be said, that from the time of the straightening out of the

rods in the early oocytes, up to the first maturation, Pedicellina

parallels closely every essential process to be observed in the

chromosome formation in the Copepods. |

As has been previously observed, the rings are not limited in

their presence to the maturation divisions. At variance with

the assertion of Montgomery, ’04, that the heterotypic mitoses

is always a reducing division, the rings in Pedicellima occur in

addition not only in the divisions of the primordial germ cells,

as Hacker found in the Copepods, but they occur in the soma-

tic tissues as well. It is clear that in these cells the rings are

of an entirely different constitution from those found in the

maturation divisions. In the former, they are only transient

structures which have arisen by the temporary connection of

the ends of the daughter V’s, at the metaphase, while in the

latter they represent structures which have had a long history

in their formation and are essentially adaptations for the proper

equipment of the germ cells. It is therefore not the form but

the constitution of the rings that is of importance for the proper

interpretation of the nature of a division.

(D) The Maturation Divisions.

The problem of the maturation divisions is not at the present

time, in a very satisfactory state. On the one hand, in a con-

siderable number of forms of which Crepzdula (Conklin, ’02)

and E-hinus (Bryce) are typical, the chromosomes are not

visible as such during the growth period of the egg, and appear

in very nearly their final form only shortly before the first ma-

turation division. In such cases it is obvious that the nature of

the division is full of uncertainty, and such indeed, has been the

GERM GELLS IN PEDICELLINA AMERICANA 45

attitude of the majority of the workers on these forms. On the

other hand, in those cases, where the early history of the chro-

mosomes is more fully known, and where from the final consti-

tution of these structures a reduction division almost certainly

occurs, there opinion is much divided as to whether the first or

the second division is the reducing one. The chromosomes,

mainly in the form of tetrads, rings and crosses, are often so

symmetrical that the two axes, z. ¢., the longitudinal and the

transverse, cannot be distinguished. In Pedicellina, while these

types of chromosomes occur, they are not the prevailing types.

Fortunately, the peculiarly favorable bars which persist from

the earlier growth period and whose history is very completely

known, occur in the large marjority of instances and are so

located in the spindle throughout the phases of division, as to

leave no doubt that the first maturation division is, in both egg

and sperm, the reducing one. In this regard, the condition in

Pedicellina are in accordance with the results of a constantly

increasing number of workers, botanists as well as zoologists,

whose results are based on a particularly full history of the

earlier stages of the chromosome formation.

At this point the Platodes present very instructive conditions

for comparison. At the end of the growth period both the

rings and ellipses so characteristic of Pedicellina, and the bar-

shaped figures are present. While on this point all the workers

are, on the whole, agreed, a difficulty in the interpretation has

of late been introduced in the last work of Schockaert, ’02, on

the ovogenesis of 7hysanozoén. This author, in a most pains-

taking work, confirming the presence of the figures of the

various forms noted above, and agreed further with this work

on Pedicellina in considering the first maturation division the

reducing one, comes to this similar conclusion on grounds

which are entirely at variance with the process described, not

only in this work, but in nearly all of the other studies on the

Platodes. This is all the more striking in the light of what I

take to be a complete correspondence in the earlier changes in

the germinal vesicle in the two forms. After a synapsis stage

coincident with the telophase of the last oogonial division, the

46 DUBLIN

chromosomes in the reduced number appear in 7hysanozo6n as

nine distinct loops, showing the same polarity and other char-

acteristic features described for Peripatus, Lrachystola, Sagitta

and FPedicellina. The bivalents, further, split longitudinally,

but at this point, according to Schockaert, the resemblance

stops. These chromosomes do not give rise to the structures

of the maturation division, but begin to disintegrate and a chro-

matin reticulum is formed. After a considerable period of

growth, the chromosomes again reform and present themselves

as elongated rods, which are more or Jess clearly longitudinally

split. The author is not sure of their number, but from the

text and figures, it may safely be inferred that they are present

not in the normal, but the reduced number. —‘“ En effet,

lorsqu’on compte, dans toutes les coupes successives d'un meme

ovocyte, les differents trongons persistants du filament nucleinien,

on en trouve tantot plus de neuf, tantot moins ; meme en prenant

en consideration la multiplication accidentelle de ces trongons

par la section du rasoir on constate que leur nombre est tres

inconstant.” It is at this point that the difficulty arises. The

chromosomes now concentrate, removing all signs of the longi-

tudinal split, and conjugate two by two along their length.

The split between the homogeneous conjugants is therefore not

a longitudinal split as nearly all the previous observers (Klinck-

owstrom, ’97, Francotte, ’97, and Van der Stricht, ’97) have

maintained, but represents, rather, a space between “ portions

_transversales. . . en train de s’accoler.”’ After some slight

modifications, these figures present themselves to the spindles

in three somewhat different forms: ‘(des anneaux ou des

ellipses, des batonnets recombés en crochet a leur extremites et

des batonnets longs et droits. Ces trois formes sont dues a

linsertion differente des fibres fusoriales sur les deux branches

qui constituent les chromosomes lors de leur genese.”’ These

lie with their long axes in the long axis of the spindle and the

first division is therefore the reducing division. In the early

anaphase, the dyads in the form of U’s and rods show again

their longitudinal split, which had disappeared early during the

concentration period and from this point onward the processes

GERM CELLS IN PEDICELLINA AMERICANA 47

are distinctly like those described by all authors for the Am-

phibia. The second division is then longitudinal.

After a careful examination of the evidence adduced in its

favor, I am convinced, in the light of the processes described in

Pedicellina, that the fundamental conception of Schockaert’s is

full of difficulty. It is quite evident that the crux of the whole

question lies in the origin of the figures of the maturation divi-

sion. But as the author himself points out, there is no structural

continuity between the bivalvents of the early oocytes and the

longitudinally split rods which later conjugate. It is this hiatus

that throws uncertainty on the constitution of these latter

structures, and which makes positive interpretation of the later

stages quite impossible. What is more damaging, however, is

the fact that these structures are present in what appears to be

the reduced number. Should this be the case, the supposed

succeeding conjugation would still further reduce the chromo-

somes to one quarter the normal number, and the probability

of the process, for which very little evidence is given, would be

destroyed.

Altogether, it seems far more probable, on the evidence pre-

sented, to consider the extended double rods of the late growth

period (Fig. 50, Pl. IV) not as the result of a post-synaptic

conjugation, as the author has done, but rather as persistent

structures from the earliest oocytes. The single rods would

then each correspond to one half of the loops of the synapsis

period. As in Peripatus and Brachystola, the pair of free ends

of the loops, I believe, come later into connection and thus

produce the rings and ellipses, and by the still further lateral

union the homogeneous “ batonnets”’ of the maturation figure.

As in these Arthropod types, also, the early longitudinal split

in the loops has disappeared to reappear later in the anaphase

of the first maturation, division. The resulting structures are,

to be sure, of such a constitution as to insure the same result in

the first division as Schockaert concludes, but they are thus

derived through a series of processes in accordance with what

has been most clearly observed in other forms, but what is

more significant, in a manner in far better agreement with the

figures.

48 DUBLIN

From among the botanists, however, has come very recently

convincing evidence in favor of the reducing division as a con-

stant factor in the formation of the germ cells. Gregoire and

Berghs, Farmer and Moore, Gregory, Lotsy, and, most important

of all, Strasburger, have, in a series of important works, all con-

cluded in favor of this division — many of the above having, in

the past, been the foremost advocates of the antagonistic view,

viz., that the two maturation divisions are both longitudinal or

equational. Typical of the rest is the work of Strasburger,

After a careful reexamination of his old material, 7radescantia.

etc., he has abandoned his old views and in a new form Ga/tonia

in which the conditions for study are exceptionally favorable,

describes processes from which the presence of a reducing di-

vision is unavoidable. The twelve chromosomes of the early

germ-cells unite into six double structures in the synapsis stage,

and these bending upon themselves and uniting at their free

ends become the rings of the first maturation. It is in this di-

vision that the univalent components are separated, the division

being thus transverse or reducing. The second maturation

mitosis then ensues and the chromosomes, as in the ordinary

somatic tissues, split longitudinally and pass to their respective

cells. There is thus, on the authority of a constantly increasing

number of investigators, a condition of the germ-cells which, as

Sutton and Boveri have pointed out, alone can explain and give

basis for the very common and now almost universally recog-

nized Mendelian phenomena of heredity.

£. Comparison of Obgenesis and Spermatogenesis.

Finally, it is of considerable interest to find in Pedicellina the

complete similarity between the long series of processes in the

development of the germ-cells of both sexes. In the several

generations and nature of the oogonia and spermatogonia ; in

the presence of the V’s; in the last oogonial and spermato-

gonial telophase, with the subsequent reduction of the chromo-

somal number; in the further history of the bivalent V’s thus

formed ; their lengthening, irregular distribution within the nu-

cleus and the longitudinal splitting of their arms, the early male

GERM CELLS IN PEDICELLINA AMERICANA 49

and female germ-cells are quite alike. Further, the several

complicated changes which finally lead to the formation of

the figures of the maturation divisions, as well as these divisions

themselves, are in both instances quite identical. Under such

conditions as these it is clear that, whatever be the different

roles which the egg and the sperm play in development, they

are, at bottom, morphologically equivalent and diverge only

secondarily in adaptation to their respective functions. We

may at the present day appropriately conclude with the words

of the classic study of Oskar Hertwig: ‘ Vergleich der Ei-und

Samenbildung bei Nematoden”’: Eibildung und Samenbildung

sind zwei einander nahe stehende Processe ; sie gehoren soeng

zusammen, dass die Kenntniss des einen nothwendiger Weise

auch das Verstandniss des anderen fordern muss, sofern man

nur durch Vergleichung die gegenseitigen Beziehungen festzu-

stellen sucht.”

SUMMARY.

1. In Pedicellina americana, the polypides are of separate

sexes, but both male and female individuals may occur on the

same stolon.

2. The ovaries and testes are bilaterally symmetrical organs.

Unlike the testes, where the germ cells are irregularly dis-

tributed, in the ovary, a continuous line of development of the

egg cells can be traced from the center outward.

3. The processes of oogenesis and spermatogenesis are, in

general, quite identical.

4. In young male and female polypides, the primary egg and

sperm cells lie nearest the oviduct and spermduct respectively,

and give rise through mitosis to the several generations of

oogonia and spermatogonia.

5. With the exception of the last generation of spermato-

gonia, the chromosomes are V-shaped, as are those of the tissue

cells. The normal number of chromosomes is very probably

twenty-two.

6. In the last generation, they appear as dumb-bell shaped

rods and have arisen by the opening-up of the angle of the

former V’s.

50 DUBLIN

7. These divide, appear as rods in the anaphase, and in the

telophase give rise to both egg and sperm to eleven or the re-

duced number of larger V’s. This is the synapsis stage.

8. In the youngest oocytes and spermatocytes, the chromo-

somes are localized at one pole, having retained both form and

place in which they ‘appeared in the preceding oogonial and

spermatogonial telophase.

g. The loop-shaped chromosomes grow very rapidly and soon

extend throughout the cells.

10. The arms of the loops become granular and are longi-

tudinally split.

11. The split bivalents increase the angle between the arms

to 180° and then appear as elongated parallel threads of the

Copepod type.

12. There is no continuous spireme.

13. The parallel bivalent threads may unite at both pairs of

ends to form elongated rings, twine around each other to form

8-shaped figures, or come into more intimate relations along the

whole length, thus forming extended longitudinally split bars.

14. These concentrate into the rings and double bars of the

first maturation division.

15. At the metaphase almost all the chromosomes are of the

elongated longitudinally split rod type, the longitudinal split

lying in the long axis of the spindle.

16. The first maturation division passes through the points of

synapsis, and is the reducing division.

17. The longitudinal split does not generally appear in the

early dyads, but again makes its appearance in the prophases of

the second division as a new construction in the middle.

18. The second division is a longitudinal one.

19. The eggs are fertilized internally, pass through the ovi-

duct into the atrial brood pouch where they develop.

20. The pronuclei do not unite intimately. The chromo-

somes are very early reformed and give rise to twenty-two V’s

of the first somatic mitosis.

21. They split longitudinally and preserve this form through-

out all the later divisions up to the last spermatogonial, and very

GERM CELLS IN PEDICELLINA AMERICANA 51

probably odgonial generation, where they are converted into

dumb-bell shaped rods.

22. The egg nucleolus appears early during the oocytic

erowth period and increases in size at the expense of the cleavage

products of the chromatin.

23. It later becomes much vacuolated, stains throughout as

a plastin body, and with the approach of the first maturation

division disintegrates, its remains being cast out as a meta-

nucleolus (Hacker).

COLUMBIA UNIVERSITY, DEPT. OF ZOOLOGY,

October, 1904.

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XVII

ead

ral 48

PRAT Ard AG a ote LSP am

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PLATES [-III.

All the figures here presented were drawn with the aid of the

camera lucida and then redrawn, magnified nearly two times, with

the aid of another camera apparatus. Various magnifying powers

were employed at different times and will be specified in connection

with the figures. The plates were then all reduced in the reproduc-

tion, to their original size.

(57 )

PeatTe f.

( Spermatogenesis. )

Fic. 1. Longitudinal section of an early testis, showing various

generations of spermatogonia in rest and in division. Magnifica-

men: Obj. D (Zeiss) x 4.0Cc.

Fics. 2-61. Were all drawn under the same magnification: Zeiss,

homog. immersion 1.5 mm. Ap. 1.30 X 12 compens. ocular, tube-

length, 160 mm.

Fic. 2. Cross section of metaphase, early generation of sperma-

togonia showing V-shaped chromosomes.

Fics. 3-6. Longitudinal section of late prophase and metaphase

of same showing attachment to the spindle.

Fic. 7. Middle anaphase of early spermatogonium.

Fic. 8. Telophase of same showing dense crowding of chromo-

somes.

Fics. 9-11. Longitudinal sections of prophase and metaphase of

last spermatogonial generation showing rod-shaped chromosomes.

Fic. 12. Cross-section of metaphase of the same.

Fics. 13-14. Early anaphase of last spermatogonial division.

Fic. 15. Late anaphase of same.

Fic. 16. Early telophase showing the union of the individual rod

chromosomes into pairs.

_Fics. 17-18. Late telophase where the synapsis has already

occurred.

Fic. 19. Earliest spermatocyte showing the newly formed biva-

lents moving apart.

Fic. 20. Somewhat later stage chromosomes showing marked size

differences.

Fics. 21-22. First traces of longitudinal split.

Fics. 23-24. Opening up of the angle of the longitudinally split

bivalents.

Fic. 25. Sister bivalents united at their both ends to form the

elongated rings.

Fic. 26. Somewhat later stage than preceding. Chromosomes

beginning to concentrate and showing the other type of double rod

in which longitudinal split is obscured.

Fics. 27-30. Further stages in concentration in preparation for

maturation division showing rings and double bars side by side.

( 59 )

1°

Fic. 31. Earliest prophase of 1° maturation division.

Fics. 32-34. Prophases of 1° maturation division showing the two

main types of chromosomes, the rings and the much elongated, longi-

tudinally split, rods.

Fics. 35-37. Longitudinal section of 1° maturation spindles in

metaphase showing the predominance of rods.

Fic. 38. Cross-section of the same.

Fics. 39-40. Longitudinal and cross-section respectively of late

rnetaphase.

Fics. 41-42. Early anaphase of 1° maturation division showing

separation of the dyads.

Fics. 43-44. Later anaphases showing in some instances the true

nature of the dyads.

Fics. 45-46. Early and late telophase of 1° maturation division.

Fics. 47-48. Longitudinal and cross-section of metaphase of 2°

maturation division.

Fic. 49. Early anaphase of same showing strand of chromosomal

substance connecting the monads.

Fics. 50-52. Middle and late anaphase of 2° maturation spindles.

Fics. 53-54. Early and late telophase of the same.

Fic. 55. Young spermatid after breaking down of the dense

chromatin mass of the preceding telophase.

Fic. 56. Early differentiation of the sperm head and concentra-

tion of the chromatin before and behind.

Fics. 57-60. Elongation of head; filling up of open spaces with

chromatin substance and formation of middle piece and tail.

Fic. 61. Mature spermatozoon.

( 60 )

ANNALS N.Y. ACAD: SCI> VOL? XVI.

ANNALS N. Y. ACAD. SCI. VOL. XVI.

PLATE I,

I3 y

earnanags

“fw

5 |

oral

, oa | oe,

Prars. I,

( Odgenesis. )

Fics. 62-66 were magnified with Zeiss, homog. apoch. immers.

z's X 12 compens. oc.; the remaining figures, with exception of 1o1-

105, being drawn under Zeiss ;4; obj. xX 4 oc.

Fic. 62. Cross section of metaphase of early generation of odgo-

nium showing V-shaped chromosomes.

Fic. 63. Early generation of odgonium in metaphase in longitu-

dinal section.

Fic. 64. Telophase of the same.

Fic. 65. Last generation of odgonium in metaphase showing

chromosomes as rods.

Fic. 66. Last generation telophase showing synapsis ; also synap-

tic knobs at apices of V’s in lower cell.

Fics. 67-70. Early odcytes, showing polarity of chromosomes and

synaptic knobs at apices.

Fics. 71-72. Early odcytes with chromosomes increased in size.

Fics. 73-74. First traces of longitudinal split in young odcytes.

Fic. 75. Odcyte with nearly all the chromosomes longitudinally

split.

Fics. 76-78. Odcytes with chromosomes opening out into longi-

tudinally split parallel threads.

Fics. 79-81. Later odcytes showing the parallel threads separat-

ing along their course but often remaining united at one of their ends.

Fics. 82-83. Twosuccessive sections of the same nucleus. Show-

ing the chromosomes at the height of the growth period.

Fic. 84. Odcyte with chromosomes concentrating into the rings

and double rods of the first maturation division.

Fics. 85-87. Early prophases of 1° maturation division showing

chromosomes much more concentrated.

Fics. 88-90. Late prophase and early metaphase of 1° matura-

tion division showing the rings, longitudinally split rods, crosses and

true tetrads.

( 62 )

ANNALS N, Y. ACAD. SCI. VOL, XVI.

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ANNALS N. Y. ACAD. SCI. VOL. XVI.

PLATE Il,

PLATE UI.

‘

ee ON,

seed ’ ¥

PLATE Ti,

( Odgenests continued. )

Fics. 91-93. Metaphase of 1° maturation; the chromosomes

nearly all converted into elongated rods.

Fics. 94-95 (a and 4). Early anaphase of the same showing the

elongation of the chromosomes and the chromosomal strand con-

necting the dyads.

Fic. 96. Prophase of second maturation showing the newly formed

spindle inclined go° to the foregoing ; also, the first polar body.

Fic. 97. Somewhat later prophase with spindle revolved into

proper radial axis.

Fic. 98. Metaphase of 2° maturation division showing longitudi-

nal division of dyads.

Fics. gg—1oo. Anaphase and telophase, respectively, of the same.

Fic. tox. Later telophase of 2° maturation division ; formation of

second polar body.

Fic. to2. Division of 1° polar body in metaphase showing some

character of chromosomes as in second maturation within egg.

Fic. 103. Cross section of metaphase in division of a ‘‘liver-

cell’’ ; V-shaped chromosomes as in the early generations of odgonia

and spermatogonia.

Fic. 104. Telophase of atrium cell showing the presence of the

unreduced number of the V-shaped chromosomes in contrast with the

reduced number of such structures in the telophases of the last gen-

eration of spermatogonia and odgonia Figs. 18 and 66.

Fic. 105. Prophase of division in atrium cell showing both the

V and ring chromosomes.

Fic. 106. Fusion of the male and female pro-nuclei, the latter

being nearer the egg periphery. ‘The chromosomes are concentrat-

ing from the earlier reticulum to the definite V-shaped chromosomes

of the 1° somatic division.

FIG. 107. 1° somatic mitosis, prophase showing twenty-two V-

chromosomes.

Fic. 108—1og. Metaphase and anaphase of the same.

( 64 )

ACAD. SCI. VOL: XVI;

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[Annats N. Y. Acap. Sci., Vor. XVI, No. 2, pp. 65-74, March 17, 1005]

RECENT JOURNEYS AMONG LOCALITIES NOTED

FOR THE DISCOVERY OF REMAINS OF

PREHISTORIC MAN.

J. Howarp WILsoN.

(Read January 18, 1904.)

There are some subjects which by their very nature enter so

little into the lives of most men that they are almost unknown,

and are rarely thought of or studied; another again, although

of great interest to a small group of students and specialists,

may not occupy the thoughts of the generality of mankind for

the simple reason that the subject is so new, or as a science is

still so in its infancy as not to attract public attention.

Although anything which sheds light on the history and

origin of man should not fail to awaken the greatest interest, it

is probably on account of these two reasons, that prehistoric

archeology is as yet so little known.

But prehistoric archeology has taken its place among the

other sciences. Little by little, the longing for knowledge of

the human race, far back beyond the beginnings of history and

the occasional finding of implements in stone or bronze, made

and used by the people of those remote ages, have quickened

the interest in the subject, until it has developed into the science

it is to-day with its enthusiastic savants and great collections

both public and private.

For a long time, when stone implements were found or

ploughed up in the fields, their true nature was not generally

known. Often however they were recognized as differing from

ordinary stones and came to be accredited with peculiar proper-

ties, and made the subject of superstitious regard. In Europe

generally, and in other parts of the world, the flint axes were

called “thunder stones”’ by the peasants, who thought that

66 WILSON

they descended from Heaven and that the presence of one ina

dwelling would be certain protection against lightning. There

is mention of a stone ax found in Egypt engraved with hiero-

glyphics which showed that its unusual character was noted

and that it had been kept perhaps as a kind of talisman. Later

on the stone axes and other implements became recognized,

especially by antiquarians as the works of a people who with

their civilization had long since passed away. At the same

time, the science of geology was developing and making head-

way. The different kinds of rocks and their formation became

better known, and the real nature of the sedimentary with their

fossil contents, which had given rise to many wild and curious

theories became thoroughly recognized and established. Cuvier,

called the Father of Anatomy, gave the first powerful stimulus

to the study of the fossil vertebrates, mostly species now extinct,

and finally the question began to be asked, ‘Is there a fossil

man?”’ Although used in its broadest extension, the term

fossil is taken to signify any evidence of former life, it is gener-

ally meant that the remains antedate the present epoch and

belong as far back at least as the Quarternary or last geological

period. The Quarternary opened with the development of the

great continental ice sheets in Northern Europe and North

America, to which the name Ice Age owes its origin, and closed

with the ushering in of the climate and physical conditions

approximating those we have to-day. It is in deposits formed

during the Glacial Period that the earliest authentic traces of

man have thus far been found. In glacial gravels, the diluvium

of rivers, in caves, and deposits formed during the Glacial

Period and later, the implements and works of man have been

found. Human bones are preserved for so long a time only

under exceptional circumstances and are very rare. In the

river gravels of the Somme in France where the implements

are comparatively abundant, great numbers having been found,

no human bone has as yet come to light, but, as has been

remarked by Sir John Lubbock, the bones of no animal as

small as man are preserved in the river drift deposits.

One of the first finds recorded was that of a worked flint,

DISCOVERY OF REMAINS OF PREHISTORIC MAN 67

discovered with an elephant tooth in the quaternary deposits

of London, in 1713, but its significance was not appreciated at

the time. The finding of other flints at Hoxnie in Suffolk in

company with the fossil bones of some large animal and at the

depth of twelve feet was communicated to the Society of Anti-

quaries of London in 1797, but not brought to general notice

for more than half a century. Human bones associated with

the bones of extinct animals had already been noted by several

investigators, but to Boucher de Perthes belongs the real honor

of first presenting Quarternary Man to the scientific world and

the Valley of the Somme near Abbeville was the scene of his

discoveries. About 1836, living at Abbeville, some 25 miles

below Amiens, he began to make a study of geology and to

collect the worked flints which he occasionally found in the old

flood deposits of the river. In 1846, he published the result

of his discoveries under the title ‘‘ De l’Industrie primitive ou

des Arts a leur Origine,’ but so revolutionary were these views

towards the then generally accepted idea of the antiquity of the

human race, that his publications and communications were

treated with absolute indifference and unbelief by the most

advanced scientific bodies.

Boucher however, continued his investigations and publica-

tions, and some years later was supported in his views by a

former antagonist, Dr. Rigollot of Amiens, who in 1853 visited

Abbeville and became convinced of the authenticity and signifi-

cance of Boucher’s discoveries. Dr. Rigollot began the study

of similar gravels at Amiens and was rewarded by the finding

of worked flints of different types associated with the bones of

Quarternary mammals such as the elephas antiquus, the elephas

primegenius or mammoth, a species of rhinoceros, a species of

horse, etc. Still, little attention was paid to these discoveries

by the French savants, but so persistent were they, that finally,

in 1859-60, a number of the most prominent English geologists

and archzologists, Prestwich, Falconer, Sir John Evans, Sir

John Lubbock and others, visited Amiens and the Valley of

the Somme, proved the Quartenary age of the gravels beyond

a doubt, and themselves found many worked flints in place.

68 WILSON

They were followed by a number of French scientists, and the

fact ‘of the Jexistence of man in Qwattemary timesmaves

thoroughly established in the scientific world.

A new impulse was thus given the subject, and new enthu-

siasts came into the field, old finds were viewed with renewed

interest, and given a new interpretation. Henry Christy, an

Englishman, and Edward Lartet, a Frenchman, associated

themselves and became very prominent for their discoveries,

Lartet particularly for his explorations of the now famous

caverns and rock shelters of Dordogne in southwestern France.

The term “palzolithic’’ has been suggested by Sir John

Lubbock to designate that period of man’s development which

was contemporaneous with the great Quaternary mammals

and it has been generally adopted, as well as his term ‘‘ neo-

lithic’’ for the later stone age which followed.

Paleolithic man has probably descended from an ancestor liv-

ing in the Tertiary period, but thus far no positive evidence ot

his existence has been discovered in any deposits or formations

older than the second glacial period.

It is perfectly reasonable to suppose that man existed as man

before this time, and indeed, the variety of types represented by

the few skeletons, especially the skulls, which have been found

belonging to Quarternary man make it difficult to escape from

this belief. It is the same way as with the oldest languages of

which we have any knowledge. No matter how old we may

know the language to be or how simple its forms, we recognize

that it is still too complex and varied to be a primitive tongue ;

that centuries and perhaps thousands of years of development

have gone before in order to bring it to the comparatively com-

plex form in which we find it. When in examining the skulls

and other parts of the skeletons still preserved for us of glacial

man, we find several distinct types, it can not be mere chance-

these types signify distinct races, and different races of man in,

dicate that a vast period of time has gone before, that ages have

rolled away in order to make it possible for primitive man, the

original Homo sapiens to have developed and evolved by envi-

ronment and later by inheritance into the distinct races we find

in glacial times.

DISCOVERY OF REMAINS OF PREHISTORIC MAN 69

If this is the case, if man existed in the preceding geological

period, it is natural to suppose that some traces of him might

be found; that if he aided himself by the use of stone imple-

ments as he would be likely to do, these tools, however crude,

would some day come to light to reward the efforts of the ar-

cheologist and bear mute testimony of man’s existence at that

almost unthinkable antiquity. And already quite a series of

objects have been discovered which although not yet distinctly

proved, seem to give this looked-for evidence. Certain flints,

thought by some to be the work of man, have been found in

Tertiary deposits, notably those discovered by M. l’abbe Bour-

geois, in 1867, at Thenay, in the department of Loire-et-Cher,

France, and those brought to notice in 1877, by M. Rames,

from a formation of similar age at Puy-Courny, Cantal, in the

plateau region of Central France. These flints are very rough,

and it has not yet been determined whether the chippings

which they show are the results of intelligent work or are sim-

ply due to natural causes. Some of these flints show the action

of fire as if they might have lain in old hearths as is often the

case with worked flints of undoubted authenticity, but here

again, there is no way of proving that the fire which has pro-

duced the calcined effect on the flint was not caused by some

natural agency.

These tertiary flints which are sometimes known under the

name of eoliths, have, on account of their uncertain character

been the subject of considerable discussion and controversy.

That they show human workmanship and are not simply natural

forms is still undetermined. Flints showing undoubted traces

of human agency in their shaping have been found in England,

in Kent, in such positions or in such apparent relations to

ancient deposits, as to make it possible that man may be cer-

tainly proved to have existed in times far more remote than

those which saw the formation of the river drifts and cave de-

posits of western Europe. But the correlation of these flints

with the more ancient deposits has not been certainly proved,

and further investigation and detailed study of the question will

be required.

70 WILSON

Som2 of the other noted finds which seem -to~prove mans

existence in Tertiary times may be briefly enumerated’ ihe

Savona skeleton, found in a Pliocene marl; animal bones from

the gravel pits of Saint Prest, from the Tertiary alluvium of the

Arno Valley, and from the Pliocene of San Geovanni near Sienna.

These bones, as well as those from other localities which it is not

necessary to mention, show scratches, perforations, or fractures

which have been claimed to be the work of man.

These few facts will suffice to show the nature of the evidence,

otherwise than logical reasoning, which tends to prove man’s

existence in the Tertiary Period, and we will pass on to the

succeeding age, when his presence, contemporaneous with the

vast continental ice sheets and great extinct mammals is un-

equivocal and not to be denied.

At the present time, as has been before remarked, there is no

positive evidence of the presence of man before the second

glacial period, but the evidences of his existence from that time

are numerous and unmistakable, and this great antiquity for the

human race, however revolutionary and at variance to the

beliefs still held by some, is as well proven and established as

any of the common facts of science.

From this time on, we can keep man almost constantly in

sight, through the different periods of his advancing civilization

and culture. We can follow him through the long years of the

different periods of the old stone age, until he had learnt the

art of polishing his stone tools and weapons at the beginning of

the present epoch; through the Neolithic or late stone age,

when the art of working stone reached its greatest and highest

development, and was characterized by the fact they were often

polished, an art unknown in the preceding stage of culture.

Later, the use of metals became known, and we find man in

the bronze age, with the ever increasing use of bronze instead

of stone for his weapons, imolements, and ornaments, and finally,

with the coming in of the age of iron, if not in the latter part

of the age of bronze, we find man in the realms of history and

consequently far outside of our present field of investigation.

Let us look at the conditions which prevailed during Palzo-

DISCOVERY OF REMAINS OF PREHISTORIC MAN 71

lithic times and discover a little what was the life and civiliza-

tion of these ancient people. While prehistoric archeology is

giving us information of the civilization of these far distant ages,

it is to geology that we must turn for our knowledge of the

physical conditions which then prevailed. Itis beyond the scope

of our present discussion to consider the cause of the Ice Age,

but we know that it took the place, in the Northern Hemisphere

at least, of the exceedingly mild and even subtropical conditions

of the period which preceded it. It was not an unbroken

period of ice and snow, but rather an epoch of oscillation between

severe conditions and those distinctly temperate and of much

equability. The periods of severe conditions, which were rather

times of great precipitation with moderate cold, than of remark-

ably low temperature, for the former seems more necessary to

an ice age than the latter, reached their culmination in the

so-called second glacial period, when all Northern Europe,

including the British Isles, was covered with a vast, unbroken

sheet of ice, and all the higher peaks and ranges sent their

immense glaciers far down the valleys, and spread their morainic

debris where are now fertile plains.

Geikie and other glacialists recognize six periods of the severe

conditions, when glacial conditions more or less prevailed, with

their corresponding interglacial periods of considerable mild-

ness and equability. The third glacial period was nearly as

severe and the extent of its glaciers nearly as great as during

the time of maximum glaciation which preceded it. During

the fourth, the great Baltic glacier obtained vast dimensions,

but the last two returns to glacial conditions were very feeble,

and represented the dying out of the Ice Age and the commence-

ment of those physical conditions which we know to-day.

Of man’s presence as far back as the second-interglacial

period, there is not the least doubt. His tools, weapons, and

implements, found in deposits of that age, in the undisturbed

cave earths, mingled with the bones of extinct Quarternary

animals, and covered deep under slow-forming stalagmite, in

the diluvium of river valleys, and in other deposits, furnish

unmistakable evidence.

72 WILSON

In the dim ages of that remote period, man lived; clad in

rough skins, he hunted the mammoth and the reindeer, where

now are the green fields of Southern England and the vine

clad slopes of France ; and contended with the fierce cave bear,

the hyena, and the cave lion for the protection and comfort

afforded by the rock shelters and caves of Western Europe.

Although rude and savage, he was capable of progress, as his

implements of later and later date bear testimony. This has

given a basis for the division by M. de Mortillet, of the Palz-

olithic Age into different periods according to the type of imple-

ment, each period having also its characteristic fauna.

Thus four periods are now generally recognized which are

not always exact in their application, as a type originating in

one, may and often does continue to be employed in those fol-

lowing, with the new types which there come into existence.

These periods, which have come to be accepted for convenience

in the study of the Paleolithic Age and as approaching as near

to the truth as seems possible in any such classification, are as

follows :

The Acheulian, the age of the old river deposits with such

associated animals as the elephas antiquus, the mammoth, and

the cave bear; the Mousterian, represented in the upper river

deposits and the older caves, with the flourishing of the mam-

mouth ; the Solutrian, characterized by the highest development

of stone implements, of the abundance of a species of horse,

and of the reindeer; and finally, the Magdalenian, with its

decline in the making and use of flint tools, and in its place,

the great skill shown in the use of bone, with the remarkable

development of art, which is shown by the engraved and painted

rocks and engraved ivory and bones, which art seems to have

entirely disappeared at the time of the ushering in of the Neo-

lithic Age which followed. The fauna was characterized by

the abundance of the reindeer and the European bison, the

auroch, an animal nearly extinct but still preserved in some o

the imperial forests of Russia.

As the third glacial epoch reached its culmination, Palzo-

lithic man seems to have retreated southward, occupying the

DISCOVERY OF REMAINS OF PREHISTORIC MAN 73

rock shelters and caves of Central and Southern France, of the

Pyrenees, and along the shores of the Mediterranean, but when

the severe conditions of that time came to an end and the climate

improved, there seems to be no evidence that he moved back

to his old haunts and hunting grounds, but passed eastward

into Switzerland and the region about the headwaters of the

Danube and the Rhine.

From this time on, we lose sight of Paleolithic man, there is

no trace of him to be found in any deposit which overlies or is

more recent than the accumulations of the third glacial epoch.

Beyond this, before man reappears at the beginning of the Neo-

lithic age, there seems to be a gap, a. considerable interval of

time in which he is entirely lost from sight. In almost every

series of deposits containing the remains or implements of both

Paleolithic and Neolithic man, there is a sterile layer of greater

or less thickness which separates the two; sometimes it is a

stalagmite floor of considerable thickness and representing a great

period of time. Man must have been somewhere, evolving and

developing, and acquiring the arts and culture with which we

find him when he again appears at the beginning of the Neo-

lithic, and some deposit in some region will one day reward

the labors of archeologists by filling in this gap, if it has not

already done so, in some of the more recent discoveries.

Before closing our brief investigation into the subject of

Paleolithic man, it will be well for us to realize his great an-

tiquity, the immense period of time which has rolled away since

we first find him, hunting the mammoth and the reindeer with

his rude flint weapons, and seeking refuge inthe old caves and

rock shelters of that remote period.

The tourist looks with awe upon that megalithic monument

or Salisbury Plain on account of its great antiquity and the un-

known people who built it, but it is certainly not older than the

Bronze Age and does not antedate the Roman Invasion ot

England more than 1700 years. Even the oldest tombs and

temples of Egypt are modern compared with the rude imple-

ments from the river drifts of the Somme, the Seine and the

Thames. There has been no considerable change in the physi-

74 WILSON

cal features of the country since Stone Henge or Avebury

Circle were built, or the aline1 stones of Carnac placed in posi-

tion, but Paleolithic man saw great geological changes which

must represent a vast extent of time.

Valleys were eroded to great depths during the period in

which he lived, while rivers which are now but a few hundred

feet across, he then saw as swollen floods two miles or more in

width. The slow movements of the earth’s crust by which

whole continents are raised and lowered, enabled him with the

animals he hunted, to pass dry shod between the continent of

Europe and the British Isles, and this great but slow change

in the physical outline of Europe took place more than once

since that time when Palzolithic man first made his undoubted

appearance.

He lived through the vast period of time represented by the

slow coming on of glacial conditions, the formation of a great

continental ice sheet over all northern Europe, and the return

once more to a milder climate with all the changes of fauna and

flora these imply.

We cannot tell the length of time in years, it may be fifty

thousand, it may be more, but by the immense physical changes

which have taken place, we know it must be very great, and not

to be reckoned as history reckons her time.

Such is a brief outline of Palzolithic man, of our ancestor in

Quarternary times, and here we will leave him and close this

paper.

[Annats N. Y. Acapb. Sct., Vor. XVI, No. 3, pp. 75-81, March 17, 1905. |

HENRY CARRINGTON BOLTON.

DANIEL S. MARTIN.

Dr. Henry C. Bolton, our late associate and ex-President,

was born in this city, January 28, 1843, and at his death in

Washington, November 19, 1903, had therefore not completed

his 61st year. After graduating at Columbia University in

1862, he went to Europe, and studied first in Paris, subse-

quently at Heidelberg under the celebrated Bunsen, and later

at Gottingen, where he received his doctorate of philosophy

in 1866. During these years he also travelled extensively,

adding to his favorite specialty of chemistry that store of varied

culture that made him such an attractive companion and broad-

minded scholar and gentleman.

On returning to New York, he naturally associated himself

as a member with the Academy (then the Lyceum of Natural

History), and speedily became active in its meetings. In 1872

he was made assistant in analytical chemistry in the Columbia

College School of Mines, and then head of the laboratory of

quantitative analysis ; this position he held until 1877, when he

was chosen Professor of Chemistry and Natural Sciences in

Trinity College, at Hartford, Conn.

These were years of constant activity in the Academy and in

many scientific associations in and about New York. In 1874

he was one of the special committee who formulated the report

on the change of name of the Society, from the Lyceum to the

Academy. In 1876 he was elected Corresponding Secretary, a

position for which he had peculiar fitness, from his elegant

handwriting and his familiarity with the languages and the scien-

tific men and institutions of Europe.

In 1873 he was one of the most active in planning and

arranging for the ‘‘ Centennial of Chemistry,’ held at North-

76 MARTIN

umberland, Pa.; where all the chemists of the United States

gathered at the home of Priestley and his descendants, to cele-

brate the hundredth anniversary of the discovery of oxygen gas.

After ten years at Hartford, where Dr. Bolton left his per-

manent impress in the formation of a notable collection of min-

erals for Trinity College, he resigned and returned to New

York. It is characteristic of. his generous nature, that) die tet

that position with the expression that, being possessed of inde-

pendent means, he did not feel that he ought to retain the place

of a salaried professor, so desirable for some other worker in

science not favored with his resources. Let no one imagine

from this that he sought for ease and leisure. No man was

ever a more tireless worker ; his fertile brain and his all-around

scholarship could brook no respite. He simply gave himself

to other lines of scientific acivity, which he made peculiarly

his own.

He had become especially impressed with the difficulties pre-

sented to the chemical investigator by the vast and ever-increas-

ing body of literature in that and in allied departments, in many

languages, and scattered through a multitude of journals, trans-

actions and periodicals. This he sought to relieve by some

form of systematic recording ; and after conducting a series of

investigations of great care and beauty upon fluorescent bodies,

and particularly the uranium compounds, for which he had -

gathered and collected all that had appeared on these subjects,

he published in the Annals of the Lyceum his “ Index to the

Literature of Uranium,” in 1870. This was the first of a series

of such indexes to the entire literature of single elements and

of special topics in chemistry, which have now become very

numerous and of indispensable utility. Dr. Bolton presented

this subject to the Section of Chemistry of the American Asso-

ciation for the Advancement of Science, and in 1882 secured the

appointment of a permanent committee of that body on the

indexing of chemical literature. Of this committee he was the

ever-active chairman ; and the annual reports of progress for

over twenty years indicate the growth and the scope of the work

that he had thus inaugurated and carried on.

HENRY CARRINGTON BOLTON a)

In the meantime he had become engaged himself in a similar

and even more comprehensive labor, — a general historical com-

pendium of chemical literature, in all languages, and of every

kind. This great undertaking he carried out in connection with

the Smithsonian Institution at Washington. In 1892, he was

appointed by Columbian University of that city to a non-resident

professorship of the History of Chemistry ; and it was not long

before he moved to the capital and made his residence there.

He had recently married Miss Henrietta Irving, a grand-niece

of Washington Irving; and many of his former friends from

this vicinity are familiar with his refined and attractive home on

K Street. Here,-with his remarkable library and rare works

on alchemy and chemical history, and in close touch with all

the scientific life of the Federal city, he labored with unfaltering

zeal and enthusiasm until the recent end of his career.

During the decade of his second residence in New York, be-

fore he removed to Washington, he was again active in the

Academy, and was chosen to several offices, culminating with

that of President in 1893. He was one of the patrons of

the Academy by the contribution of a hundred dollars. Be-

sides his relations with this society, he was prominent in chemi-

cal circles, both in this country and abroad, and a very frequent

lecturer and contributor to scientific journals and reviews. At

the time of his death, the statement was made that he belonged

to more learned societies than any other American.

Dr. Bolton was a man of very marked personality and of

peculiar qualities of mind, which fitted him for a peculiar work.

He was a thorough and accomplished chemist, but he was very

much more than a specialist in any one department. He wasa

man of letters and of culture in every field, and one who pos-

sessed a fine zsthetic sense and in a remarkable degree the his-

toric sense. It is easy for those of us who knew him and have

followed his career, to see how all these elements were blended

in his work. Favored also with the possession of private

means, he was able to follow out the bent of his mind, and to

add continually, by frequent and extensive travel and inter-

course, to his rich and varied store of refined culture. Wher-

78 MARTIN

ever he went he was the same, —the genial and warm-hearted

friend, the gentleman, the scholar, the scientist, the litterateur ;

his mind was ever on the alert to discern and to investigate

novel and peculiar points of interest that others failed to ob-

serve, or to hear the forgotten voices of early workers from the

morning twilight of science, that are now lost to common ears

'in the noise of the modern “ gairish day.’”’ No ordinary man,

no ordinary chemist, could ever have done his work. Some

have indeed said that he failed to do what he might have ac-

complished had he given himself more closely to original in-

vestigation, and confined his activities within a more limited

range of study. This may be true, in a sense, but only in a

narrow sense. There are many men capable of original in-

vestigation, who could never attain, either by natural qualities

or by acquired experience, to the breadth and scope of Dr.

Bolton, or to the work which he accomplished.

He was imbued, as I have said, with the historic sense in an

unusual degree; and this made him especially an_ historical

chemist and a chemical historian. He loved to recall the

labors of the pioneers in science, and to recognize their part —

crude as it may seem to us now —in the development that has

followed. -As early as 1876, in an article in the “‘ American

Chemist,” he expressed the key-note of much of his subsequent

work in the following words: ‘So rapid are the strides made

by science in this progressive age, and so boundless is its range,

that those who view its career from without find great difficulty

in following its diverse and intricate pathways, while those who

have secured a footing within the same road are often quite

unable to keep pace with its fleet movements and would fain

retire from the unequal contest. It is not surprising, then, that

those actually contributing to the advancement of science, press-

ing eagerly upward and onward, should neglect to look back

upon the labors of those who precede them and should some-

times lose sight of the obligations which science owes to for-

gotten generations.”’ But it was not only either from, or for,

the historic interest purely, or mainly, that Dr. Bolton began

his great work of chemical indexing and bibliography. He felt

a a

HENRY CARRINGTON BOLTON 19

the need of the modern worker for help and guidance in his

researches, and sought thus to supply it. He inaugurated in

this a monumental work, which should win for him the grati-

tude of every special investigator in chemistry. He began this

work himself, and the first indexes, by him and by others in-

spired by him, appeared in the Annals of this Academy. It has

subsequently grown to great expansion and variety, largely

through his committee in the American Association; and now

it will go on, though, alas! other hands must direct its prog-

ress. His next step, also begun in the Annals of this society,

was his “ Bibliography of Chemical Periodicals,” in all the lan-

guages in which they are published. This led on to the hercu-

lean task that occupied all his later years in Washington, and

which he was fortunately able to complete. These great works

are ‘‘A Select Bibliography of Chemistry, 1492 to 1896,’ and

“A Catalogue of Scientific and Technical Periodicals, 1665 to

1895’ —together with extended supplements, bringing down

both of them to very recent dates. They will long remain as

his grand memorial.

To a mind like Dr. Bolton’s, the subject of alchemy and the

old traditions and superstitions connected with it, could not but

appeal with great interest ; and he was noted for his familiarity

with those topics and with many very curious related aspects,

on which he published numerous articles. The strange sur-

vivals, and even revivals, of alchemistic fancies tn the modern

world, led him naturally to an interest in folk-lore ; and he was

active as an officer in the organization of the American Folk-

Lore Society. His restless and suggestive mind was ever lead-

ing him to explore peculiar and unfamiliar paths, and to turn

aside from the beaten tracks that most of us are either content

or constrained to follow, into byways that lead off into near and

yet unknown places where few or none have trod. An instance

of this kind was his research upon sonorous or ‘singing ”’

sands, carried on through years, largely in connection with our

honored member, Dr. A. A. Julien, and in which he traveled

widely and gathered material from many lands and seashores,

and showed that this phenomenon, still essentially unexplained,

80 MARTIN

is somewhat frequent rather than very rare, and is not at alk

dependent upon several of the causes to which it was formerly

ascribed.

In original investigation in chemistry, however, Dr. Bolton

was capable of excellent work, although this was not his most

important field. His early researches have already been in part

alluded to, on fluorescent compounds of uranium, and also on

the platino-cyanides. In both these groups he prepared a large

number of rare and novel compounds, crystallized with great

success and great elegance.' His subsequent studies upon the

action of organic acids on minerals and “ The Behavior of Nat-

ural Sulphides with Iodine and other Reagents,” were highly

original in character and of much interest. They appeared in

the Annals of this society, in several successive papers, while

Dr. Bolton was professor in Trinity College ; and it is interest-

ing to recall that the first of these was Article I in Volume I of

the Annals of the N. Y. Academy of Sciences — after the change

of name from the old Lyceum.

I cannot in a brief article like this, begin to do justice to the

memory of one whom I knew so well and esteemed so highly ;

we came forward together in the Lyceum, and worked together

as fellow-members, friends and officers, in close and constant

association for many years in the Academy. It only remains

for me to add that Dr. Bolton in his personal views and feel-

ings was a reverent Christian believer—a scientist who knew

too well the limitations of human experience and attainment, the

mutability of human philosophies and conceptions, and the

vastness of the field of the unexplored and unimagined that

surrounds our science on every hand, to doubt or deny the

reality of the spiritual and the unseen. Three years ago, on

retiring from the office of President of the Chemical Society of

1This beautiful and remarkable series of uranium salts, which Dr. Bolton had

given to the Columbian University, was loaned by that institution to form one of

the exhibits in the radium display organized by the U. S. Geological Survey at the

St. Louis Exposition. The writer called the attention of the Special Commissioner

in charge of the radium display, Mr. George F. Kunz, to this collection, and it.

was thus secured as an interesting contribution to that notable feature of the Fair.

HENRY CARRINGTON BOLTON 81

Washington, he delivered an address entitied ‘‘ Physics and

Faith,” in which he pointed out most forcibly how the doctrines

of physics and chemistry depend equally with revelation on

belief in the invisible. I close with a few of his own words:

“Faith, both in science and religion, is belief based on suitable

evidence from sources outside of personal experience ; both are

fruitful in different ways, the former affecting the intellect and

the latter the heart of man; scientific faith bears fruit in the

steamship and the telegraph, Christian faith in works of mercy

and charity, and in a life of love shown toward mankind and

God.”’

[ANNALS N. Y. ACAD. ScI., VoL. XVI, No. 4, pp. 82-95, March 17, 1905.]

THE JURASSIC COAL OF SPMIZ Erie

JoHN J. STEVENSON.

(Read January 14, 1905.)

The Spitzbergen archipelago, consisting of five large and many

small islands, extends from N. Lat. 76° 30’ to 80° 30! and lies

about midway between Nova Zembla and Greenland, while the

southern point of the principal island, West Spitzbergen, is

about three hundred miles north from the North Cape. The

greater part of the archipelago is inaccessible for shipping except

in rare seasons, as a cold current brings down the ice along the

northern and eastern portions ; but the western coast of the main

island is accessible ordinarily during about three months each

year. Until less than a century ago, little was known respect-

ing Spitzbergen beyond the information brought by whalers, of

whom William Scoresby was easily chief. The first systematic

exploration was by the Norwegian geologist, Keilhau, who, in

1827, studied West Spitzbergen as well as the lonely Bear

island, one hundred and fifty miles southward, and made col-

lections, described in part by von Buch in 1846. A French

expedition of 1839 gave notes upon the islands, some of which

are of interest. The most important contributions, however, are

those of the Swedish geologists, whose studies began before

1860 and have continued at frequent intervals until within ten

years, their results being published for the most part by the

Stockholm Academy of Sciences. Prof. Franz Toula of Vienna

visited West Spitzbergen in 1873 and made important observa-

tions upon the Carboniferous.

West Spitzbergen extends from iN» bat 76 40 to 79-15)

and is indented deeply by bays, of which the most conspicuous

are Kings and Cross, with common outlet at 79°, the long Ice-

THE JURASSIC COAL OF SPITZENBERGEN 83

fiord, 78° 10’, extending inland to 78° 50’, with numerous bays,

Dickson, Klass Billen, Sassen and Advent, and Bell’s sound,

77° 30’, with Lewis sound and Recherche bay as its principal

divisions. All of these are more or less accessible from the

middle of June until some time in September.

This ready accessibility of the west coast has encouraged

attempts to utilize the mineral resources. Many years ago a

deposit of phosphates was discovered on Icefiord but the effort

to work it proved to be unprofitable. Coal was discovered

almost one hundred years ago in the northern portion on Kings

bay, where it was mined by Dutch whalers. Keilhau found

coal on Cross bay in 1827 and in 1861 Bloomstrand rediscov-

ered the deposit on Kings bay, the glacier concealing it having

retreated. He traced the bed for 7,000 feet but was unable to

ascertain its thickness though he determined that the coal is

brilliant, with conchoidal fracture, burning completely to ash

and showing here and there some woody structure. The asso-

ciated plant remains were long leaves and stems of deciduous

plants.'

Von Buch cites Robert as an authority for the statement that

whale fishermen had taken sixty tons of coal from Icefiord to

Hammerfest, evidently prior to 1839; and he says that Ca/a-

mites, Sigidllaria and even Lepidodendron are not of rare occur-

rence in these coals.*, The Swedish expedition under Nathorst

and DeGeer in 1882 studied very carefully the deposits on Ice-

fiord and Bell’s Sound. They succeeded in rediscovering a

coal horizon on Advent Bay, but were unable to determine

whether or not it is of workable thickness. An important col-

lection of plants made in that year by Nathorst and described

by himin 1897, enabled him to determine the age of the deposit

as upper Jurassic.’ It is certain that the Carboniferous plants

1 Bloomstrand’s publication in the Zrans, of the Stockholm Academy is not acces-

Sible to the writer and the reference is taken from F. Mohr, Geshichte der Erde,

1866, pp. 128-9.

2 Robert, Bull. Soc. Geol. du France, xiii,as cited by von Buch, Berlin Akad.

des Wissenschaften, May, 1846, p. 73.

3A. G. Nathorst, ‘‘ Zur Mesozoischen Flora Spitzbergens,” Zrans. A. Svenska

Vetenskaps Akad., Band 30, No. I, pp. 5, et seq.

84 STEVENSON

mentioned by Robert, as cited by von Buch, must have been

collected at some other locality and not in association with coal,

as no coal occurs in the Carboniferous of Icefiord.

Carboniferous rocks do exist in West Spitzbergen, and the

map given by Nathorst shows extensive areas of these rocks on

several branches of Icefiord as well as on Bell’s sound and fur-

ther south. In 1827 Keilhau obtained Spirifer keithavit from

the South cape and in 1839 the French expedition collected

the same spirifer with Productus giganteus from Bell's Sound.

Toula in 1873 found a Carboniferous faunain the northern por-

tion of Icefiord, which shows a commingling of Permian and

Coal Measures forms much like that existing in Nebraska and

West Virginia. Nathorst has described recently the Carbonif-

erous plants collected at several localities on Icefiord and Bell’s

sound, referring them to the Lower Carboniferous.

Thus far no workable coal bed has been found in this forma-

tion on Spitzbergen. Coaly streaks are present at some of the

northern points along Icefiord but they are not beds. Last

year, Mr. G, A:.Fangen ‘found on’ Recherche bay ict Beme

sound, about five miles below the anchorage, a bed of excellent

coal, four to five inches thick and associated with a dark shale

showing abundant impression of plants. The outcrop is cov-

ered with debris and the stay at this locality was too brief to

admit of uncovering the coal and its plant bed. It seems to

be near the spot at which Professor DeGeer observed Lower

Carboniferous plants. The absence of workable coal in south-

ern Spitzbergen at the bottom of the Carboniferous is the more

noteworthy because coal is present on Bear island, N. Lat.

74° 30’, which was discovered in 1684 by Bennet, who took

some of this coal to England. In 1827, Keilhau found four

coal beds in a vertical section of about 200 feet, the intervening

rocks being fine grained sandstone. Higher beds, unquestion-

ably of Coal Measures age, are here as shown by the mollusks,

and von Buch was inclined to place the coals in the Lower Car-

boniferous, which would make them equivalent to the plant

beds of Spitzbergen." Professor Nathorst, however, made

1Von Buch, op: cit., pp. 67, 73;

THE JURASSIC COAL OF SPITZENBERGEN 85

collections on Bear island. in 1898 and still later additional col-

lections were made by Doctor J. G. Anderson, all of which

were described by Nathorst in 1902.' The study of these

plants led him to refer the beds to the upper Devonian. The

shallow water between Spitzbergen and Bear island suggests a

land connection between the two areas until comparatively re-

cent times. The Bear island coal field must have extended

much further south and west, for even since the glacial period

the island has lost much on those sides, the glacial trough now

on the westerly side of the island having lost the greater part

of its west wall and the cirque on the southerly side has been

removed. ,

The coal beds on the east side of Advent bay are placed by

Nathorst in the upper Jurassic. During the last decade spas-

modic attempts at mining have been made, chiefly to supply the

whalers who ply their trade by means of steam launches. The

whole region was explored in 1903 by an English-Norwegian

company and in 1904 that company began systematic develop-

ment on the east side of Advent bay. At the time of the

writer's visit, the work in charge of Mr. G. A. Fangen, M.E.,

of Bergen, was advanced sufficiently to exhibit the coal and the

conditions of its occurrence.

The opening is at perhaps a mile and a half from the mouth

of the bay and at 330 feet above the water. Mining was begun

early in June with the expectation that it could be continued

until late in September, when a shipment of about 1,000 tons

might be made to Tromsoe in order to make a thorough com-

parative test with the English coal used there. The main head-

ing had been driven sixty yards from the crop and a room had

been opened, extending perhaps twenty yards northward to

another heading, which has been abandoned. The section of

the bed is

Feet. Inches.

MNO INAN 5g 406 ows v ai cartondeave caine fe) 4

714) 6g: 1 0 ee ee PEE 2

eR ps ave lvuy sc care taneous fe) 5

1A. G,. Nathorst, ‘‘ Zur Ober-Devonian Devonischen flora der Biren Insel,’

Trans. K. Sven. Vetens. Akad., Band 36, No. 3.

86 STEVENSON

Feet. Inches.

HO aE SEUNG ooo Stace gus team eens ate

Bee Seal oe on Setar rat fav salsoen en ane fe) II

Gi Clay: spor ates ad Sec hie hian ec eoroeeee fe) 2to4

yl, One 9 ene SP tn Se) I rs

85" Rock , Sandy ven a.sc.n secs oma fe) 3 to.5

Gg. Coal. oS. s2t tack tea eee tere I fe)

The measurements are exact only for the place at which they

were made and the portion, Nos. 1 to 5 inclusive, averages not

more than 1 foot 3 inches. The whole of the coal is mined,

but the character is not the same throughout. The “top,” that

above No. 8, is hard, grayish black, with fracture more or less

conchoidal and much like a splint coal ; the ‘bottom ” is black,

lustrous, with layers of brilliant coal and a somewhat prismatic

structure. It is tender and shows some mineral charcoal, but

this is not abundant. The composition is shown by the follow-

ing analysis, for which I am indebted to the courtesy of Mr.

Andrew S. McCreath, so long the chemist of the Second Geo-

logical Survey of Pennsylvania, who has added this to the series

of similar favors for which I am under obligations to him.

“The two samples of Spitzbergen coal yield on analysis

respectively :

Top. Bottom.

Moisture:.:.cocscacneerneeceee = eeereeee 2.210 4.696

Volatile mattee cee eee ee 19.790 28.560

Fixed. carbon...-4 Nae samee Rota aaene 62.763 SAGE

SUL PH UE ss ns oon ooeeeeen eee eee .467 .413

ASH. cidodveuneeoeeeee seen See se 13.670 (gray) 9.160 (light brown)

100.000 100.000

‘‘ The ratio of fixed carbon to volatile matter differs consider-

ably in the two coals; but three determinations were made in

each case. Such a difference has already been noted between

the coal of the upper and lower benches, but it is unusual ; and

generally the coals in a vertical section show approximately, at

least, the same ratio of volatile matter to fixed carbon. (See

Survey Report, MM, pages 94 to 97.)

“The coals yield gases burning with a luminous but feebly

smoky flame, and neither of them shows the slightest tendency

to form a coherent coke.

THE JURASSIC COAL OF SPITZENBERGEN 87

‘Both coals seemed to be quite dry, that is, free from hygro-

scopic moisture and yet the percentage of moisture at 212° F.

is quite high in both coals. This is suggestive that either the

samples represent outcrop coal — where, owing to some peculiar

physical change in structure, the ‘dry’ coal may yet hold an

excessive amount of moisture and have its coking qualities (if

it ever had any) entirely destroyed or to a different kind of

vegetation forming the coal. In the present case the action of

caustic potash solution has a marked effect on both coals, but

more noted in the bottom coal, where the action is so marked as

to suggest a lignite or a coal of such character or origin.”

Mr. McCreath’s reference to the difference in volatile, shown

by the two portions of the bed, is too important to be passed

over. The relations are, ash and moisture being neglected,

Top. Bottom.

UES STEPS ea ey ae a Ee Om 23.9 33-3

Peete aT OM ore. 5k S. ai cur asintiens neck pb bacde ode 76.1 66.7

UNE eT eS ee ee a Ey Fey 1:2

giving a difference of somewhat more than g per cent. This is

considerably more than the usual difference ; commonly one

finds not more than 2 or 3 per cent. though in a few of Mr.

McCreath’s analyses it reaches 5. The especial case to which

he makes reference is that of a coal bed at a mile and a half

east from Bernice in Sullivan county of Pennsylvania, whose

two branches, according to his analyses, show

Upper. Lower

WiGHEI Ele IRGEUEE outta: a awh Gosia viinls te nizes tree 28. 36 12.61

Pike CAPO. £0. coe crane ee ee kee Paha ate 71.64 87.39

ie) FAROE Li... ai Ciseins cotlenee suse, keen tone cee i si2.52 1 :6.93

At Bernice, a bed at very nearly the same horizon, possibly the

same, shows practically no variation in the benches and the

average ratio of several analyses is almost 1:9, closely ap-

proaching anthracite. In this connection note should be made

of another fact shown by Mr. McCreath’s analyses. At sixty

feet below the Bernice semi-anthracite bed, is coal which has

the ratio of I : 4.63, while at six miles southwest, a still lower

88 STEVENSON

bed yields coal with the ratio of 1: 2.52, the same with that

from the upper bench of the bed east from Bernice.'

More remarkable are the differences existing in the benches

of the Mammoth coal bed within the anthracite region at the

‘Locust Spring and Indian Ridge colleries of the Philadelphia

and Reading company, as shown by the analysis of Doctor

C. M. Cresson, made for that company. At Indian Ridge the

extremes are

Volatile matter .2.c smear eae ero a2 10.42

Fixed carbon.,..23.2.5 asccseee eee nee ae eee ee 96.8 89.58

Fuel ratio: ..05, aos sateen ee et eer eee 12302 153.6

and at Locust Spring

Volatile matter.<22, tees eee eee 1.89 15.3

Fixed’ carbons. eee eee eee OS..5i: Gf

Fuel ratio, 322 5.4.25 tee omer eae 1552 1: 4.88

Other benches show ratios between those quoted. In four

other colleries belonging to the same company, the differences

between the several benches are insignificant.”

The varying proportion of ash has no bearing upon the dif-

ference in volatile. At Advent bay, the upper bench has the

higher ash and lower volatile ; but near Bernice the high vola-

tile of the upper bench is associated with nearly five times as

much ash as is found in the lower bench; at Locust Spring,

the bench richest in volatile is high in ash while another at

seven feet lower has almost the same ash but less than one

fourth of the volatile. Similar conditions exist at Indian Ridge.

Nor has the relative position of the benches any influence. At

Advent bay, the lower bench is the richer; near Bernice, the

upper; at Locust Spring, the highest bench of the mammoth is

the richest, while at Indian Ridge the highest volatile is

found midway in the bed. The difference in physical features

brings no explanation for coal in Virginia, analyzed by Mr.

McCreath and very closely resembling the top coal of Advent

1A. S. McCreath, Reports of Second Geol. Surv. Penn., MM. pp. 94-97.

Ann. Rep. for 1885, p. 318, GG, p. 214.

2 Ann. Rep. Sec. Geol. Surv. Penn. for 1885, p. 321.

THE JURASSIC COAL OF SPITZENBERGEN 89

bay, is very rich in volatile. The cause of the difference must

be sought in conditions existing during the accumulation of the

coaly matter, chief among which must be the length of ex-

posure to the influences bringing about continued combination

of carbon and hydrogen to pass off as marsh gas.

The coal obtained for analysis is not ‘‘crop coal.’ On Ad-

vent bay it has not been exposed to variations in temperature

and moisture which are so efficient in causing deterioration of

coals in our latitude. It was frozen long ago, before the pres-

ent configuration of the valley was completed and it has re-

mained frozen ever since. The temperature in early August, at

no time rose above 39° F. The land surface is boggy in great

part and is covered in many places by lowly flowering plants,

but the summer thaw reaches to only a few inches below the

surface. There is not the alternation of freezing and thawing

so destructive to crop coal in our climate. The condition is

well shown in the Fangen mine where at 180 feet from the

crop and somewhat more below the top of the rock bench, ice

was found covering the rock in the heading. Yet the tempera-

ture outside had seldom fallen below freezing after the mine was

opened. In the original heading, now abandoned, ice was

reached along a fault line, fifty feet from the crop and it contin-

ued to the end of the heading. The explanation of the mois-

ture must be sought elsewhere. At the same time, it must not

be forgotten that the moisture in the Advent bay coals, though

three to four times as great as that usually found in the bitumi-

nous coals of Pennsylvania, is not higher than that of many

coals from Ohio, while it is much less than that in most of the

Iowa coals. The great majority of analyses from the last-

named State show upwards of six per cent. and not a few show

ten per cent. and upward — all of these being carboniferous.

The reaction of the coal with caustic potash suggested other

comparisons. Mr. Norman A. Dubois, Instructor in Quanti-

tative analysis at New York University, very kindly analyzed

the coal from the lower bench with the following result :

LTE RS Sa BS Seer hae A ae ae 4.14

Carbon...

90 STEVENSON

ER VCYODENR oo diss dnicdenulieis ons ceeds cosas soe) weqnadeectenyaekeaseeeeee 4.05

Oxyoen and INitropeny x.2.6k5 <2 gece xt capes oe eee at eBeptore 11.90

PG, ooidocede .dias sepece ceeanin seb eanwediet ss dawes see te hee ase eee eee 120g

The ash is higher than Mr. McCreath’s analysis because the

latter was made from the lump coal while the coal for this was

fine coal. The nitrogen is present in small proportion, consid-

erably less than I per cent. and it was not determined separately.

The Fangen coal from Spitzbergen, wholly non-caking, is

attacked by caustic potash very energetically even in the cold.

For comparison, several non-caking coals were tested. The

lignitic coal of Carbon, Wyoming, Laramie in age, resembles in

color the upper bench but in structure the lower bench of the

Fangen bed; that from Rock Springs, Wyoming, also of Lar-

amie age, has a fracture like cannel, and, unlike the Carbon

coal, shows no mineral charcoal. These coals are attacked

slowly in the cold but very rapidly at the boiling temperature.

A non-caking coal from Des Moines, Iowa, of Coal Measures

age, is attacked notably in the cold and almost as rapidly as the

Fangen coal at boiling temperature. This coal is very like that

from Carbon, but has more mineral charcoal and contains up-

wards of 6 per cent. of water.

A coal from Savanna, Indian territory, of Coal Measure age,

and yielding an inferior coke, is attacked slowly in the cold and

the solution becomes distinctly tinted after prolonged boiling.

Several caking coals were tested; they are from Canon City,

Colorado, and Madrid, New Mexico, of Fox Hills age; Stark-

ville, Colorado, of Laramie; Vancouver’s island, of Upper

Cretaceous; Leavenworth, Kansas, Wolf county, Kentucky,

Fayette and Westmoreland counties, Pennsylvania, of Coal

Measures. Not one of these caking coals caused the slightest

discoloration of the solution after ten minutes of boiling.

In both classes are coals of Carboniferous and Cretaceous

age, coals made under similar conditions of cover and similar

relations to disturbing agencies, so that one is led to suspect

that the character of the coal was determined very soon after

burial.

THE JURASSIC COAL OF SPITZENBERGEN 91

Ultimate analyses of the coals referred to are not available in

most cases, but a few can be given. They may be tabulated as

follows :'

H,O Cc H O N Ash.

REE one oo Sec cu casiNoceuy Sdtpor nents 4.14 67.88 4.05 11.90 12.03

ERIN cS cau isi nduaeysahveexuerdenss 7.35 | 63.65 | 4.60 | 19.44! 1.40, 2.80

REE AOIOG Sain ncid yg vucsnnscidanendace 6.59 | 70.64 | 5.13 | 10.79 | 0.97) 5.30

PP PURUUNIIC Since c sco vivecbiecedsasesssows’ 0.44 73.58 4.81 9.41 | 0.31 10.80

SENG LLSVPAG. V5. cc dentann er acacoseos 0.89 | 82.48 | 4.50 | 5.61 | 1.45 | 4.13

The roof at the Fangen mine isa black slate, but throughout

it is frozen so that none of it has been taken down. No plant

impressions were observed in any of the little fragments that

had fallen nor had any been seen by the superintendent or the

foremen.

To secure a complete section of the rocks, to the top of the

bluff, fully 1,600 feet, would be extremely difficult owing to the

abruptness of the face. If one may determine from a some-

what close examination of the loose fragments up to about 400

feet, the result of the effort would hardly repay the labor. The

softer beds are concealed by debris except in some precipitous

portions, while the exposed rocks are flaggy sandstones. Evi-

dently, one has here a succession of brown, gray, reddish and

yellow flaggy sandstones and sandy shales with apparently

‘some streaks of black shale. But from the palzontologist’s

standpoint the detailed section might prove of great interest.

Professor Nathorst collected from a ravine near the head of the

bay the interesting series of plants, 7@mniopteris, Lycopodites,

Batera, Feildenia and Elatides, which enabled him to determine

the age of the beds as Upper Jurassic. These remains were

found ina black shale, but they are not confined to that stratum,

for Mr. D. H. Morris, accompanying the writer, obtained among

other specimens a block of sandstone with 7enziopteris from a

1No. 2 is by C. E. Munsell, Jour. Amer. Chem. Soc., xiii, 4. Nos. 3 and 4

by R. C. Hills, Min. Res. U. S., 1892, p. 362. No. § by J. L. Lilienthal, un-

published, communicated by Prof. J. F. Kemp. The writer will present the results

of studies upon this matter and others bearing on the variations in coal at a later

time.

92 STEVENSON

ravine toward Sassen bay. A sandstone fragment, obtained by

the writer on the bluff along the east side of Advent bay, shows

an imperfect mould of an Astarte which Dr. R. P. Whitfield

thinks related to a Cretaceous form found in the Rocky moun-

tain region. Curious ferruginous concretions are abundant and

the sandstones often bear markings similar to those long re-

garded as fucoids.

The beds are evidently conformable throughout, but they are

not undisturbed. The general dip is N. 30° W. Mag. (error 15°

W.) at the rate of three feet per hundred. Faulting is not in-

frequent. The original heading at the Fangen mine reached at

somewhat more than fifty feet a downthrow fault, which was

followed for nearly thirty yards before the work was abandoned.

The crushing along the fault is slight and the throw, as is seen

in a hard sandstone above the crop, does not exceed six feet.

Other faults were observed in the face of the cliff, but they are

all insignificant.

The coal bed opened by Mr. Fangen is not the only one.

The outcrop of another is distinct at perhaps three hundred feet

below the crest, which Mr. A. E. Stevenson found on the oppo-

site side of Advent bay to be 1,600 feet (by barometer) above

the water. This bed is of workable thickness, but at present

it is practically inaccessible, being about 1,300 feet above the

shore. Traces of an intermediate bed were seen, but nothing

has been ascertained respecting it.

The coal has been traced around the face of the cliff along

Icefiord to and along Sassen bay, a distance of more than ten

miles; and Mr. D. H. Morris, following a ravine between Ad-

vent and Sassen to its head in the plateau, found fragments of

coal along the whole distance. The outcrop of the lower bed

is thoroughly distinct to the head of Advent bay on this easterly

side. A coal cropping appears on the westerly side at a little

way above the anchorage, whence croppings were followed to

Icefiord and for some distance along the southerly shore. Coal

is mined in a ravine coming down almost to the anchorage and

an abandoned opening was seen at almost a mile further north-

west, where a Holland company had marked out a claim. Pro-

THE JURASSIC COAL OF SPITZENBERGEN 93

fessor Nathorst is inclined to refer the coals on the westerly side to

the Tertiary ; but there seem to be no differences between the

rocks on the two sides of the bay; the sandstones bear the

same markings and the curious ferruginous concretions are as

characteristic on the westerly as on the easterly side. Col-

lections made by D. H. Morris and A. E. Stevenson on the

plateau between Advent and Coal bays, a distance of about ten

miles, as well as along the southerly side of Icehlord between

those bays, show the same features throughout; so that one

appears to be justified in regarding all as of the same age and

in referring all the coals of Advent bay as well as that on Coal

bay to the Jurassic, in accordance with Professor Nathorst’s

determination for the beds on the easterly side.

While, along the line followed by Messrs. Stevenson and

Morris, only Jurassic beds were seen, it is necessary to go east-

ward but a short distance to reach Tertiary beds, of which some

knobs remain well-marked at not more than seven miles from

Advent bay. These flaggy, grayish standstones are loaded

with leaves of dicotyledons, with which occur stems of horse-

tails and apparently leaves of cycads. The succeesion through-

out appears to be conformable and the passage from Jurassic to

Tertiary seems to be very gradual.

The effort to mine the Fangen coal in commercial quantities,

if successful, will be of more than passing interest. The market

-is ample in northern Norway, where the coal can be placed at

less cost than that from England. The long wintry night and

the closing of the harbor by ice during nine months each year

seem almost prohibitory. But the company, in case the test be

satisfactory, purposes to make new openings at a more favor-

able point further up the bay, to erect comfortable dwellings

and to instal a complete electric plant, so that the work may

continue uninterruptedly throughout the year. The proposition

is by no means chimerical, as some might suppose. The

average January temperature is said to be not lower than 15°

F. and evidently Advent bay is less cold than other places not

more than a few miles away. On the northerly side of Icefiord,

about eight miles from the Advent bay anchorage, a continuous

94 STEVENSON

glacier extends for more than ten miles, from Cape Bohemian

to Alk point; ice was present during August, 1904, in bays

further up Icefiord, yet around Advent bay and in the long

Advent dale, extending southward from that bay, there was no

ice except in some sheltered ravines where petty glacierets

remain.' The ill-success of attempts to winter on the island

were not due to the severity of the climate for Russian tribes

wintered there during many successive seasons. Scurvy, not

the climate, made wintering impossible for Europeans. That

terror no longer exists.

One must not fail to note that the general conditions during

accumulation of the Spitzbergen coal did not differ from those

during the accumulation of coals in our land. Even the inter-

mittent deposit is proved by the lamellar partings as well as by

the thicker rock parting. The climatic conditions from Carbon-

iferous to Tertiary were like those of lower latitudes. Nathorst

says of the Carboniferous, ‘‘The plants already known in

Europe are in Spitzbergen as great as here, Ferns, Lepidoden-

dron and Sigillaria.”” Toula discovered a familiar fauna in por-

tions of the Icefiord area, as did also Keilhau and the French

explorers in the southern part of the island; the Jurassié flora

is of a type familiar in Europe, while the later flora abounds in

deciduous plants.

Reference to the occurrence of seaweeds along the Spitzber-

gen coast is not out of place here. It may be remembered that

Mohr, forty years ago, asserted that coal beds are due to accu-

mulation of seaweed material and found a strong support for his

theory in the existence of coal on Spitzbergen. He quotes from

some writer in the bulletin of the French Geological Society and

also from Naumann the statement that ‘‘ Even now there flour-

ishes on the Spitzbergen coast a so luxuriant Fucus vegetation

that often the boat can scarcely work its way through.” * He

regards the Gulf Stream as the great carrier of material and as

responsible for the existence of the weed. There is no room

1 It may be stated in passing that the glaciers of southern Spitzbergen are clearly

decreasing.

*Moht, 0p: c2t., pp. 130:

THE JURASSIC COAL OF SPITZENBERGEN 95

for doubt that the great northward drift has some influence on

the climate of West Spitzbergen, for the conditions along the

westerly shore are much more tolerable than those on Bear

island, 150 miles south, but exposed to a southward drift. At

the same time the conditions are not such as Mohr supposed,

for he seems to have imagined the surface densely covered as in

the Saragasso sea. For 150 miles along the west coast, the

water during August of 1904 showed few and small patches of

seaweed and the amount stranded on the shore is utterly insig-

nificant ; so that even had there been a Gulf Stream during the

Jurassic, its seaweed would not have been an important factor

in coal-making.

tas

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VOL. XVI Be cak PART II

vs ANNALS

NEW YORK

ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

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CHARLES LANE POOR

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NEW YORK ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

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[ANNALS N, Y. Acap. Sci., Vol. XVI, No. 5, Part II, pp. 97-152,

March 18, 1905. ]

faery ON THE GRAMMAR OF THE YUKAGHIR

LANGUAGE.

WALDEMAR JOCHELSON.

CONTENTS.

PAGE

t Preface ..... Rete kd eh. fOe states Sova oh Seaaacue PERU NSS Ode nical bare 97

EN Evie nds rs yee ais <a Fenn apaline +s pao? Cini qeesiacasngasansed ene ances 100

aR RICO CIGD arse ce’ ddrancaccuperdas cececnnadsepsem cone deus saunccens 103

MIEN Seger geen fa ge. de: cysts tconwsiovd ten nenns dewasiessaieeedaedseieves 103

a.) The Adjective. ..... RAMEE aa LICO AEN: wah A Mires cubes Andes basic’ Gan nhs date Weeean’ 112

MR eee falar oss Pesca ohne rciaihe Saw inn aod icienhiad dy elpine divhisins ae oaainad sas nae sen 113

NIN eee, foe eA Mya A setiniebdeavecatceavabics os ciwedcdusealseosahanctseacs 116

ND I ee eee rer Sues Widatendas a2 cv eal daa dwevn's Gees uses vaca sce ¥aetaccneves 119

SE ereTeMG OE VeTDALUATIVEED. hig ciceeradt bcc eekevs ace vesedsseveabace saadecsecese 134

TE TE 8 BE ER ee, ee en 135

MN Eg Oe Pocs ecru cc) ccicwinwiaaiic puiesieqbgas-cusdedewedvescceurves 137

IM RMR CNSSUSS Gee cnetaecat ncectstee. -liasceneveevectacs Ssiassecnaserevabense 138

IIIS, Ce sal Gat Oi AA Psa hiccm dus acti di nchiasveencUecscaswink! eobeeds0 dciesv eased 141

A tale of what the Ancient Yukaghir did with their dead shamans..... 141

eae ee PGs EN MACLEAN UIE co Decade e caciew nach ued gus vnews cc ss'e spe vesssiw'cacevess 143

Peper URC ITAEV OES OF LIC TERE. ccora ces Sven acceccssvsssarconccetecene serene 144

PREFACE.

I took up the study of the two dialects of the Yukaghir lan-

guage in 1895-97 during my participation in the Yakut Expe-

dition, fitted out by the Russian Imperial Geographical Society,

and continued it on the North Pacific Expedition (from 1900 to

1902), provided for by Mr. Morris K. Jesup, President of the

American Museum of Natural History in New York. My

work on the Jesup North Pacific Expedition was part of a

general systematic investigation of the tribes inhabiting the

coast of the North Pacific Ocean. The full results of these

studies will be published later on in the Memoirs of the Ameri-

can Museum of Natural History.

98 JOCHELSON

All that was previously known of the Yukaghir language

consisted of records of a few hundred words and sentences

collected incidentally by various travelers and Russian officials,

particularly by Baron v. Maydell (1870), and worked up by

the late Professor A. Schiefner in three articles which appeared

in the publications of the Imperial Academy of Sciences in St.

Petersburg.'

Owing to the meagreness of the linguistic material, the con-

clusions of Professor Schiefner could not be very far reaching.

Besides, incorrect records and inexact translations of phrases

collected by incidental explorers led to wrong conclusions.

However, it can be inferred, even from these articles, that

the Yukaghir language stands isolated from the Siberian lan-

guages of the so-called Ural-Altaic group ; and for that reason

it has attracted the attention of linguists.

Since the time of Baron v. Maydell’s travels (1868-70), the

Yukaghir language has been considered extinct, for the only

reason that Baron v. Maydell collected his ‘‘Sprachproben”’

records among the Russianized Yukaghir, on the Anadyr

River, from an old woman who still remembered her own lan-

cuage to a certain extent.

But my own investigations have shown that there are still

two independent Yukaghir dialects spoken by nearly seven

hundred people. But the days of the Yukaghir language are

really counted, owing to the gradual dying-out of the people

who speak it. Even in the short interval between the two ex-

peditions in which I participated, some Yukaghir families, on

the middle course and on the mouth of the Omolon river, who

conserved their language became extinct.

The two dialects of the Yukaghir language may be called,—

one, the Kolyma; the other, the Tundra dialects” The voumer

1«« Uber die Sprache der Jukagiren’’ ( Bul/. Hist. Phil., XV1, 1859, pp. 241-

253; AZél. asiat., III, pp. 595-612). ‘‘ Beitrage zur Kentniss der jukagirischen

Sprache’? (#ud/., XVI, 1871, pp. 373-399; Mél. asiat., VI, pp. 409-446).

‘«Uber Baron v. Maydell’s jukagirische Sprachproben’’ ( Az//., XVII, 1871, pp.

86-103; AZé/. asiat., VI, pp. 600-626). These articles served the philologist Fr.

Miiller as a basis for an outline of the Yukaghir language in his work ‘‘ Grundriss

der Sprachwissenschaft,’’ Bd. II, Abth. I, pp. 124-133, Wien, 1882.

GRAMMAR OF THE YUKAGHIR LANGUAGE 99

was in vogue in the region of the Kolyma River and in the val-

leys along its tributaries ; the latter on the northern tundra, be-

tween the lower parts of the Kolyma and Lena Rivers. At the

present time the Kolyma dialect is confined to the region along

the Yassachna and Korkodon Rivers; and the Tundra dialect

to the tundra between the Large Chukchee and the Alaseya

Rivers.’

Besides, the Chuvantzy language, which is now completely

extinct, and which was spoken in the former time to the east of

the Kolyma River, also used to be, according to all collected

data, a dialect of the Yukaghir language.

The territory where the two former dialects are spoken is in-

dicated upon the accompanying map.

I mastered the Yukaghir language sufficiently to obtain full

command of their grammatical forms, and not only to take ac-

curate records of the texts, but also to converse freely in it.

The linguistic material on the Yukaghir dialects collected by

me is composed of a hundred and fifty texts, a dictionary con-

taining nine thousand words, in which many words from the

texts have not yet been entered, and vast phraseological material

for a complete grammatical outline of the two dialects.”

The present article is an abridged grammatical sketch of the

Yukaghir language. The space at my disposal in the ANNALS

OF THE NEw YorRK ACADEMY OF SCIENCES does not allow me to

introduce into this outline the peculiarities of the Tundra dia-

lect, and the article is thus mainly a brief sketch of the Kolyma

dialect. It may be noted here that the phonetical and morpho-

1 A considerable part of the Yukaghir who used to speak this language has died

out ; a part, at the mouth of the Omolon River, on the lower course of the Kolyma

and on the banks of both the Large Anui and the Dry Anui Rivers has become

Russianized ; another part, on the tundra between the Indigirka and Yana Rivers,

has been assimilated by the Tungus ; and still another, on the tundra between the

Yana and Lena Rivers, has adopted the Yakut language. (See linguistic map. )

?Up to the present time a hundred texts have been published by the Imperial

Academy of Sciences at St. Petersburg, under the title, ‘* Materials for the study of

the Yukaghir Language and Folk-Lore, collected in the Kolyma District, Part I,

St. Petersburg, 1900’’; and an article containing a grammatical analysis of one text,

in the Bulletin de ? Académie Impériale des Sciences de St. Pétersbourg, 1898, Sep-

tembre, T. IX, No. 2.

. 100 JOCHELSON

logical peculiarities of the Tundra dialect are rather insignificant,

but that it has absorbed a considerable quantity of Tungus stems,

which in their further development have been, however, sub-

jected to the laws of the Yukaghir grammar.

PHONOLOGY.

Following is a description of the phonetic elements of the

Yukaghir language.

a, ¢, z, o, u, have their continental sounds (short).

@, @, 7, 6, w, are long vowels.

To avoid the introduction of unnecessary marks, I do not

annotate here the obscure vowels separately. It may be said

only, that all short vowels are obscure when preceding a spi-

rant or 7, or following a spirant.

The series of diphthongs is as follows :

Ql, el, Ol, ut

2é, 1U, U0, CO

Qu, eu, Ou

Their pronunciation is as in German.

Triphthongs are not frequent.

y as in year.

/ as in German.

/as in English all.

/‘ has a spirant added.

yas in French.

mas in English.

mz as in English.

@ is pronounced on the end of the word as ug in deg, and

in the middle, as xg in the German word Enge. |

m* palatized m (similar to my).

n° palatized x (similar to my).

6 and f are pronounced with aspiration, owing to which these

consonants are intermediate between 4 and v, and fp and 7.

There is no v or f in the Yukaghir language. The Tundra

dialect, however, has a sound that corresponds to the English

w. When placed between two vowels, 4 approaches very nearly

the sound of v.

GRAMMAR OF THE YUKAGHIR LANGUAGE 101

d, ¢ as in English.

d like dr.

g like g in good.

has in English.

& as in English.

t‘, &‘ have a spirant added. They are placed at the end of a

word, if the following word does not commence with a vowel.

‘ The same applies to /*.

il-t before / is pronounced soft, by pressing the tip of the

tongue to the front part of the palate. ¢and/ blend into one

sound. 7

in are blended into one nasal sound.

g velar g.

c like the English s/.

é is equal to ¢y,; but old men pronounce it so that it sounds

more like c# in chance, while with women and children it sounds

closer to cin the German word Ceder. This seems to be a trace

of the difference between the pronunciation of men and women,

just as it exists in the Chukchee language. At the end of the

word, ¢ is pronounced by women almost like s.

fis dy; but old men pronounce it more like 7 in the word

joy, while women and children pronounce it like dz. If it oc-

curs between two vowels, one of which has a long sound, 7 is

pronounced like the French 7 in jour.

« like ch in the German Bach.

x‘ like ch in the German zch, at the end of the word.

The language bears but faint traces of an original harmony of

sounds, which is little observed at present. It may be described

as follows: o in the stem does not tolerate ¢ or a in the suffix.

In the former case, ¢ of the suffix is changed into 0; in the

.latter, o of the stem changes into a. For example:

Stem Suffix

coro'mo- (man) go (locative) at present also used coro'moge S. $$

coro’ mo- fox‘ (Def. Nominative) at present alsoused coro'mo-lek‘| 12

mo'lzo-( middle) dogo (locativeaccompanied at pres- also used mo’lvo-dége { and

ent by a possessive element. ) aa

102 JOCHELSON

mo’ do to sit.

mada’ to begin the act of sitting, sit down, instead of 70’ doa,

in which case 0 and @ combine into one long 4 (see § 92).

ois a weak vowel, and g and 4, when preceding or following

it, change respectively into the corresponding sounds g and 4,

as may be seen from the examples. ¢ and aare strong vowels.

Not all consonants can begin words. The Yukaghir avoid:

1. Clusters of two consonants at the beginning of a word.

When pronouncing Russian words beginning with two con-

sonants, the Yukaghir will either drop the first (for example,

Russian word Staru'xa, “old woman,” is pronounced by the

Yukaghir ¢evz’ke), or they will precede the word by the vowel

2 (for example, the Russian word s¢a’rz, “old,” is transformed

into 2’ctercz).

2. r at the beginning of a word.

3. The occurrence of 4, g, g, 7, and d, either at the beginning

or the end of aword. In such cases, these letters change into

the corresponding surds , &, ¢, and ¢.

The first syllable is usually accented in the Yukaghir lan-

guage. This is an almost invariable rule with dissyllables.

There are very few exceptions to this rule; for example, aja’

(‘““word’’), eme’s (‘mother’), dedze’ (“‘earth’’), and some post-

positions, like yola’ (‘“after”’), a2'e (“self”), ala’ (“near?),

Trisyllables are usually accented on the second syllable;

but so far I have been unable to establish a rule. This would

require a comparative study of a large number of words, which

will be made in the elaboration of the dictionary.

Tetrasyllables or polysyllables are mostly accented on the

first syllable ; but many of them acquire an additional accent,

which is usually put on the possessive element of the suffix.

I have marked the additional accent by means of a grave

accent (°).

Very few words are accented on the third syllable, as, for

instance, poperxo’ (‘day’’); but I heard some people pronounce

po perxo.

In adding suffixes to dissyllables, the accent passes to the

second syllable: nz’mo (‘‘house’’), zumo'ge (c. loc.), but also

GRAMMAR OF THE YUKAGHIR LANGUAGE 103

nu’ monin (c. dat.). Trisyllables, when accented on the second

syllable, usually retain the accent on the same syllable, coro! mo

‘“man”’), coro'mogi (poss. suf.) ; but in some cases the accent

is transferred to the first syllable, £ude’de (‘to kill’’), he’ dedelle

(‘having killed’’).

The verbal prefixes always take the principal accent:

ne'-kudede (‘kill each other’’), 0’ ¢-kudede (‘ would kill’).

Dinh PRS: OF SPRECH.

THe Noun.

$1. Case-Suffires. — Relations between objects are expressed

by means of suffixes on/y. I distinguish between case-suffixes

and other post-positions (see § 123) also serving to indicate re-

lations between objects, for the reason that the case-suffixes

have already lost their distinct sense, and, with the exception

of the casus comitativus suffix (see § 123), they cannot consti-

tute a basis for other word formations.

§ 2. Case-suffixes are joined to the following classes of nouns :

$3. (1) To nouns proper, that is, to such words as indicate

only objects.

§4. (2) To verbal nouns. As will be seen below, a con-

siderable part of verbal, that is, predicative, forms, may be used

as nouns (see §§ 80, 82, 112, 113), and form any element of the

sentence. Only when used as a modifier does the verbal noun

remain unchanged (see § 80). In all other cases the case-suf-

fixes are joined to it just as to nouns proper.

§ 5. (3) To personal pronouns, absolute possessive pronouns,

and other pronouns used as substantives (see $$ 54, 55, 56, 57).

Sometimes case-suffixes are joined to pronouns used as adjec-

tives (see § 56).

$6. (4) Most post-positions that are joined to nouns as case-

suffixes and substitute prepositions (see § 124).

§ 7. Possesstve Suffixes. — The possessive suffixes found in

the Ural-Altaic as well as in the Eskimo dialects (in which the

same possessive suffixes are joined to noun and verbal bases)

are in the Yukaghir language altogether absent in verbs and in

104 JOCHELSON

nouns for the purpose of indicating the first and second persons.

Only to express ownership of a third person is a possessive

suffix joined to nouns.

§ 8. The following comparative table illustrates the use of

the possessive suffixes in nouns in the Yakut (one of the Ural-

Altaic languages) and the Yukaghir languages.

Yukaghir.

ae S oc te: >

“a § a ‘Box Be ores "Bo

o 9 a2 o 5 cae Ce |

v = Sat oO i. e) at fas] Nn

A res faa ad ae ame no

re) 2 = on oO O eH one p|

a a ae a) eae = ow

Min | aha'- | m_ || Met | ecv’e | — My father

Besig? | aha-- \\ Gi 2\\ Nias ecl’e — | Our father

Lin | aha'- | it Les eci'e — | Thy father

estgt! Bha- \ PEE Tar. Warre — | Yourtather

Kin! | aha- ta || Lu del | eer e= oe His father

Kinile'r | aha- la'r || Titel | ect'e- | pegt | Their father and

| | | their fathers

$9. Instead of the possessive suffix = g7, another form may be

used for the expression of the idea of the relation of ownership

between objects. For instance :

1. Met eci'e numo'-gi my father house his, or

2. Met ect'e-nu'ma my father’s house.

1. Met e¢t'e-d-a' Ce-gt my father reindeer his, or

2. Met ect'e-d-ace my father’s reindeer.

The second form is similar to the Saxon form of the genitive

case in the English language (my father’s house, my father’s

reindeer); but it is not the suffix of the genitive case that we

meet with here. Only for the sake of euphony is d@ (or 7) put

between the final vowel of the first word and that of the initial

in the second word.

§ 10. The possessive suffix is used after the third person of a

personal pronoun,

‘See §§ 54, 55.

GRAMMAR OF THE YUKAGHIR LANGUAGE 105

tu'del* numo'-gt he house his (see §8), = his house

tt’ tel numo'-gt they house their = their house,

but not after a possessive pronoun in the third person,

Tu' de (see § 55) nu'mo his house.

_ tte (see $55) nu'mo their house.

§ 11. In oblique cases the inflexion expressing the possessive

element for the third person is introduced between the base and

the case-suffix (see §12).

§ 12. The following table of case-suffixes may be thus com-

piled :

Suffixes.

; | ; With the Possessive Element

Case. | Indefinite. | Definite. be Aerie) Parson.

Nominative Base | k, x, lek, lox or | gt

Boe, deRs dom" \ denn

Dative hin — |

Locative S€ OF go — dege or dogo

Vialis gen Or gon oo | degen or dogon

Ablative get or got — deget* or dogot'

Accusative @. 16, 10 fi, 0, lek, (0x OL | 87 OF géle, golo, degele

rice tek, 10x

Instrumental | Ze or lo ~~: dele or dolo

Comitative ne = dene

Comparative I | gefe, goto — degete or dogoto

Comparative II) “#7ze — —

Temporal me — —

§ 13. The definite suffixes of the nominative and accusative,

though performing the function of the definite article of European

languages, do not exactly correspond to them in sense. They

are used as a reply to the questions Who or what ? Whom or

what ? if the question relates to the object, and not to the action,

The abbreviated form £ and # is used when the noun has a

modifier ; for instance :

Ki'ntek* kelul*? Who came ?

Coro'mo-lok* ke’ lul* The or a man came.

Omo'ée coro'mo-x* ke’ lul* The or a good man came.

106 JOCHELSON

§$ 14. It seems to me that the inflection /e or /ois nothing but

the case of the verb to be (/e).

Coro'mo-lok* ke' lul The or a man is (who) came.

See §§ 82, 83 with regard to the form selul‘.

$15. Suffix #22 of the dative indicates :

1. A movement in some direction, and is used in reply to

the question Whither ? or To whom ?

Lu'mo-nhin xonk* To the house or home go.

Tu' del’ unu'-nin ko! beé He to the river went

Met* ke'nme-nin xo'nge I to a friend went.

2. An aim, and is used after the question What for ?

Met o'7e-nin kobe'iteye I for water shall go.

2.) Weimiit:

Tul del hi'gemunin* o'moé mo! dot He until his old age well lived.

§ 16. Suffix ge or go of the locative is used after the ques-

tions Where ? At whose house ? On whom? On what ?

Met‘ numo'-ge modo'ye I at home sit.

Met ett'e [va'n-ge mo' dot My father at Ivan’s lives.

In some cases the locative answers also the question Whither ?

and expresses motion zz¢o an object, while the dative mostly in-

dicates motion foward an object.

Met‘ nu'monin kie' Ce I to the house came.

Met‘ numo'-ge co'uye 1 into the house went.

$17. The vialis gex* or gon has apparently been formed from

the locative ge. This case indicates motion. oz the surface,

1’ gemunin — li’gel (old age) + de (possessive element) + #2 (suf. of the

dative case). Often /-de changes into mz.

2In the grammatical analysis of the text in my article in the Audletin del Acad-

émie Impériale des Sciences de St. Pétersbourg (1898, September, T. IX, No. 2, p.

173), I considered this case suffix as an instrumental case ; but my further study of the

language in the Jesup Expedition has convinced me that I was wrong in my former

definition of this case. To avoid misunderstandings, I consider it necessary to point

it out here.

GRAMMAR OF THE YUKAGHIR LANGUAGE 107

across, or through an object, and also ways and means of getting

something.

1. Met d'zt-gen kie'ce Ion water came (on a boat or

raft).

2. Tu'del* ti'bi-d-ani'l-gen yu'odei He through the smoke opening

(chimney ) was looking.

3. Tuldel’ nu'mezigele yulo-gen He his axe under belt put.

moru'cem.

4. Met‘ te'tul O'nmun-éo' bil-gen I you over the Kolyma tundra

ka'udet* shall drive.

5. Met‘ cu'go-degen kobe'tteye I along his road shall go.

6. Met ir'kin dilex e'ime-gen

min! me I one reindeer in exchange took.

§ 18. Suffix get or got of the ablative indicates motion from

or out of an object, and has apparently been derived from the

locative by the addition of ¢.

Tu' del numo'get u' koé He out of the house went.

Met ect'e-get kie' ce I from the father came.

The ablative is also used for the purpose of expressing the

degrees of comparison of adjectives (see § 41).

§ 19. The definite form of the accusative is the same as the

definite nominative (see §§ 13, 14). This form remains un-

changed after all the three persons. If used as a direct object,

it is put between the subject and the transitive verb, in which

case the latter is conjugated in the definite conjugation (see § 82).

1. Met ect'e coro'molok yu'omle My father a man saw.

2. Met eci'e omo'ce coro'mox yu' omle My father a good man saw.

§ 20. The indefinite form of the accusative, serving as a direct

object when the subject is in the first or second person, is equal

to the indefinite nominative ; that is, the base of the noun. It

is only when the subject is in the third person that a special e,

le, or Zo is joined to the direct object following it.

Met‘ coro'mo yu'o I a man saw.

Tet ace yu'omtik* Thou a reindeer sawest.

Tu! del coro’mo-lo yulom He a man saw.

Met ett'e a'te-le yulom My father a reindeer saw.

108 JOCHELSON

$ 21. It is to be observed that the third person, as a rule,

plays a peculiar part in this language. To point out one of

these peculiarities: the transitive verb ¢o give is expressed by

one word (kei, ‘“‘to give’’) when the indirect object is in the first

or second person, and by an entirely different word (¢a’di, “to

give’’) if the object is in the third person ; for instance :

1. Met‘ te'tin e'ye ket I thee a bow gave.

2. Tet‘ me'tin e'ye ke'imtk* Thou me a bow gavest.

3. Lét'e me'tin e'yele ke'im Father me a bow gave.

4. Lu'del‘ te'tin e'yele keim He you a bow gave.

and

1. Met‘ tu'din eye ta'di I him a bow gave.

2. Tet‘ tu'din e'ye tadt'mtik* Thou him a bow gavest.

3. Ludel tu'din e'yele ta'dim He him a bow gave.

4. Mit ant'ze met ect'enin e'yele Our chief to my father a bow

ta'dim gave.

§$ 22. In the same manner, it is only to express ownership of

a third person that the object has a possessive element, which

is expressed by gz in the nominative ; ¢7, ge, or dege in the ac-

cusative ; and de in all other oblique cases. The possessive

element is placed between the base and the case-suffix (see

S12):

nu'mo-nin To the house ; nu'mo-denin ‘To his house.

numo' -e In the house ; nu'mo-dege In his house.

§ 23. It is very likely that de is an abbreviation of the posses-

sive pronoun /2'de (see § 55) ‘ his.”

§ 24. The element de indicates that an object in the oblique

case belongs either to the subject if it is in the third person, to

the direct object if it is in the third person, or to some third

person ; for instance :

1. Met eci'e nu'mo-dée-get u' koe My father of his house came

out.

2. Let’ mit ant'ze nu'mo-déege Thou our chief in his house me

me'tul* nugte' mik* wilt find, z. e., thou wilt find

me in our chief’s house.

GRAMMAR OF THE YUKAGHIR LANGUAGE 109

3. Lu'del* me'tkele ni'em, mets He called me, I into his house

nu'modege co'uye went.

§ 25. The inflection ge of the accusative is used in a word

constituting a direct object of the subject in the third person, if

the direct object belongs to the first or second person, or to the

subject proper.

Examples without the element ge -

1. Met‘ tet‘ mo'go min: I thy cap took.

2. Tet‘ mets mo'go mi'n-mik* Thou my cap tookest.

3. Tu'del’ mo'go-lo mi'zum He a cap took.

Examples with the element ge -

1. Zu'del met‘ mo'go-gele mt'zum He took my cap.

2. Lét'e tet mo'go-gele mt'jum | Father took thy cap.

3. Lit'e tu'de mo'go-gele mi'zum Father his cap took.

§ 26. The inflection dege, or deu in its abbreviated form, is

introduced to indicate that the direct object belongs not to the

subject, but to some third person.

Met eci'e yo'ndodége, met caca My father when he slept (in his

mo' sodegele (or mo'godetile) ma'zum sleep) my elder brother his

(2. e., father’s) cap took.

§ 27. The suffix of the instrumental case, /e, signifies an

instrument or a means. Though the indefinite accusative has

the same suffix, /e, the two seem to be of a different origin.

The instrumental suffix /e is used indifferently, no matter what

person the subject may be.

1. Met‘ li'pe-le xa'rte I with a spade dig.

a. Jet a'te-le”’ kie dek* Thou camest on reindeer.

§ 28. The suffix of the comitative case z’e, is used in place

of the preposition zuzzh.

Met eét'e-n-e kte' ce I with father came.

Tu! del ect’ e-den:e mo! dot He with his father lives.

14 Y/e-le is, properly speaking, in the singular number ; but in such cases the

singular is frequently used instead of the plural.

110 JOCHELSON

§ 29. The suffix of the comparative I case gefe, signifies

‘“as compared ”’ with ; for instance :

With my father compared he is

big (¢.¢., bigger):

Met eét'e-gete tu'del* co'mot

§ 30. The suffix of the Comparative II Case, #’¢e, means

like ; for example:

Tu! del met ect'e-ti' te e'rée coro'mox’ We like my father is a poor

man.

§ 31. Temporalis se or mo changes a noun into an adverb

of time :

Pojerxo' day ; poferxo'-mo in the daytime.

Ogo'ye to-morrow ; o' goyel-me in the morning.

Vu'ole evening ; yu ole-me in the evening.

§ 32. CoMPLETE TABLE OF DECLENSION OF A Noun.

Tae :

Case. aie | Definite Suffixes. TE er aaeh

Nominative _Eme'i-mother FEmetk‘; Emetlek’ Eme'igt

Dative Lime’ inin — | Eme'tdenin

Locative Eime'ige — | Eme'idege

Vialis Eeme'igen — | Lime'idegen

Ablative Eme'iget’ — | Lme'ideget®

Accusative LE me'ile LEimetk‘; Emeileks, Eme'igt ; Eme't-

| | | gele; Eme'ideule

| | (=£me'idegele)

Instrumental | Eme'tle | — Lime'tdele

Comitative | Eme'in-e | — Eme'tdene

Comparative I | Eme'igete — | Eme'idegete

Comparative II

Temporalis

| Eeme't-tt' te

§ 33. Plural Number.— The plural is formed by the addition

It is very difficult to define by a general rule

of pe or pul‘.

when one of these forms should be used.

Most nouns receive

the addition, now of one, now of the other, of these two forms.

For instance, coro/mo (man) may be coro’ mo-pe and coro! mo-pul‘

in the plural. Generally fe is preferred after a consonant and

GRAMMAR OF THE YUKAGHIR LANGUAGE 111

a long vowel, — polu't-pe (old men),—and /uz/‘ after a short

vowel, — e/77e-pul‘ (younger brothers or sisters, or both).

§ 34. The plain suffix fe, or the double one fepw/, is joined

to the following words in plural:

Singular. Plural.

kot boy, fellow, voung man k'oipe and k' oipepul

pat young woman pu'ipe and pa'ipepul

ke'nme friend kenne' pe’ and kenne'pepul'

u! 0 child uo'rpe* and uo'rpepul

K’'oipe and pa'ipe are used as if they were in the singular.

' They say, for instance, z’rkin pai and w’rkin pa'ipe, one young

woman.

§ 35. It is quite likely that fe is a suffix of the now extinct

dual number. For example, 4cz’e-fe (fathers) means either

father and mother together (7. ¢., parents) or the father and his

elder brother ;* while Aéz’e-pul/‘ means many fathers. I have

not found any more traces to confirm my supposition. With

regard to the above-mentioned double suffixes for the expres-

sion of plurality, I have noticed that, when these words are

preceded by a numeral which does not exceed 5, one suffix is

joined to them, and, if it exceeds 5, a double suffix is added ; for

instance :

yan pa't-pe three young women, and

ma'letyan pa't-pepuls six young women.

§ 36. The element expressing plurality is placed in the nomi-

native and all oblique cases, between the base and the other

suffixes. A’ée-pul-iin, to the reindeer (plural), and ae-pul-de-

jin, to his reindeer (plural). We have thus the following

order: Base + element of plurality + possessive element +

case-suffix.

§ 37. Very often the element fe, when preceding another

suffix, drops the ¢; for instance, @’¢e-p-#7 (his reindeer), instead

of a'ce-pe-gi, g changing into & when preceded by /.

1 m2 followed by / changes into 7.

27 is put between the diphthong and ¢/ for euphony.

3 The elder brother of the father is called Comd’77e, that is, the big father.

112 JOCHELSON

§ 38. The Yukaghir language has no grammatical distinc-

tion of gender: With reference to people, "if there areuae

special names to indicate sex —as, for instance, e¢’e (father)

and emme’z (mother), po//ut+ (old man, husband), ¢ert’ke (old

woman, wife) — the words for, koyo'ze, or a’dil‘ (fellow, man),

or pai, payo'ze, or ma'rxil (woman, girl) are prefixed for that

purpose.

Royo! ze-a-e' mpe younger brother (eme = younger

pay’ ofe-a-e' mize younger sister brother, or sister)

A'duo (instead of A’di/-u'0) son (ie as

Ma'rxt-d-uo daughter ovens

To indicate the sex of animals, nouns are preceded by

o'ncenojze ' for the male, and mo'z#oze” for the female.

O'néenoze-caxa'le male fox; mo'tioze-caxa'le female fox

The male of the wild reindeer is called simply 0’ xe, or o/ ne,

and that of the elk, pze’7e. The female of the wild reindeer is.

2’vogoze, and that of the elk, #oyve.

§ 39. The suffix for the augmentative form of nouns is ¢e’ ge,

and for the diminutive, @’e. Nu! mo-tege (large house), 2! mo-

die (small house).

THE ADJECTIVE.

§ 40. The adjective has no special form. Instead of it, par-

ticiples and other verbal forms (see §§ 80, 84) are used. All

forms taking the place of adjectives are used as modifiers, put:

before the modified word, and do not undergo any changes.

Omo' ce coro'mox good man.

¢t'tneye-a- ige'yé* long thong.

§ 41. Degrees of comparison.

1. The comparative degree is formed by means of the abla-

tive of one of the nouns compared and a verbal form in the:

third person ; for instance :

1 Generator or provider.

2 Keeper.

3d is inserted for euphony.

oO Ur

Io.

& WwW N w

GRAMMAR OF THE YUKAGHIR

Met ect'e-get‘ tu'del li' get,

LANGUAGE

113

my father from he is old; that

is, he is older than my father.

2. The superlative is formed by means of the ablative of one

of the nouns compared preceded by the pronoun ¢z!muf‘ (all).

Cu'mut odu' peget** tu' del li' get,

all the Yukaghir from he is

old ; that is the oldest.

NUMERALS.

§ 42. The following are the principal cardinal numbers :

Independent.

Me a ea

A'taxlot

Ya' lot

Ya'loxloi (three and

one)

L'n-gan:bot

Ma' lgiyalot* (two times

three)

. Purki'ot (one above, one

more )

Ma' leiyéloxloi* (two

times four)

Kunt'rkilezeot (ten, one

missing )

Ku'nels

Used as Modifiers.

L'rkin coro’'mox (one man).

A'taxun Sb | AGI.

Yan Hee viribees) of?

Ye'lokun Sy Gijotr. 4

L'n- gan‘ boje i° 4a five a

Ma' letyan ki) Pes te

Purkt' yin ft, seven: 4

Ma lgiyelokun PC) eign. 6s

ane Peilezcope” ho mine \*S

Kunt' yin oo ten

§ 43. Judging from the above list of numerals, one

draw the conclusion that the Yukaghir system of numeration

is not quinary, as it is with the Chukchee, Eskimo, and most of

the Indians, but tertiary. But it should be pointed out on the

other hand, that z2-’gan-bo1 (five), as it seems to me, contains

might .

the word va'x‘do (palm, wrist, z. ¢., five fingers) since + pre-

ceded by z: change into its corresponding consonant g, 7x

1 Instead of odu//peget‘, from odul‘, Yukaghir.

2 Ma/lgi or Malgi/‘ means joint.

N-e/malgil‘ (all the joints together) means a

year. Ma/lgivalot, malgiyeloxloi, mean joint-three, joint-four, 7. ¢., each one con-

tains three or four.

114 JOCHELSON

equals zz or ze (together). And if this be so, the Yukaghir

system of numeration has two bases. Unfortunately, I have

been unable so far to discover the meaning of the word

ku' nel (10).

$44. All the rest of the tens are composed by multiplying

10 (£u' nel’) by the number of tens which precede the ten. Thus, |

twenty = a’ taxun-ku'nel* (two tens), sixty = ma’lgiyan-ku' nel

(sixitens) etc:

Units are put after the tens with the addition of the post-

position dud’ (on top, over and above); for instance :

11. Kunt'rkibud' = ku'nel-irkin-budi (ten, one over).

34. Va'nkunelyélokunbudi (three tens, four over).

76. Purki'yinku' nelmalgiya'nbud’ (seven tens and six on top).

$45. The independent cardinals are verbal forms in the third

person, positive form, singular, present-preterite tense, indefinite

conjugation of intransitive verbs (see § 75). They may be in-

flected like verbs, but not like nouns. For instance, to the

question, “‘ How many ?”’ you reply, “ Yadloz (“‘ three’’) ;. but to

the question, ‘‘ How many men?”’ the answer is, ‘“‘ Yax coro’ -

poe Cree men, -).

The plural ' number, present-preterite tense, will be:

Mit ya' loyetti we three are, or we three have been.

tit ya' loyeme¢t* you three are, or you three have been.

ti'tel ya' low they three are

(three of them), or they three have been.

The future tense, plural:

Mit ya' loteili we three shall be.

tit ya' loteyemet* you three will be.

ti'tel ya' loiter they three will be.

§ 46. Cardinal modifiers used as adjectives remain unchanged,

only the words modified by them undergo case-inflections.

§ 47. There are no Yukaghir words for numbers above a hun-

dred. They used to say ku'nel‘-ku' nel‘ (ten tens) for hundred :

1 It is plain that there can be no singular.

GRAMMAR OF THE YUKAGHIR LANGUAGE 115

but now they say zéfo’x (the Russian so). The Russian word

for thousand (¢/'syaéa) has also been adopted by them ; but they

pronounce it “cece.

§ 48. ORDINAL NUMBERS.

Independent. As Modifiers or Attributive.

The 1st a’fanume? a’ ainume-le coro’mox‘ (man)

“ed @'taxteckt a’ taxlecte Sf =

“<< 3d) ya’ lmeckhi ya' lmecte 3 ee

e) 4th, ya’ laxlecks yal laxlecte a -

oth) = 2’n-ganbecki a'n- gan: becte ce

“ 6th ma’ leiyalmecki ma’ letyalmecte B ce

“nth purki'yecki purki'yecte i ae

“ 8th ma'letyalexlecki ma’ lgtyalexlecte a ok

fey eth kunt! rkilezeockt hunt' rkilejeocte fs

‘“ roth kune'lecki kune' lecte xy 2)

“ rith kunt’ rkibudickt kunt rkibudicte ia v

“ 20th a’taxun-kunélecki a’ taxunkunelecte 7 =

‘“* 22d) = ku'nel-ataxulbudiekt ku'nelataxulbudicte ** de

ete. tc.

§ 49. Ordinal numbers are derived from the cardinals partly

by means of verbal suffixes. Cis the suffix which changes a

transitive verb into a causative (see § 97); £2 (instead of gz, since

g preceded by ¢ changes into £) is the possessive suffix of the

nominative case (see §g); and ¢e (in place of de, d changing

into ¢ after c) is the suffix of the conditional mode (see § 87).

§ 50. Distributive numerals :

a’ taxlonut* by two 2’n- gan‘ bonut by five, etc.

Nu is the suffix of the iterative form of the verb (see § 103,)

tis the suffix of the verbal adverb (see § 115).

§ 51. Iterative numerals:

Irki' ze once ataxlt' je twice wah ge thrice: ete,

§ 52. Fractions. One-half = Azmunde. The rest are com-

1 afinume means ‘‘at first, in the beginning ’’ ; a#nume/e, <‘initial, first.’? This

is the only ordinal number that is not formed from a cardinal.

116 JOCHELSON

posed of the attributive ordinals with the addition of the pos-

sessive suffix gz; for instance:

Valmectegi = Y3.

§ 53. Collective numerals :

atax/ot‘ two together ya/o¢‘ three together yal/ox/o¢ four together, etc.

PRONOUNS.

§ 54. Personal pronouns: met‘, 1; tet‘, thou; tu’del‘, he ; mt‘,

we; wi, you; #'zel, they. The gender isnot indicated tm tue

third person. The compound personal pronouns are formed by

annexing the post-position ¢72’e (self) to the personal pronouns :

Met-cji'e (myself), tet-e7t’e tud-e7t'e, etc.

§ 55. Possessive modifying pronouns for the first and second

persons are the same as the personal, for instance, J7Zet¢ ect’e (my

father); while the third is zz’de in the singular and 7’¢e in the

plural. The possessive modifying pronouns do not change.

The following are the absolute possessive pronouns :

me'tle mine te'tle thine Tu' dele his, hers

mi’ tle ours ti’tle yours te'tele theirs

Absolute possessive pronouns assume case-suffixes.

§ 56. Demonstrative pronouns: 77%, this; and fa#, that.

These two pronouns are used only as modifiers before nouns,

and remain unchanged in most cases. After verbal nouns end-

ing in / (see § 84) Za is joined as a post-position, and the case-

suffixes are joined to it, while the verbal noun remains un-

changed. For instance, yz’ ol-/az, that one who saw ; /2’ gel-tan,

that old one. 7Za# rather corresponds here to the relative pro-

nouns which, who.

Tu’ bon (this) and Za'dun (that) are mostly independent pro-

nouns, like the German derjenige, and assume case-affixes. But

in some cases they are used as modifiers, and are declined nev-

ertheless (see the text).

§ 57. Interrogative pronouns :

kin who, /e’me what, xa’mun how many (much) and zu'mun which.

Kin and /e'me are declined.

GRAMMAR OF THE YUKAGHIR LANGUAGE 117

§ 58. Indefinite pronouns :

yen, ye'nlek*, ye'nbon another éu'mu, cu'muté all

a’ lle some, certain o'nmun every

Of these pronouns, ye’xdon and 7’//e (if not used as modifiers)

are declined.

o'umun is used as a post-position; coro’mo-onmun, man

every.

§ 59. There are no relative pronouns. Verbal nouns ending

in don (see § 112) are used instead of them (see also § 56).

§ 60. The table on following page illustrates the declension of

personal and other pronouns.

§ 61. With the exception of a few phonetic peculiarities, the

case-suffixes of pronouns are the same as those of nouns.

Me' tin is used instead of me’ ttn, since 7 cannot follow 2

Me! tne, in place of me’ tne, since ¢ and x blend into one nasal

sound, i.

Tubo' dek’, instead of Tubo'nlek’, etc.

Special attention should be called to the accusative indefinite

of the personal pronouns, first and second persons, singular as

well as plural number. The accusative indefinite of these pro-

nouns has a special suffix for the direct object following a sub-

ject in the first and second person. In nouns, this form is identi-

cal with the nominative indefinite (see § 20). For example:

Met‘ te'tuls kude' det‘ I thee shall kill.

Tet‘ me'tul’ ka'udetmiks ? thou me wilt conduct ?

but

Tu' del me'tkele ka'udem he me conducted.

§ 62. The possessive absolute pronouns, Je’ te, etc., assume

the suffix of plurality, pz/‘, which in oblique cases is put between

the case-suffix and the base :

Mi epul ours Mi’ tle-pul-nin to ours.

$63. Lu'bon, Ta'bun, Tan, kin, le'me, ye'nbon, n'ilst,

xo’ dimet’, assume the suffix fe or pul‘ for the plural :

‘(sty) 27 /2P2Z

—

2. UD]J PU

I7I5I)1 Ul

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MIMD A Ué

JOCHELSON

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118

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JATICOO'T

sae

JEP»

‘JOpUL “WON

GRAMMAR OF THE YUKAGHIR LANGUAGE 119

Tabu'n-pe ke' lit Those came.

Ki'n-pe-get’ kelmet’ ? From whom (you) came?

Ke'lul-taii-pe ti le'iit Arrived those here are, or those

that arrived are here.

Tan is one of the forms that are used as substitutes for relative

pronouns (see § 56).

THE VERB.

§ 64. While almost all the noun-bases are derivatives of ver-

bal forms, the bases of verbs are in most cases disyllabic or

monosyllabic roots, frequently consisting of one vowel. For

instance, @ expresses the conception of ‘doing’; #, that of

being born; 9, to draw, to get from the bottom. But nouns

can, in their turn, become verbs again by means of the suffixes.

te (for transitive verbs) and de (for intransitive verbs). For ex-

ample: 07 (from 0, to drawn, and d’7e, to drink), water ; 02’ fe,

to supply some one with water ; xz’'smo, a house; xumo'-de, to

be with a house.

$65. While the nominative indefinite always constitutes the

base of a noun, that of verbs does not always coincide with one

andthe same form. The first person, singular, present-preterite,

indefinite conjugation, is the base of transitive verbs, while that

of the intransitive coincides with the third person, singular, of the

negative form, present-preterite, indefinite conjugation (see § 75,

table of conjugations).

§ 66. Verbs have only two tenses, the present-preterite or

perfect and the future or imperfect. The action may be either

completed or yet to be completed. The performance of an

action consists of a continual succession of moments, every one

of which appears in a given moment with reference to the act-

ing person, either as past or future.’

Met kude' de I have killed, and I kill.

Met kude' det‘ I shall kill.

1 The present-preterite is also to be found in the Gilyak language (L. J. Stern-

berg, Material for the Study of the Gilyak Language and Folk-Lore [Bull. of the

Imp. Academy of Sciences, Vol. VIII, No. 4, p. 422, November Igoo, St. Peters-

burg]).

120 JOCHELSON

MobpDE.

$ 67. The following modes may be enumerated : imperative

indicative, optative, conjunctive, conditional, supine, perfective,

potential, evidential, inchoative. °

$68. The Yukaghir language has no infinitive mode. It is

replaced by the supine. But when naming an action for illus-

tration, I translate the English infinitive by giving the base of

the Yukaghir verb (see § 65).

§$ 69. Before proceeding to explain the formation of voices

and other derivative forms, which are so numerous in the Yuka-

ghir language, and which are called “aspects” in the Slav

languages, or as the well-known Russian philologist, Nekrassoff,

calls them ‘‘ degrees of action,” I shall point out how the ver-

bal bases are being inflected according to modes, since all verb

bases, no matter of what voice or degree of action, are inflected

in the same manner with reference to mode.

§ 70. Every verb has two forms of conjugation, the definite

and the indefinite.

§ 71. The indefinite has three forms in the indicative mode, a

positive, a negative, and an interrogative.

§ 72. The imperative mode has two forms, a positive and a

negative.

§ 73. The forms of the imperative mode are the same for

transitive and for intransitive verbs.

$74. The indicative mode has different forms for transitive

and for intransitive verbs.

§ 75. The following tables illustrate the indefinite conjunction

of transitive and intransitive verbs.

121

GRAMMAR OF THE YUKAGHIR LANGUAGE

a3-1 Nl

»Y90-1,0

UwISIU-2 IN 7d

»YI/U-1,N 7a

Uds-2- N 7d

»/2f-1,2 18

uwasiu-2/N

item fy

UIs-1

57-2

‘(40M 07) 2,77

9.3-U OX

»YIS-U OX

wasIU-UOX 7d

,YAJIU-U OX 7d

UGS jU OX JI

»IJ-U OX 7a

WISIU-U OX

YlU-Ul OX

UIO-U OX

5Y-UOX

+ (O19 MOULOS

O03 01) wox

IALPISUBIJUT

wasiu-9) Jd

i Sos aad ee

uao- a7 [a

»Y2]- |] 18

uwaslUu- 3]

de saad

UWI8- 9)

77]

I0- Ip pny

,YI.5-Ip Apny

‘9sua T, VINNY

“Uasiu-apapny 7a

»Y2]1U-ap pny 1?

uas-ap apny 7a

»Y9]-2p pny 12

UaS1U-dp pny

,YlU-ap apny

UId-ap apny

»y-ap apny

a5-.U MU

5.0-.U Ut

UISIU-. UI -7d

»YA/1U-.U 27d

| UIs-U 1u-79

| »a]-. Ul 2ul-79

‘asuay, wasaig ‘apory sauyvsagiuy

‘(aq 04) 27

“CP

01) ap,apny (aye, OF) .e2me

“QALPISUBAT,

‘SdUTA AO NOLLVOALNOD ALINIGAGNT

‘(aavy 01) 27

ee Lo)

_ Wasi ,t]-79

yap tle 1-12

ua.s- 1]-]2

57 2]- -/?

WISIU-.U 2Ut uwasiUu- 1 5/971]

»f2U-.U tut ; 9 f2U- 1] A)

fut

uas-.U ue Us 1 apn

y7-- UNUM »7-Y ff

aut

"ae[NsUlg ‘ean |

‘WIOT IANISOG |

‘WAOT SABSON

‘rensuls ‘[eanjg “AvpNsurs ‘jeanj{g

‘WAO,J SATISOgG

aseq

JOCHELSON

122

au-2n

f9M9 2-1,

»YONJ-2 2

»YI2-2,N AO ,2%/-20

uit-

1-2 N-J3

f9ULII-2 N-]9

Yta2-1 N-J9

inN-] 3

992-1 N-]d

92-1,N-]2

1u-1,N |

fPUMLI 2-111

ia2-1N

2-10 |

992-1, |

92-11 |

Mu-U OX

fIULdt-U OX

,YONJ-NU OX IO ,YON-U OX

wOoXx

Itt OX IO ,yuox

mlO-U OX

Wu-U OX-73

JIM It-U OX-72

Ut at-u0X-]9

UOX-] 2

J It-U OX-Ja

at-U OX-] 0

Iu-U OX

fIMIE-U OX

U1 at-U0X

Mu-U OX

»YIt-U OX

It-U OX

“OATPISUBAJUT

peel,

faullat- 37

yonp- 2 |

,yat- a7 IO Yaz

ul-9)

eee fe.

faulah- 9]-1,0

HE aie

2]-1,0

»YIh-I7-2,0

al-I)-2,0

Om dl

fIULIL- 97

ee!

ded],

»fad- 71

a= 97

UuLDU-dp apne

»faul-ap apny

sYON)-op apny

Ul-Ip) ,APNYy

,Y/11U-Ip any

Ul-dp apne

IU-ap apna -]3

JIM Ih-Ip apny-]?

Utad-ap apne -7a

1-ap apn -JI

,Yal-ap apNe-]a

Id-ap APNey-]I

WUDU-IP PP Ne

»faul-ap apne

1-ap apne

Ul-ID Apne

/2U-Ip apne

Ch hen,

‘O}LI9} 01g -JUSSIIG— ‘apoyy 221wI1pUuy

MDU-.U tut

mpu- 17 °€

ful .U 1 fIul- 1] *%

sYON] -1t te ‘yonp- ty “%

mn-t, 1 w-17 °€

yf 2l-. Ul yYlul- 17%

wn-t ut m-17 *t

Wu-. Ut tuu-79 Wu-jtj-79 ©

AIM IE .U 1-79

Ylde-.U Wut-79

2-.U Uut-]9

»YIt-.U WU-79

at-.U tu-72

UDU-.U tu

JIU .U Ut

a-t 1

wine tu

5 2Ull- Ut 01

U1UL

“OATPISUBL],

JIM t]-79 *z

aiak= 1-79 “1

ye %

sya t]-]? *7

ad= 1-72 “1

movu- ty °e

,fIut- 2] *Z

2- Yf I

u-17 °€

yYllt- 1) *%

‘IVINSUIS “[eIn[g | ‘repnSurs ‘Tenjg ‘re_NSurs -peanyq |

‘WIOT dATESAN “WO *80119}U

sod

THI

"WIOT OA

123

GRAMMAR OF THE YUKAGHIR LANGUAGE

yf1U-1 nN

,f9UL9J-2

IO ,jamatag-1,n

0 Ng-2n

yf-2

»YIlIJ-1,N

uJ-2

,f1u-2 N-79

fIUMLINIJ-2 N-J9

AUS Ss oe

yf-2 N-]2

»YINIJ-2,N-79

Il I]-1 N-7a

»f1U-U0x

fIMIJ-UOX

| 10 ,pauadag-u ox

YO NJ-U0X

fM-U OX

»YIMIJ-U OX

UlIp-U OX

flU-U OX-79

fIUMINAJ-U OX-JI

Yt ,ap-uUOX-79

yfM-U OX-]9

»YINIJ-U OX-]9

INIJ-U OX-]9

1agiu-2 nN 1ajlu-U OX

fIMINIJ-2 fIMINAJ-U OX

Yt ,af-m Yt ,2p-u0x

19-1 1J-U OX

»y¥ahag-2,N »YINIJ-U OX

INI]-2,M INI] -U OX

“IAIPISUBI}UT

ALU - A]

JI Ut] - 2)

IO ,791t92-,a]

50 NJ-I/

4-9

9792-9

un A)

TEL Sa od Wy ed

,f9ULI2- 9] -]9

1,22-0]-]2

f-9[-7?

9f929] 10

IO ,¥92-a)-7a

929] 10

1O 92-a)-7a

20} (24

sJ9MI2- 2]

D2 92-9]

Mahe f |

sax ~/A/

92-9

ULIJIU-IY AVNY |

faulag-p apny

970 NJ-ap apny |

IJ-ap apne

YIU 9]-9p apne

WIJ-ap apny

Pele hPa 7?

JII2-Ip APNY-]3 10

fIUMIKIJ-IP ,APNY-]9

Ula2-ap ,apny-ja

IO 120)-ap apny-ja

1ajap apny-]3

IO 2f-ap apny-7a

»YI2-ap apny-pa

IO ,yadaj-ap apny-ja

9I-dp apNny-fI

IO adaj-ap apny-7a

ULI JIU-ap apne

yfIUJ-Ip apny

1af-ap apny

Ulaj-ap ,apny

,YIULJ-ap apne

»f-9p apny

WMJIu-.U uk

yf PMI]-.U 11

YO NJ- UI |

Udag-.U Ud

,Y2UL PJ-.U tu

Ulag-.U rut

19J1U-.U 1-79

JaULdNIJ- Ul 1ul-79

Ylaj-.u u-79

1aj-.U 1-79

sYINIJ-U 2-79

adag-.U u-79

WL agIul-.U tue

JIU J-.U UL

1ag-.U tu

WdJ-.U Uk

yY2ULAJ-.U 1

yfn-t lt

uajiu- 7

,f9ULJ-

50 Nj-1)

uaJ- 2]

Ut 9) -2]

uJ 1]

ron 01?

|f9mlaha]- t)-79

AOR EL

dal BF bat

»YIAJ- 1)-72

I IJ- ,1) -79

Monte

yf PMI] - 17

294- jt]

uag- 2

294-1

94-7

‘IeNSulsg ‘[emnjg

"Ie[nsul

‘INSUIS “TeIN[d |

‘WIOJ IAT]VSOIIOUT

‘ULIOT JATIESIN

“WIOT PATISOG

‘QATJISUBI T,

‘oINyN J — "avoyy sazwripuy

134 JOCHELSON

§ 76. The following remarks should be added to the above

tables.

§ 77. The Yukaghir language has the transitive verb / (to

have), which is absent in the Ural-Altaic languages.

§ 78. Intransitive verbs whose base ends with a short vowel

assume the suffixes 7e, 7ek‘, etc., in the present-preterite, and

ée, ek’, etc., in the future tense; with a long vowel ora

diphthong they assume the suffixes ¢e, éek‘, etc., in the present-

preterite, and /eye, teyek‘, etc., in the future ; while those ending

in a consonant have the suffixes 7e, 7ek‘, etc., or €e, ck‘, etc., for

the former, and ¢eye, teyek‘, etc., for the latter tense.

§ 79. The negative conjugation of transitive verbs corre-

sponds to the positive conjugation (with the exception of the

negative prefix e/) of intransitive verbs.

§ 80. All forms of the indefinite conjugation are actual pred-

icate forms. It is only the first person, singular number, present

preterite, of intransitive verbs that may be used as a modifier

when put before a noun. It thus takes the place of adjective

forms, which are absent in the Yukaghir language (see § 40).

For instance :

te Det! le ye F am, or I live:

2. Le'ye coro'mox* Living, existing man.

1. Met ebi' beye I -am black.

2. Lbi'beye xar A black skin.

§ 81. The interrogative form is used only when it does not

refer to the verb itself. For instance:

Mit e'ye a’ tet ? Will we make a bow?

atei is the positive form, but in the expressions,

Mit’ xani'n e'ye atu'ok* 2 When will we make a bow ?

Mit xa'mlol e'ye atu'ok* ?, How many bows will we make !

the verb is used in the interrogative form.

GRAMMAR OF THE YUKAGHIR LANGUAGE 125

§ 82. DEFINITE CONJUGATION.

Transitive. Intransitive.

Present-Preterite. Present-Preterite.

= | 1. kude'de-me = f 1. lo'do-l

Bo 2 i. =e me ee

& a

M13. ‘* -meleorkude'de-mle &. ie ial

£ ii ce ape 2 T ce =e

Ss 3

a4 2 a meer See oe ee

Ay ais ec

am, -Rimele = 5 cali is

Future. Future.

= | 1. kude'de-tme x ( 1. lodo-tel

c.\ .2 Pe =e Set iaee, SF Aree.

S A

Hw | 3 ch Pele ae Ws. 4" -fer*

ee oP, tek BA ome 7

(: :

-5~< 2 ‘¢ -femet Se ge Re oes 7

ae Ay Se

ek 3 << -itutemle 3, *" =aitel"

§ 8 3. In the definite conjugation, the predicate is used when

the subject is in the definite nominative case, or the direct object

in the definite accusative. For instance:

1. Met‘ lodo'-ve and 2. Me'tek<‘ lo'dol I played.

1. Met‘ lodo'-teye and 2. Me'tek* lodo'tel I shall play.

1. Tet‘ kude'demtk‘ and 2. Te'tek‘ kude'de-me ‘Thou hast killed.

1. Zet‘ kude'detmik* and 2. Te'tek‘ kude'det-me Thou wilt kill.

3. Met ace kude'de and 4. Met acelek‘ kude'-

deme I killed a reindeer.

The examples (1) may be used to answer the question, Who

did, or will do, a certain thing? while (2) are used in reply to

the question, Who did or will do a certain thing? (3) answers

the question, What I ad? and (4) answers the question, What

I killed ?

$84. When the form of the first person, singular number,

present-preterite, definite conjugation, precedes a noun, it as-

sumes the meaning of a participle.

126 JOCHELSON

kude' deme coro'mox' The man that has been killing.

lodol adt' lek* The youth that has been playing.

§ 85. The optative mode expresses, by means of the suffixes

u'ol or mt'chi, a desire to do a certain thing. Both transitive

and intransitive verbs may have this mode. It is conjugated in

all forms and in both tenses. The suffixes w’o/‘ and mz’ edi are

put either between the base and the other verbal suffixes, or be-

tween the latter and the first person, present-preterite, of the

definite conjugation (see § 82).

al-u'ol* (trans. v.) to desire to do (the base is @).

mo'd-uwol* (imtrans. Vv. ) to desire to sit (the base is mo’do

but o is dropped).

met aluol lL desire todo:

met* mo'duol pe I wish to sit.

met el-a'luol fe I don’t wish to sit.

met al'uoltt' I shall wish to do.

met’ mo'duolteye I shall wish to sit.

a’ ol expresses only the deszre, but not the posszbilty of doing ;

while 7zz’ebz expresses both ideas. For instance:

1. met lend-uol#e I desire to eat, I am hungry.

2. met‘ lende-miebi-7e I wish to eat (having food).

§ 86. The conjunctive mood is expressed by means of the

J P y

prehise 7:

Met a'nil at ot’ leu I (once) more fish would eat.

Tet €a'éanin ot'-xo' nek thou to the elder brother shouldst

go.

§ 87. The conditional mood has several forms. The follow-

ing are all the forms of the verb @ (to do):

I 2 3 4 5 6

met -a'-de a'-nide a'-lelde a'-leliide al-gene or a -lelgene

tet =) Ge 6é 66 ce @ -gene

tudel - <§ = et ae a@'-deune or a -leldeune

i ee ea en es a @’-lukene or a'-lelukene

Lit eh nb 6< ce 6c 6< (is

HOLE» eh inee ai as ay Wiideune or a'-leliideune

GRAMMAR OF THE YUKAGHIR LANGUAGE 127

Forms 1-4 are used when the principal and subordinate

clauses have one and the same person as subject, while 5, 6,

are used when different person are subjects of the two clauses.

Besides, forms 3, 4, and 6 require that the verb in the prin-

cipal clause shall also be in the conjunctive mood. For

instance :

1. Met a'-de keit' I, if make, shall give.

2. Met a'-nide ket "

3. Met a'-lelde met o' thet I, if made, would give.

4. Met a'-lelnide met o' thet es

5. Met a'leene, tet mink‘ I, if make, thou take.

6. Mit a'-lelukene, o' mnt of - we, if made, people would take.

mt'n nam

Forms 5 and 6 are also used with the suffix /e/‘ of the future

tense. For instance:

** Metul el-tle'-tel-géne, el-ko'ude-tel-geéne, met uo'rpe

me not if wilt scold not if wilt beat my children

met‘-ti'te yo'uletlelgene, te’ tin ke'lteye.’” '

me like if wilt love to thee will go.

‘‘If thou wilt not scold me, wilt not beat me, my children, like

me, wilt love, to thee I will go.’’

It should be noted in this example that the verbs 2’/e “‘ scold”

and o’ude ‘‘beat’”’ are in form 5, and yo! uletle “love,” in form

6, but without the element of the future tense. The verb e/teye

(base, £e/*) (I will go) is in the future tense, indicative mode, and

not in the conjunctive o’¢-kelfeye, thus corresponding to the first

two forms.

§ 88. The supine is formed by means of the suffix a7.

Met lo'do-din kiece I (in order to) play have come.

This suffix is apparently the dative of nouns. Very often

deiiin, the suffix of the dative case, together with the possessive

element, are abbreviated into dz. For instance, eme’t-denin (to

his mother) may be shortened into eme’t-din. On the other

1 Jochelson, Yukaghir Materials, etc., text No. 69, pp. 170, 171, lines 46, 47.

Thus a widow replied to a man that was courting her.

128 JOCHELSON

hand, the dative of verbal nouns is used. instead of the above

form of supine. Instead of saying as in the above example, the

following expression might be used, Met lo'dol-nin kie'ce. In

this way, the form which corresponds to the Latin supine is

rather a substantive than a verbal form.

§ 89. Perfective I called the mode which expresses an ab-

solute certainty that the action will take place. It is formed

by means of the suffix szoze’, which is put between the verbal

suffix and the base.

Transitive. Intransitive.

Met a -mozi 3. Met* kobe't-mojzi-ve

Titel @'-mopi-nam 4. Titel’ kobe't-moji-it

I am able to do, or shall do, without fail.

They are able to do, or will do, without fail.

I can go away, I shall certainly go away.

They can go away, they will certainly go away.

Kh & DN HN 4

§$ go. The potential mood is formed by means of the prefix

mo'li, and expresses hope or fear that a certain action will take

place. For instance;

Met‘ mo'li-co'u I may cut off, and lest I cut off.

Met‘ mo! -el-co'uye I nearly cut off.

§ 91. The evidential mood is formed by means of the suffix

/el‘, which is a verbal noun (see § 83) from the verb Ze (to be,

exist, live). The evidential mode is used when something is

told, not from the experience of the narrator, but (1) from hear-

say, (2) as a supposition, (3) as a conclusion drawn from certain

traces that the action had taken place, (4) as a dream, and (5)

as reminiscences of events which had occurred in the early

childhood of the narrator, and of which he had learned subse-

Transitive. Intransitive.

Met -a'-lel i’ -lel-ze

Tet -a'-lel-mik§ it’ -lel-pek*

Tudel-a' -lel-um ' it’ -lel-t

1 The third person, indicative mode is @-7z-, but in this case z is introduced after

the consonant /.

GRAMMAR OF THE YUKAGHIR LANGUAGE

129

quently. Transitive, as well as intransitive, verbs have this

mode. Let us take the verbs @ (do) and @ (be born).

Mit -d'-lel-t

Tit = -a'-lel-met‘

Ti' tel -@'-lel-iiam

Met ect'e tin nu'mole am

Met eci'e tin nu'mole a’ lelum

Met ete tit nu'mole alelum,

mo nit

Met yendo'je, met ect'e tin numole

a lelum

Tolo'u medi'n pogi! -lel-t

it! -lel-perlt

it’ -lel-zéyemet'

i’ -lel-fit

My father this house made (the

narrator saw ).

My father this house made (it is

apparent).

My father this house made, they

say.

I dreamed that my father this

house built.

A wild reindeer just now ran by

(would be said, should fresh

traces of reindeer-hoofs be ex-

amined on the ground).

‘““T was born”’ would be translated, set a’ /e/je (and not a’7e),

since no one can be a witness of his own birth.

§ 92. The inchoative mood is formed by means of the aux-

iliary verb @ (to do), which is put between the base and the

suffix,

dropped in this case.

pa'nde to cook

o’'7e to drink

mo'do to sit

o'rpo to hang

po'gi to run (of animals)

Of course the end vowel of the base is frequently

@ changes into e¢ after z.

panda’ to start cooking.

aja’ to begin to drink.

madd to sit down (begin to sit).

a'rpa to begin to hang.

folgia to start running.

See pp. IOI, 102 with reference to o changing into a in the

verbs mo'do and o'rpo.

Tudel pa'nda-i (intrans.), he began cooking.

Ludel o'zile

-0'7a-m (trans.), he water started to drink.

§ 93. By adding the suffix yez to the stem of the verb, an

action is expressed for the completion of which it is required to

go somewhere.

Yer, used separately, is a verb whose meaning

is to ‘‘rush one’s self’’ “to throw one’s self.’’

130 JOCHELSON

/o'do-yet to go somewhere, to start off somewhere to play.

kude' de-yet to go somewhere to kill.

It follows the general rules of conjugation of transitive and

intransitive verbs.

§ 94. The supine, by means of the auxiliary verb /e (to be),

expresses the readiness, or the intention to do something, and

corresponds to the Latin conjugatio periphrastica.

keldin-le to be getting ready to come, to be ready, to intend to come.

Ti' tel ani'le leu'din-lemt they fish are getting ready to eat.

VOICES.

The following voices are formed from transitive and intransi-

tive verbs.

$95. The reflexive voice is formed from a transitive verb by

means of the personal pronoun met, which is prefixed to the

verb. In the Slav languages the reflexive voice is formed in the

same manner; but the pronoun “self” is used by the latter

asa suffix. For instance:

Met‘ me't-kude' deye J myself kill.

Tet‘ me't-kude!' deyek* Thou thyself killest.

Tudel me't-kude' det He himself kills,’ or killed.

These verbs are conjugated like intransitive verbs.

§ 96. The passive voice is formed from transitive verbs by

means of the suffix 0, which is usually blended, together with

the final vowel of the base, into a long 0. For instance:

Kude' do instead of Aude'de-o.

Verbs in the passive voice are conjugated like intransitive

verbs. For instance:

Tu' del kere'ken:e kude' do-t He is killed by a Koryak.

1 Tt is interesting to note that, in the Tundra dialect, the prefix-pronoun of the

reflexive changes by persons, as in the Romano-Germanic languages :

Met‘ met-bunje I kill myself.

tet® tet-bun-jek* Thou killest thyself.

tudel’ tur-bun-t He kills, or killed, himself.

GRAMMAR OF THE YUKAGHIR LANGUAGE 131

§ 97. The causative voice is formed, by means of the suffix

c, from transitive as well as intransitive verbs; but the latter

are, in such cases, changed into transitive verbs:

Rude! de-c to cause to kill.

mo! do-c to make to sit.

There is another suffix for the formation of the causative

voice ; namely, cé/e ; but the difference between the two is not

quite clear to me as yet. I hope that closer study of the texts

will make the difference clear.

§ 98. The reciprocal voice is formed by means of the prefix

me (in nouns, it constitutes the suffix of the comitative case).

This voice follows the rules of conjugation of intransitive verbs.

For instance :

Ti'tel ne’ kudéedent They killed each other.

§ 99. The cooperative voice is formed by means of the suffix

je or 72. For instance:

Rude’ je To kill together.

kudeze is equivalent to kudede7e. The second syllable de is

blended together with 7e into one syllable.

ASPECTS OR DEGREES OF ACTION.

§ 100. Derivative verbs indicating degrees of action are

formed by means of suffixes, except those in § 107.

§ 101. The suffix z indicates singleness of action, that a cer-

tain action was performed only once and within a short period

of time :

- pa'nde to cook pa'ndet to cook once.

§ 102. The suffix ¢ expresses an action in diminutive form,

limits the volume of it:

pa nde-ci to cook a little.

§ 103. The suffix ww expresses the iterative form of the

action :

panda’ -nu to cook several times.

tee JOCHELSON

In this case, the final vowel of the base turns into a long

sound.

§ 104. The suffix zwnu (a reduplication of 2) expresses the

iterative form in an intense degree :

panda-nunu . to be always cooking (with interruptions).

§ 105. The suffix yz expresses the durative form, indicating

continuity of action, or its reiteration within certain periods of

fime :

panda’ -yt to cook long.

Met ae ku'dect 1 killed many reindeer one after another.

ku'dect is equivalent to kude'de-yi. The e is dropped in de,

and dy is 7 (see phonology), 7 changes into ¢(¢y).

§ 106. Any two of the enumerated suffixes for the expres-

sion of degrees of action may be combined, thus forming the

following:

I. 2nu the repetition of a single action.

2. imunu - Bs as ah

3. cimu the repetition of a diminutive form, diminutive-iterative.

4. C1711 ce c¢ ce ce ce ce

5. yénu durative-iterative.

6. venunu gi oe

§ 107. The prefix se expresses an action not quite completed

but in the process of completion, or recently completed, or

about to be completed:

Met aie me'-kude'de I have just been killing, or I am killing a

reindeer.

Met‘ me'-lodo'teye I am going to play, I will play, right now

(soon).

§ 108. The order in which the suffixes expressing the differ-

ent derivative conceptions are arranged after the verb-base is as

follows : base + voice + degree of action + mode +4 verbal suffix

of person and tense:

Tu' del ac-nu'-lel-um He apparently caused to do . . . several

times.

GRAMMAR OF THE YUKAGHIR LANGUAGE 133

§ 109. Before proceeding to describe the participial forms, I

wish to draw attention to the ease with which nouns become

verbs, outside of the cases mentioned above (see § 64).

§ 110. Every noun in the comitative forms, by dropping e¢ of

its suffix z-e,a base of an intransitive verb expressing the

ownership of something. For instance:

ace-n'*e with reindeer.

a cen: to have reindeer.

Met adien:-7e I have reindeer, or a reindeer.

met uo'rpen-fe I have children.

Tu! del ect' ent he has a father.

§ 111. Every base of a noun may be turned into an intransi-

tive verb by adding to the particle %o (be) as a suffix, which has

no meaning when it stands alone. For instance:

L001! e-fio be a father.

Met ecte-ito-ze I am a father, I have been a father.

Met ett'e-iio-teye I shall be a father.

VERBAL NOUNS.

§ 112. The particle doz, being suffixed to various verbal

forms, composes verbal nouns, which are used sometimes as the

name of the subject (like our participles), or as a name of an

action ; but if the verb is transitive, the verbal noun may also

signify the object which receives the action expressed by the

verb. From the base oe (to drink), we may derive the follow-

ing verbal nouns:

Present-Preterite.

ol zeyebon o'zemebon a’ zemelebon O'zelbon

Future.

O'zeteyebon dzetmebon opetmelebon opetelbon.

Bon combines also with the form /e/‘ of the evidential mode.

Examples.

1. Zu'del t'bicile o'zemelebodek‘ He the milk who drank, or it isjust

the one that drank the milk.

134 JOCHELSON

o'7emelebodek is the definite nominative case of d7emelebon —

One who drank.

2. Met d'zelbon pk: my (by me) drunk water, the water

(that I am drinking) drunk

by me.

3. Met ojelbon my beverage, or the beverage that

Met o' zeyebon used to be mine.

Met o'zemebon

4. Oj'e-nu-melebongele (accus.) That which is used to drink (he)

nex’ anin el ma" 7t has never taken.

5. Metek d'jeteyebodek* I am the one that will drink.

The suffix don is used as an independent word, fox (a word

cannot begin with 4). In olden times this word used to indicate

the name of a deity embracing all nature, the universe. Pon

indicates something that is unknown. All household goods

taken as a whole are spoken of as po! nfe.

§ 113. The suffix wo or wol‘ (from wo, ‘ child’’), when joined

to verbal forms, expresses the result of an action. For instance:

xo'n-uo or xo'n-uol’ (from xon, ‘‘walk’’), walking, a trace from

walking, also a trail.

d'7e-l-uol* (Z is introduced between the two the process of drinking,

vowels; ge is the basis of the verb also the trace left from

escrimk +7”) drinking,“ @. 92, tie

water left in the glass

after drinking.

§ 114. With regard to verbal forms serving as adjective

modifiers, see §§ 80, 84, IIO.

THE GERUND OR VERBAL ADVERB.

§ 115. The suffix ¢, together with the verbal base, forms the

verbal adverb, which expresses an action taking place simul-

taneously with that indicated by the predicate :

Met‘ mo'do-t a yt I while sitting was shooting.

Met anil legu-t‘ coril'e I while eating fish was writing.

GRAMMAR OF THE YUKAGHIR LANGUAGE 135

It seems to me that the suffix ¢ is that of the ablative without

the local element ge (§ 12):

Mo' do-t¢* sitting, or from sitting.

§ 116. The suffix //e with the verbal base expresses an ac-

tion preceding the one expressed by the predicate. //e is ap-

parently nothing but the instrumentative case /e (see § 12); but

I always heard a sound of double / in verbal adverbs. This

form is in most cases combined with the possessive element de

or do (see § 12):

Met eye a-delle nu'mo-yekli'n I, a bow having made, went hunt-

xo! nge ing,

Met‘ moda'-delle mo'go t'gda I, having sat down, a cap began to

sew.

§ 117. If the verbal adverb expresses an action of another

person (not of the subject), but taking place simultaneously with

the action of the subject, it is then derived from the forms of

the definite conjugation (see § 82) together with locative suf-

fixes. The suffix ge is used for the first and second person,

singular number ; dege, for the third person, both numbers; and

luke, for the first and second person, plural number. For in-

stance :

Met yu' ol-ge while I looked.

Tet yu' ol-ge while thou looked.

Tu' del yu' o-dege while he looked.

Mit yu' oluke while we looked.

Tit yu' oluke while you looked.

Ti'tel yu' oft-dege while they looked.

Mit yu' oluke tu'del ani'le t'gdem while we looked (in our looking),

he was fishing.

Ti'tel at yo'ndonide'ge mit anil while they were still asleep we were

a dget catching fish.

THE ADVERB.

§ 118. The following are some of the adverbs of time:

xani'n when. ti'ne lately.

xant'nde sometimes. éugo'n soon.

136 JOCHELSON

ajon' early.

tuda'’ long ago.

z¢ long.

xo'nlume, xo'llume immediately.

n‘e'xanin never.

xa’ dié already.

a wnume at first.

ke'yot* at first.

keye'n previously.

druk* (suddenly, the Russian

word vdrug).

§ 119. Adverbs of place:

Za there, thither.

Ye nere:

xon where, whither.

xot where from, whence.

xo' dibonget’ whence.

xo'nde eyerywhere, anywhere.

zat’ thence.

§ 120. Adverbs of manner :

o'moé well.

Como'n very.

na’ dude enough, only.

ta'idaga enough.

tat, ta’cile afterwards, later on.

ne'gapiye yesterday.

ogo'tye to-morrow.

ta’'iinug? then.

2’ 72 NOW.

ai again, once more, anew.

Ta’ bun-nt' nin-giélgc meanwhile, in

the mean time.

ni’ Relize Many times.

xa'mliyze several times.

tmer elsewhere.

mige'de hither.

tinide this way.

cal'rude sideways.

pude outside.

nacin against, opposite.

tie“ hence, irom here:

ki'zuon: easily, lightly.

nige'yot heavily.

e’rkin only.

§ 121. All adverbs directly precede the verb, and may be re-

garded as prefixes.

foots, for imstance, 77.7.

Not all adverbs to be found in the lan-

guage have been enumerated here.

Some adverbs are simply

Others are derived from these roots,

for instance, 7a¢‘ fit‘ (“‘ thence,” “ hence ”’), which are the ablative

of Za and 7.

Others are formed from nouns and adverbs, as,

for instance, 2*’aciz (‘opposite’), an abbreviation of 2’ acenin

(dative of z:a’ce, “face’’); 2’rkin (“only”) is merely the numeral

one ; Como'n: (‘‘very’’), from como, which is the basis of the in-

transitive verb Zo de large.

§ 122. The temporal case of nouns, mentioned under nouns,

is also to be added to the adverbs of time ($§ 12, 31).

GRAMMAR OF THE YUKAGHIR LANGUAGE 137

Post-PosITIONS.

§ 123. All post-positions, which take the place of preposi-

tions, might just as well be called ‘‘ case-post-positions,”’ like the

suffixes enumerated in connection with the declension of nouns

(see § 1). Post-positions differ from the latter in that they are

not used in connection with a possessive element, and that most

of them may take on case-suffixes. The latter circumstance is

not so characteristic, however, since ze, comitative case, is used

as a separate word, z‘a'ga (“‘together’’), and the case-suffixes

get, gen, gete, are derivatives from the locative ge. As may be

seen from examples, post-positions are sometimes put after

oblique cases of nouns.

§ 124. The following are the post-positions.

yola’, yola'n after,

behind. Met-yola' after, behind me.

budi'e on top, upon,

on.

budi'en on, over the

surface.

bud et‘ from under

the surface.

Tu' dels nu'me-budt' emo' doi he sits on the house.

@/ under. met-al under me.

at from under. lebte'-n-at u'koé came out from under the ground.

ala’ near. nu'mo-ad-ala’ near the house.

ca'tde across. unu' tige-ca'ide across the river. w' 77% (river)

ge is in the locative case.

yeklt'e behind. nu'mon-yekit'e behind the house.

mekit'e in front. u'nun-mekii e at this side of the river.

let for the sake, is a verbal adverb of the verb / (‘‘be’’), and is

put after the dative.

met ect’ enin-let‘ kole' ce I for the sake of father came.

ele-cu'on without. £i'le (the adverb of the denial wo)

is put before the noun.

Ti'tel e'le-me' t-Cu'on xo! niet They without me went away.

§ 125. The Yukaghir language has no conjunctions; but

some pronouns in oblique cases are used instead. For instance,

138 JOCHELSON

Tabu'nget (ablative of ¢a’bun, that”) replaces the illative

conjunction therefore.

Ta’ tmedeu'ne (‘and for this reason’’) is the subjunctive mode

of the intransitive verb ¢azmze (‘to be such’’).

The adverb a (‘‘again’’) is sometimes used instead of our

conjunction and:

Ti'tel ya'xteni at londont They sang and danced.

CONCLUDING REMARKS.

The morphological peculiarities of the language may be

summed up in the following main propositions.

Word-formation is accomplished mainly by means of suffixes ;

but prefixes are also used (almost exclusively in connection

with verbal forms). In this respect the language differs from

those of the Ural-Altaic group, which use suffixes only, and

approaches the American languages.

The possessive suffixes of nouns is but little developed (except

in the third person) ; the language thus differing from the Ural-

Altaic, as well as from the Eskimo dialects.

Sound harmony of vowels (@ and o should not occur in the

same word), is little developed, and in this respect the language

resembles some of the Indian dialects, but differs absolutely from

the Ural-Altaic languages with their intricate system of vowel-

harmony. For instance, an important feature of the vowel-

harmony of the latter group of languages consists of the adap-

tation of the suffix vowels to the vowel of the root, which

never changes. The vowel of the first syllable thus governs

all the rest of the vowels, no matter what their number may be.

In the harmony of the Yukaghir language, the root-vowel fre-

quently adapts itself to the vowel of the suffix (see § 92).

Besides, in the plural forms of personal pronouns (met‘, mut‘ ;

tet‘, tit‘ ; tudel‘, tel‘) an attempt may be noticed in the language

to derive new forms by means of changes of vowels within the

root (the method of Semitic languages) without any additions

from outside, a feature of which traces may be found in two

other so-called ‘‘isolated”’ Siberian languages, —that of the

Kott and the Ostyak from Yenisei.

~~ a

GRAMMAR OF THE YUKAGHIR LANGUAGE 139

The difference in the conjugation of transitive and intransitive

verbs which we have in the Yukaghir language is a feature com-

mon to almost all American languages. The same may be said

of the capacity of bases of transitive verbs to change into

intransitive by means of suffixes and vice versa.

Suffixes of purely verbal forms are different from case-suf-

fixes, and they cannot be brought in connection with personal

pronouns.

A necessary element of plurality is constituted by the sound

?; while that of futurity by 4 In the Chukchee and Eskimo

languages ¢ constitutes the element of plurality, and in the

Koryak language it forms the element of the dual number.

Adjectives, being verbal forms, do not undergo any inflections.

There is no difference between animate and inanimate objects,

as is the case in some Indian dialects.

The feature known as “ polysynthesis”’ in American dialects,

and which consists of a combination of two or more uninflected

bases in one word, in which one of the bases expresses the

principal idea, and is put at the end of the word, while the other

bases figure as secondary definitive ideas, is also to be met with

in the Yukaghir language. For instance:

)

Met tu'de-cz'e-mo'dol‘- kot -cu'olext = pundut*

I he self sitting boy tale shall tell.

That is, I. shall tell a tale of a boy who was sitting (living) all

alone.

In the expression :

tu! de-c7' e-mo' dol-kot-cu' ole#t

we have an actual synthesis. Without being inflected, all sec-

ondary bases are combined into one conception with the prin-

cipal base ¢2! ole7t-tale

Or: Ve'lokun- no'ineye- bon -ku'deciye eoro'mo-not’ kude'ye’

Four with legs something killing man-being have become.

1 See Yukaghir Materials, etc., Tale 12, p. 25.

2Tbid., Tale 25, p. 169.

140 JOCHELSON

That is, (1) have become a man that kills four-legged things

(animals).

Other examples may be cited in which the bases combining

into one word drop one or more syllables. For instance:

Co! mani (Coregonus leucichtys) is actually derived from Como'e-

d-a'nil (“big fish’’) ; or Como! tie (elder brother of the father,

uncle) is really Como! je-a-ect' e (big father).

It is true that there is no actual incorporation to be found in

the language; neither pronouns nor nouns, when direct or in-

direct objects, are incorporated in the predicate ; but the nature

of the syntactical construction of the Yukaghir language is akin

to incorporation. The verb plays the main part in the sentence.

It is always placed at the end of the sentence, being preceded,

first by the subject with all its modifiers, then by the direct and

indirect objects with their modifiers, then by the adverbs. If

the subject is not accompanied by any modifiers, and it is known

from the sense of the story who the acting person is, then it is

usually dropped (see below, the text). The subject very often

does not assume the element of plurality, though there are

many acting persons, as long as the sense of plurality is ex-

pressed by the verb (see the text).

APPENDIX.

A TALE OF WHAT THE ANCIENT YUKAGHIR DID WITH THEIR

DEAD SHAMANS.

I 2 ars 4

a'lmatle, a' mdegene, Cu! de

when (he) died, flesh

Cu! ole-ad-o' mnt,

Ancient people the shaman’s,

6 7 8

lo'ndomtebide, ca’rxun-molo'zek mo'ronimele, n:a'ce-n-abu'tek

to separate wishing gloves put on masks

9 IO II ne 13

mo'ronimele lu'dud-i'nik* mi'n-iimele. Tabu'de, Cu'deule

put on iron hooks took, Therewith flesh his

14 15 16 17 18

nelcaxadaidelle, ti'te-lant = act'yimam. Tat Cl’ fiztt

having caught to them drew. Thus having drawn

19 20 21 22 23 24

co'jinunam. Nugo'ne e'le-me'inunt. N-e'lbetiam, tat’ n-um'zit

cut. With hands not took. Tore off thus whole

25 26 27 28 29 30

ke'nbunits londoiam. O'rponpirax a'inimedle, pulde Winam,

entire width separated. Hangers made outside made

31 32 33 34 35 36

té orpu'renam,; pu'de, yelojenin ktie'lecnam. Kte'lectelle

there hanged outside in the sun dried. Having dried

37 38 39 40 41

coro'mon'ulpegt le'iutet, ta'iide Cu'lgele xa'rtenitem.

relatives his if will be _ that flesh will divide.

42 43 44 45 46

O'nmedie-nu'mok @Wiimele. Ti'te pa'ilgele o'nmedie-nu'mo

Of thin larch a house made. ‘Their shares’ of thin larch house

(141 )

JOCHELSON

142

47 48 49 50 51

mo'lzodo'go caxa'leciiam ni' jer. Coro'mon:ulpegt tobo' kolok*

middle put (every one) separately. Relatives his dogs

52 53 54 55 56 57

tobo'kogele e'le-ku'decini, omo'ce tobo'kox'

ku' decinimele, er'ce

killed bad dogs not killed good dogs

58 59 60 61 62

ku! decinimele. Tabu'ngele ta be pa'lge pont’ yitiam.

killed. Those (dogs) to their shares put.

63 64 65 66 67

poniiam. A'mundeule ta'bun-yola'n

Tabu'de ke'nmetelle,

Those having added left. Bones his thereafter

68 69 70 7a!

xa'rta jiam. Tabu'dek amu’ ngt Rie’ lectelle

to divide commenced. Those bones his having dried

13 fe 75 76

Tabu'de yo'd-amu'ngele xo! ident. Tabu'ngele

That his skull worshipped. For that

81 82

tamil enam.

clothed.

78 79 80

ajiam, coromodeule coromo-titelu'o anam.

made ___ trunk his manlike made.

85 86 87

ma’ gsideule

calek‘ coro’ mo-tt te

(of) wood manlike

83 34

Yd'-d-amu' ndeule ta

His skull thence set on.

nuce'lecham. TLabu'ngele

For that jacket his

88 89 go 91 92 93

u'yanam, mo'gopedeule Anam. Taide ne'rgele ceu'renam,

caps his made. That garb his embroidered,

96 97 98

TU tide na’ cedeule me'reR

For this for his face _ clothes

made

94 95

e'le-kie'-cu'on ceu'remam.

all over embroidered.

102 103 104

aihimele, a'nadeule at

made mouth his also

99 100 IOI

u'yanimele, a’ iigeduol‘-pon-xobodek

made for eyes openings

GRAMMAR OF THE YUKAGHIR LANGUAGE 143

105 106 107 108 109

aiam. Ti'ne coril' en-uls ma’ gideule pu dedegen

made. Former embroidered jacket his on it

IIo III 112

. yero' ye-xar-magt le moru' cenam. Ta' bun

of skins of one year old reindeer jacket put on. That

113 114 EES

pu' dedegen no' rn" ere yodu' tainam.

upon (of it) (with) blanket of soft reindeer-skin wrapped.

116 117 11S 119

Ta ile modo’ tonam, o' re modo tonam.

Thereafter set (also placed) in the front corner placed.

120 121 122 123 124

Omo' éebon le'niiide, loci'lee pe'detenam, pu'dedegen

Good something __ if eat in fire burn over it (fire)

125 £26 127 128 129 130

tabu'ngele ta mo'inununam: Tande me'-legitenam, ka'cnet

that there keep : That” s0 ° fed at every

a3 ets 233 134 +20

le'idelge tat = a@ham. Tabu' de x0! tn eit.

meal thus did. That (one) worshipped.

Told by the old Yukaghir Nicholas Samsonoff in the village

on the Korkodon River, October, 1896.

FREE TRANSLATION OF THE TEXT.

Our ancient people, when a shaman died, used to separate

the flesh of the corpse from the bones. For that purpose they

put on gloves and masks. Then they took iron hooks, and,

having caught the flesh of the corpse, drew it to them and cut

it off. It was considered a sin to touch the corpse with bare

hands, or to look at it with uncovered face. Thus they sepa-

rated the flesh from the skeleton on its entire length. Then they

made drying-frames and hung the flesh on them outside, in the

sun to dry. After the flesh was dried, the relatives of the dead

144 JOCHELSON

shaman divided it among themselves. Then they made a tent

of thin larch-trees, and each of them put his share in the middle

of the larch-tent separately. Then the relatives of the shaman

killed dogs as offerings. They did not kill bad dogs; they

killed only good ones. Then they added the killed dogs to

their portions of dried flesh. After that they left the tent with

the shaman’s flesh and the dog-offerings. |

Then they divided the bones of the corpse, and, after having

dried them, they clothed them. They worshipped the skull of

the shaman. They made a trunk of wood, and set on it the

skull. Then they made for it (for the idol) a jacket and caps

(two caps,— a winter and a summer one). They embroidered

the coat all over. For its face they made a mask, with open-

ings for eyes and mouth. Over the embroidered coat they put

a coat of fawn-skins; and over that, a blanket of soft reindeer-

skin.

Then they placed the figure in the front corner of the house.

Whenever they were going to eat something good, they first

threw a piece of it into the fire, and held the figure over the

smoke. This they did at every meal; and thus they fed the

figure, which they worshipped like a god.

GRAMMATICAL ANALYSIS OF THE TEXT.

1. Cu!ole-d-o'mni. Cu'o, adverb of time (long ago); éu’ole

(old times ); 0/sn2, a collective conception (people, men). It

was apparently formed from o7mo (tribe, clan, kin) and the suffix

comitative ‘2 (instead of ze) (with the kin, with the entire

clan). Cz'ole-d-o' mni (people of times ancient). See § 9.

2. Almale. The base is a/ma (shaman); /e is the suffix,

accusative indefinite. See §§ 12, 20.

3. A’mde-gene. Amde, base of intransitive verb (de); gene

is the suffix of the conditional mode. See § 87.

4. Cude is used instead of éugt. The base is ¢cu/ (meat,

flesh) ; gz is the possessive suffix (see §§ 8, 9); / before gz is

usually dropped. The use of de instead of g?z-is apparently an

old form. It occurs in ancient tales and shaman’s songs, but

not in ordinary conversation.

GRAMMAR OF THE YUKAGHIR LANGUAGE 145

5. Lo!ndo-miebi'-de. Lo'ndo, base of transitive verb (sepa-

rate) ; mzebi, optative mode (see § 85); de, suffix of the condi-

tional mode (see § 87). This verb has formally two direct ob-

jects — a/ma-le and ¢u' gi — instead of a//ima-cu' gi (the shaman’s

flesh).

6. Ca'rxun-molo'jek (gloves), from ca’rxun (fingers) and

molo'7e (mittens, mittens with fingers), %, suffix of accusative

definite case. See §§ 12, 20.

7. Mo ronimele. Mo'ro, base of transitive verb (put on);

fimele, suffix of the third person, plural number, present pre-

terite, definite conjugation (see § 82). Ca’rxun-molo'zek is in

the singular number, since in the Yukaghir language it is suffi-

cient if the idea of plurality is expressed in the predicate only.

8. N-a'ée-n-abu' tek‘ (mask), from n-a’ce (face), a’ but (cover) ;

k, suffix of the accusative definite ($ 12); 2 is inserted between

the two vowels. See § 9.

BO Sce 7.

10. Lu! du-d-i'-nik‘ (iron hook). Ludut* (iron), / is dropped ;

and #’nz (hook); &, suffix of the accusative definite ; d, see $9.

11. Mi'n-nimele (took). Muin-, base of transitive verb (take) ;

nimele (see 7).

12. Zabu'de (therewith, with that; that is, with the hooks).

The base is Za/dun (that). Zadbu'de (inst. of tabu'nle), instru-

mental case (see § 60).

7. Cu! deu' le (flesh his ; that is, the shaman’s). The base is

cul‘ (flesh), 7‘ is dropped before ad; deule = degele, accusative

definite with the possessive element (see § 26).

14. WVa'cexadaidelle (having caught). Na'’cexada (catch),

transitive verb; z, the element indicating singleness of action

(see § 101); delle, suffix of the verbal adverb, past tense (see

§ 116).

15. 72’ te-lani, to them, 77’Ze, instead of tel‘ (they), /‘ being

dropped ; and /avz, a post-position indicating direction toward

something.

16. Adi'yinam, from a'é (to draw), base of transitive verb ;

yt durative (see § 105) ; Zam, third person, plural number, pres-

ent preterite, transitive verb, indefinite conjugation (see § 75).

146 JOCHELSON

17. Yaz‘ (thus, after, or thence) is formed from ¢d@ (there),

See, S$ 110:

18. C2’ fnt (having drawn, pulled). Czz (pull, draw), base of

transitive verb, it has apparently the same root as @’¢cz (16); 72,

suffix co-operative (see § 99); 4, suffix of present participle (see

S115). ;

19. Co’anunam = co!ununam, from éo'u, (cut) base of transi-

tive verb ; 7, suffix of the iterative form (see § 103); Zam (see 16).

20. Nugo'ne. Nu'gon (hand), base; ¢, instead of /e, suffix of

the instrumental case. /is dropped after the final z; in some

cases, the final z is changed into d, f. c. nugo'de inst. of nugo' ne.

21. Lle-met'nuni = ele moinuni. Mor (to hold), base of tran-

sitive verb ; ma, suffix of the iterative form (see § 103); ee (or

el)... viz, prefix and suffix of the negative conjugation (see

$§ 75,79).

22. Ne'lbetiam. Ne'lbet (to tear off, to skin, to pull off the

skin), base of transitive verb ; iam (see 16).

23, Jai.) Seemye

24. N-u'mpit(whole, entirely), gerund (see § 115), from xu! mde

or nu'mpe (be whole); mz smpeye n-e'molgil’, a whole year (see

$ 80).

25. Ke'nbunit (entire width), gerund (see § 115), from ke! nbun.

(be wide) ; £e’ xbuneye-d-u' nun, wide river.

26. Lo!ndonam. Lo'ndo (separate, untie), base of transitive

verb ; #am (see 16).

27. Orpo'npirax (hangers). X, suffix of accusative definite

(see §§ 12, 20). This word is formed from the base of the in-

transitive verb, o’po (hang); 2 is inserted 72, suffix cooperative

(see § 99) and ca/ (tree), / having been dropped, and ¢ changed

into 7.

28. Animele. A (do), base of transitive verb; azmele (see 7)

is in agreement with the definite case (see 27). See §§ 82, 83.

29. Pu'de (outside), adverb.

30. A-tam. A, see 28; iam, see 16.

31. 7a@(there); adverb (see\§ 119);

32. Orpu're-tiam. Orpu're (hang), base of transitive verb ;

fiam, see 16.

GRAMMAR OF THE YUKAGHIR LANGUAGE 147

mera de. See 26.

34. Yelo'ze-nin. Yelo'je (sun), base ; fiz (to the sun), suffix

dative (see § 15).

35. Kze'lec-tiam. Kze'le (be dry), base of intransitive verb ;

c, suffix of the causative voice (see § 97), £zelec (make dry, force

to be dry) ; #zam, see 16.

30. Kze'lec-telle. Kie'lec, see 35, telle = delle (d after c

changes into /), see 14.

37. Coro'mon'ul-pe-gi. Coro'mon'ul‘ relative ; fe, element of

plurality (see § 33); g7, possessive suffix (see §§ 7, 12).

38. Le’-niter. Le (be), base of intransitive verb; #z¢ez, suffix

of the third person, plural number, future tense, indefinite con-

jugation of intransitive verbs (see § 75). The future tense is

sometimes used instead of the conditional mode.

39. Lan-de, instead of fav-le. Tar, demonstrative pro-

noun ; de, suffix of accusative indefinite (see § 60).

40. Cu! /-gele. Cul is the base ; ge/e, suffix of the accusative

with the possessive element (see §§ 12, 25).

41. Xa'rte-nitem. Xa'rte (divide), base of transitive verb ;

witem suffix of the third person, plural number, future tense,

indefinite conjugation of transitive verbs (see § 75).

42. O'nmedte-nu'mok (a house made of young larch-trees ;

that is, a conical tent made of larch-tree rods). O/nmedve is

formed from oz, a root expressing the conception of larch.

Larch-tree is called o’xra or onda; that is, ov (larch) and cal

(tree), see 27; de is the suffix of a diminutive noun (see §39) ;

the meaning of the particle me is unknown to me. It is, at

any rate, hardly possible that we should have to do here with the

word o/xme (mind, memory, or opinion). MVz'mo (house); &

suffix of the accusative definite (see § 12).

43. A’-nimele. A (to do); nzmele, see 7.

44. T7i'te, possessive pronoun (see § 55).

45. Pa’il-gele. Pail is from the Russian word paz (share) :

/ has apparently been added either to form a Yukaghir verbal

noun out of the Russian base, or in order to distinguish it from

the Yukaghir word pai (young woman) ; ge/e (see 40).

46. O'nmedie-nu'mo. See 42.

148 JOCHELSON

47. Mo'lgo-dogo (in its middle). Mo’/go, adverb of place,

also used as a post-position ; dogo = dege, suffix of the locative

with the possessive element (see § 12).

48. Caxa'lec-iam. Caxa'lec (assemble, gather, rally, collect),

base of transitive verb; fam. See 16.

49. Niner (every, separately), from z’er (separately) and xe

(together). See §§ 119, 123.

50. Coro! mon 'ulpegi. See 37.

51. Lobo'ko-lok’. Tobo'ko, from the Russian soba'ka (dog).

Since there is no sound of s in the Yukaghir language, s is

changed into Z, and both vowels a changed into 0, according to

the rules of harmony (see Phonology). The ancient word for

dog, pu'del‘ is not used any more. The Tundra dialect still

retains two words for dog, —/amea (this word seems to be bor-

rowed from the Tungus) and szapu-en ; lok‘ = lek‘, suffix of the

accusative definite (see § 12).

52. Ku! de-ct-nimele is formed from the base kude' de (to kill) ;

yt, suffix of the durative form; de + yz = ci (see § 105) ; azmele,

Sec. 7.

53. #’rée (bad, poor), first person, singular number, present-

preterite (base e’vw- be bad), used as an adjective before a noun

(see §§ 37, 80).

54. Jobo’ ko.. See 5) “ecle see Ao:

55. E’le-ku' dect-it. Ku'deci, see 52; ele... #1, form of the

third person, plural number, present preterite, negative conju-

gation of transitive verbs (see § § 75, 79).

56. Omo'ce, from o’mo (be good), the base of the transitive

yetb ; c2, see 53.

57. tobo'ko, see 51; x‘, suffix of the incomplete indefinite

form of the accusative (see § 12).

58. Ku'decimimele. See 52.

59. Labu'ngele. Ta'bun (that), see §§ 56, 60; ge’le, see 40.

GO." 1770 See AA

61. Pail. See 45; ge, suffix of the locative (see §§ 12, 16).

62. FPont'-yi-tiam. Po'nt (put), base of the transitive verb ;

yt, see 16 and 52; sam (see 16).

63. Labu'de, instead of ta’bun (the base of the demonstrative

a -

GRAMMAR OF THE YUKAGHIR LANGUAGE 149

pronoun that), and /e, suffix of the accusative definite (see § 60).

64. Ke'nmete-lle. Ke'nme (friend) changes, by means of the

suffix e, into a transitive verb,— ¢o provide someone with a

friend, a companion, or fellow-traveler (see § 64); fe, suffix of

the verbal adverb, past tense (see § 116, and compare with the

element de in 14).

65. Po'ni-iam. See 62.

66. A’mun (the base, means bone); dewle. See 13.

67. Ta’bun. See 63; yola'n (after, behind), post-position

see § 123).

68. Xa'rtaiam = xa'rte (see 41) + 4, inchoative mood (see

§ 92); fam. See 16.

69. Zabu'dek‘, instead of tabunlek’ (see 63, the accusative

definite (see § 60).

70. A’mun. See 66; gt, possessive suffix of the accusative.

ga. Khve'lectelle. See 36.

72. Tamu'te (to dress, dress up), base of transitive verb ;

mam,» ee: 16,

aa Ja0n' de. See.63.

74. Yo'-d-amu'ngele (the head-bone; that is, skull); yo

(head); d@ is inserted for euphony (see oy a’mun. See 60;

ee. See AO.

75. Xo'ide-iit. Xo'tde or xo'in'e is the base of the intransitive

verb to have a god or to be with a god, from xoil‘ (god) and the

suffix de (see § 64) or ze (see § 110); #2 is the suffix of the in-

transitive verb (see § 75). It should be noted, that with the

intransitive verb vo’zde a direct object in the accusative has been

used. It might have been the instrumentalis, tabu! de yo-d-am-

u'ngele ; that is, with this skull (see § 60) they were as with a

god (see 134, 135).

76. Tabu'ngele. See 59, in the sense of ‘‘for that”’ ; that is,

for the skull. |

77. Ca'l-ek’, Cal (tree); eR‘, instead of Zek‘ (7 naving been run

into one with the / of the base), suffix of the accusative definite

(see § 12).

78. Coro'mo (man); 7’ e, suffix of the comparative II (see § 12).

79. A’-tiam. See 30. It should be pointed out that the

150 JOCHELSON

word @’-zam has two objects in the accusative. One (76) is in

the definite ; the other (77), the indefinite form.

80. Coro'mo (man and trunk, body), in this case it means

trunk ; deule = degele. See 13.

81. Coro'mo-titelu'o. See 78. Coro’ mo-tite-l-uo figures here

as the suffix of the verbal noun, indicating the result of an ac-

tion (see § 113).

82. A’-tam. See 79.

83. Yo'-d-amun-deule. See 66 and 74.

o4: Ya. ESce et.

85. Nuce'lec-iam. Nuce'lec (set on); fam. See 16.

86. Labu'ngele. See 59.

87. Ma’ gi-deule, from ma’ gil‘ (coat, jacket), 7‘ being dropped,

and deule = degele. See 13.

88. Uya'iam=u't (work); 4, inchoative mood (see 68) ;

Naw. See vo:

89. Mo' go (cap); pe, element of plurality. Two caps used to

be made, — one for the summer, made of soft reindeer leather

and embroidered ; the other one, made of fur, was put on top.

Nam: See i6:

90. A’-fiam. See 30.

91. TLa'ni-de = ta'ri-le, the accusative indefinite (see § 60).

92. Wer (garb, things); ele. See 74;

93. Ceu're (to embroider); #am. See 16.

94. E£'le-kie'-Cu'on=e'le . . . éu'on (without), see § 124, and

ki’ cil’ (end). ¢2l* is dropped, and z is lengthened into a diph-

thong. Without end; that is, entirely, all over, nothing was

left unembroidered on the garment.

95. Ceu'reiam. See 93.

96. Tt'n-de = ti’ n-le (this), the accusative indefinite (see § 60).

97. N-a'ée (face), see 8; deule, see 13.

98. Ner-ck. Neer, see 92; ek, suffix of the accusative, in-

stead of &, ¢ being inserted after the final consonant of the base.

It seems to me that the accusative in 97, in its relation to z-er-ek,

is used in the sense of the Saxon form of the genitive case in

the English language.

99. Uya', see 88; nimele, see 7.

GRAMMAR OF THE YUKAGHIR LANGUAGE 151

100. A’size-d-u' ol‘ = a’ fije (eye); ad, the connecting particle ;

uol‘, the suffix of a verbal noun expressing the result or trace

of an action (see § 113). A’ aze-d-w' ol‘ = place for eyes.

101. Po'n:xo-bodek, instead of po'n-xo-bonlek (see § 112),

Po'n:xo (to be bright, transparent), the base of the verb; don.

suffix of the verbal noun (see § 112); dcdek, the accusative

definite (see § 112). o’n-xo-b0n (something bright, transparent),

Afnje-d-uol-pon'xo-bon = eye-place, transparent = opening for

the eyes.

102. A’nimele (see 28).

103. A’#a (mouth); deule (see 13).

104. AZ (also). See § 118.

105. A-tam. See 79.

106. Z2’nxe, adverb of time (see § 118).

(07. Cori'len: (to be embroidered), base of the intransitive

verb ; w/‘, suffix of the verbal noun, used as modifier (see §§

82, 84).

108. Ma'gideule. See 87.

109. Pu' de (in the yard, outside, or above, over, upon); see

29; degen, the vialis with the possessive element (see § 17).

110. Yero'ye (one-year-old reindeer fawn) ; var (skin) ; ma’ git

(jacket) ; e, suffix of the accusative. .

111. Moruc'e (dress, put on); #am (see 16).

112. Za’bun (see 12).

113. Puldedegen. See 109.

114. WVo'ji-n-er-e = no's (soft reindeer leather) ; cv (clothes) ;

é, suffix of the accusative indefinite (see § 12).

115. Yodu' tai (wrap) ; viam (see 16).

116. Za’cile (afterwards), adverb of time (see § 118).

117. Modo'to-riam. Mo'do (to sit), intransitive verb ; to = ¢e,

suffix turning intransitive verbs into transitive ; sodo'-to (to seat,

to place); wam. See 16.

118. O’77e (in the middle), adverb of place (see § 119). They

call thus the place of honor in their house; that is, the side

facing the entrance.

119. Modo'tomam. See 117.

152 JOCHELSON

120. Omo!ée-bon (something good), verbal noun (see § 112,

Omo'ce see 56).

121. Le'nnide, from /e’u (to eat), base of the transitive verb ;

and nzde, conditional mode (see § 87).

122. Loci‘ (fire); ge, the locative (see § 12).

123. Pe'de-te-nam. Pe'de (to burn), base of the intransitive

verb ; ¢e changes the verb into a transitive verb (to singe), see

L173 Ham, -See-v0.

124. Puldedegen. See tog. It is equivalent to “over it”

(the fire).

125. Zabu'ngele (it; that is, the idol). See 59.

1262 Ta.) Sears:

127. Mo't-nunu-riam. Moi(hold, keep), base of the transitive

verb ; zn, suffx of the intensive-iterative (see § 104); tam.

See 16.

128. La’ nde, See 40-

129. Me-legi'te-iam. Me, see § 107 ; legi'te (to feed ), from

the transitive verb /e’x (to eat) ; am, see 16.

130. Ka’cnet (every), from the Russian ka’shd4y. To use

the Yukaghir expression, it should be /e’#de-0'! nmun (see § 57),

instead of ka’ cnet le'fidelge.

131. Le'aidel-ge. Le'iide (to eat, in general), intransitive verb, —

formed from the transitive verb /e’a (eat) by means of the suf-

fix de (see $7); fis the suffix of the verbal noun (see §§ 82,

83); ge, the locative (see § 12).

r32. Jae -see a3

133. A’-nam. See 79.

134. Labulde. See'73-ana 75,

135. 0 wenn. “See 75,

—

0.4 |

PLATE. FV.

Linguistic map of the former and present distribution of both

dialects of the Yukaghir language.

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LINGUISTIC MAP

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[ANNALS N. Y. AcAD, Sci,, VoL. XVI, No. 6, Part II, pp. 155-297. ]

fee RIALS FOR THE PHYSICAL ANTHROPOLOGY

OF THE EASTERN EUROPEAN JEWS.

By Maurice FISHBERG.

CHAPTER’ I?

INTRODUCTION.

The study of the somatic characteristics of the Jews has re-

ceived the attention of many anthropologists in Europe. It was

suggested that because they have kept themselves socially

isolated for nearly two-thousand years, and have refrained from

intermarriage with other races, the Jews offer a promising field

for the solution of many obscure problems in the study of man.

Considering that they have been scattered over almost every

part of the habitable globe ; by involuntary and mostly forced,

migrations from city to city, country to country and from con-

tinent to continent, have been subjected to frequent changes in

their physical environment, it was expected that a thorough study

of their racial characteristics, may contribute to our meager

knowledge of the influence of environment upon race. If the

Jews, have really maintained themselves for the last four thou-

sand years in absolute purity, the effects of climate, altitude,

nourishment, economic and social conditions, should be ascer-

tainable by a study of their physical organization. If on the

other hand, they have intermarried with the races among whom

1 The difficulties encountered while attempting to reach people willing to submit

to anthropometric measurements are well known to every one who studied physical

anthropology on the living. I therefore gratefully acknowledge the valuable assis-

tance rendered me by Lee K. Frankel, Ph.D., Manager of the United Hebrew

Charieties of New York City, by affording me the opportunity to obtain anthropomet-

ric measurements in connection with my work as medical examiner to the Chari-

ties. Without Dr. Frankel’s assistance this work could not have been done. I am

also under obligations to Prof. Franz Boas for his valuable advice and suggestions

during the preparation of the work. To Mr. Joseph Jacobs I am sincerely indebted

for reading and revising the manuscript and proofs,

155

156 FISHBERG

they have dwelt, or if extensive conversions to Judaism have

taken place, and the modern Jews are thus a mixture of various

racial elements, blended together in a more or less homogeneous

group of people, they should offer excellent material for the

study of the effects of racial intermixture on the physical organi-

zation of man.

There are very few anthropological data on the somatology

of pure races. In fact we do not know of any adsolutely pure

races in existence. Migration, war and conquest have always

been at work amalgamating various racial elements. But there

are also very few data upon the effects of racial intermixture.

The present writer is only acquainted with the investigations of

Professor Franz Boas of the American half-breeds ' and Mainoft’s

work on the intermixture of Russians with Yakouts.* Both of

these investigations have conclusively shown that the tape and

calipers may be of great service in the search for the origin of

certain physical traits. If conversions to Judaism, open or

clandestine intermarriage between Jews and non-Jews have

taken place, it is of scientific interest to ascertain if possible, the

effects of such intermarriage on the physical characteristics of

the modern Jews.

THE RacraL Purity or THE Jews.

Up to recent time two diametrically opposed views were held

by anthropologists on the question of the purity of the Jewish

race. Some have maintained that the Jews have preserved

themselves in there original purity for the last four thousand

years,” Richard Andree points out that the racial types repre-

sented on the ancient Assyrian and Egyptian monuments prove

beyond doubt the constancy of the Jewish type. A look at the

Jews painted on these monuments makes one believe that he

sees the typical Jew of to-day. <‘‘ No other race but the Jews,”

says Andree, ‘‘can be traced with such certainty backward for

1<«Zur Anthropologie der nordamerikanischen Indianer,’’ Verhandl. dex Ber-

liner Anthropologischen Geselschaft, 1895, pp. 367-411.

21. I. Mainoff, ‘‘Pomes russkikh s yakutami,’”’ Resstan Anthropol. Journal,

1900, No. 4, pp. 37-57.

3 Milne Edwards, Prichard, Nott and Gliddon and others.

ANTHROPOLOGY OF EASTERN EUROPEAN JEWS 157

thousands of years, and no other race displays such a constancy

of form, none resisted to such an extent the effects of time, as

the Jews. Even when he adapts the language, dress, habits

and customs of the peoples among whom he lives, he still

remains everywhere the same. All he adapts is but a cloak,

under which the eternal Hebrew survives ; he is the same in

his facial features, in the structure of his body, his temperament,

his character.’"" Joseph Jacobs, who studied the question both

from the anthropological and the historical standpoint is “ in-

clined to support the long standing belief in the substantial

purity of the Jewish race, and to hold that the vast majority of

contemporary Jews are the lineal descendants of the diaspora

of the Roman empire.’””

This view was materially changed during the last thirty years

after anthropological investigations of several thousand Jews by

modern methods have been published. It is the prevailing

opinion at the present that the Jews have not maintained their

racial purity to the extent indicated by the authors just quoted.

All, even those who speak of the subject from a sentimental

standpoint, agree that there are two types of Jews, who are said

to present physically distinct characteristics. They are the

Ashkenazim, or German, Russian and Polish Jews, and the

Sephardim, the Spanish and Portuguese Jews.* Vogt, in his

1 Richard Andree, ‘‘ Zur Volkskunde der Juden,’’ Leipsig, 1881, pp. 24-25.

2 Joseph Jacobs, ‘‘On the Racial Characteristics of Modern Jews,’’ /ournal

Anthropol. Iystitute, XV, 1885, p. 53.

83The European Jews are divided into two main groups, 4shkenazim and Se-

phardim. The former constitute about ninety percent of the modern Jews, while

the latter are only about ten percent. Ashkenazim has its origin in Ashkenaz, the

son of Gomer, grandson of Japhet, and great-grandson of Noah (Gen. X, 3; I

Chron. I, 6.). The Talmud and also medizeval rabbinical literature identify Ash-

kenaz with Germany and Teutons, while according to Saadia, the Slavs are meant

(Jewish Encyclopedia, Vol. II, pp. 191-193). At present all the Jews from Ger-

many, Poland, Russia, and Austria are called Ashkenazim partly because of the

*¢ Yiddish ’’? or German jargon which most of them employ. The name Sephard;

has its origin in Sepharad, the Biblical name of an unknown land into which the

Jews exiled from Jerusalem were brought (see Aéadias, 20). The medizval rabbis

believed that Sepharad referred to Spain and Portugal ; hence the name Sephardim

for the Spanish Jews. When banished from Spain in 1492, about 300,000 Jews

were dispersed ; some wandered to northern Africa, others to Italy, England, Hol-

land, Turkey, Asia Minor, etc. The remnants of these Jews living at the present

158 FISHBERG

‘Lectures on Man”’ gave an excellent description of these two

types. ‘The first found mostly in Northern Russia and Poland,

Germany and Bohemia are often characterized by red _ hair,

short beard, short concave nose, small grey lustrous eyes ; their

body is inclined to be stout, the face round with broad cheek-

bones, is similar to some of the northern Slavonians. On the

other hand in the Orient, and around the Mediterranean, and

also in Portugal and Holland are found Jews with long black

hair and beard, large almond shaped black eyes, a melancholy

cast of countenance, with a long face and a prominent nose.

In short the type which we find represented in the paintings of

Rembrandt.’ ' This view was supported by Broca, who stated

that in his opinion the Jews are not a pure race, but a mixture

of various races. The blond Jews in Alsace-Lorraine and Ger-

many have their origin in intermixture with northern races ; in

Russia there are evidences of mixture of Jews with Slavonians,

Finns and Tartars. The view that there are two racial types of

Jews has been shared by many other anthropologists ; Stieda,

who was the first to investigate the problem in Russia by direct-

ing two of his pupils to obtain measurements of Jews in

Russia, arrived at the same conclusion which is shared by Top-

inard, Deniker, and Weisbach.” Maurer describes in detail the

physical traits of two races of Jews living in Bosnia: One, the

Turanian type, with prominent cheek bones, with a broad mouth

time in the Bakan States, as Bosnia, Europeon Turkey, Roumania, etc., are also known

by the name Sfpagzuoli, probably because of the Spanish jargon they still employ.

There were many of them in the United States, but they are rapidly disappearing

by intermarriage wilh Ashkenazim, etc. These two groups of Jews differ in their

traditions, rites, and physical type. The Separdim consider themselves as the

branch of Israel which has maintained itself to the present day in its original Semitic —

purity, and kept itself free from admixture of non-Semitic blood than the Ashkena-

zim, ‘They refuse to intermarry with the German Jews, have their own synagogues,

cemeteries, etc.

1 Karl Vogt, Vorlesungen iiber den Menschen, II, p. 238.

2See L. Stieda, ‘‘ Ein Beitrag zur Anthropologie der Juden,’’ Archiv fiir An.

thropologie, XIV, pp. 61-71, 1883; B. Blechman, ‘‘Ein Beitrag zur Anthropol-

der Juden,’’ Dorpat, 1882, Diss. ; P. Topinard, ‘‘Eléments d’anthropologie gén-

érale,’’ Paris, 1886; J. Deniker, ‘‘The Races of Men,’’ London, 1900; A.

Weisbach, ‘‘ Kérpermessungen verschiedener Menschenrassen,’’ Zedéschrift fiir

Lthnologie, Erganzunsband, 1877.

ANTHROPOLOGY OF EASTERN EUROPEAN JEWS 159

having thin lips; and large jaws. The nose is pear shaped,

narrow and depressed at the root. The head is round, the eyes

blue, and blond or reddish hair are frequently encountered

among them. The other type is said to be possessed of all the

traits which characterize the Semites, such as long head,*dark

hair and eyes, etc.’

Other anthropologists have seen in the Jews more than a

mixture of two races. C. Ikof, basing his opinion on measure-

ments obtained of 120 Jews in Russia, and 55 Jewish and Karaite

skulls derived from Russia, Turkey, Italy, Caucasia, etc., con-

cludes that only the Jews of the Orient and in Southern Europe

(Balkan states, Spain, Italy, Algiers, Morocco, Tunis, etc.), are

of Semitic origin, with only a slight intermixture of other racial

elements. The Jews in western Europe are possessed of all the

morphological evidences of a strong mixture of Semitic blood

with the indigenous populations of these countries. But the

Jews in Russia are not Semites at all, because physically they

have nothing in common with the latter, and actually belong to

an entirely different race.” Many others have spoken of the

Jews in a similar manner. Lagneau, for instance, denies that

there are any Jews of pure race in any part of the world. The

German, Polish and Russian Jews are a mixture of Teutons, Sla-

vonians and Cossacks. The Jews on the north coast of the

Mediterranean are mostly proselytes to Judaism of Hellenic and

Latin origin; and the Jews in North Africa are the result of the

intermixture of the Jews who originally resided here in antiquity

in Egypt and Carthaginia with the local tribes of Berbers, Kopts

and Phcenicians, later also with the Greek and Roman elements,

finally during the middle ages with the Arabians.* Weissen-

berg also, after an investigation of the physical characteristics of

the Jews in South Russia, denies the prevailing idea that there

is a unity of the Jewish type. He distinguishes the “ fine,’ the

1 Franz Maurer, ‘‘ Mittheilungen aus Bosnien, Das Ausland, 1869, p. 1163.

2K. N. Ikof, ‘‘Neue Beitrage zur Anthropologie der Juden,’’ Archiv fiir An-

thropologie, XV, 1884, pp. 369-389.

3G. Lagneau, ‘Sur la race juive et sa pathologie,’ Bul. de la société a’ anthro-

pologie de Paris, 1891.

160 FISHBERG

‘coarse’? Jewish type and also North European, the Caucasian,

Mongolian and other types among them. ’

It is thus seen that most of the modern anthropologists who

have studied the physical characteristics of the Jews have

strongly discredited the theory of the racial purity of the Jews.

Renan aptly said ‘il n’y pas un type juif, il y a des types juifs,”

and ‘“‘judaisme est une religion, mais n’est pas un fait ethnolo-

gique, mais une type accidentel,”~ Professor Ripley, alters

most thorough study of the literature on the subject, arrives at

the same conclusion.”

PHYSICAL ANTHROPOLOGY OF THE JEWS.

At the present there are no scientific writers on the subject

who claim that the Jews are the direct descendants of Shem,

the son of Noah, and that during the last 4,000 years have not

admitted any non-Jewish blood into their veins through inter-

marriage or conversions to Judaism. Even the sanguine de-

fenders of the racial purity of the Jews, as Andree, Jacobs and

Judt, agree that, in their early history, the ancient Hebrews

have intermarried with the various indigenous tribes of Egypt,

Syria and Palestine, and later during the diaspora with the Ro-

mans and Greeks. Biblical tradition and history abounds in

evidence to this effect. But not all agree on the question

whether the Jews have ethnically intermarried with European

races during the last 2,000 years of their dispersion. Some of

the authors cited above bring forth evidence in support of this

theory, while others deny its significance. From the present

state of physical anthropology it is to be expected that if these

intermarriages have really taken place to any extent the modern

Jews should be possessed of many or most of the morphological

traits which characterize their Gentile neighbors. This can be

ascertained by a study of the anthropology of the Jews, in the

same manner as Professor Boas has studied the American Indian

half-breeds, and Mainoff, the Yakout half-breeds in Russia.

1S. Weissenberg, ‘‘ Die siidrussischen Juden,’”? Archiv ftir Anthropol., XXIII,

1895.

2E. Renan, ‘‘ Le Judaisme comme race et comme religion,’’ Paris, 1883.

3Wm. Z. Ripley, The Races of Europe, New York, 1899. Chapter XIV.

ANTHROPOLOGY OF EASTERN EUROPEAN JEWS 161

In. part such work has already been done. Professor Vir-

chow’s investigations of the color of the skin, hair and eyes of

the school children in Germany ; Schimmer’s workin the same

line in Austria, Korési in Hungary, Mayr in Bavaria, and Wat-

eff’s in Bulgaria, have comprised nearly 150,000 Jewish chil-

dren, compared with non-Jewish children in the various prov-

inces in the named countries. Here we find that the percentage

of blondes among the Jews is quite large, 32 percent in Ger-

many, 27 in Austria, 23 in Hungary, 22 in Bulgaria, etc. The

percentage of light eyes is also large as can be seen from the

appended table (Table I). The type of pigmentation of the

Jews being dark, one is at once struck with the large percen-

tage of Jews having light hair and fair eyes combined, and the

origin of of these ‘“‘ Indogermanic”’ Jews (as Virchow speaks of

them) is at once questioned.

Tanne, J."

CoLor OF HAIR AND EYES IN 148,208 JEWISH CHILDREN.

: No. of Hair (Percent). Eyes (Percent).

Country. Chilo j= ae :

: E Authority.

dren. Blond. Brown. Black. | Red. | Blue. | Brown. | Gray.

Germany (75,377) 32-03 | 54.39 | 11.46; 0.4 | 19.30 | 51.99 | 27.00 | Virchow.

Austria (59,808| 27.0 | 55.40/ 16.90} 0.6 | 23.50 | 45.90 | 30.60 |Schimmer.

Bavaria 7,054| 30.0 | 50.00 20.00; — _ | 20.00 | 49.00 | 31.00 | Mayr.

Hungary | 3,141| 23.7. | 57.00 | 19.30| — _ | 18.30 | 57.50 | 24.20 |KGrési.

Bulgaria | 2,828| 22.35 | 59.59 | 18.06 | 2.58 | 19.38 | 61.34 | 22.13 | Wateff.

It is a striking fact, however, that a study of the distribution

of the blond Jews according to the provinces of these countries

1 The figures in this table are taken from: R. Virchow, ‘‘ Gesamtbericht iiber die

Farbe der Haut, der Haare, und der Augen der Schulkinder in Deutschland,’’

Archiv fiir Anthropologie, XVI, 1886; G. A. Schimmer, ‘‘ Erhebungen iiber die

Farbe der Augen, der Haare und der Haut, bei den Schulkindern Oéestreichs ”’

Mitt. der Anthropol. Gesel. Wien, Suppl. I, 1884; G. Mayr, ‘‘ Die Bayerische

Jugend nach der Farbe der Augen, der Haare und der Haut,’ Zeztschrift des

Konigl. bayerischen statistisch. Bureau, VII, 1875, pp. 273-311; J. K6érési, Cou-

leur de la peau, des cheveux et des yeus 4 Budapest,’’ Ann. de Demographie, 1878,

pp. 136-137; S. Wateff, ‘‘ Anthropologische Beobachtungen der Farbe, der Au-

gen, der Haare und der Haut bei den Schulkindern von den Tiirken, Pomaken

Tataren, Armenier, Griechen und Juden in Bulgarien,’’ Correspondenz Blatt der

deutschen Ges. fiir Anthropol., Ethnol. und Urgeschichte, XX X1V, 1903.

162 FISHBERG

does not indicate the origin of the fair Jews, and does not con-

firm the opinion that their blondness has been acquired in the

countries where we find them at the present day. For it is not

found that the percentage of blond Jews is larger in the northern

provinces of Germany, where the indigenous population shows

the highest proportion of blonds; on the contrary, here they

are in the least, but further east and south, in Galicia, Buko-

wina, etc., where the indigenous population is darker, the Jews

show the highest percentage of blonds. This fact brought out

in Virchow’s work has given rise to considerable discussion.

Many (Luschan, Andree, Judt, Elkind) are inclined to believe

that these blond Jews are the descendants of the fair-haired in-

dividuals among the ancient Hebrews. Andree and Prunner

Bey point to the modern non-Jewish Syrians, among whom fair

hair and eyes are not infrequent. Luschan says that many

blonds inhabited Syria and Palestine in antiquity; they were

known in the Bible as the Amorites, ‘‘ the sons of Anak,’’ who

were ‘“‘men of great stature,’ and are considered to have been

“ Aryans.” The modern blond Jews are said to be the de-

scendants of the Amorites, with whom the ancient Hebrews in-

termarried quite freely.’

In Galicia, Majer and Kopernicki have studied the compara-

tive anthropology of the races in that country, including the

Poles, the Ruthenians and the Jews. The results they have

obtained show great similarities in the somatic characteristics

of these three races. Their stature is about the’ same, Jews,

162.3 cm., Poles; 162.2, and Ruthenians, 164, The, cepitane

index: is: Jews, 83.5, Poles, “S4:4, and Ruthenians, ¢9s21o

the same manner, while the Jews are much darker than the

other still 13.7 percent have fair hair and 29 percent fair eyes.’

In Russia Talko-Hryncewicz has compared the Jews with the

Little Russia Leto-Lithuanians, and White Russians. ~ He found

that in Little Russia where the population is characterized by

1F, v. Luschan, ‘‘ Die anthropologische Stellung der Juden,’’ Correspondenz

Blatt der Deutsch. Gesel. fiir Anthropol., XXIII, 1892, pp., 92-102.

2J. Majer and J. Kopernicki, ‘‘Chrakterystyka fiziczna ludnosci galicijskiej,’’

Lhior viadom. do anthropologti krajovej, Krakow, 1, 1877, IX, 1885.

ANTHROPOLOGY OF EASTERN EUROPEAN JEWS 163

tall stature, the Jews are also taller than in Lithuania. That

the stature of the Jews depends on the stature of the Gentiles

of the country they inhabit has also been shown by Snigirew,

who compiled the recruiting statistics of Russia for 1875. In

Poland where the Poles are short of stature (162.7 cm.) the

Jews measure only 161.3 cm. (4,470 observations); in Lithu-

ania the general population averages 163.9 cm. and the Jews

161.2 (2,122 observations). In the Baltic provinces where the

Gentiles are much taller the Jews are also taller, measuring

163.1 cm. on the average, and in Little Russia where the

natives are about 167 cm. in height the Jews are 164.2 cm.’

And in Odessa they are even taller, 166.5 cm. In Western

Europe the same has been observed. In Bavaria the aver-

age stature of the Jews is 162.0 cm.’ while in Baden, where

the general population is taller, the Jews measure 164.3 cm.* and

in Turin, Italy, the Jews also measure 163.3 cm. on the average.”

The head-form of the Jews has confirmed this fact in a more

striking manner. It is observed that the cephalic index cor-

responds to that of the races among which they live. In Cau-

casia, where many of the natives are hyperbrachycephalic, the

Jews are also extremely round-headed, and in Eastern Europe

where most of the native races are mesocephalic, the Jews are

the same, and in north Africa, where dolichocephaly is prevalent

we find the Jews with the same head-form. This is best shown

in the accompanying table (II) from which the following striking

fact is to be noted: The Poles in Galicia are brachycephalic,

cephalic index 84.4, and the Jews here have an average index

of 83.6; in Poland the Poles have an average index of only

80.85, and the Jews also only 81.809.

1Snigirew, ‘‘ Materiali dlia medizinskoi statistiki i geografii Rossii,’’? Voenzo-

medizinski zhurnal, 1878, 1879.

27. I. Pantukhof, ‘‘O virozhdayushchikhsia tipakh semitow,’’ Proc. Ressian

Anthropol. Soc. at St. Petersburg, 1889.

3J. Ranke, ‘‘Zur Statistik und Physiologie der Kérpergrésse der bayerischen

Militarpflichtigen, etc.,’’ Bettrdge zur Anthropologie und urgeschichte Bayerns,

IV, 1881, pp. 8-35.

Otto Ammon, ‘‘ Zur Anthropologie der Badener,’’ Jena, 1899, p. 646.

5C, Lombroso, ‘‘ L’antisemitismo e le scienze moderne,’’ Torino, 1894, ap-

pendix.

164 FISHBERG

Tanne If,

CEPHALIC INDEX OF JEWS AND NON-JEWS IN VARIOUS COUNTRIES.

Jews.

Country. Cephalic Index. | Observer.

(SAGEASUS ice nen as teases woe 87.5 Pantukhof.

(Salieta ..$. Sone ou esc aera 83.6 Majer and Kopernicki.

BAGeD. 2. caps de'aee see 3-5 Ammon.

Ditrle Russia’. 14.5 Bee = 82.9 Talko-Hryncewicz.

Wurtin, Ttalg ck eees one 82.4 Lombroso.

Lithuania "202... 25s ccer seen 81.7 Talko-Hryncewicz.

Ieusstan Polands ov. ceisi ete 81.89 Elkind.

White" Ratssia. os c.cac coments 80.9 Yakowenko.

Non-Jews.

Race. Cephalic Index. Observer.

Aissors im /Cautasia..02 55.2252 87.89 Arutinoff, Pantukhof.

Armenians in Caucasia....... 87.0 Ivanowski.

Poles in. Galicia. 2-cnsee 84.4 Majer and Kopernicki.

Ruthenians in Galicia......... 84.3 Majer and Kopernicki.

Germans in Baden<. 4..2.20.; 84.14 Ammon.

Russians, Little: 5. ee 83.2 Talko-Hryncewicz.

Ttalians in Durum. 2s 84.9 Lombroso.

Letto-Lithuanians,............. 80.60 Talko-Hryncewicz.

White Russians ::222523-0 $3.2 Talko-Hryncewicz.

Poles. in, Roussia.of sper 80.85 Elkind.

Wribite: Rarssians, 4. scoentetes 81.87 Ivanowski.

In Baden the cephalic index of the Germans is 84.14 and of

the Jews 83.5, and it is remarkable, says Ammon, that in the

parts of the country where the heads of the indigenous popula-

tion are broader, those of the Jews are about the same, and the

reverse. There are very scanty data about the cranial form of

the Jews living among extremely dolichocephalic races, particu-

larly Semites, as the Arabians, Syrians, Berbers, etc., but all

the evidence available goes to prove that here they are also

dolichocephalic. Thus, Pruner Bey brings measurements of

three Jewish skulls from north Africa, with a cranial index of

75, and two Jewesses with an index of 77.’ Quatrefages and

Hamy have measurements of a Jew from Algiers with a cephalic

index of 74.44, and five from Holland, 72.2,? and Dessau five

1 Memoirs de la société d’anthropologie, de Paris, Tome II, fasc. 4, 1864, p.

417)

2 << Crania Ethnica,’’ Paris, 1882, p. 513.

ANTHROPOLOGY OF EASTERN EUROPEAN JEWS 165

other skulls from Holland (in Musee Vrolic) with an average

index of 77.48. Davis described the skulls of three Italian and

two Dutch Jews with an index of 76.33.’ All these skulls,

confirm that the Jews who live among dolichocephalic races are

also dolichocephalic. The crania from Italian and Dutch Jews

mentioned by Dessau, Davis and Quatrefages are of Spanish

Jewish origin, and their dolichocephaly corresponds to the type

of head of the indigenous population of Spain.

It is a fact worthy of mention that the Jews expelled from

Spain in 1492, known as “ Sephardim,” or Spagnuoli have not

everywhere preserved their type as is generally supposed. Thus

measurements taken by Jacobs on 50 Sephardim in London

show that the proportion of dolichocephalic heads (cephalic

index less than 78) among them was 17 percent, as against 28.3

percent among the Ashkenazim.” In Turin also the cephalic

index of the Jews is 82.14 and only 22.32 percent had indices less

than 80.° This is confirmed by Livi who found the average in-

dex in Italian Jews to be 81.6.* In Bosnia Gluck obtained meas-

urements of 55 Spangnuoli, whose cephalic index was 80.1, and

only 7.3 percent were dolichocephalic.? From all these meas-

urements it is evident that the modern Sephardim are not long

headed as was supposed. It is doubtful whether this is due to

intermarriage with Ashkenazim, because the former have kept

themselves separated from the latter. The frequency of blond

and red hair among these Jews is also almost as large as among

the German Jews. Beddoe found three percent of blonds

among the Sephardim in Constantinople and Bruza, and six per-

cent in London.® In Turin Lombroso found 5.8 percent, and

Livi even 14.7 percent as against only 9.3 percent among the

general population of Italy, and in Bosnia even 18.2 percent

1J. B. Davis, ‘‘ Thesaurus craniorum,’’ London, 1867.

2 Joseph Jacobs, ‘‘On the comparative anthropometry of English Jews,’’ /ourz.

Anthropol. Institute, XV, pp. 76-88.

3 Lombroso, doc. cit.

#R. Livi, ‘‘ Antropometria militare,’”? Roma, 1896, pp. 188-190.

5L. Gliick, ‘‘ Beitrage zur physischen Anthropologie der Spaniolen,’’? W7ssen-

schaftliche Mitteilungen aus Bosnien und der Hercegovina, IV, 1896, pp. 587-592.

5]. Beddoe, ‘On the physical characters of the Jews,’’ Z7vansactions of the

LEthnol. Soc. London, I, 1861, pp. 222-237.

166 FISHBERG

of fair hairand 30.9 percent of fair eyes,’ while Jacobs found 21.3

percent of the Sephardim in London had blue eyes, which is

more than among the Ashkenazim in that city who had only

[i 1, percent of fair eyed:

All these data tend to show that there is a great diversity of

types of Jews when their stature and craniology is considered ;

but when looked at from the standpoint of pigmentation, they

present a more or less uniform type — wherever data are obtain-

able it is found that about ten to fifteen percent have fair hair,

and over thirty percent fair eyes. In other words, morpholog-

ical characters which are obtained by the use of the tape and

calipers, and which are not influenced to an appreciable extent

by the personal equation of the observer depend in the Jews on

the same characters peculiar to their non-Jewish neighbors,

among whom they have lived for centuries. On the other

hand pigmentation, a trait the study of which is subject to the

personal equation of the observer (what one living among bru-

nettes will call blond, may be called by another observer, living

among blonds, a brunette) is found uniformly frequent among

the Jews in various countries, independent of the frequency in

which it is found among the Gentiles among whom they have

lived.

It appeared to the present writer that an anthropological study

of the Jews in various countries by one observer, thus greatly

eliminating the effects of the personal equation, may contribute

to the solution of some of the obscure problems of the origin of

certain physical traits of the Jews. It would be quite difficult for

one individual to make such an investigationin Europe. Besides

the extensive traveling it would entail, it would also be a difficult

task to meet with Jews willing to submit to anthropometrical

measurements. One has to read Dybowsky’s experiences in

Minsk, Russia, to be convinced that in eastern Europe the task

would prove quite difficult. After paying an agent for procur-

ing individuals willing to submit to measurements for a consid-

eration, it so happened that one of the Jews measured died sud-

denly. This caused an alarm all over the city, the local police

1 Gliick, Joc. cit.

ANTHROPOLOGY OF EASTERN EUROPEAN JEWS 167

interfered, and the measurements had to be discontinued. Most

of the other anthropological researches of Jews in eastern Europe

were obtained by physicians, in the regular course of their prac-

tice among these people, or in hospitals. Very little success

can be expected from trying to induce these people to submit

to measurements for scientific purposes.

New York City is the best place in the world to obtain an-

thropometrical measurements of Jews. Of the 600,000 Jews

‘or more living here, more than three quarters have arrived to

the United States within the last thirty years from the various

European countries, also from Asia and even Africa. The vast

majority are natives, or the descendants of Jews from Russia,

Poland, Austria, Hungary, Roumania and other parts of eastern

Europe; some have come from Syria, Palestine, and even from

Algiers, Tunis and Morocco. The material for investigation is

consequently the most heterogeneous, and can not be found to

such an extent in any other city or even country. By using

ordinary tact I succeeded to obtain measurements of over 2,000

individuals of both sexes, and all over twenty years of age.

Over one half of these were applicants for relief in the United

Hebrew Charities in this city. They offered no serious objec-

tions to the procedure, believing that the measurements are a

means of discovering the nature of their ailment, or their physical

ability to work. Only the native Jews objected seriously, sus-

pecting that these measurements are the “‘ Bertillon system,” and

denying guilt of any crime, they usually refused to submit. It is

to be regretted that mainly for this reason I succeeded to obtain

‘measurements of only 124 Jews natives of the United States.

The following data were obtained for each individual: (1)

Age; (2) sex; (3) nativity, country and province; (4) how

long in the United States, if foreign born; (5) occupation; (6)

color of —(qa) the hair, (0) the eyes, (c) beard, (@) variety of

the hair; (7) stature; (8) girth of the chest, during quiet

respiration ; (9g) longest diameter of the head; (g) width of the

head ; (10) cephalic index; (11) circumference of the head ;

(12) height of the nose; (13) width of the nose; (14) nasal

index; (15) height of the face; (16) width of the face; (17)

facial index.

168 FISHBERG

Each of these data was recorded on a specially prepared

card for each individual, which made it afterwards easy to classify,

and compute the figures in various groups.

METHOD OF INVESTIGATION OF THE AMERICAN JEWS.

The main aim of this investigation has been to gather mate-

rials for a comparison of the somatic characters of the Jews

within the races and peoples among which they have lived before

they have emigrated to the United States. ~ “The marivity ap

the Jews under consideration has therefore been considered not

by geographical or political boundaries, but as far as was possi-

ble to ascertain, by ethnic conditions of their native countries.

When one stated that his nativity was Russia, he was also asked

in which province (government) of the empire he was born.

As is well known, 93.9 percent of the 5,189,400' Jews in Russia,

live in what is known as the “ Pale of Settlement.”” This com-

prises 25 provinces in western and southern Russia, and Poland.

The indigenous population of this region consists mainly as fol-

lows: In Poland the Poles; in western Russia we have’ the

White-Russians in the provinces of Minsk, Mohileff and

Witebsk ; and the Letts and Lithuanians in the provinces of

Wilna, Kovno and Grodno; the Little-Russians in Vohlin,

Kieff, Podolia, Poltava, Tchernigoff, Bessarabia, Cherson, etc.

It must however be remembered that while the predominating

ethnic elements in these provinces are as indicated, still in many

parts ethnic conditions are not so simple. Some parts of Rus-

sian Poland have a large population of White-Russians and

Lithuanians and the reverse ; In south and southwest the major-

ity of the natives are Little-Russians, but in Bessarabia, parts

of Podolia, etc., a fair number of Wallachians, Roumanians, etc.

are encountered and further south, many Tartars. To obviate

as far as possible all these disturbing factors, and to make the

best of the situation, it was considered best to divide the Russian

Jews into three groups: (1) Polish Jews, from the ten Polish

provinces ; (2) Lithuanian and White-Russian Jews, from Kovno,

1 Census of Russia, 1897.

ANTHROPOLOGY OF EASTERN EUROPEAN JEWS 169

Vilna, Grodno, Mohileff, Minsk, Witebsk, etc.; (3) Lzttle-Russian

Jews, from Vohlin, Kief, Podolia, Poltava, Tchernigoff, Bessa-

rabia, Cherson, etc.

These were compared with the races among which they have

lived in all cases where material for comparison was available in

anthropological literature. The immigrant Jews from Galicia were

compared with the Poles and Ruthenians in that country, and

the Roumanian and Hungarian Jews, with the native Rouma-

nians and Magyars in these countries. By dividing the material

into groups according to nativity, it was found that the number

of observations: in each group is rather small, to give reliable

results. The figures obtained by measurement of the immigrant

Jews in New York, were then combined with figures obtained

by measurement of Jews in eastern Europe. In this manner it

was possible to present a larger number of observations, making

the results and conclusions more reliable. Thus our own

observations of Galician Jews include 305 men, but combined

with 836 men reported by Majer and Kopernicki, we have

1,141 observations ; the measurements on Polish Jews, of which

315 were measured in New York, were combined with 200

cases measured by Elkind in Warsaw, giving a total of 515

observations, etc. These combined figures were considered in

connection with figures obtained by measurement of non-Jews

in eastern Europe taken from the anthropological literature on

these races. It was often deemed advisable to bring detailed

statistics, because most of the literature referred to, is published

in the Russian or Polish languages, which makes it inaccessible

to the average American reader. For Galicia, Majer and

Kopernicki’s and Weisbach’s works on the Poles and Ruthenians

were used ; for the Russian Poles Elkind’s work was taken as

standard, besides this, Olechnovicz, Talko-Hryncewicz, and

Zakrzewski were often consulted. For the Little-Russians,

Talko-Hryncewicz’s work was principally used, and also Die-

bold, and Belodied. For the Lithuanians and White-Rus-

sians, Talko-Hryncewicz, and Eichholtz’s researches, and the

Roumanians, Pittard’s, and the Hungarians, Weisbach’s, and

Janko’s works. Besides these, Ivanowski’s recent compilation

170 FISHBERG

on the anthropology of the races in Russia, was freely drawn

upon.

It was considered of importance to discuss some special prob-

lems in connection with the study of the physical anthropology.

of the immigrant Jews in the United States. First the question

of selection by immigration was investigated. This was done

by comparing the results obtained by the study of the immigrant

Jews with those who were measured in their native land. Liter-

ature on the Jews in eastern Europe was available only for Poland,

Galicia, Little-Russia; Lithuania, and White-Russia. It could

not be obtained for the Hungarian and Roumanian Jews, the

measurements here reported, as far as our knowledge goes, are

the first published. In this connection particular attention was

paid to the differences in respect to stature, head-form, pigmenta-

tion, between the immigrants and the stay-at-homes. Next to

this, the effects of occupation and social conditions on stature

was considered, for reasons which are fully set forth in the text.

The author is under the impression that he presents here,

besides his own investigations on the anthropology of the Jews,

also most of the available data on the subject published’in

European literature on the anthropology of the Jews and the

races and peoples among whom they have lived for centuries.

Analyzing the similarities and differences of the physical type of

the Jews as compared with the Gentiles in the same country,

it is to be expected that many points may be brought out which

may contribute to the solution of some of the more important

problems presented by this most peculiar of races.

CHAP ITI. tt.

STATURE.

The average stature of the 1,528 Jews examined by the

present writer in New York City is 164.5 cm. (5 feet 434 inches).

The maximum height is 187.5 and the minimum 135 cm. The

tallest individual was thus 23 cm., or 13.97 percent, larger than

the average ; while the shortest individual was 29 cm., or 17.97

percent of the average stature. The variation is thus seen to

be more active in the production of shortness of stature. Asa

whole, the range of extreme individual variation extended over

52 cm., or 31.61 percent of the average height, which is not

large when compared with that observed in other European

races, but quite large when considered in connection with obser-

vations on Jews in various European countries. Thus, from

Blechman’s work on the anthropology of the Jews in Russia,

we find that the range of individual variation was only 17.4

percent of the average stature; Yakowenko found it to be,

among the White-Russian Jews, 18.7 percent; Weissenberg in

South Russia, 21.5 percent ; Talko-Hryncewicz in Little-Russia,

23.4 percent. The only group of Jews in whom the extreme

individual variation of stature exceeds that observed among the

Jews in New Yorkare the Galicians, reported by Majer and Koper-

nicki ; they show a range of 34.5 percent of the average stature.

Among other peoples the range of variation has been much

larger ; in Gould’s extensive American statistics we find it to

extend over 108 cm. But we deal here with a conglomeration

of races. Pagliani, in Italy, has found a difference of 74 cm.

between the maximum and minimum stature, and the same

value has been found among conscripts in Baden, observed by

Ammon, while the Jews in the same locality have shown a range

of variation of stature of only 30 cm.—less than one half.

Another fact worthy of note is that not one individual of 190

cm. in height or over was encountered among these 1,528 Jews

171

172 FISH BERG

in New York, and a survey of the literature of the anthropology

of the Jews does not reveal one recorded. According to

Gould’s statistics, nearly 5 individuals in 1,000 are taller than

190 cm., and in England, according to the report of the Anthro-

pometric Committee, 3 in 1,000. This again accentuates the

shortness of stature of the Jews when compared with a tall

people like the Americans or the English. The Italians, who

are of about the same stature, or even lower than the Jews, show

the same characteristic. Pagliani found only one individual in

7,000 examined to be 190 cm. or over in height.” Thatithe

shortest individual among the Jews observed in New York was

135 cm. is also peculiar —it is best explained by recalling that

dwarfed persons are less likely to emigrate to a distand land, and

perhaps also that the immigration authorities may not permit

their landing.

Biologists have recently been making use of another method

of estimating the variability of physical characteristics which

gives better results than the mere average, with the calculation

of the extreme variation of the maximum and minimum. It is

known as the “error of mean square”’ or the “index of vari-

ability.”’ This is determined as follows: At first the deviations

[x] from the average, both positive and negative, are determined.

Each of these is then squared [1*] and then added, and the

sum is divided by the number of observations [7], and finally

the square root of the quotient is extracted, thus:

C= Aes :

The resulting ‘‘o”’ is termed by Pearson the ‘‘ standard devi-

ation.” It is a concrete number, being expressed in the same

units of measurement as the measurement of the individuals

measured. In the case of human stature it is expressed in cen-

timeters.

To make use of this method of estimating the variability of

stature of the Jews, the magnitudes obtained by measurement

were arranged in a series of classes, each class representing the

number of persons who have attained a certain height, at inter-

ANTHROPOLOGY OF EASTERN EUROPEAN JEWS 173

vals of one centimeter. Thus twelve persons were observed in

the class between 152 and 152.9 cm. in height; 62 in the class

between 169 and 169.9 cm., etc. The average stature being

foes cm., it is seen that in the first casé “ 7”? = — 12.5 cm: ;

pee = 156.25 and “x?-/” = 1875. - In the second class “2”

=—=—+ 4.5, “47” = 20.25, and “ 247-f” =1,255.5. This was done

for each deviation (grouped by centimeters), beginning with the

smallest and ending with the largest value. The products of

““4*.f”’ were then added together and the sum of these divided

by “‘z”’ =the number of individuals measured = 1,528, and the

square root extracted from the quotient. By this process it was

found that the standard deviation of 1,528 Jews was for their

stature + 6.58. Within the limits of + 6.58 it is theoretically

expected that about 68 percent of the number of variates should

lie. Empirically this was confirmed. We found that within

the limits of the standard deviation, z ¢., 164.5 + 6.58

(=171.08), and 164.5 — 6.58 (=157.92) were 1027 individuals

== 67.21 percent. .

As is well known, the determination of the mean or average

is never perfect, it is always only an approximation to the true

average. This is due to inevitable errors of observation and

calculation. These errors may be diminished by careful atten-

tion to details while taking measurements, and calculating the

results, or by taking measurements on a very large number of

people, but they can never be entirely eliminated. The finding

of the “ probable error’’ is a good method of determination of

the accuracy of the average value. This is determined by

multiplying the standard deviation by the constant 0.6745 and

dividing the product by the square root of the number of in-

dividuals measured thus :

Standard Deviation oO

The probable error gives the closeness of the approximation

to truth. In the case of the Jews under consideration we have

calculated that the probable error is 0.1133 cm. With the aid

of this figure we can say that there is an even chance that the

+ 0.6745 X == 'O.0745

“number of observations

174 FISHBERG

true average lies within the limits of + 0.1133; that the chances

are four to one that the true average lies within twice these

limits, and nineteen to one that it lies within thrice these limits,

From the nature of the method used in obtaining the probable

error, it will be observed that the probable error is less, z. ¢.,

the average is more accurate, the greater the number of observa-

STATURE

14 lee 1528 JEWS

435 JEWESSES

PERCENT

[e.0)

JE Ws

| ES

JEWESS

JEWESSEs

2 ee ae =

1384 188 142 146 150 154 158 162 166 170 774 178 182 186

STATURE

iGaake

tions. This accuracy does not increase, however, in the same

proportion as the number of persons measured, but as the square

root of this number. As the standard deviation decreases, the

probable error of the mean decreases.

As our study of the Jews is mainly concerned with their racial

characteristics, if any such can be discerned, we can not rely on

the average alone to determine the type. This is only a con-

venient, but very vague, means to express a complex group of

ANTHROPOLOGY OF EASTERN EUROPEAN JEWS 175

figures by a single or a few numbers. In order to appreciate,

and bring out prominently, the various elements which compose

a population we use other methods, besides the average. The

best and the most widely adapted by anthropologists of the

present day is that of coordination and seriation, by arranging

the figures obtained from measurement of the individuals in an as-

cending or descending order of figures, each expressing a certain

stature. Thus we may elicit one or more figures around which

most of the individuals are grouped; various racial elements

may in this manner be discerned in a group of people who ap-

parently are of a single more or less pure race.

Taner (11,

STATURE OF 1,528 JEWS.

Stature (in cm.). Number. Percent. | Stature(incm.).| Number. Percent.

135-136 I 0.07 163-164 189 12.37

137-138 I 0.07 || 165-166 189 12.37

139-140 I 0.07 167-168 169 11.06

141-142 2 ©; 13 169-170 107 7.00

143-144 4 0.26 171-172 96 6.28

145-146 3 0.20 173-174 67 4.38

147-148 4 0.26 || 175-176 28 1.83

149-150 15 0.98 || 177-178 23 ¥.50

I51-152 20 Re ‘| 179-180 16 1.05

153-154 37 2 AB | 181-182 9 | 0.60

155-156 82 5.36 183-184 6 0.40

157-158 IIo 7.29 185-186 I 0.07

159-160 ‘ESO 9.82 187-188 I 0.07

161-162 197 12.89 a

| Total. 15528... | ‘¥00.02

In Table III this has been done with the figures obtained by

measuring the Jews in New York. It will be seen from the

figures in this table that up to the height of 148 cm. are very

few individuals ; only one percent were observed to be of such

low stature. The number of persons at a given height now

begins to increase slowly until the height of 162-163 is reached.

In this group we find the largest number of people — 197 or

12.89 percent. The proportion of observations now remains

about stationary, till 166 cm. is reached when the percentage

begins to decrease steadily until the height of 180 cm., where

the number of persons is again becoming insignificant. The

176 FISHBERG

arrangement of the various heights attained by the Jews will

best be appreciated by observing the curve plotted from these

figures. It will be observed on figure 1 the curve on the

left side rises steadily until it reaches the point of 162 cm. in

height ; it does not descend in the same manner, but remains

stationary up to 166 cm. It rises again at 171-172, and 174—

180, which indicates that there is an excess of tall men among

the Jews in New York, and which is best explained by the fact

that they are an immigrant population, and emigrants are always

Pisce

STATURE

JEWS IN NEW YORK|_

_____ JEWS iN EUROPE

Eis

6 Se)

ob ES [ee es |

5 = =e

ff He

COPE Eee In nineteen is

132 136 140 i44 148 152 156 160 164 168 172 176 180 184 1&8

STATURE

Ries 72:

taller on the average than the people in their native home.

This has been already shown to be a fact with other immigrants

from Gould’s statistics. The reason assigned is that most of

the dwarfed, sickly and infirm remain at home and do not ven-

ture on so long a journey. It is mostly the strong, the healthy

and the well developed who emigrate. That this is also the

ANTHROPOLOGY OF EASTERN EUROPEAN JEWS 177

case with the Jews in the United States, is seen from the fact

that the average stature in New York City is 164.5 cm., which

is much above that observed in eastern Europe. There, Snigirew

and Elkind have found that the average height of the Jews in

Poland is 161 cm.; in Galicia it has been observed to be 162.3

(Majer and Kopernicki) ; in Hungary 163.3% (Scheiber), etc.

Only in south Russia it has been observed that the Jews are as

tall as we find them in New York City — 164.5 cm. according

to Snigirew and Weissenberg. And the Jews coming here from

these regions were found to be much taller than those from other

countries, as will be seen later.

To test this point more definitely, we have collected from the

literature on the anthropology of the Jews measurements of

1681 Jews in Eastern Europe for comparison with those in New

York. These were taken from Majer and Kopernicki, 836 Gali-

cian Jews; Talko-Hryncewicz, 506 Russian Jews; Elkind, 200

Polish Jews ; and Yakowenko, 139 Russian Jews. It will be

seen that this represents nearly all the countries from which the

Jews come to the United States, excepting Roumania and Hun-

gary. For the former there is no literature available, and

Scheiber’s statistics for the latter are not reported in a manner

suitable for comparison. Grouping the figures into four divisions,

as proposed by Topinard, and considering those who attain

less than 160 cm. in height as of ‘“short’’ stature; 160 to

164.9 cm. as “ stature below the average,’ 165 to 169.9 cm. as

“stature above the average,’’ and 170 cm. and over as “ tall

stature,’’ we find the following proportions :

TABLE IV.

STATURE OF JEWS IN THE UNITED STATES AND IN EASTERN EuROPE.

; Yako- _Talko- Majer& Jews, Europe. Jews, New York.

Elkind Era Hrynce- Koper- = eae

wicz. nicki. No. |Percent. No. Percent.

eee gI 53 152 300 596 | 35-46) 356 | 23.30

Below the average... 57 46 152 291 546 | 32.48 460 30.10

Above the average... 40 7 | 128 165 360 | 21.41) 420 | 27.49

| ae. I2 13 74 80 179 | 10.65| 292 | 19.11

oe 200 139 506 836 1,681 100.00 1,528 100.00

(ee)

PERCENT

116 120 124 128 132 136 140

178 FISHBERG

From this table (IV) it is seen that individuals of short stature

were found in Europe to reach 35.46 percent, while among the

immigrant Jewish population in New York City it was only 23.3

percent. Large stature, on the other hand, is among the Jews

in Eastern Europe 10.65 percent, and in New York the propor-

tion is nearly double, 19.11 percent. Median height, 160 to 170

cm. in height, is about equally distributed in both groups. The

superiority for the stature of the immigrant Jews in the United

States as compared with those in Eastern Europe, is depicted to

a yet better advantage in the accompanying diagram (Fig. 2),

STATURE

NO NSJEWS

—t ——

Eee aes B=

STATURE

Fic, 3.

constructed from the tables given in the works of the above

mentioned authors. The curve for the Jews in the United States

is situated more ‘toward the right, while the one for those in

Europe, is more to‘the left, although their course in other regards

is almost identical.

38 (192

‘

a ©

Law

ANTHROPOLOGY OF EASTERN EUROPEAN JEWS 179

TABLE V.

STATURE OF JEWS AND NON-JEWS IN EASTERN EUROPE.

Jews. Non-Jews. Jews and Non-Jews.

mm. a - - -

Number. | Percent. Number. Percent. | Number. Percent.

2 aA ye I 0.01 I 0.01

117-118 nt, — — — — —

119-120 — — 2 0.03 2 0.02

121-122 — | — | 0.03 2 0.02

123-124 | — | — I 0.01 I 0.01

125-126 ae aa | — 2 0.03 | 2 0.02

127-128 — oo I OrOr I 0.01

129-130 ee 8 O.12< | 8 0.08

131-132 2 0.07 | 12 1s: | 14 0.14

133-134 | — — 7 ro op Fe aa 7 0.07

135-136 I 0.03 8 O82 i 9 0.09

137-138 2 0.07 17 O26 | EO 0.19

139-140 I 0.03 22 O.32)<+| 28 0.23

141-142 fe) 0.31 37 ol a 47 0.48

143-144 10 0.31 51 0.76 61 0.62

145-146 13 0.40 47 0.70 60 0.61

147-148 27 0.84 74 P20 IoI T.02

149-150 44 1.37 100 1.49 144 1.45

I51-152 79 2.46 I51 2.25 230 2.32

Pea-154. | - 119 3-70 164 245°. | 283 2.86

155-156 224 6.98 361 5.38 585 5.90

157-158 277 8.63 500 7-45 eh 7-83

159-160 341 10.62 652 9.72 993 10.01

161-162 414 12.90 680 10.45 1,094 11.03

163-164 394 12.28 848 12.64 1,242 12.52

165-166 905. L137 813 F212 1,178 11.87

167-165 | -289 9.00 652 9:73 941 9.45

169-170 210 6.54 491 (he 701 7.07

171-172 155 4.83 408 6.08 563 5.69

173-174 108 3 37 252 3-76 360 3-64

175-176 48 {52 147 2.19 195 1:07

177-178 | 30 0.93 97 1.45 127 1.28

179-180 23 O.72 55 0.82 78 0.79

181-182 13 0.40 22 0.33 35 0.35

183-184 | 4 Gi22 15 0.22 22 0.22

185-186 I 0.03 7 0.10 8 0.08

187-188 2 0.07 — — 2 0.02

189-190 —. -- I 0.01 I 0.01

3,209 100.00 6,708 99.97 9,917 100.02

On figure 3 is shown a curve constructed from the figures

representing both the Jews in Eastern Europe, and in New York

City, a total of 3,209 persons. It will be observed that the apex

points at 162 cm. which is about the average for the Jews in

Europe. Towards the left, where stature below the average

180 FISHBERG

is represented, the curve runs progressively downwards, until

the stature of 150 cm. is reached, when the number becomes

almost insignificant. But to the right, where heights above the

average are shown, a significant point is to be seen. Up to 168

cm. there is shown an elevation of the curve, which is not seen

on the curve for the Jews of Eastern Europe, but exactly corre-

sponding to the elevation in the curve representing the Jews in

New York City. This again shows plainly the process of selec-

tion which is usual for immigrants as regards their physical con-

dition — the taller ones are more adventurous and are more apt

to leave their native land in search of fortunes in a distant land.

The first impression one gets while examining this curve is

that the Jews do not show any evidences of intermixture with

other races. It has been accepted by many anthropologists

that the seriation and coordination of any physical character of

a people, in which there has taken place an appreciable amount

of racial intermixture will not show a smooth curve. It will

display more than one apex, corresponding to the racial ele-

ments which have entered into the composition of the people.

On the other hand, when a curve shows a single apex — one

maximum of frequency, around which are clustered all the other

observations, the lesser values to the left and the larger to the

right, it may be accepted as good proof of the purity of the race.

Viewed from this standpoint, the Jews can be considered as pure,

showing no evidence of foreign blood in their veins.

The fallacy of such a contention will be evident when we will

consider at first the stature of the races and peoples among

whom the Eastern European Jews have lived for centuries.

They are primarily those whom ethnologists class under the

vague term “Slav” races. Of these weifind in Polandethe

Poles, whose stature is quite short, 162 to 164 cm. in height

(Majer and Kopernicki, Olechnowicz, Elkind, Snigiref, Zakrzew-

ski, etc.) In Lithuania and White-Russia, the Lithuanians,

Letts, and the White-Russians are somewhat taller — 163 to

165 cm. The Little-Russians in South Russia, and the Ru-

thenians in Galicia are taller, to be sure, but their height does not

exceed 166.7 cm. and in some localities it is much lower —

‘

ANTHROPOLOGY OF EASTERN EUROPEAN JEWS 181

only 162 to 163 cm.’ In Hungary ethnic conditions are not

so simple. Here we have the Magyars who are among the

shortest of Europeans, less than 162 cm. in height. The Slavs in

that country are taller, being ethnically allied to the Ruthenians

of Galicia and the Little-Russians of the Ukraine, this is to be

expected — they reach 164.6 cm. The Germans in Hungary

are of about the same height (Scheiber). The Roumanians are

about midway between the short Poles and Magyars, the tall

Little-Russians and Ruthenes. From the recent investigations

of Pittard they are found to be. 165 cm. in height. A glance

at the map prepared by Anutchin and reproduced by Ripley ’

showing the distribution of stature in this region of Europe, will

make this point clear.

This is the stature of the races among whom the Jews under

consideration have lived for the last eight or ten centuries. If

any infusion of foreign blood has taken place, these races must

have been the sources from which it came. This we must

remember at the outset, before considering the curve showing

the distribution of stature of the Jews and Christians in Eastern

Europe.

In order that we may see the probable effect of such an inter-

mixture of the Jews with the races among whom they have lived

for a longer time, the following plan of investigation has been

adopted: We have collected from the anthropological literature

on the eastern European races measurements of 6,708 individ-

uals, including :

1,055 Little-Russians, from Talko-Hryncewicz’s work.

476 Letto-Lithuanians ‘‘ cf ES a3

g61 White-Russians ‘‘ - sig 6

2,861 Poles from Galicia ‘* Kopernicki’s Zo

1,355 Ruthenians from Galicia ra ee

These have been tabulated in Table V and the percentages of

frequency calculated for each group of stature ; the results have

been plotted on diagram as a curve. A glance at this curve

reveals the following salient points. Notwithstanding the fact

1 Talko-Hryncewicz, Kopernicki, Anutchin, Ivanowski and others.

2 << Races of Europe,’’ p. 348, and also the map for Austria-Hungary, p. 350.

182 FISHBERG

that it is composed of a group of peoples each of which has no

special claim to exceptional racial purity ; notwithstanding that,

no matter how pure each of these races may claim to be, still a

mixture of all of them can not be considered as representing a

pure type, — the resulting curve of stature, is as smooth as could

be expected of the purest of races.’ One more point is to be

considered of significance: The course of this curve is almost

identical with that for the Jews, seen on diagram 3, with one

exception, — is situated about two centimeters to the right, thus

showing that the Christians of Eastern Europe are on the aver-

age about two centimeters taller than the Jews. The apex points

at 164 cm., while the one for the Jews points at 162 cm. Con-

sidering the conditions of poverty and privation under which the

Jews in Eastern Europe are laboring, the indoor occupations in

which they are generally employed, and the absence of agri-

cultural laborers among them, we are not surprised at the

shortage of about one inch of stature they display, when com-

pared with their non-Jewish neighbors, who are generally under

better economic and social conditions, working mostly outdoors,

etc. The similarity of stature of the Jews with that of non-Jews

of Eastern Europe of which we have already spoken before, is

yet more apparent when we consider them not ez masse, but in

groups according to the country they inhabit. This we will do

later.

As a further test we have combined the 3,209 Jews with the

6,708 Gentiles and of both sets of figures constructed a curve

which is shown on figure 3. This curve again shows no double

apex, no significant elevations or indentations in its course, thus

again proving that the smooth course of the curve representing

the stature of the Jews can not be considered a proof of their

racial purity. It is evident that no amount of foreign blood

coming from the races of Eastern Europe, among whom the

Jews have lived, would have shown itself in a study of the seri-

ation of their stature.

The reason for this condition is evident: The difference in the

type of stature of the Jews and Gentiles in Eastern Europe is

1The slight indentation at the height of 162 cm. can be ascribed to chance.

ANTHROPOLOGY OF EASTERN EUROPEAN JEWS 183

very slight — almost insignificant, 162 to 163 cm. for the former,

and 164 to 165 for the latter, is about the standard of height for

these peoples. Intermixture with people who differ but one to

two centimeters in height cannot have any effect on the distri-

bution of stature so as to be evident in a seriation, as can be

readily seen on diagram 3. If the difference in stature had been

larger, say eight to ten centimeters, supposing the intermixture

had taken place with the Scotch, who average over 170 cm. in

height, the curve might have shown it up by a double apex.

What we desire to emphasize however at this place, is that the

smooth course of the curve for stature of the Eastern European

Jews does not exclude the possibility of racial intermixture.

tapi. VI.

STATURE OF 1,528 JEWS ACCORDING TO THEIR NATIVITY.

| Lithuania) {1 jttle- Rou-

Stature (in cm.). | Galicia. Poland. z2ndWhite- homies es Hungary. Naren

Russia.

137-138 Origa Garr a Ta = “= =

139-140 — 0.31 — — — _ —

I4I—-142 0.33 — 0. 36 — — -- —

143-144 |} 1.31 | — — = — — —

145-146 |. &.98: | — — —- — — —

147-148 Re a ee — 1.33 = —

149-150 2.05 | 4.95 — og! —_— — | 0.80

151-152 ees ee Oe O46). O45 1 33.t) 2 6.72: | —

153-154 }-.! 306% 4.13 a2) Gal 5:33 ee ee eS |

155-156 Weer ee} 7.20 6.18 2.19 4.00 3.57) |; 861

157-158 8.53 9.21 6.91 5-02 8.00 7.14 2.42

159-160 E2533 9.84 12.00 ree 6.67 EG.72 || 5-65

161-162 PIER |) PS. 24 | 14.55 12.70) ge,00: |) 13.87}. 3:87

163-164 | £2.46] I1.11 13.46 | 15.53 12.67 | —-7.56 12.10

165-166 Veh oRG.97 i) PGZy (13,90 |? -9633-) 25271 12.90

167-168 L787 | tost6 92). fo79 | 0.67 | (10,72, | ES. 32

169-170 ti pe} Gag cee eeay y) “me O7 | BSF | 1.46

171-172 | 6.23 3-49 [tN ee = oy A a BM

3-174) 2.63 1.90 436. |; 5.48 | 8.69) 5.00.) 8.07

175-176 } 0.98.1 -5.g0 1.46 1:37 2.07. |)-" (2860) 3.23

pia ges 4 10-33)| 2-59) | . O73). 137 |, 3-33.| “214 | - 323

179-180 i set Obs O70) @.0l | 1.34 |: 214) ' 4.03

181-182 | — 0.31 O77 Ft + 2237 0.67 | 0.72 | 0.80

183-184 6:65 | 6:31. |, 0.36 | — “E33 — | --

185-186 (ek a ae — = — — | 0.80

187-188 | — = as — — — 0.80

No. measured. — 305 | gry 275 219 150 , 140 124

Average stature. | 162.2 | 163.4 164.2 165.7 266.0 ,|-165.7 | 167.9

184 FISHBERG

On Table VI is shown the individual variations of the stature

of the Jews in New York City, according to their nativity. It

will be observed that there are noteworthy differences in the

stature of each group of Jews. A comparsion of these figures

with measurements obtained in Eastern Europe, shows that the

immigrants are taller than the Jews in their native countries.

Thus, the average stature of the Jews in Poland, was found by

Snigireff and Elkind to be 161 cm. while those who left Poland

and emigrated to the United States are found to be 163.4 cm.

in height. In Lithuania and White-Russia Snigireff, Talko-

Hryncewicz and Yakowenko found the average height of the

Jews about 162 cm., and immigrants from this region of Russia

are seen to be 164.2 cii..on the average. “In-Souths Russia

Snigireff and Weissenberg measurements show that the Jews

are over 164 cm. and the immigrants from this country are

found to average 165.7 cm. in height.~ The same is trite-or tic

Jews from Hungary, who in their native land were found to be

163.3 cm. (Scheiber), while those in New York are 2.4 cm.

taller, averaging 165.7 cm.’ The only exception are they jews

from Galicia, who were found by Majer and Kopernicki to be

162.3 cm. in their native land, while in New York they are of

the same height. As will be seen later this exceptional phenom-

enon is not confined to stature; ‘selection by immigration ”’

is also negative among these Jews as regards their headform.

But in all the other groups it appears that the immigrants are

taller than those left at home.

This phenomenon appears in a more striking manner when

we compare the immigrants with their correligionists at home

by grouping the figures obtained by measurement in four groups

of stature, short, below the average, above the average and tall.

For comparison, the literature of the anthropology of the Jews

in Eastern Europe has been utilized, and the figures are pre-

sented in table VII.

From this table (VII) it is seen that the proportion of short

persons is larger among the Jews in their native lands than

among those who emigrated to the United States. 29 percent

of the Jews in Little-Russia are less than 160 cm. in height, and

ANTHROPOLOGY OF EASTERN EUROPEAN JEWS 185

Tape WOE.

STATURE OF IMMIGRANT JEWs IN NEW YORK COMPARED WITH THOSE IN

EASTERN EUROPE.

Stature Galicia. Poland. eek Little-Russia

(in cm.) —- 1S —= ae

N.Y. | Galicia. N. Y. | Poland.| N. Y. | Lithuania. | N. Y. | Lit.-Russia.

=—160 | 36.07 29.16 | 20.29 | ARO | 2E.46 | | aa.to |t4001 29.22

160-165 | 28.85 |: 29.17 | 30.48) 28.50 | 34.55 | + 33-09 -| 32.87] 29.00

165--170 | 21.64 | 25.00 27.30 | 20.00 | 29.09 | 19.42 30.58 27.87

170 + 13.44 16.67 13.02 | 6.00] 14.91 | 9.39 21.95 14.61

165 | 64.92] 58.33 | 59.68 | 74.00] 56.00! 71.19 | 47.47] 58.22

165 + S5205'| (4.67 40. 32°|'26/00 | 44:00 |": 28.89") [52.53 41.78

only 14 percent of the Jewish immigrants from that country are

in this class of stature; in Lithuania the proportions are 38 to

21 percent. The only exception is again with the Galician Jews,

where the proportion of persons less than 160 cm. in height

was found by Majer and Kopernicki to be 29 percent and in

New York City such short persons are more frequent, reaching

36 percent. Tall individuals, 170 cm. in height and taller, are

more frequently met with among the immigrants than among

those measured in their native land, again with the exception of

the Galicians. Among the Little-Russian Jews this class of

stature is 21.95 percent in New York and only 14.61 percent

at home ; among the White-Russian and Lithuanian Jews 14.91

in New York and g.39 percent at home; and among the Polish

Jews 13 percent in New York and 6 percent in Poland. The

same is the fact with the Hungarian Jews when we compare our

statistics with those obtained by Scheiber in Hungary.’

1 The figures for the Jews in eastern Europe in this table are taken from : Galicia,

Majer and Kopernicki, ‘‘Charakterystyka fizyczna ludnosci galicyzskiej, ’’? Zdcor

wiadom. do antropol. krajowej, Krakow, 1877, 1885, Vols. I and X ; Poland, A. D.

Elkind, ‘‘ The Jews,” Publications of the Society of Friends of Naturai Science, An-

thropology and Ethnography, Vol. XXI, Moscow, 1902 (in Russian) ; Little-Russia,

J. Talko-Hryncewicz, ‘‘ Charakterystyka fizyczna ludnosci zydowskiej Litwi i Rusi,’’

Zbior wiad. do antropol. Kraj., Vol. XVI, 1892; White-Russia, M. G. Yako-

wenko, ‘‘ Materials for the Anthropology of the Jews,’’ St. Petersburg, 1898 (in

Russian ).

2S. H. Scheiber, ‘* Untersuchungen iiber den mittleren Wuchs der Menschen in

Ungarm,”’ Archiv fiir Anthropologie, H, 1881, pp. 233-267.

186 FISHBERG

For comparison of the Jews with the indigenous population

of the countries in which they lived for centuries it has been

deemed advisable to combine the figures obtained by measure-

ment of the Jews in New York with those found in the anthro-

pological literature of the Jews in eastern Europe. A fairly

large number of observations are thus obtained, which may be

expected to give more or less definite results. We have thus

tabulated 1,141 Galician Jews (305 in New York and 836 in

Galicia by Kopernicki); 515 Polish Jews (315 in New York

and 200 in Poland by Elkind) ; 414 Lithuanian and White-Rus-

sian Jews (275 in New York and 139 in White-Russia by Yak-

owenko); 657 Little-Russian Jews (219 in New York and 438

in Little-Russia by Talko-Hryncewicz). These figures are

placed in parallel columns with Galician Poles and Ruthenians

(Majer and Kopernicki), Poles (Elkind), Letto-Lithuanians and

White-Russians (Talko-Hryncewicz, and Little- Russians (Ivan-

owski), and Roumanians (Pittard).'

An analysis of the figures in this table confirms in a striking

manner the similarity of the stature of the Jews to that of their

non-Jewish neighbors. To begin with the average stature: In

Galicia it is equal to that of the Poles of that country, and less

than that of the Ruthenians who are known to be tall. In Po-

land the Jews are slightly taller, and here the Poles are also

taller than those of Galicia. In White-Russia and Lithuania

the Jews are taller than those in the above-mentioned countries,

and here we find that the indigenous population is also taller

than the Poles; while in Little-Russia, where the people are

distinguished by their superior height (being among the tallest

of races of European Russia) the Jews are also tall. Weissen-

berg found them here to measure 164.8 cm. in height, and Pan-

1 Majer and Kopernicki, Jvc. ci¢.; A. D. Elkind, ‘‘The Poles of the District of

Wisla,’’ Public. Soc. of Friends of Natural Science Anthropol. and Ethnography,

Vol. XC, Moscow, 1897; J. Talko-Hryncewicz, ‘‘ Charakterystyka fizyczna ludu

ukrainskiego,’’ Zbi07 Widom. do. Antrop. ki7., Vol. XIV ; idem., ‘‘ Charaktery-

styka fizyczna ludow Litwii Rusi,’’ zd¢¢d, Vol. XVIII; A. A. Ivanowski, ‘‘ On

the Anthropological Composition of the Races in Russia,’’ Public. Society of Friends,

etc., Vol., CV., Moscow 1904 (in Russian) ; Eugene Pittard, ‘‘ Anthropologie de

la Roumaina,’’ LZ’ anthropologie, XIV, No. 1, 1993, pp. 33-58.

ANTHROPOLOGY OF EASTERN EUROPEAN JEWS 187

TaBLeE VIII.

STATURE OF THE JEWS COMPARED WITH THAT OF NON-JEWS IN VARIOUS COUNNTRIESI

EASTERN EUROPE.

| FE 2 : g g g Po v

a S = = o on 2

Country. mg B ® 2 = Ss 3 = ie Observer.

“4 = = a >S

ey eee are w en oe

Galicia. / |

Jews. | 35.93 | 33-22 | 20.24 | 10.61 | 69.15 | 30.85 | 1,141 | 1,623 | Fishberg, Kopern.

Poles. | 13.67 | 32.93 | 28.90 | 24.50 | 46.60 | 53.40 | 2,861 | 1,622 | Kopernicki.

Ruthenians. 21.78 | 26.47 | 22.94 | 28.81 | 48.25 | 51.75 | 1,355 | 1,640 | ms

Poland.

Jews. 35.53 | 29.71 | 24.47 | 10.29 | 65.24 | 34.47 515 1,625 | Fishberg, Elkind.

Poles. 23.50 | 38.22 | 21.99 | 16.23 | 61.78 | 38.22 I9gt_ 1,640 | Elkind.

Lithuania and |

White- Nussia.

Jews.

White-Russians. 23.93 28.62

Letto-

Little- Russia.

| 27.05 | 34.06 | 25.85 13.04 | 61.11 38.89 | 414 1,635 | Fishberg,

wenko.

WIiCZ.

Yako-

SoFs | Peel4.| 52.55 | 47.29 961 1,636 |Talko-Hrynce-

Lithua. 18.07 | 31.52 | 27.94 | 22.47 | 49.59 | 50.41 476 1,644 Talko-Hrynce-

wicz.

657 1,639 |Fishberg, Talko-

Jews. | 24.35 | 30.30 | 28.31 | 17.04 | 54.65 | 45.35 |

| | | | Hryncewicz,

Little-Russians. | 14.52 32.88 26.86 | 25.74 | 47.40 | 52.60 1,694 | 1,670 | Ivanowski.

Roumania. | | |

Jews. 18.00 | 27.33 | 24.00 | 30.67 | 45.33 | 54.67 | 150! 1,660 | Fishberg.

Roumanians. _—«12.58 29.80 : 34579") 25:83-| 42.38 | 57.62 151 1,650 |Pittard.

tukhof records the Jewish recruits in Odessa to be 165.6 cm.

in height on the average, even taller than the Christian con-

scripts of that city. Even Snigireff’s recruiting statistics show

that the Jews measure here 164.2 cm. The Hungarians are

also known to be tall, 164.6 cm., according to measurements

of 77,579 Magyar soldiers,’ and here, also, the Jews are taller,

165.7 cm. in height.” Finally the Roumanian Jews appear the

tallest of the Eastern European immigrant Jews in New York

city. Pittard gives as the average stature of the Roumanians

as 165 cm.; the same average stature was found by measuring

' Quoted from Deniker, ‘‘ The Races of Man,’’ p. 579.

2 From Scheiber’s statistics it would appear that the Magyars are shorter, only

161.9 cm., but he found the Jews superior in this respect, 163.3 cm. in height.

The difference may be explained by the fact that the former statistics are from sol-

diers, a picked lot from which all short individuals have been eliminated.

188 FISHBERG

59,761 Roumanian soldiers;' in Bukowina, Himmel records

that the Roumanians reach 167.3 cm. in height.” We found

no records in anthropological literature of measurements of Jews

in Roumania, but from Himmel’s measurements of 100 Jewish

soldiers in Bukowina, they are shown to be quite tall, 165.7 cm.

on the average.

It is noteworthy that the distribution of the classes of stat-

ure confirms this condition very strikingly. It appears from

this table that the proportion of short individuals, less than 160

cm. in height, is everywhere larger among the Jews than among

the Gentiles of the same country ( excepting among the Rouma-

nians, but here we deal with immigrants only, having no available

statistics for Jews in their native country to combine with the

statistics of the stature of the immigrants as was done with the

other groups). But the percentage of these short individuals

seems to run in almost direct ratio to the percentage found

among the Gentiles in the same locality. In Galicia and in

Russian Poland, where persons under 160 cm. in height reach

over 20 percent, the Jews have 35 percent of short meny on

the other hand, in Little-Russia, where such people are only

found to the extent of 14 percent, and in Roumania where it is

only 12 percent among the Gentiles, the Jews show also a les-

ser proportion, 24 and 18 percent respectively. Persons of

tall stature, 170 cm. in height and taller, are met with less fre-

quently among the Jews than among non-Jews of the same

country. Such persons are found to the extent of 10 percent

among the Galician Jews, but the proportion increases in fre-

quency as it increases among the Christians of a given country,

and is found to be 17 percent among the Jews from Little-Rus-

sia, and even 30 percent among the Roumanian Jews. That

this is not an isolated case, is shown by the fact that Talko-

Hryncewicz, Majer and Kopernicki and Otto Ammon mention

the fact that in those parts of the country’ where the general

1 Deniker, Joc. cit.

2See Himmel’s ‘‘ KGrpermessungen in der Bukowina,’’ reported by Weisbach,

in WMittheilungen Anthropol. Gesellschaft Wien, XVIII, 1888, Sidzungsbericht, pp.

83-84.

3 Little-Russia, Galicia, Baden.

ANTHROPOLOGY OF EASTERN EUROPEAN JEWS 189

population is of tall stature, the Jews display the same char- _

acteristic, and the reverse.

THE INFLUENCE OF SOCIAL CONDITIONS ON STATURE.

The deficiency of the stature of the Jews, as compared with

their non-Jewish neighbors is an interesting topic for investiga-

tion. Itis true that the difference is but little, only one to three

centimeters in favor of the Gentiles, but it is evident in almost

every country where measurements have been taken. It is of

scientific interest to inquire into the reasons why the stature of

the Jews depends to a great extent upon the statute of their

neighbors, wherever the latter are short of stature the Jews dis-

play the same characteristic ; and the reverse, but what is most

remarkable, they are always somewhat shorter than the Gentiles.

One reason may be the fact that the Jews are mostly town-

dwellers, while nearly two thirds of non-Jews are living in the

country. The Jews are only rarely engaged in agricultural

pursuits. ‘The general rule in Europe”’ says Ripley, “seems

to be that the urban type is physically degenerate.’”’' Beddoe

considers as proved that the stature of men in the large towns

of Britain is lowered considerably below the standard of the

nation and that such degradation is progressive and hereditary.”

The same has been observed by Ranke in Bavaria,* Anutchin

in Russia* and by many others. Ripley’ points out that ‘the

unfavorable influence of city life is often obscured by the great

social selection which is at work in the determination of the

physical type of the population of great cities. While the course

of the town type by itself is downward, oftentimes the city

attracts another class which is markedly superior, in the same

way that the immigrants of the United States have been distin-

guished in this respect.’’ This advantage is of course not enjoyed

1 Loc. cit., p. 95.

*J. Beddoe, ‘‘On the Stature and Bulk of Man in the British Isles,’’ J/em.

Anthr. Soc. London, III, 1867.

$J. Ranke, ‘‘ Der Mensch,’’ Vol. II, p. 131.

4D. N. Anutchin, ‘‘On the Geographical Distribution of Stature of the Male

Population of Russia, St. Petersburg, 1889, p. 165 (in Russian).

®Loc. cit., pp. 95, 552-555.

190 FISHBERG

by the Jews in Europe, because the numerical value of the

Jewish rural population is almost insignificant. The superior

stature of the Jews in the United States is to be ascribed to this

very cause.

The wretched social, economic and sanitary conditions under

which they labor in the Eastern European Ghettoes, will also

account for the deficiency they display in body height, when

compared with their Gentile neighbors. As a matter of fact, in

Galicia, where the economic conditions of the Jews are worst,

they are shorter than any other class of Jews. Even the immi-

grants of the United States from this poor country are the short-

est, as we have seen above. The artificial selection which in-

fluences favorably the average stature of immigrants, had no

effect at all on these Jews. In Poland, where the economic con-

ditions are better, the Jews are taller; while in South Russia

the Jews are quite tall, corresponding possibly to superior

economic conditions. The influence of poverty and social con-

ditions on the stature of the Jews has been illustrated in a strik-

ing manner by Zakrzewski in his work ‘‘ Ludnosc miasta

Warszawy.’' He prepared maps showing the social status of

the various districts in Warsaw, the capital of Poland and the

average stature of the Jews and Poles in that city. A com-

parison of these maps shows in a striking manner how short-

ness of stature goes hand in hand with poverty. Another in-

direct proof of this theory is the increase of stature of the first

generation of Jews in New York city, where the social and

economic conditions are much improved.

The Jews are mostly engaged in indoor occupations. 720 of

the 1528 individuals investigated in New York (47.12 percent)

were working indoors. That workingmen who spend most of

their time in closed rooms, particularly amid unsanitary sur-

roundings, such as are generally obtainable in sweatshops, are

shorter of stature, is well known. Ripley ascribes it to two

causes: The first is artificial selection, ‘‘The physically well

developed men seek certain trades or occupations in which their

vigor or strength may stand them in good stead; on the other

1 Materiali antr.-archeol. Akad. umtej., Krakow, I, dzial I, pp. 1-38.

ANTHROPOLOGY OF EASTERN EUROPEAN JEWS 191

hand, those who are by nature weakly, and coincidently often

deficient in stature, are compelled to make shift with some pur-

suit for which they are fitted. Thus workers in iron, porters,

firemen, policemen, are taller as a class than the average, because

they are of necessity recruited from the more robust portion of

the population. In marked contrast to them, tailors, shoe-

makers and weavers, in an occupation which entails slight de-

mands upon the physical powers, and which is open to all, how-

ever weakly they may be, are appreciably shorter than the

average. The second cause is the result of the effects of the

habits of life or of the nature of the employment. The condi-

tions in the sweatshops act adversely on the physique of the

younger tailors. Add to this the cramped position in which

they work, the long hours, the unsanitary surroundings, etc., and

you find all the conditions tending to physical degeneracy.*

TABLE IX.

STATURE AND OCCUPATION.

ia: | Stat St |

Occupation. Pee anes | Siete | aot tee ® | ar | sees

iP" (cme) | Average. | Average. | i

Indoor. | | |

Tailors. Mala 161.3 32.79% | 33-33% | 22.05% | 11.85%

Cobblers. 79 160.4 37.98 20.55. © )'r) 27.80) ')| 20.83

Fact’y workers.| 269 | 162.2 | 20.30% | |, 27.80 30.11 |) 35-65

Total indoor. | 720° «| 102-0. | 30.68 | 30:58 25.00 | 12:37

Outdoor. | | |

Carpenters. Sg; ) £26450 1o.10 |.) 34/46 AS.66)° |) “21238

Iron-workers. 6B ||. TG. 3 20.59 | 26.47 | 27.94 | 25.00

Masons. ’ 44 | 167.9 5.02 |. at-oy | 28:00 { 21,35

House painters.'! © 58 | 167.5 15.52 25.86 31.03 27.59

Laborers. 85 1b6.8. | 20.41 | 22.35 29:45 | £8.83

Total outdoor. 344 166.4 20.93 PA Bee) 28.78 22.97

Mercantile. | |

Merchants. 163 | 168.7 1 86.56 27:61 |) 35:90" | 28,83

Clerks. 105 | 16G;2: |, DE ae SRU2E |. 26.67 26.67

Peddlers. 130 164.3 | 18.47 37-69 | 26.15 | 17.69

Professional. 66 | 169.6 | 9.04 | 22.73 93.33 34.85 —

In order to determine whether the peculiar occupations of the

Jews had any effect on their average stature, I have classified

1W. Z. Ripley, ‘‘ Races of Europe,’’ pp. 89-93.

192 FISHBERG

the material according to the occupations of the people who sub-

mitted to measurement. The average stature of each class was

calculated, and also the percentage of people of tall, medium and

short stature among them. Among these 1,528 men under

consideration, 720 (47.12 percent) were engaged in indoor

occupations, including the various branches of tailoring, cobblers,

cigar-makers, weavers, bakers, etc.; 344 (22.51 percent) were

working outdoors, including: carpenters, house painters, masons,

ironworkers, etc. ; 398 (26.65 percent) were engaged in mer-

cantile pursuits, as clerks, etc., 130 were peddlers: 66 anette

class generally called professional class, including the liberal

professions and also students. The accompanying table (IX)

shows the results of this inquiry. It will be observed that the

tallest were the professional men reaching 169.9 cm. in height.

They also had the largest proportion of tall men— 34.85 per-

cent. The clerks and merchants come very close with 169.2

and 168.7 cm. respectively, in height. Beside these we note the

peddlers, who though classed with the merchants, still are rather

short, only 164.3 cm. The reason is apparent, the percentage

of short people among them was 18.47, and tall, 170 cm. and

over only 17.60. Coming to the people engaged in outdoor

occupations we note that their average stature was 166.4 cm.,

two cm. above that for the Jews in New York City. Nearly 23

percent of them were 170 cm. and over in height as against only

Ig among the Jews generally, and while the latter show 23.3

percent of short people averaging less than 160 cm. in height,

such who are engaged in outdoor occupations, have only 20.93

percent of such deficient persons.

Masons and house painters were the tallest of this class while

the carpenters were the shortest. When we come to consider

those engaged in indoor occupations, we are at once struck by

the alarming proportion of short people, 30.98 percent were

less than 160 cm. in height, and in addition to this the propor-

tion of tall persons, 170 cm. and over, are found to be only 12.17

percent. We can add that only one of these was 178 cm., six

feet tall, and he was not a tailor in his early years; only after

emigrating to the United States at the age of twenty-one he

ANTHROPOLOGY OF EASTERN EUROPEAN JEWS 193

learned the trade. Their average stature is only 162 cm., 2.5

cm. (one inch) shorter than the general average for the Jews in

New York City. Deplorably deficient in this regard were

found the cobblers and tailors, 160.4 cm. for the former, and

161.3 for the latter. The proportion of short men was 32.79

among the tailors and reached nearly 38 percent among the

shoemakers.

These figures, though based on comparatively few observa-

tions tend to show that the deficiency of the Jews’ stature, as

compared with the other races in eastern Europe, may at least

partly, be ascribed to the wretched social and economic condi-

tions under which he finds himself within the gates of the East-

ern European Ghettoes. Dr. 5S. Weissenberg also observed that

the stature of the Jews in South Russia depends greatly on

their occupations and social status, and Zakrzewski’s maps _ of

the city of Warsaw confirm this in Poland — the largest Jewish

center in Europe. The first generation of Jews in New York

‘City, which only rarely works at indoor occupations, lead a

more active open-air life, which is conducive to normal growth

and development, are also taller. This condition also confirms

that the shortness of stature of the Jews is due in a great

measure to their social conditions and environment.

The influence of occupation, active open-air life and general

prosperity on the stature of the Jews, is best seen from Mr.

Joseph Jacobs’ measurements of English Jews. He found the

average height of the Jews in London was 164.1 cm. (65 inches),

but the Jews living in the ‘‘ West-End” of London were much

taller, they averaged 171.4 cm. (67.5 inches). Jacobs attributes

this superior stature of the “ West-End”’ Jews to their superior

“nurture,” and social conditions generally.’ An analysis of the

stature of the Jews born in the United States, as compared with

that of their foreign-born parents, confirms Jacobs’ observations

on English Jews. Among the 1,528 Jews under consideration

124 were native born. Their average stature was 167.9 cm.,

as against 164.2 cm. of the 1,404 Jews of foreign birth. This

1 Joseph Jacobs, ‘‘ On the Comparative Anthropometry of English Jews,’’ Journal

Anthropological Institute, London, XIX, 1899, pp. 76-88.

194 FISHBERG

shows an increase of 3.7 cm. in the first generation. The increase

in stature is yet better displayed in the accompanying table

showing the proportion of individuals at a given class of stature

accordingly to the four divisions of stature in which our material

has been divided.

TABLE 2

STATURE OF NATIVE AND FOREIGN JEWS.

Foreign Jews Native Jews.

Stature. E = a ;

Number. | Percent. Number. | Percent

Short. 345 24.57 II 8.87

Below the Average. 430 30.63 30 24.19

Above the Average. | 379 26.99 41 33-07

Rail: 250 | 17291 42 33.87

Total. yay igoa.) yD exeavoa) i 124 100.00.

From this table we find that while among the Jews born in

Eastern Europe 24.57 percent were of short stature (less than

160 cm.), there were only 8.87 percent of native Jews thus

deficient in -body-height. On the other hand; tall men, 170

cm. in height and upward, are found among the native Jews

33.87 percent, as against only 17.81 percent. among their

immigrant parents. The proportion of persons of medium

height, 160 to 170 cm., is about the same in both groups.

We can see in this a process of double selection at work.

The immigrants are taller on the average than the people of whom

they spring, as we have already seen. That stature is trans-

mitted by heredity is not to be questioned. When to this are

added other factors which are favorable to healthy growth of

the body, we have good reasons for the superior stature of the

native American Jews. Here during the period of most active

growth, the Jewish child attends a modern public school, instead

of the insanitary ‘‘ Cheder’’ (Jewish school) in Eastern Europe ;

during adolescence the Jew here engages mostly in outdoor

occupations, instead of the sweatshops which is the work shop

of many of the immigrant Jews (only five of the 124 native

Jews were engaged at work in sweatshops). Besides this, the

native Jewish youth in the East side in New York City enjoys

ANTHROPOLOGY OF EASTERN EUROPEAN JEWS 195

quite freely open air recreations, games, bicycle riding, etc., all

of which is conducive to healthy growth and development of the

body.

The superior stature of the native American Jews is thus seen

to be a result of superior social conditions and environment.

STATURE OF WOMEN.

The average stature of 435 women examined by the present

writer is 153.5 cm (5 feet, 0.4 inch.) They are thus II cm.

shorter than the men. The ratio of stature of men and women

is I to 0.931 or as 16 to 14.88, which is exactly the ratio of

adult men and women in England.’ The absolute difference in

stature between men and women is about the same as generally

observed in other races, as can be seen from Deniker’s study of

35 series of measurements of women, that in 20 cases out of 35,

, almost two thirds, the difference in height between the two

sexes in any given population hardly varies more than from 7

to 13 cm. (3 to 5 inches) ; 14 times out of 35 it only varies from

11 to 12 cm., so that the figure of 12 cm. may be accepted as

the average.” From investigations of Professor Franz Boas

among American Indians, it is to be seen that among the taller

American races the stature of women is 92 percent of that of

the men, while among the shorter races the percentage reaches

94.3

The tallest Jewess examined was 170.3 cm., being 16.8 cm.

or 10.94 percent larger than the average. The shortest was

133.4 cm., 20.1 cm., or 13.99 percent shorter than the average.

In general the extreme variation extended over 36.9 cm., or 24

percent of the average. All these values are much smaller than

those presented by the men, thus showing a much smaller range

of variability of stature of the women. The standard deviation

was found to be 6.20, which is practically the same as that for

2. @.

1 There the stature of men is 170 cm. and of women 160 cm., the ratio is thus as

16 to 14.88. See Report of the Anthropometric Committee, of the British Associa-

tion, 1883.

2]. Deniker, ‘‘ The Races of Men,’’ London, 1900, p. 33.

3 Franz Boas, ‘‘ Zur Anthropologie der nordamerikanischen Indianer,’’? Verhand-

ung. a. Berliner Anthropologischen Ges., 1895, pp. 74, 75.

196 FISHBERG

the men (6.58), while the probable error is 0.20 — larger than

that of the men (0.1133). This is due to the smaller number

of observations on women, because the average is more accurate,

and the probable error consequently smaller, the larger Ue

number of individuals measured.

Arranged in groups of tall, short, etc., we find the following

distribution :

Number. Percent.

Short (130, em. aid) lessi)i-scet cee snescace ene 7 1.61

Below the average (10) toii52 emi) ))/e5.-nne.p encore 186 42.76

Above the average’ (4153 to" 157. cil)\o.seese-2ec0 142 32.65

Pall: (q53 andy albowye)its sees seercee enn rae 100 22.98

Botall ics avahese Ss anes tore eee ees 435 100.00

ier XG

STATURE OF JEWESSES.

Height (in cm.). ter |) Percent. Height (in cm.). Number. | a

a ~ 3 ies z

133-134 I 0.23 || 153-154 58 13.34

135-136 2 | 0.40) 9 9) 55-156 65 14.94

137-138 2 | 0.46 157-158 39 | 8.96

139-140 5 | t.15 159-160 | 37 8.51

141-142 9 | 2:07 161-162 | 20 4.59

143-144 IO | 2.29 163-164 | 6 1,38

145-146 | 39 | 8.96 || 165-166 | 7 | 1.61

147-148 40 | 9.19 | 167-168 | 9 2.07

149-150 39 | 8.96 | 169-170 I 0.23

(51-152 7 46 LOLS 7. | <i

| | Total. 435 | 99.97

The seriation of the values obtained by measurement is shown

in Table XI and a curve drawn from these figures can be seen on

diagram I. Here we observe a narrow pyramid, much higher

and narrower than the one for the stature of the men, showing a

lesser degree of variability, on the part of the women. The apex

points at 152 cm., where nearly fifteen per cent. of the observa-

tions are found.

No definite conclusions can be drawn from the figures in table

XII showing the individual variations of the stature of Jewesses

according to their nativity. The number of observations in each

group is too small to give reliable results. Adapting, however,

the plan pursued while discussing the stature of the Jews it is

ANTHROPOLOGY OF EASTERN EUROPEAN JEWS 197

TABLE XII.

STATURE OF 435 JEWESSES ACCORDING TO THEIR NATIVITY,

; roe : Lithuania ~ Little- ol

Stature (in cm.). Galicia. Poland. | and White- | Bussis, Roumania. | Hungary.

Russia.

ea 1.79 ASS ar ya ao

135-136 | — | 1.79 1.00 — —- |; —

137-138 | 1.64 — — — a —

139-140 | 3.28 = 1.00 2s — | —

141-142 | 3.28 3°57 1.00 — S527" * 25G

143-144 | 1.64 — 4.00 2.70 4.55 2.56

145-146 11.48 8.93 7.00 12.16 Ca le ine FS |

147-148 | 11.48 8.93 | 12.00 6.76 4.55 5.13

149-150 | 6.55 14:29)" |. FRO! OL, ‘@45 BR he $c 26

I51-I52 | 13.51 52:50 | 32,00.) “405 EE. 30.) ° "709

153-154 | 7.38 12.50 14.00 |! 18.92 20.45 12.82

155-156 — 20.49 17.86 33.00: || 6.76 15.91 12.82

157-158 4.09 3:57 10.00 12.16 13.64 17.95

159-160 9.02 Si9g% \} fe.ee" 1 Raa 6.82 7.69

161-162 | 1.64 ey on Ae So 10.81 11.36 2.56

163-164 | 1.64 — oo 2.70 2.29 2.56

165-166 | 1.64 — | £.00 2.70 2.27 2.56

167-168 | 1.64 E7o | £.00 4.05 = 5.13

169-170 — — a x. 35 — —

171-172 — — = — — —

No. measured. | 122 56 100 74 44 39

Av. stature. 152.4 152.2 153.7 154.6 154.5 154.4

found that the Jewesses confirm in a large measure the conclu-

sions arrived at while discussing the former. This is seen in

Table XIII giving the stature of the Jewesses in New York and

in Eastern Europe in four classes, small, below the average,

above the average and tall, for such as statistics were obtaina-

ble in anthropological literature.

Taste XIII.

STATURE OF JEWESSES IN THE UNITED STATES AND IN EASTERN EUROPE.

| Poland. _ Lithuania and White- Little- Russia.

Russia.

Stature (in cm.). = :

| N.Y. | Poland. | N.Y. | Lithuanias| N.y.~| bittle

~140 ty ae ae eee 1.0 oe] 1.45

140-152.9 | 48.21 | 67.2 : 48.0 57.0 35.14 59.22

153-157.9 30.36 22:4): s) See 25.0 | 32.43 23.80

158 + | 17.86 9.6 | 20.0 13.0 32.43 15.53

No. observed. | 56 125 | 100 100 74 206

Average. | 552.2 150.0 | hk Hy 150.7 154.6 151.5

198 FISHBERG

This shows that the immigrant Jewesses are on the average

taller than those in Eastern Europe. In Poland Elkind found

the average stature of the Jewesses in Warsaw to be 150.4 cm.

while the immigrants from that country are 152.2 cm. ; Lith-

uanian and White-Russian Jewesses average 150.7 cm. in

height at home (Yakowenko), and 153.7 in New York; and

Little-Russian Jewesses are 151.5 cm. (Talko-Hryncewicz) in

South Russia and in New York 154.6 cm. The proportion

of tall Jewesses, over 158 cm. in height is also larger among the

immigrants in the United States, than among.those in their native

homes, 17.86 percent against only 9.6 percent among the

Polish ; 20 against 13 percent among the Lithuanian, and even

32.43 percent against 15.53 among the Little-Russian Jewesses.

it appears, however, that short Jewesses, measuring 140 cm. and

less are more frequently encountered among the immigrants than

in Eastern Europe, reaching even 3.57 percent among the Polish

Jewesses in New York.

TaBre XIV.

STATURE OF JEWESSES COMPARED WITH EASTERN EUROPEAN WOMEN.

Poland, Lithuania. Little-Russia.

Stature. Fi a =e

Jewesses. | Poles. | Jewesses. apnea | ee | Jewesses. ee

—~140 boo == 3.0 a Ne Se) Store ae

140-152 6F.33 | 46.31 | 52.5 33.96 43.907 | 52.80 22.98

153-157 24.86. | 36.23, “28.0 45.29 31.92: | 26.07 39.57

158+ |) 12.05% | 27.457) FOR ZO FR 1. Oa el 20.00 | 37-45

Number. , 181 149 200 106 | 141 | 280 235

Average. [r5i7 STS 303" mee. 152.6 152.3 | 152.6 | 154.5

When compared with non-Jewish women in the same country,

the Jewesses are shorter in stature, by one to two cm., and short

persons, 140 cm. in height and less, are entirely absent among the

non-Jewish women. The proportion of tall women, 158 cm. and

over is much smaller among the Jewesses. But also here we

can note the phenomenon observed when considering the men :

the proportion of tall individuals is in direct ratio to the propor-

tion of such persons found among the Gentile women. The

Polish women have only 17.45 percent of women over 157 cm.

ANTHROPOLOGY OF EASTERN EUROPEAN JEWS 199

in height, and the Jewesses from that country,12.15 percent. In

Lithuania and White-Russia we find tall women among the Letto

Lithuanians to the extent of 20.75 percent, among the White-

Russians 24.11 percent, and the Jewesses from this region of

Russia show 16.5 percent ; and among the Little-Russians, who

are known among the tallest Slavonians, the Jewesses have 20

percent of persons over 157 cm. in height, perhaps because the

Gentiles here have 37.45 percent of tall women.

It thus appears that notwithstanding the fact that we deal here

with only a limited number of observations, measurements of

only 661 Jewesses being available, still the results confirm the

conclusions reached when studying the men. Their stature de-

pends greatly on the stature of the indigenous population of the

country of their birth, Wherever the Gentiles are short of

stature, the Jews also are short, and the reverse.

CHAPTER

THE GIRTH OF THE CHEST.

The discussions on the girth of the Jewish chest has occupied

many pages of the anthropological literature of the Jews. As

is well known, the girth of the chest exceeds, or at least equals

one half the body height in most people. The measurements

taken on thousands of Jewish conscripts in the Eastern European

armies have shown the Jewish recruits to be deficient in this re-

gard. From Snigirew’s extensive statistics it is seen that meas-

urements taken on 4,470 Jewish recruits in Poland have given

an average circumference of the chest of 80.1 cm. (31.5 inches)

As their average stature was 162.2 cm., the girth of their chest

was only 49.68 percent of their body height. Among 2,122

Jews in Lithuania the same authority has found a girth of only

49.55 percent of their stature. Majer and Kopernicki have

found that the girth in 569 Galician Jews was only 49.2 percent

The non-Jewish population of these countries have a chest.

girth which exceeds half their body height by from two to eight

percent. This deficiency of the Jews in girth has given rise toa

considerable amount of discussion as to whether the Jews,

owing to their deficiency in “‘ vital capacity,’ and having a lesser

‘‘index of vitality,” are fit for military duty." Ripley, on re-

viewing this subject says that the Jews are ‘“ anthropologically

as well as proverbially, narrow chested.”

Of the Jews recorded in this work only 983 have been ex-

amined as to the circumference of the chest. Many submitted

to the ordeal of having their heads, etc., measured, but they de-

clined to undress for the purpose of having their chest measured.

Among these we find an average girth of 85.87 cm., or 52.2 per-

'See Snigirew, ‘‘ Materials for Medical Statistics and Geography of Russia,’’

Voyeno-Medizinsky Zhurnal, 1878-9 ; Goldstein, ‘‘ Des circonferces du thorax et

de leur rapport 4a la taille,’’? Revue d’ Anthropologie, serie, 2, VII, pp. 460-485 ;

B. Blechman, ‘‘ Ein Beitrag zur Anthropologie der Juden,’’ Dorpat, 1882.

2 Races of Europe, p. 582.

200

ANTHROPOLOGY OF EASTERN EUROPEAN JEWS 201

cent of their stature (85.87 + 164.5 = 52.2). The man with the

largest chest measured 109 cm. while one had a girth of only

70cm. This shows that the extreme variations extended over

39 cm. or 45.46 percent of the average which is much larger than

the extreme variations found for stature. The fact that the size

of the chest is much more exposed to various external influ-

ences than is stature, accounts for it. It also shows that the

chest can not be considered a stable racial trail.

JABIE XV.

GIRTH OF THE CHEST.

Girth (in cm.). a Ses en | Girth (in kee | mance | Bae ae

69-70, I 0.10 | Gi= 92 | 63 | Gis

71-72 4 0.40 | 06-494. 51 | 5-19

73-74 16 O34 | 95- 96 | 16 | 1.63

(5-7. 31 SO ae 67-108. «| iq. .) SF.4g

77-78 56 5 FO) |)" 99-100» || 9 0.92

79-80 96 O.77, | I01-102 4 0.40

81-82 116 11.80 || 103-104 a 0.30

83-84 135 13.73 || 105-106 2 0.20

85-86 144 14.65 || “1ey—105 | Z 0.20

87-88 120 E2321 | 09-110 | I 0.10

89-90 10.0 ; ag

7 | a” | ‘ Total. 98 | 100.00

In the accompanying, Table XV, are given the individual

variations of the girth of the chest at intervals of 2 cm. It is

to be seen that the largest number of people had a girth of

85-86 cm. corresponding to the average and the median.

Above and below this value the proportion of persons at a

given girth is progressively growing smaller. This points to a

certain uniformity of type which is observed in almost all the

somatic characteristics of the Jews.

The fact disclosed by these figures that the immigrant Jews in

New York have a girth of chest which exceeds half their stat-

ure by 3.6 cm. does not contradict the figures quoted from

Snigirew, Kopernicki, etc. A careful inquiry reveals that the

deficiency in girth of the Jews is not a racial trait, but entirely

due to social conditions and tardy development. The Jewish

children are known for their precocity in mental and intellect-

ual development. The success they have in the public schools

202 FISHBERG

bears good witness to this. But as regards their physical de-

velopment the Jewish youth is very slow. While the Slavs

among whom they live reach their full growth at 21 to 25 years

of age, the Jews do not reach their full height until the age or

30 and even later. Weissenberg, Elkind, Majer and others

have shown this to be the case with the Jews in Eastern Europe.

From materials collected by the author, to be published in due

time, this also appears to be the case with the Jews in the

United States. This condition must be considered while speak-

ing of their girth. It is a striking fact that wherever data

have been collected on conscripts whose age ranges between

20 and 21 years, when they have not yet reached their full de-

velopment, the results show that the girth is less than half

their body-height. On the other hand all the measurements

which were taken on the general Jewish population, including

all ages above 21 years, show quite different results. _Weissen-

berg found that the girth of the Jews in South Russia is 53.6

percent of their stature; Yakowenko in White-Russia, 52.45

percent; Elkind in Roland) 51257 percent, ete. Our own

measurements give a result"ar 52:2 percent. Fill this visex—

plained by the age of the persons measured. Those less than

22 years are deficient in girth, those above this age are fairly

well developed, because, as has been statistically shown by

Weissenberg and Elkind, the bodies up to the age of ado-

lescence grows very rapidly in length, while the width of the

body does not grow correspondingly. After twenty years the

growth in width begins to be more active, and continues even

after the growth in height has ceased. The girth keeps on in-

creasing in size up to the age of forty and even fifty.

The causes of this tardy development are to be sought for in

the social conditions of the Jews. The Jew in Eastern Europe

does not enjoy during his childhood any games and outdoor

exercises, but is confined the greater part of the day in the

‘““Cheder”’ (Jewish school), which is always in a deplorable

sanitary condition. During adolescence his sedentary habits,

indoor, domestic occupations and the absence of physical cul-

ture are conspicuous. All this does not contribute much to.

ANTHROPOLOGY OF EASTERN EUROPEAN JEWS 203

the healthy development of their muscular system and their

chests remain flat.and contracted. It must be recalled that the

girth depends not only on the size of the skeleton, but also, in

a great measure, on the condition of the muscular system.

Well developed muscles will enlarge the circumference of the

chest with their bulk, and weak, flabby muscles do not elevate

the ribs upwards to a perceptible extent, and permit them to

hang down at an acute angle in relation to the spinal column,

thus reducing the size of the girth. Individuals with strong,

well-developed muscles have consequently large chests. The

absence of agricultural laborers among the Jews is also an im-

portant factor. The rural population is known to havea larger

girth than the town dweller, as is the case with the factory

worker, who is at a disadvantage in this regard when compared

with the outdoor laborer. It has also been observed that the

more intellectual classes are quite often deficient in respect to

their girth, and Otto Ammon, speaking of this condition, men-

tions that the Jews are deficient in their chest capacity, because

they are assiduously engaged in study in a sitting posture, and

also because they are very frequently engaged in mercantile pur-

suits... He ascribes this defect of the physical organization of

the Jews mostly to their faulty muscular development.

For 118 native Jews of New York City we have found the

average circumference of the chest to be 88.09 cm., which is

more than 2 cm. larger than that of the immigrant Jews in this

city, but when considered in relation to stature we find no im-

provement at all. As the average stature of the native Jews is

1,679 mm., the girth is only 52.46 percent of the body-height,

which is about the same as that of their foreign parents. This

confirms Ripley’s opinion that, even if granted that the narrow

chest of the Jews is an acquired characteristic, the effect of long-

continued subjection to unfavorable sanitary and social environ-

ment, it has none the less become a hereditary trait.

The relations of stature to girth is interesting. Pantukhof

has observed in Odessa, South Russia, that the chest of the

taller Jews was more capacious than that of the Jews of inferior

1 Otto Ammon, ‘‘ Die natiirliche Auslese beim Menschen,’’ Jena, 1893, p. 134.

204 FISHBERG

stature. Heconsiders it another proof of the greater vitality of

the “Aryan” elements among the Jews, particularly because

the taller Jews were also fairer in complexion than were the

shorter Jews.' From our own measurements we find that the

relations of the chest girth to stature was as follows :

Stature. Average stature.| Average girth. pee! | ee

Tall stature. 173.4 88.03 50.76 | 204

Above average. 167.2 86.19 51.58 280

Below average. 162.6 84.36 | 51.88 288

Short. 156.1 $3.12 | aes 205

All Jews. 164.5 85.87 52.2 977

This shows that the adsolute average girth of the chest in-

creases with the increase of stature, but that the re/ative size of

the chest decreases. In other words, the shorter men had rela-

tively larger chests than the taller men. Thus, those who were

shorter than 160 cm. in height, had a chest averaging only

83.12 cm., those who were.170 cm. and taller, had an average

chest circumference of 88 cm, But relative ‘toy stature pene

shorter people, had a girth of 53.25 percent of the height of the

body, while the taller individuals’ girth was only 50.76 percent

of their stature. If we accept that the average girth for all the

Jews as 85.87 cm. or 52.2 percent of their stature, as the type

of the chest for the Jews in New York, then we should expect

that each of these groups should have the following girth:

Stature. | Calculated Girth. Observed Girth. | Difference.

Tall. | 90.53 88.03 | —2.50

Above average. S723 86.19 | —1.04

Below average. | 85.08 84. 36 | —0.72

Short. | 81.48 83.12 | 1.64

Which shows that the tall Jews had a girth 2.5 cm. (one inch)

shorter than the average; that those of above the average stature

had a girth 1.04 cm. shorter than the average, while the Jews

'T. I. Pantukhof, ‘‘Semitic types,’ Proc. Russian Anthropological Society, St.

Petersburg, Vol. II, 1889.

ANTHROPOLOGY OF EASTERN EUROPEAN JEWS 205

who were short of stature hada girth of 1.64 cm. larger than

the average.

This condition is interesting from another standpoint. The

average stature of Jewish consumptives has been observed to

be superior to that of healthy Jews. The extensive statistics of

Snigirew have shown that among Jewish recruits in Russia the

relation of stature to girth has been as follows among healthy

and consumptive Jews:

Average for All Average tor Jewish Difference.

Jewish Recruits. Consumptives.

Stature. 1612 1628 —I1.54

Girth of chest. 80.18 75-95 —4.23

Relation of girth to stature

(percent). 49.68 | 46.64 — 3.04

The figures on this table show that the Jewish consumptive

is taller than the normal Jew, but that the girth of his chest is

both absolutely and relatively smaller than that of healthy Jews.

He is deficient in his ‘‘ index of vitality ’’ as Goldstein speaks of

it.. My own observations on Jewish consumptives, as yet un-

published, show that this condition also prevails among the con-

sumptive Jews in New York City. Consumption seems to select

its victims preferably among the taller Jews. Judt thinks that

this factor, by a natural elimination of the taller Jews, exerts a

great influence in reducing their average stature.”

The girth of the Jews from various countries varies only

slightly as can be seen from the following figures :

Nativity. Number. Girth. | Percent of Stature.

Galicia. IQ! 83.93 | 51.74

Poland. 173 85.53 52.34

Lithuania. 126 | 84.93 51.72

Little Russia. 108 | 85.00 | 51.30

Roumania. 146 84.41 50.85

Hungary. 121 86.30 | 52.08

United States. 118 88.09 52.46

1Loc. cit.

2]. M. Judt, ‘‘ Die Juden als Rasse,’’ Berlin, 1903, p. 85.

206 FISHBERG

The Galician Jews are the narrowest in girth, as they were

also the shortest of stature. The most capacious chest on the

average, is found among the native Jews, but it is only 52.46

percent of their body height, the same as found among the

Polish Jewish immigrants. The Roumanian Jews, who are the

tallest immigrants, have the narrowest chest relatively, their

girth is only 50.85 percent of their average stature.

CHAPTERGIV:

THe HEAD.

The Length of the Head.

The average length of the head, measured with the calipers

from the glabella to the most distant point on the occiput, was

found to be 188 mm., or 11.43 percent of the body-height. The

range of extreme individual variation extended from 160, the

shortest, to 208 mm., the longest head, a difference of 39 mm.

or 20.74 percent of the average length of the head. This is much

smaller than the range of individual extreme variation observed

in the case of stature (31 percent). This confirms the ac-

cepted dictum that the head is by far less variable than the height

of the body, probably because it is less, or not at all, exposed to

the influence of external conditions such as climate, nourishment

and social status.

TaBLeE XVI.

LENGTH OF THE HEAD, 1,528 MEN.

See Number. | Percent. Ess toed ag ; Number. Percent.

169-170 4 0.26 IQI-I92 186 12.18

171-172 5 | 0. 36 193-194 122 7.98

173-174 fo) : 0.65 195-196 g2 6.02

175-176 20 Loa 197-198 | 62 4.06

177-178 34 | 2.52" | 199-200 | 33 2.16

179-180 go 5-69. | 201-202 23 2.51

181-182 105 6-67-18 203-204 7 0.46

183-184 136 8.90 205-206 fe) 0.65

185-186 | 204 13.35 207-208 2 Q.13

187-188 | 181 es AT =x Gee > omer

189-190_—si*7/f 202 eae &. ee | 1,528 100.03

The standard deviation was calculated to be 6.129, and the

probable error 0.105, both of which are nearly the same as was

found for stature. The range of individual variation is shown in

the accompanying table (XVI) giving the seriation of the length

of the head at intervals of two millimeters. The curve drawn

207

208 FISHBERG

from these figures shows that there were few individuals with

heads less than 176 mm. in length; the largest proportion of

persons had heads 185-186 mm. long, and very few persons had

heads more than 200 mm. long. At 189-190 mm, the curve

appears to rise almost to the same height as at 186 mm., and

thus gives the curve the appearance of having a double apex.

PERCEN1

166 170 174 178 182 186 190 194 198 202 206 210

LENGTH OF HEAD

Fic. 4.

This and also the fact that the apex of the curve, representing

the largest percentage of individuals, does not correspond to the

average length of the head, 188 mm., may give the impression

that this is good proof that we deal here with a mixture of two

races, one whose average length of the head is 186 mm. and the

other with a head 190 mm. long. While this does not exclude

racial intermixture, to be sure, still it must be confessed that it

does not prove it. The interval between the two maxima, ex-

ANTHROPOLOGY OF EASTERN EUROPEAN JEWS 209

tends only over four mm., and the apices rise only a little over

one percent. Chance variation, individual error of observation

may easily produce this variation. Two thirds of all the indi-

viduals observed, had heads between 183 and 194 mm. long,

which clearly points to single type of head, and not two types.

On the other hand all these facts do not justify us in assuming

that this is conclusive proof that the Jews are a pure race, free

from any intermixture of foreign blood. The races among whom

the Jews have lived for centuries in Eastern Europe, and with

whom they might have intermarried, if at all, show the same

characteristic, and have nearly the same average length of the

head, as can be seen from the following figures :'

Average

Length of Head. Authority.

Te5G) Great: Russians... ..5...0.00 185 mm. )

602 White-Russians............. 188 :

611 Little-Russians ............. 184 a

540 Poles im Russia...........:: 186

¥.oee Poles in’ Galicial:;......... 180.5 Majer and Kopernicki.

871 Galician Ruthenians....... 132.3 - a

£90 Roumanians:....5.c.02. 0.30 185.76 Pittard.

Bs0 A UMGANIANS oo... wcccs02 sss 187 Ivanoyski.

The length of the head of these races is seen from these fig-

ures to be between 180 and 188 mm. If the usual discrep-

ancies which often occur between the different series of meas-

urements of even a single and homogeneous race are eliminated,

we find that the length of the head of the Slav races is about

183 to 187 mm. When we now investigate the anthropological

literature of the Jews in Europe we find a remarkable similarity

of conditions. As can be seen from the following figures the

length of the head of the Jews in Eastern Europe also oscil-

ates around these values.

1 These figures are taken from the following works: A. A. Ivanowski, “On

the Anthropological Composition of the Races of Russia,’’? AZemozrs of the Society

of Friends of Natural Science, Anthropology and Ethnography, Vol. XXII, 1894

(in Russian) ; Majer and Kopernicki, ‘‘ Charakterystyka fizyczna ludnosci galicyj-

skiej,’’ Zbzor viadomoset do antropology krajowej, Vol. 1, Krakow, 1877 ; Eugene

Pittard, ‘‘ Anthropologie de la Roumaina,’’ L’ anthropologie, Vol. XVI, No. I,

1903, pp. 33-58.

210 FISHBERG

Average

Length of Head. Authority.

200 Polish JewSs..0: cman cask 184 mm. Elkind

438 Little-Russian Jews ...... 185.4 Talko-Hryncewicz

69 Lithuanian Jews <....<...;. 187.3 ee ee

413 Galician Jews (Series I) 183 Majer and Kopernicki

(Series IT) 186 ce es

Loo Russian’ Jews 725-0: eeese 188 Blechman

100 South Russian Jews...... 183 Weissenberg

139 White-Russian Jews...... 183 Yakowenko

67 WKussian Jews. ..22<)s.<desee 187 Dybowsky

It will be observed that the length of the head among the

Eastern Europen Jews varies in the various series of measure-

ments, from 183 to 188 mm. As will appear hereafter in places

where the non-Jewish population has a longer antero-posterior

diameter of the head, the Jews show the same characteristic.

It can consequently be stated that if any intermixture of Jews

with their neighbors has taken place, we could not expect that

this should be shown up in a striking manner in the seriation of

the measurements of their heads. The difference is too small

to produce any appreciable effect on the average.

From the measurements of the Jewish immigrants in New

York City the following are the averages of the length of the

head of Jews from various countries. Galician Jews, 186 mm.;

Polish, 188 mm.; Lithuanian and White-Russian, 190 mm.;

Little-Russian, 188 mm.; Roumanian, 187 mm.; Hungarian,

188 mm.; United States, 190 mm. These figures show that

this measurement is larger in the immigrants than in Jews living

in eastern Europe. There Majer and Kopernicki found the

length of the head to average 183 mm.; in Poland Elkind

found in Jews in Warsaw an average of 184 mm.; in Lithuania

it was 187 according to Talko-Hryncewicz, and in Little-Russia,

1 These figures are taken from the following works: A. N. Elkind, ‘‘ The Jews,”’

Memoirs of the Society of Friends of Natural Science, Anthropol. and Ethnography,

Vol. XXII, 1902 ; J. Talko-Hryncewicz, ‘‘ Charakteristyka fizyczna ludnosci zydow-

skie} Litwy i Rusi,’’ Zb707 wiad. do antropol. kraj., Vol. XVI, 1892; Majer and

Kopernicki, Joc. c7¢. ; B. Blechman, ‘‘ Ein Beitrag zur Anthropologie der Juden,’’

Inaug.-Dissert. Dorpat, 1882 ; Weissenberg, ‘‘ Die siidrussischen Juden,’’ Archiv

fiir Anthropologie, Vol. XXIII, 1895 ; M. G. Yakowenko, ‘‘ Materials for the An-

thropology of the Jews,’’ St. Petersburg, 1898 (in Russian); L. Stieda, ‘‘ Ein

Beitrag zur Anthropology der Juden,’’? Archiv fiir Anthropol., Vol. XIV.

ANTHROPOLOGY OF EASTERN EUROPEAN JEWS 211

185. This explains the greater dolichocephaly of the immigrant

Jews when compared with those who remained at home. It is

also noteworthy that this measurement depends to a certain

extent on the size of the head of the non-Jewish races of eastern

Europe. Thus, in Galicia, the length of the head of the Poles

is 180.5 mm. on the average, and the Ruthenians 182.3 mm.,

being the shortest heads among the races in that region (Majer

and Kopernicki) the immigrant Jews from that country measure

only 186 mm. on the average ; in Russian-Poland, where the

indigenous population have longer heads, 186 mm. (Ivanowski) ;

the Jews also have longer heads, 188 mm.; in White-Russia

the White-Russians have longer heads, 188 mm. (Ivanowski) ;

the Jewish heads are also longer, 190 mm. The differences

are very small, to be sure, but considering the fact that the

numbers run so closely, smaller where the length of the head

Taste XVH.

LENGTH OF THE HEAD IN 1,528 Jews ACCORDING TO NATIVITY.

Length of the head! Gaya | Poland ixtbuania) Little. | Rou-

‘in mm ) | andWhite- Russia mania. | Hungary. en

| Russia

169-170 098 | — | — — — — | 0.80

171-172 Leese 1 Oc63° ) 0.45 ~- O.72 _

173-174 | 0.98 0.95 0.36 | or — 0.72 —

Py5-176 eet eed Gas O73 oly 2323 |. 3.33 ay =

177-178 | 269 2.54 0. 36 0.91 4.00 5.00 rl61

179-180 | 8.19 ae Bqo aesz 4 7-33 7.14 2.42

181-182 10.82 Bild 2 EA ot See 9.33 yee! 5-65

183-184 10.49 7.93 Gag} Weak | 10,67 11.43 9.68

185-186 16.73 | 12.68 | 17.82 | 12.79 | 12.67 8.57 4.03

187-188 Ti sG. | Sos B35 1 ATG 12:67.) $8257 | 12.90

189-190 13.15 1T-0% 14.55 | 11.88 14.00 12.86 17.74

IQI-192 10.49 16.51 21463) jo Eikgs2 4) 2067 | 19.71 11.29

193-194 4.59. | 3.6% 9.44 | 11.42 G67 | G.57 | 8.87

195-196 ROOF |" 708 FOTO |" “has aie. a4 6.45

197-198 L4. |p Bae 4e 73> ob 28h 4.00 6.43 9.68

199-200 6.65, | 2.22 4.50.) ica 0.67 2.86 023

201-202 0.98 1.59 1.82 1.82 — Fas ob 43.23

203-204 O. 32 0.32 0. 36 Gak |) «= = 1.61

205-206 0.65 0.95 46) eon |" 0.67 _ 0.80

207-208 - — | 0.36 0.45 — — —

No. observed. 325 ; i dae ey 2 $46 (+> 224

Average. 186. | 188 190 ESS. |. 187 188 190

Maximum. 206 | 2c6 207 208. 1-205 201 205

Minimum. 69.) aH 173 2 ae ee A 171

212 FISHBERG

of the non-Jewish races have smaller heads, and larger where

the non-Jewish races have larger heads, it is worthy of being

mentioned. This is of importance also because many of the

other somatic characteristics of the Jews, as stature, head-form,

etc., follow the same rule.

The relation of stature to the size of head is shown in the

following table :

Calculated

Number Length of | Percent :

Stature. Observed. Head. of Stature Length Difference.

of Head.

Shouli.geickseceaceee eee eee 350) 186. 4 Uti orene™ ays ese

Below the average........... 460 187 2250) SO; een

Above the average........... 420 188 [1.43 | For —3

Pall ntilve: eo pocacmeaenncenee 292 190 10. 198 —8

9 9 95 9

‘Potalsi ke econ ee 1,528 188 11.43 — _

It will be observed from these figures that with the increase

of stature the size of the head does not increase proportionally,

although it increases absolutely. Thus, while the length of the

head of the tall persons was 4 mm. longer than that of the

short persons, but in the former it was 10.95 per cent of the

body-height, as against 11.91 percent in the latter. If we take

the average length of the head as a standard, and consider that

the normal length of the Jew’s head is 11.43 percent of his

stature, we should expect that the short people should have heads

178 mm. long; but empirically we find that it is 8 mm. larger

than expected — 186. On the other hand, the tall persons

would on the same basis be expected to have a length of the

head of 198 mm., but empirically it is seen to be 8 mm. shorter

—1gomm. All this again shows that with the increase of

stature, the various parts of the body increase also, but only

absolutely, and that relatively to the body-height it decreases.

THE LENGTH OF THE HEAD OF THE WOMEN.

The average length of the head of the 435 Jewesses was 179

mm.—g mm. shorter than that of the Jews, or 95.21 percent

of the length of the head found in men. When it is considered

in connection with the shorter stature of the women, it is seen

ANTHROPOLOGY OF EASTERN EUROPEAN JEWS 213

that their head is not at all smaller than that of the men. In

men it was found that the length of the head amounts to 11.43

percent of the body-height, and in the women it is seen to be 11

percent— almost the same. The longest head encountered

among the women was I99 mm., the shortest 159 mm., a dif-

ference of 40 mm., or 22.34 percent of the average, and larger

than that found for the men. The standard deviation is 6.085

and the probable error 0.193, both about the same found for

the men.

The seriation shown in Table XVIII, and its graphic repre-

Tampere x VILE.

LENGTH OF THE HEAD OF 435 JEWESSES.

Bee). Number. Percent. oe en Number. Percent.

159-160 2 0.46 181-182 | 59 13.57

161-162 a _ 183-184 41 9.43

163-164 3 0.69 | 185-186 36 8.28

165-166 7 1.61 | 187-188 17 3.91

167-168 7 1.61 189-190 8 1.84

169-170 13 2.99 IgI-I92 10 | 2.29

171-172 27 6.21 193-194 3 / 0.69

173-174 26 5-95 195-196 I 0.23

175-176 54 12.39 197-198 a= —

177-178 56 12.88 199-200 I 0.23

179-180 64 14.71

Total. 435 99.97

sentation on diagram 4, show nothing of significance, except-

ing that the curve is smooth and its apex occurs at 179-180

mm., the median length, where 14.71 percent of all the obser-

vations are found.

From Table XIX is seen that the average length of the head

of the immigrant Jewesses is larger than that of Jewesses who

remained at home. [Excepting those from Galicia, who meas-

ured exactly the same as the Jewesses measured by Majer and

Kopernicki in Galicia, the Polish Jewesses averaged 181 mm.,

as against only 177 mm. in Warsaw; the Little-Russian Jew-

esses were found to have an average length of the head of 180

in New York City, and only 177 in their native land (Talko-

Hryncewicz). This corresponds to the facts observed while

considering the same measurement in men.

214 FISHBERG

TaBLE XIX.

LENGTH OF THE HEAD IN 435 JEWESSES, ACCORDING TO NATIVITY.

Borie oe Galicia. | Poland. | Gea White! ee Roumania, | Hungary.

| Russia

159-160 = | 1.79 a 1.35 — | —

161-162 -- — fo ae ee ae

163-164 704% 1 Ser. | Toe — | = —

165-166. | «2.46, || — 1.00 27Ois |v, eh ae tgr lh Sie

167-168 2:28 | a 2.00 — | — | = 2556

169-170 1.64 Bah 2.00 1.35 6.82 | "769

T7I=072 | 8.20. VN Para 6.00 1.35 ASGe ols) Lhe

173-174 6.56 TTA aA A500 6.76" 5! — | 10.26

175-176 Inds | 8:03 B2:00.. |, TRG) 22075. eon

177178 -. | 18:03 |) 214.20 “|| So;@o" = 2046 TS Or 1 a aebo

179=180. |) -WS5y57 |), waezo 16.00. | P3.51 I Cr eee eek ones

18i=132 ||) e100 10.71 20,00 «| « 20.27 6/52° “| 216726

183=184° |. Fig | 2e550 ie a eco. Nl eorsn 9.00 | \E5.20

r85=136- | °G.56 | “10771 JA is:00) "| "Gaby | 13-04 2.56

187-188 | 2.46 5.36 6.00 Boats valpes oten a

189-190 | 246° | yor | asco — le ey, | Bate

I9I=192, | 3s28 | 3-57) “200 Fea 5e- -— |" 2156

193-194 | a |, = ee Omatl 1.00 135 —— —

195-196 | a —- 1.00 — _ | —

197-1098 a awe eee

199-200 Se 1.35 5 — | —

No. observed. 122 56 100 74 | 44 | 39

Average. 178 181 179 Toone a 179 4 |) he

Maximum. 192 | 193 196 199 | 197 IgI

Minimum. 162% i= eno 163 160, Siig atk GO 167

The rule observed in men that the antero-posterior diameter

of the head of the Jews depends on that of the non-Jewish races

in the same country is not evident among the Jewesses.

WiIbtH OF THE HEAD:

The width of the head was obtained by searching with the

points of the calipers along the temples, over the ears and some-

what posteriorly. The average for the 1,528 men was 154.4

mm. — 9.37 percent of the body-height. The maximum was

174 mm., and the minimum 130 mm., a difference of 44 mm.,

or 28.57 percent of the average, which is larger than that ob-

served for the length of the head — 20.74 percent. This is due

to the fact that the individual who had a head of 130 mm. in

width was quite an exception. He was an Hungarian by birth

and his head measured 198 mm. in length, thus giving a ce-

ANTHROPOLOGY OF EASTERN EUROPEAN JEWS 215

phalic index of 65.66. He presented many signs of rickets in

early life. Excluding this individual, we find that the extreme

individual variation extends over 39 mm. (135 the maximum,

and 174 the minimum), or 25.32 of the average, which is also

larger than that found for the length of the head. This tends

to indicate that the width of the head is not as stable a trait as

is sometimes considered, and that its length is more valuable as

a measure of somatic characteristic. The standard deviation

was 5.482, and the probable error 0.9443.

The seriation of the width of the head is given in the accom-

panying Table XX, and in diagram 15, a curve is drawn from

these figures. This curve appears smooth, pointing at 154 mm.,

which corresponds to the general average width. Over 80 per-

cent of all observations have had heads from 147 to 160 mm.

wide, a variation of only 13 mm.

Tawra KX

WIDTH OF THE HEAD OF 1,528 JEWS.

“led ). Number. Percent. | obirite ). Number. | Percent.

129-130 I 0.07. || 153-154 234 | 15.32

131-132 — _ | 155-156 231 | 15.12

133-134 — -- 1 = 257=158 192 | 12.56

135-136 I 0.07 159-160 131 | 8.57

137-138 3 O27 | 3161-162 65 4.25

139-140 8 0.52 163-164 | 55 3.60

I4I—142 16 1.04 || 165-166 | 28 1.83

143-144 | 33 2.16 167-168 4 0.26

145-146 | or awe Pi 4.19 169-170 2 0.13

147-148 96 6.28 171-172 2 0.13

149-150 155 10.14 | 173-174 2 0.13

5 ia 205 (ee te a Total. 1,528 | 99.99

Taller men have relatively narrower heads than shorter men,

as can be seen from the following table :

| :

Stature. aeeas komad | ea “Calculated Difference.

| | Head

| | [

ih es daunis «és wgh SOc) ‘ake. ) o80 | 146 | +7

Below the average.......... 460 | isay. ) 8.39 | es |) oa

Above the average. ........ | 420 pea |) goes 156 —

ORE aR ae her arene 292 | r5G. | 8.00 162 | —6

See oh tea | og37 | — _

216 FISHBERG

It is seen that while the absolute width of the head of the

tall persons was on the average three mm. larger than that of

the short people, they were nevertheless relatively narrower.

The latters’ heads were on the average 9.8 percent of their

; bal elie EERE HH

‘s RWS Re Geers

WIDTH OF THE HEAD

(oo_ JEWS

a Bs Spt ae ihe JEWESSES

wT | at

ACS A

fe pA

GEE Eine

Pm A Id lade aah

Ee ES a

—t

—_—

—

ie)

ees

|_|

Salis

Saag

is!

PERCENT

Es |

Te aPERERSCC ECE

EPIC

cop)

alee

i¢>)

Bemvai

ee Se Ses

EERE BTR

AHHH Pete see

ene 4S GARRRS News cee,

ED a= 4RRRRRRR ees.

130 184 138 142 146 150 154 158 162 166 170 174

WIDTH OF THE HEAD

Le)

Fi¢é. 5.

body height, while in the former the percentage was only 8.99,

being 6 mm. shorter than the average length and the short

persons had heads 7 mm. wider than the average width would

indicate.

The average width of the head of the Jews according to their

ANTHROPOLOGY OF EASTERN EUROPEAN JEWS Fd |

nativity is about the same in each group, ranging from 153 mm.

in the Roumanian Jews, 154 in the Polish and Lithuanian

Jews, to 155 mm. in all the other groups. When compared

with Jews who were measured in eastern Europe, the immi-

grants have somewhat wider heads, but the differences are very

small, from one to three mm. There is no evidence in these

figures of acorrespondence of the width of the head of the Jews

with that of the Gentiles of the country of their birth. In Galicia

the width of the head of the Poles was found to be 152 mm. and

of the Ruthenians 153 mm., that of the Jews is 155 mm.; in Rus-

sian Poland Elkind found the average width of the head of the

Poles in Warsaw to be 150 mm. on the average, and that of the

Jews is 154 mm.; the Letto-Lithuanians and the White-Rus-

TABLE OL,

WIDTH OF THE HEAD IN 1,528 JEWS ACCORDING TO NATIVITY.

| |

| | | i h i j i

ar ar hace Galicia. Poland.) ae White- ees Roumania. | Hungary. ieee

mw: Russia. | ' ‘ ;

120-130 irae a ==: | = | — Q.71 —

is ae ea ee ye ef ce ih ras

133-134 = ee a= | — — — _-

135-136 | — | — | — -— — | — | 0.80

137-138 | 0.32); — 0. 36 0.45 = -- _

139-140 0, 32:|, 0.63; 70.73 0.45 | — Pe ae 0.80

141-142 | 0.65| 2.22 | 162° |) “0.45 — | — 0.80

143-144 | 2.63| 2.22| 4.36 0.91 2.00 aa 0.80

145-146 | 7.87 | 2.22 4.73 3.20 4.00 S57 * \, wivOE

147-148 5. Gr aubgel 9.09 10.05 2.00 7. 14 6.45

149-150 7.87 F290) [oes 6.85 ¥6,00' «| 8.57 TE. 20

151-152 15.40 | 13:32 | "0.02 16.98 | 12.67 12.86 14-72

| 13.96 | | ¥7.09 14.16 16.67 12.14 21.78

153-154 | 14.10)

155-156 13.22 07.46 16.37 53.70 14.67 £7.86 | "i520

157-158 Lia 5} HIL75 13.82 13.70 fiaae | 8.71 | 9,68

159-160 8.20 | 10.79 4.00 8.67 S67, | °7.86.| 14.51

161-162 4.92] 4.44 2.54 4.57 835. | 4.30 1,61

163-164 3.061 || 2.54 3.64 4.57 2.00) | 5.00 4.84

165-166 2:05 | 1.90 1.09 1.82 — les, 42286 —

167-168 0.32); — 0.73 — — Var! Ouge —

169-170 -- 0732 -_ 0.45 -- | -- —

17i-172 Q:32'| 6.32 — — — | — —

173-174 0.32) — — — 0.67 os —

No. observed.) 305 315 275 219 150 140 124

Average. | 155 | 154 154 155 153 TS hut 54

Maximum. 173 i 168 170 174 r68:.°) - 164

Minimum. 138 139 178° | =“ 3S Beem ts TRO [hl 5

218 FISHBERG

sians have an average width of 151 mm. (Talko-Hryncewicz),

and the Jews from that coun'ry 154 mm.; in Little Russia the

indigenous population, according to Talko-Hryncewicz, have an

average width of the head of 153 mm., and the Jews from that

country average 155 mm.; finally the Roumanians measure 154

on the average (Pittard) and the Jews 153 mm. There is thus

not evident any relation between the measurement of the width

of the head of the Jews and that of the indigenous races of

eastern Europe among which they have lived. The differences

are almost insignificant, being less than the chances of error

would lead one to expect. There is however a striking simi-

larity in the average values as a whole. The fluctuations in

these values is among the Gentile races from 152 to 154 mm.,

and among the Jews from 153 to 155 mm., practically the

same. It cannot be expected that any influence one group

may have had on the other should be evident from a study

of the width of the head, because the values are practically

uniform in magnitude.

TASEE XC.

WIDTH OF THE HEAD OF 435 JEWESSES.

Number Percent. | Width of the Number. Percent.

head (inmm.).

Width of the

O23 I TSrss2 50 11.49

131-132 I

133-134 I 0.23 |) 153-154 38 8.74

135-136 4 0.92 | “SE5—056 21 4.83

ia7=7138 2 0.46 || 157-158 12 2.76

139-140 16 3-68 || 159-159 8 1.84

tAt—142 | 32 7.25 1 fol-162) | I 0.23

143-144 43 9.89 || 163-164 | = ae

145-146 53 12.18 || 165-166 [ 0.23

147-148 78 E793 40 ln

1 49-150 74 17:04 Total. | 435 | 100.00

The width of the head of the women was 149 mm. on the

average, or 9.77 percent of their average stature. The maxi-

mum width was 165, and the minimum, 131 mm., a difference

of 24 mm. or 16.1 percent of the average, whichis much smaller

than that of the men. The standard deviation was 5.015; the

probable error 0.162, both about the same as in men, consider-

ing that the number of women measured was much smaller than

ANTHROPOLOGY OF EASTERN EUROPEAN JEWS 219

men. A glance at Table XXII and the curve on diagram 5

shows again the phenomenon observed when the length of the

head was considered. The apex of the curve for the women

rises much higher than that for the men—nearly 18 percent

had heads 147-148 mm. wide, and 17 percent 149-150 mm.

The curve in general is much narrower, and quite smooth.

77 percent of all observations lie within a range of 10 mm, —

between 143 and 154 mm. This of course points to a great

uniformity of type.

Lanre, XX Lik

Bie ny: | Galicia. Poland | and White a. Roumania | Hungary.

ieee. 0) 82 — — — — —

133-134 | _ 1.00 — — —_—

135-136 | 1.64 1279 — 1.35 = =

137-138 0.82 — — 1.35 — —

139-140 2.46 — 3-00 10.81 4.55 —

141-142 7.38 8.93 9.00 a — 7.69

143-144 4.92 19.64 9.00 9.46 13.64 10.26

145-146 8.20 8.93 16.00 12.16 9.09 23.08

147-148 13.93 25.00 17.00 E7.57 22:58 17.95

149-150 22.95 10.71 19.00 12.16 15.91 12.82

I51-152 10.66 10.71 14.00 8.11 18.18 7.69

153-154 12.30 5-36 4.00 10.81 9.09 10.26

155-156 6.56 1.79 6.00 4.05 227 eek

157-158 4.92 5.36 1.00 2.70 — —

159-160 1.64 1:70 1.00 1.35 ash. . 2090

161-162 ~- — _ — a Pe R6

163-164 a ms — — — | —

165-166 0.82 a = — etl yee

No; observed. | 122 56 100 74 oy a 39

Average width.) = 151 i 148° ' |) tag 148 i495 |) tad

Maximum. | 165 159 159 159 160 161

Minimum. | 136 136 134 136 139 142

According to their nativity, the Jewesses show an almost uni-

form width of the head, as is seen from Table XXIII. The

immigrant Jewesses have on the average wider heads than the

Jewesses in eastern Europe. Thus, the Jewesses in Galicia

average 143 mm. (Majer and Kopernicki) in width, while the

immigrant Jewesses from that country measured 151 mm.; the

Polish Jewesses in the United States average in the width of the

220 FISHBERG

head 148 mm., while in Warsaw this measurement was found

only 146 mm. (Elkind); the Lithuanian and White-Russian

Jewesses in New York had an average width of the head of 149

mm. and in their native country Yakowenko has found this

measurement to amount to 144 mm.; and in Little-Russia the

average was 145 mm. (Talko-Hryncewicz) as against 148 mm.

of immigrant Jewesses from that country.

Compared with the non-Jewish women in these countries in

eastern Europe it is seen that there is practically no difference

between the two. The Gentile women measure as follows:

White-Russian 145 mm. (Talko-Hryncewicz), Little-Russian

148 mm., Polish 146 mm. (Elkind), Letto-Lithuanian 145 mm.,

Ruthenians 147 mm (Majer and Kopernicki). It is thus seen

to be quite uniform, and this characteristic is shared by the

Jewesses.

THE CEPHALIC INDEX.

The average cephalic index was obtained by multiplying the

average width of the head by 100, and dividing the product by

the average length, thus:

100 X “38 = $1.91 = Cephalic index:

The minimum was 65.66, and the maximum 94.76, showing

an extreme individual variation of 29 units, or 35 percent, of the

average index. Excluding the individual with an index of 65.66

as pathological, there still remains a range of extreme variation

of 24 units, or 29 percent of the average. It will also be ob-

served that the deviation from the average was much larger

toward the minimum — 20.73 percent of the average (65-82),

while the maximum was only 14.63 percent distant from the

average. This tends to indicate a greater tendency to dolicho-

cephaly.

The standard deviation was 3.176, and the probable error

0.05477, much smaller than that found in the case of stature

and the length and width of the head. Between + of the stan-

dard deviation, z. ¢., between the cephalic index of 78 and 85,

were 1,243 individuals — 81.34 percent of all observations were

ANTHROPOLOGY OF EASTERN EUROPEAN JEWS 221

within these limits. The significance of this is more apparent

when we consider the probable error, which was only 0.054. It

shows that there is an even chance that when we should obtain

another series of 1,528 Jews in New York City we shall find

their average cephalic index within the limits of + of the probable

error — 81.85 and 81.96. The chances are four to one that it

will be within twice these limits, and nineteen to one that it will

lie within thrice these limits, z. ¢., between 81.748 and 82.072.

The head-form is thus shown to have a very small range of va-

riability, and the average determined in this series is quite close

to the true or ideal average. This confirms again the conclusion

that the cephalic index is a very stable racial trait.

Classifying the figures according to Deniker’s scheme, we find

the following distribution :

Number. Percent.

Hyperdolichocephalic (less than 76)............... 44 2.89

Dolhiehocepuahe( 76: and 77) .isc-ccsncs- vtec deaseen. 112 7, 30

Subdolighocephalic (7G:and 79).22..ccseacsssaseoee- 236 r5c51

Mesocepinalic. (80 amd SE.)). /i0c0tec 5.0.04 vem ccreonsces 394 25.78

Subbrachycephalic (82 and 83) .2...:/..:c0s0000.00 367 24.01

Brachyceplialic (34 and 85)... 2h.c5....ssavecseeos vss 246 15.97

Hyperbrachycephalic (86 and more)............... 129 8.48

1,528 100.00

This shows that the type of the Jewish head is mesocephalic.

Fifty percent of individuals had a cephalic index varying be-

tween the limits of four units, 80 to 83 inclusive; over eighty

percent varied only between the limits of eight units, 78 to 85.

This of course, points to homogeneity of cranial type.

This apparent uniformity of cranial type is displayed to a yet

better advantage when the seriation of the cephalic index is ob-

served in which each individual index is given with the percentage

of frequency of persons who had a given index, as has been

done in Table XXIV. The curve plotted ona scale from these

figures on diagram 6 shows this in a graphic form. It will be

seen that the cephalic index of 65 stands alone. It may be dis-

regarded because it is a manifestation of rickets in the early

years in its possessor. One individual had a cephalic index of

70, not one with 71. Only at 72 does the real series begin:

222

FISHBERG

TABLE- X XTX

CEPHALIC INDEX OF 1,528 JEWS.

Cephalic Index. | Number. Percent. Cephalic Index. Number. Percent.

65 I 0.07 83 166 10.86

70 I 0.07 84 138 8.90

71 — a 85 108 7-OF

72 I 0.07 | 86 66 4°32

73 4 0.26 87 22 1.44

74 17 a | 88 28 cag

75 20 je | 89 4 0.26

76 40 2.62 go I 0.07

We 72 4.74 gI 3 0.21

78 III 7.23 92 3 0.21

79 125 8.18 93 I 0.07

80 194 12.69 94 I 0.07

8I 200 13.09

82 201 13.15 Tota] 1,528 100.00

7 ae eee Ose Ls

BRERER BESS UEee eee

44|_| CEPHALIC UNDE 3621 i) e1e 1 ans

1528 JEWS Poe nekeeeere

13 AG. SG na ae

REREMEEPRES

Be Reese

eae So aU | Sa eS wl a

2 wee rw eine

Sas

CEPHALIC INDEX

Fic 6

Bie

RRS Ee Seka wae

Tae h eS Ssee

PT Tt | |] hee

82 84 86 88 90 92

ANTHROPOLOGY OF EASTERN EUROPEAN JEWS 223

4 persons (0.26 percent) with an index of 73, and then the curve

begins to rise steadily till the index of 81 is reached. At this

point the number observed persons is over 13 percent. The

curve now begins to descend steadily, with a slight rise at 88

which is of no special significance —it may be attributed to

chance variation.

This curve apparently proving uniformity of the cranial type

of the Jews of eastern Europe, appears rather striking and

peculiar. Appearing as it does, together with a wide range of

extreme individual variation. In order to test our own results

we have decided to compare this material with that of other in-

vestigators. We have for this purpose obtained measurements

of 1,113 Jews from the literature on the anthropology of these

people in eastern Europe. Only such statistics were taken as were

reported in a form suitable for comparison with our own figures.

Such were found in the works of Yakowenko (139 Lithuanian

Jews), Elkind (200 Polish Jews). Talko-Hryncewicz (507 Jews

in Lithuania and Little-Russia), Weissenberg (100 South-Rus-

sian Jews), Stieda (67 Jews in Minsk-Russia), and Blechman

(100 Jews in Russia). Classifying these figures as we did our

own we find:

Pest ae Mataeepes) awe.) |) Combined:

ee TONCITOCE PIANC. ¢ oi. fic epiaica vos a ninmto'ae seanaeensee' | 1.78% 2.89% | 2.42%

EP MUMEPEES ERD aro 2 «5 oi a\a ceca einai em nie ae eS oar md 270. 07.36) 6:24

Se MEICUOCEDIAIIC o 5 555 sane azendsscnsdoadaavs eet seen nail bess. | 15.55 |, 14.23

MRE AMBRE Sete. < suttscatatdad Sada eset teaean ys eemaesb eee moze TZ eli 2aepoo! | 24.50

Se EMOMEV EC DAG aos ca caer owns eu ndnne eaeshda nek secas 25242) | 240%, |, 24.61

EON UNC oe goa cars ds ua vadeianecesvahet ones aeakar es oes | 18.69 Ts; 97 | 17.19

Puy perbrachycephalic }......)....2-.00<=s PAS ite A eeces 14.03 S477) | 10.88

From these figures it is seen again that fifty percent of all

observations lie within the limits of four units, in each of the

three series, and eighty percent within the limits of eight units.

The seriation of these measurements as was done in Table XX V

is yet more striking. In both series the curve is quite smooth,

the slight indentations can be explained as caused by errors of

observation and calculation, and are always expected to occur,

no matter how careful the observer may be. The indentation at

224 FISHBERG

the cephalic index of 81 in the curve for the a,103 Jews an

Eastern European Jews, may be explained by this or by chance

variation. This is probably also the cause of the elevation of

the curve for all the 2,641 Jews at the index of 80.

TABLE’ XXV.

CEPHALIC INDEX IN 1,113 JEWS IN EASTERN EUROPE.

Cephalic Index. | Number. | Percent. | Cephalic Index.| Number. Percent.

70 | i Sy 0:09 || 84 112 10.06

71 1 noel a 85 | 96 8.63

72 I 0.09 86 72 6.47

73 5 0.44 87 | 34 3.06

74 rag 0. 36 | 88 | 22 167

75 | Cea 0.81 89 | II 1.00

76 162104 1.44 go ae. | 0.63

el | Silane 3-32 gI ser" | 0. 36

78 52 Fi 4.67 92 “2 | 0.18

79 88 7390 * 4} 93 3 0.27

80 126 | P1232 94 — —

81 127) a II.41 95 I 0.09

82 155 13.92 |

83 128 11.50 Total. P13 100.00

Before proceeding to discuss these curves as a test of the

purity of race we want to point out one peculiar feature of these

two series of observations. It will be seen that the immigrant

Jews in New York have 10.25 percent of persons with heads of

the dolichocephalic type (cephalic index less than 78), while the

Jews in Eastern Europe have only 6.54 percent of such indi-

viduals. On the other hand, 32.72 percent of Jews in Eastern

Europe have brachycephalic heads (cephalic index 84 and

more) while those who have left Europe and emigrated to the

United States have only 24.45 percent of people with this

cranial type. The difference is more striking when observed on

diagram 7. The curve for the Jews in New York City is seen

toward the left, while the one for Jews in Eastern Europe is

moved to the right. All this tends to show that the immigrant

Jews are more longheaded than the average of the people whom

they leave behind in their native county. Lapouge, Ammon,

Ripley and others will see in this a further proof for the theory

that great cities serve, for some obscure reason, as an attraction to

ANTHROPOLOGY OF EASTERN EUROPEAN JEWS 225

long-headed humanity.'_ How far the longheadedness of the

Jewish immigrants to the United States as compared with the Jews

in Eastern Europe, is due to the same conditions which are oper-

ative in Western Europe, we are not in a position to state. We

1113 JEWS IN

EASTERN EUROPE PANE

pace DES IIT HPht 24 10 ih

Gs) BERS SAKS

“~~ JEWS IN NEW YOR

ae EaE

ERSRARES Ee ima ANE

San PLS ee ieee

NAP aees Awe

JAS ANSE Ss ARRAS Bee

eebetel Dh bale abetubah ved]

SR LER Si RRA Es Tae

LJoOG2E SE ae Re Se eae

ER RRR SERRA EIee

See eae Pa RRPCR RAN

2. SR Sl) Bae Re eee

Se ee Sia ee

Lee RaAe 2 SSRN ARES

JRS20P Ss RRERAeO SSN NER

SS0BT So. (RARE ASAE eee

Ss Sia le oe ee

pp Yo

70 72 = TOS SeeeSOn (SA S40 686" 88) 90" 9 (99

CEPHALIC INDEX

Pic. 7.

merely note the fact, and canadd that from Jacobs’ observations

in London, the same appears to be the case with the Jews

there.”

A combination of both series of observations, those of Elkind,

Talko-Hryncewicz, Blechman, Weissenberg, etc., and those of

our own, as we have done in Table X XVI, and the curve drawn

from these figures representing measurements of 2641 Jewish

1 See Otto Ammon, ‘‘ Zur Anthropologie der Badener,’’ pp. 431 and 614 ; Wm.

Z. Ripley, ‘‘ The Races of Europe,’’ chapter XX.

2 Joseph Jacobs, ‘* On the comparative anthropometry of English Jews,’’ /our-

nal Anthrorological Institute, XIX, 1890, pp. 76-88.

226 FISHBERG

heads, depict yet more graphically the homogeneity of the

cranial type of the Eastern European Jews. This homogeneity

may easily deceive us into believing it to be the best proof of the

freedom of the Jews from admixture of foreign blood. This in

fact was the opinion we entertained in 1902, when discussing the

same problem,’ but a close study of the anthropology of the

races and peoples in Eastern Europe among whom the Jews have

lived for centuries, has materially altered our opinion.

These Jews come from the parts of Russia known as Lithuania,

White-Russia, Little Russia and Poland ; and also from Austrian

Galicia, Hungary and Roumania. A careful study of the head-

form of the indigenous populations of these countries reveals the

following remarkable fact : their head-form is more homogen-

eous than that of the population of any other part of Europe.

“The perfect monotony and uniformity of environment of the

Russian people’”’ says Ripley, ‘‘ is most clearly expressed anthro-

pologically in their head-form ...amoment’s consideration of

our map shows at once a great similarity of headform prevailing

all over Europe from the Carpathian mountains east and north,

The cephalic index oscillates but two or three points above a center

of 82. . . . Our widest variation in Russia is about five units.’

It is safe to assume that if any non-Jewish blood has been

infused into the veins of the Eastern European Jews during the

last thousand years, must have come from exactly the races and

peoples inhabiting just this region of Europe. A close exam-

ination of the map ingeniously prepared by Ripley® shows

graphically that the cephalic index of these peoples is about the

same as that of the Jews we are considering. Any slight differ-

ences that occur in some places, are also to be observed in the

Jews from these countries. Wherever there is an increase in

the width of the head of the native races, as for instance in

Galicia, the same is to be observed in the Jews coming from

these countries. The difference may be ever so small, it is still

1 See ‘‘ Physical Anthropology of the Jews,’’ I, Cephalic Index, American An-

thropologist, N. S., 1V, pp. 684-706.

2Wm. Z. Ripley, ‘‘ The Races of Europe,’’ pp. 341-342.

§ [bid., P« 340.

ANTHROPOLOGY OF EASTERN EUROPEAN JEWS 227

perceptible to the calipers when measurements are taken on the

Jews.

The cephalic index is considered by many anthropologists a

primary test of race. At the present state of our knowledge we

are not aware that it is influenced by any external conditions and

environment. Neither climate, nor altitude, nor any artificial or

social selection, social or economic conditions are known to have

any effect on the shape of the head. Wherever any differences

in headform have been found, anthropologists have always

looked for its cause in the intermixture of races. But can we

accept uniformity of cranial type, even such striking uniformity

as is displayed by the Eastern European Jews when studied ex

masse as a proof of their racial purity and the absence of any

non-Jewish blood in their veins ?

In order that we may answer this question intelligently, we

have collected measurements taken by European observers on

the various Slav races inhabiting the countries in which these

Jews have lived for nearly 1,000 years. For Poland, Elkind’s

work has been used; Talko-Hryncewicz’s works have been

drawn upon for data on the Letto-Lithuanians, Little- Russians,

and White-Russians ; for the Roumanians figures have been

taken from Pittard’s recent study of this people. We have

thus collected measurements of 2,906 non-Jewish inhabitants of

Eastern Europe, and have compared them with the Jews under

consideration. |

A glance at Table XXVI and the accompanying diagram,

8, reveals the following remarkable features: The course of

both curves is about the same, excepting that the curve repre-

senting the Jews appears to be tending to display more dolicho-

cephalic heads — it is more toward the left. The curve for the

Slavs shows a small elevation at the index of 80 and an inden-

tation at 81. That this is not an indication of any particular

racial element can be concluded by considering the fact that the

interval between the two apices is only one unit — 81; and the

difference between the proportion of the indices is very small.

There appears to have been a few more individuals with an index

of 80, than might be expected theoretically, and a few less with the

228 FISHBERG

XV.

CEPHALIC INDEX OF JEWS AND NON-JEWS IN EASTERN EUROPE.

Cephalic | Jews. Non-Jews. | Jews and Non-Jews.

| |

65 I 0.04 ant, — I 0.04

70 2 0.07 Se cn — 2 0.03

71 — — ‘a 0.24 7 O.1I

72 25) OOF 2 0.07. || 4 0.07

73 9 *, 10:36 O 4 0.31 18 0.32

74 21 OL7Gi e} 20. «| 0.68 | 41 0.74

75 29 1260: Pai eee 0.93 56 1.01

76 56 72 eae 64 | 2.20. | 120 2.16

a7 109 4.12 (00 ma 3.44 | 209 3.76

78 163 G57, LOI © || 5-54 324 5.84

79 213 8 06 193 6.64 406 7: ae

80 320 12,12 277% \| ls LONE 633 11.59

8I 327 12.38 249 | So 57 576 | 10.39

82 356 | 13.48 334: | igo | 690 12.43

83 | 204) he. 3 335 CI5S 629 | 11.33

84 250 9.46 306 1.530 | 2556 | 10.02

85 204 vf ZAG” Sua ie eeaGo | Sia

86 138 Seo2 193 6.64 geal | 5.96

87 56 212 134 4.61 190 | 3-44

88 | 50 1.89 86 2.96 136 2.47

89 15 0.57 61 2.10 76 | 1.26

90 8 6:31 oC | |e ce 41 0.74

gl 7 0.27 RS. 4 0.52 22 0.39

92 5 0.19 6. alee OT ri | 0.19

93 4 0.16 4 O18 8 | 0.14

94 1 0.04 | ©:17 || 6 0.10

95 I 0.04 a O:1Q | 4 0.07

Total. 2,641 100.00) | ~ 2,906 / 99.99 5,547 100.00

index 81. The same holds good for the curve representing both

Jews and Slavs on diagram 8. Here the curve runs quite a

smooth course. The apex corresponds to the average index, and

at both sides of the apex the curve descends steadily — the pro-

portion of persons with given indices decreases regularly the

further we get away from the average cephalic index. The

largest proportion of persons had an index of 82 — the average

cephalic index, and on both sides of this apex the curve runs

steadily down. There appears to be a good symmetrical and

harmonious arrangement of the curve on both sides. In fact

there are all the evidences to lead us into believing that we deal

here with a single, homogeneous and pure race. But, as we

ANTHROPOLOGY OF EASTERN EUROPEAN JEWS 229

know, there is here represented more than one half a dozen

races, each of which taken by itself can not be considered free

from foreign elements to any extent.

The head-form of the Eastern European Jews, when studied

en masse, is consequently not a safe criterion as to their racial

purity. Even if they had intermarried, clandestinely or openly,

in centuries bygone or in modern times, with their Slavic neigh-

Pale Tear Meee en SR IR oie best i) Sec. |

eke Sheahan anal ae eet

Boao naeeE

pes

72 “T4 76) _78780 62) "845766 “es “907 ‘92 94 96

CEPHALIC INDEX

Bicio.

bors in Eastern Europe, we can not expect that the foreign

blood thus infused should be evident in the study of their

cranial type. The differences, if any are to be discerned, are

too small to be felt by the calipers and tape to an extent as to

show any characteristics in the cephalic index.

It may therefore be presumed that the only method which

promises to give more or less satisfactory results is the applica-

tion of the comparative study of the head-form of the Jews with

. 230 FISHBERG

that of the races among which they have lived for a longer time

in given localities. If we find that the shape of the head is the

same in every country, notwithstanding the differences displayed

in this regard by the non-Jewish races in these localities, then

we may of course see in this a good argument in favor of the

purity of the race, and the absence of any serious intermixture

of foreign blood. But if, on the other hand, we find that wher-

ever the head of the non-Jewish population is broader or longer,

the Jews also display this characteristic ; then the only cause to

be assigned for this phenomenon is, at the present state of our

knowledge, the admixture of foreign racial elements.

TABLE XXVITE-

CEPHALIC INDEX IN 1,528 JEWS ACCORDING TO THEIR NATIVITY.

| |

aa | Galicia. | Poland. | ey pes oumianta. Hungary. uae

65 = a = = eS Ti Ostia =

68 —- — | — Poca. 1 ged ete —

70 — | 0.32 | = = oe ee ==

71 | 2h | ae ee rs. = ay aa)

72 =| ene | = =

73 0.32 0.63 — O.30: 1). a= aa -— —-

74 0.32°)) S50) | 1.45 E37. Ge eh ea ae

75 0.98 omar, 3:98 | ESF) SS A OW a eOzeo

76 0.98 3:40") 4.30. |" 2.78 Ts 93 ah 2 Nas a eee

ver 3.03 | 4a7or | 8.00 2.28 2:07 | 1.43 «| -O368

78 4.261 ||) 5208) Wr 1as08 Fog 6:67.) “5200-4 |) 0 14a

79 4.92 | 8.89 10.91 | 8.67 7233. |, eile Sao

80 £4.10. | 3.82 14.98" | TOs 13.39) Lhasa eee

81 | 13:77° | 9.21 | “120360 | 4-61 4) as ae. |) ne son eneass

82 | 14.43 | 14.92 9.45 | 19.63 0:33). |) toszs 9.68

83 12.40.0 | ew 8-60: . «4.0.60 4) (TOOG! Taare aleansies

84 §.20)" | 10:47 8.73 7-30 J Os33, Wel We acon

85 | 8.20 .| 27.20 2:54" ||, 0.40.1) 12:00") 9 O26) “bes

86 5.25 | 286 3.28 5-93 63007 1) ¥ 13357 > “ine As

87 2.63 0.95 O73 75 |). Sag, 2.38 eh ese)

88 3.93, || 53.00 4] O.73 ) 1" 20.45 ile s2s00) |) e260" Wi a

89 0.32 | “0,32 — — OOF gC. alent 9

go — | 0.32 oo ewe y ere ee

gI —- | — — oo 0.67 Ae | se

92 0.98 — — -- ae

93 = 0.32 7 ln ae a eel

94 — O. 32 = — — sl es

Number. 305 1315 275 219 150 140 | 124

Average. | 33:33 | 81.01 81.05 | 82.45 81.82 82.45 | 81.05

Maximum. 92.51 | 94.76 88.24 | 90.18 | 91.32 91.88 | 87.53

Minimum. | 73.63 | 70.52 TS34 | 75-42 © 76.14 65.66 74.69

ANTHROPOLOGY OF EASTERN EUROPEAN JEWS 231

In Table XX VII (on page 228) is given the cephalic index of

the Jews according to their nativity. The differences in the

averages are very slight: the Galician Jews have an average

cephalic index of 83.33, while the Lithuanian and Amerian

Jews have only 81.05, the other groups, about 82. When com-

pared with the Jews in Eastern Europe, we find that the head-

form is about the same as in the immigrants, with one slight

exception to be noted when they are compared in groups repre-

senting the various types of headform. This has been done in

Table XXVIII for the Polish, Lithuanian and Little-Russian

Jews. For the rest there is no literature available, the present

being the first measurements reported of Roumanian and Hun-

garian Jews.

TaBLE XXVIII."

CEPHALIC INDEX IMMIGRANT AND EASTERN EUROPEAN JEWS.

Type Poland. iiiecuin, a2 | Tae Radeia.;

oo N.Y. | Poland. N.Y. | Lithuania. | N.Y. |Little-Russia.

=35 3.81 £3 FO) Gg One | 93.19 1.30

76—77 S27 RR. 3 ¥S 36 8.00 5-02 | 4.72

78-79 i ey a we 21.82 14.55 | 16.44 | 10.04

80-81 22.56 26.5 27.27 28.00 24.66" 183797

82-83 26.67 29.5 17.45 26.55 29.23 22.86

84-85 | 17.77 15.0 55.27 11.63 E9L- | 24:26

so =| («6.67 4.5 4-74 | 8.72 7-75 19.15

A comparison of the immigrant Jews from Galicia, with those

in their native country (from Majer and Kopernicki’s measure-

ments) is here given:

Cephalic Index. New York. Galicia.

-74 0.64 3-63

75-77 5.89 3.87

78-80 23.28 13.80

81-84 48.87 - 49.40

85 + 21.32 29.30

From these tables we see that the proportion of dolichocephalic

individuals, with a cephalic index less than 78 is larger in the

1 The figures for the Eastern European Jews have been taken from the works of

the following authors: Elkind, for the Polish Jews ; Stieda, Talko-Hryncewicz,

and Yakowenko, for the Lithuanian and White-Russian Jews; Weissenberg and

Talko-Hryncewicz for the Little- and South Russian Jews.

232 FISHBERG

immigrant Jews than among those in their native countries,

while the proportion of brachycephalic individuals (cephalic

index 84 and more) is larger among the stay-at-homes, than

among the immigrants. There are only two exceptions — Gal-

ician Jews have 7.5 percent of dolichocephalic in Galicia, while

those who emigrated to the United States have only 6.53 per-

cent of persons with this type of head: and the Polish Jews

have 24.44 percent of brachycephalic among the immigrants,

as against 19.5 percent among those left at home. All the rest

follow the rule that immigrants have a larger percentage of the

dolichocephalic than brachycephalic type of headform. In the

Galician Jews this possibly goes hand-in-hand with the absence

of social selection which has been evident when stature was

considered.

A comparison of the headform of the Jews with the indige-

ous populations of the countries in which they have lived is

TABEEs OI:

CEPHALIC INDEX OF JEWS AND NON-JEWISH EASTERN EUROPEAN RACES.

ee A ae ie

} erg oo. 8 SN Oo’ x Se) in } a

| Yo oo = = cs < ee c

Country. | ic 5 | qa 8 S = | jae eas = a ee Observer.

| Sm | Se si Cs | a a a a =

BD | ae, Wl ee. Ih Seal ieee a

Jews. 515 | 81.75 |2.19| 7.19 | 15.35 | 24.27 | 27.75) 26.70 | 5.83 |Milland. mene

Poles. 226 | 80.85 | 2.65 | 17.25 | 22.57 | 20.36 | 23.45 | 7.97 | 5.75 |Elkind.

Jews. | 550 ; 81.10 | 3.82| 10.18 ; 18.18 | 27.64 | 22.0 | 11.45 6.74 | Yakowenko,

‘Stieda, Tal.

Letts. | 476 | 80.60 | 2.52] 6.30 | 13.86 | 21.85 | 23.95 | 19.76 | 11.76 | Talko-Hryn-

| | cewicz.

White-Russ. | 961 83.20 2.81 5.83 | 13.22 | 20.09 | 22.58 | 18.52 | 16.96 |Talko-Hryn-

cewicz.

Little- Russia.

Jews. 757 | 82.45 |1.85| 4.09 | 11.89 | 20.49 | 24.70 | 21.12 | 15.86 |Talko, Weis-

| | | senberg.

Little-Russ. | 1055 | 83.20/1.23| 2.56] 7.96] 17.54 | 23.52 | 21.61 | 25.59 |Talko-Hryn-

| | | cewicz.

Roumania. |

Jews. | 150 | 81.82

1.33) 0.33 | 20:67 24.67 | 10:3 |-15:0 6.67 Fishberg.

Roumanians. | 190 | 82.92 |3.7 | 6.3 | 13.7 | 17.89 | 19.47 | 17.89 | 21.05 |Pittard.

ANTHROPOLOGY OF EASTERN EUROPEAN JEWS 233

given in Table X XIX which shows some noteworthy character-

istics."

CEPHALIC INDEX OF JEWS, POLES AND RUTHENIANS IN GALICIA.

Type of headform, Jews. Poles. Ruthenians.

—-74 2.37 1.49 3-33

75-77 4.73 3.62 4.82

78-80 17.82 11.41 15.86

81-84 49.17 34.60 S25

85 + 25.91 48.88 38-74

From these tables is seen that the headform of the Jews, when

compared with the indigenous races of the countries from which

they come, shows great similarities. In Galicia, where the

cephalic index of the Ruthenians is 83.5, and that of the Poles

is 84.4, that of the Jews is 83.33; in Russian-Poland, where

the cephalic index of the Poles is only 80.85 (Elkind) the Jews

also are more longheaded, having an average cephalic index of

81.75; the same is:the case in Lithuania and White-Russia,

where the Letts, are longheaded, with a cephalic index of 80.5

(Waeber), and even 78.5 according to Talko-Hryncewicz’s meas-

urements, as are also the Lithuanians, averaging 78.75 (Talko-

Hryncewicz, Brennsohn). Here the Jews have an average

cephalic index of 81.10.” South Russia, where the Little-

Russians are predominating in numbers, is another center of

brachycephaly, their cephalic index is over 83 on the average,

and even 85.61 according to Belodied.* The Jews in this

region of Russia have an average index of 82.45. In Roumania

very few measurements have been taken on the indigenous popu-

lation. From Pittard’s recent work the Roumanians are seen

1The measurements of the non-Jewish races in this table are taken from the fol-

lowing works: For the Poles, Elkind, ‘‘ The Wisla Poles,’’ AZem. Royal Soc. of

friends of Natural Science, Anthrop. and Ethnography, Vol. 90, Moscow, 1896 ;

Lithuanians and White-Russians, Talko-Hryncewicz, ‘‘Charakterystyka fizyczna

ludowLitwy i Rusi,’’ Z2é2or Wiadom. do antropol. krajowej, Vol. XVII, Krakow,

1893 ; Little-Russians, zdem., ‘‘ Charakterystyka fizyczna ludu ukrainskiego,’’

ibid., Vol. XIV, Krakow, 1890; Roumanians, Pittard, /oc. ci¢., Galicia, Majer

and Kopernicki, Zoc. c?¢.

2 The White-Russians here are more broadheaded, 83.2 (Talko-Hryncewicz).

8 Quoted from Ivanowski, /oc. civ.

234 FISHBERG

to have a cephalic index of 82.92." The immigrant Jews from

that country had a cephalic of 82.82, nearly the same as that

found by Pittard in the indigenous population, the difference in

one unit may possibly be accounted for by the fact that the

measurements on Jews were taken on immigrants who, as we

have seen are, asa rule, slightly more dolichocephalic. For the

Jewish and non-Jewish population in Hungary the data are

scanty. Steinberg found 54 Szeklers in Transylvania to be

mesocephalic (cephalic index 81.4), while 69 Magyars were

hyperbrachycephalic (cephalic index 87.8)* and Janko’s measure-

ments of 84 Szeklers gave an average index of 84.5. It will

be seen that with such scanty and contradicting materials it is

impossible to draw any conclusions. The Jews from that

country had an average cephalic index ot 82.45.

Considering that the cephalic index of the races in eastern

Europe is almost uniformly confined within the limits of four

units, 80 to 84, within the limits of personal error of observa-

tion and calculation of the observer, it must be agreed that the

headform of the Jews agrees closely with that of the non-Jewish

races and peoples in that region of Europe. This is confirmed

by a close study of the figures presented in Table XXIX,

showing the distribution of the classes of headforms in Jews and

non-Jews-in various eastern European countries where materials

suitable for comparison are available. Thus longheaded indi-

viduals, with a cephalic index less than 78, are found among

the Jews in the tollowing order: 5.98 percent in Little-Russia,

7.1 percent in Galicia, 9.38 percent in Poland, 10.66 in Rou-

mania, and 14 percent in Lithuania and White-Russia. Among

the indigenous races in these countries the order is as follows:

3.79 percent among the Little-Russians, 5.11 among the Poles

in Galicia (8.15 among the Ruthenians in that country), 8.80

among the Letto-Lithuanians and White-Russians, Io percent

among the Roumanians, and 19.9 among the Russian-Poles.

1 Bassanovitch finds an average index of 77.5 in 106 Roumanian immigrants in

Bulgaria ; Himmel, 86.3 in 200 Roumanian soldiers in Bukowina, and Weisbach

found them to be hyperbrachycephalic, 26 individuals in Transylvania averaged

87.2.

2(uoted from Weisbach, Kérpermessungen, etc., pp. 201 and 227.

ANTHROPOLOGY OF EASTERN EUROPEAN JEWS 235

It is thus seen that with only one exception, the Russian-Poles,

the order is the same among the Jews and non-Jews. Brachy-

cephaly, cephalic index 84 and more, is among the Jews in the

following order: Lithuania and White-Russia, 18.19 percent ;

Poland, 22.53; Roumania, 24.67; Galician, 25.91, and Little-

Russian, 36.98. Among the non-Jews in these countries the

order is as follows: Russian-Poles, 13.72 percent; Letto-

Lithuanians, 21.52; White-Russians, 25.48; Roumania, 38.94;

Galician- Ruthenians, 38.74, and Poles, 48.88, and finally Little-

Russians, 47.1 percent. Here again we find that with the ex-

ception of the Polish Jews, the proportion of brachycephaly

among the Jews depends on the proportion of persons with

such heads among the Gentiles among whom they live.

CEPHALIC INDEX OF THE WOMEN.

The average cephalic index of the 435 women was 83.24 —

a little wider than that of the men. The maximum was 91.17

and the minimum, 71.47 —a difference of 20 units, or 24.09 per-

cent of the average; thus showing a smaller range of extreme

individual variation. The maximum diverged from the average

by 8 units, 9.63 percent ; and the minimum 12 units, 14.45

percent. showing the same tendency of more pronounced varia-

bility toward dolichocephaly, which was noted in men. The

standard deviation was 3.419, and the probable error 0.110618,

about the same as in men.’ Classifying the date in classes as

was done in the case of the men, we find the following distribu-

tion:

Number. Percent.

Eeeperuolichocelphialic:. i. 2205. cavaconanp anoint cncacer tenet 5 1.15

PIPCROCEDMANC 05, 0i50..assdanuacbaunvnsemdias+ te oueadsucs 21 4.83

PIE TOCEIRGLIC *..,..'s ceureks nominee cee teak 45 10. 34

ESOL IE fais » 45 5s ose My ne tiquan edueddd eeeedes ates a 110 25.20

Subbrachycephalic ......... sa'sinigs dete Raenigaastin nnn kiaetav' 103 23.68

PPMMEE BCS tus. cca snaate aNaeste ppaine tceet ote ate 82 18.86

EAPC UEACHYCODNALIC .... -<v:ceun vee notag deren secu sas teses 69 15.86

MOMs sac aavceh ends a oem bee Memnaee eee needa 435 100.00

1 The larger value of the probable error being due to the fact that the number of

women was smaller.

236 FISHBERG

These figures show that the women display a greater tendency

to brachycephaly, as is also seen by their average cephalic index.

5.98 percent of the Jewesses had a cephalic index of less than

78, while in Jews it reached 10.25 percent; brachycephalic

heads, with an index of 84 and above, on the other hand, are

found in the women 34.72 percent as against only 24.45 percent

in the men. The proportion of mesocephalic heads is about the

same in both sexes.

The seriation in Table XXX and the curve plotted on

diagram 6 show the maximum frequency of occurrence (14.48

percent of all the women measured), to be at the cephalic index

of 81. Women with an index of 82 were only found 10.57

percent, while the indices of 83 and 84 are again well repre-

sented, 13.1 and 12.18 percent respectively. A double apex

is thus produced in the curve, one culminates at the index of 81

PABEE XOX

CEPHALIC INDEX IN 435 JEWESSES.

Cephalic Index. | Number. Percent. | Cephalic Index.) Number. | Percent.

71 | I G23 So" ¢ 46 10.57

72 | I 0:23 i 83 57 | 13.10

73 = = | 84 53 (Seen

74 = — | 85 29 6.67

75 2 0.69 86 | 28 6.44

yO, =i, Sie E7Si et eel 15 3.45

te | 9 2.07 88 8 1.84

78 | 26 5.98 89 fe) | 2.20%

79 | 19 4.37 l fe) | 6 | 1.38

80 | 47 10.80 | gt 2 0.46

SI | 63 14.48 =

| | Total. | 435 | 99.99

and the other at 83-84, with a depression at the index of 82.

This double apex is of significance, showing a greater variability

of the headform of the women as compared with that of men.

This phenomenon was already observed in our preliminary com-

munication, where a lesser number of observations was reported.

It is also to be noted in the anthropological literature of the

Jews where measurements of heads of women are recorded.

From Elkind’s measurements of Polish Jewesses it is to be seen

ANTHROPOLOGY OF EASTERN EUROPEAN JEWS 237

that the curve for the cephalic index has two apices, one at the

index of 82, and the other at 84.' Yakowenko’s measurements

of Jewesses in White-Russia also show a double apex in the

curve for the cephalic index, one culminating at 77 and the

other at 81.2. In Talko-Hryncewicz’s series of 206 Jewesses in

Little-Russia there are even seen three apices in the curve for

the cephalic index, at 80, 82 and 85.° The irregularity in the

curves of the headform of the Jewesses is very remarkable from

a biological standpoint. Throughout the animal kingdom the

males are always known to show wider limits of variation in

mental and physical character than do the females. Darwin *

has brought together many examples to this effect, both in man

and the lower animals; and Havelock Ellis® also shows that

there is a greater tendency in man to diverge from the type

than in woman. With the Jews, however, the reverse is the

rule, so far as the headform is concerned, seems to apply, since

itis the women who show the greater variability and differ-

entiation.

In order to test this point we collected the measurements

reported in the works of the following authors, and constructed

a curve. From Weissenberg® 50 Jewesses in southern Russia ;

125 Polish Jewesses from Elkind’s work’ ; 206 Jewesses in

Little Russia by Talko-Hryncewicz*; 100 women from Yako-

wenko’s work,’ all these were added to the 435 Jewesses here

recorded, and thus a total of g16 women was obtained, a num-

ber which may be relied upon to give definite results. In Table

XXXI and diagram g are given the seriation and the curve

1 A. D. Elkind, ‘‘ The Jews,’’ Memoirs of the Soc. of Friends of Natural Science-

Anthropol. and Ethnography, Moscow, 1902, p. 132 (in Russian).

2M. G. Yakowenko, ‘‘ Materials for the Anthropology of the Jews,’’ St. Peters,

burg, 1898, p. 185 (in Russian).

3]. Talko-Hryncewicz, ‘‘Charakterystyka fizyczna ludnosci zydowskiej,’ Zézor

wiadomosct do antropol. kraj., Krakow, XVI, 1892, p. 45.

4«« Descent of Man,’’ Chap. VII: ‘‘ Variation of Animals and Plants under

Domestication,’’ Vol. II, chap. XIV.

5 «Man and Woman,’’ London, 1893, chap. XVI.

§ «« Die siidrussischen Juden,’’ Archiv f, Anthropol., XXIII.

06, c1b.

Oh ic, Cl.

238 FISHBERG

TABLE XXXII.

CEPHALIC INDEX OF 916 JEWESSES.

Cephalic mee Nee | Bane ; Céphalie Intex, eee Percent.

68 I 0.11 | 83 104 11.36

71 3 0533 | 84 115 12.56

72 4 0.44 | 85 68 7.42

73 = <5 86 53 | 5-79

74 2 0.22 87 297i 3.16

75 8 0.87 88 20° | 2.18

76 21 2.20 89 P78 1.85

ad 27 2.95 | go 14 | 1.53

78 51 S258 am 91 5 | Osa

79 52 5070 a) 92 = ax

80 109 11.90 93 Bad 0.11

8I 107 11.68 a

82 105 11.46 Total 916 | 100.00

13 a

of these figures, which again show that the variability of the

Jewesses as regards their head-form is much greater than that

ait

FEC Re SR eave

Pa Se

PERCENT

of the Jews.

Lal ae

ee Sn GcePpaaAricinpex

ee eee

BRSRERSS Seok ewe

916 JEWESSES

Ef TA TSC ST ical a

Ne aaa Na

72 74 76 78 80 82 84 86 90 92 94

Here we have some evidence of two apices, one

CEPHALIC INDEX

FIG. 9.

ANTHROPOLOGY OF EASTERN EUROPEAN JEWS 239

at the index of 80 and the other at 84, both of which are con-

nected by a more or less straight line: there is practically no

depression between the two apices. In fact it may be consid-

ered that this curve has no culminating apex atall. Individuals

with indices of 80 to 84 are encountered in about equal propor-

tions, as can be seen from the flattening of the curve at its top.

Whether the disturbing element in this case is some particula-

racial element, will not be discussed now. It must however be

pointed out that the same phenomenon is to be observed in the

curve of the cephalic index of the men, although only toa

lesser degree. There the flattening of the top of the curve

extends only over three units, from 80 to 82, while in the curve

of the women it extends over five units, from 80 to 84. The

variability of the head-form of the women is thus shown to be

TABLE: XX XE

CEPHALIC INDEX OF 435 JEWESSES ACCORDING TO NATIVITY.

M ; Pe Lithuania | JF ittle- ;

Cephalic Index. Galicia. Poland. | and White- Rgiscial. | Roumania. | Hungary.

Russia.

71 0.82 =A -- — — —

72 ' — — 1:00). «| — = —

73 =e as = a oF

74 | = . = - | a

75 — Ary eon Wa tegh |) gag —

76 0.82 8.93 4.00 yO — | _

ri | 1.64 E579) » @.60 2:70 — | —

78 p= ae 3-57 3:00. 1) “10,81 mae |. 12588

79 Les 92 5-36 FO | js 2.90 G2 |... 5.13

80 5-74 19.64 | 13.00 |. 13.51 Gog |) S13

81 9.99 19.64 12.00 22.97 18.18 7.69

82 | 2 8.20 E250 Ob) 33566 14.86 9.09 Rel

83 | 14.75 5c ZO 96.60, Wh, HeSr EI 6.82 17.95

84 | rela ayaa S.93° Ut 29:00 1.4 e696" 1) ..25.00 20.51

85 | 10.66 5-36 7.00 ~h ty seat 9.09 i.43

86 | 9.99 EIFS F200 | 1y 05 6.82 5.13

87 5-74 1.79 5-00 | 1.35 2.27 —

88 ib? 4508 — 1.00 — =e |! ee BS

89 | 2.46 1.79 1.00 135 = 10.26

go | “2346 1.79 | me Me 2.27 —

91 hae. Ba 1.79 — — — —

No. observed. 122 56 100 | 74 44 39

Average. | 84.83 1.77 |, .os.28 (1 62.22 83-24 83.15

Maximum. | 91.81 91.87 88.41 88.73 90.19 | 89.92

Minimum. 71.58 76.40 72.38 74.39 75-84 78.72

240 FISHBERG

greater than that of the men. It must be recalled in this con-

nection, however, that the standard deviation, which many

biologists consider the best measure of variability of physical

characteristics is about the same in men (3.176), as in women

(3.419). But even this tends to contradict the accepted opinion

that the male is more apt to show wider limits of variation, and

confirms Pearson’s theory that when studied by modern mathe-

matical methods, available data tend to show that any difference

in the degree of variability in the sexes which may be discerned,

women are slightly more variable than men.'

In Table XXXII are given the individual variations of the

cephalic index of the Jewesses according to their nativity.

Owing to the small number of observations in each group, it

can not be expected that this should give reliable information

as to the variability of the Jewesses in each of the named coun-

tries. Arranged in groups of types of headform, we may com-

pare them with the Jewish women in Eastern Europe, wherever

literature on the subject is available.

TABLE, XOX TT

CEPHALIC INDEX IN JEWESSES IN THE UNITED STATES AND IN EASTERN

EUROPE.

Pet eee aie

Poland. | Lithuania and White- — Little-Russia.

TYRE of | ussia.

eadform. | \ : | 5

New York. Poland. | New York. Peet. UiNew Ware stents

=a TTA eG 250) wie SLO 1333 A Wea

76-77 \sSO7on 6 Liat gw 8.6) 5) = 28,0 5-41 2:01

78-79 le” 38.03.85 22s ona 6,6" MILs T4260 13.51 8.74

80-81 | 39-29 | 20.0 25:0...) © -2A.0: la" 3Os40; My 208877

82-83 17.80) Wl W272 22°. An TOO alleen G7, 21.85

84-85 | “E4. 292 7) 2450 13.0 12-0." (i) 2eTO 22.81

86+ I; 88.039 Fannie 14.0 7 Oy Sy te kOe 21.36

| | |

No. observed. 56 lo WV Eae 100 100 | 74), | 3206

There is no evidence of greater dolichocephaly in the immi-

grant Jewesses as was seen to be the case with the Jews. Thus

in Galicia the average cephalic index of the Jewesses was found

1 Karl Pearson, ‘‘ The Changes of Death,’’ chapter on ‘‘ Variation in Men and

Women.’’

ANTHROPOLOGY OF EASTERN EUROPEAN JEWS 241

to be 80.3 (Majer and Kopernicki), while the immigrant Jew-

esses from that country have an index of 84.83 on the average ;

in Poland the cephalic index of the Jewesses in Warsaw meas-

ured by Elkind was 82.92, while those from this country who

emigrated to the United States, are seen to have an average

index of 81.77; in White-Russia, the Jewesses observed by

Yakowenko are more longheaded (81.24) than those who emi-

grated to the United States (83.23); and in Little-Russia, Weis-

senberg found the Jewesses with an average index of 82.4, and

Talko-Hryncewicz 83.0, almost the same as that in the immi-

grant Jewesses from that region of Russia— 82.22. It is thus

seen that with but one exception, the Polish Jewesses, the immi-

grant women are slightly more brachycephalic than those who

remain at home. This is confirmed by the figures in Table

XX XIII where it is seen that the proportion of dolichocepha-

lic Jewesses is considerably larger in those who were measured

in their native country than in the immigrants, excepting in

those coming from Little-Russia. The proportion of brachy-

cephalic among the immigrant Jewesses in each group bears no

TABLE XXXIV.

CEPHALIC INDEX IN JEWISH AND NON-JEWISH WOMEN IN EASTERN EUROPE.

ug | 82.1 8 ee ee & = = :

Country. — a cas z he: | “S = =) S E Observer.

Sn > oS a Ss a x w e a

ZS <0 | an Vo) oe) fe) a + =

<a nw ~ [oe] ie) fo) — |

Poland. | | |

Jewesses. 18t | 83.18 | 1.10] 4.22 | 11.60 | 25.97 | 24.31 | 21.00 | 11.60 | Fishberg, EI-

| | _ kind.

Poles. 153 81.35 4-03 10.07 21.48 28.19 16.78 12.75 6.70 | Elkind,

Lithuania. | |

Jewesses. 200 82.00 5.00 13.00, 10.00 | 24.5 24.00 | 13.00 10.50 Fishberg,

| | Yakowenko

Letto-Lith. | 107 | 80.60 | 4.67 | 14.95 | 11.21 | 26.17 | 17.76 | 11.21 | 14.03 | Talko-Hryn-

| | | | cewicz.

White-Russ. i141 82.30 |7.09| 0.71 | 9.93 | 25.53 | 23.40 | 21.28 | 12.06 | Talko-Hryn-

a | | cewicz,

Little-Russia. | |

Jewesses. | 280° 82.72 1.43) 3-57 | 10.00 | 25.00 22.14 | 20.00 | 17.86 Fishberg, Tal-

| | | ko-Hrynce-

‘ | | wicz.

Little-Russ. | 237 | 83.40 4 2a 8.02 14.34 30.80 19.41 | 24.90 Talko-Hryn-

cewicz.

=). ee

242 FISHBERG

relation to the proportion found among the Jewesses measured

at home and no definite conclusions can be drawn in this respect

as to any form of social selection being at work.

When compared with the non-Jewish women of the coun-

tries in which these Jewesses have lived, it is found also that

they do not follow the rule observed in men. They are not

more dolichocephalic in countries where the indigenous women

are so, nor are they more dolichocephalic in other places, as

can be seen fromy Table XXXIV; Uhevaveraces are te sanie

as those in the non-Jewish women, but the distribution of the

various classes of headform does not correspond to that of the

Gentiles. Possibly this is due to the limited number of observa-

tions on Jewesses, or there is some other reason, which is not

apparent to the present writer.

THE HorRIZONTAL CIRCUMFERENCE OF THE HEAD.

The average horizontal circumference of the head of 1,528

Jews was 55.55 cm. (twenty-two inches). The range of ex-

treme individual variation was rather small. With a maximum

of 64.3 cm., and a minimum of 48.2 cm., the variation extended

over only 16.1 cm., or 29 percent of the average. This is much

smaller than that which has been found for the stature of the Jews,

the length and width of the head, etc. The accompanying table

gives in detail the number and percentage of individuals with a

given size of the head, at intervals of five millimeters. It will be

observed that while the maximum number of individuals (12.82

percent) had heads corresponding to the average, 55.55 cm.,

still the frequency of occurrence on both sides of the median

does not progressively get smaller. A curve drawn from these

figures does not run as smooth a course as we have observed to

be the case with other measurements of the head of the Jews.

This can be explained, first, because the chances of error in

observation are very great while taking measurements of the

horizontal circumference of the head with the tape, much greater

than when straight lines are measured with the calipers. This

condition has influenced the present writer to such an extent

that he has discarded the measurements of the horizontal cir-

ANTHROPOLOGY OF EASTERN EUROPEAN JEWS

TABLE

b & & O's

HoRIZONTAL CIRCUMFERENCE OF THE HEAD,

| Number.

* 243

Percent. mm Number Percent.

481-485 I 0.07 566-570 173 FE.22

486-490 Br: — 571-575 IOI 6.61

491-495 I 0.07 576-580 67 4.38

496-500 a =) 581-585 49 3-21

501-505 5 0.33 / 586-590 29 1.89

506-510 2 0.13 | 591-595 15 0.99

511-515 13 0.85 596-600 9 0.60

516-520 13 0.85 601-605 4 0. 26

521-525 34 ace 606-610 I 0.07

526-530 35 2.28 611-615 I 0.07

531-535 66 4.32 616-620 — —

536-540, 95 6.21 621-625 I 0.07

541-545 162 10.60 626-630 I 0.07

546-550 149 9.75 631-635 I 0.07

551-555 165 10.80 636-640 I 0.07

Baee ae ee Total. 1,528 100.00

cumference of the head in women as worthless, because owing

to the hair and the head dressings, the difficulties are quite

serious.

The circumference of the head was 33.77 percent of the aver-

age stature (100 x 33:32 = 33.77). The tall men who were

170 cm. and taller in height, had relatively smaller heads

than those who were short of stature, less than 160 cm. and

less. This is best seen in the accompanying table :

Stature. eee ee

mawess than, £60): ..icc2i3t~s tenes 173.4 56.05 32.32

PRIGWE TNC AVEIAGE, ..6c..0c0 scenes cecwee 167.1 55-79 33-38

Pele. TMG AVETALE. ..5.<5s0020.» <a necnal 162.6 55.62 34.21

PRM 8 op co ce ove le nativs wecteeaan’ 156.1 54-79 35.10

which shows that while with the increase of stature the hori-

zontal circumference of the head also increases, but when

considered in relation to stature, the size of the head decreases.

The men of short stature had a circumference of the head of

35.1 percent of their body height, while the tall people’s heads

averaged only 32.32 percent of their stature. This is best seen

in the accompanying table :

244 FISHBERG

Observed

Calculated

Difference

Stature. Ci ference of Circumference of :

Y eho TTC the Head. aiuto 3

alll oie cdenersatggemadees eae 58.56 56.05 —2.51

Above the average ............ 56.43 55-79 —0.64

Below the average ........-..: 54-91 | 55-62 +0.71

Short yaces Recs iaeesat essen | ORR 54-79 | +2.08

We see from these figures that the short men measured

around their heads 2.08 cm. more*than would be expected if

their heads were proportionately as large as the average of all

the Jews measured, is to the average stature. On the other

hand, the tall men had heads 2.51 cm. shorter theoretically

expected. |

There is practically no difference in the absolute and relative

circumference of the head in the Jews from various countries.

in eastern Europe, as is to be seen from the following figures:

Average

Circumference Percent of

Nativity. of the Head. Stature.

Galiciaas5 ck eemeeneee utara: oaeeie ee ratiae oe aoe 55.10 23.35

Poland? ie caesar eees ana eea hue manna ets 55-42 33-92

Lithuania ss3eeeene Meabdapaesedatte cumin le ean 55-61 Bre troy)

Little Russiaie ee sacnaceerbe cetera de eet eee oes 55-62 33-56

Rotimania sorte maecwenee acite ont erseek oath ooo: 55-81 33.62

Hungary, o: crcstesacet cares deca cete tates aca orice eee 55-77 33-66

United: Statesayic Hoy ce .r tt henasbasiecncecoreedses 56.18 33-46

Measurements taken on Jews in Eastern Europe agree closely

with our results, the circumference of the head is about 55 to

56 cm. on the average. It should be noted also that the same

is about the average of the non-Jewish races in this region of

Europe. |

COLA tts Vi:

THE FACE.

The height of the face was measured with calipers, by taking

the distance from the root of the nose to the point beneath the

middle of the chin. The average height was 119 mm. in Jews,

and 109 in Jewesses. The maximum height was 142 mm. in

men and 128 in the women ; the minimum 98 mm. in men, and

go inthe women. The amplitude of extreme individual variation

TABLE XXXVI.

HEIGHT OF THE FACE OF JEWS AND JEWESSES.

Height of the Face Jews. Jewesses.

ea): Number. Percent. Number. Percent.

89- 90 -—— -- I 0.23

gI- 92 ie eo = oe

o5= 34 = oi 0.23

95- 96 — — II 2.52

97- 98 I 0.07 12 2.76

99-100 4 0.26 17 3.91

IOI—102 5 wR 20 4.59

103-104 12 0.78 25 57 e

105-106 20 131 49 rI:26

107-108 24 1 de 34 7.82

IOg—-I IO 82 5537 69 15.86

III-I12 85 5.56 48 11.04

113-114 99 6.48 a7 8.51

I15—116 153 10.01 47 10.80

117-118 170 II,12 25 5-76

IIg-120 234 £5.32 26 5-95

121-122 149 9.75 5 r.15

123-124 122 7.98 5 We

125-126 126 8.24 I 0.23

127-128 70 4.58 2 0.46

129-130 106 6.94 _- -

131-132 36 2.36 - —

133-134 12 0.79 = _—

135-136 8 0.52 — ——

137-138 4, 0.26 -- —

139-140 2 0.13 — =

141-142 I 0.07 — =

Total. 1,528 100.00 435 99.98

246 FISHBERG

is very large, amounting to 44 mm or 37.9 percent of tie

average in the men. and 38 mm. or 34.86 percent of the average

inthe women. The great variability of this measurement is also

seen from the large value of the standard deviation, which was

6.56 in the men, and 6.52 in the women. It is thus much larger

than the standard deviation of any other measurement obtained

TABLE XXXVI

WIDTH OF THE FACE OF JEWS AND JEWESSES.

Width of the Face | Jews. | Jewesses.

a ee Number. | Percent. Number. | Percent.

105-106 — | 2 | I | 0.23

107-108 | = | = I o/25

109-110 | — — — | —

III-112 | ~— — | 5 | I.15

II13-I14 I 0.07 3 | 0.69

LIs=1to) 4 I 0.07 II | 2553

117-118 8 0.52 9 | 2.07

119-120 13 0.84 | 28 | 6.42

Pot 22) a 29 1.89 | 35 | 8.05

123-124 26 1.70 | ai S51

125-126 | 54 3.54 4 12,10

127-128 65 AG 59 | 13.57

129-130 | 175 11.45 a | 17.79

131-132 | 186 1 Sai 44 | 10.12

133-134 4 130 8.51 29 | 6.66

135-136 206 13.48 22 | 5.05

EZ7 SP | 174 11.39 13 | 2.99

139-140 156 10.21 5 1 Gs

141-142 127 8.31 2 | 0.46

143-144 | 18) 5-17 - | 0.23

145-146") | 55 3.60 = | sr

147-148 28 [83 — | --

149-150 | 8 0.52 — | —

151-152 | 3 0.21 ~~ —

153-154 2 0.13 -- | -

155-156 2 0.13 — | —

Total. | 1,528 100.00 435 | 99.99

on the Jews, excepting those of the nose. The probable error was

O.112in men and 0.149 in the women. The seriation of the

measurements, as seen in Table XXXVI shows a striking uni-

formity of type. The apex of the curve for the measurements

in men corresponds to the median, and on both sides the values

are quite evenly distributed the percentage of individuals witha

given height of the face, is getting progressively smaller, the

ANTHROPOLOGY OF EASTERN EUROPEAN JEWS 247

farther it is from the median. There is however no such uni-

formity to be observed in the curve for the women ; here there are

four apices observable, which would seem to indicate a greater

variability of the height of the face of Jewesses.

The average width of the face was as follows :

Average. Maximum. Minimum.

DED ds vais'v an «haacindi vedeaeaceeene 135 156 114

MEAMEBEES. inc (oniedvavumsscukaoeas 127 143 107

The range of extreme individual variation was in Jews, 31.11

percent and in Jewesses, 28.34 percent of the average width of

the face, which would indicate a lesser variability than that ob-

served in the height of the face of the Jews. The standard de-

viation is, however, large. In men it is found to amount to

6.25, and inthe women, 5.87. The probable error also is large,

in the men, 0.1072, and in the women, 0.1895, about the same

as in the case of the height of the face. The distribution of the

various values obtained by measurement, is given in the accom-

panying table XX XVII, showing that in the case of both men and

women, there is a fair uniformity of type.

There is very little difference in the average width and height

of the face of Jews from various countries, as can be seen from

the following figures :

Nativity. Average height. Average width

ews. Jewesses. Jews. Jewesses.

PIMA So a5 ei th aoacbon oe eens te 119 107 132 128

EY ROE ere smpeere rie st fe. 119 IIO 132 129

Lithuania and White-Russia...... 119 109 135 126

Little- Russia ...... Sichan's eee tie 120 1@ fe) 137 125

le a ao a eee eS 120 113 135 128 ©

0 9 A SO a2 rire | Leap 119 110 136 127

DIB MGO) StO1OS soci ssn oa sack seu 120 124

The average height is in each group IIg or 120 mm. in the

Jews and 107 to 113 mm. in the Jewesses. The slight differ-

ence in the Jewesses may be explained by the comparatively

small number of observations. The width of the face is sim-

ilarly almost the same in each group.

248 FISHBERG

THe Facrat INDEX.

The average of the facial index was in men, 88.15, and in

women 85.83. The variability was considerable, as can be seen

from Table XXXVIIL It) extended7in:the«men\ overs33

units (maximum, 107, and minimum, 69) or 43 percent of the

average ; in women over 30 units (maximum 100, and minimum,

70) or 35 percent of the average. The standard deviation was

5.83 in menand 5.7 inthe women. The probable error, in men

O.I, and in women 0.18.

TABLE XXXVIII.

FACIAL INDEX IN JEWS AND JEWESSES.

; | Men. | Women.

Facial Index. | at

| Number. | Percent. | Number. Percent.

69- 70 | I 0.07 | I 0.23

7I— 72 | 3 | 0.21 | I 0.23

73- 74 | II | 0.72 | 6 1.38

75— 76 16 1.05 16 3.68

Tie T one dl 33 | 2.16 | 15 3-45

79 Ones | 75 4.90 | 35 | 8.05

81- 82 | III 7.26 46 10.57

83- 84 | 162 | 10.60 | 43 9.89

85- 86 193 12.63 65 14.94

87— 88 222 | 14.53 61 14.02

89- 90 190 12.43 | 52 11.95

9I= 92 | 172 11.26 | 34 7.82

93- 94 | 128 8.37 | 27 | 6.21

95- 96 | 92 | 6.02 | 20 | 4.59

97-— 98 | 48 2.54 | 6 1,38

99-100 46 | 3.01 | 6 1.38

IOI-102 | 14 | 0.91 | I | 0.23

103-104 | 6 | 0.40 | — —

105-106 | 2 | 0.13 | — —

107-108 2 0.21 | — | a

There is little difference in the facial index of Jews from

various countries as can be seen from the following figures :

Nativity. Facial index.

Men. Women,

Galicia’: 05 ieateacs aneteas ots Ronee eee ae a ne eee 90.15 83.59

Poland fps vsinstebathetion« lavbegeeeee meee eens 90.15 85.27

Lithuania and White-Russia................ss000 88.15 86.51

TAU RUSSI8 3 <0 voir ante ce ne cee Meee 87.59 88.00

FROUWUIAING “5.2 sis os2hc sp ecenenaeeee ee cee Renee 88.89 88.28

LGM ANY Od a aeokaciex tes aauless secaeeee ee aeons 87.50 86.62

Diarted States... s.15 scosesasatteesesh eee 87.59

CHAPTER VI.

THE NOSE.

The measurements, shape and form of the nose have been

considered by anthropologists to be more or less fixed in the

various races of mankind, and are consequently a valuable test

of race. ‘‘ Few physical characters yield more uniform results

than does the nose. . . . A careful study of this organ shows

almost better than any other the coordination of parts in the

facial features generally.’ Of the various measurements and

characteristics suggested by Topinard as of value in the study

of this organ,’ I have only taken measurements of the height

and width of the nose, calculated the nasal index in 1,510 Jews

and in 423 Jewesses, and taken notes of the shape and form in

2,836 Jews and 3,284 Jewesses. Measurements of the upper

width of the nose (the distance between the inner angles of the

eyes), the projection, extreme length, etc., could not be obtained

in sufficient number, because of the objections on the part of the

majority of the individuals measured to excessive manipulation

on my part around their nose.

HEIGHT OF THE NOSE.

The average height of the nose, measured from the root to

the subnasal spine, was found to be in 1,510 Jews, 52 mm., and

in 423 Jewesses, 47mm. The maximum in the Jews was 66

mm. and in the Jewesses 58 mm. The minimum height, in

Jews, 40 mm., and in Jewesses, 39 mm. The range of extreme

individual variation is thus seen to be very large, 50 percent of

the average height in men and 40.42 percent in women. In the

case of the stature of the Jews, which is a very fluctuating char-

acter, this was only 31.61 percent of the average value, and in

the length and width of the head it was even smaller.

1 A, H. Keane, ‘‘ Ethnology,’’ Cambridge, Ig9o01, p. 185.

2p. Tepinard, ‘‘ Elements d’anthropologie generale,’’ pp. 301-307 ; also A.

Bertillon, ‘‘ Morphologie du Nez,’’ Rev. d’ Anthropologie, 3d series, Vol. II, 1887.

249

FISHBERG

TARLE XXX DE

HEIGHT OF THE NOSE OF JEWS.

In Table XX XIX is given the seriation of the values obtained

by measurement of the height of the nose at intervals of two

44 48

HEIGHT OF THE NOSE

FIG; 10.

52 56

60 64 68

Height of the Jews. Jewesses.

ae Number. Percent. Number. Percent.

39-40 I 0.06 5 | 1.18

41-42 8 0.52 25 5.91

43-44 30 1.99 58 13.71

45-46 65 4.31 70 16.55

47-48 135 _ 8.94 88 20.80

49--50 270 17.88 gi 21.52

51-52 305 20.19 62 14.66

53-54 299 19.81 19 4.49

55-56 198 112 4 0.95

57-58 g2 6.10 I 0:23

59 60 69 | 4.57 sc =

61-62 24 1.59 | =

63-64 fe) | 0.66 | an —

65-66 3 | 0.19 | —- ==

val I 0.06 | _ —

is ae 1,510 99.99 423 | 100.09

12 | gh

; HEIGHT OF THE

a 11 NOSE

JEWS

JEWESSES

9 :

Lui

8 ul

k a

jo ag

ANTHROPOLOGY OF EASTERN EUROPEAN JEWS 251

mm. It will be observed that the height of the nose in the

largest proportion of individuals was equal that of the average

and median value. This is evident in both the men and women,

in the latter it appears that the height of 49 to 50 mm. was

more frequent than the height of 47 to 48 mm., but the differ-

ence was very small, less than one percent.

The standard deviation is quite large — 4.008 in the Jews,

and 3.368 in Jewesses. The probable error is in men 0.06947,

and in women 0.1099. ‘This indi-

cates a greater variability of the 9%

women, but this isto be attributed ¢

‘WIDTH OF

\ | THE NOSE

to the fact that the number of = Gag 2 ee

Jewesses examined is about one- ¢5 =

third that of Jews. a

WIDTH OF THE NOSE. 21

The width of the nose was taken 9

with a sliding compass, by measur- fe Eraprces eT

ing the distance of the ale without 16 | ah ate ds

compressing them. The average by at

width of the nose is in Jews 36.35 183

mm., and 32.92 mm. in Jewesses. ve | =

The maximum width was in men 10 :

48 mm. and in women 42 mm. : rat

The minimum width of the nose 7 oe

Was 27 mm.in-men and 25 mm. in : ule

women. The difference between ‘ cop T

the maximum and minimum width 2A NIT I

of the nose was 21 mm. or 43.75 | "36 38 42 48 £0

percent of the average in the Jews, oe

and 18 mm. or 54.54 percent of ate

the average width in the Jewesses. The variability of the nose

in women is thus shown to be greater than that of the men.

Table XL shows the seriation of the values obtained by

measurement of the width of the nose in Jews and Jewesses.

The average width corresponds to the median and is in the

most frequently occurring group. A curve plotted from these

figures will run a more or less smooth course.

252 FISHBERG

TABLE, XL,

WIDTH OF THE NOSE IN JEWS AND JEWESSES.

Winlisabthe Nose |\e— 2 ae eee ae

Number. Percent. Number. Percent.

25-26 ae | = | I | 0.23

27-28 3 0.19 | 16 | 3.78

29-30 33 2.19 3 12.53

31-32 82 5.44 | 112 | 26.48

33-34 234 15.50 | 121 28.61

35-36 428 28.34 | 86 20.33

37-38 368 24.37 27 6.39

39-40 244 16.16 5 1.18

41-42 83 5-50 I 0.23

43-44 26 Laf2 I 0.23

45-46 6 0.40 — ---

47-48 3 0.19 == =

Total. 1,510 |) £60.60 423 99.99

The standard deviation is for the Jews, 2.968, and for the Jewesses

2.567, much smaller than that found in the case of the height of the

nose. The probableerror isin men 0.5 328, and in women 0.8 364.

There is almost no difference in the average height and width

of the nose of the Eastern European Jews in the various countries, |

as can be seen from the following figures :

| Average.

Country. No. Observed.

Height. Width.

Galicia. |

Mieti:.3.c.octanceeaeee noes Geer: | 295 52 | 36

'W OMIED: a5550-0en eee LEY 47 33

Poland. |

ic) 0 Ce Pees SES Rea 307 51 | 37

Women..;...,..4csce-eecaer san eee 56 47 33

Lithuania and White-Russia. | |

Med oo)occccsdceeee e 275 52 36

WOMEN, <_.2..5+-acaee ease een aed 100 48 | on

Little- Russia |

i. Co 0 Caer Re on ee 219 53 37

W OMe, i )..5.t.cccceeee pate reeeaee | 67 48 33

Roumania. |

NCH 2.3 cian soos cotece eee ee | 150 52 | 36

WWVOMMLEIG 4:2 Aiicencd cea screaceccen heen eee 44 52 | 36

fHlungary.

i Sg | ae en ee coe. 140 51 36

WVOMRGNE coos doh acta een eee ee 39 47 32

United States

: Men.... Pere sarneddeevesceesescesenner® 124 53 36

) |

oY)

ANTHROPOLOGY OF EASTERN EUROPEAN JEWS

THE NASAL INDEX.

The nasal index, calculated by multiplying the width of the

nose by 100 and dividing the product by the height of the nose,

was in men 69.23 and in women 69.14 —identical in both sexes.

The distribution of the individual indices according to Collignon’s

classification, is as follows:

Men. Women.

Number. Percent. Number Percent,

Leptorrhinian (index less than 70)....) 760 | 50.53 250; |. 49:05

Mesorrhinian (index 70 to 84.9)....... 692 | 45.83 202 47.75

Platyrrhinian (index 85 to Ber eee | 58 3.84 | II 2.60

eo) va caniwaviclca soaeanemeneene ee I,510 | 100.00 | 423 100.00

It is evident from these figures that both Jews and Jewesses

are generally leptorrhinian. Broad noses are quite infrequent,

SS (RSG eee

LETT

me NeenLinmexor a Vole Pye | yt

JEWS See ee eee

an ie

DES pe case JEWESSES

JES SSRs e oie wee

ee ee eee see eye | hf)

IRS ae Sanaa aera

ISSA s = 3 eRe Fak eae

ROMA Rae Tee eae

BART Shee eee

al, ft bes ta hae

ARERR Se ft |

a6 aes Seer eee ease sees

BERRA SS ASN SARE

Hate SS OSs aR ee) Saas

GRE SRRa SRP aeAPak See

EEEEEEEPEEEEEEEEERE EEE

a BU ae aisle peice SESS

ERRBNS MSGR REBEL ae

| a) Hee Ae Palestes hovel.) |

BEBE? sae aes i Ce

8 0 a

~ 48 52 56 60 68 72.) 76 927796

“NASAL INDEX

PiG.ct2,

only 3.84 percent of men and 2.60 percent of women had nasal

indices of over 85.

254 FISHBERG

The maximum nasal index was in men 100 and in women

2; the minimum, in men 40 and in women 4g. It is thus.

shown that the extreme individual variation extended: In the

Jews—the maximum was 44.92 percent larger than the average,

and the minimum was 42.03 percent smaller than the average

nasal index; in the Jewesses these figures stand 33.33 and 29.00:

percent respectively. The range.of extreme individual variation,.

TAREE ek

NASAL INDEX IN JEWS AND JEWESSES.

eee Jews. Jewesses.

asa naex, |= ee = |

| Number. Percent. | Number. Percent.

40 | I 0.06 | — —

47- 48 2 Ov13 — —

49— 50 6 0.40 2 0.47

5I- 52 6 0.40 | 4 0.95

Soe 5 | 18 | 1.19 2 0.47

55- 56 | 33 | 2.19 | 2 0.47

57- 58 | 48 Ze | 12 2.84

59-. 60 56 7a | 22 5.20

61162 | 10g | Wo 34 8.04

63- 64 127 | 8.41 | 40 9.45

65-— 66 | 125 | 8.28 | 39 9.21

67- 68 162 | 16:73 | 37 8.75

69- 70 | 145 | 9.60 | 53 12.53

7172 138 9.13 | 47 11.53

yee 119 7.88 | 28 0,62:

75- 76 118 | 7.82 35 8.28

77- 78 gI 6.00 28 | 6.62

79- 80 67 | 4.44 | 14 3-31

81— 82 51 3.38 | 9 203

83- 84 | 30 1.99 4 0.95

85- 86 | 26 72 5 1.18:

87— 88 | II O73 | 4 | 0.95

89- 90 7 0.46 — —

QI— 92 | 5 0.33 | 2 0.47

93- 94 | 4 0.28 == a

95- 96 | 3 | 0.19 or aa

97- 98 a = a , aa

99-100 | 2 eg —- —

Total. | 1,510 99.98 | 423 100.00

as indicated by the difference between the maximum and mini-

mum was 86.95 percent of the average nasal index of the Jews.

and 62.32 percent in the Jewesses. This can be considered a

very large variability, larger in men than in women, and again

confirming the fact that the nose is the most variable of the traits.

we have studied in the Jews. |

ANTHROPOLOGY. OF EASTERN EUROPEAN JEWS 255

The accompanying table (XLI) shows the distribution of the

individual nasal indices at the interval of two units. It will

be observed that individuals with a nasal index of 69 are the

most common among the Jewesses ; in the Jews, the most fre-

quent nasal index is 67, and not 69, the average. A curve

TasBLeE XLII.

NASAL INDEX OF THE JEWS ACCORDING TO THEIR NATIVITY.

Nasal Index. ,, | Galicia. | Poland. andWhite pare ‘Roumania Hungary. Lae

40 | 0.34 = se = = = —

CY oe. a OY oa a ‘a = = =

49- 50 102. |) a. 32 0. 36 —- 0.67 C7

5I- 52 kO.b7 ~|| 6:32 0. 36 _ a — 1.61

53- 54 io) 5.00 — O45. | 2.07 — 1.61

55- 56 3099) 11) 06.48 Pag ForaeS |) eGR"! —1.42 4.23

57- 58 LJ 3 ey f <g8.|- 473 2.74 4.00 | . 2.86 5.65

59- 60 4.75 | 2.28 | 3.28 3-65 |- 3-33 | 5-72 4.03

61— 62 eS eg (eee aes 10,18 S07 | gc08 | «5:72 5.65

63- 64 ase Ft oot | - 6.23. | 10,00° ||. 40.00 6.45

65- 66 PP oto) ee | 96.05) O.15 | 9.33 9.29 15.32

67- 68 aete tt teas) 10.55) Ey |\ 2607 -| .5.72 | 10.49

69- 70 9:50" | 58.79 | » 7204 I1.42-|'> 10:00 7.86 7:20

7I— 72 LP *g6a° “7-40.)° 9.09 | 10.50 7-33 | 8iag 8.87

73-74 .| 6.44 7-82 S730) Getz 4° - 8.07 4.30 10.49

75- 76 | 8.82 | I1.40 727 £.G2 | 6,00 8.57 4.03

77- 78 ee ee et lame pr | 5-46 4.57 4.00 11.43 8.07

79- 89 5-76 B59 5-46 5.02 207. Vi 500 | = 1.6%

81-— 82 pe tal Nowe | 5.82 274 | 2.00 2.57 0.80

83-— 84 OEY NMS ee © 2.54 2.25 | 2.00 2.86 |) —

85- 86 fH 62, | 293: }/ 1.45. | G45 Pc ea a oP 2.42

87- 88 easy eae G72.) Gury” “So |.” 16:71 1.61

89- 90 | 0.34 0.32 0.73 _— 2.00 —

gI-— 92 ==") ]) | 5530 — ee OLD. | -

93- 94 ee Eee oe 0. 36 — | 0.67 Ba

95- 96 0.34 | — 0.36, — | — — | 0.80

es oe ae ee ee ee

99-Ico — | 0.32 0.36 | — | a pee =

Number. 295 | 307 | 275 | 219 | 150 140 | 124

Average. pe2y | 7255 | 0G.23° | Go.8t |} Ge.55"| 7o.59: | 67.92

Maximum. | 95.34 | 100.00 | 100.00 | 88.74 | 93.18 | 93.74 .| 95.42

Minimum. A£0.%4 $0.18 | §0.79,! 54.23 | 50.64 | 48.27 | 51.83

drawn from these figures displays a striking variability of the

nasal index. Although each ordinate is made up of two units,

instead of one as was done with the cephalic index, it is to be

noted that the curve is very irregular in its course, and its legs

256 FISHBERG

in both sides diverge widely, they are not as close together as

those in the curve for the cephalic index. All this again empha-

sizes the great variability of the nose in Jews.

This large variability of the form of the nose in Jews is again

displayed when the standard deviation is calculated. It amounted

to 8.07 in Jews and 7.117 in Jewesses, which is larger than that

of any other trait thus far considered in our investigation. The

probable error is correspondingly large: 0.1396 in Jews and

0.2333 in Jewesses. The difference in the nasal index of the

Jews according to their nativity is almost insignificant. As can

be seen from Table XLII giving the seriation of the nasal

index in Jews and Jewesses according to their country of birth.

Tassie Xin

NASAL INDEX OF JEWESSES ACCORDING TO THEIR NATIVITY.

an ; | Lithuania | Tittle :

Nasal Index. Galicia. Holand. and White- | Russia. Roumania. | Hungary.

| Russia |

49-50 | = 0185 = 2:27 | ee

51-52 | 1.71 a | = ai aes | cha

ary ae ee ae Rs a |

55-56 | = — =| 79 | — ott cee Meee

57-50 er | x 4.00 | 4.48 4.55 | 2.56

59=00° | 2a57 | 9 a7 9.00 | 5.97. | 4.55 7.69

61-62 | (00°. | 3.57 |p 93007 7 (8.967) er8ars. Tes ne

63-64 | “G00 | 10,71 — ||; J12500 13743" "|| =cgroo, “ee Sarg

65-66 | 9.40 | 12.50 5.00 | 7.4ON 4) LIZ 15.38

67-68 | 8255 8.03 | “o100 |" 18:06 2.270 | ages

69-70 | i423 | 7.86 | “i400 5-97 6/82) 4) 12.62

71-72 | 42582 | 10.7E = 10,00 13.43 9:09. 1" 2 7205

73-74 [= tire =) Se6) 4 1.00 5:07 7). .-0200— Va ee 7s08

75-76 [ TOSS = esaG 9.00 FAG P| As55 | |) eroree

77718 a te, 12.50 8.00 4.48 6.82 2.56

79-80 Prepare se 2:57 5.00 5-97 a 2.56

81-82 | age I.79->>| =*1,00 2.99 2.27 —

83-84 | 1.70 = 2.00 “= ss | =

85-86 | 0.85 1.79 1.00 SW eS le

87-88 | 0.85 179) |). == = 2550

89-90 = = | = a = sos

91-92 0.85. | — | — |) ei. aoe | — —

Number. i iy 56 100:¢0 | 67 44 lI, 39

Average. 70.21 7O.2% || (68.950) 268.75 69.23 | 68.09

Maximum. | 91.49 87.36 | 88.12 | “ope 86.23. 88.18

Minimum. | 49.09 50.58 5763401) Sas 50.330) essa

ANTHROPOLOGY OF EASTERN EUROPEAN JEWS 257

THE SHAPE OF THE NOSE.

The ‘ Jewish’? nose has been considered characteristic.

Caricaturists have exploited this part of the Jewish anatomy to

an extent which, as we shall see hereafter, is not warranted by

statistical facts. Whenever a Jewish face is pictured, a hooked

nose, one which looks like the beak of a parrot is generally

portrayed. Even anthropologists have been led astray by this

popular notion. Topinard, in his classification of noses, calls

the hooked nose, the Jewish or Semitic nose. He enumerates

several varieties of convex noses, generally known as aquiline :

The simple aquiline, the ‘arched,’ some of which have the

appearance of the beak of the parrot, others of the eagle ( ‘‘ bec

dé perroquet,” ‘“ bec d’aiglé’’) according to the direction taken

by the extreme point of the nose. But the investigations of

anthropologists do not bear out the contention that the hook

nose is characteristic of the Jews, at least as far as Jews from

Eastern Europe are concerned.

The present author has taken notes on the shape of the nose

in 4,120 Jews in New York City, which includes Jews from all

parts of Europe as well as natives. The results are shown in

the following table.

VARIETY OF NOSES IN 4,120 JEWS AND JEWESSES.

ee Jews. Jewesses.

Variety of Nose. =

Number. Percent. Number. Percent.

Sem 5 620060, 22 «cw de | 1,624 57.26 763 | 59.42

Hooked, aquiline......... | 404 14.25 163 12.70

Retroussé (snub) ........ | 626 | 22.07 178 13.86

Fiat and broad;...,....... 182 6.42 | 180 | 14.02

So, Aaa ek ie ae i ee 2,836 | 100.00 1,284 | 100.00

This shows that the predominant variety of nose-form among

the Jews in New York City is the straight — 57 percent of Jews

and 59 percent of Jewesses had straight noses. This variety of

nose is known as the ‘“‘ Greek’’ nose, because the ancient Greek

sculptors have usually produced in their statues faces with

straight noses. But noses modeled after the form of the Greek

monuments are very rare among all races. This is true partic-

258 FISHBERG

ularly of that part where the root of the nose joins the forehead,

which is represented in the productions of the masters as almost

straight with almost no depression at all. The straight noses

observed in the modern population of Europe show a more or

less deep indentation at the root, while the dorsum is more or

less straight.

The ‘retroussé,’ concave or ‘‘snub”’ (known popularly as

the saucy nose) noses were observed in 22 percent of the Jews

and in 13 percent of the Jewesses. This variety of nose is

usually short and comparatively broad; when looked at in

profile the dorsum is seen to be short and but little elevated,

while the nostrils are often directed upwards on both sides.

The root is generally broad, low, and the dorsum is concave.

This concavity may be of various degrees. It appears that

Galician Jewesses very frequently have this form of nose. This

variety of nose is very frequent in the Slavic races, particularly

in the Ukraine among the Little-Russians, and in Galicia among

the Ruthenian peasantry. It is a striking fact that these noses

are also most often encountered among the Jews coming from

these localities.

The proportions of hooked noses among the Jews in New

York was found to be 14 percent in the men and 12 percent

in the women, which contradict flatly the prevailing popular

opinion that every Jew is the possessor of a hook nose. This

fact is also confirmed by statistics given in the works of

other investigators. Thus, Majer and Kopernicki found among

the Galician Jews 30.9 percent of hook noses; Blechman in

Russia only 2 percent; Weissenberg in South Russia only 14

percent ; in Poland Elkind reports only Io percent in Jews and

4 percent in Jewesses ; Yakowenko in White-Russia found only

9.79 percent, and Talko-Hryncewicz found among the Jews of

the Ukraine 26.3 percent of hook noses in the men, and among

the women only 18.9 percent; while among the Lithuanian Jews

the proportion was only 21.7 percent. We thus see that the

proportion of hook noses among the Jews fluctuates between 2

and 30 percent, by far not as universal as caricaturists would

lead one to believe. It is remarkable that hook noses are not

ANTHROPOLOGY OF EASTERN EUROPEAN JEWS 259

infrequent in the non-Jewish population of Eastern Europe.

Among the Poles in Galicia 6.4 percent have this variety of

nose, and the Ruthenians of the same country also have 6 per-

cent of hook-nosed individuals (Majer and Kopernicki). Among

the Little-Russians Talko-Hryncewicz found over Io percent

among both men and women. The hook nose is thus not much

more often encountered among the Eastern European Jews

than among the Gentile populations of this region. On the

other hand, in Asia Minor and in the Caucasus the arched or

“ Jewish’’ nose is very often seen among the indigenous races,

such as the Armenians, Syrians, Georgians, Ossetts, Lesghians,

Aisores, etc. ; in fact, this form of nose is among these races

more frequent than among the Eastern European Jews.

There are various explanations why popular opinion artists

and even scientists have always considered the arched nose pe-

culiarly Jewish. Beddoe believes that it is due to a charac-

teristic tucking up of the wings. Joseph Jacobs concludes that

“the nose does contribute much toward producing the Jewish

expression, but it is not so much the shape of its profile as the

accentuation and flexibility of the nostrils.’”’ rom his composite

photographs of Jewish faces he shows that when the nose is

covered the Jewish expression disappears entirely, and that it is

the so-called ‘‘nostrility’’ which makes these composites ‘“ Jew-

ish.” ‘A curious experiment illustrates this importance of the

—

FIG. 13.

nostril toward making the Jewish expression. Artists tell us

that the very best way to make a caricature of the Jewish nose

260 FISHBERG

is to write a figure 6 with a long tail (Fig. 1); now remove the

turn of the twist as in fig. 2, and much of the Jewishness dis-

appears ; and it vanishes entirely when we draw the continua-

tion horizontally as in fig. 3. We may conclude then that, as

regards the Jewish nose, that it is more the Jewish nostril than

the nose itself which goes to form the characteristic Jewish ex-

pression.” ' Ripley agrees with Jacobs on this point, and con-

cludes that next to dark hair and eyes and a swarthy skin, the

nostrils are the most distinctive feature among the Jews.’ It is

to be regretted that during this investigation of the somatology

of the Jews, the present writer has taken no statistics of the fre-

quency of this so-called nostrility, and is not in a position to

either confirm or deny the contention. As it is, it seems that

the ‘‘ nostrility”” is mostly found among those Jews who have

arched noses, and is only rarely observed in those with straight

or snub noses, and that among the inhabitants of Asia Minor

and the Caucasus, who as was already mentioned, have arched

noses, this nostrility is also very frequent.

1]. Jacobs, ‘*On the Racial Characteristics of Modern Jews,’’ Journ. An-

thropol. Institute, 1886, XV, pp. 23-62.

2°Wm. Z. Ripley, ** The Races of Europe,” p: 395.

CHAPTER. VIl.

PIGMENTATION.

Judging from Biblical data, it appears that the color of the

hair of the ancient Hebrews was black, ‘raven black’ appears

to have been the ideal of beauty, as is seen from Cant. IV, 1;

V, 11. Black hair is designated as a sign of youth in contrast

with the white hair of old age. Josephus narrates that Herod

dyed his gray hair black in order to appear younger.’ Black

hair was considered beautiful, says Benzinger, black being the

general color, while light or blond hair was exceptional.” King

David and also Esau are credited with having red or “ ruddy ”’

hei. The color of the eye is not indicated in the Bible or

Talmud, although this organ is mentioned more than 800 times in

the Bible, and is described in detail as regards other character-

istics such as the anatomy, expression, etc. It may be men-

tioned in this connection though that according to some Hebrew

scholars there is no equivalent in the Hebrew language for

‘“blue’’ in either Bible or Talmud.

If black was the color of the hair of the ancient Hebrews, then

it is evident that the modern Jews have not preserved the type.

Our investigations of this trait has included 4,235 individuals

over twenty years of age; of these 2,716 were men and 1,519

women. Besides the color of the hair and eyes observations

have been made on grayness, baldness and freckles, and also on

the variety of the hair.

As will be readily observed by one who attempts to distin-

guish the degrees of pigmentation of the skin, hair and eyes,

there is often considerable difficulty in deciding which color to

assign a given individual. It is quite easy to distinguish golden

blond from black or dark brown hair. But between these two

1«« Ant.,’? XVI, 8, I, quoted from Jewish Encyclopedia, Vol. VI, p. 157.

2 Art, ‘‘ Hair,’’ Jewish Encyclop., VI, p. 157.

$7 Samuel, XVI, 12; XVII, 42; Genesis XXV, 25.

261

262 FISHBERG

extremes there are found minor gradations which are not easily

separated, and one often remains in doubt as to the class with

which he is dealing. There also arises a problem concerning

the number of colors into which it is advisable to divide the

material. Some anthropologists distinguish as many as fifteen

colors of skin, hair or eyes; while the late Dr. Virchow, in his

classical elaboration of the material on the color of skin, hair and

eyes of German school children, collected by the German anthro-

pological Society * distinguishes only two colors for the skin (fair

and dark), four for the hair (blond, brown, black, and red), and

three for the eyes (blue, gray, and brown). This classification

we have adopted, with only slight modifications ;- we distinguish

six classes of hair coloration—black, brown, chestnut, light

chestnut, blond, and red.

The distinction between fair and dark skin is not always readily

apparent, and in doubtful cases we have been guided by the

general impression gained by a careful inspection at a distance

from one to two meters from the individual. Only those whose

skin appeared brownish or swarthy were taken as dark, and

those having a yellowish or somewhat muddy tint were regarded

as fair.

The hair was considered black when the darkness was very

deep, without a brownish tinge. Such hair usually has a luster

which by reflected light gives it a bluish appearance, but this

luster is not observable in black hair which is not kept scrupu-

lously clean by frequent brushing.

Brown hair was considered to be that which, although fairly

dark, did not show a luster, or in reflected light, presented a

brownish tinge. It is sometimes difficult to distinguish this

color from black, particularly in hair the care of which has been

neglected. Quite often “brown” hair will appear decidedly

black when thoroughly cleaned and brushed.

As chestnut we counted hair which by its coloration did not

appear positively brown but which was not fair enough to be

1 <««Gesmtbericht iiber die von der deutschen anthropologischen Gesellschaft ver-

anlassten Erhebungen iiber die Farbe der haut, der Haare und der Augen der Schul-

kinder in Deutschland,’’ Archiv fiir Anthropologie, XVI, pp. 275-475.

ANTHROPOLOGY OF EASTERN EUROPEAN JEWS 263

termed blond. As this class includes many gradations of color,

we have found it necessary to divide it into dark and light chest-

nut. Most hair here considered to be light chestnut may some-

times be taken for blond, especially when seen by direct sun-

light, but close observation discloses a dark tinge. Much of

the hair included in this class, shows a somewhat rufous appear-

ance, without being decidedly red; in other instances it is

almost flaxen, but with a dark tinge.

Under blond we have classed hair which is almost white, as

well as the flaxen, ashen, yellowish and golden blond _ hair.

Some of these have a more or less grayish tinge, others are

even slightly rufous, while still others have no decided color

at all.

There are many shades of red hair, ranging from fire-red

through brownish-red to that which is almost blond but which

has a decidedly rufous appearance. In doubtful cases we

have been guided by other signs of erythrism, such as an

abundance of freckles, and, where possible, by noting the

color of the pubic hair, which is orange yeu! in most cases

of erythrism.

The color of the iris was observed at a distance of about one

meter. Eyes showing the least degree of pigmentation were re-

corded as blue, but deeply pigmented eyes, with a dark bluish

appearance on close observation, were not included in this class.

Only eyes having no color at all or a mixture of light blue and

gray were counted as blue. All dark eyes which were not de-

cidedly black were recorded as brown. In this class are included

the ‘“beer-colored”” eyes (very common among the Eastern

European Jews) and those having a deep dark tint which appears

dark blue on close inspection. As gray were considered all

eyes which could not be included in the above two classes ; it

consequently includes most of those which some observers have

described as green, although many of these are essentially

brown. Such cases as the latter have been classed among the

brown eyes. Black eyes are usually brown on close inspection,

but at a distance of about a meter the iris appears deep black

and shows no difference in the color of the pupil.

264 FISHBERG

The color of the skin was observed in 2,272 individuals, in-

cluding 1,188 men and 1,084 women. It was found to be as

follows :?

Jews. Jewesses.

Darke shames scy25 eeesesser seers 269 22.64 276 25.46

Fair slanis,3s2) 2¢2-28e eee 919 77.36 808 74.54

‘Lotal.cs ccesa poten 1,188 100.00 1,084 100.00

This indicates that Jewesses have a slightly darker skin than

Jews. According to Ploss and Bartels? the skin of women is

usually fairer than that of men.

The distribution of the color of the hair is shown in the fol-

lowing table:

COLOR OF THE HAIR OF 4,235 JEWS IN NEw York Ciry.

: | Jews. Jewesses

Color of the Hair. | =

Number. Percent. Number. Percent.

Blackie) i teiee. Sess 1,219 | 44.89 650 | 42.79

BEOW Nic c623 chon Seen 760 27.98 430 28.31

Dark as 293 10.79 148 | 9.74

Chestnut ‘ Lapht, . ee | IgI 7503 137 | 9.02

BlonG) 353.0 5ssorssee see 165 6.08 94 | 6.19

Redes scent veer 88 723 60 3-95

‘Lotal. 5 aoc. cee | 2,716 | Viige.co, SFP fee | 100.00

Dividing the hair in three classes as dark, fair and red, we

find the proportion to be as follows:

Color. Jews. Jewesses.

Dark hair's eissiiesecseedaccgoae aceon ee eee 83.66 80.84

Fair Hair 5. <sociaaz coh Suiting sneak nauseous Seer EE eee 13-11 15:21

Red halt’. .2:2 sag: Soretttataet ceca See ae eee 2523 3.95

These figures show that over 80 percent of the hair in Jews

is dark; they also indicate that the hair of Jewesses is fairer

than that of Jews, which does not agree with the results ob-

tained by other investigators of Jewish anthropology. Talko-

Hryncewicz found that among the Jews in Lithuania and Little-

1The figures for the Jewesses were, owing toa misprint, given as 25 percent fair

skin and 74 percent dark skin (American Anthropologist, N. S., Vol. V, p. 92).

This error is here corrected.

2«« Das Weib,’’ 7. auflage, 1902, p. 26; seen also Havelock Ellis, ‘‘ Man and

Woman,’’ London, 1895, pp. 223-230.

ANTHROPOLOGY OF EASTERN EUROPEAN JEWS 265

Russia the proportion of dark hair in the women is 84 percent,

while among men it is only 60.3 percent. Light hair was found

only 16 percent in women and 39.7 percent in men.' Weissen-

berg also found that Jewesses are more brunette than Jews, but

his conclusions are based on only one hundred men and forty-

one women.” Yakowenko also determined that dark hair is

more frequent among Jewesses than among Jews, only seven of

the former out of one hundred having light hair.’ This author-

ity remarks that dark hair is more common among women than

among men, while blond hair is more frequent in men. The

only investigator who found the Jews to be more brunette than

the Jewesses is Elkind, who found among the Polish Jews 96.81

percent with dark and 0.53 percent with fair hair, as against

86.4 percent of dark, and 8.0 percent of fair hair among Jewesses.*

COLOR OF THE EYES IN 4,235 JEWS AND JEWESSES.

| Jews. Jewesses,

Color of the Eyes. | - —— ———--—

Number. Percent. Number. | Percent.

Oe eee 570 20.99 314 20.67

BrOwW. .55...2... ee ene 925 34.06 621 40.88

a 597 21.98 288 18.96

a re 624 22.97 296 19.49

ER eee 2,710 100.00 1,519 | 100.00 -

In the appended table are given the figures of the color of the

eye among the Jews investigated in New York City. It is seen

that more Jewesses (61.55 percent) than Jews (55.05 percent)

have dark eyes. Pure blue eyes also appear to be more fre-

quent among the men than among the women — 22.97 percent

in the former and 19.49 percent in the latter. On this point the

observations of other investigators agree with those of our own.

Julian Talko-Hryncewicz, ‘‘Charakterystika fizyczna ludnosci zydowskiej

Litwi i Rusi,’’ 26207 Wiadomosci do antropologit Krajowe], XVI, pp. 17-22, Kra-

kow, 1892.

2S. Weissenberg, ‘‘ Die siidrussischen Juden,”’ Archiv fiir Anthropologie, XXIII,

p. 108 of reprint.

*M. G. Yakowenko, ‘‘ Materials for the Anthropology of the Jews’? (in Rus-

sian) p. 152, St. Petersburg, 1898.

*A. D. Elkind, ‘* The Jews,’’ Publications of the Society of Friends of Natu-

ral Science, Anthropology and Ethnography, C1V, Pp. 37-47, Moscow, 1903.

266 FISHBERG

Yakowenko'! found 76 percent of Jewesses with dark eyes and

only 69 percent of Jews. Of Talko-Hryncewicz’s 799 Jewesses

61.8 percent had dark eyes; of his 869 Jews only 56.5 percent

had dark eyes.” The same has been observed by Weissenberg,?

who found 75.6 percent of dark eyes in Jewesses and only 64.8

percent in Jews. From Elkind’s investigations among the

Polish Jews* it appears that the percentage of dark. eyes is

about the same in both sexes.

Considering that the color of the hair and eyes is quite a

stable trait, and only little, if at all, influenced by external con-

ditions, it is of interest to investigate the proportion of fair and

dark hair and eyes of the Jews grouped according to the country

of their birth. If the proportion of fair-haired Jews is larger in

countries where the non-Jewish population is blond, and the

reverse, this may give us a clue as to the origin of the fair-

haired Jews. In Table XLIV is given the percentage of Jews

with a given tinge of the hair and eyes among the immi-

grants in New York City. It will be seen that the proportions

do not materially differ from those found among the total

number of 2,272 individuals considered above, éspecially if it is

noted that the number of observations in each group is compara-

tively small.

The observations made that immigrants are of fairer com-

plexion than people of the same stock who remain at home do

not hold good among all Jewish immigrants. Thus, from Table

XLV we see that among the Galician Jews only 15.41 percent

of the immigrants have fair hair, as against 21.50 percent among

the Jews in Galicia; and among the Jews who came to the

United States from Lithuania and White Russia the same is

true: 17.83 percent had fair hair in their native home, while

only 9.82 percent of the immigrants from this region had fair

hair. Of the immigrant Jews from Poland and Little-Russia the

same conditions are seen to be true. The Polish Jews alone

show a larger percentage of fair-haired individuals among the

VL abs. Cit, op. 158.

2-106. Cis, pp» 24-26.

a1 06,6, 108.

AT or. Cit. Os 52:

ANTHROPOLOGY OF EASTERN EUROPEAN JEWS

TAs LIV,

267

COLOR OF THE HAIR AND EYES IN JEWS ACCORDING TO THEIR NATIVITY.

Color of the Hair.

Color of the?Eyes.

Nativity. Chestnut. ; |

| Dark. | Light.

Galicia. | | |

Men. 34-76 | 33.77 | 12.45 | 8.19 | 7.22] 3.61 | 17.05 | 29.83 | 27.54 | 25.58

Women. | 33.61 , 31.14 | 10.66 7.28) 12.29 | 4.92 | 21.31 | 35.25 | 22.95 | 20.49

Poland. |

Men. | 49.29 | 27.62] 8.88| 5.40] 5.72] 3.18] 21.59 | 35.24 | 21.27 | 21.90

Women. Bees Pp ar-50) aos) &.90 7) 1.70" 3:57 | 26:79 1 30.36] 92:14) 10.71

Lithuania. | | :

Men. 48.00 | 32.36 | 5.82) 5.09; 4.73| 4.00| 22.54 | 33.82 | 25.46: 18.18

Women. | 44.00 | 30.00} 6.00 4.00) 9.00| 7.00 | 29.00 | 27.00 | 24.00 | 20.00

Little- Russia. |

Men. | 43.38 | 32.42 | 10.05 | 4.57 | 6.85] 2.73 | 16.90 | 33.79 | 26.02 | 23.29

Women. 43-24 36.49 | 6.76| 5.41 | 4.05 | 4.05 | 27.03 | 32.43 | 20.27 | 20.27

Roumania. | | | |

Men. 49.33 20.83; | 407.) 7-39 | “72339 | 2.00 | 16.67 | 30.00 | 31.33 | 20.00

Women. | 36.36 | 29.55.) 18:18 | °6.82.| 6:82 | 2.27'| 18.18.| 31.82 | 25.00 25.00

Hungary. : |

Men. | 47.86 | 20.71 By 1g.) 5-00) |) 6.57.) 20.00.) 30:71 |. 27.15 | 22.14

Women. | 48.72 | 38.46 13} 2.56| 2.56] 2.56 | 25.64 | 38.46 | 23.08 | 12.82

United States. | | |

Men. | 35.48 | 37-09 | 12.10| 7.26| 4.03] 4.03 | 20.97 | 34.68 | 24.19 | 20.16

Taste XLV.

COLOR OF THE HAIR AND EYES IN JEWS IN THE UNITED STATES AND IN EASTERN EuROPE.

Nignanee| Hair. . Eyes.

Galicia. | | | |

In New York. 305 | 80.98] 15.41 | 3.61 | 46.88 | 53.12 |Fishberg.

In Galicia. — 944 74.00 | 21.50 4.30 53.81 | 46.19 Majer-Kopernicki.

Poland. | | | |

In New York. | 315 | 85.70] 11.12 | 3.18 | 56.83 | 43.17 |Fishberg.

In Poland. 188 | 96.81) 0.53 2.66 | 55.00 45.00 Elkind.

Lithuania. | | | |

In New York. | 275 | 86.18} 9.82 4.09 | 56.36 | 43.64 |Fishberg.

In Lithuania. 314 | 81.53 | 17.83 | 0.64 | 68.47 | 31.53 Yakowenko, Talko-

In New York. | 219 | 85.84) 11.42 2.74 | 50.69 49.31 Fishberg.

In Little-Russia. | 869 | 76.40 | 19.30 4.30 | 56.73 43.27 Talko-Hryncewicz.

268 FISHBERG

immigrants than among those left in their native country. The

proportion of fair eyes is slightly larger among the immigrants

than among the Jews in their native countries, but the difference

is so small as to be disregarded.

When compared with the indigenous populations of the

countries in Eastern Europe in which these Jews have lived, we

find that they everywhere have a larger percentage of individ-

uals with dark hair and eyes, and a smaller of fair hair and

eyes, excepting in Roumania. Thus in Galicia 75 percent of

the Jews have dark hair as against only 54 percent of the Poles

and Ruthenians ; in Russian Poland the Poles have 78 percent

with dark hair and the Jews 8g percent; the Little-Russians

have 53 percent and their Jewish neighbors 78 percent ; even in

Lithuania and White-Russia, where the Letto-Lithuanians have

only 16 percent and the White-Russians 23 percent of dark-haired

individuals, there are 83 percent of such dark-pigmented Jews.

The only exception is Roumania, where the Jews have only 83

percent and the Roumanians g2 percent of dark hair. The same

is true of dark eyes, the Jews have a comparatively larger num-

ber of individuals with dark eyes than the indigenous popula-

tion of the particular country in Eastern Europe in which they

lived for centuries. On the other hand, fair hair and eyes are

much more frequent among the non-Jews in these countries

than among the Jews. Thus fair hair is found 20 percent

among the Galician Jews as against 45 percent among the

Gentiles in that country; 7 percent among the Polish Jews,

and 21 among the Poles; in Little Russia, 17 percent among

the Jews, and 46 among the Little-Russians ; and in Lithuania,

where the indigenous population is blond, the Letto-Lithuanians

having 83 percent, and the White-Russians 76 percent of fair-

haired individuals. Here the Jews show only 14 percent of

such persons. In Roumania, we find an exception, 14.67 per-

cent of the Jews had fair hair, as against only 6 percent among

the Roumanians. Fair eyes are also more frequent among the

non-Jewish populations of Eastern Europe than among the Jews

as can be seen from Table XLVI; even in Lithuania, where the

indigenous population has over 80 percent of fair-eyed indi-

ANTHROPOLOGY OF EASTERN EUROPEAN JEWS 269

viduals, the Jews have only 37 percent. It is significant that in

countries where the percentage of fair-eyed persons is smaller

than in Lithuania, the Jews, on the contrary, have proportion-

ately more fair-eyed persons. Thus, in Galicia, where 39 per-

cent of the Ruthenians and 70 percent of the Poles have fair

eyes, the Jews have 47 percent, and in Russian Poland the Jews

have 43 percent as against 81 percent among the Poles. We

can consequently not find any relation between the color of the

hair and eyes of the Jews and the non-Jewish populations

among which they haved lived. It seems rather that the con-

trary is true. The Jews have almost everywhere about 80

percent of persons with dark hair, and about 50 percent with

dark eyes, about 15 percent of fair hair and over 40 percent of

The fact that the indigenous population of a country

This is

fair eyes.

is fairer or darker does not appear to effect the Jews.

TAgem 1 V tf.

COLOR OF THE HAIR AND EYES OF JEWS AND GENTILES IN EASTERN EUROPE.

= Number | Hair. Eyes,

Country and Race. | | | Observer.

- Se Dark. | Fair. Red. | Dark. | Fair. |

Galicia. |

[2 ee 1,248 | 75.80 | 20.03 | 4.17 | 52.12 | 47.88 | Majer & Koper., Fish

Men | Petes Oe EY 4,057 | §4.90 | 44.00 1.10 | 29.40] 70.60] * ee

Ruthenians ...... 1,356 | 54.20 | 45.80 | 1.40 | 24.90/ 75.10] “ es

Maen IT Bos cinwtecds' oes 122-1) 75140) 19/07 | 4.92 | 56.56.) 43.44 Fishberg. : a

ba Poles ......4...+++- 214 | 57.80 | 41.30 | 0.90 | 32.71 | 67.29 | Majer & Kopernicki

j Ruthenians ...... 133 | 69.90; 30.10; — | 45.87; 54.13] * Je

Poland. | | |

~—_— PRE cantias ios 503 | 89.86} 7.16 | 2.98 | 56.11 | 43.89 | Fishberg, Elkind.

PPE ONS 5.5 cose vi 3 0k 226 | 78.37 | 21.62| — | 18.60| 81.40 | Elkind.

ee 181 | 87.29) 7.73 | 4.98 | 56.91 | 43.09 | Elkind, Fishberg.

en. ESAs cen erdaae 149 | 74.50 | 22.82 | 2.68 | 29.50 | 70.50 | Elkind.

Lithuania and White-

Russia. |

MOUS ose) aint: 589 | 83.70 | 14.09 | 2.21 | 62.82 | 37.18 | Fish., Yak., Tal.-Hr

Men. {et iia 476 | 16.40 | 83.60 | 0.40 | 13.90 | 86.10 | Talko-Hryncewicz.

White-Russians..| 961 | 23.30 | 67.70] 1.00 | 25.40| 74.60| ‘é i

Little- Russia. | | | |

pees aaa Sar cis | 1,088 | 78.31 | 17.74 | 3.95 | 46.32 | 53.68 | Talko-Hryn., Fish.

" \ Little-Russians..| 2,619 | 52.90 45.80 | 1.20 25.40) 74.50 = 4a s

Wom--f Jews....... 0.000. 873. | $3.39 |. 13.6% | 2.98 | 61.63 38.37) « « «6

en. | Little-Russians..) 647 | 64.40 | 33.20| 2.30 |'42.60| 57.30; < :

Roumania. | | | )

ten. OWS oxi <: tase eeeees 150 | 83.33 | 14.67 | 2.00 | 48.67 51.33 | Fishberg.

Roumanians ..... 180 | 92.03 | 6.00] 1.70 | 64.80! 35.20 | Pittard.

270 FISHBERG

significant, when considered in connection with the fact that

many other somatic characteristics, such as stature and head-

form of the Jews do greatly correspond to the type of their non-

Jewish neighbors.

Typical representatives of a race show a constant interrela-

tion between the color of their hair and that of their eyes; for

example, in the blond northern races their light hair is usually

accompanied by blue eyes. Individuals who do not exhibit

such interrelation, having dark eyes with fair hair, or the re-

verse, are considered as ‘‘ mixed types.’ From the figures in

the preceding tables we find that in men 86.89 percent had dark

hair (including red in this group) and 55.05 percent had dark

eyes. It should therefore be expected that the combination of

dark hair and dark eyes in the same individuals should occur

according to the formula, 88.89 x 55.05 + 100 =47.83 percent

of the individuals observed. Fair types would be expected on

the same principle to occur in (13.11 X 44.95+100=) 5.89

percent of Jews. In Jewesses these figures are expected to be

52.18 percent of brunettes, and 5.85 percent blonds. Empiri-

cally however we found these types to be distributed in the fol-

lowing proportions :

TABLE, XLV i

TYPES OF PIGMENTATION IN 4,235 JEWS.

Jews. Jewesses.

Type

Number. Percent. Number, Percent.

Brunette l2.3..3.sepencenen 1,495 52.62 865 | 56.94

Blond :,.c3. 6: secacoree eee 283 10.42 156 | 10.27

Mixéd.u..Jvisctcscese Ae 1,004 36.96 496 32.79

: ‘liotals.. besa aeee anges 2.716 | 100.00. 1,519 | 100.00

From this table we find that in 52.62 percent of all Jews ob-

served both hair and eyes were dark; the combination of fair

hair and eyes was observed in 10.42 percent of Jews and 10.27

percent of Jewesses. The brunette type which is considered

characteristic of the Jews, is thus reduced to only 52 percent

in the contemporaneous Jews, and to 57 percent among the

modern Jewesses. But when we recall that other races of

ANTHROPOLOGY OF EASTERN EUROPEAN JEWS 271

Europe show even a smaller percentage of their racial type

combination, we are not surprised. In Germany, among 6,000-

000 school children only 31.80 percent had both blond _ hair

and blue eyes, while of the 75,377 Jewish children 42 percent

were of the pure brunette type.’ In Austria Schimmer has

found that of the non-Jewish children 19.79 percent were of

pure blond type, and 23.17 percent of the brunette type, while

Jewish school children showed a percentage of from 32 to 47

of pure brunettes according to the province, and from 8 to 14

percent of pure blonds.” That the Jews have apparently not

preserved themselves free from intermixture can be seen from

the number of mixed types found among them. 37 percent

of Jews and 33 percent of Jewesses had dark hair with light

eyes, or the reverse ; Weissenberg® found 27.9 percent of mixed

types; Yakowenko* observed 67.31 percent and Majer and

Kopernicki, 61 percent. Talko-Hryncewicz,° records even

74.3 percent of mixed types among 86g Jews in Little-Russia,

and in Poland there were 41.53 percent according to Elkind.’

In addition, the great number of individuals with blond and

light chestnut hair, irrespective of their association with light or

dark eyes, which reached 13.11 percent in men and even 15.21

percent in women in New York City, also indicate foreign inter-

mixture, and the same can be seen from the number of blue and

gray eyes, amounting to 44.95 percent in Jews and 38.45 per-

cent in Jewesses. All this again points to racial intermixture.

That we can get no clue as to the origin of these mixed types

by a consideration of the color of the hair and eyes of the Jews

in different countries we have already seen. The Jews are not

1Virchow, ‘‘ Gesamtbericht, iiber die Farbe der Haut, der Haare, und der

Augen,”’ etc., Archiv fiir Anthropologie, XVI, p. 298.

2G. A. Schimmer, ‘‘ Erhebungen iiber die Farbe der Augen, der Haare und der

Haut bei den Schulkindern Oestreichs,’’ A/t¢theilungen der Anthropologischen Ge-

sellschaft in Wien, Suppl., 1884.

a EBs tates Da 107.

Sits C611. Ab

5 Majer and Kopernicki, ‘‘Charakterystyka, fizyczna ludnosci galicyjskiej,’’

Zbior Wiadomoset do antropologi Krajowej, Vol. I, p. 111, Krakow, 1877.

6 Loc. cit., p. 45.

W206. Cit.5 Pp» 39.

272

FISHBERG

necessarily more blond in countries where the indigenous pop-

ulation is blond, the reverse is rather true.

terrelation of the color of the hair and eyes into types gives the

same results, as can be seen from the following table:

Tastee, XLViEE

TYPES OF PIGMENTATION OF JEWS IN VARIOUS COUNTRIES.

A study of the in-

Type.

eens Number

Nativity. Observer.

Dark. | Fair. | Mixed. poRsenved|

Galician Jews. |

Men, in New York........... 43.03 | 13.12 | 42-95 | 305

Women, in New York........ 50.92) LO. 30 1)132°79)|9 B22

Polish Jews. | |

Men, in New York........... 53.05, | 0:52-| 365634) Sms. .)

Women, in New York...... 50.00} 5.36| 44.64 Sor ©]

Men, an, Poland... 5.35-5.4= 57-92:| 0.55 :|.45-52 }) 183 Elkind

Women, in Poland. .2-5... 2. £8.60 | -8.50)| 33-00) 418) || *

Lithuanian, White-Russ. Jews. | | |

Men, in New York...::...... 53.09 | 8:73 |) 38:18), 275 |

Women, in New York ...... 53-00 | 12.00 | 35.00 | 100 |

Men; im Lithnania.27.2......¢ 63.06 10.19 | 26.75 | 314 | Yakowenko, Talko-Hryncewicz,

Women, in Lithuania........| 74.00 | 6.00 | 20.00} 100 | Yakowenko.

Little-Russian Jews. | |

Men, in New York........... AO.3t | 7.31 43-38). i21o |

Women, in New York....... 55.41] 5.251 30249 74 "|

Men, in Little-Russia........ 51.30 16.20 | 34.00} 869 | Talko-Hryncewicz.

Women, in Little-Russia.... 68.60 | 6.90 | 24.30/ 799 5 -

Roumanian Jews. |

Men, in New York........... 46.67 | 10.66 | 42.67 150

Women, in New York...... 50.00 | 13.64 | 36.36 44

Hungarian Jews.

Men, in New York.,.......... 45.75 | 12.14 | 42.05 140

Women, in New York...... 61.54)) §. 13133533 39

United States.

Men, in New York, 22... 50.81 | 8.87 | 40.32 124

From this table it is seen that the proportion of dark types

oscillates between 44 percent (Galician) and 53 percent (Polish

and Lithuanian Jews). Fair types were encountered 7.31 per-

cent among the Little-Russian, 8.73 among the Lithuanian and

White- Russian, 9.52 among the Polish, 10.66 among the Rou-

manian, 12.14 among the Hungarian, and 13.12 percent among

the Galician Jews. A comparison with the Jews in their native

ANTIIROPOLOGY OF EASTERN EUROPEAN JEWS 273

countries does not reveal any process of selection of fair types

among the immigrants, as can be seen from Table XLVIII.

Excepting the Polish Jews, those observed in Eastern Europe

have a larger proportion of blonds than those who emigrated to

the United States.

TABLE 2OLIX.

TYPES OF PIGMENTATION AMONG JEWS AND NON-JEWS IN EASTERN EUROPE.

Number. | Type.

Country and Race. | al | Observer.

One eg: | Dark. | Fair. | Mixed.

Poland. | | |

MMO Teac ce cavscrn ees eaas 275 | 55-22 | 6.23 | 38.55 | Elkind, Fishberg.

PE MEEIINCI I. 5 winked devs onbaavivns 174 | 55-75 | 7-47 36.78 | at si

OSS 226 | 17.57 | 20.27 | 62.16 | Eikind.

ES PMPOMICTY ¢ 5 csc ves dan ssc ece vs 149 | 25.50 20.81 | 53.69 a4

Lithuania and White-Russia. | | | |

OS 589 | 5e.41 | O51 | 32.08 | Yakowenko, Talko, Fishberg.

- 2 Cn 200 | 63.50} 9.00) 27.50 | Yakowenko, Fishberg.

Letto-Lithuanians, men......... 476 | 5.00 | 66.60 | 28.40 | Talko-Hryncewicz.

White-Russians, men........... | 496% { £1-50 |'57-10'/' 31-30 UL “6

&< &< women........ | 275 | 21.09 | 58.55 | 20.36 | Shtchedrobitzki (Ivanovski).

Little- Russia. | | : |

0) Se | 1,088 51.84 14.43 | 33-73. Talko-Hryncewicz, Fishberg

SMEOOMAICT og ccs se vcanes asses | 873 | 67.69] 6.99 | 25.32 | a Ge «“

Little-Russians, men............ 2,619 | 20.40 | 34.00 | 45.60 | ee «

“ts a women.,......| 647 | 24.70 | 36.90 | 38.30 | “<

A comparison of the Jews with the races and peoples in

Eastern Europe among which they have lived shows that the

proportion of fair types among the Jews does not depend upon

the frequency in which these types are encountered among the

non-Jews. From Table XLIX it is evident that even in Lithu-

ania and White-Russia, where the indigenous population has up

to 66 percent of persons with fair hair and eyes combined in the

same individuals, the Jews have only 9.51 percent of such per-

sons, while in Little-Russia, where the indigenous population is

darker, having only 34 percent of fair types, the Jews on the

contrary have a much larger percent of fair types, 14.43 percent.

This condition has already been observed to be true of the

German, Austrian and Hungarian Jews. In his investigation of

the color of the skin, eyes and hair of the school children in

Germany, Virchow found the proportion of brunettes to be

274 FISHBERG

larger in the provinces where the non-Jewish population is

fairer. This can be seen from the following table taken from

Virchow’s work :

Blonds, Brunettes.

Province. 2 2 : : =

Jews. | Christians, Jews. Christians.

| |

Brussiaie. cco sateen cas eee | PL23 jy B0a95 43:34 =| 9.29

TR CSSE Min teect cs ome eeetene 11.17 21.53 41.50 | 13.22

Baden. meee cee TO. 32 24.34 | 41.95 | on TS

awards taconaneeaoertens 10.38 20. 36 39.45 | 21.56

Alsace-Lorraine.........:, | ie ea 18.44 34.59 221

These figures shows in a striking manner that in the provinces

of Germany, where the percentage of brunettes is smallest among

the Christian population, in Prussia only 14.05 percent, the Jews

have 42.34 percent of brunettes, the highest percentage; while

in Alsace-Lorraine and Bavaria where the Christians have 25.21

and 21.1 percent respectively of brunettes, the Jews have only

34.59 and 39.45 percent of such persons. A consideration of

the color of the eyes of the school children in Germany gives

the same results :

Percent of Fair Eyes. Percent of Dark Eyes.

Jews. Christians. Jews. Christians,

EUSA 8s aacsccouare 13.7 43.0 53.5 24.3

AVALIA.< oo s0as aan 20.0 29.0 49.0 '* 49.0

Where the proportion of fair eyes among the Christians is

large, as in Prussia, the Jews have only 18.7 percent, while in

Bavaria, where only 29 percent of the non-Jewish children had

fair eyes, the Jewish had 20 percent. This is more strikingly

confirmed by considering the distribution of the pure blond and

brunette types among the Jews in Germany and Austria from

Virchow’s and Schimmer’s works.

Germany. Austria.

Pure Blonds, Pure Brunettes. Pure Blonds. Pure Brunettes.

SUES Aes Sesscees OLZO 49.53 Bohemia........ 8.29 46.87

Pomerania,.... 8.85 50.58 Lower Austria 8.69 46.16

Brandenburgh 9.64 47.39 Moravia.:..30.-: 9.86 43.15

East and West Bukowina ..... 13.55 35-21

PHuUssia. sae: 11.61 43.04 Galieiajsccs<a9l 3.07 32.91

POSEN) ch Secacns 12.39 39.22

ANTHROPULOGY OF EASTERN EUROPEAN JEWS 275

It is evident from these figures that the farther we go south

and east of Europe, the smaller the proportion of brunettes

among the Jews, and the larger the proportion of blonds. With

the non-Jewish population of this region the reverse is the fact,

as can be seen graphically from the maps prepared by Virchow

and Ranke.’ Most of the blonds are found in Prussia, Pome-

rania, Sleswick-Holstein, Hanover, Westphalia, etc., and the

farther east we proceed reaching Posen, Silesia, Bohemia,

Moravia, Upper and Lower Austria, and finally the Bukowina

and Galicia, the percentage of pure blonds decreases, and the

brunettes increase in frequency. It is noteworthy, as has been

pointed out by Virchow, that in localities where the Jews have

lived for centuries in strict isolation from other races, owing to

religious and social prejudices, and presumably did not inter-

marry with their Gentile neighbors, the proportion of blond

types is larger than in the Prussian provinces where they are not

socially isolated but on the contrary have entered into general

social intercourse with the non-Jewish inhabitants. Here the

largest proportion of brunette types is found among the Jewish

school children.

This fact, which is fully confirmed by our observations on

the immigrant Jews in the United States, is of peculiar signifi-

cance, particularly when considered in connection with the fact

that other somatic traits of the Jews depend greatly on the

characteristics of their non-Jewish neighbors.

The high percentage of red-haired Jews is interesting. Among

the Jews in New York we found that 3.23 percent of the men,

and 3.95 percent of the women had red hair. Majer and Koper-

nicki, Weissenberg and Talko-Hryncewicz find 4 percent of

red-haired Jews, and indeed erythrism has been regarded as

characteristic of the Jews, both in Europe and the Orient. We

find that the red hair, particularly the beard, is usually frizzly

and nearly always accompanied by freckled skin. This erythrism

appears not to be of recent origin; it was not unknown among

the ancient Hebrews, for Esau was said to have been “red all

1Der Mensch, Vol. II, p. 290; reproduced in Ripley’s ‘‘ Races of Europe,’’

p. 222.

276 FISHBERG

over like a hairy garment.”’* The reference to David as “‘ ruddy’”

is explained by the Targum as “red-haired.” Jacobs” com-

ments on this as showing that the Jews of the time when the

Targum was written (about 600 A. D.) where not averse to re-

garding the typical Jewish king as rufous. Painters in the early

centuries of this era represented Christ with light hair, and Mary

Magdalene is almost always depicted as having light hair.

Judas Iscariot is considered to have been a typical red-haired

individual, although the New Testament makes no mention of

it. Besides this it must be mentioned that in ancient Egyptian

monuments the Canaanites are pictured as having red hair and

red beards. The Edomites, if we may trust the etymology of

the word ‘‘edom,”’ were also red-haired. The red hair of the

modern Jews is thus considered by many archeologists to be

derived from the ancient red-haired individuals and races in

Palestine in ancient times.

The hair of the beard in men is usually lighter than that of

the head, and red beards are more frequent than red heads.

Observations on the color of the beards of 587 Jews show the

following distribution :

Color. Number Percent.

Blacks: c cavgesss eee et neeeeee je cloy Mb kaamesennetesenans 175 29.82

Br OW th 2 3cniau se Coe teenieae eee ela ae 118 20.10

Chestnut’ J.aite. avd. osn aie ceat ngehe cee aes caer ees 81 13.80

eight, chestnutw.a-re-5 eae Ge ite camels ee 34 5-79

Blond 4 s.b2:23c5he ee Reet oe eee 115 19.59

ROG. wicaisoastae tment ieas Be atte nee ee ene ere 164 10.90

Total....:,2cic sale She cee asces eee eee eee eee 587 100.00

From these figures we find that red hair is nearly three times

as common in the beard as in the hair of the head. This is not

at all surprising to any one who has observed the Jews closely

for the beard is quite frequently red and very often has at least

a rufous tinge of frizzly character. I find that red beards are

more frequently found among the Jews of Galicia than among

those of other countries. Besides the red beards we find from

1Genesis, XXV, 25.

2 Journal Anthropological Institute, XV, pp. 23-62.

ANTHROPOLOGY OF EASTERN EUROPEAN JEWS 277

the table that 25.38 percent of Jews had fair-colored beards,

nearly double the proportion of those with fair heads.

We have distinguished four varieties of hair; (1) Smooth

(Schlicht in German, droit in French) ; (2) Wavy (zwed/g in Ger-

man, ovdé in French); (3) Frizzly (dockig in German, /rzsé in

French); (4) Wooly (Avaus in German, crépu in French).

Observations on 867 men showed the following distribution in

the varieties of hair :

PUMRMPERIM LINES 9 cr ike, epciac Poseeae sews wa N's na see o84 582 — 66.97 percent.

I RASEG sg cSt nis Dagon cach anh ddcas s+. aSyiats 223 — 25.66 percent.

REDRMMEN DNIR eters sad Svar aa anh yes QdolsKen dle xen 55 = 6.33 percent.

ERE ARIE Bis cies alae wn anc naceesianis «#6 nae tmseceein QG=— 1.04 percent.

Weissenberg found 88 percent of smooth, 14 percent of wavy,

and 2 percent of frizzly hair. From our own figures it is seen

that 93 percent of the hair of Jews is either smooth or wavy,

and that frizzly hair is rare (6.33 percent). Weissenberg' found

only two curly-haired Jews among 100, and Major and Koper-

nicki? found only one curly-haired individual in 118, or 0.84

percent. Yakowenko’® found four percent with curly hair, and

Glueck among the Spagnuoli states that he observed as much as

47.1 percent of curly and frizzly hair. In Weisbach’s study of

the Jews of the Balkan peninsula, there are recorded 10 in I9

as having curly hair.’ These last are of course rather a too

high percentage, not borne out by any other investigation, and

the only way in which it can be explained is that it is due to

chance, owing to the small number of individuals observed (55

by Glueck, and 19 by Weisbach), or to judging the variety by

the appearance of the beard which is very frequently frizzly,

in Jews; indeed the rufous beards are almost always frizzly

and the black are often of the same character. We have

emphasized this characteristic smoothness of the hair in the

Bt Loc. tt.) Pp. 103.

0ge. fib Ds TTS.

* Tige. Cite, Dx 853,

4L. Glueck, ‘‘ Beitrage zur physischen Anthropologie der Spaniolen,’’ W7ssez-

schaftliche Mittheilungen aus Bosnien und der Hercegovina, Vol. 1V, pp. 587-592.

5 A. Weisbach, ‘‘ Kérpermessungen Verschiedener Menschenrassen,’’ Zevtschrift

fiir Ethnologie, Erginzungsband, 1877, pp. 212-225.

278 FISHBERG

modern Jews, because of the fact that many of the contempo-

raneous non-Jewish Semites, are known by their frizzly and wooly

hair as much as by any other somatic characteristic.

Pigmentation undergoes changes with the advance of the age

ot the individual. Grayness, or canzties, may be premature or

senile. Up to the age of 35 or 40 years the hair retains its

normal color with most people. If grayness occurs before that

time, it is considered premature; otherwise it is considered to

be normal or senile. We have noted grayness in 161 individ-

uals over 20 years of age, being 18.52 percent of the total 867.

The youngest individual with gray hair was 22 years of age;

the oldest retaining the natural color of his hair was 46 years

of age. Weissenberg thinks that grayness appears quite early

in Jews, while Yakowenko shows that it appears rather late, or

about the age of 45 years. From our own observations we do

not think that the Jews show any marked differences in this re-

spect from other civilized peoples. Of the 161 gray-haired in-

dividuals examined, only 28 were younger than 35, a propor-

tion which can not be regarded as abnormal.

Baldness, or alopecia, due to arrested development of the

pilary system, is another change in the hair which appears with

advanced age. It normally appears at about the age of 45

years, when other signs of decay become manifest, as grayness,

loosening or decay of the teeth, dimunition of the keenness of

sight, etc.; under these circumstances it is called alopecia sent-

fis. Onthe other hand, alopecia prematura takes place at an

earlier age, and is more frequent in brain workers and in those

leading sedentary occupations or exposed to prolonged mental

worry. Many writers have stated that this change takes place

earlier in Jews than in non-Jews. Weissenberg’ has found that

16 percent of Jews between the ages of 21 and 50 years pre-

sented more or less baldness, the youngest showing this change

being 23 years of age. Yakowenko’ on the other hand, shows

that baldness is exceptional in Jews younger than 46 years, and

when it occurs before this age it is usually due to favus. From

WOOL Cilia, Ps 103.

EL OCaiClLs pepe See

ANTHROPOLOGY OF EASTERN EUROPEAN JEWS 279

our investigations we are inclined to agree with Yakowenko,

Excluding alopecia due to favus we have found 83 individuals

with more or less baldness among 1,188 over 20 years of age.

The youngest was 26 years. Only 12 individuals younger than

40 were affected with baldness.

Freckles (ephelides) was noted in all the red-haired individ-

uals, and those having swarthy skin are also very often affected

with freckles. Of 74 men and 62 women with light hair ob-

served, only 4 men and 2 women were freckled.

CHAPTER ViItk

THE COMBINATION OF TRAITS INTO TYPEs.

The North-European (or so-called ‘‘ Aryan’’) type, z. @., the

combination of blond hair, blue eyes, tall stature and dolicho-

cephaly, is not to be observed among the Jews. Taking up first

the relation of stature to the shape of the head, we find that tall

individuals are not more longheaded than those of short stature.

In fact there is no difference at all in the head-form according

to stature, as can be seen from the following figures :

Average Width Average Length Cephalic

Stature. of Head. of Head. Index.

SHOSE a2 a asrcep eens ened ae eee 153 186 82.26

Below the avenge: oer sesceeeee 154 187 82.35

Mibove the average... rncs sa.cassee 154 188 81.91

Whale. sz ae acetone renee 156 190 82.11

IAW ETAGEZ. © ot. utuinno set ae eeeeeeeareeee 154 188 81.91

In the same manner the head-form and pigmentation does

not show any relation between longheadedness and blondness.

It was found that the average cephalic index of 86 blond indi-

viduals was 81.35, and of the dark-haired Jews, 81.97, almost

identical. The various types of head-form were found in the

blonds and others in the following proportions :

Blond-Haired Others

Type of Head. Jews (Percent). (Percent).

Hyperdolichocephalic: .c2u. see, deeeereere 3.49 2.84

Dolichocephalic: 2... 0.5.425 ks eee ee 5.81 7.42

Subdolicocephialic 5..c-cmecac stn ue sseacenees ae: 8.14 15.88

Mesocephalites 2 itvcscsue-necsensenee tee ieseen gas 33-72 25.31

Subbrachycephalic .......... ak ids pean cea 20.93 24.20

Brachyceplalie -. 3 cascade cateacs csen cheese 20.93 15.81

Elyperbrachycephali¢s c-ce.5: we ssckiesee~e/peeee 6.98 8.53

Number .observed, 5/55. is;.ccsneusteess ae eee 86 1,442

From this table it is to be seen that 9.30 percent of the blonds

were dolichocephalic (cephalic index 77 and less), while the

dark-haired individuals had even slightly larger percentage of

280

ANTHROPOLOGY OF EASTERN EUROPEAN JEWS 281

dolichocephalic — 10.26. Brachycephalic men (cephalic index

84 and upward), were found among the dark-haired, 24.34 per-

cent, and among the blonds, the percentage was much larger,

27.91 percent. This does not confirm the observations of Majer

and Kopernicki' who found that among the brunette Jews in

Galicia 6.2 percent are dolichocephalic, as against 20 percent of

the blond Jews being of this type of head-form. This has often

been quoted in support of the theory that the blond Jews have

their origin in ‘‘ Indo-Germanic’’ infusion.

The relation of the color of the eyes and the head-form is

seen from the following table:

Amie,

COLOR OF THE EYES AND HEAD-FORM.

Color of the Eyes.

Type of Head-Form. .

Blue. Gray. | Dark.

Hyperdolichocephalic......... | 3.26 | 3.08 | 2.50

Mohchocephalic...........+.s+ | 7.69 7.20 7.61

Subdolichocephalic............ 12.13 | 14.65 16.98

MPSICCIMGIC. os ccaccs ved ce ves | 26.63 | 24.17 | 26.34

Subbrachycephalic ............ | 24.26 | 24.94 : 23.35

Pedcliycephalic................. | 18.93 | 14.14 15.73

Hyperbrachycephalic......... 7310 11.82 7-94

Number observed.............. 338 | 389 | Sol

The average cephalic index was found in the

Sle-O ved MMV Maas tee o. aces cans cacavne stn diacaeseass 81.43

Setaiy CWO MORIA ANS acces eat osc cosicnadenesiond canned 81.58

MALKCE VCR: IMONVICMMIS et ccs desgotebs cep edwsecdveavaccheds 81.96

which is almost identical in the three classes. From the above

table we also see that the percentage of dolichocephalic Jews

was among the blue-eyed, 10.95; in gray-eyed, 10.28, and in

the black and brown-eyed, 10.21, about the same in every

group. Of brachycephalics we found among blue-eyed Jews,

26.03 percent; among gray-eyed, 25.96, and among dark-eyed,

23.22 percent. This again shows that dark-eyed individuals

are like dark-haired Jews, less brachycephalic than fair-eyed

Jews.

PPErescte, pt. 1, ‘p. 132.

282 FISHBERG

The relation of pigmentation to stature has been studied by

Pantukhof, who found that in Odessa, Russia, the Jews who had

dark hair and eyes are of short stature, while those who have

gray or blue eyes and fair hair are taller." The same observer

reports that among the Jews in Caucasia he found that those

who are tall in stature have usually light eyes ; those who have

brown eyes were 161.7 cm. in height, while those who have

blue or gray eyes averaged 164.4 em.* On the othershand=

Ammon found no relation between blond hair, blue eyes, and

dolichocephaly among the Jewish recruits in Baden, Germany.

Elkind reports the same of the Jews in Russian Poland, and

finds that those who have dark hair and eyes are even taller

than those with fair hair and eyes.* Our own measurements

confirm this more strongly, because they are based on a larger

number of observations.

Taking the relation of stature to pigmentation we find no

“ Teutonic”’ or “Aryan” association’:

Stature, Blond Hair. Dark Hair.

SOE 5.15. ddde coremecmaten meee ae ee nee e hres 22.09 23.37

Below theaverage.\o-cavcr-esesenneee eae 31.39 30.03

Above the average... sate. saan eee eee 25.59 27.60

Tall ee ow c0 Shinde cou uaer tee edaee Reise eee eee ne 20.93 19.00

Average stature... .s-ceu etek ate cetacean 163.8 164.6

From these figures it is to be seen that the dark-haired Jews

were taller, 164.6 cm. in height, than those who had blond

hair, the latter averaging only 163.8 cm. in height. The pro-

portion of tall and short people is about the same in both the

blond-haired as in the dark-haired individuals. The same is

seen from the figures on page 281, where the relation of the

color of the eyes to stature is given. The average height of

those having brown or black hair is 165.1 cm. as against only

1 «Semitic Types,’? Proc. Russian Anthropological Society, pp. 26-30, St.

Petersburg, 1889 (in Russian).

2 [dem., ‘* Observations anthropologiques au Caucase’’ (in Russian), pp. 37-38,

Tiflis, 1893.

3Otto Ammon, Zur Anthropologie der Badener, pp. 663, 664, Jena, 1899.

4D. N. Elkind, ‘‘ The Jews,’’ Memozrs of the Soc. of Friends of Natural Sci-

ence, Anthropol. and Ethnography (in Russian) CIV, 1902, pp. 82-83.

ANTHROPOLOGY OF EASTERN EUROPEAN JEWS 283

163.8 of those who had blue or gray eyes. The proportion

of tall individuals (over 165 cm.in height) is 48.44 percent

among dark-eyed Jews and only 45 percent in those with light

eyes. Short people (less than 165 cm. in height) are found

only in the proportion of 51.56 percent among those with dark

eyes, and reach 55.92 percent in those with blue eyes.

Color of the Eyes.

Stature, Blue. Gray. Dark.

RRL eas eden abidecto b at dara 22.78 25.44 22.4%

Below the average...,.......... 33.14 29.57 29.09

Above thé average.............. 26.33 25-45 28.97

SMe chant eagek concen sss cke sete 0775 219.54 19.47

Mverace StatUre...3...0...0d.00 163.8 163.8 165.1

Number observed.............. 338 389 801

)

From all these figures we find that the ideal “Aryan”? com-

bination of stature, pigmentation and head-form is not to be

observed among the Jews. On the contrary, the rule among

them appears to be that the tall people have darker hair and

eyes, and havea lesser percentage of dolichocephalic individuals ;

and that those who are short of stature are of fairer complexion,

and show a larger percentage of dolichocephalic persons. This

tends to exclude the ‘“‘Aryan”’ influence as a cause of the Jewish

blonds, but it must be emphasized that this condition does not

by any means exclude Slavonic infusion, for it has namely been

observed that among the various Slavonic peoples, tall stature

is often combined with dark hair, and shortness of stature with

blond hair. This is the case, according to Weisbach’s re-

searches, with the Serbo-Croats.__ Among the Poles also the

the brunettes are taller than the blonds ;* also among the White-

Russians ;* and the Great-Russians * Vorob’eff concludes that

among many Slavonic peoples, such as the Serbo-Croats,

1A. Weisbach, ‘‘ Die Serbo-kroaten der adriatischen Kiistenlinder,’’ Zec¢schrif¢

fur Ethnologie, 1884, Supplement.

2 Elkind, oc. ci¢t., pp. 363-364.

SE. R. Eicholtz, ‘* Materials for the Anthropology of the White-Russians’’ (in

Russian), St. Petersburg, 1896.

*V. V. Vorob’eff, ‘‘ Materials for the Anthropology of the Great-Russian Popula-

tion,’ etc., Memoirs Anthropological Section, Vol. XIX, 1899, pp. 59, Moscow

(in Russian).

284 FISHBERG

Czechs, Poles, Ruthenians, Little-Russians, White-Russians,

etc., the rule is, the larger the percentage of brunettes, having

dark hair and eyes, the larger the proportion of tall.and round-

headed individuals.” A glance at the ingenious maps prepared

by Ripley’ showing stature and cephalic index in Eastern

Europe, confirms this graphically. The Slovaks, Little-Rus-

sians, Serbo-Croats, Servians, etc., are taller, and also more

brachycephalic than the Poles, Great-Russians, etc. Another

confirmation of this view is to be found among Great-Russians

in Transbaikalia, Siberia, who emigrated thither in the Seven-

teenth Century, and are considered to have preserved their

Slavic type more free from intermixture. They are taller, and

also more brachycephalic than their brethren in European

Russia.”

All this evidence shows that the ‘“ Slavonic type”’ does not

at all agree with the so-called ‘‘ North European”’ or ‘“‘Aryan”’

type, in which fair complexion is combined with tall stature and

dolichocephaly, but that the reverse appears to be true — tall

stature is combined with wide heads and brunettes and the re-

verse. We may consequently look for the cause of the blond-

ness among twelve percent of the modern Jews as possibly due

to Slavic intermixture. From all available data we find that

the interrelation of stature, pigmentation and head-form, are

similar to those which are normal in the Slavic populations

among which these Jews have lived for centuries.

1V. V. Vorob’eff, <‘On the Study of the Anthropology of the Slavic Population

of Russia,’’? Rzusstan Anthropological Journal, 1902, No. 2, p. 106; and also

‘The Great. Russians,’’ 7zd., 1900, No. I, pp. 43-82.

6 «« The Races of Europe,’’ pp. 340 and 350.

2J. D. Talko-Hryncewicz, ‘‘The Anthropology of the Great-Russians of Trans-

baikalia,’? Tomsk, 1898 (in Russian).

CHAPTER IX.

CONCLUSION.

As was stated in the introduction, the most important prob-

lem presented by the study of the physical anthropology of the

Jews is whether they have maintained their racial purity during

centuries of dispersion in various parts of the world. It would

be desirable in this connection to compare the physical traits of

the modern Jews with those of the ancient Hebrews, which is

at the present impossible. The ancient Hebrews have not em-

balmed their dead, and consequently no skeletons have been

found thus far in Palestine, dating back to the period of the Jew-

ish reign in that country. One thing is certain, however, the

original stock of the Jews was not made up of a single and homo-

geneous race, as is supposed by some. There are many refer-

ences in the Bible to intermarriages of the ancient Hebrews with

other non-Jewish races, as the Hittites, Amorites, Cushites

Canaanites, etc. That some of these races were not of Semitic

stock has been established recently by archeological research.

The Amorites, for instance, are believed to have been “ Aryans,”

tall, blond and dolichocephalic ; and a considerable amount of

evidence has been brought forward in support of this theory.’

The Hittites are considered by some to have been a Mongoloid

race, by others brunette brachycephals of the so-called Arme-

noid type.” The Cushites, according to Biblical and other evi-

dence, were Negroes.? The ancient Hebrew patriachs and the

aristocracy of Israel have freely indulged in intermarriage with

these and other non-Jewish races, and it can safely be assumed

1See A. H. Sayce, ‘‘The Races of the Old Testament,’’? London, 1891; also

Luschan, Joc; cit.

2 See M. Alsberg, ‘‘ Rassenmischung im Judenthum,’’ Hamburg, 1891; Lus

chan, Joc. cit. Sayce, loc. cit.

3 May the negroid traits such as dark skin, thick lips, prognathism, wooly hair,

etc., which are often met with among the modern Jews, not be cases of atavism ?

285

286 FISHBERG

that the common people followed the example. All this shows

that the Jews cannot, even during their most glorious period of

their history, be considered to have been a pure race free from

foreign blood in their veins.

A comparison of the Jews with the living non-Jewish Semitic

tribes shows that they belong to totally different races of man-

kind. The Bedouin Arabs, who are said to have preserved

themselves in the purest state are of a totally different type

than the modern Jews. They are of dark complexion, and it

is very rare to find an Arabian with a fair skin, blond hair and

blue eyes. They are above the average stature, averaging 166

to 168 cm. in height. Their headform is distinctly dolicho-

cephalic, with an average cephalic index of 73 to 77. All this

shows that the modern non-Jewish Semites are of distinct Afri-

can type. The Jews on the other hand are of an Asiatic type,

short of stature, brachycephalic, and in addition present a large

proportion of blonds. In fact if the Bedoins are considered

the standard Semitic type, then the Jews are not Semites at all.

All the measurements taken on modern Jews tend to prove that

physically they possess traits akin to those presented by the

races and peoples among which they have lived during the last

thousand years. The Jews are taller than in countries where

the non-Jewish population is tall, and the reverse. In our study

we found that stature is considerably influenced by environ-

ment, social and economic conditions. But the environment

theory does not explain satisfactorily why the Jews in the

Bukowina are taller than those in Galicia, or why the Jews in

Russian Poland are shorter than those in Little-Russia. It is

well known that economic and social conditions of the Jews in

the Bukowina are not superior to those in Galicia; or that in

Little-Russia the Jews are employed more often in outdoor

occupations than in Russian Poland; nor is it known that the

climate of Roumania, Little-Russia and the Bukowina is especi-

ally favorable to growth of the body. The fact that almost

everywhere the Jews are shorter by about two to three centi-

meters on the average than the Gentiles of the same country

accounts for the effects of environment and peculiarity of social

ANTHROPOLOGY OF EASTERN EUROPEAN JEWS 287

conditions to a certain extent. It also proves that poverty,

privation and underfeeding could only reduce a few centimeters

of their height, but was not potent enough to deface the effects

of race; could not make the Jews in every country of about

the same average height. It is therefore safe to explain these

differences in stature of the Jews, as caused by the infusion into

their veins of non-Jewish blood. All the evidence available

tends to exclude environment as the sole cause, and that inter-

marriage, open or clandestine with non-Jews, accounts for the

fact that the Jews in Little-Russia, Bukowina and Roumania,

etc., taller than the Jews in Galicia, Poland, etc. They are

taller in the named countries because the indigenous races in

the named countries, the Little-Russians, Ruthenians, RKouma-

nians, etc., are taller. How far this holds good can be seen from

Table VIII showing the stature of the Jews in various Eastern

European countries, and in the diagrams showing the curves of

these figures. It is also attested by the figures in the same table

showing the distribution of the classes of stature among Jews

and non-Jews. As long as it can not be conclusively proven

that the Jews in Roumania and Little-Russia are more often en-

gaged in outdoor occupations, or are economically superior to

those in Galicia and Poland, we will find the best explanation

for the fact that the larger percentage of tall Jews in the former

countries, and the larger percentage of short Jews in the latter,

as due to intermixture with the native races.

While the effects of environment are to be considered while

speaking of stature, this is a negligible quantity in the case of

the headform. Extensive craniological research has conclu-

sively shown that the shape of the head depends only on race

and heredity. Neither climate, nor social, nor economic condi-

tions appear to have any influence on the cranial type. Wher-

ever heterogeneity of the cephalic index has been found in a

group of people, it was mostly found that racial intermixture

was the cause. As was shown in chapter IV the type of head

of the Eastern European Jews is mesocephalic, about the same

as that of the races and peoples of the countries in which they

live. Wherever the head of the indigenous population is

288 FISHBERG

broader, that of the Jews is also wider, and the reverse. When

to this is added that in Caucasia the Jews have hyperbrachyceph-

alic and in North Africa they are dolichocephalic, correspond-

ing to the type found among the non-Jewish population, the

reason for the diversity of type is apparent.

The headform of the ancient Hebrews is not known, because

there are no crania available for measurement. The oldest

Jewish skulls were measured by Lombroso.' They were found

in the catacomb of Saint Calixtus in Rome, and date back to

150 A. D. The cranial indices of five of these skulls are 80,

70.1, 78, 83.4, and 75.1, which means an average cephalic

index in the living of 80.5. It is understood that no definite

conclusions can be drawn from measurements of only five skulls,

but the fact that among these are found not one dolichocepha-

lic, and two brachycephalic skulls, points strongly against the

opinion that the ancient Hebrews were a purely dolichocephalic

race, corresponding to the type of the modern non-Jewish

Semites. In this connection, Luschan’s theory is of interest.

He suggests that the greater part of the ancient Hebrews were

derived from the Hittites, a brachycephalic race which flourished

in Syria and Asia Minor about 1500 B.C. Their decendants

in modern times are shown by the same authority, and also by

Jensen,” to be, besides the Jews, also the Armenians, the Turks,

the Greeks and. others. Jzuschan) points out’ that evenmihe

physiognomy of the modern Armenians, particularly the arched

and aquiline nose, considered at the present to be peculiarly

Jewish, is in fact, Armenian, and the same is true of other traits,

such as pigmentation, etc. If this were true, then the Jews in

the Caucasus are the ones who preserved the original type more

than any other group, and those in other countries are the ones

who diverted fromthe type. Not all the living Semites are

dolichocephalic. Chantre shows that the contemporary Syrians

of Semitic speech are often as brachycephalic as the Armenians.

The same headform is characteristic of the Semites in the

Caucasus, such as the Lesghians, Georgians, Aisores, etc. Pan-

1«<T)antisemitismo e le scienze moderne,’’ Torine, 1894, appendix.

2«¢ Hittiter und Armenier,’’ p. 63.

ANTHROPOLOGY OF EASTERN EUROPEAN JEWS 289

tukhof shows that these races are of Semitic origin.’ Consider-

ing that the Jews are not recent arrivals, but have been there

from time immemorial, the headform of the ancient Hebrews’

skull may have been brachycephalic. In support of such a

theory can be cited measurements of twelve skulls from a Jewish

cemetery, in Basle, Switzerland, dating back to the thirteenth and

fourteenth centuries.” The average cranial index of these skulls

is 84.66, 2. @., a cephalic index on the living of 86.66, which is

about the same as that of the Jews in Caucasia. While twelve

skulls are*by far not sufficient to lead to definite conclusions,

still, the fact that not one of these skulls is dolichocephalic, is

of great significance. It tends to show that the headform of the

Jews in Europe has during the last few centuries elongated, and

not become rounder.

But no matter whether the original type of skull of the Jews

was brachycephalic or dolichocephalic, the majority of the mod-

ern Jews in Europe are mesocephalic as has been shown above.

That intermarriage of races with different cranial types will pro-

duce a middle type, has recently been disproved. The prevail-

ing opinion at the present is that intermarriage of long- with

round-headed races, does not produce middle types, but the

continued coexistence of both types. Professor Boas’s studies

on the North American Indians shows this to be true. ‘This

was also found to be true of the Eastern European Jews.’ The

fact that the hyperbrachycephalic and dolichocephalic types of

head are so infrequently found among the Jews in Eastern

Europe may thus be explained that intermarriage with the

native races has by a process of natural selection eliminated

these two types, giving place to the headform of the latter ;

and that the headform of the Jews does exactly correspond to

that of their non-Jewish neighbors, is a good proof pointing in

this direction.

1]. I. Pantukhof, ‘‘ Observations anthropologiques au Caucase,’’ and also ‘‘ Les

races du Caucase,’’ Tiflis, 1900.

2J. Kollmann, ‘‘Schadel und Skeletreste aus einem Judenfriedhof des 13. and

14. Jahrhundert zu Basel.’’ ‘erhandl, der naturforschenden Gesellschaft, Basel,

1885, VII, pp. 648-656.

3 Franz Boas, ‘‘ Heredity in Head Form,’’? American Anthropologist, N.S., V,

1903, pp- 530-538.

290 F{SHBERG

The origin of the blond Jews is another problem which is of

interest. Judging from Biblical tradition, and the race portraits

of the ancient Assyrian and Egyptian monuments, there were

blond Jews in antiquity. At present over 10 per cent. of Jews

have blond hair, and in some countries even 20 per cent. Some

believe that these blond Jews are the descendants of cross mar-

riages of ancient Hebrews with Amorites. The fact that in

Caucasia, where the indigenous population is dark, only 2 per

cent. of the Jews have fair hair (Pantukhof) is against it. It may

be good evidence that in Caucasia, the Jews, even had they in-

termarried with the indigenous races, could not acquire blond

hair. The only possible objection that could be found against

the opinion that the blond Jews in Europe are derived from in-

termarriage with North European races, is the fact emphasized

in chapter VI. that they are more blond in countries where the

indigenous population is darker and the reverse. But it must

be acknowledged that it makes very little difference where they

have acquired it, as long as it is agreed that this blondness is

one of the best proofs that they have not maintained themselves in

as purea state as is generally supposed. That it cannot entirely

be ascribed to intermarriage with the Amorites and other fair

races of Palestine in Biblical times, is attested by the fact that the

modern Jewish blonds are not taller, nor more dolichocephalic

than the brunettes. Archeological research has shown that

the blond Amorites were dolichocephalic and of tall stature, the

Hebrews, compared with them were as “ grasshoppers in their

own sight.”* The brunette Jews in Eastern Europe corre-

spond to the Slav type, being taller and having longer heads.

This is normal among the Slavonians, such as the Poles, Czechs,

Ruthenians, Little-Russians, White-Russians, etc., as has been

shown in Chapter VIII. Nobody claims that the ancient He-

brews have come in contact with these races before their dis-

persion. This trait could only have been acquired while the

Jews have lived among the Slavonians in Eastern Europe, dur-

ing the last ten centuries.

We conclude that the bulk of the modern Jews, who live at

1 Numbers XIII, 33.

ANTHROPOLOGY OF EASTERN EUROPEAN JEWS 291

the present in Eastern Europe, and who constitute over 80 per

cent. of all the Jews, are physically more akin to the races

among which they have lived in Eastern Europe, than to the

so-called Semites.

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CONTENTS.

PAGE

EM RREIIEMEIEN 22-5321, ah Geico wank cena mene ae eee ee ere ak en aoa RE OE ae eee ens 155

Peart eeeeral Piety OF Pie POW inves ceun a pannecn se tpvesni nema matey oaddeaniwans 156

Peper: Ae RODOIODY Ol LNG EWS. fc 205 ei antes obs nsgiessennce-wauan sae ata 160

Methods of Investigation of American JeWS............-0.s0sscseee seseceeee 168

NON eee es Oe yea Fe cake shacas eee wae aed anes ov Gn dod duals pOesmau dee svenu seas 171

The Influence of Social Conditions on Stature................ceceeeeeeeeees 189

SPIRE VOR SEW CRS, 8 in Sree saan -nacyonpreed Oe oka her ie PRET ae te ae 195

nes Rett City Ele Raliegh Oh ds stad sane eddtn saa bnck dc awns condecsdsewe'ees bed 200

EE Na ARS See De 2 ree eee oars ere ee 207

1 OTE OSS Co he ne eee ee ne 207

Pree GAME Tear EE PEWESSER secs. cna 2st (ese das wre senennccua ieabhunges eos 212

(ES ES SUS Sg To: ee ee ee ae a a eee 214

aie Westen Or Pte FIER OF JE WESSES J 05.90. oo. tries aotases cuaesdacencstansss 218

SRM pMBE INS BPN LEME Ss dics echoes a « had we sav oes wh noone laoac eit ee 220

ene Re ERR GE PE WESSES fo. oo hn cy den aw wanksccarspacermca cen ssnsesens 235

The Horizontal Circumference of the Head....................0cc0eecsceees 242

Rs age re ieate dtr wis a uw added mee a cea evh Gavsaghekeoteendeews Zou 245

SE MERINO oe on UN SER es eb LU Se he teens td ove wnnckne code code ee eaceas 248

RE ees Pent CoRR ao oe es a eB wlan Werks Seah acaN vs eds ta veusaween Jon 249

ae Ra enna WENO ENN gress Ath tne Saas cawmine dens tn coees bares inwsaaneecd 250

OS UE 2h 9 tale San oa og ee es ee eee eee 251

Sierra MUNG Ce ee ce Bee ie sine hapPee capi Bent kepesu wkd webbie seayaaet 253

Oe 28S OP ee ge A ee a 257

CERI OEMRIN TS ech teak akecs laa Mies ci ade thin nak spual stag tdueienesmnken 261

SeMANE NE REE R TAM See ee sale ani 2) a eid > cw Sica s tuys anna ea dde oa waien'ene 264

olor et the Eyes’... 23. <5. 02: So eee Oe Cnr er OF ASE 265

SOREL E Me RRL IMME 5 cle enn Sem eoaiscnb nV a wicby a's vawe erences <cwastnacisan 270

eee Combination of Traits into Types... ........2.<cccsececaccsescseussenescees 280

RIOR 2 rd ta is WP rtn Sabeineld wenn are edd ante up vice ad yi v= 0 SeiwaduSandiodad edens 285

ON ee Ew etek cts ani os Paes yeah che uote haa nea cea 291

(297)

| ANNALS N. Y. Acap. Sci., VoL. XVI, No. 7, pp. 299-386, Aug. 2, 1905. ]

RECORD OF MEETINGS

OB ALEGRE

NEW YORK ACADEMY OF SCIENCES.

January, 1904, to December, 1904.

Henry E. Crampton, Recording Secretary.

BUSINESS MEETING.

JANUARY 4, 1904.

The Academy met at 8-15 P. M., President Wilson presiding.

In the absence of the secretary, the reading of the minutes was

dispensed with.

There being no business to come before the meeting, the

Academy then adjourned. CHARLES LANE Poor,

Secretary pro tem.

SpBCTION OF ASTRONOMY, PHYSICS AND

CHEMISTRY.

JANUARY 4, 1904.

Section met at 8:15 P. M., Vice-President Poor presiding.

The minutes of the last meeting of the Section were read and

approved.

The following program was then offered :

Herschel C. Parker, ALriruDE OBSERVATIONS WITH THE

HyPsSOMETER IN THE CANADIAN ROCKIES.

George F. Kunz and Charles Baskerville, PHospHores-

CENCE IN DIAMONDS PRODUCED By PITCHBLENDE.

(299 )

300 RECORDS.

Bergen Davis, Latest THEORIES RELATING TO THE DiIs-

CHARGE OF ELECTRICITY IN HicH Vacuas, AND IONIZATION OF

GASES.

SUMMARY OF PAPERS.

Professor Parker presented a brief outline of the various

methods used in altitude determinations, showing that all are

based on two general methods, triangulation or measurement of

atmospheric pressure. In the latter method the determinations

are made either by means of the several forms of barometer or

the hypsometer. The difficulties attending the use of all of the

different forms of barometer were pointed out and the advantages

of portability and accuracy of the hypsometer shown. Examples

were then given illustrating the extremely satisfactory results

obtained with the hypsometer during mountaineering expeditions

in the Canadian Rockies last summer.

Professor Parker has had many years’ experience in mountain

work, making numerous “ first ascents’ in British Columbia and

Alberta, and he gave as his conclusion that the hypsometer is

by far the most convenient and accurate instrument for the

determination of altitudes under ordinary mountaineering con-

ditions.

Dr. Kunz in presenting the second paper stated that a

naturally fractured piece of pitchblende (uraninite), weighing

800 grams, from Pribram, Bohemia, caused the 1433 carat

diamond (tiffanyite),’ to phosphoresce when laid upon it, or even

when a piece of window glass, or a board three fourths of an

inch thick was interposed. The diamond glowed, although

more than one inch of space intervened between it and the

pitchblende. We have in this instance a substance with a radio-

activity of only 2 or 2% affecting a radio-actively responsive

substance, proving that there exists a body of the latter character

in this case that responds almost to the unit one of radio-activity.

The same specimen of pitchblende did not affect a platinum-

barium cyanide screen. Another specimen of pitchblende from

Pribram, and others from Johangeorgenstadt, Saxony, and

1 Sczence, December 18, 1903.

RECORDS. 301

Central City, Colorado, caused the diamonds to phosphoresce.

It was further shown that if either kunzite (a variety of spodu-

mene), pectolite or wollastonite, pulverized, were mixed with

radium-barium carbonate, of 240 activity, the mixed powder

became permanently luminous. When these mixtures were

put ina Bologna flask and held ona metal plate, hot but not

showing any color, they immediately became very luminous and

remained so fora long time. Kunzite, pectolite and wollastonite

became phosphorescent by heating alone, the kunzite showing

an orange glow. Whena kunzite crystal 5 cm. square and 5

cm. thick was exposed to the passage of an oscillating current,

the entire crystal glowed an orange pink, losing its lilac color,

a well-defined line through the center in the path of the current

being much more brilliant; this phosphorescence lasted for

quite a time after exposure. Further experiments were made

with the same sensitive diamond mentioned above as to its tribo-

luminescence. Prints were obtained from negatives made by

laying the diamond face downward directly upon the photo-

graphic plate, and rubbing the back of the diamond with a stick

coated with wool, in one instance for a quarter of a minute, in

another for one half minute, the tribo-luminescence induced

causing the printing. The same type of diamond from British

Guiana, when heated on a metal plate below redness, phos-

phoresced distinctly, as also did pectolite and wollastonite. We

have here, therefore, luminescence of the tiffanyite body in

diamond, produced by radio-active pitchblende, by friction and

by heat.

The paper by Dr. Davis was the first of a series of papers on

“Recent Progress in Physical Science.’”’ Account was given of

Dr. H. A. Wilson’s investigation of the distribution of electrical

intensity along the striated positive column, and his theory for

the electrical intensity in a uniform positive column. An outline

was also given of Professor J. J. Thompson’s theory of the dis-

charge through Geissler tubes. Dr. Davis also reviewed Pro-

fessor J. S. Townsend’s theory of the sparking potential,

Professor Townsend having showed that the ionization is due to

impact of both positive and negative ions with the neutral mole-

302 RECORDS.

cule. The theoretical sparking potential thus deduced agrees

very closely with the experimental value.

CHARLES C. TROWBRIDGE,

Secretary.

SECTION, OF -BIQEOGN.

JANUARY II, 1904.

Section met at 8.15 P. M., Vice-President Underwood pre-

siding. The minutes of the last meeting of the Section were

read and approved.

The following program was then offered :

Henry F. Osborn, THE CLassIFICATION OF THE REPTILIA.

Adele M. Fielde, THe SENSE oF SMELL IN ANTSs.

SUMMARY OF PAPERS.

Professor Osborn presented the history of the classification of

Reptilia as follows: (1) Recognition of the Cotylosauria as the

most primitive group of reptiles, by Cope and Baur. (2) The

separation of the Anomodontia, Chelonia and Sauropterygia as

reptiles with a single temporal arcade, by Smith Woodward and

Broom. (3) The affiliation of the Ichthyosaur with the two-

arched rather than the single-arched reptiles, by Baur and Mc-

Gregor. (4). The recognition of Sphenodon as the ancestral

type of the two-arched reptiles, by Baur and others. (5) Sepa-

ration of the reptiles into two great groups of single-arched and

two-arched types, by Smith Woodward and Broom. (6) The

demonstration that reptiles are separated not only by the struc-

ture of the temporal arch but by many fundamental characters

into two distinct groups, by Osborn and McGregor (1902). (7)

Consequent division of the Reptilia into two subclasses Synap-

sida and Diapsida, by Osborn (1903). (8) The proposal of the

Diaptosauria to include all of the most primitive two-arched

reptiles without armature, by Osborn (1903). (9) The classifi-

cation of the Reptilia according to the accompanying table

(1903-4).

RECORDS. 303

CLass REPTILIA.

I. Subclass SYNAPSIDA, Osborn.

1. Order CoTyLOSAURIA, Cope [= Pareiasauria, Seeley].

Family Diadectide.

Family Pariotichidee.

Family Pareiasauridz.

2. Superorder ANOMODONTIA, Owen [= Theromorpha, Cope, in part].

Order I. THERIODONTIA, Owen.

Suborder I. Therocephalia.

Suborder II. Cynodontia, Owen.

Order II. DicyNopDONTIA, Owen. Inc. Sedis.

Order III. PLACODONTIA, Owen.

3. Order SAUROPTERYGIA.

Suborder I. Simosauria, Gervais [= Nothosauria].

Suborder II. Plesiosauria.

4. Order TESTUDINATA.

Suborder [. Pleurodira.

Suborder II. Cryptodira.

Suborder III. Trionychia.

II. Subclass D1apsipA, Osborn.

1. Superorder DIAPTOSAURIA, Osborn.

Order I. PROCOLOPHONIA, Seeley.

Order II. PRoTOROSAURIA, Seeley.

Order III. PROGANOSAURIA, Baur.

Order IV. GNATHODONTIA, Owen.

Order V. PELYCOSAURIA, Cope.

Order VI. CHORISTODERA, Cope.

Order VII. RHYNCHOCEPHALIA, Giinther.

2. Order PARASUCHIA, Huxley.

Suborder I, Aétosauria.

Suborder II. Phytosauria.

3. Order ICHTHYOSAURIA, Blainville, 1835 [— Ichthyopterygia, Owen, 1839]

4. Order CROCODILIA.

Suborder I. Mesosuchia.

Suborder II. Eusuchia.

Suborder III. Thalattosuchia.

5. Superorder DINOSAURIA, Owen.

Order I. THEROPODA, Marsh.

Suborder I. Megalosauria [= Thecodontia, Owen].

Suborder II. Compsognatha, Huxley.

Order II. OpistHoceLiA, Owen [= Sauropoda, Marsh].

Order III. ORNITHOPODA, Cope [= Predentata, Marsh].

6. Superorder SQUAMATA.

Order J. LACERTILIA.

Order II. MosaAsavuria.

Order ITI. Opuipia.

7. Order PTEROSAURIA.

304 RECORDS.

Miss Fielde described her experiments with many species of

these insects. Each species appears to have its distinctive odor,

discernible by other ants.~ Within each species there are also

differences of odor, dependent on the age of the colony, and the

age of the queen from whose eggs its inmates are produced.

The ant’s organs of smell are its antenne, in which the joints

are as aseries of noses, each having a special function. The

distal joint appreciates the nest-aura informing the ant whether

it is in its own nest or in that of an enemy. The second joint

discriminates between the odors of ants of the same species as

itself, but of different colonies. The third joint discerns the

scent of the track laid down by the ant’s own feet, and enables

the ant to return upon any route that has been previously

traversed. The fourth and fifth joints smell the larve and

pupz, and the removal of these joints disables the ant from

further care of the inert young. The sixth and seventh joints

make known to the ant the presence of ants of other species

than her own. So many as five joints may be retained by ants

whose antenne have normally eleven or twelve joints and these

ants will live peacefully together though they be of different sub-

families. But if seven joints be retained, the ants, similarly

grouped, will fight one another to the death. If ants make one

another’s acquaintance before they are twelve hours old they

will thereafter live amicably together although they be of differ-

ent species, genera or even of different subfamilies. But in three

days after hatching their criterion of correct ant odor is estab-

lished, and they refuse to affiliate with ants whose odor is not

in accord with their standard. M. A. BIGELOw,

Secretary.

RECORDS. 305

SECTION. OF GEOLOGY AND MINERALOGY.

JANUARY 18, 1904.

Section met at .8:15.P: M., Professor James F. Kemp

presiding.

The minutes of the last meeting of the Section were read and

approved.

In the absence of the Secretary, Dr. A. A. Julien was ap-

pointed Secretary pro tem.

The following program was then offered :

J. D. Irving, Microscopic STRUCTURE AND ORIGIN OF CER-

TAIN STYLOLITIC STRUCTURES IN LIMESTONE.

J. Howard Wilson, RECENT JoURNEYS AMONG LOCALITIES

NOTED FOR THE DISCOVERY OF REMAINS OF PREHISTORIC

MAN.

SUMMARY OF PAPERS.

From an extended examination of stylolitic limestones col-

lected in Indiana and Wyoming, mainly by Mr. M. L. Fuller

and himself, Dr. Irving has drawn the following conclusions

regarding the origin of the peculiar structures :

1. They were initiated along a thin clay layer in limestone and

have been produced by the interpenetration of the limestone

material on either side of this clay seam.

2. They are entirely independent of the presence of fossils

existing in the rock, for they occur equally in those portions of

the rock where fossils are absent and Where they are present.

3. They were not formed by metamorphic agencies, or by the

weight of overlying strata, or by other causes which would tend

to distort and crush the rock material.

4. They were produced by a cause which operated on the

material of the rock while it was yet unconsolidated, and ina

condition approximating that which obtained at the time of

deposition.

5. They originated under great pressure, the rock material

being sufficiently soft to allow the bending of individual stylo-

lites, and yet potentially rigid so that organisms were sharply

sheared off while held in the soft matrix.

306 RECORDS.

While the cause of the pressure and the manner in which it

had operated to produce these structures has not been de-

termined, the author suggests that their production may be the

result of the hydrostatic pressure of the sea water lying above

the deposits. In the instances examined, stylolites are char-

acteristic of marine deposits formed in water varying from 400

to 2,500 fathoms in depth. If sea water be taken to have an

average specific gravity of 1.028, then a one-foot column of

water exerts a hydraulic pressure of .434 lb. per sq. in. of area.

This would give, for the depth stated, a hydrostatic pressure of

from 1,041 to 6,408 lbs. per sq. in. Such a pressure as this,

coupled with the soft unconsolidated nature of the rock at the

time it might have been exerted, seems to fulfill better than any

other the conditions demanded by the observed facts.

Mr. Wilson discussed Man in the earliest times before the

Neolithic Age and afterwards illustrated his paper by nearly

forty views of some of the most famous rock shelters, caves and

deposits of Europe which have furnished remains of Palzolithic

Man, including also slides of the type implements and weapons

from which is derived the principal evidence of Man’s existence

in Quaternary times.

The paper recited briefly the history of the subject, the first

finds, especially the work of Boucher de Perthes, and the

gradual development of the science of prehistoric archeology.

Reference was made to some of the disputed evidence of Man’s

existence in the Tertiary period, and then the subject of Man’s

undoubted existence as early as the Second Glacial period was

treated more at length, with a consideration of the climate and

physical conditions which prevailed in Paleolithic times.

The paper closed with an attempt at a realization of the great

antiquity of Palaeolithic Man as shown by the immense physical

and geological changes which have taken place since he first

made his undoubted appearance. As A. SOREN,

Secretary pro tem.

RECORDS. 307

See TliON OF ANTHROPOLOGY AND PSYCHOLOGY.

JANUARY 25, 1905.

The regular meeting of the section was held on January 25,

at the American Museum of Natural History, in conjunction with

the New York Branch of the American Psychological Associ-

ation. Afternoon and evening sessions were held, the members

dining together between sessions. The program wasas follows :

Henry Rutgers Marshall, Primary AND SECONDARY

PRESENTATIONS.

Margaret E. Washburn, THE GENERIC RELATION OF

ORGANIC SENSATION AND SIMPLE FEELING.

Francis Burke Brandt, THE UNIVERSE’s PLACE IN Man.

Walter F. Dearborn, Rerinat Loca. Siens.

Henry Davies, Dewey’s “Srupies in LocicaL THEORY.”’

Robert MacDougall, Tur DistripuTioN oF ERRORS IN

SPELLING ENGLISH WorRDs.

Irving King, THe ULtTimaTE RELATION BETWEEN MAGIC

AND RELIGION.

SUMMARY OF PAPERS.

Dr. Marshall in his paper aimed to present evidence that pre-

sentations are always new presentations, and that, therefore,

images can not be properly said to be copies of impressions, nor

can what we call representations be properly said to be duplica-

tions of any presentations which have previously existed. His

paper was a summary of an article which is presently to appear

in Mind.

In his paper Dr. Brandt emphasized the necessity for a fresh

start in modern empirical investigation through a critical restate-

ment of the postulates of experience. The starting point of

every empirical science, it was contended, is individual conscious

experience. The primary datum of individual experience is a

perceptive and a conceptive consciousness combined organically

in the unity of a personal life existent in a universe of persons.

The material universe thus primarily takes its place in man rather

than man his place in the material universe, for scientific philos-

308 RECORDS;

ophy has demonstrated beyond criticism, first, that the visible

universe always exists primarily in and for a momentary per-

ceptive consciousness limited in space, and second, that the

unseen universe is always primarily a conceptive construction

whose validity is always verifiable within the realm of momen-

tary perceptive experience. The material universe, whether

conceived phenomenally or existentially, participates in one case

in the content, in the other in the being of absolute personality,

and as such, so far as individual man is concerned, is the objec-

tification of the conditions of higher individual development.

Mr. Dearborn’s paper was offered as a critique of the first of

the three Lotzean hypotheses concerning the nature of the

retinal local signs. Experiments to determine the accuracy of

the motor impulse, as shown by the ability to fixate directly

eccentric visual stimuli forty degrees to the right of the primary

line of regard, found an average error of corrective movements

considerably in excess of the threshold value of local discrimi-

nation for the same part of the retina. These discrepancies

between the accuracy of the motor impulse and the delicacy of

local discrimination seem to necessitate some modification of the

traditional view in regard to the nature of the local signs, or

at least in regard to the relative importance of the motor factor.

In the paper by Dr. Davies only the four chapters con-

tributed by Professor Dewey to the above work were considered.

Toward the right understanding of the work two conditions

of a historical character must be borne in mind. One of these

is the relation of recent logical theory to the Kantian dualism

of sense and reason which tended to separate thought from its

object. The other is the influence of the evolutionary method,

which drives the investigator to study logical distinctions in the

light of their genesis in experience.

Both of these conditions exert a profound influence over

Dewey’s thought. For it is the essence of his contribution to

logical theory that he shows that the obstinate manner in which

logicians have accepted the Kantian reading of experience is

the most fruitful historical cause of the contradictions, ¢. g., in

Lotze’s ‘‘ Logic”’ as well as in that of Bradley and Bosanquet.

RECORDS. 309

Dewey claims that this isa complete misreading of the thought

situation.

On the other hand, common sense and empirical science with

their pragmatic and evolutionary method disclose the real situ-

ation. Thought is a question of specific purposes, specific con-

texts and specific conflicts. Common sense and empirical sci-

ence assume for these specific aims the unity and continuity of

experience. The logical problem emerges when this is broken

up by an inward conflict into fact and theory, datum and ide-

atum. The content of thought is just this conflict, which is only

a temporary phase of the logical situation, the outcome of which

must always be the reéstablishment of the original unity in our

experience.

It follows from this that logic cannot contemplate as its aim

a completely rationalized metaphysics. Rather its function is

to act as a philosophy of experience, as a method by which ex-

perience may be advanced towards better and more complete

knowledge. But the rectification of experience and the com-

plete correlation of all the functions of experience presuppose a

logic of genetic experience. It is Dewey’s merit to have pointed

this out and to have, in large part, supplied the need in the

present work.

Dr. MacDougall made a provisional report upon an investi-

gation of the distribution of errors in spelling English words.

These occur characteristically in the latter part of the word, but

do not present a continuous increase from beginning to end.

The curve of error is an anticlinal having its maximum in the

third quarter of the word and its points of origin the initial and

final letters, of which the latter is the higher in the scale of

errors. Similar relations are presented by the component syl-

lables, fewest errors occur in the initial, most in the median

letters. Considered apart from their relation to the termination

of the word, the frequency of error in successive letters is found

to increase with each remove from the beginning of the word.

Dr. King’s paper stated that magic and religion can not be

legitimately distinguished on the side of the actual content of

their respective practices, nor by using such notions as that of

310 RECORDS.

the supernatural, unless they are critically reconstructed with

reference to the type of culture in which they are applied. It

seems more legitimate to differentiate magic and religion accord-

ing to the types of situations within which they appear. Some

tensions in the experience of the primitive man are merely

occasional and appeal to him chiefly as an individual; others

are more general and appeal more insistently to the conscious-

ness of the social group. In connection with the former sort

of tensions magical practices are developed, and in connection

with the latter variety religion differentiates.

James E. Loueu,

Secretary.

BUSINESS MEETING.

FEBRUARY I, I90O4.

The Academy met at 8.15 P. Wi, Vice-President. Poor pre

siding. The minutes of the preceding business meeting were

read and approved.

The Secretary reported from the Council that a letter had

been received from Mrs. H. Carrington Bolton, informing the

Council that Dr. Bolton had given to the Academy, for the Pub-

lication Fund, the sum of $1,000.

The Academy then adjourned.

HeEnry E. CRAMPTON,

Recording Secretary.

RECORDS. 311

SECTION, OF ASTRONOMY, PHYSICS AND

CHENIST RY.

FEBRUARY I, 1904.

Section met at 8:20 P. M., Vice-President Poor presiding,

The minutes of the last meeting of the Section were read and

approved.

The following program was then offered :

D. 8S. Martin, H. Carrincron Borron.

Charles Lane Poor, RESEARCHES AS TO THE IDENTITY OF

LEXxELL’s Lost COMET OF 1770 WITH THE PERIODIC COMET OF

1889, 1896 AND 1903.

George B. Pegram, THE YEAR’s Work WITH RApDIvum.

SUMMARY OF PAPERS.

The biographical sketch of the late Dr. H. Carrington Bolton

by Dr. Martin was read by Professor Crampton, the recording

secretary of the Academy, in the absence of Dr. Martin. The

section then passed a resolution, proposed by Mr. G. F. Kunz,

to the effect that Dr. Martin’s address should be published in

the ANNALS of the Academy, together with a bibliography of Dr.

Bolton’s papers.

Professor Poor’s paper gave the result of a new investigation

of the motion of the periodic comet of 1889, 1896 and 1903

(Brooks), dealing especially with the great changes in its orbit

caused by the close approach to Jupiter in 1886. The comet

has now been seen at three returns to perihelion and the many

observations made allow of a most accurate determination of the

present orbit on which to base the investigation. Attention was

called to the supposed identity of this body with the lost comet

of Lexell, 1770, which disappeared after passing close to Jupiter

in 1779, and this question was discussed at length.

Dr. Pegram’s paper was the second of the series on “‘ Recent

Progress in Physical Science.” Dr. Pegram gave a review of

the most important experimental and theoretical advances made

during the past year in the knowledge of radio-activity, especially

the work of Rutherford and Soddy in formulating the atomic

312 RECORDS,

disintegration theory of radio-active change, the discovery of

Curie in regard to the heating effect of radium, and the experi-

ments of Ramsay and Soddy bearing on the question of the con-

tinuous production of helium in radium compounds. An ap-

paratus was exhibited like that of Mr. Strutt, to show by the

alternate charging and discharging of an electroscope the pro-

duction of electric charges by radium. The charging of the

gold leaf in the apparatus shown by Dr. Pegram took place in

about one minute. CHARLES C. TROWBRIDGE,

Secretary.

SECTION OF BIOLOGY

FEBRUARY 8, 1904.

Section met at 8:15 P.M., Vice-President Underwood pre-

siding. The minutes of the last meeting of the Section were

read and approved.

The following program was then offered :

O. P. Hay, A New Gicantic ToRTOISE FROM THE MIOCENE

OF COLORADO.

F. E. Lloyd, THe Frora or Dominica.

SUMMARY OF PAPERS.

Dr. Hay described a tortoise that was discovered during the

year 1901 by Mr. Barnum Brown, of the American Museum of

Natural History, in the Pawnee beds of the Miocene, in the

northeastern part of Colorado. The remains consist of the shell

complete; the skull, lacking the lower jaw; the pelvis and

hind limbs ; the terminal portion of the tail; and portions of

the dermal armor. These materials were exhibited before the

academy.

The length of the carapace is about 31 inches. It is high

and tumid, with the sides at the bridge perpendicular, and with

the hinder border little flaring. The outline is truncated in front,

broadly rounded behind, and only slightly repand. The free

edges are acute. The bridge peripherals rise somewhat above

the middle of the height of the shell, their length transversely

RECORDS. 313

to the animal being nearly equal to that of the costal plates.

The nuchal scute is narrow; the vertebral scutes not so wide as

the costal scutes. The anterior lip of the plastron is broad,

rounded in front, and slightly notched in the midline. The pos-

terior lobe has a broad, shallow notch. The pectoral scutes are

extremely narrow.

The skull has the palate deeply excavated. The masticatory

surface on each side is traversed by a prominent, sharp and den-

tated ridge. The oral surface of the premaxillaries is excavated

for the reception of the tip of the lower jaw. The cutting bor-

der of the maxilla is coarsely dentated.

The exposed portions of the hinder limbs and probably of the

fore limbs also, were protected by an armor of dermal bones, as

in some living species of the genus. The extremity of the tail

is expanded and covered on the upper surface by a plate com-

posed of several bones joined by sutures. The skin of the re-

gion around the tail was provided with many pebble-like dermal

bones. On the hinder part of each thigh there was a large bony

spur. All these bones were covered in life with a thick layer of

horn. This new species is named Zestudo osborniana, in recog-

nition of the interest of Professor H. F. Osborn in the fossil

testudines.

Remarks were made by the author of the paper on the geo-

graphical and geological distribution of the genus Zestudo and

its related genera, and on their probable origin.

Professor Lloyd gave a general account of the vegetation of

the Island of Dominica, which the author visited during last

summer.

The Island is of volcanic origin, remarkably broken in con-

tour, and very difficult for travel. The rainfall is excessive, but

with considerable differences in distribution. For example, on

the west coast there is a mean annual rainfall of 59.51 inches,

while 239.50 inches were reported for Middleham in 1go1, an

amount not far from the mean. The eastern slopes of the island

are exposed to the trade winds, and the vegetation, from the

shore line to the top of the mountains, shows the effects in the

peculiar moulding. The temperatures are not excessive, but

the atmospheric humidity is great.

ol4 RECORDS.

The vegetation, excepting in certain restricted areas, is of the

tropical rain-forest type. The large trees are clothed witha

heavy epiphytic growth chiefly composed of bromeliads, aroids,

orchids, ferns and a Cyclanthera. At the higher levels the

Hymenophyllacee, Musci and Hepatice predominate, among

which, however, many larger ferns and small orchids find a

place. Four species of tree ferns, and several species of palms

are to be found. Hefconia, a plantain-like plant, is very

abundant at high altitudes. Lianas and “ropes,” as air roots

are called locally, are abundant.

In the Grand Savannah, desert conditions prevail, caused by

the small rainfall (59 inches), and the shallow soil underlaid by

trap rock. The vegetation here, and along the rocky shores

is quite distinct in character. A viviparous agave and four cacti

are here to be found. The savannah is a sloping, grassy plain

with scattered shrubs and small trees among which occur several

Mimosoidee.

The strand vegetation on account of the steep, gravelly char-

acter of the shore is meager 1n species. The sea-grape (Cocco-

lobis uvifera) is everywhere, and /pomea pes-capre and Cana-

valia are common. TZervminalia occurs in some localities.

M. A. BIGELow,

Secretary.

SECTION -OF GEQLOGY AND, MINERALOGY,

FEBRUARY 15, 1904.

Section met 8:15 P. M., Professor James F. Kemp presiding.

The minutes of the last meeting of Section were read and

approved.

Twenty-six members and visitors were present.

The following program was then offered :

Alexis A. Julien, THe OccLusion oF IGNEousS ROCK WITHIN

METAMORPHIC SCHISTS.

W. D. Matthew, Our ines OF THE CONTINENTS IN TERTIARY

TIMES.

RECORDS. 315

SUMMARY OF PAPERS.

Dr. Julien stated that the term “inclusive”’ is commonly

applied, by the petrograper, to ordinary dikes of igneous rock,

surrounded by beds of sedimentary rock or of crystalline

schists, intersecting them or intervening between their foliation

planes. But for similar masses cut loose from all connection

with the underlying magmatic source, swallowed up within strata

of crystalline schists, and experiencing all stages in the process

of reaction and final absorption, during metamorphic change,

another term seems to be called for, viz., ‘‘ occlusion,” signi-

fying shut or sealed up beyond escape. Although the word is

borrowed from the physicist, this can produce no confusion when

applied to petrographic phenomena. Occluded igneous rocks

may belong to either the acid or basic class, as illustrated re-

spectively, on Manhattan Island, by the earlier intrusions of

pegmatite, never found as intersecting dikes, and by the inter-

calated sheets of dionite-schist. Occlusion is usually attended

by mechanical and chemical processes. The former consists of

thinning or thickening of igneous masses caught between the

folia of schists, during orogenic movements, into lenticular

masses ; the crumpling and corrugation of sheets, and even

rolling into cylinders; and the forcing of the pasty masses

along foliation planes, in the form of intercalated or “ secondary ”’

dikes. The chemical processes usually consist of micaceous

alteration and ultimate absorption by disintegration and dissem-

ination through the surrounding country rock.

In discussing this paper, Professor Kemp spoke of the value

of the interpretation to those who have studied the region.

Dr. Matthew presented a series of world-maps showing the

hypothetical outlines of the continents during the Pleistocene,

Pliocene, Miocene, Oligocene, later Eocene, and at the opening

of the Tertiary period, as contrasted with the modern conditions.

The series was got up for use inthe Hall of Fossil Mammals, in

the American Museum of Natural History, to illustrate the geo-

graphical distribution of different groups of mammals during

the successive epochs of the Tertiary and Quaternary. It is

intended to represent a somewhat conservative view of past

316 RECORDS.

changes in world geography, and is regarded as a working

hypothesis, based on our present knowledge of geology, palzeon-

tology and zoology, especial consideration being given to the

mammalian paleontology.

The former extension of the Antarctic continent, so as to

join Australia with South America, is regarded as occurring at

the end of the Cretaceous period and is represented in the first

map of the series. The connection with South Africa is regarded

as too problematic to place on the map. The Eocene map

shows the extreme of Tertiary submergence of the continents,

which are represented as forming six isolated land masses. The

three northern continents are connected throughout the Oligo-

cene, Miocene, Pliocene, and Pleistocene, Africa being joined to

them by the Miocene, South America by the Pliocene epoch.

The Pleistocene map shows especially the simultaneous glacia-

tion of both northern and southern regions, modified in the north

by sinking of the old Arctic continent beneath the sea-level.

The supposed ancient continents of Lemuria, Atlantis, the

Brazil-African land bridge, etc., are regarded either as proposed

on insufficient data or outside the limits of this series.

In general it has been found possible to consider the true

ocean basins (limited by the 1,000-foot contour) as permanent

through Tertiary time. The union of Antarctica with Australia

and South America is an exception to this rule, but is based on

a large amount of evidence. It appears probable also that the

disturbed belt which stretches through central Europe to south-

central Asia, and ends perhaps in the East Indian islands, has

been, in part, raised from abyssal depths to an equally stupen-

dous height above the sea, since the beginning of the Tertiary.

Discussion. — Professor Osborn emphasized the value of these

maps as expressing working hypotheses for the use of students

of vertebrate paleontology.

Dr. Julien called attention to the evidences of glaciation in

South Africa as having a bearing upon the question of a previ-

ous existence of land masses further south.

Epmunp Otis Hovey,

Secretary.

RECORDS. O17

eecCTION OF ANTHROPOLOGY AND PSYCHOLOGY.

FEBRUARY 29, I9Q0O4.

The regular meeting of the section was held on February 29,

at the American Museum of Natural History, in connection with

the American Ethnological Society.

The program was as follows :

George H. Pepper, ETHNOLOGICAL SURVEY OF THE PUEBLOS

oF New MExiIco AND ARIZONA, DURING THE SUMMER OF 1903.

Harlan I. Smith, ARCHEOLOGICAL SURVEY OF THE INTERIOR

OF THE STATE OF WASHINGTON DURING THE SUMMER OF 1903.

SUMMARY OF PAPERS.

Mr. Pepper first went to Espafiola and from there visited the

pueblos of Santa Clara, San Ildefonso, Pojoaque, Nambe and

Tesuque. One of the ceremonial dances at the pueblo of Santa

Clara was witnessed. San Juan, Picoris and Tesuque next

received attention. After this work was completed the Hopi

region was visited, the time selected being the occasion of the

Antelope and Snake dances at Walpi. In the pueblos of Hano,

Sichomavi and Walpi, special attention was devoted to the work

of the Hopi potters, particularly Nampayo of Hano, who is the

only one living that has made a careful study of the old pig-

ments and clays.

On the second mesa the pueblos of Mashongnavi and Shungo-

pavi were visited, and the Snake Dance at Mashongnavi observed.

Oraibi, the seventh of the Hopi pueblos, situated fifteen miles to

the west of the second mesa, came next. During the stay in

this pueblo the wonderful Flute ceremony was enacted. From

the Hopi region the route taken led to the pueblo of Laguna in

the western part of New Mexico, and from there to Acoma,

where the Fiesta de San Esteban was seen. While in the pueblo

of Isleta the Fiesta de San Augustine took place.

Visits to the pueblos of Jemez, Zia, Santa Ana, Ranchitas de

Santa Ana, Sandia, San Felipe, Santo Domingo, Cochiti and

Zuni completed the season’s work, which included all of the

twenty-six ‘mother pueblos,” now inhabited.

318 RECORDS.

The subject of primitive pottery-making as represented in the

various groups was carefully considered and the technique of

each culture was investigated. Samples of the materials used

in the manufacture of pottery were obtained as well as repre-

sentative forms of finished vessels from each pottery-making

pueblo. Nearly one thousand negatives were made to supple-

ment the field notes, and to enhance the value of the exhaustive

card catalogue pertaining to southwestern ceramics, which is

now in the course of preparation.

Mr. Smith stated that archeological explorations of the Jesup

North Pacific Expedition were carried on in 1897 by himself

in the Thompson and Fraser River valleys of Southern British

Columbia, and 1898-99 in the shell-heaps along the coasts of

British Columbia and Washington. In continuance of the gen-

eral archeological reconnoissance thus begun in the northwest,

the Columbia valley was chosen as the field for research during

the field season of 1903.

It was thought that by working in the Yakima Valley the

boundary between the culture of The Dalles and that of the

Thompson River region might be determined. The material,

however, discovered by the expedition seems to prove that the

Yakima Valley was inhabited by people having a culture which

previously had been unknown to science.

In the region were found numerous evidences of the close

communication of the people of this culture with tribes of the

Thompson River region. Underground house sites, tubular

pipes, engraved detalium shells, a decoration consisting of a

circle with a dot in it, and rock-slide sepulchres, each of a par-

ticular kind, were found to be peculiar to both regions.

Considerable material of the same art, as that found in the

Dalles region was seen. It is clear that the people living in the

Yakima valley had extensive dealings both with the tribes

northward, as far as the Thompson valley, and southward, as

far as The Dalles of the Columbia. In this connection it is

interesting to note that the present Indians of the region travel

even more extensively than would be necessary to distribute

their artifacts this far. Much less evidence of contact between

RECORDS. 319

the prehistoric people of the coast of Washington and that of

the Yakima valley was discovered. A pipe, however, was seen

which is clearly of the art of the northwest coast. It was

found far up the Toppenish River (one of the western tributaries

of the Yakima).

From the Yakima valley the expedition was transferred to the

lower Cowlitz River for work down that stream and along the

Columbia from Portland to its mouth, partly to determine

whether or not a portion of the evidences of coast culture which

were found in the Yakima valley had not come up the Cowlitz

and down the Toppenish River, since the headwaters of the

Cowlitz and the Toppenish are near each other. In this region

many specimens were secured. The main work, however, was

done in the Yakima valley, where many photographs were

taken, not only of archeological sites but also of the country in

general. Human remains, which are useful in determining the

type of these old people, were also collected.

The most remarkable specimen secured was a piece of antler

carved in human form. This was very thin and when found it

was nearly as soft asso much sawdust or moulder’s sand pressed

together tightly. Proper treatment has rendered the object

quite hard and able to bear handling. It was found under the

vertebree of a child in a grave. The grave was of peculiar

interest, because, contrary to usual practice, the body had been

enclosed in a rude box made by placing about it thin slabs of

stone, and the cist thus formed had been covered with jagged

fragments of rock, over which earth was spread. This doll-like

carving of antler is considered to be one of the finest pieces of

prehistoric art ever found in northwestern America.

JAMES E. LouGu,

Secretary.

320 RECORDS.

BUSINESS MEETING.

‘(MARCH 7, IQO4.

The Academy met at 8:15 P: M. Vice-President ocr

presiding. .

In the absence of the Recording Secretary, the reading of the

minutes of the preceding Business Meeting was dispensed with.

No business was reported from the Council, and the Academy

adjourned. C. C. TROWBRIDGE,

Secretary, pro tem.

SECTION OF ASTRONOMN, EE Yokes ae

CHEMISTRY.

MARCH 7, 1904.

Section met at 8:20 P. M., Vice-President Poor presiding.

The minutes of the last meeting of the Section were read and

approved.

The following program was then offered :

S. A. Mitchell, THe ReEsuLtTs oF THE OBSERVATIONS OF THE

Last SoLaR ECLIPSE.

Dr. Mitchell gave an interesting resume of the results obtained

by the different expeditions which made observations in the

island of Sumatra on May 18, Igol.

CHARLES C, TROWBRIDGE,

Secretary.

RECORDS. 321

SECTION OF. BIOLOGY:

MARCH 14, 1904.

Section met at 8:15 P. M., Professor Underwood presiding.

The minutes of the last meeting of the Section were read

and approved.

The following program was then offered :

A. W. Grabau, Inrra-CorontaL ACCELERATION AND RE-

TARDATION IN DEVELOPMENT.

F. B. Sumner and R. C. Osburn, THE EstasiisHMENT OF

A PERMANENT RECORD OF SYSTEMATIC AND ECOLOGICAL DATA

FOR Woops HOLeE.

No abstracts of these papers have been received.

M. A. BIGELow,

Secretary.

SECTION OF GEOLOGY AND MINERALOGY.

MARCH, 21, 1904.

Section met at 8:15 P. M., Professor James F. Kemp pre-

siding.

The minutes of the last meeting of the Section were read and

approved. Twenty-two members and visitors were present.

The following program was then offered :

H. H. Wotherspoon, Jr., THe Recenr ADVANCES IN THE

UTILIZATION OF PEAT AND LIGNITE.

Charles P. Berkey, A GEOLOGICAL RECONNOISSANCE OF

THE UINTAH RESERVATION, SOUTHEASTERN UTAH.

SUMMARY OF PAPERS.

Mr. Wotherspoon showed that the derivation of the fuel

supply of the word is becoming more and more important.

For years Europeans have been striving to devise a fuel to:

take the place of wood and coal. Recent advances in the price

of coal in the United States have directed attention in this

country along the same lines. In Europe and _ particularly

322 RECORDS.

in Germany, many factories have been established for the

compression of lignite, or brown coal, and peat into

briquettes.

The principal deposits of lignite are near Berlin and Cologne.

The larger of these is south and east of Berlin and is known as

the Lausitz district. About 280 factories for the manufacture

of briquetted fuel, with a total of 680 presses, have been estab-

lished in these two regions, and their output in 1902 was ap-

proximately 12,438,000 metric tons. The briquettes are about

7 inches long, 2% inches wide, and 1% inches thick, with

rounded corners. ‘Their wholesale price in the larger German

cities is between $2.10 and $2.25 per metric ton.

Excellent briquettes have been made from the lignite of Ala-

bama ; but the experiments with the lignites of North Dakota

have been less successful. The calorific value of the German

briquettes: is from 7,500; to 9,000 B.1_U.’s)” True peataand

other bog matter is becoming of importance in the manufacture

of briquetted fuel. The process'of manufacture which has

been employed in Canada has depended upon heat for the ex-

pulsion of the major part of the contained moisture. This has

been an unsatisfactory method, because the temperature (280° F.)

necessarily employed has weakened the natural cementing quali-

ties of the bog material.

The German method which has been very successful is to

break up rapidly and thoroughly the cellular structure of the

partly decomposed vegetable matter. This sets free the water

from the plant fiber without injuring the cementing material.

In the process, part of the moisture is squeezed out of the

mass, and the remainder evaporates rapidly on exposure to the

air. The briquettes are ready to use in about two weeks after

leaving the machine. Their calorific value is greater than that

of the briquettes made from lignite.

The briquettes made from American bog matter seem to be

as good as the European. The percentage of ash is high, but

the ash is very free in character. This characteristic together

with the absence of sulphur, makes the fuel work well under

boilers. Wherever transportation charges bring the cost of

RECORDS. 323

coal up to seven or eight dollars a ton, it is advisable for Ameri-

cans to investigate the matter of utilizing neighboring bogs as a

source of fuel supply. Mr. Wotherspoon’s paper was illus-

trated by a series of briquettes manufactured from [European

and American lignites and peats. He also exhibited a machine

by means of which he manufactured, in the presence of the

Section, briquettes from peat, which originated in Danbury,

Conn. The paper was actively discussed, and many questions

bearing upon the economic features brought forward by the

author, were asked.

Dr. Berkey spoke of his observations, made in connection

with other lines of work last summer, that have shown an ero-

sion unconformity in the Carboniferous strata of the western

Uintahs. It is marked on the south side of the range by an

unevenness in the floor and a development of conglomerate, the

pebbles of which are of the preceding formation. The break

comes just above the chief limestone member of the series.

The junction between the great basal quartzite of the United

States and the overlying strata is marked by a fault in this re-

gion with sufficient throw to bring two quartzite beds together

on the higher plateaus and be easily overlooked. This makes

it impossible to confirm Powell’s unconformity at the top of the

quartzite as described by him in the eastern Uintahs.

The discovery, however, of the Carboniferous erosion interval

a little higher in the series, throws additional doubt upon the

assumed Carboniferous age of the great quartzite member.

Allowing the break to cut out a part of the ‘“‘ Wasatch” lime-

stone and the ‘“‘ Weber”’ quartzite, as developed in the Wasatch

uplift, the lithologic succession is satisfied better by assuming

Cambrian age for the lowest member in the Uintahs.

There is no other break to the close of the Cretaceous. A

progressive unconformity, which increases in value against the

flanks of the range, marks the development of Tertiary sedi-

ments in the Duchesne Valley. A conglomerate, formed in

progressive overlap from the stream valleys to the higher moun-

tain tops of the flanks, has peculiar characters near the lime-

stone belt on account of which King called it ‘“ Wyoming”

324 RECORDS.

conglomerate. These characters are too local to give it the

assumed stratigraphic importance, while the flanking conglom-

erates are really of great range. Epmunp Oris Hovey,

Secretary.

SECTION OF - ANTHROPOLOGY AN DESY Cr Ollie

MARCH 28, 1904.

Section met at 4:30 and 8:15 P. M., in conjunction with

the New York Branch of the American Psychological Associa-

tion, F. J. E. Woodbridge, presiding.

The afternoon session was held at the Psychological Labora-

tory of Columbia University, and the evening session at the

American Museum of Natural History.

The following program was offered :

E. L. Thorndike, Menrat RESEMBLANCES OF TWINS.

Miss Naomi Norseworthy, MEASUREMENTS OF THE MEN-

TALLY DEFICIENT.

R.S. Woodworth, Cotor Conrrasts.

J. McK. Cattell, New Apparatus AnD METHODs.

V. A. ©. Henmon, THe Time PERcEpTION AS A MEASURE OF

DIFFERENCES IN SENSATION.

H. H. Marsh, THe Daity Curve For EFFICIENCY.

C. H. Judd, Hasits BAsED on ANALOGY.

W.P.Montague, A NEGLECTED PornT IN HuUME’s PHILOSOPHY.

J. E. Lough, THE DETERMINATION OF THE Habit CURVE

FOR ASSOCIATIONS.

P. Hughes, AcTION AS THE CONCEPT OF HISTORICAL SyYN-

THESIS.

SUMMARY OF PAPERS.

A report was made by Professor Thorndike on the general

results of a comparison of twins in tests of attention, perception,

association, rate of movement, addition, multiplication and stature.

The resemblances as measured bya rough, preliminary method,

were about .75. The amount of this resemblance that should

be attributed to similarities in home training was apparently slight.

There was no evidence in the results to support the theory that

RECORDS. 325

twins fall sharply into two species, those very closely alike and

those no more alike than ordinary brothers and sisters.

Miss Norseworthy’s paper was a report of some work done

among one hundred and fifty mentally deficient children in two

state institutions for the feeble-minded and in two of the special

classes organized in the New York schools. The measure-

ments taken were physical, such as height, height and tempera-

ture, tests of maturity, as perception of weight and of form, tests of

memory and tests of intelligence or the ability to deal with ab-

stractideas. The main conclusion reached was that the difference

between idiots and people in general is less than has been com-

monly supposed, and is a matter of degree rather than of kind.

Dr. Woodworth presented a modification of Hering’s binoc-

ular demonstration of the “‘ physiological” origin of simultaneous

contrast. If monocular fields of different colors, with a gray

spot on each, be combined by the stereoscope, each gray retains

the contrast color suitable to its own field, however the con-

scious background may vary as the result of fusion or rivalry

of the two fields. The demonstration is readily extended to

cover brightness contrast, by placing gray spots on white and

black fields which are combined as before. To show that these

effects are not the result of a binocular mixture of the gray

with the opposite field, a number of gray spots may be scattered

over one field, and the other field made particolored; the gray

spots appear all alike, or nearly so, though binocular mixture

would have made them differ.

Professor Cattell gave an exhibition of some new apparatus

and methods as follows :

1. Kymographs were exhibited in which typewriting ribbons

were applied to secure the records. Electro-magnetically moved

points strike the paper tape, whose rate of movement may be

adjusted, and a record is left by the slowly moving typewriter rib-

bon. Two forms were exhibited, in one of which the kymograph

was driven by an electric motor and in the other by clock-work.

In the latter the clock-work could be started and stopped by

an electric current by an observer in another room. The kymo-

graphs, while not especially suited for drawing curves, are much

326 RECORDS.

more convenient than smoked paper or siphon pens for time

records, such as rhythms, conflict of the visual fields, after-

images, etc.

2. Instruments were shown by which a number of faint clicks

could be given at intervals of a second for testing sharpness of

hearing and defective hearing. Instead of giving the observer a

continuous sound, such as from the ticking of a watch, two,

three, four or five faint sounds are made, and the observer is

asked how many he hears. By this method errors from the

common illusion in the case of faint sounds are avoided.

3. A method was exhibited for testing color blindness by the

time it takes to distinguish one color from another. By the

normal individual red can be distinguished from green in about

the same time as blue from yellow, but it takes longer to distin-

guish red from orange. If the observer belongs to the red-green

-class of the color blind, he can distinguish blue from yellow as

quickly as others, but not red from green. An instrument was

shown by which the conditions of the railway service can be

imitated, it here being necessary first to distinguish a certain

color and then to make the proper movement.

The aim of the investigation upon which Mr. Henmon’s paper

is based is to measure qualitative differences in color by the

time of perception. The colors taken as standards were red,

orange and yellow, whose wave-lengths had been definitely

determined. Equal intermediate steps between orange and red

were produced by the mixture of pigments. Small squares of

each of these colors, 3 x 3 cm., were mounted on cards side

by side with red, and exposed to the subject by means of a

drop-screen so arranged as to give almost instantaneous

exposure. The subject reacts with the right or left hand

according as the predetermined stimulus appears to the right or

left. The registration is made with the Hipp chronoscope.

The results of 6,000 reactions gave evidence of the validity of

the method and the fruitfulness of the problem. Equal objec-

tive differences are correlated with differences for consciousness,

showing a definite increase as the magnitude of difference is

decreased.

RECORDS. 327

Professor Lough presented a report of experiments made in

the psychological laboratory of the school of pedagogy. It was

found that the time required to write series of letter-equivalents

when the “‘key”’ of equivalents was not memorized, but was con-

sulted as frequently as necessary, diminished as the associations

between the letter equivalents became more habitual. The

curves representing the results of these experiments exhibit all

the characteristics of the typical habit curve. Repetition of the

experiment using new “‘ keys’”’ shows little or no interference due

to earlier associations, while with each succeeding ‘‘key”’ the

physiological limit was reached after a constantly diminishing

~ number of trials.

The paper by Dr. Montague aimed to show (1) that Hume

(in Part IV, Section II, of the ‘‘ Treatise’’) had quite unwittingly

furnished what from his own point of view should have been

regarded asa logical deduction and justification — rather than

the mere psychogenetic description, which it purported to be,—

of the realistic belief in the independent and uninterrupted exist-

ence of sensible objects ; and (2) that the zaive realism or posi-

tivism thus accidentally promulgated was from both the scien-

tific and the popular standpoint, a far sounder and more inviting

doctrine than the empirical idealism or sensationalism with which

Hume’s name is usually associated.

Mr. Hughes said that Rickert’s description of the content of

history as a reality is amended to read past reality, the past of

evidence. From this definition the individual, objective, moving

and continuous character of historic content follows ; and further,

the conception of action as descriptive of both historic content

and historic synthesis. An historical synthesis is a past action

that itself has created a certain synthesis of evidence, which the

historian discovers. In such synthetic actions, “ simple”’ actions

retain their individuality as means, stimuli or hindrances to the

main action, z. ¢., in a functional relation.

At the close of the afternoon session the members were invited

to attend a lecture given in Columbia University by Professor

John Dewey on ‘The Psychologist’s Account of Knowledge.”

JAMES FE. Louau,

Secretary.

328 RECORDS.

BUSINESS MEETING.

APRIL 4, 1904.

The Academy met at 8:20 Pi (ML; Vice-President feor,

presiding.

The minutes of the preceding business meeting were read and

approved.

The following candidates for election as Active Members,

approved by the Council, were duly elected:

Thomas Hunt Morgan.

Charles B. Davenport.

The Academy then adjourned.

Henry E. CRAMPTON,

Recording Secretary.

SECTION OF ASTRONOMY, PITYSICs> AND

OEE VES i Reve

APRA GOA:

Section met at 8:20 P. M., Vice-President Poor presiding:

The minutes of the last meeting of the Section were read and

approved.

The following program was then offered :

J. K. Rees, Harold Jacoby and Herman §. Davis, THE

VARIATION OF. LATITUDE AT NEw York City > Part 2, Varig

ATION OF LATITUDE AND CONSTANT OF ABERRATION.

George B. Pegram and Harold Webb, Enrercy LIBERATED

BY THORIUM.

Wallace Goold Levison, Nore on A TRIBOPHOSPHOROSCOPE,

AND THE DURATION SPECTRUM OF TRIBOPHOSPHORESCENT LIGHT.

SUMMARY OF PAPERS.

In the first paper Professor Jacoby presented the results of

seven years’ continuous observations for a study of latitude

variation and the aberration of light, which results will be pub-

lished as the second and last part of Vol. I, in the Academy’s

RECORDS. 329

Series of Memoirs. To that publication the reader is referred

for complete details and results; it is not possible here to do

more than mention very briefly the plan of the work and to

state the fact of its completion.

The simultaneous and continuous observation of the same

stars at stations situated on a single parallel of latitude, but

separated widely in longitude, has long been recognized as the

best method of attacking the problem under consideration. The

first actual practical application of the method is the one treated

in the present paper. The other participating observatory is

the one at Capodimonte, near Naples, where simultaneous ob-

servations were made by Professor Fergola and his associates.

The New York and Naples work was continued until a simi-

lar, but a more elaborate, plan was put in operation by the

International Geodetic Association, which includes all civilized

governments. This plan involved the establishment of four

suitable special latitude stations, and rendered further work at

New York and Naples unnecessary.

The method used by Messrs. Pegram and Webb, in this in-

vestigation of the energy liberated by thorium due to its radiv-

activity, was to measure the difference between the temperature

of three kilograms of thorium oxide, enclosed in a Dewar bulb,

and that of a surrounding ice-bath, by means of a set of iron-

constantin thermo-electric couples. Uniformity of temperature

in the bath was secured by means of a rotating stirrer and careful

heat insulation. The thorium oxide was cooled, so that its initial

temperature was below that of the surrounding bath. Readings

were taken at frequent intervals, and after several days the differ-

ence of temperature became constant, with the oxide .o4° warmer

than the bath. Several such series of observations were made.

From the rate of change of temperature and from an approximate

calculation of the heat capacity of bulb and oxide, a tentative

value of the heat liberated was found ; 8 x 107° gram-calories per

gram of thorium oxide per hour (.93 ergs per gram per second),

org X IO-° gram-calories per gram of pure thorium per hour.

Further investigation is being made to determine these values

more accurately.

330 RECORDS.

Mr. Levison presented the following note on a Tribo-

phosphoroscope :

Discs of thick pasteboard about 15 cm. in diameter are evenly

sanded on one or both sides on a coating of liquid glue with

the materials to be examined in powder, narrow bands being

sufficient and only small quantities of the materials required.

The disc selected is then rotated at a known and usually

moderate speed (twelve revolutions per second, for example) by

any convenient mechanism, such as an ordinary rotator used for

illustrating the recomposition of light.

A point or brush of wire or other material, or a piece of the

same material with which the disc is coated, being pressed

against the sanded surface, produces a trail of light which ex-

tends from the point of contact in an arc more or less around

the disc; varying in color with different materials and in length

with the speed, and is maintained for some time unless the

material is rubbed off by extreme friction. A grindstone or

corundum wheel may often be used to advantage with hard

substances as a substitute for the disc, since a specimen held

against it soon coats it with a trace of the material which shows.

its luminous trail beautifully.

By means of the device described, the intensity of the light

may be determined with a photometer, its duration from the

length of the trail, and its spectrum delineated with a spectro-

scope.

The following approximate tentative results of the examina-

tion of a few minerals are given to illustrate its applicability.

1. Sphalerite (1) from Utah. Light yellow concretions in

gray massive sphalerite. Visible trails of a yellow orange color

of respectively increasing brilliancy and length are produced

with the tip of the finger; a wooden match; the finger nail; a

brass wire brush; and a steel wire brush, or point; visible, with

the latter, at a distance of several yards and extending about

one quarter around the disc at the above speed. Hence, the

duration is about 0.02 s. The spectrum is short, extending

from about the line C to the line & and embracing some red,

orange, yellow, yellow-green and green. (2) From another

RECORDS. 331

locality very similar to the above in character, and afforded like

results. (3) Of several dark colored sphalerites some showed

a little light at the point of contact of the brush, but no trail.

2. Quartz. (Sandpaper disc or grindstone.) No light from

brushes (except incandescent sparks from hard steel). A piece

of quartz, however, gives a bright yellow light, and if of rock

crystal is luminous within by internal reflection. Very short

trail and duration.

3. Corundum. (Emery paper disc or corundum wheel.) No

light from brushes (except as above). A piece of ruby or ruby

corundum against the corundum wheel or a grindstone evokes

a brilliant crimson light and short trail and is luminous within

by internal reflection. Duration about 0.005 s. A piece of

emery against a corundum wheel gives a like trail but is not

itself luminous.

4. Pectolite, Woodcliff, N. J. Wire brush. Light greenish-

blue trail only medium bright but extending completely around

the disc. Duration over 0.08 s.

5. Limestone, Hellfire Rock, Utah. Feeble greenish-blue

but similarly long trail. Duration over 0.08 s.

6. Willemite. (1) Hard yellow-green gem material, Frank-

lin, N. J. Short greenish-yellow trail. Duration very short.

(2) Opaque, massive green variety. Feeble short green trail.

Duration about 0.02 s._ Best obtained with a specimen pressed

against a corundum wheel or grindstone. Various specimens

give somewhat different effects. (3) Pink or brown variety.

Longer and brighter green trail. Duration about 0.03 s.:

7. Chlorophane. (1) Violet from Trumbull, Conn. Bright

green and very long trail; best obtained by friction of a speci-

men against a grindstone or corundum wheel or a disc coated

with the same material. Duration over 0.40 s. Spectrum

broad band in the yellow-green and green. (2) Green from

Amelia Co. Courthouse, Va. Trail similar but brighter ;

spectrum similar. (3) Red from Haddam Neck, Conn. Trail

similar.

In the discussions that followed the papers, Dr. George F.

Kunz stated that Professor Baskerville and himself had under

332 RECORDS.

examination a zinc-blende from Utah, the natural mineral vary-

ing in color from yellow to fawn and to pale brown. This was

the most intense tribo-luminescent substance that they had yet

investigated. Two bits one fourth the size of a pea, if pressed

together lightly with the fingers, caused a brilliant yellow-green

light to glow as long as the pressure lasted; and it also pos-

sessed the property of becoming radio-responsive to the beta

and gamma rays of radium; that it was the first natural zinc-

blende they had examined that showed this remarkable property.

Mr. W. J. Hammer showed a sample of artificial blende made

by Mr. W.S. Andrews, of Schenectady, N. Y., which gave

very strong tribo-luminescence. C. C. TROWBRIDGE,

Secretary.

SECTION “OF” DIOROGH:

APRIL. 1) 1QOA-

Section met at 8:15 P. M., Professor Underwood presiding.

The minutes of the last meeting of the Section were read and

approved.

The following program was then offered :

Gary N. Calkins, THE EvipENCE oF A SEXUAL CYCLE IN

AMCEBA PROTEUS.

E. B. Wilson, THe CrLeavace-Mosaic IN PATELLA.

D. T. MacDougal, THE EcoLocicaL ConpiTIONs IN A LocaL

DESERT IN LOWER CALIFORNIA.

SUMMARY OF PAPERS.

Professor Calkins presented ‘‘The Evidence of a Sexual

Cycle in Ameba Proteus’ as shown by nuclear changes, includ-

ing the processes of mitosis and nuclear multiplication by

this method, the fragmentation of the multiple nuclei, the

mitotic division of the chromatin fragments, and the formation

of the secondary nuclei, and subsequent encystment of the

parent form. The entire process was regarded by the speaker

as indicating a series of changes leading up to the formation of

RECORDS. 333

conjugating gametes and exactly analogous to the formation of

gametes in allied rhizopods such as Polystomella, Centropyxis,

and Chlamydophrys as recently worked out by Schaudinn,

Lantern slides were used for illustrations.

Professor Wilson’ ssubject was ‘The Cleavage-Mosaic in

Patella ; with remarks on the Mosaic-Theory of Development.”

This paper will soon be published in full in the Journal of Ex-

perimental Zoology.

Professor MacDougal gave a short talk on the topography,

water-fall, drainage, botanical and zoological conditions in a

local desert in Lower California. Gary N. CALKINS,

Acting Secretary.

SECTION OF GEOLOGY AND MINERALOGY.

APRIL 18, 1904.

Section met at 8:15 P. M., Professor James F. Kemp, pre-

siding.

The minutes of the last meeting of the Section were read

and approved.

The following program was then offered :

Arthur Hollick, A Canor Trip Down THE YUKON RIVER

FROM Dawson TO ANVIK.

Edmund Otis Hovey, THE GraND SOUFRIERE OF GUADA-

LOUPE, AN ANALOGUE OF Mont PELE.

SUMMARY OF PAPERS.

Dr. Hollick said in brief: The trip was made under instruc-

tions from the United States Geological Survey, with the special

object of collecting palzobotanical material, from which to de-

termine the age of certain exposures in central Alaska.

The party consisted of Dr. Hollick, Mr. Sidney Paige, field

assistant, and Mr. John Rentfro, cook and general camp

assistant. The start was made from Seattle, Wash., on June

I, 1903, by steamer to Skagway, Alaska, where they arrived on

334 RECORDS.

June 5, and remained until June 11, wattine for the :icesto

break up in the Yukon River. On June 11, the route was by

railroad to Whitehorse, Yukon Territory ; June 12-15, by

steamboat down the upper waters of the Yukon to Dawson,

Yukon Territory, where a nineteen-foot Peterboro’ canoe was

purchased and the trip down the river begun. The trip was

ended at Anvik, Alaska, August 12, after about 1,100 miles of

the river had been explored, and about 1,800 lbs. of specimens

had been collected and shipped. The highest point north was

reached at Fort Yukon, July 2, just beyond the Arctic Circle.

The Yukon River occupies what was until quite recently a

broad estuary. Subsequent elevation of the land resulted in the

draining of the estuary and the formation of the present river

valley, which has cut its way down through the estuary de-

posits, leaving these as broad benches or terraces. Mastodon

and other remains of extinct animals indicate the Pleistocene

age of the deposits. One of the finest exposures is fat wire

“« Palisades,”’ just below Rampart.

The width of the river varies from one to ten miles, and the

main channel is constantly shifting. It pursues a meandering

course, sometimes impigning on the side of the old valley,

sometimes on the other, and for long distances flows through the

middle. Where it occupies the latter position, it is generally

broad, with a current of about four miles per hour, and filled

with innumerable wooded islands, mud flats and sand and gravel

bars, which render navigation more or less a matter of guess-

work, on account of the impossibility of telling where the main

channel flows, and the liability of running into a blind slue or a

long circuitous channel around an island. It was often found

advisable to climb up the river bank to a considerable elevation

in order to determine, by means of an extended view, where the

correct course lay. Where hard rocks were exposed along the

river banks, or a short distance away, these were subjected to

careful examination in regard to their lithologic, palaontologic

and stratigraphic characters.

Amongst the interesting results obtained were (1) the deter-

mination of the Tertiary age of certain sandstones above Ram-

RECORDS. 339

part ; and (2) the determination of the Cretaceous age of other

sandstones and shales further down the river in the vicinity of

Nulato. At one locality, a unique fossil flora was found, to-

tally different from any heretofore known in America, consist-

ing of Cycads of Lower Cretaceous types, mixed with Angio-

sperms belonging to what have always been considered Upper

Cretaceous types.

Only a preliminary study has been made of the material col-

lected, which will eventually be carefully examined and reported

upon for the United States Geological Survey.

The paper was illustrated with about seventy lantern slides,

showing the principal topographic and geologic features of the

route.

Dr. Hovey showed twelve lantern slides illustrating the Grand

Soufriére of Guadeloupe, and stated that the field evidence indi-

cated that the present active cone of this volcano was closely

analogous to the new cone and spine of Mont Pele, Martinique ;

that is to say that it had been pushed up bodily into its present

position, or had welled up through the conduit in such a viscous

condition that contact with the atmosphere rendered it too rigid

to flow. At the base of the cone, on the north, there is a

gently rising flat area, apparently the segment of a circle, indi-

cating the position of a part of the rim of a crater in existence

before the construction of the present cone.

The map shown in connection with the paper was prepared

by M. Leon Le Boucher for the Club des Montagnards of

Guadeloupe. This Club has recently celebrated the first anni-

versary of its founding, and its report shows that it has done a

great deal in a short time toward the opening up of roads and

paths to the Soufriere, making the highest and one of the most

interesting mountains of the Lesser Antilles readily accessible to

visitors.

Sixty members and visitors were present at the meeting of

the Section. Epmunp Otis Hovey,

Secretary.

336 RECORDS.

SECTION OF- ANTHROPOLOGY AND PSYCHOLOGY

AVPRIEN 255.) KOO:

Section met at 8:15 P. M., Professor F. J. E. Woodbridge,

presiding. The minutes of the last meeting of the Section were

read and approved.

The following program was then offered :

William Jones, Nores oN AN ALGONKIN DIALECT.

Franz Boas and Clark Wissler, ON THE GROWTH OF

CHILDREN.

Marshall H. Saville, PAaPER-MAKING IMPLEMENTS OF ANCIENT

MExIco.

Waldemar Jochelson, THE GRAMMAR OF THE YUKAGHIR

LANGUAGE.

SUMMARY OF PAPERS.

Dr. Jones presented a brief report of the method of word

formation of the Fox dialect. The dialect is Algonkin and

belongs to the group now inhabiting, or that once inhabited, the

country contiguous to Lake Huron, Lake Michigan and Lake

Superior. Among the other dialects of the group are Ojibway,

Ottawa, Pottowatomie, Menomonie, Kickapoo, and Sauk.

Morphologically all these dialects stand in an intimate relation

to one another. The absolute forms of much of the vocabu-

lary are the same, but varying differences in the way of intona-

tion, articulation and grammar, make some of these dialects seem

somewhat removed from one another. Fox is near to Sauk

and Kickapoo, and farther removed from Ojibway.

The structural peculiarities of word building, as shown in the

Fox, would come out much the same in the other related dia-

lects. The system of forming words is by composition. The

elements entering into composition are formatives and stems.

Some formatives are prefixes but most are suffixes. Some of

the suffixes refer to the pronoun and gender in the same form.

Stems fall into two general classes, initial and secondary. Initial

stems come first in a combination and secondary stems come

after. Secondary stems can be subdivided into at least two

RECORDS. B37

groups, one of the first order and another of the second: the

former stand next to initial stems, and the latter, when in com-

position, stand next to terminal pronouns.

The stems refer to general notions. Initial stems usually

express subjective states and secondary stems generally refer to

objective relations. The meaning of one stem modifies the

meaning of another in a reciprocal manner, with a result of

greater specialization. Initial stems have greater extension and

can often occur alone as adverbs.

A number of particles precede the terminal pronouns. The

particles refer to causal relations. Some have the special office

of instrumentality, as with the hand, foot, mouth, voice and ear.

The dialect makes a distinction between two opposing cate-

gories. Objects that have life and movement come in one class,

and objects without those attributes fall in another. The dis-

tinction is maintained with great vigor throughout the dialect.

A force like personification sometimes interferes with it.

Professor Boas and Dr. Wissler presented a joint paper, in

which they discussed the causes of the increased variability

during the period of growth. On the basis of the results

of previous investigations, it had been suggested that the

increased variability may be due to differences in the rapidity of

development. The authors have followed out this line of inves-

tigation by collecting material regarding the variability of the

period at which certain physiological changes take place. The

times of dentition, the beginning of puberty, the appearance of

the wisdom teeth, and the beginning of senility, were selected for

this purpose, and it was shown that the variability of time at

which these phenomena take place increases with increasing age,

and apparently the rate of increase is proportional to the age.

Furthermore it was shown that during the period of growth all

the coefficients of correlation between the sizes of different parts

of the body are increased. This can also be best explained by

the theory that the phenomena of growth are largely due to

acceleration and retardation. The paper by Professor Saville

was illustrated by specimens.

The paper by Mr. Jochelson reported the results of several

338 RECORDS.

years’ study of the Yukaghir language, being mainly a*sketch

of the Lolyma dialect. The phonetic and morphological pecu-

liarities of the former are rather insignificant, but the Tundra

dialect has absorbed a considerable number of Tungus stems,

which in their use in word-formation have been subjected to the

rules of the Yukaghir grammar. These investigations show that

the Yukaghir language stands isolated from the Siberian lan-

cuages of the so-called Ural-Altaic group, and that it has many

similarities to the languages of the American Indians.

The chief phonetic and morphological differences that distin-

guish the Yukaghir languages from the Ural-Altaic languages

are the following: 1. It has not the intricate system of vowel

harmony that is found in Ural-Altaic languages. 2. We do not

find that the vowel of the root is unchangeable — an important

rule in Ural-Altaic phonetics. 3. The Ural-Altaic possessive

suffixes of nouns and verbs are wholly absent in Yukaghir verbs,

and present in nouns only for the purpose of expressing owner-

ship of the third person. 4. Words are formed by means of

suffixes and prefixes, while the Ural-Altaic languages use suf-

fixes only.

The chief points of similarity between the Yukaghir language

and Indian languages are: 1. The existence of a simple har-

monic law in the use of vowels. 2. The use of prefixes. 3.

Adjectives are morphologically identical with verbal forms. 4.

The verb-bases are mostly stems, consisting of a single vowel

or a small group of consonants, while the noun bases are almost

always derivatives of verbal-forms. 5. The conjugation of.

transitive verbs is clearly distinguished from that of intransitive

verbs. 6. Transitive verbs may be changed into intransitive

verbs by means of suffixes, and vice versa. 7. We find in the

Yukaghir language the polysynthesis of the American languages.

8. Although there is not the actual incorporation of the Amer-

ican languages, the syntactical construction of the Yukaghir

sentence is akin to it.

JAMES E. Loucu,

Secretary.

RECORDS. 339

BUSINESS ‘MEETING,

May 2, 1904.

The Academy met at 8:15 P. M., Vice-President Poor

presiding.

The minutes of the preceding business meeting were read and

approved.

The following candidate for election as an Active Member,

recommended by the Council, was duly elected:

William L. Osgood Field.

The following Active Members recommended for election as:

Fellows, were duly elected :

Professor Thomas Hunt Morgan.

Professor Charles B. Davenport.

The Secretary reported from the Council as follows :

That the Council had voted to return to the former method

of publishing, three or more parts to be issued annually.

That a special committee appointed to consider the best

method of combining the libraries of the Academy and of the

American Museum, has reported as follows:

“1. That the Library Committee be authorized, in coopera-

tion with the American Museum of Natural History, to set aside

and dispose of such volumes in the library of the Academy as

may not in their judgment be needed for the proper utilization

of the two libraries ; provided, that the proceeds derived from

the sale of such volumes be devoted to the purchase of addi-

tional books and that books so purchased shall be a part of the

Academy library.

“2, That the Library Committee be authorized in codpera-

tion with the American Museum of Natural History to revise

the exchange list of the Academy in such a way as to avoid

such duplication of exchanges by the two institutions as may in

their judgment seem undesirable.’

It was voted that the recommendations of the Council be

approved.

The Academy then adjourned.

Henry E. CRAMPTON,

Recording Secretary.

340 RECORDS.

SECTION: OF ASTRONOMY, PuYysitsy An

CHEMISTRY:

May 2, 1904.’

Section met at 8.25 P. M., Vice-President Poor presiding.

The minutes of the last meeting of Section were read and ap-

proved.

The following program was then offered:

R. S. Woodward, THe THrory oF A DouBLE SUSPENSION

PENDULUM.

C. C. Trowbridge, MEASUREMENTS OF THE PRIMARY FEATH-

ERS OF RECENTLY KILLED HAWKS, AND THEIR BEARINGS UPON

THE PROBLEM OF BIRD FLIGHT. |

George B. Pegram, The GENERATION OF ELECTRICAL

CHARGES BY RADIUM.

P. H. Dudley, BENDING Moments IN RaliLs, FOR THE SAME

SUPERSTRUCTURE, UNDER DIFFERENT TyPEs OF LOCOMOTIVES.

SUMMARY OF PAPERS.

Professor Woodward described a double suspension pendulum

apparatus for determining the acceleration of gravity and gave a

brief outline of the theory of the apparatus. The latter consists

of two rectangular bars of brass, about twenty kilograms mass

each, connected by two steel tapes of equal length in sucha

way that when one bar is held rigidly horizontal, the other bar

will be suspended horizontally by the equal and parallel tapes.

It was shown that when the suspended bar vibrates longitudi-

nally through small amplitudes its motion is very nearly the same

as that of a simple pendulum whose length is equal to that of

the tapes. It was shown also how small corrections due to the

mass of the tapes and to their rigidity may be applied in order

to get from the actual apparatus results in conformity with those

of a simple pendulum.

Dr. Trowbridge stated that during the spring he had suc-

ceeded in obtaining a series of measurements of the primary

feathers of the hawk’s wings, immediately after the death of the

birds, and secured additional proof of his theory that certain

RECORDS. b41

birds of prey habitually interlock their primary feathers in

flight.

It was found that when hawks are examined immediately

after they have been killed, there usually appear deep depres-

sions in the edge of the posterior webs of the emarginate primary

feathers, where the feathers have been in contact, which are

caused by the interlocking of the primaries.

The measurements consisted in determining the width of

these depressions at short intervals of time immediately after

the death of the hawks. It was found that the depressions

gradually disappeared, both in cases where the feathers were

found locked and were then unlocked, and in cases where the

feathers were found unlocked. Data were thus obtained from

which well-defined curves were constructed, showing the re-

covery of the web of the feathers after the pressure caused by

the interlocking feathers was relieved. A number of life-size

photographs were taken of the primary feathers immediately

after the hawks were killed and the photographs of the depres-

sions in the feathers when measured by a Repsold measuring

machine, gave curves which agreed very well with those ob-

tained by direct measurement. Similar curves were obtained

by artificially interlocking the primaries for several hours and

then measuring the recovery of the web of the feathers with a

micrometer microscope. It was found that artificial locking of

the feathers for ten minutes produced very slight or no depres-

sions and locking them for several hours produced depressions

only about one half as deep as those found when the hawks

were killed. In the latter case they were from 2 to 3.5 milli-

meters deep, and required from one to five hours to be reduced

to twenty per cent. of the original depth, the rate of change of

the depth of depression being most rapid at first.

It was concluded from the measurements and photographs

that the primary feathers found with the depressions in the web

had been interlocked several hours or more, previous to the

death of the hawks, which were killed while sailing in a strong

wind, and that the theory of interlocking of the primaries of the

wing in flight had been conclusively confirmed.

342 RECORDS.

Dr. Pegram’s paper related to the generation of electrical

charges by radium, with special reference to the suggestion of

Soddy that when the a particles, carrying their positive charge,

are expelled from the radium, there is no corresponding nega-

tive charge left behind in the mass. A few milligrams of

radium bromide were enclosed in a thick lead capsule, which

was supported on a quartz rod in an exhausted vessel. Gold

leaves attached to this capsule gave no indication of a charge,

showing either that there was the usual generation of equal

amounts of positive and negative electricity when the a particles

are thrown off, if, as has been supposed, the number of a parti-

cles is much greater than the number of negatively charged

particles, or else that the number of 8 particles is about equal

to the number of a particles. It remains to try a similar

experiment with radium bromide which has been recently in

solution, and, therefore, sends off few of the # particles.

Dr. Dudley referred to his previous communications to the

Academy, describing the stremmatograph tests, which afforded

tabulations of the recorded unit fiber stresses in the base of

rails, and their distribution under moving locomotives and cars.

The determination from the unit fiber strains, of the negative

and positive bending moments of the rails, due to the passing

wheel effects, indicates that for a definite construction of the

superstructure of the permanent way, they are independent,

partially, of the total load of the locomotive or car, but de-

pendent upon the type of each, in construction of wheel base

and wheel spacing, in loading the foundation.

In a series of stremmatograph tests, on the New York Cen-

tral and Hudson River Railroad, near mile post No. 10, De-

cember 23 and 30, 1899, locomotive No. 870, an eight-wheel

type of engine, weight, 220,000 pounds, drawing the ‘“‘ Empire

State Express’”’ of four cars, weight, 430,000 pounds, at speeds

of 42 and 44 miles per hour, the average positive bending mo-

ments for the engine were 12.40 inch-pounds per pound of

static load, for one rail, constrained by a negative bending mo-

ment of 1.88 inch-pounds.

The average positive bending moments for the entire loco-

a ae

RECORDS. 343

motive were 11.48 inch-pounds, per pound of static load, con-

strained by a negative bending moment of 1.71 inch-pounds.

On December 30 locomotive No. 2032, a ten-wheel type of

engine, with closer wheel spacing, weighing 283,go00 pounds,

drawing the ‘Southwestern Limited” of ten cars weighing

910,000 pounds, at a speed of 40 miles per hour, at the same

place as the preceding tests, the positive bending moment for

the engine was 10.80 inch-pounds per pound of static load, for

one rail, constrained by a negative bending moment of 2.18 inch-

pounds — amore favorable result than for the eight-wheel type.

For the entire locomotive, the positive bending moment —

for normal tender wheels — was 9.82 inch-pounds, for one rail,

constrained bya negative bending moment of I.g0 inch-pounds,

indicating a more favorable loading of the foundation. The

bending moments of different types of locomotives on the same

superstructure are a measure of the relative efficiency of the dis-

tribution of their loads to the foundation ; while with the same

type of engine the relative efficiency of the construction of the

superstructure of the permanent way can be measured. These

are first bending moments measured in rails under moving loco-

motives and cars.

Dr. H. G. Piffard exhibited an electrometer specially designed

for use in measuring radioactivity, and showed the action of the

instrument by lantern projection.

C. C. TROWBRIDGE,

Secretary.

SEC TIOR OF BIGLOUGY-

May 9g, 1904.

Section met at 8:15 P. M., Vice-President Underwood pre-

siding. The minutes of the last meeting of Section were read

and approved.

The fellowing program was then offered:

E. W. Berry, THE CycADOFILICALES AND THE ORIGIN OF THE

SEED PLANTs.

D. T. MacDougal, MorpHoGENiIc CHANGES CAUSED BY THE

TRANSPOSITION OF AQUATIC AND TERRESTRIAL PLANTS.

Atter the stated papers were presented Professor Dean exhib-

344 RECORDS.

ited and read an interesting letter signed by Lamarck in 1796,

at the Museum of Natural History in Paris. Professor Lloyd

described a species of violet with a tendency to form three spurs

of equal radial symmetry. Dr. MacDougal described the

primrose plants, illustrating the mutation theory of de Vries,

which are now growing at the New York Botanical Garden.

Maurice A. BIGELow,

Secretary.

SECTION OF GEOLOGY AND MINE RALOGS.

May 16, 1904.

Section met at 8:15 P. M., Professor James F. Kemp presid-

ing. [he minutes of the last meeting of the Section were read

and approved.

On motion, duly seconded, it was voted that the Academy

apply for registration in the Fighth International Geographic

Congress to be held in Washington, New York, etc., in Septem-

ber, 1904, and that the Chairman appoint the allowed number

of delegates, himself to be one of the number. The Chairman

appointed Professor J. J. Stevenson and Dr. E. O. Hovey to

serve with him as delegates, three appearing to be the number

allowed to the membership of the Academy.

In the absence of Mr. J. W. Gidley, who was to have read a

paper entitled ‘‘Some Observations on the So-called Tertiary

Lake Basins of Western North America,” the program of the

evening was necessarily changed from that which had been given

in the printed announcement.

The following program was offered :

W.D. Mathew, Exurpition oF A SERIES OF FOOT-BONES

ILLUSTRATING THE EVOLUTION OF THE CAMEL, RECENTLY IN-

STALLED IN THE HALL OF VERTEBRATE PALONTOLOGY OF THE

AMERICAN Museum oF NATuRAL HIsTory.

E. O. Hovey, Some Erosion PHENOMENA IN ST. VINCENT

AND MARTINIQUE.

J. Howard Wilson, Some or THE LOCALITIES IN FRANCE AND

ENGLAND WHERE MONUMENTS OF THE LATE STONE AND BRONZE

AGES HAVE BEEN FOUND.

RECORDS. 345

SUMMARY OF PAPERS.

Dr. Mathew described a series corresponding to that illustrat-

ing the evolution of the horse, and which is almost equally

complete.

It shows the derivation of the camel from small primitive

four-toed ancestors which were exclusively North American in

habitat. The earliest known ancestors are tiny animals no larger

than a rabbit. The camels reached their maximum size and

abundance in the Pliocene epoch, when they were much larger

than the modern camels. Then they spread to the other conti-

nents, disappeared entirely from North America and became

smaller in size and far less numerous in species elsewhere.

Dr. Hovey showed lantern slides from some of the photo-

graphs taken by him in St. Vincent and Martinique in 1902 and

1903, for the American Museum of Natural History, which illus-

trated the development of the new drainage systems and the rein-

statement of old channels in regions which were most thickly

covered by the 1902 and 1903 eruptions of the Soufriere and

Mont Pele.

In considering the subject of stone monuments, Mr. Wilson

confined himself to those found in Northern France and South-

ern England, and especially to the great groups near Carnac in

Morbihau, and the well-known temples of Stonehenge and Ave-

bury, in Wiltshire.

The monuments were divided according to type into several

classes, and a description of each of these given briefly with

their comparative ages and the probable purposes for which they

were constructed. Legends concerning these monuments were

cited, and mention was made of the superstition and veneration

with which they have been regarded by some of the more con-

servative peasants, causing the worship of stone to be kept up

to the present day in some remote districts.

Before closing the paper, attention was called to the engineer-

ing skill required in placing and erecting some of the monu-

ments and the early age at which it made its appearance. The

paper was followed by slides showing photographic views of

346 RECORDS.

some of the most famous monuments, with maps and with draw-

ings of several of the curiously engraved stones.

EpmMuND Otis Hovey,

Secretary.

BUSINESS, MEETING:

OCTOBER 3, 1904.

The Academy met at 8:15, Vice-President Poor presiding.

The minutes of the preceding business meeting were read

-and approved.

There being no business to come before the meeting, the

Academy adjourned.

Henry E. CRAMPTON,

Recording Secretary.

SECTION» OF ASTRONOMY, -PHYSsi¢Gs.72

CHEMIST RY.

OCTOBER 3, 1904.

Section met at 8:25 P. M., Vice-President Poor presiding.

The minutes of the last meeting of Section were read and

-approved.

The following program was then offered :

Reports of summer work were presented by several members

-of the Section, after which an informal address was given by

Dr. C. D. Perrine of the Lick Observatory, on ‘“‘ Recent Progress

made in the Study of Nebulze by Photographic Methods.”

CHARLES C. TROWBRIDGE,

Secretary.

SECTION OF BIO OGY:

OCTOBER 10, 1904.

Section met at 8:15 P. M., Professor F. B. Sumner presiding.

The minutes of the last meeting of Section were read and

-approved.

The meeting was devoted to reports on summer work by

members. Professor E. B. Wilson worked at the Naples, Sor-

‘bonne and Roscoff laboratories, continuing his studies of ger-

RECORDS. 347

minal localization in mollusks. Professor Bashford Dean attended

the zoological congress at Berne and the British Association

meeting in Cambridge, and later visited places of scientific

interest in France. Professor Bristol worked at the Bermuda

Biological Station, of which he was one of the directors. Mr.

Yatsu worked at the Tufts College laboratory in Maine. Mr.

Kellicott worked at the Cedar Point laboratory, in Ohio, com-

pleting his studies of the development of the vascular system

of Ceratodus. Dr. Dublin continued his studies of germ cells

at the Cold Springs Harbor laboratory. Dr. Townsend super-

intended the remodeling of the water-supply apparatus at the

New York Aquarium. Mr. Bigelow conducted special courses

for teachers in the summer-school of Columbia University.

Professor Sumner directed the laboratories and the biological

surveys of the Bureau of Fisheries at Woods Hole.

M. A. BiGELow,

Secretary.

eeECTION OF GEOLOGY AND MINERALOGY.

OCTOBER 17, 1904.

Section met at 8:15 P. M.,; Professor James F. Kemp

presiding.

The minutes of the last meeting of the Section were read and

approved. The following program was then offered :

The special business of the evening was the nomination by

the Section of officers to serve for the calendar year 1905. The

following officers were unanimously nominated by the Section:

For Chairman and Vice-President of the Academy, E. O.

Hovey, of the American Museum of Natural History.

For Secretary, A. W. Grabau, of Columbia University.

The program of the evening was then taken up. It was as

follows :

E. O. Hovey, St. Vincent, BritisH West InpiEs. THE

ERUPTIONS OF 1902 AND THEIR IMMEDIATE RESULTS.

348 RECORDS.

SUMMARY OF PAPERS.

Dr. Hovey gave a summary account of the results obtained

on two expeditions undertaken by him for the American Mu-

seum of Natural History in 1902 and 1903, for the study of the

volcanic eruptions of the Soufriere, which began in May, 1902.

Particular attention was devoted to the heavy coating of vol-

canic ash deposited upon the northern portion of the island of

St. Vincent and the ash-filling of the gorges of the Wallibou

and Rabaka Dry Rivers, the devastation wrought in the forests

and on the plantations within a radius of about five miles from

the crater, the phenomena of primary eruptions observed in

the crater and of secondary eruptions observed in the Wallibou

and Rabaka ash-beds. The nature of the exploding eruption

cloud was discussed, and-it was shown how the heavily dust-

laden steam cloud kept close to the surface of the ground under

the influence of gravity, while its initial velocity was furnished by

the horizontal component of the explosion.

About eighty lantern slides were used in illustrating the

speaker’s remarks,

BO. Ovex,

Secretary.

SECTION .OF ANTHROPOLOGY AND, raVenhOReG =

OCTOBER 24, 1904.

The Section met, in conjunction with the New York Branch

of the American Psychological Association, at 4:30 P. M., and

at 8:15 P. M. Vice-President Woodbridge presided.

The following program was offered :

R. 8. Woodworth, THE CorRELATION BETWEEN Moror

STRENGTH, QUICKNESS AND ACCURACY.

Robert MacDougall, Orcanic LEVELS IN THE DEVELOP-

MENT OF THE NERVOUS SYSTEM.

Irving King, Some PROBLEMS OF THE FRINGE OF CoNSCIOUS-

NESS.

E. L. Thorndike, A Comparison oF THE MENTAL AND PHys-

CAL RESEMBLANCES OF I WINS.

RECORDS. 349

F. J. E. Woodbridge, Nore on THE NATURE OF CONSCIOUS-

NESS.

Proceeding to the election of officers for the coming year, the

following were elected :

Chairman — Professor F. J. E. Woodbridge.

Secretary — Dr. R. S. Woodworth.

R. S. WoopwortTH,

Secretary, pro tem.

BUSINESS MEETING.

NOVEMBER 7, I9O4.

The Academy met in Fayerweather Hall, Columbia Univer-

sity, at 8:30 P. M., Vice-President Poor presiding.

The minutes of the preceding business meeting were read and

approved.

The following candidates, approved by the Council were

duly elected as Active Members :

Fred. A. Lucas,

C. William Beebe.

There being no further business to come before the meeting,

the Academy adjourned.

C. C. TROWBRIDGE,

Secretary, pro tem.

pee T1ON OR ASTRONOMY, PHYSICS AND

CHrEhHiS FRY:

NOVEMBER 7, I9QO4.

Section met at 8:25 P. M., Vice-President Poor presiding.

The minutes of the last meeting of Section were read and ap-

proved. The names of candidates for active membership were

read and referred to the Council according to the By-Laws.

The following program was then offered :

F. L. Tufts, THE RELATION OF KATHODE RESISTANCE TO

THE SO-CALLED SATURATION CURRENT IN THE DISCHARGE

THROUGH GASES.

350 RECORDS.

C. C. Trowbridge, THE DurATION OF THE AFTERGLOW

ACCOMPANYING THE ELECTRODELESS DISCHARGE AT Low

PRESSURE.

The regular annual election of officers of the section was then

held, which resulted as follows :

Chairman — Ernest von Nardroff.

Secretary — C. C. Trowbridge.

SUMMARY OF PAPERS.

Mr. Tufts pointed out that the so-called saturation currents,

obtained by Wilson and other investigators of the phenomena

of electrical conduction through flame gases, were not true satur-

ation currents, but only apparently so, owing to the development

at the kathode of a high resistance, when the impressed electro-

motive forces were over a few volts. By the use of a kathode

coated with calcium oxide and heated by a separate flame,

it was shown that the resistance of a flame connecting this

with the flame remained practically constant. In other words,

the current through the connecting flame increased directly

as the potential gradient for gradients ranging from a few tenths

of a volt to the centimeter up to gradients of as much as

fifty volts to the centimeter. It was stated that experiments

had been tried with the ordinary luminous gas flame as well as

with flames rendered nonluminous by the admixture of air, and

the relation between current and potential gradient was found

to be the same for both kinds of flames. It was stated that

experiments were in progress in which higher gradients than

fifty volts to the centimeter were to be used.

Dr. Trowbridge stated that the purpose of the investigation

was to determine the nature of the glow that often appears

after the cessation of the electrodeless discharge in gases at low

pressures. Measurements made thus far on the duration of the

glow in air, show a sharp maximum of duration between .1 and

.o5 millimeter pressures and that this maximum point varies

with the electrical conditions of the experiment. It was also

determined that there is a critical point between .7 to .3 milli-

meter pressures where the glow is only occasionally formed,

RECORDS. 301

after which, as the pressure is further reduced the duration of

the glow increases rapidly to the maximum. The electrodeless

discharge was also made to take place at liquid air temperature,

and it was found that the afterglow accompanying the discharge,

while still fairly strong, was diminished considerably in duration

and intensity at the low temperature of about — 186° C.

The meeting then adjourned.

C. C. TROWBRIDGE,

Secretary.

Sct, OF BIOLOGY,

NOVEMBER 14, I9O4.

Section met at 8:15, Professor Underwood presiding.

The minutes of the last meeting were read and approved.

The following program was then offered :

W.E. Kellicott, DEVELOPMENT OF THE VENOUS SYSTEM OF

CERATODUS.

M. A, Bigelow, SomME PREsSURE-EXPERIMENTS ON THE EGGs

OF THE CRUSTACEAN HIPPOLYTE.

SUMMARY OF PAPERS.

F. E. Lloyd, BoranicAL RESEARCH AT THE DESERT LABOR-

ATORY IN ARIZONA.

Dr. Kellicott’s paper, on the ‘“‘ Development of the Venous

System of Ceratodus,’ pointed out many similarities to the

amphibian. These similarities are so numerous and exact, that

it seems impossible to believe that the Dipnoi and Amphibia

have not arisen as a common stock which has separated later

into these groups. The adult relations and the mode of

development of the vena cava of Ceratodus indicate that this

vessel is not to be looked upon as one of the hepatic veins

which has made a new connection with the posterior cardinal

vein, but that its anterior portion develops as a short cut by way

of which the blood from the mesonephros may be carried to

352 RECORDS.

the heart after the atrophy of the pronephros and the associated

veins.

Mr. Bigelow briefly described some observations on eggs of

the crustacean //7ppolyte subjected to slight pressure during .

cleavage. While the normal cleavage is total, pressure pro-

hibited the formation of cell-boundaries, and unsegmented eggs

with 2, 4, 8, 16 and 32 nuclei were obtained. When the pres-

sure was removed the cell-boundaries soon appeared. The

cleavage of this egg under pressure exhibits some striking

resemblances to the normal superficial cleavage of eggs of allies.

Professor Lloyd described the conditions for botanical research

at the Desert Botanical Laboratory in Arizonia. Many photo-

graphs were exhibited to illustrate descriptions of the peculiar

flora in the vicinity of the laboratory and of the method of con-

ducting experiments, especially those concerned with the rela-

tion of desert plants to water.

Dr. W. M. Wheeler, of the American Museum of Natural

History, was elected chairman, and M. A. Bigelow, of Teachers

College, Columbia University, secretary of the section for the

year 1905.

M. A. BIGELow,

Secretary.

SECTION OF GEOLOGY AND MINE RALRG Gs

NOVEMBER 21, 1904.

Section met at 8:15 P. M., Professor James F.kempopre-

siding.

The minutes of the last meeting of Section were read and

approved.

The following program was then offered :

SUMMARY OF PAPERS.

John J. Stevenson, THe IsLaAnp OF SPITZBERGEN AND ITs

COAL.

James F. Kemp, THe TITANIFEROUS MAGNETITE IN

WYOMING. |

RECORDS. 393

In introducing his subject Professor Stevenson, described

briefly the coast of northern Norway and its geology and

referred in some detail to Bergen, Hammerfest and other

cities. Spitzbergen was then taken up and its coals and their

geological relations were passed in review. The coal beds are

of Jurassic age and the coal is peculiar in that it partakes of the

characters of the lignites as well as of the true coals.

The second paper on the program, by Professor Kemp,

was presented only in abstract. The magnetite occurs in two

places, fifteen and twenty miles north of Laramie, Wyoming,

the former and smaller occurrence being near the Shanton

ranch, the latter and larger being on Chugwater Creek. Both

are in wall rock of anorthosite which is practically indis-

tinguishable from anorthosite occurring in the Adirondacks.

The ores range from 20 per cent. to 40 per cent. TiO,.. Thin

sections show that they contain green spinels, and one slide pre-

sents much olivine. They can be most reasonably explained as

intrusive dikes. Inthis view the speaker agreed with Waldemar

Lindgren who has published a brief note regarding them.

The Section then adjourned.

James F. Kemp,

Secretary, pro tem.

SECTION OF ANTHROPOLOGY AND PSYCHOLOGY.

NOVEMBER 28, 1904.

Section met at 8:15 P. M., F. J. E. Woodbridge presiding.

The minutes of the last meeting of Section were read and

approved.

The following program was then offered :

A. M: Tozzer, SurvivaLts oF ANCIENT RITES AMONG THE

LACANDONE AND Maya.

Clark Wissler, CEREMONIAL LIFE OF THE BLACKFOOT.

SUMMARY OF PAPERS.

Mr. Tozzer held that the unity of origin of the Lacandones

of Chiapas and the early inhabitants of Yucatan seems estab-

lished by the fact of the many relevant survivals of rites and

304 RECORDS.

customs connected with the older culture as described by the

early inhabitants and missionaries, as, for example, the cosmical

conceptions, the use of incense-burners identical with some

found in the ruins of Yucatan, the piercing of the ear with a

stone knife, and the worship of jade and other idols of stone,

long identical with Magle culture. That the Lacandones are the

descendants of a lower stratum in the social organization of the

Magas, the ‘‘gens rustica,’ seems evident from the lack of any-

thing approaching skill either from an architectural or an artistic

standpoint, the probable absence of a priestly class and along

with this a seemingly complete ignorance of the ancient system

of writing used among the Magas.

Dr. Wissler discussed the general results of research in the

religious life and practices of American Plains Indians, showing

that the idea that supernatural power was received by the indi-

vidual in a vision, dream or inspiration, led to the conception of

an individual right to the use of such power, and that even in

religious rites recognized as tribal, the formal ownership was

vested in a single individual, and that the power of such rites in

the affairs of men could work through his consent alone. It

further appears that the right of the owner to transfer the

religious rite was recognized and that this had a commercial

aspect. This reached such a complex stage of development

that it practically determined the whole economic organization

of the people. On the subjective side, it appears that the real

power sought and operated through the songs making up the

ritualistic rites and that material objects and dance evolutions

were regarded as secondary. The songs were regarded as

prayers that the supernatural giver would always heed.

R. S. WoopwortTu,

Secretary, pro tem.

RECORDS. 355

SECTION OF GEOLOGY AND MINERALOGY.

DECEMBER 2, I9QO4.

Section met at 8:25 P. M., Vice-President Kemp presiding.

The minutes of the last meeting of the Section were read and

approved.

The Section held a special meeting, at which 200 members

and visitors were in attendance. The meeting was called to

order at 8:25 P. M., and the programme of the evening was at

once taken up. This consisted of a lecture by Professor Albrecht

Penck, of the Imperial University at Vienna, who is an Honorary

Member of the Academy.

The speaker discussed ‘“‘ The Glacial Surface Features of the

Alps,” and gave a brief summary of some of the results of the

twenty years of masterly work which has been done by him and

under his direction in the Tyrol. Professor Penck discussed in

popular language the nature of the valleys of the Alps and

showed by means of lantern slides and a'‘diagram how the

glaciers have widened and deepened portions of their rocky

basins and produced lakes.

After a vote of thanks to the distinguished guest-of the

evening, the Section adjourned.

EpmunpD O. Hovey,

Secretary.

BUSINESS: MEETING.

DECEMBER 5, 1904.

The Academy met at 8:30 P. M., Professor William Hallock

presiding.

The minutes of the previous business meeting were read and

approved.

The Secretary reported from the Council as follows :

That it was proposed to amend Chapter V, Section 1, of the

By-Laws, by omitting the words ‘ Every Active Member shall

pay an initiation fee of $5, within three months of his election or

such election shall be void.”

That the Council, as required by the By-Laws, had prepared

the following nominations for officers for the coming year :

306 RECORDS:

President — James F. Kemp.

Vice-Presidents — Edmund O. Hovey, Ernest R. von Nard-

roff, F. J. E. Woodbridge, William M. Wheeler.

Corresponding Secretary — Richard E. Dodge.

Recording Secretary — Henry E. Crampton.

Treasurer — Charles F. Cox.

Librarian — Ralph W. Tower.

Editor — Charles L. Poor.

Councilors — Emerson McMillin and F. H. Wiggin.

The following candidates for election as Honorary Members

had been approved by the Council:

Hugo de Vries.

G. Johnstone-Stoney.

W.-C. Brogger:

Karl von der Steinen.

Ferdinand Zirkel.

That the Annual Meeting would consist of a formal session

for the presentation of the reports of officers and election of

officers for 1905, and that this would be followed by a sub-

scription dinner, at which the address of the President would be

delivered. Due notice would be given the members regarding

time and place of this meeting.

The Academy then adjourned.

Henry E. Crampton,

Recording Secretary.

SECTION OF ASTRONOMY, PHYSICS ane

CH EMIS IR.

DECEMBER 5, 1904.

Section met at 8:30 P. M., Professor William Hallock

presiding.

The minutes of the last meeting of Section were read and

approved.

The following program was then offered :

C. W. Kanolt, THE ComBinaTION oF IONS WITH THE SOL-

VENT IN SOLUTIONS.

Bergen Davis and C. W. Edwards, CuEmicAL CoMBINATION

OF KNALL-GAS UNDER THE ACTION OF RADIUM.

RECORDS. 519)

SUMMARY OF PAPERS.

The object of Dr. Kanolt’s investigation was to determine

whether or not the ions of a salt in solution are combined with

the solvent. The method used was the electrolysis of a salt dis-

solved in a mixture of two solvents, with the subsequent analysis

of the portions of the solution around the two electrodes. If

the ions are combined with either of the solvents, this solvent

will be carried from one electrode to the other, and changes in

the proportions of the two solvents are to be expected. Positive

results were obtained with silver nitrate dissolved in a mixture

of pyridine and water, indicating that pyridine was combined

with silver ions. With the same salt in a mixture of alcohol

and water, only negative results have so far been obtained.

Other salts are being investigated.

The experiments of Professors Davis and Edwards relate

to the chemical combination of hydrogen and oxygen under

the action of radium rays. The gases were enclosed in a

vessel in such a way that a small change of pressure could be

observed. About four milligrams of radium bromide were dis-

solved in alcohol and deposited on the surface of a small sheet

of platinum which was placed in the vessel.

By means of electrodes the amount of ionization produced in

the gas by the radium was measured. While the rate of forma-

tion of water was quite slow; yet the number of molecules of

water formed for each physical ion produced, was very large.

The experiments are being continued by Professor Edwards.

C. C. TROWBRIDGE,

Secretary.

SECTION” OF "BIOLOGY:

DECEMBER 12, 1904.

Section met at 8:15 P. M., Vice-President Underwood pre-

siding.

The minutes of the last meeting of Section were read and

approved,

The following program was then offered :

Henry F. Osborn, Recent Discoveries oF Extinct ANI-

308 RECORDS.

MALS IN THE Rocky MOUNTAINS AND THEIR BEARINGS ON THE

PRESENT PROBLEMS OF EVOLUTION.

F. B. Sumner, EXPERIMENTAL STUDIES OF ADAPTATION AND

SELECTIVE ELIMINATION IN FISHES. |

SUMMARY OF PAPERS.

Professor Osborn exhibited the newly prepared skulls of Dzp-

lodocus, Morosaurus and Creosaurus from the Bone Cabin Quarry,

Wyoming. The skull of MWorosaurus is new to science, and is

of a short-skulled type with a very prominent and convex fore-

head. Like Dzplodocus it exhibits a large pineal foramen.

Under the title “‘ Recent Discoveries of Extinct Animals in

the Rocky Mountain Region and their Bearings on the Present:

Problems of Evolution,’ Professor Osborn exhibited a series of

skulls of the Eocene ancestors of the Oligocene Titanotheres,

stating asa result of recent investigation that the Oligocene

Titanotheres were found to represent four distinct lines of

descent, in each of which horns independently developed, and

that the Eocene Titanotheres also represented four distinct lines

of descent, two of which became extinct, namely, the extremely

short-skulled Pa/l@osyops, and the extremely long-skulled Dol-

chorhinus, while the intermediate forms 7e/matotherium and Man-

teoceras gave rise to the Oligocene forms 7ztanotherium and Mega-

cerops respectively. As bearing upon the general problem of

evolution, it was pointed out that the paleontologist enjoys the

peculiar advantage of following a series through the origin and

development of organs to their subseqent progression or decline.

As early as 1888 the speaker had taken the ground that various

palzontological series demonstrate the definite or determinate

variations of certain kinds. In 1892 he connected with

this the idea that certain series of animals related by descent

from a common stem form exhibit the potential of similar evolu-

tion, describing this as a law of latent or potential homology.

It is now found in this series of Titanotheres that there is more

than a potential of similar evolution ; there is evidence of a pre-

disposition to similar evolution as shown in the wholly independent

development in two distinct series of horns from hornless types

RECORDS. 3dd9

at exactly similar points on the skull, namely, at the lateral

junction of the frontals with the nasals.

The communication had been in part presented before the

Brooklyn Institute of Arts and Sciences, and before the Zoo-

logical Congress at Berne.

Dr. Sumner described his experiments that were undertaken

in order (1) to determine the relative sensitiveness to asphyxiation

of the three commoner species of Funudulus ; (2) to determine the

relative ability of these and some other fishes to survive trans-

fer to fresh water ; (3) to determine the minimum salinity which

certain salt-water fishes could withstand; (4) to determine the

effect upon these fishes of gradual and of abrupt changes in the

density of the water.

The results of extended biometric studies were set forth, from

which (1) it was shown that when a given species was subjected

to destructive conditions, and the mean characters of the more

and the less resisting individuals were compared, differences

were evident both in respect to type and to variability ; (2) that

when different methods of elimination were employed with the

same species, selection had reference to different characters ;

(3) in the only case in which this question was tested, that the

selective elimination of two closely related species, under the

same conditions, appeared to have reference to the same char-

acters ; (4) that specimens of /. heteroclitus inhabiting brackish

water of low salinity differed in all of the measured characters

from those living in pure salt water. (5) It was shown, never-

theless, by comparison with the more and the less fit individuals

of those experiments where fresh water was employed as the

eliminative agent, that the fishes inhabiting brackish water could

not have owed their modification to the natural selection of those

individuals better adapted to a life in water of a lower density.

(6) It was shown by comparing the mean characters of the

three species of /uzdulus and by taking into account their rela-

tive fitness to withstand certain conditions, that these differences

of type could not have been due to natural selection acting

with reference to these particular conditions.

Dr. Hornaday, director of the New York Zoological Park, and

360 RECORDS.

Dr. Townsend, director of the New York Aquarium, called

attention to some of the animals recently added to the collec-

tions in their charge.

Maurice A. BIGELow,

Secretary.

ANNUAL MEETING.

DECEMBER 19, 1904.

The annual meeting of the New York Academy of Sciences

was held on December Ig, at the Hotel Endicott, at 7:30 P. M.

Professor Edmund B. Wilson presided. A formal session was

first held, for the transaction of the regular business of the

Academy, and this was followed by a dinner at which sixty-six

members and their friends were present.

The appended reports of the Corresponding Secretary, Record-

ing Secretary, Treasurer, Librarian and Editor were presented,

and by vote placed on file. The report of the Treasurer was

formally referred to the Finance Committee for audit.

The Academy then proceeded to elect officers for the year

1905, tellers being appointed, official ballots prepared by the

Council according to the provisions of the by-laws, being dis-

tributed, and the votes counted. The following officers were

declared elected:

President — James F. Kemp.

Vice-Presidents: Section of Geology and Mineralogy, Edmund

O. ‘Hovey,

Section of Astronomy, Physics and Chemistry, Ernest R. von

Nardroff.

Section of Biology, W. M. Wheeler.

Section of Anthropology and Psychology, F. J. E. Wood-.

bridge.

Corresponding Secretary — Richard E. Dodge.

Recording Secretary — Hermon C. Bumpus.

Treasurer — Charles F. Cox.

Librarian — Ralph W. Tower.

Editor — Chas. Lane Poor.

Councilors (to serve three years)— Emerson McMillin, F.

H. Wiggin.

RECORDS. 361

Finance Committee—John H. Hinton, C. A. Post, Henry F.

Osborn.

Proceeding to the election of Honorary Members, the follow-

ing eminent men of science were formally presented, each by a

Fellow of the Academy engaged in scientific work of the same

nature as that of the nominee, and were duly elected:

Hugo de Vries, presented by N. L. Britton.

G. Johnstone-Stoney, presented by R. E. Dodge.

W. C. Brogger, presented by J. F. Kemp.

Karl von der Steinen, presented by Franz Boas.

Ferdinand Zirkel, presented by J. J. Stevenson.

Dr. Frederick A. Lucas was elected a Fellow of the Academy,

being presented by the Recording Secretary.

Professor Cattell then proposed the health of Professor R. S.

Woodward, a past-president of the Academy, recently elected

to the presidency of the Carnegie Institution.

The President, Professor Edmund B. Wilson, then delivered

his address upon ‘‘ The Problem of Development,” at the close

of which a vote of thanks, proposed by Professor H. F. Osborn,

and seconded by Professor J. J. Stevenson, was tendered to him.

The Academy then adjourned.

Henry E. CRAMPTON,

Recording Secretary.

REPORT OF THE CORRESPONDING SECRETARY.

DECEMBER IQ, 1904.

The Corresponding Secretary makes the following report as

to the status of the Honorary and Corresponding Members.

A. little over a year ago letters were sent to all the Hon-

orary and Corresponding Members on the lists of the Academy.

As a result from the returns of these letters the lists have been

greatly improved in accuracy and completeness.

At present there are forty-five honorary members. One hon-

orary member, Professor Von Zittel, has died since the last

annual meeting.

The list of Corresponding Members numbers one hundred

362 RECORDS.

and eighty-three, of whom one hundred and forty-four have

answered the communication sent a year ago. There are,

therefore, thirty-nine who have not been heard from. Another

letter of inquiry will be sent out in the spring and a failure on

the part of these thirty-nine to answer this second communica-

tion will be considered sufficient reason for the dropping of the

name, unless the person is known to be alive.

Very respectfully,

RicHAarD E. DoncE,

Corresponding Secretary.

RFPORT OF THE RECORDING SECRET ae

During the year 1904 the Academy met in business session

on eight occasions, and the several sections held thirty meetings,

at which seventy-six stated papers and lectures were presented

upon the following subjects :

Astronomy 2 papers,.1, lecture,

Physics Tike

Chemistry 1g pi

Botany Sy tae

Paleontology x2 tae

Zoology Gas

Geology Oey

Mineralogy Prise

Physiography 2'- > ailectunes.

Anthropology

and Archeology Sauyue

Psychology ee bO gut

Philosophy iyi es E leckine:

Biography Ls eee

Particular mention must be made of the lecture upon the

Physiography of the Alps by Professor Albrecht Penck, an

Honorary Member of the Academy.

At present there are 278 Active Members, of whom 132 are

Fellows ; the election of one Fellow is pending. During the

year two members have died, six have resigned, while six have

RECORDS. 363

been dropped on account of non-payment of dues. As five new

members have been elected during the same period, there has

been a net loss of nine.

In accordance with a recommendation offered by the Library

Committee, a more permanent union of the libraries of the

Academy and the American Museum of Natural History has

been effected, to their mutual advantage. In regard to publi-

cations, it may be stated that the former method according to

which papers presented before the Academy could be published

in journals other than the Annals with the financial support of

the Academy has been set aside. Inthe future, under an earlier

method of publication, a volume of the Annals, to consist of

three or four parts, will be issued during a calendar year.

Particular attention is now being given by the Council to the

matter of membership, and efforts are to be directed in the near

future towards increasing the list of Active Members. As stated

above there has been a loss of nine during the year, although

the members that resigned exceed the new members by one

only. Maintenance, however, is not progressive development

unless in the face of adverse conditions. ‘The situation that

confronts us is in some respects a difficult one, though not

peculiar to the Academy. The special societies, each dealing

with some restricted branch of science, will tend more and more

in the future as they have in the past to draw away active

workers from general bodies such as the Academy. Support

for the Academy may therefore be sought with a fairer prospect

of success from those upon whom demands are not made by

professional duties that their activities shall be centered in the

special organizations for scientific work. With such support,

publication as one of our two main objects may be furthered.

Efforts should none the less be made to draw into the Academy

the younger men in active work who must carry forward the

activities of scientific nature in the future, thus subserving the

second purpose of the Society.

One other subject of general interest must be mentioned.

The Council has decided that the routine work connected with

the several offices of the Academy shall be performed by a

364 RECORDS.

clerical assistant, with an office at the American Museum of

Natural History, who shall be under the general supervision of

the Recording Secretary. This arrangement provides for a still

further centralization of the activities of the Academy in the

Museum, where the Library is already housed, and where the

scientific meetings are now being held.

Henry E. CRAMPTON,

Recording Secretary.

REPORT OF “THE TREASURE

New York, DECEMBER 17, 1904.

To THE New York ACADEMY OF SCIENCES.

Gentlemen: As required by the by-laws, I herewith sub-

mit a statement of my receipts and disbursements since my last

annual report, and a balance sheet from my ledger, as of this

date.

Respectfully yours,

CG. Coxe

Treasurer.

RECEIPTS.

Balance as per last- Annual Reports... joss ncs ore $5,364.62

Bequest of Dr. H. Carrington Bolton for Publication

Pun 20 Se ea hey sea ae ee 1,000.00

One year’s interest at 414 per cent. on St. Ann’s

Ave. Mortgage, 6121600, 9:05 .cphis ee 540.00

Interest: on- Deposits in, Banke. ...20:93o ee ee 172.0%

Initiation IPeeseeui0 0, swe kts ey eee ee 30.00

Annual: wes 1@@ ic to ayi au. ee ee $30.00

‘ LQO2 Sis we aod eee ee 60 00

2 TOO 3 nue denies eae eee 120.00

‘ 1OG4 std Ne iseeaeeeecusns 1,750.00

- MQ 5 ee airs eee eae 10,00- 1,979:09

Keceipts from Annual Diner sioe3s ae eee 102.00

$9,179.29

——.

RECORDS. 365

DISBURSEMENTS.

Invested in Bond and Mortgage at 5 per

ems. on 200 Bast 135th Sti. joes. c- $5,200.00

Seer uUblications.. 2... 6. ws $949.18

URS Oe wie es eyes ee wo 87.94 861.24

Expenses of Recording Secretary...... 286.57

i orrespongditie. © tara. 28.00

a3 PTCASUICR oS ies eh a 8 65.96

op pi i a ee a oie a IQI.OI

2 FEN SECTS CoS ese a de ra 79.00

Assessments of Scientific Alliance ..... IOI.07

Meee: Annual Dinner, 1903......... 100/20" °O,61 3.05

Beeman a os. Se. fis eae 8 ace os $2,266.24

Meeunacy Keceipts ......... $2,812.67

: Bpenses oo s.2h 2)! x 1,612.85

Shine i cal ara 1,199.82

SS Ss oe . $2,266.24

5 2a eee 1,076.07

Accumulated Income..... $3,342.31

BALANCE SHEET.

DR;

Investments :

St. Ann’s Ave. Mortgage, $12,000 at 4% percent. $12,000.00

135th St. Mortgage, $5,200 at 5 per cent..... 5,200.00

0 EO Sete en nee ae a ere oe 130.00

OE, SE ee Sees a oT ee 2,266.24

$19,590.24

Ci.

ES DY STs ARs a eae $11,226.68

A 0S GS a ee 3,000.00

1 Sait ag TE Ss Sips it i a at Nl ee 1,897.25

Og SSR Tce I 183.49

SSE RUNG oe e2 oh as eS ee as os 218.77

SEE eANC AG PUT ne ae hs ses as tg ie RS ae a

NIN oS ea kw bie Kg bce Kode ok nes 1,938.74

$19,590.24

New York, December 17, 1904.

366 RECORDS.

REPORT OF “GEES GIBRARTAN.

To THE NEw YorkK ACADEMY OF SCIENCES:

The status of the Library has changed but little during the

last year. The new accessions have been 354 volumes and

pamphlets and 2,283 numbers. A detailed and accurate account

has been kept of all accessions so that a revision of the exchange

list can be undertaken in the near future. Of special interest is

the gift from Professor Gustav Retzius of an entire set of his

publications. The library is catalogued and open to the public

on week days from 9:30 A. M. to 5 P. M.

Respectfully submitted,

R. W. Tower,

Librarian.

REPORT -OFr/se EDGR:

During the year 1904 the Academy printed and issued the

following publications :

Annals. — Vol. XIV, Part IV, containing a paper by George

I. Finlay entitled, “The Geology of the San Jose) Dictues

Tamaulipas, Mexico.’ This was issued in March and consisted

of 71 pages, ten plates and one double page map. Vol. XV,

Part II, containing the records of the meetings of the New York

Academy of Sciences, January 1903 to December 1903, by

Henry E. Crampton, Recording Secretary. This was issued in

May and consisted of 62 pages. Vol. XV, Part III, containing

a paper by Charles Lane Poor entitled, ‘“‘ Researches as to the

Identity of the Periodic Comet of 1889-1896-1903 (Brooks)

with the Periodic Comet of 1770 (Leéxell);* “This was: issued

in December and consisted of 82 pages and two plates.

These papers were mailed to every active member of the |

Academy. Besides the above named papers the Academy

assisted in the publication of a paper by Franz Boaz and a paper

by Wm. Jones. These papers appeared in the publications of

the American Anthropological Association.

Vol: XVI, Parts I and TY, of the: Annals-and V ol-alie tare

RECORDS. 367

III, of the Memoirs are in press and will be issued soon after

the beginning of the year.

Respectively submitted,

CHARLES LANE Poor,

Lditor.

a ANNUAL, ADDRESS OF THE PRESIDENT.

Edmund B. Wilson, THE ProspLem oF DEVELOPMENT.’

The selection of such a subject as the problem of develop-

ment for a general address to this Academy as a whole suggests

a word of explanation. Within the privacy of our sectional

meetings we are permitted to dig and delve as much as we

please among the dry bones of specialization ; but on this occa-

sion a righteous tradition imposes upon the president the duty

of laying aside his special tools in order to address the whole

scientific body over which he has for a time had the honor to

preside. In offering a brief general discussion of some latter

day problems of embryology and cytology I shall endeavor not

to violate the spirit of this tradition. The task is not an easy

one, owing to the complexity of the data and their strangeness

to those who have not closely followed the details of modern

biological work ; yet I am encouraged to make the attempt by

the belief that the problem of development belongs to those

1 The critical reader will, I hope, be willing to bear in mind the condition under

which this address was delivered. My endeavor was to convey to a scientific body,

composed only in part of biologists, some individual impressions of a student of em-

bryology and cytology regarding the general bearings of recent researches in his

special field. It was not consistent with this purpose to give a critical résumé for

biologists, nor could authorities be cited in detail. The general conception here

developed will recall certain views contained in Driasch’s ‘‘ Analytische Theorie

der organischen Entwicklung,’’ published in 1894 (themselves traceable to earlier

conclusions of de Vries), but afterwards rejected by him in favor of an explicit

theory of vitalism. The rediscovery of Mendelian inheritance, the newly produced

evidence, on the one hand, of morphological and physiological diversity among the

chromosomes ; on the other, of protoplasmic prelocalization in the egg, have, how-

ever, placed the whole problem ina new light. I wish to acknowledge my indebt-

edness to Professor Whitman’s fine essays on the questions that center in Bonnet’s

doctrines, published in the ‘* Wood’s Hole Biological Lectures,’’ for 1893, which

suggested the quotation from Huxley.

368 RECORDS.

larger scientific questions that are of enduring interest to all

students of nature. It is only fair to point out, however, that a

consideration of recent advances in this subject necessarily and

speedily leads us into a region that lies remote from everyday

experience, surrounded by arid wastes of technical detail, and

inhabited by folk who speak an uncouth foreign tongue. With

the best of intentions, therefore, the native guide and interpreter

has need of some forbearance on the part both of his country-

men and of the outlanders whom he attempts to lead.

I need not dwell on the absorbing, almost tantalizing, interest

with which the problem of development has held the attention

of naturalists from the earliest times. Twenty centuries and

more have passed since Aristotle first endeavored to trace some-

thing like a rough outline of its solution. The enormous ad-

vances of our knowledge during this long period have taken

away nothing of the interest or freshness of the problem ; they

have left it, indeed, hardly less mysterious than when the father

of science wrote the first treatise on generation. I will not

dwell on the epoch-making work of Harvey, Wolff and von

Baer, or the curious, almost grotesque controversies of the

eighteenth century, when embryology invaded the field of phi-

losophy and even of theology. I will only point out that even

at that time, when embryology was almost wholly limited to

the study of the hen’s egg, embryologists were already occupied

with two fundamental questions, which still remain in their

essence without adequate answer, and though metamorphosed

by the refinements of more modern observation and experiment

still stand in the foreground of scientific discussion. ‘The first

of these is the question of preformation versus epigenesis —

whether the embryo exists preformed or predelineated in the

egg from the beginning, or whether it is formed anew, step

by step, in each generation. The second question is that of

mechanism versus vitalism — whether, development is capable

of a mechanical or physio-chemical explanation, or whether it

involves specific vital factors that are without analogy in the

non-living world. It is especially to some modern aspects of

these two questions that I invite your attention; and I shall

a —

ee a)

RECORDS. 369

also consider briefly their relation to recent conclusions affect-

ing our theories of heredity and evolution.

Let us first seek to define more clearly the meaning of our

terms. The embryologists of the pre-Darwinian period, unham-

pered by historical conundrums, fixed their attention on the

single objective problem of the nature of the germ and its mode

of development. The hen’s egg contains something which,

though not visibly a bird or even an embryo, will when main-

tained ata temperature of about 37° C. for 21 days, cause a liv-

ing chick to step forth from the shell. What is that something

and what manner of machinery (if machinery it be) is set in

motion to work such a marvel? The early embryologists found

no real answer to this question. They determined the fact that

at the beginning the egg contains nothing even remotely resem-

bling a bird ; that as early as the second day a rudely fashioned

embryo is visible in the egg: and that day by day, as the incu-

bation proceeds, this embryo becomes more complex. The bird

appears to be progressively created out of something that is

without form, and void of visible structure. Its development,

said Harvey and Wolff, is essentially a process of “ epigenesis ’’—

a successive formation and addition of new parts not previously

existent as such in the egg. This conclusion, roughly outlined

by Aristotle, was apparently established on an irrefragable basis

of observation, long afterwards, by Harvey and Wolff. In its

superficial aspects the doctrine of epigenesis is no more than a

statement of universally admitted fact. When followed to its

logical end, however, this conception has failed, and will always

continue to fail, to satisfy the mind; and some of the most acute

of modern embryologists have expressed the opinion that no

thoroughgoing hypothesis of epigenesis can be so framed as to

be logical, or even conceivable. Even in the eighteenth century

this doctrine was met by the opposing one of preformation and

evolution. Advocated by such men as Malpighi, Haller and

Leibnitz, this conception underwent its fullest development in

the hands of the eminent Swiss naturalist Bonnet. Developed

with great logical acuteness and set forth with captivating liter-

ary skill, Bonnet’s theory was based on the fundamental assump-

310 RECORDS.

tion that the embryo, though invisible, really exists preformed

in the egg before development begins. The preformed germ

was not conceived to be an exact miniature model of the adult.

On the contrary, Bonnet thought of the germ of the fowl, for

example, as differing widely in form and proportions from an

actual bird, still the original preformation was assumed to be

composed of parts that correspond, each for each, to the parts

of the chick. Development, accordingly, was conceived to be

only the unfolding and transformation of a preexisting structure,

not the successive formation of new parts —a process of ‘“‘evo-

lution,’”’ not of epigenesis. In this particular form the doctrine

of preformation was conclusively overthrown by Wolff; but the

principle underlying it has repeatedly and persistently reap-

peared in later speculations on development, and still contests

the field of discussion with its early antagonist.

Hand in hand with this controversy has gone one of still more

general scope between the two opposing conceptions that I have

referred to as mechanism and vitalism. Is development at

bottom a mechanical process? Is the egg a kind of complex

machine, wound up like a piece of clockwork, and does develop-

ment go forward like the action of an automaton, an inevitable

consequence of its mode of construction? Or, on the other

hand, does development involve the operation of specific vital

entelechies or powers that are without analogue in the automaton

and are not inherent in any primary material configuration of the

egg? This question, I hardly need say, is included in the larger

one, whether the vital processes as a whole are or are not

capable of mechanical explanation. As a problem of embry-

ology it is very closely connected with that of preformation or

epigenesis, and in point of fact the two have always been closely

associated. Evidently, by its very form of statement, any theory

of preformation or prelocalization in the germ assumes at least

a mechanical basis for development, z. ¢., a primary material

configuration upon which the form of development in some

measure depends. With theories of epigenesis the case is not

so clear; for such theories may or may not be mechanical.

Without further preamble I now ask your attention to certain

RECORDS. 37 |

facts which will place clearly before us the form in which these

time-honored problems appear to us to-day.

It is a familiar fact that development begins with the progres-

sive segmentation or division of the egg into cells, which, con-

tinually increasing in number, finally build up the body of the

embryo. Until comparatively recently it was not suspected that

the cells thus formed in the earliest stages had any constant and

definite relation to the parts of the future body. The fact has

now been established, however, that in a large number of forms

(though apparently not in all) such a definite relation exists,

both the form of division and the prospective values of the cells

being constant. In the egg of the ascidian, for instance, the first

cleavage-furrow passes pretty accurately through the future

median plane of the body, and the two cells thus formed give

rise respectively to the right and left sides of the embryo. Ina

snail’s egg the relation is a different one, but is no less definite

and constant ; in the four-cell stage, for instance, the material

that will produce the shell and foot is located, mainly at least,

in one of the four cells. Again, in a worm’s egg, after its seg-

mentation into sixteen or more cells, we know very exactly how

the materials for the head, the segmented trunk-region, the

digestive tract, the muscles and the ganglia, are distributed

among these cells. In all such cases the embryo seems com-

parable to a piece of mosaic-work, each cell apparently having

its own inherent particular character, and its own specific role

to play.

These facts place very conspicuously before us a modern form

of the problem of preformation which we may conveniently call

the problem of “germinal frelocalization.’ Does this mosaic-

like character of the early embryo mean that the cells are

inherently different? Are they in any degree individually pre-

destined for their future development ; and if such be the case,

can this predestination be traced back to protoplasmic regions

in the egg before it has divided into cells? In other words,

does the egg, or does it not, contain prelocalized, predetermined

areas that have any necessary or causal relation to the parts of

the future embryo? This is the first guise in which the old

aie RECORDS.

question of preformation presents itself to us to-day. I ask you

to glance at the results of a few very simple experiments

designed to test this question. They will give apparently quite

contradictory results.

Experiments on the eggs of certain animals, such as cteno-

phores or mollusks, seem to give an unequivocal answer to our

questions. If, for example, the cells of the segmenting egg of

the mollusk Dentalium or Patella be separated from one another,

at the two-cell stage or any later period, they continue to

develop and produce living, actively swimming structures ; but

these creatures are not completely formed whole embryos, but

monsters that in many respects resemble pieces of a single

embryo (Fig. 1, A). It is true that the wounds usually close

and heal; but these structures, nevertheless, remain monstrous

and defective, and if they are carefully studied it is found that

only when taken collectively can they be said to constitute a

single whole embryo. The cells are thus proved to be in some

measure inherently different, and to this extent the cell-mosaic is

shown to be a real mosaic. If we now extend our operation to

the undivided egg, a result in harmony with this is reached.

If certain portions of the egg of Dentalium be artificially cut off,

the remaining portion, upon fertilization, regularly gives rise toa

defective and monstrous creature that is not a whole embryo,

but resembles a piece or fragment of an embryo. It is evident

that this experiment seems to show pretty clearly that even

before the egg has begun to divide into cells the parts of the

future embryo are in some measure definitely prelocalized and

predetermined in its different protoplasmic regions; and evi-

dently, if this be the case, we seem further to have good ground

for the mechanistic assumption that the undivided egg contains

some kind of structural or material configuration upon which

the character of the development depends.

But let us not on this account too hastily accept a theory of

preformation or prelocalization. Let us first look at the results

of an exactly similar experiment performed on the egg of cer-

tain other species of animals, for example, Amphiorus, a sea-

urchin, or a nemertine worm. Separate here the first two or

_ =—- 7

RECORDS. 373

Fic. 1. — Development of entire eggs and of isolated blastomeres of two-cell

stage. A, Dentalium; at the left, development of the whole egg ; at the right,

development of the isolated first two cells, producing two defective larve. JB,

Amphioxus ;

dwarfs.

the corresponding experiment, isolated cells producing two perfect

374 RECORDS:

four cells, and each develops, not into an abortive monster, but

into a perfectly formed though dwarf larva (Fig. 1, £). Thus

it is possible to produce from a single egg from one to four per-

fect animals ; and in case of certain species (hydromedusz) it is

theoretically possible by a similar method to produce from a

single egg as many as eight or even sixteen perfect dwarfs.

Again, in some of these cases, for instance in the nemertine, the

undivided egg may be cut to pieces in any planes taken at

random ; yet every piece, if of sufficient size, may upon fertili-

zation develop as if it were a whole egg and produce a perfect

dwarf. Here is an astounding contrast to the results of our first

experiment. What becomes of our theories of prelocalization

here, and what becomes of our mechanical theory of develop-

ment, if we hold such a theory? Neither the cells nor the

regions of the egg seem to have any predestination such as is

shown in the molluscan egg. It is the essence of a machine or

automaton that its operation is due to its structural configura-

tion. Impair or destroy that configuration and the action

ceases. But from these eggs we may take away any of the

parts, or the whole may be cut to pieces, yet there is no impair-

ment of action, but only a readjustment to form smaller sys-

tems like the original whole. The egg, therefore, says the

vitalist, can not be an automaton and its development is inex-

plicable upon a mechanical theory.

Such is the paradoxical result to which a superficial compar-

ison of these two cases leads us — a kind of embryological anti-

nomy, as it were, which at first sight may seem to take away

all hope of finding law or order in these phenomena. I will

undertake to show you speedily that the apparent contradiction

is easily explicable. I have placed the two cases side by side

because each seems .to demonstrate the truth of one side of an

ancient embryological controversy ; and we shall presently find

reason for the conclusion that each of the opponents, like the two

knights and the shield, have recognized but a part of the truth.

The probable explanation of the difference of the behavior

between the eggs of Dentalum and of Amphioxus is a very

simple one. When we closely study eggs of this type we find

RECORDS. 379

Fic. 2.— Diagram of protoplasmic zones and their distribution at the first

cleavage in different forms. 4, immature egg, assumed to have no definite segrega-

tion of protoplasmic stuffs. 4, mature egg, with protoplasmic zones of horizontal

stratification. C, first cleavage, division of the chromosomes. JL, £, /, different

types of two-cell stage. 0, Dentalium type, the lower zone isolated in one cell.

£, Amphioxus, nemertine, or echinoderm type ; equal division of the zones. /,

hypothetical type with complete separation of two zones at the first cleavage.

376 RECORDS,

that they do not consist of homogeneous protoplasm, but of

different kinds of protoplasmic materials or stuffs that are at the

outset arranged, roughly speaking, in horizontal bands or strata,

as indicated in the diagram (Fig. 2, 4), where the number of

strata is arbitrarily assumed to be four. Now, an examination

of the manner in which the egg divides gives strong reason for

the conclusion that in such forms as Amp/ioaus the first division

bisects these stuffs, so that each of the first two cells receives

one half of each stratum (Fig. 2, C, £). In the egg of Den-

talium, on the other hand, this is demonstrably not the case, for

the lower stratum passes over bodily into one of the cells and

is quite excluded from the other (Fig. 2, )). The symmetrical

division in Amphioxrus, the sea-urchin, or the nemertine, gives

the immediate possibility of producing two smaller systems simi-

lar to each other and to the whole egg. The symmetrical or

qualitative division in Dentalium, on the other hand, does not

give such an immediate possibility, for it produces two different

systems neither of which is identical with that of the entire egg.

It is highly probable that we find here a proximate explanation

of the fact that each of the two cellsin Amphioxrus may produce

a perfect dwarf, while in Dentalium neither produces such a larva.

Facts like these are leading us to the conclusion that the imme-

diate determining causes of development are to be sought in

specific protoplasmic stuffs, or organ-forming materials, that are

distributed to the cells in a definite way during division. These

materials, definitely arranged, are sometimes plainly visible in

the undivided egg. I have, for instance, been able to show that

the egg of Denfahum contains an area of protoplasm at the lower

pole that has a causal connection with the formation of the foot

and shell, and probably also of the principal part of the meso-

blast structures ; for if this area be cut off from the unsegmented

egg the resulting embryo regularly lacks these structures. In

like manner, Professor Conklin has recently been able to recog-

nize in the protoplasm of the unsegmented egg of a species of

ascidian the material of the future tail-muscles of the larva ; and

though no necessary connection between this material and the

muscles has thus far been experimentally proved, my experi-

RECORDS. 377

ments on Deztalium leave by analogy little doubt that such a

causal connection exists. We do not in the least know how

these protoplasmic stuffs or materials act. We can hardly

imagine how it is that one kind of stuff involves the develop-

ment of muscles, others that of nerves, ciliated cells, or shell-

secreting cells. We may guess that these stuffs may be anal-

ogous to the so-called internal secretions, formed in the adult

organism by such organs as the thyroid or the sexual glands,

which are known to produce quite specific morphological effects

on the body. A second guess is that the formative stuffs may

be related to the soluble ferments or enzymes, which in other

ways play so great a role in the economy of plants and animals.

But, aside from this question, the evidence is steadily increas-

ing, I think, that such stuffs exist, that they have a definite ar-

rangement in the egg, and that in cases where the form of

cleavage is constant they are distributed in a definite way to the

cells into which the egg splits up. The cleavage-mosaic is

accordingly to be conceived as an actual mosaic of different

materials that are somehow causally connected with develop-

ment of particular parts. When these materials are equally

distributed by the earlier divisions, as in Amphioxus, each of

the resulting cells may upon isolation produce a perfect larva ;

when they are unequally distributed, as in Denxtalium, the cells

are no longer equivalent, and upon being isolated produce the

structures corresponding to the particular stuffs allotted to them.!

These facts will presently bring us to our first general conclu-

sion. First, if the protoplasm contain such stuffs, grouped and

distributed in a definite way, to just this extent may develop-

ment receive a mechanical interpretation — that is, be conceived

as the result of an antecedent material configuration in the egg-

protoplasm. We have as yet no very distinct idea regarding

the degree of complexity of this initial protoplasmic configura-

tion, though there are facts that indicate that it may not be very

1 It will appear in the sequel that even in the latter case the potentiality of pro-

ducing a complete embryo may still be present in the nucleus, It is important to

distinguish between such primary or original nuclear potentiality, which may be

common to all the cells, and the secondary or immediate potentiality determined by

protoplasmic specification, The relation between these is still an unsolved problem.

378 RECORDS:

great, 7. ¢., that the prelocalization is of a somewhat general

character. This question appears, however, to be of relatively

minor importance in view of an additional conclusion given by

detailed studies on the formation, maturation and early develop-

ment of the egg. These studies leave no doubt that the

srouping of materials observed at the time the egg begins its

process of division is not, in some cases at least, a primary or

original one, but is of secondary origin. They indicate further

that early in the development the egg contains only a few of

these specific stuffs, at the very beginning possibly none, and

that as development goes forward new stuffs are progressively

formed and distributed. Now, if this conclusion is well founded,

the actual progressive development of the protoplasm must be

conceived asa process of efigenesis, not of preformation and

evolution. This is the first general result that I desire to

emphasize ; and it is in harmony with the fact, on which all

embryologists have been agreed, since the time of Wolff, that in

its obvious features development is by the formation and addition

of new parts not previously existent as such in the egg. The

embryo is not actually preformed or even predelineated in the

protoplasm from the beginning. The protoplasmic stuffs appear

to be only the immediate means or efficient causes of differentia-

tion; and we have still to seek its primary determination in

causes that lie more deeply. We are thus led toa brief con-

sideration of the question of the physical basis of heredity,

which will direct our attention to an element that has hitherto

been disregarded, namely, the nucleus, and bring us to a second

general result.

It was long since suggested by Nageli that there is a particu-

lar substance or ‘‘idioplasm”’ peculiar to each species of plant

or animal that is transmitted in the germ-cells and has the power

to determine the development of the egg according to its nature.

Later research has given very strong reason to accept this view

in principle, and for the further conclusion that this physical

basis is represented by a substance contained within the nucleus

and known to cytologists as “chromatin.” Passing over the

cogent, and I believe steadily accumulating, evidence on which

RECORDS. 379

this conclusion rests, let us ask how the idioplasm is to be con-

ceived. Some of those who have accepted the general concep-

tion of the idioplasm have endeavored -to think of it as a very

complex but still single and homogeneous substance — the

frog’s egg, for example, might be conceived as containing a

frog-determining substance, the human germ a man-determining

substance, and so on. The most recent researches are, how-

ever, continually strengthening the ground for a quite different

conception, indicating that the chromatin does not operate as a

simple substance, but is built into a complex fabric having a

definite architecture. We are not here concerned with the par-

ticular form of this conception developed by Weismann in his

well-known work on the Germ-plasm, and elsewhere. I am

referring to more recent results of observation and experiment

which are giving new and more concrete evidence that the

nucleus possesses a complex organization, and apparently one

that must be conceived as a kind of primary or original prefor-

mation, which bears a certain analogy to that assumed by Bon-

net, though quite distinct from it.

We may perhaps most readily approach the grounds for this

conclusion by considering, first, an example of the indirect evi-

dence drawn from recent experiments on inheritance. I givea

single example, typical of a large number of known cases, of the

heredity of single or unit characters in the so-called Mendelian

inheritance. If pure gray mice be crossed with pure white

albino forms, the hybrid offspring are all gray without visible

trace of white. But if these gray hybrids be now paired with

each other, both parents being gray, approximately 25 per cent.

of their progeny are pure white without a trace of gray, and

they continue to produce pure white offspring thereafter. Many

similar cases are known, the same proportion of approximately

25 per cent. of the “ recessive’’ character in the third generation

holding true, sometimes with great precision. What does this

prove? First, that the white character is not really absent in

the gray hybrids but only masked or concealed — “ recessive,”

in Mendel’s terminology ; secondly, that the latent white char-

acter may in the following generation be completely disentangled

380 RECORDS.

or extracted from the gray; thirdly, since the proportion is

definite, that the extraction takes place by means of some defin-

ite mechanism. We are at present, I think, unable to imagine

an explanation of these truly astonishing facts save by the

assumption that the gray and white characters are borne in the

egg by corresponding discrete bodies or entities of some kind,

that may be mixed and unmixed without fusion, shuffled and

unshuffled like cards ina pack. The evidence is so far wholly

indirect, though I think none the less cogent. But now, bearing

in mind that the case of the gray and white mice is but a single

example of a widespread phenomenon, let us ask whether we

can actually find any definite structures in the egg, and particu-

larly in the nucleus, that may be assumed to represent such

entities. One of the most significant and remarkable discoveries

of modern biology is the fact that such entities exist, though it

is important not to forget that their significance in heredity is as

yet only an assumption, not a completely demonstrated fact.

These entities are bodies known as ‘“‘ chromosomes,”’ and are

represented in the diagrams by the rods in the nuclei.’ I can

not within the limits of this address attempt to do more than

touch on a few of the discoveries of recent years regarding the

chromosomes, though I think they may fairly be claimed to

constitute one of the most brilliant chapters in the whole history

of biology. The number of the chromosomes is constant in each

species and, only with a few exceptions of such a kind as to

emphasize the rule, the number in sexually produced organ-

isms is always an even one. It has been proved that during

the fertilization of the egg one half of the chromosomes are

derived from the father and one half from the mother (Fig. 3, 4),

and the still more suggestive fact has been established — with

probability through the study of normal development, with

almost complete demonstration through the study of hybrids —

that at every division of the egg the chromosomes also divide

(Figs. 2, C, 3, 6, C,) in such a manner that their progeny are

1In point of fact the chromosomes are, as a rule, only distinctly visible at the

period of cell-division. In the diagram they are represented quite schematically, as

if visible in the resting nuclei.

RECORDS. 381

distributed in equal number, step by step, to all the cells of the

body. The remarkable conclusion is thus reached that the

fertilized egg, and all the cells derived from it, contain a double

set of chromosomes, paternal and maternal (Fig. 3, Y). The

no less interesting result has been experimentally reached that

either set —paternal or maternal—is sufficient for complete

development (at least as far as the larval stages); for the egg

may be caused to develop without the paternal chromosomes,

while conversely the paternal chromosomes alone will suffice

for the development of an egg from which the maternal nucleus

has been removed. Here for the first time we catch a glimpse

of the probable physical explanation of the phenomena of domi-

nance and recession that have of late so greatly aroused the

interest of experimenters on inheritance ; but above all, here is

found our first definite basis of observation for the assumption

that the nuclear organization is not merely a chemical or molec-

ular one, but represents beyond this some kind of definite ma-

terial configuration of the nuclear substance.

The time will not allow me to do more than touch on the

very recent work that has confirmed and extended this conclu-

sion. It has been found, first, that in some species the chromo-

somes show constant differences of shape and size, which points

towards the conclusion that they may possess specific individual

characters. But beyond this indirect evidence, and quite inde-

pendently of it, Boveri has shown by direct experiments of great

ingenuity and beauty that qualitative physiological differences

among the chromosomes actually exist: for complete develop-

ment is only possible in the presence of a particular combination

of chromosomes. Hence the conclusion becomes probable that

there is a definite causal relation of some kind between the indi-

vidual chromosomes and the development of corresponding

characters or groups of characters ; or, in other words, that the

hereditary characters are in some manner distributed among the

chromosomes which form their physical basis in the egg. We

do not yet know in precisely what form this conclusion should be

formulated. We do not know, for instance, whether a single

unit-character, such as color, is determined by a single chromo-

382 RECORDS.

—— |)

| | | at Ye ss SS Vin

i. :

Fic. 3.— Relations of the chromosomes ; formation and distribution of protoplas-

mic stuffs in later stages. 4, union of the germ nuclei (each assumed to have four

chromosomes). 2, C, division of the chromosomes, with equal distribution of the

paternal (g) and maternal (9) products. , scheme of nucleus at any later

stage, with four paternal and four maternal chromosomes (corresponding or homol-

ogous chromosomes connected by dotted lines). £, actual outline (after Mead) of

egg of Amphitrite consisting of upwards of 64 cells (nuclei schematized). Ento-

blast-cells unshaded, primary mesoblast cross-hatched, trochoblasts (ciliated g¢ells)

dotted, cells of ventral plate (ventral nervous system, etc.) black; the other cells

belong to the ectoblast.

RECORDS. 383

some, or by a combination of chromosomes, or whether this

may vary in different cases. In this direction we have taken but

the first uncertain steps towards a new horizon of discovery.

But the point I wish to emphasize is that if we admit such a dis-

tribution of characters among the chromosomes in any measure

and in any form, to just this extent have we admitted the prin-

ciple of preformation as applied to the nuclear substance or idio-

plasm. To this extent do we admit, for example, that the

physical basis of inheritance in a frog’s egg is not simply a

frog-determining swdstance, but is, in close analogy with Bonnet’s

conception, a kind of original preformation or microcosm, in

which the individual frog-characters are in some unknown manner

represented by corresponding chromosome-characters. We can

hardly imagine at present how this is possible ; and it must be

freely admitted that such a conclusion has an appearance of

artificiality and crudeness that almost inevitably creates a certain

feeling of scepticism. Nevertheless, to a conclusion similar in

principle to this the facts seem to be pretty definitely pointing.

And now, finally, let us see how this conception, if accepted,

is to be united with that of specific protoplasmic stuffs, as already

outlined. We do not know in any positive way, but we may

roughly present the facts to our minds by a kind of artificial

hypothesis — somewhat as Ehrlich and his followers endeavor

to present the side-chain theory of immunity by means of rough

and crude diagrams. Let us assume, for example, that the

specific protoplasmic stuffs are formed one after another by

means of substances like enzymes that emanate from correspond-

ing chromosomes.’ Putting the matter in the sharpest and

crudest way, let us assume that each of the chromosomes in our

diagram is responsible for the formation of the stuff correspond-

ingly shaded. A few of these stuffs, formed and distributed as

the egg ripens, determine the initial stages of development. In

later stages other stuffs are formed by other chromosomes and

progressively distributed to the cells by division. Thus the

cleavage-mosaic grows progressively more complex and definite

as development advances.- Each nucleus still contains the germ

1 Cf. Driesch’s ‘‘ Ferment Fiktion,’’? Analyt. Theorie, pp. 87-92.

o84 RECORDS.

or potentiality of the whole organism, but the cells assume

specific characters according to the protoplasmic stuffs allotted

to thems(Fie235 7

This attempt to portray briefly the szodus operandi of devel-

opment is doubtless an excessively naive mode of formulating a

highly complex and subtle process, concerning the real nature

of which we still know very little. Even if literally correct it

would still leave quite out of account some of the most impor-

tant elements of our problem. I do not offer it as a well-estab-

lished or fully rounded conclusion, but rather as a convenient

way of placing before you one fundamental result, towards which

I believe the drift of recent research is tending. This is that the

germ consists of two elements, one of which undergoes a devel-

opment that is essentially epigenetic, while the other represents

an original controlling and determining element. The first is

represented by the protoplasm of the egg. The second is the

nucleus, which, as I have attempted to show, must apparently

be conceived as a kind of microcosm or original preformation,

consisting of elements which correspond, each for each, to par-

ticular parts or characters of the future organism. The actual

development of the embryo, which is manifested by progressive

changes in the protoplasm, is by epigenesis, as Harvey and

Wolff maintained. Its primary determination is by means of a

preformed apparatus, handed on to the egg from preceding gen-

erations in the nucleus, which, though not in any sense a min-

lature model of the adult, yet somehow embodies in infinitesimal

compass, the heritage of the race. And thus the most recent

discoveries in this difficult field of research are bringing us toa

position which can hardly be better stated than in the words

written by Huxley more than thirty years ago: ‘“‘ The process

which in its superficial aspect is epigenesis appears in essence to

be evolution. . . . and development is merely the expansion of

a potential organism or original preformation according to fixed

laws.’ We should not, with the advantage of our present

standpoint, read into these words of Huxley’s a meaning which

it was impossible that he should have had in mind in writing

them; yet without yielding to this temptation we may fairly

‘

RECORDS. 385

pay our humble tribute of admiration and homage to a scientific

insight that was capable of reaching such a conclusion in the far

away prehistoric period when chromosomes and Mendelism were

unsuspected, when the nature of fertilization was unknown, and

the internal mechanism of development was a wholly unsolved

riddle.

I will in conclusion add only a few words on the question of

vitalism and mechanism in the light of the foregoing results.

In so far as development may be conceived as the outcome of

an original material configuration in the nucleus, and a secon-

dary configuration in the protoplasm, it may be conceived as a

mechanical process. But it must be admitted that this concep-

tion leaves quite unsolved certain fundamental elements of our

problem — such for instance, as the manner and order in which

the protoplasmic stuffs are formed and assume their character-

istic configuration, whether in the whole egg or in the isolated

blastomere or egg-fragment; or again, how the wonderful

phenomena of the regeneration of lost parts in the adult organ-

ism can be explained. We have at present no positive data for

an answer to these questions. But it can hardly be disputed

that we have already made a considerable advance towards a

mechanical solution of the problem, and if this be so, by what

right does the vitalist demand that we shall adopt his hypothesis

for the portions still unsolved? Let us seek an answer to this

question in the answer to a broader one. What is the object of

the study of development? I should state this object some-

what as follows: First, to observe and to describe as completely

and simply as possible the actual phenomena of development ;

secondly, to determine to what extent, from its beginning in the

egg to its completion in the adult organism, the process can be

formulated in terms of the elementary laws of matter and of

motion. But this is only a different way of stating that our

object is to ascertain in what measure the operations of de-

velopment, under given external conditions, are the result of an

original configuration of material particles in the egg.

Now, I do not need to say that even the approximate accom-

plishment of these aims is still very remote, their complete

386 RECORDS.

accomplishment impossible. I am fully in accord with the neo-

vitalists in their assertion that the phenomena of development

and of life generally have not yet been reduced to a mechanical

basis, that they can not at present be fully described in physico-

chemical terms. It is certain that living beings exhibit struc-

tures more complex than any existing in the inorganic world,

and different from them in kind. It is possible, probable I

believe, that living bodies may be the arena of specific energies

that exist nowhere else in nature. I admit fully that the inter-

pretation of development I have endeavored to outline does not

exclude, but in some ways actually suggests, the existence of

such energies. I should, therefore, even admit that the vitalists

are wholly right in their contention that the vital processes are

not at present explicable as the direct result of such energies as

are observed in the non-living world. To prejudge this question

would set up a dogmatic barrier to progress, not only in biology

but also in chemistry and physics. If this be vitalism there are

probably many of us who must be enrolled as “ vitalists,”’ how-

ever doubtfully we may regard the honor of bearing such a

title. But if the word “ vitalism’’ be used in any other sense

than as a convenient phrase, an x by which to designate an

unknown quantity, if it be taken in a positive sense to imply in

the living organism any negation of the fundamental laws of

matter and of motion, the existence of any distinctive entity, or

principle that does not fall within the chain of physical causation

or that contravenes the general laws of physics, then, I protest,

to accept “‘ vitalism”’ as a principle of interpretation is deliberately

to abandon the scientific method in biological study.

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[ANNALS N. Y. AcaD. SclI., VoL. XVI, No. 8, Part III, pp. 387-446

March I, 1906. ]

one OCCLUSION OF IGNEOUS ROCK WITHIN

fre MORPHIC SCHISTS, AS ILLUSTRATED

ON AND NEAR MANHATTAN ISLAND,

NEW YORK.

ALEXIS A. JULIEN.

(Read before meeting of February 15, 1904 )

CONTENTS.

PAGE

RN WMC*UCKIM, QOGIISION G2, 0.5 avenue tvs uccswhsethsecteoe cncedescsuncsddsecnenveresases 388

NR TN MEAN SIN ECM eo. sida peck 12s selena’ Su ridb'ss kan endecaawnWanete po aeds 388

Mer ueamicg processes HiteHdING OCCIUSION,....c0.. 55.7 dceccereascccssunkasndeie choees ees 390

PE remiGal Processes AILGMMINS OBPIUSION 5.2.25. n.sccce woasde) suewsnroserupenvessssennes 391

Mechusions on Mantattan Island < Varieties ...... 0.0. 6cccc0s.cccsssccasbucccsencnececes 392

Schist fragments within dikes................ Atiaea dk kkaakh so see St ane Need Nn 392

RMR IN BUA ase o, \- hcge se win a'o ao on Van dda ces oodtcted cnwanpoFoeens's 392

ONUPES PUMrite, Sislitate a MEE PAN OO! iy fos toa gaa'e Laine adi deend wngaten wakcaw de bas once de 392

hiorite on-Spuyten Waywil’ Creek <tc... 5... cs s0cc.scc0s BF ed oo PAAR: Bey ed 393

Wibiee arly CEE MERTEN ca Ree RA seee, naaeet ao Geos Wawa ndlavin Uoylen «dev caves paseus Fees 2 395

mantra Tae Ale SMI 5c 0, ta oak ia vanessa, dade ikken, soem af scant dubmrs 396

Seema OGL ELIA adc per ete hi tad Seta bie pet. ch packy ooo oe Vs Banh x Pal oebsch' Wainee aged ap 397

yee Oe oa INC OMROTNIOG cre mcrae pets tek atic das auon sina items warn he ded Ceaneduee ace 398

ROME Cia pk EOAAIR 2 Bs Shp oc a MT ved alas ce duds Weddasles ghdetars bovveds oviungedunstes 401

eclusions of Westchéster County; New Worle. 025 cscs ccnsscansesvecscdevansedauvenacs 404

MetpemtsgOrd OULCTOPS UA MAAS COUMEY wadasn nae cendpsonendhedves uauneiskeies sails won 406

Serpentinoid ridge on opposite side of Hudson River............sssccssorsesncecseces 406

) Microscopic chardcteristics.of the serpentimOld,, .2.¢ so. .esveevec cds senesvaewavecns 408

Genesis of the serpentinoid schists : hypotheses. ..........qecesccocessccscsesceesesces 416

Pemeration Of a sedimentary FOCK. vcs. cs ehues sine sa sccm cdspdacsua sin eyscs basaeons 416

Pere Sere ntinization Gl WOLOMINE, :. cock nacs es ancdewineah se adeseatesdydei'snisohoue 416

pumersion of amphibolized, dolomite c.5.5 v.52. ent ccbcandekdss'datvasanesensaseer 416

Alteration of ultra-basic ignedis TOCKSing.cs.eec essed anxvacessveadauesense sae eats 417

uemeea) composition of the serpéeritinoid.,. <, ...s<ass, ackadsassnsv updnsodicunnnxakes ene 417

Mangeriecical ‘constitution of-the serpeMtmOld 2.2050 .0.00cecnavaseduondacadccedsescone 420

Goastitation of the original igneous TOC. ......h<.sd ss4 comes snvecdecssiseusssante 423

Pieses of alteration ,....:...s<asayegcatatsiesssennbein ep ainbees header seated 425

Pegmatite occlusions on opposite side of Hudson River.............sseeeeeeeeeneee ees 427

" Granite dikes underlying the serpentinoid ..,......cccecessssssscscsses seecsscceecs 428

Mcetlnsion tracts along the Appalachian Delt. ..0..c0....00>saeseesendsedssteseseudseccees 429

Maryland ............sssccsscsccedectsececcesssvceesenssecaeestseusenceseascscnsesensecess 429

388 JULIEN

Dela wares vcinaasicca sch dccnee paewvten ele tae mdeice tees ee eaee a ean eee ee 431

Pennsylvania: 2....35.ces duceeek gn ioe ab sateen te was cet eae pee eee ee 433

Massachusetts.’ 3.3. turcian-secewesee meee tae ee er eR ree ei oe 435

Loeation of cities. alongtheocelusion lines cc see ses toe ee ee ee 436

Coastal chain of valeanoes (2... oaccncc eee ee ee 437

Mount’ Manhattan and its associated peaks*2 Jia.pensaeesceee acne een eee 438

The terms zzcluston and enclosure have been commonly ap-

plied to fragments of foreign rocks imbedded within sedimentary

deposits, crystalline schists or masses of igneous intrusion.

Thus, to take illustrations from structural features on Manhattan

Island, New York City, we find here ordinary dikes of pegma-

tite and aplite included in the upper stratum of micaceous

gneisses and schists, which they frequently intersect, running

partly along the foliation. Tongues of the schist itself

also, or, it may be, lenses and sheets between the crossing

dikes, project into the larger masses of intrusive granite in a

manner fitly pictured by the broad term, inclusion. The same

hard-worked term has also acquired a restriction, in optical

mineralogy and lithology, to microscopic enclosures within min-

erals and rocks.

Need of the Term, Occlusion.— For foreign masses, com-

pletely engulfed and enwrapped, whose constituents are con-

sequently in state of reaction and interchange with those of the

surrounding country rock and of general absorption into it, there

seeins to be call for another term which may specifically define

relationship to a new stratigraphical unit. Our language is

surely for common service. Though the word occlusion has

long been in use by our brother physicists and chemists, with

reference to envelopment and absorption of fluids, may not the

geologist safely borrow it, without danger of confusion, in appli-

cation to somewhat allied phenomena found in his own field ?

Its use will tend, I think, toward clearer recognition of the con-

stant passage, alteration, absorption and disappearance of masses

of imprisoned rock into a surrounding stratum and of extensive

metamorphic changes thereby effected.

Occlusions tn Igneous Rocks. — Attention has been directed

toward the instances of envelopment of rocks of all classes

within igneous dikes and flows and the consequent alteration,

OCCLUSION OF IGNEOUS ROCK 389

even to total absorption of such enclosures — or, as it has been

well expressed, “‘the striking results of extreme contact meta-

morphism, displayed by fragments of rocks which have lain for

a time in the bath of a molten igneous magma.”

In the intimate association of widely diverse types of igneous

rocks in the Tertiary of Great Britain similar results to those

already noted on Manhattan Island have been recently de-

scribed — ‘‘the tendency of an acid intrusion to follow closely

the line of an earlier basic intrusion.” *

But, in the igneous rocks of Skye, this has resulted, in different

cases, in production of ‘a rock with evident xenoliths, more or

less altered, a hybrid product with scattered xenocrysts, usually

much disguised, or, in the extreme case, a rock which shows in

a given specimen no direct indication of any foreign element.

Even this last, however, will often betray its origin by some-

w= She ‘Mmaxi-

mum effects were found where a basic rock had been attacked

by an acid magma, especially under one favorable condition,

previously pointed out,* which has ordinarily prevailed during

penetration of a solid body of igneous rock by a fluid magma,

that “reactions . . . will be promoted by the former being

still at a high temperature when the latter comes into contact

with it.”’

The same observer has thus accounted also “for the con-

tinuous or lenticular bands of basic rocks which are in places

associated with the more acid and hybrid rocks as integral parts

of the complex. These basic rocks appear to have been of the

nature of gabbros, now transformed by metamorphism, and in

some measure by interchange of material with the acid magma.

A dark hornblendic rock of this kind, with more or less evident

banding and foliation . . . has the general aspect of a medium

grained diorite. Ina thin slice it is seen that the deep green

1J. W. Judd, Quart. Jour. Geol. Soc., Vol. XLIX, 1893, p. 175.

* For instance, the pegmatite dike which can now be seen following the foliation

of diorite-schist down the bluff at West 130th Street and St. Nicholas Avenue, Man-

hattan Island.

SA. Harker, Quart. Jour. Geol. Soc., LIX, 1903, 210-212.

4 Tdem., Jour. Geol., VIII, 1900, 394.

thing unusual in its mineralogical constitution.

390 JULIEN

hornblende, which makes up more than half of the rock, presents

in places the crystal outline proper to that mineral, proving that

it is not merely pseudomorphic but has crystallized as such.

The rest of the rock consists chiefly of a finely striated plagio-

clase ; but there is also some unstriated feldspar, which may be

orthoclase, and a few little interstitial grains of quartz are seen,

These last two minerals probably point to a certain impregna-

tion of the recrystallized basic rock by the granitic magma.”

Other sections presented strings of magnetite granules and a

little brown mica.

This description of a diorite schist, known to be directly

altered from a basic igneous rock, is almost a repetition of that

of the diorite schist of Manhattan Island,’ indirectly altered after

metamorphism. ‘The points of difference are equally significant ;

the excess of quartz in the latter, from long-continued and

thorough pegmatitic impregnation: the state of the iron oxide

as hematite rather than magnetite, from the lower temperature

concerned in metamorphism : and even the partial separation of

bases, lime and iron oxide, represented by zoisite and hematite,

probably from the same cause.

On occluded masses of igneous material, the processes con-

cerned have been of two kinds, mechanical and chemical.

Mechanical Processes Attending Occlusion.— The following

are the chief effects, as shown on Manhattan Island, of mechan-

ical processes due to agencies of pressure, deformation and

shearing.

Flattening into lenticular discs with thin tapering edges ; the

pegmatite occlusions in particular breaking up into small nodules

and lenses, a few inches in length.

Crumpling and corrugation by tangential pressure, in the

1A. A, Julien, ‘‘ Genesis of the amphibole schists and serpentines of Manhattan

Island, New York,’’ Lull. Geol. Soc, Am., XIV, 1903, 427-439 The present

paper, which is a further development of the same subject, offers the opportunity to

record the following corrections to the former :

Page 461, 4th line. For ‘* .7854V a2 or a,’’ read “73,”

Page 465, last column, 3d line. Same correction.

Last column, last line. For ‘‘a@’,’’ read “‘ d/2,’’

Page 492, 5th line. For ‘‘ paucity,’’ read ‘‘ poverty.”’

OCCLUSION OF IGNEOUS ROCK 391

basic schists, usually attended, first, by development of columnar

or even fibrous texture under much crushing, associated with

symmetrical jointage, and, ultimately, with a granular texture.

Under extreme conditions, the diorite schist may become rolled

up into isolated cylindrical masses, and, it is probable, some-

times concentrated by thickening, in the direction of the pressure.

Good examples of these phenomena have been also noted in

occluded masses of diorite, passing into hornblende schist, inter-

calated in limestone parallel to its foliation, at Jenny Jump

Mountain in northwestern New Jersey, concerning which it is

stated :

‘“‘In some cases it has been seen that these eruptives at a

short distance from the contact are banded, and these banded

phases, if seen alone, would not be distinguishable from the

ordinary banded hornblende gneisses of the region.”’ *

Squeezing of a plastic occluded mass outwardly from the

margin of a lens along foliation planes of the adjoining country

rock. Thus we find our diorite schist often intercalated in sev-

eral or many thin sheets projected between parting planes of the

eneiss in the same stratum, in forms which may be termed sec-

ondary or occlusion-dikes. These simulate apophyses of ordi-

nary or primary dikes and even show a limited tendency to in-

tersect thin layers of the gneiss.”

Chemical Processes Attending Occlusion. — These vary largely

with the relative composition of enclosed igneous material and

of contiguous rock. On Manhattan Island the pegmatite seams

and lenses are bordered with excess of quartz, often intermixed

with tourmaline, apatite, micas, and microcline. At the margin

of the basic rocks, the diorite schists, the reactions are still

more marked. The hornblende disappears by alteration to

biotite, the rock becoming interlaminated with or entirely

changed into biotitic gneiss or even biotite schist, with more or

less garnet. These layers form gray bands, with the slaty

lamination, sharply defined boundaries and often zigzag corru-

gation, characteristic of the original hornblendic layers. Toward

1J. E. Wolff, Rep. State Geol. N. J., 1895, 52-59.

2 Julien, Zoc. czz., Plate 63, Fig. 1.

392 JULIEN

their extremities they melt away vaguely into the adjacent

gneiss, rich in both black and white micas, the former probably

indicating in large part the final absorption and disappearance,

to an unknown amount, of antecedent occluded masses of in-

truded diorite. The outcrops of diorite schist and of its distinct

biotitic derivatives, abundant as they are, afford therefore but a

small measure of the number of the original dikes. Dark

blotches of indeterminate outline seem to bear further testi-

mony to a vast dissemination of occluded igneous matter and so

to the conciusion that the Manhattan stratum was originally

seamed through and through by an enormous number of dikes

of gabbro, bronzite rock and pegmatite.

Occlusions on Manhattan l[sland. — Several varieties of these

may be distinguished.

Schist Fragments Within Dikes. — Portions of the schists or

gneisses themselves are sometimes found to have become sep-

arated and enclosed within the margins of intrusive pegmatite

dikes, perhaps displaying initial stages of absorption ; for ex-

ample on the knoll in Riverside Park, opposite West 83d Street.

Much more important, as already suggested, have been the

results of interchange, in reverse order, from igneous intrusions

cut loose during diastrophic movements from connection with

their underlying magmatic sources, swallowed up and perma-

nently imprisoned within the invaded schists and there now

found in various stages of shearing, alteration and absorption.

Pegmatite Occlusions. — Examples of the acid occlusions

have been already sufficiently described. The amount of peg-

matitic and quartzose matter thus introduced has been so great

that huge masses of saturated gneisses have been converted in

part or wholly into bedded granite, well shown still at Mt. Morris

Park, at north end of Central Park and on Morningside Heights.

The earliest series of intrusions evidently consisted of rocks

of basic and ultra-basic composition, both of which have be-

come almost completely metamorphosed into two present forms.

Quartz-diorite Schist After Gabbro. — The intercalated sheets

and lenses of this rock and its variants (hornblende schist,

hornblendic gneiss, biotitic gneiss, biotite schist) often charac-

OCCLUSION OF IGNEOUS ROCK 393

terized by zigzag folding down to minute corrugation, have

been elsewhere discussed.

As to its enrichment by quartz, while this has been doubtless

derived through general diffusion from adjoining pegmatite

masses, its partial indebtedness to internal reaction must be ad-

mitted. A common opinion would attribute it entirely to re-

constitution of minerals, during passage from a pyroxenic to a

hornblendic rock.’ Most definite evidence on this point has

been given by comparison of two analyses, of a dolerite and of

its derivative hornblende schist, in the dike at Scourie, Scot-

land *— almost alike except for the gain of two per cent. of

silica in the schist.

It will be inferred from previous statements that some forms

of our diorite schist have become so thoroughly disguised by

metamorphism that only careful study of earlier phases of the

transition will enable recognition of the relationship. A rare

form in the Woodward Collection *is a highly quartzose actino-

lite-diorite (No. 153, from aqueduct-shaft at West 179th Street

and 1oth Avenue), which bears to the eye an extraordinary resem-

blance to an enstatite-diorite, and also reminds one of the con-

stitution and structure shown in the thin section of amphibole-

gabbro from Hollmuhle.*

The frequent distribution of scapolite and wollastonite, in

small quantity, among the gneisses of the Island, may yet

prove to be of igneous relationship, as in Norway, Canada and

the southwestern Adirondacks.

Diorite Bed on Spuyten Duyvil Creek. — Many peculiarities

of structure characteristic of an occluded igneous intrusion are

illustrated in one bed, as yet undescribed, the largest remaining

on Manhattan Island, along the shore of Spuyten Duyvil creek.

It has been referred to by Cozzens, in 1843, as the site of a

1C. Callaway, Quart. Jour. Geol. Soc., XLIII, 1887, 528.

2j. J. H. Teall, zdem, XLI, 1885, 135-137.

3] have been indebted to Mr. Anthony Woodward of the American Museum of

Natural History for opportunity to examine his collection of specimens of rocks

from Manhattan Island, now at Rutgers College, New Jersey; and to this I shall

have other occasion to refer.

4J. Lehmann, ‘‘ Enst. d. altkryst. Schiefergesteine, Atlas,’’ Tafel XXII, Fig. 1.

394 JULIEN

quarry, and more recently by the United States Geological

Survey, in note of its location on the sheet for New York City.!

Between the last northward turn of that creek and the Hudson

river, the extreme northern end of Manhattan Island projects,

for a distance of about one quarter of a mile, as a forest-covered

rocky promontory, reaching a height of nearly 225 feet above

the sea-level.

The following appears to be the succession of beds. The

lowest, foliated micaceous gneiss, often slaty in structure, envel-

oping the sheet of hornblendic rock. Above this, a similar

gneiss, with many garnetiferous layers, six to nine decimeters

in thickness, much gnarled and contorted. The enclosed

roughly crystallized iron-garnets vary from one to three centi-

meters in diameter. Some layers are white, fibrous and thinly

laminated, rich in parallel flakes of a quartz-fibrolite mixture.

The highest beds, forming the crest, consist of alternations of

micaceous gneiss with layers rendered granitoid by saturation

with pegmatite in seams and lenses, often presenting an augen-

Structure:

Along a slope of 30° which forms the steeper eastern side of

the promontory, a belt of hornblendic rock extends continuously,

a little above the shore, from a point near 214th Street, for a

distance of more than 1,000 feet, until it passes beneath the

creek at the northern end of the outcrop. It is intercalated in

the bed of foliated micaceous gneiss with generally coincident

strike. This gneiss overtops it on the west, forming the sum-

mit of the ridge, and also underlies it on the east, along the

shore of the creek. There is much fallen talus, but the contact

of the hornblende-rock with the gneiss on either side is un-

covered in several places, sometimes with so sharp a line of

demarcation that one may set one’s foot on both rocks at their

junction. No difference was distinguished in texture or consti-

tution of either rock near the line of contact. The thickness of

the dioritic sheet was estimated at about 35 feet for a large part

of its course. The bed of the creek is known to be occupied |

by crystalline limestone, and a little valley on the east of the

"Geol. Atlas of U. S., N. Y. City Folio, No. 83, Washington, 1903.

OCCLUSION OF IGNEOUS ROCK 395

southern end of the diorite outcrop is also probably underlaid

by dolomitic limestone.

Map and Cross-section. —While the general strike of the

region, N. 45 to 50° E., prevails over this tract, an eastward

bending toward the northern end to N. 61° E., may be due to

the influence of the enclosed intrusive mass. It may be here

noted that the other great bed of hornblende-schist and serpen-

tine at West 59th Street, whose thickness approximated 30 feet,'

presented a violent change of course from northeast around to

north.”, Apparently in each case the disturbance may have

been a remnant of ancient unconformity, the surrounding

gneisses having been later crushed and adjusted into partial

accordance with the intruded mass. Changes in the direction

and amount of the dip, plotted on the accompanying sketch-

map (Plate V) indicate the emergence of a series of sharp folds,

the anticlines being partly overturned to the eastward and asym-

metrical, their eastern legs being very nearly vertical. Two of

these at one point are shown in the cross-section (Plate VI), ap-

proximately on the line of 216th Street. In addition, the vari-

ations in dip, often nearly vertical, along the eastern margin of

the granitoid or pegmatitic micaceous gneiss, which constitutes

the crest and mass of the hill, may signify the survival there of

another sharp fold. This may imply that the mass composing

the western slope is made up of a series of sharply compressed

folds, obliterated during pegmatization, with assumption of a

new foliation and system of jointage.

Near the center of the hornblendic tract these folds have

produced an expansion of the outcrop of diorite-schist to a

breadth of more than 200 feet, from which an exaggerated idea

of its extent and thickness might be inferred. The exhibition

of structure denoting vicinity to the bottom of a syncline (Plate

VI), at about 216th to 217th Street, and the low dips at the top

of an anticline, near the northern disappearance of the outcrop,

1H. Credner, ‘‘ Die Gliederung der eozoischen (vorsilurischen) Formations-

gruppe Nord-Amerikas,’’ Habilitationsschrift, Halle, 1869, I9.

2 Julien, Zoc. czt., Map, Fig. 9, p. 488.

396 JULIEN

signify a pitch of the axes of the folds toward the northeast,

directly opposite to the usual pitch in this region."

All the features intimate intrusion of the original gabbro

before the folding of the stratum of gneisses, and effacement of

the ascending dikes as a natural result of deformation and

occlusion.

Petrographic Description. — The rock of the belt consists

mainly of thinly laminated quartz-diorite schist or dioritic gneiss,

similar to the hornblendic gneisses and schists of the island. It

differs however in the general distribution throughout the fine-

grained hornblendic groundmass of dull black grains and flakes

of hornblende, 0.5 to 3.0 centimeters across, and about I to 2

centimeters apart. These mottle its fresh surfaces with black,

shining spots and project over the weathered crust in dark

lumps, as commonly observed on the weathering of diorites

and gabbros. They seem to represent ancient phenocrysts —

originally, it may be, of pyroxene — now altered to hornblende,

comprising about a third of the hornblende of the rock, and

with forms distorted by shearing. Their outlines are generally

irregular, rectangular, rhombic, and very often rounded or ovate,

producing an augen-structure in miniature. All the indications

are of an original rock of gabbroitic habit, certainly without any

resemblance to diabase.

The more gently inclined beds at the top of one fold show a

coarse banding, made up of light and dark layers, 3 to 50 centi-

meters in thickness, which suggest bands of segregation or flow.

Some of these are accentuated by impregnation with white

pegmatite in seams or in ovate nodules, less than a decimeter in

length, arranged in parallel planes ; or these may consist of milky

quartz or of pure feldspar, often a white plagioclase. Every-

where, however, throughout this bed, there is entire absence of

the minor crumpling and corrugation of lamine of common

occurrence elsewhere on the island.

In the general groundmass around the large black grains

hornblende predominates, mostly in slender blades or flattened

prisms, jet-black and shining, 2 to 5 centimeters long. These

are separated by grayish white parallel films, 0.5 to 1.0 milli-

1 J. D:. Dana, Am. Jour. Sct., (3), XX) 1886, 265.

OCCLUSION OF IGNEOUS ROCK 397

meter in thickness, made up of a mixture of white feldspar and

gray quartz, amounting to about 25 to 35 per cent. of the

volume of the rock. Much variation prevails in the proportions

of the two minerals, one or the other predominating in different

ledges. A little black to brown biotite, and still less white

mica, garnet and pyrite sometimes occur. No trace of epidote

or calcite was anywhere detected ; their absence may be corre-

lated, in my opinion, with that of the sharp minor foldings and

corrugations, only produced by intense pressure.' Occasionally

feldspar and quartz fall short and a thin layer of black horn-

blende-schist has resulted, with hornblende sometimes in coarse

blades, up to 5 centimeters in length. Toward the southern

end of the outcrop, where the bed tapers out, the rock becomes

fine-grained and more thinly laminated, with hornblende blades

rarely reaching 2 millimeters in length, as in the similar, thinly

sheared hornblende schists at other parts of Manhattan Island.

In a thin section, under the microscope, the minerals are

found to be the same as in other dioritic schists of the island.

Hornblende, mostly in prismatic or elongated grains, occasion-

ally in granules or fibrous scales. Twinning common; maxi-

mum extinction 15° to 16°; ¢ /\ ¢. Its rare inclusions consist

of rods and spherules of colorless zoisite, plates and twinned

crystals of plagioclase, scales of black hematite and rarely

brownish red biotite. Plagioclase, abundant in angular parti-

cles, showing twinning after the albite law. The low maximum

extinction angles, in sections normal to twinning plane, suggest

a rather acid feldspar. Apatite and hematite occur as inclusions.

Quartz common, in the usual limpid grains. In both feldspar

and quartz wavy extinction is very common, sometimes concen-

tric. Occasional cloudy colorless grains were referred to

orthoclase.

Joints and Veins. — The mass of schist is intersected by a

system of closely contiguous, parallel joints, with general direc-

tion N. 5° W. These coincide in direction with well-marked

parallel seams of division, often discernible in a hand specimen

at intervals of a few millimeters. It is along these planes of

1 Julien, Joc. cit., 446, 493.

398 JULIEN

weakness that the massive portions of the rock are often

traversed by white quartz in minute seams, rarely over 0.5

millimeter in thickness, which weather out in delicate, often

reticulating ridges. These plainly denote fine cracks produced

by shattering of a brittle mass.

Pegmatite veins or dikes have also insinuated themselves

along the same planes in large numbers, parallel or branching

and crossing, generally less than 5 centimeters in width, reaching

40 centimeters in one case. Their material consists chiefly of

white feldspar, grayish quartz and a little white muscovite, crys-

tallized along the central plane of the sheet, but sometimes only

of milky quartz.

It thus appears that the series of three successive igneous in-

trusions is well illustrated in this bed. Their coincidence at

many points is so well displayed that one may cover the con-

tact of all three —diorite, lens of earlier pegmatite and pegma-

tite dike of the last intrusion — with the palm of one’s hand.

Lvidence of Unconformity. — The structure just described in

these intrusions of basic igneous rocks during Paleozoic time !

— their intercalation parallel to bedding or foliation of the

altered sediments they have entered —is a remarkable feature

which prevails throughout the Appalachian belt. It may of

course but conform to the suggestive observation in another

region that ‘‘in such cases the dykes were probably not very

different in age from the gneiss which they traverse ’’ ?—a rela-

tion which, if established, may have been connected with inferior

superincumbent pressure or with imperfect consolidation of the

invaded beds. In one neighboring locality, indeed, they are

found in dykes, distinctly intersecting other intrusions or the

layers of the associated country rock, viz., those of the Cort-

landt Series near Peekskill, New York.

Elsewhere the published evidence on this problem seems to

be indefinite and insufficient. As to Pennsylvania we have the

statement, ‘‘a long narrow belt of sphene-bearing amphibolite

schist in the city of Philadelphia . . . cuts across the meta-

1j. D: Dana, Am. Jour. Sci., (3), XXVIII, 1884, 386,

2 Bauerman, Quart. Jour. Geol. Soc., XVI, 1885, 144.

OCCLUSION OF IGNEOUS ROCK 399

morphic mica schists of the region unconformably and is be-

lieved by the author to be a highly metamorphosed intrusive

dike of Lower Silurian age. The original augite or diallage has

been completely converted into fibrous hornblende, and the

influence of pressure is shown in the perfectly laminated char-

acter of the schist, in the close foldings produced, and in the

minute structure of the rock.’”’

A more satisfactory explanation of the structural character of

the basic intrusive rocks at Philadelphia has been given ina

recent letter from Dr. Florence Bascom, of Bryn Mawr, Penn-

sylvania :

‘“(1) The pyroxenic intrusives, that is, the gabbro, meta-

pyroxenite, meta-peridodite (or serpentines), occur in large

intrusive bodies. These intrusive masses, in general, follow

the, trend of the schists and gneisses, but when mapped can be

clearly seen to cross the strike of the bedding of the schists

and gneisses and to intrude indifferently into the mica-gneiss

(Hudson age) and the Pre-Cambrian gneiss. This can be seen

from the map, but in the field there are no good contacts.

(2) Smaller intrusive basic masses occur which occasionally

show contacts. Such an occurrence of a basic dike, now

altered to a hornblende-schist, is to be found in the neighbor-

hood of Swarthmore, on the Chester sheet. It strikes nearly

parallel to Crum Creek and at an angle to the strike of the

mica-gneiss. (3) There are other occurrences of altered basic

dikes, now hornblende-schists, in which the hornblende-schist

conforms perfectly to the schistosity of the mica-gneiss. In

these occurrences the hornblende-schist possesses inconsider-

able width and I first interpreted them as altered sedimentary

material. Upon further investigation, their petrographic and

chemical constitution proved to be similar to that of perfectly

well authenticated dikes and led me to consider these occur-

rences also as intrusive.”

In regard to the last case mentioned, intercalation of horn-

blende-schist in the foliation of gneiss, another possible explana-

tion might be based on relationship of foliation to bedding, as

1H C. Lewis, Mature, 1885, 560.

400 JULIEN

suggested by an observation in Delaware county, in south-

eastern Pennsylvania, on a series of schistose and gneissic rocks

considered to be more recent than the Hudson River group,

probably altered Devonian: ‘ Throughout a greater portion of

the gneissic and schistose belt the cleavage has been, in many

cases, mistaken for the bedding of the rock. . . . The cleavage

dip varies from 75 to 90 degrees. . . . The true bedding of the

measures is nearly horizontal and undulating. The so-called

‘bottoms’ are more or less distinct lines of separation through-

out the gneissic mass, and are the true lines of bedding. These

‘bottoms’ usually maintain their relative distance from each

other and cross the cleavage planes at angles which are usually

uniform in each locality. . . . In most of the quarries through-

out southern Delaware county the ‘bottoms’ or bedding is

sharply defined.’”’' Such distinction of the foliation of schists

from their true bedding would of course establish the uncon-

formity of all igneous rocks intercalated along the foliation.

In this connection it has been stated, concerning the gabbros

and gabbro-diorites of Delaware: ‘I have looked carefully for

any other evidence of bedding except that coincident with the

cleavage, but have found none. Theso-called ‘bottoms’...

could not distinctly be made out in Delaware. Planes which

might be taken for these were irregular and not continuous and

correspond more to joints than to planes of bedding. ... It

must be noted, however, that if we consider the true planes of

bedding of the mica-schists to lie nearly horizontal, then the

thin outlying lenticular masses of gabbro-diorite . . . which

are apparently interbedded with micaceous rock, must be re-

garded more strongly than ever as intruded bodies, cutting

across the stratification. That these rocks are of this character

the author is strongly inclined to believe.’ ”

On Manhattan Island, in the upper bed of micaceous schists

and gneisses, in which the diorite-schists lie enclosed, division-

planes and joints intersect the foliation. But those at low

angles are occasional, irregular, too obscure to be recognizable

1C. E. Hall,.Second Geol. Surv. Penn., Pt."I, C. 5, 1885, 2-3.

2. D. Chester, Bull. 59, U. S. Geol. Surv., 1890, 39-40.

OCCLUSION OF IGNEOUS ROCK 401

in evidence of bedding. If such evidences once existed along

those planes, they have become obliterated. The conformity

of the limestone-beds to the foliation of the gneisses also appar-

ently indicates coincidence with a common bedding plane.

Outcrop of Gabbro. — Through the courtesy of the Curator,

Dr. E. O. Hovey, I have been enabled to examine the series of

rocks from New York Island in the collection of the American

Museum of Natural History. Two important specimens were

found labelled ‘‘Syenitic gneiss, West 216th Street and 14th

Avenue,” in one of which I detected the presence of bronzite.

With the kind assistance of their collector, Dr. A. Woodward,

and of old maps, I have searched that locality, on north of Inwood

Heights, in vain for the out-crop. It was probably a small one

and has been apparently covered up with debris during the twenty

years which have elapsed. The authenticity of the specimens

seems sufficiently established to call for a brief description, on

account of their special petrographic importance.

No. 107 is a coarse biotite-quartz-gabbro, fresh and unaltered,

closely resembling a biotite-gabbro from Keeseville and coarser

norite from Westport, near the Adirondacks, New York, and

quite different from the gabbros of Westchester County, New

York. Itis so feldspathic as to approach a norite or anorthosite,

as shown by its specific gravity, 2.778, being chiefly made up

of striated grains of greenish gray plagioclase, 10 to 15 milli-

meters long, whose crystal outlines in many places impart a

semi-porphyritic texture to the rock. The dark intervening

aggregates, of about the same size, consist of black hornblende -

brown bronzite, with silky fibration and high lustre, rarely reach-

ing 15 mm. in length; scales of brown biotite, up to 4 mm.

across ; abundant grains of gray quartz; anda few shining par-

ticles of iron ore.

In thin section, the texture is found to be allotriomorphic.

The feldspars form over half the volume and comprise two kinds

of plagioclase. The one presents, between crossed nicols, a

twinning lineation in rather coarse bands whose large extinction

angle indicates a basic variety. The other, with lower index of

refraction, displays very fine lineation, often occupying but a

402 JULIEN.

small part of a grain, sometimes crossed by another set of bands

after the pericline law; the small extinction angle suggests an

acid variety. Quartz grains occur in less abundance, with a

few inclusions of black particles, colorless needles (perhaps

apatite), chlorite scales, and many sheets of fluid cavities with

bubbles. The cracks in the larger grains and the groups of

angular granules imply partial crushing and granulation. Wavy

extinction prevails in both quartz and feldspar. Zoisite appears

in colorless, six-sided to rounded granules, with high relief,

scattered sparsely through quartz, feldspar and hornblende —

as in the diorite-schist of Manhattan Island '— but not in saus-

suritic form. The ferro-magnesian minerals are also abundant

and consist mainly of an orthorhombic pyroxene and three va-

rieties of amphibole. The pyroxene, in brownish white fibrous

blades, with parallel extinction, shows an absence of dichroism

pointing to enstatite, or in other grains distinct dichroism,

colorless to pale yellow, indicating bronzite, through with rare

original inclusions. Hornblende, brownish green to yellow,

also occurs as a primary mineral, with strong dichroism and

absorption ; maximum extinction angle 11°. Still more com-

mon is a straw-colored to colorless amphibole, the former feebly

dichroic; maximum extinction angle 8°. The bronzite and

both varieties of amphibole occupy the central part of larger

grains which pass at the margin, most deeply at the ends of the

fibers, into brownish white amphibole (like tremolite), with its

fibration always continuous with the cleavage direction of

the inner mineral. This fringe of colorless amphibole is invaria-

bly coated by thin filmy wisps of bluish green chlorite, in mi-

nute scales and blades, which also stretch out here and there

along clefts and interstices of adjoining grains of feldspar and

quartz. Sometimes a thin seam of brown biotite, in minute

scales, intervenes between the amphibole and chlorite. The

fibration of this amphibole is exceedingly fine, often producing

the effect of a milky cloudiness; extinction ancle,o° fos.

It is sometimes filled with black particles of iron oxide and may

enclose biotite in elongated scales lying parallel to the fibration.

1Julien, /oc. czt., 436.

OCCLUSION OF IGNEOUS ROCK 4038

Biotite is also distributed in aggregates of large, coffee-brown

scales, intermixed with a little finely granular magnetite. The

folia of all these dark minerals show curvature in places as from

pressure ; so also the twinning bands in some feldspar grains,

Order of paragenesis —bronzite and enstatite, zoisite, brown

hornblende, plagioclase, pale amphibole, tremolite with mag-

netite, quartz, biotite and chlorite. No epidote, olivine or dial-

lage was distinguished.

The other specimen, No. 109, is a still coarser quartz-gabbro-

diorite, resembling but not quite so coarse as some gabbros of

St. John, New Brunswick, and approaching the facies of a coarse

norite of the Cortlandt series. Feldspar for the most part dull

white, by incipient decomposition, intermixed with much white

and gray quartz. The black ferromagnesian mineral, apparently

hornblende, is largely distributed in rude prisms, often over 3

centimeters in length and 8 to 15 millimeters in breadth.

Brownish black biotite is abundant, in part rendered brassy yel-

low by decay. No bronzite appears to the eye, but many grains

of garnet, up to 6 mm. in diameter.

It has been a disappointment not to have been able personally

to verify the character of this outcrop in place, to make sure

that the two specimens had not been taken from half-buried

transported boulders. But there are, at least, two earmarks re-

vealed in the microscopic structure of No. 107 which are

not in favor of that view: one, the form of the zoisite in

isolated crystals, as found throughout the diorite-schists of the

island, and not of the saussuritic character common else-

where; the other, the alteration rim of colorless amphibole

(tremolite ?) around bronzite and hornblende, a feature yet de-

tected only in the gabbros of Delaware, and never any farther

northward. Similar double fringes of uralite, tremolite and

bastite around grains of diallage,’ and of tremolite and actino-

lite around grains of hypersthene and diallage,’ of bronzite and

1L. Finckh, Zezts. d. d. geol. Ges., 1898, 94, 98, IOI, 115.

2Streng, V. /hrb. f. Min., 1862, 943, 948,950; J. H. Kloos, WV. Jhrd. f.

Min., III, Beil.-Bnd., 1884, 24-33; G. H. Williams, Bull. No. 28, U. S. Geol.

Surv., 1886, 40-45; F. D. Chester, Joc. cit., 23-25; A. G.. Leonard, Am. Geo/.,

WILL, Loor,: 15.

404 JULIEN

enstatite,’ and of olivine,’ at contact of lime-feldspar, have been

observed in gabbros of our, Southern States and of Europe.

They have been commonly attributed to magmatic reaction

before consolidation of the rock —a hypothesis open to ques-

tion*—rather than to change during its subsequent meta-

morphism. :

In this connection reference may be made to a specimen of

aphanitic texture, obtained by W. H. Hobbs (Lud. Geol. Soc.

Am., XVI, i905, 169) from Man-o’-war reef in East River,

east of Manhattan Island, supposed to be ‘‘a dense basalt like

that so characteristic of the Newark areas of the Atlantic bor-

der. It seems likely that this latter rock may be from a por-

tion of a narrow dike within the series of crystallines.’’ Such

an intrusion in this series would be unique, if established.

Through the courtesy of Prof. Hobbs I have been supplied

with a portion of this specimen, which has been found in thin

section to consist of black indurated shale from the basal con-

tact of the Palisades, an altered form commonly distributed in

boulders over Manhattan Island and the vicinage of Brooklyn.

Occlustons of Westchester County, New York. — To the north

and northeast of Manhattan Island and New York City, similar

intrusions are frequently found through Westchester County.

Outcrops of pegmatite, diorite or hornblende-schist, hornblende-

gneiss, biotitic gneiss and schist and ‘serpentine,’ occasionally

holding enstatite or bronzite,* mark the derivative forms of the

eruptives.

At New Rochelle masses of amphibolite and actinolite-schist

have suffered partial conversion into serpentinoid, and are asso-

ciated with coarse black hornblendite, with hornblende in prisms

several centimeters in length, hornblende schist, hornblendic

1H. B. Patton, Die Serpentin- und Amphibolgesteine nérdlich von Marienbad in

Bohmen, Inayg. Diss., Wien., 1887, 11, 13, 18; E. Schulze, Zezts. d. d. geol.

Ges., 1883, 433; F. D. Chester, Ann. Rep. 2d Geol. Survey Penn., 1887, 98:

2'Térnebohm, JV. /Jhré: 7; Min., 1877, 3833-1. Becke 7icks gun. a per

Mitth., \V., 1882, 330, 355, 450; R.W. Schafer, 7sch. min. u. pet. Mitth., XV,

1895, 21; F. Bascom, Maryl. Geol. Surv., 1902, Cecil County, 130-131.

3 Bascom, Joc. c7t., 126.

4Dana, dm. Jour. Sct., (3), XX, 1880, 31; F. J. H. Merrill, 50th Ann. Rep.

N. Y. State Mus., 1896, 40-41.

OCCLUSION OF IGNEOUS ROCK 405

biotite schist and gneiss, and sometimes steatite. In the horn-

blendites at New Rochelle and Rye, aggregates of iron-garnet,

up to 5 cm. in length, may imply the result of contact reaction

between the intrusive rock and adjoining schist. That this re-

action has not involved the magnesian limestone of the vicinity,

is shown by the absence of lime garnet.

As to the huge boss of granodiorite, seven miles in length,

in the town of Harrison, the described mineralogical constitu-

tion’ indicates that this is buta phase of the granite and mon-

zonite of the State Line belt in Pennsylvania.” Transition forms

by metamorphism appear in the fringe of hornblendic gneisses

around that area and perhaps the great tract of augen-gneiss

in Bedford.

Passing northward, outcrops of hornblende schist and diorite

are met, first reported by Credner, and of gabbros, as at the

new Croton Dam, with large pegmatite dikes in Bedford, as well

as the common seams and lenses of the earlier pegmatite in-

trusion.

At the northern end of the county, the well known Cort-

landt Series occurs on the southern. part of Montrose Point,

below Peekskill, as well as across the Hudson river at Stony

Point, and at Rosetown, a little further west. This covers an

area of about 25 square miles and comprises the following rocks :

peridotite (cortlandtite and pikrite); norite with hypersthene

(also hornblende-norite, mica-norite, augite-norite or hyperite,

and pyroxenite); gabbro (with mica-gabbro and gabbro-diorite ) ;

diorite (with brown hornblende-diorite, hornblendite, green

hornblende-diorite, mica-hornblende diorite) ; mica-diorite (with

hornblendic and hypersthenic varieties). Diabase has also been

reported, and the ultra-basic rocks, magnetite, emery and _her-

cynite, besides metamorphic representatives in the hornblendic

gneisses. Dikes occur, cutting through peridotite, norite and

limestone, at Montrose, Verplanck and Stony Points.* In the

Rosetown series, also, numerous small dikes are found around

1H. Ries, Zrans. N. Y. Acad. Sci., XIX, 1895, 80-86.

2F, Bascom, Joc. cit., 102. Per: Fa

8J. D. Dana, Am. Jour. Sci., (3), XX, 1880, 202.

406 JULIEN

the edges of the area, where the massive rocks come in contact

with the gneiss."

Serpentinoid Outcrops tin the County.— Many beds of so-

called ‘‘serpentine’’ are distributed through this region north

of Manhattan Island. That at New Rochelle has been found

rich in partly altered diopside, enstatite (Dana) or bronzite (F.

J. H. Merrill), tremolite, often hydrated (‘‘ hydrous anthophyl-

lite’’) and actinolite, with a large amount of carbonates, lying

mostly in veins and nests of dolomite, magnesite and calcite.

Other accessories are marmolite, brucite, deweylite, chromite,

magnetite, spinel and perhaps zoisite.

To the north of Rye an extensive tract of serpentinoid lies

near to a ferriferous dolomite. Tremolite, and sometimes

actinolite and dolomite, occur in all stages of alteration to

hydrated forms, to amorphous serpentine and in part to tale.

Pyroxene and chromite have also been recognized (Mather and

Dana).

At Portchester, several beds of serpentinoid occur, and small

masses with traces of bronzite near Tarrytown.’ In nearly all

these localities this rock has been found with the same associa-

tions and alteration-products, particularly steatite, carbonates

and limonite, with chert, jasper and chalcedony. .

Serpentinoid Ridge on Opposite Side of Hudson River. — On

the west, across the Hudson river, and along the very edge of

its right bank, ridges of so-called ‘‘serpentine,’’ evidently once

continuous, stretch for a distance of 14 miles, rising from an

elevation of 70 feet at Hoboken, New Jersey, with an area of

30 acres, to nearly 420 feet on Staten Island, with an area there

of 131% square miles.

At Hoboken the actual outcrop extends about one third

mile along the river bank, with a breadth not exceeding 300

feet. Inthe park south of Stevens Institute a knoll of this

serpentinoid was formerly exposed, the most southerly exten-

sion of the outcrop, with attached coating of a serpentinoid

talus-breccia, the cement of the fragments consisting of brown

lj, F. Kemp, tdem, (3), XXXVI, 1888;.253-

2Merrill, Joc. czt., 40-41.

OCCLUSION OF IGNEOUS ROCK 407

sandstone. This signified the projection of the outcrop above

the level of the Mesozoic Sea, its gradual disintegration and

probable extensive degradation. So far as the excavation of

the adjoining part of the Hudson River canyon has been pos-

sibly connected with erosion of a soft rock, it may be safer to

refer this to the visible outcrops of serpentinoid immediately on

both edges of the old bluff than to a hypothetical bed of dolomitic

limestone of whose occurrence no direct proof has yet been

found."

All the evidence points to a volume in the original stratum of

this soft and easily eroded rock far exceeding that of the present

ridge. The northern end of the mass at Hoboken consists of

light green serpentinoid, in part thinly foliated, with eastward

dip 75°, toward the river; strike S. 20° W.

In general it presents the uniform fibrous texture usual in

rock serpentinoid, with admixture of brucite, marmolite, talc,

dolomite, calcite, aragonite, magnetite, chromite and other

minerals, mostly hydrated, in veins and seams.

But the coarser mass on Staten Island, at the southern end

of this occlusion, whose thickness has been estimated at less

than 100 feet, consists largely of ophiolitic amphibolite and

gray, green or colorless amphibole schists, sometimes pyrox-

enic, besides actinolite, asbestus and tremolite rock, passing into

serpentine, steatite and talc-schist, chlorite-schist, limonite and

cellular quartz-rock. I have determined the specific gravity of

two specimens from the point north of Tompkinsville, viz.:

dark gray amphibolite, 2.863; light gray tremolite-schist,

2.844.

Descriptions of these serpentinoid outcrops have been already

published by J. D. Dana (1880-1881), N. L. Britton (1881),

Por. Gratacap (1887), J. F.- Kemp: (1887), -G. P. Merrill

(1889), F. J. H. Merrill (1896), and D. H. Newland (1901).’

Some observations concerning the distribution of this sheet

deserve consideration. Its southern portion on Staten Island

overlies an outcrop of coarse pegmatite for a few rods along the

'W. H. Hobbs, Bud/. Geol. Soc. Am., XVI, 1905, 176-180.

2Sch. of Mines Quar., XXII, 1901, 307-317, 399-410.

408 JULIEN

shore near high tide level, at Tompkinsville ; though its con-

tact with this later intrusion would not necessarily indicate its

lower limit. Passing northward, serpentinoid has been found

at Constable Point. At Jersey City a layer was met, a few

feet in thickness, at the depth of 20 feet, on the south side of

the Morris Canal, at the foot of Washington Street ; at the Pa-

vonia ferry, at the bottom of a boring of 63 feet ; at the end of

Long Dock, by a boring at the depth of 179 feet ; and in wells

on Ninth Street, near Grove Street;-at va “depth-of > 700,ane

800 feet.

Near the south end of Grand Street, Hoboken, at the depth

of 40 feet in the marsh, a well was sunk 360 feet farther, ap-

parently in serpentinoid. At Castle Point, the main outcrop

less than half a mile in length along the river bank, descends

below the water-level and is supposed ‘‘ to rest upon the gneiss

rocks which outcrop farther south.”’? About one fifth of a

mile further north, it is reported to have been found by drilling

at a depthof 17.5 feet:

These notes show great variation in the form, thickness and

position of the serpentinoid sheet, perhaps in conformity with

sharp flexures usual in the enclosing beds of gneiss. Some

suggest the possible existence of another underlying sheet or

sill of the same rock. It has been shown by Dana? and F. J.

H. Merrill that the axes of folds of the Manhattan beds gen-

erally pitch gently toward the southwest. As this bed of ser-

pentinoid is located in that direction from Manhattan Island, at

the distance of a mile, it may represent, unless brought up by

an intervening fault, an intercalation in the uppermost part of

the stratum.

Microscopic Characteristics of the Serpentinoid. — The serpen-

tinoid of Staten Island has been already subjected to careful

examination in specimens from several localities.‘ Amphibole

was found in abundance, associated with serpentine, talc,

chlorite, chromite, magnetite, and occasional bronze-colored in-

1W. W, Mather, Nat. Hist. of N. Y., Pt. I, Geol. of First Dist., 1843, 284.

27. C. Russell, Geol. of Hudson Co., N. J., 69-70; Mather, of. c7¢., 603.

34m. Jour. Sci., (3), XX, 1880, 361.

4 Newland, Joc. ctt., 313, 316-317.

OCCLUSION OF IGNEOUS ROCK 409

clusions. The olivine mesh-structure, as well as the rectangular

network of diopside, was distinguished in the thin sections, and

even remnants of crystals of both minerals.

In the Hoboken rock, the fine texture renders the constitu-

tion less easily determinable, and from examination of one

variety it was described as ‘‘a structureless mass of serpentine

fibers.’ Other minerals distinguished were talc, chlorite, dolo-

mite, calcite, chromite, with small amounts of iron ores. ‘‘ No

traces of the original silicates could be found in any part of the

exposure.’’ An analysis by Goodell was presented, without

explanation of the low proportion of silica and remarkable excess

of lime, both facts inconsistent with the composition of a ‘‘ rock

thoroughly serpentinized throughout.”’ }

The results will now be presented, from my microscopic ex-

amination of 13 thin sections, prepared from selected specimens

of this Hoboken rock, including light green, dark green, com-

pact, laminated and brecciated forms, besides that deposited in

veins of marmolite. In even the hand specimens the eye may

distinguish a variegation of less altered, dark green spots, and

of light green serpentinous spots, and abundantly in both, on

certain surfaces, shining green facets, which other observations

show to be more or less altered scales of bronzite or bastite.

In thin sections under the microscope a variety of structures

present themselves in great distinctness, particularly the knitted

or bar structure, the lattice structure and a columnar structure,

though never the mesh structure found in the Staten Island rock.

In the tracts with knitted structure brilliant veinlets appear,

between crossed nicols, in bent or twisted ribbons, greenish to

brownish and orange yellow, with decided pleochroism, color-

less to yellow and orange yellow ; greatest absorption in direc-

tion of the veinlet. Their width rarely exceeds 0.02 millimeter

but sometimes reaches 0.04 mm. In the latter case the usual

structure is best shown, a central suture or a fine lamination in

the plane of the veinlet, with a cross fibration on each side.

Occasionally one veinlet is seen to cut across another. The cen-

tral plane may exhibit thin continuous sheets, separated by a

dark line or suture, and is often nearly isotrope (serpentine).

410 JULIEN

The lateral bands with cross fibration show high interference

colors and often a strong pleochroism, pale bluish green and

greenish yellow to orange, yellow or colorless. Extinction

parallel or normal to plane of veinlet. In places, some veinlets

are thicker, continuous and parallel, so as to produce an appar-

ent close lamination, with a micro-augen structure, through the

lenticular form of intervening grains of a colorless mineral. This

seems to mark, not a schistose structure of the rock, but an

eminent cleavage or parting of the parent mineral, probably the

orthopinacoid, ooPco (100), of diallage. The material of these

veinlets may be composite, a mixture of chrysotile and chlorite,'

or consist of micro-chrysotile, or often wholly of a mineral of

somewhat higher birefringence to which the brilliant polarization

colors may be mainly due, micro-nemalite, the fibrous form of

brucite. Under sufficient magnifying power, the two minerals

chrysotile and nemalite, may be easily discriminated by the rela-

tive position of their axes of elasticity, ¢ lying parallel to the

direction of the fibers in chrysotile, and Q in nemalite. This

cross-fibration, in such veinlets within serpentinous rocks, has

been hitherto assumed to characterize chrysotile alone. But

in this serpentinoid, at least, the incomplete alteration shown in

the veins which traverse the outcrop, enclosing brucite partly

altered to nemalite and the latter partly to chrysotile, also ex-

tends to the microscopic veinlets, which may comprise both

micro-nemalite and micro-chrysotile. The general relation of

these two minerals is the subject of another investigation.

The interspaces in the knitted or bar structure rarely exceed

O.I or 0.2 mm. in length, usually predominating in volume of

the rock. In places, they are occupied largely by a colorless

substance, without relief, cleavage or texture, but which is not

isotropic or structureless, as it first appears under low power ;

or it may be greenish yellow and feebly pleochroic, greenish to

yellow. Between crossed nicols it offers an irregular aggregate

of blades and plates, with sometimes a very minute platy tex-

ture, fibrous in places. Low birefringence shown by feeble

interference colors, pale gray or bluish gray to bluish white of

1 Newland, Joc. ctt., 317.

OCCLUSION OF IGNEOUS ROCK 411

the lower First Order, but sometimes reaching reddish orange

or bright brown. Extinction of individual blades parallel or

normal to chief plane of polarization of the nicols. On selec-

tion of small isotropic spots an obscure biaxial interference

figure may be shown in convergent light. This substance was

identified as serpentine (antigorite) and predominates in some

thin sections, but its higher interference colors suggest slight

but genera] intermixture with a more birefringent mineral,

brucite.

In many thin sections, irregular colorless patches with little re-

lief occur, sometimes 2mm. across, connected by narrow veinlets,

O.2 mm. in breadth, generally in parallel arrangement. A dis-

tinct pleochroism, colorless to pale yellowish, indicates the pre-

dominance of a chlorite. Smaller bunches of the same mineral

may occur in apparent isolation here and there. In large part

they present aggregates of minute plates and blades of exceed-

ingly fine fibrous texture, microchrysotile or perhaps micro-

nemalite, often with abrupt terminations against the veinlet wall,

and revealing in polarized light an abundance of short cross-

partings, delicate but sharply defined.

In some veinlets a symmetrical cross-fibration appears, normal

to the walls; but the fibers are commonly bent, broken and

mixed up, as if by rock movements. A somewhat high bire-

fringence appears in interference colors of upper First and lower

Second Orders, from white up to sky blue or turquoise blue.

Prevalent extinction parallel to the fibers and wavy, but vary-

ing to 7° in curved fibers. € axis parallel to the fibration. In

convergent light, the straight bars of a uniaxial figure are com-

monly seen, most distinct in the more unbroken plates, and

very rarely a dim cross opening out on rotation into a_ biaxial

figure. In most cases the direction of the optic axis coincides

nearly or exactly with the fibration, z. ¢., parallel to c, show-

ing the double refraction to be positive, the mineral being ap-

parently uniaxial.

These chloritic veinlets appear to be the ‘‘ colorless, low polar-

izing bands,” for which another explanation has been offered.’

' Newland, doc. cit., 317.

412 JULIEN

Anomalies in their optical characteristics are partly due to

the fine fibrous aggregation and to phenomena of strain, but

doubtless in part toaslight but general intermixture with amor-

phous serpentine, shown in ordinary light by yellow streaks, and

perhaps with brucite.

Within the interspaces of the network and imbedded in ser-

pentine, another mineral, colorless to grayish, with some relief

often occurs in irregular grains, elongated or lenticular, up to

0.3-0.5 mm. in length, by 0.1 mm. in thickness. They are

rarely massive, but finely granular or mylonitic, as by crushing,

though more or less indistinct parting planes, perhaps cleavage

traces, occasionally appear, even to a platy structure ; these make

an angle of 80° to 88° with the parallel serpentine veinlets.

Extinction generally wavy, as indeed with all the anisotropic

minerals, and imperfect ; maximum about 42°, though in some

cases parallel to cleavage. No interference figure in convergent

light was obtained. These grains may be assigned to an origi-

nal mineral constituent of the rock before serpentinization, prob-

ably disintegrated diallage, and now make up but a fraction of

one per cent. of the volume.

Magnetite is also dispersed in considerable quantity through

both diallage and serpentine in these interspaces, in the form of

black dust, minute cubes and elongated aggregates, which may

reach 0.02-0.06 mm. These are largely gathered along the

walls of the interspaces or darken the sides of the partly altered

granules of pyroxene.

A very few black particles consist of opaque, rhombic or

hexagonal plates, or translucent reddish, orange and yellow

scales, referred to hematite.

The lattice structure is less common than the bar structure

and usually inconspicuous, presenting cells or interspaces 0.2—

0.3 mm. across. Within these, grains of amphibole occur in

two varieties.

The one, considered to be remnants of a mineral antecedent

to serpentinization, occurs in colorless, broad fibrous sheets and

irregular grains, contrasting with the serpentine reticulation by

their good relief. They are granular, as by crushing, and rarely

OCCLUSION OF IGNEOUS ROCK 413

show cleavage traces. Interference colors brilliant yellow of

First Order to greenish blue of Second Order; ¢=c. Maxi-

mum extinction 16° and wavy. In convergent light, emergence

of a negative acute bisectrix is indicated. Inclusions of pleonaste

sometimes occur, arranged as if the amphibole represented orig-

inal grains of bronzite.

A secondary form of amphibole is also found, mostly color-

less (tremolite), sometimes pale greenish or bluish (actinolite),

with distinct pleochroism, greenish white to colorless or bluish

white to pale salmon. It occurs in short prisms, elongated

scales, or slender fibrous blades, with cross partings, to I mm.

in length, with good relief. They may be gathered in clusters

or radial groups, or loosely scattered, and may also occupy inter-

spaces of the bar structure. Bright interference colors from

yellow of First Order to greenish blue of Second Order. Ex-

tinction generally parallel or at angle of 45° to the fibers and

wavy, but varies up to 22°. Some grains twinned, with extinc-

tion angle about 18°. In convergent light, the emergence of

an optic axis appears, with three colored rings. Double refrac-

tion negative. Along their margins the crystals are often col-

ored brownish red and yellowish brown by iron ochre. Many

are seen to pass into yellow serpentine, and some of the longer

blades into talc.

Bronzite appears in allotriomorphic colorless grains, with

marked relief, usually mingled with scales of bastite and altered

amphibole. It is generally full of irregular fractures and clefts,

as by crushing, but in a few instances shows an eminent cleav-

age parallel to the brachypinacoid, « Peo (o10). In some

fragments a slight pleochroism was detected, greenish to yel-

lowish white. Extinction imperfect in the granular form, par-

allel in the compact, sometimes diagonal and wavy. Double

refraction positive. Granules of chromite and pleonaste ar-

ranged as original inclusions in this mineral. A peculiar kind

of alteration is shown in some thin sections by passage into

milky white, nearly opaque material.

Many broad scales, finely fibrous, I-3 mm. across, were

referred. to bastite. These are reddish or brownish white and

414 JULIEN

pleochroic, reddish to colorless, with absorption deepest parallel

to fibration. Interference colors brilliant, like those of tremo-

lite, from yellow and deep red of First Order to sky-blue of

Second Order. Extinction parallel to fibration; ¢=c. In con-

vergent light, only obscure interference figure, the position of

whose axial plane was not determined. Double refraction posi-

tive. The scales are usually intersected by veinlets of colorless

serpentine in an open network with elongated interspaces, often

0.2 mm. in length, sometimes polygonal with five or six sides,

in a kind of islet network.

Other scales, apparently of altered amphibole, resemble those

of bastite, and are generally 0.17—.27 mm. in length, often color-

less, or greenish and pleochroic, and without relief. These also

possess an exceedingly fine fibration and occasionally show

cleavage traces in a columnar structure. Interference colors in

part like those of amphibole, in part bluish gray of First Order.

Extinction in selected spots perfect and parallel, but generally

irregular and imperfect, as in an aggregate of altered fibers, and

apparently parallel.

Around these grains runs a border, 0.010-0.014 mm. in

width, made up of colorless granular tremolite, with marked

relief. Much of this is columnar or rod-like, and many rods

lie scattered around, as if loosened by movements. Minute

veinlets of tremolite also penetrate the grains of amphibole, and

granules lie here and there along its fibration. All the features

point to steps in the passage of the primary bronzite and its

bastitic derivatives into forms of amphibole, last of all into

secondary tremolite. |

Talc occurs in scattered blades, fibrous bundles and long

wisps resembling the sheaves of tremolite, presenting the usual,

brilliant interference colors, red, green, etc., of the Third Order.

Extinction parallel to the fibers. ¢||¢. In convergent light,

the emergence of an optic axis, with a system of rings, some-

times appears.

Chromite is scattered in jet-black angular grains of finely

granular texture and high lustre in reflected light, up to 0.3 to

I mm. in diameter. Many are irregular in form, rudely rhom-

OCCLUSION OF TGNEOUS ROCK 415

bic or triangular, or present six-sided outlines like cross-sections

of octahedra. Some are mere skeleton aggregates of loosely

adhering granules by imperfect development, with hollow in-

teriors occupied by serpentine. Even the massive grains are

commonly intersected by sharp clefts filled with serpentine,

whose parallelism indicates the plane of strain, coinciding with

the schist-plane of the surrounding rock.

Pleonaste is not a common accessory, though very abundant

in occasional thin sections in grayish green angular grains,

translucent and isotropic, some of which show six-sided out-

lines. Many granules of chromite are included, sometimes to

half or more of the volume of the pleonaste, and the grains of

the latter may thus pass along a row into pure chromite and

beyond back again into spinel.

Granules of dolomite, with a little relief, are often mixed in

the interstices of tremolite or gathered into nests, 0.8 to 2 mm.

across, colorless, grayish or reddish white, with clouded mar-

gins (by hydromagnesite?). Outlines sometimes projecting,

with an obscure fibrous texture, Newton colors along the inter-

vening lines, and many included particles of magnetite. The

usual characteristic cleavage and high birefringence. Extinc-

tion symmetrical. In convergent light, the bars of an uniaxial

cross.

Some clear grains with more relief were referred to calcite.

The paragenetic relationship of the minerals offers the follow-

ing order: chromite and pleonaste, diallage, bronzite, actinolite

and tremolite, magnetite, bastite and hydrous amphibole, sec-

ondary tremolite, brucite and serpentine, talc and chlorite,

dolomite and calcite, hematite. It has been stated that the

mineral of higher birefringence, associated with serpentine and

chlorite in the veinlets, must be brucite or its fibrous form,

nemalite. Where uniformly diffused, its minute scales or fibers,

lying partly in planes normal to the visual direction and there-

fore isotropic, must blend indistinguishably with its serpentinous

matrix of feeble birefringence. This may account for the ap-

parently greater proportion of serpentine observed in the thin

sections than that indicated by the chemical analysis. But

416 JULIEN

where the nemalite is concentrated, as in the lateral bands of the

veinlets, with cross-fibration, its higher birefringence and relief

betrays its intercalation among the films of serpentine and

chlorite.

Genesis of the Serpentinoid Schists.— Four hypotheses have

been advanced to account for the origin of the rocks in this

western ridge and of their congeners on Manhattan Island and

in Westchester County.

First, Alteration of a sedimentary rock.’ There is no longer

need of discussion of this view.

Second, Direct serpentinization of dolomite. But that mode

of reaction and alteration, by solutions carrying silica, though

actually observed in the limestones of this region, is here as

generally elsewhere a subordinate and limited process. To this,

however, has been probably due the origin of the ferruginous,

dark green serpentine near Port Henry, New York,’ as well as,

in part, of the serpentine at Montville, New Jersey ® (and at Rye,

Westchester county, New York, according to Dana ‘*).

As for replacement by injection of serpentine bodily into dolo-

mite, it has been long ago observed that the conveyance of the

mineral serpentine by solutions, if it ever occurs, is very limited

in distance.

All such deposits are confined to cracks and cavities within

or very near the decomposing silicates from which the mineral

has been usually derived. Its transference in quantity therefore

and injection into a body of limestone are, I believe, everywhere

unknown.

Third, Alteration of amphibolized dolomite.

Alteration of a magnesian limestone might pass through two

metamorphic phases : amphibolization, the rock becoming pene-

trated or even replaced by actinolite, tremolite, and other min-

eral silicates ; and subsequent ophiolitic decomposition, by pre-

liminary hydration and later change into hydrous magnesian

VE. Wurtz, Proc. Lyc.. Nat. Fist Ny, Vs, W870. 182.

2G. P.. Merrill, Proc.’ U. S. Wat. aass, X11, 1890;5.507.

3 Jdem., XI, 1888, To5=111.

4j. D. Dana, Am. Jour. Sr2., (3), X& 1880, 031.

- OCCLUSION OF IGNEOUS ROCK | AEF

silicates, in part serpentine.’ While the prevalence of this proc-

ess in other regions has been established — Massachusetts, the

Adirondacks, Canada, etc. — its insufficiency to account for the

phenomena at and near Manhattan Island has been already

discussed.”

Fourth, Alteration of ultra-basic igneous rocks.

The application of this hypothesis to the serpentinoid calls

for consideration of its chemical and mineralogical character-

istics.

Chemical Composition of the Serpentinoid. — We are indebted

to Newland for publication of two analyses of these rocks, and

a few others are added below for comparison.

A. “ Light green serpentine,’ Castle Point, Hoboken, N. J.

G. A. Goodell.

B. ‘‘ Dark green serpentine,’’ Castleton Corners, Staten

fend, N.Y: Sp. gr. 2.55. .G. A: Goodell.

C. ‘‘Serpentine,’’ Kallerangen, Germany. G. Schulze.

D. “‘ Reddish serpentine,’ Lower Predannack, Cornwall,

Pig, - Sper. 2.77. M. W. Travers.

E. ‘‘ Wehrlite-serpentine,” Ladkije, North Syria. L. Finckh.

F. “ Lherzolite- and pyroxenite-serpentine,” Sarikaja Mtns.,

North Syria. L. Finckh.

Ua cove wcesc a -% ig6.90° 4p 36.72 40.77 40.29 37.07 39.95

9 Se 1.29 1.06 3321 5.10 1.70 2.87

Se | 45 .49 2.81 — = =

ct) Se eee S757) 6.59 1.79 4.94 8.03 11.55

oe ee | 1.46: || 1.53 6.12 3.98 — a

a | 23-75 | 29.09 21.24 25.67 38.12 32.05

. re Le 9.95 13.74 11.85 — =

ee | 13-14 | 14.54 10.70 8.17 14.84 % 13.40

98.31 | 99.97 | 100.38 | 100.00 99.76 99.82

A comparison of the figures in A and B with those of the

published analyses of true serpentines from other regions will

serve to establish the wide divergence of Goodell’s results and

1J. D. Dana, Am. Jour. Sct., (3), XX, 1880, 32; N. L. Britton, 4m. VM. Y.

Acad. Sci., 1, 1881, 167, and Nat. Hist. Soc., Staten Island, 1886.

2 Julien, oc. ctt., 449-453.

418 JULIEN

to prove that the mineral serpentine, played but a small part in

constitution of his materials.

The analysis of a serpentinoid from Kallerangen? is pre-

sented above, as offering a close analogy. That rock occurred

in association with hornblende schists and gneisses, chlorite and

talc schists, and was pronounced a decomposition product of an

aggregate of aluminous tremolite, olivine, and in places bron-

zite. All of these minerals, together with magnetite, chromite

and newly formed chlorite, survived in microscopic particles,

and a netted structure prevailed through the thin sections.

A similar composition is shown by a serpentinoid (D) from

Lower Predannack in the Lizard district of Cornwall, England,

a reddish banded rock, rich in parallel crystals of colorless

amphibole. Under the microscope it presented the mesh struc-

ture of olivine, and, in some specimens, evidences of enstatite

or bastite, and has been recognized as a derivative from a fine-

grained peridotite.”

Between the long-discussed hornblende schists and ‘‘ serpen-

tines’’ of the Lizard district and those of the region near

Manhattan Island, certain marked points of difference offer

themselves. Here the rocks of both classes are decidedly

homogeneous, schistose but not banded, blending together in-

sensibly and often intimately intermixed, and retaining abundant

indications of an actinolitic constitution which preceded the

alteration into serpentinoid. They seem to be allied to the ser-

pentine sheets but not to the banded hornblende schists of

Porthalla in the Lizard district, and to correspond closely to

some of the interesting examples of passage of igneous rocks

into “serpentine,” in the extra-Lizard district, in the west of

England, whose phases of alteration have been displayed in

numerous published analyses.

Serpentines from North Syria,‘ derived from alteration of

1 George Schulze, ‘‘ Die Serpentine von Erbendorf in der bayerischen Ober-

Pfalz,’’ Inaug.-diss., Berlin, 1883, 21.

2T. G. Bonney, Quart. Jour. Geol. Soc., XXXIV, 1877, 915, and XLVII,

1891, 472.

3]. H. Collins, Geol. Mag. (Dec. III), 1886, 360-366, and IV, 1887, 220-226.

4Finckh, /oc. ct¢., 125-126.

OCCLUSION OF IGNEOUS ROCK 419

wehrlite, lherzolite and pyroxenite —rocks all free from feld-

spar — correspond closely in chemical composition with our

serpentinoids, though differing in the purely magnesian base of

the original pyroxenes.

No feldspar or other mineral of alkaline composition has

been distinguished in thin sections of our serpentinoids, nor the

‘‘pseudo-mesh structure,’’ indicative of serpentinized feldspar,’

nor the presence of alkalies in any analysis... The original con-

stitution of a gabbro, even of a basic type, is therefore elimi-

nated. The poverty in alumina and excess of lime show clearly

that the original rock did not consist of an aluminous silicate,

such as the aluminous augite or hornblende of an ordinary

pyroxenite, limburgite, theralite or similar ultra-basic rock.

They are however consistent with the composition of a diallage

aggregate.

From a correlation of the results of the chemical analysis

with those of the microscopical examination of this serpentinoid,

the following conclusions become impressed.

1. The remarkable excess of lime. This is not. consistent

with the view that ‘‘ on the assumption that all of the water is

united in the serpentine, the proportion of this mineral is to the

total mass as about 4 to 5.”"* In the composition of serpentine

magnesia is never replaced by lime. It becomes necessary

therefore to assign this content of lime entirely to remaining

molecules of diallage, mainly left in form of bastite, tremolite

and hydrated amphibole.

2. The low percentage of silica. This indicates that a portion

of the base must be free from that combination, z. ¢., magnesia

as hydrate, in the form of brucite. A little calculation will

show that no possible mode of combination of any silicates of

probable occurrence could reduce the silica below 37 per cent.,

as found in the analyses. It is interesting to note the still lower

percentage of silica and higher of magnesia in Nuttall’s old

analysis: silica 30, ferric oxide 2, magnesia 52, and loss by

ignition 16. These figures, if approximately correct, would

1 Finckh, /oc. c?¢., 109-110.

2 Newland, /oc. cit., 316

420 JULIEN

indicate a proportion of nearly 30 per cent. of brucite. His

specimen was of the usual ‘ dull yellowish green, inclining to

olive” ; specific gravity, 2.82.'

3. Condition of the iron oxides, whether as hematite, magne-

tite or combined in a silicate. Only a trace of hematite or free

iron ochre was found in the thin sections. On digestion of

half a gram of the finely pulverized rock in boiling saturated

solution of citric acid, it was dissolved in a deep yellow solution,

The small grayish residue of gelatinous silica, treated with hot

solution of potassium hydrate, yielded traces of undissolved sili-

cates (diallage, bronzite and talc), chromite and magnetite.

The last was separated by a strong bar magnet, with apparently

no disturbance of the feebly magnetic chromite. It thus be-

came evident that the ferric as well as the ferrous oxide was

present in that form in the diallage molecule, as illustrated in

many analyses of pyroxene. recorded by Dana, who reports

‘“‘certain varieties containing the trivalent metals, aluminum,

ferriciron andtnanganese. ‘These varieties may be most simply

considered as molecular compounds of Ca(Mg,Fe)Si,O, and

(Mg,Fe) (Al, Fe),SiO,, as suggested by Tschermak.”

Mineralogical Constitution of the Serpentinoid.— Instead of the

predominance of serpentine in our rock, the chemical and micro-

scopical evidences suggest rather an admixture of hydrated forms

of ferromagnesian minerals, such as those of which analyses,

chiefly from American localities, are tabulated below in the

order of increasing amounts of lime.

| Olivine. | Villarsite. Asbestus. Actinolite. Tremolite. Diallage. | Sahlite.

SiO, ....:| 40.75 | 38:90 | .55.20°| §6:300/ 9 57.40 gI.4t |, Sg.a2

ALO, ...|) — — — 1.70 .40 4.32 | 1.06

iO ae = 0.36 7.80 11.82 4.30 1.40 | 9.31 | 6.01

MnO ..., — _ — _- —_— | 04. _ || 60

CxO 58 oo — = 10.70 13.90 20.60 23.62

MgO.....| 50.28 47.50 30.73 | 24.00 24.70: || 15.14- | 14.50

ae 6 sees oo 5.80 2.25 1.00 Ao) - |, eeeee

100.39 | 100.00 | 100.00 | 98.00 98.20 | 100.82 | 99.38

Analyst. | Manice. | By theory.. Beck. | Seybert. C. F. Ram- W. G. Brown, Bowen

melsberg. |

1 Nuttall, daz. Jour. Sct., 1V, 1822, 16-17.

OCCLUSION OF IGNEOUS ROCK 421

Remnants of most or all of these minerals abound in these

rocks, although, in large part, they are more or less altered and

have passed into very minute particles, fibers and scales. In

investigating the mineral constitution of the Hoboken serpen-

tinoid, magnetite was separated in the manner already stated

and weighed ; pleonaste calculated from estimated volume, on

part of the alumina ; and chromite from percentage of chromic

acid found in the analysis.

The presence of carbonates in this rock having been shown

by: Newland’s observations and my own, the loss in Goodell’s

analysis was fairly referable to the undetermined amount of

carbonic acid ; from this the carbonates were estimated, chiefly

dolomite, with a little calcite and perhaps hydromagnesite. The

remainder of lime supplied the basis for determination of the

lime-magnesia-iron silicate of a composition intermediate be-

tween diallage and augite; for this the analysis of leucaugite

CHEMICAL COMPOSITION OF HOBOKEN SERPENTINOID.

Mineralogical Constitution. || oh ok | he: Qk o¢ Go | rie wet os

ei reteeee ey Ca vies une ch eee) ite Ee Ss

| | | | |

LS i .50|,) — —|— 35.) -15... — bs — | >o—

US ee .28'|) — o5 | .o1 | —-| — | .o2| — | |} —

OS re .69 Le — ! 44) —.|..21 |..04]) — 2

WERMNDES 05S s2 2. vecsecess Belicia Ost a | = TO gant = eee

Dolomite with calcite and | |

hydromagnesite......... Nefek cE oa — —) —/| —)} .77) 1.07) — |1.69

Diallage with amphibole | | | |

Bid Dastite....:....cccess | §8.10]| 28.23 | .40.| — |5.44| .47 |8.17 | 14.46)..934° —

Serpentine with talc...... | 18.45 || 7.63| .24| — | — | .47|7.62| — |2.49) —

Brucite with bronzite....., 8.97) — | (:6,10,) — eerie -—

UE en ic back vos aacave GG Fae JN SN OH ee pre — |6.53) —

| |

100.00 |

from Amity, New York, by Harrington, was selected as most

suitable, with substitution of ferric oxide for alumina. From

the remainder of silica, the amount of serpentine was calculated,

on the figures of Garrett’s analysis of marmolite from Hoboken.

From the balance of magnesia the amount of brucite was

estimated. The remainder of water signified. the hydration of

the greater part of the diallage molecule in the form of the

429 JULIEN

observed alteration-products, bastite and hydrated amphibole,

aside from the remnants of unaltered diallage, actinolite and

tremolite. The analysis of the rock with the stated corrections,

and its approximate mineral constitution so deduced, are given

above.

On separation from the above figures of the percentages of

pleonaste, chromite, dolomite and brucite, the molecular ratios

obtained suggest that the predominant mineral was a metasili-

cate, with ‘oxygen ratio 4: S72: 1 22, asin | pyroxene. and

that the products of hydration are equivalent to an orthosilicate,

with oxygen ratio A:,S2 21:1. The, figures “are however

inexact, probably through extensive removal of silica. A

similar treatment of Goodell’s analysis of the Staten Island ser-

pentinoid has yielded the following results. The amount of

carbon dioxide was included by the analyst in the percentage of

water and stated to be small. |

CHEMICAL COMPOSITION OF STATEN ISLAND SERPENTINOID.

| v

: . Sos ues Oe Gun Sx Oye OFlOwOS | al SF a

Mineralogical Constitution. ay a at oS oe SS | Sf aa oS C Pe)

Macnetite <x eyes 20 — — —) 14.06 — |) ~—~ ~— ~— —

Chromite 7...c:0c,00 ee 77 — — | .49) — .23) 05 -— — — | —

Chiotite=.7.. 2 cee 2.79| .93|.52| — | —|.14| .84) -—| .36; —|—

Dolomite ss:th.35 fetes: 1.32, — — — —~— — 29.40 — .63 —

bole and bastite..... 41.05 |18.65) .19 | — | 6.45 | .24) 5.35)9.55| 62) —| —

Serpentine with villar- | | |

site.and tale, ... 4.0.4 | 41.06 97.04! .45 |= | —2 80 tyre, — store

Brucite with bronzite.. 7.91, — —j}/— — — | 5.46 — 2.45 — —

INWALGT™ c..c. ccsacw see net 4.38 — — — ~— ~— — — 4.38 — —

MOIStITES,. cccscate feetee| . 32) = el) a) SS ee

From these results we infer that in the rock at these localities

serpentine plays only a secondary part. Only confusion can

result from designation of the mass as a rock-serpentine on the

ground of resemblances in chemical composition and physical

characteristics. Varieties of such imperfect serpentinization

should be preferably discriminated as serpentinoids, in accor-

dance with Von Drasche’s excellent suggestion. Nevertheless,

OCCLUSION OF IGNEOUS ROCK 423

they mark earlier stages in alteration, whose more advanced

condition has been reached in serpentinoids occurring southward

in the same belt, in Pennsylvania and Maryland.

As to the actual mineralogical constitution of serpentinoids

in other regions, while a common view that they are but mix-

tures of minerals in indefinite and indeterminable stages of alter-

ation will probably be entirely set aside, great differences un-

doubtedly occur, only to be ascertained by special investiga-

tion in each case. The following constitution, for example,

has been determined‘ for a serpentinoid derived from gabbro,

in Northern Syria: 2 molecules serpentine, 1 clinochlore,

3 hyaline silica. In another, derived from olivine-gabbro,

the dark green ground-mass was found to consist of 15 ser-

pentine, 2 clinochlore, 3 amesite, I opal, 2 magnetite; while

the whitish green schlieren were composed of I amesite, I clin-

ochlore and 13 opal. More closely allied to our own rock is

the ‘‘ pseudo-serpentine’”’ of Washington, recently described,’ in

whose composition silica falls to 13.08 per cent. Its minera-

logical constitution was shown to approach the following fig-

ures: Hydromagnesite 5, chlorite 14, serpentine 20 and brucite

60 per cent.

Constitution of the Original. lgneous Rock. — The exact source

of the free magnesium hydrate in our serpentinoid is yet to be

sought. Its absence elsewhere from extensive exposures of

serpentinized rocks originally rich in monoclinic pyroxene (e. ¢.,

in northwestern New York and in Canada), amphibole and talc

(e. g.,in Massachusetts), makes improbable any connection with

decomposition of those minerals in this region. All observa-

tions also throw doubt upon the view of derivation, in this case,

of brucite and free silica, with or without magnesite, from the

breaking up of serpentine in the belt of weathering.’ Equally

unfounded is the assumption that masses of free silica accom-

panying the serpentinoids owe their secretion in all cases to the

process of serpentinization of ferromagnesian minerals. In these

} Finckh, Joc. c#t., 107, 119-120.

2F. W. Clarke, Am. Jour. Sci., (4), XV, 1903, 397-398.

3C. R. Van Hise, Mon. U.S. Geol. Surv., No XLVII, Treatise on Metamor-

phism, 1904, 349-350.

424 JULIEN

brucitic serpentinoids, at least, the facts point rather to genesis

from alteration of orthorhombic pyroxene, and of olivine when

present, in the original eruptive rock, through dissociation of

this magnesium silicate into brucite and quartz, or into brucite,

magnesite and quartz, with more or less iron oxide, probably

as magnetite, in the case of bronzite or hypersthene. The re-

actions with bronzite, in my judgment, may be those shown in

the following formulas :

3Mg,FeSi,O,, + 9H,0 + O = 9Mg(OH), + 12810, + Fe,O,

or |

3MeFeSi,0,, + CO, + 8H,O + O = 8Mg(OH),

+ MgCO, + 125i0, + Fe,O,.

In these formulas it has been assumed for the bronzite from

the analyses, Mg: Fe :: 8:1. A ‘decrease in) volume of the

resultant products of the alteration is found by calculation in

both these cases, approximating 37.9 and 37.6 per cent. respec-

tively. Van Hise has shown that derivation of the same

products from serpentine would involve an increase in volume

in the two cases of 9.8 and 13 per cent. respectively, The

structure of the serpentinoid, however, observed at Hoboken,

testifies clearly to general contraction, producing a complicated

reticulation of veins (marmolite, brucite and carbonates) and

perhaps the jointage, in advance of the schist-seams, gliding-

planes and faults developed during later shearing. With the

general removal of carbonates and silica, this shrinkage would

not be offset by the increase in volume, 0.44 per cent., result-

ing from alteration of diopside to serpentine, or to bastite, 1.93

per cent.

If my view then be accepted, the relative proportions of mag-

nesia in the amount of brucite and that of the group of other

magnesian minerals may serve for calculation of the approximate

proportions of bronzite and diallage in the original rock. For

example, from the amount of magnesia, 6.19 per cent., con-

tained in the brucite of the Hoboken serpentinoid, and that in

the other magnesian derivatives, 17.52, the original pyroxenite

OCCLUSION OF IGNEOUS ROCK 495

may be reckoned to have consisted of bronzite 26.1, and diallage

or diopside 73.9 parts.

In the Staten Island rocks the composition is allied to that

of combination of olivine and bronzite with diallage. The pre-

dominance of amphibole rich in lime and magnesia, with traces

of pyroxene, olivine and bronzite, suggests derivation directly

from a basic hornblende schist, derivative in its turn from an

ancient diallagite-, bronzite- or enstatite-rock, passing at one

point at least into peridotite. The prevailing secondary altera-

tion, ¢. g., at Pavilion Hill, of diopside into tremolite, indicates

an increase in volume of 5.6 per cent., or into talc, of 30.1 per

cent., and of olivine into serpentine, etc., 12 to 37 per cent.’

In this rock the superior proportion of serpentine may give a

clue to the original amount of olivine. From the ratio of ser-

pentine to diallage at Hoboken, the proportion of the former at

Staten Island would be 13.76 per cent. The excess, 24.72 per

cent., would contain 10.44 per cent. of magnesia, mainly due to

olivine. From the percentage of magnesia included in brucite,

in olivine-serpentine, and in derivatives from diallage, the fol-

lowing constitution of the original peridotite may be inferred :

bronzite 21.3, olivine 36.6, and diallage 42.1 parts. These

determinations of mineralogical constitution, it will be remem-

bered, apply merely to the specimens represented in Goodell’s

analyses. At Staten Island, the amount of pyroxenite prob-

ably far exceeded that of peridotite.

Phases of Alteration. — The serpentinoid mass on the west

bank of the Hudson River and harbor appears therefore

closely allied to that on Manhattan Island, at West 5oth

Street, and of a like basic type —an intrusive sheet or sill of

greater dimensions, but of the same constitution, sheared struc-

ture and mode of alteration. The metamorphism of these old,

more or less basic occlusions has presented two phases.

Where the original intrusion was feldspathic, probably a

bronzite- or enstatite-gabbro (like that of Chester County,

Pennsylvania”), the constitution favored the genesis of diorite,

1Van Hise, of. cit., 274-275, 388.

2F. D. Chester, Sec. Geol. Surv. Penn., Ann. Rep., 1887, 100-102.

426 JULIEN

as commonly prevailed throughout Manhattan Island and the

neighboring county, Westchester. For this result the influential

conditions seem to have been mainly an excess of iron oxide,’

and partly the presence of alkalies required for development of

the black hornblende, syntagmatite, identified in the hornblende

schist of Manhattan Island. °

Where the ferromagnesian elements, probably bronzite or

other orthorhombic pyroxene and diallage, predominated in

the original rock, perhaps a pyroxenite, a pure diallagite, or

bronzite-diallage rock, as near Baltimore, Maryland,’ or bron-

zite-diallage-enstatite-rock, like that of Chester County, Penn-

sylvania,* or in part peridotite, such as the olivine-bronzite-dial-

lage rock or lherzolite of Baltimore County, Maryland,’ this

constitution tended, during metamorphism, toward the develop-

ment of an amphibolite or smaragdite-rock,® often sheared into

actinolite and tremolite schist.

In this region these schists were later subjected to hydration

by meteoric waters, and then to ophiolitic decomposition, in part

by heated waters, with the following processes and products:

1. Partial absorption of water by remnants of pyroxenes,

olivine and amphibole, with conversion into bastite, villarsite

and hydrated amphibole.

2. Dissociation of bronzite and olivine into brucite and col-

loidal silica.

3. Solution and removal of colloidal silica and deposition as

adjoining masses of compact chalcedony, jasper or ferruginous

chert (as also noted in Cecil County, Maryland’). These

siliceous deposits have not been found on Staten Island, but at

Hoboken testify to the more acid composition of the original

eruptive rock in the siliceous seams and inthe layer of so-called

‘“jasperoid”? (Henry Wurtz) formerly visible near the river-

level.

1J. D. Dana, Am. Jour. Sct. (3), Xx, 1880, 20.

2 Julien, Joc. czt., 466-468.

3 Williams, loc. ci/., 58.

4Chester, /oc. cz¢t., 95-100.

5 Williams, Zoc. ctt., 54-57.

6 Williams, /oc. cit., 58.

7 Bascom, Joc. c7zt., 94.

OCCLUSION OF IGNEOUS ROCK 497

4. Partial leaching out of brucite, magnesite and aragonite

into cracks produced by contraction.

5. Partial alteration of brucite into nemalite, recombination

with silica and conversion into marmolite and chrysotile.

6. Progressive serpentinization of bastite and amphibole. As

in other serpentinoids altered from lherzolite and wehrlite,' the

process here has been selective, attacking successively olivine,

orthorhombic pyroxene and monoclinic pyroxene. The ophio-

litic alteration of pyroxene has been generally preceded by its

initial alteration into uralite or amphibole, the common step in the

process throughout the Appalachian belt * as well as abroad.”

Lastly ensued the processes of weathering and partial decom-

position of the serpentinoid by cold meteoric waters, with dis-

tinct products :

7. Superficial disintegration and dissociation of the rock into

ferruginous quartz, colorless, greenish and reddish* and into

limonite. This action has been deepest at several places on

Staten island. The distinction of the two kinds of siliceous

deposits,’ the semicolloidal ( siliciophite of Schrauf) and the

crystalline, near serpentinoid beds, does not appear to have been

always recognized.

8. Occasional slight concentration of chromite, magnetite, and

perhaps spinel.

g. Talcose and chloritic alteration of amphiboles, with sep-

aration of lime and magnesia carbonates, in particles and vein-

lets of calcite, dolomite and hydromagnesite, with concentration

on Manhattan Island, at West 59th Street, as ophicalcite in cavi-

ties of the serpentinoid.

Pegmatite Occlusions on Opposite Side of Hudson River. —

The early process of saturation of the schists of Manhattan

1]. Ball, The Serpentine and Associated Rocks of Davos, Inaug. Diss., Zurich,

1897, 15.

ee ae Sitzber. d. k. Akad. d. Wiss., LVI, Beil.-Bnd., Wien, 1867 ; Wil-

liams, Joc. cit., 45-49, 56-57; A. G. Leonard, Joc. c7¢., 163.

8 Collins, /oz. czt., 300.

4 Honeycomb quartz of T. Rand, Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci. Phila., 1880, 241, and

1900, 311 ; in Maryland, by decay, the soil known as honeycomb soil, Bascom, /oc.

thay 95.

5 Finckh, /oc. ctt., 140.

428 JULIEN

Island with pegmatite and quartz, in seams and lenses along the

foliation, has met with one curious exception which calls for

explanation — the beds of actinolite, tremolite, talc, chlorite and

serpentinoid. The complete absence of such occlusions from

these, and even of siliceous increment in chemical composition,

stands in strong contrast with the swarm of quartz and pegma-

tite lenses in the adjoining beds of gneiss and quartz-diorite.

This freedom from pegmatitic occlusions prevails also in the

serpentinoid of the Hoboken-Staten Island ridge, and, I believe,

in the similar rocks of Westchester county. Whenever free

silica occurs, this is merely a late product of alteration or of de-

cay, secreted as chert during brucitic or ophiolitic decomposi-

tion of a pyroxene or amphibole, or as cellular quartz enclosing

limonite, during subsequent decay.

The explanation of this fact may lie in the impervious tex-

tures of the original pyroxenite and of the tough and pliant,

derivative amphibole schists. Those developed from the gabbro,

however, rich in hornblende and feldspar, became brittle and

even granular under the kneading of orogenic movements and

flexures, and their shattered masses admitted free permeation

by pegmatitic injections.

Granite Dikes Underlying the Serpentinoid.— An outcrop of

coarsely foliated pegmatite on the shore at Tompkinsville, Staten

Island, furnishes evidence of an extensive pegmatite intrusion

underneath the serpentinoid ridge. A little further north, at the

mouth of the Kill van Kull, the blasting of a reef in the harbor

enabled Dr. Arthur Hollick to make a collection which consists

entirely of coarse and fine-grained pegmatite, sometimes dis-

tinctly graphic, and occasionally a well-laminated gneissoid

granite. The latter structure, probably marginal, must have

resulted from movements while the igneous mass was still in

partially molten condition. According to one hypothesis, this

was due ‘‘to the drag of the stiffly viscous granite magma along

its walls during its intrusion,’’ or, according to another, ‘“ to

the strain of the viscous magma upon separated crystals where

1W. O. Crosby, Zech. Quart., Boston, XII, 1899, 95.

OCCLUSION OF IGNEOUS ROCK 429

the temperature was lowered as near faces of a fissure.”’' Reefs

and islets in New York harbor have also been foundto con-

sist of remnants of pegmatite dikes and of the gneisses which

predominate over Manhattan Island. Granite was struck at a

deep boring in Hoboken, and behind that city, at side of the

Weehawken hill road, in an outcrop “ underlying the red sand-

stone.”’” .The latter reference, however, is open to the sus-

picion that it may have related to the so-called white ‘‘ arkose”’

or bleached Mesozoic sandstone, often found below the trap in

that vicinity.

The significant inference from these observations is that the

basic intrusion in the gneiss, now forming the ridge on the west

bank of the Hudson, was followed, as on Manhattan Island, by

intrusions of pegmatite. These found the tough material of the

overlying basic sill impenetrable, except perhaps on the north

line of the present Kill van Kull. Along this plane of weakness,

after elevation, the ensuing erosion of the acid rock resulted

in excavation of the mouth of the Kill and in separation of part

of the serpentinoid ridge, on Staten Island, from its continuation

on the mainland at Jersey City and Hoboken.

Occlusion Tracts along the Appalachian Belt. — Intrusions of

the same general character and apparently of the same age have

been traced through the belt of crystalline schists all along the

coast, as far south as Alabama. It seems desirable to review

briefly certain results, at some points along this course, which

correspond to observations on Manhattan Island on processes of

occlusion. |

Maryland.— The Piedmont plateau in this State presents

two distinct tracts * of highly tilted schists in approximate par-

allelism to the coast line. The western consists of semicrystal-

line schists — slate and phyllite, limestone and marble, sand-

stone and quartzite — regarded as metamorphosed Palzozoic

sediments (Cambro-Silurian); the eastern, of holocrystalline

1T.G. Bonney and C. A. McMahon, Quart. Jour. Geol. Soc., XLVII, 1891,

483-490. ,

2T, Cozzens, A Geol. Hist. of N. Y. or Manh. Isd., 1843, 40-41.

3G. H. Williams and C. R. Keyes, Bull. Geol. Soc. Am., II, 1891, 301-322

430 JULIEN

rocks, in part of detrital origin — mica schist and gneiss, dolo-

mitic marble, quartzite and banded biotite-muscovite gneisses

— displaying the same petrographic facies and sequence as at

Manhattan Island, with similar extreme plication, and also

penetrated by vast quantities of eruptive materials.

The correlation of these crystallines from the Washington to

the New York area has been recently so clearly defined ' as to

require no repetition for my present purpose. But the inference

that the differences in alteration of the rocks of these two tracts

in Maryland, and among the same crystallines along the Appa-

lachian belt, have been due to contact metamorphism, is, in my

opinion, for many reasons improbable and untenable. It would

appear rather as a belt of orogenic disturbance and metamorphism,

to which the eruptives themselves have owed their more exten-

sive extrusion and through which they have shared deformation

and change with the sediments they invaded. They have been

classified under three types:

(1) Intermediate, the most ancient, consisting of hypersthene-

gabbro, gabbro-diorite passing into hornblende schist, quartz-

gabbro, norite, diorite, hornblendite and hornblende-biotite-

quartz-gabbro. (2) Basic, comprising pyroxenite, lherzolite,

cortlandtite and serpentine. (3) Acid, comprising binary granite,

granitite, hornblende-granite, granite-porphyry, augen granite-

gneiss, felsite and pegmatite. It is further stated: ‘The areal

distribution of these gabbro masses . . . is believed by the

author to indicate that the various occurrences represent what

was once an immense gabbro sheet extending from Laurel,

Maryland, to the Schuylkill river, a distance of fully 85 miles,

with an exposed breadth of at least 15 miles. Through this

great sheet of gabbro were apparently intruded the granites and

later metarhyolites and pegmatites, the whole constituting one

great series of igneous activity.’’? Reference has been made * to

the close alliance of these intrusives to the more limited series

at Manhattan Island, and to the more complete metamorphism

1E. B. Mathews, dm. Jour. Sct., (4), XVII, 1904, 142-146.

2 Matthews, Joc. czt., 155.

3 Julien, oc. cit., 485-486.

OCCLUSION OF IGNEOUS ROCK 431

of the latter from intricate folding and intense compression.

Although Williams remarked on the scarcity of quartz in the

first two of the above types, quartz-bearing gabbro has since

been found’ at several points near Baltimore, the quartz occupy-

ing from 10 to 33 per cent. of the whole rock, and in Cecil

county even quartz-diorites and tonalites have been recognized.

A recent examination of the igneous rocks of that county” has

confirmed the evidence of magmatic differentiation, resulting in

a central body of intermediate activity, penetrated by intruded

material both of greater acidity and greater basicity, in the

following succession: Basic granite (biotite- or hornblende-

quartz-monzonite), sometimes altered to gneiss, containing dikes

more acid in character, altered to meta-rhyolite ; quartz-biotite-

hornblende-gabbro ;* quartz-hornblende-gabbro, altered also to

meta-gabbro and meta-quartz-gabbro ; hornblende-norite and

quartz-norite ; norite and hypersthene-gabbro ; pyroxenite and

peridotite, altered also to amphibolite, serpentine and soapstone.

With the serpentine amphibole schists are associated, containing

asbestus, tremolite, anthophyllite, actinolite or chlorite, and rep-

resent the metamorphism of pyroxenites. The granite is crossed

by throngs of gabbroitic dikes, a reversal of the relationship

established elsewhere in the belt and on Manhattan Island. A

prominent center of this ancient eruptive activity in Maryland

lies close to the site of the city of Baltimore, which stands on

the edge of the crystalline tract, where it is crossed by the Pa-

tapsco river.

Delaware. —In northern Delaware a series of crystalline

schists, known to be of Cambro-Silurian age, offers ‘‘the most

complicated and striking examples of contortion.” * These

comprise micaceous schists which lie above the Trenton and

possibly above the Hudson river schists; a highly crystalline

magnesian marble (Calciferous limestone) ; and a coarse quartz-

1U. S. Grant, Johns Hopk. Univ. Circ. No. 103, 1893.

2 Bascom, éoc. cit., 83-148.

83The analysis by Hillebrand (Bascom, /oc. c7¢., 124) approximates that of the

quartz-biotite hornblende schist of Manhattan Island (Julien, /oc. cz¢., 439).

4F. D. Chester, Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci. Phila., XXXVI, 1884, 237-249.

432 JULIEN

itic rock (Potsdam). The close correspondence to the succes-

sion on Manhattan Island is apparent.

These beds have been invaded by an extensive group of inti-

mately related igneous rocks, presenting the following facies ;*

primary hypersthene gabbro, often with brown dichroic horn-

blende, passing into gabbro-diorite, hornblende-gneiss and horn-

blende-schist ; into gabbro-granite, by addition of biotite ; into

norite, with excess of feldspar and quartz; into gabbro-diorite,

by paramorphism of pyroxene to green hornblende; into gab-

bro-diorite and hornblende-gneiss, by addition of green horn-

blende, and this into epidotic diorite, by epidotic alteration of

feldspar ; an intrusive serpentine also occurs.

In regard to the distribution of quartz, it was noted that in

the gray trap, ‘‘ the rock is composed of plagioclase-feldspar and

hornblende, with frequently a small proportion of blue quartz

and biotite. Massive hypersthene often entirely replaces the

hornblende.” . . . The rock thus ranges from a quartz-diorite

to a true hyperite. ‘The chief distinguishing feature of the

Delaware gabbros is their highly acidic character, due to the

large admixture of quartz.’’ The hypersthene-gabbro, or so-

called ‘“‘blue granite,” ‘is normally a finely granular mixture

of basic plagioclase, hypersthene and diallage in nearly equal pro-

portions, with accessory quartz, magnetite, apatite, hornblende

and biotite. . . . The rock is a most unstable form, running

on the one hand into a rock possessing strongly the character

of a granite and on the other into those distinctly dioritic.”’

“That these massive rocks have been subjected to great

pressure is Shown by mechanic deformations in a crushing of

the quartz and in an occasional bending of the mica laminz.”’

The gabbro granites show all degrees of semi-foliation ‘“‘ through

increase of biotite with probably accompanying pressure,” with

production of faser-structure and passage into schistose gabbro-

diorites and hornblende-gneisses.. The rocks described are of

the same general character as in Maryland and offer the same

genetic relationship, but under pressure-conditions which ap-

proached more closely than at Baltimore to those which pre-

vailed on Manhattan Island.

1 F, D. Chester, U. S. Geol. Surv., Bull. No. 59, 1890, 1-43.

OCCLUSION OF IGNEOUS ROCK 433

At the crossing of the broadest part of this belt of massive

gabbros and hornblendic derivatives by Brandywine and Chris-

tiana creeks, the city of Wilmington is situated.

Pennsylvania. — A still closer correspondence in metamorphic

forms and structures of old igneous occlusions is met in a tract

of crystallines which lies still nearer to Manhattan Island. In

the vicinity of Philadelphia crystalline gneisses and schists occur,

attributed to alteration of Cambro-Silurian sediments, and are in

large part identical with those of Manhattan Island.’ A similar

succession has also been determined, the highest stratum being

micaceous, comparatively soft and very schistose ; this overlies

a crystalline limestone; and beneath follows a hard and more

quartzose gneiss.”

These schists are penetrated by many igneous occlusions, in

part of more or less basic type, like those whose former existence

on Manhattan Island has been inferred from the derivative schists.

For example, on the Chester Creek section, gabbro and pyrox-

enite (Rand, p. 291) ; ‘‘near Aldham, a gabbro in a very distinct

dike about 100 feet wide, with porphyritic feldspar crystals ”’ ;

dikes of norite (Rand, p. 327); in Willistown township, massive

enstatite or bronzite (Rand, p. 311), etc. Analyses of diorite

and hornblende slate, as well as of hornblende picked out from

these rocks * approximate the results obtained on corresponding

specimens from Manhattan Island.* With these intermediate

or basic types of igneous rocks, acid varieties are associated in

the form of pegmatite, aplite and granulite, and it has been

affirmed: ‘All the rocks of this belt can be traced back to an

original pyroxenic magma erupted through the azoic schists

which surround the belt.” ®

The alteration products, however, of these definite igneous

types are more common and closely resemble those on Man-

1j. D. Dana, Am. Jour. Sct., (3), xxi, 1881, 439; and F. J. H. Merrill, zdem,

(3), Xxxix, 1890, 387.

2T. D. Rand, Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci. Phila., 1900, 221.

3A. G. Leonard, Joc. cit., 141, 144, 146.

4Julien, Joc. czt., 439, 468.

5F, D. Chester, Second Geol. Surv. Penn., Ann. Rep. 1887, 105.

434 JULIEN

hattan Island and their association with micaceous gneisses."

Thinly foliated hornblende-schist and gneiss are of common

occurrence (Rand, p. 261), and have been thus described by

Rogers: ‘“‘ Metamorphosed with characteristic white streaks of

imperfectly developed crystallized feldspar and hard hornblendic

material, with roundish specks of semi-crystallized feldspar. . . .

Remarkable for the regular parallelism of its lamination and

bedding ; the laminz alternately light and dark, being exceed-

ingly thin, many of them usually packing within the thickness

of aninch. In some of the layers certain laminz are studded

with isolated crystallizations of hornblende.’ ‘Occasionally the

rock approaches a porphyritic gneiss in aspect. . . . This has

much to suggest an igneous origin; much of it is a true augen-

gneiss, . . . It seems to resemble very closely the augen-gneiss

near Bedford, New York” (Rand, p. 278).

The close association of groups of thin layers of hornblendic

schist, like sheared apophyses from a dike, observed on Man-

hattan Island,’ finds its analogues in this region : ‘‘ Alternations

were observed of very soft schistose layers, one to eight inches

thick, of decomposed gneiss and mica schist, with layers of

small hard angular blocks of very hard, gneissoid gabbro-

diorite. Of the latter sixteen were observed in a space of eight

feet. . . . One dike (?) of it is about four feet in width” (Rand,

Pp: 268).

These hornblendic schists show the same transitions as on

Manhattan Island to epidotic varieties ; biotitic granite ; highly

feldspathic gneiss, containing but little biotite or hornblende

(Frankford gneiss) ; biotitic gneiss, rich in black biotite, passing

into ‘‘a very quartzose biotite-schist, the layers being very well

defined and often 20 or 30 to the inch, and these layers exces-

sively plicated’’ (Rand, pp. 277, 302).

As to the serpentinoids, observations have shown that they

are all of the same geological horizon and mostly derived from

alteration of peridotite, amphibolite or pyroxenite (bronzite or

' Rep. Prog., Second Geol. Surv. Penn., C6, pp. 23530; 92, 63, 101, 102, 114;

132.

2 Julien, /oc. ctt., 471-474, 493.

OCCLUSION OF IGNEOUS ROCK 435

enstatite rock); near Glen Riddle, some of the serpentine is

after actinolite (Rand, p. 316). ‘‘ It was my aim to distinguish

the hard, nearly black serpentines, derived chiefly from enstatite

orbronzite, . . . from those of a lighter color, with less serpen-

tine proper and with talc, steatite and antholite . . . probably

altered peridotites in large part,’ containing pseudomorphs after

olivine (Rand, p. 304). Reference is made also to “slaty

serpentine, very dark olive green, and sometimes almost black

in color,” associated with schiller-spar and enstatite ;* or with

‘“‘asbestus, enstatite and quartz, the last resulting from the

alteration of the serpentine.’’* The talcose serpentinoid derived

from peridotite has been designated a perido-steatite.* It is of

interest to note that the same variations prevail in the serpen-

tinoid at Philadelphia as at New York City, and that the two

distinct kinds, above referred to, are found in different parts of

the same Hoboken-Staten Island outcrop.

At Philadelphia then, at the crossing of this belt of igneous

occlusions by the Schuylkill river, we find the location of

another great city.

Massachusetts. —We owe to the investigation of numerous

local petrographers a good knowledge of the series of crystal-

line formations which make up the Boston basin, and many of

which display traces of the fluent structure of ancient volcanic

lavas, some of which have been extravasated upon the surface.

Dike structure is of very common occurrence. They comprise

an extensive series of acid eruptives, granite, felsite, petrosilex

and porphyries, as well as more or less basic exotics, norite,

diabase, diorite, hornblendite, hornblendic gneiss and other

metamorphic forms; these have been in part attributed to

Huronian age. The correlation of these classes has been

established at several points in the basin, and their develop-

ment by differentiation from a common magma. The basic

varieties are most fully distributed on the north of the present

site of the city of Boston, though to less extent on the west and

south,* where acid forms prevail.

1 Rand, of. cit., 1876, 3. 2 Rand, zdem, 1880, 241, and 1890, 118.

8 Bascom, Proc. Acad. Nat, Sci. Phila., 1896, 219.

4W. O. Crosby, Occl. Papers, Bost. Soc. Nat. Hist., III, 1880.

436 JULIEN

Location of Cities Along the Occlusion Line. — Attention has

been called‘ to the position of Baltimore, as well as of New

York, Philadelphia, Washington and Richmond, on the wide

belt of crystalline strata which follows the coast from Alabama

to Maine and beyond. Tothis the name of ‘‘ tide-water gneiss ”

has been applied, as forming the limit of tide-water in all the rivers

of the Middle States.” It has been further shown in regard to our

eastern streams that ‘the fall line along the inner margin of the

Atlantic coastal plain of the United States is marked by impor-

tant cities on nearly every large river that crosses it,”’ viz., Tren-

ton, Philadelphia, Richmond, Raleigh, Camden, Columbia and

Augusta.*

But there isa coincidence of wider application, complexity and

significance, in my opinion, in the belt of igneous occlusions

near the Atlantic and its crossing at certain points by large

rivers, with the location of cities along this coast.

At Manhattan Island it has been established that the violent

folding of the schists and their extreme metamorphism are the

self-evident and exclusive results of mountain-making at a period

preceding the main Appalachian uplift. The necessary infer-

ence has been thus expressed: The ridges in neighborhood of

New York City, ‘‘ though in the form of low well-rounded hills,

are as typical mountains, in a geographic sense, as are the peaks

and ridges of the Green Mountains. The difference is merely

that, in the vicissitudes of destruction, the former have been

lowered nearly to a lowland condition. They are mountains

reduced in elevation nearly to a sea level. If the rocks that

once covered the site of the City of New York could be re-

stored, they would rise into peaks rivalling the highest moun-

tains in the world.’ * In the Piedmont plateau in Maryland

the evidence of enormous denudation of overlying masses has

led to the conclusion: ‘‘ The region seems to represent the base-

level of erosion of an old mountain-range that has been elevated

perhaps the twentieth time, and is now again being eroded.” °

1 Williams, Joc. cit., 13.

2D. S. Martin, 7rans. N. Y. Acad, Sci., 1V, 1885,-19.

SW. M. Davis, Phys. Geog., 1898, 127.

4R. G. Tarr, Bull. Am. Geog. Soc., XX1X, 1897, 29.

5>W. M. Davis, Bull. Geol. Soc. Am., II, 1891, 317.

OCCLUSION OF IGNEOUS ROCK 437

The same twin belt of acid and basic crystalline eruptives,

with their derivative schists, stretches from south to north along

our entire Atlantic seaboard, approximately parallel to the coast

but approaching tidewater only where it reaches Washington.

Upon the granites and gneisses of its eastern margin, where this

is crossed by the east-flowing rivers, a series of important cities

and state capitals find their location : in Alabama, Montgomery,

on the Alabama river ; in Georgia, Augusta, upon the Savannah ;

in South Carolina, Columbia, upon the Congaree; in North

Carolina, Raleigh, upon the Neuse; in Virginia, Richmond,

upon the James; in the District of Columbia, Washington,

upon the Potomac.

Beyond that, directly upon the tract of eruptives, as else-

where explained, there follow: in Delaware, Wilmington, upon

Brandywine and Christiana creeks; in Maryland, Baltimore,

upon the Patapsco; in Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, upon the

Schuylkill ; in New Jersey, Jersey City and Hoboken, upon the

Hudson ; in New York, New York City and Peekskill, upon

the Hudson; in Massachusetts, Boston, upon the Charles ; and

in Canada, Montreal, upon the St. Lawrence. Throughout

this great belt occur the same folding of beds and intense

alteration of old sedimentary deposits as on Manhattan Island,

and we find in all these sites of prominent American cities the

degraded stumps of vast mountain ranges of the samie ancient

uplift.

The Coastal Chain of Volcanoes. —To the north of Washing-

ton, where this range stretched along the border of the inland

sea, it has left unmistakable evidence as to important charac-

teristics in structure and physiography not yet clearly set forth.

The facts stated concerning the abundant intrusions on and near

Manhattan Island mark this location as an ancient center of in-

tense igneous activity at a very early geological period. It was

probably contemporaneous with the one already recognized in

the Cortlandt series, near Peekskill, on the south side of the

Highlands of the Hudson.

In his discussion of the distribution of ancient volcanic rocks,

as ‘‘disguised igneous masses in the oldest geological forma-

438 JULIEN

tions,” along the eastern border of North America from Canada

to Georgia, Williams has distinguished two parallel belts along

the coast. In his accompanying map he has marked the Bos-

ton basin as the known location of one such volcanic center in

the more eastern belt; he also included, as another probable

location, the region near Peekskill, nothwithstanding the ab-

sence there of any recognized effusive or volcanic eruptives.

This was based on the following view: ‘In New York State

there are, as far as the writer is aware, no remains of igneous

rock which have solidified at the surface. Nevertheless the

isolated and highly differentiated Cortlandt series, near Peeks-

kill, presents us with the deeply eroded roots of an ancient vol-

cano, probably of Cambrian or Silurian age, whose superficial

parts have entirely disappeared. The elzolite-syenite area in

northern New Jersey is probably of the same character.”’ '

Though on the same map no such designation has been made

of the sites of New York, Philadelphia and Baltimore, the cor-

relation which I think has been demonstrated, by data already

given, would connect also the igneous rocks of these tracts,

with their characteristic differentiation — gabbros and diorites,

pyroxenites and serpentinoids, granites and pegmatites — rather

with those of ‘‘the basal portions of volcanoes” than with

abyssal types. Each of these three places, as well, offers in the

disposal and structure of the igneous masses, the same evi-

dences of local concentration of igneous activity, to claim a

position on the same ancient volcanic belt.

In the tract from Maryland to Georgia, also, where the lesser

intensity of metamorphism has favored escape from effacement,

recent investigations have even proven the presence of volcanic

effusives, in the form of metarhyolite, diabase, gabbro and their

derivatives.

Mount Manhattan and its Associated Peaks. — If then we are

to look upon the acid and basic intrusions, now found crowding

the schists of Manhattan Island, as but the lower portions of

vents which reached the surface in the form of fluent lavas, we

are dwelling, at this site, not merely upon the igneous injections

1G, H. Williams, Jour. Geol., II, 1894, 1-31.

OCCLUSION OF IGNEOUS ROCK 439

which commonly swarm along the axis of extensive orogenic

movement, but probably over the roots of one of the oldest and

most violent volcanic craters ever existent upon the earth.

In previous discussions of the eruptive crystallines along the

eastern border of the Appalachian belt, grounds have been

presented in favor of a prevalent hypothesis of the elevation of

a mountain range upon the western rim of an Archzean conti-

nent along the Atlantic, to which the name “ Appalachia”’ has

been applied.’ However, in view of the probable relegation of

these crystallines to Palzozoic age, it has been recently urged

that ‘‘ the location of this hypothetical range, which is supposed

to have supplied the sediments for the Appalachian sea during

Palzozoic time, must be shifted, at least for the earlier Palzozoic,

farther east where its roots would not lie buried under Coastal

Plain deposits.’”’? Nevertheless the evidences of a huge moun-

tain range along the tract of these Paleozoic crystallines remain

exactly the same, testifying, it would appear, toward the suc-

cession of that Archzan range by another enormous uplift

along this inner line, in advance of the main Appalachian uplift

on a line still further west. Its period, if estimated by that of

the igneous activity, fell probably, it is believed, in the earlier

part of the interval between early Silurian and late Carboniferous.

From local evidences of intense vulcanism there is further

reason to believe that this range rose here and there into lofty

peaks. For the purpose of the physiographer, the one on the

site of New York City may be designated as Mount Manhattan.

Some comprehension of its height and dimensions may be gained,

not merely from allowance for its apparently vast contribution of

secondary debris to the later Paleozoic and Mesozoic within the

interior sea-basin, but from an estimate of the area apparently

covered by its base. To the north, rocks of exactly the same

character stretch for forty miles till they blend with the Cort-

landt series at the Archean Highlands on the Hudson river.

To the northeast, they extend over Westchester county and

beyond into Connecticut. To the east, on the shore of Long

1B. Willis, Vat. Geog. Mag.

2E. B. Mathews, Joc. cit., 159.

440 JULIEN

Island, a remnant of the same rocks survives, penetrated by the

same intrusive sheets of pegmatite and diorite, and they may

underlie the island beyond. To the south, the submarine

course of the buried channel of the Hudson river reaches for

120 miles, with a topographical uniformity which suggests

erosion of the same class of rocks in that direction. On the

southwest and west, the same gneisses, amphibole schists, ser-

pentine and granite outcrop along the shore for over ten miles,

on a probable westward extension of the same formation into or

across New Jersey. The eruptive tract on Manhattan Island

thus forms the center of a vast region of sharply folded, crys-

talline schists, now degraded toward a base level, whose area,

largely that of the base of Mount Manhattan, stretches over

hundreds of square miles.

The survival of the remaining portion of these ancient schists

above the sea-level has been due only in part to the highly tilted

position of ‘the layers, offering but their edges to attack by

agencies of erosion and decay. Almost every knoll upon the

island and even the long ridges, reaching 150 to 200 feet in

altitude, such as Morningside Heights, Washington Heights,

and the heights of Inwood, are capped or seamed by sheets of

igneous intrusions of both classes, or even so saturated with

pegmatite lenses as to have become consolidated into a granite

mass. The resistance and protection thus afforded to the sur-

rounding schists are attested by these hard bands and rounded

hummocks, gnawed and scored by the teeth of the Great

Glacier, and have preserved the varied topography of this

exposed rocky promontory in preparation for the beautiful

site of the great city.

But the peak of Manhattan was but one of many which

crowned the mountain wall stretching from southwest to north-

east along the old coast, and which call for designation, for

convenient reference.

The lofty crest, with volcanic vent, on the site of Wilmington,

Delaware, may be indicated by the original Indian name of that

locality,’ as Mount Hopokahacking.

17, Acrelius, A History of New Sweden, Philadelphia, 1874, 24.

OCCLUSION OF IGNEOUS ROCK 441

For the peak near Baltimore, Maryland, the name of the

village which stands near the center of the eruptive tract may

be used as Mount Powhatan.

The summit which rose over the site of Philadelphia, Penn-

sylvania, may be distinguished, after the old name of the Pas-

sagonke Indians, as Mount Kuéquenaku.'

The old volcano whose agency, according to Williams, is

indicated by the eruptive rocks of the Cortlandt series near

Peekskill and Stony Point, on opposite sides of the Hudson

River, may be referred to, after the name applied to that locality

by the Mohegan Indians, as Mount Sachoes.?

To the northeast, for the center of volcanic activity at the

Boston basin, we may resort to the old Indian name, in the

form of Mount Shaumet.2 A variation of this name, Shawmut,

has been already applied to one group of eruptives in vicinity

of the same city.*

Still further to the north, but inland, at the head of tidewater

on the river St. Lawrence, the volcanic intrusions on the site of

Montreal indicate an eruptive center at another peak, which

may be designated, after the Algonquin name of the Indian

village at that place, as Mount Hochelaga.’

The explanation of this interesting relationship, the location

of many of the most important cities of our eastern seaboard

almost in a straight line over the ruins of these ancient vol-

canoes, rests primarily upon local hardening effected in the

prevalent folded gneisses, seamed and saturated by tough igne-

ous rocks, particularly those of acid constitution ; secondarily,

upon variation in resistance, afforded by difference in structure

1 Signifying ‘‘ the grove of the long pine trees,’’ according to Heckewelder, S.

G. Drake, Book of the Indians of North America, Book II, Boston, 1834, 17.

For this and some of the other local names I am indebted to a painstaking search

by Principal John W. Davis, Bedford Park, Bronx, New York City, Recording

Secretary of the New York Society of Pedayogy.

2R. Bolton, Hist. of Westchester Co., I, New York, 1884, 112.

3 J. Quincy, A Municipal History of the Town and City of Boston during Two

Centuries, 1630-1830; E. M. Bacon, Boston, a Guide Bock.

4W. O. Crosby, Zech. Quart. Boston, xii, 1899, 13, 163.

> Hochelaga Depicta ; the early history and present state of the City and Island

of Montreal. N. Bosworth, Montreal, 1839, 19, 30.

449 JULIEN

and materials, to subsequent erosion during base-levelling and

to direct attack of crossing streams. The latter characteristic —

topographic modification through the presence of intermixed

eruptives or of hard and soft derivative schists —has afforded

conditions most favorable for the establishment of a large city.

In the beginning, convenient access to both river and sea, with

abundance of sea-food, has been as attractive to the aborigines

who first chose, occupied and named these sites, as to the

civilized settlers who followed. Then the excellence of a deep

soil, rich in lime and alkalies, derived from’ decay of the oc-

cluded lavas and traps and from their glacial attrition, has

offered an important condition to the agriculture of the primitive

inhabitants and afterward of the earlier immigrant. But the

main advantages for permanent human settlement have been

gained through the deep erosive dissection of a rock stratum of

varied constitution. A glimpse from a high point, near almost

any of these cities, reveals the essential attractions in depth of

water along bold shores, capacious harbor, convenience and

varied beauty of building sites, and access to outcrops of build-

ing stone, clay and sand, which have resulted directly from the

diversified topography but initially from its volcanic foundations.

ee ——

Deal eater all 3 Xk cb

PUA LE V-

Map of tract along Spuyten Duyvil Creek, at extreme northern

end of Manhattan Island. ‘The dark broken band indicates the out-

crops of the layer of dioritic schist. The figures show the strike

and dip as observed in the outcrops of the schist and gneisses. ‘The

dotted line at 216th Street represents the position of the cross-section

shown in Plate VI.

(444 )

ANNALS N. Y. ACAD. SEI., VOL. XVI. PLATE V

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PLATE VI.

Cross-section of beds on slope from Spuyten Duyvil Creek up to

crest of Inwood Ridge. The dark layer of dioritic schist, display-

ing two anticlinal folds, is intercalated in micaceous gneiss. “Toward

the crest the lowest bed of pegmatitic gneiss is indicated by the

broken lines.

( 446 )

PLATE. VI.

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[ANNALS N. Y. Acap. Scr., VoL. XVI., No. 9, Part III, pp. 447-482,

March I, 1906. |

ADAPTIVE MODIFICATIONS OF THE LIMB SKELE-

HON IN-AQUATIC REPTILES AND MAMMALS.

By RaymMonp C. OSBURN.

The history of animal life reveals the fact that a number of

widely separated groups of reptiles and mammals have taken up

aquatic life. That these aquatic animals were derived from ter-

restrial forms is now universally conceded. Some of these

forms seem to have attained almost to perfection in their adap-

tation to life in the water, but the great majority are found

scattered all the way along the path by which the former pro-

gressed. The terrestrial type of limb, with which at the be-

ginning all these forms were endowed, is not well fitted for use

in the water, either for propulsion or for balancing, hence a

great change in the limb is necessary before its possessor can

become perfectly at home in its newenvironment. This change

affects the limb throughout and finally brings about a complete

reorganization of the limb in which scarcely any of the origi-

nal elementscan be recognized. Thus in later Ichthyosaurs the

only element of the original limb which could be identified with

certainty if removed from the limb, is the propodial, which by

virtue of its position at the junction of the limb with the girdle,

has retained somewhat the appearance of a propodial bone.

While, at the beginning, there must necessarily have been dif-

ferences in size, shape and arrangement, and even in the num-

ber of bones present in the animals belonging to groups of such

widely different ancestry as these here dealt with, yet in the at-

tempt to produce a perfect swimming organ the amount of par-

allelism exhibited is remarkable.

In most cases it is safe to say that the limbs were at first used

both as organs of propulsion and of equilibration, and, indeed,

certain groups have never passed this condition (Chelonia,

Plesiosauria and Pinnipedia), though it is quite possible that

447

448 OSBURN

some of the long-tailed reptiles like the Mosasaurs may have

used the tail for propulsion from the very beginning of their

aquatic existence, as the newts and certain semi-aquatic lizards

are known to do. The tail is a much more efficient organ of

propulsion than the limbs, however, and in forms where the

anatomical difficulties in the way are not too great a tail fin is

developed which relieves the limbs of the greater part of their

work and leaves them with only the function of equilibration to

perform. This results in the reduction in size of the fore limbs

and the degeneration or loss of the hind limbs in the most ad-

vanced forms. The final result, then, is as near an approach as

possible to fish-like conditions of locomotion, with an expanded

tail fin for a propeller and thin, flexible paddles on the sides for

balancing.

Naturally, the forms which show the greatest adaptation to

aquatic life are those such as the Cetacea and Ichthyosauria

which have entirely given up their land relations, while those

which come upon the land occasionally, as the Chelonia and

Pinnipedia at the breeding season, retain of necessity certain

characters of the terrestrial type of limb. In the present paper

the groups to be considered are those whose adaptation has

progressed to the extent of modifying the limb skeleton, especi- -

ally the Cetacea, Sirenia, Ichthosauria, Plesiosauria, Mosasauria

and Thalattosuchia, and the less modified Pinnipedia and

Chelonia.

In the limbs of these forms the following modifications seem

to be the most usual and of the greatest importance in the

change from the terrestrial to the natatory type of limb :

1. Abbreviation of the limb as a whole.

Curvature or backward extension of the limb.

Distal dilatation of the limb.

Parallelism or convergence of the fore and hind limbs.

Tendency toward loss of hind limbs.

. Tendency toward similarity in shape and function of all

the poe of the limb.

7. Elongation of digits.

8. Hyperphalangy, or increase beyond the normal number of

phalanges.

ANE YY

ADAPTIVE MODIFICATIONS OF LIMB SKELETON 449

9. Hyperdactyly, or increase beyond the normal number of

digits.

10. Formation of smaller skeletal parts.

11. Concentration of all parts except the digits.

12. Cartilaginous progression in joints.

13. Loss of movable articulations in the limb.

14. Loss of tuberosities for muscle attachment.

Bearing in mind now the fact that the various forms have

been derived from different sources, and the possibility that in

the process of their adaptation to aquatic life they may not all

have followed exactly the same course because of special en-

vironments or of innate differences in potentiality for modifica-

tion, let us proceed to examine the above points as they are

represented in the various groups of animals.

ABBREVIATION OF THE LIMB.

in all the forms of animals under consideration that have

progressed far enough in aquatic adaptation to lose their land

relation there is noticeable a very great shortening up of the

limb asa whole. So far is this process carried in the Cetacea,

Ichthyosauria and Mosasauria that the total length of the limb

in many cases may be greatly exceeded by the diameter of the

body. Especially is the abbreviation marked in those forms

which have the tail fin well developed, as the Cetacea and

Sirenia in which the hind limb is lost entirely, and in Ichthy-

osaurs some of which have the hind limb very much reduced.

The shortening always begins in the proximal end of the limb,

with the prapodial and epipodial elements, and the digits are

not shortened until actual degeneration sets in. This question

will be given further mention in certain of the following topics.

CURVATURE OR BACKWARD EXTENSION OF THE LIMBS.

Almost without exception the natatory limb is curved back-

ward. This may be seen in the Cetacea and Pinnipedia among

the Mammals and in the Plesiosauria and Thalottosuchia and

most Ichthyosaurs and Mosasaurs as well as in the marine

Chelonia, among Reptiles. The extreme of curvature is found

450 OSBURN

in the hand of the Thalottosuchian Geosaurus and the Cetacean

Globiocephalus, in which the extremities of the fingers are at a

right angle with the long axis of the humerus. The opposite

condition is found in some of the Ichthyosaurs and Mosasaurs

in which the limb is quite straight to the ends of the digits, but

in such cases the whole limb is directed backward from the

articulation with the girdle sufficiently to compensate for the

lack of curvature. It must be noted, however, that in both

these groups the most specialized forms show the backward

curvature as well as the average of the curved-limb forms (cf.

[chthyosaurus quadriscissus and Laptanodon natans among the

Ichthyosaurs and Zylosaurus among the Mosasaurs). Gener-

ally speaking, the longer limbs are more curved but this is not

without many exceptions. The hand of Geosaurus is at once

the shortest and most curved that has been noted, while some

of the long limbed Ichthyosaurs, ¢. g., 7. acutirostris, have the

limb quite straight. The backward curvature of the limb may

be attained in a number of ways in various forms, by one of the

following modifications, or, more frequently, by a combination

of several of them in the same limb.

Curved Bones of the Limb,— This is exemplified in all the

groups where the bones of the limb have not become so short-

ened as to obscure any curvature. In the Cetacea it is shown

by numerous forms to a greater or less extent. The humerus

is generally too short to exhibit any curvature but the radius

and ulna are distinctly curved in a number of forms (cf. espe-

cially Lalenoptera).’ The Ichthyosaurian limb is too much

shortened to show curvature in any single bone, except that in

Mixosaurus, the most primitive of the group, the humerus is

long enough to show a distinct curve. The longer limbed

Plesiosaurs, as a rule, show the curved humerus and femur to

a greater or less extent (cf. PVlestosaurus, Cimoliosaurus, Pelo-

neustes, Dolichorhynchops, etc.). In the Thalattosuchia the

humerus is very greatly shortened but the longer femur is very

noticeably curved. The Mosasaurs, as a rule, do not exhibit

any curvature of the bones, which are greatly shortened, but in

Zylosaurus the humerus is considerably curved. The Pinnipedia

ADAPTIVE MODIFICATIONS OF LIMB SKELETON 451

and marine Chelonia still retain their land connection to some

extent so their limbs are less modified than in the other groups,

but even here the radius and ulna and corresponding elements

of the hind limbs are in some forms very distinctly curved.

The other bones of the limbs are naturally too short to show

any curving, except very occasionally, e. g., the first metacarpal

of Geosaurus.

In some cases where the humerus and femur are not notice-

ably curved the anterior border is longer than the posterior and

as a result the distal articular surface is set at an angle to the

long axis of the bone. The result is the same as that produced

by the curving of the bones. Examples of this angulation of

the joint may be seen in all the groups, but it is by no means

constant and only about half of the forms examined show it, the

others being indifferent or actually angulated in the reverse di-

rection. However, any forward angulation of the joint is always

more than compensated for by some other means, usually by

having the radius longer than the ulna, etc. (cf. Cémoliosaurus

eurymerus or Mirosauris).

The Greater Length of the Radius and Tibia as Compared with

the Ulna and Hibula. — This condition results in a backward

angulation at the distal extremities of these bones very much

as in the longer anterior border in the humerus or femur. It

is, however, found in a much larger proportion of the forms

studied. The measurements were taken from the middle of the

articulating surfaces as in some cases the outline of the bones

is very irregular. All of the Cetacea, as faras I] have exam-

ined them, have the radius at least a little longer than the ulna

and in some forms, @. g., Phocena, it is very noticeably so. In

the majority of the reptilian forms studied the radius was found

to be longer than the ulna; in some cases they are of equal

length, but none were found in which the ulna exceeded the

radius. In the hindlimb the same results were obtained except

that in Geosaurus the fibula is somewhat longer than the tibia.

It does not necessarily follow from the above that an angulation

of the limb is always produced by the longer radius or tibia.

In some cases the effect is very noticeable and in at least one

452 OSBURN

case, C2moliosaurus eurymerus, the curvature of the limb is pro-

duced entirely in this region, the radius being fully twice as

long as the ulna, but in most reptilian forms the greater length

of the anterior bone only compensates for other conditions. In

the JZosasaurs the carpus and tarsus after the manner of their

Lacertilian progenitors, are much wider posteriorly, especially

among the less modified members of the group, and the longer

radius and tibia help to some extent to even.up this deficiency

in the anterior part-of the limb. In the hand of Mvosaurus,

again, the longer radius compensates for the humerus, which is

shorter on the anterior border than on the posterior.

Suppression of Carpus and Tarsus Toward the Posterior Side.—

In a few forms this is sufficient to cause a very distinct curve

or angulation in this region of the limb. In Delphinapterus,

Globiocephalus and Geosaurus the carpus is quite wedge-shaped

with-the point posterior. In Delphinapterus this wedge is also

curved. Inthe Ichthyosaurs and Plesiosaurs the carpals and

tarsals are so similar to the bones of the digits that in many

cases it is impossible to distinguish between them with any cer-

tainty. In Pleszosaurus dolichodetrus, however, the fifth digit is

seen to articulate higher up than the others, and in the very

advanced forms, such as Czmolosaurus among the Plesiosaurs,

and Laptanodon and Ophthalmosaurus among the Ichthyosaurs,

where the pisiform (cf. Baur) has moved up alongside of the

epipodials to articulate with the humerus. This shifting of the .

bones brings the digits on the posterior side of the paddle to

articulate higher up than the anterior ones, thus assisting in the

curvature of this part of the limb. In the Mososaurs as a

group, the carpals and tarsals are lacking or nearly so at the

anterior border but very well developed at the posterior side, a

condition inherited from their Lacertilian ancestors, according

to Williston. But while the less specialized Mosasaurs all

show this condition it is very interesting to note that in more

modified forms, such as Zylosaurus, the carpals and tarsals are

almost wanting on the posterior side and the fifth digit ap-

proaches articulation with the ulna.

Curvature of the Digits. — This condition exists quite gener-

ADAPTIVE MODIFICATIONS OF LIMB SKELETON 453

_ ally and occurs in all groups. In a few forms, by way of excep-

tion, the digits are quite straight but in every case these forms

seem to be earlier and less adapted to aquatic life, and in every

group where straight digits occur it is worthy of note that the

species occurring later have the digits curved. Occasionally

the limb may be sufficiently curved in some other region, when

the digits will be more nearly straight (cf. Czmolosaurus eury-

merus). The Cetacea, without exception so far as my observa-

tions have carried, have the fingers more or less curved. Some-

times, asin Lalena and Lalenoptera the curvature may be slight,

while in others, ¢. ¢., Globiocephalus, the curvature is very great.

The Plesiosaurs, also, seem to have the digits curved in all

cases. In Crzmoliosaurus eurymerus the curvature is but little ;

in Plestosaurus dolichodetrus it reaches the other extreme. The

Thalattosuchia (cf. Geosaurus) show the backward curvature,

also. In the Mosasaurs, W/. /emoinicri seems to have the digits

of the hinder limb perfectly straight, and the hand of Cudastes

velox is little, if at all, curved. It is worthy of note here, how-

ever, that these forms also show a more primitive condition of

carpus and tarsus and other indications of lesser adaptation to

aquatic life than is found in /Platecarpus and Tylosaurus, for

example, which have the digits well curved. The Ichthyosaurs

present a variety of conditions. The Triassic J/xvosaurus, which

is undoubtedly the most primitive, has the digits distinctly curved.

Some of the later Jurassic forms, such as /chthyosaurus acuttros-

tris and /. communis have the digits quite straight and these

species are much more modified in some respects than J/xo-

_ saurus. However, against this must be placed the fact that in

L. quadriscissus, I. ingens and Laptanodon natans, which by car-

tilaginous separation of the bones and by other signs point to

a greater adaptation to a swimming life, have the digits curved.

Again the Triassic genera Merriamia (Leptochetrus) and Tore-

tocnemus which Merriam has recently described and which are

nearly if not quite as old as AZzxrosaurus, have the limbs fully as

primitive as that genus in some respects and greatly modified in

others. In Merriamia the digits are somewhat curved, but in

Toretocnemus they seem, judging from somewhat fragmental

454 OSBURN

remains, to be quite straight. Possibly the very great reduc-

tion in size of the limbs of the latter genus may be responsible

for this condition. |

Frequently the paddle is extended backward by the separa-

tion of the digits at their distal extremities so that the posterior

digits are thrown back at an angle tothe others instead of being

parallel or nearly so. This is never found in the anterior border

of the paddle, but when present is always posterior. Many of

the Cetacea, such as Phocena, Monodon, Delphinapterus, Globio-

cephalus, Balena, etc., exhibit this to a remarkable degree. In

the Mosasauria the angle at which the fifth digit is set is remark-

able, especially in the very short limbed C/zdastes velox and in

Platecarpus. Other forms may show this toa less extent and

the third and fourth digits may also be somewhat separated.

The Thalattosuchia show but little separation of the digits and

in Plesiosauria and Ichthyosauria the digits are remarkably close

together. Again it must be remarked that in Laptanodon, the

latest of the Ichthyosaurs, there is some separation of the digits.

Another factor which sometimes enters to cause a backward

extension of the limb is hyperdactyly, or the addition of extra

digits on the posterior side of the limb. According to Baur

this addition of extra digits never occurs on the anterior border.

In the Cetacea very rarely a sixth digit, or part of one, is added.

In Ichthyosaurs it is quite common and as many as four extra

digits have been noted in the hand of /. dongimanus. Hyper-

dactyly does not appear in any of the other groups.

The greater length of the digits toward the posterior border

as compared with the anterior ones causes a sloping off toward

the posterior border that gives much the same effect as the

curving of the digits, with which it is almost always coupled.

In almost all cases the first digit is noticeably shorter than

those following and in many cases the second and even the third

may be somewhat abbreviated so that a graduated slope is

formed from the first to the fourth. Inthe few cases where the

first digit is equal to or greater than those following, as in the

foot of Mixosaurus and the hand of /chthyosaurus ingens or J,

conybeart, the digits are greatly curved. However, the hind

ADAPTIVE MODIFICATIONS OF LIMB SKELETON 455

paddle of Mosasaurus lemoinieri, though in part wanting, and of

Ichthyosaurus acutirostris, also lacking the tips of the digits,

seem to be exceptions even to this and have the first digit as

long as the others and perfectly straight. Perhaps a complete

limb might show this to be an error in judgment, however.

Frequently in the Cetacea the first digit is so reduced as to be

nearly or entirely wanting, and in the longipinnate Ichthyosaurs

it seems to be absent in all cases. This results naturally in

throwing the anterior border of the hand on the second finger,

and thus farther back.

In a few instances the paddle is extended backward largely

by the broadening of the bones. Examples of this may be seen

in Mixosaurus, Cimoliosaurus, etc. This matter will be alluded

to further under the head of distal dilatation.

DistAL DILATATION.

A modification of universal occurrence among swimming

animals is the distal dilatation or broadening of the limbs in the

formation of paddles. At any rate the limb becomes broad in

proportion to its thickness. In certain long-limbed forms like

Megaptera among the whales or /cehthyosaurus acutirostris among

the reptiles the limb is evidently not greatly broadened, but it

is at least reduced in thickness until a thin paddle-like form is

attained. The incipient stages of this dilatation may be seen in

animals which have only recently taken up aquatic life and

which have not yet lost their land-relation. Evidently the first

part of the limb to show this broadening is the most exposed

part, z. ¢., the hand or foot. Later the process continues up

the limb until finally all the bones of the limb may become

affected. The humerus and femur may even become involved

in this change clear up to the articulation.

In all but afew cases the point of greatest breadth remains in

the digits. The most common method of increasing the breadth

of this region is found in the spreading of the digits. This is

shown by practically all aquatic mammals and by aquatic reptiles

generally except the Plesiosaurs and the Ichthyosaurs where

spreading of the digits is rare and slight. Again, the breadth

456 . OSBURN

this portion of the limb the widest. In the Sirenia the width of

the hand is in part due to this, and in Plesiosaurs where the

hand is widened and in some Ichthyosaurs the width is entirely

due to the great breadth of the digits. In many Ichthyosaurs

and rarely in the whales the hand or foot may be widened by

the addition of one or more extra digits, a process known as

hyperdactyly. Kitkenthal has shown this to come about in e-

/uga, the white whale, as the result of the splitting of the fifth

digit and there is reason in the view that hyperdactyly has come

about in the same way in Ichthyosaurs. In Cetaceans never

more than one extra digit is formed, but as many as four extra

digits, or nine in all, are known in Ichthyosaurs. These without

exception are found on the posterior border of the paddle. It

is possible that still another method of broadening the hand

may have been the separation of the bones of the digits by em-

bedding in cartilage. In /chthyosaurus ingens, and especially in

Laptanodon, this seems true.

In a few cases only, the carpal and tarsal region is found to

be the widest part of the limb, though this region is usually

somewhat broadened. In J/xosaurus this is exceptionally well

shown. In some whales as Glodiocephalus or Phocena this

region is the widest part of the limb but here the fifth finger has

moved up alongside of the carpus, and the carpus itself is not

greatly broadened. In some instances the breadth of this re-

gion appears to be much increased by the cartilaginous separa-

tion of the bones. Thus in Delphinapterus, Phocena, etc., the

carpal region is quite broad while the bones are small and em-

bedded in cartilage. The same thing is evident in Laptanodon

among the Ichthyosaurs. A cartilaginous extension of the

posterior border of the carpus, materially widening this region,

is known-among the..Cetacea.

The epipodials tend toward great breadth and become short-

ened about in proportion as they become widened. Among

the forms here dealt with they are found the least modified in

the genus A4alenoptera, among the Cetacea, where, although

they are somewhat flattened, they are about twice the length of

ADAPTIVE MODIFICATIONS OF LIMB SKELETON 457

the short humerus. Even in the Sirenia there is considerable

broadening in this region. Among the reptilian groups the

epipodials are greatly modified in every case examined, except

in the hind limb of Thalattosuchia. In a number of cases the

greatest breadth of the limb is found in this portion. In Plesi-

osaurs this seems especially to be true. In Czmoliosaurus tro-

chanterus and C. portlandicus the position of the ‘ pisiform”’

alongside of the ulna and its homologue beside the fibula makes

this region very evidently the widest. In the hand of the

Thalattosuchian Geosaurus the breadth is greatest in this part,

due to the extreme breadth of the very short radius and ulna.

In Mosasaurs also these bones are very broad, and in every

case in Ichthyosaurs they are much broadened though this re-

gion is usually not as broad as the more distal portion of the

limb.

There are two factors producing the breadth in the epipodial

region, the increase in the breadth of the bones themselves, and

the separation of the bones at their distal ends. In the Mam-

malia there is no real separation of the distal ends of the radius

and ulna though in some cases (cf. Globtocephalus) the inter-

medium interlocks between their ends. In Plesiosauria and

Thalattosuchia also no distal separation is evident, and in Ich-

thyosaurs it is seen only in M/zxosaurus where it is quite notice-

able and is probably a primitive character. In the Mosasaurs,

however, they may be separated at a very wide angle (cf. espe-

cially the hands of C/zdastes and Platecarpus) and all show it to

a greater or less extent. It is possible that this tendency has

been derived directly from their Lacertilian ancestors which

show some distal separation, but, however its presence is to be

accounted for, it seems pretty certain that the Mosasaurs have

developed it greatly and made the most of its possibilities in

broadening the paddle. Stereosternum, one of the Rhyncho-

cephalia, shows quite a little distal separation of the epipodials.

It also has the fifth digit set out at an angle as in the Mosa-

saurs.

The humerus and the femur are probably the last bones of

the limb to become affected by distal dilatation, but in the most

458 OSBURN

advanced cases they may be broadened almost to the point of

the articulation with the girdle. The only completely aquatic

forms which show no modification of the humerus in this way,

as far as I know, are the Sirenia. This lack of modification

may be accounted for by the peculiar way in which the paddles

are used by these animals when feeding or resting in shallow

water and in holding the young. The femur of Geosaurus shows

little or no dilatation and remains very long, though in absence

of tuberosities, in curvature and in other ways it is evidently

natatory. The humerus of Geosaurus is much more progres-

sive and is greatly shortened and broadened. In the Cetacea

without exception the greatly shortened humerus is also notice-

ably widened, especially in Phocena and Globiocephalus. In the

Plesiosaurs the humerus and femur are longer than is usual

among aquatic forms, but the dilatation is very evident. In

Cimoliosaurus trochanterus and C. portlandicus the ‘‘pisiform”’

and its homolog of the hind limb find room to articulate with

the propodial beside the greatly widened epipodials, and C.

eurymerus is even more expanded than these, being the only

case, as far as observed, where the broadest part of the paddle

is the distal end of the humerus. The extreme of modification

is found among the Mosasaurs and Ichthyosaurs. In the

former it is always marked and reaches a climax in the hand

of Llatecarpus, Phoplatecarpus and Cldastes. According to

Williston the humerus of Platecarpus is the most modified, its

width distally being nearly equal to its length. The Ichthy-

osaurs are equally modified, even in the early Triassic forms

(cf. Mixosaurus, Toretocnemus, Merriamia and Shastasaurus).

The humerus of Skhastasaurus, according to Merriam, is the

most specialized known—‘‘the shortest propodial segment

known in the limb of an Ichthyopterygian ’’’ — and a very nar-

row notch on the anterior border represents the “ last trace of

a shaft of a ‘long bone.’ ”’

In the marine Chelonia there is formed a very good paddle

and the distal dilatation of the whole limb is very evident. The

individual bones do not show it to any extent, however, as far

as observed. The seals are in the same condition, and the

ADAPTIVE MODIFICATIONS OF LIMB SKELETON 459

partial retention of terrestrial habits probably accounts for both.

The Nothosauridz, probable ancestors of the Plesiosaurs, while

undoubtedly aquatic, had not necessarily — judging from the

condition of the limbs — lost their land connection, and they

show but little distal dilatation of the bones. Laviosaurus has

the humerus well curved and somewhat expanded distally, and

Simosaurus, according to the plates in Von Meyer’s “ Fauna der

Vorwelt,”’ shows considerable distal enlargement. If the No-

thosauride are the ancestors of the Plesiosauride, as seems to

be the case, we have in these two families the most complete

story of the evolution of the swimming limb known in any one

group, for the earliest Triassic members of the Nothosauride

are semiaquatic while the latest Cretaceous forms of the Plesio-

sauride are thoroughly adapted for marine life as von Zittel

has already pointed out (1902, p. 172).

PARALLELISM OF FORE AND HIND LIMBS.

In many aquatic forms there is a very evident parallelism

between the fore and hind limbs, and a correspondence in action

which is never met with in terrestrial forms. The fore and

hind limbs in most cases meet the water in the same manner

with the result that they become very similiar in structure.

The Pinnipedia are an exception, for, while both fore and hind

limbs are evidently adapted to aquatic life, there is a very

different use made of them in swimming. Cetacea offer no

evidence on either side as the limbs of ancestral forms are

not known and recent forms lack the posterior limbs. A com-

parison of the fore and hind limbs in Ichthyosauria, Plesiosauria

or Mosasauria, however, shows great similarity in shape and

structure as well as in their angle of attachment with the body.

There can be no question but that the fore and hind paddle of

a Plesiosaur acted in the same manner in propelling the body

through the water. In Mosasaurs the same thing is evident.

In later Ichthyosaurs, owing to the development of the tail fin,

the hind limb becomes much reduced, but still it retains its

similarity to the fore limb (cf. /chthyosaurus communis, 1. Quad-

viscissus etc.), while in Mxosaurus, which is the least modified

460 | OSBURN

of the Ichthyosaurs, the simility in shape, size and angle of at-

tachment is easily noted. The Thalattosuchia have the limbs

so greatly different in length that it is difficult to find much

similarity except in the matter of curvature and angle of

attachment.

It is to be noted that in the matter of curvature or backward

extension the limbs are always similiar —if the fore limb is

straight the hind limb is also found to be straight, but if the

fore limb is curved the hind limb will assume about the same

degree of curvature. (Cf. Mixosaurus, Toretocnemus, Platecar-

pus, Lylosaurus, Plestosaurus, Dolichorynchops, etc.).

THE TENDENCY TOWARD THE Loss OF THE HIND LIMBS.

This character in those forms which have developed a caudal

fin is found almost without exception. In such forms the tail

becomes a much more efficient propelling organ than the limbs

and the latter are of use chiefly as organs of equilibration. The

anterior limbs, from their position, are naturally more useful in

this respect than the posterior and the latter tend toward reduc-

tion. In aquatic animals which have not developed a tail fin

we have two widely different conditions. The Pinnipedia illus-

trate one condition where the hind limbs swing backward and

together act as a propeller very much after the fashion of the

flukes of a whale — so much so in fact, as to have suggested to

Ryder the mistaken hypothesis that the flukes of the Cetacean

are only misplaced and modified hind limbs. The long and

supple vertebral column renders this motion possible in the

Pinnipedia. In the Chelonia the nature of the spinal column

and the box-like exoskeleton prevent any such use of the hind

legs as is seen in the seals, and the fore legs become greatly

enlarged organs of propulsion while the hind paddles are com-

paratively very weak. The skeleton of TZhalassochelys, for

example, reminds one of a side-wheel steamboat with enor-

mously large paddles and with twin rudders behind.

Among the forms with a tail fin the Cetacea and Sirenia are

preeminent with the entire loss of a posterior limb externally,

The Ichthyosauria at first seem a little puzzling from the fact

ADAPTIVE MODIFICATIONS OF LIMB SKELETON 461

that the earliest forms known, Mivosaurus from the Middle

Triassic of Lombardy and Shastasaurus, Merriamia and Toretoc-

nemus, from the Upper Triassic of California and Nevada, offer

very conflicting evidence. One would naturally expect the limbs

of these early aquatic forms to show to some extent the characters

of their terrestrial ancestors — at least to approach this character

more nearly than later forms—and this, indeed, J/vosaurus does,

as Baur has shown (Ueber die Abstammung der amnioten Wirbel-

thiere). In this genus the hind limb is as well developed as the

anterior and both bear very evident marks of terrestrial origin.

With the other Triassic genera mentioned, however, the case 1s

quite different. In all three the limbs are very much specialized

and much reduced, but in 7oretocnemus the hind limb is equal

to or greater than the fore limb, according to Merriam, while

in Merriamia the hind limb appears quite diminutive in com-

parison with the fore limb, When our knowledge of these

genera is more complete we shall doubtless find them to be an

early offshoot of primitive Ichthyosaurs, in which the limbs

have become precociously adapted to aquatic life. The tail of

Delphinosaurus (Shastasaurus) perrini, according to Merriam

must have borne a very well developed tail fin, as it shows the

sharp deflexion and elongated spines found in later Ichthyo-

saurs. The Ichthyosauride, of the Jura-Cretaceous, have the

anterior limb much better developed than the posterior one, and

sometimes the latter is very weak. In these forms the tail fin

was well developed for locomotion. (See Fraas’s figure of /.

guadriscissus, Quenst.)

The Plesiosaurs are comparatively long-legged and short-

tailed and the limbs were undoubtedly used for propulsion to a

greater extent than in those forms with a longer tail. While

the limbs are evidently adapted for swimming they never

become so reduced as in forms which come to use the paddles

mostly for purposes of equilibration. Williston has well ex-

pressed the condition in this group, ‘‘ Among the Plesiosaurs

the hind limbs are always powerful and well developed, though

in all forms known to me they are less powerful than the front

ones. Here the relative shortness of the tail has imposed a

distinct propelling or sculling function upon the limbs.”’

462 OSBURN

The most highly adapted Mosasaurs possessed a tail fin pro-

duced by the elongation of the neural and hzemal spines and

while this was probably not as effective a propelling organ as

the more highly specialized flukes of the whales and Ichthyo-

saurs, yet its presence was sufficient to cause a reduction in the

hind limbs. Williston has already remarked upon this evident

‘“ weakening of the hind limbs, particularly in the more special-

ized groups like the Tylosaurine.”’ In Chdastes velox the

hind limbs seem much weaker than the anterior ones.

The Thalattosuchia seem to be an exception to the rule, for

according to Fraas, Geosaurus suevicus, the only thoroughly

known form of the group, has the paradoxical combination of a

well developed tail fin and a hind limb very much larger than

the fore limb. The fact that this limb shows only compara-

tively little adaptation to aquatic life suggests the possibility

that Geosaurus had only recently lost its land relation, the well

developed tail fin notwithstanding.

TENDENCY TOWARD SIMILARITY IN SHAPE AND FUNCTION OF

ALL THE BONES OF THE LIMB.

In the limbs of swimming animals there is no occasion for

the specialization of various parts of the skeleton such as ex-

ists in terrestial animals. All the elements of the limb skeleton

except the propodial have approximately the same function to

perform and consequently all parts except the humerus and

femur tend to become very much alike, and even the distal ends

of these bones may lose their differentiated character and become

mere rounded plates. The process is one of degeneration in

which all the differentiation brought about by the varied stress of

terrestrial life is lost and the bones become at last in the most ex-

treme cases mere rounded plates — ‘‘ Stutzplatten ’’ — with no

characteristics by which one can be distinguished from another.

These may be either closely set, ‘‘ eine Plaster von polygonalen

Platten ’ (Fraas), as in most Ichthyosaurs, or separated by carti-

lage in which they are embedded, as in Baptanodon and Lchihyo-

saurus ingens. The propodial element retains in part at its proxi-

mal end its original function, —at least it continues to be the

ADAPTIVE MODIFICATIONS OF LIMB SKELETON 463

_ portion by which the limb is attached to the girdle and by which

the movement of the limb is possible, though even here the

bone becomes much simplified, for the movements of the nata-

tory limb are less complex and more restricted than those of

the terrestrial type of limb. But, however much the propo-

dial element may be reduced and simplified it is always recog-

nizable as a propodial element. As much cannot always be

said in regard to the epipodials, for in the most advanced cases,

e. g., certain Ichthyosaurs and Plesiosaurs, these bones are not

distinguisable from the more distal elements except perhaps in

the matter of size. In sucha form as Laptanodon, and in fact

in nearly all Ichthyosaurs above the Trias, there is an even

gradation from the phalanges through all the bones of the limb

up to and including the epipodials so that the limits of carpus

and tarsus cannot be distinguished either from the epipodials or

the digits. The metacarpals and the metatarsals are seldom

distinguishable in any swimming limb from the phalanges, ex-

cept sometimes by their larger size, and the phalanges in all

cases (Szrenta excepted) taper off to a point.

The changes which take place in the epipodial region are

perhaps the most interesting as well as the most marked of all.

In the usual form of ambulatory limb the radius and tibia are

quite different in function and in appearance from the ulna and

fibula respectively, and they have quite different parts to play in

the formation of the joints at their proximal and distal ends.

In the natatory limb, with the loss of joint strain and freely

movable joints, the function of the two bones becomes the same

and they tend to take an equal part in the articulations at their

proximal and distal ends and to become of the same size and

shape. This tendency is seen even before the bones become

much reduced in length, as in the Sirenia and Mysticocete

whales. From this point on we have in the various groups all

the stages in the evolution of the paddle to the point where the

epipodials are merely rounded plates embedded in cartilage

(ec. g., Baptanodon). The toothed whales have progressed

farther than the whalebone whales, Glodiocephalus being among

the most modified, but the radius is always distinguishable from

464 OSBURN

the ulna. The Mosasaurs are still further advanced, especially

the later forms, 7y/osaurus, Plioplatecarpus, etc., and the radius

and ulna approach each other in appearance pretty closely. Tri-

assic Ichthyosaurs and most Plesiosaurs have the propodials

evidently differentiated from the more distal elements though

radius and ulna may be nearly alike in shape and size, and

finally, in the later members of these groups they become indis-

tinguishable from neighboring carpals and tarsals.

It is not strange that Gegenbaur, casting about for an

incipient tetrapodial limb in connection with his ‘ Archi-

pterygium ”’ theory, should settle upon the Ichthyosaur limb

as the example which should connect the fin of the fish with the

limb of the higher animal, or that Marsh, following the lead of

Gegenbaur, should hail the discovery of Lapfanodon as showing

limbs ‘less specialized than those in any other known form

above the fishes,’ the humerus alone being differentiated out of

the “‘ primitive cartilage.’’ It remained for Baur to demonstrate

that the Ichthyosaur limb is not the least but the most special-

ized, approaching the condition of the fish fin as an adaptation

to aquatic life.

ELONGATION OF DIGITs.

This factor in the formation of the swimming limb seems to

be without exception. It is one of the earliest to appear, it

occurs in all groups and apparently in all individuals and shows

no tendency to be lost. Even in such a form as Merriamia or

Ichthyosaurus communis, where the hind limb is evidently degen-

erating, the digits are still elongated in comparison with the

remainder of the limb. In some forms all of the digits are

elongated, and even extra digits added to the paddles may be

greatly increased in length (cf. the sixth digit of many Ich-

thyosaurs), but in other cases certain digits only are elongated

while the others retain their original size or even become greatly

reduced. Thus in the hand of Globiocephalus the second and

third digits are enormously extended while the first, fourth and

fifth are quite degenerate, and in /chthyosaurus acutirostris three

greatly elongated digits are present while the other two, prob-

ADAPTIVE MODIFICATIONS OF LIMB SKELETON 465

ably the first and fifth of the original pentadactyl limb, have

vanished entirely.

The elongation of the digits may take place by an increase

either in the length or the number of phalanges, — hyperpha-

langy. Undoubtedly the former method is the original one as

we find it in many forms not otherwise greatly modified. The

Pinnipedia, the marine Chelonia and the Thalattosuchia show

only this modification. The earlier Mosasaurs show very little

hyperphalangy while the phalanges are greatly elongated.

The whalebone whales are much less modified in this respect

than the toothed whales and in them the elongation is largely

due to elongation of the bones, while in the latter group hyper-

phalangy coupled with a cartilaginous separation of the bones

is the general mode. In the Plesiosauria and Ichthyosauria,

and particularly in the latter group, hyperphalangy is devel-

oped to such an extent that it accounts entirely for the length

of the digits. It is only in such early Ichthyosaurs as M/xo-

saurus and Merriamia that we can observe any characters of

long bones present in the phalanges.

HYPERPHALANGY.

Several theories have been proposed to account for hyper-

phalangy. Howes has suggested an “‘intercalary syndesmosis ”’

such as occursin some Amphibia, the formation of a joint in the

middle of a bone by ossification of the ends of the bone only,

the joint appearing in the cartilaginous portion remaining, but

there is no substantial evidence to support this theory in the

reptiles and mammals.

Weber, Ryder and Baur have tried to prove that the addi-

tional phalanges were formed by the ossification of terminal or

extradigital cartilages such: as those:that appear on the ends of

the digits in the Pinnipedia, or to quote Ryder, “The carti-

laginous extension of the ungual phalanges, I take it, has

afforded the basis, in some ancestral seal-like form, for the

development of an increased number of digits beyond the

ungual phalanx, as in Cetacea.’’ While there may be nothing

in the nature of things to prevent such a process taking place,

466 OSBURN

there has never been any real evidence adduced to show that

such ossification of extradigital cartilages really occurs. A

third theory which has been more generally accepted than the

ones just mentioned for the reason that a considerable amount

of evidence has been brought to its support by its author, is

Kukenthal’s theory of ‘‘double epiphyses.’’ These epiphyses

by retarded ossification become separated from the shaft of the

bone. Separated double epiphyses are commonly met with in

Cetacea and Kikenthal mentions one case (Hyferoédon rostra-

tus) in which they appear as separate bones even on the radius

and ulna. Once separated as distinct bones these epiphyses

would tend soon to become the same size as the bones from

which they separated, owing to similarity of function. Double

epiphyses in Mammalia would admit of as many as twelve

phalanges in a single digit, while as many as eighteen might

appear in the fourth digit of a reptile. These numbers are

rarely exceeded and only by certain toothed whales among the

mammals — Glodiocephalus may have a maximum of seven-

teen —and by a few Ichthyosaurs, such as /. communis, among

the reptiles. To explain such cases Kutkenthal assumes the

formation again of double epiphyses in these secondary pha-

langes, and finally the development, by retarded ossification, of

a third set of phalanges. In this connection it is of impor-

tance to determine whether all of these groups of reptiles show-

ing hyperphalangy possessed epiphyses. These structures at

least appeared very early in some reptiles, and Ktkenthal cites

the case of a MWesosaurus from the Karroo formation, which pos-

sesses double epiphyses. On the other hand it is worthy of

note that in the Chelonia, which according to Gadow do not

possess epiphyses, forms like Chelone and Thalassochelys have de-

veloped remarkably long digits without any increase in the num-

ber of phalanges.

HYPERDACTYLY.

The presence of additional or supernumerary digits is known in

only two groups, the Ichthyosauria and Cetacea. In the former

group it occurs frequently, and as many as four extra digits or

nine in all are known in one species, /chthyosaurus longimanus.

ADAPTIVE MODIFICATIONS OF LIMB SKELETON 467

In the Cetacea it is of rare occurrence, and never more than

one extra digit is present. These extra digits always appear on

the posterior side of the paddle. Baur offered the suggestion

for the Ichthyosaurs that the sixth digit was produced by

elongation of the pisiform or its homolog, but there is no direct

evidence in favor of this view, while the breaking up of the

digits toward the end in sucha form as /chthyosaurus communis

indicates rather that they have been produced by a splitting

of the digits. At any rate Baur’s suggestion would not be suffi-

cient to cover cases where more than one extra digit appeared.

Kiikenthal has shown in the case of the whales that the sixth

digit is produced directly by the longitudinal splitting of the

fifth.

As to the reason for the appearance of extra digits, Kuken-

thal has given what appears to me to be a very satisfactory ex-

planation, and one for which he, together with Leboucg, has ad-

vanced considerable evidence in the whales. The extension of

the swimming membrane on the posterior margin calls for extra

support which is at first met by a widening of the last digit.

Finally, retarded ossification causes a separation of the digit

into two parts in somewhat the same way as the double epiphyses

are separated from the diaphysis in hyperphalangy. Thus the

need of widening the supporting area of the posterior border,

together with the tendency toward the formation of smaller

skeletal parts in the swimming limb, would account for the ap-

pearance of the additional digits.

FORMATION OF SMALLER SKELETAL PARTS.

This principle, which, I believe, Kiikenthal was the first to

mention, is exhibited by nearly all forms which have progressed

so far in aquatic adaptation as to lose their land relation. It is

best seen in the Ichthyosaurs, but the Cetacea, Plesiosaurs and

later Mosasaurs also showit well. It is about coextensive with

hyperphalangy by which it is in part produced, but it also in-

volves the direct reduction in size of certain parts and a con-

centration towards the proximal end of the limb. The purpose

is evidently to produce a limb that shall be uniformly flexible —

468 OSBURN

the type of limb best suited for locomotion in the water, as wit-

ness the fins of fishes with their many-jointed rays giving them

an even flexibility.

CONCENTRATION OF ALL PARTS EXCEPT THE DIGITs.

A little comparison will serve to convince any one that the

elongated type of propodial and epipodials with which we are

familiar in terrestrial forms is wholly unsuited to perfect loco-

motion in water. In all reptiles and mammals which have

become permanently aquatic the shortening up of this region of

the limb is so evident as to need little comment. The most

highly specialized forms in this regard are found among the

Ichthyosaurs in which the humerus may be so shortened that

its length scarcely exceeds its breadth (cf. Shastasaurus), while

the epipodials in nearly all cases are even shorter than wide.

The Thalattosuchia (cf. Geosaurus) present the curious anomaly

of a very greatly shortened fore limb, while the hind limb is

little modified. Williston is probably right in thinking that this

hind limb of Geosaurus was of little use in the water and was

probably carried close to the tail in swimming, after the manner

of newts. Among the Mosasaurs Clidastes and Plioplatecarpus

seem to be the most highly specialized in this respect, while

among the Plesiosaurs, Czmoliosaurus, and in the Cetacea,

Globtocephalus, are among the most modified.

Another factor in the concentration of parts is the shifting as

certain elements into new positions. Chief among these may

be mentioned the shifting of the so-called ‘ pisiform’’ or its

homolog (cf. Baur ‘On the Morphology and Origin of the Ich-

thyopterygia’’) to a position alongside of the epipodials articu-

lating with the humerus or femur ; the shifting of the fifth digit

to articulate directly with the ulna as seen in some whales, per-

haps best in Globiocephalus, and the Thalattosuchia; and the

massing together of the bones in the carpal and tarsal region

against the ends of the epipodials, so that the intermedium is

sometimes interlocked between their ends. Concerning the

‘‘ pisiform ”’ it is necessary to state that there is grave doubt as

to the identification of this bone. Williston holds that the extra

ADAPTIVE MODIFICATIONS OF LIMB SKELETON 469

bones in the epipodial series are not misplaced carpals and tar-

sals but new growths like supernumerary digits. This idea,

however, is not éntirely a new one, for Baur himself in the

above-mentioned paper refers to it as ‘the pisiform or another

element of a new-formed ray.’ Until we know more of this

region of the limb, however, it will be impossible for us to de-

termine whether the bone in question is a shifted mesopodial, as

it may well have come to be during the concentration of this

region, or an entirely new structure formed zz széa perhaps by

being split off from a neighboring bone. In the meantime it

seems well to retain the name ‘“ pisiform’’ already in use and

take it with the necessary grain of salt.

The shifted pisiform occurs only among the latest Ichthy-

osaurs (Baptanodon and Ophthalmosaurus) and _ Plesiosaurs

(Czmoliosaurus). The most advanced condition noticed is that

seen in Czmolosaurus trochanterus where the pisiform lies partly

alongside of the distal end of the humerus. The massing of the

carpals and tarsals is best know in the Ichthyosaurs, where the

bases of the digits are usually also massed, though it is shown

equally well by some Plesiosaurs, ¢. g., Peloneustes.

In some forms the same result of shortening may be attained

by the reduction of the carpal and tarsal region, either in num-

ber or size of the bones or both. (Cf. Delphinapterus, Phocena,

Balenoptera, etc., among Cetacea, and 7y/osaurus among the

Mosasaurs).

CARTILAGINOUS PROGRESSION IN JOINTS.

Later forms always show the presence of more cartilage than

their predecessors, and it is perhaps safe to say that the adapta-

tion of a species to aquatic life may be measured by the amount

of cartilage developed in the limb joints. The bones of the

digits are usually merely separated by cartilage pads — longer

near the tip where greater flexibility is desirable — but occa-

sionally some of the phalanges may be entirely embedded.

The carpal and tarsal bones in all groups tend to become em-

bedded in cartilage, with excavated edges, set off from each

other, reduced in shape to round plates or ossicles, and in some

470 OSBURN

cases finally lost. The Mosasaurs show an interesting series in

this respect with stages marking all the steps from the Lacertil-

lian type of carpus to that of Zylosaurus proriger which retains

only one small round ossicle in the mesopodial region. The

Ichthyosaurs also show many intermediate stages between the

interlocked bones of the early Jurassic species and the carti-

lage-embedded ones of Laptanodon. Inthe Cetacea such forms

as Delphinapterus, Phocena, and Lalena are especially instruc-

tive. The ends of the epipodials and the distal end of the pro-

podials may also become covered with cartilage to the extent

that they are more or less evenly rounded, for all bones tend to

take this rounded form when they become so embedded in

cartilage that they are not affected by the impact of any neigh-

boring bones.

Loss oF MovaABLE ARTICULATIONS IN THE LIMB.

All necessary movements of the natatory limb can best be

made at the point of attachment of the limb with the girdle, all

movements are of the limb as a whole, no flexing or torsional

movements within the limb are required, no motion of certain

digits or other special parts is necessary. Hence there is in all

swimming limbs the tendency toward the reduction of all mov-

able joints, the final result being the production of a more or

less flexible paddle without power of special movement in its

individual parts. Such we find it in the Cetacea, Ichthyosauria,

Plesiosauria and Mosasauria and probably in the Thalatto-

suchia, and partially in the Sirenia, Pinnipedia and marine Che-

lonia. This may be attended by anchylosis of certain bones as

in Monodon where humerus, radius and ulna are solidly united,

or in Wanatus where radius and ulna are anchylosed, but this

never occurs except with proximal elements. More generally

the bones are merely united by or embedded in cartilage, as

this admits of a certain flexibility. In many Ichthyosaurs and

Plesiosaurs the bones interlock quite closely without the inter-

position of a noticeable amount of cartilage, but in the latest

forms of both these groups the cartilaginous embedding of the

bones becomes evident. The marine Chelonia, which go on

ADAPTIVE MODIFICATIONS OF LIMB SKELETON 471

shore to lay their eggs, and the Sirenia which have a peculiar

use of the paddle when.feeding and holding the young, have

retained certain movable joints.

Loss oF TUBEROSITIES FOR Muscle ATTACHMENT.

Naturally, upon the loss of movable joints or the need of

them, would follow the degeneration of the muscles of the limb

and consequently of the muscle attachments. This is plainly

evident in all the groups under discussion. The only tuberosi-

ties retained in the completely aquatic limb are those at the

head of the humerus and femur for the attachment of those

muscles which move the whole limb.

In conclusion the writer wishes to thank the American Mu-

seum of Natural History for the use of material, and especially

to thank Professor Henry Fairfield Osborn for the use of his

library and for many valuable suggestions during the progress

of the work.

ADDENDUM.

Since the above was written a very noteworthy paper by

Professor John C. Merriam has appeared in the Memoirs of the

California Academy of Sciences, May 5, 1905. In this paper

Professor Merriam describes the ‘‘ 7halattosauria,’ an entirely

new order of marine reptiles from the Triassic of California.

This group represents an offshoot of the primitive Diaptosauria

and is most nearly related to the Rhynchocephalia, standing in

relation to this group about as the Mosasaurs do to the Lacer-

tilia, according to Merriam. The two genera, WVectosaurus and

LThalattosaurus, in order of their specialization, exhibit no aquatic

characters not already mentioned, but in regard to the aquatic

adaptation of the limbs they fall in line in all respects with the

groups already discussed. in the foregoing paper. Only the

propodial and epipodial elements are thus far known and these

seem to be about as much specialized as those of the later

Mosasaurs. The Thalattosauria are of interest in the present

paper chiefly because they add one more to the list of separate

472 OSBURN

groups which have taken up marine life and which have devel-

oped a swimming paddle out of a terrestrial type of limb.

COLUMBIA UNIVERSITY,

June 6, 1905.

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02 Textbook of Paleontology (Eastman’s translation).

1902.

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PLATE, Vile

Mixosaurus, fore limb, — after E. Repossi.

Mixosaurus, hind limb, — after E. Repossi.

Delphinosaurus perrint, fore limb, — after Merriam.

Shastasaurus osmonti, fore limb, — after Merriam.

Ichthyosaurus acuttrostris, hind limb, — after Fraas.

Toretocnemus californicus, hind limb, — after Merriam.

Ichthyosaurus communis, fore limb, — after Lydekker.

Ichthyosaurus communis, hind limb, — after Lydekker.

. Ichthyosaurus quadriscissus, fore limb, after Fraas.

10. J/chthyosaurus ingens, fore limb, — after Fraas.

11. Baptanodon natans, left hind limb, — after Marsh.

12. Plestosaurus dolichodeirus, fore limb, — from Hawkins’ Book

of Great Seadragons.

13. Plestosaurus dolichodetrus, hind limb, — from Hawkins’ Book

of Great Seadragons.

14. Cimoltosaurus eurymerus, fore limb, — after Lydekker.

15. Cimo/iosaurus portlandicus, hind limb, — after Lydekker.

16. Cimoliosaurus trochanterus, fore limb, — after Lydekker.

17. Peloneustes, fore limb, — after Lydekker.

18. Geosaurus suevicus, fore limb, — after Fraas.

19. Geosaurus suevicus, hind limb, — after Fraas.

20. Dacosaurus, lateral and anterior views of humerus, — after

Fraas.

NOP GOUT, SNe «ate (Oo: GN sl

(478 )

a ee

ee o=

| | >

: ‘ e's

: : ‘ aa 4

\ aT i

| | ‘5

' >

j i : | %

- i |

:. | |

- 7 7 °

| | ; *y ;

‘7

: -

“4

‘ |

| 4

| ;

A's | |

| >

;

’

| *

"es "

te,

Bae

2 | ;

‘

F '

“4

’ a

‘

tan

| 2 a

PLATE VII.

ANNALS N. Y. ACAD. SCl., VOL. XVI.

IVA IOV 102 .CADATE Bie tanwa

PLATE VIIL.

(479 )

rive

‘«

éD

-_ 7

‘a

“=

~~.

PEATE, Vik

21. Mosasaurus lemoiniert, hind limb, — after Dollo.

22. Platecarpus corypheus, hind limb, — after Williston.

23. Plhoplatecarpus marshit, fore limb, — after Dollo.

24. Brachysaurus overtoni, humerus, — after Williston.

25. Lylosaurus proriger, fore limb, — after Williston.

26. Clidastes velox, fore limb, -— after Williston.

27. Mosasaurus horridus, fore limb, — after Williston.

28. Platecarpus ictericus, fore limb, — after Williston.

29. Manatus, outer aspect of left limb, — original.

30. Monodon monoceros, \eft hand of embryo of 24 cm., — after

Kiikenthal.

31. Balena mysticetus, hind limb and girdle, — after Flower.

32. Monodon monoceros, outer aspect of left fore limb, — original.

( 480 )

_—

ie arade

CALS ty

vee

ls ase ea Spat gee ns. vs On ee _ SE eee ei clea aay

t é 7 . nek - : * 7 ‘ ss = 2 , x

ae A <8 a 3 ~ = “ts

y a AS pO Lt I Oh See al oP a SS conte ie. ee em pi es ewe ‘ee > 2" >= ae Se a

. yi

Ce :

CSS:

haan

7 e

gt 4; Fs is rein q Sea Ve he

’ wy ae

’

—, yi . |

eS ve

2. cuit!

ip ee a

i me

AVX JOV 102 ADA Mut

7; A

ees

33"

one

35:

36.

PLATE? EX:

Balenoptera intermedius, hand of young, — after Burmeister.

Balenoptera bonaérensts, hand, — after Burmeister.

Delphinapterus leucas, young, — original.

Globtocephalus melas, — after Flower.

Phocena communis, outer aspect of left fore limb, — original.

( 482 )

WNNALS: N} oY. ACAD? SCI, VOL: XVI, PLATE. IX.

GENERAL INDEX TO VOLUME XVI.

Names of authors in heavy face type.

Titles of papers in SMALL CAPS.

0 157

EE Se. hohe. 29 dia fe oc St 67

Abbreviation of limb in aquatic

reptiles and mammals ........ 449

ABERRATION, CONSTANT OF, AND,

VARIATION OF LATITUDE; THE

VARIATION OF LATITUDE IN NEW

York City, J. K. Rees, Harold

Jacoby, Herman S. Davis. 328-329

RIES oa 5 hee m's Ghee ole lee ee 106

Absorption of rock ........ 388, 392

ACCELERATION AND RETARDATION

IN DEVELOPMENT, INTRA-COL-

ONIAL, A. W. Grabau........

Acceleration of gravity, pendu-

lum apparatus for determining. 340

Accessory chromosomes ...... sa; 36

NEE 6 a oi wich ony ape sl cle 88 /S 109

Accusative definite ............ 107

CEE GE e/a So decks Sole ats 105

Accusative indefinite .......... 107

MeeMemiaN PeTIOd .......600%0 72

os CO OP ae oer e ree are Bre

Actinolite..403, 406, 407, 413, 415,

416, 420, 422, 426, 428, 431, 435

PeGHIMIOMITE-—CIOTILG 2. vee cee ee bs 393

Berramenite: schist... se. oad sss 404

meetion, aspects Of .....26... 131-133

ACTION AS THE CoNCEPT oF HiIs-

TORICAL SYNTHESIS, P. Hughes

324, 327

Motion, degrees of .......; 131-133

BIMMICRESS O80 00 23 06 as ood ws £31

mrorelatise To*) ref. ec ee ck ee 440

ADAPTATION AND SELECTIVE ELIM-

INATION IN FISHES, ExXPERI-

MENTAL STUDIES oF, F. B.

Sumner (Abstract)....... 358, 359

ADAPTIVE MODIFICATIONS OF THE

Limp SKELETON IN AguatTIc

REPTILES AND MamMats, Ray-

PATER so sd dia k le ea 353

Adjective, Yukaghir language.112-113

Advent Bay ...... 83, 85, 88, 92, 93

charactersof-: coalsof ..... 86

section ;of coal beds of....85-86

mavervs off indnner <2... 6... 136

PET ENACE: eran Sh ic< ay CER sR 136

Gr AOL PRN eR Siw 135-136

POSGN OF. Yeoitxn. cus etches 136

MCD tbs. Me ME ne Se. 's 134-135

PRCROSAMICI ERG AE 2s wis oe lide one da 303

AFTERGLOW, THE DURATION OF

THE, ACCOMPANYING THE ELEC-

TRODELESS DISCHARGE AT Low

Pressure, C. C. Trowbridge

(UISEOOOE ie SAE tela oss 350-351

PRECOL SABES, occ oie: dis.cs oe Beicle ss 326

En Ge | eee ees eS 2 ps 314

POPSOR CRE fay os. S he 6 ea elle 259, 288

milabama, lignite of «05: .\.<0 sn 322

ease w RIVET cc) k cae aa te eA 99

Alaska, angiosperms in ’....... 335

Cretaceous sandstones in... 335

UGS TENS cod ug a! sk ee 335

Tertiary sandstones in..... 334

ALGONKIN DrALeEct, Notes on

AN, William Jones (Abstract),

336-337

Pnlce EC GNNRE So 5p ts, dicinengle sane eee 04

Aups, THE GLACIAL SURFACE

FEATURES OF THE, Albrecht

Penck (Abstract) fesse 355

muauenr= ref. Soot eae 285

ALTITUDE OBSERVATIONS WITH

THE HyPSOMETER IN THE CAN-

ADIAN Rockies, Herschel C.

Parker (Abstract) ..... . «299-300

Alumina in serpentinoid ....419, 421

Amelia County Courthouse, Va. 331

American Museum of Natural

History, Morris K. Jesup,

Predident ...~ sehen wee se Odes. 97

483

484 INDEX.

IMESIPE: , sce cin dtc Re ee ee 423| favorable conditions for ...... 167

AWUCDS. sc... dsie's cee eee 67 || Anti®onite@ xo). os clan ee 411

Ammon,. Otto; refi. tere 163, 164| Antler carved in human form.. 319

on stature,

171,188,209, 224,225, 282

Ants, THE SENSE OF SMELL IN,

Adele M. Fielde (Abstract) .302, 304

AMCBA PROTEUS, THE EVIDENCE Anti HRIivet’\...2-. a5 cna eer 99

OF A SEXUAL CYCLE IN, Gary Anutchins ret. 3. Vi si3.c seen 181, 189

N. Calkins: (Abstract). ..432=339 Anvil 4 Alaska. Asics 3 see 334

Amorites, ancestors of load A AGL pee ieyetes Sei eee 300," 3075-432

JEWS sie we pee eee 162; .285,' 200) Aplite oS... ee 388, 433

Amphibia..... 35, 42;.43;.47, 351, 405. appalachia yo. bs nc ceo eee 439

Amphibian spermatocyte........ 21 | Appalachian Belt, occlusion tracts

Amphibole. .402, 403, 408, 412, 413, BONS eo ons sc eee, adeno eee 429

414, 415, 418, 419, 421, 422, .423,, APPARATUS AND MeEtuwops, NEw,

426, 427, 428 J. McKeen Cattell (Abstract),

Amphibole-gabbro, ....5. .%.. A. 393 324, 325-326

Amphibole schists, Aquatic reptiles and mammals,

390, 398, 407, 428, 431 abbreviation of limb in.. 449

Amphibolite, ophiolitie 4220... 407 curvature of limbs in...... 449

Amphioxus, experiments on eggs degeneration of muscles in. 471

OF dhaias ed tcanc eee aes 372-377 distal, dilation-ani..2.ce oe: 455-459

Anadyr River. oc: wane ee 98 elongation of digits in...464-465

ANALOGY, Hasits BAsep on, C. H. loss of hind limbs in... .460-462

Judd.. (title conly)c Sees 324 parallelism of fore and hind

Analysis of Spitzbergen coal ..86-87 [tm S ii iis <e ol eee ee 459-460

Analysis, ultimate, of coals gI | similarity in limb bones of,

Anaphase ..:..7..0c cee se ae 10 462-464

SOMATIC: “cimatu ee teas com smaller skeletal parts in. .467—468

AROSE ho su:cce e 22, 25, 27, 37, 40| AguaTic REPTILES AND Mam-

Anderson; (Dr. J. (G:3 ret... : 2: 85 Mats, ADAPTIVE MopIFICATIONS

Andree, Richard; ref. on ancient OF THE LimB SKELETON IN,

MONUMENTS: 2 oe ceil 156, 160; 162 Raymond C. Osburn ...... 447-482

Andrews, W..)0S:%) vette cco 332) Arabiatis}.¢.0\.0.ccecc eeu xe 164

Angiosperms in Alaska ........ 395 |~Aragonite [<..cn.2.hene ee 407, 427

Annals of- yceunt)<i.ee sea 76, ARCHEOLOGICAL SURVEY OF THE

Annual Meeting, Dec. 19, 1904, INTERIOR OF THE STATE OF

360-386 WASHINGTON DURING THE

Anomodontia =... 528.40 ee 302, 303| SUMMER OF 1903, Harlan I.

Asiorthosite: =.22 vidiec-<ccren sen ee 353) Smith (Abstract) ).2-. =. 317-318

Antarcticay: ooo tecnica 316 Archipterygium see ree ae 464

Antarctic Continent <0: ne = 316) Arctic continent,” .... 422-2 316

Antelope dance at Walpi ..... 317 | Aristotle: tet......5stanee 368, 369

Anthophyllite e702 ee laeie 431 | Artzona AND New Mexico, Etu-

HY GROWS: Seis: sys bine mete 406| wnorocircaL SURVEY OF THE

ANTHROPOLOGY, PuysicaL Ma- PuEBLos OF, DURING THE SUM-

TERIALS FOR THE, OF THE East- MER OF 1903, George H. Pep-

ERN European Jews, Morris || (pers ‘CAbstract)*ta20cere 317-318

Bishbetre eee ice eee 155-297 pizowa. BOTANICAL) RESeAKcE

Anthropology, Section of, L

Meeting, Jam. 2s ap04 sege7- sic AT THE DESERT LABORATORY IN,

| Hebiigo., rose nee 317-319 | F. E. Lloyd (Abstract)... .351, 352

| Mar: 28° apogee 324-327 | ATkOSO” iccpjciasis oe cae oe 429

Apt. 25, tooasueuses 336-33 WASMeNIanS 2.546 as wunele a ee 259, 288

Oct.. 24, ropa, ae ck 348-349. ss Arno Valley, Tertiary alluvium of 70

Nov. 28, THOA cies 2 353-354 ATOTUS coc iastkc Gans sain iota a ene 314

Anthropometrical measurements Arthropeds .........-..--+08- 39, 47

of Jews in New York City, Artifacts” 253ic cs sees ee eee 318

INDEX.

* Aryan” type of Jews,

MUSGSEIS., fa8 ses ss 407, 420, 431, 435 |

TEND oot haa narod x Syed stare See 2 |

Ascaris megalocephala univalens. 37

Ascopodaria macropus ...... 4515. S|

ENE 85 a one La 2 -alanaee & avalon 157

MESON ASIM . sorecv as dns 157, 165, 166 |

fenects Of action ...4...s6e% 131-133 |

ASSOCIATIONS, THE DETERMINA-

TION OF THE HABIT CURE FOR,

J. E. Lough. (Abstract)...324, 327

NE ho ae a 5 eiolatd aS, stecs au 92

hs a. caarn Sle ale Ge hak 25, 28

Meee SYStEM <5. .6 ose bets cubes 31

Astronomy, Section of,

Meeting, Jan. 4, 1904... .299-302

MeDe Ty IGOR we tind 311-312

Baa 6 Fs EGDA Ny... Suess Sa% 320

EOE, A TOU ake 3 ne 2 328-332

Blay. 2: 1904S, 28a 340-343

CVG RE NOOR fees ss ao sce 346

INGVS (Fs. BOOBs. 26:5 cic 349-351

Pees Be BGA. bette 5° 356-357

EPERRIIR RACY Myce ca ie a) oo feiasere 2 af 316

mesernach’s fluid 2. ces wers sas oe 4

PPUPCN-OTIEISS, s..065 sales oe es 405, 434 |

i 399, 419, 421

OS) {a 112

Neo unk. Min ietetbnark ares ia Sta 72

RI oe Os ate bee o's a cane 316

pavenuer., Circles 0). oiicicin ie eas 74

TS EG os eee 441

PREIS Sic. ules eas we Se see aineae gI

EIEMINE So oon flan ds a we klein a 453, 454, 470

Balenoptera....... 450, 453, 456, 469

Bali, J.: ref. om serpentine... .... 427

Baptanodon,

452, 454, 456, 462, 463, 464, 469, 470

Baptanodon natans ........ 450, 453

Rae. BERL fs. 6 im tikes oe west 264

Bascom, Dr. Florence; quoted on

basic intrusive rocks..... 399

ref..404, 405, 426, 427, 431, 435

Basie intrusive rocks.......... 399

RENE SOMISS oars hag, oni dais. ad wees 391

Baskerville, Charles, and George

F. Kunz (Abstract), PHospHor-

ESCENCE IN DIAMONDS PRO-

DUCED BY PITCHBLENDE.299, 300-301

Baskerville, Charles; ref....... 331

MessenOvILChs. Tel... 2.2 ene as 234

Bastite, 403, 409, 413, 414, 415, 418,

419, 421, 422, 424, 426, 427

Pepmermans: Tel... 6. ee yawns

Baur;

280, 282, 283, 284)

ref. on Ichthyosaurs,

452, 454, 461, 464, 467, 468, 469

ref. on hyperphalangy . 465

Beam islamees st: ss Sl oles 82, 84, 85

PepcbeL) BS Ser. eae h he ect 404, 427

PCOGQE* TEL. .i:5.5 co we 165, 189, 259

Bedouin Arabs compared with

Jewends oft: ote. ae ee 286

Peele S “Cttte.-c's ocr le ota eek 83, 84

Delodieds ‘vet... cee th 169, 233

PEEVES thi Ra 8 ound 5 bee ia Ex eae 456

BENDING MoMEnTs IN RAILS, FOR

THE SAME SUPERSTRUCTURE,

UNDER DIFFERENT TYPES OF

Locomotives, P. H. Dudley

CAtistract) 752 vale e 340, 342-343

jE Tc b= ay os deg eS en 84

BENZINGeLs: SEED. Cis eerie es S. 2 261

PREEOT Sy) ere olelats ii gs ORO 164

et et, eee oe ee Ly 353

Berehos rer 9 05: bane eds 32) 39, 48

Berkey, Charles P., A Grotoarc-

AL RECONNOISSANCE OF THE

UintaH RESERVATION, SoUTH-

EASTERN UraAn (Abstract),

321, 323-324

Berlin, deposits of lignite near.. 322

Bermesegalobeds .A0. 2/700. .'022 87

Berry, E. W., THe Cycaporitt-

CALES AND THE ORIGIN OF THE

SEED Puiants (title only).... 343

BGreMiOns TEE a fh-.106 5 RS os 249

Bessarabia, province of...... 168, 169

Bigelow, M. A., Report of sum-

SES HEORIO NS Se 347

SOME PRESSURE-EXPERI-

MENTS ON THE EGGS OF

THE CRUSTACEAN HIppo-

LYTE (Abstract)...... 45%, 352

Binocular demonstration, Her-

ings; of color contrast: z...%. ; - 325

Biology, Section of,

Meeting, Jan. 11, 1904..302-304

Reb. 8, TO0d. 4. « «sie 312-314

Bate Ay! TOGA. te pid «0,5 321

Apr. WI, 1904. «ex's 332-333

May g. 1004.444 = %:- 343-344

Oct, 10, FOG456:0:<as 346-347

Now. 54. VIOG4 we... 351-352

Dee, 12) 1004..... 3... 357-360

Biotite..391, 397, 402, 403, 432, 434

Biotite-mWiaisco vate csspecacs omnes 430

Biotite-quartz-gabbro .......... 401

Biotite Schist.:.. «ccs 392, 405, 434

Biotitice’ SNEISE. s.s4.< <5 392, 404, 434

486 INDEX.

Birp FricgHtT, MEASUREMENTS OF Brandt, Francis Burke, Tue

THE PRIMARY FEATHERS OF RE- UNIVERSE’S PLACE IN MAN

CENTLY KILLED HAWKS, AND CADStEAGE) 25. Stee ces aes 307-308

THEIR BEARINGS ON THE PROB- Brazil-Africa: land bridge.....-: 316

LEM oF, C. C. Trowbridge Brensohss “refi os. te ee 233

(Abstfact) s.<c<sketak erga 340-341 | Bridge peripherals.............. are

Bison, Earopean . 20s <0 226 Sates 72 | Briquetted fuel. 4.505.225. 322-323

BLACKFOOT, CEREMONIAL LIFE OF

THE, Clark Wissler (Abstract),

353, 354

Blainvilles ‘ret .: 42. dee. Fi oeere 303

Blechman; ref., on measurements

of Jews,

150; 171, 200, S10, 223,0225; 258

Blond Jews in Europe...... 165-166

Blond Jews, ofigin of.:....2 162, 290

Bloomstrand; explorer.........

Boas, Franz, and Clark Wissler,

ON THE. GROWTH OF CHILDREN

RA DStrac®) roc ca acess 336,

Boas, Franz; ref., on American

half-breeds -..52...06e% 156, 160

on American Indians....195, 289

Bohemia 300

Bolosna: flask-o.-5 oa ar eee eee 301

Botton, HENRY ~ CARRINGTON,

BIOGRAPHICAL SKETCH OF, D.

S. Martin

Bolton, Henry Carrington; Ac-

tive member

bequest of

birth of

compendium of chemical lit-

erature, author of..77, 78, 79

contributions to ANNALS, 76, 79, 80

337

eee eee eee eee eee eee eee

311

310

eeereeseereerere eee eee

Corresponding Secretary ... 75

deathvok s2seeoe tsa ineet sae 75

Patrons tf aauteie aca See ee 77

President. iss ated ote wer 77

Bolton, R.: vets .wadhe: -26tee 5 141

Bone Cabin Quarry, Wyoming... 358

Bonnets’ cise... nose 367, 369, 383

Bonney, 7: G.>ter..+ 4... 418, 429

Bosanguets cet... nea see 308

BoTANICAL RESEARCH AT THE

DESERT LABORATORY IN ARI-

zona, F. E. Lloyd (Abstract),

351, 352

Bourgeois, L’Abbé; ref........ 69

Boveri; ref. on chromosomes,

2, 32, 33, 48, 381 |

Brachycephalic, 221, 223, 224, 232,

235, 230, 241; 280,- 281, 284, "286;

288, 289

Brachystola,

22, 25, 27, 34, 36, 41, 467 °47

WEEE Peles oot | oss se Se eee 308

Bristol; C. L.;

report of sum-

WOE WORK :. 5 Vit aoe ae eee 347

British” Columbia: = o).27.- 300, 318

BasasadGamana. oie os SS ee se ee 301

British Isles in second glacial

POEIOR Fie ere ee eee 71

Britton, N L.; ref. on serpentin-

O1d -OULCKOPS: 2 22 se aoe ae 407, 417

Brocas rei si2c cc sce ae eos 158

Brogger, W. C.; Hon. Mem..... 361

Bromeliads” 72.06. ee eee 314

Bronze ase: 7 Sess. cee oe eee 70, 73

Bronzite, 392; 402, 403, 404, 406, 409,

413,-414, 485, 418,420, 421, 422,

424,425, 433,434, 435

Brood! "powelic6- 2 skeicoecs ene 31.2 150

Brooks: : rete ae. She eee BEx

Bccom;. wel. 4 2 eee 302

Brown, Barnum; ref... 5.0... 312

Brucite, 406, 407, 410, 412, 415, 419,

A20; 421, 422, 2g; 426: “4:27, aes

Bryces Tek. ccc a hoe ds. eee 44

Bryozea; ectoprocteus: .".% 522.7. «- 5

Bitkowina\.. Joe S22 aoe en 188, 234

Bumpus, Hermon C.; Recording

Séeretaryc2 sain soe cere 360

Biamnseits feb... ae eae eee 75

By-Laws; amendment abolishing

11 tiation: (Pee ss 2 sis ast ecseeceiees 355

aCth oe BA baire Staph ceiens See eae aia

Caking coals, comparison of.... 90

COLGMATES oi ini d ee ee ee 83

Calcite,

397, 406, 407, 409, 415, 421, 427

| Calkins, Gary N., Tue Evipence

OF A SEXUAL CYCLE IN AMCGBA

PROTEUS (Abstract) 2 ss cca: 332-333

Callaway; ys tettce tee 393

Cam brian age tisc sir ec shen wae 323

CAMEL, EXHIBITION OF A SERIES

oF Foot BoNEs ILLUSTRATING

THE EVOLUTION OF THE, W. D.

Matthew 2.63225 duc oes 344-345

|: GanaerniGes: SS. eh me oe eee 235

| CANADIAN RockIEs, ALTITUDE OB-

SERVATIONS WITH THE Hyp-

SOMETER IN THE, Herschel C.

Parker ° (Abstract) .35....% 299-300

WC GNGTGIIG. <7 ede tek we x eters 314

INDEX. 487

MRE AOL E 5. os, cepchalpin'e Siete stoners 39| Chemical processes attending oc-

CaNoE Trip, A, DowN THE CGSB 5 oh oie ae sw ails eo tbs 391

YuxKON RIVER FROM DAWSON TO

Anvik, Arthur Hollick (Ab-

ALC Lara are ks, 5 af'ol sie )'as Jayen rents ey Bian SN a Po

aa Soe Sao, ni “shdl dua ago mebalcase 69

CHOCGINDIUS. .. 00.0 000% ies 18, 22

Pape BONCMIAN. ... i206. an eee 04

BOTOCIOMIOTITS. oo 6: care, o.dias%eeie eeders 329 |

AE ae Sa eee ete sr- ee mes 312

Carboniferous strata of Western

DS 8 ts, 3. anwidS avin, wi Bi ERS 323

Carboniferous strata of ~* Spitz-

DETIEM oe wales Fe 82, 83, 84, 90, 94)

Garainal numbers. i... 00's bibgy TTS |

EE ee Ree aire 7a. Sac.|

Carpus...452, 453, 463, 464, 469, 470

Case-Suffixes 103

Case, temporal of nouns....110, 136

oo SS ee ene 4, 8

Cattell, J. McK., New Apparatus

AND MetHops (Abstract),

Gye" a) 6 60, fe ee) @ 6 6 0 0) 0) eo 66

: 324, 325-326

RS SAIIWES VOICE. 6 dicin sicine ainreise 131

Caustic potash, reaction on coal,

89, 90

MIMI Ee fas ee ak oes Bhd agakene 42

Central France, Tertiary flints in. 69

DME ATIC inns vse evens sales 392

MRC le a FF chy. «eh oaiel’slteiavelione Shiota 31

OO 2 i a ee 333

DECEOSOMIG | coi. 0.5 sia. cinieie.s'e 25, 28, 31

Cephalic index of Jewesses. .235-242

Cephalic index of Jews, 162, 163,

(table 164), 164-165, 220-235, 280,

281

(RESET ARS Se a ORS Pete eee 347

CERATODUS, DEVELOPMENT OF THE

VeENouS System oF, W. E. Kel-

meotr (Abstract) .chx sna: 351-352

CEREMONIAL LIFE OF THE BLACK-

Foot, Clark Wissler (Ab-

SEMEN Soha ooo. miocd ta tacyate Sie 353, 354

_Cetacea, 448, 449, 450, 451, 453, 454,

455, 456, 458, 459, 460, 465, 467,

468, 469, 470

MPIC CO oo iin os ici ot 406, 426

MMU LOLs woe Suc 2s opie tele 288

NENG Sow mht ohcinel eo esc 6 Socece 194, 202

Es ees el sae rn ik neces 466

Chelonia..302, 447, 448, 451, 458;

460, 465, 466, 470

CHEMICAL COMBINATION OF

KNALL-GAS UNDER THE ACTION

or Rapium, Bergen Davis and

C. W. Edwards (Abstract),

356, 357

Chemistry, Section of,

Meeting, Jan. 4, 1904... .299-302

Pen Kh. TIAA oho s 311-312

Magn 3, SOA... ees 320

Apt. iy S086 pes sone 328-332

May 2, “1G04. <6 seg's 340-343

GOES, au PGOAS fois ace 346

MONS, FO TO04 esha 349-351

Mee. BS oTOGHis << ain's to 356-357

Cherson, .provinee Of 2.0.14 .5/. 168, 169

CHORE Rel cts cOhal dit « oa ie 406, 426, 428

Chest, girth of, influence of social

GONCUIONS. ON). . 25... ects Aa 202-203

Chest measurements in Jews. 200-206

Chester F. D.; ref.,

400, 403, 404, 425, 426, 431, 432, 433

Chiapas eee edie s pwn ak 353

CHILDREN, ON THE GROWTH OF,

Franz Boas and Clark Wissler

CAMSETSICE) oa\elats. sie Sal. hates 336.0 937

Chiamydopurys sos 2. Sa Bene 333

Chlorite..402, 403, 408, 409, 4I0,

A4II, 415, 416, 418, 421, 422, 423,

428, 431

Sloe -Senist ~. sss eG Ales ste 407

Chlofepliahie® eis kl. 6.055 hte eek 331

GHOFISLGMEES G6 ott Melle aw 303

Christy, Henrys -ref ..0i)s0- 5 68

Chromatin in nutritive cells...30—-31

Chromatia-retieulum j...:.65..56; 22

Chromite, 406, 407, 408, 409, 414,

405. -418) 420). 425, -422, 427

Chromosomes, accessory ....... 33

Chromosomes, conjugation of, in

GQOSEMCRIS a woe ale so nee 20

Indiviauality iff; 2.22... 33-34

formal number of: 55... 225: 49

reduction of, in odgenesis. . 19-20

relation to inheritance. . 380-384

ne Oitelesti. FEE v0 <2 archi ean eee oa 157

Guranoscope, “Hipp. vs. <n s een: 326

EU SNEOERS clon a GM sess cada a aah 5

CDEVSORVIGL cota ieee uachaie 410, 427

Chiukehee-” aver ws5 oasis sem ss 99

Citivantzy 1anegare occ n> ss 99

Cimoliosaurus..450, 452, 455, 468, 469

C. eurymerus..451, 452, 453, 458

ic POTTGIOTCUS <6 food aes 5 457

C. trochanterus ..... 457, 458, 469

Cities on occlusion line...... 436-437

late. Ws Silene oo Kaeo 423

CLASSIFICATION, THE, OF THE

Rerptiria, Henry F. Osborn

CDSE ACT i dyes 2 0's 302-303

488 INDEX.

Cleavage in Pedicellina ameri- ConcEepT OF HISTORICAL SyYN-

GANG. sles bose es 253 eee 31-32 | ‘THESIS,~-ACcTION As THE, —P:

CLEAVAGE-MosaIc IN PATELLA, E. Hughes “(Abstract)* ....2.% soa, 427

B. Wilson (title only)....332, 333 | Conditional mode ...... 120, 126-127

Ghidastés -../ic3. Si ee 457. 458 | Conflict -of wisual ‘fields: 3... 23- 326

Co. Velod. cinta Gee 453, 454, 462 | Conglomerate, “ Wyoming’”’..... 324

Clinochlore. ..s.v200 ites oe 423 | Conjugation, definite, of verb.. 120

Goal ‘Bay 2 3...6320 o-oo ee 93 | Conjugation, indefinite, of verb: 120

Coal, discovery of, in Spitzbergen 83)| Conjugation of chromosomes in

Coal measures strata in Spitz- OOSENESIS FF tga 20

bermen is ies BSS ee eee se 84)| Conjunetive moderns 7s. - ea 120, 126

Goat, ‘Tur ISLAND oF SprITz- Conklin; ref. on Crepidula. .26, 29, 44

BERGEN AND Its, John J. Ste- ConsciousNESS, NOTE ON THE

venson (Abstract)........ 352-353| Nature or, F. J. E. Wood-

Coccolobts uvifeniiwnc. 0 Se 314 bridge (title only): 022. ee 349

Cochitispuebib' i452 oe eee 317 | CONSTANT OF ABERRATION, VARI-

Collective numerals. .c5452 4.2% 116! ATION OF LATITUDE AND; THE

Collignons' grefit.,.2.: 5.082 Aaeee 253! VARIATION OF LATITUDE AT NEW

Collis: J. Hy met. tee sce 418, 427| York City, J. K. Rees, Harold

Cologne, lignite near .......... 322 Jacoby and Herman S. Davis

CoLorapo, A NEw GicaAntTic Tor- CAbstract)! toe: oe Ween ee 328-329

TOISE FROM THE MIOCENE OF,

O. P. Hay (Abstract) 312=313

Color-blindness, method for test-

OUCh ORO. Cc,

STIG, bist ie a See 326

Cotor Contrasts, R. S. Wood-

worth (Absteact).. ....2ceue 324, 325

CoMBINATION, THE, OF IONS WITH

THE SOLVENT IN _ SOLUTION,

C. W. Kanolt (Abstract) ..356, 357

CoMET, LEXELL’s Lost, oF 1770;

RESEARCHES AS TO THE IDEN-

TITY OF, WITH THE PERIODIC

CoMET OF 1889, 1896, AND 1903,

Charles Lane Poor (Abstract). 311

Comitative case

Seay WO 109

Commercial possibilities of Spitz-

bergen: coal. 25 22. Saas 93-94

Comparative (casera nie aae en le IIO

CoMPARISON, A, OF THE MENTAL

AND PHYSICAL RESEMBLANCES

oF Twins, E. L. Thorndike

(title: only), 2432-226

Comparison, degrees of........

Comparison of Jews with Gen-

tiles,

162, 169, 286-287, 290-291

with indigenous popula-

tion _. 186-187

with non-Jews in Russia,

162-163

Comparison of Spitzbergen and

Pennsylvania coals 87-89

Completion, prefix signifying... 132

Complexion of Jewish _ school

children in Europe 161-162

Compsognatha 303

S08 ¢ s0 ws 90m 1e

* \6, eo. duewela

no ww 6. 6) 6, Co a6 6) se meee

CONTINENTS, OUTLINE OF THE IN

TERTIARY ~ Times, We aD:

Matthew (Abstract) ..314, 315-316

Cooperative voice

A ret eT & 131

'Codrdination, determination of

Stature Dy Sic. c kau sera 175-180

Cope: rehi o2 5505 asses 302, 303

Copepod Ovary <a: Rakes ot ee 18

Copepods,

22, 23, 27, 35, 39, 40,41, 42, 44,50

|Corallium rubrum .........000- 4

CoRRELATION, THE, BETWEEN

Motor STRENGTH, QUICKNESS,

AND Accuracy, R. S. Wood-

worth (title only) 2se2..2-" 348

Corresponding Secretary, N. Y.

Academy of Sciences, Annual

Report Of 2). ee 361-362

Corrugation by tangential pres-

SURE yf ees) etree See at Re 390

|) Cortlanditite.s 2 ts cose eee 405, 430

| Conunidtad.. se 6:2 eee re eee 331

Coastal jplate vcs sss tees ee eee S52

| Costal. -Seutes): iia: cients een 313

Cotylosauria. ‘an.-.s eee ee 302, 303

Cowlitz 4River. s4...¢5 ac<.2. ee 319

|Cox, Charles F.; Treasurer... : 360

| Cozzens*’ ref: wsscceeseee sor 393, 429

Cranioloey, ncn uke ie eee 166

| Credner, ise WGere. mt sais secs eer 395

CreOSQUIRS ace eteee ae oe ee 358

Crepidalg: |. 322% tes ss aes 26, 29, 44

\retaceous aPe wala ee is.cc ete tae 323

Cretaceous eOalS*.ia. 2 eee eee 90

Cretaceous sandstones in Alaska. 335

| Crocodilia

ae @ oe, Seon ew eee ere pe). ee ere

303

INDEX. 489

TRS aN Neg 0 a aR gts gm A: ORS eae ed 165

Srcspy,; W.°0:; ref... ... 428, 435, 441 Davis, Herman S., J. K. Rees,

Memon Oav oor... oss. ke 82, 83. and Harold Jacoby, Tue Vart-

Cross-chromosomes :.......%8.4% 26 ATION OF LATITUDE AT NEW

MME eS cond og ok ce eve ORSE 22 YorkK City; Part 2, VARIATION

CRUSTACEAN HIPPOLYTE, SOME

PRESSURE-EXPERIMENTS ON THE

Eccs oF THE, M. A. Bigelow

(Abstract)

Cryptodira

Crystalline formation in Massa-

chusetts

Crystalline schists,

388, 429, 430, 431, 433

of Delaware

of Pennsylvania... .433-435

RTO is ed occas ete wet ate ¢ 4,5

PEERS ODD. Pa. ais vind catia ese a@se

Curvature of limbs in aquatic

352

303

oC ewe Hawes we e's & Fe s'S/e

reptiles and mammals........ 449

RRND A 15 whist etelalava,e « 285

OES ee eee 66

CYCADOFILICALES, THE, AND THE

ORIGIN OF THE SEED PLANTS,

E. W. Berry (title only)..... 343

emeaitenin Alaska. cs oe eel ds 335

WCIMIACTE <a e cc ca alte c's views 314

eT AN Soe cies wee e os ctete be 303

Cytoplasmic changes of oocytes,

30-31

Cytoplasmic polarity of odcytes. 30

a ESS eee 284, 290

DaiILy CurRVE, THE, FOR EFFI-

ciency, H. H. Marsh (title

RE eee Oc che ashe era oe: oes 324

eee BRE. Sore ce ee eee eee 318

Dana; quoted on pyroxene..... 420

ref., 395, 398, 404, 405, 406, 407,

408, 416, 417, 426, 433

Bauputy, Conn .. 2.2656 ‘ 323

ES: 237

WMEOEE EASE. fos icra seis SS amioe 6 106

Davenport, Charles B.; Fellow.. 339

ref.

Davies, Henry, Dewey’s “ Stup-

IES IN LocicaAL THEORY” (Ab-

stract) 307, 308-309

Davis, Bergen, and C. W. Ed-

wards, CHEMICAL COMBINATION

OF KNALL-GAS UNDER THE AC-

TION OF Rapium (Abstract),

356, 357

Davis, Bergen, Latest THEORIES

RELATING TO THE DISCHARGE

OF ELECTRICITY IN HIGH

VacusA, AND JONIZATION OF

GasEs (Abstract)....300, 301, 302

ie 1a) 0b ee) s.6. CA.) Bae.) eis, 9 eee) mg

| oF LATITUDE AND CONSTANT OF

ABERRATION (Abstract)... .328-329

DG Wiss Wis Wiss PERS 6 cis ccckeer 436

| Dawson TO ANvIK, A CANOE

Trip Down THE YUKON RIVER

FRoM, Arthur Hollick (Ab-

| stract) 333-335

Dean, Bashford; exhibition of

letter signed by Lamarck,

| 343, 344

| Report of summer work .... 347

Dearborn, Walter F., RETINAL

| Locat Siens (Abstract). ..307-308

_Declension of noun TIO

_Declension of pronouns (table)... 118

Definite conjugation. .120, 125 (table)

ibe Geers rel. ails Waceinh 4 26 83, 84

| Degrees of action I 31-133

_ Delaware, crystalline schists of,

431-433

SPs ip ee eS Ue ee

oe PROC ee oe Tae

| Delphinapterus..

--452, 454, 469, 470

|Delphinosaurus perrini......... 461

Demonstrative pronouns ....... 116

De Moeriiletes tet. oes. wad. oe 72

Deniker; ref..158, 187, 188, 195, 221

Dentalium, experiments on eggs

of 372-377

Department of Zodlogy in Co-

lambias University.) 22.65.02.

|De Perthes, Boucher; ref... .67,

Deposits, sedimentary

DESERT LABORATORY IN ARIZONA,

BoTANICAL RESEARCH AT THE,

F. E. Lloyd (Abstract). .351,

IDGSsANs “WEE. 2 duon ft o¥ss ee. 164,

DETERMINATION, THE, OF THE

Hasit Curve For’ ASSOCIA-

tions, J. E. Lough (Abstract),

| 324, 327

DEVELOPMENT, INTRA-COLONIAL

ACCELERATION AND RETARDATION

In, A. W. Grabau (title only) 321

| DEVELOPMENT OF THE VENOUS

SYSTEM OF CERATODUS, W. E.

Kellicott (Abstract) 351-352

DEVELOPMENT, THE PROBLEM OF,

Co) OF OP RO Ok ie Chl at ll yt ee at Ya ya Ye Jag

| President’s Address, Edmund

Bu Wrriset eee ou 361, 367-386

Devonian strata of Spitzbergen.. 85

De Vries, Hugo; Hon. Mem... 361

Lie all 0) 1): ee ee 329

PeeWee ete Ao. ber baad 308, 300

490 INDEX.

DG Weve? Los. dace tee eee 406! Dolichocephalic...164-165, 221, 223,

Dewey’s “STUDIES IN LOGICAL 224; /232: 234, 235; 2an, 2a2-eae0,

Tueory,” Henry Davies (Ab- 281, 283, 285, 286, 288, 289, 290

SET ACE) is.s iets, enter 307, 308--309-+ Dolichocephaly ...........5..02. 163

DMiabase.e.. won 306, 405, 435, 438) Dahkctorhitnag 2 0.6 cs jos ssa 358

Diadectide — .<4..122.4e Gee ee 303 | Dolichorhynchops........... 450, 460

Dialect; Fox sachin oe 336 | Dolomite,

Kickapoo: 20.8 Sige eee 336| 406, 407, 409, 415, 416, 421, 422, 427

Kolyma’: 5. se tee eee 98, 99°) Rolonritic. Jimestone...; . 222255842 407

Lolyana, "scr 4a eee 298! Ordo ene: «.-af ess ane ae 68

Menomonie / .4..05 0006 sn 396 | Drake, 6. 'G.s reise ns 5. oe A4I

Oqibway scat eee 336| Driesch; ref. on development.. 367

Ottawa sak See eet oe cece 336 GUIS ONIS VINES... 22 ncsiviage tote crc eee 383

Pottowatomie oicis. eee 336 | Drosera longifolia, hybrid of...+. 38

CTT eee eae ey aR ar ane See 336| Drosera rotundifolia, hybrid of.. 38

Tondran. 02 Sop de oe 98 3381 Dualtsm:. ‘Kantian’.45-. 5... ..6 308

Dialects): "skime..asenk eo ate 169), Dual number..<c sess hee ee III

Mouleaehard os. slay. bata vee 98 Dublin, L. I., Report of summer

Diallage. 3090, 403), 410) 432. "4isy) work 2025.05.20. eee 347

ALG, 420,421; A220 Aaa 425. Ae, THE History OF THE GERM

432 CELLS OF PEDICELLINA

DIAMONDS, PHOSPHORESCENCE IN, AMERICANA, LEIDY........ 1-64

PropucED BY PITCHBLENDE, Duchesne.) Valleys. 2: 48s. eee 323

George F. Kunz and Charles Dudley, P. H., Benpinc Mo-

Baskerville (Abstract).299, 300-301 MENTS IN RAILS, FOR THE SAME

Diaphysis: nce eee 467! SUPERSTRUCTURE, UNDER DiIF-

Diapsida s..cnch eee ee 302, 303) FERENT Types oF LocoMoTIVES

Diaptosauria,.s caesar 302, .303, 477) . (Abstract)oan.. 2.8: 340, 342-343

Dickson, Bay zara eee eee 83 Dumb-bell shaped rods. .10, 34, 49, 51

Dicynodontiag -oe) se eee ce 303| DuRATION SPECTRUM, THE, OF

Diebold 2snet. sere eee 169 TRIBOPHOSPHORESCENT LIGHT

DIFFERENCES IN SENSATION, THE AND NOTE ON A_ TRIBOPHOS-

TIME PERCEPTION AS A MEas- PHOROSCOPE, Wallace Goold

uRE OF, V. A. C. Henmon (Ab- Levison (Abstract)...328, 330-332

SELSCE) oS: ob ckal ee eee 2245. 326 DuRATION, THE, OF THE AFTER-

Digits, elongation of, in aquatic GLOW ACCOMPANYING THE ELEc-

reptiles and mammals..... 464-465 | tTRoDELESS DiscHaRGE aT Low

Dikessnintrusiv enc octal ee 353 | PRESSURE, Cx 4G: Trowbridge

Diminutive form of noums..132, 131 |.) (Abstract)) ..2..<.0.9nneon 350-351

Dinosauria ......-..-..-.eeeee 393: Dyeative /...: 2: eine eee 132

Diopsidé:.ss.4.0s6% 406, 409, 424, 425

Diorite..389, 396, 398, 404,

425, 430, 435, 438, 440

Diorite schist 315, 360, 301, 32G2,

se eee

393, 395, 397, 400, 402

Diplodocus: 24022 sce eee eee 358

DIPNGOL» seis: 924s ee ee ee 351

Distal dilation in aquatic reptiles

And manimals;......eeee 455-459 |

DISTRIBUTION, THE, OF ERRORS

IN SPELLING ENGLISH Worps,

Robert MacDougall (Abstract),

307, 309

Distributive numerals.........-. 115

Dodge, Richard E.; Corres.

SEEN Di. oh Ulwayteinte be nid cope 360

DET eke iid eles Sa 393

405, |

Dybowsky; ref., experiences in

Minsk, Russia ws. 2.45628 166, 210

EASTERN EUROPEAN JEws, Ma-

TERIALS FOR THE PHYSICAL AN-

| THROPOLOGY OF THE, Maurice

[> VIRISI ee a oe ere 155-297

ECWIHUS eA8 wows Sees WIS oe a eee 44

EcLipsre, SOLAR, THE RESULTS OF

THE OBSERVATIONS OF THE LAST,

S. A. Mitchell (title only).... 320

ECOLOGICAL AND SYSTEMATIC

DaTA FOR Woops Hote, Es-

TABLISHMENT OF A PERMANANT

Recorp or, F. B. Sumner and

R. C. Osburn (title only)

o/s) eats

INDEX.

Ecotocicat ConpiTions, THE, IN

A» LocaL DESERT IN LOWER

CatiForNIA, D. T. MacDougal

BESS ORIY) cs ccd oe 432, 933

Ectoproctous Bryozoa........... 5

Editor, N. Y. Acad. Sci., Annual

RRM GFE i 52,5 «i chen a axtes 366-367

Edwards, C. W., and Bergen

Davis; CHEMICAL CoMBINA-

TION OF KNALL-GAS UNDER THE

AcTION oF Rapium (Abstract),

356, 357

EGGS OF THE CRUSTACEAN HIp-

POLYTE, SOME PRESSURE-Ex-

PERIMENTS ON THE, M. A. Bige-

Reece pstract) 45 6.45...0%s 351-352

NES a atic. 4. « adobe sons 66

RMB TELS ie careless viv iv e's a eG 547

MNT S TEE oa ses ee ae 169, 283 |

TERSOMTE-SYENITS occ wiele ase ae eis 438

PSG R one ee orec ita Wael tn endo gI

ELECTRICAL CHARGES BY RADIUM,

Tue GENERATION oF, George B.

Pegram (Abstract)....... 340, 342

ELECTRICITY, DISCHARGE OF, IN

HicH VacuaA, AND IONIZATION

oF GasEs, LATEST THEORIES

RELATING To, Bergen Davis

PEISELACE)). obs eles oc 300, 301-302

ELECTRODELESS DISCHARGE AT

Low PRESSURE, THE DURATION

OF THE AFTERGLOW ACCOM-

PANYING THE, C. C. Trowbridge

Pensieact). iF. sGie Coe. 350-351

Electrolysis of salt solutions.... 357

Electrometer, exhibition of, by H.

Reranch 3k 343

PeetrOscope: sic). i. eect as are

PRA. TOOL fe 2.0 Scene ae bey 67

Elephnas Gntiquus.....ecs005: 07, 72

Elephas primegenius.......20.2+ 67

ELIMINATION, SELECTIVE, IN

FIsHES, EXPERIMENTAL STUD-

IES OF ADAPTATION AND, F, B.

Sumner (Abstract)...... “S390; 359

Elkind; ref..162, 169, 177, 180, 184,

Pos. 160, L197, GS, 262.5210, 217,

220, 229, Bab. 227, 29%, 232,. 233;

237; 24%... 258, - 265... 266,. 267,. 260,

291.) 272, 299. 282, 283 ;

Milis, Havelock: ref:...:.. 237, 264

ES eee ener tee 405

Maspirical, Idealism... ..:... 252. 27.

OS a oe 388

GI POCES Fis, to, ota cd flav ea! eid 5

Endoprocta, hermaphroditism in.5, 6

491

ENERGY LIBERATED BY THORIUM,

George B. Pegram and Harold

Webb: (Abstract) “0... 328, 329

ENGLAND AND FRANCE, SOME OF

THE LOCALITIES IN, WHERE

MONUMENTS OF THE LATE

STONE AND BronzE AGES HAVE

BEEN Founp, J. Howard Wilson

(Abstract ors.4 ach see 2 344, 345-346

ENGLISH Worps, THE DISTRIBU-

TION OF ERRORS IN SPELLING,

Robert MacDougall (Abstract),

307, 309

Enstatite,

403, 404, 406, 418, 425, 433, 435

Enstatite-diorite <o52 205.46 ex. 393

Nustattie-gapbro) #2)... .%2 52500782 425

Riz yieelioss te aor. Seictiates 5s oer oR 383

MERU Sate on Siar aks Ua's'n ene os SU 315,’ 316

Hocesre “Tiatanotheres.. 2...00 54.095 3s 358

FY OMTEING Sa NE ee See SRI Side, eee 69

ToA@res tie. c Lie Bane cite Se > 397, 403

PEBISENESIS 2 6. e5ictle os 8 368, 378

Mrmephvsesie t ahist ot ahetde sche oe 467

“Epiphyses, double,” theory of.. 466

Epipodial,

449, 452, 457, 463, 468, 469, 471

Equatertale plate: 4 2.4. sR ye Sis 26

EROSION PHENOMENA, SOME, IN

St. VINCENT AND MARTINIQUE,

E. O. Hovey (Abstract). .344, 345

ERRORS IN SPELLING ENGLISH

Worps, THE DISTRIBUTION OF,

Robert MacDougall (Abstract),

397, 309

Error of mean square....... 172-173

ERUPTIONS, THE, OF 1902 AND

THEIR IMMEDIATE RESULTS, IN

Sr. Vincent, Bo W: 1. E.. 0.

Hoyey §(Abstract).. 3.6.6. 347-348

Paktmo: Gialects. 24. 2a. eke Oe. 103

Petey i oh a. Aide e ses iste cage ee ery

ESSAY ON THE GRAMMAR OF THE

YUKAGHIR LANGUAGE, Walde-

mar Jochelsom.2..2: 22.44 4¢. 97-152

ESTABLISHMENT, THE, OF A PER-

MANENT RECORD OF SYSTEMATIC

AND EcoLoGicAL DATA _ FOR

Woops Hore, F. B. Sumner

and R. C. Osburn (title only). 321

Ethnic conditions in Russian Po-

Landen se ONS ee ee wee ees

ETHNOLOGICAL SURVEY OF THE

PuesLos oF NEw MEeExtIco AND

ARIZONA, DURING THE SUMMER

oF 1903, George H. Pepper

CA DSEESCU)..dets s aMertanet ede 317-318

492 INDEX.

Europe, northern, ice shéets an... 66| Female (pronucleuss. 2. t=... ...-. 31

POVISUICM Sal, chaise scm ore art ote e amet 303 | Femur,

Eyans, Sir: John; ‘céfiii. 222.6 67 451, 455; -457,-458, 462, 468; 471

EVIDENCE, THE, OF A” SEXUAE INGrnS. eta gt ote tee tated ene 94, 314

CycLE IN AMCGBA_ PROTEUS, Bernas) €f@uir schinde ce eons pee 314

Gary N. Calkins (Abstract), Ferric oxide in serpentinoids... 419

332-333 | Fertilization in Pedicellina ameri-

Evidential mode: ...:.- 120, 128-129 COME GIES te he ean ae 31-32

EVOLUTION OF THE CAMEL, Ex- Bibpglat: Letaees cece tere 451, 457; 463

HIBITION OF A SERIES OF Foor- Fielde, Adele M., THE SENSE OF

BONES ILLUSTRATING THE, W. SMEBLIEN ANTES cre ae etrs 302, 304

D. Matthew (Abstract)....344, 345| Fiesta de San Augustine....... 217

Evolution, potential of similar.: 358) Fiesta. de San Esteban..>.2..5. 317

EVOLUTION, RECENT DISCOVERIES PPT basket t far ken dene oe one 39

oF ExTINcT ANIMALS IN THE

Rocky MouNTAINS AND THEIR

BEARINGS ON THE PRESENT

ProBLEM oF, Henry F. Osborn

(Abstract) 357-359

EXHIBITION OF A SERIES OF Foot-

BONES ILLUSTRATING THE Evo-

LUTION OF THE CAMEL, W. D.

Matthew (Abstract)....... B44. 345

Expedition, Jesup North Pacific. 97

Expeditions‘ Maknte...46..23000 97

Experience, continuity of.2:<se- 309

Experience, postulates of... .307—308

EXPERIMENTAL STUDIES OF ADAP-

TATION AND SELECTIVE ELIMI-

NATION IN Fisu_Es, F. B. Sum-

nér. (Abstract) <5. 7. 202s. 255,).350

Extinct ANIMALS, RECENT DIs-

COVERIES OF, IN THE ROCKY

MouUNTAINS AND THEIR BEAR-

INGS ON THE PRESENT PROB-

LEMS OF EvoruTion, Henry F.

Osborn (Abstract): 2>.2 357-359

Eyes, Jewish, color of,

263, 265—273, 28100282) 283

Face of Jews, measurements of

245-248

Racial index oP jewsi-arees ee 248

Falconer:, ‘ref.3 44s seeee 67

Bangen’ coals... ci. Sees 90, QI

Fangen; G. A.3 sef <5 84, 85, 92

Fangen mine, section of rocks at. 91

Harinen. ref... .\....vanksnee 32, 39, 48

Faulting in coal ‘beds. . »..2ce.e8 92

FEELING, SIMPLE AND ORGANIC

SENSATION, THE GENERIC RE-

LATION OF, Margaret E. Wash-

burn) ititle only).?.. i 24a 307

Pye sae 6 eo Ok ee gI

Feldspar..390, 396, 397, 398, 402,

403, 419, 428, 432, 433, 434

Vl Sect a ae meee sera CE 430

Finckh, L.; .ref.,

403, 417, 418, 419, 423, 427

First maturation division of

OOCYTES. 52518 eer eee Zen

Pirst.. polar cbody voi... eee 28, 30

First. somatic spindle. “i022 32

| Fishberg, Maurice; Marteriars

FOR THE PHYSICAL ANTHRO-

POLOGY OF THE EASTERN EvurRo-

PEAN JBWSe: Dhue Ste eee 155-297

Fishberg, Maurice; ref.,

187, 232, 241, 267, 269, 273

FISHES, EXPERIMENTAL STUDIES

oF ADAPTATION AND SELECTIVE

ELIMINATION IN, F. B. Sumner

CADStrach) ii hare eet ates 358, 359

Flemming; ref :. <5 22. 4; 42.) aor

Flints, Tertiary in central France. 69

Flints) worked: §.\02 36 ates Mieke 67

FiorA, THE, OF Dominica, F. E.

Lloyd (Abstract)..... 312, 313-314

Flowerime plants: 25 ..1denee 43

Fluorescent | bodies: / a1. <5) eee 76

Flute ceremony at Oraibi pueblo. 317

Foettingers ret... oc woos ee

FooT-BONES, EXHIBITION OF A

SERIES OF, ILLUSTRATING THE

EVOLUTION OF THE CAMEL, W.

D. Matthew (Abstract)... .344, 345

Fox: dialect: Gace vccn iets pes Re eee 336

Eraase ret. te. a eee eae es 461, 462

Fractions, Yukaghir language... 115

FRANCE AND ENGLAND, SOME OF

THE LOCALITIES IN, WHERE

MoNUMENTS OF THE LATE

STONE AND BRONZE AGES HAVE

BEEN Founp, J. Howard Wil-

son (Abstract) 344, 345-346

bie) « ae fe i

France, palzolithic man in...... 73

Francottes fete 3. o3a0 ccs oe 46

Frankel, Leeoks* tefi..).4. 0s: rss

Franklin; oN. Jie iret: 0% sere 331

Kraser. Riwerssn sete eee 318

INDEX. 493

French expedition to Spitzbergen. 82)! Geosaurus..450, 451, 452, 453, 457;

FRINGE OF CONSCIOUSNESS, SOME 458, 462, 468

PROBLEMS OF THE, Irving King G...sueiiegds 2 Pa Lawes 462

ee 348 | Germany, blond Jews in........ 165

meee riguetted. 2. ........ 322—-323| GERM CELLS OF .PEDICELLINA

0 NS; sae 306 AMERICANA Lerpy, THE Huis-

Fundulus heteroclitus.......... 359 TORY OF THE, Louis I. Dublin,

Future tense, Yukaghir language, 1-64

IIg, 121, 123 ‘Germinal prelocalization”..... 371

Futurity 139

een 6-6 6 ee 8 6 0 0} de SEB Pe

Gabbro..389, 392, 396, 399, 405, 419,

423, 428, 430, 431, 432, 433, 438

Gabbro-diorite........ 430. 432, 494)

PPMMPO-OPARILE 2.1... tect ees 432 |

Gabbro, outcrop of......... 40T, 404.

Gadow; ref. on Chelonia....... 466

Galician Jews..186, 188, 200, 206,|

£19, 231, 266, 268, 272,. 276

SE SN 2S (a a 186

EMT Ae ce ie nw mc own) wale nest 48

a ae ee ee 391, 397

Gegenbaur; ref. on “ Archipteryg-

Ss le 464

0 a 71

IE APICES oo so ea ci ew vd ties woe 301

Gender, Yukaghir language..... 112

GENERATION, THE, OF ELECTRICAL

CuarGes By Rapium, George

B. Pegram (Abstract)....340, 342

GENERIC RELATION OF ORGANIC

SENSATION AND SIMPLE FEEL-

Inc, Margaret E. Washburn

SS ? A a ie 307

Dante? 32s, te 157

Gentiles, comparison of Jews

with.162-163, 169, 286-287, 290-291

Geographical Society, Russian

RIE Ss Ca ot. ec Se ee 97

Geographical Congress, Eighth

JS Ce | rc 344

GEOGRAPHICAL RECONNOISSANCE,

A, OF THE UINTAH RESERVA-

TION, SOUTHEASTERN UTAH,

Charles P. Berkey (Abstract),

321, 323-324 |

Geology, Section of,

Meeting, Jan. 18, 1904. ..305—-306

Pep. 55, 1904... :. 314-316

Pere .F8.7 8904...) 1. 333-335 |

May 86, T0044... 2 344-346

Ocha *175 "NOOR 6 x 4s. 347-348

Biever 21, PQOA. sso: 352-353

SS) FR MTOORS : sd. deseo k 355

Le Er 259, 288

Gerund, Yukaghir language. .134-135

Gergamee vers. tis. he: Ree 303

' Girth, relations to stature... .203-206

LC es 9 5 pes a oR ee a aR 68

| Bere one oe oak te ns ae 66

ferigd>; fourth so Fo SOS 71

METIGU,, "SOCOM Oe od ee Sa 306

in northern Europe.... 71

petinr.. Unites S205 2 22 0 ay

GLACIAL SURFACE FEATURES, THE,

oF THE Atps, Albrecht Penck

Rest eetet ) Meee wee bea 355

Giaciern ithe Great. $52. 805 sb 3. 440

Ghedgens Tet gos) es RS AG” 156

Globiocephalus..450, 452, 453, 454,

456, 457, 458, 463, 464, 466, 468

GIHGKS T6b ns ee 165, 166, 277

Gatnodomtias 20.4.3.5.6.0.0 ook }6 68 303

Gneisses, micaceous....388, 394, 395

GSeistem> cel. ibs. eas 200, 205

Goodell, G. A.; analysis of ser-

PEMMIMNOIG. 4.05 ewes A417, 422, 425

Gould; ref. on stature..171, 172, 176

Grabau A. W., INTRACOLONIAL

| ACCELERATION AND RETARD-

| ATION IN DEVELOPMENT (title

ist Sh Rae ele sede E steraaafane fee nse" 321

GRAMMAR, ESSAY ON THE, OF THE

YUKAGHIR LANGUAGE, Walde-

mar Toenelsen. i.272.4 +. « 97-152

GRAMMAR, THE, OF THE YUKA-

GHIR LanGuaGce, Waldemar

Jochelson (Abstract). .336, 337-338

Grand ma vated: ss... 6 eke. Ss 314

GRAND SOUFRIERE, THE, OF

| GUADELOUPE; AN ANALOGUE

oF Mont Pert, Edmund Otis

Hovey (Abstract)......... $54) “435

Granite. .388, 392, 428, 429, 430, 432,

435, 437, 438, 440

fSieettte -DOEPMYER <2 6. pc's le ee « 430

Granite dikes underlying serpen-

eneIea Soe sors. OP ae cts 428-429

reaREee INAGTIAL SC. sk. ws be. e's 428

PsramideiGrmte 32. woth lee. vans 405

oo a RR. a, 431

Granulation of chromosomes.... 21

Granulite

494

Gratacap, L. P.; ref. on serpen-

tinoid ‘outcrops... sees eee 407

Gteat Britain, Tertiary of... 389

Great Russians ..5225 22.0): 283, 284

Gréeenland....5% 4. eR eee eee 82

Gregoire; ref:: suc. 32,°39; 48

Gregory? rel}: dea 7 ee ee 39, 48

Gnifhins ‘ret ...3.. 5. ee 25, 926,27.) 30

Grodno, province of...... 168, 169

GROWTH OF CHILDREN, ON THE,

Franz Boas and Clark Wissler

(Abstract) 2.020 meow 336; 337

Gryllotalpg,, soc scans alo eee 27, 40

GUADALOUPE, THE GRAND SOU-

FRIERE OF; AN ANALOGUE OF

Mont Pet, Edmund Otis

Hoyey: (Abstract)i-itcc. 3. B23) 3a5

Gulf stream, influence on Spitz-

bergen climate.i22 Axcou. eer: 94-95

Gintherey reise es. ee ee 303

Hasit CuRVE FOR ASSOCIATIONS,

THE DETERMINATION OF THE,

J. E. Lough (Abstract) ...324, 327

Hasits Basep on ANALOGY, C. H.

Judd (title only). nic. 2 eee 324

Haeker; ‘ref. .3, 48,22; 23; <275 436:

39, 40, 44,-44, 51

Haddam Neck. ‘Gann i207. sere 23

Hematoxylin, Haidenhain’s..... A283

Hair. Jewish, color Of. --/. aes 262-279

Hall, C. E.; quoted on schistose

and gneisste: rocks... :1)..1.%.c.ce5 400

Hallers,refica ae ee ee 369

Hammer, W. oie reftsn.- hee ene 2a2

Hammerfest...) ace arene He ee pe ye

Hamy® reise. 2.35 oe Sa ere ee 164

Hano?s his o. 2, hese aoe ee 317

Harker, Ay: tet. 42 eee ee 389

Harmer: fet 522 sr: secre eee Bead

Harveys retoo- cee: 368, 369, 384

Matachek? ref. 22.5 eee 5

Hawks RECENTLY KILLED, MEAs-

UREMENTS OF THE PRIMARY

FEATHERS OF, AND THEIR BEAR-

INGS ON THE PROBLEM OF BIRD

Fuiicut, C. C. Trowbridge (Ab-

Sita) heh a eee 340-341

Hawks’ wings, interlocking of

fears. 18 .\ 25.55) oe cree 340-341

Hay,.O. P., A New GIGANTIC

TORTOISE FROM THE MIOCENE

oF CoLorapo (Abstract)... .312—-313

Head-form of Jews,

163, 280, 281, 287-289

Head, horizontal circumference

Bex” sts Wi ahale, Sa ee Re 242-244

INDEX.

Jewish, statistics of,

206-244, 280, 281

length of, in Jewesses...212-214

ii 7) Pewse sk 5.0 ct ee 207-212

width of, in Jews. ee 214-220

Hearing, instrument for testing. 326

Hebrews, ancient, compared with

modern Jews..... 285-286, 288-289

Heckewelder; refi... ooo. 441

Haidenhain’s hematoxylin...... 4.526

Height of Jewish nose...... 249-251

THEN CONIVG, BRSo nn oo etree 314

Helium and.sgadium compounds. .- 312

Hefitire Rock 3 8 ocr eee 333

Hematite .<5.300). 3907, 412) 405, 520

Henkines > crefiesi fe eee 27

Henman, V. A. C., THe TIME

PERCEPTION AS A MEASURE OF

DIFFERENCES IN SENSATION

CADSERACE)) Ace. cartes cs eee 324; 326

HENRY CARRINGTON Botton, BIo-

GRAPHICAL SKkeETcH oF, D. S.

Matin ya. eae eee 75-81, 351

Hepatiea | S....0 sssta aete te eee 314

Hercynite ...... nile hs ote as ene 405

Heredity, Mendelian phenomena

OF «bg aa arse oe ile ee 33, 48

Hering’s binocular demonstration

of. color secontrast 5... ata 325

Hermanns ret. og set eee 43

Hermaphrodgites, 4.7... j«2.c anne mee 5

Hermaphroditism in Endoprocta.5, 6, 7

Hert wigs) ref os. tc 6 choterta ne ae 2; AGie

Heterotypic ring =... 235 oe 32

Hills. ""R. C.3 4ref. ccc ese eee gI

Himmiel* ret os 5 ¢ aeaoe ee 188, 234

Hinton, John H.; mem. of Fi-

nanee. Com: 2)... wo aes aierenennae 361

Hipp chronoscope-..2: 1.9 eee 326

HIPPOLYTE, CRUSTACEAN, SOME

PRESSURE-EXPERIMENTS ON THE

Eccs oF THE, M. A. Bigelow

(ADStraCt hiss ccaciestenmreniere Ge ee

HISTORICAL: - SYNTHESIS, * ACTION

AS THE Concept oF, P. Hughes

(Abstract. cs iewct se toe 234. | 327

History, THE, OF THE GERM

CELLS OF PEDICELLINA AMERI-

cANA Lerpy, Louis I. Dublin. . 1-64

PAgbtiteey.).siioovercrncnte cae 285, 288

Hobbs, W. H.; quoted on basalt. 404

Hochelaga, Mount 441

Hollick, Arthur, A Canoe Trip

Down THE YUKON RIVER FROM

Dawson TO ANnviIK (Abstract),

3337335

o) sce) ee) ee) 6) a) een ee

INDEX,

Hollick, Arthur;

collection of pegmatite...... 428

oe SS 333-335

ES 317

Hopokahacking, Mount......... 440

Horizontal circumference of the

er re 242-244

Hornblende. .390, 391, 396, 401, 402,

403, 419, 428, 432, 433, 434

0 ee re 426

ER sic shea are a Sin a & be ae 430

IPEDS Sine ores os\G. 9 OS Wah 431

schist..391, 392, 393, 395, 396,

397, 399, 404, 405, 418, 425,

426, 430, 432, 434

0 ee eer 433

Hornblendic gneiss,

392, 395, 404, 405, 418, 432, 435

rock 389, 393, 394

Horse, quaternary G¥,. 72

Hovey, Edmund Otis; Delegate. 344

2 pg he RE ae ee ee 401

St. VINCENT, BRITISH WEST

INDIES ; THE ERUPTIONS OF

1902 AND THEIR IMMEDI-

ATE ReEsutts (Abstract),

347-348

SoME Erosion PHENOMENA

IN ST. VINCENT AND Mar-

TINIQUE (Abstract). .344,

THE GRAND SOUFRIERE OF

GUADALOUPE ; AN ANALOGUE

oF Mont PELE (Abstract),

3037300

Vice-Pres., Sect. of Geol.

tie, Wetter, . 5,45 8% ss aes 360

Howes; ref. on hyperphalangy.. 465

Se note Se a oe a aioe 67

Hudson River Canyon.......... 407

Hughes, P., Acrion AS THE Con-

CEPT OF HISTORICAL SYNTHESIS

RMACT) 42's oe eke Sot ec

Humerus..450, 451, 452, 455, 457,

458, 459, 462, 464, 468, 470, 471

Hume’s PutLosopny, A NEGLECT-

ED Point 1n, W. P. Montague

Oeeenract)< sth. ce cee wee 324, 326

Hungarian Jews 169, 185

ew mre a Ses 6 wane @ &

345

wyis S fee, 2) elo wa ae

Huxley; quoted on evolution.... 384

PRE eS sod i oc est ve 303

ee ee 5

Hydromagnesite...415, 421, 423, 427

Hydrous anthophyllite.......... 406

UO ee ee eer 72

Eyimenopnyilacee ...:2.....00% 314

Hyperbrachycephalic. .163, 221, 223,

234, 235, 280, 281, 288, 289

495

| Hyperdactyly. .449, 454, 456, 466-467

, Hyperdolichocephalic,

2213: 229;: 235). FR0y, 281

FEUDOTALE? osc di oS ae one ee 2 432

Hyperoddon rostratus.......... 466

Hyperphalangy..... 448, 465-466, 467

Hypersthene...... 403, 405, 424, 432

Hypersthene-gabbro ............ 430

HyYPsSoMETER, ALTITUDE OBSERVA-

| TIONS WITH THE, IN THE CAN-

ADIAN Rockies, Herschel C.

Parker (Abstract) oi... 0c. 299, 300

Pe a att hese eas G nae 66, 7I

oscillation of climate in... 71

lee: fiord 2.2 82, 83, 84, 92, 93, 94

‘Tce sheets in North America... 66

in Northern Europe........ 66

Ichthyopterygia........ 303, 458, 468

Ichthyosauria. .303, 448, 449, 454, 459

460, 465, 466, 470

Ichthyosauride 461

Ichthyosaurs. .302, 447, 449, 450, 452,

453, 455, 456, 457, 458, 459,

460-470

propodial bene of....:...>. 447

Ichthyosaurus acutirostris

; 450, 453, 455, 464

I. communis.453, 459, 464, 466, 467

Tr. CORVOCORE ore ios os sci 2 0 een 2 454

To IMZeEnsS 2.225 453, 454, 456, 462

T. lOmBtManus ... 2c ows 454, 466

I. quadricissus..450, 453, 459, 461

PCOMIABE a 5 aches ae os aaa 378-379

PUA US ea oes Atte don tee a Sigs So ele. 8 325

POPECOUS. MIACTIIAS . nos xc c.s nine mac 389

Igneous rock, composition of.423-425

IcnEous Rock, THE OCCLUSION

OF, WITHIN METAMORPHIC

Scuists (Abstract) 314, 315

Igneous Rock, THE OccCLUSION

OF, WITHIN METAMORPHIC

ScHISTS AS ILLUSTRATED ON

AND NEAR MANHATTAN ISLAND,

N. Y., Alexis A. Julien... .387-442

DRGE HG is BP terion Was eatin oa 159

Immigration, relation to stature,

176-180, 184-185

Imperative conjugation, negative,

) Yukaghir language,

G20, \Z21

positive, Yukaghir lan-

ET 2 sda oa a 120

Imperative mode, Yukaghir..120, 121

Imperfect tense, Yukaghir...... 119

496

Imperial Academy of Sciences

in. ‘St. -Pétersburenstcc2ee see 98

Inchoative mode, Yukaghir..120, 129

Inclusion, application of. term... 388

Indefinite conjugation, Yukaghir ;

interrogative ..120, 122, 123

negative. : 3720, 120.122) 123

of verbs.120, 121-123 (table)

positive. 120). 121 pies Tse

Indefinite pronouns, Yukaghir.. 117

Index, cephalic; of Jews..162, 163

164 (table), 165,.220—242, 280,

281

PACTA: i 2 tenet ies tere rapa aen eee uals 248

MASA le 2 ire tee ee ee ae 253-256

of variability. = aacee nae 172-173

Of. “vitality wet ssen eee 200, 205

Pra ie cate nyse Genes oratatehe tet wale oc 305

Indian languages compared with

Y utlccrseinittsny spy ichs mae amano te cra 338

Indians, American plains, cere-

monial Wifesote .. 8 seen eee 354

Indicative mode, Yukaghir,

(20y 02223

Indigenous population, compari-

son, of Jews iiwith:.).07 cee 186-189

Indigirka: ikivet..¢. 08: aoe eee 99

Individuality in chromosomes. . .33-34

* Indogermianic:”. Jews... ee 161

Inheritance, Mendelian...... 379-380

Initiation fee, amendment to By-

Eaws ‘abolishiiige wc. se oe 355

Instrumental case, Yukaghir.... 109

“Intercalary symdesmosis ”..: .. 460

Interlocking of feathers in hawks’

WITS Ssyhoctre create bie 340-341

Intermixture of Jews with other

FACES. “5. Shiv eek ene See 180-183

Interrogative, Yukaghir language,

P20, 4 12s eros, red

Interrogative pronouns, Yukaghir. 116

INTRACOLONIAL ACCELERATION AND

RETARDATION IN DEVELOPMENT,

A. W. Grabau (title only)... 321

Intrusive: “Gik€s<t.5 17.0 aoe ee 353

IONIZATION OF GASES, LATEST

THEORIES RELATING TO THE

DISCHARGE OF ELECTRICITY IN

HicH Vacua AND, Bergen

Davis (Abstract)..... 300, 301-302

Ions, THE COMBINATION OF, WITH

THE SOLVENT IN So.LuTion, C.

W. Kanolt (Abstract). 2.356, 357

Tpom@a peS-CAPTA....ceccesvees 314

ESOT) GARE. 68s aces opens 70

iron vearnets si bicee tees 394, 405

THOM HOLES s Salas oss aa ee 400

INDEX.

ETON: ORIG Ese ice crete eee

Irving, J. D., Mrcroscoric

STRUCTURE AND ORIGIN OF CER-

TAIN. STYLOLITIC ‘STRUCTURES

IN LIMESTONE (Abstract). .305-306

ISLAND, THE, OF SPITZBERGEN AND

Its Coat, John J. Stevenson

(CAbstract)y’.c.58 «.cimetetoeee 352-353

Fisl@ta: sorayoatuest stat soos ie eae eae ee 817

Iterative, Yukaghir language.... 131

Iterative numerals, Yukaghir... 115

Ivanowski; ref..169, 181, 186, 187,

209, 211, 233, 273

Jacobs, Joseph; ref..155, 157, 160,

T65,. 166, 193, .225, 250, 260;,270

Jacoby, Harold, J. K. Rees and

Herman S. Davis, THe Varr-

ATION OF LATITUDE IN NEW

York. .City; Part) e2=—VArire

TION OF LATITUDE AND Con-

STANT OF ABERRATION (Ab-

strat) as science tee 328-329

Jankos iets... 02. see bore 169, 234

JaSPEr Sy anexiackinee aoe eee 406

Jemez, pueblo: of=. ... 2 eee 317

Jenny. Jump Mountain:.. 3...508 391

Jensen: cet seci. idiot eee 288

Jesup, Morris K.; Pres., Amer.

Mus® (Nat. Bs€.c. 7.2 came 97

Jesup North Pacific Expedition,

97, 318

Jewesses, cephalic index of. .235-242

length of headvof..)..55- 212-214

Stature Jofs.iccr.s earn ee 195-199

Jews, “Aryan,” type of,

280, 282, 283) .284

blond,. in: Europes ....cee 165-166

blond, oricinor i. eee 162, 290

cephalic sdex “of. 2162," 163

(table), 164, 164-165, 220-242,

280, 281

color of eyes,

263, 265-273, 281, 282, 283

color-oF hatrs soe 262-279

color oteskin.22)... 262, 264, 279

comparison with Bedouin

Atabsonn sit. «aeeteweae . 286

comparison with Gentiles. .162-

163, 169, 286-287, 290-291

comparison with indigenous

Population ,..sheekewe 186-189

diversity, OL:19PESicuia cee 166

factal, 1ndex) Olsa. 4... e ene 248

head form of,

163, 280, 281, 287-289

“< midex az, vitality; «wis weet 200

INDEX. 497

intermixture of, with other BERGEN, John J. Stevenson. .82-95

EGE Cos ph dee sans’ << 18q—183 | Jurassic: Morans 70s wont va ee vr 94

length of head.......... 207-212 |

measurements of face...245-248 | Kanolt, C. W., ComMBINATION OF

measurements of nose...249-260| IONS WITH THE SOLVENT IN

modern, compared with an- | SotuTIon (Abstract) ai.0.2- 356, 357

cient Hebrews, | Keaanpiceeys tsa digang 2c. 20) potters 00% 308

285-286, 288-289 | Karroo formation.............. 466

Hemauisides of......... 253-256 | KATHODE RESISTANCE, THE RE-

pigmentation of, LATION OF, TO THE SO-CALLED

166, 261-279, 280, 281, 282 SATURATION CURRENT IN THE

racial purity of....156-160, 285 DISCHARGE THROUGH GASES, F,

“Slavonic type” of........ 264} -L.. Tufts (Abstract)... .. 349, 350

statistics of head, Keane, Pio es Peta SS ia kz 249

206-244, 280, 281 | Keilhau; explorer......... 82, 84, 94

stature of..171-199, 280, 282,

283, 286, 287

aitatian type Of....\:...). 158-159

mith Of head. 2 . 0. 5... 214-220

Jews, EASTERN EvurRoPEAN, Ma-

TERIALS FOR PHYSICAL ANTHRO-

potocy or, Maurice Fishberg,

155-297

Jochelson, Waldemar, Essay on

THE GRAMMAR OF THE

YUKAGHIR LANGUAGE. ..97—-152

THE GRAMMAR OF THE YUKA-

GHIR LANGUAGE (Abstract),

336, 337-338

Johangeorgenstadt 300

Johnstone-Stoney, G; Hon. Mem. 361 |

Jones, William, Notes on awn

ALGONKIN Dratect (Abstract),

336-337

Josephus;

Judd, C. H., Hazsits Basep on

ANALOGY (title only)........ 324

MRE Whed,: FOL: se cake atte ie 389

peat. : J; M+: ref,-....5 160, 162, 205

Julien, Alexis A.; ref..79, 316, 390,

391, 395, 402, 417, 426, 430,

431, 433, 434

THE OccLUSION OF IGNEOUS

RocK WITHIN MEeETAMOR-

PHICc Scuists (Abstract),

314, 315

Julien, Alexis A., THE OccLvu-

SION OF IGNEOUS ROCK WITHIN

METAMORPHIC SCHISTS AS IL-

LUSTRATED ON AND NEAR MaAn-

HATTAN IsLanpb, N. Y..... 387-442

pe ge 2 311

rE PELACCOUGS x inc ae ch o 5:5 < so 461

MEME SMIG ere oe wes a's wwii lao 453, 470

Jurassic Coal in Spitzbergen.... 353

'Kellicott, W. E., DeveLopMENT

OF THE VENOUS SYSTEM OF

CreraTopus (Abstract) .351-352

Report of summer work .... 347

Kemp, James F.; President.... 360

1 = irs Wap eo eae 315, 406, 407

THE TITANIFEROUS MAGNET-

| ITE IN Wyominc (Abstract),

| 352, 353

ANCE RIS, ARIREES. MED pc erp e o, aacc a & aie 69

Pees Gays Be ek hd kel aia 429

pitekanoee dialects. sn2 iunsa. Ks 336

ier, province. OF . . 6626 2 « 168, 169

{CURR en S) | | a rr 428, 429

King, Irving, Some ProBLeMs

OF THE FRINGE OF Con-

SCIOUSNESS (title only).. 348

THE ULTIMATE RELATION BE-

TWEEN Macic AND RE-

LIGION (Abstract) .307, 309-310

CR ee eee min eae 82, 83

Plaka: . Billet, seas ilieale < ca Sa les 83

peelinckewstrom 5 refs. . 42. es ices< s 46

PRNGS. [ress fel... 3.2 os ck cae Se 403

_Kwati-Gas, CHEMICAL CoMBINA-

TION OF, UNDER THE ACTION OF

Rapium, Bergen Davis and C.

W. Edwards (Abstract)...356, 357

Romans. 5.5 Tell... oo: deeb 289

mpliyiiad dialect ..... <c0« vwee ses 98, 99

melons. River). ove a tiem ae tie 99

Kopernicki; ref. on anthropology

of Jews..162, 169, I7I, 177, 180,

181, 184, 185, 186, 187, 188, 200,

201, 209). 250, “22%,) BPs, 0220, (231,

233, 241, 258, 259, 267, 269, 271,

275, 277, 281

BRoaekodon > RYek ? o> ova sy aeons 143

Korési; ref. on complexion of

Jewish school children in Hun-

SAEG oh i eee head ee RS 161

498 INDEX.

Kovio; province of, 62) 250..2ee 168 | compared with Jewish in-

Kuequenaku, Mount..02.%..<%..)-% 441 | IAD IBARIES) ch tutiorehc eeeates 162-163

Kiikenthal; ref. on hyperdactyly, (sGktSp ls 5 aa eeta ke Se ee oe ee 168, 180

456; 467) | Lesehians: ..dcxcc wee. « eters 259, 288

on theory of ‘double epi- RG@uea mites: 5,026 aie sheer eee 421

physes 2°"... Ak hae ee eee 466 | Levison, Wallace Goold, Nore

Kunz, George F.3 ret: .. 3: 311, 331 ON A TRIBOPHOSPHOROSCOPE,

Kunz, George F., and Charles AND THE DuRATION SPECTRUM

Baskerville, PHosPHORESCENCE OF TRIBOPHOSPHORESCENT

IN DIAMONDS PRODUCED BY Liecer (Abstract)s2. :.: 328, 330-332

PITCHBLENDE (Abstract), Lewis, H. C.; quoted on intrusive

299, 300-301 FOGKS) capo a othiitrc-tpeac,eteretan: eae 399

Kunzite® (0 tn.3.50 2% See oper ie cae 01 | Lewis. Seuitd...ivs. cee saree 83

Kymographs: 2.54 seem cis theee 325 LexeLus. Lost Comer or 1770;

RESEARCHES AS TO THE IDEN-

LACANDONE, SURVIVALS OF THE TITY OF, WITH THE PERIODIC

ANCIENT RITES AMONG THE CoMET OF 1889, 1896 AND 1903,

Maya AND, A. M. Tozzer (Ab- Charles Lane Poor (Abstract). 311

Sstfact). «2. eater eee ee 353. 354 luterzolite. so. < ces 416, 426, 42755 430

Lacertiliac. 25. eee oe 2085 477.) WRMAS! c)c:s sections eae 314

Bapneaw} reins. 7 eee. soe 159 | Librarian, N. Y. Ae. Sci, Annual

Laguna; pueblo of. 3... 6:2. ome 317 Report: *Of 55 fas caches Moa ee 366

Lamarck, exhibition of letters Library Committee, Report of... 339

signed! by. 2s aes eos ieee 343, 344| Libraries of Academy and of

Lapoige: ret s.. tere eee ee oe 224| American Museum, method of

Large Chukchee River-25 <4. --+ 99 Combining. 2s 5 ys weet 339

ESGr 1 OSQUEUS Ghote ae ree 459| Library of Academy; proceeds

Lartet, Edward; ref.:25.).-- 2. 68 froinicSalesc:... t3 546 eee 339

LATEST THEORIES RELATING TO LIGNITE AND PEAT, RECENT AD-

THE DISCHARGE OF ELECTRICTIY VANCES IN THE UTILIZATION OF,

IN HicH Vacua AND IONIZATION H. H. Wotherspoon, Jr., (Ab-

oF Gases, Bergen Davis (Ab- Stract irs. d ak eee eee 321-323

stracthis.. ! Snes sae 300, 301-302] Lignites in. Spitzbergen........ B58

LATITUDE, THE VARIATION OF, AT Lilienthal,: J.; dict. eto gI

New Yorke (‘Cirv< Part 2: LAVAGE Sess So ee 30

VARIATION OF LATITUDE AND LIMB SKELETON IN AQUATIC REP-

CoNSTANT OF ABERRATION, J. TILES AND Mammats, ADApP-

K. Rees, Harold Jacoby and TIVE MOopDIFICATIONS OF THE,

Herman S. Davis (Abstract), Raymond C. Osburn...... 447-482

228-320 | Limburgsite 5 ..5¢.se ke ee 419

Lausitz district: . e255... aorre ee 3224) LAME: vs saeiel renee Siete eee ane 390

Daiwa fi.'s Sins oe ec ee ee 438,) 442 | Ieimes seldspate ss 1.0. ere 404

Le Boucher, Leon, ref. 2.'. 25.22. 235 | Lime in serpentioid...... 4.00. 419

Leboucq; ref. on hyperdactyly... 467 | Limestone. ...331, 391, 416, 429, 433

Lehmann, Js) ret. hae eos 303 | Limestone, dolomutic...;..a oe 407

Peibnitzs’ rel... eee ee 369 | LIMESTONE, Microscopic STRUC-

entutiay 64s rans See Bei ee 316 TURE AND ORIGIN OF CERTAIN

Lena iver... 63 ieee eee 99 STYLOLITIC STRUCTURES in, J,

Lenhossek; ref. on sex........ 4 D; Irving: (Abstract)? 2. 305-306

Bentienlar, bands... 2.08.4 ae 389 | Limestone, “Wasatch <. ...ee. - 423

Lenticular masses” .. 2.5 oeSs te: #05 | edmonton ee eee 406, 407, 427, 428

Leonard, A. G.; ref...2...: 403, 433| Lindgren, Waldemar; ref. re-

WE CPICOACHOTON. G2 65 cies a oan te 83, 94 garding intrusive dikes....... 353

PPLOCH CIT US \.cs. 5.0 wii ok @ 6 cute ote A5'9 |) PAT TS el a en ene oe 24.) 2B ar Ae

Letter-equivalents ... 6/624. 4 6. 327 | Linin fibers in synapsis......... 21

Letto-Lithuanians. .181, 186, 199, 217,| Linin-reticulum .............-- 22

220, 227, 234, 235, 268 |\Lithology, ee ee tee eee 388

INDEX.

Lithuanians. ..168, 180, 185, 186, 209;

vittle Russia, Letto-Lithuanians

compared with Jews of....162-163

Little Russians..168, 169, 180, 181,

Has, leo, £90; 200, 215,,220, 227,

Baa, 235. 250, 250, 268,.284,- 290

A re 17, 20

ied, R.; ref. on Italian Jews... 165

Lloyd, F. E., Botanicat ReE-

SEARCH AT THE DESERT

LABORATORIES IN ARIZONA

(Abstract) SET

THE FLORA DoMINICA

(Abstract) 312, 313-314

ref. on a species of violet... 344

LocaLiTiges NOTED FOR THE DIs-

COVERY OF REMAINS OF PREHIS-

TorIc Man, RECENT JOURNEYS

AMONG, J. Howard Wilson. .65-74

LOCALITIES, SOME OF THE, IN

FRANCE AND ENGLAND WHERE

MoNUMENTS OF THE LATE

STONE AND BronzE AGES HAVE

Breen Founp, J. Howard Wil-

son (Abstract) 344, 345-346

Locative in Yukaghir 106

LocoMoTIvEs, BENDING MoMENTS

IN RAILS FOR THE SAME SUPER-

STRUCTURE UNDER DIFFERENT

Tyres or, P. H. Dudley (Ab-

stract) 340, 342-343

Peescramnciwon Of... ......66026- 309

“LoGIcAL THEORY, STUDIES IN,”

Dewey’s, Henry Davies (Ab-

307, 308-309

352

oe ee eee

aie ay 6 6) mm wo & ee! fe 0) (6.

fomre-et-Gher (6.8 oes Ie ee os 69

Beetaiet Giallo. ws es le ems 338

Hemproso, C.: ref...... 163, 165, 288

London, Quaternary deposits of. 67

Loss of hind limbs in aquatic rep-

tiles and mammals........ 460-462

(UES SE? 7 a 39, 48

Lo Dah SS eae 308

Dowean Hy pOLrmesis...... i... 5 308

Lough, J. E., THe DeETERMINA-

TION OF THE HABIT CURVE FOR

AssociaTions (Abstract) ..324, 327

LowER CALIFORNIA, THE Eco-

LOGICAL CONDITIONS IN A Lo-

cat’. Desker’ on, D. T.. Mac-

Dougal (title only)........ 332-333

NMEERROUSD ES or ee Secs. va suri so cs ws 4

Te GRRGUMSCOIES.. <x wore sec oes eo

PAR OGUCHPOT ia ii leuc ow xan 5

Ss er CES Si ee 5

EMG FO ea alt ns 9 5

Lubbock, Sir John; ref....66, 67, 68!

499

Lucas, Frederick A.; Fellow... 361

Lipelian; ret...) scraecs. 162, 285, 288

LG CO POUT 055. cict eatabars a Roe gi

MacDougal, D. T., MorrHocenic

CHANGES CAUSED BY THE

TRANSPOSITION OF AQUATIC

AND TERRESTRIAL PLANTS

(title. only) ios aaaneaa es 343

THE EcoLoGIcAL CONDITIONS

In A. Locan DESERT In

LoweER CALIFORNIA (title

CN iil Ng) ee eR Oe Ce AN 432,333

MacDougall, Robert, Tue Dis-

TRIBUTION OF ERRORS IN

SPELLING ENGLISH WoRrDS

GADStEACE)! as \cleo bee cee 307, 309

OrGANIC LEVELS IN THE DE-

VELOPMENT OF THE NERV-

ous SYSTEM (title only).. 348

Magdalenian period............. 72

Macic AND RELIGION, THE ULTI-

MATE RELATION BETWEEN, Ifrv-

ing King (Abstract). .307, 309-310

Miaema,. granitic: £.6'43 us 2b o4)ss 390

Magina)) 1PMEOUS s5 20. 6s. saan es 389

Magnesia in serpentinoids...... 419

INMIASRESITS 5k aS os 406, 424, 427

Magnetite. .353, 390, 403, 405, 406,

407, 408,. 412, 415, 418, 420,-421,

422,423, 424, 427, 432

MAGNETITE, THE TITANIFEROUS

IN WyominG, James F. Kemp

tes EUSE Ata gs eK cos aica lao a52, 353

WEEN ARSEN.c cied 3). eee 169, 187, 254

Mainoff; ref. on Yakut half-

Jaros Tc Oe Ae er. ae ae 156, 160

Majer; ref. on Jews in Galicia. ..162,

NOG, oan, 258.259, +267, .269,

27i5 2755 277, 265

OW stature. ...171, 177, 180, 184

Los, 186, 186, 260; 202, 209,

£10; 201, 22 33. 220; 291,. 233

Malpighi; ref. on preformation.. 369

MAMMALS AND REPTILES,

AguaTic, ADAPTIVE MopIFIca-

TIONS OF THE LIMB SKELETON

IN, Raymond C. Osburn... .447-482

aaa le hee iets a 3"8 G7, 72; 73

Mammoth, Coal Beds... .. 5.54: 88

NN VCO a ee 470

Mia ciasia, ASIA Fe sis so 3 aoa 315

MANHATTAN ISLAND, THE Oc-

CLUSION OF IGNEOUS’ Rock

WITHIN METAMORPHIC SCHISTS

AS ILLUSTRATED ON AND NEAR,

Alexis’ A. Jaoliga.; fs: 28... 387-442

500 INDEX.

Man, oorenesis of...cp080. «ae 38,MicMahons rei: (tite eae eee 429

Manteocerds. . os << uke eee 358 , McMillin, Emerson; Councilor.. 360

Man, THE UNIVERSE’S PLACE IN, Mean square, error of...... 172-173

Francis Burke Brandt (Ab-

Stract) ils set ce censor 307-308

Marbles 23 32 one ee eee 429, 430

Marble, cmacnesian. 27 ...2c eee 431

Marks) G68 oui pcie ena aeie mee 30

Marmolite....406, 407, 409, 421, 424

Marsh; ref. on fossil reptiles. 303, 464

Marsh, H. H., THeE.Datry Curve

FOR EFFICIENCY (title only)... 324

Marshall, Henry Rutgers, Prr-

MARY AND SECONDARY PRESEN-

TATIONS (title only) 5.2600 oi

Martin, D. S., Henry Carrinc-

TON Botton (Biographical

Sketches b2nea 75-81,

POLS foe eye ec bla een

MARTINIQUE AND ST. VINCENT,

SomME ErRosION PHENOMENA IN,

E. O. Hovey (Abstract)...344,

Maryland, schists

Mashonguayi Jy- nee sens eee

Mastodon. invAlaskas cscs sen

MATERIALS FOR THE PHYSICAL

ANTHROPOLOGY OF THE EAST-

ERN EvurROPEAN Jews, Morris

Pisbbera: (2 iscsi ee 155—207

Mather: cei utc 2 ...555c ere 406, 408

Mathews, E. B.; ref. on Mary-

land: erystallines.. =... 5..-

quoted on hypothetical range

of. palzeozoic Himes a= an:

Matthews; quoted on_ gabbro

sheet. cof Maryland. iy... ores

Matthew, W. D., ExuisitTion oF

A SERIES OF FOOT-BONES

ILLUSTRATING THE EVOLU-

TION OF THE CAMEL (Ab-

stract).< Set coe eee 344-345

OUTLINES OF THE CONTI-

NENTS IN TERTIARY TIMES

(Abstrach)i.4 om a. 314, 315-316

Maurer: rel... vice oe ak eee 158

Maxillas 1:27 33a Oe eee

Maya, SURVIVALS OF THE ANCIENT

RITES AMONG THE LACANDONE

AND, A. M. Tozzer (Abstract),

353, 354

ref. on complexion of

school children in

307

200

436

. 345

DID oi 5isis'is sneine 429-431

317

334

430

439

430

Mayr;

Jewish

BAVOEIS > oy 5s saline tate eee See

McClune) refs iu bs ee on BR.

McCreath, Andrew S.; ref.,

86, 87, 88, 90

MieGrecOrs. Tel, «oid. so cee 302

Measurements of Jews in N. Y.

City, favorable conditions for.. 167

MEASUREMENTS OF THE MENTALLY

DEFICIENT, Naomi Norsworthy

CADStHBEE clack once mie ae 324,

MEASUREMENTS OF THE PRIMARY

FEATHERS OF RECENTLY KILLED

HAWKS AND THEIR BEARINGS

ON THE PROBLEM OF _ BIRD

Fricut, C. C. Trowbridge (Ab-

Stract) (cctians sesiceeeereee 340-341

MEASURE OF DIFFERENCES IN SEN-

SATION, THE TIME PERCEPTION

as A, V. A. C. Henmon (Ab-

325

StEACt) Qakes ee eee 324, 926

Measuring machine, Repsold.... 341

Mechanical processes attending

occlusion | ich tayo 390-391

Mechanism vs. vitalism..... 368, 386

| MGSOCCIOPS Gane mvatt stem shette cetera 358

Meealosauria: $0. nn pace eee 303

Mezapiera i. ied. satan eee ee 455

Memoirs of American Museum

of Natural. Eustory) 7. = 2-4e iat 10m

Mendelian inheritance ...... 379-380

Mendelian phenomena of heredity,

33, 48

Menomonie? dialect)... j.2.00ee 336

MENTALLY DEFICIENT, MEASURE-

MENTS OF THE, Naomi Nors-

worthy * (Abstract). 2s: 324, 325

MENTAL RESEMBLANCES- OF

Twins, E. L. Thorndike (Ab-

SEPACE) ssc sch tees eters 324-325

Merriamia....453, 458, 461, 464, 465

Merriam, John C.; ref. on Ich-

thyosaurs...453, 458, 461

on Thalattosatitia.).. .cc 471

Merrill, F.° J. oe; “ret,

404, 406, 407, 408, 433

Merrill, G. P.; ref. on serpentin-

Oidt SCIMIStshe) hee aes ee 407, 416

Mesocephalic..163, 221, 223, 234,

235. 260, 201.. 207, 280

Mesonephros of Ceratodus...... 351

MesOSQHPUS® Sob. b mc = oon ees 466

MeSosuclitia oi igeag ays: «pp 244 keene 303

Mesozoic “Seaesci.. aves eaten 407

Metacarpal’ ihr. ttc pares ened 463

METAMORPHIC SCHISTS, THE Oc-

CLUSION OF IGNEOUS ROCK

witHi1n, Alexis A. Julien

CADSERAICE) gu. )2, 2 ens. 8% cos Stal “sns

INDEX. 501

METAMORPHIC SCHISTS, THE Oc-

CLUSION OF IGNEOUS RocK

WITHIN, AS ILLUSTRATED ON

AND NEAR MANHATTAN ISLAND,

miexis A. Julien......... 387-442

Metamorphism of rocks........ 389

MPePAEICIEGIUS: . . 2. icc eee 51

Peeta-OeTidOdite . 2... 2. cc saan 399

SE Serr ae 10, 19

eerpliase, somatic. .........40. 19

Mreta-pyroxenite ..... 2.2... 8 antes 399

Meta-rhyolite ......... 430, 431, 438

ENR cs while oye ara a eles, wclele 463

Method of codrdination and seri-

ation, determination of stature

7 ES ae ees eee 175-180

Method of investigation of Ameri-

DREW EE orc le ooh od whee ow we 168-170

Metuops, NEw APPARATUS AND,

J. McK. Cattell (Abstract),

324, 325-326

Methods of fixing polyps....... 3-4

0 SS SS Sis eee eae 43

Mica....390, 391, 392, 397, 399, 432

Micaceous’ gneisses. 388, 394, 395, 434

MifemeEOUS SCMIStS..... cence nn: 431

MMIPOAGG. ok. cic a Aig ise os kc ss 405

ERIM ie oes sc ek ine oe 399

PIC ik ae en eee he wee 391

Misero-chrysotile............ 410, 4II

Mivero-memelite .......6. 005000. 411

Microscopic STRUCTURE AND

ORIGIN OF CERTAIN STYLOLITIC

STRUCTURES IN LIMESTONE, J.

Deitving (Abstract)... ... 305-306

MPIICHAIN 4c ciele «bes na aeecteae |

Milne-Edwards; ref......:..... 156

MMMIROSOINEE ook ce ea Rane 314

menmetalogy, optical.:.... 6. i.<s 388

Mineralogy, Section of,

Meeting, Jan. 18, 1904. ..305-306

Bebe. £5, 1004... 0%% + 314-316

Maton, 1904 is «.- 321-324

Ppt. TS, LO0O42 is «a 333-335

Raat Os SLGQOAS fcc acs 344-346

Wet. 17. BOO: owes 347-348

Mowe eh, TO04. i... 352-353

Deen ea TGOR sos scies'e 355

Mineral resources of Spitzbergen. 83

Prick, province of... ..3.... 168, 169

Minsk, Russia, Dybowsky’s ex-

PP teCeS “Sibson cee cancias 166

SEMIN Poe oP aK CAS, ww aw no 315. 206

MiocENE OF CoLorApo, A NEw

GIGANTIC TORTOISE FROM THE,

Une. Hay (Abstract)...... 312-313

Mitchell, S. A., THe RESULTS OF

THE OBSERVATIONS OF THE LAST

Sotar Ec iipse (Abstract).... 320

IMGEOSIGE.., 5. wictarsta tots to bicarrandacns a els IO, 30

Mixosaurus..450, 451, 452, 453, 454,

455, 456, 457, 458, 459, 460, 461,

465

Mode (Yukaghir), conditional,

120, 126-127

COMIWOCHVE 4% <5 skis Knsase.s 120, 126

evidential ....4.. 0c. 120, 128-129

FETE. i, cid windlass Cine Be 120

INONGATIVE sas c.c aw awea- 120, 129

ASPOUG ACHE acanraie «.0 0p feo, i122... 23

GUitAtiven ns wide tates we ae F202 726

PELT COMMU cy ow klk Ve) aa see 120, 128

POLeN Ale 2. gales stain oe oes 120, 128

MopIFIcATIONS, ADAPTIVE, OF THE

Limp SKELETON IN AQUATIC

REPTILES AND MAMMALS, Ray-

mond C;FOspitnt> 6.0.2.2: 447-482

Mohileff, province of........ 168, 169

MoOnT. Tel sence = 4 is ole ae eo 94, 95

NET GILON . age an a tka a Zins, ote 454, 470

Montague, W. P., A NEGLECTED

Point IN HuME’s PHILOSOPHY

(Abstract). -\.,:.< Dae keene fale 324,

Montgomery; ref. on chromo-

SOMES. .2, 3, 11, 20, 21, 27, 32, 333

35, 36, 37, 40, 43, 44

MoNUMENTS OF THE LATE STONE

AND BronzE AGES; SOME OF

THE LOCALITIES WHERE FOUND

IN FRANCE AND ENGLAND, J.

Howard Wilson (Abstract),

344, 345-346

Moore; ref. on synapsis.32, 35, 39, 48

Morbihau 345

Morgan, Thomas Hunt; Fellow. 339

327

Morningside Heights.........-. 392

MGOFOSAUPFUS. ere cies 0.2.05 Mae aa 358

MorpPHoGENIC CHANGES CAUSED

BY THE TRANSPOSITION OF

AQUATIC AND TERRESTRIAL

Prants, D. T. MacDougal

CESEIE” GIA M sholast c's GN 6c Bre we ote 343

Motrid, Doe; ret se: 5 915.92, 93

WiOSHGAMTIai. 2.0. «came is teens 303, 470

Mosasaurs..448, 449, 450, 452, 453,

457, 458, 459, 462, 464, 465, 467,

468, 469, 470, 471

Mosasaurus lemoinieri...... 453, 455

Motor impulse, accuracy of..... 308

Mount. Manhattan. ...3....o- 438-440

502

Mount PELE, THE GRAND

SOUFRIERE, OF GUADALOUPE, AN

ANALOGUE OF, Edmund Otis

Hovey (Abstract). 2.23. 2gchNaa5

Moustérian periods . Jo20..c8 0008 72

Miller, -Freg.retss...12 5, o6e eee 98

Munsell °C. iss “netictcen 2 oe oe gI

Masct, 2.veinaeca ee Peete & 314

Muscles, degeneration of, in

aquatic reptiles and mammals. 471

MUSCOMITG+ tcc s. cates eeetinee 398

Mysticocete whales -)ss.25e ees 463

Mysine. slutinosad 0. sso 37

Nageli; ref. on idioplasm....... 378

IN GIVE POOLS oro ore A eens pee 327

Namiber 2140 226 Sc 2 sett cet ere B07,

N amipayooA ais. cies ob es eer ee 317

Naples c1..oiores bn aaeatiea ORs 329

Nasal\ index ‘of Jews:5: . dob. 253-256

Nathorst; ref. .83, 84, 85, 91, 93, 94

NATURE OF CONSCIOUSNESS, NOTE

ON THE, F. J. E. Woodbridge

Ctithe. corilys) cc) s.ccc cys < seen 349

Naumann s Ges: fc... sear 94

NEBUL BY PHOTOGRAPHIC METH-

ops, RECENT PRoGRESS MADE IN

THE Stupy or, C. D. Perrine

(title Onl yoinn sj) Sais vaton Sooo eee 346

IWECLOSMUTUS. Ty. Slot 6b ee Mer enees 471

Negative of imperative mode

(Vakarhityc sons cee ee 120; 121

Negative of indicative mode

( ¥ikae hits) oe tea T20) D2e2"12¢

NEGLECTED Point, A, IN HuME’s

PuiLosopHy, W. P. Montague

(ADSEPACH tie eases So See 327

Nemalite.,c 5.02.8 ATO, -415;2- 406427

» AN COLEEMIG Fs ianrnen ingen ee cee eee 68, 70 |

Neolithic Age. tat. p a cere eke 306

Nervous SYSTEM, ORGANIC LEv-

ELS IN THE DEVELOPMENT OF

THE, Robert Macdougall (title

OEY)» \ersrans eine eee eee 348

NieStaaiia:. t204 fs ee eee ee 304

New APppaRATUS AND METHOopDs,

J. McK. Cattell (Abstract),

324, 325-326

New GIGANTIC TorToIse, A, FROM

THE MIOCENE OF CoLorapo, O.

P. Hay (Abstract) 312-313

Newland J. H.; ref. on serpen-

tinoid outcrops,

407, 408, 410, 411, 417, 419

New Mexico Anp Arizona, ETH-

NOLOGICAL SURVEY OF THE

PUEBLOS OF, DURING THE SUM-

| North America, ice sheets in...

Nose, Jewish, height of

Nott;

| N

INDEX.

MER OF 1903, George H. Pep-

per (Abstract) 317-318

New York Academy of Sciences,

record of meetings, Jan. to

Dee. 299-386

New York City, favorable condi-

tions in, for anthropometrical

measurements of Jews

New York City, THE VARIATION

OF LATITUDE IN } Part 2. VaR

ATION OF LATITUDE AND COoN-

STANT OF ABERRATION, J. K.

Rees, Harold Jacoby and Her-

man S. Davis (Abstract). .328—-329

Nickerson; ref 6

Witsche>:, cef.c 2442. oeeeac ae 5

Nominative, definite suffixes of..

Non-caking coals, comparison of.

Norite 405; 420) 490) .aeer

Norsworthy, Naomi, Measure-

MENTS OF THE MENTALLY DE-

FICIENT (Abstract) 324,0325

322

Sip) fe) 0) een) (6) e eale lw

fa! [a Wh ejges eerie)

Oo) se (se (0) e%a.(0) a) o.e L e eae

North Cape

North Dakota, lignite of........

North Pacific Expedition, Jesup.

eo) 0) \s 2) 8) <0) (aa ee

“ nostrility ”

shape of

width of 251-252

@,.0) 6 a ec) 0 E.6) S16, 6 Ore

Note oN A TRIBOPHOSPHOROSCOPE

AND THE DURATION SPECTRUM

OF TRIBOPHOSPHORESCENT

Licut, Wallace Goold Levison

(Abstract) 328, 330-332

NoTES ON AN ALGONKIN DIALECT,

William Jones (Abstract) . 336-337

yothosauria

Yothosauride

156

Youn, Yukaghir language....103-112

declension) Gb2)s.,c2-+ras cance 110

form, relation to verb form. 133

WETbal ce 0 sen ag eomepeeeee 133-134

Nova. Zembla 0. 28;.0. 2. eee 82

Nirchal: ‘seutes< 2..c fin asa eee 313

Niicleolis:; (62g. 2 co. ieies ac eee a 51

Number (Yukaghir), dual...... DLL

plutei... Shes oie sea hears 110

Numerals «(Yukaghir) 7. ..2. - 113-116

Catditialo > «oat. See I13-I15

COMECTIME Bis cu cle ice Sot ee 116

distributive ....cc. 2) Saas Ts

(heganve eke ld 2 eae Ree ee cs

GEMIAl 2c. etm eee oer res

N wtrifive teelis: 2.045 ac te oe ene 30

NUL DAIS GEE seo eee 420

TN DEX. 503

Meniweron line, cities on....436-437 Ornithopoda ....-.. cee nee eee 303

Occlusion, need of the term..... 388 | Orogenic movements -.--=. 624%. 315

Occlusions of Westchester Co., + Osthorlase 0... 6 plas ae oe 390

Ee ee 404-406 |Osborn Henry F.; Finance Com-

Occlusion tracts along Appalachian | Rb AY tee carp ciathss cave 361

0 eee ee 429 GEE. b dksae Seats 302," 8909, SIs B16

OccLusion, THE, oF IGNEOUS | RecENT DISCOVERIES OF Ex-

RocK WITHIN METAMORPHIC ; TINCT ANIMALS IN THE

Scuists, Alexis A. Julien (Ab- Rocky . MouNTAINS' AND

SUM Osis oe o2's swt ae SATs Sly THEIR BEARINGS ON THE

OccLusIon, THE, OF IGNEOUS PRESENT PROBLEMS’ OF

RocK WITHIN METAMORPHIC Evo.LuTion (Abstract) .357—359

ScHISTS, AS ILLUSTRATED ON THE CLASSIFICATION OF THE

AND NEAR MANHATTAN -ISLAND,

N. Y., Alexis A. Julien... .387—442

iamemray Cial€Ct .. 1. we ee 336

OS RR: 70

Sreenmovicz; ref........-.. 169, 180

ee ah ee" 326

Oligocene Tuitanotheres, Eocene

Bee sds OL TNE... 5 oiicn lena els war 358

Olivine. .353, 403, 404, 409, 418, 420

424, 425, 426, 427, 435

MATE -BADDEO. occ 3. 5 be a so Be wd 423

Mmmmon Rivet. o... 6.6 sk oe ee 98

ON THE GROWTH OF CHILDREN,

Franz Boas and Clark Wissler

Memeract) ko. bee abt 237

0 17, 20-31, 40, 50

cytoplasmic changes of... .30-31

cytoplasmic polarity of...... 30

first maturation division of.25—28

second maturation division of,

28-30

Odgenesis 2s 17—3 1A

Oodgenesis and spermatogenesis,

Baiinanison OF. oo... ek ce ens 48-49

US Sea ee 17, 18-20, 49

SME ood 15) 2 oiclwstv'ant!s, ah ese Oa 423

(EL i nh a re eae 427

Oe ey aera ere 303

Ophiolitic amphibolite ......... 407

BewOId HOUTC. . 6. 6. as cee ws 41, 42

Ophthalmosaurus........... 452, 469

DUET ca tetas 1 i. a a at 303

Optative mode (Yukaghir)...120, 126

De Stas Siege c's 245.2 Weweca’ 314

Order of words (Yukaghir).... 140

Ordinal numerals (Yukaghir)... 115

OrGANIC LEVELS IN THE DEVEL-

OPMENT OF THE NERVOUS Sys-

TEM, Robert MacDougall (title

only)

ORGANIC SENSATION AND SIMPLE

FEELING, THE GENERIC RE-

LATION oF, Margaret A. Wash-

burn (title only)

C70. 6) we 68) 6, SE SS 8 ee: CFR. Cie) es vw

307 |} Pareiasauria

REPTILIA 302-303

Osburn, Raymond C., Apaprive

MopIFICATIONS OF THE

LimMB SKELETON IN AQUATIC

REPTILES AND MAMMALS,

447-482

and F. B. Sumner, Tue Es-

TABLISHMENT OF A PER-

MANENT RECORD OF SYSTE-

MATIC AND ECOLOGICAL

DaTA FoR Woops’ Hote

Ctitlessonine)es «cate tics. eats 321

SSEi her Opes lhe Ate t Bor ocs he 259

Ottawa dealeeea. . x se. alesse «co-5 0 336

OUTLINES OF THE CONTINENTS IN

Terrrary . lasers: W.. D.

Matthew (Abstract)...314, 315-316

ON rear anes, ht eh ce et ace ed du eCeed ote i

Ovatier COPEPOE . re.cs waselstcieres ake 18

SOWIE TERR don a Sie tue wie ols 303

Ox, spermatogenesis of......... 38

Oxygen gas, celebration of hun-

dredth anniversary of discovery. 76

RCC ss ac ool aa ir a ee 3

Pagliani; ref. on stature..... 171, 172

Paige, Sidney; field assistant in

PAU ASHA sae ciate s Game 2 ins oe 333

Paleolithic Age, four periods of. 72

WUE OPE Eee eich a a eee 68, 306

times, conditiéns in....... 70-73

PU @OSNGE Sb a os ao ou Ad ah Boe oe 358

“ Pale, of, Settlement)... 602. 168

Pantukhof, I. I.; ref.,

163, 203, 204, 282, 288, 290

PapER MAKING IMPLEMENTS OF

AncIENT Mexico, Marshall H.

Saville (title only) .......... 336

348 Parallelism of fore and _ hind

limbs in aquatic reptiles and

Mmanwmeis? .. seve oes el at 459-460

PAPAIN? 50S o9-acctetve 0s ated Pes 303

a Pee 303

504 INDEX.

Pareiasauridse 2 sss: see aes 303). Pelyeosauiria’ ....228 . aan eee

Parrotichide <<\. <ss<Saoeeee vee 303 | Penck, Albrecht; Hon. Mem....

Parker, Herschel C., ALtiTupE

OBSERVATIONS WITH THE Hyp-

SOMETER IN THE CANADIAN

Rockies (Abstract): ...-% 299, 300

Parts of speech (Yukaghir)..103-138

Passive voice (Yukaghir)...... 130

Patapsco River

Patella, experiments on eggs of,

372-377

PATELLA, THE CLEAVAGE-MosaIc

In, E. B. Wilson (title only),

332,333

Patton, H. B.; ref. on serpentin-

oid and amphibole, .2..% seems ==

Paulmiers: refs... -.--= 22, 25,275, Ao

Pawnee. (bedSi au.2.) 20 35:0 ce & so eeone 312

Pearson: 6h. .c fees sae 172. 240

PEAT AND LIGNITE, THE RECENT

ADVANCES IN THE UTILIZATION

or, H. H. Wotherspoon, Jr.

(Abstract)

Pectolite

Pectoral “scutesc.. 45.5. ~ ose

Pedicellina americana, fertiliza-

tion and cleavage in,

404

sex relations of

spermatogenesis in..... 8-17

PEDICELLINA AMERICANA Leidy,

Tue History OF THE GERM

Cetus oF, Louis I. Dublin... .1-64

Pedicellina. beleicad: .50 sas - 2 es Benz.

P-Genedenar ss cae s eee 5

Pechinalae,. ose 7

Po. glabra .ceee et ceases Bere,

Pedicellinid@e. 2. ste eee 4

Peekskall, dikesiinw5s Scones 398

Pegmatite..315, 388, 391, 392) 393;

398, 404, 405, 428, 429, 430,

433, 438, 440

occlusions on. Manhattan

DSL « dsccemecie tenes ohana nee 392

occlusions on west bank of

Eudson’ ..o.<fone sae 427-428

Pegmatitic impregnation ....... 390

Pegram, George B., THE GENERA-

TION OF ELECTRICAL

CHARGES BY Raptium (Ab-

StPach). cee <4 eee cake 340, 342

THE YEAR’S WoRK WITH

Rapium (Abstract)....311-—312

and Harold Webb, Enercy

LIBERATED BY. ‘THORIUM

CADsttact) i. nce 328, 329

ERT PD 2 a ade Py on 450, 469

THE GLACIAL SURFACE FEAT-

URES OF THE ALps (Ab-

stract) \ 2c. ee tee eee

Pendulum apparatus for deter-

mining the acceleration of

QALY) Palin mewcseew ee ee

PENDULUM, DoUBLE SUSPENSION,

Tue Tueory oF A, R. S. Wood-

ward (Abstract)

Pennsylvania, crystalline schists

Pepper, George H., Erunovocic-

AL SURVEY OF THE PUEBLOS OF

6.@ 0 Ce @ ee 6). wi le

New Mexico AND, ARIZONA

DURING THE SUMMER OF 1903

CAbDStract) / isn ee eee 317-

Perfective mode (Yukaghir).120,

Perfect tense (Yukaghir).......

Peride-steatite ".5..-3e 4" cee

Peridotite,

405, 418, 425, 426, 431, 434,

Pesthelion | 25.7 sapere Oe eee

PERIODIC COMET OF 1889, 1896

AND 1903, RESEARCHES AS TO

THE IDENTITY OF LEXELL’sS LOST

CoMET OF 1770 WITH THE,

Charles Lane Poor (Abstract).

Peripatus,

Sra lee Wee a aie ee mee 433-

435

318

128

435

pia!

Sri

II, 21, 22, 27, 36, 39, 41, 42, 43, 46, 47

Permian strata in Spitzbergen...

Perrine, C. D., REcENT PRroGREss

MADE IN THE STUDY OF NEBULEZ

BY PHOTOGRAPHIC METHODS

(title only)

Personal pronouns (Yukaghir)..

Phenocryst

Philadelphia, amphibolite schists

TTY oaks a Wie gnece se en eae

PHILOSOPHY, A NEGLECTED POINT

IN Hume’s, W. P. Montague

(ADStract). 2a ty een 324,

Phocena. .451, 454, 456, 458, 469,

Phonology of Yukaghir language,

100o-—

Phosphates in Spitzbergen..7 3.

PHOSPHORESCENCE IN DIAMONDS

PRODUCED BY PITCHBLENDE,

George F. Kunz and Charles

Baskerville (Abstract).299, 300-

Photometer! sevenircc eR eee

Phy llite:-* Stake ase ee he: Sree

Physics, Section of,

Meeting, Jan. 4, 1904...299-

Reb.) i. eae. ees 311-

Mart. Fs 200e. ta4eth ee

398

327

470

103

301

330

302

312

3220

INDEX.

POG AS TQOA« eo. 328-332

Bay oa. £604 ses 340-343

Eten P< TOQOAS ca icrivla ofa a 346

Pe STOR Se ore 349-351

er. 5: TO0d4s..<<... 356-357

PROB GINA ibe ie eke eve cas eb eeee 303

Piffard, H. G., Exhibition of

PeCTMOMCtCT ... eae eee ciele ws 343

Pigmentation of Jews,

166, 261-279, 280, 281, 282

eis 2s a 5. h em vin Boho wes 405

Pinnipedia,

447, 448, 450, 459, 460, 465, 470

“Sisiform,”

452, 457, 458, 467, 468, 469

PITCHBLENDE, PHOSPHORESCENCE

IN DIAMONDS PRODUCED BY,

George F. Kunz and Charles

Baskerville (Abstract).299, 300-301

Pictard: ref. .169, 187, 209, 218, 227,

232, 233, 234, 269

Placodontia 303

Plagioclase.390, 396, 397, 401, 403, 432

Plapiociase-feldspar ......:...-.: 432

MRM PI fs fa fo dee os ote ss wo 51

TEP A et ah ete « shale se ke 313

Platecarpus,

f 453, 454, 457, 458, 460, 464

Platino-cyanides, Bolton on,.... 80

Platinum-barium cyanide ...... 300

a DS ee 43, 45

PIEISLOCENG |... ee es 95, 316; 334

Pieonaste. ....... BIS, ALS, AZI, 422

Plesiosauria. .303, 447, 448, 449, 454,

457, 459, 465, 470

SI GEces ie i) i 459

Plesiosaurs..450, 452, 453, 455, 456,

457, 458, 459, 461, 463, 464, 467,

468, 469, 470

RP IORGUPUS noe ss vec bas om Bet 460

Plesiosaurus dolichodeirus...452, 453

MRM TORNUG ES oss owe med cs pid the cere 303

ME He cio. a kin ula ws ws wvae ew 315,° 316

epoeh, camels ini. 04.6. 345

i a! hy AM SS ac ee 8 ree RA 70

Sirsa Geovalnl 3.006525 70

POPIGtECarPUS .. 2. oe eens 458, 468

eM ESET cro wig onic: Sa 'ones oN ange we 264

Plural number (Yukaghir)...110, 139

Pedolia, province of:......- 168, 169

Posoudue, pueblo of: i... .'. cess 317

Poland, Russian, ethnic condi-

PERE 2). cid 2 oy. vix bdrooue eae 168

Pet OU? CON > lead eartw ky es 28, 30

Palarity iM--OOCyteS. 6.5 saws 20, 30

Polish Jews. .162, 168, 181, 185, 186,

200, 200, 217, 219, .266,° 268, 272

Poltava, province of

Polystomelila

* Polysynthesis ”

Poor Charles Lane; Editor

RESEARCHES AS TO THE IDEN-

Try or LEXELL §) ost

CoMET OF 1770 WITH THE

PERIODIC COMET OF 1889,

1896 AND 1903 (Abstract).

Position of adverbs (Yukaghir).

Positive forms in verb (Yuka-

Dis shee eee ee Oe pe

ay) ea en a E20, 221, -1a2,

POStUVISUL «c:d-s8 bi ear as ek eee

Possessive absolute pronouns

Pipe 2 |e ali (hy oh eA Om a gre do

Possessive suffixes (Yukaghir)..

Post, C. A.; Finance Committee.

Post-synaptic processes

Potential mode (Yukaghir)..120,

Potential of similar evolution...

Pottery-making

Pottowatomie dialect

Powell;

Powhatan, Mount

Predentata

Predisposition to similar evolu-

tion in Titanotheres

Preformation

Prehistoric archeology

PREHISTORIC MAN, RECENT JouR-

NEYS AMONG LOCALITIES NOTED

FOR THE DISCOVERY OF REMAINS

oF, J. Howard Wilson,

65-74, (Abstract) 305,

4070 (6 es vene & eee ele Be 6.8

ae SO) 0 Wb e el 8 le) Bs 8 ve alee fe

“Prelocalization, germinal ”

PieGimeeweltaries «Sere hue ave he ws

PRESENTATIONS, PRIMARY AND

Seconpary, Henry Rutgers

Marshall” (Abstract)... <3. 2<-

Present-preterite tense (Yuka-

PE ae sae eal aaa 119,

President’s Address, N. Y. Ac.

STL Oe BON ee cate et es notin hie: 367

PRESSURE-EXPERIMENTS ON THE

Eccs OF THE CRUSTACEAN Hip-

POLYTE, M. A. Bigelow (Ab-

SRE ABE Toasts. th ete ee lak ET.

PERE Wide? EE hc. oh sees ce

Salle): 0: wee ee ee Sate ae era

Peete TE. cs ee eka tk Cee S

PRIMARY AND SECONDARY PRE-

SENTATIONS, Henry Rutgers

Marshall (Abstract)... ....<.

PRIMARY FEATHERS OF RECENTLY

KiLLep Hawks, MEASUREMENTS

OF THE, AND THEIR BEARINGS

ON THE PROBLEM oOF_ BIRD

—386

506

Fiicut, C. C. Trowbridge (Ab- |

stract) 340-341 |

Primitive egg cells, resting stage

OE chi, aes een ee ee 18 |

PRISUUTUS <x oh i he ee 34 |

PROBLEM, THE, OF DEVELOPMENT,

President’s Address, Edmund

B:, Wolson. oso oe 361, 367-386 |

Procolophonta.’ 2)... hess eee 303

Productus -CiZQnieus <2... Dc. oe 84

Proganosaurviay “220 ts ose ae 303

Pronouns (Yukaehin) 2.2.2. I16-119

declension: (table) «2: 2.4...:0% 118

Gemionstrative?; a. 2 ss. sae ss 116

INGEHNME™. | ote ee we Vets te 116

IMPELEO ALIVE Te ce ore oe wie) a ae ES 116

PCESONGM: eke e Il hese epee eee 116

possessive «absolute, ..... 56 .. nF

Pronacler: 2n.'2hs sccws ncaa Se eee ae 50

Pronucleus,, female ..44.cacce0% air

Prophases.. . 42.2425 ¢5,4 440 sso £0, 9

Propodial..447, 449, 462, 463, 464,

468, 470, 471

Proterandry in

Proterogyny in

Endoprocta.5;, 6, 7

Hndoprocta. 35. <6; «7

Protorosatiriag sos: oes: 2c ere 303

Brouho; rei. ose. bh ok ettoeee 5

Pruner Bey rele. <+. 2322 162, 164

Pseudontorphic. ye 2.24.5 okevs oe 390, 435

Psy choeenetie. vot, oe es. gaan 327)

Psychology, Section of,

Meeting, Jan. 25, 1904..307-310

Feb: 205. Todi. ee 317-319

APT 25 1904s. oes 336-338

Oct. 245 1604 Fane 348-349

Non: 28) 1604.5... 2208 353-354

Ptéerosaumiaw : -seecris a eek ae 303

Puestos oF NEw MExIco AND

ARIZONA, ETHNOLOGICAL SUR-

VEY OF THE, DURING THE SUM-

MER OF 1903, George H. Pepper

CAbstract)) Ss: haee aie 317-318

Pyridine i Scice sek os eee ee 357

Py fite Ac. co Sheen ee ee 397 |

Pyroxene..396, 402, 406, 412, 410,

420, 422, 423, 424, 425, 426, 427,

428, 432

Wyroxenic intrusives -...o-. wee 399

‘Pyroxenic rock <2. -30se 393, 407

PYYTOCHOTUS Ru aa es OM ee 27

‘Quarry, Bone Cabin, Wyoming.. 358

QOuartz....331, 390, 39%, 393,) 396, 397,

398, 401, 402, 403, 407, 428, 431,

432, 435

INDEX.

Quartz-diorite schist after gabbro. 392

Quartz-diorite gabbro....... 403, 430

fibrolites soe tess a ae Bee 394

Quartz, chonéyconib: «4 «-an. one 427

Ouanizite. 5 se een oe eee 323

Ouartz-nonite: eco 34s =e 431

Ouaternarycices.6e sae ees 66; 306,;) 355

deposits of -—London'- ewe 67

mammals -— scm 2 mien ee 67

THE vs. eho rales eA eee 67, 68

Qpatrefages:*sret i... cho: ae 164, 165

Quincy, (Joy. (rele es eee 441

Rabbit,-oogenesiso8 .. 3% <h.: ate 38

Racial purity of Jews...156-160, 285

Radio-activity: anime. «weet 300

RGU” Vee age 2 ee eee 332

Radium-barium carbonate ......: 301

Radium ‘bromide. .2.. 02.05.58 342

RADIUM, CHEMICAL COMBINATION

oF KNALL-GAS UNDER THE AC-

TION OF, Bergen Davis and C.

W. Edwards (Abstract)..356, 357

RADIUM, THE GENERATION OF

ELECTRICAL CHARGES BY,

George B. Pegram (Abstract),

340, 342

RapiumM, THE YEAR'S WoRK

witH, George B. Pegram (Ab-

stract)

@) "a: (ale je lates see «af s)-e) = ie) me

| Radius,

450, 451, 452, 457, 463, 464, 466, 470

Raits, BENDING MOMENTS IN,

FOR THE SAME SUPERSTRUC-

TURE UNDER DIFFERENT TYPES

oF Locomotives, P. H. Dudley

(ADSiGACT in. «atone ace 340, 342-343

Ramieést, (refs 32s has. ck ey eee 69

Rampart, Alaska: c.f s2..acseeme 334

Ramsay? ‘refs. cain ane Be

Ranchitas de Santa Ana, pueblo

OE We SO oo BAe ee el eae nee 317

Rand, T. D.; quoted on horn-

blende. schist’ 45.0527 sige 434

quoted on serpentines...... 435

Fleas, pee ae ee ee 427, 433

Ranke, J.; ref 063; 18o, 275

RECENT ADVANCES, THE, IN THE

UTILIZATION OF PEAT -AND LiIG-

nite, H. H. Wotherspoon, Jr.

(Abstract) 321-323

RECENT DISCOVERIES OF EXTINCT

ANIMALS IN THE Rocky Moun-

TAINS AND THEIR BEARINGS ON

THE PRESENT PROBLEMS OF

Evo.utrion, Henry F. Osborn

(Abstract) 357-359

Gia) pt a) ele) a! (a) iw we @).e by oe

INDEX. ;

RECENT JOURNEYS AMONG LOCALI-

TIES NOTED FOR THE DISCOV-

ERY OF REMAINS OF PREHIS-

toric Man, J. Howard Wilson,

65-74, (Abstract) 305, 306

ReEcENT ProGresS MADE IN THE

Stupy oF NEBULZ BY PHOTO-

GrapHic Metuops, C. D. Per-

Some (title only).........5%.% 346

Meemerche Bay........:..... 83, 84

Reciprocal voice (Yukaghir).... 131

Recording Secretary N. Y. Ac.

Sci., Annual Report of....362-364

Record of the Meetings of the

me Y. Ac. Sci., January to

December, 299-386

RecorD, THE ESTABLISHMENT OF

A PERMANENT, OF SYSTEMATIC

AND EcoLoGicAL DATA’ FOR

Woops Ho re, F. B. Sumner

and R. C. Osburn (title only). 321

Reduction of Chromosomes,

19-20, 34-40

Rees, J. K., Harold Jacoby and

Herman S. Davis, THE Varta-

TION OF LATITUDE IN NEW

York City; Part 2, VARIATION

oF LATITUDE AND CONSTANT OF

oS: 328-329

Reflexive voice (Yukaghir)..... 130

SUR MES fe oka. ge ches so of ab 72. 73

RELATION, THE, OF KATHODE RE-

SISTANCE TO THE SO-CALLED

SATURATION CURRENT IN THE

DISCHARGE THROUGH GASES,

F. L. Tufts (Abstract)....349, 350

RELIGION AND Macic, THE ULTI-

MATE RELATION BETWEEN, Irv-

ing King (Abstract)..307, 309-310

LEE ft cote c ecw ew we aa

Rentfro, John; camp assistant

(tn. 2 Sr or ee ee

Repsold measuring machine ....

REPTILES AND MAMMALS,

AguaTic, ADAPTIVE MopIFIcaA-

TIONS OF THE LIMB SKELETON

IN, Raymond C. Osburn...447-482

REPTILIA, THE CLASSIFICATION OF

THE, Henry F. Osborn (Ab-

stract) 302-303

RESEARCHES AS TO THE IDENTITY

OF LEXELL’s Lost COMET OF

1770 WITH THE PERIODIC COMET

OF 1889, 1896 AND_ 1903,

Charles Lane Poor (Abstract) .311

o eae we Se eS ee wares, 8 2

160 |

RESEMBLANCES, MENTAL, OF

Twins, E. L. Thorndike (Ab-

stract ) 324-325

Resting stage of primitive egg

SRE ee a ee ee ew a

COLES. 34.3 bein yd Se ieee roe 18

RESULTS, THE, OF THE OBSERVA-

TIONS OF THE Last SOLAR

Ecuipse, S. A. Mitchell (title

ORME aw ot as hte Vag een meee es 320

RETARDATION AND ACCELERATION

IN DEVELOPMENT, INTRA-

CotoniAL, A. W. Grabau (title

STG, eee ne ee eee ee 321

RETINAL Loca Si1Gns, Walter F.

Dearborn (Abstract)...... 307, 308

RO CEOS! wate crete ac ee chor 3 eee 67

RPAZOROUS \h.0 6 Adu adiambiws sie oe 333

Rhynchocephalia ...... 303, 467, 475

PE WERTES) «Cuero ida d of ol ork ys ay tanded bs 326

Tg Me ac: Oe er 327

STARS 5 ME 2 ee ee ge 405

MIsQuel, Dis: Geb sisis.s) camisfse os 67

Ripley; ref..160, 181, 189, 190, I91,

200;)/203,. 224, 226, 260, 275,. 284

Rites, ANCIENT, AMONG THE

LACANDONE AND Maya, Sur-

VIVALS OF THE, A. M. Tozzer

USES OE) ae foc s S oarn 2a s 353, 354

MNBOKE Ss GEL cet de gi + are nae 83, 84

Rocxy Mountains, Recent Dis-

COVERIES OF Extinct ANIMALS

IN THE, AND THEIR BEARINGS

ON THE PRESENT PROBLEMS OF

Evotution, Henry F. Osborn

RECS DE ACIO o oo a Sid eyvtg: aie a: ass 357-359

Rogers; quoted on hornblende

Sali 3 eR open eee ae mene eee Sse 434

Bacenteres fet «So. soos wat se a2. -28

Roumanians..168, 169, 181, 186, 187,

188, 206, 209, 218, 227, 234, 268

Rickert; ref. .23, 24,°27; 34: 39,: 41

Messe BC otek oh aca a staalcs 408

Russian Imperial Geographical

Hong SSO MEEMG nd Dest na uhns Setens aus Bajers 97

Russian Jews, divisions of...168—-169

Ruthenians. .162, 169, 180, 181, 209,

Zit, 20y, 220, 2337 234,258, 259,

268, 269, 284, 290

Rutherford: ~ ret.) 22 sins iw’ 311

| Ryder; ref. on flukes of Cetacea. 460

on hyperphalangy.......... 465

MaGGta> PREG. cs ater ee eae es 459

Sachoes., Bleue. . 5 ssc ck otc ss. 441

Sr a | es a ee 37, 46

508 INDEX.

SANE? oF ache ations vee cee 420: Schmid bs ers: Geers cero eee 5

St. Petersburg, Imperial Academy Schockaert; ref oic si 2: 45, 46, 47

Or PSCreneeS' iste eee cetoeiee 98 | Schoenfeld ref 20... ons 38

Saint Prest, gravel pits of....... 70 | OCHTAUES? Teta. cee. oa route ee 427

St. VINCENT AND ManrTINIQUE, Schreiner, A., and K. E.; ref.... 37

SoME ERoSION PHONOMENA IN, Schulze, E.> ret <p coe 404, 418

E. 0. Hovey (Abstract) 2.344) +345 |-Sehultzes tet... 2ee . J. eee 4

St. VINCENT, BritisH West In- Scoresby, William; explorer.... 82

DIES; THE ERUPTIONS OF 1902 S€asorape..*. a1 oaite «tein ear tee 314

AND THEIR IMMEDIATE RE- Seattle, “Wasi. s/n. che ee 333

suLts, E. O. Hovey (Abstract), Seaweeds: 56.02.06 Noes ie eee 94

347-348 | Second glacial period...:. 7.1.8 306

Salisbury Plain, monument on.. 73] Second maturation division of

Samsonoff, Nicholas; ref...... 143 OOCKLES sk wn e ne ee 28-30

Sandia, pucblonoisco: tee ake ee 317 | second polars body.” ....uts..0 eee 30

Saridstoner 5.27. 4s oer 407;. 429 sedimentary deposits: one 388

San, Felipe, pueblo vot...:4<...< 317'| SCCleY ss Teh, uy ia ee ee ee 303

San Geovanni, Pliocene of...... 70 | ““ Selection by immigration”.... 184

San’ Ildefonso, pueblo of....... 317 | Sensationalisnr 525 osu eee 327

Santa-Ana; «pueblo sof..3 2 sees 317 | SENSATION, ORGANIC, AND SIMPLE

Santa.Clara, pueblo, <6. -:5-.—. 317 FEELING, THE GENERIC RELA-

Santo Domingo, pueblo of...... 217, TION oF, Margaret E. Wash-

Sassen Baya. Hae nee n=. see 83, 52) ~ burma ‘(title only) so. ee 307

SATURATION CURRENT, SO-CALLED, SENSATION, THE TIME PERCEP-

THe RELATION OF KATHODE TION AS A MEASURE OF DIFFER-

RESISTANCE TO THE, THROUGH ENCES OF, V. A. C. Henmon

Gases, F. L. Tufts (Abstract), (Abstract) vote meee 324, 326

349, 350| SENSE; THE, OF SMELL IN ANTS,

Satikwaialeet. obec sae ko vs ee 336| Adele M. Fielde (Abstract),

SAULOponda ewe stead sem ere: 303 302, 304

Sauiroplery cia Macnee ae 302, 303 |S epnardd. «i. nee ee ee eee Le7

Saville, Marshall H., Paper- Sephardim........2..- 157, I65,) 106

MAKING JMPLEMENTS OF AN- Serbo-Croats! Anh. eee 283, 284

CIENT Mexico (title only).... 336) Seriation, determination of stat-

Savona skeleton +. s een 70). Ure by .c.6.ceya heute sate 175-180

Saxonterdcen eee ae ee 300 | Serpentine. .390, 395, 399, 404, 406,

payee) An oHes rete coh oe ee. 285 407, 408, 409, 411, 412, 414, 415,

Scapolite:-:asnea oss ees 393 416, 418,420, 42259423, 424, 7425,

Schafer, “Ro Weer vtet-.. kane: 404| . 427, 428, 430, 431, 432,485

Schaudinn; ref. on rhizopods... 333 | Serpentinoid, granite dikes under-_

Scheiber; ref..177, 181, 184, 185, 187 lying: coo pie hose ee 428-429

Schietner, “Prof, "A:ssrer a3 98 microscopic _ characteristics

Schillersspar/ Riche ee ee 435 OL > (sx: stchaeeecnietc eee ee 408-416

Schimmer; ref. on complexion of mineralogical constitution of,

Jewish school children in Aus- 420-423

EGU shi ishy bre ence 161, (271, “274 outcrops in Westchester Co.,

Sehists; ‘crystalline 25. sn eet S55 Ni Waa e-e ees i oe ee 406

Schist fragments within dikes... 392 reactions with bronzite..... 424

ScHists, METAMORPHIC, THE Oc- ridge of, on west bank of

CLUSION OF IGNEOUS ROCK Hudson cA «ax see 406-408

WiruHin, Alexis A. Julien (Ab- Serpentinoid schists, chemical

SETACt ec ss 2G Se aa eee A145 315 composition of....417—420

Scuists, METAMORPHIC, THE Oc- Ofigin (Of we. .cs nee 416-417

CLUSION OF IGNEOUS RocK Sertwlarig % oosn ise vs co ties See 5

WITHIN, AS ILLUSTRATED ON Servians Wis iy ctetc ey cakes tinneer 284

AND NEAR MANHATTAN ISLAND, Sex relations in Pedicellina

N. Y., Alexis A. Julien... .387-442 GMETICANG 185.055 ws ee De eu 4-8

INDEX.

SEXUAL CYCLE, THE EVIDENCE OF

A, IN AM@BA PROTEUS, Gary N.

Calkins, (Abstract)........ 332-333

Shale 404

Shamans, Dead, A Tale of What

the Ancient Yukaghir Did with

SRM lors are cia i ses be I4I-152

Perret EANCH 22). ke ce ee 353

Bmemmet, Mount ............... 441

SUMGSVOSGUPUS. 26. eee 458, 461, 468

PERM Sie koe ead ocd Las 461

Shem, as ancestor of Jews...... 160

Smcehedropitzki: ref........... 273

Shulze, G.; analysis of serpen-

ES ae eee ae re ne 417

Saungopavi, pueblo of......... R17

Srcpomavi, pueblo of .......... 317

ENN es ee 2 guts oe ee 70

NR SE Se ene ee 83, 94

Silica. .393, 409, 416, 419, 420, 422,

423, 424, 426, 427

BPUEIOONIE 2. senses wece ree ue 427

PEMTIOGAUS. Scie sta ee ess cp ss 357

MANTIS ers wt heey ceemae a 303

NT i 459

eimereness of action ..+....... 131

Siphon pens for time records. ...326

Sirenia..448, 449, 456, 457, 458, 460,

463, 470, 471

mramwray, Pilasica’ 6.2.65. ee ee dies 333

Skeletal parts, smaller, in aquatic

reptiles and mammals ....467-468

SKELETON, Lims, IN AQUuATIC

REPTILES AND MAMMALS, ADAP-

TIVE MOopDIFICATIONS OF THE,

Raymond C. Osburn...... 447-482

Skin, Jewish, color of..262, 264, 279

Skye, igneous rocks of.......... 389

MR eS cnc eb erase @idla'e 429

Slate, hornblende .............. 433

[wavonic type” of Jews..:... 284

UMMM Artec con Hae hss mag Seas 284

Ls 0 426

SMELL, THE SENSE OF, IN ANTS,

Adele M. Fielde (Abstract).302, 304

Smith, Harlan I., Arcu£oxocic-

AL SURVEY OF THE INTERIOR OF

THE STATE OF WASHINGTON

DuRING THE SUMMER OF 1903

PRTG ACE eco aie s.0-b:4 anced gee 317-318

Snigireff; ref.,

rO¢; 177; 180, 184, 200, -20T,..205

eR TNE g hai 5 wyctin ees kis enieine 431

Social conditions, influence on

girth of chest...... 202-203

influence on stature.189—-195

509

Society of Antiquaries of London. 67

G0GGys -fSl Fea ae ae ats gta

SoLaR EciipsE, THE RESULTS OF

THE OBSERVATIONS OF THE

Last, S. A. Mitchell (title

OME) Likesaatecsut Moone eee ts 320

Solutfian- period...) aes. oe 72

SOLVENT IN SOLUTION, THE Com-

BINATION OF IONS WITH THE,

C. W. Kanolt (Abstract) ..356, 357

Somatic ‘spindle, Mest}. js. sc. 4 : 32

SoME EROSION PHENOMENA IN

St. VINCENT AND MARTINIQUE,

E. O. Hovey (Abstract)..344, 345

SoME PROBLEMS OF THE FRINGE

oF CONSCIOUSNESS, Irving

ine Circle Only. > ode at ees 348

Somme River, implements and

Same, (ewe ee Sere oe oie ek eA 66, 73

Sone, Valley Olle cms «ass ocala km 67

Soufriére, active cone of, com-

pared with cone of Mt. Pelé... 335

Soufriére, eruption of the...... 348

Sound harmony of vowels....... 138

South America 6.5. ote eee’ 316

SRGLNUOU Ser te fed oS F50,|. 265, 277

Sparking “potential... . 252.6% 301, 302

SVPCCEVO SCOPE atc laig e aiWin.s Wo! + erste: 8 one 330

SPELLING ENGLISH WorDSs, THE

DISTRIBUTION OF ERRORS IN,

Robert MacDougall (Abstract),

307, 309

SU CEMIRASTES | fos c ule wer wenscee we at

Spermatids, formation of, in

Pedicellina americana....15—-16, 33

Spermatocytes in Pedicellina

QMELICONG «2.2.2.2. II-I5, 33, 50

Spermatogenesis and odgenesis,

ChiiparisOtMer s44, ee aa 48-49

Spermatogenesis in Pedicellina

QUNCFICOME. ha oS einint os 2, 8-17, 49

SPermatoeomia.. o..4. ai Q-II, 33, 49

Spermatozoon, matured, of Pedi-

cellina americana .......... 16-17

SSMS ET GE col otc: Bara eae lawn x a ahs 330

SE MOMONS aioe sa ah enunicias sine x es 302

SPINOR. MOP ode cae sees EV

SIME cave oPmeoe trie 353, 406, 415, 427

Sprrenie... ko. 22; 36, 40, 43, 42, 50

Spirifer Pewuhavn 5 ee ees ees 84

Spitzbergen coal, analysis of...86-87

SPITZBERGEN, THE JURASSIC COAL

or, John J. Stevenson...... 82-95

SPITZBERGEN, THE ISLAND OF, AND

Its Coat, John J. Stevenson

CAPS sery es ide coe wins 352-353

510 INDEX.

Spitzbergen archipelago, descrip- MATIC EcoLoGICcAL DaTA FOR

HanMmOr ke Os ark uc otaneEere re 82/ Woops Hore (ttle only).:--: 321

Spodumened ) . vOrs Seas ee 301| Sumner, F. B., ExPeriMENTAL

Spuyten, Duyvail (Creek esac oe 393 | STUDIES OF ADAPTATION

Squamata 5 89... aneereaes ere 303 | AND SELECTIVE ELIMINa-

Stalagmites U2 is eis. ya pane £2 es TION IN FiIsHES' (Ab-

Staten Island, occlusion on..... 407 Strace)e Sak ee See bee. 358, 359

Stature, determination by method Report of summer work.... 347

of coordination and seria- Supine, Yukaghir language,

TORN 5. o tote ecto 175-180 120, 127-128, 130

effect of occupation on. .190-195

effect of social conditions on,

189-195

of Jewesses 195-199

of Jews..171-199, 280, 282, 283,

286, 287

Relation to. cirthe it. ces 203-206

relation to immigration,

176-180, 184-185

Steatiterk.. wines AOS, 406, 407, 435

Stemberes® ref! ts .2 8045 i5. Fe 234

SECTCOSTETNUNMN “55a. ss ha cme eee 457

Stevens, Miss; refs... s fool225: 37

Stevenson, A. E.; ref........ 92, 93

Stevenson, John J.; Delegate... 344

THE ISLAND OF SPITZBERGEN

AND Its Coat (Abstract),

352-353

THE JURASSIC COAL OF SPITZ-

BERGEN 0 ds stae Soleo Soe muse 82-95

Stieda; ref...... 158, 223, 280,232

Stockholm Academy of Sciences. 82 |

Stonehenge 27a. see tee 7A, 345

Strasburger> sef......).- 32, 39,48

Stremmatograph tests ...... 342-343

Strenesiscer sweats eek ote ee 403

Stresses, unit fiber. 5... esis ae 342

Striated positive column ....... 301

SETMtCs: Hels eure eee ers ga

“ StuDIES IN LoGicAL THEORY,”

Dewey’s, Henry Davies (Ab-

stract) 307, 308-309

STYLOLITIC STRUCTURES IN LIME-

STONE, Microscopic STRUCTURE

AND ORIGIN OF CERTAIN, J. D.

Erving ‘CAbstract)/ 56a 305-306

Subbrachycephalic,

221, 223) 235 ZOO. 265

Subdolichocephalic,

221, 223, 235. 200. -2o1

Sixes: CASE. \.cicis sic § «cree 103

DUSSESSIVE® , o.c.ai0-5 ecaiaeh eee 103-4

SEM Fei ce! cece, Sos aus nea ee 67

Sumatra, solar eclipse in, t901.. 320

Sumner F. B., and R. C. Osburn,

THE ESTABLISHMENT OF A PER-

MANENT RECORD OF SYSTE-

SURVIVALS OF THE ANCIENT

RITES AMONG THE LACANDONE

AND Maya, A. M. Tozzer (Ab-

stract) 353; 354

SUSPENSION PENDULUM, DOUBLE,

Tue Tueory oF A, R. S. Wood-

O) e) 6 a) eee Ge, a) 8) eee) ele le ie: ie

Ward Abstract) eatin ceeer 340

Suttons ‘ref3.2, 23)" 01) 22.) 25a

32; 333.34, 36, 40,48

Swedish geologistsin Spitzbergen. 82

| Switzerland, paleolithic man in. 73

Syenitic @neiss! >... ee eee 40l

Synapsida H..3: woe 220, 363

SYMAPSIS> 2.fhas we aoe Lf, 32 <35y reese

linin-hibers: ingos ce esa 2

univalent-irodsS” di... 21

Synaptic knobs: 2.4.20 .: soe eee Lo, 25

““ Syndesmosis, intercalary ”’ 465

Syntasmatite: 4 haus ee eas Cie 426

SYNTHESIS, HistTorIcAL, ACTION

AS THE Concept oF, P. Hughes

(Abstrach)s Sieve eae RBA B87

SyTians.s- corel ee 164, 259, 288

SYSTEMATIC AND ECOLOGICAL

DaTA FOR Woops Hote, Es-

TABLISHMENT OF A PERMANENT

Recorp oF, F. B. Sumner and

R. C. Osburn (title only)... 32%

Tale..406, 407, 408; 409, 403; [4ir4;

415, 420, 421, 422, 423, 425, 428,

435

Tale=sclitst..nc 2 eee anaes 407, 418

Tale, A, of What the Ancient

Yukaghir Did with Their Dead

Shamans-— (2c. eee ae 141-152

Talko-Hryncewicz; ref..162, 160,

177, I8I, 184, 1854 T66, 187) 166,

198, 210, 213" 25S; 220, see. eeae

227) 23 292 (eo ae., 2o'7, saat mane

250, 264, 265, 266, 267, 200, 271;

272, 273, 275, 284

Talusebreceta’™” o255¢. 214. eee 406

Tangential pressure, corrugation

DY. sis, p ie eae NE a at ae ee 390

Parr RG refock Ste ee 436

Tarsas ioe 452, 453, 463, 464, 46

INDEX.

ee eee ae ee

Tchernigoff, province of....168, 169

eS: ee es erg 393

Delmatotherium . os. see eee ee 358

MSIGE Sas ee oe IGe* SYS" FO

Temporal case of nouns...... I10, 136

Memees (Yukaghir)............% 119

ES cre nics vicisce Re e.0'dm, alate 314

Geeeetey COAL .. 2... te ese 93, 94

deposits, flints in........... 69

See HOO; 315, 316

@ Great Britain..s>... 389

OO ee arn wie 68, 70

Tertiary sandstones in Alaska...

TERTIARY TIMES, OUTLINES OF

THE CONTINENTS IN, W. D.

Matthew (Abstract)..314, 315-316

EMI E Sok c pireeee se 303

DPEStUDO OSDOTMANG .. 260.2 s ness 313

Tesuque, pueblo of ............ a17

Thalassema........ 25. 26, 27; 205.44

MESSOCILCLYS . oo 0 oo eo ee 460, 466

EUEMEHOGAUCIA 6), sua Scie w es 471

MIITTOSOUTUS «0. eee eee 471

Thalattosuchia. .303, 448, 449, 450,

453, 454, 457, 460, 462, 465, 468,

470

oo 2 ee 303

+ oi a Ree ae 69

THEORY, THE, OF A DouBLE Sus-

PENSION PENDULUM, R. S.

Woodward (Abstract)....... 340

Se See 419

enOuOMEa eS cal eee 303

Thermo-electric couples ........ 329

0 Oe ee or 303

DEMEEONUOTDH A... 6. ens tw len ens 303

MIE 05. io. «5s dn dae eet oe 303

ME Oe nce ccna cme ee ig ’

meernpeon, J. J.; ref.......... 301

meempson River ............. 318

THORIUM, ENERGY LIBERATED BY,

George B. Pegram and Harold

Webb (Abstract)......... 328, 329 |

Mattei OXIGe 2... 1. sec w anes 329

Thorndike, E. L., A Comparison

OF THE MENTAL AND

PHysIcAL RESEMBLANCES

oF Twins (title only)... 348

MENTAL...RESEMBLANCES OF

Twins (Abstract).....324—325

Pea metre TStONeS oo cc ek nnd 65

MUPVEGNOSOOM® 20. ss ous vw ve clea 45, 46

a ee ee ae 451, 452, 463

PMEMRU IE oo cic Pk woe eek 300, 301

168 TIME PERCEPTION,

511

THE, AS A

MEASURE OF DIFFERENCES IN

Sensation, V. A. C. Henmon

CPE AER i. a ulek wow eee 324, 326

Time records, siphon pens for.. 326

TITANIFEROUS MAGNETITE, THE,

IN Wyominc, James F. Kemp

Sea Ee orca. ohn ite ae a52.. 983

PHAMOCRETIWM 46 i ow cee ie Gea s 358

Titanotheres, Eocene ancestors of

PePOAGCENS 5). 0 is 4 ees g Oe 358

DP HAPREETES. i ocoia oon PC Rew gI

Osea MES donee Str ale 'tho ald khan a mens 431

Topinard; ref..... 158, 177, 249, 257

TOPS ALIVER 606s 6 6G s eiein do 319

Toretocnemus....453, 458, 460, 461

‘RGPRCOGREI > TEE is dow oes a as 404

TortToIseE, A New GIGANTIC, FROM

THE MIOCENE OF CoLorapo, QO.

ey a oS nr 312-313

Toula, Prof. Franz; ref...82, 84, 94

SPREE ANG ING nS elle ass aD hoe ca 391

Tower, Ralph W.; Librarian... 360

Townsend, Charles H., Report of

PRTTATIET, P VAL GEES vias Se ail Gs Sonia 2 347

Towaseud. J... Sus; TL os 560s 0s 301

Tozzer, A. M., Survivats oF AN-

CIENT RITES AMONG THE LACAN-

DONE AND Maya (Abstract) .353-354

PCE LAG Sb aoe eS SX a Rinse Kiar 48

Treasurer, N. Y. Ac. Sci., Annual

RePete AT oe tea s,s 5 hie 364-365

Tremolite..402, 403, 406, 407, 413,

414, 415, 416, 418, 419, 420, 422,

425, 426, 428, 431

Triassic. .453, 458, 459, 461, 464, 471

Tribo-luminescence ............ 301

TRIBOPHOSPHOROSCOPE, NOTE ON

A, AND THE DwuRATION SPEC-

TRUM OF TRIBOPHOSPHORESCENT

Licut, Wallace Goold Levison

[PE SEGREE Doar Scce 2 Med p cso nc 328, 330-332

Trinity College, collection of

ATSC RNS SOEs Sone oh his he & his 76

SP EMOMVGHIS 6 dicts e «so Om dd bo 2 303

ATEN AORN! nn. was sche ax" 331

Trowbridge, C. C., MerAsuRE-

MENTS OF THE PRIMARY

FEATHERS OF RECENTLY

KILLED HAwKsS, AND THEIR

BEARINGS ON THE PROBLEM

OF Birp Friicut (Ab-

SRERGEN = pepe tthe £2 00k, 340-341

THE DwuRATION OF THE

AFTERGLOW ACCOMPANYING

THE ELECTRODELESS DIs-

CHARGE AT Low PRESSURE

(Abstract) 350-351

512

Tutts, F. L., THe RELArion or

KATHODE RESISTANCE TO THE

SO-CALLED SATURATION CuR-

THROUGH Gases’ (Abstract),

349, 350

T wundta, dialect sees aoe 98, 99, 338

FE UGIIGUES.. (ois R Lain ete heey eee 99

Tungus stems in Tundra dialect. 338

Tunicates

Turanian typevot ewe 158-159

Turin, cephalic index of Jews in. 165

Twins, A CoMPARISON OF THE

MENTAL AND PHySICAL RESEM-

BLANCES OF, E. L. Thorndike

Ctuthes only: .0cs craks 2 Serie te 348

Twins, MENTAL RESEMBLANCES

oF, E. L. Thorndike (Abstract),

324-325

eyed: Se oe spaces of dreamt acoe Aueememete B55

Mylo sauainice aces. 208 oo een ee 462

Tylosaurus,

450, 452, 453, 460, 464, 469

EL ePVOPTIge? orn ae eee 470

UINTAH RESERVATION, SOUTH-

EASTERN UTAH, A GEOLOGICAL

RECONNOISSANCE OF THE,

Charles P. Berkey (Abstract),

321, 323-324

Ulna..450, 451, 452, 457, 463, 464,

466, 468, 470

ULTIMATE RELATION, THE, BE-

TWEEN Macic AND RELIGION,

Irving King (Abstract)

307, 309-310

Uniform positive column °.5-... 301

Unittiber (stresses s.a5.0- renee 342

Univalent rods in’ synapsis <-,-- 21

UNIVERSE’S, THE, PLACE IN Man,

Francis Burke Brandt (Ab-

Strach yi |. Ui s 2 eos 307-308

Ural-Altaic group of Siberian

langedages...o8 sae ae 98, 103, 104

Ural-Altaic languages compared

with Yukaghir language ...... 338

MI Calbe os ccd GS Sa eee eee A032. 427

Ni rAANIte.” }.).<.cvaeahs, aoscsneueee cements 300

Uranium compounds: 2.4.22 => 76

“Uranium, index to _ literature

OE ee as Vays ois sige eae 76

PU RCISEUIEN. v.55 ocd ate e teats eee 18

Mec. fold: aca tance Gok Rai 330, 332

Utau, SOUTHEASTERN, A GEO-

LOGICAL RECONNOISSANCE OF

THE UINTAH RESERVATION,

INDEX.

Charles P. Berkey (Abstract),

321, 323-324

Van der. Stricht nets... swage 46

Van Hise, C. R.; ref...423, 424, 425

Van. Wintwarter: ref... 22.05. 38

Variations, definite or determi-

TA Ris aire aula wy een see

VARIATION, THE, OF LATITUDE IN

New Yor«k City; Part 2, VARI-

ATION OF LATITUDE AND Con-

STANT OF ABERRATION, J. K.

Rees, Harold Jacoby and Her-

man S. Davis (Abstract). .328-329

Vena cavaot Ceratodus.c. oan: 351

VENOUS SYSTEM OF CERATODUS,

DEVELOPMENT OF THE, W. E.

Kellicott: «(Abstract):..-..e5 351-352

Verb, conjugation of 120

Verb form, relation to noun form. 133

Verb, Yukaghie’ <0 cee eee 119-133

WVergolays) cele cities 5.) -csia eee 329

Vertebral: Scates” .jnc. foe oe 313

Wialis case (Yukaghit): a.\s0ccer 106

WallAaTStte toscana eles 420; 4222; 3420

Violet; description (of a::.eae 344

Virchow; ref. on complexion

of Jewish school children in

Germany....<162, 162) 26252745275

Visual fields; conflict of. i.)-2 25 326

Wistual’ stimuli” 57 3.4.2 eee 308

Vitalism vs. mechanism..... 368, 386

Vitality, index of, in Jews..200, 205

Vogt; ref., “ Lectures on Man,”

Vohlin, province 10t.:7. 24. .- 168,

Voices, Yukaghir grammar. .130—-131

Volcanoes, coastal chain of. .437-438

Vom “Raths rei... eee 27,540

Von Baer; ceb...92. faves aca 368

Von. Buch; eis. i725 ¢. «202, 835.04

Von der Steinen, Karl; Hon

Went: “fc Bac eS arc ativan edie mites 361

Von Maydell, Baron; ref......

Von Meyer; ref. on Simosaurus. 459

Von Nardroff, E. R.; Vice Pres.,

Section of Astronomy, Physics

and’ Chemistry ap... 2 vaeaeroe 360

Von: Zittel, Prof:; death of: ... 362

| ref. on Plestosavridx.. -.. +4 459

Worob ete rete ce ane 283, 284

Waebens seftioii i. Sac seers ee 233

Wallachianist 55.5. sx citen eta tees 168

VV SAS aos erie es eae, Shae ere hw,

* Wasatch’ limestone

INDEX, 515

Washburn, Margaret E., Tue |

GENERIC RELATION OF ORGANIC THE PROBLEM OF DEVELOr-

SENSATION AND SIMPLE FEEL- MENT, President’s Address,

BeeeCHIFIC OLY). oe. soe ee os 307 | 361, 367-386

Washington, state of ...... 316, aig. WisGe.. Eo Ase ster. oie kates 301

WASHINGTON, STATE OF, ARCH#- Wilson, J. Howard, Recent

OLOGICAL SURVEY OF THE IN- JouRNEYS AMONG LOCALI-

TERIOR OF THE, DURING THE TIES NOTED FOR THE Dis-

SUMMER OF 1903, Harlan I. COVERY OF THE REMAINS

rare (Abstract) ........ 317-318 OF PREHISTORIC MAN, 65-74

Wateff; ref. on complexion of (Abstract), 305, 306

Jewish school children in Bul- SOME OF THE LOCALITIES IN

0 Sie vel Ae ys FRANCE AND ENGLAND

Webb, Harold, and George B. WHERE MoNUMENTS' OF

Pegram, ENrercy LIBERATED BY THE LATE STONE AND

THortum (Abstract)..... 226," 429 BronzE Acres Have BEEN

Seenee €6Guartzite ........65.. 323 Founp (Abstract) .344, 345-346

Semen. rer. on hyperphalangy.. 465 | Wiltshire ........... 00.06.0500 345

RAEI oc pie oo) «a nyc wea as 419, 427| Wissler, Clark, CEREMONIAL LIFE

Weisbach; ref.158, 169, 234, 277, 283 OF THE BtacKFoot (Ab-

Weismann; ref. on germ plasm. 379 BENAGE hind ar okie F ciee Ses 253, 354

Weissenberg; ref..159, 171, 177, and Franz Boas, ON THE

mee eae 202, 210, 223; 225, 231, GROWTH OF CHILDREN

meee 27. 241; 258, 265, 266, 271, CADstract) xas0 Gas soe 396031 387,

275,277, 278 Witebsk, province of........ 168, 169

Westchester Co., N. Y., occlusions Wolff; ref. on epigenesis.368, 369, 384

ROE ghia Sa u-te S.8 404-406| Wolff, J. E.; quoted on banded

serpentinoid outcrops in.... 406 PeeLGN Saye 2h. Sale sive aoc SRS 391

Whales, Mysticocete ........... Mba VN OllASTOMILG <... sc <a «ano -cafems 461,303

Fee ease, 260. 26 so Ss 465, 466| Woodbridge, F. J. E., Note on

MMPS ONE L665 cision memes Sa 465 THE NATURE OF _ CON-

Wheeler, W. M.; Vice Pres., SCIOUSNESS (title only).. 349

penion of Biology -2........%. 360 Vice-Pres., Section of An-

Whitehorse, Yukon Ty......... 334 thropology and Psychology. 360

Pee hussians. .168. 180,181, 18s, | Woodcliff, N. J........5. 00000 331

186,- 199, 209, 211, 217, 220, 227,| Woops Hoe, ESTABLISHMENT OF

234, 235, 268, 284, 290 A PERMANENT REcoRD OF Sys-

White Russians compared with TEMATIC AND ECOLOGICAL DATA

Jewish inhabitants ....... 162-163 For, F. B. Sumner and R. C.

Pemumeld. &. P.: ref. 2. ches 92 Osburn (title only): .......2%2... 321

Whitman, C. 0.; ref. on Bonnet’s WrOOG Ward, AL Tete jce 6 Ao tas 401

UR EE USB Pehle eee neh Me a aes 367 | Woodward, R. S., THe Tueory

Wiggin, F. H.; Councilor...... 360 oF A DouBLE SUSPENSION PEN-

ERIS ea Sedo as caine wea mw eeene 331 WUT NE) CA DBEGACE): <5 oe aire ale 340

Williams, G. H.; quoted on Woodward, Smith; ref........ 302

coastal volcanoes «:.....«: 438 | Woodworth, R. S., Cotor Con-

ae 403, 426, 429, 431, 436 TRASTS (Abstract) ....324, 325

RS SS ne ae Re 439 THE CoRRELATION BETWEEN

Williston; ref. on Mosasaurs, Motor STRENGTH, QUICK-

452, 458, 462 NESS AND Accuracy (title

AR POSMUPEUS . oo vis ie cece 468 oT he gh nae ee eae ange Oi ae ese aa 348

Oyun, province of ...:...s..«< 168 | Words, order of (Yukaghir).... 140

A : A 2 ee 3| Wotherspoon, H. H., Jr., Tue

Report of summer work.... 346 RECENT ADVANCES IN THE

THE CLEAvAGE-MosaIc_ IN UTILIZATION OF PEAT AND LIG-

PATELLA (title only). .332, 333 WIRE, CANSESCEy 4 wekenics a 321-323