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h Index and Comtemis, |

NEW YORK ACADEMY OF SCIENCES,

Be LATE

a3" :

LYCEUM OF NATURAL HISTORY.

Wew ¥ork: ~

PUBLISHED FOR THE ACADEMY,

1883.

GREGORY Bros., PrRiIntERS, 34 CARMINE STREET, N.Y.

OFFICERS OF THE ACADEMY.

1882.

President.

JOHN 8S. NEWBERRY.

! VYice-Presidents.

BENJ. N. MARTIN. ALEXIS A. JULMEN:

Goyyesponding Secretary.

ALBERT R. LEEDS.

Recording Secretary.

OLIVER P. HUBBARD.

@reasuyey

JOHN H. HINTON.

Joibvarian.

LOUIS ELSBERG.

Gommittee of Publication.

DANIEL S. MARTIN. JOHN S. NEWBERRY.

GHO. N. LAWRENCE. ALBERT R. LEEDS.

W. P. TROWBRIDGE.

ANNALS

NEW. YORK ACADEMY OF SCIENCES,

LATE

LYCEUM OF NATURAL HISTORY.

VOLUME II.

(a™

hie %

P27 2652 0)

ew York;

PUBLISHED FOR THE ACADEMY,

1882.

GREGORY BROS.,

Printers, 34 Carmine Street,

NEW YORK.

(FFICERS OF THE ACADEMY.

1982,

resident.

JOHN 8S. NEWBERRY.

Yice-Presidents.

BENJ. N. MARTIN. ALEXIS A. JULIEN.

@onyesponding Secretary.

ALBERT R. LEEDS.

Recording Secretary,

OLIVER P. HUBBARD.

Greasurer

JOHN H. HINTON.

Joibvarian.

LOUIS ELSBERG.

Committee of Publication.

DANIEL S. MARTIN. JOHN S. NEWBERRY.

GEO. N. LAWRENCE. ALBERT R. LEEDS.

W. P. TROWBRIDGE.

CONTENTS OF VOL. U.

BY THOMAS BLAND.

PAGE.

Description of a New Species of Triodopsis from New Mexico........ 115

On the Relations of the Flora and Fauna of Santa Cruz, West Indies. 117

Notes on Macroceramus Kieneri, Pfr. and M. poniificus. Gould......... 127

Description of two New Species of Zonites from Tennessee.......... 368

BY H. CARRINGTON BOLTON,

Application of Organic Acids to the Examination of Minerals..... nid il

BY N. L. BRITTON.

On the Geology of Richmond County, New York, (with Plates XV

AGEL NTA ig aU re ea ee eT eae ee SOR eceae 161

BY P. T. CLEVE.

Outlines of the Geology of the North-Eastern West India islands.

i AVAL! PU tte, DRONA UN a a care sre Pat a wl nS urna a Re 185

BY THOMAS EGLESTON.

On Zinc Desilverization, (with Plates III to XIII,.................. 81

x Contents.

BY ARTHUR M. ELLIOTT,

An Apparatus for Rapid Gas-Analysis, (with Plates XXII and

O00 a ere aN RRR Coc o¢ coco cous

BY LAURENCE JOHNSON,

The Parallel Drift-Hills of Western New York, (with Plate XVIII).

BY GEORGE N, LAWRENCE,

Description of a New Species of Bird of the Genus Chetura, with

Notes on two other little-known Birds.......................

Description of two New Species of Birds from Yucatan, of the Fami-

hes Columbidze and Formicarida:. >.>. 2.25.2 4s. eee eee

Description of a New Species of Bird of the Family Cypselide.......

Descriptions of New Species of Birds of the Genera Chrysotis, Formi-

civands and Spermopnildis .a-0se < se ee eee

BY ALBERT KR. LEEDS.

On the Production of Peroxide of Hydrogen, as well as of Ozone, by

the Action of Moist Phosphorus upon Air (with PlateI’.......

BY JOHN 8, NEWBERRY.

The Origin and Relations of the Carbon Minerals...................

On the Origin of the Carbonaceous Matter present in Bituminous

Shales,

Oe me (a) whe ie a 6 eae ©) 0i se. 8 lev ism 0:6 10) © 6,0 \e 0) (0) a 0) 6 01s) 6) le) oie) tufiallinliciiiatic i omeneynel

BY JOHN K. REES.

Observations on the Transit of Venus, December, 1882

BY ISRAEL C. RUSSELL.

The Geology of Hudson County, New Jersey (with Plate II}

872

(eS)

267

do7

384

“te

Contents. X]

BY ROBERT E. C. STEAKNS.

On Helix aspersa in California, and the Geographical Distribution of

certain West American Land-Snails, and previous errors re-

Den CRHET CLO! ctecicl- focecetaa su aslecies so EG RAS Poe SENSE RES. AE 129

BY ROBERT i. THURSTON,

The place of Sadi Carnot in the History of Thermotics............... 19

Note relating to a newly discovered Absolute Limit to Economical Ex-

FO MMMM EN MOVES dave 2's ss sia vi cinlysueartom whe s/s eRe eo 300

BY EDWARD VON MARTENS.

Description of two Species of Land-Shells from Porto Rico.......... 570

BY W. WALTER WEBB.

Index to the Literature of Electrolysis (1784 to 1880)................. 313

BY R. P. WHITFIELD.

Descriptions of New Species of Fossils from Ohio, with Remarks on

some of the Geological Formations in which they occur........ 193

BY F. G. WIECHUMANN.

Fusion-Structures in Meteorites (with Plates XIX, XX, and XNXI).... 289

BY HENRY 8. WILLIAMS.

The Life-History of Spirifer levis, Hall;a Paleontological Study (with

TEU, RII Seta idia sete poke merge fie oon een oy ape Errors Diner eacreae 140

LIST OF PLATES, VOlLe te

Puate. I.

Apparatus to show the presence, and comparative amounts, of Ozone and

Hydrogen Peroxide in air that has been passed over moist phosphorus.

Art. II, pp. 22—27.

PLATE II.

Generalized section of the rocks of Hudson County, New Jersey. Art.

IV, pp. 27—72.

Puate III.

The figures on Plates III to XIII inclusive, relate to Art. V, pp. St—113.

Fig. 1. Ore-sampler at Wyandotte Works.

2. Slag-buggy at Cheltenham Works.

PuLatTe LY.

Fig. 3. Blast-furnace at the Pennsylvania Lead Company’s

Works, Mansfield Valley, Penn. —

PLATE V.

Fig. 4. Desilverization-kettles at the Germania Works, Utah.

List of Plates. xu

Puate VI.

Fig. 5. Lead-refining furnace at the Germania Works, Utah.

Puate VIL.

Fig. 6. Steitz’s siphon-tap, for the polling-pots.

7. Polling--rutch, or wood-holder, for the polling-pot.

Puiate VIII.

Fig. 8. Brodie’s distillation furnace.

PLATE IX.

Fig. 9. Furnace at Cheltenham, Missouri.

10. Steitz’s siphon-tap for the distillation-furnace.

PLATE X.

Fig. 11. Improved retort-furnace (‘‘tilting-furnace”) by Faber

du Faur, C. E.

PuatTe XI.

Fig. 12. Details of Faber du Faur’s furnace.

PuLaTE XII.

Fig. 13. Furnace planned by Faber du Faur for the Germania

Works, Utah.

PuatTe XIII.

Fig. 14. Larger tilting furnace, for flame or gas, by Faber du

Faur.

PuLatTE XIV.

Relations of Spirifer levis, Hall, to other species of the genus. Art. X,

pp. 140—161.

XIV List of Plates.

Fig. 1. Spirifer laevis, Hall, ventral valve, showing surface

marking.

The same, showing hinge-area, beak, and deltidium, —

and (b) dorsal valve.

3. 3. fimbrialus. Conrad; ventral valve.

4. The same, showing beak and area, and (b> dorsal valve.

». § levis, H., side view.

6. 8S. fimbrialus, C., cardinal view.

7. The same, side view.

8, 9,10. 8S. erispus, Hisinger; ventral, dorsal, and side

views (after Hall).

11, a, b. The same, narrow variety.

12, a, b. 8. bicostatus, Vanuxem (after Hall).

3, a, b. 3S. erispus, His., wide variety.

Prate XV.

Geological map of Richmond Co., New York, (Staten Island). Art. XI,

pp. 161—182.

PLATE XVI.

Geological sections across Staten Island, N. Y. Same article.

Puiate XVIL.-

Geology of the North-eastern West India islands. Art. XII, pp. 185—193..

Fig. 1. Section through the Virgin Islands.

2. Sections through the Leeward Islands.

Puare XVIII.

Geological map of a part of Western New York. Art. XV, pp. 249—267.

PLATE XIX.

Magnified sections of meteorites. Art. XVIII, pp. 889—3812.

Fig. 1. Weston, Conn.; fell 1807. 300 diameters.

2. Left upper part of Fig. 1. 1500 He

3, 4, 5. Same meteorite. 300 *

6. North Carolina; fell 1849. 75 os

7, 8. Same meteorite. 300 s

9, Charles Co., Md. ; fell 1825. — 800 ine

List of Plates. Sey)

PLATE XX.

Maenified sections of meteorites. Same article.

Fig. 1. New Concord, Ohio; fell 1860. 800 diameters.

2. Staunern, Moravia; «< 1808. 300 fs

3. Siebenbiirgen; ** 1852. 150 ss

4, Weston, Conn. ; ** 1807. 150 se

5. Chateau Renard, France; ‘‘ 1841. 600 se

6. Iowa Co., lowa; “« 1875. 300 te

7. Aigle, France (crust); ** 1808. 300 oe

8. Same meteorite (interior); 300 re

9. see st (both) ; 300 oe

PuatTe XXII.

Magnified sections of igneous rocks. Same article.

Fig. 1. Scoria, Sandwich Islands. 300 diameters.

2. Basalt, Washoe. at sc

3. Rhyolyte, River Range, Nevada. i

4. lava, Vesuvius. te ie

5. ‘Tufaceous trachyte, Colorado River. ss i

PLrate XXII.

Elliott’s absorption-apparatus for rapid analysis of gases. Art. XXIV,

pp. 3872—380.

PLATE XXIII.

Elliott’s explosion-burette, for gas-analysis. Same article.

| |

T. EGLESTON. BENJ. N. MARTIN. ©

OLIVER P. HUBBARD.

Hf :

{| Pe

1} ™

vat at

} |

1 |

} |

}

1 |

| |

President.

JOHN S. NEWBERRY.

Vice-}residents.

@onyesponding Secretany.

ALBERT R. LEEDS.

Recording Secretary,

Greasurey

JOHN H. HINTON.

Soibrarian.

LOUIS ELSBERG.

@ommittee of Publication.

|| DANIEL S. MARTIN. JOHN S. NEWBERRY.

|| GEO. N. LAWRENCE. ALBERT R. LEEDS.

W. P. TROWBRIDGE.

ANNALS

NEW YORK ACADEMY OF SCIENCES,

VOLUME II.

I1.—Application of Organic Acids to the Examination of Minerals.

[Second Paper. |

BY H. CARRINGTON BOLTON, PH. D.

Read January 5th, 1880.

26. The behavior of minerals with organic acids has already

formed the subject-matter of two papers read before the Academy

in 1877 and 1878, and we now present the results of a continua-

tion of our researches.

In our first paper* we described several new methods of attack-

ing minerals, and their application to ninety-five specimens; in the

following pages we extend the investigation to one hundred and

six additional minerals. These methods of decomposition were

as follows :—

Ist. Treatment with a cold saturated solution of citric acid.

2d. Treatment with a boiling solution of the same.

3d. Heating with a saturated solution of citric acid to

which sodium nitrate is added.

4th. Heating with a saturated solution of citric acid to

which ammonium fluoride is added.

And in a second paper, under another title,t we added a fifth

reaction :—

dth. Heating with a concentrated solution of citric acid to

which potassium iodide is added.

* Annals N. Y. Acad. Sci., Vol. I, p. 1.

{+ Behavior of Natural Sulphides with Iodine and other Reagents. Annals N.Y. Acad. Sci.,

Vol. I, p. 153.

2 Organic Acids in the Examination of Minerals.

Similar reactions with oxalic, tartaric, acetic, and other or-

ganic acids, were described in the first paper, but preference is

given to citric acid on account of its greater solvent power.

Minerals belonging to several groups were submitted to these

processes, and gave phenomena which may be summarized as

follows :

1st. More or less complete decomposition and solution of

oxides, phosphates, etc., without formation of precipi-

tates or liberation of gases.

2d. Complete solution of carbonates with evolution of car-

bonic anhydride.

3d. Decomposition of sulphides with evolution of sulphuret-

ted hydrogen.

4th. Decomposition of sulphides with oxidation of the sul-

phur.

5th. More or less perfect decomposition of silicates with

separation of either slimy or gelatinous silica.

6th. Decomposition of certain species by reagents forming

characteristic precipitates.

7th. Wholly negative action.

These facts demonstrated that citric acid has a power of de-

composing minerals little less than that possessed by hydro-

chloric acid, and that this very difference in degree gives the

organic acid an advantage over the mineral acid in the determi-

nation of species.

27. This peculiar selective power of citric acid rendered de-

sirable a further study of its action on a larger number of mine-

rals ; the following list contains the names of the species which

have since been submitted to the process named, together with

their formule, condition, and locality.

Within the groups,—I, Sulphides, Arsenides, Tellurides, etc.,

—II, Oxides,—III, Silicates, and—IV, Sundries, the minerals

are arranged in the order in which they are given in Dana’s

System of Mineralogy.

We desire to express our thanks to Prof. Thomas Egleston, —

of the School of Mines, Columbia College, who has again placed

us under obligations by supplying many of the rarer minerals.

of Minerals.

von

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Organic Acids in the Bxamination of Minerals. q

28. The minerals of the foregoing list were submitted to the

action of the following reagents successively: (1) A solution of

citric acid saturated at the temperature of the laboratory, say

6d- to 70° Fahrenheit; this we call simply ‘‘citric acid.”

(2) The same solution to which solid sodium (or potassium)

nitrate is added, which for convenience we shall call the ‘‘ nitro-

citric mixture” (3) The same solution to which solid potas-

sium iodide is added at the time of testing, and which for sim-

plicity we shall designate as the ‘‘iodo-citric mixture.”

The action of these reagents was studied in the simple manner

detailed in our first paper. The mineral to be examined was

carefully freed from its associated gangue and finely pul-

yerized in an agate mortar; a portion was placed in a test-tube,

the solution of the acid was added, and the resulting phenomena,

in the cold, and on boiling, carefully noted. In many instances

the partial decomposition of the mineral was ascertained by filter-

ing from the residue, and testing the solution with an appyro-

priate reagent; or by examining the disengaged gas with a suit-

able test-paper.

SULPHIDES, ARSENIDES, ETC.

29. Minerals of this group treated with citric acid alone,

yielded results as follows :

(a) Clausthalite and leucopyrite dissolve in the cold with-

out liberation of gas.

(0) Alabandite is very strongly attacked in the cold, with

evolution of sulphuretted hydrogen. On applying heat

it is wholly soluble. In this respect alabandite appears

to be the most easily decomposed of all the sulphides

yet examined, 37 in number.

less attacked by boiling citric acid, yielding sulphuret-

ted hydrogen. The remaining minerals of this group

resist the action of cold or hot citric acid. Sulphur is

absolutely unattacked even when the citric acid solu-

tion is heated to the melting point of the element.

The powerful solvent action of a mixture of citric acid and

sodium nitrate was discussed in our first paper (19), here we

10 Organic Acids in the Examination of Minerals.

need only add that the intensity of action claimed for it is fully

maintained by later researches.

(d) All the minerals of the first group, 25 in number, with

three exceptions, dissolve in the nitro-citric mixture

rapidly and completely, several of them yielding solu-

tions of characteristic color. Even sulphur itself is

decidedly attacked, with formation of sulphuric acid.

The exceptions are realgar, orpiment, and proustite.

(e) Two of these, realgar and orpiment, are partially de-

composed by boiling with the iodo-citric mixture.

Proustite and sulphur resist even on prolonged heating.

All the remaining minerals of this group are quite

readily dissolved, the decomposition of the sulphides

being accompanied by liberation of sulphuretted hy-

drogen.

The differentiating power of these solvents is again exhibited

by these reactions. In our first paper we showed, that while |

bornite and pyrrhotite are decomposed by citric acid, their kin-

dred compounds, chalcopyrite and pyrite, are not (13). We

now find that proustite resists completely the decomposing solu-

tions named, while pyrargyrite is decidedly attacked by the

nitro-citric mixture as well as by the iodo-citrie mixture, even

in the cold.

This difference in behavior of the two closely allied minerals

was established by numerous determinations.

OXIDES.

30. The oxides examined include such stable minerals as co-

rundum, spinel, chrysoberyl, cassiterite, rutile, hyalite, and

quartz, which naturally resist these methods of attack.

Gummite is attacked by cold citric acid, and melaconite and

goethite are soluble to a certain extent on heating. Menaccanite

and washingtonite are feebly attacked by the nitro-citric mixture

and strongly by the iodo-citric solution. This latter also

strongly attacks braunite and goethite.

Organie Acids in the Examination of Minerals. 11

SILICATES.

31. Silicates are very unequally attacked by citric acid as well

as by mineral acids.

(a) Nephelite, lapis lazuli, laumontite, herschelite, thom-

sonite, mesolite, and prochlorite, are decomposed by

citric acid in the cold, a portion of them with forma-

tion of a jelly.

Tephroite, ilvaite, gieseckite, jefferisite, heulandite, and

genthite, are strongly attacked on boiling with the citric

acid alone. Pargasite, }»yrope, almandite, colophonite,

phlogopite, bastite, masonite, and allanite (?), are feebly

attacked. Some doubt obtains, however, as to the last

named, because the specimens examined were partially

decomposed on the surface.

(6) The addition of sodium nitrate to the solution of citric

acid does not notably increase its solvent power as re-

spects silicates, but the addition of potassium iodide

aids decidedly in effecting their decomposition. The

iodo-citric mixture strongly attacks the garnets named,

as well as enstatite, hypersthene, pargasite, epidote,

and those named in paragraph 32.

The feldspars resist these reagents, yet orthoclase and labra-

dorite give up iron to them. Petalite, actinolite, asbestus,

beryl, zircon, vesuvianite, zoisite, iolite, lepidolite, leucite, an-

dalusite, fibrolite, topaz, titanite, staurolite, and kaolin, either

wholly resist or give to the attacking solution only a trace of

iron. }

The variety of serpentine known as bowenite resists citric

acid, while serpentine itself, of a normal character, is decom-

posed.

On the whole, citric acid attacks the silicates with a power

nearly approaching that of hydrochloric acid.

REVISION OF THE SILICATES.

32. While carrying on these researches we were continually

compelled to combat the firmly grounded impression that the

organic acids are weak as respects mineral species. In conse-

12 Organic Acids in the Examination of Minerals.

quence of this pre-conceived notion, we overlooked in our first

paper the fact, that the decomposition of many silicates takes

place at ordinary temperatures, having in fact applied heat at

once when conducting the examination.

A closer investigation, however, shows that a saturated solu-

tion of citric acid is able to decompose many silicates in the cold,

even to the formation of gelatinous silica. This necessitated a

revision of the silicates named in our first paper (16), with the

following results :—

(a) Willemite, pectolite, calamine, natrolite, wollastonite,

chrysolite, chondrodite, chrysocolla, apophyllite, rho-

donite, analcite, chabazite, stilbite, and deweylite, are

more or less strongly attacked by cold citric acid,—the

first four yielding a jelly.

Datolite, prehnite, serpentine, chrysotile, and retinalite,

are attacked on boiling the solution.

(6) The use of the iodo-citric solution as a solvent haying

been discovered subsequent to the examination of the

silicates named in our first paper, a further revision of

this group became necessary. The results are briefly

as follows :—

Olivine, augite, almandite, and epidote, heated with the

iodo-citric mixture, are strongly attacked. Orthoclase,

labradorite, hornblende, and spodumene, are very feebly

attacked, or yield only iron to the solution.

Wernerite, albite, diopside, kyanite, tale, muscovite, bio-

tite, ripidolite, and tourmaline, are not attacked.

These changes do not invalidate the accuracy of our published

results, and are introduced simply to explain the change in

position of these minerals in the Tables at the close of this

paper.

SuNDRY MINERALS.

33. Under this head are grouped phosphates, arseniates, tung-

states, sulphates, etc., as stated in the list given in (27).

A large number, chiefly phosphates, dissolve easily in a cold

solution of citric acid ; these embrace the following :—

Mimetite, triphylite, triplite, libethenite, olivenite, ataca-

Organic Acids in the Examination of Minerals. 13

mite, pseudomalachite, wavellite, pharmacosiderite, tor-

bernite, autunite, ulexite, cryptomorphite, and broch-

antite. Wulfenite and crocoite are strongly attacked

on boiling, the latter yielding a green solution, owing

to the reducing action of the organic acid on the

chromic acid.

Columbite and wolframite are attacked by the iodo-citric

mixture, at least so far as partially to dissolve the iron which

forms one of their constituents.

Hibnerite is attacked by the nitro-citric mixture; while scheel-

ite, barite, celestite, anhydrite, and graphite, resist completely

these methods of attack.

Native Hlements.—In our first paper we called attention to

the solvent power of the nitro-citric mixture, as shown by the

fact that it dissolves metallic copper, silver, lead, tin, bismuth,

and antimony, besides iron, zinc, and magnesium, (20); to this

list we now add arsenicum and mercury.

TABULATION OF RESULTS.

34. In paragraph (22) we gave a table showing the behavior

of ninety minerals with citric acid and other reagents, arranged

under eleven heads, viz. :—

A. Minerals which dissolve in cold citric acid without evo-

lution of gas.

B. Minerals which dissolve in cold citric acid with libera-

tion of carbonic anhydride.

C. Minerals which are decomposed by cold citric acid with

evolution of sulphuretted hydrogen.

D. Minerals which dissolve in hot citric acid withont evo-

lution of gas.

Ff. Minerals which dissolve in hot citric acid with liberation

of carbonic anhydride.

F. Minerals which are decomposed by hot citric acid with

evolution of sulphuretted hydrogen.

G. Minerals which are decomposed by hot citric acid with

formation of gelatinous silica.

H. Minerals which are decomposed by hot citric acid with

separation of slimy silica.

14 Organic Acids in the Examination of Minerals.

I. Minerals decomyosed by boiling with citric acid and

sodium nitrate.

K. Minerals decomposed by heating with citrie acid and

ammonium fluoride.

L. Minerals which are not attacked by any of these

methods.

To this we added, in a subsequent paper, a twelfth group,

V1Z. :—

M. Minerals decomposed by heating with citric acid and

potassium iodide.

In the Tables accompanying this paper we have combined, on

a similar plan, the results obtained in the present and previous

communications, thus giving a comprehensive view of the be-

havior of two hundred minerals with citric acid. The arrange-

ment differs somewhat from the foregoing ; we have re-adjusted

the silicates to accord with facts stated in (82), and we have

omitted the reaction with ammonium fluoride as of no import-

ance in determining species.

To ascertain the exact position for each mineral has been no

trivial task ; and should errors be discovered, we crave indulg-

ence, and beg our friends to remember the French saying:

““ Ceux qui ne se trompent jamais sont ceux qui ne font rin.”

SUMMARY.

35. The number of minerals examined, though considerable,

if we regard the labor involved, is but small compared with those

which remain to be treated by these methods, and any attempt

at generalization must be correspondingly weak.

It may, however, be admissible to study the Tables with a view

to determining whether there is any relation, peculiar to the

organic acid, between its solvent power and the chemical consti-

tution of the minerals. This question may be considered from

two standpoints, corresponding to two methods of classifying

minerals, vyiz., with reference to their acidic and to their basic

constituents.

(a.) The first method of grouping the minerals is the same as

that of the list given (27) ; the question applied to them may be

answered thus :—

ee Se eee ee

Organic Acids in the Beamination of Minerals. 15

All carbonates and phosphates are decomposed by citric

acid.

The sulphides are very unequally attacked ;—two resist the

solvents, three yield only to the iodo-citric mixture,

twenty-two only to the nitro-citric mixture, and ten

ure attacked by the acid alone. The oxides and anhy-

drous silicates are very unequally attacked.

The hydrous silicates are (with one or two exceptions) de-

composed by citric acid alone.

(o.) An examination of the influence of the basic constituents

on the solubility discloses the following points.

All the copper minerals are soluble in one or more of the

solvents.

All the manganese minerals are decomposed,—the sulphide

and the silicates with great facility.

al the lead minerals are decomposed by citric acid alone.

In some cases the presence of lead would seem to ren-

der a mineral easily broken up; this is marked in the

case of the sulphides, which, as we have seen, are very

, unequally attacked ;—thus selenide of lead is attacked

and selenide of mercury is not; sulphide of lead is

attacked, while sulphide of silver is not. ‘The minerals

jamesonite, bournonite, and boulangerite (containing

lead) are attacked, while the closely allied species ste-

phanite, tennantite, polybasite, proustite, berthierite,

etc. (devoid of lead) are not decomposed.

These facts may possibly point to a connection between

chemical constitution and solubility, peculiar to the reagent

employed ; but we offer the suggestion with diffidence, owing

to the limited number of facts on which to base generalizations.

Moreover we find that the results obtained by the prolonged action

of citric acid on minerals (10 to 30 days), differ greatly from those

here recorded. ‘To this we shall return at a subsequent period.

In conclusion, we beg leave to remind our readers that the

~immediate object in view, as was stated at lengtli in our first

paper, is the practical application of these methods to the ex-

amination of minerals in the field.

Trinity College, Hartford, Conn.

16 Organic Acids in the Examination of Minerals.

Tables showing the Behavior of certain Minerals with Citric

Acid, alone and with Reagents.

DECOMPOSED (IN FINE POWDER) BY A SATURATED SOLUTION OF

Cirric ACID.

1.—IN THE COLD.

A. B. C. D.

Without evolution | With liberation With liberation | With separation

of Gas. of COs. | of Ha. of SiOsae

Clausthalite, Calcite, ! Stibnite, W ollastonite,

Leucopyrite, Dolomite,* Galenite, Rhodonite, !

Atacamite, Gurhofite, ! Alabandite, Chrysolite, -

Brucite, Ankerite,* Sphalerite, Willemite, !t

Gumumite, Rhodochrosite,* | Pyrrhotite. Nephelite,

Pyromorphite,* |Smithsonite,* Lapis lazuli,

Mimetite, Aragonite, ! Chondrodite,

Triphylite, Witherite, ! Pectolite, !}

Triplite, Strontianite, ! Laumontite, !}

Vivianite, ! Barytocalcite, ! Chrysocolla, !

Libethenite, ! Cerussite, ! Calamine, !}

Olivenite, ! Malachite, ! Apophyllite,

Pseudomalachite, | Azurite.* Thomsonite, !

W avellite, Natrolite, !t

Pharmacosiderite ! Mesolite, !

Torbernite, Analcite,

Autunite, Chabazite,

Ulexite, ! Herschelite, t

Cryptomorphite, ! Stilbite,

Anglesite, Deweylite,

Brochantite. ! Prochlorite.

Organic Acids in the Hxamination of Minerals. 17

2.—ON BOILING.

E. F. G. H.

Without evolution With liberation With liberation With separation

of Gas. of COr. of IS. of Si0..

» Cuprite, ! Hausmannite, + Bornite, Tephroite,t

Zincite, Pyrolusite, !+ Jamesonite,* Ilvaite,

Melaconite, Mangauite, | Bournonite, Phlogopite,*

ee Goethite,* Psilomelane, !+ Boulangerite, Datolite, !t

_ Limonite,* Wad, !+ Kermesite. Prehnite,*

Allanite,(?) Magnesite, ! Heulandite,

Apatite,* Siderite. ! Serpentine,

W olframite,* Chrysotile,

Wulfenite, Retinalite,

Crocoite, Bastite,

_ Gypsum. Genthite,

2 eal Gieseckite,*

Jefferisite,

Masonite. *

and and and and

those in A. those in B. those in C. those in D.

3 ne

_ DeEcoMposED BY A BOILING SOLUTION OF CrTRic ACID, MIXED

1.—Wits Soprum NITRATE.

K.—WitxH Porasstum IopIpDE.

Silver,

Mercury,

_ Copper,

Arsenic, -

_ Antimony,

Bismuth,

‘Sulphur,*

_ Bismuthinite,

~ Domeykite, !

_ Argeantite,

Hessite,

~ Chalcocite, !

_ TTiemannite, !

— Millerite, !

Niccolite, !

| Pyrite, !

_ Chalcopyrite, !

- Linnacite,

Smaltite, !

Cobaltite, !

Ulimannite, !

Marcasite, !

Arsenopyrite, !

Nagyagite,

Covellite, !

Berthierite, !

Pyrargyrite,

Tetrahedrite, !

Tennantite, !

Stephanite,

Polybasite, !

Enargite, !

Uraninite, !

Hiibnerite.

and those in

Cand G.

Almandite,

Pyrope,

Colophonite,

Epidote.

Realgar,*

Orpiment,*

Cinnabar, !

Hematite,*

Menaccanite,*

Washingtonite,*

Magnetite,*

Franklinite,

Brauunite,

Enstatite,

Hypersthene, |

Augite,

Spodumene,*

Hornblende,*

Actinolite,*

Pargasite,*

Olivine,

and most of

those in

A, b, C, D, E, F,

G, H, and I.

18 Organic Acids in the Bxamination of Minerals.

MINERALS NOT DECOMPOSED BY THE ABOVE REAGENTS.

Graphite, lolite, Tale, Labradorite,

Molybdenite, Biotite, Kaolin, Oligoclase,

Proustite, Muscovite, Ripidolite, Albite,

Fluorite, Lepidolite, Columbite, Orthoclase,

Cryolite, Wernerite, Samarskite, Tourmaline,

Corundum, Leucite, Spinel, Scheelite,

Diopside, Andalusite, Chromite, Barite,

Petalite, Fibrolite, Chrysoberyl, Celestite,

Asbestus, Kyanite, Cassiterite, Anhydrite.

Beryl, Topaz, Rutile, (Two hundred

Zircon, Titanite, Quartz, species. )

Vesuvianite, Staurolite, Hyalite,

Zoisite, Bowenite, Anorthite,

N. B.—The gases evolved are examined with acetate

the solutions with appropriate reagents.

of lead test-paper

The kind and degree of action are indicated in the above Tables by the

following signs :—

' Completely decomposed or dissolved,

* Feebly attacked.

+ The COyx evolved is derived from the Citric Acid.

¢t Gelatinizes.

Place of Sadi Carnot in the History of Thermotics. 19

IL—The Place of Sadi Carnot in the History of Thermotics.

BY PROF. R. H. THURSTON.

Read April 5th. 1880.

M. Ilirsch, in his Introduction to his translation of the

writer’s History of the Steam Engine,* publishes a new fact

relating to Carnot and the history of the mechanical theory of

heat, as revealed in recently discovered documents, which had

only come to his knowledge at the time of writing.

The documents referred to, were presented to the President

of the Academy of Sciences by M. H. Carnot, November 30th,

1878. They show clearly, that if the doctrine of the equiva-

lence of heat and mechanical energy was not recognized by

Sadi Carnot when, in 1824, he published his now celebrated

work, ‘‘ Reflexions sur la Puissance Motive du Feu,” the idea

of the identity of the two forms of energy soon did become

recognized by him and observable in the course of his work.

The following are extracts from the manuscript notes left by

Carnot :—

“Tua Chaleur n’est autre que la puissance motive, ou plutot,

que le mouvement qui a changé de forme. C’est un mouvement

dans les particules des corps. Partout ou il y a destruction de

puissance motive, il y a, en méme temps, production de chaleur

en quantité précisément proportionelle a la quantité de puissance

motive détruite. Réciproquement, partout ou il y a destruction

de chaleur, il y a production de puissance motive.”

“On peut donc poser en thése générale que la puissance

motive est en quantité invariable dans la nature, qu’elle n’est

jamais, 4 proprement parler, détruite. A la vérité, elle change

de forme, c’est-a-dire qu’elle produit tantot un genre de mouve-

ment, tantot un antre; mais jamais elle n’est anéantie.”

[| Heat is nothing else than motive power (energy), or rather,

a motion which has changed its form. It is a motion of the

molecules of bodies. Whenever motive power is destroyed, there

is, at the same time, a production of heat in quantity precisely

proportional to the quantity of power destroyed. Reciprocally,

. * Histoire de la Machine a Vapeur, par R. H. Thurston, Prof. of Mechanical Engineering

at the Stevens Institute cf Technology. Revised, annotated and enlarged by J. Hirsch, Prof.

of the Steam Engine at “‘ Ecole des Ponts et Chaussées de Paris ;’—Vol. I, p. XV, foot note.

20 =Place of Sadt Carnot in the History of Thermotics.

wherever there is’ destruction of heat, there is production of

power of motion.

We may then state as a general law, that energy is, in nature,

invariable in amount; that is, is never, properly speaking, either

created or destroyed. In fact, it changes form ; that is, it causes

sometimes one kind of motion, sometimes another; but it is

never destroyed. |

Aguin :

* *& * * D’aprés quelques idées que je me suis formé sur la’

theorie de la chaleur, la production d’une unité de puissance

motive nécessite la destruction de 2.70 unites de la chaleur

(chaque unité de puissance motive, ou dynamie, représentant

le poids de 1 métre cube d’eau élevé a 1 métre de hauteur.”

[* * * * According to my ideas of the theory of heat, the

production of a unit of energy demands the destruction of 2.70

units of heat (each unit of energy, or dynamie, representing the

raising of the weight of one cubic meter of water one meter

high. |

This estimate gives for the value of the ‘‘ mechanical equiva-

lent of heat,” 3 = 370, roughly approximating 424, the metric

equivalent of 772 foot-pounds, the British unit of heat-equiva-

lence. 7

M. Hirsch remarks upon the precision with which Carnot

states the law of equivalence of heat and work, as well as the

more general law of the ‘‘conservation of energy.” ‘The con-

siderations which lead him to this last-named law are of the

extremest simplicity.

Still more: Carnot lays out a complete programme of experi-

ments on heat and energy—the very experiments since made by

Joule, Thompson, Hirn, Regnault, and others.

Hitherto, Carnot has been credited with the invention of the

standard method of examination of the relations between heat

and work, and it has been assumed that he was, to the last, a

believer in the materiality of heat. His idea that we can only

infer this relation after studying processes of such nature as

present a complete cycle of changes resulting in the perfect

restoration of the primitive physical conditions observed in the

working substances, and his proposition that the reversible

engine is the perfect engine, have admittedly formed the basis

ea a tw

Place of Sadi Carnot in the History of Thermotics. ei

of modern thermodynamic investigation. * Prof. Tait justly

asserts* that, without this basis, the dynamical theory of heat

could never have obtained, in so brief a period, the wonderful

development witnessed during the past half-century. Carnot’s

imperfect enunciation and demonstration of these points, re-

mained unfruitful until, a quarter of a century later, Thompson

and Rankine commenced their work in this field. The former

then called attention to the work of Carnot,+ and adapted his

conception to the dynamical theory and perfected the typical

cycle.

Carnot’s original work contains no evidence that he accepted

the dynamical theory of heat, and it has only now become evi-

dent that, if not then aware of the falsity of the material

hypothesis, he soon became conscious of it, and fully accepted

the true theory. ;

His value (3870) for the dynamical equivalent, is not nearly as

close an approximation as that obtained by earlier investigators.

Rumford, especially, not only accepted, and in 1798 published

in the Philosophical Transactions, a complete and definite state-

ment of the equivalence of heat and work, but gave data, as

shown by the writer,{ giving the value 783.8 foot-pounds, or

within 1-5 per cent. of the now accepted value. This fact,

however, while creditable to Rumford as the first correct ex-

pounder and the experimental discoverer, does not detract from

the honor due Carnot as the propounder of his method.

It is certainly unfortunate that the manuscript notes left by

Carnot could not have been published by him; and still more

unfortunate is it that he had not earlier announced his belief

and incorporated the dynamical theory of heat in his great work.

His already great reputation, as it is, will be hightened by their

tardy publication; but had he made the “ Reflexions” the

vehicle of their presentation, Carnot would indisputably have

earned the position, which is now sometimes denied him, of the

founder of the modern science of heat-dynamics.

* Recent Advances in Physical Science.

+ See Tait’s History of Thermodynamics :—also, Phil. Mag., 1872.

t Trans. American Society of Civil Engineers, 1873.

22 The Production of Peroxide of Hydrogen.

III.— Upon the Production of Peroxide of Hydrogen, as well as

of Ozone, by the action of moist Phosphorus upon Atr.

BY ALBERT R. LEEDS.

Read March 8th, 1680.

In various preceding papers, and more especially in one enti-

tled *‘Upon Ammonium Nitrite, and upon the By-products

obtained in the Ozonation of Air by Moist Phosphorus,”

(J. Am. Chem. Soce., I, p. 145; Ann. der Chem., CC, p. 286);

I have strongly insisted upon the fact that Peroxide of Hydro-

gen always accompanies the ozone generated by the aerial oxi-

dation of phosphorus. Moreover, that the amount of peroxide

of hydrogen, under definite circumstances of temperature, ex-

posure of surface, etc., stands in a certain ratio to that of the

ozone. So intimate appears to be the connection in the causes

which invariably produce both bodies in this case, that any ex-—

planation which aims to account for the production of ozone in

the action of air upon moist phosphorus, and ignores the simul-

taneous generation of peroxide of hydrogen, must of necessity

be faulty.

Without invalidating any of the experiments above alluded

to, or the inductions therefrom, Mr. C. T. Kingzett has recently

asserted* that there is no evidence whatsoever, that any ozone is

produced during the slow oxidation of phosphorus. Further,

that the body supposed in this instance to be ozone, is in reality

only peroxide of hydrogen. ‘The same is true of Prof. McLeod,

who followed the above with the contradiction, + that no peroxide

of hydrogen is produced under these circumstances, but ozone

only. An inspection of Prof. McLeod’s experiments, shows that

they must have been open to some source of fatal error, because,

instead of showing a progressively diminishing amount of ozone

with the successive increments of temperature to which the

stream of ozonized gas was subjected, they exhibit at 200° the

largest proportionate yield of ozone. Had the experiments been

correctly performed, they would have shown no ozone at 200°,

ozone undergoing resolution into ordinary oxygen almost entirely

and immediately (97 p. c. immediately) at this temperature.

* Chem. News, XL, p. 96.

+ Chem. News, XL, p. 307.

—

’

—-—

, st 2-2 e-em ee

—— Ty.

The Production of Peroxide of Hydrogen. 23

The purpose of the present article, is to demonstrate by a

method entirely different from that which I have previously

employed :—

I. That doth hydrogen peroxide and ozone are generated by

the action of air upon moist phosphorus.

II. That in this highly dilute condition, they are not com-

pletely destroyed, even after prolonged intermixture.

IJ. When the current of ozonized air, containing hydrogen

peroxide, is passed through a tube heated to various tempera-

tures, the amount of water, obtained by the decomposition of the

hydrogen peroxide, zmcreases with the increment of temperature.

IV. That, under these circumstances, the amount of ozone

regularly diminishes. At 200°, no ozone reaction whatsoever is

obtained.

VY. That after this point has been attained, if a solution of

potassium iodide (entirely free from iodate), which has previ-

ously been acidified with sulphuric acid, be substituted for the

neutral solution employed to titrate the ozone, it will undergo

slow decomposition. This result is due not to ozone, which is

completely destroyed by continued exposure to a temperature of

200,° but to the spontaneous decomposition of an acidified solu-

tion of potassium iodide in presence of oxygen.

The objects kept prominently in view, in devising the method

of the experiment, were :—

1st. To bring filtered and purified air in contact with a large

surface of phosphorus, the phosphorus being partly immersed in

‘distilled water quite free from ammoniacal and nitrous com-

pounds, and maintained during the course of the experiment at

the temperature of maximum eyolution of ozone (24°—25° C).

2d. To wash out of the ozonized air as large an amount of

hydrogen peroxide as possible, by means of an extended series

of wash-bottles. -

3d. To free the ozonized air, after its escape from the wash-

bottles, from every trace of moisture.

4th. 'To decompose the hydrogen peroxide and ozone at gradu-

ally increasing temperatures.

5th. To weigh any water, and to titrate any ozone, remaining

after the ozonized air had been subjected to the action of heat.

These views were embodied in the apparatus shown in Plate I.

The air was filtered through a train of purifiers, of which A

24 The Production of Peroxide of Hydrogen.

contained absorbent cotton, Band C glass beads drenched with

soda solution, D and # sulphuric acid beads. The air, after

ozonation in the ‘* Phosphorus Ozonator,” was aspirated through

Kerite tubing into the first wash-bottle, and thence into the

four Geissler bulbs F, G, Hand J, the entire five containing

water. From J, the gas passed through the empty wash-bottle

J, thence into the sulphuric acid wash-bottle A, and finally

through three drying-tubes, filled to a length of 24 meters with

glass beads drenched with sulphuric acid.

From the dryers, the ozonized air passed into a curved glass

tube, 4, dipping down into an oil-bath JZ. ‘The middle portion

of this tube, for a length of 0.25 meter, was filled with amian-

thus which had previously been ignited. The object of this

amianthus filling, was to cause the ozonized air to pass through

a great extent of heated air passages. After this, followed a

weighed sulphuric acid drying-tube P, a sulphuric acid guard-

tube 7, and a Geissler bulb containing a neutral solution of

potassium iodide W. Between P and S, an empty tube closed

with corks at both ends was interposed, for convenience in slip-.

ping out the drying-tube P.

The following experiments were performed under as nearly as

possible identical conditions. Twelve liters of ozonized air were

drawn through the apparatus in each trial, at the rate of six

liters per hour. The ozonator was maintained at the tempera-

ture of 24° C. The increase in weight of the drying-tube P,

corresponded to the water formed by decomposition of the hydro-

gen peroxide when heated to the various temperatures indicated

in the table. The amounts of iodine set free in the potassium

iodide solution, are calculated into the corresponding amounts

of ozone, according to the equations :—

2 KI + 0, + 2 HCl = 2 KCl + I, + H,0 + O, and

2 KIO, + 2 HCl= 2 KCl + I, + O, + H,0,

each molecule of ozone corresponding to two atoms of iodine.

A large number of trials were made in blank, the ozonator not

being thrown into action, and when at last the adjustment was

made so perfect that the drying-tube P did not alter in weight

either at 20° or 200°, when 12 liters of air were aspirated through

the apparatus, and the potassium iodide solution in W under-

went no alteration under like circumstances, the experiments

given below were performed.

Se ey

ee ee i

}

;

ae al

Te. 2. 2

The Production of Percaide of Hydrogen. AO

Table showing the effect of Temperature upon the Hydrogen Per-

oxide and Ozone contained in Air ozonized by Phosphorus.

Exp. TEMP. WATER. | H2Oz. | OZONE.

( I | 100° 0.0015 grm. 0.0028 grm. | not determ.

1st Series Il 50° 0.0010 ** 0.0019 << a

| Ul 24° 0.0000 * 0.0000 <* «

( aN, | 200° 0.0010 * 0.0019 ae" | 0.000 grm.

2d Series; V | 200° ORO 0s dens O200205 5 0.000 a

l Wako 1502 | 0.0002“ 0.0004 “« OQLOO Les

VII | 100° 0.0015“ 0.0028 ‘“ 0.0013 <“

3d Series; VIII 50° 0:0003> 6 0.0006 “ 0.0044 <*

{ ix] ate | 0.0000 « eon, | onsn :

( ee 2002 O001S | 0.0084 << 0.0000‘

4thSeries; XI} 100° 0.0002 « 0.0004. OOO

| EG 22 = 0.0000‘ 0.0000 ** 0.0051 =<“

These experim ‘nts, it appears to us, conclusively establish the

L 5) ’

truth of the first, second and fourth propositions. They show

‘that doth hydrogen peroxide and ozone are formed, and that on

heating the ozonized air, the proportion of water thus formed

regularly increases, while that of the ozone as regularly dimin-

ishes, until at 200° all the hydrogen peroxide is converted into

water, and all the ozone into ordinary oxygen.

At the close of the twelfth experiment, the intermediate train

of dryers, ete., was thrown out, and the Geissler bulb W, con-

taming the potassium iodide solution, was connected directly

with the first wash-bottle (that preceding #’). The same volume

of ozonized air, at the same rate, being drawn over under these

conditions, gave a result corresponding to 7.94 mgrms., instead

of 5.1 mgrms., as in experiment XII. The difference of 2.84

mgrms., which is 36 p. c. of the amount of ozone originally

evolyed, represents the loss due to the decomposition effected

by the simultaneous presence of hydrogen peroxide.

This establishes the second proposition, and shows not only

that the hydrogen peroxide and ozone can cc-exist for a long

26 The Production of Peroxide of Hydrogen.

time in dilute condition without great loss of either,* but also

that the amount of hydrogen peroxide in the ozonized gas, bears

a not inconsiderable proportion to that of the ozone itself. In

fact, neglecting for a moment the minute amounts of hydrogen

peroxide that are held back by the wash-waters, the ratio of. the

hydrogen peroxide to the ozone in the ozonized air exceeds one to

three.

The amounts of hydrogen peroxide held back by the wash-

waters were as follows:—The bulb /, containing 47 ce of water,

after evaporation to two-thirds its original volume, in order to

expel any dissolved ozone, was found to contain 0.2 mgrm.

U,0,. The bulb G, containing 26 cc. water, after beg simi-

larly evaporated, gave a reaction corresponding to 0.08 mgrm.

H,O,. The bulb 4, to 0.01 mgrm. H,0,. The fallme of am

the amount of hydrogen peroxide contained in 4, in comparison

with that in G, is perhaps greater than should be, for the reason

that H and J were changed during the experiments, and a much

smaller amount of ozonized air passed through them than

through the two preceding bulbs. But the striking feature in

the experiment is, that only 0.38 mgrm. H,O, in all was absorbed

by the wash-waters, the remainder passing on in the stream of

ozonized air.

Finally, to determine the truth or falsity of proposition V :—

That the air, after being deprived of its hydrogen peroxide and

ozone, could bring about a decomposition of an acidified solution

of potassium iodide,—the experiment was again repeated with

the tube WV maintained at a temperature of 200°. It will be

noted that in every preceding trial at this temperature, a neutral

solution of iodide being used, no liberation of iodine occurred.

But in this experiment, a decomposition took place correspond-

ing to 0.2 mgrm. of ozone. ‘This experiment, therefore, proves

that the oxygen contained in a current of air, from which every

trace of hydrogen peroxide and ozone has been removed by strong

heating, may produce apparently the ozone reaction, in case the

potassium vodide solution used for titration has been acidified.

* This point, in opposition to the statements of SchOnbein, has likewise been established by

SchOne, Jour. fiir Prakt. Chem., LXXVI, p. 130, and Ann. der Chim., CXVI, p. 240.

N. Y. Acap. oF SCIENCES. Vor. Wi Biel

wea

EEX

HAs

NT TOMEI S Sy

= SS =

= un=

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Geology of Hudson County, New Jersey. a7

IV.—On the Geology of Hudson County, New Jersey.

BY ISRAEL C. RUSSELL.

Read April 19th, 1880.

The eastern boundary of Hudson County is the middle of the

Hudson River; at Bull’s Ferry the line leaves the river and

bears northwest until Bellman’s Creek is reached, which it fol-

lows to the Hackensack River; thence the latter stream is

the boundary, to’'the mouth of Sawmill Creek, which comes

in from the westward ; the boundary then follows Sawmill Creek

to the point where that stream is crossed by the Belleville

turnpike, which then becomes the boundary as far as the middle

of the Passaic River; the line then follows the centre of that

river to Newark Bay, and then through the centre of the bay to

the Kall Von Kull, through which it passes and joins the east-

ern boundary.* The area thus inclosed comprises about 51

square miles, of which 6.4 sq. m. are covered by water.

The most prominent feature in the geology as well as in the

geography of Hudson County, is the great ridge of trap-rock

which traverses it from north to south, and forms the elevated

portion known in ditferent parts of its course as Bergen Hill,

Jersey City Hights, Hights of Weehawken, etc. This same

ridge of trap continues northward, forming the bold, picturesque

Palisades along the west bank of the Hudson; at Haverstraw,

where an elevation of over a thousand feet is attained, the trap-

ridge sweeps around sharply to the westward, forming the Hook

Mountains, so well known to all who are familiar with the beauti-

ful scenery of the Hudson.

In order to understand the topography of the region we are

studying, it is necessary to remember that this ridge, forming

the back-bone of the county, is the outcropping edge of an im-

mense irregular sheet of very hard crystalline rock, which dips

* For more detailed information, consult Public Laws of N. J., 1840, p. 65.

28 Geology of Hudson County, New Jersey.

westward at an angle of about fifteen degrees, thus giving the

western side of the hill a drainage in that direction. On the

west, the trap passes beneath the sand-dunes and swamp-

deposits of the Newark meadows. ‘To the ‘eastward, this out-

cropping sheet of rock presents a bold mural escarpment, fre-

quently forming cliffs from one to two hundred feet in height.

having usually a bank or talus at the base, composed of huge

angular fragments of trap that have been broken from the face

of the precipice, mingled. in some places with boulders. and

boulder-clay that can only be referred to the glacial drift. The

appearance presented by the outcropping edge of this trap-

sheet to the eastward is typically shown in the Palisades.

The relation that the trap bears to the softer sedimentary

strata of Triassic age associated with it, is represented in the

section across Hudson County accompanying this paper. On

either side of the conspicuous hill of trap are beds of sandstone,

slute and shale, all inclined to the north-westward at about the

sume angles as the sheet of trap itself ; these sedimentary strata

form the bed-rock along each side of the hill, and also of the

greater portion of the country for twenty miles west of Hudson

County.

Besides the trap-rock, sandstones, slates, and shales already

mentioned, there is an area of small extent, underlying the

eastern portion of Jersey City, composed of very ancient crystal-

line gneiss; northward of this, and resting upon it or inter-

stratified with it, occurs a limited exposure of jasperoid-rock

and serpentine, composing the hill at Hoboken known as Castle

Point.

In the section referred to above, it will be noticed that the

older strata forming the rocky floor of the county, are overlaid

by a sheet of material of a totally different nature, occurring

both on the hill-tops and in the valleys. This covering of earth

and stones, now forming the surface of the larger portion of our

county, is glacial drift, and will be more fully described under ~

the head of surface geology.

Along the western side of Bergen Hill, this covering of su-

perficial material is overlaid in turn by the sand-dunes and

swamp-deposits of the Newark meadows ; to the eastward, along

Geology of Hudson County, New Jersey. 29

New York Bay, the drift is again concealed beneath similar de-

posits, which are thus shown to be of a more recent date.

Beginning with the oldest of these formations, and examining

each in the order of its age, we hope, by giving what facts we

have been able to gather concerning them, to find the position

occupied by each stratum in the geological column, and to indi-

cate at the same time the relation borne by the various forma-

tions to the prosperity and sanitary condition of Hudson

County.

ARCHAZAN ROCKs.

Gneiss and Mica Schist.—Rocks of this class occur at the

very base of the geological column, and are among the oldest

strata known ; their general appearance is no doubt familiar to

most of my readers, from the abundant outcrops of these

rocks on Manhattan Island. Wherever the Archean rock comes

to the surface in the neighborhood of New York, it is usually

composed of highly crystalline gneiss, mica-schist, hornblende-

schist, marble, etc. ; all of these were at one time earthy or cal-

careous sediments, spread out in horizontal layers at the bottom

of the Archean Ocean, and have since been upturned, folded

and crumpled into their present contorted forms. During these

changes in position, the strata have been altered and metamor-

phosed by the action of heat and heated solutions, so that they

now bear but little resemblance to the sand and mud of which

they were originally composed. The minerals now forming these

metamorphosed rocks are principally quartz, feldspar and mica,

and still retain in their arrangement some indication of the strati-

fied nature of the original deposits. Some of our citizens still

remember a reef of this rock, formerly to be seen in Jersey City

at low tide, between Washington and Green Streets and north

of Harsimus Street ; this was a narrow crest, about one hundred

feet in length, with nearly vertical walls ; the mud near at hand

on either side being sixty feet deep. From specimens recently

obtained, we learn that the rock forming this reef varied con-

siderably in appearance, some of it being a typical mica-schist,

with well-defined layers of mica, etc., while other portions were

of gneiss appearing so compact and fine-grained that they re-

30 reology of Hudson County, New Jersey.

sembled some of the trap rock at Bergen Hill at first glance.

There was a second reef of the same nature formerly to be seen

at the southern end of Washington Street, where it crosses the

Morris Canal; this reef was penetrated to the depth of a thou-

sand feet by a well bored at Matthieson and Wiechev’s sugar re-

finery; the rock was reported to be mostly gneiss containing

mica and quartz, and near the bottom ‘‘ white sandstone and

shale.”(?) Both these exposures of gneiss and mica-schist, un-

derlying Jersey City, have now been covered with earth, and

the pier-heads carried beyond them. ‘There is but little doubt

that this same line of reefs extends southward of Jersey City,

and forms the main portion of Ellis’s, Bedlow’s and Oyster

Islands, and Robbins’s Reef. This belt of Archzan rocks reap-

pears on Staten Island, but is soon covered by more recent

deposits ; it again comes to the surface at Trenton, and is again

concealed nearly to Philadelphia, whence it stretches far to the

southward. Although this formation has but slight economic

importance in Jersey City, further than forming a firm

foundation on which to build; and has but little immediate

influence on the health of the people, yet its physical history

makes it an interesting subject of study for the geologist.

Serpentine.—The serpentine associated with the belt of Ar-

chean rocks that borders Hudson County on the east, is the

dark-green variety, as distinguished from the light greenish-

yellow or precious serpentine found in other localities. The

cliffs overlooking the Hudson at Castle Point, Hoboken, present

a fine exposure of this dark-green earthy rock; it shows con-

siderable variation, however, bemg sometimes yellowish and dull

in appearance, and so earthy and incoherent as to crumble be-

tween the fingers. In some places it is quite compact, and may

be dressed so as to furnish an ornamental although inferior

building-stone ; it has been used with very pleasing results in

constructing the beautiful gateway and porter’s lodge at Castle

Point.

The hill of serpentine at Hoboken is less than half a mile in

length along the river bank, and from two to three hundred feet

wide, and covers an area of about thirty acres. Seemingly it is

the northern exposure of a belt of this kind of serpentine that

has been reached by boring at a depth of 179 feet at the end of

;

ee ae ol

as. te

Geology of Hudson County, New Jersey. 31

Long Dock, Jersey City, and which appears at the surface in the

hills on Staten Island ; some of the deep wells in Jersey City, or

at Timbech and Betz’s brewery on Ninth Street, near Grove

Street,—which at a depth of between 700 and 800 feet penetrated

a light-colored rock, that yielded a supply of water strongly im-

pregnated with magnesia,—indicate that they penetrated ser-

pentine or some closely associated rock.

The serpentine outcropping on Manhattan Island, at the foot

of 60th Street, near the Hudson, is quite different in its charac-

teristic features from the serpentine appearing at Hoboken; it

is compact, very dark-green or nearly black in color, and is

sometimes mingled with calcite, forming an ophicalcite that is

strikingly similar to the Canadian serpentine in which Hozoon

is found; other portions of this serpentine are spangled with

flakes of tale, or shot through with bladed crystals of tremolite ;

and associated with it occurs anthophyllite.

At a number of localities, both northward and southward, in

‘the New York belt of Archean rocks, beds of dark-green ser-

pentine are found, bearing sometimes a close resemblance to

that occurring at Hoboken ; while the serpentine occurring in

the crystalline rocks of the New Jersey highlands, and in the

corresponding formation to the eastward, in New England, is

commonly the light-colored or precious variety.

At Hoboken, the serpentine appears to rest upon the gneiss

rocks which outcrop farther south ; it is probably but a portion

of the same series, however, and corresponds in position with

the serpentine found so abundantly in the Archean rocks of

other regions. ‘This rock is essentially a silicate of magnesia,

and contains also chrome iron scattered through it in small

specks and grains; from the fissures in the rock the magnesian

minerals, marmolite, brucite, nemalite and magnesite may be

obtained.

As stated by Mr. Ward,* the serpentine is granular and

porous in texture; absorbs surface-water promptly, thereby

greatly promoting natural drainage; transmits heat very slowly

but retains it tenaciously, forming a highly salubrious sub-

stratum.

* Memorandum on the Soil, Contour and Drainage of HudsonCounty. By L. B. Ward, C. E.

Rep of County Board of Health, 1877, p. 8.

32 Geology of Hudson County, New Jersey.

Associated with the serpentine at Hoboken, and overlying it,

there occurs an exceedingly hard jasperoid rock,* which was for-

merly to be seen in the neighborhood of the Stevens Institute,

but has since been concealed by buildings and park improve-

ments. We have referred this rock to the Archean series, as

will be seen in the generalized section of the rocks of Hudson

County, accompanying this essay, but can offer little informa-

tion concerning it.

TRIASSIC Rocks.

Sandstones, Shales and Slates.—Resting on the upturned and

probably eroded edges of the gneiss and mica-schist in Hudson

County, are sedimentary beds of Triassic age, which, like the

Archean rocks already noticed, are:in most cases but indif-

ferently exposed. ‘The Triassic formation appears usually as

evenly bedded strata of reddish-brown standstone and soft red-

dish shale, together with thinly stratified slates—the whole series

dipping towards the northwest with great uniformity at an angle

of about fifteen degrees.

On the extreme western border of Hudson County, forming

the high narrow ridge that separates the Newark Meadows from

the valley of the Passaic River, the reddish-brown sandstones

and shales are splendidly exposed. ‘This ridge has nearly as

great an elevation as Bergen Hill, and indicates in a very strik-

ing manner the vast amount of material that has been removed

by erosion from the country now occupied by the Newark

meadows. In the deep cut made for the passage of the New

York and Greenwood Lake railroad, extending from Arlington

to the Passaic River, the strata of reddish-brown sandstones are

thinly bedded, the strata seldom being over two feet thick, with

partings of red shale between, the whole series inclined at the

normal angle of fifteen degrees towards the northwest. One of

the most interesting features in this section is the occurrence

near the middle of it of a fissure which has parted the rocks —

in a nearly north and south direction, or parallel to their

strike. This fissure is about five feet wide, and is filled in with

* We adopt the name proposed for this rock some ten years since by Dr. Henry Wurtz.

Geology of Hudson County, New Jersey. 33

debris from the red sandstone rocks through which it passes ;

its walls are altered in texture and color as if by the action of

heat, and when freshly broken are of a bright brick-red color.

The fragments filling the fissure are small near the walls, and

imbedded in an earthy or shaly mass; they are usually rounded

‘and show polished or ‘‘ slickenside” surfaces. The central part

of the fissure is filled with larger masses of sandstone, which

show more alteration, both in texture and color, than the walls,

and have also slickenside surfaces. ‘The bedding of the sand-

stones and shales is unaltered where they approach the fissure.

The metamorphic action is not confined to the immediate walls

of the fracture, but may be traced at least seventy-five or a hun-

_ dred feet on either side. These facts seem strongly to indicate

that the fissure not far below the surface is filled with igneous

rock, the heat from which has partially metamorphosed the

rocks now exposed. This fissure has still greater interest when

studied in connection with the dikes and sheets of trap occur-

_ring along the west bank of the Hudson.

It is not out of place to state here, that no fossils were dis-

covered during the construction of the railroad cut at Arlington,

and that no foot-prints, rain-drop impressions, sun-cracks, etc.,

were found ; the only markings that occur here are very obscure

impressions, that have the general appearance of sea-weeds or

worm-burrows. ‘The sandstones and shales here so well exposed

give a fair representation of the character of the Triassic rocks

covering a large portion of New Jersey, except that in some in-

stances the sandstone is lighter colored and more feldspathic.

Not more than a mile northward of Arlington, and on a line

with the fracture we have described as occurring in the railroad

cut, the copper-mine near Belleville is situated. This is known

as the Schuyler Mine: it has been worked at intervals since

1717, and has been extensively wrought, as the abandoned shafts

and galleries testify. ‘he rock here is a light-colored or nearly

white sandstone impregnated with the carbonate of copper; the

silicate and red oxide of copper are also present. ‘The sand-

stone is traversed in places by thin sheets of trap, although no

dikes or sheets of this rock appear at the surface: it is thus seen

that the copper-bearing sandstone here has the same geological

relations as that occurring in other places in the Triassic area of

34 (Heology of Hudson County, New Jersey.

New Jersey; they are contact deposits, very commonly associ-

ated with outbursts of trap, and although sometimes making a

good showing of ore, yet at least in New Jersey have never

proved profitable in working. Copper-bearing sandstone of the

same nature as that of the Schuyler mine, is exposed in a small

quarry near Arlington, at the base of the bluffs overlooking

the Newark meadows.

On the northern side of Snake Hill, the Triassic sedimentary

rocks are well shown in the prison quarry, and present their

normal dip of 15° N. W. Interstratified with the reddish-

brown sandstones and shales, are two irregular beds of lght-

colored sandstone, from two to four feet thick, impregnated

with the carbonate of copper, and closely resembling the sand-_

stone in the old copper-mine at Belleville. On the west side

of the hill, where the sandstones are exposed close up to the

trap, they have been shattered in every direction, and are

light-colored and sometimes pinkish in tint; the dip of the

rocks here is from 30° to 35° N. W. The Trias is again

exposed on the south side of the hill in a small cut made for

the New York and Greenwood Lake Railroad ; the rocks are

here light-colored sandstone, with partings of shale dipping

14° N. W., and all considerably fractured. The upland ad- |

joining Snake Hill on the northward is also underlaid at a

depth of a few feet, as borings show, by sandstones and shales.

A well eighty feet deep, on the Newark turnpike, near its

junction with the Belleville turnpike, south of Snake Hill,

penetrated the red sandstone which underlies this section of the

swamp ; other wells in the same region, some of them two hun-

dred feet deep, failed to reach it.*

On the western side of Bergen Neck, the Triassic beds appear,

and have been quarried to a limited extent. ;

On the eastern border of Hudson County, beneath the trap

bluffs along the bank of the Hudson, the Triassic sedimentary

beds are again exposed. ‘The stratified rocks appear first, com-

mencing at the southward, beneath the trap of Bergen Hill

* Vide Table No. 1 at the end of this article.

ee ee

;

ey —).- >

Geology of Hudson County, New Jersey. Bd.

directly northwest of Castle Point; from this point north-

ward all the way to Bull’s Ferry, these rocks are exposed, ex--

cept where cut out by dikes of trap or covered by debris ;

throughout this whole section we find thinly-bedded, dark-

colored slates, feldspathic sandstone, and shale, all of which have

been more or less metamorphosed by the heat of the associated

trap; the dip throughout this section, except where plainly dis-

turbed by the intrusion of the trap, is N. W. 15°. The details

of this series of exposures will be more fully given in connection

with the description of the trap-sheets.

The economic importance of the Triassic sedimentary rocks

in Hudson County is very limited indeed; the sandstone at

‘Snake Hill has been used for building-stone, but the supply is

small and the quality inferior. An attempt has been made to

utilize the slaty layer beneath the trap at Weehawken for roofing-

slate, but without success. ‘The importance of the quarries of

Triassic ‘‘brown-stone” in other portions of the State is very

great. From the extensive Newark quarries, large quantities of

building-stone are furnished for New York and the neighboring

cities; great quantities also come from quarries of the same

charecter and age in the Connecticut Valley.

The Belleville copper-mine has already been mentioned ; but,

ulthough worked more extensively than any of the other copper-

mines in the Trias of New Jersey, it has proved, like the rest,

little more than a delusion to those interested in its deyel-

opment.

In a sanitary point of view, the inclined strata of alternating

layers of sandstone and shale present one of the best substratums

that could be desired; not only do the character and inclina-

tion of the rock furnish a complete natural drainage, but it is

also a poor conductor of heat, and thus retains the warmth at

the surface. Unfortunately, this formation has been so deeply

eroded and covered by subsequent deposits, that its beneficial

influence is but little felt, except in the high ridge bordering

the Passaic River.

Trap-Rock.—As already mentioned, trap-rock occurs in thin

layers, penetrating the sandstone at the Schuyler mine. In

the Newark meadows, midway between Bergen Hill and the

highland bordering the Passaic, are the trap-hills called Snake

36 freolugy of Hudson County, New Jersey.

Till and Little Snake Hill, rising as islands in the salt marsh.

- The former of these is 175 feet high, and is about one and a half

miles in circumference ; the second, situated about 80 rods to

the eastward, is very much smaller, with an elevation of 78 feet.

These are chimney-like protrusions of trap that have been forced

out between the layers of sandstone, causing some disturbance,

and are without doubt connected some distance below the sur-

face with the main trap-sheet forming Bergen Hill. The trap-

rock protruding at Snake Hill is of the same nature as that

forming Bergen Hill, which will be described further on. As

already noticed, the sedimentary beds, when they come in con-

tact with the igneous rock forming Snake Hill, are very much

shattered, and altered in texture; the trap seems to have fol-

lowed in a general way the bedding of the sedimentary strata,

but has increased the dip of the sandstone on the northwest side

to 30° or 35°.

As previously mentioned, the trap-ridge forming the elevated

region of Bergen Hill, is a portion of the Palisade range; this

ridge is highest at its northern end, and descends quite uni-

formly towards the south. At Haverstraw, the loftiest summit,

called the High Torn, is 1015 feet above the Hudson ; opposite

Hastings the elevation is 489 feet, the highest point of the ridge

in New Jersey; at Guttenberg, near the northern boundary of

Hudson County, the elevation is 260 feet; thence it de-

creases in hight southward, until at Bergen Point the trap

has been cut through by the Kill Von Kull. In the north-

ern portion of the county the trap is fully a mile and a half

wide, and narrows quite regularly when followed southward.

At a few localities along the eastern shore of Newark Bay,

the trap-rock may be observed coming up from beneath the

water, with its usual dip of ten to fifteen degrees northwest ;

it is only along the shore, where the superficial material has

been removed, that the trap-rock beneath can be seen; over

nearly the whole of Bergen Neck and Bergen Point it is concealed

by drift and sand-dunes. On the eastern side of Bergen Neck,

near Greenville, the trap protrudes in a dome-shaped mass,

showing a roche-moutonnée surface, and several bold rounded

knobs, also exhibiting glacial action, protrude above the sur-

rounding drift along the Morris Canal, where it passes through

the hill.

Geology of Hudson County, New Jersey. 37

By far the best exposures of the trap are to be seen in the

various railroad cuts and tunnels that have been made through

Bergen Hill.

The eastern face of the trap-sheet is exposed southwest of —

Lafayette, where the N. J. Central Railroad crosses the Morris

Canal; thence northward, it appears at intervals in the

steep hill-side west of Jersey City. The point of rocks called

Fairmount, near the eastern end of the Pennsylvania Railroad

cut, is an outlying mass of trap, forming an island in the salt

marsh ; its isolated position is due to the fact that the trap form-

ing it was intruded among the sedimentary beds—which have

since been eroded away—at a lower level than the main sheet of

trap to the westward with which it is connected ; the trap has

been quarried at a number of places near Fairmount, and is well

exposed. From this point northward the exposures of trap

become more frequent along the eastern slope of the hill, and

at length, at the foot of the hill, directly northwest of Castle

Point, the base of the trap-sheet is seen resting on metamor-

phosed slates. At the first locality where the stratified rocks

are exposed beneath the trap, they are mostly slaty in structure,

with an inclination of fifteen degrees towards the northwest,

and are covered uniformly by the trap. About 150 yards north

of the first exposure, the metamorphosed slates and quartzites, in

beds from a few inches to four feet in thickness, form the lower

thirty or forty feet of the cliff, having the usual northwest dip;

resting on the uneven upper surface of these stratified beds, the

trap occurs, forming the remaining fifty or sixty feet of the hill.

The stratified rocks continue to be exposed more or less per-

fectly, until the face of the precipice turns eastward at nearly a

right angle, and forms a bold projecting promontory, on which

an observing-tower now stands ; at the base of the perpendicular

cliffs below the tower, the trap comes down to the level of the

marsh, and plainly cuts out the stratified beds which appear on

either side of it. Two or three hundred yards southwest of the

tower, the stratified slates are exposed in the side of the cliff,

some fifty or sixty feet above the marsh, and are inclined at an

angle of about 20° towards the southwest, showing that they

have been disturbed by the intrusion of the trap, Just around

the angle of the cliff, northward of the tower, and along the

38 Geology of Hudson County, New Jersey.

side of the road leading up to Union Till, the stratified rocks

are once more exposed beneath the trap. At the ‘‘ Hundred —

Steps” about forty feet of feldspathic sandstone—arkose—is ex-

posed beneath one hundred and ten or fifteen feet of trap; the

junction between the two being so sharply defined that it may

be brought within the field of a microscope, when a flake from

the surface of contact has been ground down so as to be trans-

lucent.

About eighty yards northward of the high cliffs on which

the observing-tower stands, the face of the cliffs forms another

angle, where the trap once more breaks through and cuts off

the stratified rocks. | i

Along the Union Hill road, opposite the porter’s lodge of Mr.

King’s estate, the stratified rocks when last seen are between

sixty and seventy feet above the river: crossing the little stream

known as the Awiehaken, and proceeding to the base of the

bold precipice forming King’s Point, we find the trap breaking

through the sedimentary beds nearly on a level with the Hud-

son, showing that the main trap-sheet has shifted its position,

in reference to the stratified beds with which it is associated,

at least forty or fifty feet ; or, to speak more accurately, the main

trap-sheet has divided, sending out a branching layer of trap

from the lower side.

At the base of the cliff forming King’s Point, the metamor-

phosed slates and shales below the trap are cut out, as

shown in the following section (Fig. 1), by the breaking through of

the trap ; the section exhibits, also, an intrusive sheet of trap, an

offshoot from the large mass shown in the left of the section,

which is a little less than four feet thick; the finely stratified

slates, both above and below this thin intruded sheet, are in-

tensely metamorphosed and have a jaspery structure. ‘Tracing

this thin bed of trap towards the south, where it approaches the

great dike, it cuts through the slates on which it rests, and

forces its way in between the layer below ; after this change, the

borders of the trap-sheet, as exposed in the face of the cliff,

are not well defined and are considerably contorted ; in places

masses of slate have been included in the trap. The junction

of this small trap-sheet with the main dike is concealed by

debris.

——*

at the base of the cliff, like that at

(reology of Hudson County, New Jersey. 39

Fig. 1.—SECTION AS EXPOSED IN THE FACE OF THE CLIFF NEAR

THE DUEL GROUND, WEEHAWKEN

The trap forming the small sheet

the base of the main trap-sheet above,

isa dark-bluish, fine-grained aname-

site, breaking with a conchoidal frac- To

ture. The four-feet stratum of trap fon of ue

can be traced northward about seven-

ty yards, when the dip of the rocks

carries it below the surface.

Tracing the stratified rocks about

150 yards farther north, we find them

somewhat disturbed from their nor-

mal position and dipping 30°—35°

Metamorphos-

northwest; a few yards further on they ed Slate,

are inclined to the southwest, and a 40 fi

bed of trap four feet thick comes in ;

this trap is like the first thin bed, is Whe Trap, 41 in.

dark-bluish, fine-grained, and yellow ; Pee le

ye Debris.

on the weathered surface; it is exposed Hudson River.

for only a few feet, and is then covered with debris.

About thirty feet above the river, at the point where the

sandstones begin to widen out at the base of the cliff to form

Day’s Point, a division of the trap-sheet is exposed in the face

of the cliff, as represented in the following section.

Fig. 2.—SECTION EXPOSED IN THE CLIFFS AT WEEHAWKEN.

The stratified rocks

are here of the same

nature as in the pre-

vious section, and all

are very much alter-

Trap to top of

Cliff.

Included meta-

ed by heat. morphosed

From this point, go- Slate, 15 ft.

ing northward along

the banks of the Trap 5 feet.

Metamorphosed

Hudson, the strati-

= Slateto Hudson.

40 Geology of Hudson County, New Jersey.

fied rocks are covered with debris, most of which has fallen

from the cliffs of trap that rise above. Just where the upland

that projects into the river, forming Day’s Point, sweeps back

to meet the cliffs once more, the trap again comes down to

nearly the level of the Hudson.

Three hundred yards farther north, are the extensive quarries

near the Weehawken ferry; there is here a section of about

thirty feet of slates and sandstones exposed beneath the trap ;

at this locality fish-scales and the shells of a Cypris have been

found in the slaty rock.

Continuing northward, we find abundant exposures of the

sedimentary beds beneath the trap, the light-colored sandstones

coming in, however, more abundantly than before.

Just north of Kohler and Sons’ brewery, the ‘‘ seven-story

brewery,” by the side of a private road that leads to the

top of the hill, an irregular trap-dike is seen breaking through

the light-colored sandstone that forms the base of the cliff.

The dike is four feet thick, and composed of dark-bluish

fine-grained anamesite, showing an imperfect columnar struc-

ture at right angles to the walls of the fissure.

All the way from Kohler and Sons’ brewery to Bull’s Ferry,

the lower twenty or thirty feet of the cliffs is composed of light —

colored feldspathic sandstone, the seams in the rock sometimes

yielding specimens of dendritic manganese.

At the village of Bull’s Ferry, the trap forms a bold er and

seems to cut out the stratified beds once more, as at King’s

Point. In the village the metamorphosed slates are again well

exposed, with all the characteristics seen at Weehawken. Just

north of Bull’s Ferry the following section is shown—dip north-

west 15°.

Trap-rock, - - - - 120 feet.

Dark heavily-bedded slates, - 1 oro

Light-colored sandstone, - - Gas

Dark evenly-bedded slates, somewhat

metamorphosed, - - - 30 ‘* to river.

201

Sa i

(reology of Hudson County, New Jersey. 41

The joints of the slate are frequently rounded off and slick-

ensided. Some of the layers of slate near the trap are covered

with a net-work of intersecting ridges, looking like casts of

shrinkage-cracks ; sometimes the under surface of the trap has

taken an accurate cast of these markings. ‘The markings men-

tioned should probably be referred to the action of the heated

trap on the material now forming the slate, causing it to crack

in imitation of shrinkage-cracks produced when wet mud is

allowed to dry in the sun. No ripple-marks, rain-drop impres-

sions or foot-prints were observed, or have ever been reported,

from these exposures of Triassic rock.

Bull’s Ferry is on the northern boundary of Hudson County ;

the trap-sheet continues, as we have already stated, northward

of this point, forming the Palisades.

On the western side of Bergen Hill, at West End, and far-

ther northwest of Union Hill, there are long ranges of trap

parallel with Bergen Hill, now worn and rounded, and separated

from it by a narrow area of level land ; these appear to be the

outcropping edges of thin trap-sheets that branched off from the

main sheet on the upper side, in the same manner as those

exposed beneath the trap-sheet at Weehawken were formed on

the lower side.

Throughout the whole section which we have examined along

the bank of the Hudson, there is abundant and cumulative evi-

dence that the main sheet for the most part rests unconform-

ably upon the broken edges of the stratified rocks, but still has

followed in a general way the planes of bedding of the sandstones

and slates.

- Another phase that the trap-sheets present, is illustrated in

the First Newark Mountain, at Plainfield, N. J., where meta- —

morphosed shale is exposed on the top of the trap-ridge three

hundred feet akove the surrounding plain, with trap both above

and below it.

In the same ridge, west of Bound Brook, eight miles south-

west of Plainfield, there is a deep valley in the trap which runs

parallel with the strike of the ridge. Such a valley could only

have been formed by the removal of a mass of stratified rock,

which at one time must have divided the trap-sheet, in the same

manner as the shale does that is now exposed at Plainfield.

42 Geology of Hudson County, New Jersey.

The open fissure at Arlington, which is without doubt filled

below with trap, and other thin shects of the same rock pene-

trating the sandstone in the Schuyler mine, also aid us in un-

derstanding the genesis of the Triassic trap-rocks.

Grouping all these phenomena together, we are enabled to

construct an ideal trap-sheet, as it would appear while yet in-

closed in the stratified rocks among which it was intruded, or

before it was exposed by denudation. A cross-section of such an

ideal trap-sheet is shown in the following diagram, which repre-

sents a main intrusion of trap like that forming the Palisades

or the First Newark Mountain, with its branching or secondary

sheets and dikes.

Fig. 3.—IDEAL SECTION OF TRAP-SHEET.

AEE Ne ELILEE|

—_

—— —

SSE —== A=

—S= i

If denudation should have removed the material to the

right of the line C, D,—an exposure would be made similar to

that now seen in the cliffs at Weehawken. Were the rocks

above the dotted line #, F, G, removed, the trap-sheet at

/ would protrude and form a hill, like Snake Hill and Little

Snake Hill, while the sheet #, when denuded and rounded

off, would correspond with the low ridge of trap along the west-

ern border of Bergen Hill. In the same manner, if the acci-

dents of erosion should expose the rocks along the line 4, B,

the conditions now shown at Plainfield and Bound Brook would

result. The Arlington fissure is indicated at @.

Geology of Hudson County, New Jersey. 43

In the cut of the New Jersey Railroad through Bergen Hill,

near the western end of the cut, a deep depression occurs in the

trap, nearly 900 feet wide; the place once occupied by shale or

sandstone is now filled with drift and gravel, and has been quite

extensively excavated for railroad ballast, etc. ‘This area appears

to be included between the main trap-sheet and the outcropping

edge of a smaller secondary sheet to the westward, and extends

indefinitely in a north and south direction; it has been exca-

vated to the depth of 30 or 40 feet; the rock bottom, however,

ds very much lower. Other areas analogous to this may be

looked for along the western slope of Bergen Hill, and should

receive close attention from those interested in the drainage of

this region. The “‘big pocket” in the Erie tunnel,* appears

to have been a mass of metamorphosed shale included between

sheets of trap; this locality is but a short distance northward

of the hollow cut through by the New Jersey Railroad, which

appears to have been eroded from thv same series of metamor-

phosed shale. ‘his included bed of shale was again crossed

by the tunnel of the Delaware, Lackawanna and Western Rail-

road at some distance from the east end of the tunnel ; but the

rock also fell in, forming a ‘‘ pocket,” as in the Erie tunnel.

The reservoir built some time since is situated above this

broken area. We are thus furnished with three points on the

line of this included stratum of shale.

The trap-sheet that projects eastward of the main ridge, and

forms Fairmount Point, can be readily traced to its junction

with the main trap-sheet at Newark Avenue ; thrust out from

the under surface of the main mass, it has followed the bed-

ding of the stratified rocks, between which it cooled ; the Jersey

City cemetery is situated on this shelf of trap. Passing this

ledge a few feet to the eastward, soundings show 70 to 80 feet

of mud without reaching rock bottom. Other exposures of dikes

or outlying masses of trap may be similarly accounted for.

Wherever the trap is exposed in Hudson County, it appears

as a compact dark-bluish rock, impervious to moisture, and usu-

ally breaking equally well im all directions. ‘The rock is more

* ** Geology of New Jersey,” Prof. Cook, 1868, p. 216.

44 Geology of Hudson County, New Jersey.

compact and fine-grained when obtained from the eastern side

of the hill, 2. e., the lower surface of the trap-sheet. The west-

ern or upper surface shows a much coarser texture, and is more

difficult to break into regular blocks; for this reason, the rock

along the eastern face of the hill is best suited for shaping into

paying and building-stones, though the very fine-grained stone

at the bottom of the hill is also more difficult to work than the

intermediate variety. This difference in the texture of the trap

can be readily seen in the clitfs at Weehawken ; the rock near

the base of the cliff, where it comes in contact with the sedi-

mentary beds below, is very compact, crypto-crystalline, and

breaks with a conchoidal fracture; while in the same cliff, a

hundred feet above, the separate crystals of augite and feldspar

can be distinguished by the unaided eye. The rock that is in-

termediate in structure furnishes the best paving and building

stones.

When a thin chip of the trap-rock is ground down on a lapi-

dary’s wheel sufficiently thin to be translucent, it is found, upon

examination with a microscope, to consist principally of bladed

crystals of augite, sometimes hornblende, and a feldspar, usually

oligoclase ; these crystals are interlaced in every direction, and

frequently interspersed with dark masses of magnetite. It is

principally the size of the augite and feldspar crystals, that de-—

termines the texture of the rock.*

The crystalline structure of the trap furnishes one of the

proofs that 1t was at some time in a fused or semi-fused condi-

tion, and has become a crystalline solid upon cooling. ‘That the

trap was forced in between the layers of sandstone and shale,

and also injected into fissures therein, forming dikes, we have al-

ready given abundant proof. As may be seen in the section

along the bank of the Hudson, the stratified rocks beneath the

main trap-sheet are always altered and more or less metamor-

phosed ; the junction of the main trap-sheet with the overlying

sedimentary beds is not exposed in Hudson County, though it

* Analyses of the trap from the Erie Railway tunnel in Bergen Hill, are given in Prof.

Cook’s “‘ Report on the Geology of New Jersey,” 1868, pp. 215 and 216, with remarks upon cer-

tain of the varieties.

reology of Hudson County, New Jersey. 45

is reported to be shown farther northward at Englewood. The

condition, however, of the sedimentary beds resting on the upper

surface of one of the trap-sheets is well shown on the western

slope of the First Newark Mountain at Feltville. *

In the glacial drift covering Bergen Hill, Weehawken, etc.,

are many boulders and large irregular masses of metamorphosed

shale or slate, identical with the rock outcropping beneath the

trap at Weehawken ; these boulders were doubtless derived from

the metamorphosed slate overlying the main shcet of trap in the

immediate vicinity.

Minerals of the Trap.—The beautiful minerals obtained at

Bergen Mill during the construction of the railroad tunnels and

cuts, are familiar to all collectors. They are mainly zeolites,—

hydrous silicates of alumina and alkalies,—and are the result of

the deposition of these substances, in varying proportions, in the

cavities and fissures of the trap, whither they have been carried

in solution by percolating waters, which, especially under the

influence of heat and pressure, have great solvent powers upon

the constituents of the trap. tf

Economic Importance of the Trap.—Vhe fine-grained rock

along the eastern face of Bergen Hill, furnishes an excellent

material for paving and building, as it can be broken with ease

and certainty into blocks of the desired size and shape; Hudson

County produces each year many thousands of such paving-blocks,

and the demand will no doubt continue to increase.

The fine-grained trap, when broken into small fragments, fur-

nishes one of the very best materials for macadamizing roads or

for railroad ballast; and the chips and waste from the manufac-

ture of paving and building-stones should be utilized for such

purposes.

The value of the rock of the Palisade range, as a building-

stone, seems to be scarcely appreciated, although there are

several examples of its use for substantial edifices: the Stevens

Institute of Technology at Hoboken, and St. Joseph’s and St.

Patrick’s churches on the Hights, are constructed of this ma-

* “On the Intrusive Nature of the Triassic Trap sheets of New Jersey.”” Amer. J. Sci.,Vol.

XV, p. 277, 1878.

+ For further reference to the Bergen minerals, see note at the end of this article.

46 (reology of Hudson County, New Jersey.

terial. A more durable stone for architectural purposes cannot

be easily obtained, and when its somewhat sombre tone is re-

lieved by trimmings of lighter-colored stone, the effect is highly

pleasing.

The use of the ‘‘ brown stone,” so abundant in New Jersey

and Connecticut, is certainly to be deprecated, especially for the

construction of our more costly edifices ; even as an ornamental

stone, for the lighter portions of buildings, it is far inferior,

both in durability and beauty, to the brighter colored and more

vitreous Potsdam sandstone from the northern part of the State

of New York.

It should be borne in mind, in matters relating to the sanitary

conditions of Hudson County, and in the laying out of streets,

the building of sewers, the placing of gas and water pipes, ete.,

that the ridge of Bergen [ill is the outcropping edge of a stra-

tum or bed of impervious rock, inclined to the northwest some

10 to 15 degrees. The upper surface of the hill, especially towards

the eastward, is but little affected by this inclination of the

strata, as it has been worn down by denuding agencies to a very

irregular and uneyen plane surface, which has no good natural

drainage. The hill owes its elevation not to the upheaval of the

rocks composing it, but to the fact that it is formed of harder

material than the neighboring beds, and has thus been enabled

to resist in a great measure the destrnction that has removed

the softer stratified rocks that once surrounded and covered it.

The Triassic Foundation in New Jersey.—The great Triassic

area, of which the shales and sandstones so familiar in Hudson

County form the eastern edge, has a breadth of about thirty

miles, and extends from Stony Point on the Hudson, southward

through the State ; crossing the Delaware and the Potomae, it

reaches in broken areas through Virginia and into North Caro-

na. The stratified rocks throughout this great region are

chiefly interbedded sandstones and shales, usually reddish or

brownish in color, including at times some dark thinly-bedded

slates and light-colored sandstone; the whole series inclining

westward. In New Jersey the dip of 15° N. W. is remarkably

persistent. ;

In the Connecticut Valley, there is another area of Triassic

ee See a

Geology of Hudson County, New Jersey. 47

rocks, extending from New Haven northward, for one hundred

and twenty-five miles. ‘These rocks seem identical in their litho-

logical peculiarities, their fossils, ete., with the corresponding

beds in New Jersey, save that they dip in the opposite direction.

Viewed as a whole, many converging lines of proof tend strongly

to show that these eastern and western areas are portions of one

great estuary deposit, the central part of which has been up-

heaved and removed by denudation. ‘The facts upon which this

conclusion is based have been presented at length in a previous

paper in the Annals of this Academy.*

The abrupt manner in which the stratified rocks are broken

off, as shown in the bold line of cliffs on the western bank of the

_ Hudson,—the strata dipping N. W. 15°,—would indicate that the

arch must once have been complete, and that the Triassic beds

formerly extended far to the eastward of their present limit. The

section seen on the bank of the Hudson at Day’s Point, two

miles above Castle Point, is shown in the following diagram :—

Fig. 4.—SecTION AT DaAy’s Point, WEEHAWKEN.

BA SD a

SES =

mawenetenees 7

<< S Z y

wisssaese MAM WY)

NEW. S. E.

T represents the main trap-sheet forming the hights of Wee-

hawken, with its top worn down by glacial action and covered

with the layer (D) of drift. Beneath the trap, the Triassic

slates and sandstones compose the base of the cliff, and extend

out over five hundred feet into the river, forming Day’s Point,

and then breaking off in an abrupt cliff at the water’s edge ;

the whole series having the usual dip of 15° N. W. The strata

immediately beneath the trap are finely stratified slates or meta-

* Annals of N. Y. Acad. of Sciences, Vol. I, 1878, pp. 220—254.

48 (reology of Hudson County, New Jersey.

morphosed shales, (S’) while those forming Day’s Point are light

yellowish feldspathic sandstones. vel a

‘The igneous rock of the Palisade range also shows that it must

have been confined by other rocks on the eastward, now removed,

or else the molten rock would have poured out and formed a

table-land like those so common in New Mexico. At Haver-

straw, as already stated, the trap forms the top of the mountain

a thousand feet above the bed of the river. Such facts cannot

be explained except by supposing that the igneous rock was in-

closed in sedimentary beds at the time of its intrusion. All

this may seem a digression, but it is only when we assign the

few facts to be gleaned in the geology of Hudson Connie to

their proper place in the long history of changes and revolutions

which our continent has undergone, that we can understand and

appreciate their full significance.

During the deposition of the sand and mud now forming our

Triassic rock, the Highlands of northern New Jersey formed

part of the shore-line that bordered the estuary on the west.

Could we have stood beneath the ferns, cycads and spreading

coniferous trees which then shaded that picturesque coast, we

should have seen over all the region to the eastward—where are

now the fruitful farms of New Jersey interspersed with thriving

cities and villages—only rolling turbid waters; their eastern

boundary far beyond the range of vision. When the tide was

out, a broad area of smooth shining mud bordered the shore,

closely similar to that now to be seen along the Bay of Fundy at

low tide. This plastic surface bordering the old Triassic estuary,

was the day-book on which the records of passing events were

inscribed. In fancy, we can see the wind rippling the waters

us they retreat from the shore, and forming the sand and mud

into low parallel ridges or ‘‘ripple marks.” A cloud obscures

the sun, and soon great drops of rain patter on the strange vege-

tation around; falling upon the soft mud, the rain-drops leave

little circular depressions, the nature of which indicates the di-

rection of the wind. In other places, many acres of the muddy

surface are crowded with a net-work of intersecting fissures,

caused by the shrinking and cracking of the mud when it dries

in the sun. From the waters, strange uncouth monsters emerge,

and striding over the muddy shores towards the ferns and giant

Sea. ii it

li al tes

reology of Hudson County, New Jersey. 49

rushes that border the upland, leave long lines of foot-prints

behind them. Mingled with these various markings are here

and there the fronds of ferns or cycads, and the twigs and cones

from the larger coniferous trees. When the next tide comes in,

all these records of physical changes and of animal and vegetable

life are covered with a layer of mud and sand, to be preserved

for indefinite ages.

That such were the scenes along the base of the New Jersey

Highlands in Triassic times, every one can determine for

himself.

On breaking open the stony layers, all the records just men-

tioned may be found as well-defined and legible, after millions

of years, as if impressed upon the soft sands but yesterday. In

these same beds are found in great abundance the remains of

the fishes that swam in the Triassic estuary ; these are lepido-

ganoids (Catopterus, Ischypterus, etc.), covered with small dia-

mond-shaped scales, and have their nearest living representatives

in the ‘‘ gar pikes” (Lepidosteus) of our northern lakes, and the

Polypterus of the Nile.

After long subsidence, during which thousands of feet of sedi-

ment accumulated in the Triassic estuary, a reverse movement

began and the bottom was upheaved, bringing the stratified

rocks, especially those of the central region, within the reach

of denuding agencies. The gradual folding of the crystalline

rocks beneath the Trias ended finally in the fracture of the rocks

in long lines parallel with the axis of upheaval. Through these

fissures molten rock from beneath was forced out, and found its

way into the stratified beds above, sometimes opening the layers

and forming intruded sheets of igneous rock, while at other

times the stratified beds were fractured, and the injected ma-

terial filled the fissures and formed true dikes. Examples of

each of these modes of occurrence, as already described, are to

be seen along the bank of the Hudson. In New Jersey, there

are four main lines of fracture through which the igneous rocks

escaped ; these are now indicated by the long curved mountains

of trap that diversify the scenery of the Triassic area. The most

easterly of these is the Palisade range ; this is bent into the form

of acrescent by having its extremities curved abruptly to the

westward. About ten miles westward of the Palisade range and

50 Geology of Hudson County, New Jersey.

concentric with it, occurs the First Newark Mountain, also a

crescent or ‘‘canoe-shaped” ridge of trap. Scarcely half a mile

westward of this is the Second Newark Mountain; and westward

of this, again, is a fourth range of trap, much less regular than

the others, and now appearing at the surface in detached areas.

All these ridges slope to the westward at an average angle of

10—15 degrees, and present bold mural faces to the eastward,

showing that they are outcropping edges of trap-sheets, that have

been left in relief by the removal of the softer sedimentary beds

that once inclosed them.

QUATERNARY PERIOD.

There are no records in the rocks of Hudson County, belong-

ing to the Cretaceous or Tertiary ages, which followed the T'ri-

assic ; during that immense lapse of time, this region must have

stood above the sea, and been clothed with the varied and

beautiful floras that have now passed away, and inhabited by the

strange reptiles of the Cretaceous and by many of the various

animals that roamed over our country in the mild and beautiful

Tertiary age. During the latter period, a climate as genial as

that of Virginia extended nearly if not fully to the pole, and

clothed the northern hemisphere with magnificent forests of tem-

perate and sub-tropical growths. In the succeeding period, all

this summer beauty was blotted out, and an age of ice succeeded,

when the present climate of high latitudes, with immense snow-

fields and glaciers, spread southward, until all the region from

Central New Jersey northward was buried beneath a vast mer de

glace. The records of this glacial age occur abundantly in

Hudson County, and form one of the most marked chapters in

its history.

The Drift.—Whenever the superficial material is removed

from above the trap-rock in Hudson County, we invariably find

the surface of the hard crystalline rock smoothed and polished,

and all the projecting ledges worn and rounded off. This

smoothed surface is also scratched and grooved in parallel lines

bearing usually N. 10°—15° W. Upon this polished and striated

surface rests an irregular, confused accumulation of earth and

stones, from ten to twenty-five feet or more in thickness. This

[— | ee ee ee ee ea

— ape 7 er eS

Geology of Hudson County, New Jersey. 51

sheet of drift is spread over all the highlands, and covering the

hill-sides, dips beneath the more recent sand-dunes and salt-

marshes along the Newark Bay on the west, and bordering the .

New York Bay on the east. This drift consists mainly of

broken and disintegrated red sandstone and shale, derived from

the Triassic area to the westward, and gives the prevailing red-

dish color to the soil. It also contains numerous boulders, fre-

quently four or five feet in diameter ; some of these are of trap,

doubtless derived from the hill itself; others are of metamor-

phosed slate, the parent beds of which probably overlie the trap

on the western slope of the hill; with these are mingled many

masses of Triassic sandstone that could only have come from

the region covered by that formation to the westward ; there are

also other erratics in less numbers, composed of gneiss, quartzyte,

conglomerate, etc.,—rocks that are found in place only in the

Highlands of New Jersey, at least thirty miles west. When

these transported boulders are examined more closely, we find

many of them worn and rounded, and like the trap beneath,

showing smoothed and scratched surfaces. Although the drift

covers nearly the whole of the county, yet it accumulated most

abundantly along the eastern side of Bergen Hill, under the lee

of the trap-ridge; for the glaciers came from the northwest.

The boulders are also especially noticeable where the finer ma-

terial has been carried away, either naturally or for purposes of

improvement, as in some of the squares at Lafayette, in the

Hlysian Fields, etc. Another good exposure of the drift is to be

seen along the line of the N. J. Central Railroad at Bergen

Point; here the drift is overlaid by blown sand.

_ Over Hudson County, the glaciers were of great thickness, and

flowed towards the southeast with such force that the trap-ridge

of Bergen Hill could not deflect them from their course. The

long parallel scratches and grooves on the rocks, as well as the

nature of the transported boulders, show that the ice moved

from the northwest obliquely across the ridge. Throughout

Long Island, on the northern border of Staten Island, and in

an irregular line of hills crossing New Jersey near Plainfield, is

the terminal moraine deposited by these ancient glaciers.

To one familiar with existing glaciers, and the records that

they leave on the rocks over which they move, nothing is easier

52 (reology of Hudson County, New Jersey.

than to determine the former presence of glaciers on a grand

scale in Hudson County. These glaciers retreated northward

as this geological winter drew to a close, leaving behind the ma-

terial that had been ground out and carried away from the un-

derlying rocks; this moraine profonde covers nearly the whole

surface formerly occupied by the glaciers. The material left by

melting ice 1s unassorted, and seldom shows any stratification.

But the melting of the glaciers caused floods, similar to those

now occurring with the opening of spring, save on a far grander

scale, which washed away large portions of this glaciated debris,

and deposited it elsewhere, more or less perfectly assorted ; the

same end was also accomplished when the material was brought

within the action of the waves and currents of the ocean or

rivers. Examples of this modified drift, showing irregular layers

of sand, gravel, and small boulders, all worn and rounded, may

be seen on the western side of Bergen Hill near West End, and

from there northerly along the western base of the hill. At

several places in Jersey City near the Hudson, excavations

have exposed sections of this stratified drift ; these will receive

farther notice in the section devoted to surface geology. | .

These beds in Hudson County yield a fine quality of building-

sand, and also coarser sand and gravel, well adapted for making

sume kinds of mortars and concrete; the beds are always

irregular, but sometimes of considerable importance. Among

the economic uses of the drift, we should perhaps mention the

abundant boulders, which furnish material suitable for the ruder

kinds of masonry.

MHolian Sands.—All along the western border of Hudson

County, where the upland meets the waters of Newark Bay, or

the swamp-deposits extending some distance northward, there

occur hills of fine, yellow, loamy sand, resting on the drift; from _

their structure, it is evident that these hills and mounds are

true sand-dunes, formed of blown sand, that must have been

piled up along the borders of the county before the accumula-

tions of peat and mud now filling the swamps.

At Constable’s Point, this fine yellowish sand covers nearly

the entire hill, the highest part of which is about fifty feet above

high tide; the central portion, however, is made up of drift

Geology of Hudson County, New Jersey. 53

material with huge boulders, over which the sand has drifted.

At Caven Point, a repetition of these conditions may be observed.

The upland, formed of glacial drift, containing quantities of

transported boulders, on which Communipaw and Lafayette are

situated, is covered to a large extent with similar sand.

The islands formerly known as Paulus Hook, Harsimus, and

Payonia, on which the older portion of Jersey City is built,

have the same history as these other areas of xolian sand.

Around the high land forming Castle Point, similar accumu-

lations of glacial drift covered with blown sand may be seen ;

the sandy region here underlies a large portion of Hoboken.

Swamp Deposits.—The series of geological formations in Hud-

son County is brought to a close by the salt meadows bordering

the county on the east and west, and still in process of accu-

mulation. ‘These are formed of vegetable growths, making a

peaty mass, composed of matted stems and roots at the top, but

becoming more compact and showing less vegetable structure

at some distance below the surface ; the peat is frequently ren-

dered impure by silt and mud brought in by high tides, and in

places these muddy sediments predominate over the vegetable

matter, and form a great depth of blue clay or mud.

SURFACE GEOLOGY.

Soils may be divided according to the mode of their forma-

tion, into soils of disintegration and soils of transportation.

The former are derived from the wearing away of the rocks

upon which they rest, and owe their formation to the fact that

-eyen the most compact and homogenous rocks, when subjected

to meteoric agencies, are in time broken up and more or less

decomposed. Disintegrated rock of this nature, with some ad-

mixture of organic matter or humus, forms the soil over a large

part of New Jersey. Soils of transportation, on the other hand,

have resulted from the accumulation of material brought from

distant sources, and are influenced but little by the nature of

the underlying rock. As examples of soils of transportation,

we have river drifts, consisting of sand, gravel, alluvium, ete. ;

and also the earth, clay and sand filling lake-basins and estu-

54 Geology of Hudson County, New Jersey.

aries ; and blown sand occurring in sand-dunes : more common

than any of these, however, are the soils formed of glacial drift;

this may vary widely in its nature, being sometimes sand,

grayel, clay, shingle, etc., or these in all degrees of admixture.

Besides these kinds, there are other soils formed of peat and

bog earths, that are due mainly to organic agencies.

The soils occurring in Hudson County are formed entirely of

transported material, together with accumulations of peat and

mud ;—soils resulting from the disintegration of the underlying

rocks being unrepresented. ‘The soils of the county thus group

themselves into four natural divisions according to their mode

of origin; these at times are more or less intermingled, but are

usually well characterized and easily distinguishable; they are, in

the order of their age, as follows :

1st. Soils composed of glacial drift.

7 a ee “* stratified drift.

(0 ale re ** eolian sand.

Ath. <“‘ a ** peat and mud (now forming).

1. Soils of Glacial Drift.—These consist of the material that

was left spread over the country by the retreating glaciers, viz.

sand and clay, derived mainly from the grinding and disintegra-

tion of the Triassic sandstones and shales. From the same

source have these soils acquired their characteristic reddish color,

due to the peroxide of iron they contain. Muingled with this

reddish-clayey soil, are great numbers of stones and boulders, .

often of large size, and mainly transported from the westward.

This soil is quite constant in its composition, when unmodified

by cultivation, drainage eto.; is rather stiff, owing to the amount

of clay it contains; and is retentive of moisture. By its color

and unstratified condition, it may be readily identified.

This soil occurs covering the high ridge bordering Hudson

County along the Passaic; eastward of this, it appears again

around Snake Hill, and forms the surface of the upland known

as Secaucus, northward of Snake Hill. South of Snake Hill, and

between the Passaic and Hackensack Rivers, the boulders of the

drift were struck at a depth of 125 feet, in the sinking of wells.*

* Vide Table No. 1 at the end of this article.

(reology of Hudson County, New Jersey. 55

Nearly the whole of the main upland of Hudson County, from

the Kill Von Kull to Bull’s Ferry road, is covered with glacial

drift soil. Its characteristic features are well shown at Bergen

Point, along the line of the N. J. Central Railroad, and at the

railroad cuts and street excavations in various parts of Bergen

Till and Weehawken: the depth of the drift in these exposures

varies from a few inches to twenty or thirty feet.

Hastward of Bergen Hill, the glacial drift soil occurs at Con-

stable’s Point, Caven Point, Communipaw, and Lafayette; also

on the islands on which the older portion of Jersey City is built,

viz. Paulus Hook, Harsimus, and Pavonia, and on the similar

area northward of these around the serpentine hill forming Castle

Point. At all these localities the reddish glacial drift, with its

boulders, etc., is largely covered by blown sand, which forms

our third division of soils.

The amount of clay which these soils contain makes them less

retentive of moisture, and therefore less desirable from a sanitary

point of view, than more sandy and porous strata. This ten-

dency to retain the surface water is counteracted in some portions

of Hudson County by the slope of the underlying rocks, which

secures a good natural drainage.

This is the case on the western slope of Bergen Hill, and also

on some portions of Bergen Neck and Bergen Point, where

the drainage is to the eastward. Over a large area on the

top of Bergen Hill, however, where the trap-rock has been worn

down by glacial action to an irregular plane surface, the cover-

ing of drift fills the depressions in the rocky floor beneath, and

thus forms a soil, not only stiff and retentive, but also with an

incomplete or in many cases total lack of drainage ; this region,

IT understand, has long been known to resident physicians as

one where malarial diseases particularly prevail. In some cases,

wells have been sunk through the covering of drift on Bergen

Mill, and a supply of water obtained from some of these con-

eealed sink-holes, thus greatly endangering the health of those

using the water. In West Hoboken and Weehawken, several of

these depressions in the trap—some of them receiving the drain-

age from considerable areas—may be seen ; they are now in the

condition of lakelets or marshes filled with decaying vegetable

matter, which become partially dried in the summer, and cer-

56 Geology of Hudson County, New Jersey.

tainly have anything but a beneficial influence on the health of

the community.

On the western side of the bill, and reaching sometimes nearly

to the top of the slope, the soil is usually more sandy; but this

is often a deceptive appearance, as the sand is a superficial cov-

ering concealing the reddish glacial drift soil but a few inches

below. Most of this region, however, has a natural drainage,

which secures for it a greater salubrity than the irregular plain

on the top of the hill enjoys.

Soils of Stratified Drift.—The material left by the melting

glaciers, when brought within the action of tides and currents,

was assorted and more or less stratified, so as to fourm irregular

and rapidly alternating accumulations of clay, sand, gravel,

boulders, etc. Soils of this kind occur at many localities west-

ward of Bergen Hill, near the junction of the upland with the

salt marshes and Newark Bay. These deposits have been ex-

cavated to obtain sand and gravel in the level areas in the

neighborhood of New Durham, west of Weehawken, and at

several points near West End, and may be recognized, although

usually covered with sand-dunes, at a few localities farther south

along Newark Bay.

Kast of Bergen Hill, the best example of modified drift ex-

posed in Hudson County is to be seen in the knoll north of

Communipaw, near the southern end of Mill Creek. This hill

has been cut away on the eastern side, to obtain building-sand

und gravel, and exhibits a fine section of a ‘‘ kame,” as these

knolls of modified drift are called. The varying strata of clay,

sand, gravel and boulders, here exposed, are very irregular and

frequently show the oblique lamination known as ‘‘ current bed-

ding ;” the strata are frequently wedge-shaped or truncated,

having keen eroded by the currents that deposited the next suc-.

ceeding layer. These irregular beds vary from a fraction of an

inch up to three or four feet in thickness, and were evidently de-

posited in strong and frequently changing currents. This hill is

plainly the remnant of a great deposit of drift which at one

time probably filled the valley or cafion of the Hudson.

Portions of Harsimus, Pavonia and Hoboken are also under-

laid by modified drift, but in this region the contour of the land

(reology of Hudson County, New Jersey. ay

and the nature of the original soil have been so modified and

obscured by streets and buildings, that their original character

cannot be determined. |

The greater part, indeed, of Harsimus and Pavonia seems to

have been underlaid by modified drift, most of which was con-

cealed by hills of fine yellowish eolian sand.

The northern portion of Payonia, judging from the lmited

exposures now to be seen, is composed of true glacial drift.

Whenever the soil consists of modified drift, at least when

moderately elevated, it forms a porous and highly salubrious

substratum.

Soils of Molian Sand.—The fine, yellowish, loamy sand already

noticed, forms the third division of soils in Hudson County.

Along the Newark meadows and Newark Bay, the sand-dunes

sometimes extend a long distance inland; on Bergen Neck, the

sand covers nearly half the breadth of the upland; at Bergen

Point, it is well exposed along the railroad, overlying the red-

dish drift, and thinning out gradually as it recedes from

Newark Bay.

At Constable’s Hook, this yellowish sand occurs again, cover-

ing nearly the entire upland; this detached area, separated

from Bergen Point by a deep marsh, covers about 200 acres,

with an elevation of from 40 to 50 feet, and consists chiefly of

glacial drift containing huge boulders, above which rest the

eolian sands. ‘There is very likely a reef of rock underneath this

island-like area, yet none appears at the surface, or has been

reached in a well bored on the southeastern side of the Hook, to

a depth of 130 feet. On the sand-dunes, forming the western

side of Constable’s Hook, are growing oak, chestnut and beech

trees, frequently of large size. The soil on this area is ight

and porous, and well adapted for the requirements of the large

manufacturing industries located there.

At Caven Point, the conditions are the same; and also, as

above stated, on the areas farther north, now occupied by

Lafayette, Jersey City and Hoboken. At Lafayette, the eolian

sands are well shown on the western side of the high knoll at

the end of Mill Creek. The sand-hills of Harsimus and Pavo-

nia, most of which have now been leveled, were similar.

The geological history of the island-like areas that rise above

58 Geology of Hudson County, New Jersey.

the salt-marshes eastward of Bergen Hill, is well illustrated by

by Paulus Hook, Harsimus and Pavonia. Beneath this region,

especially along its eastern margin, are the reefs of gneiss that

at one time formed low islands separated from Bergen Hill by a

deep river-channel ; around this nucleus the debris transported

from the west by the glaciers, was accumulated and probably

filled deeply if not completely the channel of the river. When

the glaciers retreated, and the floods from the melting ice came

down the Hudson, much of this material was removed, some to

distant places and other portions re-deposited as stratified drift.

At this time the old channel between Bergen Hill and Paulus

Hook was re-excavated, and the Hudson flowed to the sea with

a greater flood than at present, having Bergen Hill for its west-

ern shore. This western portion was not a main channel, how-

ever, as it rejommed the principal stream at the mouth of Mill

Creek, and did not flow over the upland area now occupied by

Lafayette. While the waters flowed through this course, the

sand along the shore was thrown on the beach and was carried

inland by the wind, forming sand-dunes spread over the drift

beneath. In time, as the Hudson decreased in volume, the

western channel was silted up with river mud so as to form

salt meadows on which grasses and swamp-loving plants took

root and formed by their decay the peat and peat-mud.

Soils of Peat and Mud.—Skirting the main upland of Hudson

County on the west, are the salt marshes known as the Newark

Meadows ; these were formed by the filling in of this portion

of the estuary of Newark Bay by silt and mud brought in by the

waters. The depth of this accumulation is from ten to fifteen

or perhaps twenty feet ; the true rock-bottom, however, lies far

below, as is shown by the deep wells in the meadows south of

Snake Hill.* In some of these, no rock was reached at a

depth of 200 feet; north of Snake Hill the surface of the

peat and mud was once covered with a vigorous growth of cedar

trees, the stumps and prostrate trunks of which now cover the

marsh. :

On the eastern side of Bergen Hill, the salt meadows again

* Vide Table No. 1.

res

ee ee or. Te |

eee ee ee a ee

Se a eee eee [= = ae sf eee ee

<< — 4 ‘ sa :

Geology of Hudson County, New Jersey. 59

occur. Constable’s Hook is separated from Bergen Point by

the southernmost of these areas. Here, in some portions of the

Newark Meadows, the surface consists of peat formed of the

‘matted stems and roots of plants, which become more decom-

posed and muck-like some feet below.

The salt-marsh occurs again southward of Lafayette, filling

the aréa between Caven Point and Bergen Hill. Northward of

Lafayette, and reaching all the way to the Hudson above Castle

Point, is the largest area of salt-meadow east of Bergen Hill.

It is like the others already mentioned, in character.

Along the Morris Canal, between Lafayette and Harsimus,

soundings have been made in the marsh to the depth of 90 to

130 feet without reaching rock-bottom. In one of these sound-

ings near the canal bridge on Pacific Avenue, a stream of quick-

sand is reported, at the depth of 130 feet, flowing southward

with such force as to bend the sounding-tube.

On the western edge of the upland forming Harsimus, near

the corner of Wayne and Brunswick Streets, a large well has

recently been excavated, giviug the following section :—

Filling, - - - - - 10—12 feet.

Turf (the original surface of the marsh), 2 6

Bluish river-mud, with oyster-shells, pine-cones,

drift-wood, etc., - - - 12—14 *

Quicksand, - - - - : 6 inches.

Reddish mud, - = = - 18 fect.

Gravel, - - - - - 5) a

On the eastern side of the block in which this section was

obtained, and commencing less than 100 feet away, is the rem-

nant of a hill of sand and gravel, which still rises some twenty

feet above the surface of the marsh, showing the abrupt nature

of the shores of the old river-channel that once divided Harsi-

mus from Bergen Hill. The same thing is illustrated at the

corner of Washington and Warren Streets, where less than four

hundred feet from the upland, piles have been driven through

peaty mud to the depth of over seventy feet, to form the founda-

tion of St. Peter’s church. Other instances might be mentioned,

showing that the deposits of drift and sand east of Bergen Hill

60 Geology of Hudson County, New Jersey.

have been deeply eroded by currents of water, the channels of

which have since been filled in with mud and peat ; the islands

known as Paulus Hook, Harsimus, and Pavonia, are separated

from each other and from Communipaw, Bergen Hill and Ho-

boken by deep-buried channels of this nature.

The Sanitary Influence of the Soils of Hudson County.—The

salubrity of a region depends largely on the pervious or im-

pervious nature of the soil; the lowering of the consumption

death-rate especially, is closely connected with the decrease of

water (especially fresh water) in the subsoil. In Salisbury,

England, the death-rate from consumption has been lowered

one-half by improved drainage. ‘The following conclusions on this

important subject are taken from an article by W. Whitaker,

in the Geological Magazine for November, 1869.

(1) That on pervious soils there is less consumption than on

impervious soils.

(2) That on high-lying pervious soils there is less consump-

tion than on flat pervious soils.

(3) That on sloping impervious soils, there is less consumption

than on flat impervious soils.

(4) Wetness of soils is the great cause of consumption.

With these considerations in mind, I have arranged the soils

of Hudson County as follows, referring especially to their per-

vious or impervious character. When considered geographic-

ally, the conditions of elevation, drainage, etc., come in, and

greatly modify these general laws when applied to limited areas.

First.—The most desirable soils, from a sanitary point of

view, are those formed of modified drift, composed of strata of

sand, gravel and boulders.

Second.—The second best soils are those composed of the fine

yellowish loamy sand frequently mentioned on the preceding

pages.

Third.—Next in the series comes the soil formed of reddish

drift, which covers so large an area in Hudson County; if well

drained, this soil has but few objectionable features ; these in-

crease rapidly, however, as drainage is obstructed. When un-

derlaid by a porous and elevated rocky substratum, as at Castle

meee

(reology of Hudson County, New Jersey. 61

Point, no more salubrious soil could be desired. The conclu-

sion naturally follows, that in order to make the 11,000 acres of

retentive and badly drained soil on the top of Bergen Hill,

where upwards of 60,000 people have their homes, as salubrious

and desirable for a city, as the identical soil occurring at Castle

Point, the proper course is to secure a more complete drainage.

Fourth.—In this class we place the salt marshes, for even

these, owing to the rapid increase of population, are built upon ;

sometimes the marsh is filled in with garbage containing decay-

ing organic substances, which for a long time at least must

render such artificial soils unhealthy.

CONCLUSION.

The salt marshes form the last of the series of geological for-

mations occurring in this county; these are still in process of

accumulation, and form the top of the grouped section of the rocks

of Hudson County, (Plate II).

Prof. Cook in the ‘‘Geology of New Jersey,” 1868, presents

many interesting facts indicating that a slow subsidence of the

land is now in progress along the Atlantic border of New Jersey.

As I have been unable to glean any new facts in relation to

this subject in Hudson County, I can only refer the reader to

the above report for information in this regard.

At many places on the knolls along Newark and New York

Bays, accumulations of oyster-shells may be observed: these at

first sight might lead to the conclusion that the land had suffered

asubsidence and a re-elevation in very recent times. ‘These

shell-heaps, however, are due to other causes, and in some cases

at least, were accumulated by the aborigines, before the coming

of the Europeans. On the knoll at the mouth of Mill Creek

northeast of Lafayette, one of these accumulations of oyster-

shells or ‘‘kjyokken-middings,’ may be seen; with the broken

oyster-shells, a foot below the surface, I found the shells of land-

snails ; the occurrence of stone implements and human bones in

the same association was reported by the gardeners familiar with

the locality. At Constable’s Hook and along the shore of

Newark Bay, similar shell-heaps are very common.

Erosion and Denudation.—From the table at the end of this

article, showing the depth of wells and of soundings in the salt

62 (reoloyy of Hudson County, New Jersey.

meadows that have reached the underlying rock, we are en-

abled in a general way to sketch the topography of Hudson

County as it would appear if the accumulation of superficial ma-

terial were removed. A map or model constructed from such

data would enable us to determine the depth to which river-

channels have been eroded and also aid us in calculating the

amount of denudation that the general surface of the county

has suffered.

From the wells bored in the estuary of Newark Bay, now toa

great extent occupied by salt marshes, we find that the rock in~

some places is more than two hundred feet below the surface .of

the marsh. At Hackensack, 18 miles north of the present out-

let of the bay, the rock is 104 feet below the surface.

Although no soundings have been obtained from the southern

end of the bay, yet it is fair to assume that here is the greatest.

depth, probably not less than 300 fect. As the surface of the

marsh is 150 or 200 feet below the present level of Bergen Hill,

and nearly as much lower than the ridge of Triassic rocks bound-

it on the west, the total depth that the valley of the Hackensack

has been excavated cannot be less than between 350 and 500 feet.

To calculate the amount of sandstone and shale that has been

removed to form the estuary from Hackensack southward, we

have only to compute the contents of a solid 18 miles long,

4 miles wide, and 350 to 500 feet thick; this will give, taking

the lowest average of thickness, about 77 cubic miles as the

amount of material removed.

At one point between Jersey City and Lafayette—east of Ber-

gen Hill—soundings to the depth of 130 feet failed to reach the

bed-rock. The reef of serpentine at Long Dock, Jersey City,

is buried to the depth of 179 feet. The following borings, some

of them reaching to the bed-rock, are taken from the table at

the end of this essay ; excepting those in the Harlem River, they

are all on the margins of the old channels and do not show their

real depth :—

Hudson River, foot of 23d St., 250 ft. from the

eastern building line of the river street, - 175 ft. to rock.

Hudson River, foot of Bethune St., line of the

river street, - - - - 196 ‘* rock not reached.

Hudson River, pier 60 (old ie. y, 20 ft. W. of

bulkhead line, - - - - - 175 ‘* to bed-rock.

(Geology of Hudson County, New Jersey. 63

East River, N. Y. Tower of Brooklyn Buds, 107.4 ft. to bed-rock.

“ Brooklyn Tower, Ae SSin oH

og pier 41, N. Y., 200 feet from the

building line of South St., nse a ti i

a pier 18, of ss 60 BC

Harlem River at High Bridge, center of river, OM ifs

as Madison Av. Bridge, ‘ e Tay 28 i

As shown on the Coast Survey charts of New York harbor, the

water in the Hudson off Castle Point is - 50— 65 ft. deep.

In the East River, W. of Blackwell’s Island, 107 aN a

Ww us at Hell Gate, - - 121 peat coe

sé me Ward’s Island, Sa iO: po yee

“< New York Harbor, - - - 60— 80

** the Narrows, - = - - 60—116 “« <<

“« the Kill Von Kull, - - = = eb See

** Arthur’s Kill, = - - - QO ==. Bd) 6 oo 6 8S

These soundings give the present depth of the water; how

much the old channels have been filled with drift and silt is un-

‘known. All this shows, as has been graphically described by

Prof. J. 8. Newberry,* that these channels are old river-beds,

eroded when the continent stood at least 500 feet above its pre-

sent level. 4

The true margin of the continent lies at a distance of 80 miles

outside of the present mouth of the Hudson ; over this region,

once a broad littoral plain, the Hudson flowed after passing

New York and Staten Island. ‘The position of this submerged

river-bed is shown on the Coast Suryey charts by the line of deep

soundings extending seaward from New York harbor. During

this time of continental elevation, previous to the glacial period,

the deep cafion-like valley of the Hudson was excavated, and

also a great part of the broad, deep valleys of the Hackensack

and Passaic ; these streams perhaps, after uniting, flowed through

Arthur’s Kill and received the Raritan as a tributary.

As we have already seen, there is no evidence that Hudson

County has been submerged since the close of the Triassic age ;

during all the vast time recorded in other regions by the deposits

* The Geol. Hist. of New York Island. Popular Science Monthly, 1878.

64 Geology of Hudson County, New Jersey.

of the Cretaceous and Tertiary ages, Hudson County stood

above the sea and was exposed to sub-aerial denudation, and also

felt the full force of the cold and ice of the Glacial epoch. How-

ever slowly the wind, rain and frost may act in degrading rocks,

yet we know that during the flight of ages they accomplish

mighty results; what these changes were in this region we of

course desire to know. ‘The only way to determine the amount

of material removed from the general surface of Hudson County,

is by studying the character and position of the rocks that remain.

As we have already seen, the most remarkable fact in connection

with the Triassic rocks in New Jersey is the uniformity of their

dip to the northwestward ; from the nature of the excavation

that produced Newark Bay, leaving a ridge on the western side

150 feet high, composed of stratified rocks inclined 15° N. W.,

it is evident that larger portions of the sandstone and shale have

been removed, than are necessary to fill the valley. Considering

this county alone, if we carry out the strata to the position which

their dip and broken edges, indicate that they once occupied,

we find that the thickness of sandstone and shale once covering

Bergen Hill could not have been less than 7,000 or 8,000 feet.

If no faults exist in this region, we cannot arrive at any other

conclusion than that many thousands of feet of stratified rock

have been removed from the general surface of the county.

Drainage and Reclamation of Land.—Geology has but little

to do with agriculture in Hudson County; but on all questions

as to the reclamation of land, building of piers, construction of

railroads, etc., 1t has a direct and important bearing.

In other countries, immense areas have been reclaimed from

the sea by diking ; this same process has been followed in some

portions of New Jersey with marked success. In Hudson

County, however, little has been done in this direction ; some

portions of the Newark Meadows have been thus reclaimed, but

no very promising results have followed. One reason for the

lack of success is the nature of the swamp-deposits, which con-

sist of undecomposed vegetable matter to so great a depth that

they are useless for agricultural purposes.

The most important reclaimed areas are along the Hudson ;

here the plan has been to fill in the swamps up to a level above

Geology of Hudson County, New Jersey. 60

tide. Knowing the nature of these old channels, and their

great depth, this is evidently a most laborious and expensive un-

dertaking. The want of some comprehensive plan both for the

drainage of the upland and for the reclamation of the salt

meadows and shallow areas along New York Bay, has long been

felt; thus far this work has been carried on without system,

and consequently much of it is ineffectual. A plan which meets

all the requirements of the case, and is based directly on the

geological structure of the county, was proposed some years

since by Mr. L. B. Ward, C. E., of Jersey City.

The reef of Archean rocks which appears at Hoboken, and

again along the eastern edge of Jersey City, extends southward

along the line marked out by Ellis’s, Bedloe’s, Oyster and Rob-

bins’s Reef islands; then it curves westward to meet Constable’s

Hook. West of this line of reefs, the water is shallow, as shown

on the Coast Survey charts. In some places, the rocky bottom

is exposed at low tide. Directly east of the same line, the bot-

tom falls away sharply, and forms the true cafion-like channel

of the Hudson, with from twenty to sixty feet of water.

The plan proposed is to complete the work marked out by

nature, and by building a sea-wall along the old reef, from

Jersey City to Constable’s Hook, to shut out the tide, and by

means of pumps, as is now done for a large part of London, to

remove the water from the inclosed area, and thus render it suit-

able for occupation. The drainage of the marshes west of Jersey

City and Hoboken, and the interception of the surface water ~

and drainage from Bergen Hill, are to be secured by a large

sewer built along the base of the hill, and leading into the

lower part of the area reclaimed.

This comprehensive plan, which we are only able to sketch in

the barest outline, has for its object not only the addition of

5,100 acres to the habitable area of Hudson County, and that,

too, where space is most needed, but also, what is still more

valuable, the proper drainage of large areas now densely in-

habited. Such a plan, if carried out, will secure for the county

an addition of several miles of piers to her already crowded

water-front, and furnish over five thousand acres for railroad

depots, storehouses, manufactories, etc.

Geology of Hudson County, New Jersey.

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78 Geology of Hudson County, New Jersey.

Note by the Editor.

[It is regretted, that owing to the large amount of space required, it has

proved impossible to give the detailed sections, carefully prepared by the

author of this paper, from official records of the several pier-borings on

the East and North Rivers. In the case of the latter, it will be seen from

the Table that the ‘‘lower deposits” lying between the ‘‘dock mud” and

the bed-rock, and reaching in some cases a thickness of 100 feet, disappear

almost wholly in the short distance westward to the ends of the piers.

Where these end-borings are recorded, the mud, with a few slight ex-

ceptions, rests directly upon the rock-bottom ; while the miscellaneous

succession of sand, clay, gravel, boulders, shells, vegetable matter, etc.,

found under the piers on both rivers, nearer to the shore, is wanting. ‘

In the case of the piers above 23d Street, it was not practicable to judge

clearly of the line of demarcation between the modern mud and the older

deposits below, so that these columns are left blank.

Attention may be called, also, to the transverse valleys indicated by

the increasing depth of the bed-rock on both sides of the city (in passing

northward from the Battery’, culminating at pier 24 E. R., and the foot of

60th Street, N. R. The pre-glacial rock-surface of Manhattan Island needs

fuller and further illustration for its proper determination, and all facts of

this kind should be carefully recorded and preserved. ]

MINERALS OF THE TRAP."

The following is a list of the mineral species and varieties discovered up

to the present time at Bergen Hill.

ZEOLITES. Thomsonite, Natrolite,* Analcite,* Chabazite,+ Gmelinite,t

Stilbite,* Spheerostilbite,+ Heulandite. +

OruER SruicaTes. Apophyllite,* Prehnite,* Laumontite,* Pectolite,*

Datolite ;*Orthoclase, Hornblende, Byssolite,+ Augite; Prochlorite; Sphene.+

OTHER Spectres. Calcite,* Siderite;+ Quartz,+ Hyalite;+ Pyrite, Chalco-

pyrite,+ Blende,+ Galenite. +

Besides these may be mentioned some species that are but imperfectly

determined as yet; among these are the chloritic mineral that has been

called Diabantite, and the ‘‘Brown pectolite,” which appears to be a mag-

nesian alteration of pectolite. ;

Those species followed by a* are abundant and yield choice specimens:

those marked with a + are found but rarely and in small quantities.

MINERALS OF THE SERPENTINE.

The serpentine ridge of Hoboken has long been celebrated as a locality

for magnesian minerals. The following species are thence obtained.

Geology of Hudson County, New Jersey. 19

Es Brucite, Nemalite, * Marmolite,* Magnesite (compact porcellanous),*

_ Hydromagnesite, * Aragonite,+ Dolomite, Chromite. +

_ The species Brucite and Dolomite are probably exhausted, as little or

* none of either has been obtained for years past. The same signs are used

__as for the trap minerals.

ae APSR ND IX:

4 Notes from L. B. Ward’s pamphlet on the Soil, Contour and

a Drainage of Hudson County.

TOPOGRAPHICAL DIvisIONS OF THE COUNTY.

East of Hackensack River :

Square Miles.

Original upland, - - - 21.5

Made land on Hudson River Bel N. Y. Bay, - 1.0

Meadows east of Bergen Hill, - - - 2.5

Sa awest. << GC -- - - 8.4

—— 33.4

x West of Hackensack River :

Upland, - - - - - - 4.4

Meadow, - = - = = = 6.8

. — 11.2

Total area of land (about), - - - 44.6

y Recapitulation :

Total upland in the county, - - - 25.9

«meadow ‘“ “ - - - Wee

‘made land ‘“‘ a - - - 1.0

“ water surface within the county lines, in

Newark Bay, Passaic and Hackensack

Rivers, - - > - - 6.4

«* area included in Hudson County (about), 51.0

— Extent of shore line, - Se Z - - ie miles.

_ Extreme length of County, - - - - - 143 miles.

_ Greatest width, = - = - - = 7 miles.

Least width (about), ; : - - - 4 mile.

q Land reclaimed between Paulus Hook and Hoboken, - 900 acres.

e fe in New York Bay, east of Communipaw, 200 acres.

80 Geology of Hudson County, New Jersey.

’ DISTRIBUTION OF THE POPULATION IN 1875.

On uplands, east of Bergen Hill, - - - - 66,000

“« marsh, oS eG - - - : 23,000

““ summit and western slope of Bergen Hill, : - 67,000

“‘ uplands, west of Bergen Hill, - - - - 7,000

Population of entire County, - - - - 163,000

Population living on trap estimated as follows :

On Bergen Neck, - - - - 6,000

In Jersey City, - - - 44 000

In northern portion of County, - - 15,000

65,000

On Triassic sandstone (west of Bergen Hill), - - 7,000

On drift, eolean sand, etc., in Jersey City, E - 55,000

‘* oo oe in Hoboken, - - 11,000

“« marsh in Jersey City (85 acres), : - - 9,000

«« —«* ~~ Hoboken (140 acres), - - - 14,000

The mean range of the tide in the waters of Hudson County is as

follows :— ,

New York Harbor, - eh aa ys - - 4.4 feet.

Newark Bay, - aie tia se - - 4.8 feet.

Passaic River, at Newark, = - - - 5.0 feet.

_ Vor. I, N. Y. ACADEMY OF SCIENCES. Prats 2.

GENERALIZED SECTION, HUDSON COUNTY, NEW JERSEY.

Shell Heaps.

Sand Dunes.

HuMAN Prriop. Peat and Mud.

Drift.

QUATERNARY. i

Red Shale and

Sandstone.

Trap Rock.

TRIASSIC.

Slates with Trap.

Red Shale and

Sandstone.

Z| Jusperoid.

< NaS Serpentine.

Gneiss.

ARCH EAN.

ASIN ING AS

OF THE

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Zine Desilverization. 81

V.—On Zine Desilverization,

BY T. EGLESTON, PH. D.

Read January 7th. 1878. (and revised to June, 1880).

When lead ores contain silver, or when it occurs in

other ores in districts where lead ores can be had, they are

smelted alone or together and the silver afterwards separated from

the lead. ‘The silver is either extracted on the spot or more gen-

erally sent to the East to be separated there. ‘This material is

called ‘base bullion,” a very improper name, since it is not bul-

lion at all, but only argeutiferous or work-lead; and although this

term is current in the West, it should not be adopted in techni-

cal literature. The furnaces in which the ores are smelted are

almost invariably shaft-furnaces, as the ores are very silicious,

and the process used is that of direct or indirect precipitation.

The furnaces are usually water-jacketed and generally provided

with Arendt’s tap. ‘The works which treat these ores are situ-

ated for the most part in Nevada, Utah and Colorado. A few

furnaces have been erected in the East, as at St. Louis, Mans-

field Valley near Pittsburgh, and in the vicinity of New York ;

but, as a general thing, it will not pay to transport the ores

which come from all the Western territories, to the Kast, when

there are works competing for them at home, unless they are

exceedingly rich, or there is some special business reason why

they should be treated here.

It is not proposed to give a description of the process of smelt-

ing, Which in many respects is peculiar to the West, but only

some peculiarities with regard to a few of the works from which

the details of desilverization have been taken. ‘These are the

Germania Works, Salt Lake, the works of the St. Louis Smelt-

ing and Refining Company, at Cheltenham, Mo., and those of

the Pennsylvania Lead Co., at Mansfield Valley, near Pitts-

burgh, Penn.

The Western works treat ores which come principally from

82 Line Desilverization.

Utah. They are earthy carbonates and sulphates, with some

galena, such as are found in Little Cottonwood and Bingham

Cafions. From the former place, they contain from 10 to 40

per cent. of lead, from 70 to 150 oz. of silver, 1 to 3 oz. of

antimony, and a trace of arsenic and zinc. From Bingham

Cafion they contain 30 to 50 per cent. of lead, and 10 to 20 oz.

of silver. ‘The copper in these ores is sometimes as high as 6

per cent. They are transported on an average 2,000 miles,

some of them being brought from New Mexico. Some argenti-

ferous blende from Colorado contains 450 oz. of silver, 10 per

cent. of lead, and 20 per cent. of zinc. When these ores have

been dressed, they are made into bricks for treatment in the

shaft-furnace. The Utah ores are made the base of the treat-

ment. The works also treat argentiferous lead from all parts

of the country. The ore arriving at the works is sampled and

assayed. When it is purchased at the mine, it is sampled by

the agent of the company, and assayed at the works. When

the assay of the agent’s sample does not agree with that of

the mine-owners, they send a sample.

At the Wyandotte works, the sample is taken very simply.

The ore, crushed fine,* is spread ‘evenly over an iron plate, and

the sampler, Fig. 1,+ which is simply two iron bars bent at right

angles and riveted together, is put down on it, separating the ore

into four parts ; opposite parts are taken, a new pile made and

divided in the same way, and so on until the sample is complete.

The argentiferous lead is assayed on a sample taken from the

top and bottom of both ends of the pig, and the mean ‘of the

two is accepted as the value of the whole. Hach lot of ore and

lead is kept separate as far as possible. ‘They are not, however,

treated separately, as this would involve too much trouble and

expense. The separation is only made so as to treat material

of about the same value together, or to add it, in the treatment,

as different parts of the process require it. ‘Ihe owners are

either paid for it at prices for the gold, silver and lead, which

are fixed by the works or regulated by the market, or the metals

when separated are delivered to the owner, a certain sum

being deducted for expenses, loss and profit.

* Engineering, London, Eng., Vol. 22, p. 495. + Engineering, Vol. 22 p. 200.

+ The figures illustrating this paper are nnmbered consecutively on Plates III to XIII.

Zine Desilverization. 83

The Germania Works are situated at Flack’s Station, on the

Utah Southern R. R., six miles from Salt Lake City. They

treat silver-lead and also ores which they purchase in the open

market. They have one shaft-furnace, and their capacity is 40

tons of argentiferous lead and 3 tons of ore a day. The value

of the product of the works in copper and lead counted together,

silver, and gold, in 1874, was $1,350,000, in about the propor-

tions of 5, 6, 2. The coke used comes from Connellsville, and

costs $30.00 per ton.

At Cheltenham, there are two shaft-furnaces, but only one is

in blast at a time. The furnace is 10 feet high, 4 fect 6 inches

in diameter at the throat, and 3 feet 6 inches at the hearth.

The hearth is 2 feet deep from the tuyeres down. ‘The water-

jacket is made of wrought iron, riveted together in three parts,

and extends four feet above the tuyeres. In the west it is fre-

quently made of cast iron. The fore-hearth is 6 inches wide.

The furnace has three tuyeres, 24 inches in diameter. The

cinder-tap is composed of a small graphite crucible with the

bottom knocked out. The blast is produced by a Sturtevant’s

blower. 'The pressure is from } tojofa pound of mercury. The

blast conduit is arranged to discharge into the air, whenever the

work of the furnace has to be stopped for a short time for

repairs. The bins for holding the lead and material contain-

ing it, are on the level of the bottom of the furnace. Access to

the charging-level is by an inclined plane.

The fusion-bed is made up of—

Little Cottonwood Ore, - - Car-loads. 10 to 25

Argentiferous Zinc Blende, from Colorado, - - 10 per cent.

Mill cinder, - = - - - - 20 UG

Lead slag, containing 3 to 8 per cent. of Lead, - SSO pase

Coke is added, amounting to about 9 per cent. of the charge of

ore. When there isa considerable amount of sulphur, 2 to 3

per cent. of old iron is added.

The fusion-bed is spread out over a surface containing 200

square feet, to the depth of 11 inches; so arranged, it consists,

commencing on the top, with scrap-iron when there is sulphur, of

37% wheelbarrows of lead slag, - - 7,500 lbs.

50 ss of ore, - - 10,000 <<

' 374 oe of lead slag, - - 7,000 “

25 ae of tap cinders, - - 5,000 <<

84 Zinc Desilverization.

The coke either comes from Connellsville or is Illinois gas-

coke. ‘The Connellsville coke weighs 40 lbs. to the bushel. It

costs at Cheltenham $10.00 per ton, and the gas-coke costs

7 cents per bushel of 40 Ibs. The lead contains about } per cent.

of arsenic and antimony. When it is very impure. it is polled

directly after it is drawn from the tap-hole. Ordinarily it is

cast into pigs. The furnace is tapped into a brasqued basin,

und the lead cast. from there: three to four tappings are made

in 24 hours. i

The copper is concentrated in an iron matte, which contains

a little silver and gold. It forms about 5 per cent, of the total

product of the works, and is worked at the end of a campaign,

when it is treated with pyrites and concentrated to 50 per cent.

of copper. Sometimes a little speisse is formed, when the ore

contains considerable arsenic.

The slag varies between a singulo and a bi-silicate. The slag-

pot is hung directiy under the axle of the buggy, and holds from

650 to 700 lbs. The slag-buggy, Fig. 2, is so arranged that the

line of its axis runs through the center of the pot near its top.

The pot is caught by three hooks, which prevent it from tipping.

It is always white-washed before it is used. When full, it is al-

lowed to remain until the outside chills for about half an inch,

and is then caught by the buggy and dumped. ‘To prevent the

pot from falling off when dumped, a projection is placed on the

front of the pot, which is caught in the hook on the curved part

of the axle. Fifteen tons of slag are produced in the treatment

of 10 tons of ore. Of this amount, 30 per cent. is poor and is

thrown away ; the rest is re-treated.

The number of workmen required for a twelve-hour shift is,

below, one founder and two helpers, who wheel away the slag,

and above, one charger and one helper.

A campaign with water-backs lasts as long as a supply of ore

can be had. If the supply was constant, it would probably be

about six weeks. With a sandstone lining, it lasts about the

same time ; but repairs to the furnace are much more expensive.

With a brick lining, it lasts only three weeks. In blowing out,

slag is used exclusively, to clean the furnace as much as possible.

The amount of ore treated at Cheltenham is from 500 to 600

tons per month. From 5 to 6 tons per day of lead, containing

ee ed

a een ee ee

Zine Desilverization. 85

on an avcrage 250 oz. of silver, are produced. ‘The prices paid

for the silver in the ore in June, 1874, were for medium ore,

containing 25 per cent. of lead, for 100 oz. ore, $0.834 per oz. ;

for 200 oz. ore, $1.01; for 500 oz. ore, $1.17. In addition, the

freight to the works is paid, if it does not exceed $15.00 per

ton. One dollar per ton additional is paid for each unit of lead

above 25 per cent. and deducted in the same way.

At the works of the Pennsylvania Lead Company, ores are no »

longer treated, but silver lead and material containing silver are

purchased from all parts of the United States. The shaft-fur-

nace is used both for smelting the crasses and for the concentra-

tion of the copper matte which is produced from the residues con-

taining copper. As the construction of this furnace is interest-

ing from several points of view, a drawing of it is given in

Fig. 3. It has charging-doors at two different levels, the lower

one, A, being used for the matte, and the upper, B, for the

ordinary crasses. There are thus two furnaces of different

heights in the same structure. The lower opening is bricked

up, and its charging-floor is not used while the crasses are being

charged. When sufficient matte has accumulated, the lower

charging-door, A, is opened. The upper part of the furnace

then serves only as a chimney. The lower part of the furnace is

built of common brick, laid up in ordinary mortar by a common

mason, up to the mantel, which is about eight feet from the

ground. Just under the mantel, a pipe with jets at short dis-

tances throws water over the surface of the outside of the brick,

the excess of which is caught in atrough. This water keeps the

furnace cool. The bricks melt off to within three or four inches

of the outside and then remain at this thickness. There are

four tuyeres, two at the back and one on each side. Three of

these are of phosphor bronze, and one of iron, which answers

just as well as the bronze.

To put the furnace into blast, the hearth is filled with coal or

coke, and lighted, and this is kept up for three days, or until

the brasque is red hot. The blast is, during this time, blown in

through the Arendt’s tap, C. When the furnace is ready, this is

filled with a plug of wood in which a hole is bored. The whole

crucible of the furnace is then filled with melted lead. The

furnace itself is then charged with one-third coke. When the

86 Zinc Desilverization.

furnace is lighted all around, and is bright at the tuyeres, they

are withdrawn and plugged up. ‘The first charge consists of

one scoop of puddle cinder of about twenty pounds, and ten

scoops of coke of about eighteen pounds each. 'Thenext charges

are made with only half the normal charge, until the furnace is

two-thirds full; the last one-third is put in at the normal charge.

When the furnace is full, the blast is turned on, and the furnace

starts at once: with a dark top and in a normal condition. A -

campaign lasts thirteen months. The concentration of the cop-

per matte takes place on the top of the melted lead. They are

enriched up to not less than 40 percent. ‘They contain 25 to 40

ounces of silver, and are sold to Baltimore.

The process of desilverization, as conducted in the works at

Cheltenham, Salt Lake, and Mansfield Valley, consists of—

1. Softening the lead.

2. Incorporation of the zinc and separation of the zine scum.

3. Refining the desilverized lead.

4, Treatment of the zine scum.

The object of the desilverization, as performed in these works,

is to concentrate all the silver into a very small quantity of an

alloy of zinc and lead, so rich that the lead resulting from its dis-

tillation will contain 8 to 12 per cent. of silver, and to leave

behind in the kettles, lead which will contain not over 5 grammes

of silver to the 100 kilogrammes, and not more than 0:5 to 0.75

per cent.of zinc, and be pure enough to make white lead, and

hence command the highest market price.

1. Softening the Lead.—As the argentiferous lead comes from

all sections of the country, and contains a number of impurities

in variable proportions, it must be refined or softened before it

can be desilverized. The furnace used for this purpose is called

the softening-furnace, in most of the works. At the Germania

Works it is called the A furnace. It is a large reverberatory,

with a cast or tank iron basin, into which the hearth is built.

The object of this iron basin is to have a furnace so cool

that if the lead goes down into the hearth it will chill, or if

the furnace is very hot it willbe caught. The larger the furnace

the better. Made of cast iron, its size is limited; made of

—— ——— ~~

es) ae ae

ne et en a ee ee

a ee ee eee

Zine Desilverization. ‘

tank iron, there does not appear to-be any reason why it

should not be of double the size, except the uncertainty of

being able to purchase the supply of lead to work continuously.

With an uncertain supply, it is better to multiply furnaces, as

a small amount can be better and more economically treated in

a small than in a large furnace. There is a point, however, be-

yond which it will not be profitable to increase the size, and this

_ will be the quantity that can be held by the kettles. The limit

inthe kettles will evidently be that at which a man can no longer

work the kettle conveniently.

The fireplace at Cheltenham is 2 feet 3 inches wide and 5 feet 6

‘inches long. ‘The grate is 12 inches below the bridge; the bridge

is 2 feet 2 inches below the roof, 1 foot 6 inches above the hearth,

and 2 feet 10 inches wide. The hearth is made of a cast iron

basin which is 15 feet 5 inches long, 9 feet 6 inches wide in the

middle, and 5 feet 3 inches at each end, 2 feet 4 inches deep, and

Ljinches thick. It weighs 8 tons, and is calculated to hold 25 tons

of lead. At Cheltenham, the pan forming the bottom of the fur-

nace is cast in one piece. At the Germania works, it is cast in

three pieces and bolted together. This latter method is the chea p-

est; but if any of the bolts become loosened, there will be a loss of

lead, to avoid which the works at Cheltenham had the pan made

- inonecasting. At the Pennsylvania Lead Works, the pan is made

of tank iron about one quarter of an inch thick, which is riveted.

It is now proposed to water-jacket all of these furnaces, which

_ will both reduce the quantity of repairs to be made to them,

and shorten the time spent upon them. The doors of this

furnace are counterpoised with pigs of lead, so that they can be

very easily moved. They are beveled and fit into a slot, so that

when they are closed and luted they are hermetically sealed.

~The hearth proper is built on the iron pan bottom. It

is made of fire-brick laid in the form of an inverted arch,

placed on a bed of coke next the pan, which is covered with

- a layer of brasque. ‘The side walls resting on it bear against

. a projections on the rim of the sides of the pan. These precautions

are necessary in all iron pan hearths, to prevent the rising of the

_ hearth from the lead penetrating below it, and breaking it up.

_ Notwithstanding all the precautions taken against it, this

accident, which causes ‘great inconvenience and loss, happens

8 Zine Desilverization.

so often that,at the Germania Works, holes are now bored in the

angles of the bottom and sides of the pan, so that the lead cannot

collect. ‘Che flowing lead warns the men, before any serious

accident has happened, that it is time to make repairs. These

furnaces should all be placed at the highest point of the works,

so that the lead and other products may descend by gravity from

one furnace to the other.

The usual charge at the Germania and Cheltenham works is

from 22 to 24 tons, depending on the purity of the lead. In the

works of the Pennsylvania Lead Co., at Mansfield Valley, they

sometimes charge as much as 25 to 26 tons, the charge depending

on the quantity of crasses that the lead makes. It is always made

at Cheltenham so as to produce about 20 tons at the end of the

operation, or a quantity sufficient to completely fill one kettle.

~ When the furnace is hot, the whole charge melts in about two

hours. It remains in the furnace from 6 to 18 or even 24 hours,

depending on the work in the kettles, which must be kept full.

During this time it is kept at a low heat, and air is allowed to

have free access to the surface of the metal.

The operation of softening consists in melting at a very low

temperature, the object of which is to separate the copper by

liquation, as it is much less fusible than lead. ‘The scums con-

taining the copper are drawn with a tool made of birchwood, so as

not to contaminate the lead, as would be the case if an iron tool

was used. It is always necessary to endeavor to remove all the

copper, whether gold is present or not. The gases in the fur-

nace are oxidizing, and crasses containing the oxides of the

foreign metals rise to the surface. At the end of three hours

the temperature is raised to a dull red heat. The bath is

kept for twelve to fifteen hours if necessary, at the same tem-

perature, and frequently rabbled to bring the impurities to the

surface. If the lead contains from 3 to 4 per cent. of impurities,

the crasses are only drawn as they form, but if more impure, a

steam-jet blast is discharged directly into the bath to produce the

oxidation, and the crasses removed several times; but if the lead

is moderately pure, the crasses are drawn but once, which will

generally be at the end of six to seven hours. The first

crasses will amount to from 1.5 per cent. to 2.5 per cent.

of the charge, and are taken off at the end of from 5 to 7

Zine Desilverization. 89

hours. Before drawing them, they are mixed with coal on top

of the melted charge, to reduce any oxide of lead, and are then

drawn; and if they form again they are removed. When

they no longer form, the furnace is cooled gradually, but 1s

kept above the melting-point of lead. | The crasses are

drawn from the working-door and are collected in a bin,

where they are allowed to accumulate until there is enough to

work.

~. When litharge commences to form, the crasses are no longer

drawn, but are left in the furnace after the lead has been tapped.

In refining the next charge, they give up their oxygen to more

easily oxidized metals, and thus help to separate them from the

lead. Quick-lime is usually added as soon as they commence to

form, to keep the litharges from cutting.

Sometimes all the impurities have been removed at the end of -

12 hours or less, but the charge in the furnace must stand until

the desilverizing kettles are ready. ‘This is done by simply shut-

ting the dampers, and adding only just enough fuel to the fire place

to keep the charge melted; but as all the compounds of arsenic and

antimony are very fusible, the softening must be kept up as long

as these form With acharge of 26 tons, at the Pennsylvania

Lead Works, from 24} to 25; tons of softened lead remain in the

furnace.

It often happens that the charge is ready for tapping, but the

desilverizing pots are in use ; so that the lead is kept in the fur-

nace at the melting point until the pots are free. It is cheaper,

even if the lead is extremely pure, to keep it melted in the

furnace during the time necessary, rather than to cast it and

~re-melt it.

At Cheltenham, the tap-hole opens into a deep but narrow

trough lined with brasque, from which the lead is syphoned off

with a Steitz syphon, Fig. 6. The brasque is made of { clay

and ; coke-dust. It is made as dry as it can be stamped, and is

then carefully shaped and cut down to make the arch leading

into the furnace. When the kettles are ready, the furnace is

_ tapped. The tapping-spout is very large, and during the time

- of casting exposes a large surface to oxidation, thus increasing

the losses in lead. If the furnace was sufficiently high above

the pot, the lead could be tapped by a gutter directly into the

90) Line Desilverization.

kettles. The contract is always made to haye the kettles cast

bottom down.

At the Germania Works, the tapping is very inconveniently

done through an iron pipe, 40 feet long and 5 inches in diameter,

with holes cut into it at intervals to facilitate the removal of

dross which might clog the pipe. It is necessary to heat the

whole length of this pipe, to prevent the lead from chilling.

This is done with coals suspended in pieces of sheet-iron under

it; but there must be a shield between the fire and the pipe to

keep the latter from cracking.

As the softening-furnace is always above the kettles, it would

seem easy to run the lead into the kettles by gravity, in a trough

of some kind. ‘The distance, however, would have to be short,

or there would be danger of the lead becoming too cool. At the

Pennsylvania Lead Works, there are three of these softening-

furnaces, each one having three desilverizing kettles. At the

Germania Works, there are two, with five kettles each; at

Cheltenham, one, with three kettles.

The crasses from the softening-furnace are first liquated, to

remove any excess of lead they may contain. At the Germania

Works, this was formerly done in a reverberatory liquation-furnace

of peculiar construction. The hearth was 3 feet deep ; 18 inches

above it a set of grate-bars was placed; the skimmings were placed

on these, and the carcasses remained there while the lead flowed

through. The first crasses drawn contain most of the copper. |

They are always kept separate from the others. The carcasses

from the lquation-furnace are put through the blast-furnace

at the end of a campaign, with pyrites, in order to concentrate

the copper in a matte. They produce some hard lead, which

is treated with the lead of the other crasses.

At the Germania Works, a copper matte is produced which

contains 20 per cent. of copper, 20 to 25 oz. of silver, and a

slag containing 10 oz. of silver. The matte is concentrated to

40 per cent. of copper, and is sold.

The assays of three of these concentrated samples contained—

No. 1. No. 2. No. 3.

Silver, 113.54 oz. 88. oz. 94.66 oz.

Gold, 1.18 1.02 1.02

From the dust-chambers connected with this furnace, only a

Line Desilverization. 9]

small amount of material is collected, and this very near the

furnace. It contains only from 8 to 4 oz. of silver. The other

- erasses are treated in a reverberatory furnace. The materials

being at first only partially reduced, the first lead which flows

carries most of the silver and is put to one side. The charge is

then completely reduced. The product is a very hard lead,

which is allowed to accumulate until there is enough to make a

charge in the softening-furnace.

If the ores contain a very large amount of antimony, there

will be two or three sets of crasses after those containing copper

have been removed, which will be mostly very impure litharges.

The lead produced from them is a compound of arsenic and an-

timony, which is not refined, but sold as hard metal. The loss

in lead in softening is about 2) per cent.

2. Incorporation of the Zinc, and Separation of the Zinc

Scums.—To effect the desilverization, there are at Cheltenham

three kettles, set in a triangle, at Mansfield Valley a series of

three kettles set in a row, and at the Germania Works, a series

of five, set as shown in Vig. 4, the first two holding 20 tons

each; the next two, 7 tons, and the last, 4 tons. These kettles

are sct in masonry, with a fire-place underneath them. ‘The

furnace is tapped into the two upper ones alternately. The

upper kettles at Mansfield hold 23 tons. The upper kettles at

Cheltenham weigh 4,700 lbs. each, and cost between $400 and ~

$500 each. They are 6 feet 6 inches in diameter, and 3 feet deep.

At the Germania Works, the discharge-spout is cast on the

bottom of the kettles, and is constantly breaking. At Mans-

field, the middle one has a spout at the bottom, which com-

municates with the third and smallest. These kettles are

filled with melted lead from the softening-furnaces. When

they are full, they are heated up to the melting-point of zinc,

which takes about one hour. It is important that the heat should

be high enough to melt the zinc readily. The kettle is so large that

_ there is but little danger of over-heating. When the tempera-

ture is at the right point, the zinc is added. At the Germania

Works and at Mansfield, the zinc is thrown in or laid on the top

of the lead, and incorporated as it melts. At Cheltenham, it is

placed in an iron cage, which is let down to the bottom of the pot.

- The amount of zinc to be added will generally be about one pound

92 Zinc Desilverization.

for every 5} oz. of silver. ‘This will usually amount to between

250 and 550 lbs. to each kettle. In general, with ores varying

from 100 to 300 oz. of silver, 1.4 to 3 per cent. of zinc is added.

It is not all added at once, but sometimes in two and sometimes

in three additions, the proportions being determined by assay in

each case. ‘These additions should be so regulated as to make the

richest possible alloy at first, in order to shorten the process as

much as practicable, and to diminish the liability to oxidation

when it is liquated.

At Mansfield, the lead contains from 50 to 400 ounces of sil-

ver. To this, from one and one-tenth to two per cent. of zine

is added, in four additions. The zinc is thrown in on the top

of the melted lead, and then is stirred into it by a tool, five by

ten inches, with along handle. After the first addition, it is

stirred for half an hour. The scum is then allowed to rise and

cool, until there is a ring of 3; inches around the outside. It is

then skimmed with a perforated skimmer until the lead is

bright. The other additions are made in the same way.

At the Germania works, for a charge containing 60 oz. of

silver and 3 oz. of gold, 1.85 per cent. of zinc was added. Fora

charge containing 140 oz. of silver, and 3.8 oz. of gold, 2.3 per

cent. of zinc was used. Of this, 0.5 was added in the first addi-

tion, 0.4 in the second, and 0.1 in the third. For a charge

containing 350 oz., 2.6 per cent. of zinc was used.

The following Table, prepared by Mr. A. V. WEtssz, of the Germania

Works, gives the amount of zinc used in two charges.

Total weight] Silver contained in| Gold contained in

Example.} of softened |; grammes to the grammesto the | Zinc used.

lead. 1000 kilos. 1000 kilos. |

No. 1. | 402.442 Ibs. 4300. | 125. | 2.3 per ct.

| 2.6 per ct.

No. 2. eee | 4256.7 | 127 45

To be sure of lead at 5 grammes from lead containing 1,000

to 1,400 ounces of silver, at least 1; per cent. of zinc must be

ee eT ae

‘

;

“l

Zine Desilverization. 93

added. Pure zine is no longer used for all these additions.

The second, third and fourth scums of a previous operation,

which are not very rich in silver, are used for the first and some-

times for the second addition, thus greatly reducing the amount

of zine required for the operation. When the lead is very poor

in silver, the first addition is used several times, in order to make

it as rich as possible. The object of dividing the additions is to

arrive, as quickly as may be, at the highest percentage of silver,

and to get an alloy so rich that there will be little lability to

oxidation in the subsequent liquation, thus shortening and cheap-

ening the process. The amount to be added in the first charge

j _ will depend on the amount of copper in the lead. If it contains

but a small amount of copper and some gold, 100 lbs. are added,

at Cheltenham. If there is much copper, more zinc must be

added to bring out the copper, as most of the copper comes off

with the first crasses. If gold is present in large proportion,

the quantity of zinc must be increased, since all the gold comes

off with the first scums. If no gold is present, two-thirds

of the charge of zinc necessary for the whole operation may be

added in the first charge. It is then stirred from one-half to

three-quarters of an hour with a flat spatula, which is 17 inches

in diameter, attached to a piece of guas-tubing 6 feet long. The

temperature during this time is kept above the melting-point

of zinc. The tool is made to work from the sides toward the

center, with a downward motion at the same time. When the

zine is thoroughly incorporated, the fire is drawn, and the ket-

tle allowed to cool until the zine alloy, which contains the silver,

rises and floats on the top of the melted lead. This time de-

pends on the heat of the metal, and on the season of the year.

~ In summer, it is four hours; in winter, only two. The skim-

mings are taken off in perforated ladles, and put into one of the

smaller kettles. These first skimmings are carefully separated

from the rest, if the lead contains either much gold or much

copper, or both.

At Cheltenham, the skimmings from the first addition of zinc

are charged into a small kettle between the two large ones.

At the Germania works, kettles Nos. 1 and 2 are skimmed into

Nos. 3 and 4. If the skimmings come from the first addition

of zinc, they are partially liquated in Nos. 3 and 4, and trans-

94 Linc Desilverization.

ferred to No. 5, where the liquation is completed. All the lead

in Nos. 3 and 41s then put back into Nos. 1 and 2, ready to

receive the second addition of zinc. The skimmings from the

2d, 3d, and 4th additions of zinc are not liquated, but are used

over again. The amount of labor required is one man to each

kettle. The kettle is left until it is full, and is then fired up

and partially liquated, which takes about an hour. ‘The kettle

must not be heated too hot in this hquation, for there would

be danger of oxidizing the zinc, in which case the silver would

go back to the lead. The lead separated in liquation is put

back into the large kettle, No. 1, before the second addition of

zinc.

At Mansfield, all the skimmings except the first, which con-

tains copper and may contain gold, are ladled into the middle

kettle, which is kept heated, and are liquated at once, the lead

flowing into No. 3. The lead which collects there is put back

into No. 1 with the next charge of lead. At Cheltenham, the

zinc skimmings are taken from kettle No. 1, and liquated in

No. 2. While the second addition of zinc is being made, the

liquated lead is removed to No. 3. The six tons in No. 3 are

put back into No. 1, after the second addition of zine.

The lead remaining in the kettle after the first skimming

should not contain more than 20 oz. ‘The zine for the second

and third skimmings is not liquated, but used in the next opera-

tions. The skimming is made into the adjacent kettle. After

making an assay of the melted lead, to ascertain what is re- —

quired, the next addition of zinc is made, and the skimming

continued about the same time. After the second skimming,

there should not be more than 10 to 15 oz. of silver remaining.

An addition is made, if the assay shows it to be necessary. ‘The

last two charges are placed partly on top of the melted lead and

partly in the cage. It is then stirred for three-quarters of an

hour and left to cool down. The skimmings are liquated as

before. The lead contains from one to one and a half ounces of

silver. A new addition of zinc of about 100 Ibs. is made.

At Cheltenham, there is not more than one-sixth of an ounce

of silver remaining when the lead is tapped into the refining

furnace. Frequently, the last skimmngs are too poor in silver

to admit of treating. They are put to one side, and form

Zinc Destlverization. 95

either a part or the whole of the first additions of zinc in the

next kettle. .

At Mansfield, poor lead is not tapped if it contams more than

one-tenth of an ounce of silver to one ton, and the merchant

pig assays 0.075 to 0.15 oz.

When the Germania works were first built, the Flack process

was used. The liquated zinc skimmings were charged in a blast

furnace with a very basic slag, and small pressure of blast. The

result was rich lead, anda rich slag. In the condensation

chambers, a very impure oxide of zinc was collected, which was

but a small part of that actually charged in the furnace. As

the use of this process occasioned a loss of from $18,000 to

$25,000 a year in zinc, it was abandoned, and the Faber du Faur

furnace was introduced in its place. .

It is always best to use good zinc for the separation. An

attempt was made at the Chicago Silver Smelting and Refining

Works, to economize in this direction by using scrap zine; but

it was found that the lead, after its use, sometimes contained

as high as 18 oz. to the ton, and the attempt had to be aban-

_ doned.

The following statement of several charges at the Germania works is

made by the Superintendent, Mr. A. V. Wetssu: !

Bi No. 1. No. 2.

_ No. of lbs. charged in the softening-furnace, - - 41,614 40,120

No. of grammes” of silver, - - - - 5,700 1,980

a gold, - 110 10

First addition of zinc, from ad and 3d additions ofa pre-

vious operation, in lbs., - - 4,000 3,000

*Grammes of silver in lead after first addition, - 1,860 1,160

Second addition of zinc in lbs., - - 600 600

_ *Grammes of silver in lead after the second Addbiion. 20 30

Yhird addition of zinc in lbs., - 80 125

* Grammes of silver in lea after the third adidiiaien. trace. 6

The following tables were prepared by Mr, E. F. Euricu, of the

Pennsylvania Lead Co. :

1 Mining Commissioners’ Report for 1875.

* The grammes are given per thousand kilogrammes.

96 On Zinc Desilverization,

DESILVERIZATION. No: 1 Wy Nos?

Quantity of work lead charged in the kettle - 87,294 lbs.

Taken off ; ‘“‘ Schlicker” (cuprous oxide) - a ay 8

Pure work lead, - - - - - 83,797 lbs, 62,895 Ibs.

Silver contained, - = = - 6,305.6 oz. 6,165.9 oz.

Quantity of zinc added: : = = - 1,760 lbs. 1,260 lbs.

Weight of skimmings after liquation, - - 9,525 ‘© | 6,862 *

at Abstrick ” from dezincation of poor lead, = 17,810" *2 | 3ho00R

Oxides and metallic lead from the market kettle, - 1,000 “ 700 ‘<

Lead from liquation of zinc-crust, - - - 808 “

Market lead, - - - - - - 67,104 ‘“* 153,420 “

At Cheltenham, the liquated skimmings, still soft, are thrown

on iron gratings from 1 to 1} inches apart, and pushed through

in order to reduce it to pieces of small size, which can be more

conveniently introduced into the retort. In most of the works,

it is thrown upon an iron plate in front of the kettle, and in

order to break it up, is rapidly moved about with a rake, and if

necessary cut up with a shovel, so that the pieces are about the

size of a hickory nut.

3. Refining the Desilverized Lead.—The lead in kettle No. 1,

which contains { per cent. of zinc, no matter what the heat is,

or how much zinc is added, must be refined, to separate the

zine and get it ready for the market. This operation is one of

refining ; but in the West it is known under the name of ‘‘cal-

cination.” This is done in a furnace with a cast or tank iron

bottom, like the softening-furnace, holding about 20 tons. At

Mansfield Valley, the bottom is made of tank-iron. Fig. 4

represents the furnace used at the Germania works. The

one used at Cheltenham is essentially the same; it is a little

larger, but the dimensions vary only a few inches. The fire-

place is 2 feet 3 inches wide and 4 feet 5 inches long. The

bridge is eight inches below the roof on the fire-place, and eleven

inches on the hearth side. It is 2 feet 10 inches wide, 3 feet 6

inches long, and 2 feet above the hearth. ~The hearth is 13

feet 4 inches long, and 7 feet 3 inches wide in the middle, and

3 feet 6 inches wide, both at the fire-bridge and the flue. It is

* No. 1 is lead taken directly from the shift furnace, which has not been softened. No, 2

is softened lead.

Linc Desilverization. 97

here made of one casting; at the Germania Works it is cast in

three pieces, as shown in the section A-B, Fig. 5. The

arch is 2 feet 9 inches above the floor of the laboratory. It has

three openings, 4 inches square, in the fire-bridge, and two on

its side, for the introduction of air. The charge remains in this

furnace from 18 to 24 hours. The surface is constantly exposed

to the air entering the furnace by the air-holes at the bridge.

At the end of the first half of the time that the charge is to re-

main in the furnace, the bath is skimmed. The skimmings

amount to from one to one and a half tons. They contain from

45 to 50 per cent. of lead, and most of the zinc and other re-

maining impurities. The charge is rabbled, after the oxides

have been removed, but any others which form are allowed to

remain until the furnace is tapped into the polling-kettle, which

is usually about twenty hours after the charge is made, and are

then polled. At Mansfield Valley, the refining is done in twelve

hours. The lead is not polled, but is cast into pigs directly from

the furnace. At Chelienham, the polling-kettle is placed at the

flue end of the furnace. The lead flows into a deep cast-iron

channel lined with brasque, from which it is syphoned off. The

top of the kettle is about six feet from the floor. Directly in

front of the kettle, and about two feet below the floor-level,

there is a sunken track upon which a car is run, the top of

which comes up to the level of the floor. The car is about

six feet wide, and receives the pigs and carries them to the store-

house. There is a space of four feet between the car and the

furnace.

The polling is done in eight hours. The wood is held at

the bottom of the kettle by a crutch, Fig. 7 The same

apparatus is used at the Germania works, except that instead

of the crutch, the bars are straight and pointed, and holes

are bored in the wood to receive them. Short sticks of green

wood are used, but to insure a plentiful escape of steam, all the

wood for this purpose is kept soaking in a pool of water.

Three or exceptionally four pollings are made, the number de-

pending on the quality of the lead ; each polling lasts about an

hour, so that the furnace is ready to receive a new charge as soon

as the one refined in the softening-furnace is desilverized. The

98 Zinc Desilverization.

weight of the dross collected from a kettle at the Germania

works, which was polled four times, is given below.

ist Polling, - - - 1,301 lbs.

2d 2 - - - - Sot

3d ace - : - = Gl

4th “* - - - - 290 “

d Total, 3,143 “

The crasses from all the pollings, usually amounting to from

1000 to 2100 lbs., are melted, at the Germania works, in a rever-

beratory furnace, and make common soft lead. ‘The crasses from

the softening-furnace, however, make silver lead, which is treat-

ed by zinc. ‘Those from refining, which at the Germania works

is called calcination, make soft lead of ordinary quality.

The following table gives the quantity of skimmings for examples Nos.

1 and 2, page 95.

From refining-furnace, ~~ - - - - 81,700 lbs.

Polling-kettle, - : = 2 - 20302 hee

Quantity of work lead taken from the polling-kettle, 76.25 per ct.

Silver contained in the market lead, per 1000 kilogrammes, 6 grammes.

The polling-kettles at Cheltenham, are emptied by the Steitz

eyphon, ifig. 6. ‘To do this, it is first heated and turned over,

so that the funnel-cnd, a, is uppermost. ‘The stop-cock, 0, is then

turned, and melted Jead poured into the funnel. It is then

turned over into the furnace. ‘The joints of this syphon are

made of gas-pipe fittings. At first 1t- was supposed to be neces-

sary to make them perfectly air-tight, but afterward it was found

that when six or eight threads of the screw were run into the

the fitting, the jot was lead-tight, and perfectly flexible. ‘The

end of the syphon, where it turns down to discharge the lead, is

a simple gas-pipe fitting, to which a handle, c¢, is attached for

convenience of moving. While the lead is not being cast, the

vertical arm is simply turned up. When the car with the pig-

moulds is ready, the syphon is turned down, being held by the

handle, and is moved from one pig-mould to the other in suc-

cession, as they are filled with lead. The joint is long enough to

allow of filling all the moulds without moving the car.

4. Treatment of Zine Scums.—The zinc for the liquation, after

eing reduced to small pieces, is distilled. This is done in

__ | a

Zine Desilverization. 99

graphite retorts in fixed furnaces, as was formerly the case at

Bloomfield and Cheltenham, or in Faber du Faum’s tilting ©

furnace.

At the Germania works, the Flack process was formerly used,

but this was abandoned, and they now charge all the zinc scums

in a shaft-furnace with the drosses from refining and ores of all

kinds. The result of this treatment is a rich silver lead,

but the grcater part of the zinc is lost. From a metallurgical

standpoint, this treatment is very cbjectionable, and should not

be imitated ; but the commercial conditions in Utah are so

peculiar that it has proved financially successful. owing probably

to the great skill with which the process is managed; for a bad

process well conducted may sometimes be made successful. In

almost every other establishment in the country, the zinc scums

are retorted. ‘The retorts used at Bloomfield, N. J., Philadel-

phia, Cheltenham, and the Germania works, are shown in Figs.

8,9, and 11. ‘They vary but little in different works, and gene-

rally are {inch thick on the sides and nearly twice that on the

bottom ; the neck is 7 inches long and the body of the retort is 2

feet. The diameter at the extremity of the neck is 5) inches,

but where it joins the body it is 8 inches. The body in its widest

part is 14 inches, but it is only 9 inches at the end. These

retorts are made of New Jersey clay and chamotte with 25 per

cent. of graphite. They were formerly one of the largest items

of cost in the conduct of the operation.

One of the first furnaces used for the distillation of the zinc,

was invented by Mr. W. M. Brodie, and has been constructed

in several works. It consists of a large chamber, in which six

retorts are placed in two levels, as shown in Fig. 8. ‘These are

heated by a fire-place, 2 feet 10 inches long and 16 inches wide,

with cast-iron grate-bars, which is blown by a forced blast which

enters the ash-pit at c, having first been heated in the two hot-

air pipes which are placed in compartments above and behind

the furnace. The retorts are protected frm the direct action

of the fire by the arches, d. The het escapes by the fluesabove

the retort-chamber, passes into the chamber above, down at the

back, and out of the furnace by an underground flue. ‘The re-

torts are the ordinary graphite retorts, holding from 450 to 500

lbs., so that the furnace would hold from 2,600 to 3,000 lbs. of

100 Zine Desilverization.

alloy ata time. Each retort has a condenser, h, attached to it,

and in front of it a charging-table, f, covered with cast-iron.

It is necessary to remove the condenser, as in the other furnaces,

to clean the retort. The furnace is tapped on the back side, at

é, from holes ; of an inch in diameter, bored through the bottom

of the retort, into moulds placed on the iron ledge, g.

If the material charged is clean, the time required for an oper-

ation is 12 hours. If it is not, it may require as much as 24

hours, depending on the quality of the material charged. One

man does the work of the six retorts. The amount of fuel re-

quired is one ton of coal for one ton of alloy. ‘The results do

not differ materially from the other furnaces, except that the

operation is longer. They were constructed in the now abandon-

ed works at Bloomfield, N. J., and in the works of Messrs.

Tatham, in Philadelphia.

The following tables of the results of the working of this furnace have

been prepared for me by Mr. C. Kirchoff, Jr., who had charge of these

furnaces while they were working :—

Table of charges in the Brodie furnace.

eens ue eee ne rae aM No. of

12 hrs, (Hauated in| “Gg: tiation. rich | charges.

~ | kettle. charcoal lead.

No, 19 9,916 22.000 6 8,681 65

fe hee 17 | 18,656 26,000 6 | 10,862) 66

Peay 21 19,944 ition l 3 14,511 60

cog 26 | 19,6221 ie Sr 19,015| 78

Stel 26 27,324 } 20,000 28,738, 73

aH 10 28 21,114} 11,927

with hot air 28 17,300} 14,902 832

Mixed with copper scum. Ist scum at first kept separate, but not afterwards.

Four retorts were still good.

A barrow contains about four bushels.

14 anthracite and 4% bituminous.

Nos. 1, 2, and 3 yielded 4,049 lbs. of zinc regained.

Ct Bee Gd Leh

Zine Desilverization. — 101

The following table covers five runs: unfortunately the lists do not

specify how many retorts were fit for further service at the end of a run:

No. of Retorts. I Il II IV V VI

ist Run, - 13 i 11 12 9 13

pies 12 109 10 9 12

af 10 og 10 12 7

ee. 12 ig | 12) fae 15 1

7 1B PO ae is | 18 1B

The figures give the number of charges made in each retort.

At Cheltenham the retorts are set in the furnace, Fig. 9, with

the level of the bottom below the mouth, and so inclined that the

syphon, Fig. 10, can draw out nearly the whole of the silver lead.

Some of it will remain, but this is no disadvantage, as it is not

lost. It is collected when the retort is broken. Its presence,

however, requires that a reducing temperature should always be

kept up in the retort, otherwise litharge would form and the

retort be quickly pierced. The furnace is a cube of fire-brick,

3 feet in size, braced in every direction with wrought iron bands

3 inches wide. On the top there is a round hole, /, 10 inches in

diameter, for the introduction of the fuel; on the front, is an

opening for the neck of the retort, c, and on the back, a square

flue, g, leading to the chimney. ‘The retort is introduced from

the bottom, The furnace has 12 grate-bars one inch square, and

is Supported in front on masonry, 4, built with two steps, each

of which is 18 inches high, but vertical behind. The retort is

supported on a pillar of brick-work, d, resting on the ground,

through which the grate-bars pass. It is thus in the centre of

the furnace and is surrounded on all sides by fuel. It costs

from $14 to $16 and lasts for 15 to 30 turns. When it breaks,

it is not because it is worn out, but because the workmen break

it in trying to force off the cinders attached to it. Five of —

these furnaces were arranged in a house by themselves, about a

hexagonal chimney, and connected with it by the flue, g, 3

feet long. The sixth side of the chimney is occupied by a melt-

ing-furnace. Only three of the furnaces are run at a time, the

102 — Zine Desilverization.

others being kept in reserve in case of accident or necessary

repairs.

The fuel used was at first coke, which was given up because

the clinkers attached themselves to the retorts. In trying to re-

move them, the men constantly broke the retorts by poking them,

while the cinder was soft, with iron tools, through the opening

for the introduction of fuel. Petroleum was then used with

great success, but the furnaces were finally abandoned for Faber

du Faur’s furnace.

The charge of 380 lbs. of zinc skimmings is introduced with

a spoon, immediately after the preceding operation is finished.

Two small scoopfuls of small charcoal are added at the same

time. The heat is so high that most of the charge melts at once.

An allonge, e, Fig. 9, 2 feet long, 4 inches in diameter at the

small, and 9 inches at the large end, is then put on and luted.

It is partially filled with charcoal. The allonge is covered on the

outside with sheet-iron, to protect it against accident. It is sup-

ported on a cast-iron shelf, 7, which can be raised or low-

ered at will by detaching a bar underneath it. ‘This is

necessary to prevent the weight of the allonge breaking the re-

tort while the furnace is working. When the charge is drawn,

10.

The zinc commences to distil in about three-quarters of an

hour. Metallic zinc collects in the condenser. Some blue pow-

der and oxide of zinc also form there. The object of the

charcoal is to prevent the formation of oxide as much as pos-

sible. The zinc is allowed to accumulate, and is drawn from

time to time with a spoon into a mould placed in front of the

allonge. When the zinc is nearly distilled, a small piece of

wood is put into the retort to make a reducing atmosphere, to

prevent the formation of litharge, which would pierce the sides,

and to form a current of gas from the inside to the outside of

the retort. ‘lhe charge of rich silver lead, remaining after the

zinc is distilled, is drawn with the iron syphon, Fig. 10—which

must.be heated before it is introduced—and the lead is cast into

pigs ready for cupellation.

Before the invention of the Steitz syphon, the neck of the re-

tort, which was necessarily built into the masonry of the furnace,

it must be let down so as not to interfere with the syphon, Fig...

Zine Desilverization, 103°

had to be disengaged while it was at a white heat, before the

rich silver lead could be discharged from the furnace. The

percentage of breakage was thus greatly increased, so that between

the necessity of getting rid of the clinkers on the outside of the

retort, and the necessity of disengaging the neck every time it

was discharged, the number of retorts broken was very large.

The syphon proved to be a complete remedy, but was difficult to

use, much more so than the polling-pot syphons. The objection

to using these furnaces was not only the breakage of the retorts

but the large quantity of fuel they consumed. ‘The Brodie fur-

nace, with two tiers of retorts, consumed less than the Chelten-

ham furnace, but the retorts were more difficult to manage.

The use of petroleum seemed to be a real progress, and the use

of gas was proposed, when the invention of the tilting-furnace

overcame all difficulties, and it is now almost universally used

for this purpose.

The general shape of Faber du Faur’s furnace is essentially

the same as that at Cheltenham ; but it is suspended on pivots,

so that it is capable of rotation by means of a worm attached ot

a hand-wheel, as in the American type of the furnace, Fig. 11,

or by means of a lever, as in the German type, used in Newark

and in Prussia, Fig 12. ‘The furnace is 3 feet 3 inches by

2 feet 11 inches in section, by 3 feet high on the outside, 2 feet 1

inch by 2 feet 3 inches, and 2 feet 9 inches from the grate-bars

to the centre of the arch on the inside. There is an opening

q ‘11 inches in diameter on the top, for the imtroduction of the

fuel, and on the back a flue 6 feet 6 inches leading to. the

chimney. ‘There are 12 grate-bars 1 inch square and 2 feet 9

inches long set on edge. The retort is built into the furnace in

the same way as at Cheltenham.

Fig. 13 gives the proposed plan of the furnaces at Salt Lake,

showing the disposition of the eight furnaces, a, with regard to

the main chimney, g, and a section across the flue, f At Mans-

field Valley, the chimney is at the end of the line of furnaces.

The weight of the iron for a furnace is nearly as follows :—

104 Zinc Desilverization.

Cast iron box, - - - - - - 1,260 Ibs.

Grate-bar bearers, Pots Teer - E - - 306

Two standards, - - eins - - 530

Cast iron, 2,096

Wrought iron bars, 181

The iron-work costs from $150 to $165.

The furnace is fired until the retort. gradually arrives at a

dull red heat, when a charge of 250 to 400 lbs. of the alloy,

broken up while still soft, in order to get it of a suitable size for

the charge, and mixed with five to six lbs. of small charcoal, is

introduced with a scoop. It is brought to the retorts at Mans-

field in a box on wheels, about three by three feet, and a little

lower than the mouth of the retort. As soon as the retort is

charged, the temperature is gradually raised to a white heat,

and when the zine vapors begin to appear, the condenser, made

in the same way as that at Cheltenham, is put on. At Mansfield,

they use for a condenser a retort, No. 100, with the bottom

broken out, and a hole punched in the side to discharge the

zinc. A piece of common stove-pipe is attached to the mouth

to carry off the flames. | ;

The retorts usually last fourteen to fifteen charges, but some

have been made which lasted forty-five. As soon as the zine

commences to collect, a wagon, containing the moulds for the

zine and the support for the condensers, is rolled up against the

front of the furnace, which has been entirely free since the

charge was introduced. The zinc distils, and is collected in the

condenser, and held there by the oxides and blue powder which

collect in front, and are used by the workmen to form a dam to

hold the zine back. When sufficient has collected it is drawn

into the moulds. The total amount collected as metal varies

from 45 to 55 per cent., and is used over again. The blue pow-

der and oxides amount to from 20 to 30 per cent.; these are sold

to the zinc works. Some of the zine is lost by volatilization,

and from 0.7 to 1 per cent. retained in the lead.

As soon as the amount of zinc escaping appears in small

quantity, the lead contains but little zinc ; but as it is desirable

to remove, as far as possible, the last traces of it, the heat is kept

up, the condenser is removed, and small pieces of wood are put

Zinc Desilverization. - 105

into the retort to assist the discharge of the fumes. When no

more escape, the furnace is tipped down and the contents of the

retort discharged into a lined receiver, and there left until cool

enough to be cast into pigs. They generally contain from 2,000

to 3,000 oz. of silver, and not more than from 0.5 to 0.8 per cent

of zinc. The retort is now carefully scraped with an iron scraper,

to remove any slag or other material adhering to the sides. The

amount removed in this way is not large; but it is necessary to

keep the retort clean, for if the material was allowed to accu-

mulate, it might be difficult to remove it, and there would be a

risk of breaking the retorts in doing so. The material so collect-

ed, amounting usually to a few pounds, is reduced with the cu-

pellation litharges. The unburned charcoal is put back into the

retort. When the retort is cleaned, it is turned up partially,

and fine charcoal dust, or a piece of wood, thrown in, to make

a reducing atmosphere, and prevent the formation of ltharge

from the oxidation of the very small quantity of lead attached

to the sides of the retort. ‘This precaution is very neces-

sary, for if the litharge was allowed to form, it would soon de-

stroy the retort. The furnace is now turned up and is ready

for a fresh charge.

The workmen are obliged to be careful in all these furnaces, that

in introducing the coke they do not push too hard on the retort,

which is quite soft.’ ‘The fire must be kept at a constant tempe-

rature of white heat throughout the operation, which lasts from 8

to 10 hours according to the percentage of zinc inthe alloy. But

when the lead contains antimony, it lasts a much longer time.

The only precaution required during the operation, is to keep

the temperature high enough to prevent the formation of a crust

on the surface of the charge. ‘To prevent this, and to know

what is going on in the interior of the retort, without removing

the condenser, it is probed from time to time to break the crust,

for if it should form, an explosion would be hkely to take place.

The men can always tell the condition of the heat by looking into

the coke-charging hole.

It is very necessary that the current of gas should always be out

of the retort. The retort should last from 1 to 20 operations on

‘an average, and it is generally broken before it is worn out ; but

when much antimony is present in the lead, they last a much

106 Zine Desilverization.

shorter time, so that it is always desirable to soften the metal

before treating it with zinc. At Chicago, owing to careless

management in not carefully cleaning the inside, and outside of

the retorts, they lasted for only 9 to 10 operations.

When a new retort is necessary, the furnace must be allowed

to cool down, the grate-bars are taken out, and the retort intro-

duced from the bottom. ,

The flues leading to the chimney, at Mansfield, are made with

flaring sides at the bottom, for 18 inches in hight. ‘The sides of

the upper part are vertical and are rounded at the top. Every

seven feet, at the bottom, a partition is put in, one-third of the —

whole hight of the flue. In the brick flues, which are five feet

high, the partitions are put in every eighteen inches, and further

apart. In both the iron and brick flues the most dust is

caught near the furnace. The dust settles by gravity in these

catches, and as there can be no velocity there, owing to the par-

titions, it remains there. Short.flues of this construction haye

been found to be much more effective than large condensing

chambers.

The amount of zinc in the skimmings is very variable. If it

contained 35 per cent. of zinc, 20 per cent. will be recovered as

metallie zine, and 10 per cent. as oxide, which is afterwards re-

duced, and 5 per cent. will be lost. This last is either in the

lead or volatilized in the different operations. If the skimmings

contained only 10 per cent., 3 per cent. will be recovered as

metallic zine, 5 per cent. will be recovered as oxide, and 2 per

cent. will be lost. No lead or silver is found in the distilled zine.

This furnace is a very great improvement on all those in which

the retort is fixed, as it necessitates the least amount of work

being done on it, and at the same time allows perfect manipula-

tion of the furnace.

The following table, prepared by Mr. E. F. Euricn, gives the account of

two charges in Faber du Faur’s furnace, at Mansfield :—*

* Mining Commissioners’ Report for 1875.

Zine Desilverization. L107

DISTILLATION OF THE ZINC RICH IN SILVER.

No. 1. No. 2.

Weight of alloy per ehalge ys 4 lbs. of fine

charcoal, - - - 353 Ibs. 353 Ibs.

No. of charges, - - - - ul 27 20

No. of distillations i in 24 hours in each retort. es 2

Total amount of liquated zinc-crusts ne ged, 9,525 lbs. 6,362 lbs.

Charcoal, - - : - lass 80‘

Result: Rich lead, - Sa Lk = 7,609 <“ iy eppat 1

Metallic scraps, - - aa | 390 ‘* mot weighed.

Charcoal with little metal, - - |not weighed. gs

Metallic zinc, - - - - 770 Ibs. we

Blue powder and oxide, - - |not weighed. G

Coke used, in bushels of 40 lIbs., = 410.4 276

Quantity of coke per lbs. of zinc-crust, Une 1.73

M. Faber du Faur has proposed another furnace, shown in

Fig. 14, constructed on the tilting principle, and destined to

receive a charge of one ton at atime. The retort, 7, is made of

fire-clay, lined on the inside with graphite. It is 6 feet 6 inches

long on the outside, 5 feet 10 inches long on the inside, and

7 inches high. It is placed on a cast-iron frame, e, protected by

fire-brick, and connects with a condenser, a, 12 inches in diameter

and 2 feet 3 inches high on the inside, which is placed on wheels

so as to be moved when the retort is to be tilted. The retort is

moved mechanically from the fire-place end at f. The furnace

may be constructed for solid fuel, as in the drawing, but it was in-

vented exclusively for the use of gas and hot air. The object in

the construction of the retort was, to have the largest possible

surface for distillation, with the shallowest depth of metal, which

will not exceed 2} to 3 inches. It was proposed to make the re-

tort in two parts if necessary. This furnace has never yet been

built, on account of the commercial depression. Contracts for

its construction were once prepared, but not completed. It seems

to have the advantage of being able to treat a large quantity ex-

peditiously, and thus economize in Jabor and material.

The silver lead is cupelled in an English cupelle furnace.

At the Germania works, there are two of these furnaces; at

Cheltenham only one. ‘They are blown with a steam jet in both

places. They are usually at work one week, during which time

they treat 35 bars of 65 lbs. each per day. ‘The silver is then

tapped, and the test changed, or the other furnace used. The

108 Line Desilverization.

silver bullion produced weighs about 9000 oz. and is usually 990

to 995 fine, and contains both silver and gold, the proportions

of both metals varying with the bullion or ore purchased. The

litharges produced are reduced in a reverberatory furnace.

At Mansfield Valley, the cupelle is made of the best hydraule

Portland cement, moistened enough to ball in the hand, and

stamped in an iron mould. The test is three by four feet on the

inside. ‘The iron frame which supports it is flanged on the bot-

tom at right angles to the rim, which is 7; inches high, while the

flange is 5; wide. The test is made either on an iron mould,

which gives the shape to the inside, or is cut out of the material

after the frame has been stamped full. At first they were always

cut out, now they are generally stamped over the mould. When

made, the cupelles are left to temper for four weeks, to insure a

good test. They could be used after a week, but it is better not

to do so. The test is supported in the furnace on an iron plate,

and is held up to its place by four large screws. ‘The charge of

a rich alloy is 1400 lbs. ‘The cupelle is used a week, and cupelles

from ten to twelve tons up to 996 fine, and that directly from

the lead. The lead is added in the cupelle till just before it is

too rich, then cleaned off and the silver is refined, and is run

into the brick moulds directly from the cupelle. A little copper

is added, to prevent the spitting of the silver. The copper

absorbs the oxygen, and prevents the spitting. When any cop-

per is present in the lead, even when gold is present, it rarely

ever spits. When the silver is ready to cast into bricks, the test

is loosened, and a curved bar is placed on a support made for the

purpose underneath it. The whole test is then rased, and the

silver, tipped at once into the moulds for the bricks, is 994 to 996

fine. This cupelle thus allows of casting, without refining in

a separate furnace. It is the invention of Mr. Eurich, the

manager of the Pennsylvania Lead Works, and is one of the

many ingenious additions to metallurgical progress which he

has made.

The following tables, prepared by Mr. E. F. Eurich, give the results of

cupellation at Mansfield :—* :

* Mining Commissioners’ Report for 1875.

Zine Desilverizution. 109

SILVER OBTAINED. | Now No. 2.

| OZS. | OZS. - | 02s.

Quantity of silver in the refined work lead 6,305.6 va | 6,165.9

Silver tapped_ from the UES .980 fine |

6,088.75 oz. 6,031.66 |

Silver tapped from the cupelle! .989 fine

5,714.50 oz. - (5,645.9

Small pieces of silver from the cupelle | |

-970 fine 150.00 oz. - - 146.50) |

Small pieces of silver from the eupele |

.970 fine 115.00 oz. - eplelalet

In market lead 0.33 oz. pr. ton in 67,104 Tbs. 11.18 |

“ec ce “e 0. 33 ce ‘cc 53. 420 ce | | 8.9

““litharge “30 << se 5,209 << | . | 78:0)

} | meee

Total silver obtained. - - 6,189.34 | 5,844.3)

Silver not recovered, - - 116.26 |} 321.6)

Son a0 6056 6 165.9 6,165.6

Percentage of silver obtained, Sih rot! 3.3

LEAD OBTAINED. No. 1. No. 2.

all Ibs. | Ibs. lbs Ibs.

Work lead used - 87,294. 62,895

“Schlicker ” 3,497 Ibs. at 80 per ct, | 2,797 lew

Impure Litharge from dezincation, 3, ae Ibs. |

at 80 per ct. lead, - 2,800)

Lead in zinc crust, - - - - | 7,765) 5,002)

Soft market lead, - = - 67,104 53, 420)

Oxides and skimmings from market kettles,

1,000 lbs. at 95 per ct. lead, - 950) | |

Oxides and skimmings from market kettle, |

700 lbs. at 95 per ct. lead, - | 665

Litharge from dezincation, < 810 uO at - per |

ct. lead, = | 6,248

Lead from liquation, - - - 808 | ‘

| i}

Total lead, - : - = = 485.672 61,887

Loss about 1.9 per ct., - - 1.622 |

% ses ene a - - | | 1,008;

| 87,294) 87,294! | 62,895) 62,895

The following example of an operation at the Penn. Co.’s

works has been prepared for me by Mr. J. A. Knapp, formerly

the Superintendent there :

Quantity of argentiferous lead, from Utah ores, charged, - 26 tons.

Quantity of silver after dressing in the softening-furnace, - 85.94 oz.

Number of skimmings, - = - = - - 2

Interval between skimmings, - - = - - 6 hours.

After dressing in the zinc kettle, the lead contained silver, - 957.63 02.

After the first addition of zinc, re a ws - 18.34 “

The second addition of zinc was - - - - 300 lbs.

110 Zine Desilverization.

The time between No. 1 and No. 2, : - - 5 to 6 hours.

After the second addition the lead contained silver, - - 0.87 oz. |

The third addition of zine was’ - - - . 150 lbs.

After the third addition the lead contained silver, - - 0.09 oz.

Number of skimmings in softenivg-furnace, - - - 3.

The merchant lead from the softening-furnace contained silver, 0.098 oz.

The following tables, 1, 2 and 3, have been prepared for me by Mr. E. F.

Eurich, as the result of the work at the Pennsylvania Lead Company’s

Works, in August, 1879 :—

1. LEAD OBTAINED.

Charged. Lbs. Lbs.

Bullion, - = - = E =\ - 654, 074

Produced—

Metallic dross, from refining furnace, - 11,402

43,540 Ibs. refining furnace skimmings, at 83 per cent.

lead, : - : - - 35,188

Metallic dross from the desilverizing kettle, - 16,290

37,357 Ibs. zine crusts, containing - - 32,604

27,616 lbs. softening-fur nace skimmings, at 83 ne cent.

lead, = = 2 . = - 22,921

Merchant lead, = = - - - 533,207

651,562

Loss, _ e = = 2 = 2,512 |

654,074 | 654,074

From the above amount of bullion, there was produced 591,244 Ibs. of

refined bullion, ready for desilverizing.

The silver contents of merchant lead vary from +35 to 345, oz.

The refined bullion is desilverized with from three to four zinc additions,

varying according to the richness of the bullion.

The total quantity of zine added to effect the complete desilverizing of

591,244 lbs. refined bullion, was 7,860 lbs.

2. SILVER OBTAINED.

Fine Silver.

Charged— Ozs. Ozs.

Silver contents of 591,244 lbs. refined bullion, - 35,048, 28

Produced—

Poured from cupelle 33,318 ozs., containing - 33, 147.75

Contained i in 29,898 Ibs. litharee, at 38.00 0z., —- 568.06

** 1,302 Ibs. test bottoms, - - 869.77

se 3 skimmings from filling test, - 61.33

34,146.91

Difference contained in dross from retorts and loss, 901.32

35,048.23! 35,048.23

Zine Desilverization. Saeed caMemnas 91

3. DISTILLATION OF THE ZINC CRUSTS.

Charged— Lbs. Lbs.

Liquated zine crust, - 3 . = - 37,307

Produced—

Lead riches, - - - - - 31,142

Dross from retorts, about = - : : - 2,200

Metallic zinc, about - - - Sea e000

Blue powder and zine oxide, not We ees, Ss

Not accounted for, - = ; : 1,115

37,375 37,375

Number of charges made, - - - - 59

The average weight of charge, - - - 629

Total coke consumed, - - - - 21,000

Quantity of coke per lb., zinc crust, - - 0.56

The following tables were taken by myself from the books at, Mansfield

Valley, with the permission of Mr. KE. F. Eurich, in June, 1880, and refer

to the months of April and May of that year :—

CUPELLATION, April 1, ’80.

From desilverizing kettles to retorts, - - * 31,865.84

Retorts to cupelle, - - - - 31,790.08

Extracted from 930 lbs. retort scrap, - - 468.81

Retort gain, - - - - > 393.05

82,208.89} 32,258.89

CUPELLATION, April, 80.

Charged 27,883 lbs. of lead riches, Selene 30,659,58| 31,790.08

Produced silver bricks SMO ete - - - 723.88

Silver scrap, - - - 430.08

‘Litharge, 26,880 Ibs., at 32 OZS., - - - 49.60

Test bottoms, 400, at 248, - - - 87.10

Cupelle skimmings, 109 Ibs., - - -

Cupelle gain, - - - - 160.16

31,950.24) 31,950.24

CUPELLATION, May, ’80.

From desilverizing kettles to retorts, = - 43,907.69

Retorts to cupelle, - - - - 43,208.76

Extracted from retort scrap, SAO - 839.33

Retort gain, - - - - - 140.40

44,048.09} 44,048 09

CUPELLATION,, May 8, ’80.

40,130 Ibs. lead riches, SETS - - - 43,208.76

Silver scraps, - “- - 1,315.18

Fineness samples. - - - - 34,80

Produced silver bricks, shipped, - - 43,013.47

Silver scrap, - - - - 854,35

Contained in 398 cupelle skimmings, - - 261.28

Litharge, 39,148, at 38, - - : - 748.72

Test bottoms, 826 lbs., at als. - - - 90.03

Cupelle loss, - - - - 95.89

44,558.74, 44,558.74

* The weights are in ounces.

112 Zinc Desilverization

The following tables, taken by myself, from the books of the Company,

give a summary of the work for April and May, 1880 :—

5 April, May.

Metallic dross from refining furnace, in per cent.

of gross charge, - - - - - ae

0.85 of lead and skimmings, - : 2.47

Ist net weight in desilverizing kettles, 1 000, - 96.34 97.58

1st crass from - 7.84 7.09

2d net weight as ef 96.34, -| a 88.50 89.98

Ist average assay of kettles, - - - 144.67 172.73

2d me x a - - -| 6b 182.64 160.92

1st crasses in per cent. of 1st net metal in desilver-

izing kettles, - - - e 8658 8.04

Retort in per cent. of 2d desilverizing kettles, -| d 7.54 8.32

Zinc used in per cent. gross charge, - 1.37 1.59

ss ** Ist net weight in desilverizing kettles e 1.48 1.63

os ** per cent. of merchants’ lead, - 1.72 1.98

Coal jused per ton of gross charge, - - 192.16 208.00

«merchant lead, - - 238.00 262.00

Lead in merchant lead, - - , 90.47 88.99

“« retort crasses, - - ‘- - | 6.78 TAT

‘« refining skimmings, - - - | 3.28 3.48

100.53 99.94

Apparent gain, 0.53 percent, - - - Loss 1.06 per cent.

The losses and gains are apparent only.

a Charge for the retorts calculated on this. 6 Average assay. c Per centage of 96.34.

d Per centage of 88.50. ¢ Per centage of 96.34.

The lead made by the Germania, Pennsylvania Co. and St.

Louis works is exceedingly fine. As it can be used for the manu-

facture of white lead, it commands the highest market price.

The following analyses, made by Dr. O. Wurth and Dr. Zuireck, on a

sample from the works of the Pennsylvania Lead Company, show that the

lead is equal if not superior to any of the brands produced abroad :—

In 100 parts. Dr. O. Wurth. Dr. Zuireck, Dr. O. Wurth. Dr. Zuireck,

Berlin. Berlin.

Silver, 0.00042 0.00085 0.00016 0.00070,

Antimony, 0.00051 0.00254. 0.00818 0,00346

Copper, 0.00007 0.00094 0.00005 0.00093

Zine, 0.00038 0.00070 0.00122 0.00075

Iron, trace. 0.00082 0.00013 0.00082

Sulphur, 0.00018 0.00023

Arsenic, none. trace

Bismuth, 0.038438 0.02746 0.04594

In conclusion, I beg to express my thanks to Mr. Faber du

Faur, for working-drawings of his furnaces, to Mr. Weisse, of the

Germania Works, and to Mr. EHurich, of the Pennsylvania

Works, for the many interesting details furnished me by them

while visiting their works for the preparation of this article.

Zinc Desilverization. 113

LIST OF FIGURES.

PuatTeE III.

Fig. 1, Sampler at Wyandotte.

Fig. 2, Slag buggy at Cheltenham.

Prats LV.

Fig. 38, Blast furnace at the Pennsylvania Lead Works, Mansfield

Valley.

PLATE V.

Fig. 4, Desilverization kettles at the Germania Works, Utah.

PuatTe VI.

Fig. 5, Refining furnace, Germania Works.

Puate VII.

Fig. 6, Steitz’s syphon.

Fig. 7, Polting crutch.

Puatre VILI.

Fig. 8, Brodie’s distillation furnace.

PuateE IX.

Fig. 9, Cheltenham Furnace.

Fig. 10, Steitz’s syphon for the retorts.

Be PLstTE X.

Fig. 11, Faber du Faur’s tilting furnace.

PuatTe XI.

Fig. 12, Details of Faber du Faur’s furnace.

| Puare XII.

Fig. 13, Plan of furnace proposed by Faber du Faur for the Germania

Works.

SeeLaTe XIII.

Fig. 14, Faber du Faur’s larger furnace.

New Species of Triodopsis. 115

V.—Description of a New Species of Triodopsis, from New

Mexico.

BY THOMAS BLAND.

Read November 22d, 1880.

Triodopsis Levettei, nov. sp.

Testa umbilicata, orbiculato-convexa, tenuis, nitens, translucens, leviter

et irregulariter oblique striata, castanea, superne pallescens; spira vix

elevata, apice obtusa ; sutura impressa ; anfr. 7 convexiusculi, Jente accres-

centes, ultimus antice breviter depressus, spiraliter subobsolete striatus,

pone aperturam constrictus, subscrobiculatus, basi subconvexus; umbilicus

mediocris (4 diametri), pervius; apertura perobliqua, subcircularis, dente

albo, valido, flexuoso, transverso, in pariete aperturali intrante coarctata ;

peristoma reflexum, pallide castaneum, intus callosum, marginibus callo

tenuissimo junctis, margine dextro dente albo, obtuso, erecto, submar-

ginali, basali dentibus duobus, albis, transversis, supero majore, instructo.

Diam, maj. 16, min. 15, alt. 6}; apert., perist. incluso, long. 7, lat. 8

mill. ;

Triodopsis Levetiei, nat. size.

Shell umbilicate, orbiculate-convex, thin, shining, translucent, slightly

and irregularly obliquely striated, chestnut colored, the upper whorls paler;

116 New Species of Triodopsis.

spire scarcely elevated, apex obtuse ; suture impressed ; whorls 7, rather

convex, gradually increasing ; the last somewhat depressed at the aperture,

obsoletely spirally striated, constricted behind the aperture, and slightly

scrobiculated, base sub-convex ; umbilicus moderate, 4 diameter of the

shell, pervious ; aperture very oblique, sub-circular, with a well developed

flexuose, transverse white tooth on the parietal wall ; peristome reflected,

pale chestnut colored, thickened within, the margins joined by a slight

callus, the right margin with a white, obtuse, erect, submarginal tooth,

the basal margin with two white transverse teeth, the upper one the larger.

Habitat, near Santa Fé, New Mexico, where two living and

one dead specimen were collected by my friend, Dr. G. M. Le-

vette, who presented to me one of the former. Cabinet of Dr.

Levette, and the Binney and Bland collection in the American

Museum of Natural History, New York.

Remarks.—This species is quite distinct from any known

North American or other form. The number of whorls, and

of teeth, their form and color, with the color of the shell and

peristome, are its peculiar features. The striz are by no means

so well developed as shown in the figures.

On the Flora and Fauna of Santa Cruz. ala

VIIL.—On the Relations of the Flora and Fauna of Santa Cruz,

West Indies.

BY THOMAS BLAND.

Read January 3d, 1881.

Professor A. Agassiz (Bull. Mus. Comp. Zool., Cambridge, V,

Nos. 14, 289, June, 1879) remarks, ‘‘ One of the most interest-

ing results reached by this year’s cruise, is the ight thrown upon

the former extension of the South American Continent, by the

soundings taken while dredging, and those subsequently made

in the passages between the islands by Commander Bartlett.

These, together with the soundings already known, enable us to

trace the outline of the old continent with tolerable accuracy,

and thus obtain some intelligible, and at the same time trust-

worthy, explanation of the peculiar geographical distribution of

the fauna and flora of the West India Islands.”

Professor Agassiz writes (1. c.): ‘‘In attempting to recon-

struct, from the soundings, the state of things existing im a

former period, we are at once struck by the fact, that the Virgin

Islands are the outcroppings of an extensive bank. The great-

est depth between these islands is less than forty fathoms, this

same depth being found on the bank to the east of Porto Rico,

the 100-fathom line forming, in fact, the outline of a large

island, which would include the whole of the Virgin Islands,

the whole of Porto Rico, and extend some way into the Mona

Passage.” * * ‘*On examining the 500-fathom line, we thus

find that Jamaica is only the northern spit of a gigantic pro-

montory, which once extended toward Hayti from the mainland,

reaching from Costa Rica to the northern part of the Mosquito

coast, and leaving but a comparatively narrow passage between

it and the 500-fathom line encircling Hayti, Porto Rico, and

the Virgin Islands, in one gigantic island. The passage between

Cuba and Jamaica has a depth of 3,000 fathoms, and that be-

tween Hayti and Cuba is not less than 873 fathoms, the latter

being probably an arm of the Atlantic. ‘The 500-fathom lne

118 On the Flora and Fauna of Santa Cruz.

connects, as a gigantic island, the banks uniting Anguilla to

St. Bartholomew, Saba Bank, the one connecting St. Hustatius

to Nevis, Barbuda to Antigua, and from thence extends south

so as to include Guadeloupe, Marie-Galante, and Dominica.

This 500-fathom line thus forms one gigantic island of the north-

ern islands, extending from Saba Bank to Santa Cruz, and

leaving but a narrow channel between it and the eastern end of

the 500-fathom line running round Santa Cruz. As Santa Cruz

is separated from St. Thomas by a channel of forty miles, with

a maximum depth of over 2,400 fathoms, this plainly shows its

connection with the northern islands of the Caribbean group,

rather than with St. Thomas, as is also well shown by the geo-

graphical relations of its mollusca.”

Professor Agassiz gives (1. ec.) an extract of a letter addressed

to him by Commander Bartlett, from which I quote the follow-

ing :—‘‘I finished up the line connecting Saba Bank with St.

Croix. I found the connection perfect, but the ridge has 700

fathoms water on it near St. Croix. There is 1,000 fathoms

three miles north, and 1,800 fathoms five miles south of the

ridge.”

Professor Agassiz refers to the connection of Santa Cruz

‘‘with the northern islands of the Caribbean group, rather than

with St. Thomas.” As he bases his argument on the deep chan-

nel which separates Santa Cruz from St. Thomas, I judge that

he excludes the Virgin Islands, of which St. Thomas is one,

from the Caribbean group. In that case, in his view, Sombrero,

Anguilla, St. Martin and St. Bartholomew (the three latter on

the Anguilla Bank) and Saba (the Saba Bank connected by a

ridge with Santa Cruz), are the ‘‘northern islands,” to which the

Professor alludes.

In my paper ‘‘ On the Physical Geography of, and the Distri-

bution of Terrestrial Mollusca in the Bahama Islands” (Ann.

N. Y. Lyc., X, 1873, 320), after quoting some of the views of

Professor Dana, expressed in his work, ‘‘ Corals and Coral

Islands,” 1872, I wrote as follows :—

«The facts regarding the diminution in size of the islands of

the West Indies to the eastward, are of peculiar interest, not only

as affording conclusive evidence of the greater subsidence in that

direction, but in connection with geographical distribution.”

On the Flora and Fauna of Santa Cruz. 119

“The banks and islands forming the long Bahama chain di-

minish in size to the southeast, where are situated at its termi-

nation the submerged Mouchoir Carré, Silver and Navidad

Banks. In a similar manner, the submerged Virgin Island

Bank (with Anegada on its northeastern extremity, geologically,

in the opinion of Dr. Cleve, resembling the Bahamas), Sombrero

and the Anguilla Bank, terminate the chain of the West Indies

(parallel with the Bahamas) eastward from Cuba.”

In a previous paper (Proc. Amer. Phil. Soc., 1871, 57) I en-

deayored to show, that the land-shell fauna of Porto Rico, with

Viéque, the Virgin Islands, Sombrero, Anguilla, St. Martin, St.

Bartholomew and Santa Cruz, is unquestionably the same.

My present object is to show that Santa Cruz is connected

with St. Thomas, the fauna of both derived from Porto Rico,

in common with that of Sombrero and the islands on the An-

guilla bank, but by no means with Saba.

Before discussing the statement of Prof. Agassiz as to the

connection of Santa Cruz with the northern islands of the Carib-

bean group rather than with St. Thomas (of the Virgin group),

I would first shortly describe the general features of the geology

of Santa Cruz, and the character of its flora.

Dr. P. T. Cleve (Proc. Royal Swedish Acad. of Sciences,

Stockholm, 1871) remarks :—‘‘ The geological formations of the

Island belong to different ages. The northern mountain ridge

is the oldest, and to judge from its great petrographical resem-

blanee with the rocks of the Virgin Islands, it would seem to

belong to the same geological age as the latter, or the cre-

taceous. Upon those highly disturbed strata, very little dis--

turbed beds of coralline limestone and white marls rest ; they

are probably of the miocene age. The youngest formation con-

sists of detritus swept down from the mountains by rains and

mixed with the white marls, and in a recent formation of cal-

careous sand around the shores.” * * *

‘<The recent formations of the island are partly terrestrial,

partly marine. The former covers a great deal of the surface

of the island in the plains below the mountains. It consists of

detritus and clay, sometimes mixed with white marl. In this

detrital mass are found shells of terrestrial mollusca, some of

which are of extinct species and some no more extant in St.

120 On the Flora and Fauna of Santa Cruz.

Croix, but found living in the islands of Viéque, and Puerto

Rico.”

To Baron H. F. A. Eggers, scientists are indebted for an ex-

tremely valuable paper on ‘‘'The Flora of St. Croix and the

Virgin Islands” (Bulletin U. 8. Nat. Mus., No. 13; Washing-

ton, 1879), from which I offer extracts. The distribution of

the plants has an important bearing on that of the terrestrial

molluseca, and the evidence to be derived therefrom as to the

former faunal connections of Santa Cruz.

Baron Eggers remarks :—‘‘ Looking at the vegetation of St.

Croix and the Virgin Islands in its generality, and without en-

tering into details, we may consider it to be identical, showing

the same main features.” * * * ‘Yet, in looking more

closely into details, we are soon struck by finding a great many

species in the one which are not found in the other.”

Referring to the list of plants given in his paper, it will be

seen, the author says, that ‘‘out of a number of 881 indigenous

phanerogamous species no less than 215, or ¢c. j, are found in

the Virgin Islands only, whilst 98, or about 5, occur only in St.

Croix, thus leaving only 568, or less than 3, common to both.”

He adds, that it is ‘“‘in the forest vegetation, which best re-

presents the original flora of the islands, that the greatest and

most varied differences are observed, showing especially the

great variety of species in the Virgin Islands which are not at

all found in St. Croix, and among which are many of the com-

monest and most generally distributed forms.” * * *

‘‘ However great are the differences in the flora on the two

‘groups of islands, yet this interesting fact is not due to their

possessing endemic species, as all the plants known as growing

on them are also found in other West India Islands, especially

Porto Rico, whence the vegetation of both the Virgin Islands

and St. Croix seems to be derived.”

With respect to the question, ‘‘Why is it that St. Croix,

although the largest of all, has received a comparatively and

absolutely much less number of species than, for instance, the

far smaller St. Thomas ?” Baron Eggers offers the following

solution :—‘‘ I am thus led to think that, at a former period, all

the West India islands have been connected mutually, and perhaps

with a part of the American continent also, during which time

a ae Sel

On the Flora and Fauna of Santa Cruz. 121

the plants in common to all the islands, as well as to the West

Indies and the continent, have expanded themselves over their

present geographical areas, at least as far as they are not pos-

sessed of particular faculties for emigration over the sea. By a

subsequent volcanic revolution, St. Croix, as well as many of the

other islands, has thereafter been separated from Porto Rico

and the Virgin Islands, and put into its present isolated posi-

tion, which it seems to have retained ever since, whilst the latter

group of islands has either still, for a long period, remained in

connection with Porto Rico, or, if separated at the same time

from itas St. Croix, has, by another revolution, been again con-

nected. with the former.”

As to the plants now living in Santa Cruz, which have not

been found in the Virgin Islands, Baron Eggers desires it to be

understood, that whilst his investigations of Santa Cruz have

been thorough, his explorations have been less complete, and he

feels confident that not a few of such plants may, by closer re-

search, still be discovered in the latter.

I propose, now, to examine the character of the terrestrial

mollusca of Santa Cruz, and the evidence which they offer as

to the connection of that island with others in its vicinity.

The most important feature is the number of species found

semi-fossil only,—several extinct, others still living elsewhere :

of the whole, I add the following list.

SEMI-FOSSIL SPECIES, EXTINCT.

? Chondropoma basicarinatum, Pfr.

He _chordiferum, a

The latter, perhaps, a variety of the former.

C. Santacruzense, Pfr., now living in Santa Cruz and St.

Thomas, is of much the same type, and may be considered the

living representative of C. basicarinatwin.

In Malaec. Blatt., xxi, p. 173, D. F. Weinland described a

fossil, from Menke’s collection, attributed to Hayti, as Cyclostoma

(Tudora?) Kazika. He sent to me a specimen of it, and I

forwarded to him the Santa Cruz fossil (C. basicarinutum), which

he considers the same, the habitat Hayti of Menke being erro-

neous (Jahrb., vii, 1880).

122 On the Flora and Fauna of Santa Cruz,

Thelidomus incerta, Fér. This occurs, also semi-fossil, in St.

Thomas;—its nearest ally is 7. notabilis, Shutt]. of St. Jan and

Tortola,

Plagioptycha Santacruzensis, Pfr. Alhed closely to P. nemo-

ralina, Pet., of St. Thomas, St. Jan and Tortola.

Bulimulus extinctus, Pir. Near to B. elongatus, Bolt., which

inhabits Porto Rico, the Virgin Islands, islands on the Anguilla

Bank, several of the northern Caribbees, Curagao and Buen Ayre.

Bulimulus Riisei, Pfr. This can scarcely be compared with

any known West Indian form.

Strophia rudis, Pfr. var. latilabris, Pfr. Allied to species

now living in Porto Rico and in several of the eastern Virgin”

Islands.

SEMI-FOSSIL SPECIES, EXTINCT IN SANTA CRUZ, BUT LIVING

ELSEWHERE.

Chondropoma Tortolense, Pfr. A specimen from Santa Cruz,

in my cabinet, I referred to this species, which now inhabits Tor-

tola and several of the more eastern Virgin Islands.

Caracolus caracolla, L. This species is found living in Porto

Rico and Viéque; it is nearly allied to C. sarcocheila, Morch,

C. insititia, Shuttl , and C. exceliens, Pf., of Hayti.

In my Catalogue, Ann. N. Y. Lyce., vii, 1861, I included

C. marginella, Gmel., as occurring semi-fossil in Santa Cruz, but

erroneously, as I was assured by the late Mr. Robert Swift.

Succinea approximans Shutt]l.—I referred a specimen in my

cabinet to this species, which occurs in Porto Rico, the Virgin

Islands, and several of the Caribbees.

’

]

ee ee ee

On the Flora and Fauna of Santa Cruz. 123

SPECIES NOW LIVING IN, AND PECULIAR TO, SANTA CRUZ.

Cistula rufilabris, Beck.—Alhed in many respects to Chon-

dropoma Julieni, Pfr. of Sombrero.

Cylindrella chordata, Pfr. (Trachelia.)

SPECIES NOW LIVING IN SANTA CRUZ AND ELSEWHERE.

Chondropoma Santa-cruzense, Pfr.

* Microphysa vortex, Pfr. Also, St. ‘Thomas.

* Bulimulus fraterculus, Féy.

* B. elongatus, Bolt.

* B. marginatus, Say.

* Pupa pellucida, Pfr.

* Succinea Riisei, Pfr.

With regard to the genera of the semi-fossil species, | may

remark, J'helidomus is characteristic of Cuba and Jamaica, is

represented in Porto Rico and the Virgin Islands, but has one

species only in the Caribbees, 7. discolor, Fér.

Plagioptycha belongs to Hayti, and Caracolus to Cuba and

Hayti, with a representative in Porto Rico, but neither in the

Caribbees. i!

Strophia, with numerous species in Cuba and the Bahamas,

several in Hayti, Porto Rico and the Virgin Islands, does not

occur in the Caribbees. One species, however, lives in Curagao

and Buen Ayre. The impression only of a species, is found in

the phosphatic lime-rocks of Sombrero.

* These species, more or less widely distributed, cannot be said to be characteristic of the

faunas of any of the islands.

124 On the Flora and Fauna of Santa Cruz.

The discovery of a submarine ridge, connecting Santa Cruz

with Saba is interesting ; but its geological age is as uncertain

as is that of the deep chasm now separating Santa Cruz from

St. Thomas.

I have shown, conclusively, I think, that the land-shells sup-

ply abundant evidence of the former connection of Santa Cruz

with St. Thomas, and the other islands of the Virgin group, but

none of its connection with Saba.

A variety of B. fraterculus occurs in Saba, and a Suecinea,

which I believe to be Rizse?, with several of the widely distributed

Stenogyre, and Helicina picta, Fér., belonging to the Carib-

bean fauna, is also found there. Very recently I have received

from thence, through the kindness of my friend, Mr. F. A.

Ober, many specimens of Amphibulima patula, Brug., hitherto

known only from St. Christopher, Dominica and Marie-Galante.

The five-hundred-fathom line mentioned, embraces Anguilla,

St. Martin. and St. Bartholomew, but their land-shells are far

more allied to those of Porto Rico and the Virgin Islands than

to Caribbean species. Macroceramus signatus, Guild., occurs

in Anguilla and St. Bartholomew, in several of the Virgin Islands,

and in Hayti,—the genus is not represented in the Caribbees.

Pineria Schrammi, Fisch., of Guadeloupe, which I believe to

be identical with P. Viequensis, Pfr., of Viéque and Barbados,

inhabits each of the three islands on the Anguilla bank.

With regard to changes of the flora and fauna of Santa Cruz,

two causes have been suggested, but entirely under misappre-

hension, and I deem it desirable to place the facts on record.

The Rey. John P. Knox, in his ‘* Historical Account of St.

Thomas, W. I.” (New York, 1852), relates circumstances con-

nected with the establishment of a French colony in Santa Cruz,

in 1650. ‘The settlement, he says, proved at once very un-

healthy. He adds :—‘‘In order to arrest the mortality which

was so rapidly thinning their numbers,—a mortality which arose

from the dense and aged forests that covered the island, scarcely

affording an opportunity for the winds to carry off the poison-

ous vapors with which its morasses clogged the atmosphere,—

On the Flora and Fauna of Santa Cruz. 125

the colonists who remained, set fire to the woods, and, gomg on

board their ships, became spectators of the conflagration. They

returned on shore after the flames were extinguished.”

Mr. Alfred Newton, in “Observations on the Birds of St.

Croix” (bis, I, 59, 1859). quotes Knox’s account of the con-

flagration, and in his remarks rather amplifies it.

“That the simultaneous and sudden destruction by fire of all

the woods on an island like this, would have a marked and last-

ing effect upon its fauna, no one can doubt; and one of its re-

sults may probably be traced in a fact ascertained by Herr

Apothek Riise, of St. Thomas, that in St. Croix there occur the

dead shells of about a dozen species of terrestrial molluscs, of

which he has neyer found a single example inhabited by the liv-

ing animal, though they are undoubtedly recent and not fossil

forms. It is difficult to account for the extinction of so many

species, unless it may be presumed that the changes brought

about in the island by so great a fire, rendered it unsuitable for

their longer habitation.”

I called the attention of Baron Eggers to this subject, and he

entirely discredits any such general conflagration. He informed

me, that old Pére Labat, when in 1700 he visited the island,

after its having been given up and abandoned by the French in

1676, found it entirely covered with wood, as did also the first

Danish settlers who, in 1739, went over there to found their

plantations.

The destruction of the species of mollusca referred to, must

rather be attributed to geological changes.

In the Bulletin of the Torrey Botanical Club (N. Y., IV, No.

2, July, 1873), a communication appeared from Mr. F. Hubbard,

on the subject of the desiccation of Santa Cruz. He wrote:—

“* At my former visit, twenty-seven years ago, the dessication (of

Santa Cruz) had undoubtedly made some progress, but it had not

been sufficient to make itself manifest in a very marked degree.

The change from fertility to barrenness, which at first must

have been almost imperceptible, is no doubt taking place in an

accelerating ratio.” He adds :—‘‘The final depopulation of

this beautiful island seems now to be written indelibly among

the decrees of fate.”

126 On the Flora and Fauna of Santa Cruz.

Baron Eggers informs me, that the year 1873 was an uncom-

monly dry one, as had been, also, 1872, and as was 1874. The

effect of the drought was, he says, very plainly to be seen, but

since, there have been not less than three or four very wet

years, and the island at present (March, 1880) is as green as

ever.

Baron Eggers remarks :—‘‘ There can be no doubt that, com-

pared with St. Thomas, Santa Cruz is more favored with moisture

than the reverse; its forests are still of ‘some extent, and trees

are not removed in the latter as in former times, when the land

was continually cleared more and more to satisfy the increasing

demand for sugar.”

At the end of last century, he says, there were 27,000 acres in

cane cultivation, now there are only 17,000. The difference of

10,000 acres is again overgrown with trees, shrubs, grass, etc.

The so-called desiccation of the island of Santa Cruz can, in

fact, be no more accepted than the conflagration caused by the

French colonists, as sufficient sensibly to affect its flora or

fauna.

Notes on Macroceramus Kieneri, etc. 127

VIII.— Notes on Macroceramus Kieneri, Pfr. and M. pontificus,

Gould.

BY THOMAS BLAND.

Read January 24th, 1861.

Macroceramus IMieneri, Pir.

Dr. Pfeiffer described Macroceramus Kieneri as a Bulimus,

in Proc. Zool. Soc., 1846, and later, in Mon. Hel. Viv., II, 79,

1848, as follows:

T. breviter rimata, cylindraceo-turrita, tenuis, oblique confertim costata,

fusco-corneo et albido irregulariter marmorata ; spira turrita, apice acu-

tiusculo nigricans ; sutura profunda, crenata ; anfr. 13 convexi, ultimus }

longitudinis subsequans, basi obsolete unicarinatus ; apertura lunato-circu-

laris; perist. simplex, undique expansum, marginibus conniventibus, dextro

valde arcuato, columellari dilatato, patente.

Long. 18, diam. anfr. antepenult. 6 mill. Ap. 43 mill. longa, 43 lata.

Habitat in Honduras.

In the Proc. Boston Soc. N. H., ILI, 1848, Dr. Gould de-

scribed Pupa pontifica, and the following description is given

of the species, as Cylindrella pontifica, in Terr. Moll., II, 306,

Plate LXIX, fig. 1.

Shell fusiform, attenuated-cylindrical, whitish, or grayish clouded and

marbled with brown ; spire acuminate ; whorls from 9 to 12, rounded,

with numerous oblique, prominent strie, or ribs; suture impressed, crenu-

lated by the extension of the alternate ribs across it ; aperture rounded, ob-

lique ; lip thin, somewhat reflected ; axis impressed, not truly perforate.

On the last whorl, a colored line revolves : this is sometimes raised a little

from the surface, and sometimes is sharp like a delicate carina.

128 Notes on Macroceramus NKieneri, etc.

Extreme length, half an inch ; extreme diameter,

size less.

Pfeiffer, in Mon. III and IV, places C. pontifica, Gld., in the

Syn. of his species. In Mon. VI and VIII, he, treating his spe-

cies as a Macroceramus, separates it from Gould’s, assigning

Florida and Orizaba, Mexico, as the habitats of the latter.

Binney and Bland, in Smith. Misc. Coll., 1869, and W. G.

Binney, in Terr. Moll., V, 1878, following Pfeiffer’s earlier

opinions, described J. Kienen as a United States species, wi

Gould’s species in its synonymy.

Crosse and Fischer (Moll. Terr. Mex., p. 423, 1873) treated

M. pontificus, Gould,—as I have shown Pfeiffer to have done

in his later works,—as distinct from JM. Aveneri, the latter from

Honduras, and the former from Orizaba (Mexico), as well as

Florida and the Florida Keys.

SiS.

of an inch ; ordinary

Crosse and Fischer (1. c.) describe 1. pontificus as follows :

Testa ovato-fusiformis, superne attenuata, albida, griseo et fusco marmo-

rata; sutura impressa, crenulata; anfr. 12 rotundati, costulis crebris,

obliquis, alternatim suturam praeteriuntibus ornati, ultimus subcarinatus ;

apertura lateralis, circularis, campanulata; columella recta, umbilicum

linearem tegens; perist. reflexiusculum, albidum. Longitudo 18 mill.,

diam. maj. 6 mill. Apertura 43 mill. longa, 43 lata.

In some uncertainty as to the two species, I wrote to my

friend Dr. Hy. Dohrn, the possessor of the late Dr. Pfeiffer’s

collection, asking if he conld furnish me with an authentic spe-

cimen of M. Kienert. In the latter part of 1879, Dr. Dohrn

informed me, that in Pfeiffer’s collection he found three adult

and one young specimen of JM. Avenert, and very kindly sent

to me one of the adults, which the foregoing figures represent,

the left hand figure being of the natural size.

It is certain that the species J. SEES does not belong to

the fauna of the United States.

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VOLUME 2, 188082.

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Helix aspersa in California. 129

IX.—On Helix aspersa in California, and the Geographical

Distribution of certain West American Land-Snails, and

previous errors relating thereto, &e.

BY ROBERT E. C. STEARNS,

UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA.

Read March 28th, 1881].

The presence of the well-known European land-snail, Helix

aspersa, 11 California, as an inhabitant of the State, is verified

by living specimens received by me recently, through the kind-

ness of Mr. Harford, of the California Academy, of Sciences.

They were collected near San José, in Santa Clara County,

where it is stated that a colony exists, which, as will be seen by

the foot-note,* was planted twenty-three years ago!

* In a reply to Mr. Harford’s inquiry, Mrs. A. E. Bush, of San José,

writes,—‘‘I learn that H. aspersa was brought from France to San José

about twenty-three years ago, by Mr. A. Delmas, and turned out on the

Guadalupe, probably with the grape-vines. You have evidence that the

first colony of Helices are doing well. Ido not learn that any one else has

ever brought any. A son of Mr. Delmas gave me the information, and

also, that they were planted in the southern part of the State at the same

time, where they were put on the grape-vines, and that they have done

better there than here. * * * * * They were probably brought here

as an experiment, and have been eaten, and have not spread beyond the

locality where first planted. There are a few French families about there

[i. e. on the Guadalupe], but they seem very unwilling to give any informa-

tion, which may be, because Americans are prejudiced against snails as an

article of food. * * * Am satisfied that the handful * * * that I

got were intended for the pot * * *

The soil where the colony was sinew ts is a rich, sandy loam, well shaded ;

when the summer heats come, the Helices descend into the ground several

feet, in the cracks that form as the ground dries ; and the gopher-holes

make retreats also for the Helix.”

It should be borne in mind that the San José referred to herein, is an

interior town or city of many thousand inhabitants, several miles back from

130 Felix aspersa in California. “

At first thought, one is led to doubt the probability that such

a form, in a locality near to any considerable population, could

be so long unknown to naturalists; but when we consider the

facts, first, that the place where it was planted was on private

ground of considerable area, several acres; second, that the

climate of the region, with its long rainless summers, is not

so conducive to the rapid multiplication of individuals as is

the native climate of the species; third, that the increase was

quite likely the measure of consumption as food by the parties

owning the locality ; and, fourth, that the presence of the spe-

cies was kept secret by those who used it,—the improbability

is greatly reduced.

The detection of individuals of this species in this part of the

world recalled the fact of its having been previously reported

from this coast, over thirty years ago; yet, during all this time,

not the first iota of confirmatory testimony has been obtained,

and the credit at that time to our faunal list has ever been reé-

garded, by our local naturalists and collectors, as without valid

foundation.

IJ have been curious to look into the matter. and to seek for

the source of this error, for error it undoubtedly is.

In pursuance of this inquiry, I find many other west coast

species incidentally involved, and many errors in habitat, which

have been so often repeated, as to justify the time required for

their correction, if accuracy of statement as to geographical dis-

tribution is of any importance.

Mr. W. G. Binney, in his recent volume* on ** The Terres-

the coast, and distant between two and three hours’ ride by rail from San

Francisco, southward.

The ‘‘ Guadalupe” referred to, is a river formed by several minor streams;

it flows northerly through Santa Clara Valley, and empties into the Bay of

San Francisco at its southerly end, near Alviso ; the valley is compara-

tively thickly settled, the region being one of the most fertile in the State.

The ‘‘ Guadalupe” river, as above, must not be confounded with ‘‘ Guada-

lupe island,” mentioned later in this paper.

The colony planted in the southern part of the State, as reported by Mrs.

Bush, has not as yet been discovered ; the climate, etc., is much less favor-

able for its perpetuity than that of the Santa Clara Valley. ,

* Volume V, July, 1878. See, also, Binney (Senior), in Vol. Il, p. 117.

Heliv aspersa in California. 131

trial and Air-Breathing Mollusks of North America, ete.,” re-

ports this species, as found ‘*In gardens in Charleston, South

Carolina, and vicinity, where it has existed for fifty years: I

found it plentifully in St. Michael’s Churchyard, in 1875; also,

has been found at New Orleans and Baton Rouge ; Portland,

Maine; Nova Scotia; Santa Barbara, California; Hayti, St.

Jago, Chili, etc.; it is a European species, accidentally intro-

duced into this country, or rather by commerce as an article of

food. It evidently is a species peculiarly adapted to coloni-

zation.”

Though credited to California as above, I have always thought

that this was an error arising from hasty or mistaken determina-

tion, and that the shell upon which it rests was either an indi-

vidual of the species since described as H. Tryoni* or H. Stearn-

siana,+ or perhaps an aberrant H. Avellettii, of which specimens

sometimes occur, which in color, elevation and general aspect,

resemble dwarf individuals of H. aspersa of Miiller. My previ-

ous quotation from Mr. Binney will show that the latter species

is credited to Santa Barbara ; it has never been confirmed from

said point, or from any other on the west coast of North America,

by any of the numerous collectors of later years. Dr. Cooper,

in his Geographical Catalogue of the Mollusca (April, 1867),

very properly omits it from the list of West American species.

I haye numerous specimens, however, of H. Tryoni, from Santa

Barbara Island.

The late Dr. Philip Carpenter, in his Report on the Mollusce

of the west coast of North America,{ says, ‘* Among the wasted

opportunities of obtaining very valuable information on geo-

graphical distribution, must unfortunately be recorded the sur-

veying voyages of the ‘Herald’ and ‘ Pandora,’ Capt. Kellett,

R. N., C. B., and Lieut. Wood, R. N. The former of these gen-

tlemen commanded the ‘Starling’ during the Sulphur Expedi-

tion. Their zeal for science is shown not only by the large num-

ber of fine and valuable shells which they brought back, but

* Described by Dr. Newcomb, in 1864, and

{ By the late Dr. Gabb, in 1867.

} To the British Association, 1856, paragraph 50.

152 Helix aspersa in California.

especially by the extreme liberality with which they have presen-

ted them to public museums wherever they thought they could

be made useful. The shells were deposited in the Musenm of

Practical Geology in Jermyn Street, London, then presided over

by Prof. E. Forbes. He writes that ‘they were chiefly collected

on the coast of Southern California, from San Diego to Magdalena,

and the shores of Mazatlan.’” Carpenter continues, saying, “this

is precisely the very district of all others on which we are in

want of accurate information. San Diego belongs mainly to

the Californian province, Mazatlan to that of Panama; the

question yet to be settled is, where and how do they separate ?

Here was an exploration in competent hands, on the very ¢erra

incognita itself ; and yet, alas! Prof. E. Forbes further states,

that ‘‘unfortunately the precise locality of many of the indi-

vidual specimens had not been noticed at the time; and a quan-

tity of Polynesian shells mingled with them, have tended to

render the value of the collection, as illustrative of d’stribution,

less exact than it might have been.” Such information as was

accessible at the time was embodied by Prof. EK. Forbes, in two

communications to the Zoological Society, 1850; the first on the

Land Shells, collected during the Expedition. Proc., pp. 53—

56; the second on the Marine Mollusca, pp. 270—274.” * * *

It would expand this paper unduly to quote the entire para-

graph, so I will only add the following, from the same author,

from the same and following pages :

‘Helix Pandore, Forbes, p. 55, pl. 9, f. 33 a, 6. Sta. Bar-

bara, as per box-label: San Juan del Fuaco, teste Forbes.

—Kellettii, Fbs. p. 55, pl. 9, f. 2; a,b. Allied to H. Californi-

ensis, Lea. Same locality, * * = * #0 ae

—aspersa, marked Sta. Barbara; probably imported, p. 53.”

Then follows a list of the marine forms described by Prof.

Forbes, succeeded by Carpenter’s remarks: “The types of the

described species, and numerous most beautiful and interesting

specimens, have been presented to the British Museum. ‘The

remainder may be seen by students in the drawers of the Mus.

Pract. Geol.; but the condition of the labels is not such that

any dependence can be placed on them, unless confirmed from

ouner soumees: ae 2s) =

“So large a number, even of those placed with the Mazatlan

Helix aspersa in California. 133

shells, and perhaps obtained by commerce from that spot, are

known to be inhabitants of the Pacific Islands and the East

Indies, that a list of them would be entirely useless for our

present object.”

The closing lines of Dr. Carpenter hardly justify the previous

remark, ‘‘an exploration in competent hands,” etc.; and a re-

currence to the species cited shows, that even so eminent an

authority as Prof. Forbes was, to use a common expression, ‘* at

sea,” in the matter of locality ;* while the box-labels were more

nearly, if not quite right. Mr. Binneyt+ gives the habitat of

Kellettii as ‘‘Sau Diego; Catalina Island, San Nicolas Island,

California ;” and Cooper{ refers it to “Catalina Island, San

Diego and south.” ‘The latter author does not refer to H.

Pandore, as it is not an inhabitant of the Californian and

Vancouver zoélogical province, being south of the southern lmit

of his catalogue, which covers the: region ‘‘ between latitudes

33° and 49° north.”

ee in the volume quoted, properly credits H. Pandore

** Margarita Bay, Lower California.” Forbes’s habitat of this

ee is only seventeen hundred miles too far non ,—and of

Kellettii, eleven hundred.

Another distinguished author|| has placed the Lower Califor-

nian Helix levis on the Columbia river,—about fifteen hundred

miles too near the north pole.

Tryon§ properly credits it to Southern California,4 and adds

in a note that our mutual friend, Dr. Newcomb, sent him speci-

* Forbes’s ‘‘San Juan del Fuaco,” perhaps should have been San Juanico,

a small port in Lower California on the outer coast, lat. 26° N., and within

the territory inhabited by Pandore, areolata, etc. For the sake of brevity,

it is often called ‘‘San Juan.”

+ Vol. V.

t+ Geog. Catalogue, etc.

| Mon. Hel. Viv., 1, 154; III, 128; Zeitschr. f. Mal., 1845, 152; in

Ohemnitz, ed. 2, I, 249, pl. XXXVI, f. 16, 17 (1846)—Reeve, Con. Icon.,

1214 -—and other authors cited by Binney in L. & F. W. Shells of N. A.,

» Part I, p. 180.

§ Am. Jour. Conch., Vol. II, p. 320.

“ Meaning Lower California.

134 Helix aspersa in California.

mens of it ‘‘from Bay of Monterey, Cal., as a variety of #.

areolata,” which latter he refers* to ‘Oregon, California.”

This was undoubtedly a /upsuws calami, on the part of the Doctor.

The geography is slightly obscure, and neither of the stations

are correct; also H. intercisa, W. G. B., an insular species

found on the islands off the coast of the southern portion of

California proper, is credited by him to ‘‘ Oregon,” in pursu-

ance of Binney’s error, which the latter author has indicated im

his recent volume. +

Mr. Hemphill wrote to me-(in July, 1879) just after his re-

turn from the region, ‘‘I have Helix intercisa, Binn., and its

vars., also small dark and light vars. of H. Kellettii from San

Clemente Island.” Catalina Island is apparently the metropolis

of the latter form.

San Miguel, Santa Rosa, Santa Cruz and Anacapa, are islands

in what is called the Santa Barbara Channel; while Santa

Barbara, Santa Catalina, San Nicolas and San Clemente, are

further south; of these, Santa Rosa, Santa Cruz, and Santa

Catalina, are the principal or largest, while San Miguel, San

Nicolas, and San Clemente, are farthest from the main land.

As regards H. Wellettii, Kellett and Wood may have found it

‘on Santa Barbara Island, or on some of the islands in the Santa

Barbara Channel, and marked the box ‘‘ Sta Barbara,” without

intending to mean the place or town of that name on the main

land; but as Avedlettii has not been reported by later and more

accurate collectors from Santa Barbara Island, it is far more

likely that a variety of Tryoni is really the shell referred to as

‘““aspersa.”

As to H. aspersa, it would be quite absurd even to imply that

so excellent a naturalist as Mr. Forbes was not intimately ac-

quainted with every aspect and varicty of a form so abundant

as this, both in England and on the Continent.

As before stated, its occurrence as above las never been yeri-

fied; and though a species of cosmopolitan plasticity, in its ready

adaptation to new regions, there was no commercial intercourse

* Am. Jour. Conch., Vol. II, p. 319.

1 Vol. V, p. 361.

Helix aspersa in California. 135

between any of the places where it had previously been found

and that part of California to which Prof. Forbes credits it, up

to the date of said credit, or, rather, the date of the ‘* Herald”

collection. Simee then, during the time which. embraces the

-* oreat emigration” following the discovery of gold in Cali-

fornia in 1849, that part of the coast of California has had but

little if any direct contact with vessels from ports in countries

where H. aspersa exists. Prior to 1849, the coastwise traffic

was very insignificant, and the foreign commerce consisted only

of the few vessels engaged in the hide and tallow trade, and the

whalers; therefore its introduction by such means is altogether

improbable.

For the very reason that Forbes was intimately familiar with

aspersd in all its varied aspects,—I believe he was led to credit it

to the West coast through the striking resemblance which occa-

sional specimens of Zryont, Stearnsiana, and WHellettii bear to

occasional specimens of aspersa; not typical or average specimens,

but extreme, unusual, but occasional individuals.

I have before me now a specimen which connects extremes of

Avellettvi and Stearnsiana; it is strikingly like an extreme speci-

men of aspersa which is also before me. I have likewise, speci-

mens of rather dark colored H. Tryoni, which strikingly resem-

ble a light colored dwarf aspersa.

If the California specimens referred to in this comparison were

placed within a region where aspersa is abundant, they would at

once be regarded as dwarf varieties or aberrant individuals of

that species. If the specimen of aspersa referred to was placed

within the territory of either Zryoni, Kellettii, or Stearnsiana, it

would be considered a variety of one or the other according to

the area within which it was placed.

Having possessed, seen, and noticed at various times a great

number of all of the species above named, and observed their

range of variation and approximation to other forms, I regard

this hypothesis, as to Forbes’s H. aspersa in “Sta Barbara,” in

connection with the other related points presented, as a reason-

ably satisfactory solution of the matter; as furnishing a better

basis for Forbes’s credit of aspersa to this coast, at that time,

than any other that is left us to choose from, viz., that the shell

he had before him was a veritable aspersa;—or that a true as-

156 fleliv aspersa in California.

persa got mixed in with the *‘Herald” shells after the latter ar-

rived in England. Though the above hypothesis does not ex-

onerate the collectors of the ‘‘Herald” shells from the careless-

ness evident in their labels, it does favor them with an explana-

tion which places their habitat (as per label) within a compara-

tively near proximity to the proper specific areas, which our

present knowledge indicates as correct.

It is, however, really extraordinary that any author who had

seen the actual shells of the above American species and possess-

ing any knowledge of the relation of climate to coloration, should

have placed any of them without great hesitation and careful re-

search at so northern a station as this inquiry and a reference to

their works reveals. ‘Take all the West American species named

in this paper, and their external aspect points conspicuously to

a habitat of minimum rainfall or moisture; and the aspect of

the species, taken together as a whole, points to a region of

aridity, or where aridity is the rule and not the exception.

The time will come, and it is not creditable to the manage-

ment of museums anywhere, that it has not already arrived, »

when collections will be arranged in double order, or under two

systems ; one, and the east important—now made the most so—

that of a classified arrangement according to the best authori-

ties ; the other, a geographical arrangement,—carefully placed—

according to the geographical distribution of animal life. Aside

from the hght which such an arrangement would throw upon

many other points of great importance,—in the matter of cli-

matology a better knowledge of a great region would be pre-

sented at a glance than by all human records, or since civilization

reached the point of meteorological observation. *

The various forms included under the names of H. areolata,

Pandore, Veatchii and levis, I regard as varieties of a single spe-

cies. The first two are found in great numbers on the shores

and in the region about Margaritat or properly Magdalena bay,

* In connection more or less directly with this line of investigation, see

Cooper ‘‘ On the Law of Variation, ete. ; California Land Shells; Cal. Acad.

Proc., 1878, p. 121 and elsewhere.

+ Margarita is a large island, whose shores form a part of the boundary

of Magdalena bay ; hence the bay is sometimes so named by writers and

sailors.

Helie aspersa in California. — 137

Lower California. Mr. Fisher found Helix areolatu abundant

on the shores of Santa Maria bay, which is a small bay indenting

an island of that name, ouiside of Magdalena bay. AH. Veatchii

and #. /evis are insular forms, usually much more globose and

‘elevated than their relatives from the main land. A. Veatchii,

the largest of the four, is from the large island known as ‘* Ce-

dros” or ** Cerros ;’ which forms the greater part of the western

boundary of the bay of St. Sebastian Viscanio, lat. 28° to 29° N.

Fisher found /evés abundant dead in Asuncion, a small island

south of Cedros, in lat. 27°. Magdalena bay is still further

south, more than half way between Cedros Island and Cape St.

Lucas.

The tubercle on the columella is sometimes present and some-

times absent in all the above; it has no value, in this group at

least, as a specific character ; this conclusion I have reached after

the examination of hundreds of individuals of all these so-called

species.

Binney regards Veatchii as a synonym of areolata, but he

‘ recognizes Pandore and levis as valid species. Neither of the

four figures* he gives of H. areolata are characteristic of the

main-land forms,—being too elevated, though they may be typi-

cal in pursuance of the original description; the two larger

figures are good for Veatchii, the two smaller for levés. Veatchii

is full as much entitled to specific rank as either of the others.

Mr. Tryon recognizes all as valid species; he places areolata,

Pandore and levis, in the subgeneric group PoLymita, and

Veatchii in ArtonTA. Binney puts them together in Kupa-

RYPHA.

I cannot but regard these subgeneric divisions, to a great

extent, as arbitrary and unsatisfactory; they seem to be more or

less fanciful and superficial, and based upon too narrow and

unsubstantial grounds; and the frequent differences of opinion

on this point by such conscientious authors as those whom I

have quoted, confirm observations made in the cabinet and the

field.

Asa matter of information not unrelated to the general sub-

ject of this paper, I may mention the detection of fossil speci-

* Land and F. W. Shells of N. A., p. 177, fig. 311.

- 138 Helix aspersa in California.

mens of H. Tryoni Newce., in Santa Barbara Is., H. tenuistriata,

Binney,—from the same locality ; H. intercisa, W. G. B., from

the shell-heaps of San Clemente Is., and H. Slearnsiana, Gabb,

fossil, from about four miles above the mouth of San Tomas

river, Lower California, collected and presented to my museum

by Henry Hemphill, Esq. .

The comments of Mr. Binney* relating to a specimen of /.

tenuistriata (so-called) from Catalina Island, impress me as ap-

plying to the specimens so-named from Santa Barbara Is., as

above. They appear to be forms of H. Gabbi, Newe. Again,

Mr. Binney’s opinion as to the identity of Gabbi and facta, m

the same page of the same volume, I regard as correct. He

might also have included H. ruficincta, or rufocincta as Dy.

Newcomb named it.

Binney places these three species (all of Dr. Newcomb) in

the group ArronTA; Tryon in AGLAJA. Binney, referring to the

soft parts of Gabbi and facta, says:—‘‘Genitalia, * * *

without the accessory duct of the genital bladder, and with

a dart-sac. They resemble nearly those of ruficincta, * * *

differing chiefly in the length of the duct of the genital blad-

der.” The number of whorls is the same in all three, namely,

5 to 6; the general aspect is the same, presenting no other

essential difference than size. H. facta is ‘‘ulso found, the

variety with the open umbilicus, like that form found fossil on

San Nicolas Island, California,”> on the Island of Guadalupe,

which is about 220 miles from San Diego, off the west coast of

Lower California.

Before closing, I will notice, as worthy of inquiry, the appa-

rent relation between the saline, sandy, wind-swept stations 1n-

habited by Helix Ayresianat (not Ayersiana) and Helix in-

tercisa, and the sharp obliquely-reticulated sculpture which

characterizes these species.

The first of these was credited to ‘‘Oregon,” in Dr. New-

comb’s original description, instead of the islands of Santa Cruz,

*L. & F. W. Moll., Vol. V, 1878, p. 372.

{+ Binney, Proc. Phil. Acad., 1879, p. 16.

¢{ Named for Dr. W. O. Ayres, not Ayers.

Helix aspersa in California. 139

San Miguel, and Santa Rosa, where it has since been found, by

Harford, Hemphill, and others. It is nearly related to H. Du-

petithouarsit, which occupies a maritime, but less exposed wooded

station on the main land, much farther to the north, near

Monterey bay, in Monterey County; south of said county is a

Jong stretch, a large area extending southerly to Point Concep-

tion at the head of the Santa Barbara channel, which embraces

the counties of San Luis Obispo and Santa Barbara, where 4.

Traskii, another closely related form, occurs ; south of the point

is the small island of San Miguel and the larger ones of Santa

Cruz and Santa Rosa, where dyresiana is found. H. Ayresiana

is much lighter colored than the average of Dupetithouarsii ;

it inhabits a more arid and treeless station; its general tone

may be described as a dingy light café-au-lait, with a rather

broad reddish-brown band, which in some individuals is obscure

or entirely obsolete. A. Traskii sometimes exhibits the sculp-

ture herein noticed. Specimens of A. intercisa from San

Clemente_island are sometimes beautifully sculptured.

Of the San Clemente snails, for which I am indebted to the

courtesy and generosity of Mr. Hemphill, H. intercisa,—with

which Mr. Binney includes H. crebristriata, Newcomb, as a

synonym,—is closely related to H. Tryoni,* and the H. redimita

specimens, received from the same gentleman, indicate an equally

4 close connection with H. Kellettii, which has the same number

of whorls, and other characters in common. _

It will be observed, upon a comparison of the shells herein

recited, and the stations wherein they are found, that the geo-

graphical proximity or relationship also corroborates the views

herein expressed.

Further testimony, showing the propriety of my remarks as to

_ subgeneric divisions, is presented by reviewing the relationship

of these San Clemente snails, and comparing the same with the

positions heretofore assigned to them.

Frepevary, 1881.

* I find Mr. Binney practically agrees with the above, upon turning to

- Bull. Mus. Comp. Zool., Vol. V, p. 357, which see.

140 The Life-History of Spirifer levis.

xX. —The Life-History of Spinifer levis, Hall :—a Paleonto-:

logical Study.

BY ILENRY S. WILLIAMS.

Read April 25th, 1881.

In middle and western Wer York, cropping out also in cies

localities westward and southward, appears w series of shales and.

shaly sandstones known as the Portage group.

The total thickness of the series, as defined by Hall, is from:

1000 to 1400 feet in the western part of New York State. Leslie

defines 1450 feet of Portage Flags in Pennsylvania.

The ‘* Erie shales”

rocks in Ohio, where they thin out and disappear west of the

Vermilion River.

Rocks corresponding to the upper layers of the Hamilton

Period, or lower part of the Portage, are found further west,

and are called ‘‘ Black slates,” or ‘* Black shales,”—the ‘‘ Huron”

in Ohio, and the ** Huron group,” Winchell, in Michigan.

Although the line between the Hamilton and Chemung.

Periods is not clearly defined in these western outcrops, these)

‘black shales” and ‘‘ Huron” slates are apparently more closely

connected historically with the Hamilton Period than with the

Chemung ; and we may regard the true Portage shaly sandstone, |

in which the characteristic fossils occur in western New York,

as limited in outcrop to middle and western New York, Ohio

and Pennsylvania.

-In the upper part of the Portage beds, in a few localities only,

has been found a large, smooth-surfaced, unplicated fossil of the

genus Spirifer, described first by Hall, in the Geological Report

of the Fourth District of New York, 1843, p. 345, fig. 1, under

the name of Delthyris levis. ‘This was afte1waids (1867) more

fully described and carefully figured in the fourth volume of

the Paleontology of New York as Spirifera levis (1. ¢., p. 239,

pl. XXXIX) by James Hall. In the latter description, two

of Newberry are considered as the same’

The Life-History of Spirifer levis. 141

localities are given—near Ithaca, Tompkins Co., and near Cort-

landville, Cortland Co.

- The species is also recorded from the shores of Seneca Lake ;

also, there are specimens in the Museum of Cornell University.

labelled from Flint Creek. Ontario Co. ‘There is, however,

reasonable doubt as to the correctness of the label. Only a few

localities are known in which this large fossil is found, and, so

far as I can learn, none outside of the State.

-A study of the species, and of the rocks of the Portage about.

Ithaca, has shown that, stratigraphically, the species is probably

limited to a mass of shales of not over three feet thickness,

marked below by a stratum of argillaceous sandstone,—which

in some localities is clearly defined and solid, of a foot in thick-,

ness, at other points indistinct by reason of the greater amount.

of argillaceous matter causing a looser and more shaly structure,

—and marked near the top by a thin layer, three or four inches

in thickness, of argillaceous sandstone.

The fossil appears most abundantly in fine soft shale, quite

devoid of arenaceous material, just above the lower sandstone

layer, and just above the upper four-inch layer. It occurs, also,

but not so thickly massed, between the two sandstone layers;

but only one specimen has as yet been seen in’ the upper sand-

stone layer.

-In his Report on the Brachiopods of the State (1. ¢., p. 237),

Prof. Hall remarks, that this is the only species of Spirifer

from the Portage formation then (March, 1867) known to-him,

and as far as any record is published, no other Spirifer has been:

found as yet (1880). a

_At-first glance this species recalls forms of later rather than

earlier times, and the suggestion is strong to associate it with:

the Carboniferous species rather than with the Hamilton or:

earlier forms which precede it. There are many such forms in

the upper Devonian,—both in America and Great Britain and

Kurope,—which point to a relationship between the two ages, |

quite impossible to reconcile with the idea of any great catas-:

trophe as separating the two.

Comparing it with the Hamilton sSpirifers, this is a well-

marked species, not the only or the first unplicated, smooth

species, but the first large one possessing these characters, and

142 The Life-History of Spirifer levis.

in general appearance it is readily distinguished from any earlier

form.

Comparing it with European forms of the Carboniferous, it

appears as one of them; and in general Spirifer levis, H. pre-

sents greater resemblance to the Carboniferous than to the De-

vonian representatives of the genus.

As a well-marked form, with a limited geological horizon,

and appearing in a limited geographical area, Spirifer levis is

interesting in itself; and a study of its relations to the past, be-

comes especially interesting, on account of its appearance here

in the Portage, as a new and distinet ‘‘ species,” and in its dis-

tinctive characters, seeming to belong to a type or form entirely

new for the genus. It stands out prominently as a suddenly

appearing ‘*species;’’ and between it and the forms preceding it

there appears, at first sight, to be a distinct gap. Without

attempting to redescribe the species, it may be worth while to

point out its distinguishing characters.

Form and Proportions.—TVhe outline of the ventral valve, the

I}. ;

one more commonly met with, is sub-circular or semi-elliptical,

with prominent beak and broadly rounded margins at the car-

dinal extremities, the margins of the shell almost always crushed

and generally distorted. Opposite the beak, the base of the

sinus is generally folded under, and thus this margin appears

truncated, especially in larger shells. ‘Che greatest width of the

shell is in a line lying anterior to the cardinal line about as far

as the beak extends posterior to it. Over this same line is the

greatest elevation of the swollen valve.

The proportions of length to breadth are, as Hall mentions,

‘from two to three, or three to four.” In specimens of which the

sinus 1s preserved to the end, I find the distance measured on

the outer surface of the shell, from the point of the beak along

the groove of the sinus to its anterior margin, is very nearly equal

to the greatest actual breadth of the shell. This line measures

the actual length of superficial growth in the medial line of the

ventral valve, and thus becomes a very fair unit of measurement

for comparison, and can be determined as well in distorted as in

uncrushed specimens.

The Life-History of Spirifer levis. 143

Size.—The length of this median growth-line, in specimens

of ordinary size, is about. five centimeters, or about two inches.

As an example of shape, I will give the proportions of a medium-

sized specimen (No. 260) of my own cabinet, whose outlines

are well preserved :

Median growtb-line, - - - - - - 45 em.

Greatest breadth, - = - - - - ab diy 06

Total length of cardinal area, its extremities merely linear, 3.4%

Greatest elevation of shell above the plane of the margins, cy we lee Pre

In same plane, distance from hinge-area to extremity of beak, O56 is

Greatest separation of the two folds forming boundaries of the

sinus, - - - - - - - Sua 1A

Beak.—Vhe beak is prominent, and arches over the cardinal

area.

Cardinal area.—Vhe cardinal area is short and high; when

viewed perpendicularly to its surface, the convexity of the shell

above the beak appears about equal to the elevation of the area,

and it falls rapidly to a narrow linear area for the terminal part of

the hinge-line.

Aperture.—The aperture is triangular, and in all perfect spec-

imens is found to be covered with a pseudo-deltidium.

Pseudo-deltidium.—This pseudo-deltidium is triangular, and

convexly arching outward and, in what seem to be normal spec-

imens, has the form of an equilateral triangle, though in other

specimens with short and very high area, the pseudo-deltidium

is narrow, forming an acute angle at the top.

Surface.—The surface is in general smooth; only faint lines of

growth appear until near the margin, where the surface is often

coarsely imbricated by concentric lines of growth.

Obscure plications.—Hall mentions the fact of the obscure and

undefined radiating folds occurring in older shells.

This is noticed to be a fact; and the only specimens in which

these obscure plications have been observed (by the writer) are

those from the lowest layers in which the species occurs. Fur-

ther investigation may disprove the supposition, but as far as

_ observation goes, the facts suggest that traces of radiating plica-

tions appear only on specimens from the lowest strata, 7. e. at the

first appearance of the species, and only on the largest and hence

144 The Life-History of Spirifer levis.

most thoroughly developed specimens. We will refer later to

other interesting facts in this connection, only mentioning

now that wherever these traces of plications are found, they appear

on the marginal portions of the shell, and never high up toward

the beak.

There is still another character which is highly important,

and it forms one of the most valuable criteria in tracing out the

relations of the species. Jal], evidently, had not observed it,

and I can find no printed evidence that any author has hereto-

fore noted the fact next described.*

Concentric series of minute radiating lines.—Vhe surfaces of

specimens well developed, and which did not suffer from attrition

before being safely covered up, show under a glass of moderate

magnifying power, fine concentric rows of short radiating lines,

such as are seen coarse and strong in Spirifer fimbriatus of the

Hamilton and Corniferous, and in several other species of other

periods, and which furnished Davidson the distinguishing char-—

acter by which to separate the Devonian S. curvatus, Schl. from

the Carboniferous 8. glaber, Martin. It is surprising that Hall

did not notice this fact when the strong resemblance to the Brit-

ish representatives of S. glaber, Martin, tigured by Davidson,

was specially mentioned by him.

_ Further comment will be made upon these points.

We have drawn attention to the few characteristic marks of

this species:—To enumerate them, they are evident, as follows,

a. 1st, in the form and proportions of the shells;

6. 2nd, in the size;

c. 8d, in the prominence and over-arching of the beak;

d. 4th, in the short and high cardinal area;

é. Sth, in the triangular aperture covered by arched pseudo-

deltidium;

f. 6th, in the smoothness of the surface;

g. 7th, in the concentric series of minute radiating lines;

* Since this paper was completed, and an abstract published, I learned that Prof. Hall

had previously observed the surface markings of Sp. /wvis referred to, and had already pre-

pared plates illustrating the fact, for a work which is as yet unpublished.

Mar, 1881. H. 8S. W.

The Life-History of Spirifer levis. 145

These are the data preserved for us in the rocks, from which

we are to determine the specific character of the shell. These

are all morphological characters, and the species they define is

plainly a morphological species; and it is by study of these

facts that the history and the relations of the species, and its

true limits and nature, can alone be determined. A comparison

of this with other forms reveals some very interesting facts.

First.—The second specitic characteristic (4), namely, the size,

is known to vary easily and rapidly under changed conditions

of food and climate, and other environ-conditions. Ina com-

parison of forms of different geographical or geological areas,

the difference in size may be safely regarded as of varietal im-

portance, but taken alone is scarcely of specific importance,

using species in the strictly morphological sense.

in the present case, in the layer in which the species first ap-

pears, the individuals are very abundant,—and actually massed

_together,—the majority of them being as large as the average,

some larger than any yet observed above the bottom layer ; but

also with these are many small individuals, less than half the

size of ordinary specimens, and others still smaller, running

down to minute ones, scarcely the size of a pin-head. In

these smaller individuals, are seen characters relating them to

varieties of Spirifer fimbriatus, Conrad, of the Hamilton beds

below ; but they are plainly young or immature forms of the

WS. levis series, being found from the smallest through the

intermediate to the normal adult S. levis.

A young specimen of S. jfimbriatus, C., from the Tully lime-

stone of the upper Hamilton, is seen in the University collection,

which could not be certainly distinguished, specifically, from

the young of S. /evis of the Portage, if the two occurred in the.

same bed.

I am inclined to consider the forms called Orthis satinncabora

in the 10th Regents’ Report, and identified as Améocelia in the

13th Report, and as Spirifer in Hall’s final Report on the

Brachiopods (Pal. of N. Y., vol. 4, p. 234), as only an extreme

variety of the typical form, called Spirifer fimbriatus, Con.

It ranges throughout the Hamilton, but, as specific names are

now applied may as well keep the specific name.

146 The Life-History of Spirifer levis.

However, the normal type of S. fimbriatus, (see pl. XIV), of

the Hamilton and earlier periods, is distinctly plicated, and the

series of radiating lines are coarse, and the lines themselves strong

and wider apart, and the species does not average half the size of

a typical S. /evis. There is another fact suggestive further of |

the relationship: the variations noticed in the individuals of S.

fimbriatus include an obscuring or obliteration of all those special

characters by which the typical forms of the two species differ

conspicuously from each other.

The form and proportions (@) vary in fimbriatus to those

characteristic of Jevis,—typical fimbriatus being much broader

than typical levis.

(0) The size is decidedly greater in S. levis ; but the Corni-

ferous representative of fimbriatus is larger than the Hamilton

representative ; and for the great size of Jevis, we must look to

some cause not yet known.

but in this species the beak is variable, and as the shape ap-

proaches that of /evis,—(t. e., in the shorter specimens) the

relative size of the beak is greater. In /evis, also, there are

varieties found in which the beak is as*small and low, propor-

tionately, as in some specimens of fimbriatus.

The feature (d) is characteristic of fimbriatus as well as of

levis.

(e) The aperture is triangular and very similar in both ; but

it is rare to find the pseudo-deltidium preserved in fimbriatus ;

still, what traces there are of it lead us to presume that it was

obtusely arching, as in levis.

(7) The smoothness of surface in /evis is perhaps its most

prominent specific character; but the presence of obscure pli-

cations on the margin in large specimens in the lowest stratum,

is strongly suggestive, and leads us to suspect that the ancestors

of this form were plicated. If we study a complete series of

Spirifer fimbriatus, C., we find the species, in its typical form,

characterized by a few (the number varying) broadly rounding

.(the prominences varying), radiating plications ; and a common

variation is the disappearance of the plication from the beak and

swollen part of the shell, extending far down toward the margin;

and occasionally an individual may be found of full size, but

a Te ey ee a a

The Life-History of Spirifer levis. 147

entirely wanting radiating plications. The manner of disappear-

ance is worthy of notice. The undulations of the surface, form-

ing the plications, become lower and lower as the plications be-

come obscure, but never in this way do they reach obliteration.

We find them obliterated first in the part of the shell represent-

ing the earlier stage of growth—about the beak; this (unpli-

cated) area becomes greater and greater until the plications are

confined to the margins, and they are obscure and’ faint,—as in

the rare specimens of /@vis.

The formation of folds or plications is thus seen to be a pro-

cess which, in the series of individuals under consideration, begins

later and later in the growth of the shell, and in the last indi-

vidual has scarcely begun when maturity is reached, so that

only the margins are affected,—leaving the main part of the

surface free from plication.

The facts that only the largest individuals of Spirifer levis, —

those whose growth continued the longest,—show any trace of

the plications, and that whenever they are found, it is only on

the margins of these large shells, are quite consistent with the

supposition that /evis is traceable genetically to S. fimbriatus of

the preceding period.

In regard to the seventh character (g), let us first read what

Hall says of it in S. fimbriatus.

“The concentric strie are studded with elongated nodes or

tubercles, which are thus arranged in parallel bands, more or

less contiguous, according to the distance of the concentric

striae.

“The elongate tubercles may perhaps more properly be re-

garded as interrupted radiating strie, which, in the perfect

condition of the shell, have doubtless extended in slender spines

or sete. (They are termed by Mr. Conrad short longitudinal

Sestric.)”

- These ‘short longitudinal striw” are very characteristic of

S. fimbriatus, and much coarser and stronger than in any spe-

cimens of S. Jevis, but showing a tendency to become finer and -

less strong in the smoother unplicated varieties of the former

species.

148 The Life-History of Spirifer levis.

It is a rather rare character among the species of Spirifer,

and becomes a valuable mark in tracing relationship. *

The species Spirifer fimbriatus, Con., is seen to be a variable

species of wide range. It is traced down as far as the Oriskany,

and as Prof. Hall suggests, we may recognize related forms in

S. pseudolineatus and S. setigerus of the Carboniferous ; but in

its so-called specific characters, it is the first of its type. In

geographical range, it is recorded from New York,—throughout

the State,—Canada West, Ohio, in the M1 MiseiSevep Valley, and in

Virginia. +

As a specific form, it seems to have reached its perfection in

the Hamilton.

The comparison we have made between the two species Spiri-

fer levis, Hall, and &. fimbriatus, Conrad, appears to leave

httle doubt that the former is, strictly speaking, a descendent

of the latter; and the tracing of the marks of relationship brings

the latter into line with a series of forms reaching back to the

Niagara Period and forward at least to the upper part of the

Carboniferous age.

A study of the series of related forms has brought out many

facts which may be interesting to students of Paleontology, and

to some whose studies may cover a wider field ; and in the fol-

lowing pages I will attempt to give in orderly manner the results

of my researches.

A number of species have been considered, but those in which

the marks of relationship appear most distinctly are the fol-

lowing :—

In the Niagara period, are—

Spirifer bicostatus, Vanuxem, S. crispus, Hisinger, and SS.

sulcatus, His.

* See Plate XXXIV, Fig. 9, Suppl. to Brit. Permian Brachiopoda, Pa-

leontological Soc. Publications, and Davidson’s descriptions of the concen-

tric rows of spines of S. lineatus, p. 275, 1. ¢.

These tubular spines with double perforation I have detected for the first

time in any American Spirifer, in a specimen of (?) Sp. fimbriatus (a frag-

ment from the base of Chemung group).

+ I have found fragmental specimens of clearly marked Sp. fimbriatus

near the base of the Chemung, with the concentric rows of surface-markings,

and with about the normal number of plications of surface.

The Life-History of Spirifer levis. 149

S. crispus, His., of the Coralline limestone.

S. crispus, var. simplex, Hall, of the Niagara, in Indiana.

S. Vanuxemi (Vanuxem), Hall, of the Lower Helderberg

Tentaculite limestone, and S. cyclopterus, S. perlamellosus,

S. octocostatus and S. modestus, H., all of the Lower Helder-

berg.

8. Saffordi and SY. tenwistriatus, of the same period.

S. tribulis, H., and rare exambles of S. fimbriatus, Con.,

from the Oriskany.

The various forms of fimbriatus of the Corniferous and of the

Hamilton periods, which might have received several specific

names if they were not so well represented in individuals.

S. subumbona, H., of the upper Hamilton, as well as of the

calcareous bands at its base.

Spirifer levis, H., of the Portage, and S. prematurus, H.,

in the Chemung further south.

In the Carboniferous, such forms as S. pseudolineatus, .,

—seligerus,—plena,—octoplicatus and—hirtus, carry on the type

in this country; while in Great Britain and Europe a like series

extends from the Wenlock beds of the Silurian through to the

Carboniferous, and perhaps beyond ; but the specimens are not

at my hand for a full comparison and tracing of the later his-—

tory.

In the Wenlock and following Silurian beds, are the three

_ varieties called Spirifer elevatus, Dalman, S. crispus, His., and

_ —suleatus, His. S. granosus, Vern., of Keyserling, in Russia

may belong to the group.

In the Devonian, are S. curvatus, Schl., of the Ilfracombe

beds and elsewhere; Spiriferina cristata, Schl., and Sra. in-

sculpta, Phil., as defined by Davidson, are prob tbly in the line,

and Schnur’s aculeatus, and the S. curvatus, of the Eifel, are

also representatives.

In the Carboniferous, the various modifications of Spirifer

glaber, Martin, and S. sulcatus, His., carry on the character of

the main types. —

Spirifer lineatus, with which Hall compares several of the

Deyonian forms in the United States, may be connected with

this line; but from the limited study I have been able to give it,

I am inclined to refer it to another series of forms, beginning

perhaps in S. radiatus of the Niagara.

150 The Life-History of Spirifer levis.

I have mentioned a number of well characterized species, 2. @.,

forms which taken in their separate geological horizon are dis-

tinguishable from other forms in the same horizon. In making

a comparative study of them, facts of interest are brought out

in regard to each, which may be laid before readers by pre

ing them in the form of notes on each of the species. *

It will be noticed, that I use the term species in the restricted

modern sense, as a morphological species only. Our studies

may throw some light -on the nature of species in the broader —

and more theoretical sense.

Spirifer crispus, Hisinger (not of Linn.), (Vet. Akad. Hans-

lingen, tab. VII, fig. 4, 1826, figured by Davidson in Brit. Sil.

Brach., pl. X, figs. 13—15), with the associated forms, is ap-

parently the earliest type of S. fimbriatus and setigerus, ete.,

of later times in America, and of forms under other names in

Great Britain, Europe and elsewhere.

‘This species is described by Hall as Delthyris staminea, in

Geol. Rept. of 4th Dist. N. Y., pp. 105, 106, and figured, 1. ec.

fig. 3, and later it was more fully described and figured, and

referred to S. crispus, in Vol. 2 of Pal. of N. Y., p: 262) figaia,

i-k, of Pl. LIV. Whether or not this form, with its closely re-

lated ones, is identical with those of the upper Llandovery beds,

and up to the Ludlow formations in Great Britain, called Spiri-

fer crispus, His., by Davidson, and SS. elevatus, Dalman, of the

upper Llandovery, these are without doubt the representatives

on this side the Atlantic of the European spirifers included un-

der the specific names elevatus, Dalman, —crispus, His., and

—silcatus, His., and present like variation and like similarity,

and also were widely distributed and abundant.

The following are the main peculiarities of the species as

* Further study has shown that the genus Spirifer began and continued __

in about four well-marked kinds, i. e., types, with the variations of each. :

The three principal types are radiatus, crispus, and sulcatus,—and I am

inclined to regard Cyrtia exporrecta, Wahl. as the central type of the fourth

kind.

The corniferous species Spirifer maia of Billings, although at first glance

appearing to belong to the S. erispus kind, I think (1 have not seen good

specimens) is a representative of the S. radialus combination of specific

characters. .

The Life-History of Spirifer levis. 151

_ known in America, identified by Hall as the true Spirifer

_crispus, Hisinger. It occurs in the Niagara shales in the west-

_ ern part of New York State; most abundantly about Lockport

and Lewistown.

1. It is of sub-rhomboidal form, rounded at the sides; the ven-

tral valve is semi-circular. This peculiar shape includes a short

_ hinge-line, either as short or shorter than the greatest width of

the shell.

2. The valves are unequal in convexity, ‘‘ very unequal,” the

ventral one extremely convex, the dorsal not so much so. (This

character is also seen in well-preserved specimens of S. levis.)

3. Beaks moderately extended and incurved oyer the hinge-

area: they may be much separated, or approach each other

closely, making—

4. A hinge-area, either broad and prominent or low and

narrow ; this latter being the case when the hinge is extended,

and then the form approaches that of S. saleatus. The normal

or typical form of crispus may be considered as possessed of a

high cardinal area, the extremities of which are short.

5). The aperture is triangular and rather narrow, and is not

_ covered with a pseudo-deltidium, in specimens preserved. ‘This

- is most likely due to the fact, that the pseudo-deltidium was

~ not completely calcified in the living animal, and during fossili-

zation was lost.

The radiating plications are few,—from four to eight,—but

_ only slightly elevated and rounded, and often obsolete, and the

inside casts are smooth. As to this variation, note erispus of

the Coralline limestone, and the var. simplex of Indiana and

_ the West, also the smooth type, dicostatus.

_ The radiating folds are marked by fine concentric lines ;

these, by aid of a magnifying glass, are seen to answer to

Hall’s description—‘and upon the strie, the surface is thickly

_ set with minute setose points, giving a semi-striated appearance

_ to the surface. This feature is not ordinarily visible, and it

_ appears to have been abraded by very slight attrition.” Hall’s

_ Pal. of N. Y., Vol. 2, p. 262. Hall finds no reason to separate

this from the Swedish species, nor from that of the Wenlock of

_ Eneland.

S. bicostatus, Conrad, differs from crispus in the more dis-

152 The Life-History of Spirifer levis.

tinct imbrication of the concentric strie; in the fewer plica-

tions, which resemble rather one broad fold on each side of the

sinus than plications, and these rarely reach the beak; the

hinge-line is shorter, giving a shorter and rather high area,’

and the rounding of the lateral margins leads to the character

observed in /e@vis, and other smooth forms—of a sudden cury- _

ing of the striz at the extremities.

This appears to be the type of the \. levis, H., of the Port-

age, and S. curvatus, and especially glaber, Martin, of the

foreign Devonian and Carboniferous; but here in the Niagara

it is closely associated with S. crispus, may be readily con

founded with it, and series of specimens connecting the two

forms can be made so complete that theoretically we may pre-

sume the two are but varieties; but we must note particularly

that the size of each of these Niagara species is very small com-

pared with either S. levis or S. glaber.

Spirifer sulcatus, Hisinger, is a name applied to specimens

on the other side the Atlantic, which undoubtedly are but

varieties of the typical form erispus, His., of which the pecu-

liarities are a greater extension of the hinge-line, an increase in

the number and abruptness of the plications, and a lower and

more extended hinge-aréa, and with this, a less prominent beak.

In this country (and perhaps also in Britain and Europe),

some of the specimens identified and described as S. szlcatus,

His., are undoubtedly quite distinct from the group of which

SS. crispus, His., may be taken as the type.

If we take, then, the median form of S. erispus, His., of the

Niagara as type, we see three distinct varieties :

1st. S. crispus, His., with its rounded plications, three or four

at least on each side of the median sinus, short hinge-line, and

shape rather broader than long; a moderate beak ; area mode-_—

rate but well defined, and not extending to the extreme lateral

margin of the shell. ;

2d. WS. bicostatus, Con., (and some specimens of crispus, His.,

the var. simplex of Hall,) in which the beak is prominent, the

breadth nearly equal to the length, the surface either quite

smooth, or with but one or two plications on each side of the

sinus, and these not reaching to the beak, and, when present,

the plications are broad and only slightly elevated folds; the

The Life-History of Spirifer levis. 158

beaks overarching, area high and short, and decidedly shorter

than the greatest width of the shell, and the strie suddenly

turning in to meet the shortened hinge-line,

3d. The type seen in some specimens of so-called S. sudca-

tus, His. he typical characters of this variety are an extended

hinge-line,—a shorter shell,—the area low and produced later-

ally, the beak moderate and not overarching,—the plications

more than four on each side of the sinus, and abruptly rounded

and distinct. I would separate those with sharp angular plica-

tions and prominent imbricated concentric striz, as a distinct

species (probably the true S. swlcatus, His.), which present also

the sharp and often considerably produced hinge-line and area.

These are the three prominent directions of variation noted

in the first appearance of the combination of characters which

marks either one of the varieties.

Dayidson’s species (see Brit. Sil. Brach., pp. 91, 92—98) from

the Wenlock, ete., are identified somewhat differently from those

of Hall. The ribs of S. sulcatus are not angular, asin Hall’s

species; and Davidson’s descriptions, as well as his figures, show

the close relationship between the three species called S. salea-

tus, His., 1. c. 91, Fig. 4—6, Pl. X; S. elevatus, Dalman, |. ec.

apebiece (li Pl IX; and S. crisps, His., \. ¢. 97, Figs.

13—15, Pl. X.

Davidson recognises the likeness of varieties of these species,

and appears to regard them as distinct,—rather yielding to the

custom of paleontologists than on account of certain marks of

distinction (see 1. c.).

S. erispus and S. elevatus, | think may be united, and while

S. sulcatus may be distinct, as identified for part of the speci-

mens so-called in Great Britain and America, I judge that this

too, in part, is but one of the varieties of the typical form which

appears with much yariation in Britain and America, and yet,

with all its variation, with well-marked ‘‘specific characters.”

Much more might be said in regard to this point, but I lack the

specimens needed for examination ; and without consulting the

specimens themselves, we must leave the strict boundaries unde-

fined, and simply recognise the presence of the specific form

with all the variational peculiarities in Britain and Europe.

In Spirifer crispus of the other side of the Atlantic, we see

154 The Life-History of Spirsfer levis.

the same characters and peculiarities: the shape and its varia-

tions ;—the hinge-line, as to relative length compared with that

of the shell;—the area and the aperture with its extent and

variation ; the swollen nature of the valves and the greater

prominence of the ventral valve ;—the prominent median fold

and the rounded nature of the side-plications, varying in num-

ber, but always few, and often being obsolete near the side-mar-

gin and on the beak. The surface markings, too, 7. e. the

radiating and concentric strie, are characteristic,—the former

being the prints or bases of systems of spines, only scen by the

microscope. ‘The size also agrees with that of the representa-

tives in the Niagara rocks of America.

Before considering S. cwrvatus and related species, let us

notice the two species provisionally put by Davidson in D’Or-

bigny’s subgenus Spiréferina.

Spiriferina cristata, Schlotheim (sp.) var. (Brit. Dev. Brach.,

p. 46, Pl. VI, Figs. 11—15, also Brit. Perm. Brach., p. 17, and

Carb. Monogr., pp. 38 and 226). Davidson expresses himself

as not able clearly to distinguish this species from either Sna.

cristata of the Carboniferous and Permian or Spirifer crispus

of the Silurian ; and he says—‘‘ The question of the origin and

recurrence of the Spiriferina we are at present describing”

(Suna. cristata, Devonian, |. c., p. 47), ‘‘is one of some diffi-

culty, demanding considerable attention and further research.

It is an exceedingly variable shell, being small (adult) in some

localities or strata, while in others it has attaimed considerably

larger dimensions” (at Lowe and Cornwall large, and at Darting-

ton small). ‘It is my strong impression that we must look for

its first appearance or origin in the Silurian time, and that it

continued to be represented, with some slight modifications, in

the Devonian, Carboniferous, Permian, and perhaps up to the

Jurassic period” (I. ¢., p. 47).

Davidson identifies the Scottish Carboniferous Sna. cristata

and Sna. octoplicata with this species, and these with Schnur’s

species Spirifer aculeatus. 'The species Spiriferina insculpta,

Phillips (sp.) var. (PI. VI, Figs. 16 and 17, |. c., p. 48), appears

to be also closely related to these species.

In the Silurian monograph, we find the variety with angular

plications, and more of them, called S. salcatus, while S. crispus

eT ee

nee ne

The Life-History of Spirifer levis. 155

has rounded ribs and shorter hinge-line (see S. crispus, His.).

While this variety has persisted, also the variety in which the

ribs became obsolete and the size increased, is common in Britain

and Europe, in Devonian and Carboniferous strata; and a care-

ful study and comparison of the American and European forms

is much to be desired.

Spirifer glaber, Martin, of the Carboniferous, seems to have

no resemblance to the Sna. cristata just mentioned ; but if we

look back into the Devonian, we find Spirifer curvatus, Sch.

(Brit. Dev. Brach., p. 39, Pl. IX), which presents the characters

of form, proportions and markings seen in that variety of iS. eris-

pus in which the ribs were obsolete and the hinge-line shortened,

(and may not Fig. 1, Pl. VII, called S. wndifera, be but a

variety of S. cwrvatus ?)

When we read Davidson’s description, we learn that, except

for the surface-markings, he would identify this species (S. cur-

vatus) with the Carboniferous S. glaber; and when we compare

our Devonian S. /evis with them, and note the close resem-

blance to the Carboniferous form of Britain, and besides dis-

cover the very surface-markings in question on our S. levis,

I think we are justified in uniting the three species as varieties

of one form.* We thus trace a supposed relationship (see, in

* Since this paper was written, Mr. Thos. Davidson, F. R. S., has very

kindly sent me two specimens of S. glaber, Martin, from the Carboniferous

limestone, Yorkshire, showing concentric and radiating strie. Mr. David_

son writes that they are the only specimens he had seen possessing these

surface-markings.

One specimen is beautifully perfect, and shows very fine concentric striz

marking the whole surface.

‘The microscope (a pocket glass) reveals what appear to be very minute

and faint pittings of the surface, very close together, arranged in lines run_

_ ning diagonally and crossing each other. The other specimen shows coarse

radiating strie, convex, and in several cases dividing into two, which con-

tinue parallel and together to the margin. They appear to run deeper un-

_ der the surface as they approach the margin, and their exposure appears to

be caused by the scaling off of some of the shell near the margin. The

former are undoubtedly the markings noted by Prof. L. de Koninck, and

mentioned by Davidson in Suppl. to Brit. Carb. Brach., p. 274. ‘‘On

_ observe 4 sa surface des ponctuations bien marquées et disposées en quin-

-conce sur presque toute son étendue.”

156 The Life-History of Spirifer levis.

this connection, Hall’s remark in first clause of p. 237, 4th

vol., Pal. N. Y.) from our Spirifer levis through S. fimbriatus,

and others, to the Silurian S. crispus, and recognise the same

grades and variations in the forms appearing on the other side

of the Atlantic, wp to the Carboniferous forms.

What does this series of observations suggest ?

Whatever theoretical description we may give to species, here

are, in the first place, an abundance of individual organisms”

whose remains are found in the Upper Silurian rocks of Europe,

Great Britain and America, presenting a few clearly-marked

distinctive characters, variously developed in the individual

forms, but so grading in the several varieties as to cause careful

naturalists to associate them as varieties of a single species.

There are well-marked typical characters distinguishing all the

individuals from other forms of the same genus, together with

great variability of the characters themselves. In the upper

part of the Upper Silurian we find the same typical characters,

with a greater permanence of one or other of the variations; but

still, in the variations occurring later in the Corniferous and

Hamilton, we have the main type represented with some variations

strongly marked and seeming to be fixed, but still recognised as

varieties simply.

In the Portage, we see under peculiar conditions a solitary

race of the type with greatly exaggerated size,—a luxuriant form

but still presenting the typical characters of the second varie-

tal type.

In the Carboniferous we meet with several well-marked va-

rieties, but no feature which did not appear in the early form

except large size, which is evidently a mark of good nourishment

and other good conditions of growth. ‘This latter seems to be a

character of most of the Carboniferous forms of Brachiopods

which have lived on from earlier times. There may be unknown.

characters to distinguish these forms, but of the characters that

are preserved we have evidence that in the earliest form, the

type, S. crispus, His. of the Niagara, etc. (with its varieties),

are found all those which afterward appeared in the later repre-

sentatives.

These characters appeared in combination in a single group

—"

Se ve

The Life-History of Spirifer levis. 15

of individuals, living in one class of conditions, im such circum-

stances as seem to warrant our calling them one physiological

species in the sense of being able fertilely to cross with each

other, this being the explanation of the gradation of one form

into the other noted by Davidson. This presumed—that we

had a single species to begin with—we have, by intercrossing

and by local conditions modifying the offspring, well-defined

groups, which would be called races if we knew their history,

but which are called species because they appear at so widely

divided geological periods.

These separate groups, however, develop no new characters,

but in those appearing at each stage are seen fixed and apparent

only varietal characters of the original form, with such modifi-

cations as poor, or rich, or varied food may give to animals we

now may modify. There is nothing of a specitic character evolv-

ed in this series of forms which did not appear in the first forms,

but there is every evidence for the belief that the species has

lived through this long geological time without losing its char-

acter, and that all that has resulted from great time and change

of conditions has been the fixation into race-groups of the origi-

nal variable characters of the species.

_ The species, at its first appearance in the Silurian, presented

a decidedly new combination of characters for the genus, and

also much variation. When once these specific though variable

forms appeared, they lived till the variations which could be

played upon them were exhausted; and the species ceased to live

and became extinct either near the close of the Carboniferous or

not till later in the Mesozoic.

Some of the races or varieties may die out, but they reappear

again and again till there are such strong contrasts that it is

difficult to see even generic resemblance between them.

The variety or so-called species of the Niagara Period, which

seems most closely to correspond. to the form of S. /evis, is

that mentioned in Vanuxem’s Report of the 3d District of New

York, p. 91, and called by Conrad Orthis bicostata, but not de-

scribed by him (see note in Pal. N. Y., Vol. 2, p. 263). This

was evidently a local variety, as Hall fails to discover it at any

considerable distance from the original locality; and what is re-

markable is the similarity of conditions, as seen in the csv/ation

158 The Life-History of Spirifer levis.

of the form, the concretionary structure of the beds, and the

relative abundance of the individuals in the case of both species

(S. dicostatus and S. levis). Hall speaks of the only locality in

which he has discovered this peculiar form, as ‘*Vanuxem’s lo-

cality in Oneida Co.” He finds them on the surface of a thin

layer of hmestone. Vanuxem describes the species as occuring

m ‘‘slate” (shale?); and as in the case of S. levis, so of S. bicos-

tatus, Hall failed to find perfect specimens.

The distinction observed by Hall, and upon which he bases

the specific identity of 8. dicostatus, is the absence or partial

obliteration of the radial plications; when present, these are

obscure or at the margins.

This character, only carried to a greater extreme, is recognized

in S. levis. However, as far as my observation goes, the presence

of plications at all, in the latter form, is confined to a few over-

large individuals occurring in the lowest known layers in which

the species is found. I have not seen the character on any spec-

imens occurring in strata above that in which it first appears.

Whenever the plications are present, they appear as rather faint

undulations of the margin, extending rarely as far as half way

to the beak. May we not reasonably regard them as the trace of

ancestral plications, seen as a variable character in WS. fimbriatus,

here becoming obliterated? It is not the beginning of a new

character, but the dropping of one of the typical, though variable

characters of the old but still continuing race.

When we look forward to the Carboniferous representative

we see S. glaber, with occasionally a trace of plications on the

margins (see Davidson’s monograph). The smooth uuplicated

form is a variety of one which was typically plicated. S. erispus

and its full complement of varieties appear, so far as this char-

acter is concerned, to run through all grades of development at

the very outset among the Niagara representatives.

Hall also speaks of the shorter hinge-line, and the abrupt cury-

ing of the strie at the extremities,--two characters which are

associated with each other,—a fact suggesting their relation

(See Plate XIV.). We explain it in the following way :—

We presume that normally, as in the typical form, there is

greater lateral extension of the hinge-line than in the unplicated

forms,—and with this character, a straightening out of the con-

. came \

Paes ee

The Life-History of Spirifer levis. 159

centric lines of growth at the lateral extremities of the shell;

with the obliteration of the longitudinal plications, there is a co-

ordinate expansion of the front and lateral margin, causing a

relative shortening of the cardinal margin and a shorter bending

of the concentric striz to meet it at the extremities,—and at the

same time an increased growth upwards of the hinge-area. So

that we find- high area,—short hinge-line,—abrupt curving of

the lines of growth at the cardinal extremities,—and tendency

to the obliteration of radiate plications,—to be co-ordinate fea-

tures of the typical form whose history we are here studying.

By examination of other Spirifers, we discover great variety

of shape, due to variation of hinge-extension and elevation of

area, with sufficient constancy of other characters to constitute

good species :—for instance, S. mucronatus, S. medialis and

S. disyunctus, and the allied forms to which each may be sup-

posed to stand in the relation of types. A comparison of the

varieties of each suggests that the typical form of S. mucrona-

tus has a widely extended hinge, low area, and produced ex-

_ tremities;—that the type of S. medialis has a shorter hinge-line,

not produced into a point, with moderately high area.

A reference of the Portage Spirifer levis directly to an origin

m the S. fimbriatus of the preceding period, seems to need no

argument further than the presentation of the facts, and a com-

parison of it with the various forms, earlier and later, with

which it is most closely related. But a deeper study of the

facts leads us to an equally clear conclusion that S. fimbriatus

is only a variety of still earlier forms, and that the characters

marking each variety appear as variational forms of the early

type, and that during the passage from one to the other no

assumption of new characters has taken place,—such as would

not be regarded as purely varietal among living organisms,

consisting 1n the obliteration or obscuring of prominent charac-

ters in some of the later representatives. An examination of

Carboniferous forms shows the continuation of each of the typi-

cal characters in some representatives of the or ginal stock.

There is no evidence of crossing of breeds to produce new

yarieties,—but merely a localising and interbreeding of varieties,

_ to the production of greater prominence and fixity of certain

characters.

160 The Life-History of Spirifer levis.

The study of these Spirifers, in their historic relations, fur-

nishes evidence of the persistence of specific characters in a vari-

able condition, for which the limits of variation seem to be

already fixed in the primitive form. The prominent primitive

varieties appear distinctly here and there along the geological

periods marking the life of the species, but neither pass out of

existence nor become materially modified.

The length of time is from the Upper Silurian, near the be-

ginning of the life of the genus, to the Carboniferous, and it may

be beyond,—extending over nearly three-quarters of the time in

which the genus lived. |

The following is a tabular view of the relations of the Silurian

and Devonian forms of which Spirifer crispus of the Niagara

in New York is the type; the tracing of the history through

the European forms and higher into the Carboniferous is re-

served for further study. In the table, lateral extension is ex-

pressive of the morphological variations; each line represents

one of the geological formations, which are arranged in their

natural order; and the name of each species is placed in the

position on the line representing its supposed relation to the

typical form of S. crispus. ,

Cem Vy UE eS Rich AME ee nal a prematurus.- --

Portage: aS a aa ee levis= (23s f

Famiiltomt theca: see” oe fimbriatus .--.---- subumbona

Corniferous Jiceeeesasee fimbriatus -.----------- ‘ :

Oriskany: iit, yon (ol) Sing ee see, tribulise 2s.

N. Y. & Tenn. .. Saffordi (pars. ) q

Lower Helderberg Moving cre

ING SYiOR Ge ous eee ee Vaniixeniy eee

Misballe dys). SOs be One ess 2 ikl ae ee crispus .-----

Niagara \ limestone ----sulcatus (pars) .------. crispus ---.- bicostatus. ----

Geology of Richmond County, N.Y. 161

XI.—On the Geology of Richmond County, N.Y.

BY Ne hy) BRERTON:

Read April 4th, 1881.

Richmond County, or Staten Island, is the most southeastern

portion of the State of New York. It is bounded on the north

by Newark Bay and.the Kill von Kull; on the east by the Up-

per and Lower Bays of New York, and the Narrows; on the

south by Raritan Bay, and on the west by “Arthur Kill. The

area thus enclosed by these bodies of water forms an irregular

triangle, and according to the best authorities contains about

fifty-nine square miles. Its population, as given by the census

of 1880, is 38,994, or 661 per square mile. Its length is thir-

teen and one-half miles, and its breadth about seven miles.

Topography.—Vhe surface of the county is decidedly rough.

A range of hills, having an average height of over two hundred

feet, extends from the northeastern extremity at New Brighton,

through the central part of the island to the county-seat, Rich-

mond. ‘These hills are six miles long, vary from one and one-

half to two and one-quarter miles wide, and are erupipedt with

magnesian rocks.

Another well-marked series of hills begins at the Narrows,

and ranges westwardly until it meets the first mentioned ridge

near Garretson’s Station. It follows the course of this ridge as

far as New Dorp, and there diverging from it runs in a southerly

direction to Prince’s Bay. Here these hills bend to the west-

ward for a short distance, but again take a southerly course and

end on the shore of Arthur Kill opposite Perth Amboy. This

second series of hills is about one mile aud a half wide, near the

_ Narrows, and rises to a height of one hundred and fifteen feet

in places, while between the Great Kills and Prince’s Bay their

width is as great as three miles, but they are seldom over seventy-

five feet high. These elevations are composed of rounded bould-

162 * (reology of Richmond County, N.Y.

ers and pebbles, gravel, clay and sand,—with little or no order

of arrangement,—which materials have been brought from the

north and northwest by the great glacier which, in post-tertiary

times, overspread North America south to about the fortieth

parallel, and had its southern extension along the Atlantic coast

on Staten Island. East of the Narrows, these hills form the

backbone of Long Island; and west of Perth Amboy, they have

been traced entirely across the State of New Jersey, and indeed

all the way to Missouri and Kansas. ‘They are what is known

as the terminal moraine of the North American glacier.

East of the ridge of magnesian rock, and south of the moraine,

we have some nearly level plains; these are well shown near

New Dorp and Garretson’s Stations, and again at the extreme

southern end of the island. ‘The surface is also quite level from

New Springville to Mariners’ Harbor.

Extensive areas of salt meadow occur along the Lower Bay

near New Creek and the Great Kills, along Arthur Kill from

Rossville to Port Richmond, and small patches near Totten-

ville.

There are no streams of very considerable size on Staten Island,

but brooks and ponds are abundant. The largest of the latter

is known as Silver Lake, and is situated high up on the mag-

nesian hills, one mile and a half west of Stapleton.

According to the observat.ons of Mr. Charles Keutgen, the

total rainfall in inches for the last ten years, at Stapleton, has

been as follows :—

NSO eac.oo i Lovo onde 1876: 46.09 1879: Aye

171: 53.45 | 1874: 49.68 | 1877: 42.90 || SSOR a ieieaes

1872: 45.00 | 1875: 45.00 | 1878: 58.62

Literature of the Subject.—The subject of the Geology of

Richmond County has been considered principally by the follow-

ing writers :— 3

W. B. Mather, in the ‘‘ Geology of the First District of New

York,” refers to Staten Island in a number of different places.

Mather considered the clays and sands of the southern part of

the island to be of Tertiary age. and the magnesian rocks to be

of igneous origin; both of which conclusions are now replaced:

by others, probably nearer the truth.

Ceology of Richmond County, No ¥. 163

Issachar Cozzens, Jr.: ** A Geological History of Manhattan

or New York Island,” N. Y., 1843. ‘This book gives a section

across Staten Island, and a description of the different forma-

tions found thereon.

Prof. Geo. H. Cook, in the ** Geology of New given * 1868,

and in ** Report on Clays,” 1878, refers to the serpentine, trap-

rock, sandstone and clays of Staten Island, and to the terminal

glacial moraine crossing it.

(reology.—We have within the limits of our territory, strata

of Archean, of Triassic, of Cretaceous, of Quaternary, and of

Modern Eras; these will be considered in the order of their ages,

beginning with the oldest.

ARCH BAN STRATA.

Granitic Rocks.—True granite occurs on the shore of the

Upper New York Bay, about four hundred feet southwest of the

Tompkinsville steamboat landing, and directly in front of the

old building known as Nautilus Hall. ‘The surface of rock ex-

posed at low tide is about eighty feet wide by fifty feet long; at

high-water mark the rock disappears beneath a hill of drift some

fifteen feet in thickness. A little more of the same rock is exposed

at a point about two hundred feet south of the main outcrop ;

but everywhere else on Staten Island the granite is covered by

newer formations. ‘There is reason to believe, however, that it

underlies the magnesian rocks, and extends in a belt of unde-

termined width all around the eastern edge of them, covered

by the glacial drift and Cretaceous strata to an unknown depth;

and that the same belt continues in a southwestwardly direction

to Arthur Kill, and thence across the State of New Jersey to

Trenton, where it again comes to the surface. The approximate

position of this belt of metamorphic rocks is shown on the ac-

companying map (Plate XV).

At the exposure at Tompkinsville this granite is very coarsely

crystalline in structure, and for that reason could never be satis-

factorily employed for building purposes, even were it accessible

in quantity. The feldspar is orthoclase, occurs in large masses,

and is greatly in excess of the other two constituents ; the quartz

yaries in color from dark brown to nearly white; what mica

164 (reology of Richmond County, N. ¥.

there is, appears to be muscovite. In places, the last named

mineral is absent, the rock being then a kind of pegmatite or

graphic granite. No stratification is observable, but the surface

of the rock outcrop dips about fifteen degrees to the east. Ma-

ther calls this granite primary, and to the best of our present

knowledge it belongs to the oldest geological formation in North

America.

Steatitie Rocks.—As before mentioned, magnesian rocks, ser-

pentines, form the tops, at least, of the main series of hills on

Staten Island. It is probable that this rock originally was of

very considerable thickness, for a large amount must have been

removed by erosion; but yet no granite nor gneiss, which are as-

sumed to underlie it, has been seen in place within the serpen-

tine area, which is estimated at about 13.5 square miles. The

present thickness it is impossible to estimate accurately, but

judging from the exposures, I should place it over one hundred

feet.

The most eastern exposed boundary of the serpentine is clearly

and unmistakably marked by a series of very sharp slopes, which

are nearly continuous from Tompkinsyville to Richmond, and in

some places are as straight and regular as they could be con-

structed. This regularity of the slope seems to be quite charac-

teristic of these hills, and is not the least element of their beauty.

How far east of the foot of these hills the serpentine ‘extends is

not known, but it is probably not a great distance, as the granite

at 'Tompkinsville occurs within a few hundred feet of it. The

southern end of the ridge descends rather gradually, and near

Richmond is lost under the Freshkill marshes. The western

boundary of the formation, or more properly the eastern limit

of the Triassic sandstone which rests upon it, cannot be accu-

rately located, as there are no outcrops, and the line as drawn

-on the map must be considered as only approximately correct.

The magnesian rock varies in color from hight green to nearly

black, and in texture from compact to quite earthy—much of it

being fibrous. Its specific gravity is about 2.55, and in chemi-

cal composition it is all a hydrated magnesian silicate. ‘The best

exposures are at several places around the base of Pavilion Hill

at Tompkinsville ; in cuttings for streets in the village of New

iin

(reology of Richmond County, N.Y. 165

Brighton ; near the school-house at Garretson’s Statiow; on

Meissner Avenue near Richmond, and near Egbertville. The

highest point of the ridge is nearly opposite Garretson’s Station,

‘and about half-way across the hills, where the elevation, as

measured by an aneroid barometer, is four hundred and twenty

‘feet.

There are a number of interesting minerals associated with the

‘serpentine rocks; the following species and varieties have been

collected at Pavilion Hill, and in New Brighton :—Compact

Serpentine, Fibrous Serpentine (‘‘ Amianthus,” ‘“‘Chrysotile’) ,

Marmolite, Silvery Tale, Apple-green Tale, Gurhofite, Dolomite,

Calcite, und Chromite. Pink Talc and Deweylite are reported

by Prof. D. 8. Martin, and Magnesite by Prof. Dana (Mineral-

ogy, 1868, p. 774), as found on Staten Island. It is stated by

Mather that magnesic hydrate (Brucite) occurs there, but none

has been found recently. The fibrous variety of the serpentine

has been very generally known as asbestus; this mineral, however,

is properly a fibrous amphibole, and does not occur on Staten Is-

land. ‘These minerals must be regarded as products of metamor-

phism, and were formed during the period when this action was

in progress. |

The metamorphic rocks of Staten Island are apparently a

southern continuation of those of Hoboken, N. J., and New

York island; the facts from which this conclusion is drawn are as

follows:

First.—The strike of the rocks is nearly the same at both

places, and the direction of the Staten Island ridge would, if .

prolonged, meet the Hoboken exposure of serpentine at Castle

Point.

Second.—The serpentine les west of the granitic rocks at

both places.

i hird.—Although the texture of the serpentine at Hoboken

and that of Staten Island is slightly different, yet their chemical

composition and associated mineral species are very similar.

Pourth.—lt is highly probable, though not proven, that the

166 Geology of Richmond County, N.Y.

serpentine at Tompkinsville overlies the granitic rocks as it does

at Jersey City. ‘This can only be definitely ascertained by bor-

ings, as the contact of the two rocks cannot be observed. We

have the negative evidence, however, that were the serpentine

older than the granite, the latter would probably be found in|

greater quantity, and in more localities than it really is. Hence

the probability is that the two rocks have the same relative ver-

tical position on Staten Island that they have at Jersey City;

and they are so indicated on the accompanying maps and sections

(Plates XV and XVI).

Fifth.—Ellis and Bedloe’s Islands, in the Upper Bay, are

directly between the two outcrops on the line of strike, and are

said to be underlaid by gneiss; but no very definite information

is obtainable on this point.

As to the origin of the serpentine rocks, I have no new theory

to advance, and consider the one which regards them as meta-

morphosed highly magnesian limestones to be more in accord-

ance than any other with the facts as observed. The reasons

for this opinion are as follows :—

First.—It is highly improbable that they were igneous in

origin, because they contain about fourteen per cent. of water,

are associated with gneissic rocks which we know are metamor-

phic, and are stratified,—although the stratification can only be

distinguished at a few places, and there not very plainly, on ac-

count of the cleavage planes which cut the rock in all directions.

Second.—They are certainly not unchanged sediments, be-

cause there are no magnesian silicates known to be formed as

sediments on such a large scale as these strata present ; therefore

they must be either metamorphosed sediments or metamor-

phosed metamorphic rocks.

Third.—These rocks could not have been sandstones or shales,

because they would have become quartzites or feldspathic rocks

by metamorphism ; and while serpentine certainly is the result

of the decomposition of hornblende in some cases, the extent of

the formation on Staten Island would render this method of

re so

Geology of Richmond Coynty, No Ye “16%

formation very improbable; hence, by this method of reasoning,

we have nothing but limestone to refer the original condition of

these strata to.

Fourth.—In addition to these negative considerations. we

Jhave the direct positive evidence that strata of magnesian lime-

stone gradually passing into serpentine have been observed (see

Jukes’ Manual of Geology, page 167), and that the presence of

-Jime-minerals in the rock may be regarded as indicative of the

former presence of greater quantities of calcic carbonate, which

has been removed by the dissolving action of the metamorphos-

ing waters, which doubtless held carbonic acid and silica in

solution.

We may then outline the probable origin of these rocks in the

following manner :—The strata now consisting of serpentine

were deposited as highly magnesian limestones; by metamor-

phic agencies this material has been brought in contact with —

highly heated carbonic acid and silica-bearing solutions, which,

by removing the greater part of the ealcic carbonate, and alter-

ing the magnesic carbonate to a silicate, have left the rocks in

the condition of hydrated magnesian silicates. During or at

the close of this period of metamorphism, the eastern edges of

the strata were tilted up, forming an anticlinal axis, while the

extension of the formation to the westward was subsequently

coyered by the shale and sandstone deposited from the Triasyic

' The true geological age of this belt of metamorphic rocks,

which runs through Staten and New York Islands, extends far

northward through the New England States, where it has a

wide expansion, and has been traced sonthward as far as North

Carolina, is not definitely known. There have been three prin-

cipal theories advanced in regard to their antiquity ; these are—

- First.—'Vhat these rocks are of the same age as the Highlands

of New Jersey and the Adirondack Mountains, or of Lower

Laurentian age.

Second.—TVhat they belong to the so-called Montalban sys-

tem, one of the several divisions of the Upper Laurentian distin-

guished by Dr. T. 8. Hunt and others.

}

168 (Geology of Richmond County, N.Y.

Third.—Vhe theory recently advanced by Prof. J. D. Dana

(Am. Jour. Sei., [II] Vol. XX, pp. 21, 194, 359: 450))ieim

which he claims that they are of Lower Silurian age. My own

opinion is, that they will ultimately be found to be Laurentian,

and only another fold of the strata forming the New Jersey

Highlands; but the object of this thesis is not to discuss this

much-disputed point in American geology.

TRIASSIC FORMATION.

Strata of Triassic age extend over the parts of the county

bounded by the assumed western edge of the serpentine rocks,

the submerged gneissic belt, Arthur Kill and Newark Bay.

This area contains about 14.5 square miles. The rocks consist

of red ferruginous shales and sandstones, which dip to the north-

west, and are broken through by a dike of diabase or trap-rock.

They are in part the eastern extension of the Triassic strata

which cover such a large portion of New Jersey.

Shales and Sandstones.—These rocks are exposed at but two

places, to my knowledge, and there in but very small quantities.

These are on Shooter’s Island, at the mouth of Newark Bay,

and on the adjacent shore, and were recorded by Mather. Here

the strata consist of shaly red micaceous sandstone, differing in

no essential particular from that so abundantly exposed in East-

ern New Jersey.

No fossils have hitherto been found in these rocks on Staten

Island, and the surfaces exposed are not sufficient to warrant

any great expenditure of time or labor in search for them.

Diabase,-—Trap-rock.—TVhe diabase ridge that disappears be-

neath the Kill von Kull at Bergen Point, N. J., cuts through

the red sandstone of Staten Island from Port Richmond to the

Freshkill marshes, and appears as a long, low, round-backed

hill, having a general strike of S. 40° W., thus being nearly

parallel with the serpentine. Towards its southern end, its ele-

vation is so little more than that of the sandstone that the posi-.

tion it occupies cannot well be distinguished. The length of

this diabase outcrop is about five and three-quarter miles, and

> ed a? ie

Ceology of Richmond County. N.Y. 169

its width, measuring from its assumed furthest eastern extension

to where the sandstone coyers it, averages less than one half

mile. Both the eastern and western boundaries of this rock,

however, are so obscured by drift that their exact positions can-

not be determined, and the outcrop may be wider or narrower

at any point than is indicated on the map.

The only places at,which the diabase is exposed so as to be

easily studied, are at and near the so-called ** granite” quarries

at Graniteville, and near Port Richmond. The rock is a not a

granite, but a coarsely crystalline diabase, mainly composed of

augite and a triclinic feldspar, which is probably labradorite.

Tt has been found in well-diggings within the area indicated on

the map, in thé water near the junction of the Fresh Kills and

Arthur Kill at Linoleumville, and outcrops near Chelsea, on

the road to Springville. It will be noticed that Linoleumville

is just at the northern edge of the submerged Archean belt,

and near the junction of the Triassic and Cretaceous forma-

tions. The same relative position of the rocks may be seen

where this trap-sheet again comes to the surface, as it does about

six miles southwest of the city of New Brunswick, N. J. In

fact the trap-dykes seem to shun the exposed Archzean rocks

and cling closely to the Triassic, none being found outside of

the red sandstone area.

_ The explanation of this curious fact is, as has long since been

pointed out, that the strata composing the filling of the Triassic

basin are weaker than a like amount of the metamorphic rocks

surrounding it, and hence offer less resistance to the intrusion

of trap-dykes, which consequently passed through the sediment-

ary rock rather than through the harder, stronger gneisses and

granites which border it. Now, between the New Jersey Trias

and that of the Connecticut Valley, we have a fold of these.

metamorphic gneisses and granites, but not a single trap out-

burst. This would seem to indicate that this fold existed be-

fore the deposition of the sandstone and the subsequent intru-

sion of the diabase, only very much higher than it is now ; and

hence it is improbable that these Triassic rocks ever covered the

Archean folded strata, forming a Triassic arch from New Jersey

to Connecticut, as has been supposed by some geologists ; for,

we should expect, if the Archean rocks had been folded after

170 Geology of Richmond County, NV. ¥.

the deposition of the sandstone upon them, and the latter

rock subsequently removed by erosion, to find the intervening

space between New Jersey and Connecticut cut by trap-dykes,

while in fact none have yet been observed. *

CRETACEOUS FORMATION.

The Cretaceous formation, more or less covered by glacial

and modified drift and salt meadows, extends through all parts

of the county lying east and southeast of the Archean rocks.

The area underlaid by it is therefore about.28.5 square miles.

The strata consist of beds of variously colored clays and

sands, dipping slightly to the southeast, and Having a general

strike of about 8. 45° W. ‘They are a direct continuation of

the ** Plastic Clay” division of the Cretaceous, so named by the

New Jersey geologists, and he at the base of the formation in

eastern North America.

South of the terminal glacial moraine, the strata are generally

covered by a deposit of grayish-yellow sand and gravel of yari-

able thickness, which is known as the Yellow Drift; this is

only seen on Staten Island, in the vicinity of 'Tottenville, for

the area southeast of the moraine near New Dorp and Garretson’s

is covered with modified drift, imperfectly stratified.

These Cretaceous strata of clay and sand in all probability —

extend eastward from Richmond County on to Long Island,

and perhaps underlie the latter throughout nearly its entire ex-—

tent. ‘The clays are white, yellow, brown or black ; they appear

on the surface at a number of places, and the purer varicties have

been extensively used in the manufacture of fire-brick, drain-

pipe, gas-retorts, and other refractory ware.

White clays outcrop on the road just north of Rossville, at

various places south of ‘Rossville and near Kreischerville, along

a stream near Prince’s Bay; they have been noticed near Gif-.

ford’s, and are said to occur at the bottom of a well near New

Dorp. ‘They will probably be found at other places.

* For a full discussion of this ‘‘Triassic Arch” question, see I. C. Russell,

in Annals of this Academy, Vol. I, 1878, p. 220, and Vol..II, p. 27, 1880.

* :

~ e— we

Geology of Richmond County, N.Y. dll

The white fire-clay is sometimes associated with the so-called

“kaolin.” This material, which is very incorrectly named,

consists of a mixture of white quartz sand with small amounts

of white mica and clay, and sometimes grains of feldspar: it is

known as ** kaolin” throughout the clay district of New Jersey,

but of course is not a kaolin, as this term is only properly ap-

plied to clays formed by the decomposition of feldspathic rocks

in place. An analysis of this substance taken from the pits of

C. A. Campbell & Co., near Rossville, made in the laboratory

of the Geological Survey of New Jersey, and published in their

Report on Clays, 1878, is as follows :—

S10, 92270. per cent.

Al,O, 0.70

EEO 0.70

K,O 0.39

99.45 per cent.

From this association of ** kaolin” and fire-clay, it is supposed

that the pits hitherto opened on Staten Island belong to the

South Amboy fire-clay bed. These excavations are all south of

Rossville, and quite close together. Assuming that these clays

- do belong to this bed, then those which outcrop north of that

village may indicate the position of the Woodbridge fire-clay

bed, which hes north of the first-mentioned one in Middlesex

Co., N. J. From its position, the clay near Prince’s Bay will

then belong to the South Amboy bed, and that at Gifford’s to

the Woodbridge bed. But these are merely suppositions. So

far as is known, the strata immediately underlying 'Tottenville

and the extreme southern end of the island consist of sands only,

no clay having yet been dug in that vicinity.

The extension of this formation to the east is indicated by an

outcrop of buff-colored clay on the shore of the Lower Bay,

about one half-mile south of the Elm-Tree Lighthouse. It will

be noticed that all the pits from which clay has been taken are

in the region between Rossville and Kreischerville. This does

_ ‘not prove by any means that clay occurs only in that neighbor-

hood; on the contrary, the probability is that the beds extend

interruptedly across the county, but are deeply covered by the

172 Geology of Richmond County, N.Y.

drift-hills of the moraine, which cover all the territory assumed

to be underlaid by the clays, except that portion where pits

have been excavated, which is northwest of the moraine, the ice-

sheet having flowed over, or perhaps partly around it.

Interstratified with, and overlying the cJays and sands, there

are found thin beds of Limonite iron ore of limited extent ; this

substance frequently cements the sand and gravel, and forms a |

conglomerate of variable coarseness. Hitherto this iron ore has

not often been discovered in sufficient quantities or of sufficient

purity to warrant its use in the manufacture of iron. Lignite

and pyrites are frequently found in the clay excavations.

The former substance may also be seen on the shore of Arthur

Kill near Rossville, and in a ravine a little northeast of the

village, after slides of the banks occur; it is generally impreg-

nated with the pyrites, and with copperas after exposure to the

air. As the lignite dries, it cracks up into little pieces, thus

destroying the texture of the fossil wood composing it, and

making it very difficult to retain good specimens. No fossil

leaves or shells have becn taken from the clays of Staten Island,

but it is not improbable that they will be found at some futtire

time, when the excavations are more advanced than at present.

They are more likely to be found in buff or dark colored clays

than in fire-clay. The leaves are of great interest, as they re-

present the first appearance of angiospermous plants on the

earth. Large quantities of them have been collected at South

Amboy and other places in the clay district of New Jersey.

Origin of these Deposits. —As these beds are composed of

fragments of quartz, mica and clay, or decomposed feldspar, it

is evident that they are the products of the disintegration of

eneissic or granitic rocks. That they have not been formed in

place, but have been deposited from suspension in water, is

proved by their stratification and by the assorted state of the

materials composing them. ‘That the waters which deposited

the clays were fresh, is indicated by the absence of fossil marine

organisms, and the presence of shells apparently allied to the

modern fresh-water genera, in the clays of New Jersey.

There has been considerable discussion in regard to the posi-

tion of the gneissic rocks; it would seem probable that the

Geology of Richmond Conia: NOV. 175

metamorphic rocks already described as lying just northeast of

the clays, have furnished some if not all of the material for their

formation. These rocks le immediately between the Triassic

and Cretaceous, and were probably very much higher in those

epochs than they are now, for they formed in part the southeast-

ern boundary of the ‘Triassic sea.

The decomposition of the gneiss would produce the materials

composing the strata of sand and clay which were ‘deposited in

basins along the coast, the strata lying nearest to the rae

being first deposited.

Where the Cretaceous formation is not covered by aes al

drift, there is new living on it a pecularly southern vegetation.

I have called attention to this fact in the Bulletin of the Torrey

Botanical Club, VII, 81, by showing how the characteristically

southern flora of -the New Jersey pine-barrens extends into

Richmond and Suffolk Counties, N. Y., but only on the sands

of the Yellow Drift.

QUATERNARY Epocn.

Glacial Drift.—Deposits of material brought from the north

by the ice of the glacial epoch, are found over the greater part

of Staten Island, but do not entirely overspread it.

The most southern terminal glacial moraine crosses Staten

Tsland from the Narrows to Tottenville, and is distinctly marked

by a continuous line of hills, the size and appearance of which

have been already described. These hills mark the farthest

southern extension of the ice-sheet, and the line along which

the glacier deposited most of its burden of boulders, pebbles,

sand and clay, which it had torn from the rocks in its south-

ward journey. In many places these hills have the peculiar

lenticular form which they assume on Long Island and in the

Hastern States. The dotted line on the map extending west-

wardly from Clifton and ending at Tottenville, represents the

most southern and eastern position of the boulder-drift on

Staten Island, and has been quite accurately determined. The

‘moraine has been partially removed by the wash of the waves

from Prince’s Bay northward to near the Great Kills, leaving a

bluff of variable height.

174 Geology of Richmond County, DN ES

The glacier moved across Staten Island in a south-southeast-

erly direction ; this is proved by the markings on the trap-rock

near Port Richmond, which have about that bearing; the sur-

face of this rock is also smoothed like portions of the Palisades

and Newark Mountains. There are no such markings on the

serpentine rocks, because they are too soft to retain them; the

ice extended over their whole extent, however, with the excep-

tion of a small area on ‘Todt Hill, which is east of the moraine.

North and west of the morainal hills, the drift is not so

abundant, rarely forming hills of any considerable size; but

boulders are to be found over all this area, except where it is

covered by newer formations, and the soil is often very clayey.

Diabase of various degrees of coarseness is the most abundant

rock in the drift; this has been carried from the Palisades and

the Newark Mountains, and probably in part from the trap-

dyke on Staten Island itseif. and is found over the whole drift

area. :

Gneiss of various kinds, largely syenitic, is perhaps the next

most abundant rock, and occurs often in very large masses.

One of these large boulders rests directly on the top of Fort Hill,

New Brighton ; another along a roadside near Pleasant Plains,

and a third worthy of notice, in a field near Huguenot.

Moderately large boulders both of trap and gneiss abound on

the moraine between the Narrows and Garretson’s; the gneiss

has come either from the New Jersey Highlands or from much

farther northward, and perhaps in part from New York Island.

‘Triassic red sandstone, carried from New Jersey or the north-

western parts of the county, is often met with; a specimen im-

pregnated with copper salts was obtamed from the bluff at

Prince’s Bay. This locality has yielded many other interesting

specimens illustrating the material brought by the glacier.

Among these may be mentioned Potsdam sandstone, containing

the borings of the worm Scolithus linearis ; a number of rocks

of Helderberg limestone, containing Strophomena rhomboidalis,

Strophodonta Becki, Spirifer macropleura, and other brachio-

pods, with quantities of crinoid stems; a specimen of granite

containing graphite; a cherty rock which may belong to the

Corniferous, and a conglomerate of uncertain age, but perhaps

of the Oneida epoch.

’

> a

Geology of Richmond County, N. ¥. 175

A boulder of Hamilton limestone, containing Spirifer mucro-

natus, occurs near Richmond, and a rock containing galena

was found in some excavations near New Brighton.

‘The ice-sheet passed entirely over the clay-beds of the Creta-

ceous formation in the vicinity of Rossville, apparently without

deteriorating them to any great extent. At first sight, it would

appear that these soft unconsolidated strata would have been

greatly eroded and almost entirely removed down to the bed-

rock, by such an immense mass of ice moving over them ; but

although some was undoubtedly carried away, the ice seems to

have swept across the clays without cutting into them very

much.

South and east of the dotted line on the map, already alluded

to, boulders are almost entirely absent, being chiefly found in

the beds of brooks, where they have been carried by water since

glacial times, and are never very large.

Modified Drift, or material derived from the glacier, but

more or less sorted and stratified by water, may be seen on the

plains lying east of the moraine from near Gifford’s to Clifton.

The soil over this area is seen in well-diggings to be imperfectly

stratified, and to consist of loam and sand, with few pebbles

and fewer boulders.

On ‘Todt Hill, near the moraine, there is quite an exteusive

deposit of gravel, colored yellow by oxide of iron, which may per-

haps be referred to this formation; and deposits of sand, without

clay, gravel or boulders, may be seen in a few places within the

morainal area.

Occasionally some stratification may be seen in the morainal

hills themselves, but these are generally very heterogeneous in

composition. Modified drift also occurs in small quantities

along the edge of the moraine near Tottenville. The true gla-

cial drift is not thick in this vicinity, generally forming a mere

mantle over the Cretaceous strata, and was probably deposited

by a local projection of ice in advance of the main glacier.

Limonite Iron Ore.—The era of the formation of these de-

posits is only provisionally referred to the Quaternary. It is

impossible to say how early their deposition began, but it was

176 Geology of Richmond County. N. ¥.

gy 9, Ui

probably long before the glacial epoch ; we are only sure that

they are more modern than the magnesian rocks which they

rest upon, and older than the glacial drift, which overlies

them in some places.

These beds of iron ore are found resting directly upon the

serpentine or talcose rocks at a number of places; and where

mining has been carried on, the localities are indicated on the

map. All the deposits have the same general characteristics, —

they are superficial, although sometimes covered by glacial

drift to a variable depth. The ore consists of the hydrated ses-

quioxide of iron, Limonite, and is either compact or quite earthy

in texture. All that I have examined gave a yellowish-brown

streak ; it is possible that there is some Hematite occurring

with it, but I have never seen any ore from Staten Island which

would give ared streak. ‘The Limonite is associated with color-

less, green, and red quartz; it has been extensively mined near

Four Corners, at several places on Todt Hill and Richmond

Terrace, and along the Clove Road, and is known to occur at

other places on the serpentine hills.

The following analyses have been kindly furnished me by |

Mr. D. J. Tysen, Jr., who is interested in the mining industry.

(1) Ore from Todt Hill—

He, 0; 67.50 per cent.

Mg O 1 O0Es St

Ca O 1.46

2b Oy 5.82

iP 0.046

Mn 1.619

Si OF 10.80

jah @ 7.73

Cr 3.00

Metallic iron, - - 47.25 per cent.

The amount of Chromium is probably too high.

“Pe

reology of Richmond County, N. ¥; £

(2) Ore from near Four Corners

(A) Fe, 0, 19.27 (B) 76.72

A Or 1.20 0.96

Cr, O; 1.15 1.60

Mn, 0, 0.32 0.64

Si O, 5. 70 aay

Ca O ine tr.

Mg O ‘ite fis

HO 12.39 14.76

ee ie ie

Ss ire es

100.03 100.20

Metallic iron in (A), 55.49 pr. ct.

FS (TBH) es ee)

These superticial deposits have probably had their origin in

the deposition of the material composing them from the waters

of thermal springs, which have come to the surface through

erevices in the serpentine ; the iron in the solutions was proba-

bly in the form of the carbonate, which on reaching the surface

became oxidized by contact with the atmosphere, and was

thrown out of solution and deposited as the hydrated sesqui-

oxide, as we now find it. Magnetic iron sand occurs with the

Limonite in one of the deposits on Todt Hill; this was proba-

bly washed in mechanically while the hydrated oxide was being

deposited from solution.

_ The deposits vary from a few inches up to twelve feet, or even

more, in thickness ; their lateral extent is limited to a few hun-

dred feet in any direction. The Todt Hill mines are the only

ones wholly uncovered by glacial drift, being east of the mo-.

raine.

_ Aolian or Blown Sand.—Extensive deposits of light-colored

sand, similar in character to those found so abundantly on Ber-

gen Neck, N. J., occur along the edges of the salt meadows on

the western side of the Island, from Mariners’ Harbor to near

Chelsea Landing, sometimes extending to a distance of one-half

178 Geology of Richmond County, N. ¥.

or three-quarters of a mile on the upland, and thus occupying

a position between the trap-dyke and the salt meadows. The

material is a fine, yellowish, loamy sand, containing no gravel

or pebbles, but rests on the glacial drift, and is hence of post-

glacial age. This sand was once the western beach of the ex-

tensive body of salt water which formerly occupied the basin

now filled with the salt-marsh deposits, and which extended

over all the Newark and Hackensack Meadows, but has now

been reduced to the area of Newark Bay. ‘The sands of this old

beach were blown inland, and formed into dunes by the gene-

rally prevailing westerly winds; on a windy day the manner

of the formation of these dunes may still be plainly seen. A

number of pine-barren plants have found lodging in this sandy

soil, on both Staten Island and Bergen Neck, and it is probable

that others will be found there on further exploration.

MoperRN Epocu.

Under this heading are included deposits whose formation

began at a comparatively recent period, and whose growth still

continues.

Marine Alluvium or Salt Meadows.—'These deposits extend

over an area of about nine and one-half square miles on Staten

Island. The material composing them consists for the most part

of partially decomposed vegetable matter, mixed with a little clay

and sand. These salt-meadow areas have formerly been shallow

bays, which have gradually been filled up, first by the deposit.

of silt from their waters and the growth of marine plants, and

ultimately by the growth and decay of grasses and rushes.

This latter process is yet in operation, and thus the salt mea-

dows keep at about the level of the highest tides; their most

abundant grass is the Spartina juncea, Willd., while the rush is

Juncus Gerardi, Lam., commonly known as ‘‘black grass.”

A number of other plants contribute small amounts to the

vegetable growth, making the salt-meadow flora quite a varied

one.

The most extensive areas covered by these deposits are along

New Creek and the Great Kills, on the eastern shore, and from

Ase

Geology of Richmond County, No Y. 179

Rossville northward along Arthur Kill. The thickness of the

marshes is exceedingly variable, probably as much as thirty

feet in some places, and but a few inches in others. The dried

material consists of decaying fibres, mixed with a little clay,

‘sand, and oxide of iron; the latter substance produces the iri-

descent film commonly seen in the marshes, and popularly sup-

posed to be oil. ;

Sand Beaches and Points. —Sand beaches occur along all the

shores that are directly exposed to the waves; the greatest ac-

cumulation of sand is on the shore of the Lower Bay from

Clifton southward to the so-called Point of the Beach, near

Gifford’s, at Seguine’s Point, near Prince’s Bay, and at Ward’s

Point, 'Tottenville. The point near Gifford’s is slowly length-

ening and curving in toward the shore; a similar point is in

process of formation at the mouth of New Creek ; and the ac-

cumulation of sand at Ward’s Point is quite great. These

poimts are produced by the combined action of the currents of

the Lower Bay and the streams flowing into it, which carry the

sand along the coast until finally it is driven up on the beaches

by the waves.

Sands composed of magnetic iron ore occur with the quartz

sand, and are generally found in layers of a fraction of an inch

in thickness; but an accumulation of this material to a depth of

four inches has recently been found at low water on the beach

near the Elm Tree Lighthouse, and has excited some attention

as a possible iron ore, but it contains titanium, and is not

likely to have any economic importance. All the sands have

originally resulted from the disintegration of rocks, and have

been carried by water down the rivers emptying into the bays,

and also resulted in part from the direct disintegration of the

coasts.

Peat Swamps.—True peat occurs in but few places on Staten

Island. Some is found in the Clove Lake Swamps, in several

swamps near Richmond and Gifford’s, and towards Tottenville.

In one locality near Richmond, the peat deposit is at least ten

feet thick. ‘The salt-marsh deposits may be regarded as a kind

of peat, but their vegetable matter comes principally from

180 (reology of Richmond County, N. ¥.

grasses and rushes, while true peat results from the growth and

decomposition of mosses.

— Encroachment of the Lower Bay.—Vhe entire southeastern

shore of Staten Island is gradually being washed away, and

hence receding to the westward. In some places the loss is very

apparent. At the foot of New Dorp Lane, near where the Elm

Tree Lighthouse is now situated, a large American elm was

standing not longer ago than the year 1840. The place where —

this tree grew is now beyond the end of a dock which extends

some four hundred feet from the shore. ‘This indicates a loss

of four hundred feet in forty years, or an average of ten feet per

year. At Cedar Grove, half a mile south of this point, there

has been a loss of about three hundred and thirty feet since

1850, or about the same average. At Prince’s Bay, the Govern-

ment has been obliged to build a heavy sea-wall in front of the

bluff on which the lighthouse is placed,—and a like precaution

has been taken at the forts on the Narrows.

Now there are two causes operating to effect these results ;

they are (1) the constant abrading action of the waves and cur-

rents, and (2) the gradual depression of the coasts. From the

course of the currents in the Lower Bay, the eroded material, ~

together with part of that brought down by the rivers, is carried

southwardly along this coast, the sands deposited as. beaches,

bars and points, while the finer muddy part is carried farther,

and finally deposited in the deeper waters of the Bay or in the —

ocean.

It has been the custom to save property from this very serious

loss by building bulkheads filled with stone, some hundreds of

feet outward from the shore at the southern end of the land

to be protected. ‘hese bulkheads att to break the force of the

sand-bearing current flowing along the shore; and this check to

to the motion of the water, causes it to deposit its burden on the

north side of the dock. The waves soon drive the sand up on

shore, and land is actually made in this manner. It is probably

the cheapest and most effective way of protecting property on

this coast. .

The second cause which is in operation, and which, although

very much slower, is perhaps surer to submerge much valuable

Geology of Richmond County. No ¥. 181

land, is the gradual sinking of the coast. Prof. George H. Cook

has estimated the depression of the shores of New Jersey and

Long Island at about two feet per century; others have thought

it somewhat less, but all are agreed that there is a subsidence

going on. It will be seen that if our coast settles down to ten

feet below its present level; the greater part of the plains extend-

ing south of the moraine from Giffords to Clifton, now the most

valuable farming land in the county, will be covered with salt

meadows within a few hundred years, provided that they are

not all washed away before by the action of the currents.

For a full discussion of this subject sec Geology of New Jersey.

1868, pp. 343-374.

ECONOMIC GEOLOGY.

(1) Zron Ore.—The Limonite ore of Todt Hill, Four Corners,

and other places, has been used in blast furnaces in connection

with other more refractory ores, or has been screened, ground

and washed, to produce red ochre paint. The total amount

hitherto mined may be as great as 250,000 tons, and the present

production is about 20,000 tons per year.

(2) Fire Clay.—The character of the deposits of this substance

has already been described. Messrs. Kreischer and Sons have a

large factory at Kreischerville, and produce refractory ware val-

ued at over $50,000 annually. Their supply of clay is partially

drawn from Woodbridge, N. J.

(3) Brick Clay.—Clays of glacial drift origin are used in the

manufacture vf common brick near Richmond and Linoleumville.

The number of bricks annually produced has not been definite-

_ly ascertained, but it probably amounts to several millions.

(4) Trap Rock.—Quarries of this rock have been worked at

Graniteville and near Port Richmond for many years. The rock

is either cut into blocks and shipped to New York to be used for

street pavements, or crushed into small pieces and employed in

MacAdam or Telford pavements on Staten Island. Some edifices

have been constructed of this rock, but it is not well suited for

building purposes.

182 Geology of Richmond County, N. ¥.

(5) Serpentine Rock.—The compact variety has not yet been

used for any economic purpose; it is too soft and weak to be used

for building; it might be employed in the manufacture of mag-

nesian salts, or for some purposes where refractory materials are

required.

The fibrous serpentine, erroneously called asbestos, has been

mined near Tompkinsville Landing to the extent of 25 or 30

tons, and used for the purposes for which asbestos is employed.

(6) Beach Sands.—Thousands of tons of this material are annu-

ally taken from the southeastern coast, and used in New York

and Brookiyn for building. In some places so much sand has been

removed that property along the shore has been seriously damaged,

by exposing roads and meadows to the action of the waves.

(7) Peat has never been used as a fuel to any extent on Staten

Island, and has little economic value.

(8) Gravel occurs extensively along the beaches, and at the local-

ity already noted on Todt Hill. Itis valuable as a road-making

material, where only light traffic is employed.

ARCH OLOGY.

Implements used by the aborigines have been found abundant-

ly on the sands of the Cretaceous near Tottenville, in association

with scattered oyster-shells. These Indians are supposed to

have belonged to the Delaware nation ; they visited the sea-coast

at certain seasons, and oysters appear to have been a prominent

article of food with them. ‘These shell-heaps are found much

more extensively on the sand-hills between South Amboy and

Keyport, New Jersey, and hence most of the Indians are sup-

posed to have remained there, while a few crossed to Staten.

Jsland. The stone implements have also been found at other

places in the county, but nowhere so abundantly as at Totten-

ville. Mr. W. S. Page, of that place, has a collection of 4 stone

hammers, 2 pestles, 5 spear-heads, 15 arrow-heads and 12 flint

chips,—nearly all picked up in his garden. Others have found

similar implements in the same neighborhood. Mr. Arthur

Hollick, of Port Richmond, has two stone hammers, three spear-

heads, and seven arrow-heads, found in various parts of the

county.

EXPLANATION OF PLATE XIV:

See ge

Each figure (except 1b) is represented the natural size of a medium

specimen.

Fie.

Fig.

Fie.

Fig.

Figs.

FIGS.

1.—Spirifer levis, Hall. 1. Ventral valve, viewed perpendicularly to

the plane of the margins. «a. A patch of surface-markings. 1b. A

portion of the margin of a large specimen, showing the rudimentary

plications, extending only a short distance from the margin.

2.—Sp. levis, H. a. Hinge-area, deltidium, and beak, of the ventral

valve. 0b. Dorsal valve, detached and lowered so as to expose the

area of the ventral valve above its cardinal margin.

3.—Sp. fimbratus, Conrad. Ventral valve, viewed perpendicularly to

the plane of the margins. The dotted line on the left represents the

outline of the extreme of a common direction of variation.

4,—Sp. fimbriatus, C. «a. Beak and area of ventral valve, detached and

the beak tilted toward the observer, giving direct view of the area.

b. Perpendicular view of dorsal valve.

5.—Sp. levis, H. Side view. In general effect this is a restoration,

made upon examination of a great number of distorted and imperfect

specimens.

s. 6 and 7.—Sp. fimbriatus, C. Cardinal and side views.

.8,9and 10. Sp. crispus, Hisinger. Ventral, dorsal and side views

of a medium specimen. This is a reproduction of Hall’s original

figures, 3b and 8c of Pl. 54, Vol. 2, Pal. of N. Y. The hinge-area

is, however, more produced than appears in speeimens examined by

the author. 4a, on Fig. 9, isa small patch, slightly enlarged, of the

surface-markings ¢

11a and 11b.—Variety of Sp. crispus, showing the shortening of hinge-

line and area, greater elevation of beak, and lessening of plications.

12a and b.—Sp. bicostatus, Vanuxem.—A copy of Hall’s Fig. 4, Pl.

54, 1. c., regarded as the extreme variety of the crispus type in the

direction in which Fig. 11 is intermediate ; the plications are obso-

lete, the area and beak high, the inequality in the relative convexity

of the valves extreme.

13a and b.—Sp. crispus, His. Extreme variety in the opposite direc-

tion, toward Sp. sulcatus, in which are conspicuous the extended

hinge-line, small and low beak, low but still short area, distinct and

more numerous plications.

Annals, Vot. II. PrATE, XV.

EXPLANATION

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STATEN. ISLAND.

CTIONS 43eROS

OLOGICAL

RUSSELL & STRUTHEHS, ENG’S, N. YORK,

BY N) Laie T ON:

ZEN ONG Aatlg S

OF THE

NEW YORK ACADEMY OF SCIENCES.

VOLUME 2, 1f880—s2.

———__ +e —__—_

The ‘‘Annals,” published for over half a century by the late Lyceum of

Natural History, are continued under the above name by the NEw YorK

ACADEMY OF SCIENCES, beginning with the year 1877.

It is proposed, as before, to issue four numbers every year, each number

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Price of Yearly Subscription, Two Dollars, payable in advance.

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The Academy has established a Publication Fund, contributors to which,

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[> Any person residing within the United States, on sending the amount

of his yearly subscription to the Treasurer, will receive the numbers as they

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Agents in London, TRUBNER & Oo.

CONTENTS.

IX.—On Helix aspersa in California, and the Geographical Distribu-

tion of certain West American Land Snails, and previous errors

relating thereto, &c. By Rosperr EB. C. STHARNS, .--------- 129

X.—The Life-History of Spirifer levis, Hall :—a Paleontological

study. By HENRY.S. WILLIAMS (with plate XIV), ...2222222 140

XI.—On the Geology of Richmond County, N. Y. By N. L. Brrr-

TON (with plates XV and WW, ..- =. 2-22 ee ee 161

| Pages 183-192, belonging to No. 6, will be issued with the next number. |

March, 1882. Nos. Tand § :

ANNALS

OF THE

NEW YORK ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

LYCEUM OF NATURAL HISTORY.

New ¥ork:

PUBLISHED FOR THE ACADEMY,

1881.

Gregory Bros., Printers, 34 CARMINE Street, N. Y.

OFFICERS OF THE ACADEMY.

[SSI.

President.

JOHN 8S. NEWBERRY.

Vice-Presidents.

T.. EGLESTON. BENJ. N. MARTIN.

Gonyesponding Secretany.

ALBERT R. LEEDS.

Recording Secyetany.

OLIVER P. HUBBARD,

Greasurer

JOHN H. HINTON.

Sibrarian.

LOUIS ELSBERG.

G@ommittee of Publication.

DANIEL 8. MARTIN. JOHN 8S. NEWBERRY.

GEO. N. LAWRENCE. ALBERT R. LHEDS.

WP TROW SERED GE:

Geology of Northeastern West Lndia Islands. 185

XII.— Outline of the Geology of the Northeastern West India

Islands.

IBN 125 WRG | CIGISAY 18.

Or tur UNiIversity or UpsaLa, SWEDEN; CoRRESPONDING MEMBER, N. Y. A. 5S.

Read November 7th, 1881.

In the winter of 1868-69 I made a geological survey of tho

northeastern corner of the West Indian Archipelago. he re-

sults obtained were published in the Transactions of the Royal

Swedish Academy of Sciences of Stockholm (T. IX, No. 12,

1871), with some geological maps of the islands surveyed.

Considering that the many details, which are gathered in this

paper, may prevent the reader from getting a clear idea of the

geology of this interesting part of the globe, and that the paper

may not be easily accessible to American readers, I have acceded

to the wishes of my respected friend, Mr. Thomas Bland, and

written a short outline of the most important facts found by

myself, and compared them with observations made by other

geologists in other parts of the West Indies.

The geological ages in which the material forming the islands

was deposited, or protruded from the interior, are the Cretaceous,

the Hocene, the Miocene, Pliocene and Post-pliocene.

THE CRETACEOUS FORMATION forms the whole of the archi-

pelago of the Virgin Islands except Anegada, which may be re-

ferred, as also the Bahamas, to the Post-pliocene time. Also the

island of Vieque, near Porto Rico, seems to consist for the most

part of eruptive Cretaceous rocks. Still, there seem to be also in

this island younger strata; but I cannot say anything with confi-

dence about this, having paid only a short visit on this island.

A map of the Virgin Group shows a series of larger islands

and smaller keys, extending generally east and west. ‘The larger

_are Culebra, St. Thomas, St. John, Tortola and Virgin Gorda.

Their general direction coincides with the strike of the strata,

wherever such is visible. South of these, but at some dis-

186 (eoloyy of Northeastern West India Islands.

tance, is the island of St. Croix, also with an east and west di-

rection.

The rocks composing the Virgin Island range are of very dif-

ferent kinds, massive eruptives, without stratification, enormous

masses of clastic volcanic rocks of most variable kinds, regularly

stratified metamorphic slates, siliceous limestones, metamorphic

limestone, ete., very often penetrated by black trappean dikes,

in the most astonishing manner resembling the trap-rocks

which abound in the old rocks of Scandinavia.

The VoLcanic Rocks are principally the following:

1. Diorite, closely resembling syenite, is of great extent in

the island of Vieque; it occurs in a small key (Buck’s Island)

south of St. Thomas, and farther in the southern peninsula of

Virgin Gorda, whence it may be traced in smaller patches

around the shores of Sir Francis Drake’s Channel to the north-

ern point of St. John. This massive, granite-like rock consists

of hornblende and soda-lime feldspar, with very little mica. I

could not find quartz in it. It is easily altered, and shows then

its interior globular or concretionary structure. The small

island south of Virgin Gorda, called Broken Jerusalem, consists

entirely of large boulders of hard diorite, left after the softer

mass between has been carried away by decomposition, and is a’

beautiful illustration of the globular structure of the rock. On

the small keys south of Drake’s Channel, the massive structure

graduates into one more or less stratified, so that i some places

distinct remains of strata are visible. In other places the main

mass sends forth branching veins into the surrounding rocks,

proving that it once was in a molten state.

The facility with which the rocks disintegrate and decompose,

makes it very probable that a mass of the diorite once filled the

whole space now occupied by Sir Francis Drake’s Channel, but

has been carried away by alteration or denudation.

2. Felsite.—This rock, which also could be classed as eurite,

or in some spots as quartz-porphyry, forms the southern part

of St. Thomas, St. John, and Peter’s Island. It is visible also

on the northern part of Virgin Gorda. The color is generally

hight, whitish, reddish, sometimes by alteration blood-red. It is

(reology of Northeastern West India Islands. 187

a compact mixture of quartz and feldspar. In some places the

quartz is separated in the form of double pyramids. The rock

is evidently, in most places, a clastic rock, a kind of tufa; in

others, it seems to have been protruded in a molten state as a

Java. In the latter case, it has sometimes a fine columnar struc-

ture, as at Red Point on St. Thomas.

3. Blue-beach.—Vhis rock, so called by the inhabitants, is a

pecuhar kind of breccia of fragments of felsitic or trappean

rocks, evidently a clastic voleanic rock. The color is generally

very dark green, from a considerable quantity of hornblende,

often altered to chlorite. In this rock, distinct traces of strati-

fication are often visible. The dip of the beds is generally very

steep, almost vertical. This rock constitutes the greater part

of St. Thomas, St. John, Tortola, and Jost Van Dyck.

4, Diabase.—Occurs in dikes penetrating the diorite and the

blue-beach. Sometimes it occurs in greater masses, as in the

island of Hans Lollick, north of St. Thomas. The island of

Culebra consists of a kind of diabase, or, more correctly, of

Labrador porphyry.

All these igneous beds are of enormous thickness, and point

to a long period of very powerful volcanic activity. They are

of two different types, just as in modern volcanoes ; more basic,

black rocks,—traps, diorite and their tufas (or blue-beach), and

more acidic,—white or hight colored, the felsites with their tu-

fas. The latter seem, also, older than the former.

The STRATIFIED, GENERALLY METAMORPHIC Rocks, have com-

paratively small extent; many of them have doubtless been vol-

canic ashes, in a state of fine division, deposited on the bottom

of the sea. They consist of—

1. Clay-slate.—A black slaty rock, without fossils, closely re-

sembling the slates of the Silurian formation. It occurs in the

northern part of St. Thomas, near Coki Point, and on south-

western Tortola, near Cox Head. The strata are almost verti-

cal, and run from west to east.

2. Metamorphic slates.—Mica schist, hornblende schist, etc.,

occur on the small keys south of Francis Drake’s Channel, and

on the islets between Tortola and St. Thomas.

188 Geology of Northeastern West India Islunds.

3. Limestone.—Hard, crystalline, bluish-gray marble, occurs

on Congo Key and on Great Patch Island, near St. John ; also

on Mary’s Point, on the latter island, and in some other places.

Sometimes the lime is so strongly impregnated with silica that

it forms a peculiar, still stratified rock,—stliceous limestone,—

which is filled with garnet, epidote and other silicates. Near

Coki Point of St. Thomas, the limestone stratum thins out

in small rounded Hime boulders, which occur imbedded in the

blue-beach rock. These rolled pieces contain fossils, sometimes

silicified and well preserved, which allowed me to make out with

certainty the geological age of the Virgin Islands. ;

The Island of St. Croiz consists in its northern part of clay-

slates, blue-beach, felsitic rocks, and some limestone, all of the

same character as in the Virgin Islands, dipping at very high

angles, often almost vertical, and running, though with many

deviations, from west to east. South of this rocky part of the

island, extends a wide level area of coral limestone and marls,

probably of Miocene or perhaps more recent date.

Fossils of the Cretaceous Formation.—The fossils collected

near Coki Point, on St. Thomas, were abundant fragments of

a large Nerinea, Acteonella, Pectunculus, Astarte, Corbula, In-

mopsis, Opis, and one Ammonite. All these fossils prove the

age to be Cretaceous, and probably corresponding to the Gosau

formation in the Alps.

The Cretaceous formation of the Virgin Islands and St. Croix

consists, then, chiefly of volcanic rocks, often stratified and

associated with large eruptive masses of a light colored diorite,

closely resembling syenite. Their strike is *generally east to

west, and their dip very strong, which proves that they have

been elevated and bent by a great pressure, acting from north

or south at a right angle to the strike of the strata. On study-

Ing in detail the part between Tortola, St. John and St. Thomas,

I found that there is a synclinal fault just in the continuation

of Sir Francis Drake’s Channel. Tortola and St. John, with its

continuation, St. Thomas, are only parts of the same large set —

of strata, as will be clear by the accompanying schematic

section (Plate XVII).

Geology of Northeastern West India Islands. 189

There is little doubt that St. Croix, also, is the continuation

of the same beds, although the depth between the Virgin Islands

and St. Thomas is enormous, about 4,000 meters. The Virgin

Islands and St. Croix are then to be regarded as the lofty sum-

mits of a submarine Alpine parallel chain. The time at which

this chain began to be formed, or when the pressure from north

or south commenced to work, is certainly after the period when

the Turonian strata were deposited, probably in the time of the

white chalk; and there is evidence that the forces were still

acting after the Kocene time, as will be seen further on. In

the Miocene time the chain was finished, and ready for the de-

posit of the almost horizontal and little-disturbed Miocene lime-

stones. .

The island of Porto Rico consists largely of very thick, almost

undisturbed limestone beds of Miocene age; but in the interior

of the country, around Utuado, rocks similar to the Cretaceous

of the Virgin Islands, are met with. The same geological struc-

ture will be found in Jamaica, near Bath, and in the Clarendon

District, as Mr. Barrett has stated. In San Domingo, too, the

Cretaceous beds, with associated syenite-like eruptive rocks, are

of great extent.* In Cuba, also, they seem to be present.

Everywhere the strata are strongly tilted, disturbed, raised, and

highly metamorphosed.

The large West Indian islands contain, then, ridges of raised

Cretaceous rocks, and the Virgin Islands form their eastern out-

crops. South of the Virgin Islands, they are not met with, ex-

cept in Trinidad, where they form the ‘‘older Parian” forma-

tion of Mr. Wall. It may be regarded as uncertain whether

the strata of Scotland, in the Island of Barbadoes, belong to the

Cretaceous or Eocene formation.

HocEnE ForMAtiIon.—East of the Virgin Group are the two

islands of St. Martin and St. Bartholomew, which belong to the

Hocene time. St. Bartholomew consists of a thick set of clastic

* See Gabb, on the Topography and Geology of Santo Domingo. Trans-

actions of the American Philosophical Society of Philadelphia, XV, Part

I, 1873.

190 Geology of Northeastern West India Islands.

volcanic rocks, tufas of different kinds, interstratified with beds —

of a hard, compact limestone. There are also some massive

rocks, certainly eruptive, consisting of a kind of syenite-por-

phyry, in the southern part of the island. St. Martin, also,

consists mainly of stratified rocks, but not of limestone, as far

as I know. The stratification runs generally, both m St. Martin

and St. Bartholomew, from west to east, and the dip is to the

south about 20°—30°. As most of the rocks are of volcanic

origin, we may conclude that the igneous activity continued

during the Hocene time.

On the western corner of St. Martin, the Eocene strata are

unconformably overlaid by hard white limestone, evidently a

fragment of the Miocene formation, which forms the whole of

Anguilla, and there rests upon some amygdaloid volcanic rock.

The Eocene rocks seem to occur in the southwestern part of

Antigua,* where they have a northerly dip ; also, in Guadeloupe,

Grande-Terre, they seem to occur (Pierre & Ravets de Duchas-

saing). In Jamaica, Eocene beds of 1,000 meters in thickness

occur, and consist, according to Mr. Barrett, of porphyritic

conglomerates, with shaly and sandy beds. Mr. Gabb does not

mention the occurrence of Eocene beds in San Domingo. They

will probably be found there, however, and have perhaps been

considered as parts of the Cretaceous or of the lower Miocene

formations.

Fossils.—The limestone of St. Bartholomew is rich in fossils,

but generally in a bad state of preservation. Also in Trinidad

Eocene fossils have been found. The age of St. Bartholomew

is, beyond any doubt, that of the Calcaire Grossier of Paris.

There occur a large Cerithiwm, identical with or nearly allied

to C. giganteum, a large Nerita allied to NV. conoidea, and several

species of Voluta, Rostellaria, Phorus, Cyprea, Natica, ete.

My collections of fossil mollusks were sent ten years ago to Prof.

Carl Mayer, of Ziirich, for determination ; but he has not yet

* See Nugent, Descr. of Antigua; Trans. London Geol. Soc., ist Ser.,

Vol. V, p. 459, 1841.

Howey, Geology of Antigua, Am. J. Sci., XXXYV, p. 75, 1839.

Duncan, Quart. J. G. §., XIX, p. 408, 1863.

Geology of Northeastern West India Islands. 191

finished the examination. Very abundant is the Zerebratula

carneoides, Guppy, also occurring in Trinidad. Another species

of brachiopod, Argiope Clevei, Davidson, was also found on

St. Bartholomew. The corals are numerous, and have been de-

scribed by Mr. P. M. Duncan (Quart. Jour. G. Soc., XXIX, pp.

518—565). The echinoderms have been described by M. Cot-

teau (Description des échinides tertiaires des Isles St. Barthelémy

et Anguilla) in K. Sy. Vetenskaps Akademien Handlinger,

TT. XIII, No. 6, 1875. The foraminifera are very numerous,

but have not been examined. Fragments of crabs, Ranina, oc-

cur also in St. Bartholomew.

_ As the Hocene strata are incline, and their strike is generally

east and west, there is evidence that the force which pushed the

Cretaceous strata into such gigantic folds, was still active after

the Eocene time, but not with such great intensity;as before,

because the Eocene strata are not more inclined than 20°—30°,

while the Cretaceous in many places are almost vertical. These

facts indicate that the rising of the mountain chains in the great

Antilles took place in the epoch between the Turonian time and

the Miocene.

M10cENE FormMAtTiIon.—Among the small islands of the north-

eastern part of the West Indies, the Miocene formation occurs

in Anguilla, where it has been deposited on a kind of volcanic

amygdaloid rock, visible on the northern: coast. It consists of

limestone and marls (sometimes very rich in fossils, which gene-

rally are in the form of casts), covered by a hard limestone bed,

which slowly dips down to the south. ‘The same limestone bed

occurs in the western point of St. Martin, directly and uncon-

formably deposited on the Kocene formation.

Miocene beds have also been found in Antigua, Barbadoes

and Trinidad. Grande-Terre of Guadeloupe seems to consist

principally of Miocene strata. The level land of St. Croix is

probably Miocene, but complete evidence of this is still wanting.

In the large West India islands, Jamaica, Porto Rico, San

Domingo and Cuba, the Miocene formation has an enormous

development. It consists largely of limestones, generally almost

horizontal or very little inclined,—evidence enough that the

mountain-chains were completed before the Miocene epoch,

192 Geology of Northeastern West India Islands.

that they were largely submerged in the Miocene time, and that

after this period a continental uplift occurred in the West

Indies.

PLIOCENE AND Post-pLIOCENE Formations.—The hne of

separation between the Miocene and Phocene formations in the

West Indies is nowhere decided. It is possible that the hard,

yellowish-white limestone, which contains only few fossils and

covers the true Miocene beds, may be more accurately called

. Pliocene, and not Miocene, as I have done in the foregoing.

On the other hand, it is by no means easy to draw a line of de-

marcation between the Pliocene and Post-phocene time. J am

inclined to think that the island of Sombrero is of Plioceno

origin, also Barbuda and some part of Barbadoes.

To the Post-plhocene time are to be referred the very import-

ant volcanic formations which extend from Saba through St.

Eustatius, St. Kitts, Nevis, Redonda, Montserrat, Guadeloupe,

etc. In St. Kitts I found, near Brimstone Hill, a white lime-

stone formation, containing a large number of fossils, generally

impressions and casts. All the specimens, belonging to about

forty-three different species, could be identified with living Ca-

ribbean species, except only a»single specimen of Modiolaria.

It is not improbable that the elevation of the Miocene strata was

accompanied by a subsidence in the Caribbean sea, and that on

the limit between the area of elevation and that of subsidence,

large fissures originated, pouring out the tufas and other ig-

neous products, of which the volcanic islands are formed.

To the Post-pliocene time may also be referred a limestone

formation of great extent, forming the island of Anegada, and

the Bahamas. Anegada is a flat, very low island of limestone,

containing great numbers of fossil shells belonging to species

still. living in the Caribbean sea. Anegada is nearly allied, in

its geological structure, to the Bahamas, and proves that in this

part of the Caribbean area an elevation and not a subsidence is

going on.

: DESCRIPTION OF PLATE XVII.

“FIGURE 1.

Section from St. John to Jost Van Dyck (Virgin Islands).

il, 2, fst, dolan, F

2 Sta lhomags i

13; Great Fhatch Island.

4, Jost Van Dyck.

5, Tortola. g

6, Tobago.

i Teuana (‘‘Guana’’) Island.

a, Coki Point, St. Thomas.

b, Mary’s Point, St. John. :

By Felsite. -

1B), “Blue-beach.”

M, Metamorphic rocks.

ik, Limestone,

D, Diorite.

The dotted lines indicate islands not on the precise line of section.

FIGURE 2.

Sections from St. Croix to Tortola, and from Nevis and Antigua to ng i

I, Antigua.

10 Nevis.

ne Be ke Le ulecae volcanoes.

V, Saba,

Wily tsi Cinoils<,

VII, St. Bartholomew. k

VII, St. Martin. oer

IX, Anguilla. ag

X, St. John. eee

XI, Tortola. . iS ;

XII, Anegada. <a

C, Cretaceous. f Rea

E, Eocene. i, é

M, Miocene (and Pliocene). a:

PP, Post-pliocene. ee

oa! ‘ 4 “ “4

ES . 3 s

. &

‘

. a “ .

* .

. = +] z. - , “2

3 4 *

;

. Pak F os

. ‘ - * - fe ‘

. J i

. ® . Puke

ae ¢ oa

4 + ss

; 4 » -

3 v 7 2

- ° i 4 J a o

: . a > 4 .

% P : woe oa

yi = = ’ a Z

: = 7 ~ “

a : ‘ ae 4

* = — 3

: > i oo : ¥ a bes

oar “ ts “tes cye

be a : : -

‘. 4 WO < a 7

Hs 7

ANNALS, VoL. IJ.

Drawn by P. T. Cleve,

S. th rey mi

(

EEA

Pee

vl Vel

“S Paes py Shee

Fig. 1. Section through the Virgin Islands, from St. John to Jost Van Dyck.

Fig. 2. Sections through the Leeward Islands, from St. Croix to Tortola, and from Nevis and Antigua to Anguilla.

PLATE XVII.

Eng. by B. B. Chamberlin.

New Species of Fossils from Oho. 193

NXIU.—Descriptions of New Species of Fossils from Ohio, with

Remarks on some of the Geological Formations in which they

gccur.*

IG MG LEG \AVSHCIM AED ILD)

Read January 16th, 1882.

Species from the Hydraulic Limestones of the Lower Helder-

berg Group.

BRACHIOPODA.

Streptorhynechus hydraulicum, n. sp.

Pal. Ohio, Vol. III, Plate 1, Figs. 1—3.

Shell small to minute, the largest individuals yet observed not exceeding

five-eighths of an inch in greatest diameter, while the most of those ob-

served are not more than two-thirds as great. Valves depressed convex,

or, more commonly, appearing very flat, as seen on the surface of the stone.

Hinge-line straight, nearly as long as the width of the shell below, and the

latter usually more than the length, frequently nearly once and a half as

great. Ventral valve characterized by a very narrow and nearly vertical

cardinal area, and a usually more or less twisted or otherwise distorted

beak. Dorsal valve slightly more convex than the ventral, with a percepti-

ble mesial depression extending from beak to base, becoming broad and

undefined below the middle of the length. Surface of the shell marked by

coarse and somewhat ridged radiating striz, which are distinctly alternating

in size ; the principal ones proportionally very strong.

The small size of the shell, with the strong radiating and

alternate striz, are distinguishing features of the species. ‘There

is no species resembling it, to any degree, among the fossils of

New York rocks of a corresponding age. It presents much

more the features of forms of the genus from the Coal measures

than any heretofore described from Silurian rocks of America,

and will not be readily confounded with any known species.

Formation and Locality.—In the hydraulic beds of the Lower

Helderberg group, at Belleville, Sandusky County, and at Green-

* These descriptions will be reprinted in the forthcoming Volume of the Palieoutology of

Ohio, and will be accompanied by Illustrations, to which the references by Plate and Figure,

given in the present article, under each species, relate.

104 New Species of Fossils from Ohto.

field, Ohio; associated with Meristella bellu, Nucleospira rotun-

data and Leperditia alta, occurring sometimes in great numbers,

almost covering the surfaces of slabs.

Nucleospira rotundata, nu. sp.

Pal. O., UL, Plate I, Figs. 11—14.

Shell attaining a rather large size for the genus, being often more than

half an inch im transverse diameter, and when of medium or large size,

strongly ventricose or rotund. The younger individuals, however, are de-

pressed-convex or lenticular in profile. Length of the shell as great or

greater than the transverse diameter. Beaks small and incurved, not at all

conspicuous. Valves marked by a slight depression along the median line, -

strongest on the ventral side.

This species, like all those of this formation yet obtained in

Ohio, are mostly internal casts and impressions ; consequently

the true features of the shell are not readily obtained. ‘The

general features of the species, however, are preserved suffi-

ciently for identification and comparison, when good individuals

are selected. The shell bears much resemblance to VV. ventricosa,

Con., from the Lower Helderberg group of New York, in its

general form, except the much greater size and more elongated

form of the adult individuals. ‘here is more difficulty in sepa-

rating them satisfactorily from the casts of Meristella bella,

Hall, with which they are associated. In fact, it is all but im-

possible to do this with certainty, unless they are in a good state

of preservation, as the difference in the form of the muscular

imprint of the ventral valve, and the more strongly imeurved

beaks, are the only features that can be relied upon.

Formation and Locality.—In the hydraulic limestone of the

Lower He'derberg group, at Greenfield, Ohio.

Rhynchonella hydraulica, n. sp.

Pal OF pb late hic 17.

Shell rather smaller than medium size, transversely oval in outline and

ventricose in profile ; the dorsal valve being highly convex, and the ventral

somewhat depressed convex. Beaks small, not prominent or conspicuous ;

that of the ventral valve moderately incurved, and the other rather strongly

incurved. Surface of the shell marked by from sixteen to eighteen simple

plications, four of which are strongly elevated on the front half of the dorsal

valve to form the mesial clevation, which does not extend beyond the mid-

ors

Vew Species of Fossils from Ohio. 195

dle of the valve, and six or seven may be counted on each side of the valve.

The plications are but slightly elevated, are round on the summit, and do

not extend beyond the middle of the shell, the upper part of whiel is

smooth, and marked only by concentric lines of growth. The interior of

the dorsal valve is marked by a moderately strong mesial septum, extend-

ing from the apex of the valve to about one-third of its length. The shell

appears to have been also marked by fine concentric lines of growth, some

of which form distinct varices.

This species belongs to the semi-plicated group of the genus,

of which there are many species having close resemblance to it,

but none in rocks of corresponding age or position having very

close affinities to it.

Formation and Locality.—In the hydraulic limestone of the

Lower Helderberg group, at Greenfield, Ohio.

Pentamerus pe€s-Ovis, nv. sp.

Pal. O., III, Plate 1, Figs. 11—22.

Shell quite small, and of a somewhat broadly triangular form, with de-

pressed convex valves, the ventral side being nearly twice as deep as the

dorsal, and more elongated at the beak, giving it the triangular character ;

cardinal slopes straightened and rapidly diverging ; front broadly rounded,’

The species is known only in the condition of internal casts, and as thus

seen, the ventral valve is deeply cleft along the median line by the removal

of the central septum, the slit often extending more than three-fourths of

the length of the valve. The filling of the spoon-shaped cavity is pro-

portionally large, being long and narrow, and not strongly arched. Cast

of the dorsal valve characterized by a proportionally large and broad cardi-

nal plate, from which project two long and strongly divergent and distant

crural processes, reaching far along the surface of the cast in some cases,

while in others they are quite short. The surface of the valves has been

destitute of plications, but is usually marked in the larger individuals by

several strong varices of growth near the front margin, which give to the

shell a prematurely old appearance for so small a species ; the individuals

seldom exceeds five-eighths of an inch in length on the ventral side.

The species is unlike any known form of a similar size, in the

shallowness of the valves, in the erect character of the ventral

beak, and in the deeply divided feature of the cast of this valve.

The dorsal valve is much less marked, and is often destitute of

any distinguishing feature.

Formation and Locality.—In the hydraulic hmestone of the

Lower Helderberg group, in Adams County, Ohio, occurring in

196 New Species of Fossils from Ohio.

numbers densely packed together, but having the shelly sub-

stance entirely removed.

ARTICULATA.

Eurypterus Eriensis, n. sp.

Pal. O., Vol. Il, Plate 1, Figs. 31, 32.

Among the fossils from the Hydraulic limestones of Beach

Point, Put-in-Bay Island, Lake Erie, there are several detached

cephalic shields and one body of a species of Hurypterus, which

is so distinctly different from any of those described. that it

seems necessary to class it as a separate species. ‘The differences,

so far as seen on the parts preserved, consist in the form of the

cephalic plate, in the size and position of the eye-tubercles, and

in the proportions of the body as compared with the known

forms. ‘There are undoubtedly other and more important dif-

ferences in the appendages, but as these are not preserved on any

of the individuals examined, comparison is impossible.

The cephalic shield is proportionally broader than that of

EH. remipes or H. lacustris, and is more regularly rounded or

arched on the anterior border, lacking that subquadrate form

characteristic of those species. The eyes are proportionally

smaller, and situated nearer each other, and also farther forward,

as well as being somewhat more oblique to the longitudinal axis

of the body. The minute ocular points are somewhat larger

than in #. remipes, are situated close together, and are nearly

opposite the posterior end of the real eye tubercles; they consist

of a pair of distinctly elevated rings surrounding rather deep,

although minute, central depressions; the inner margins of the

rings being almost in contact. The head does not show evi-

dence of haying been margined by an elevated or thickened rim,

as In those species, but as the specimens are rather impressions

of the inner surface of the external crust than actual external

surfaces (being more properly internal casts, the substance of

the carapace having been entirely removed), this feature may

not be properly shown. ‘The head-plate more closely resembles

that of #. microphthalmus, Hall (Pal. N. Y., Vol. II, p. 407,*

pl. 80 A, fig. 7), from the Tentaculite limestone near Cazenovia,

N. Y., than of any other described species ; it differs, however,

New Species of Fossils from Ohio. LOM

in being proportionally much shorter, which gives it a more

semicircular form. The eye-tubercles are also more nearly of

the size of those of that species and similarly situated.

The thorax closely resembles that of 4. remipes in its general

form, but the lower three of four segments are proportionally

shorter, giving the posterior extremity a much more compact

character. The principal distinction between the two species,

as shown by the thorax, exists in a difference of the ornamenta-

tion of the surface, as seen on the specimen used. This consists

in the minute spine-like pustules or pointed granules, marking

the surface of the crust, being arranged in irregular transverse

lines across the body, and parallel to the anterior and posterior

margins of the segments, instead of being irregularly disposed,

as in all other species described. No indication of the longitu-

dinal-rows of larger pustules, marking the median line of the

thoracic segments, can be traced. Caudal spine not observed.

Leperditia angulifera, n. sp.

Pal. O., Vol. II, Plate 1, Figs. 28—30.

Carapace of medium size, having a length, in adult individuals, of about

three-eighths of an inch, by a height of one-fourth of an inch in the broadest

part. General form of the outline broadly sub-ovate and widest posteriorly ;

hinge-line straight, equal in length to two-thirds that of the entire valve ;

anterior end a little the shortest, narrowly rounding into the broadly curved

basal line ; posterior end broadly rounded. Surface of the carapace highly

elevated and prominent, forming a strong, somewhat angular, longitudinal

node just within the basal margin, and near the middle of the length. From

this point, the surface slopes somewhat gradually upward to the hinge-line,

with a barely perceptible convexity, except on the anterior end, where it is

more strongly convex, and characterized by a rather prominent and well-

marked ocular tubercle. From the angular nod2 near the lower margin,

there is, on well-preserved individuals, a perceptible angulation, extending

along the surface to the point of greatest length on the anterior end, and a

similar one, but less strongly marked, on the posterior side. There is no

perceptible difference in form between the right and left valves, each show-

ing the features about equally developed. No appearance of striations ra-

diating from the ocular tubercle can be detected, either on the internal

casts or in the matrices ; still the nature of the rock in which they are im-

bedded is such that very obscure markings would scarcely be preserved.

This species differs from Leperditia alta, Conrad, of the same

formation, in its larger size, and in the larger and more distinct

198 Vew Species of Fossils from Ohio.

‘eye-tubercle, as well as in its shghtly different position ; but

most distinctly in the sub-angular ridge-like node, and greater

convexity of the lower border of the valves. This projecting

node being situated near the lower margin, and also being the

most prominent point of the valve, causes the rock to adhere to

the more abrupt sides when fractured, and gives to the valves

as they appear upon the fractured surface a very decidedly trian-

gular aspect, entirely unknown in JL. alta.

Formation and Locality.—\n the hydraulic limestone of the

Lower Helderberg group, at Greenfield, Ohio, where it occurs

in great numbers, forming distinct layers through the rock, as’

does the ZL. alta in the Tentaculite limestone of New York.

Species from the Limestones of the Upper Helderberg Group.

PROTOZOA.

Receptaculites Devonicus, nu. sp.

Pal. O., Vol. III, Plate 2, Fig. 10.

A yery decidedly marked and characteristic specimen of the

genus Receptaculites, De France, has been obtained from the

limestones of the Upper Helderberg group, by Mr. Ed. Hyatt,

of the Ohio State University, from a quarry at Fishinger’s mills,

about eleven miles north of Columbus, Ohio. The specimen is

about two and a half inches in diameter, is broadly concaye

across the disc, and slightly recurved at the outer margin. The

concentric lines of pores or cells are strongly marked, and in-

crease rapidly in size as they recede from the centre of the disc,

but the surface has been so much weathered that the grooves

left by the removal of the stolons at the foot of the cells are not

distinguishable, so that the entire specific characters are not

recognized ; enough, however, remains to show the general form

‘and proportions. It has much the appearance of specimens of a

corresponding size of R. Owent, Hall, from the lead-bearing

limestones of the West, both in its general form and in the con-

cavity of the disc, as well as in the proportions and rate of in-

crease of the cell-openings as seen exposed on the surface of the

limestone.

The occurrence of a species of this genus at this horizon, is a

;

New Species of Fossils from Ohio. 199

rather unexpected feature in its history. The highest horizon *

of its occurrence hitherto recorded, is in the shaly limestone of

the Lower Helderberg group of New York, from which the

type of the species Receptaculites infundibuliformis (Coscinium

infundibuliformis, Katon; Geol. Text-book, 2d Ed., 1833, p.

132, fol. 5, figs. 64, 65) was derived. ‘The figure and descrip-

tion, as given by Prof. Eaton, are both poor, but the specimen

is still in the cabinet of the Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute,

bearing the original label, and I have seen several specimens of

the species from the same formation. . dactyloides (Dictyo-

crinus dactyloides, Conrad) is also from about the same horizon.

Both of these species, however, are in the Silurian, while the

present species brings the genus up to the Devonian: so that

we now know of its existence from the base of the Lower Silurian

to the Lower Devonian.

RADIATA:

Stylastrea Anna, 2. sp.*

Pal. O., Vol. UII, Plate 2, Figs. 1—5.

Corallum compound, growing in irregular or more or less hemispherical

masses of several inches in diameter, which are formed of a large number

of closely aggregated polygonal cell-tubes or polyps, of rather small size,

divided by intercellular walls of considerable thickness, as in most forms

of the compound Cyathophyllide. Full-grown polyps, measuring about half

an inch in diameter, but usually somewhat smaller ; the prevailing size he-

ing about three-eighths of an inch. Calyces deep, abruptly declining from

the intercellular walls to a depth nearly equalling the transverse diameter.

Longitudinal septa or rays well developed, extending about one-third, or

less, of the diameter of the tube from the outer wall, and averaging about

forty in number in adult individuals ; some containing thirty-six, and one

large one counted gives forty-two. Crest of the rays strongly denticulate,

the denticles being thickened and knot-like at their junction with the rays.

Central chamber within the limits of the longitudinal rays, equal to one-

third of the entire of the polyp, and divided by numerous distinct transverse

tabule, which are variously bent or interrupted by contact with the adjoin-

ing ones, leaving irregular cavities of considerable size between them. In-

terseptal spaces occupied by a series of horizontal plates, which originate at

the outer wall, and extend upward and inward with increased growth to

the edge of the rays, where they form the denticulation of the crest. Be-

tween the latter plates, the spaces are occupied by the smaller irregular

vesicular structure.

* Named in houor of Mrs. Orton, wife of President Orton, of the State University, Columbus,

Ohio.

200 New Species of Fossils from Ohio.

The species, in its general features, resembles Cyathophylum

rugosum, Hall, sp., from this formation, and may be easily mis-

taken for that one, in obscure or imperfect specinens ; but where

the internal structure is observable, especially in longitudinal

sections of the polyps, can be very readily distinguished by the

large central space in each polyp, and by the strongly developed

transverse tabule ; also by the rays not extending to the centre,

as in that species and in those of the genus Acervularia. When

the coral is weathered, or the substance becomes chalky, so that

the polyps are readily separable from each other longitudinally,

the appearance very closely resembles that of Cyathophyllum

rugosum when in a similar condition, but the interruption of the

rays before reaching the centre, and the great extent of the

tabule, will then serve to distinguish them.

Formation and Locality.—In the Upper Heldenmers sToune

in Paulding County, Ohio.

BRACHIOPODA.

Streptorhynechus flabellum, n. sp.

Pal. O., Vol. III, Plate 2, Figs. 7 and 9.

Shell below a medium size, semi-circular or semi-ovate in outline, with a

straight hinge-line of variable length ; the lateral and front margins are

somewhat regularly rounded and, in a profile view, irregularly bi-convex.

Ventral valve depressed convex, with a more or less elevated and project-

ing but twisted or distorted beak, overhanging a nearly vertical cardinal

area of irregular form and width, which is divided in the middle by a nar-

rowly triangular convex deltidium. The dorsal valve is almost regularly

semi-circular, very depressed convex, with a slightly more prominent umbo,

and is destitute of cardinal area. Surface of the valves marked by from

twenty-two to twenty-four strong, rather sharply elevated, radiating pli-

cations, which are entirely simple, and separated by broad, concave inter-

spaces. The shell is also further marked by fine, regular, concentric.

strie of growth, which arch backward in crossing the radii, and may have

been sub-lamellose on the external surface, but the examples seen are all

exfoliated.

The species is of asomewhat unusual type, especially in Devo-

nian rocks. The dorsal valve seen alone presents so much the

appearance of a strongly-marked Aviculopecten, that when first

observed it was thought to belong to that genus; but the ventral

valve, similarly marked, and possessing the characteristically

twisted cardinal area and beak with its covered fissure, at once

New Species of Fossils from Ohio. 201

; ; ; »

indicates its true position. It is entirely unlike any species

Intherto described from American rocks, and will not easily be

nustuken. It resembles, in the features of the dorsal valve,

specimens of Orthis flabellum from the shales of the Niagara

group of New York and elsewhere; but it 1s more coarsely

marked, with wider and more deeply concave interspaces.

Formation and Locality.—In ‘the limestones of the Upper

Helderberg group, at Smith and Price’s quarries, near Columbus,

Ohio. Collected by Mr. Hyutt.

Rhynchonella? raricosta, un. sp.

Ral OF Vol ily Plater) Biss 6:

Shell of moderate size, and somewhat transversely sub-triangular in out-

line, when seen upon the ventral side. Ventral valve flattened and very

shallow, with-a short, obtuse, and not at all incurved beak ; cardinal slopes

incurved, and the margins straight from the beak to near.the point of great

est width of the valve, the angle of divergence being nearly or quite 120

degrees. Front of the valve broadly curved, and marked by several deep

indentations corresponding to the number of plications marking the surface.

- Middle of the valve marked by a broad, shallow, slightly angular mesial

sinus, which is more than one-third as wide at the front of the valve as the

length from beak to base. Surface of the valve marked, on each side of

the sinus, by two low, angular, but distinct plications, besides those bor-

dering the sinus ; no other markings are traceable on the surface of the

shell. The margin of the valve between the plications is extended, forming

rounded projections similar to that of the mesial sinus, and probably cor-

responding to low rounded plications which have characterized the dorsal

valve, which has not been observed.

The broad sub-triangular form of the shell. with the shallow

ventral valve and the small number of low, angular plications,

will readily distinguish this from any species hitherto known.

There may possibly be some doubt as to the generic reference

of the species; but this cannot be positively determined until

more perfect individuals are obtained.

Formation and Locality.—In limestone of the Upper Helder-

berg group, at Smith and Price’s quarries, near Columbus, Ohio.

Collected by the Hyatt brothers, of the State University.

LAMELLIBRANCHIATA.

Genus Mytiiarea, H. and W.

Prelim. Nolice Lamellibranchiate Shells, Up. Held , Ham. and Chemung Groups, &e.

State Cab. Nat. Hist., Dec., 1869.

202 New Species of Fossils from Ohio.

Mytilarea percarinata, n. sp.

Pal. O., Vol. III, Plate 6, Figs. 1 and 2.

Shell less than medium size, the specimen used for description and illus-

tration measuring but one and three-fourths inches in extreme height ; and

the distance from the anterior to the posterior margins across the point of

greatest diameter, only a trifle over one inch ; the depth of the valve being

nearly half an inch. Form of the shell elongate triangular-ovate, rather

acutely pointed at the beak, which is small and incurved ; anterior, or bys-

sal, margin straight and absolutely vertical in the example mentioned ;

basal margin broadly rounded from the anterior line nearly to the point of

greatest length of the valve, where it is more rapidly curved, and finally

passes abruptly into the rapidly ascending posterior margin; the lower

part of which is nearly parallel to the anterior side, but above inclines more

rapidly toward the short and very oblique hinge-line. The surface of the

valve is most elevated along the anterior umbonal ridge, where it is at right

angles to the anterior surface, but slopes gently backward for two-thirds of

the distance toward the posterior margin, and on the other third much

more abruptly. Near the beak, the surface rounds rapidly from the an-

terior ridge to the posterior border. Surface of the shell marked by nume-

rous concentric ridges, parallel to the margin of the valve, many of which

are strongly marked and form varices of growth. On the anterior surface,

these varices and the concentric striz are well marked. Cardinal area not

observed.

The example used is a right valve, and bears evidence in its

characters of being an adult shell. It is associated in the same

layers of cherty material with Jf ponderosa, H. & W. (Prelim.

Notice Lamell. Shells, ete., p. 21), but may be readily dis-

tinguished by the vertical anterior surface and the angular um-

bonal ridge. From the young of that species, it is readily

distinguished by these characters, as those are distinctly round

and ventricose. The only known species approaching this in

the angularity of the ridge, 1s M/. attenuata, H. & W., of the

Chemung group; but this is quite distinct in other respects. |

Formation and Locality.—In the white chalky chert-beds of |

the Upper Helderberg Group, near Dublin, Ohio.

GASTEROPODA.

Platyceras squalodens, n. sp.

Pal. O., Vol. III, Plate 3, Figs. 6 and 8. ¢

Shell small, sharply conical when viewed in a lateral direction, with the

apex gently curved anteriorly; but in a posterior view, the form is narrowly

New Species of Fossils from Ohio. 203

lanceolate, with the dorsal portion rising into a thin, sharp crest or ridge ;

anterior side rounded and the anterior slope concave. Aperture narrowly

ovate, rounded on the anterior side, widest just above the middle, and ex-

tending backward into a narrow point. Surface of the shell marked by

fine hair-like concentric lines of growth parallel to the margin of the aper-

ture, which is a little bent down anteriorly and posteriorly, and also by a

rather faintly marked, but still distinct sulcus, which passes from the apex

on the left anterior slope, and over which the striz are slightly undulated,

indicating a slight notch in the margin at this point.

In the narrow and curved lanceolate form of the shell, this

species differs very materially from any of the numerous species

of this very monotonous genus, and may be readily distinguished

by the sharp dorsal ridge.

Formation and Locality.—ln the Upper Helderberg lime-

stone, at Columbus, Ohio. Collection of Columbia College.

Dentalium Martini, n. sp.

Iria, Oy Wa JOUR, Ilene ah lea)

Shell somewhat larger than medium size, rather rapidly expanding from

the apex to the aperture for a species of this genus, and moderately curv-

ing throughout the length ; cylindrico-conical in form, and circular in a

transverse section. Surface marked only by encircling striae. which form

rather broad undulations on the shell, and are strongly arched forward on

the inner side of the curvature, showing that the lip of the shell has been

somewhat extended on this side of the aperture. Shell-substance thick.

The species attains a rather large size, and expands more

rapidly than most species of the genus, reaching a diameter of

one-fourth of an inch in a length of less than two inches. The

curvature is also considerable, being deflected fully an eighth of

an inch from a straight line within the length of the specimen

_ when tested on the inner face. There is no species of similar char-

acter from rocks of Devonian age, so far as can be ascertained.

On some of the internal casts, there occurs a longitudinal ridge,

as if there had been a slit or interruption of some kind at that

point, which gives rise to a supposition that it may have belonged

to the genus Coleoprion, Sandberger, though no positive inter-

ruption of the strive of the surface is seen on any specimen ex-

amined. ‘This fact may suggest its belonging to the recently

formed genus Coleolus, Hall, but its perfect resemblance to

Dentalium more strongly indicates its affinities as in that relation,

rather than with the Pteropoda. Nor does there appear any

204 New Species of Fossils from Ohio.

sufficient reason among the species referred to Coleolus by its

author, for a generic separation from Dentalium, other than

their more strictly straight form. But there are straight or

nearly straight Dentalia, and also curved forms which he has

referred to the new genus. The generic feature ‘shells thick”

would also be opposed to pteropodous affinities. In its more

rapid taper and greater curvature, it is sufficiently distinet from

described forms of that genus.

Formation and Locality.—In the cherty layers of the Upper

Helderberg limestones, near Dublin, Ohio.

Macrocheilus priscus, nu. sp.

Pal. O., Vol. III, Plate 3, Figs. 3 and 4.

Shell small and very ventricose, the height but little greater than the di-

ameter of the body volution ; the former in the figured example being three-

eighths of an inch, and the latter only about one-sixteenth of an inch less.

Shell composed of about four volutions, which are very ventricose and rapidly

increase in diameter, the last one forming the great bulk of the shell, being

fully two-thirds of the entire height. Suture-line distinct, but not strongly

marked. Apical angle about cighty degrees. Aperture somewhat semilu-

nate, strongly modified on the inner side by the body of the preceding volu-

tion, which occupies fully one half its height. Columella strong, straight

and rounded, and the twisted ridge obsolete. Surface of the shell appa-

rently smooth ; at least no striz are perceptible.

This pretty little species reminds one strongly of JW. ventri-

cosus, Hall, from the Coal-measures, but is somewhat shorter in

the spire, although resembling it in most other respects. The

substance of the shell is soft and chalky, and might not retain

minute surface strie if they had ever existed; but no remains

of them are visibie at present.

Formation and Locality.—In the white cherty layers of the

Upper Helderberg group, near Dublin, Ohio.

Loxonema parvulum, nu. sp.

Pal. O.; Vol. Il, Plate 3) Hig. 3

Shell minute, scarcely exceeding a fourth of an inch in length, and pro-

portionally slender, with a rapidly ascending spire, which is slightly more

rapidly tapering in the upper than in the lower part. Volutions six or six

and a half, moderately convex on the outer surface, and more strongly

rounded on the lower part of the exposed portion than on the upper ;

New Species of Fossils from Ohio. 205

suture-line distinct, but not margined by a flattening of the upper edge of

the succeeding volution. Aperture elongate, slightly angular at the base

and pointed above. Surface of the volutions marked by a large number of

distinct vertical striz, which are more numerous and slightly finer on the

body volution than above, and are so nearly destitute of sigmoid curvature

as to appear vertical until closely examined.

The small size of the shell, the nearly vertical Lnes, and the

unequally expanding volutions, are distinguishing features; the

latter character, howeyer, appears to vary a little in degree on

some of the specimens. It will be readily distinguished from

the young shells of L. Humiltonie, which occurs in the same

rock, by the number of volutious and the slender form.

Formation and Locality.—In the white cherty layers of the

Upper Helderberg limestone, near Dublin, Ohio.

CEPHALOPODA.

Trematoceras, n. geu.

A straight, obconical, cephalopodous shell, presenting the characteristics

of an Orthoceras, so far as the appearance of the tube, septa and siphuncle

is concerned ; but with the additional feature of a line of elongated, raised

tubercles along one side of the shell, which have formed perforations

at certain stages of growth, probably confined to the outer chamber as

openings, which were closed as the animal extended the shell, and before

the septa opposite them were formed. Type, 7. Ohioense.

The shell for which the above generic name is proposed offers

un entirely novel feature among the Orthoceratide. The line

of nodes seen on the cast of the shell is entirely different from

anything pertaining to the ornamentation of the shell, and pre-

sents the same appearance as would the partially filled perfora-

tions of a Haliotis, or like those shown on the back of species of

Bucania, and those on which the genus Tremanotus was founded ;

neither is it a feature at all dependent upon the position of the

siphon or directly connected with it; for in the specimen used

the siphon is slightly excentric, on the opposite side of the tube

from the nodes. Its position would thus indicate that it was

a feature pertaining to the dorsal lip of the shell, corresponding

to the sinus seen in the lip of many other genera. Taking this

view of it, it would appear to indicate the existence of a deep,

narrow notch, with raised margins, in the lip of the shell at

stated periods, beyond which the shell was again united for a

206 New Species of Fossils from Ohio.

time, leaving a perforation to be closed by a deposit of shell from

the mantle as it approached the lower part of the chamber of

habitation. Many species of Orthoceras have been obseryed,

having a raised line, or rather markings, along the dorsal side ;

but none, so far as I am aware, presenting these evidences of a

series of separate openings, which I consider a feature worthy

of generic distinction.

Trematoceras Ohioense, b. sp.

Pal. O., Vol. III, Plate 6, Figs. 3 and 4.

Shell of medium size, straight, and somewhat rapidly tapering from

below upward ; the rate of increase being equal to nearly one-sixth of the

increase in length. Septa moderately concave, rather closely arranged ;

five of the chambers about equalling the diameter of the uppermost of the

five counted. Siphon of moderate size, and in the specimen used slightly

excentric. The surface of the shell, so far as can be determined from the

internal cast, has been smooth. Perforations, or nodes representing them,

large and elevated, two to three times as long as wide, and occurring at

every third septum below and at every second in the upper part of the

specimen.

Formation and Locality.—In limestone of the Upper Helder-

berg group, at Smith and Price’s quarry, near Columbus, Ohio.

The discovery and preservation of this peculiar specimen are due

to the careful observation of Mr. Edward Hyatt, of the State

University at Columbus, Ohio.

Gomphoceras Hyatt, n. sp.

Pal. O., Vol. III, Plate 4, Fig. 1, and Plate 5, Fig. 1.

Shell large and robust, slightly arcuate throughout, but more strongly

curvea below than in the upper part ; somewhat rapidly expanding from

below upward to near the middle of the outer chamber, where it is sud-

denly contracted to the aperture, and on the lateral margins again slightly

expanding. The rate of increase in diameter, as compared with the in-

creased length, is about as one and two, when measured on the inside curva-

ture. Transverse section of the shell obtusely subtriangular, flattened or

but slightly convex on the inner surface, rounded on the lateral surfaces,

and obtusely rounded on the back ; the dorso-ventral and lateral diameters

are about as four and five, and the triangular form is more perceptible in

the earlier stages of growth, owing to the greater convexity of the inner

face in the upper portion and on the outer chamber. Outer chamber

comparatively short, being about two thirds as high as wide. Aperture

large, irregularly tri-lobed, straight on the inner face, and about four-fifths

New Species of Fossils from Ohio. 20%

as wide as the entire width of the shell, and apparently about two-thirds as

wide in a dorso-ventral direction as laterally. The exact form of the aper-

ture on the outer side cannot be ascertained, owing to the imperfection of

the specimen in this part. Septa moderately concave, very closely arranged

in the lower part, but more distantly disposed above ; the rate of increase

in distance somewhat gradual to near the upper portion, where two or three

of the septa are slightly more crowded. In the more distant portions,

three chambers occupy the space of one inch, but in the lower part of the

Specimen, where the transverse diameter is a little more than one and a half

inches, they are less than one-twelfth of an inch apart. Siphuncle of mode-

rate size and sub-centrally situated. Surface of the shell unknown.

The specimen from which the description is taken is an in-

ternal cast, not retaiming any portion of the shelly structure,

but it appears to have been destitute of strong sturface markings.

It measures about seven inches in length by nearly four mehess

in transverse diameter at the widest part. which is near the’

lower part of the outer chamber. The lower end is imperfect,

and measures one and a half inches in transverse diameter. It

is with some hesitation that I place the species. under the genus

Gomphoceras, owing to the strong curvature of the shell and

the structure of the aperture. which is reversed in its relation

' to the curvature of the shell as compared with most species of

the genus ; the widest portion being on the inside curvature, in-

stead of on the outer side. The general triangular or trilobed

form of the aperture, together with the greater lateral diameter,

would seem to overbalance the fact of the curvature.

Formation und Locality.—In limestone of the Upper Helder-

berg group, at Smith and Price’s quarries, near Columbus, Ohio.

Named in honor of Mr. E. Hyatt, from whose collection it was

obtained. |

Gomphoceras amphora, b. sp.

Pal. O., Vol. III, Plate 3, Fig. 9.

Shell of large size, elongate-ovate or short sub-fusiform, somewhat rapidly

expanding from below upward to within a short distance of the base of the

outer chamber ; from which point it again contracts more rapidly to about

one-half the height of the outer chamber, and is then drawn out into a nar-

row neck, resembling the neck of a bottle, of a width but little exceeding

one-third of the diameter of the larger portion of the shell. Aperture not

distinctly traced, but on the side figured, there is an appearance of a deep,

rather narrow sinus, extending nearly one-half the depth of the outer

208 New Species of Fossils from Ohio.

chamber. The shell bears the appearance, also, of having been curved, as

indicated principally by the obliquity of the septa, which are numerous,

rather deeply concave, and arranged at a distance of about one-fourth of an

inch in the largest part of the specimen, and decreasing in distance below

and above ; while near the base of the outer chamber there are about six

septa closely crowded together. Position of the siphuncle not determined.

The species( resembles G. evimiuwm, Hall, of the same forma-

tion, in the lower part of its length, although more rapidly ex-

panding, but in the upper part, and especially near the aperture,

differs entirely from any other species known.

Formation and Locality.—In the limestones of tiie Upper

Helderberg group, in Marion Co., Ohio. Collection of Columbia

College, N. Y.

Gomphoceras Sciotense, un. sp.

Pal. O., Vol. ILI, Plate 4, Fig. 4; Pl. 5, Fig. 2; Pl. 6, Figs. 6 and 7.

Shell of medium size or smaller, short obconical in form, or rapidly ex-

panding from the apex upward ; slightly flattened in a dorso-ventral direc-

tion, giving a broadly oval transverse section, which is a little more flattened

on the dorsal than on the opposite side, in the more perfect specimen, but

may not _be constantly so in all individuals. Septa shallow, arranged at

nearly equal distances from each other in the larger parts, and numbering

about seven in an inch, except near the outer chamber, where there are usu-

ally one or two more closely arranged. The outer chamber is proportion-

«lly short, and rapidly contracted in the upper part to about one-half the

diameter below, to form the transversely sub-triangular or obscurely tri-

lobed aperture, which is rounded at the lateral extremities, straightened on

the dorsal side, and provided with a moderately deep but rather narrow

sinus on the ventral margin. Siphuncle proportionally small, and situated

close to the dorsal side.

Only two individuals bave thus far been observed, and these

show some slight variation in the form of the transverse section

and in the proportional length of the outer chamber; the one

retaining the chambers being shorter above, and more flattened

on the dorsal side than the other. In this specimen, the,septa

are somewhat obliquely arranged, being highest on the dorsal

side, which may, however, be owing to oblique compression in

the matrix. The individuals, being both internal casts, have

afforded no opportunity of observing the surface structure.

Formation and Locality.—In the limestone of the Upper

New Species of Fossils from Ohio. 209

Helderberg group, at Smith and Price’s quarries, near Colum-

bus, Ohio. Collected by Mr. Hyatt.

Cyrtoceras cretaceum, 2. sp.

Pal. O., Vol. III, Plate 4, Figs. 2 and 3.

Shell of medium size, somewhat moderately expanding in its upward

growth to the base of the outer chamber, from which point it again contracts

to the aperture ; the increase not always regular, but in some individuals

more abruptly expanding above than below. Shell slightly curving through-

out its length, appearing less arcuate in the upper portion, owing to the

contraction of the outer chamber toward the aperture. Transverse section

oval, widest in a lateral direction, and with the inner surface much less arcu-

ate than the outer or dorsal surface. Outer chamber proportionally short,

the length not exceeding the dorso-ventral diameter of the lower end ; mar-

gin simple, so far as can be determined from any of the specimens, showing

only a broad, shallow sinuosity on each side. Septa somewhat closely

arranged and deeply concave, but slightly increasing in distance in the upper

part, the average length of the chambers being about one-tenth of an inch,

but somewhat more crowded just below the outer one. Siphuncle of mode-

rate size, situated a little within the dorsal surface, and very slightly ex-

panded within the chambers. Surface of the shell marked only by transverse

lines of growth parallel to the margin of the aperture.

The shells are moderately abundant, and show Ge varila-

tions in form among individuals, especially in the rate of in-

crease in dimensions or in the regularity of the expansion, as

well as in the comparative distance between the septa; a single

individual showing a much greater distance between them in the

upper part of its length. ‘The shell would probably be ‘con-

sidered by some as belonging to the genus Oncoceras, as the

decrease in diameter in the upper part of the outer chamber

gives to the shell, below, the peculiar bulging appearance supposed

to be characteristic of that genus; but the transverse form and

elliptical section, together with the form of the siphuncle and

other features, present characters common to the genus Cyrto-

ceras. It is most nearly related, in general form, to C. Conradi,

Hall, from the Marcellus Shales of New York, but attains a

much greater size, has a shorter outer chamber, and is destitute

of the small lip-like sinus on the ventral side, as seen in that one.

The upper portion of Gomphoceras oviforme, Hall, from the

limestone of the Marcellus Shale, bears considerable resemblance,

except in the closing of the aperture, which constitutes a generic

difference.

210 New Species of Fossils from Ohio.

Formation and Locality.—\n the cherty layers of the Upper

Ilelderberg limestone, near Dublin, and at Bellenaris quarry at

Georgesville, Franklin Co., Ohio.

Gyroceras Columbiense, u. sp.

Pal. O., Vol. III, Plate 6, Fie. 8.

Shell of about a medium size, often attaining a diameter across the disc of

about six inches, although the majority of the specimens seen will not mea-

_ sure more than five. The shell is closely coiled, the volutions being in

absolute contact and about one anda half or two in number. Volutions

nearly circular in a transverse section, being a very little greater in the lateral

direction than in the dorso-ventral, and the back of the volution barely

perceptibly flattened on the outer portion of the larger one, but not percep-

tibly so on the inner portions. Septa deeply concave and distantly arranged;

the chambers measuring about half an inch each, on the outer two-thirds of

the body-volution of a specimen where the vertical, or largest, diameter of.

the disc is five inches. Position of the siphuncle not absolutely determined.

Surface of the shell unknown.

All the individuals of this species observed are internal casts,

and occur in a rather rotten limestone, under conditions very

unfayorable for the preservation of the shelly substance ; conse-

quently the surface-characters have not been observed. It is an

abundant species, but owing to the conditions of preservation,

is not often found in collections. It will be readily distinguished

from the other described species by the closely coiled volutions

and the nearly circular section. It is perhaps more nearly re-

lated to G. cyclops, Hall, 15th Rept. N. Y. State Cab. Nat.

Hist., than to any other described species; but it differs from

that one in its smaller size, and more rapidly increasing as well

as more closely coiled volutions, and does not appear to have

been proyided with the broadly expanding and foliated varices

which are so characteristic of that species. It might be objected,

that as the shell of this species is unknown, the determination

of the absence of these foliated expansions is not well authenti-

cated ; but it may be answered, that as the two species are asso-

ciated in the same layers in the quarries where they are both

rather common, if they were really one and the same, the shell

would be preserved on these as well as on the G. cyclops, and

the expansions readily detected.

Formation and Locality.x—In the limestones of the Upper

New Species of Fossils from Ohio. 211

Helderberg group, near the lower part, at Smith and Price’s,

and at other quarries near Columbus, Ohio.

Gyroceras seminodosum, nb. sp.

Pal. O., Vol. III, Plate 4, Fig. 5.

Shell small, compactly coiled, and consisting, in the specimen used, of a

little more than two volutions, which increase rather rapidly in diameter

with increased age ; they are somewhat wider transversely than in a dorso-

ventral direction, and are slightly triangularly elliptical in a transverse sec-

tion; the greatest transverse diameter being very slightly outside of the

middle of the dorso-ventral diameter. The inner one and a half coils are

smooth on the exterior, but the outer volution, for a little more than the

larger half, is ornamented by a single series of comparatively large, trans-

verse, triangularly elliptical nodes on each lateral surface, having the angular

side of the node placed anteriorly and the opposite side nearly straight.

The nodes are placed at distances from each other about equal to one-half

the dorso-ventral diameter of the tube at the node indicated. The septa are

not clearly defined and cannot be given with certainty; but they appear

to be distantly placed on the inner portions of the shell, while on the nodose

portion they seem to be placed at about half the distance of the nodes apart.

The siphuncle has not been observed. The surface of the shell, as seen on a

fragment of the substance remaining on the dorsum of the outer volution,

is marked with rather close, distinct, revolving lines or ridges, crossed by

more closely arranged transverse lines, which make a shallow retral bend

in crossing the back of the shell.

The specimen is probably an immature shell, but is a distinctly

marked species, differing strongly in its form and nodose charac-

ter from any of those assoeiated with it. It most nearly resem-

bles G. (Hercoceras?) paucinodus, Hall, from the Upper Helder-

berg group of New York (see Illust. Dev. Foss., Pl. 55, Figs. 1

and 2), but is less distinctly triangular in a transverse section,

that one bemg widest near the outer portion of the volution,

with a nearly regular sloping surface on the side of the whorl to

its junction with the preceding one, while this species is rounded.

The form of the nodes is also different—those being situated near

the dorsal margin. The triangular form of these nodes is pecu-

har in having the two short sides of the triangle directed forward.

It also differs in haying a greater number of volutions for a given

diameter. .

Formation and Locality.—\n limestone of the Upper Helder-

berg group, near Dublin, Ohio. Collected by Mr. Hyatt, of the

State University, at Columbus, Olio.

“ne

—

New Species of Fossils from Ohio.

Species from the Marcellus Shales.*

The following species occur in a highly bituminous brown

shale, of but a few feet in thickness, and having intercalated

beds of thin shaly limestone associated with it. The bed occurs

near the upper part of the limestones heretofore referred to the

Upper Helderberg group in Ohio, and below the layers known

as the Delaware stone, characterized by an abundance of remains

of Devonian fishes. These black or brown shales, so far as yet

explored, contain only the following species, most of which are

known forms, and some of them characteristic species of the

Marcellus Shales of New York. The species Lingula Manni,

Hall, occurs in the upper blue layers of the Delaware beds at

Delaware, and in a corresponding position at other localities,

but so far as yet known does not occur in the lower portions of

the group. At one of the localities where the fossils were ob-

tained from the brown shales, the layers immediately above

these beds are thickly covered with specimens of Tentaculites

scalariformis, Hall, and Spirifer gregaria, Clapp; and although

both these species may be occasionally found at a lower horizon,

they are never abundant except in the upper part of the group,

and are unknown in the lower part. Judging from these cir-

cumstances, together with the lithological character of the shales

and the known position of the species occurring in them, it

would appear reasonable to consider these brown bituminous

shales and limestones as being the western representatives of the

Marcellus Shales of New York; while the beds above them,

characterized by the presenc? of large numbers of Tentaculites

and Spirifer gregaria, would appear to represent the Hamilton

group of New York. In pursuance of this idea, several sections

have been critically examined in Central Ohio, and it is found

that the blue Delaware stone is followed by rapid repetitions of

brown shale, and thin-bedded shaly limestones, and finally by

soft, blue, muddy shales, resembling the Moscow shales of New

York, which are followed by beds of thin fissile black shales,

representing the Genesee slates of the New York series.

* In Vol. V, Pal. N. Y., on pp. 146 and 147, after speaking of the section of rocks at the

Falls of the Ohio, and the probability that the hydraulic cement bed and the layers above it,

up to the base of the Black Slates, are of the age of the Hamilton beds of New York, the au-

—

ee rk oe Le a a a. a

Fe ee ee

Oe ow,

a Tee ee ee

New Species of Fossils from Ohio. 213

The species recognized and described as occurring in the shales

above referred to are as follows; most of them being previously

known. The species marked as new are described below.

Lingula Manni, Hall.

Lingula Ligea, Hall. ?

Discina minuta, Hall.

DiscinaLodensis, Hall.

Chonetes scitula, Hall.

Chonetes reversa, %a. 8).

Spirifera Maia, Billings’ sp.

Letorhynchus limitaris, Vanuxem’s sp.

Aviculopecten equilatera, Hall’s sp.

Pterinea similis, VW. sp.

Chonetes reversa, nb. sp,

Pal. O., Vol. Ill, Plate 7, Figs. 8 and 9.

Shell of about 2 medium size, semicircular in outline, with a long straight

hinge-line exceeding the width of the shell below. Valves resupinate, or

reversed in their curvature ; the ventral being very slightly convex in the

earlier stages of growth, and subsequently recurved so as to appear con-

cave ; the entire deflection from a plane being very little, so that the general

appearance of this valve may be said to be nearly flat. Area linear. Hinge-

line ornamented by four long, very slender spines on each side of the centre,

which are projected from the hinge-line at an angle of about 65 degrees,

measured on the outside, or 115 degrees as counted on the inside of the

spine. Surface of the ventral valve marked by exceedingly fine strie,

which are slightly alternating in size ; there being from two to five finer

ones between the coarser kind. Interior of the valve characterized by fine

pustules, arranged in indistinct lines, presenting the usual characteristics of

the genus. Dorsal valve not positively known; but there is associated with

it, in the same layers, a slightly convex valve with similar striz, but more

distinctly alternating, which may possibly represent this valve. Its form

is similar, and the convexity correspondingly great.

This species is peculiar in its resupimate character, so far as

thor says: ‘‘In the State of Ohio similar conditions may be inferred, from the fact that certain

species of Hamilton fossils are published in the Ohio Geol. Rept. as from the Corniferous

group.” By reference to the 28th Vol. of the Proc. of the Am. Association for the Advance-

ment of Science, p. 297, it will be seen that, at the Saratcga meeting of the Association, I read

a paper on the discovery of the Marcellus Shale in Ohio; in which it is stated that the rocks

above that horizon (the Marcellus) would necessarily be Hamilton. This was in August, 1879.

The yolume above-mentioned is dated, in the letter of transmissal, Dec. 15th, 1879.

214 New Species of Fossils from Ohio.

the genus is known in American Devonian rocks, and this char-

acter, together with its form, its fine striae, and its nearly erect

slender spines, will readily distinguish it from any other species.

The dorsal valve above spoken of was at first supposed to be the

young of Strophodonta perplana, Conrad’s sp., but the similarity

in size and character of striz to this species renders it doubtful.

Formation and Locality.—In thin-bedded bituminous lme-

stone, from above the ‘*Bone-bed” at Smith and Price’s quarries,

near Columbus, Ohio.

Pterinea similis, n. sp.

Pal. O., III, Plate 7, Fig. 15.

Shell small, oblique; the body, exclusive of the wings, being almost regu-

larly although obliquely ovate in outline, the anterior part being the larger ;

hinge-line about two-thirds as long as the entire length of the valve ; anterior

wing small, distinctly rounded on the end, and separated from the body of

the shell, on the left valve, by a distinct sulcus along the surface, and which

constricts the margin of the shell ; posterior wing one-third longer than the

anterior side, pointed at the extremity and sinuate below. Body of the

valve ventricose, strongly so on the umbone, with a strong tumid beak,

which projects distinctly beyond the hinge. Surface of the left valve

marked by distinct radii, which are plainly alternated in strength over the

body of the valve, but less distinctly so toward and on the wings ; also, by

less strong concentric lines, and varices of growth. Right valve unknown.

The shell is of the type of Pterinea decussata, Wall, which

occurs abundantly in the Hamilton group in New York, but is.

of extremely small size, and very ventricose ; the proportionally

strong varices of growth showing its adult character. The type

is one represented in the Devonian rocks, from the Hamilton to

the top of the Chemung, inclusive, in New York, by several dis-

tinct species, but which is seldom recognized below this horizon.

We may, therefore, consider it as an additional evidence of the

age of the beds in which it is found.

Formation and Locality.—In the thin shaly layers of bitu-

minous limestones, from above the ‘* Bone-bed “at Smith and

Price’s quarries, near Columbus, Olio.

New Species of Fossils froin Ohio. 21i

The following species are from the limestones above the

‘*Bone-bed,”’ which resi on the top of the Marcellus Shale, in

the vicinity of Columbus, Ohio, and are not known to pass be-

low that horizon at any locality in that region.

Gilbertsocrinus spiniferus—Trematocrinus spinigerus, UUall:

15th Rept. N. Y. State Cab., p. 128;—GWilbertsocrinus (Trema-

tocrinus) spinigerus, Hall; Deser. of New Species of Crinoidea,

from the Carbonif. Rock of the Miss. Valley, Plate 1, Fig. 9.

Sprrifera ziczac, Hall.

Plerinea flabella, Conrad’s sp.

Grammysia bisulcata, Conrad's sp.

Actinodesma subrecta, n. sp.

Pal. O., Vol. II, Plate 7, Pie. 20.

Shell of moderate size; the body of the shell, exclusive of the wines and

hinge-extensions, ovate in outline, and slightly oblique to the cardinal line.

‘Hinge-line extended in the form of strong auriculations or wings on the sides

of the shell, the upper margin straight, or a little declining on each side of

the beak; anterior wing short, triangular, and divided from the body of the

shell by a deep and wide sub-triangular notch ; posterior side long and sub-

mucronate at the extremity, three to three and a half times as long as the

anterior side, and its area much greater, extending along the body of the

valve to nearly half its length from the beak. Body of the left valve more than

moderately convex, and strongly arcuate or bent between the beak and base

of the shell ; so that when placed on a flat surface, the margin, especially on

the posterior side, would be much elevated above the plane. Beak of the

valve large, sub-tumid, and slightly extended above the cardinal line. Length

of the body of the shell, from the cardinal line to the base, about one-fifth

greater than across it in the opposite direction. Anterior border broadly

rounded, the basal margin more sharply so, with a slight angularity at its

junction with the nearly direct posterior border. Surface of the shell mark-

ed by irregular, concentric, strongly lamellose lines, resembling those of the

oyster, Right valve not yet observed from Ohio.

The species is allied to A. recta—Aviculu recta, Conrad, but

is shorter, more ventricose on the left side, more arcuate or

- bent, and with less extended wings. It is not an uncommon

species in the soft shales of the Hamilton group of New York,

where it is readily recognized from 4. recta by the aboye-men-

_ tioned characters. The A. recfu is most common in the arena-

216 New Species of Fossils from Ohio.

ceous beds of eastern New York, while this is the prevailing form

among the soft shales farther west. The right valve is there

recognized as being shorter than the left, concave instead of con-

vex, with an appressed beak or umbo not extending beyond the

cardinal line, and the valve is much thinner in its substance.

Formation and Locality.—In layers of brownish limestone

above the ** Bone-bed,” at Fishinger’s mill, Franklin Co., Ohio.

Collected by the Hyatt brothers, of the State University at

Columbus.

Genus Nyassa, H. & W. Prelim. Notice of Lamellib. Shells of the Up.

Held., Hamilton and Chemung Groups, etc. N. Y. State Cab. Nat.

Hist., Dec., 1869, page 28. [Generic description omitted. R. P. W.]*

Nyassa arguta,

Pal. O., Vol. TM, Plate 7, Big s138:

Nyassa arguta H. and W, Prelim. Notice of the Lamellib. Shells of the

Upper Held., Hamilton and Chemung Groups, etc., distributed without

author’s name, Dec., 1869, p. 28.

Shell of medium size, transversely sub-ovate or sub-trapezoidal, much

longer than high. Valves moderately ventricose, most prominent along the

umbonal ridge, which is rather strongly arcuate and sub-angular. Beaks

rather small and appressed, slightly incurved, and situated near the an-

terior end. Surface of the valve generally declining from the umbonal

ridge to the basal line, and with a slight sinus or sulcus below the ridge,

which gradually widens toward the margin of the shell, where it causes a

broad, but not marked, emargination in the border of the shell. Cardinal

slope narrow and abrupt; hinge-line arcuate; posterior end of the shell nar-

rowed ; anterior end broad, rounded, and slightly excavated below the

beaks.

Surface of the shell marked by concentric lines of growth parallel to the

margin of the valve, and often forming rather strong, irregular varices,

most distinctly marked on the anterior half of the shell.

The Ohio specimens, although preserved in an entiely dif-

ferent matrix, are yet such exact counterparts of the New York

shells that no question can exist of their positive identity.

Formation and Locality.—In limestone above the Bone-bed

in ‘Tully township, Marion Co., Ohio. The specimen figured is

from the State Cabinet at the State University, Columbus, Ohio.

Genus Palzoneilo, H. & W.

Preliminary Notice of Lamellib. Shells of the Upper Held., Hamilton and

Chemung Groups, etc., N. Y. State Cab. Nat. Hist., Dec., 1869, p. 6. -

x See note at the close of this article.

a. 2 >

—7

aT)

New Species of Fossils from Ohio.

Palzoneilo similis, n. sp.

Pal. O., Vol. III, Plate 8, Figs. 4 and 5.

Shell oblong, with nearly equally rounded extremities, and almost parallel

dorsal and ventral margins. Anterior end short, a little narrower than the

body of the shell, resulting from the constriction below the beaks. Pos-

terior end rounded, with a slight oblique truncation below the middle of

the height, corresponding to the very shallow umbonal sulcus of the valves.

Beaks situated within the anterior third of the length of the shell, small

and enrolled. Valves ventricose, most prominent just below the umbones,

and slightly sulcated along the posterior slope. The surface of the shell, so

far as can be determined from the matrix, has been smooth or without visi-

ble markings. On the internal cast, the condition in which the specimens

are found, the muscular imprints are faintly marked—the pedal muscles

being the most distinct.

The species is closely related to P. (Leda) Barrisi, White

and Whitf., Proc. Bost. Soc. Nat. Hist., Vol. 8, p. 298, (Palaeo-

nevlo Barrisi (W. and W.), H. & W., Prelim. notice of Lam.

Shells of the Up. Held., Hamilton and Chemung groups, ete.,),

but has been somewhat more nearly parallel on the margins, and

has a smoother shell.

Formation and Locality.—\n the calcareous concretions of the

Hrie shale, at Leroy, Lake Co., Ohio, accompanying the fossil

entomostracan from the same locality (next described).

CIRRIPEDIA.

Plumulites Newberryi, nu. sp;

Pal. O., Vol. III, Plate 8, Figs. 6—11.

The specimens for which the above specific name is proposed,

consist of several detached plates, and of one of several plates,

irregularly folded together in such a manner as to be difficult

of interpretation. The several plates vary considerably in form

among themselves, and probably represent those from different

parts of the body.

The general form of the plates is triangular, with the apex, or

initial point of growth, a little inclined to one side; the base,

or margin of accretion, is usually the longest side, but not in all

cases. One set of plates has the shorter sides diverging at nearly

right-angles. On this form, the basal line is convex for more

than two-thirds its length, and concave on the remaining por-

218 New Specres of Fossils from Ohio.

tion, giving a sigmoidal outline; of the shorter sides, one is

straight to near the apex, where it becomes rounded, and the

other is slightly concaye. Another form has the shorter sides

diverging at an angle of about 105 degrees, one slightly convex

and the other concave; while the basal margin is convex in two

sections, with-a constriction or interruption between the two

sections, or at about one-third of its length from the straight

margin. The plates of this and the preceding form have the

surface regularly annulated transversely, parallel to the basal

margin, the annulations very fine, and regularly increasing in

size and strength from the apex to the base, except in aged speci-

mens, Where they are again crowded near the border: five undu-

lations may be counted in an eighth of an inch, where strongest.

These forms, also, have the straight margin often fractured and

bent, as if they had been broken along that side ; indicating that

two such plates may have been united along this line; and on

the only individual showing several plates together, this would

appear to be the case. A third form of plate is narrowly trian-

gular or conical, the basal border being the shortest, and simply

convex ; the other sides being slightly curved throughout, but

more distinctly so near the apex, which is obtusely rounded ; the

lateral margins are of unequal length, and the annulations of

the surface finer and more closely arranged than on the other

forms.

The individual specimens are much too few in number to give

any very satisfactory idea of the general form of the complete

body, or of the number of ranges of plates of which it may have

been composed. There appears to be no reason, however, to

doubt the correctness of the reference of these plates to the genus —

Plumulites, Barrande, as their genera! form and surface strue-

ture is exactly like those given by Dr. Barrande, and also to

those given in Vol. II, Pal. Ohio, Pl. 4, Figs. 1 and 2 (P. Ja

mest), as occurring in the rocks of the Hudson River group, at

Cincinnati; while some idea may be obtained of the probable

form of the entire body from the outline figure of a European

species, represented in Fig. 3 of the same plate. These Devonian

specimens, however, have been of very much greater size than

the above, as the plates here figured are all represented of natural

New Species of Fossils from Ohio. 219

size, the larger individual plates being more than an inch in

transverse diameter, while the species above referred to is minute.

The occurrence of forms of this genus 1n rocks of Devonian age

is also a new feature in its history; as those of Europe are con-

fined to the Lower Silurian formations and the lower, beds of

the Upper Silurian ; while these occur above the middle Devo-

nian.

Formation and Locality.—In the Huron shale at Sheftield and

Birmingham, Erie Co., Ohio; equivalents of the Genesee slates

‘and Portage group of New York.

The following species are from the Maxville limestone of

Maxville, Newtonville, and the neighboring parts of Ohio,

equivalent to the Chester limestone, or Chester and St. Louis

limestones, of the Mississippi Valley.

CRINOIDEA.

Cyathocrinus inequidactylus, n. sp.

Pal O:, Vol. IIT, Plate 9, Figs. 5—8.

Body of rather small size. Calyx deep cyathiform, being nearly hemi-

spherical in one example, and somewhat broad obconical in another, and

composed of smooth plates, which have only the general convexity of the

the body, or very slightly tuberose. Basal plates minute to moderate size,

higher than wide. Sub-radials large ; height and width nearly equal ; two

of them heptagonal and the others hexagonal, the lower sides barely diverg-

ing from a straight line. First radials wider than high, and about two-thirds

as high as the sub-radials. Anals visible, three in number; the first elongate

pentagonal, nearly twice as high as wide, and situated a little obliquely on

the right side of the area; the other two are small and pentangular. Second

radials, or first arm-plates, smaller than the first radials and narrowing up-

ward, wedge-formed above, and each supporting lwo arms. On the pos-

tero-lateral rays they are long and cylindrical, with the arms slender. On

the anterior ray it is short and supports two slender arms ; while on the

antero-lateral rays they support a slender arm similar to those of the other

rays on the anterior side, and on the outer side an arm several times larger

and stronger than the others, and composed of larger and stronger plates.

Plates of the arms short and unequal-sided, and giving origin to jointed

tentacula from the longer side of each plate, which is upon the alternate

sides of the arm, or on the same side from every second plate. Surface of

the plates smooth. Length of the arms and subsequent bifurcations not

known. Column small, round, and composed of unequal-sized plates alter-

nating with each other.

The slender arms are preserved on two individuals to the length of about

220 New Species of Fossils from Ohio.

one inch, and the strong antero-lateral arm on one, to more than an inch ;

but no evidence of bifurcation appears.

The inequality of the antero-lateral arms will be the distinet-

ive feature of the species, as the form of the calyx is similar to

many other species of the group.

formation and Locality.—In the Maxville limestone (shaly

portion), at Newtonville, Ohio.

BRYOZOA.

Synocladia rectistyla, n. sp.

Pal. O., Vol. III, Plate 9. Figs. 9 and 10.

Bryozoum growing in spreading funnel-formed fronds, rising from a

rooted base and widely diverging in their upward growth ; the inner surface

of the cup bearing pores. Rays straight and somewhat rigid in their up-

ward direction, with frequent bifurcations, which are not abrupt with ra-

pidly diverging branches, but rise gradually from a thickened space, and

gradually diverge as slender but constantly thickening rays until the normal

strength is attained.

The rays are slender, rather closely arranged; about six of them occupy-

ing the space of a fourth of an inch in the widest parts, and from eleven to

twelve may be counted in the same space in the most crowded parts.

Transverse dissepiments nearly as strong as the longitudinal rays, and

often slightly arched upwards between them in the wider parts, but more

frequently directed obliquely upward in passing from one ray to the next,

and very often directed upward to the right from one side of a ray, and to

the left on the opposite side ; but they are generally direct in the more

crowded portions. The middle of the ray on the poriferous surface is ele-

vated or roof-like, with a central crest or ridge bearing distant nodes; a

single row of large pores is arranged on each side, which are usually less

than their own diameter apart, and more or less alternating with those

of the opposite side. From two to three pores occupy each side of each

fenestrule, and the pores are margined by an elevated lip, which on unworn

spaces are very prominent. From one to three similar pores, although some-

times of smaller size, occupy the surface of each dissepiment. Non-porifer-

ous surface not observed. ;

This species is somewhat similar to S. diserialis, Swallow

(Trans. St. Louis Ac. Sci., Vol. I, p. 179), as identified and

figured by Mr. F. B. Meek (Final Rept. of U.S. Geol. Surv.

Neb., pl. 7, fig. 5), but differs in wanting the longitudinal

nodose ridge between the pores of the dissepiments, and in

having only a single row of pores on those parts occupying the

New Species of Fossils from Ohio. 221

‘middle of the dissepiment, as well as in the more slender, finer

and more direct, and much more crowded rays, also in having

a larger number of somewhat smaller pores on the rays. Mr.

Meek, loc. cit., identifies the above species with Synocladia

Cestriensis (Septipora Cestriensis, Prout, Trans. St. Louis Acad.

Sci., Vol. I, p. 448, pl. 18, fig. 2), which differs from the Ohio

specimens in the stronger and thicker, as well as more flexuose

rays ; In the rounded fenestrules. and smaller-sized pores, which

are also more abundant, often showing three ranges on parts be-

low bifurcations. On direct comp.rison of the Newtonville spe-

cimens with specimens from Chester, Ill., these differences,

especially those pertaining to the mode of growth, are very

marked and characteristic.

Formation and Localty.—In the Maxvile limestone (Ches-

ter), at Newtonville, Ohio. Collecied by Prof. E. B. Andrews.

LAMELLIBRANCHIATA.

Pinna Maxvillensis, n. sp.

PaliOs7) Viol, Plate 10; ebigs 5:

Shell of about a medium size, very acutely triangular in outline, with

highly convex valves; the length along the hinge equal to nearly three

times the greatest width. Hinge-line straight, not quite as long as the shell

below ; anterior end acute; basal margin very slightly arcuate, and the pos-

terior extremity rather broadly rounded; the point of greatest length being

at about one-third of the width below the hinge-line. Surface of the shell,

except for a short distance within the basal margin, marked by moderately

strong, simple radiating plications, about eighteen in number, as counted

at the posterior end of the specimen figured, but increasing in number with

increased growth; the additions being near the hinge. There are also nu-

merous strong concentric lines of growth parallel to the margin, often form-

ing undulations of the surface.

I find no American species described that closely resembles

this one; but P. flexicostata, McCoy, from the English Carboni-

- ferous rocks (British Pal. Foss., p. 499, pl. 3, K, figs. 11—13),

is very similar, but has slightly stronger radii, is somewhat

broader, and differs in having a longitudinal depression just be-

low the hinge-line, which this species does nut possess.

Formation and Locality.—In the Maxville limestone, at Max-

_ ville, Ohio. Collection of Prof. E. B. Andrews.

ro)

CO)

ros)

New Species of Fossils from Ohi.

Allorisma Andrewsi, vn. sp.

Pal. ©, Vol, Ml, Plate 10) hie y6:

Shell of medium size or smaller, transversely elliptical in outline ; the

length being about twice the height, and the thickness a little more than

two-thirds the height. Valves ventricose, most rotund a little in advance ot

the middle and along the umbonal ridge, and wedge-shaped posteriorly, as

seen in a cardinal view; beaks of moderate size, slightly projecting above

the hinge-line, incurved, directed anteriorly, and situated at about one-sixth

of the entire length from the anterior end. Cardinal line straight or ap-

pearing slightly concave, extending about three-fourths of the length of the

shell from the beaks backward, and bordered by a proportionally large and

wide escutcheon. Anterior end short, sloping forward from between the

beaks, at about an angle of forty-five degrees to the hinge-line, to near the

middle of the height of the shell, and then abruptly rounding backward into

the somewhat regularly convex basal margin. Posterior end broadly rounded

from the point of the umbonal ridge to the extremity of the cardinal line.

Anterior end of the shell characterized by a very small lunule. Surface of

the shell marked by several strong concentric undulations or folds, which

are simple, and regularly increase in size and strength to near the full size

of the shell; but near the outer margin of the valves, in the specimen figured,

they are smaller and doubled by the interpolation of an intermediate rib.

The undulations are crossed obliquely from the beak to the basal margin,

just posterior to the middle, by a narrow, almost imperceptible sulcus, and

along the crest of the umbonal ridge by a line of low-convex and faintly-

marked nodes, one on the surface of each undulation; the posterior umbonal

slope is also marked, immediately below the margin of the escutcheon, by

a slightly concave sulcus, across which the undulations are more faintly

marked than below.

The species is closely allied to Allorisma clavata, McChesney,

and was at first supposed to be identical ; but on comparison,

it shows so many points of difference that it became necessary to

consider it as a distinct species.

Formation and Locality.—In limestone of the age of the

Chester group (or Chester and St. Louis combined), at Newton-

ville, Ohio. Collected by Prof. E. B. Andrews, to whom the

species is dedicated.

Allorisma Maxvillensis, n. sp.

Pal. O., Vol. III, Plate 10, Figs. 7 and 8:

Shell small, the specimen used being a little less than one inch in length,

and the height less than half the length. Form of the shell transversely

New Species of Fossils from Ohio. 223

elongate, and cylindrically oval, the cardinal and basal margins parallel and

very slightly curved, and the extremities very nearly equally rounded ;

beaks small, inrolled, barely projecting above the cardinal line, and situated

at about one-fourth of the entire length from the anterior end. Body of the

shell very evenly and highly rounded from the cardinal to the basel margins,

and almost as convex posteriorly as in front. Umbonal ridge scarcely per-

ceptible, and the umbonal slope convex; escutcheon and lunule not defined;

anterior slope abruptly rounded. Surface of the shell marked by faint con-.

centric undulations of unequal strength, but most strongly marked on the

posterior end and on the umbonal slope.

The evenly convex and regularly cylindrical form of the shell,

together with the inconspicuous beaks and the equal-sized ante-

rior and posterior extremities, are distinguishing features of the

species. ‘The shell shows evidence in its form and curvature, in

a profile view, of having been slightly gaping behind.

Formation and Locality.—In limestone of the age of the

Chester group of Illinois, at Newtonville, Ohio.

GASTEROPODA.

Naticopsis zZic-zac, n. sp.

Pal. O., Vol. JII, Plate 10, Figs. 15 and 16.

Shell small, the greatest diameter of the body-volution, in the only indi-

vidual seen, being about nine-sixteenths of an inch; and the entire vertical

height of the shell only half an inch. The shell is very obliquely ovate

in form, and consists of about two and a half ventricose volutions,

which increase somewhat rapidly in size to the last one, which forms nearly

the entire bulk of the shell. The surface of the shell is ornamented by a

series of strong and raised transverse lines, which, on the upper volutions,

are simple as far as the suture below, and are directed strongly backward

in their passage ; but on the body-volution they appear more distant and

conspicuous, and are directed strongly backward in their passage for about

one-third the vertical diameter of the volution, where they are bent for-

ward at an acute angle, and after continuing for a distance nearly equal

- to their length above, are again bent backward. Across the midde of the

volution, they make two or more zig-zagging bends in vertical lines, forming

a revolving band of vertical ndges on the periphery; below this band, the

lines are directed forward obliquely, running nearly parallel to the base of

the shell.

The peculiarity of this shell consists entirely in the structure

of the surface ornamentation, as the general form of the species

224 New Species of Fossils from Ohio.

is similar to that of many others, but the peculiar zig-zag fea-

ture of the ornamenting ridges will at once distinguish 1t from

all other described species. Several ornamented forms of the

genus are known from the Coal-measures, but their markings

consist of nodes, either promiscuously scattered or arranged in

patterns.

Formation and Locality.—In the limestone of the age of the

St. Louis and Chester beds of Illinois (Maxville limestone),

ut Newtonville, Ohio.

Wolopea Newtonensis, n. sp.

Pal. O., Vol, IM, Plate 10) Hie 712)

Shell of medium size, ovate in outline and ventricose, with a moderately

elevated spire and extremely ventricose volutions, which increase very ra-

pidly in bulk from the apex. Volutions three and a half to four in number,

with strongly rounded surfaces and moderate sutures. Apical angle about

seventy degrees. Aperture broad ovate, modified on the inner side by the

preceding volution, pointed at the upper end and broadly rounded at the

base. Surface of the shell smooth and the substance very thin

The form of the shell is much like that of a Macrocheilus,

but the substance is much thinner than those usually are, and

the base of the columella is not prolonged, nor is there a solid

uxis; but specimens show satisfactory evidence of having been

distinctly and largely umbilicated.

Formation and Locality.—In the Maxyille limestone (Chester),

at Newtonville, Ohio. Collection of Columbia College, N. Y.

Macrocheilus subcorpulentus, n. sp.

Pal. O., Vol. ILI, Plate 10, Fig. 14.

Shell small, the specimens observed not exceeding five-eighths of an inch

in length, and the diameter rather exceeding half the length; spire conical,

the apical angle being about fifty degrees. Volutions about three or three

and a half, rapidly increasing in diameter and very ventricose, the last one

forming more than half the length and much the greater bulk of the shell;

suture deep and well marked. Aperture ovate, short and oblique. Surface

of the shell smooth. Columella not seen.

This species is rather closely related to several forms which

haye been described from the Coal-measures of the Western

States, but differs in the form of the volutions somewhat from

SS ee ee

New Species of Fossils from Ohio. 225

any, and in the more regular tapering spire,—those mostly hay-

ing the body-yolutions proportionally enlarged.

Formation and Locality.—In the Maxville limestone (Chester

and St. Louis groups), at Newtonville, Ohio. Collected by Prof.

H. B. Andrews.

Polyphemopsis melanoides, n. sp.

Pal. O., Vol. If, Plate 10, Fig. 18.

Shell rather below a medium size, elongate-fusiform ; the length nearly

twice and a half the greatest diameter, when not compressed ; spire ele-

vated, pointed at the apex, the apical angle being about thirty-five degrees

when uncompressed. The specimen figured gives on measurement thirty

degrees in the line of compression, and forty degrees in the opposite direc-

tion. Volutions about five and a half, gradually increasing in size, mode-

rately and evenly convex, with distinct sutures. Aperture elongate ovate,

widest across the middle, rounded and effuse below and pointed above. .

Columella not observed. Surface apparently smooth.

The species is nearly of the form of W/. fusiforme, Hall (Geol.

Rept. Iowa, Vol. I, Part 2), from the Coal Measures of Iowa,

but is considerably more slender. It is possible it may not pro-

perly belong to the genus, as the columella has not been closely

observed; but so far as can be determined, it appears to be

twisted.

Formation and Locality.—In the Maxyille limestone, at New-

tonville, Ohio. Collected by Prof. E. B. Andrews.

Bellerophon alternodosus, n. sp.

Pal. O., Vol. III, Plate 10, Figs. 17—19.

Shell of about a medium size, and somewhat subglobose in general form,

with an appearance of being slightly flattened on the dorsum in immature

specimens ; while on the adult forms, the dorsum is marked on the outer

half of the body-volution by a double series of rounded nodes, those on one

side of the centre alternating with those of the other side, and the inner

margins of the two series interlocking with each other. Aperture broadly

elliptical, strongly modified by the projection of the preceding volution, on

the inner margin. Auriculations largely developed and slightly reflected.

Axis very distinctly perforate. Inner lip somewhat callous on the pro-

truding inner volution. Surface of the shell, so far as can be ascertained,

marked only by lines of growth, beyond the nodes mentioned.

The species is somewhat similar in general form to B. Mont-

fortianus, N. and P., from the Coal Measures, in its general

form, but does not possess the strong transverse folds nor the

226 New Species of Fossils from Ohio.

carina between the lines of nodes marking the dorsum. {t also

differs in the alternating positions of the nodes.

Formation and Locatity.—In the Maxville limestone at New-

tonville, Ohio. Collection of Columbia College, N. Y.

CEPHALOPODA.

Nautilus pauper, n. sp.

Pal. O., Vol. III, Plate 10, Fig. 23.

Shell somewhat below the medium size, and consisting of about two and

a half volutions, which increase rather rapidly in size, and are so coiled

as to expose almost the entire diameter of the inner coils in the umbilical

cavity ; the outer one embracing only the dorsal surface of the inner volu-

tion. Volutions quadrangular in form, with the lateral diameter only

about two-thirds as great as the dorso-ventral diameter ; while the dorsal

and ventral surfaces are nearly vertical to the plane of the sides, so far as

can be determined from the specimen in hand ; or possibly the dorsal sur-

face may be slightly rounded. The sides of the shell are marked by a

faint, narrow, revolving sulcus bordering the margin of the umbilicus, and

by a correspondingly faint ridge close to the dorsal margin; while a much

stronger rounded ridge occurs on the surface at about one-third of the

width of the volution from the dorsal border. Internal features of the

shell not known.

A single individual only of the species has been observed, and

is altogether too imperfect to reveal all the features. It consists

of the non-septate portion of the shell, in the condition of an

internal cast, with the impression of one side of the entire shell ;

but gives no indications of the septa themselves. ‘The only fea-

tures indicating its cephalopodous nature, upon which one can

rely, are its symmetrical form, and the evidences of a similar

ornamentation on the opposite sides; otherwise it might have

been supposed to represent a form of Huomphalus.

Formation and Locality.—In the Maxville limestone (Ches-

ter), near Rushville, Ohio. Collection of Prof. E. B. Andrews.

Fossils from the Coal Measures.

CRINOIDEA.

Cyathocrinus Somersi, nu. sp.

Pale @:; Vol. Il, Plate 11; Pics: 4yandy:

Calyx very shallow, being low and spreading; the extreme height to the

top of the first radial plates not exceeding one-fourth of the diameter ; the

New Species of Fossils from Ohio. 22%

sides, above the middle of the sub-radial plates, gradually and almost

evenly curving. Centre of the calyx below deeply impressed, the cavity

embracing the basal and inner half of the sub-radial plates. Basal plates

very small, extending but little beyond the circumference of the proportion-

ally small column, and forming by their union a somewhat regular penta-

gon. Sub-radial plates of medium size, four of them being equal, and

pointed at their upper ends, the upper edges being convex ; the fifth plate

is larger than the others, and is truncated above by the very small first anal

plate, which rests between the adjacent first radials, and has apparently

joined three other plates above. The surface of this plate bears a single

round granulose tubercle. First radial plates nearly twice as wide as high;

their lateral faces being short and uniting with those of the adjacent plate,

except on the anal side, where they are separated by the first anal plate.

Articulating face for the second radials nearly straight, but deeply grooved.

Second radial plates short; that of the anterior ray being cuneiform above,

and has supported an arm-plate on each upper sloping surface. The second

radials of the other rays have not been fully determined; but on the an-

tero-lateral rays, where partially detached plates remain, they have been

quadrangular, as if for the support of other radial plates in a direct series.

Surface of the inner half of the sub-radial plates smooth, while the outer

half and the entire surface of the other plates are covered with proportion-

ally large, distinct, irregular tubercles, which are flattened on their surfaces

and covered with numerous small, distinct granules. The granules also

extend to parts of the intermediate surface. The upper margin of the first

radial is bounded by an elevated transverse ridge, which is also granulose.

This species bears considerable resemblance in its general sur-

face-markings to Hupachycrinus tuberculatus, M. and W. (Geol.

Sury. Ills., Vol. V, Pl. 24, Figs. a, 0), but the tubercles are

yery distinctly granulose. It, however, does not possess the

structure of Hupachycrinus, haying only one small anal plate,

the upper end of which projects above the line of the first radials.

The only specimen yet obtained of the species measures about

three-fourths of an inch in diameter, and is about three-six-

teenths of an inch high to the top of the first radial plates.

Formation and Loculity.—\n the Coal-measures at Carbon

Hill, Hocking Co., Ohio. Collected by Mr. Somers, of Colum-

bus, Ohio.

Zeacrinus Mooresi, n. sp.

Pal. O., Vol. III, Plate 11, Figs. 6—10.

Form of entire body unknown. Calyx of moderate size and pentagonal

in outline, very broadly cyathiform or shallow cup-shaped ; the region of

the basal plates being impressed, and the radials but moderately curving

228 New Species of Fossils from Ohio.

upward at their outer edges. Basal plates small, forming by their combi-

nation a nearly rezular pentagon. Sub-radials proportionally large, wider

than high, four hexagonal and one on the anal side heptagonal. Sub-radi-

als short, but not very broad, twice to twice and a half as wide as long ; the

cicatrix for the second radials very large and nearly straight. The anal

plates, three of which are preserved, are longer than wide. Column small,

round, composed near the calyx of alternately small and large plates, with

very coarse radiating lines of articulation. Surface of calyx smooth, except

a line of granules just within the margin of the sub-radial plates.

The second radial plates present the strong specific feature of

the species, and are large and spine-bearing, as in Zeacrinus

mucrospinus, McChes. ‘The spines are long, much thickened

and bulbous in the lower part, presenting in this respect a strong

contrast with those of that species. The cicatrix for the attach-

ment of the arm-plates is very large, showing that the plates

above were of large size. Arms and dome unknown.

The species has been quite abundant, as the spines are found

in great numbers, and vary considerably in size, according to

the width of the first radial plates upon which they have rested.

But all are thickened and bulbous, and many of them are more

than an inch in length. They are seldom found attached to

the calyx, but are scattered through the shale in the bed where

found.

Formation and Locality.—In shale of the Coal-measures at

Carbon Hill, Hocking Co., Ohio. Named in honor of H. Moores,

Esq., of Columbus, Ohio, their discoverer.

BRACHIOPODA.

Discina Meekana, nt. sp.

Pal. O., Vol. III, Plate 11, Figs. 1—3.

Discina nitida ? (Phil.) M. and W., Geol. Ills., Vol. V, p. 572, pl. 25, fig. 1;—

not D. nitida, Phillips, Geol. Yorkshire, Vol. II, p. 221, pl. 11, figs. 10—13.

Shell of moderate size or larger, circular or sub-circular in outline. Dorsal

valve convex, with an elevated beak which is directed backward and situ-

ated at about one-third of the length of the shell from the posterior margin.

Posterior slope slightly concave just below the apex; anterior slope convex.

Surface of the shell, when preserved, marked by fine, even, but elevated

and regular concentric lines, with flattened interspaces ; about ten or eleven

of the elevated lines occupy a space of an eighth of an inch on the middle

of a shell, being finer within and coarser beyond that point. On the par-

tially exfoliated shell, fine radiating vascular lines are perceptible. Ventral

New Species of Fossils from Ohio. )

valve flat, discoidal, circular in outline, or perceptibly clongated in some

cases ; the apex a little more than one-third the length of the shell from the

posterior margin. Foramen small, elongate-elliptical, narrow, not extend-

ing more than one-fourth of the distance from the apex toward the margin,

and the depression somewhat further. Surface marked as in the other valve.

This shell would appear to be identical with the one described

and figured by Messrs. Meek and Worthen as D. nitida? under

the supposition that it was the same as that figured by Prof.

Phillips, in the Geol. Yorkshire Coast, Vol. I, pl. 11, figs.

10—13; but it differs very much in outline from those figures,

as well as those given by other authors, in its circu'ar form ;

those being ovate, narrowed behind and widened in front; also,

in haying the apex much more distant from the margin. They

also cite D. Missowriensis, Shumard, as a synonym of the Eu-

ropean species. That author indicates his shell as parabolic in

outline; from which statement I should consider it as distinct

from the present species.

Formation and Locality.—tn the Coal-measures at Carbon

Till and Flint Ridge, Ohio; also in Llinois and Iowa.

Crania carbonaria, n. sp.

Pal. O., Vol. IJ, Plate 11, Figs. 11 and 12.

Shell small, none of the specimens observed exceeding three-eighths of an

inch in diameter; sub-circular in outline, or varied in form by the outline

of the object to which they are attached. Free valve depressed convex,

marked by a few concentric lines of growth ; attached valve thin, but with

a slightly thickened margin. Posterior muscular impressions large and

sub-marginal, the others being nearly central and forming a small eleva-

tion just posterior to the middle of the valve.

The shells of this species are found attached to the spines of

Zeacrinus and other bodies, one of those figured being upon the

operculum of Naticopsis. They are very thin, and not easily

detected in the roughened condition caused by the adhering

material in which most of the fossils from these beds are found.

Species of this genus are rather rare in the Coal-measures, but

very few having been described. Crania Permiana, Shumard,

from the white limestones of the Guadalupe Mts., Texas, is a

large form, and probably not a Crania, according to the descrip-

tion given. C. modesta, White and St. John, from the Coal-

230 New Species of Fossils from Ohio.

measures of Iowa, is described as ‘‘ rather small, finely punctate,

smooth, except somewhat strong concentric lines of growth

toward the margins. Upper valve moderately convex, umbo

oblique, nearly central. Lower valve moderately concave.”

There would appear to be some similarity between the upper

valves of this and the Ohio species; but the remark concerning —

the lower valve being’ ‘‘ moderately concave” throws considera-

ble doubt on their identity, as the lower valve of this species is

attached over its entire surface, while that, one would appear to

be free or partially free, if it is a Cravnia.

Formation and Locality.—In the Coal-measures of Carbon

Hill, Hocking Co., Ohio. Collected by H. Moores, Esq., of

Columbus, Ohio.

GASTEROPODA.

Naticopsis Ortoni, n. sp.

Pal. O:, Vol. Ill, Plate i2, Figs: 12 andes

Shell small, with a somewhat depressed conical spire, which forms an

angle of about 105 degrees, and the two and a half to three volutions are

obliquely flattened on their upper side, in the direction of the spire; the

outer one being marked just below the suture by a barely perceptible con-

cave channel of considerable width, which produces a very slight angularity

of the upper part of the volution. Suture-line slightly grooved. Lower

side of the volution rounded ; umbilicus closed; callus slight ; aperture ob-

liquely ovate at the outer margin, but rounded within from the excessive

thickening of the shell. Surface of the shell marked by fine, rather equal

and somewhat regular transverse strie of growth, most distinctly marked on

the lower half of the volution. On the outer half of the last volution, there

occur lines of nodes, very faintly indicated, having a direction opposite to

the growth-lines, and becoming fainter and finally imperceptible toward

the lower side.

The species resembles V. nana, M. & W. (Geol. Rept. Ils.,

Vol. III, p. 365, pl. 32, fig. 4), in size and general form, but

differs from it in the greater flattening of the volution in the

direction of the spire, and in the faintly nodose surface.

formation and Locality.—In a thin cherty band of the Coal-

measures in the railroad cutting at Mrs. Banks’ farm, Falls

Township, Hocking Co., Ohio.

New Species of Fossils from Ohio. 231

Loxoneima plicatum, 2. sp.

Pal. O., Vol. III, Plate 11, Figs. 14 and 19.

Shell small and slender, spire elevated, presenting an apical angle of

about fifteen degrees ; composed of about eleven volutions, in the example

used and illustrated, which are flattened on the surface in the direction of

the spire, and marked by strong vertical plicee, which are directed a little

forward in their passage across the volution from above downward. The

body or largest volution, counting from the lip backward, contains fifteen

of these plications, and the volutions above contain nearly the same num-

ber ; those of the several volutions being in line with those on the one below,

but set enough back of it to be in line with the slope of the plication. This

gives them a somewhat spiral arrangement on the shell, the whale having

a twist of about one-fourth of one turn in the length of the shell. On the

last volution the plicze are not distinct much below the bulge of the whorl.

Aperture elongate and pointed below. Suture distinct, but not grooved or

banded. Columella straight, about half as long as the aperture, solid, and

terebra-like: shell without umbilicus.

The species belongs to a group of the genus which has but

few representatives in our Coal-measures ; and even those that

are nearest allied to it appear to differ in the form of the colu-

mella, which is somewhat peculiar; and if other species should

appear presenting these same characters, it may be necessary to

separate them generically from the true Loxonema.

Formation and Locality.—In the Coal-measures of Carbon

Hill, Wocking Co., Ohio. Collected by H. Moores, Egy.

CEPHALOPODA.

Nautilus Ortoni, n. sp.

Pal. O., Vol. III, Plate 12, Fig. 20.

Shell of medium size, and consisting of about two and a half or three

closely coiled volutions, but which are not at all embracing ; the outer one

being simply in close contact with the medio-dorsal portion of the next

within, and exposing nearly the entire dorso-ventral diameter of the shell.

Volutions transversely sub-pentangular, being angularly convex on the

back, strongly sub-angular on the sides, and concave on the abrupt umbili-

cal slope, which forms a somewhat sigmoidal curve resembling an ogee

moulding, while the slightly concave ventral surface is quite narrow, and

forms a fifth surface. Laterai angles obtuse or round sub-angular, and

ornamented by a series of nodes which are strong and very distinct on the

inner coil, broad and rounded on the first part of the last volution, and be-

come obsolete on the outer third. The substance of the shell has been very

thick and strong, and the surface shows no evidence of growth-markings or

strie. Septa and other internal features unknown.

232 New Species of Fossils from Ohio.

The shell resembles somewhat N. spectabilis, M. and W., but

has a smaller number of coils in a shell of corresponding size,

while the concayity of the umbilical slope and the sub-angular

back are strong distinguishing features.

Formation and Locality.—In the Coal-measures at Springfield,

Summit Co., Ohio. Cabinet of the School of Mines, N. Y. City.

Nautilus (Gyroceras?) subquadrangularis, n. sp.

PalOy Al, Plate oiiee le:

Shell of about a medium size, consisting of two volutions, as seen on the

specimen used, which increase somewhat rapidly in size with increased

length, and are closely coiled so as to bring them in close contact, but not

to be in any degree embracing. The inner volution, however, is coiled in

so large a circle that it leaves an opening within it of about one inch in di-

ameter. The shell is at first circular in section, but before the completion

of the first coil the form has become modified so as to produce a sub-quad-

rangular section, narrowest on the dorsal side, and the second volution be-

comes distinctly quadrangular, being nearly as wide on the dorsum as across

the lateral face; but the angles are all distinctly rounded, and the inner or

umbilical margins most particularly so. The inner part of the shell has a

line of strong node-like undulations on each dorsal angle, which become

obsolete at about the first third of the second volution. Margin of the aper-

ture greatly extended on the sides beyond the line of the inner edge, and

apparently sinuate on the back. Septa deeply concave and numerous;

those at the base of the outer chamber showing abotit three chambers in

the space of one inch, and gradually decreasing in distance toward the

earlier part of the shell. On the quadrangular parts, they are deeply

receding on the sides and back, and correspondingly advanced on the an-

gles ; a consequence of the quadrangular form on a deeply concave septum.

Surface of the shell apparently smooth and the substance thin. Siphon

unknown.

The species is peculiar in its quadrangular form, and in the

wide opening through the centre; in these characters it differs

from any previously described species. It is of a form that is

with difficulty placed in the genus Mautilus,—its characters, so

far as the external features are concerned, nearly resembling

those of Gyroceras,—and in the absence of a knowledge of the

position of the siphuncle, must remain doubtful.

Formation and Locality.—In limestone of the Coal-measures,

at Canfield, Ohio. Collected by H. C. Bowman, and now in

the cabinet of the School of Mines, New York City.

New Species of Fossils from Ohio.

APPENDIX.

Leiorhynchus Newberryi.

LE1IoRuyYNCHUS NEWBERRYI, H. & W., 28d Rept. State Cab., N. Y. In

the description of this species it is correctly referred to the Chemung group,

but improperly to the Waverley group on the plate.

Genus Pholadelia, H. & W.

Preliminary notice of Lamellibranchiate Shells of the Upper Helderberg,

Hamilton and Chemung groups, etc. (State Cab. Nat. Hist., Decem., 1869,

p. 63). The name (‘‘ Hall, n. g.”) incorrectly inserted without my know-

ledge.—R. P. W.

Pholadelia Newberryi.

PHOLADELLA, NEwWBERRYI, H. & W. Prelim. Notice, cited above, p.

65. Allorisma (Sedgwickia ?) pleuwropistha, Meek; Pal. Ohio, Vol. I, p. 309,

Plate 13,

Figs. 4a and 4b.

Pleurotomaria Mississippiensis.

PLEUROTOMARIA MIssIssIPPIEnsis, White & Whitf., Proc. Bost. Soc.

Nat. Hist., 1862, p. 208, Vol. 8.

Pleurotomaria textiligera, Meek ; Pal. Ohio, Vol. I, p. 314, Pl. 13, Figs.

Ta and b.

Note on the Marcellus Shale and other Members of the

Hamilton Group in Ohio, as determined from Palzontologi-

cal Evidence,

During the early summer of 1878, Pres’t Edward Orton wrote,

asking if I could spend a few days with him in central and

southern Ohio, in an effort to ascertain from paleontological

evidence, the true horizon of certain layers of rock which had

been somewhat of a difficulty to him; and in the month of August

I spent several days with him for that purpose. While making”

284 New Species of Fossils from Ohio.

these somewhat hurried observations at a locality about six miles

N. W. of Columbus, in Perry township, on the east bank of the

Scioto River, we accidentally discovered a thin bed of dark brown

shale, somewhat fissile and bituminous in character, in what

Prof. Orton had considered as a representative of the Delaware

limestone of Delaware, Ohio. The peculiar texture of the shales,

occurring where I had expected only a light-colored limestone,

excited my interest; and after a few minutes’ examination, I

discovered that they contain numerous flattened shells of Levo-

rhynchus limitaris, Vanuxem. I also obtained from them two

specimens of Discina minuta, and examples of Lingula Manni,

Hall; the two former being well-known and characteristic forms

of the Marcellus shales of New York. On examination, we

found that these shells, especially the Leiorhynchus, extended

through a thickness of several feet of the rock, and that the

peculiar bituminous character of the shale accompanied them,

but with intercalations of thin layers of less bituminous and

lighter-colored limestones. Subsequently, at a point nearly op-

posite Dublin, Ohio, some miles north of the above-mentioned

locality, the same shale was again recognized in a corresponding

horizon, accompanied by the same species, the Leiorhynchus

being quite numerous. At a subsequent visit, Mr. Hdward

Hyatt obtained Discina Lodensis, Hall, another New York

Marcellus species. At this second locality, immediately above

the shale, and while the limestone layers retain much of the

bituminous character, the layers become thicker and more calca-

reous, and their surfaces are covered with the shells of Spirifera

gregaria, Clapp, and Tentaculites scalariformis, Hall, both of

which are likewise common in the blue limestone eye at Dela-

ware, Ohio.

A section of the rocks at the first-mentioned locality, six miles

N. W. of Columbus, on the east bank of the Scioto, subsequently

furnished by Prof. Orton, is as follows :

The lower bed, No. 1 of section, is a heavy-bedded limestone,

about thirty feet thick, representing the Columbus quarries, in-

cluding the coral beds and those containing the large cephalo-

pods. (Lower Corniferous of the Ohio Geol. Rept.)

No. 2, a thin layer of limestone, four to six inches thick,

New Species of Fossils from Ohio. 235

densely filled with teeth, plates and bones of fishes, locally known

as the ‘‘ Bone-bed.”

No. 3, about thirty feet of thin-bedded shaly limestone, the

“Delaware bed” of Prof. Orton. The upper part of this is

supposed to represent the beds of similar character at Delaware,

Ohio, which contain the large fish-remains.

No. 4, about fifteen feet of bluish, somewhat marly shales,

the ‘‘ Olentangy shales” of N. H. Winchell. This is followed

above by the Huron shales, the supposed equivalents of the

Genesee slates and Portage shales of New York.

Near the lower part of No. 3, only a few feet above the

** Bone-bed,” occurs the dark brown shale in question, with the

peculiar fossils, which I have no hesitation in pronouncing the

equivalent of the Marcellus shales of New York.. Admitting

this—and there certainly appears to be no alternative—the rocks

found, above this limit should represent the Hamilton group of

the New York system; and we ought to find some fossils here,

characteristic of that formation, which would not pass below

this line. ‘To ascertain if this was so, I requested Mr. Edward

Hyatt, who has collected carefully the fossils around Columbus,

to furnish me a list* of the species known, with their horizons

indicated ; and also requested the use of specimens of species

not known to occur below the horizon of the ‘‘ Bone-bed,”—

that being the most easily recognized limit, and the one most

generally studied in conuection with the vertical distribution.

Contrary to my expectations, the species yet known not to pass

below the ‘‘ Bone-bed ” are very few. ‘These, with the exception

of the Tentaculites scalariformis, have been illustrated on Plate

7, and are, with two exceptions, known Marcellus and Hamilton

types,—one being a new species, and the other (Spirifera Maia,

Bill.) occurring in the Upper Helderberg limestone in Canada.

The examination of the upper layers for characteristic fossils

was not carried far enough to make it perfect, owing to Mr.

Hyatt’s absence from Columbus ; but the few forms found above

these bituminous layers will readily be recognized as character-

istic of the Hamilton group, and warrant one in considering the

* These lists will be found appended at the end of the present article.

236 New Species of Fossils from Ohio.

Black Shales and other beds coming above these thin limestones

in central Ohio, as equivalent to the Genesee Slates and succeed-

ing formations of New York.*

The following lists, prepared by E. and H. Hyatt, of Columbus,

Ohio, are from the limestones within 24 miles of that place.

Those of the first list are from below the horizon of the ‘‘ Bone-

bed,” and the next from above; Strophomena rhomboidalis being

the only species fully recognized from both horizons. All spe-

cies have been collected by them from known horizons, or have

been seen from the beds by myself.

SPECIES FROM BELOW THE ‘‘ BONE-BED.”

PROTOZOA.

STROMATOPORA, De Blainville.

C. granulosa, Nich.

S. nodulata, Nich.

S. ponderosa, Nich.

S. Sanduskyensis, Rominger.

S. substriatella, Nich.

Cannopora, Phillips.

C. columnaris, Nich.

C. densa, Nich.

RECEPTACULITES, De France.

R. Devonicus, Whitt.

RADIATA.

Favosires, Lamarck.

* Since writing the above remarks, Vol. 5 of the Palzeont. of New York has been published.

In it the author has, on page 139, some remarks on the limestones at the Falls of the Ohio, and

their relations to the Hamilton group of New York. After showing that the Hydraulic-eement

beds of the Falls of the Ohio are the equivalents of the Hamilton group of New York (which

had already been stated in the Geol. Rept. Ind., 1875, pp. 147, 148, and also shown in sections

on page 157), the author remarks, ‘‘ In the State of Ohio. similar conditions may be inferred,

from the fact that certain known species of Hamilton fossils are published in the Ohio Geolo-

gical Reports as from the Corniferous group.” At the meeting of the Am. Assoc. for the Ad-

vancement of Science, at Saratoga, August. 1879, I read a notice of the occurrence in Ohio of

rocks representing the Marcellus shales of New York, in which it was shown that a considera-

ble thickness of the limestones previously recognized as ‘‘Corniferous ” in Ohio, were aboye

the horizon of the beds which I had recognized, from paleontological and lithological evi-

dence, as of the age of the Marcellus shale, and would be of necessity equivalents of the

Hamilton group.

New Species of Fossils from Ohio. 237

F. basaltica, Gold.

FE, Gothlandica, Lamarck. (?)

F. hemispherica, Yand. and Shumard.

F. invaginata, Nich.

fF pleurodictyoides, Nich.

fF. polymorpha, Gold. ?

fF. turbinata, Billings.

MICHELINA, De Koninck.

M. convexa, Emmons.

M. maxima, 'Troost.

Emmonstia, Ed. and Haime.

EF. Emmonsi, Hall.

TRAcCHYPORA, Ed. and Haime.

T. elegantula, Billings.

AULOpOoRA, Goldfuss.

A. cornuta, Bill.

A. filiformis, Bill.

A. tubeformis, Gold. ?

Syrincopora, Goldf. ?

S. Hesingeri, Bill.

S. Maclurei, Bill.

S. tabulata, Ed. and Haime.

EripoPpHyLuuM, Ed. and Haime.

E. Simcoense, Bill.

E. strictum, EK. and H.

E. Vernewilanum, KB. and H.

STYLASTREA, Lonsdale.

S. Annae, Whitt.

ZAPHRENTIS, Rafinesque.

Z. cornicula, Ed. and H.

Z. Hdwardsi, Nich..

Z. gigantea, Ed. and H.

Z. prolifica, Bill.

Z. Wortheni, Nich.

CYATHOPHYLLUM, Goldf.

C. rugosum, Hall.

C. Zenkeri, Bill.

HADRIOPHYLLUM, Ed. and H.

H. DP’ Orbignyi, Ed. and H.

238 New Species of Fossils from Ohio.

HELIOPHYLLUM, Hd. and H.

H. confluens, Hall.

Je Jello, WC. pune. jal.

AULACOPHYLLUM, Ed. and H.

A. sulcatum, Hid. and H.

CYsTIPHYLLUM, Lonsdale.

C. Americanum, Ed. and H.

C. Ohioense, Nich.

CRINOIDEA.

MEGISTOCRINUs, O. and 8.

M. spinulosus, Lyon.

DoLaTocRINws, Lyon.

D. multiradiatus, Hall.

D. radiatus, Hall.

BLASTOIDEA.

NUCLEOCRINUS Conrad.

N. Verneuil, Troost.

CopastEeR, McCoy.

C. pyramidatus, Shumard.

ANCYROCRINUS, Hall.

A, spinosus, Hall.

MOLLUSCA.

BRYOZOA, Emmerich.

Sticropora, Hall.

S. Gilberti, Meek.

LICHENALIA, Hall.

LL. lichenoides, Meek.

BRACHIOPODA.

Discina, Lamarck.

D., grandis, Vanux.?

CRANIA, Retzius.

(. crenistriata, Hall.

C. Hamiltoniae, Hall.

Ortuis, Dalman.

O. Livia, Bill.

O. propinqua, Hall.

O. Vanuxemi, Hall.

STREPTORHYNCHUS, King.

S. flabellum, Whitf.

New Species of Fossils from Ohio.

S. Pandora, Bill.

SrropHoponta, Hall.

S. ampla, Hall.

S. demissa, Conrad.

S. hemispherica, Hall.

S. inequiradiata, Hall.

S. nacrea, Hall.

S. Patersoni, Hall.

S. perplana, Conrad.

S. subdemissa, Hall. ??9@

STROPHOMENA, Ratfinesque.

S. rhomboidalis, Wilck.

CHONETES, Fischer.

C. acutiradiata, Hall.

C. arcuata, Hall.

C. deflecta, Hall.

C. mucronata, Hall. ?

C. Yandellana, Hall.

PRODUCTELLA, Hall.

P. spinulicosta, Hall.

SPIRIFERA, Sowerby.

S. acuminata, Con.

iS. duodenaria, Hall.

S. euryteines, Owen.

S. fimbriata, Con.

S. gregaria, Clapp.

S. Greert, Hall.

S. macra, Hall.

S. macrothyris, Hall.

S. Manni, Hall.

S. Marcyt, Hall.

S. Oweni, Hall.

S. segmenta, Hall.

S. varicosa, Hall.

SPIRIFERINA, D’Orb.

S. raricosta, (Conrad.)

CykTINA, Davidson.

C. Hamiltonie, Hall.

Meristetna, Hall. °

—

240 New Species of Fossils from Ohio.

M. nasuta, (Conrad.)

M. scitula, (Hall.)

NucLeEospira, Hall.

N. concinna, Hall.

ATRYPA, Dalman.

A. reticularis, Linn.

tHYNCHONELLA, Fischer.

R. Billingsi, Hall.

R. Carolina, Hall.

Rk. Dotis, Tell.

fk. Thetis, Billings.

R.? raricosta, Whitt.

PENTAMERELLA, Hall.

iPRardie seall

TEREBRATULA, Schlotheim.

T. Sullivantt, Hall.

'TTROPIDOLEPTUS, Hall. -

T. carinatus, Conrad.

LAMELLIBRANCHIATA.

AVICULOPECTEN, McCoy.

A. crassicostata, H. and W.

A. paralis, Conrad.

PTERINEA, Goldf.

P. flabella, Conrad? ‘The specimens referred to

this species are very doubtfully identified. They

are large coarse forms, very unlike any of those

in the higher beds.

MytiLarca, H. and W.

M. ponderosa, H. and W.

M. percarinata, Whitt.

ConocaRDIUM, Brown.

C. trigonale, Hall. C. Ohioense, Meek, is the

young of the above.

GoniopHora, Phillips.

G. perangulata, H. and W.

PARACYCLAS, Hall.

P. lirata, Conrad.

P. occidentalis, H. and W. P. Ohioensis, Meek,

is the same as P. Jirata, Conrad.

New Species of Fossils from Ohio. 241

Mopromorpua, H. and W.

M. elliptica ?

M. perovata, Meek.

SANGUINOLITES, McCoy.

. S. Sanduskyensis, Meek.

GASTHROPODA.

PLATYCERAS, Conrad.

. attenuatum, Meek.

. bucculentum, Hall.

. carinatum, Hall.

. conicum, Hall.

. dumosum, Conrad.

. multispinosum, Meek.

. sguadlodens, Whitt.

PLAtTyostoma, Conrad.

Reiichas. alll.

~ HUOMPHALUS, Sowerby.

FH. Decewi, Billings.

Houopea, Hail.

HI. rotundata, Wall, sp.

TursBo, Klein?

T. Kearneyi, Hall.

T. Shumardana, Yandell.

Isonema, M. and W.

| I. bellatula, Hall.

I. depressa, H. and W.

I. humilis, Meek.

XENOPHORA, Fischer.

AX. antiqua, Meek.

Naricopsis, McCoy.

N. equistriata, Meek.

NV. cretacea, H. and W.

NV. levis, Meek.

Loxonema, Phillips.

L. Leda, Hall.

L. Hamiltonie, Hall.

L. parvulum, Whitt.

LD. pexutum, Hall.

ORTHONEMA, M. and W.

Rel ve) Bul ae ae) Se] a9

New Species of Fossils from Ohio.

O. Newberryi, Meck.

MacrocHeiuus, Phillips.

M. priscus, Whitt.

PLEUROTOMARIA, De France.

P: adjutor, Hall.

P> Doris, Mail:

P. Hebe, Hall.

P. Lucina, Hall.

Muxcuisonia, De Verneuil.

M. desiderata, Hall.

M. Maia, Hall.

M. obsoleta, Hall.

DentTALiIumM, Linneus.

D. Martim, Whitf.

BELLEROPHON, Montfort.

B. Newberryi, Meek.

B. Pelops, Hall.

B. propingua, Meek.

PTEROPODA.

ConvuLARIA, Miller.

C. elegantula, Meek.

TENTACULITES, Schloth.

T. scicula, Hall.

CHEPHALOPODA.

ORTHOCERAS, Breynius.

O. nuntiwm, Hall.

O. Ohioense, Hall.

O. profundum, Hall.

TREMATOCERAS, Whitf.

T. Ohioense, Whitt.

GOMPHOCERAS, Sowerby.

G. amphora, Whitt.

G. eximium, Hall.

G. Hyatti, Whitt.

G. Sciotense, Whité.

CYRTOCERAS, Goldfuss.

C. cretaceum, Whitt.

C. Ohioense, Meek.

C. undulatum, Vanuxem 7

New Species of Fossils from Ohio. 243

GYROCERAS, Meyer.

G. Columbiense, Whitt.

G. Cyclops, Wall. _ .

G. inelegans, Meek.

G. Ohioense, Meek.

G. seminodosum, Whitt.

CRUSTACEA.

DatMANIA, Emmerich.

D. Calypso, Wall.

D. Helena, Hall.—=D. Ohioense, Meek.

D. selenurus, Green.

PuHacors, Emmerich.

P. rana, Green.

PROETUS, Steininger.

P. crassimarginatus, Wall.

Species from above the Bone-Bed:

ORINOIDEA. :

GONIASTEROIDOCRINUS, Lyon.

G. spinigera, Wall.

BRACHIOPODA.

_ Lineuta, Brugiere.

L. Manni, Hall.

L. ligea, Hall.

Disctina, Lamarck.

D. Lodensis, Hall.

D. minuta, Hall.

STROPHOMENA, Rafinesque.

S. rhomboidalis, Wilck.

CHONETES, Fischer.

, C. scitula, Hall.

C. reversa, Whitt.

SPIRIFERA, Sowerby.

S. Maia, Billings.

244 New Species of Fossils from Ohio.

SS. zic-zac, Hall.

LELORHYNCHUs, Hall.

L. limitaris, Vanuxem.

LAMELLIBRANCHIATA.

AVICULOPECTEN, McCoy.

A. eguilatera, Hall.

PreRINEA, Goldfuss.

P. similis, Whitt.

ACTINODESMA, Sandberger.

A. subrecta, Whitt.

GRAMMyYsIA, De Vern.

G. bisulcata, Conrad.

Nyassa, H. and W.

INS ongaita., Tal. ands Wi

[NOTE TO PAGE 216.]

Genus NYASSA, H. and W.

Nyassa, H. & W., Prelim. Notice of the Lamellibranchiate Shells of the

Upper Helderberg, Hamilton and Chemung Groups, &c. Albany, Dec.,

1869, p. 28,

Shells bivalve, very oblique and transversely ovate in form. Posterior

hinge-plate narrow, bearing from one to four long slender ridge-like teeth.

Anterior plate broad, marked by numerous small point-like teeth with in-

termediate depressions, arranged somewhat radiating from the middle of

its inner border. Adductor muscles two, one at each extremity. Pallial

line entire. Ligament internal. Type, . arguta. Name, mythological.

Geological range, so far as known, Devonian. Family relations apparently

near Megalomus, Hall, and Megalodon, Sowerby.

Description of a New Species of Swift. 245

Description of a New Species of Swift of the Genus Chetura,

with Notes on two other little-known Birds.

BY GEORGE N. LAWRENCE.

Read February 6th, 1882.

Chietura Gaumeri, sp. nov.

MaAuEe.—Entire crown, hind neck and back of a smoky brownish-black;

rump and upper tail-coverts dark ash, each feather narrowly bordered at

the end with gray; tail-feathers ashy-brown; lores deep black; ‘‘iris

brown ;” throat whitish-gray ; breast and “upper part of abdomen dark

smoky ash ; the lower part of the latter and the under tail-coverts are of a

darker shade ; wings black, the under wing-coverts and the inner margins

of the quills are of a dark ashy-brown ; bill and feet black.

Length, about 44 inches ; wing, 44; tail, 141, the spines wanting.

Habitat, Yucatan. ‘Type in my collection. Obtained by Mr.

Geo. F. Gaumer, in compliment to whom I have named it.

Mr. Gaumer spent three years in Yucatan; he made large

collections in ornithology and other branches of natural history.

A full series of his birds was purchased by the University of

Kansas, and it is to be hoped that a catalogue of them will be

published.

Mr. Gaumer wrote me that he had taken full notes of all the

species, which he expected to publish when the names of those

sold to the University of Kansas were determined. I purchased

the remnant of his collection, in which were the birds now

described.

246 Description of a New Species of Swift.

In my list of birds from Yucatan (Ann. N. Y. Lyceum, Vol.

IX, p. 204), I referred a specimen of swift to C. Vawai, though

noticing that it was smaller ; now I find it to agree exactly with

the bird above described. This comparison I have been en-

abled to make, by Mr. Ridgway’s kindness in lending me the

specimen, and sending besides all in the National Museum that

are labelled as C. Vauzt.

At the time of my examination of the specimen from Yucatan

belonging to the Smithsonian, the examples of C. Vawz«i ac-

cessible were in poor condition ; but since then, fine specimens

of it have been received from California, by the National Museum

as well as by myself. A comparison with these shows the Yu-

catan bird to be quite distinct.

Among those sent me from Washington, is one specimen from

Guatemala (Duenas), collected by Mr. Salvin, Feb. 6th, 1860,

and labelled by him as C. Vauzi, also one from Mexico (Tehu-

antepec), collected by Prof. Sumichrast, which I referred to

C. Vauzi (Bull. U.S. Nat. Mus., No. 4, p. 32). Both area

little darker than those from Yucatan, but I consider that they

are the same. ‘These two specimens have the spines of the tail-

feathers in perfect condition, whereas in the two from Yucatan,

the spines are worn off close to the tail-feathers; this abrasion

is caused, probably, by their inhabiting rocky cliffs.

This species differs from C. Vauai in the much darker color-

ing of its upper and under plumage, though in that of the

throat they are closely alike; it is a little smaller, and the

wings and tail are shorter than in C. Vauai. It has the upper

plumage blacker even than that of C. pelasgica, but in that

species the under plumage is darker.

Notes upon Yucatan Birds. 247

Notes on PYRANGA ROSEIGULARIS, Cabot, and CENTURUS RU-

BRIVENTRIS, Swainson.

Pyranga roseigularis.

For a long time this species has been known only by the type,

a male, in the collection of its discoverer, Dr. Cabot, of Boston.

The acquisition of both sexes is therefore a fortunate occurrence.

Mr. Ridgway has given an accurate description of it (N. Amer.

Birds, Vol. I, p. 434) taken from the type. The male I have,

differs only in having a decided white superciliary stripe border-

ing the red crown.

The male measures in length 6% inches; wing, 34; tail, 22;

tarsus, #.

I give a description of the female, as I think it has not been

known heretofore.

The female has the upper and under plumage of the same general colors

as the male ; the crown and throat are washed with red ; under tail-coverts

pale reddish salmon-color ; tail-feathers brown above, edged with light red ;

the under surface of the tail is paler in color and tinged with red ; quills

dark umber-brown, margined with light greenish yellow; upper wing-

coverts of a rather dull olive-green ; under wing-coverts pale yellow ; upper

mandible dark brown, the under whitish horn-color ; tarsi and toes dark

brown:

Length (skin), 64 inches ; wing, 3 ; tail, 23; tarsus, #.

Centurus rubriventris.

The yalidity of this species seems generally to be questioned,

and specimens of it have been but rarely obtained; therefore I

was pleased to see another, a female, as it confirmed the opinion

expressed by me in my Yucatan list (Ann. N. Y. Lyceum, Vol.

IX, p. 206), that I considered it a valid species. Therein I

described the male, and pointed out how it differed from C. tri-

color, to which species it has been referred.

248 Notes upon Yucatan Birds.

A comparison of the female with specimens of the same sex

of C. tricolor, shows the differences to be equally as great as those

of the males.

FEMALE.—The upper plumage, tertiaries and wing-coverts are black,

narrowly barred with white; rump and upper tail-coverts white; tail- —

feathers black, the ends of the outer ones narrowly margined with white,

and the outer edges of the lateral feathers indented with white ; head

light brownish-ash, on the crown hoary, front, chin, and sides of the head

to a line with the middle of the eye, orange-yellow ; on the hind neck

there is a narrow band of vermilion ; under parts brownish ash, with the

middle of the abdomen vermilion; flanks barred with black and white;

rather dull in color ; under tail coverts gray, marked centrally with black,

bill black and narrow ; tarsi and toes black ; “iris black.”

Length (skin), 63 inches ; wing, 43; tail, 22; bill, 11-16.

Besides differences of marking in the plumage, as shown in

the Yucatan list, the bill and feet are much smaller than those

of C. tricolor. Of this last species, I have several specimens of

both sexes.

In Proc. U. 8. Nat. Museum, 1881, p. 93, Mr. Ridgway gives

“A Review of the Genus Centurus.” Unfortunately the male

specimen, noted in my Yucatan list, could not be found in the

Nat. Museum collection ; therefore an expression of his opinion

from an autoptical examination was not possible.

a".

II DES BRS J is

OF THE

NEW YORK ACADEMY OF SCIENCES.

VOLUME 2, 1880—s82.

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CONTENTS:

XII.—Outlines of the Geology of the North-Eastern West India

Islands: By P) 1. Cinyve (with Plate xX Vill) Yo: S222 yee 185

XIII.—Descriptions of New Species of Fossils from Ohio, with Re-

marks on some of the Geological Formations in which they

occur. By R. P. WHITRIELD,. 2... 6. ce cece se ues ee et

XIV.—Description of a New Species of Swift, of the Genus Cheetura,

with Notes on two other little-known Birds. By GrorcE N.

PARWARIBINC ES 350 4).. Mra Mare dial wares SS eee cleo ae eee 2 oe ee

[Pp. 249—256, belonging to No. 8, will appear with the next number. |

May, !882.

ANNALS

| NEW YORK ACADEMY OF SCIENCES, |

LATE

Dew York:

_ PUBLISHED FOR THE ACADEMY,

1882.

GREGORY Bros., Printers, 34 CARMINE STREET, N. Y.

OFFICERS OF THE

President, a

JOHN 8. NEWBERRY.

, , Yice-Iresidents.

BENJ, N. MARTIN.

e Corresponding Secretary.

ALBERT BR. LEEDS.

f a 7 }

| Greasuyer

i JOHN H. HINTON,

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LOUIS ELSBERG.

Gommities of ‘Publication.

| DANIEL S. MARTIN.

GEO. N. LAWRENCE. Rsteae wg Nes CEE)

SW. P. TROWBRIDGE

A) SPs

The Parallel Drift-Hills of Western New York. 249

AXV.—The Parallel Drift-Hills of Western New York.

BY LAURENCE JOHNSON.

Read January 9th, 1882.

That part of New York State which hes between Lake Onta-

rio on the north, and Cayuga and Seneca lakes on the south,

presents, in its surface geology, some features of exceptional

interest. :

The surface rocks of this region are, for the most part, deeply

covered with drift, which is arranged in a series of parallel hills.

Haying been reared among these hills, my attention was early

directed to their peculiar character; but, until recently, I had

never attempted their systematic study. During the past two

or three seasons, however, I have been enabled to renew my

acquaintance with the region, and to study it more carefully ;

the result of my study and observation I now present as a slight

contribution to our knowledge of drift phenomena.

Though the surface rocks are generally covered with drift, they

are sufficiently exposed in a number of localities to furnish all

the data necessary to a correct understanding of their characters

and relative positions.

The lowest rock found in place in this region is the Medina

sandstone. ‘This occupies a narrow belt of territory along the

shore of Lake Ontario, probably from one to two or three miles

in width. In the vicinity of Big Sodus Bay, and also about Port

Bay, it lies at or below the level of Ontario, while it rises toward

the east and west, appearing at Oswego Falls, twenty-five miles

east, and at the lower falls of the Genesee, fifty miles west,

fully one hundred feet higher. I invite particular attention to

this fact, for, as will appear later, I believe it to be a significant

one.

250 The Parallel Drift-Hills of Western New York.

Above the Medina sandstone rises the Clinton group, and

upon this rests the Niagara, with no well-marked line dividing

them. The Clinton is composed of thin-bedded limestoncs,

shales, sandstones, and, in some places, thin beds of argillaceous

iron ore. Owing to its lithological character, it has not exerted

au very powerful influence upon the present topographical fea-

tures of the region. Not so, however, is it with the over-

lying Niagara. The lower member of this group, here as

further west, comprises thin-bedded, impure limestones and

about eighty feet of shale; while the upper member is a mass of

heavy-bedded, compact lmestone. The geological position of

this limestone, dividing as it does the great mass of soft rocks

beneath from the still softer Salina shales above, has made it an

important agent in the production of the present topography of

the region. Kconomically, it is of importance to the inhabit-

ants as the source from which they obtain lime.

There are no data for determining the exact width of the tract

of which the Niagara is the surface rock, since its junetion with

the next succeeding group is nowhere apparent ; it is, however,

probably from two to five miles wide.

Along Wolcott Creek, the best nearly continuous exposure cf

the Clinton and Niagara, both together occupy the surface for

five or six miles. ike the Medina on which they rest, they

rise both east and west.

Upon the Niagara rests the Salina group, forming the surface

rock all the way to Cayuga and Seneca lakes. The shales of

this group are exposed in numerous places, especially along the

valley of the Clyde and Seneca rivers, in railway cuttings, and

in excavations for the Erie Canal. In two localities in this val-

ley, namely, in a railway-cutting two miles west of Savannah,

and in a hillside three or four miles southeast of Lyons, I haye

observed the upper, water-lime, layers of this group, in place.

With the Salina group, ends the succession of surface rocks of

the region occupied by the parallel drift-hills. Above and to

the south are, however, rocks which have exerted a marked

causative influence upon the topography, not only of this region,

but of that of the whole Ontario basin.

Passing the Water-lime and Oriskany sandstone, with the mere

mention of their names, for they are of little importance here,

—

The Parallel Drift-Hills of Western New York. 2

we come to the Upper Helderberg group. Like the upper mem-

ber of the Niagara group, the Upper Helderberg is composed of

compact, heavy-bedded limestone, and, like the Niagara, also,

it forms the dividing line between much softer rocks—the Sali-

na below and the Hamilton shales above. The position which

it occupies is delineated on the map with, certainly, an approxi-

mation to accuracy.

Passing westward from Onondaga Valley, we find it, or should

find it, if not concealed by drift, presenting a continuous escarp-

ment as far as Cayuga Lake. West of Cayuga it reappears, and

continues to Seneca Lake ; and west cf Seneca Lake it is con-

tinuous to the Genesee River. We observe, however, that the

line of this escarpment is not straight. It bends several miles

to the south when approaching Cayuga Lake, turns to the north

alike distance after passing Seneca Lake, and then continues

on a nearly straight line to the west. At its first exposure on

the line running north from Seneca Lake, it presents a steep

escarpment facing the east.

Above the Upper Helderberg rise the shales of the Ham-

ilton group, estimated by Professor Hall to be 1,000 feet thick

on Seneca Lake. ‘To these succeed the Tully limestone, Gene-

‘see slate, Portage and Chemung groups, which form the great

mountain ridge between the Catskill Mountains and Lake Erie.

In the Hamilton shales are excavated the greater part of the

rock basins occupied by Skaneateles, Otisco, Owasco, Cayuga,

Seneca and Canandaigua lakes. The only lake of the series,

lying above the horizon of the Hamilton group, is Crooked

Lake ; its basin is excavated in the Genesee slate and Portage

group.

Having thus briefly reviewed the surface rocks of this region,

we will now consider the drift which covers them.

As already remarked, this is arranged in parallel hills. Though

these hills attain their most characteristic development in the

region between Cayuga and Seneca lakes on the south, and Lake

Ontario on the north, the same peculiar arrangement of the

drift is noticeable eastward as far as the Oswego River, and even

beyond that point ; westward, it is not particularly noticeable

beyond the western boundary of Wayne County.

The individual hills vary greatly in length, in breadth, in

252 The Parallel Drift-Hills of Western New York.

height, and in the angles at which they rise from the intervening

valleys; but however much they may differ in these respects,

they substantially agree in their general north and south direc-

tion. ‘heir deviations from this line are shght. In the western

part of Wayne County, and in the northwestern part of Seneca,

they bear a few degrees west, and in eastern Wayne and Cayuga,

a few degrees east of north.

While some of them may be traced two or three miles, attain-

ing altitudes of one hundred or two hundred feet above the

intervening valleys, the greater number are both shorter and

lower. The highest and longest ones are chiefly situated just

south of the northern out-crop of the Niagara limestone, though

some very high ones are found several miles further south, upon —

the Salina. In general, however, the further we recede from

the Niagara outcrop, and the nearer we approach Cayuga and

Seneca lakes, the lower are the hills. ‘There is no regularity in

their positions, for while some groups of them occupy several

square miles of territory, with but narrow valleys intervening,

in other localities, swampy valleys occur, a mile or more in width

and several miles in length. In some instances, hills are literally

piled upon hills, so that one great ridge is lined along its sides —

by a number of subordinate ridges. Many of them were origi--

nally very difficult to cultivate, on account of their steep declivi-

ties, but this feature is far less noticeable now than it was

twenty-five years ago, for frequent plowing, and the washing of

rains and melting snow, have wrought great changes in them

since the forests were removed. ‘This remark apples particu-

larly to the northern hills; but those situated further south—

several miles from the Niagara out-crop—have not improved in

the same ratio; the reason of which will be apparent when we

consider their composition. Again, when hills have steep de-

clivities, these are, with very few exceptions, upon their east or

west sides or at their north ends; they almost uniformly slope

to the south gradually. The exceptions occur in hills which

have undergone changes since the material of which they are

formed was first deposited.

As already foreshadowed, the irregularity of the hills has its

parallel in that of the valleys. The smaller ones are shallow

depressions between low ridges which serve the purposes of drain-

i i a

5 i i a eS

——-

;

—

The Parallel Drift-Hills of Western New York. 253

age. ‘These, of course, are parallel with the including ridges.

The larger valleys are generally cup-shaped depressions in the

drift, especially those south of the Niagara out-crop, through

which the minor streams flow with a sluggish current. Many

of these have an area of several square miles, and, at no very

distant day, have heen the basins of shallow lakes. <A few lakes

occupying such basins still remain, and are delineated upon the

map. Crusoe Lake, in Wayne County, and Duck Lake, a few

miles distant, in Cayuga, are examples. The former is situated

In a marsh, and is almost unapproachable; the latter lies be-

tween parallel ridges, with tamarack swamps extending north

and south from its extremities, indicating its former limits, and

foreshadowing its future obliteration. Indeed, in this region,

the presence of tamarack in a swampy valley indicates that

there was once a lakelet. All such valleys are cup-shaped, and

so far as I have observed, the lip of the cup is composed of

drift, and all have been filled to the brim with vegetable matter

in the form of muck or peat.

The Niagara limestone forms the water-shed which divides

the small streams that flow directly to Lake Ontario, from those

flowing southward to the river which courses along a valley in

the Salma. As shown by the map, this one stream has several

names. As Mud Creek, it unites with the Canandaigua outlet

to form Clyde River. Clyde River unites with the outlet of

Cayuga and Seneca lakes, at Montezuma, where the stream takes

the name of Seneca River. This flows in a general easterly

course, gathering the waters of Owasco, Skaneateles and On-

ondaga lakes, until it unites with the outlet of Oneida, when it

becomes the Oswego, and pursues a northwest course to Lake

Ontario. Even this, now, after flowing for ages In its present

channel, curiously exhibits the cup-shaped character of the north

and south valleys, across which it makes its way in a general

easterly course.

Throughout Wayne County it is remarkably tortuous, as ex-

hibited by the map, but not account of meandering through a

plain, as is often the case with crooked streams. On the con-

trary, in many places its current is moderately rapid, and many

of its crooks and turns were made in finding its way eastward

through ranges of north and south hills. Though nowhere ex-

254 The Parallel Drift-Hills of Western New York.

posing rock in Wayne County, or in western Cayuga, its course

is obstructed in several places by bars of boulders remaining

from the drift which it has cut away. Examples may be seen

between Lyons and Clyde, and at the latter village ; another,

further east, will be alluded to presently. Along this river val-

ley are a few of the hills previously mentioned as exceptional,

having steep southern declivities, evidently due, in a measure,

to the erosive action of the river. One section of this river yal-

ley deserves our particular attention—that stretching from the

foot of Cayuga Lake to the hills in the southern part of Wayne

County. It comprises more than forty thousand acres of marsh

lands, through which the Seneca pursues a northerly course by

an almost imperceptible current. Indeed, so slight is the fall,

that in times of flood the great volume of water brought down

by the Clyde flows south as well as north, and has even dis-

colored Cayuga Lake as far south as Springport. At such

times, many of the smaller valleys are filled with back-water,

particularly that im which lies Crusoe Lake; and Cayuga yirtu-

ally extends to within a dozen miles-of Ontario. That it did so

extend in reality, at no very distant day, becomes evident

when we examine the marsh. ‘This is underlaid throughout its

whole extent by several feet of shell marl, composed of the shells

of existing species of Unio, Planorbis, Physa, Limnea, etc.

Furthermore, upon the borders of the marsh, at Montezuma

and in the southern part of the town of Savannah, are found

salt springs rising from beneath the marl in a manner precisely

similar to those of Salina. As is well-known, these latter rise

from beneath a layer of shell marl underlying Onondaga Lake,

and overlying from four to six hundred feet of gravel, which

fills an ancient excavation, and serves as a reservoir for the

brine.

Beds of sand, showing wave-action, also fringe the marsh in

numerous localities.

The region for some distance north of Seneca Lake is also

generally low. and level, and is drained by slow and sluggish

streams. Swamps are numerous and extensive, and not untre-

quently enclose shallow lakes and ponds. Skirting this low-

lying region are also beds and hills of sand, showing wave-action

The Parallel Drift-Hills of Western New York. 2585

like those about the Montezuma marsh, but, as will be shown

later, laid down at an earlier period. ;

Just east of the northern termination of the marsh, at Mos-

quito Point, is the brim of this great cup-shaped valley. Here

oceurs a bar, through which the State has caused a channel to

be cut, in order to drain the marshes. The excavation was

made in drift material. ‘That the bar was formerly much more

extensive than in our days, is very evident. The finer materials

were washed away, but the boulders resisted the erosive action

of the moderate current, and formed an effectual dam.

A few miles further down the river, an artificial channel was

cut to avoid another bar; the excavation was made in the Sa-

lina shales. Altogether, vast sums of money were expended,

with the effect of improving the marshes, though without re-

claiming them. Nor does it seem possible that this could be

accomplished without cutting a channel northward directly

toward Ontario.

We will now consider the materials which enter into the com-

position of the drift deposits of this region.

First, as to the surface. This is strewn more or less thickly

with rounded boulders of all sizes, up to three and even four

feet in diameter—the smaller ones, in some localities, being so

very abundant as seriously to interfere with cultivation of

the land, while the larger ones are comparatively few, and

widely scattered. In general, the boulders are most abundant

along the line of the out-cropping Niagara; and here there are

many angular blocks of limestone, also; while further south

they progressively diminish in numbers, and well down upon

the Salina the surface is comparatively free from stones. These

boulders, so far as I have observed, are of Niagara, Clinton,

Medina, Hudson River, and the crystalline rocks—the latter

including nearly all the larger ones. All the fossiliferous boul- .

ders are readily recognized by their lithological character, or by

their fossils, which may be found in abundance in any stone

wall, or other collection of stones in the region. I have found

surface boulders apparently of Calciferous and Trenton, but the

fossils of the former were too imperfect for satisfactory determi-

nation, and the latter may have come from lmestone layers of

the Hudson River group.

256 The Parallel Drift-Hills of Western New York.

From numerous observations upon recently cleared lands, I

should judge the relative proportions of the different rocks re-

presented to be as follows: Medina, crystalline, Hudson River,

Niagara, Clinton.

The surface soil of the upland along the Niagara outerop, and

fo) re)

for some distance south, is commonly of sandy loam, with boul-

ders freely interspersed. Far down upon the Salina, and north

toward Ontario, it is clayey. The soil of the valleys is of course

much more variable, depending greatly upon the extent to which

it has received the wash of the neighboring hills. AI the

swampy valleys have superficial deposits of muck or peat, while

many, somewhat better drained, contain beds of brick-clay.

The surface soil of the uplands is from a few inches to a foot

or two in thickness. Underneath, and separated from it by no

well-defined line, is a deposit of far different character. ‘This is

a compact, tough, generally red, clay, filled with small glaciated

pebbles and boulders. South of the Niagara outcrop, the in-

cluded pebbles and boulders are almost entirely of the dark-blue.

hard Niagara limestone, while north of this line they are of

lower rocks. In this clay, are no evidences of true stratification,

though examples of a rude assortment of its materials are not

uncommon. Some of these have been afforded in sinking wells.

One case occurs to my mind, of two wells having about the

same depth, a few rods apart, tapping the same reservoir, so

that in dry times the upper may be drained by pumping out the

lower. In this instance, the water-bearing layer is a coarse

black sand, quite unlike the overlying clay, and was struck about

twenty feet below the surface.

Numerous springs occurring on the hillsides also attest the

rude assortment of these drift materials; for where the clay

occurs in its typical character, it is almost as impervious to

water as a rock.

This clay, with its included stones, is, in short, a typical

boulder clay or till. Though I have described it as found in

the uplands, excavations in the valleys show it in precisely the

same character, though of course its superficial covering is quite

different. An observation which I made last season will illus-

trate this point. After passing through two feet of muck, six

inches of yellow sandy clay, six inches of washed grayel, and

ite g le lee Oe aT tel te

The Parallel Drift-Hills of Western New York. Qi

eight inches of blue clay, the till was reached; and the first

shovelful of earth, coming from below the blue clay, contained

a small sub-angular boulder of blue limestone, covered with

striz almost as fresh as if made yesterday. Less than half a

mile down this same valley, which is cup-shaped, and even now

supports a growth of tamarack, the muck and peat were sounded

with a pole to the depth of fifteen feet without finding solid bot-

tom, and a quarter of a,mile further south, in a cutting made

to drain the swamp, the boulder clay was seen.

Instances might be multiplied of sections observed in ditches

through uplands and lowlands, in cuttings for roads, etc., all

showing the tillin the same general character, however different

may be the surface deposits.

We have here, then, two different kinds of drift deposits, the

superficial and the deep. It remains to consider how they were

placed in their present positions.

When the geological survey of New York wes made, more than

forty years ago, the peculiar arrangement of the drift in this re-

gion was noted, and the opinion was expressed that the materials

were deposited by streams of running water (Report of the 4th

Dist., Hall). Since that time, other writers have expressed a like

opinion with various modifications. Some have supposed that

a broad sheet of glacial drift has suffered aqueous erosion; in

other words, that the valleys have been cut by streams, and that

the steep northern declivities of the hills are proof that the

streams flowed toward the south.

That the first explanation is insufficient, in the present state

of geological science, 1s evident at a glance. Running waters

do not deposit unmodified boulder clay, such as we have shown

this to be.

Examination will show the second explanation quite as unsat-

isfactory. The first objection is that the valleys are cup-shaped

depressions in the drift; the second, that there is an entire ab-

sence of such accumulations of river gravel as must have remain-

ed had a broad sheet of glacial drift been cut by streams.

Hither of these objections is fatal to the theory.

From the evidence which I have presented, I think but one

conclusion can be reached, namely that the drift was deposited

here in nearly its present form by a glacier, at least, all its deeper

258 The Parallel Drift-Hills of Western New York.

portion. As to the superficial layer, including the larger crys-

talline boulders, we cannot be so certain.

But conceding that it was deposited by glacial action, we have

still to account for its pecuhar topographical features. Such ex-—

tensive deposits of drift are, perhaps, not very uncommon, but

such peculiar regularity of deposition is certainly seldom met

with, at least in this country. Sir William Logan has reported

something similar in Canada, and as will be shown presently, a

parallel is found in Scotland.

That this great drift deposit cannot be classed with terminal

or lateral moraines, is evident at once from its general composi-

tion, for it differs from them in almost every essential particular.

It must of necessity be termed the moraine profonde,—the ground

moraine.

Why it came to assume its present shape, instead of that of a

broad sheet of nearly uniform thickness, will, I think, become

evident when we consider the points from which the glacier

forming it came, and the forces which influenced that glacier’s

flow in this locality.

In a recently published article Professor Hitchcock says, ‘The

latest generalizations indicate that some part of the Labrador

Peninsula may be considered as the center from which the ice

has radiated over the Dominion of Canada and the northern

United States, east of the Rocky Mountains * >= ))3 ima

most of this territory exhibits a southwesterly course of glacia-

tion a a8 * well shown over the highlands between

Hudson’s Bay and the St. Lawrence Valley, the valley itsclf,

western New York” ete.; ‘“‘whilein castern New York and the

Champlain and Hudson Valleys, the course is southerly.”

Professor Newberry, in an article on the Surface Geology of

- Ohio, presents a very interesting and satisfactory general sum-

mary of the glacial phenomena throughout the whole lake re-

gion. He believes that the period opened with the formation

of local glaciers on the Laurentian Mountains, which crept down

and began the excavation of the present lake basins in what was

then the valley of a river which drained this portion of the

continent, flowing through the present Mohawk Valley. That,

as the cold increased, these local glaciers partially coalesced,

forming a many-lobed ice-sheet, which moved rad-atingly from

SS ee

The Parallel Drift-Hills of Western New York. — 259

the southern, southwestern and western slopes of the Canadian

highlands. 'To quote his own words: ‘‘ The effect of this glacier

upon Lake Erie and Lake Ontario, would be to broaden their

basins by impinging against and grinding away, with incon-

_ceivable power, their southern margins. To the action of this

agent we must ascribe the peculiar outline of the profile sections

drawn from the Laurentian hills across the basin of Lake On-

tario to the Alleghanies, and across Lake Erie to the highlands

of Ohio, viz., a long, gradual slope from the north to the bottom

of the depression, and then an abrupt ascent over the massive

and immovable obstacle against which the ice was banked, until

by a vis a tergo, it overtopped the barrier. In New York, that

barrier was a shoulder of the Alleghanies, too high and too

rugged to be buried under a continuous ice-sheet ; but its whole

front was worn away for a hundred miles or more, and it was

deeply creased where we now see the peculiarly elongated lakes

of New York, and cut through, in certain gaps, to the valley of

the Delaware. In Ohio,'the erosion was easicr, and carried fur-

ther south. ‘The barrier was also lower, and was finally over-

topped by one great lobe of ice, which flowed on to the south

and west until its edge reached the Ohio River. : ce 3

With the amelioration of the climate, the wide-spread ice-

sheets of, the period of intense cold became again local glaciers,

which completed the already begun work of cutting out the

lake basins. At first, the glacier which had before flowed over

the water-shed in Ohio, was so far reduced as to be unable to

overtop its summit, but deflected by it, it flowed along its base,

spending its energies in cutting the shallow basin in which Lake

Erie now lies.

‘‘A further elevation of temperature curtailed the glacier still

more, and Lake Erie became a water-basin, while local glaciers,

left from the ice-sheet, excavated the basins of Lake Michigan,

Lake Huron and Lake Ontario. The latter lake was apparently

formed by the same glacier that made the Erie basin, but when

much abbreviated. It flowed from the Laurentian hills and the

north slope of the Adirondacks, and was deflected by the high-

lands south of the lake-basin, so that its motion was nearly

westward.” *

* Geological Survey of Ohio, Vol II, p. 78.

260 The Parallel Drift-Hills of Western New York.

Though this summary is in general very satisfactory, the last

statement, namely, that the local glacier which finished the

excavation of the Ontario basin ‘‘ was deflected by the highlands

south of the lake-basin, so that its motion was nearly westward,”

if applied to the region which we are considering, would seem

to require modification. 'The direction of these drift-ridges, to-

gether with their steep northern declivities, render it evident

that the glacier which deposited them came from and retired to

the north. Professor Newberry’s remark might, however, be

applied without change to the western portion of the Ontario

basin, for in that locality there are no drift-ridges, showing a

different direction of the ice-flow, while the course of the

glacial striae upon exposed rock-surfaces supports the view.

These latter, unfortunately, are not accessible to any great ex-

tent in the region occupied by the drift-hills. I regret that I

cannot offer their evidence in corroboration of that afforded by

the hills. We have, however, what I conceive to be much more

important testimony—the direction of the long axes of the chain

of small lakes south of the hills. A glance at any map of New

York will readily show that lines drawn through the long axes

of Canandaigua, Seneca, Cayuga, Owasco and Skaneateles lakes,

converge toward a point on the Canadian shore of Ontario.

That these lake-basins were excavated by glacial action, seems

almost self-evident, and is, indeed, almost universally admitted.

Their radiated arrangement, in my opinion, admits of but one

explanation, namely, that they were cut by one and the same

great glacier, whose margin was broken into several streams in

crossing the mountain ridge, and that this glacier flowed in a

general southerly direction from the Canadian highlands. Fur-

thermore, the maximum of its force was exerted along its cen-

tral line, in the vicinity of Seneca and Cayuga lakes. Opposite

these lakes the shore of Ontario is deeply indented by a number

of bays, notably by Big Sodus. That the glacier occupied this

region for an immensely long period of time, is evident from the

great depth of the rock-basins of Cayuga and Seneca,—the for-

mer having now a depth of more than four hundred, and the

latter of more than six hundred feet. As stated. above, Cayuga

formerly extended a dozen miles or more further north than

now. Its buried basin has been sounded at Montezuma, in

The Parallel Drift-Hills of Western New York. 261

borings for brine, and in driving piles for the canal aqueduct,

to the depth of a hundred feet or more. Our estimate of the

extent of glacial erosion in the vicinity of these lakes is, how-

ever, scarcely begun when we have sounded their depths, for

more than a thousand feet of rock were removed before the

present level of their waters was reached.

Attention has already been invited to the fact, that the Upper

Helderberg escarpment bends several miles south in approach-

ing Cayuga and Seneca lakes, and also to the indentation of the

Ontario shore opposite the locality. Now this indentation of

the Ontario shore is where the Medina sandstone is found at its

lowest level. ‘Taking these facts, together with that of the

maximum of glacial erosion being found along the line where the

exposed rocks are seen at their lowest levels, have we not an

indication of the causes which influenced the ice-flow in this

region ?

Glaciers, like water, at first follow the lines of lowest level.

In the original topography of this region, previous to the ice

period, there was a valley here—not a deep one, it is true, but

deep enough to influence an ice-current. Evidence that this

valley was not confined to the immediate shore of Ontario, is

not wanting. Several miles south of Geneva, the outlet of

Crooked Lake, in its easterly course to Seneca Lake, exhibits a

fine section of the Portage group, Genesee slate, and Hamilton

shales, all dipping to the east at a comparatively high angle.

I think we may safely assume that the pre-glacial drainage of

this valley contributed not a little to fit it for the great ice-

current which was to come. Indeed, it is generally conceded

by geologists that the ancient excavation in which lies Onondaga

Lake, is probably a buried pre-glacial river-channe:; and some

even suppose that this river drained Lake Ontario in a south-

easterly direction—a supposition which is highly improbable.

It is much more reasonable to assume that the pre-glacial drain-

age of this region was not far different from its present; and

that the channel of the river where now lies Onondaga Lake, was

not ouly deepened, but subsequently filled up by the glacial

action, even as appears to have been the case with the north end

of Cayuga Lake, to which allusion has already been made.

However this may be, it appears evident that when the ice

262 The Parallel Drift-Hills of Western New York.

came, it moved up the shallow valley, described above, radiating

to the east and west as it proceeded; and in the valley it remain-

ed until its final retreat to the north.

Under this ice were formed the parallel hills, in a manner

which, so far as I know, has only been explained by Geikie, and —

in the following words: ‘‘In narrow and deep hollows, like the

upland valleys, the ice was not liable to such deflections as took

place over the ‘debatable’ grounds, and the till forming below it

consequently escaped being squeezed to and fro; the valleys were

filled with streams of ice flowing constantly in one and the same

direction, and the probabilities are therefore strong that the

débris which accumulated below would be spread out smoothly.

“In the lowlands the effect produced by the varying direction

and unequal pressure of the ice-sheet is visible in the peculiar

outline assumed by the till. Sometimes it forms a confused

aggregate of softly-swelling mounds and hummocks; in other

places it gives rise to a series of long smoothly-rounded banks or

‘drums’ and ‘sow-backs,’ which run parallel to the direction taken

by the ice. ‘This peculiar configuration of the till, although

doubtless modified to some extent by rain and streams, yet was

no doubt assumed under the ice-sheet,—the ‘sow-backs’ being

the glacial counterparts of those broad banks of silt and sand

that form here and there upon the beds of rivers.

‘“Perhaps the most admirable example in Scotland of this pe-

culiar arrangement or configuration of the till occurs in the

valley of the Tweed, between the Cheviot Hills and the Lammer-

muirs. In this wide district, all the ridges of till run parallel

to each other, and in a direction approximately east and west.

This, too, is the prevailing trend of the rock-striations and roches

moutonnées in the same neighborhood.” *

If our theory be correct, the region which we are considering

must, indeed, have been ‘‘debatable,” no less than some of the

localities mentioned by Geikie, for it must have been the north

and south line whence the ice was deflected both eastward and

westward, and fluctuations of lateral pressure must have been

both numerous and striking. Add to this the change of form

assumed by the ice in passing from the broad basin of Ontario —

* The Great Ice Age, by James Geikie, F. R. S. E., etc., p. 88. N. Y., 1874.

a Se ee eS ae

ee ee

The Parallel Drift-Hills of Western New York. — 263

into the basins of the Cayuga and Seneca, where it swept betwecn

sloping walls of rock nearly 2000 feet in height, and we need

not be surprised to find the drift in its present position and shape.

A curious and interesting effect of this change of form in the

ice as it approached Cayuga and Seneca, is shown in the direc-

tion of the drift-hills in the northwestern part of Seneca County,

viz. several degrees west of north, as if the lower part of the

glacier which fashioned them had been forced by lateral pressure

toward the lake valleys.

It remains to consider the question of how these hills escaped

the changes, so commonly incident to the drift, during the melt-

ing of the glaciers.

As the ice had crept slowly down to the line which now marks

its ancient termination, so did it slowly retire at the close of the

glacial epoch. During its retreat from Pennsylvania to the

highlands of New York, the water from its melting edge flowed

freely away, and often sorted the drift materials, depositing

them not unfrequently in a more or less stratified condition.

When, however, the highlands were passed, the conditions

changed, and a lake was formed whose southern shore was the

mountain ridge, while its northern boundary was a wall of ice.

Eyidences of the southern shore-line are still apparent in certain

ill-defined beaches, which were described by Professor Hall forty

years ago, when they were much better marked than now; and

its northwestern boundary is outlined by beaches in the vicinity

of Toronto, several hundred feet above the present level of

Ontario.

This lake undoubtedly discharged its waters southward through

the valleys in which he the small lakes of the mountain ridge.

During this period, the parallel drift-hills were in deep water,

and hence beyond the reach of denuding agencies, though they

doubtless received the débris of melting icebergs, particularly

the large boulders of crystalline rocks which here and there

dot the surface, but are not present in the boulder clay.

As the melting progressed still further, the Mohawk Valley

was probably opened, and the water sank below the line of the

lowest pass of the highlands to the south—that of Seneca Lake,

whose summit is now about nine hundred feet above sea-level.

That the St. Lawrence valley was still closed with ice, is ren-

264 The Parallel Drift-Hills of Western New Y ork.

dered probable by the evidence we have that Lake Ontario stood

for a long time at a point two hundred feet above its present

level. ‘This evidence is afforded by the old lake ridge, which,

beginning near Big Sodus Bay, extends westward to and beyond

the Niagara River, at a distance of from three to five miles from

the lake. Its height, about two hundred feet above Ontario, is

several feet above the summit level of the Mohawk Valley, while

this latter has evidently been considerably silted up since Onta-

rio ceased to discharge its waters in this direction. Moreover,

that there was ice not far distant, while this lake ridge was be-

ing formed, is proved by the absence of fossils from the ridge

itself, and from the heavy beds of clay deposited during the same

period. Professor Hall did, indeed, report from hearsay evi-

dence, the finding of shells in the ridge, but Iam not aware

that the report has been verified. ‘The clays are, 1 am sure,

barren of fossils. ;

The eastern terminus of the ridge is peculiarly interesting.

As shown by the map, near Big Sodus Bay it turns to the south-

east. It may be traced in this direction for two or three miles,

and is then lost in the cultivated fields. Why is this ?

As has been shown, the surface rocks of this region rise to

the west of Sodus. Now, west of this point, the lake ridge

is at about the level of the valleys in the drift, while east-

ward the yalleys are deeper, and hence a continuous beach was

impossible. ‘he waters of the lake did, however, work great

havoc with many of the larger hills, evidence of which fact is

still apparent in the beds of sand and rounded pebbles about

them, and of clay in the valleys. Naturally, such evidence is

found near the present lake shore, since the first ranges of hills

would break the force of the waves; and in a measure protect

those further south. Again, the ranges of hills still further

south, facing Cayuga and Seneca lakes, suffered denudation in

the same manner and at the same times, though of course to a

much less-marked extent. The beds of sand between Lyons

and Geneva, and at numerous other points along the valley of

the Clyde and Seneca rivers, were undoubtedly deposited at this

period by wave-action. There was thus a belt between Ontario

-and Cayuga and Seneca lakes protected against wave-action ;

here we find the hills nearly as they were left by the glacier, and

ee ee

——

ee a a eT Teas 2seo hme

: 7

The Parallel Drift-Hills of Western New York. 265

as they have been described in this paper; and here, though

there are some unimportant beds of clay, there are no beach

sands.

The elevations above Ontario of a few localities, will enable

us to form an idea of the general appearance of the region in-

those ancient times.

The signal-station of the New York State Survey, two miles

south of Clyde, is upon a hill 388 feet above Ontario; that at

Victory, seventeen miles distant, 323 feet, and the one at Gil-

bertsville, seventeen miles further east, 276 feet; the Clyde

River at Clyde, 145 feet. Hence, when Ontario stood at the

level of the old ridge, there were more than 50 feet of water in

the Clyde, while the hills upon which stand the signal stations

were islands from 75 to 200 feet above the lake. True, these

hills are among the highest of the region, but there are scores

of others nearly or quite as high, while all of the larger valleys

are but little above that of the Clyde River. ‘The one running

north from Clyde village was many years ago surveyed for a

canal, to connect the Erie with Big Sodus, but which failed of

completion from financial, not engineering, difficulties. The

yalley.stretching north from the Montezuma marshes to Wolcott

was also surveyed, with a view to ascertaining the practicability

of draining the marshes in this direction, and it was shown that

a cutting of eighteen feet would effect the object.

Seneca Lake is 207 feet above Ontario; Cayuga, 131 feet ;

Onondaga, 118 feet ; and the summit-level of the Erie Canal in

the Mohawk Valley, 182 feet. The following are elevations along

the line of the Ontario shore railroait: Hannibal, 93 feet ;

Sterling, 72 feet; Red Creek, 87 feet ; Wolcott, 112 feet; Rose,

141 feet; Alton, 154 feet; Wallington, 160 feet; Sodus (near

the lake ridge), 182 feet; and Ontario, 169 feet.

Along the immediate shore of the lake west of Big Sodus Bay,

the elevation is not greater than 60 feet, while east of this

point, a number of hills attain the altitude of 120 feet (Charts

of the U. 8. Lake Survey).

These figures, meagre as they are, present to the mind a gra-

phie picture of this region when the waters of Ontario were

raising the ancient beach. Every prominent hill of to-day was

then an island, and every considerable valley a deep channel,

266 The Parallel Drift-Hills of Western New York.

through which the waters circulated slowly toward the gate

whence they were discharged from the lake-basin. ‘The gate,

we assume, for reasons already stated, to have been the Mohawk

Valley.

During this period the ice was still retreating; and finally

the St. Lawrence valley was opened. ‘The waters then sank be-

low the summit-level of the Mohawk, and have since flowed in

their present channel.

This last change must have occurred with comparative ra-

pidity, for the waters of Ontario sank so rapidly as to have

formed no beach between the old Lake Ridge and its present

level. Now, had this change been due, as is believed by many,

to an elevation of the land, we might reasonably expect to find

some intermediary beaches. That an elevation of Jand was in

progress is not doubted; but that an elevation, continental in

extent, should have occurred with such rapidity as to have pro-

duced the effects ascribed to it in the lake region, seems at least

problematical ; while the giving way of an ice-dam in the upper

St. Lawrence valley presents no such difficulties.

During the progress of this final recession of the waters of

Ontario, the drift in the region of the parallel hills suffered con-

siderable erosion, evidences of which are found in the river

valleys, and in the gorges of the small streams leading into the

bays along the lake shore. Naturally, the valley of the Oswego

River exhibits the best evidences attainable of the erosion of.

this period. Here are found heavy beds of sand and gravel, far

above the present channel, to mark the rush of those ancient

waters.

NOTE.

In the compilation of the accompanying map, the writer has to acknowl-

edge his indebtedness to the charts of the U. §. Lake Survey, the prelimin-

ary maps of the New York State Survey, the Geological Survey of New

York, the Geological Railway Guide, by James MacFarlane, Ph. D.;

Mr. O. 8. Wilson, Assistant in Charge, N. Y. State Survey; and Mr, E. A.

Doane, Chief Engineer, R., W., & O. R. R.

His thanks are also due to Prof. R. P. Whitfield, Curator of the Geo-

logical Department of the American Museum of Natural History, for the

determination of fossils, and for much other valuable assistance.

The Origin and Relations of the Carbon Minerals. 267

XVI.—The Origin and Relations of the Carbon Minerals.

BY J. S. NEWBERRY.

Read February 6th, 1882.

What are called the carbon minerals,—peat, lignite, coal, gra-

phite, asphalt, petroleum, etc.,—are, properly speaking, not

minerals at all, as they are organic substances, and have no

definite chemical composition or crystalline forms. They ure,

in fact, chiefly the products or phases of a progressive and

inevitable change in plant-tissue, which, like all organic matter,

is an unstable compound and destined to decomposition.

In virtue of a mysterious and inscrutable force which resides

in the microscopic embryo of the seed, a tree begins its growth.

For a brief interval, this growth is maintained by the prepared.

food stored in the cotyledons, and this suffices to produce and to

bring into functional activity some root-fibrils below and leaves

above, with which the independent and self-sustained life of the

individual begins. Henceforward, perhaps for a thousand years,

this life goes on, active in summer and dormant in winter, ab-

sorbing the sunlight as a motive power, which it controls and

guides Its instruments are the discriminating cells at the ex-

tremities of the root-fibrils, which search for, select and absorb

the ernde aliment adapted to the needs of the plant to which

they belong, and the chlorophyll cells—the lungs and stomach

of the tree—in the leaves. During all the years of the growth

of the plant, these organs are mainly occupied in breaking the

strongly rivetted bonds that unite oxygen and carbon in car-

bonic acid ; appropriating the carbon and drawing off most of

the oxygen. In the end, ifthe tree is, ¢. g., a Sequoia, some hun-

dreds of tons of solid organized tissue have been raised into a

268 The Origin and Relations of the Carbon Minerals.

column hundreds of feet in height, in opposition to the force of

gravitation, and to the affinities of inorganic chemistry.

The time comes, however, sooner or later, when the power

which has created and the life that has pervaded this wonderful

structure, abandon it. The affinities of inorganic chemistry

immediately reassert themselves; in ordinary circumstances

rapidly tearing down the ephemeral fabric.

The disintegration of organic tissue, when deserted by the

force which has animated and preserved it, gives rise to the

phenomena which form the theme of this paper.

Most animal tissue decomposes with great rapidity, and plant-

tissue, when not protected, soon decays. This decay is essen-

tially oxidation, since its final result is the restoration to the

atmosphere of carbonic acid, which is broken up in plant-growth

by the appropriation of its carbon. Hence it is a kind of com-

bustion, although this term is more generally applied to very

rapid oxidation with the evolution of sensible light and heat.

But whether the process goes on rapidly or slowly, the same

force is evolved that is absorbed in the growth of plant-tissue ;

and by accelerating and guiding its evolution, we are able to

utilize this force in the production at will of heat, ight, and

their correlatives, chemical affinity, motive power, electricity

and magnetism. The decomposition of plants may, however,

be more or less retarded, and it then takes the form of a de-—

structive distillation; the constituents reacting upon each other,

and forming “ecupeveny combinations, part of Palen are evolved,

and part remain behind. Water is the great extinguisher of

this as of the more rapid oxidation that we call combustion ;

and the decomposition of plant-tissue under water is extremely

slow, from the partial exclusion of oxygen. Buried under thick

and nearly impervious masses of clay, where the exclusion of

oxygen is still more nearly complete, the decomposition is so far

retarded that plant-tissue, which is destroyed by combustion

almost instantaneously, and if exposed to ‘‘the elements,”—

moisture with a free access of oxygen,—decays in a year or two,

may be but partially consumed when millions of years have

passed. The final result is, however, inevitable, and always the

same, viz., the oxidation and escape of the organic matter, and

the concentration of the inorganic matter woven into its com-

The Origin and Relations of the Carbon Minerals. 269

position,—in it, but not of it,—forming what we call the ash of

the plant.

Since the decomposition of organic matter commences the

instant it is abandoned by the creative and conservative vital

force, and proceeds uninterruptedly, whether slowly or rapidly,

to the final result, it is evident that each moment in the progress

of this decomposition presents us with a phase of structure and

composition different from that which preceded and from that

which follows.it. Hence the succession of these phases forms a

complete sliding scale, which is graphically shown in the follow-

ing diagram, where the organic constituents of plant-tissue—

carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, and nitrogen—appear gradually di-

minishing to extinction, while the ash remains nearly constant,

but relatively increasing, till it is the sole representative of the

fabric.

DIAGRAM SHOWING THE GENETIC RELATIONS

OF THE CARBON MINERALS.

EVOLVED PRODUCTS

Oxygen Corbonic Acid

Carb. Oxide

Carb. Hydrogen

Petroleum

i ® Water

Weod Graphité

(eS 7 |

RESIDUAL PRODUCTS

We may cut this triangle of residual products where we please,

and by careful analysis detcrmine accurately the chemical com-

position of a section at this point, and we may please ourselves

with the illusion, as many chemists have done, that the definite

proportions found represent the formula of a specific compound;

but an adjacent section above or below would show a different

composition, and so in the entire triangle we should find an in-

finite series of formule, or rather no constant formule at all.

We should also find that the slice, taken at any point while

lying in the laboratory or undergoing chemical treatment, would

change in composition, and become a different substance.

In the same way we can snatch a brand from the fire at

any stage of its decomposition, or analyze a decaying tree-

trunk during any month of its existence, and thus manufacture

270 The Origin and Relations of the Carbon Minerals.

as many chemical formule as we like, and give them specific

names ; but it is evident that this is child’s play, not science.

The truth is, the slowly decomposing tissue of the plants of past —

ages has given us a series of phases which we have grouped un-

der distinct names, and we have called one group peat, one

lignite, another coal, another anthracite, and another graphite.

We have spaced off the scale, and called all within certain lines

by acommon name; but this does not give us a common com-

position for all the material within these lines. Hence we see

that any effort to define or describe coal, lignite or anthracite,

accurately, must be a failure, because neither has a fixed com-

position, neither is a distinct substance, but simply a conven-

tional group of substances which form part of an infinite and

indivisible series.

But this sliding scale of solid compounds, which we designate

by the names given above, is not the only product of the natural

and spontaneous distillation of plant-tissue. Part of the origi-

nal organic mass remains, though constantly wasting, to repre-

sent it; another part escapes, either completely oxidized as car-

bonic acid and water, or in a volatile or liquid form, still retaining

its organic character, and destined to future oxidation, known

as carburetted hydrogen, olefiant gas, petroleum, ete.

Hence, in the decomposition of vegetable tissue, two classes

of resultant compounds are formed, one residual and the other

evolved; and the genesis and relation of the carbon minerals may

be accurately shown by the following diagram.

PLANT-TISSUE.

RESIDUAL PRODUCTS. | EVOLVED PRODUCTS.

Peat.

Lignite.

( Carbonic Acid.

| Carbonic Oxide,

Carburetted Hydrogen, etc.

Bituminous Coal.

Semi-bituminous Coal.

W ater.

Anthracite. | | a

| Asphalt, ete.

\ Petroleum. 4

| Asphaltic Coal.

Graphitic Anthracite.

Graphite.

. heaps .

a | Asphaltic Anthracite.

(

}

The Origin and Relations of the Carbon Minerals. 271

[Nore.—In this diagram, the vertical line connecting the

names of the residual products (and of the derivatives of petro-

leum) indicates that each succeeding one is produced by further

alteration from that which precedes it, and not independently.

Also, the arrangement of the braces is designed to show that

any or all of the evolved products are given off at each stage of

alteration. |

The theory here proposed has not been evolved from my in-

ner consciousness, but has grown from careful study, through

many years, of facts in the field. A brief sketch of the evidence

in favor of it is all that we have space for here.

RESIDUAL PRODUCTs.

Peat.—Dry plant-tissue consists of about 50 per cent. of car-

bon, 44 per cent. of oxygen, with a little nitrogen, and 6 per

cent. of hydrogen. Ina peat-bog, we find the upper part of the

scale represented above very well shown ; plants are growing on

the surface with the normal composition of cellulose. The

first stratum of peat consists of browned and partially decom-

posed plant-tissue, which is found to have lost perhaps 20 per

cent. of the components of wood, and to have acquired an in-

creasing percentage of carbon. As we descend in the peat, it

becomes more homogeneous and darker, until at the bottom of

the marsh, ten or twenty feet from the surface, we have a black ©

carbonaceous paste which, when dried, resembles some varieties

of coal, and approaches them in composition. It has lost half

the substance of the original plant, and shows a marked increase

in the relative proportion of carbon.

Lignite.—EKach inch in vertical thickness of the peat-bog re-

presents a phase in the progressive change from wood-tissue to

henite, using this term with its common signification, to indi-

cate, not necessarily carbonized ligneous tissue, but plant-tissue

that belongs to a past though modern geological age ; 7. e., Ter-

tiary, Cretaceous, Jurassic, or Triassic. These lgnites or mod-

ern coals are only peat-beds which have been buried for a longer

or shorter time under clay, sand or solidified rock, and have pro-

gressed farther or less far on the road to coal. As with peats, so

272 The Origin and Relations of the Carbon Minerals.

with lignites, we find that at different geological levels they ex-

hibit different stages of this distillation—the Tertiary lignites

being usually distinguished without difficulty by the presence of

a larger quantity of combined water and oxygen, and a less

quantity of carbon, than the Cretaceous coals, and these in turn

differ in the same respects from the Triassic.

All the coais of the Tertiary and Mesozoic ages are grouped

under one name; but it is evident that they are as different from

each other as the new and spongy from the old and well-rotted

peat in the peat-bog.

Coal.—By mere convention, we call the peat which accumn-

lated in the Carboniferous age by the name of bituminous coal ;

and an examination of the Carboniferous strata in different

countries has shown that the peat-beds formed in the Carboni- —

ferous age, though varying somewhat, like others, with the kind

of vegetation from which they were derived, have a common

character by which they may be distinguished from the more

modern coals ; containing less water, less oxygen, and more car-

bon, and usually exhibiting the property of coking, which is rare

in coals of later date. Though there is great diversity in the

Carboniferous coals, and it would be absurd to express their

composition by a single formula, it may be said that, over the

whole world, these coals have characteristics, as a group, by

which they can be recognized, the result of the slow decomposi-

tion of the tissue of plants which lived in the Carboniferous age,

and which have, by a broad and general change approximated to a

certain phase in the spontaneous distillation of plant-tissue.

An experienced geologist will not fail to refer to their proper

horizon a group of coals of Carboniferous age, any more than

those of the Cretaceous or Tertiary.

Anthracite.—In the ages anterior to the Carboniferous, the

quantity of land vegetation was apparently not sufficient to form

thick and extensive beds of peat; but the remains of plant-tissue

are contained in all the older formations, though there only

as anthracite or graphite—the last two groups of residual

products. Of these we have examples in the beds of graphite in

the Laurentian rocks of Canada, and of anthracite of the Lower

Silurian strata of Upper Church and Kilnaleck, Ireland.

a ee ee ee

oa oS

The Origin and Relations of the Carbon Minerals. — 273

From these facts it is apparent that the carbon series is

graded geologically, that is, by the lapse of time during which

plant-tissue has been subjected to this natural and spontaneous

distillation. But we have better evidence than this, of the deri-

vation of one from another of the groups of residual products

which have been enumerated. In many localities, the coals and

lignites of different ages have been exposed to local influences—

such as the outbursts of trap-rock, or the metamorphism of

mountain chains,—which have hastened the distillation, and out

of known earlier groups have produced the last. For example,

trap outbursts have converted Tertiary ignites in Alaska into

good bituminous coals ; on Queen Charlotte’s Island, on Anthra-

cite Creek, in southwestern Colorado, and at the Placer Moun-

tams near Santa Fé, New Mexico, Cretaceous lignites into

anthracite; those from Queen Charlotte’s Island and sounth-

western Colorado, are as bright, hard and valuable as any from

Pennsylvania. At a little distance from the focus of volcanic

action, the Cretaceous coals of southwestern Colorado have

been made bituminous and coking, while at the Placer Moun-

tains the same stratum may be seen in its anthracitic and

lignitic stages.

A still better series, illustrating the derivation of one form of

carbon solids from another, is furnished by the coals of Ohio,

Pennsylvania and Rhode Island. ‘These are of the same age;

in Ohio, presenting the normal composition and physical char-

acters of bituminous coals, that is, of plant-tissue generally, and

uniformly descending the scale in the lapse of time from the

Carboniferous age to the present. In the mountains of Penn-

sylyania the same coal-beds, somewhat affected by the metamor-

phism which all the rocks of the Alleghanies have shared, have

reached the stage of semi-bituminous coals, where half the

volatile constituents have been driven off; again, in the anthra-

cite basins of eastern Pennsylvania, the distillation further

_ effected has formed from these coals anthracite, containing only

from three to ten per cent. of volatile matter; while in the

focus of metamorphic action, at Newport, Rhode Island, the

Carboniferous coals have been changed to graphitic anthracite,

that is, are half anthracite and half graphite. Here, traveling

from west to east, a progressive change is noted, similar to that

274 The Origin and Relations of the Carbon Minerals.

which may be observed in making a vertical section of a peat-

bog, or in comparing the coals of Tertiary, Mesozoic and Car-

boniferous age, only the latter is the continuation pon natural

sequence of the former series of changes.

In the Laurentian rocks of Canada are large accumulations of

carbonaceous matter, all of which is graphite, and that which

is universally conceded to be derived from: plant-tissue. The

oxidation of graphite is artificially difficult, and in. nature’s la-

boratory slow ; but it is inevitable, as we see in the decomposi-

tion of its outcrops and the blanching of exposed surfaces of

clouded marbles, where the coloring is graphite. Thus the end

is reached, and by observations in the field, the origin and re-

lationship of the different carbon solids derived from organic

tissue are demonstrated.

It only remains to be said, in regard to them, that all the

changes enumerated may be imitated artificially, and that the

stages of decomposition which we have designated by the names —

graphite, anthracite, coal, lignite, are not necessary results of

the decomposition of plant-tissue. A fallen tree may slowly

consume away, and all its carbonaceous matter be oxidized and

dissipated without exhibiting the phases of lgnite, coal, ete. ;

and lignite and coal, when exposed to air and moisture, are

burned away to ashes in the same manner, simply because in

these cases complete oxidation of the carbon takes place, particle

by particle, and the mass is not affected as a whole in such a

way as to assume the intermediate stages referred to. Chemical

analysis, however, proves that the process is essentially the same,

although the physical results are different.

EVOLVED Propuwucts.

The gradual wasting of plant-tissue in the formation of peat,

lignite, coal, etc., may be estimated as averaging for peat 20 to

30 per cent. ; lignite, 30 to 50 per cent. ; coal, 50 to 70 per

cent. ; ee ete 70 to 80; and graphite, 90 per cent. of the

original mass. ‘The evolved products ultimately represent the

entire organic portion of the wood—the mineral matter, or ash,

being the only residuum. ‘These evolved products include both

liquids and gases, and by subsequent changes, solids are pro-

eg a =

Se ie ee

(ae (ee es

SL a ee ee. | ean

rad

‘

The Origin and Relations of the Carbon Minerals. — 2%5

duced from some of them. Carbonic acid, carbonic oxide,

nitrogenous and hydro-cirbon gases, water and petroleum, are

mentioned above as the substances which escape from wood-

tissue during its decomposition. That all these are eliminated

in the decay of vegetable and animal structures, is now generally

conceded by chemists and geologists, although there is a wide

difference of opinion as to the nature of the process.

It has been claimed that the evolved products enumerated

above are the results of the primary decomposition of organic

matter, and never of further changes in the residual products ;

7. e., that in the breaking-up of organic tissue, variable quanti-

ties of coal, anthracite, petroleum, marsh-gas, etc., are formed,

but that these are never derived the one from the other. This

opinion is, however, certainly erroneous, and the formation of

any or all the evolved products may take place throughont the

entire progress of the decomposition. Muarsh-gas and carbonic

acid are seen escaping from the surface of pools where

recent vegetable matter is submerged, and they are also elimi-

nated in the further decomposition of peat, lignite, coal and

carbonaceous shale. Fire-damp and choke-damp, common names

for the guses mentioned above, are produced in large quantitics

in the mines where Tertiary or Cretaceous lignites, or Carboni-

ferous coals or anthracites are mined. It has been said that

these gases are simply locked up in the interstices of the carbon-

aceous matter, and are liberated in its excavation ; but ali who

have worked coal-mines know that such accumulations are not

sufficient to supply the enormous and continuous flow which

comes from all parts of tie mass penetrated. We have ample

proof, moreover, that coal, when exposed to the air, undergoes

a kind of distillation, in which the evolution of carbonic acid and

hydro-carbon gases is a necessary and prominent feature.

The gas-makers know, that if their coul is permitted to he for

months or years after being mined, it suffers serious deteriora-

tion, yielding aless and less quantity of illuminating gas with

the lapse of time. So coking coals are rendered dry, non-

caking, and valueless for this purpose, by long exposure.

Carburetted hydrogen, olefiant gas, etc., are constant associ-

ates of the petroleum of springs or wells, and this escape of gas

and oil has been going on in some localities, without apparent

276 =The Origin and Relations of the Carbon Minerals.

diminution, for two or three thousand years. We can only ac-

count for the persistence of this flow by supposing that it is

maintained by the gradual distillation of the carbonaceous

masses with which such evolutions of gas or of liquid hydro-

carbons are always connected. If it were true that carburetted

hydrogen and petroleum are produced only from the primary

decomposition of organic tissue, it would be inevitable that at

least the elastic gases would have escaped long since.

Oil-wells which have been nominally exhausted—that is, from

which the accumulations of centuries in rock reservoirs have been

pumped—and therefore have been abandoned, have in all cases

been found to be slowly replenished by a current and constant

secretion, apparently the product of an unceasing distillation.

In the valley of the Cumberland, about Burkesville, one of

the oil-regions of the country, the gases escaping from the

equivalent of the Utica shale accumulate under the plates of

impervious limestone above, until masses of rock and earth,

hundreds of tons in weight, are sometimes thrown out with great

violence. Unless these gases had been produced by compara-

tively recent distillation, such explosions could not occur.

In opening a coal-mine on a hillside, the first traces of the

coal-seam are found in a dark stain in the superficial clay; then

a substance like rotten wood is reached, from which all the vola-

tile constituents have escaped. These appear, however, later,

and continue to increase as the mine is deepened, until under

water or a heavy covering of rock, the coal attains its normal ©

physical and chemical characters. Here it is evident that the

coal has undergone a long-continued distillation, which must

have resulted in the constant production of carbonic acid and

carburetted hydrogen.

A line of perennial oil and gas springs marks the outcrop of

every great stratum of carbonaceous matter in the country. Of

these, the most considerable and remarkable are the bituminous

shales of the Silurian (Utica shale), of the Devonian (Hamilton

and Huron shales), the Carboniferous, etc. Here the carbona-

ceous constituent (10 to 20 per cent.) is disseminated through

a great proportion of inorganic material, clay and sand, and

seems both from the nature of the materials which furnished

it,—cellular plants and minute animal organisms,—and its dis-

——

The Origin and Relations of the Carbon Minerals. 277%

semination, to be specially prone to spontaneous distillation. The

Utica shale is the lowest of these great sheets of carbonaceous

matter, and that supplies the hydro-carbon gases awd liquids

which issue from the earth at Collingwood, Canada, and in the

rulley of the Cumberland. ‘The next carbonaceous sheet is

_ formed by the great bituminous shale-beds of the Upper Devo-

nian, which underlie and supply the oil-wells in western Penn-

sylvania. In some places the shale is several hundred feet in

thickness, and contains more carbonaceous matter than all the

overlying coal strata. The outcrop of this formation, from

central New York to Tennessee, is conspicuously marked by

gas-springs, the flow from which is apparently unfailing.

Petroleum is scarcely less constant in its connection with

these carbonaceons rocks than carburetted hydrogen, and it only

escapes notice from the little space it occupies. The two sub-

stances are so closely allied that they must have a common origin,

and they are in fact generated simultaneously in thousands of

localities. ‘

During the oil excitement of some years since, when the whole

country was hunted over for ‘‘oil-sign,” in many lagoons, from

which bubbles of marsh-gas were constantly escaping, films of

genuine petroleum were often found on the surface ; and as the

underlying strata were barren of oil, this could only have been

derived from the decaying vegetable tissue below. In the Bay of

Marquette, two or three miles north of the town, where the shore

is a peat-bog underlain by Archean rocks, I have seen bubbles

of carburetted hydrogen rising in great numbers, attended by

drops of petroleum, which spread as iridescent films on the

surface.

The remarks which have been made in regard to the hetero-

genous nature of the solid hydro-carbons, apply with scarcely

less force to the gaseous and hquid products of vegetable de-

composition. The gases which escape from marshes contain

carbonic acid, a number of hydro-carbon gases (or the materials

out of which they may be composed in the process of analysis),

and finally a larger or smaller volume of nitrogenous gas. It is

possible that the elimination of these gases takes the form of

fractional distillation, and definite compounds may be formed

directly from the wood-tissue or its derivatives, and mingle as

278 = =The Origin and Relations of the Carbon Minerals.

they escape. This is, however, not certain, for the gases, as we

find them, are always mixtures and never pure. In the liquid

evolved products, the petroleums, this is emphatically true, for

we combine under this name fluids which vary greatly in both

their physical and chemical characters; some are light and

ethereal; others are thick and tarry; some are transparent,

some opaque; some red, some brown, others green; some have

an offensive and others an agreeable odor; some contain asphalt

in large quantity, others paraffine, etc. Thus they form a

heterogeneous assemblage of liquid hydro-carbons, of which naph-

tha and maltha may be said to form the extremes, and which

have little in common, except their undetinable name. ‘The

causes of these differences are but imperfectly understood, but

we know that they are in part dependent on the nature of the

organic material that has furnished the petroleums, and in part

upon influences affecting them after their formation. For ex-

ample, the oil which saturates the Niagara limestone at Chicago,

and which is undoubtedly indigenous in this rock, and probably

of animal origin, is black and thick; that from Enniskillen,

Canada, is also black, has a vile odor, probably in virtue of sul-

phur compounds, and we have reason to believe is derived from

animal matter. The oils of northwestern Pennsylvania are

mostly brown, sometimes green by reflected light, and have a

pungent and characteristic odor. These are undoubtedly de-

rived from the Hamilton shales, which contain ten or twenty

per cent. of carbonaceous matter, apparently produced from the

decomposition of sea-weeds, since these are in places exceed-

ingly abundant, and nearly all other fossils are absent.

The oils of Italy, though varying much in appearance, have

usually an ethereal odor that is rather agreeable; they are of

Tertiary age. The oils of Japan, differing much among them-

selves, have as a common character an odor quite different from

the Pennsylvania oils. So the petroleums of the Caspian, of

India, California, etc., occuring at different geological horizons,

exhibit a diversity of physical and chemical characters which

may be fairly supposed to depend upon the material from which - 4

they have been distilled. The oils in the same region, however,

are found to exhibit a series of differences which are plainly the

SS ee ee eee ee,

ees © — ee

The Origin and Relations of the Carbon Minerals. 279

result of causes operating upon them after their production.

Near the surface, they are thicker and darker; below, and near

the carbonaceous mass from wh ch they have been generated,

they are of lighter gravity and color. We find, in limited

quantity, oils which are nearly white, and may be used in lamps

without refining,—which have been refined, in fact, in nature’s

laboratory. Others, that are reddish yellow by transmitted light,

sometimes green by reflected light, are called amber. oils, these

also occur in small quantity, and as I am led to believe, have

acquired their characteristics by filtration through masses of

sandstone. Whatever the variety of petroleum may be, if ex-

posed for a long time to the air, it undergoes a spontaneous distilla-

tion, in which gases and vapors, existing or formed, escape, and

solid residues are left. The nature of these solids varies with

the petroleums from which they come, some producing asphal-

tum, others paraffine, others ozokerite, and so on through a long

list of substances, which have received distinct names as mineral

species, though rarely if ever possessing a definite and invariable

composition. The change of petroleum to asphalt may be wit-

nessed at a great number of localities. In Canada, the black

asphaltic oil forms by its evaporation great sheets of hard or

tarry asphalt, called gum-beds, around the o:l-springs. In the

far West, are numerous springs of petroleum, which are known

to the hunters as ‘“‘tar-springs,” because of the accumulations

about them of the products of the evaporation and oxidation of

petroleum to tar or asphalt. Certain less common oils yield ozo-

kerite as a solid, and considerable accumulations of this are

known in Galicia and Utah.

Natural paraffine is less abundant, and yet in places it occurs

in considerable quantity. Asphalt is the common name for the

solid residue from the evaporation and oxidation of petroleum;

and large accumulations of this substance are known in many

parts of the world, perhaps the most noted of all being that of

the ‘‘Pitch Lake” of the island of Trinidad;—there, as every

where else, the derivation of asphalt from petroleum is obvious

and traceable in all stages. The asphalts, then, have a common

history in this, that they are produced by the evaporation and

oxidation of petroleum. But it should also be said that they

share the diversity of character of petroleums, and the term

280 The Origin and Relations of the Carbon Minerals.

asphalt represents a group of substances of which the physical

characters and chemical composition differ greatly in virtue of

their derivation, and also differ from changes which they are

constantly undergoing. Thus at the Pitch Lake in Trinidad,

the central portion is a tarry petroleum, near the sides a plastic

asphalt, and finally that which is of almost rock-like solidity.

Hence we see that the solid residues from petroleum are unstable —

compounds like the coa!s and lignites, and in virtue of their

organic nature are constantly undergoing a series of changes of

which the final term is combustion or oxidation. From these

facts we might fairly infer that asphalts formed in geological

ages anterior to the present would exhibit characters resulting

from still further distillation; that they would be harder and

drier, 7. é@., containing less volatile ingredients, and more fixed

carbon. Such is, in fact, the case; and these older asphalts are

represented by Grahamite, Albertite, etc., which I have desig-

nated as asphaltic coals. These are found in fissures and cavities

in rocks of various ages, which have been more or less disturbed,

and usually in regions where springs of petroleum now exist.

The Albertite fills fissures in Carboniferous rocks in New Bruns-

wick, on a line of disturbance and near oil-springs. Precisely

the same may be said of the Grahamite of West Virginia. It

fills a vertical fissure, which was cut through the sandstones and

shales of the Coul-measures; in the sandstones it remained open,

in the shales it has been closed by the yielding of the rock. ‘The

Grahamite fills the open fissure in the sandstone and was plainly

introduced when in a liquid state. In the vicinity are oil

springs, and it is on an axis of disturbance. From near Tampico,

Mexico, I have received a hydrocarbon solid—essentially Gra-

hamite,—asphalt and petroleum. ‘These are described as oecur-

ing near together, and evidently represent phases of different

dates in the same substance. I haye collected asphaltic coals, very

similar to Grahamite and Albertite in appearance and chemical

composition, in Colorado and Utah, where they occur with the

same associates as at Tampico. I have found at Canajoharie,

New York, in cavities in the lead-veins which cut the Utica shale,

a hydro-carbon solid which must have infiltrated into these

cavities as petroleum, but which, since the remote period, when

the fissures were formed, has been distilled until it is now

The Origin and Relations of the Carbon Minerals. 281

anthracite.’ Similar anthracitic asphalt or asphaltic anthracite

is common in the Calciferous sand-rock in Herkimer County,

New York, where it is associated with, and often contained in,

the beautiful crystals of quartz for which the locality is famous.

Here the same phase of distillation is reached as in the coke

residuum of the petroleum stills.

Finally, in some crystalline limestones, detached scales or crys-

tals of graphite occur, which are undoubtedly the product of the

complete distillation of liquid hydro-carbons with which the

rock was once impregnated. The remarkable purity of such

graphite is the natural result of its mode of formation, and such

cases resemble the occurrence of graphite in cast iron and basalt.

The black clouds and bands which stain many otherwise white

marbles are generally due to specks of graphite, the residue of

hiydro-carbons which once saturated the rock. Some limestones

are quite black from the carbonaceous matter they contain

(Lycoming Valley, Penn., Glenn’s Falls, N. Y. and Collingwood,

Canada), and these are sold as black marbles, but if exposed to

heat, such limestones are blanched by the expulsion of the con-

tained carbon; usually a residue of anthracite or graphite

is left, forming dark spots or streaks, as we find in the clouded

and banded marbles.

In the preceding remarks, no effort has been made even to

enumerate all the so-called carbon minerals which have been de-

scribed. ‘his was unnecessary in a discussion of the relations

of the more important groups, and would have extended this ar-

ticle much beyond its prescribed length. Those who care to

gain a fuller knowledge of the different members of the various

groups, are referred to the admirable chapter on the ‘‘Hydro-

carbon Compounds” in Dana’s Mineralogy.

It will however add to the value of this paper, if brief mention

be made of a few carbon minerals of which the genesis and re-

lations are not generally known, and in regard to which special

interest is felt, such as the diamond, jet, and the hydro-carbon

jellies, ‘‘Dopplerite,” etc.

The diamond is found in the debris of metamorphic rocks in

many countries, and is probably one of the evolved products of

the distillation of organic matter they once contained. Under

peculiar circumstances it has apparently been formed by precip-

282 The Origin and Relations of the Carbon Minerals.

itation from sulphide of carbon or some other volatile carbon

compound by elective affinitv. Laboratory experiments have

proved the possibility of producing it by such a process, but

the artificial crystals are microscopic, perhaps only because a

long time is required to build up those of larger size.

Jet is a carbonaceous solid which in most cases is a true lignite,

and generally contains more or less of the structure of wood.

Masses are sometimes found, however, that show no structure,

and these are probably formed from bitumen which has separ-

ated from the wood of which it once formed part, and which it

generally saturates or invests. In some cases, however, these

masses of jet-like substance are plainly the residuum of excre-

mentitious matter voided by fishes or reptiles. These latter are

often found in the Triassic fish-beds of Connecticut and New

Jersey, and in the Cretaceous marls of the latter State.

The discovery of a quantity of hydro-carbon jelly, recently, in

a peat-bed, at Scranton, Pa., has excited some wonder; but simi-

lar substances (Dopplerite, etc.) have been met with in the

peat-beds of other countries ; and while the history of the forma-

tion of this singular group of hydro-carbons is not. yet well

understood, and offers an interesting subject for future research,

we have reason to believe that these jellies have been of common

occurrence among the evolved products of the decomposition of

vegetable tissue in all ages.

The generalities of the origin and relations of the carbon

minerals have now been briefly considered; but a review of

the subject would be quite incomplete without some refer-

ence to the theories which have been advanced by others, that

are in conflict with the views now presented. There have

always been some who denied the organic nature of the mi-

neral hydro-carbons; but it has been regarded as a sufficient

answer to their theories, that chemists are agreed in saying that

no instances have come to the knowledge of man of the occur-

rence in nature of hydro-carbons, solid, liquid or gaseous, in

which the evidence was not satisfactory that they had been de-

rived from animal or vegetable tissue. A few exceptional cases,

however, in which chemists and geologists of deserved distinc-

tion have claimed the possibility and even probability of the

production of marsh gas, petroleum, etc., through inorganic

agencies, require notice. .

The Origin and Relations of the Carbon Minerals. 283

In a paper published in the Annales de Chimie et de Physique,

Vol. LX. p. 481, M. Berthelot attempts to show that the forma-

tion of petroleum and carburetted hydrogen from inorganic

substances is possible, if it is true, as suggested by Daub:ee, that

there are vast masses of the alkaline metals—potassium, sodium,

etc.— deeply buricd in the earth, and at a high temperature, to

which carbonic acid should gain access; and he demonstrates

that these premises being granted, the formation of hydro-

carbons would necessarily follow.

But it should be said that no satisfactory evidence has ever

been offered of the existence of zones or masses of the unoxidized

alkaline metals in the earth, and it is not claimed by Berthelot

that there are any facts in the occurrence of petroleum and car-

buretted hydrogen in nature which seem to exemplify the chemi-

eal action which he simply claims is theoretically possible. Ber-

thelot also says that, in most cases, there can be no doubt of

the organic origin of the hydro-carbons.

Mendeleeff, in the Revue Scientifique, 1877, p. 409, discusses

at considerable length the genesis of petroleum, and attempts to

sustain the view that it is of inorganic origin. His arguments

and illustrations are chiefly drawn from the oil-wells of Penn-

sylvania and Canada, and for the petroleum of these two dis-

tricts he claims an inorganic origin, because, as he says, there

are no accumulations of organic matter below the horizons at

which the oils and gases occur. He then goes into a lengthy

discussion of the possible: and probable source of petroleum,

where, as in the instances cited, an organic origin ‘‘is not possi-

ble.” It is a sufficient answer to M. Mendeleeff to say, that

beneath the oil-bearing strata of western Pennsylvania are sheets

of bituminous shale, from one hundred to five hundred feet in

thickness, which afford an adequate, and it may be proven the

true, source of the petroleum, and that no petroleum has been

found below these shales ; also, that the oil-fields of Canada are

all underlain by the Collingwood shales, the equivalent of the

Utica carbonaceous shales of New York, and that from the out-

crops of these shales petroleum and hydro-carbon gases are con-

stantly escaping. With a better knowledge of the geology of

the districts he refers to, he would have seen that the facts in

the cases he cites afford the strongest evidence of the organic

origin of petroleum.

284 The Origin and Relations of the Carbon Minerals.

Among those who are agreed as to the organic origin of the

hydro-carbons, there is yet some diversity of opinion in regard

to the nature of the process by which they have been produced.

Prof. J. P. Lesley has at various times advocated the theory

that petroleum is indigenous in the sand-rocks which hold it,

and has been derived from plants buried in them. (Proc. Amer.

Philos: Soe.) Volek, jopst desma .eres)

My own observations do not sanction this view, as the number

of plants buried in the sandstones of the Coal measures or the .

Conglomerate must always have borne a small proportion in

volume to the mass of inorganic matter; and some of those

which are saturated with petroleum are almost completely des-

titute of the impressions of plants.

In all cases where sandstones contain petroleum in quantity,

I think it will be found that there are sheets of carbonaceous

matter below, from which carburetted hydrogen and petroleum

are constantly issuing. A more probable explanation of the

occurrence of petroleum in the sandstones, is that they have,

from their porosity, become convenient receptacles for that

which flowed from some organic stratum below.

Dr. T. Sterry Hunt has regarded limestones, and and especi-

ally the Niagara and Corniferous, as the principal sources of |

our petroleum; but, as I have elsewhere suggested, no econ-

siderable flow of petroleum has ever been obtained from the

Niagara limestone, though, as at Chicago and Niagara Falls,

contains a large quantity of bituminous matter; also, that the

Corniferous limestone which Dr. Hunt has regarded as the source

of the oil of Canada and Pennsylvania, is too thin, and too

barren of petroleum, or the material out of which it is made, to

justify the inference.

The Corniferous limestone is never more than fifty or sixty

feet thick, and does not contain even one per cent. of hydro-

carbons ; and in southern Kentucky, where oil is produced in

large quantity, this limestone does not exist.

That many limestones are more or less charged with petro-

leum is well-known; and in addition to those mentioned above,

the Silurian limestone at Collingwood, Canada, may be cited as

an example; and as I have cteewanere shown, we have reason to

beheve that the petroleum here is indigenous, and has been

The Origin and [elations of the Carbon Minerals. — 285

derived in part, at least, from animal organisms; but the lime-

stones are generally compact, and if cellular, their cavities are

closed, and the amount of petroleum which, under any circum-

stances, flows from or can be extracted from limestone rock, is

small. On the other hand, the bituminous, shales which under-

he the different oil regions, and are constantly associated with

the flow of the petroleum and carburetted hydrogen, afford an

abundant source of supply, holding the proper relations with the

-reservoirs that contain the oil, and are spontaneously and con-

stantly evolving gas and oil, as may be observed in a great num-

ber of localities. For this reason, while confessing the occurrence

of petroleum and asphaltum in many limestones, I am thorough-

ly convinced that httle or none of the petroleum of commerce

is derived from them.

Prof. 8. F. Beckham, who has studied the petroleum field of

Southern California, attributes the abundant hydro-carbon ema-

nations in that locality to microscopic animals. It is quite

possible that this is in part true in this and other localities ; but

the bituminous shales which are evidently the sources of the

petroleum of Pennsylvania, Ohio, Kentucky, ete., generally

contain abundant impressions of sea-weeds, and indeed these are

almost the only organisms which have left any traces in them.

IT am inclined therefore now, as in my report on the Rock Oils

of Ohio, published in 1860, to ascribe the carbonaceous matter

of the bituminous shales of Pennsylvania and Ohio, and hence

the petroleum derived from them, to the easily decomposed cell-

ular tissue of algue which have in their decomposition contrib-

uted a large percentage of diffused carbonaceous matter to the

sediments accumulating at the bottom of the water where they

erew. Ina recent communication to the National Academy of

Sciences, Dr. T. Sterry Hunt has proposed the theory that

anthracite is the result of the decomposition of vegetable tissue

when buried in porous strata like sandstone; but an examin-

ation of even a few of the important deposits of anthracite in

the world will show that no such relationship as he suggests

obtains. Anthracite may and does occur in sedimentary rocks

_of varied character, but so far as my observation has extended,

never in quantity in sandstone. In the Lower Silurian rocks

anthracite occurs, both in the old world and in the new, where

286 The Origin and Relations of the Carbon Minerals.

no metamorphism has affected it and where it is simply the

normal result of the Jong continued distillation of plant tissue,

but the anthracite beds which are known and mined in so many

countries are the results of the metamorphism of coal-beds of

one or another age, by local outbursts of trap, or the steaming

and baking of the disturbed strata in mountain chains—nume-

rous instances of which are given on a preceding page.

Mr. M. Mendeleeff, in his article already referred to, misled

by want of knowledge of the geology of our oil-fields, and as-

cribing the petroleum to an inorganic cause, connects the pro-

duction of oil in Pennsylvania and Caucasia with the neighboring

mountain chains of the Alleghanies and the Caucasus; but in

all such localities, a sufficient amount of organic matter can be

found to supply a source for the petroleum, while the upheaval

and loosening of the strata along lines parallel with the axes of

elevation in mountain chains has favored the decomposition

(spontaneous distillation) of the carbonaceous strata. It should

be distinctly stated, however, that no igneous rocks are found

in the vicinity of productive oil-wells, here or elsewhere, and

there are no facts to sustain the view that petroleum is a vol-

canic product.

In the valley of the Mississippi, in Ohio, Illinois and Ken-

tucky, are great deposits of petroleum very far removed from

any mountain-chain or volcanic vent, and the cases which have

been cited of the limited production of hydro carbons in the

vicinity of, and probably in connection with, volcanic centres,

may be explained by supposing that in these cases the petro-

leum is distilled from sedimentary strata, containing organic

matter affected by the proximity of melted rock or steam.

Everything indicates that the distillation which produces the

greatest quantities of petroleum known is effected at a low tem-

perature, and the constant escape of petroleum and carburetted

hydrogen from the outcrops of bituminous shales, as well as the

result of weathering on the shales, depriving them of all their

carbon, shows that the distillation and complete elemination of

the organic matter they contain may take place at the ordinary

temperature.

ee ee ee a, oe, See

ve ees rs

;

New Species of Yucatan Birds. 287

XVII.—Descriptions of two New Species of Birds froin Yuca-

tan, of the Families Columbide and Formicariide.

BY GEORGE N. LAWRENCE.

Read May 29th, 1882.

1. Leptoptila fulviventris.

Fore part of the head of a pale bluish white ; top of the head, back and

wings, olive-brown; on the rump there is a slight greenish tinge ; the metal-

lic color on the sides of the neck is light violet-red, changing to green on

the hind neck ; the upper tail-coverts and central tail-feathers are colored

like the back ; the outer tail-feather is blackish brown, ending with white

on the inner web, and with light fulvous on the outer ; the next feather is

similarly marked, and has the outer web of a lighter brown at the base, for

a short distance ; the third feather has the outer web ruddy brown for two-

thirds its length from the base, in other respects colored like the first and

second feathers ; the fourth feather is brown for its entire length, except at

the end, where it is fulvous white ; the primary and secondary quills are

vandyke-brown, narrowly edged with pale fulvous white near their ends,

tertials the color of the back ; the wing-coverts are of a warmer brown than

the back; chin whitish; the sides of the head, the throat and the breast are of

a rather dark reddish fawn-color ; the upper part and sides of the abdomen

and the flanks are of a clear light fulvous ; the middle of the abdomen and

the under tail-coverts are white, tinged with fulvous ; under wing-coverts

and axillars deep reddish cinnamon ; the inner margins of the quills edged

with very pale cinnamon ; bill black ; tarsus and toes dull fleshy brown,

in the dried state.

Length (skin), 10} inches ; wing, 5}; tail, 44 ; bill, +4; tarsus, #.

Type in the museum of the State University of Kansas, at

Lawrence, Kansas.

Remarks.—Vhe color of the front is quite similar to that of

L. albifrons, and it resembles that species somewhat in it color-

ing above, but is rather darker; the under plumage is quite diff-

erent in coloration, and also much darker; the under wing-

288 New Species of Yucatan Birds.

coverts are of a lighter shade of cinnamon than in albifrons; the

feet are strikingly smaller and more feeble than those of that

species, and it is less in size.

2. Furnarius pallidus,

The upper plumage is of a clear pale ochreous brown, or light snuff-

brown ; the top of the head is of a darker brown; the front has a tinge of

rufous; the lores are white; the rump and upper tail-coverts are light

rufous ; the tail-feathers are light brown, blackish at their ends, which are

edged with white ; inner webs of quills liver-brown, the outer colored like

the back ; the wing-coverts and tertials are of a ruddy light brown ; the un-

der wing-coverts are pale ochreous white, with blackish ends ; the under

surfaces of the quills are light reddish ochraceous, for half their length from

the base ; the throat and sides of the head are blackish ; the neck is encir-

cled by a well defined collar of deep bright rufous, this color extending on

the sides of the head behind the eye ; the upper part of the, breast is of a

light dull brownish cinereous ; upper part and sides of the abdomen of a

lighter shade, more of a pale brown ; the middle of the abdomen is white,

just tinged with ochreous ; under tail-coverts brown, with a wash of dull

light-colored rufous ; bill black ; tarsi and toes pale brown.

Length (skin), 74 inches; wing, 33; tail, 23; tarsus, 14; bill from front, ¢.

Type in museum of the State University of Kansas.

Remarks.—This species is much paler in coloration than all

others of the genus; in distribution of markings, it most resem-

bles £. montliger, but it is very much paler throughout, the red

collar is more distinct than in that species, and the white spot

in the lores is larger; the tail is brown instead of black, and the

_ochraceous coloring on the bases of the quill-feathers is twice the

extent that it isin /. moniliger; it is also longer than that spe-

cies in all its dimensions.

When describing a new swift from Yucatan (antea, p. 245), I

alluded to the fact, that the State University of Kansas had pur-.

chased a full series of the birds obtained in that country by Mr.

Geo. F. Gaumer.

Since then Prof. F. H. Snow of the University has sent me

the collection for determination; besides the species above de-

scribed, of which there is but one example of each, it contains

many others of much interest.

GEOLOCICAL MAP Vou. I, PLary 18.

DESIGNED TO ILLUSTRATE A PAPER

ON THE

PARALLEL DRIFT-HILLS \ LEE aaennoeos

OF w

WESTERN NEW YORK

DE LAURENGE JOHNSON. \

Fievations in feet, above Lake Ontario N

are indicated by numerals. ie A ~ O

eileen

245 tet above Se :

SODUS BAY

/60 see aie 93 “>=. _Roek-100 \

hHannibal es

Cra

-- =.

-* Stet

B ictory Siang

a) ios oe 4.00 yy as Y 323 re

-o

joo? 2

mer te fs

SALINA

--WATERLIME AND” “ORS;

~“ypPER | HELDERBERG

GROUP

sem wee eet

Tite ea &

WON NA LS

OF THE

NEW YORK ACADEMY OF SCIENCES.

VOLUME I, 1880—82.

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The ‘“‘Annals,” published for over half a century by the late Lyceum of

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bya CONT ENMS |

XV.—The Parallel Drift-Hills of Western New Yo

ENCE JOHNSON (with Plate XVIID

Yom cic

XVI.—The Origin ahd Relations of the Carbon

SORBINT oh (ico) cha ma Siren ese era ays

-XVIL—Descriptions of Two New Species of E

of the Families Columbidee and Fo

IN. LAWRBENCE,.- 02-2506. 052 2222

‘

» :

’

‘ a eS)

’ rdceghe"y

: cP

z, ‘

December, 1882. s. 10 and I,

ANNALS

OF THE

EW YORK ACADEMY OF SCIENCES,

Pee rare Sn

LYCEUM OF NATURAL HISTORY.

ew York:

PUBLISHED FOR THE ACADEMY,

1882.

Gregory Bros., Peatnrers, 34 CARMINE Street, N. Y.

OFFICERS OF THE ACADEMY.

1882.

President.

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Gonyesponding Secretany.

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Fusion-Structures in Meteorites. 289

XVIII.—Fusion-Structures in Meteorites.

BY F. G. WIECHMANN.

Read April 10th, 1882.

Meteorites present a theme of study that, from the very

nature of the subject, is one of great interest. Interpreted by

the spectroscope, it is true, rays of light have borne us know-

ledge from regions of the heavens so remote, that the mind fails

to grasp the actual idea of distance which the figures seek to

convey; meteorites, however, these silent messengers from

space, present the only tangible source whence information re-

specting those distant parts may be gleaned.

The thought that by questions correctly addressed,—questions

assuming the form of chemical tests and of microscopic exami-

nation,—they can be forced to reveal the secrets of their birth-

place, lends to their study a certain charm, which all who have

devoted themselves to this subject, must have experienced.

It is therefore not surprising that these bodies should fre-

quently have formed the object of study and research, in the

laboratory of the chemist as well as in the hands of the micro-

scopist. That particular branch of the microscopic examina-

tion, of meteorites, however, to which I have mainly confined

my attention, has hitherto received but little notice—thus

affording ample opportunity for investigation.

Before, however, proceeding to detail the methods and results

of observation, it seems desirable to pass in brief review the

various theories propounded to account for the existence of

meteorites, and to glance at the classifications proposed.

To avoid any possible confusion, I would state that in these

‘pages the term ‘‘aérolite” is to be considered as embracing al/

290 Fusion-Structures in Meteorites.

bodies of ex-terrestrial origin that reach our globe, including

thus meteorites, meteoric iron, and meteoric or cosmical dust.

The term ‘‘ meteorite” is to designate all of such ex-terrestrial

bodies as are composed of stony and metallic matter, without

regard to the proportions in which these two may respectively

occur. ‘‘Meteoric iron” is to be limited to that class of aéro-

lites formed wholly of metal; while ‘‘meteoric dust” is to be

confined to that portion reaching the globe in a finely divided

state.

The theories that have been advanced to account for the

origin of aérolites are quite numerous. They may, however,

all be conveniently classed with one or the other of two

great divisions, of which the first would claim for them terres-

trial sources ; the second, cosmical sources.

The first may again be divided into—

(a.) Volcanic.

(6.) Atmospheric.

The latter into—

(a.) Lunar Volcanic.

(6.) Planetary.

(c.) Solar.

(d.) Cometary.

To discuss these theories in detail, is not within the province

of this article; after a careful consideration of the merits of

each, however, my inclination is to accept the so-called planetary

theory advanced by Chladni, and which holds that ‘‘ meteorites

are true though minute planetary fragments, Bae by the

impact and disruption of larger cosmical masses.’

Of the many dinates ious suggested, only Daubreeé’s will be

cited. He divides aérolites into—

SIDERITES. ASIDERITES.

Containing metallic iron. Containing no metallic iron.

(1.) Holosiderous. (1.) Asiderous.

Tron or alloys of iron and other

metals only.

Fusion-Structures in Meteorites. . 291

(2.) Syssiderous. '

Iron as a continuous, homo-

genous mass ; also stony and

earthy matter.

- (3.) Sporasiderous.

Jvon disseminated in grains.

Stony and earthy matter

predominates.

(a.) Polysiderous. Con-

siderable iron.

(d.) Oligosiderous. Little

iron.

(c.) Cryptosiderous. Jron

hardly perceptible.

In studying meteorites with the microscope, it is a frequent

occurrence to find in the sections, formations of a very remark-

able nature.

These structures exhibiting certain mineral properties, are 2o¢

crystal-forms, as they lack in most instances totally the straight

lines and the angles indicative of pronounced crystalline forma-

tion ; but generally show outlines rounded and curved, in many

instances presenting, at first sight, a certain similarity to some

well-known types of organic life.

The study of these peculiar structures has for some time past

claimed my interest and attention, and this paper is to be the

record of the work.

To decide what appellation should be given to these forms,

was a matter of considerable difficulty. They are not crystals,

yet neither may they be termed amorphous, as they present

certain positive recurring shapes. ‘To class them as crystallites

might be permissible, for Zirkel’s definition, ‘‘ Crystallites may

be termed all those lifeless formations to which a regular radiate

structure (gliederwng) or grouping is peculiar, without their

partaking, either as a whole or in their separate parts, of the

general properties of crystallized bodies, in particular of a regu-

lar polyedral ontline,”* is very sweeping and extensive, yet in

* Ferdinand Zirkel: Die Krystalliten: Bonn, 1875, page 5.

292 Fusion-Structures in Meteorites.

the one instance where Zirkel in his work (Plate XVI, Fig. 1)

pictures a form approaching to some extent those here under

consideration, he designates it as ‘‘ Krystalliten-aggregation,”

i. é., aggregation of crystallites.

After mature deliberation, I decided to name these forma-

tions ‘‘ Fusion-structures ;” and I trust that the observations

detailed further on will justify my choice of an appellation.

After these introductory remarks, it will be in place to present

a brief and general outline of the work done, the material used,

and the methods employed, and then to take up more in detail

such points as may prove of special interest, finally giving the

results and conclusions attained.

The investigation embraced the examination of meteorites,

lava, rhyolite, tufaceous trachyte and basalt. For the material

of which my meteorite-sections were prepared, I am indebted

_to Drs. C. F. Chandler, J. S. Newberry, ‘I. Egleston, Jr., and

C. U. Shepard; and my acknowledgments are also due Mr.

Hague, of the U. 8. Geological Survey, for the kindness with

which he placed a valuable collection of rock-sections at my

disposal.

The method of work followed, was to examine each section

carefully, with a comparatively low power, 75 diameters, to note

any fusion-structure observed, and to study this attentively with

higher powers, ranging from 150 to 800 diameters—in one in-

stance even as high as 1,500 diameters; 300 diameters, how-

ever, was the one usually employed. ‘Then was noted the

behavior of the structure with regard to polarized light, and

after this, generally, a rough sketch was made of the structure,

and with slide-number attached, placed in a book kept for the

purpose. From this book were afterwards chosen the most de-

sirable forms; the respective slides placed under the microscope,

and the figures on the plates were then drawn free-hand directly

from the glass. $

The meteorite sections, of which there were 31 in all, repre-

sent seventeen different specimens—care being taken to obtain,

wherever possible, both longitudinal and transverse cuts.

Following is a list of these meteorites, recording where known,

the place and date of their fall, and in some cases giving their

composition, with name of the analyst.

Fusion-Struclures in Meteorites. 293

1. Fell at Newton County, Arkansas, - - :

2 «« Weston, Connecticut, - - - December, 1807.

3 ‘* Harrison County, Indiana, - -

4, «* Lenn County, lowa, - - - - February 25, 1847.

OD. ** Charles County, Maryland, - - - February 15, 1825.

6 ‘** New Concord, Ohio, - - - May 1, 1860.

i «< Bishopville, South Carolina, - - March, 1843.

8 «« Aigle, France, - : = - : April 26, 1803.

9. «« Chateau Renard, France, - - - June 12, 1841.

10. «« Staunern, Moravia, - > - : May 22, 1808.

11. *« Russel Gulch, Colorado,* - - -

12. «« Esterville, Emmet Co., Iowa, - - May 10, 1879.

118% «« “Waconda, Mitchell Co., Kansas, - =

14. “ Cabarras County, North Carolina, - October 31, 1849.

15. «« Iowa County, lowa, - - - - February 12, 1875.

16. *« Mezo-Maderas, Siebenbiirgen, - - September 4, 1852.

7 UR «* Meyellones, Desert of Atacama, - -

Bolivia, South America, - : - ee

: Concerning the appearance of the fragments obtained, No. 1

is of a black-brown color; No. 7%, white, and very brittle to the

touch ; and the rest nearly all present a dark-gray, stony ap-

pearance, with particles of metal disseminated through the

mass. Nos. 8 and 10 are in part covered with a black rind of

fused material, while No. 14 is noticeable for the brilliancy of

the metal specks scattered through its stony portion.

Of the meteorite which fell at Bishopville, 8. C. (No. 7 of

. the list), and which consists essentially of a white mineral,

| Waltershausen gives this analysis :

Silica, : = 2 67.14

| Alumina, - - 1.48

Ferric Oxide, - - 1.70

Magnesia, - - Biheld

: Lime, - - - 1.82

Water, - - 0.67

| Meteorite No. 9, that of Chateau Renard, France, has, ac-

- cording to Dufrénoy, a Sp. Gr. of 3.56, and consists of—

: Olivine, 50 pr. ct.; nickel iron, about 10 pr. ct. ; while the

remainder appears to be mainly augite and labradorite.

* Meteoric Iron.

294. Fusion- Structures in Meteorites.

No. 17, which was found by Indians near Meyellones, in the

Desert of Atacama, 8. A., and which is in greater part Bala

is, according to E. ine

Iron, - - - - 91.53

Nickel, - - - 7.14

Cobalt, SARS - 0.41

Phosphorus, - - 0.45

Copper, - - - trace.

99.53

Rammelsberg, however, states that the cavities contain a

brownish-white silicate of calcium and iron, containing phos-

phoric acid, perhaps olivine.

Omitting from the list Nos. 11 and 17, as not being strictly

meteorites in the sense in which the term is here regarded, fif-

teen different specimens will remain. In eleven of these I met

with fusion-structures, and, having made drawings of some of

the most striking, will now call attention to some of the figures

on Plates XIX and XX.

The drawings being executed in India ink, of course show

only in black and white. The white indicates the mineral mat-

ter, the black the metallic portions. Frequently, however, the

former was not of a pure white, but tinged with a yellow or

brown tint, more or less pronounced, which effect naturally is

lost in the plates.

On looking over Plates XIX and XX, it will be seen that the

structures depicted are essentially of two kinds :—those in which

the mineral matter occurs without intervening metallic material,

and those in which the former is scattered through the metal.

A closer examination of some of these structures will now be

entered into.

A yery remarkable formation is that presented in Plate XIX,

Fig. 1. It occurs in (Slide 2) Meteorite 2, which fell at Weston,

Conn., December, 1807. It consists of twelve or thirteen bars

which are grouped in such a manner as to afford an appearance

* Watts’ Dict. of Chem., 2d sup, p. 796. Wien. Acad. Ber., LXIII [2]. 323.

oe ere

Fusion- Structures tn Meteorites. 295

that greatly resembles that of a shell-structure, presenting un-

der 300 D. power even a slightly curved face. Figure 2 is the

upper left-hand part of the same structure, but magnified

1,500 D. Bringing so high a power to bear on the object, the

latter loses the columnar appearance it shows under lower

powers, and now looks like a terrestrial trap-formation. Later

on reference will again be made to this structure.

Figure 3, occurs in the same section, and shows the fusion-

bars grouped, but more parallel to each other and not exhibit-

ing the tendency to converge to a point, as in Fig. 1.

Figures 4, 5 and 6, same plate, represent a different type of

fusion-structures. In all these the bars are so small, that

needles would, in these cases, be a more appropriate term; yet

they very decidedly evince the tendency to converge at an

angle.

Figures 4 and 5 are magnified 300 D.; Fig. 6, however,

from a different meteorite (14, Slide 23), is magnified only

75 D. ;

Figures 7, 8 and 9 fully illustrate the type of the mineral

substance scattered through the metal; Fig. 7, showing the

convergence-tendency before noticed; Fig. 9, a parallel disposi-

tion of the bars; while in Fig. 8 these bars have assumed a more

curved form.

In Plate XX, Fig. 3 displays the same curved appearance,

but only in part—the lower portion of the structure showing the

angular convergence of the needles; Fig. 2 1s to illustrate the

sharp point to which sometimes the bars are drawn; which

same feature one of the structures in Fig. 1 exhibits.

Figs. 4, 5 and 6 need not be further discussed. Figures 7, 8

and 9 are treated of in detail further on, being intended to de-

monstrate the action of fusion which meteorites suffer on their

surface in traveling through the air-envelope surrounding the

earth.

These structures are nearly all magnified 300 D. ; some, how-

ever, only 75 or 150 D., the exact number is in each instance

given in. the Plate Index. ;

All these fusion-structures polarize light; some, however,

more than others.

In studying the effect of polarized light on these formations,

296 Fusion-Structures in Meteorites.

I found it indispensable to: have some contrivance by which the

section under examination might be completely rotated, and

yet not be thrown out of the optical axis, the Nicols at the

time remaining stationary, crossed so as to give a dark field.

There are various devices to effect this, the most desirable of

which is undoubtedly that whereby the whole stage may be

rotated ; in my instrument, however, the stage is fixed, so I de-

signed a rotation-plate that can be attached or removed as occa-

sion may require, without interfering with the regular stage.

As the arrangement is very simple and inexpensive, and

may perhaps be found serviceable to others, a brief description

may here find place.

A is the fixed stage, 27 mm. long, 21 mm. broad. [ This pro-

portion has been slightly altered, to adjust the cut to the page. |

B is the rotation-plate, 17.5 mm. diameter. The centre of

this plate has been cut out, forming a circular hole, C, 5.5 mm.

Fusion-Structures in Meteorites, 297

diameter. To the lower part of this, a metal ring has been

fastened, which exactly fits into a hole drilled in the fixed stage

A, so as to permit the plate B to be completely turned, rotated,

resting on A.

_D, D, are the knobs attached, while H, E, are the steel springs

that hold the slide under examination in place.

B is graduated to any desired scale; in this case, it is graded

in 45°. .

F is a line engraved on Plate A.

To. examine a section by polarized light (crossed Nicols), the

slide is fastened by the springs EH, E; the line at D is now

brought exactly opposite to F, and the Nicols set so as to give a

dark field. The plate B is now turned, and whenever a change

is shown by the section, a glance at the stage will show through |

how many degrees it has been turned.

As C is bored in such a manner that its centre is in the optical

axis of the microscope, any object placed exactly in this centre

can of course be revolved completely without being thrown out

of its position in the field. |

If, now, it be desired to make use of the fixed stage, the

whole of B can simply be lifted out of its place, set aside, two

steel clamps intended for this purpose fastened into G, G, and

the regular stage is ready for use.

A short time ago, a statement was made that organic forms,

recognized as corals, crinoids and sponges, had been discovered

in meteorites.

Some few savants—among them, it is said, the illustrious

Charles Darwin—accepted the evidence proffered in support of

this announcement as conclusive; by far the greater part of

scientists, however, brought the full weight of their authority

to bear against the assertion, in many instances choosing satire

and ridicule as their only mode of attack.

As the photographs produced of the so-called ‘‘ organic”

structures, and a personal inspection of sections of the identical

meteorite (Anyahinya) from which most of these were taken,

convinced me that the structures in question were analogous, if

not identical, with those which I was studying, I felt warranted

in giving this view of the question a thorough and impartial con-

sideration, before myself advancing a theory of their formation.

298 Fusion-Structures in Meteorites.

Accordingly, I entered upon the investigation entirely unpre-

judiced, placing before me the question, ‘‘ Can these structures

be of organic origin ?”

The first point to be inquired into in this connection will be,

whether the various changes and influences to which meteorites

are exposed in their course, would permit of the retention of

any definite structure they may have possessed at the outset, or

whether the possibility of this preservation would thereby be

precluded.

The specific gravity of meteorites ranges from about 1.7 to

4.0,—Culvier Gravier, in his work, ‘‘Sur les Etoiles filantes,”

giving their mean density as 3.0,—water being chosen as unit.

5.2 is the specifie gravity of Mars; 1.4 that of Jupiter ; while

3.0 represents the density of the bodies which circulate in

planetary space between these two. Assuming, then, that two

of these cosmical masses come into collision,—and the possi-

bility of such an event has been established by careful caleu-

lation,—then, owing to the violence of the impact, the masses

would burst asunder and the fragments be hurled far out into

space. Coming, then, within the lmits of attraction of other

worlds, gravitation would exert its influence, and, in conse-

quence, these fragments would fall upon their surface—

aérolites.

Motion arrested is converted into heat; and it is easy to con-

ceive that, by the force of the collision, heat must be developed ;

heat so great that it may even cause a partial fusion of the col-

liding masses. Those aérolites that reach the earth must,

moreover, in traveling through the atmosphere surrounding our

globe, encounter great resistance from this medium, and the

friction thus caused, likewise results in heat-production.

The lght-phenomena attending the fall of an aérolite, are

doubtless owing to this cause—the heating of the mass being so

considerable as to allow the same to attain a luminous state.

Very interesting calculations have been made as to how high

a temperature would be thus reached.

The temperature ultimately acquired by the moving body, is

the equivalent of the force with which the particles of air come

in contact with it. ‘This temperature is stated to be 1° C fora

velocity of one hundred and forty-five feet per second, and to go

Fusion-Structures in Meteorites. 299

on increasing with the square of the velocity. The average

velocity of a number of well-observed aérolites* may be taken

at 34—39 miles per second, and so, it will be readily secn, a very

high temperature would be attained.

The heat thus generated is of course sufficiently intense to

fuse any substance known ; but it must be remembered that this

heat is gradually acquired, and acquired from without to within;

and moreover, the body is not exposed for any great length of

time to this high temperature; hence it will naturally follow,

that if this temporary heating is to exert any permanent effect,

it will be the exterior of the body that will suffer the change.

And so it proves to be. Examination of a number of aéro-

lites reveals the fact that they are covered with a black crust or

rind, which crust is the result of fusion. This crust, however,

is generally very thin.

To examine into this, I had prepared three scctions of the

meteorite which fell at Aigle, France, April 26th, 1803 (Me-

teorite 8, Slides 13, 14, 15). This specimen was of a dark

grey color, with one face or side covered with the black fusion-

crust.

The first section was cut from the crust only ; the second was

prepared from the inner, unaltered portion; while the third was

cut from across both crust and unchanged part.

The appearance that these three sections present under the

microscope is shown on Plate XX, Figs. 7, 8, 9. Examined

with 300 D. power, the first (Slide No. 13) exhibits a highly

crystalline structure. The crystals are apparently thrown

“criss-cross,” the one over the other; generally they are

grouped so as to leave in their midst a circular opening which

has once been filled by metal, —~. e., they have probably crystal-

lized around some small globule of metal as a nucleus. In

most cases, this has been lost in the cutting of the section ;

in a few instances, however, it remains. This section polarizes

beautifully.

The second slide (No. 14) shows a sort of fibrous structure,

entirely different from the preceding, as will be seen from Plate

* Phipson: Meteors, Aérolites and Falling Stars.

300 - Fusion-Structures in Meteorites.

XX, Fig. 8; while the third section exhibits a different pic-

ture. The one part, consisting of the fused crust, presents the

strikingly crystalline appearance of the first section (No. 13);

this portion polarizes nicely. Then follows a dark, black mar-

gin, and then comes the gradual transition to the grey, stony

part, which is of a decidedly different nature.

It hence appears that the great rise of temperature to which

a meteorite is exposed in its travels through the earth’s atmo-

sphere,—a temperature sufficiently high to produce the phe-

nomena of light, frequently very brilliant, accompanying its

fall,—exerts its influence only over a comparatively small por-

tion of the body, and hence would not effect any material modi-

fication or change in the original structure of the meteorite.

The chemical composition of meteorites has frequently been

investigated, and numerous analyses of such meteorites are re-

corded. Moreover, it is no easy matter to take one or two of

these analyses and present them as ‘‘ typical,” for as already re-

marked, they range through all proportions of composition of

mineral and metal.

Some few analyses have already been given; here will only

be cited the analysis of the meteorite which fell at Orgueil,

France, May 14, 1864.

The examination was made by Messrs. Pisani and Cloez,

and first published in the Comptes Rendues of 1864; but the

figures here given are from a corrected paper sent by M. Pisani

to Mr. Phipson,* as the notice first issued contained several

misprints.

CLonz. — PISANI.

Hygroscopic Water, - - 5.957

Ammonia, - - - - 0.098 Substance dried at 110° C.

Humus, - : - E 6.027

Combined Water, - - - 7.845

Sulphur, - - - - 4.369 Sulphur, - - - - 5.75

Chlorine, <2 0.078 Chlorine, "|=" \ 2 a enn

Phosphorus, - - - traces. Hyposulphurous Acid, - 0.58

Sulphuric Acid, - - - 2.195 Sulphuric Acid, - - = dep!

Silica, - - - - 24.475 Silica, - = - - 26.08

* Meteors, Aérolites and Falling Stars; 1867, page 116.

Fusion-Structures tn Meteorites. 301

Alumina, - . - - 1.175 Alumina, - : 2 - 0.90

Oxide of Chrome, - - 0.225 Chrome Iron, = - : 0.49

Peroxide of Iron, - - - 18.824 Peroxide of Iron, - - - 8.380

Protoxide of Iron, - - 17.924 Protoxide of Iron, - - 21.60

Oxide of Nickel, - - - 2.450 Oxides of Nickel and Cobalt, - 2.26

Oxide of Cobalt, - - 0.085 Oxide of Manganese, - - 0.36

Oxide of Manganese, - - 1.815 Magnesia, - - - - 17.00

Magnesia, - - : - 8.1638 Lime, - - - - - 1.85

Lime, © - - - - 2.183 Soda, = = = : =o BONG

Soda, - - - - - 1.244 Potassa, - : - = 0.19

Potassa, - - - - 0.307

89.19

99.434

Cloez groups his results thus :— Pisani calculates his as follows :—

Magnetic Oxide of Iron, - 20.627 Magnetic Oxide of Iron, - 12.08

Magnetic Sulphide of Iron, - 7.974 Nickeliferous sulphide of iron, 16.97

Sulphide of Nickel, - - 3.169 Chrome Iron, - - =) O49

Silicates, - - - - 45.127 Silicates, - - - - 55.60

Humus, - = - - 6.410 Water and Organic Matter, - 14.91

Combined Water, : = tls)

91.119 100.00

The analysis is very complete, and will again be referred to.

Among the numerous elements determined in meteorites, is

carbon. The existence of this substance in meteorites has

been thoroughly established by different analysts, and though

it is by no means a constituent of the greater number of these

bodies, yet its occurrence is of sufficient frequency to have given

rise to the class of ‘‘ carbonaceous meteorites.”

The presence of carbon in these meteorites is now to claim

attention, bringing into consideration the second item, perti-

nent to the query under discussion, namely: are there any data

which would justify the inference that the agency of life was

ever active on those worlds, of which meteorites are the

fragments ?

The first meteorite in which carbon was discovered, seems to

be the one which fell at Alais, Departement du Gard, France,

on the 15th of March, 1806.

302 Fusion- Structures in Meteorites.

Thénard made the analysis,* and obtained—

Silica, - : : : : 21.0

Manganese, - - - =) 9.0)

Oxide of Iron, - - - 40.0

Nickel, - - - - oe) 26)

Magnesia, - - - - 2.0

Chrome, - - - - Sele ()

Sulphur, - - - - 0.0

Carbon, - E - : - 2.5

81.5

In 1834, Berzelius estimated the quantity of carbon to be

3.05 pr. ct. ; and Roscoe, in 1862, made a careful examination

of the same meteorite. He determined the carbon present to be

3.36 pr. ct. 1.94 pr. ct. of the stone was soluble in ether, from

which, on evaporation, crystals were deposited that possessed

an aromatic odor, and were fusible at 114°C. On applying

heat, they sublimed, leaving a slight carbonaceous residue.

Prof. J. Lawrence Smitht has also examined some of the same

material, and states the results of his investigation to be in

perfect accordance with those of Prof. Roscoe.

In the meteorite which fell at Kold-Bokkeveld, Africa, Octo-

ber 18, 1838, Harris found 1.67 pr. ct. of carbon, and about

0.25 pr. ct. of an organic substance soluble in alcohol; which

compound is said to have been of a yellowish color, and of a soft,

resinous aspect.

The Kaba meteorite (Hungary), April, 1857, has been analy-

zed by Wohler,{ and found to contain 0.58 pr. ct. of carbon,

and besides this a hydro-carbon, resembling wax in appearance,

and soluble in alcohol, being extracted by this reagent.

Carbon has been determined in several other meteorites:§ in the

one that fell in Sevier County, Tennessee, 1840, by J. Lawrence

* Phipson, p. 114. Annales de Chimie, LXI, 103.

+ Researches on the Solid Compounds in Meteorites, 1876.

+ Phipson, p. 107. Imp. Acad. Sci, Vienna, 1859,

§ Popular Science Review, 1877.

Fusion-Structures in Meteorites. 303

Smith ; Cranbourne, Australia, 1861, by Berthelot; Goalpara,

India, about 1857, examined by T'schermak, who found in it

0.85 pr. ct. of a hydro-carbon (0.72 carbon and 0.13 hydrogen);

Hessle, near Upsala, January 1, 1869, examined by Norden-

skjold; this specimen, dried at 110° C, showed 51.6 pr. ct.

carbon.

Without entering into details about any of these, I would like

to refer once more to the Orgueil meteorite, the analysis of which

has previously been given in full.

Cloez determined in it 6.027 pr. ct. of “‘humus,” and this

carbonaceous matter, after drying at 110° C., was found to con-

sist-of :*

Carbon, : - : - 63.45

Hydrogen, - - - 5.98

Oxygen, - - - - 30.57

100.00

rather closely resembling the average composition of peat,

which may be given as—

Carbon, > > = = 60.06

Hydrogen, - - - 6.21

Oxygen, - - - - 00.73

100.00

The presence of carbon in meteorites being thus a well-

established fact, the question as to its source naturally next

presents itself.

According to able researches, the carbon in meteorites occurs

in two forms,—as graphite, and as small particles, impalpable in

nature, scattered through the mineral portion of the mass.

On the earth, this element occurs in three modifications, as

diamond, as graphite, and as coal. Whatever may be the origin

claimed for the diamond, as far as graphite and coal are con-

cerned, I am aware of no instance where the parentage of either

of these cannot be traced to the action of organic life.

* Phipson: Méteors, Aerolites and Falling Stars, 1867.

304 Fusion-Structures in. Meteorites.

Coal, indeed, is universally admitted to be of organic origin ;

as to graphite, however, different views seem to be entertained.

Yet it appears to admit of but little doubt that graphite is only

a modification of the same substance. At Port Henry and at

Ticonderoga, New York, graphite occurs in. crystalline lime-

stone ; and if the graphite anthracite of Newport, R. I., be ex-

amined, there will be seen with the graphitic anthracite, coal-

plants, distorted and forced somewhat out of form by the force

with which the action of metamorphism took place.

A careful examination of different carbonaceous deposits,

will in fact reveal the gradual transition of peat to graphite,

through all the varying phases of development. ‘There is no

abrupt change, no break or chasm, with coal on one side and

graphite on the other; but step by step the gradation can be

traced, leading from the peat formation to the complete modi-

fication as graphite.

Our present knowledge of the subject, however, does not

warrant the removal of the question from the field of hypothe-

sis and conjecture, us there may be influences at work of which

we are ignorant; yet it certainly seems that the occurrence of

carbon in meteorites, as graphite, in an amorphous condition,

as hydro-carbon, presents a forcible argument as to life having

once played a part in the history of these world-fragments.

And now, these preliminary inquiries disposed of, and it

being found that there is nothing in the existing conditions

which would preclude the possibility of organic structures oc-

curring in meteorites, attention may be directed to the original

problem presented, namely :—Are these fusion-structures of

organic origin ?

The first step taken toward this end, was the study of sections

of typical corals, crinoids and sponges. When a knowledge of

these forms had been gained, I turned to the examination of

the meteoric sections, carefully searching for any structures that

_would bear out the features of these organized bodies. What

forms I found, what outlines they presented, etc., have already

been detailed and need not here be repeated ; consideration will

now be given to the merits of the different arguments presented

in support of the claim that these structures are of organic

origin.

Fusion-Structures in Meteorites. 305

The method of demonstration resorted to for this purpose is

of a two-fold character.* The first may be styled the ‘‘nega-

tive,” inasmuch as it is intended thereby to show that these

structures are no¢ mineral formations ; the second is to be con-

sidered as ‘‘ positive.”

As far as the latter lne of argument is concerned, the only

evidence offered is a considerable number of photographs of the

objects in question, accompanied by a history of what the au-

thor considers them, and an enumeration of the various organic

forms (corals, crinoids, sponges) which he recognizes therein.

These photographs are for the most part well executed, and

bear testimony to considerable labor that must have been ex-

pended in their production. However, as to their value as

evidence, individual opinion must be formed by personal in-

spection ; for my part, the mere resemblance of outline (which

some certainly possess) to the contours of organic structures,

does not suffice to convince me of their being such structures—

the characteristic details of these, even, being wanting.

Of greater interest are the arguments advanced to show that

these structures cannot be mineral forms, and some of these

points will now be briefly considered.

“Minerals,” it is urged,t ‘‘are either crystallized or not crys-

tallized. In the first condition they have definite structure

formed in obedience to a law, and hence recurring; they come

of planes which in section are projected as straight lines.

These forms (lines and angles) are repeated, varying only in size

and not in condition ( Verhdliniss.” Such forms, it is claimed,

are not to be found among these structures, declared to be

organic. ‘‘ Among them,” it is said, ‘tis no form with plane

or angle; all are spheres (Awgelz7), ellipses with deviations from

the mathematical form, but deviations which are constant.

Hence, entirely apart from the coinciding of structure, a con-

stancy of outline is shown, but of other forms than the crystal-

line forms of olivine or enstatite would have to show.”

The claim that no planes or angles are to be found in these

structures, is decidedly incorrect, and the very photographs

* Dr. O. Hahn: Die Meteorite (Chondrite) und ihre Organismen.

+ Dr. O. Hahn, op. cét., p. 21.

306 Fusion-Structures in Meteorites.

offered show the fallacy of this statement—to elucidate which

still more, a glance at my drawings will suftice.

Figures 1 and 2, Plate XIX, represent a structure I found in

a section of the meteorite that fell at Weston, Conn., Decem-

ber, 1807. Fig. 1 is magnified 300 D. Fig. 2 is the left upper

portion of Fig. 1, magnified 1500 D. The drawing will serve

to indicate the appearance presented ; the impression produced

under the latter, power was like that of seeing a terrestrial

trap-formation, entirely doing away with any consideration that

might have been entertained of its possible organic origin,—the

dots and points that might possibly, under a lower power, have

been construed to be channels and tubular openings, resolving

themselves into lines of fracture, the columns assuming a prism-

like shape.

Figs. 4, 5 and 6, same Plate, will show what a perfect system

of angular radiation from different centre-lines, some of these

structures possess.

As to the statement*: ‘‘ Rarely, indeed, small places occur

with true crystals, but in a manner which does not in the shght-

est (durchaus nicht) affect the value of proof of these facts,” I

must observe that it has been my experience to meet with these

places quite frequently, and that moreover, in my judgment,

they form a very valuable clue indicative of the method of

formation of these structures.

The most curious argument (?), however, advanced to sup-

port the assertion that these structures are of organic origin, is

the following :t

“Finally, attention must be called to a contradiction in™

which science becomes involved, if the structure of chondrites

is to be explained by the mineral property. ‘This is the optical

behavior of these inclosures.

“Tf they were crystals, and if the lamellar fracture (dldtter-

bruch) [olivine has none, and yet structures are found in the so-

called olivine spheres, hence lamellar fracture !] were the cause

of the structure, the mineral would of necessity have to refract

light. With most of these inclosures, however, no light-refrac-

* Dr. O. Hahn, op. cit., p. 21.

t+ Ibid., p. 23.

ee eee ee

Fusion-Structures tn Meteorites. BOM

tion is shown, not even ‘‘aggregat-polarization!’ Hence they

can be neither simple minerals nor crystals, least of all could

the structure be explained by lamellar fracture. This fact,—the

optical behavior,—should alone have led to the correct interpre-

tation.”

This statement is truly remarkable, and if this argument be

intended to serve as keystone to the whole structure of theory

and observation (7), this structure must fall, for the keystone

is worthless.

In the first place, the structures that I found in meteorites

do polarize hight; and, secondly, ¢iwe fossil structures of organic

origin, crinoids, sponges and nummulites, which I tested, also

polarize light; so, even if the statement that these inclosures

do not polarize light, should be granted to be true, even then

I fail to see how an organic origin can be claimed for them on

the strength of this, when true organized structures of the kind

under consideration possess the property of polarizing !

And so, being convinced that the existence of these fusion-

structures could not be ascribed to the ag-ncy of life, I con-

tinued my work in the hope of discovermg some clue or data

that would serve to unravel the mystery of their formation.

The next step taken was the examination of terrestrial igne-

ous rocks, some of which show a similarity of composition with

meteorites.

Besides rhyolite and basalt, there were examined —-

. Scoria from Sandwich Islands.

Scoria from Las Valles, New Mexico.

Tufaceous trachyte, Lighthouse Rock, Colorado River.

. Lava from Mount Vesuvius, Italy.

Laya from Vesuvius. (Different external appearance.)

Lava from Mount Vesuvius. (Different specimens.)

BSS S) Sess

From these six latter specimens, I had in all, thirteen sections

made, obtaining in each case longitudinal and transverse cuts.

In A, C, EK and F, fusion-structures were found; D did not

show them, while B exhibited, very perfectly, the true microli-

thic structure.

On Plate XXI will be found several of the most character-

istic fusion-structures observed in some of these.

308 Fusion- Structures in Meteorites.

Fig. 1 is taken from (Shde A, 1: Longt.) a section of scoria

from the Sandwich Islands. The structure polarizes, but not

strongly. A glance at the drawing will show the similarity

with the forms found in meteorites. This, as all figures on

Plate X XI, is magnified 300 D.

Fig. 2 is taken from a section of basalt (U. 8S. Geol. Expl.,

49th Parallel ; north of American Flat Creek, Washoe). Polar-

izes very. finely.

Fig. 3 is from a section of rhyolite. (U.S. Geol. Expl., 40th

Parallel; N. E. slopes River Range, Nev.) ‘This section ap-

pears grey by ordinary light, with a faint tinge of yellow.

Only very small parts of the section polarize at all. The struc-

tures appear very much lke long and curved tubes filled with

minute grey dots. The sack-like form in the left part of the

field is filled with darker-appearing particles.

Fig. 4 is from a section of lava from Mt. Vesuvius, ee

(E. Slide 10: Transverse). Polarizes very finely. This figure

is part of a large structure hexagonal in shape.

Fig. 5 is from tufaceous trachyte of Lighthouse Rock,

Colorado River (C. Side 6: Longt.). This structure also polar-

izes finely.

)

And now, having finished the experimental part of the in-

vestigation, and having recorded the results obtained and the

observations made, it must be considered, to what inferences

these will lead, to what conclusions they will entitle us.

The problem to be solved is, then, to word it once more:

What are these peculiar formations occurring in meteorites, and

to what force or forces do they owe their existence ?

The answer to this is to be sought and found in the observa-

tions noted on preceding pages; a brief veswmé, however, will

place the matter in a clearer light.

In the first place, the existence of these peculiar formations

has been established in a considerable number of different me-

teorites, which fell at different times and on different parts of

the globe. A careful examination has shown that, in every

case, these formations exhibit certain constant, recurring forms

of outline and structure, that stamp them as a distinct class of

mineral bodies.

Fusion-Structures in Meteorites. 309

Secondly, it has been determined that similar structures occur

in terrestrial igneous formations, different in kind and coming

from different localities, yet each bearing this same mark.

The chemical composition of certain eruptive rocks, is often

very similar to that of meteorites; in fact, so closely do the

figures of analysis of certain lavas agree with those of some me-

teorites, that this analogy of composition has been regarded as

one of the mainstays of the nevertheless untenable theory, that

would assign to meteorites a terrestrial volcanic source.

The origin and method of formation of igneous rocks have

been thoroughly investigated and studied ; it is well known that

these rocks have once all been in the state of fusion, and that

then, cooling, slowly or rapidly, according to existing conditions,

they finally attained the solid state.

I have not been able to give more than a cursory glance at

Vogelsang and Zirkel’s valuable work, ‘‘ Die Krystalliten,” yet

I believe myself to be only bearing out the observations there

noted, in stating, that on the cooling of mineral masses from a

state of fusion, frequently there separate—or perhaps segregate—

from the main mass, minute granules, globular in form, which

eranules will be found scattered through the mass. :

I am not aware whether any explanation of this phenomenon

has been offered and accepted; but to me it seems most likely,

that as the mass is not homogenous in composition, certain

parts of it, yielding up their heat more readily than the sur-

rounding portions, would naturally contract slightly, and thus

form minute particles or globules by themselves in the mass.

In support of this suggestion, 1 may s:ate that, in nearly all, if

not in all, cases which I studied, the muterial forming the

structure appeared to be of a different nature from the matter

immediately surrounding it.

If a section be taken through a spheroidal body, the resulting

cut will be either a circle or of a shape more or less elliptical, ©

according to how the section was made.

The structures encountered, as has been shown, all present

rounded or curved outlines; in some cases even approaching

very closely to a circle.

Resting, then, on all these facts revealed by observation, I

feel justified in declaring, that these structures represent sec-

310 Fusion-Structures in Meteorites.

tions cut through such globules formed on the cooling of the

mass from fusion, a fact on which rests the appellation, Fusion-

structures, which I assigned to them.

Finding these fusion-structures alike in terrestrial igneous

formations and in meteorites, we are led to consider another

very interesting circumstance.

Terrestrial rocks, whose method of formation is well known,

differing from one another in several features, yet all owing

their birth to the same physical forces, exhibit certain remark-.

uble and distinctive structures in their‘formation.

Extra-terrestrial bodies, meteorites, in many cases analogous i

composition’ to the former, show with great frequency these

identical, distinctive structures.

The conclusions to which these facts lead are obvious. There

is no accident in nature: like causes, under like conditions, pro-

duce like effects.

The structures in the rocks examined, were found to be sec-

tions through globules, which globules were produced on cooling

after fusion ; the structures in the meteorites are identical with

the structures in the igneous rocks; therefore, they too must be

the result, of the cooling after a state of fusion.

That these globules in meteorites could not have been formed

during the partial fusion that such bodies experience in passing

through the envelope of‘air surrounding the earth, has been

proven by the facts previously stated (pages 299 and 300); there-

fore, plainly and unmistakably, these structures, these records

in stone, bear evidence that fusion and subsequent cooling must

have formed a chapter in the history of those worlds of which.

these meteorites are but the scattered fragments.

NGO AE Ee

The drawings on the three accompanying Plates were executed free-hand,

in preference to making use of a camera lucida.

Had photography been resorted to, the forms depicted would undoubtedly

have been obtained with greater accuracy in outline and detail than it is

possible to procure, even in the most conscientious free-hand work. The

latter, however, offers the inestimable advantage of permitting the struc-

ture studied, and this structure only, to be shown; while photography

necessarily introduces all that lies above and beneath, and in the immediate

neighborhood of the object under the glass of the microscope.

Hence, whenever on the Plates an object is drawn in the centre of the

field, the rest of the space being left blank, it must be understood that the

surrounding matter has been simply ignored in the drawing, as being

foreign to the structure studied.

ENIDEXG TOP PACERS

PLATE XIX.

Figure. No. of Meteorite. No. of Slide. Diameters Magnified.

lta 2 2 300

2 2 2 1500

(Left upper part of 1.)

3 2 2 300

4 2 30 300

es 2 30 300

6 14 23 15

ih 14 23 300

8 | 14 23 300

9 | ae 8 300

Cy ARS ya Veen

vy re Be G) oti y

AS Wie Ah ee

312 Fusion-Structures in Meteorites.

. PLATE XX.

Figure. No. of Meteorite. No. oaeial,

1 6 . 1

2 a0 ay,

3 16 27

4 2 2

5 9 16

6 15 25

(Exterior,)

"7 8

8 8 pe as

9 8 ig

The meteorite numbers refer to page 293.

PLATE XXI.

‘os Figure. “Material. Locality.

1 Scoria Sandwich Islands.

2 Basalt North of Am. Flat Creek, Wash

3 Rhyolite , N. E. slopes River Range, Nev. —

4 Lava Mt. Vesuvius, Italy.

5 Recue t Lighthouse Rock, Colorado R.

i ra d

Literature of Electrolysis. 313

XIX.—Index to the Literature of Electrolysis and its

Applications,

1784-1880.

BY W. WALTER WEBB.

Read April 24th. 1882.

The following Index is confined to the literature of electro-

lysis and its applications, especially in electro-metallurgy ; the

whole subject of the various forms of the galvanic battery, its

theory and uses, has been omitted ; electro-capillarity and pas-

Sivity are, however, included.

It is not claimed that the Index is complete, yet care has

been taken to make it include the best-known English, French

and German journals.

I must express my thanks to Prof. H. C. Bolton for his sug-

gestion of the idea of compiling such an Index, for his kindness

in allowing the plan of those published by himself to be copied,

aad for much assistance which he has given me.

I am indebted to the Index of the Literature of Ozone, pub-

lished by Professor Leeds, for many of the references in the

following Index.

Wises

TRINITY COLLEGE,

APRI:,, 1882.

10)

[For list of authorities, with abbreviations, etc., see the close of the

Index. |

314 Literature of Electrolysis.

InpEx To THE LITERATURE OF ELECTROLYSIS.

1784|Cavendish Phil. Trans., LX XIV, 119. |Effect of the spark on air.

Kirwan es LXXIV, 154. |The same.

1785)Cavendish ee LXXYV, 372. |The same.

Van Marum {Quoted by Cahours, C. R.,|Ozone by the spark,

LXX, 369.

1788|Cavendish Phil. Trans., LX XVIII, 261.| Nitrous Acid by the spark.

1789) Milner of LXXIX, 300. |The same.

Troostwyk Journ. de Phys., Nov., 1789.) Decomposition of water.

Van Marum /|A.c. p., XI, 270. Effect of the spark on CO».

1790| Keir Phil. Trans., 1790, 359. Precipitation of metals,

1797) Henry fa LXXXVII, 401.|Electrolysis of ‘‘carbona-

ted hydrogenous gas.”

Pearson “e XC, 188. Electrolysis of water.

Gilb. Ann., VI, 870.

1800) Nicholson INm@a,, ds, GIN, lis}. Decomposition of water.

1801|Cruikshank Gilb. Ann., VII, 106. Electrolysis of H.SO..

Gautherot A.c. p., 1, XX XIX, 208. |Decomposition of water.

Gilbert of il, OQbil, WOR, The same.

Ritter Gottl. Alm., 1801. Electro-chemical decom-

position.

Simon Gilb. Ann., VIII, 35. Decomposition of H.504.

Vauquelin A. c. p., 1, XX XIX, 103. |New experiments in gal-

vanism.

1802) Facquez i 1, XLIII, 306. Decomposition of HCl.

“Gq. H.” INT@ES dey Pe WEY aketay, Electrolysis of ‘‘carbona-

ted hydrogen.”

Wollaston WEN, Gy (Dog Wy Ibe IG). Electro-chemieal decom-

1803 position. ;

Davy a9 1, XLIV, 206. Action of galvanic elec-

tricity.

Gahn Gilb. Ann., XIV, 235. Electrolysis of arsenate of

potassium.

Hisinger and |Geh., J., I. Electro-chemical decom-

Berzelius position.

Simon A.c. p., 1, XLV, 182, 13. |Decomposition of H.0.

1804) Wilkinson Nich.) J., 2, EX, 248. The same.

1805) Brugnatelli Phil. Mag., 1805. Gilding.

Pacchiani HN © JOs5 ie ION, ile Decomposition of HCl.

1, LYI, 152.

Sylvester Iti digs BG OG: Decomposition of H.0.

1806|Grotthuis A.c. p., 1, LVII, 10, 54. |The same.

Kidel Nich., J., 2, XIV, 1384. Analysis by electrolysis.

Pacchiani A. c. p., 1, LX, 314, 325. |Decomposition of HCl.

Riffault ve 1, LVI, 182. The same.

Literature of Electroly

SUS.

1806|Sylvester

Wilkinson

1807| Alemani

i L

1808} Bucholz

Chompré

Berzelius

Davy

Guyton

Hisinger and

Berzelius

Launay

Pfaff

Riffault and

Chompré

Sylvester

Veau de

aunay

Davy

Descostils

Seebeck

Sylvester

Théodore

ISOS; A. B.”

1810

. |

Brande

Davy

Bucholz

Pfaff

Singer

Sylvester

Van Mons

Davy

Gay-Lussac

and Thénard Phil. Mag., 1, XX XV, 307.

Nich., J., XV, 50, 28.

©" XIV, 342, 28.

AW GxDs, 1, ake Veroeer;, Phil:

Mag., 1, XXVIII, 339.

Jake) CA fay Ll OP ate

GO AL, JUDIL, tek

Iie bres. OWA alee

Phil. Mag., 1, XX VIIL, 1,

OE 22s INTO. deg

2 WALL, SBO)s By KOWAL 7@p

|Nich. J., 2, XXIII, 263.

Gilb., Ann., X XVII, 301.

Phil. Mag., 1, XX VII, 260.

INS G Obs Il, IDOL, Bay

fis il, JLOXOUL, (7h,

'Gilb., Ann., XXV, 454.

[Nich. J., 2, XVII, 155, 28.

c. p., June, 1808, 266;

Gehl., J., XVII; Nich. J.,

2, XXYV, 39.

Phil. Trans., XCVIII, 33 ;}

hil Maer; 1) XOX

Heels 146% Nich yee:

INUDNG US iia- exXoke 290 AMC:

Dene e172) XLV,

319; LXVIII, 205, 225.

AN, Gx [Sonal LOD GU Meare

N. Gehl., V, 482.

WHEN; Va, 2, ODS Uae

JAN. Gs Obs Il, ITU

(Phil. Mag., 1, XX XIII, 87.

CV OO: Oy anal

Thy ROKORWYI, AES AN

Top ly IO TCR), 22!

Nich? J, 2, XV, 321.

Phil. Trans., 13810, part 1;

Phil. Mag., 1, XXXV,

401.

Nich., J., 2, XXII, 149.

Gehl., J., VII, 734.

\Nich., J., 2, XVII, 362, 28.

Ge. SOROS BIS.

2, SMT, 258:

2, XXXIV, 179.

1ejautl, Aibaiatses (OA ie Ja\s (Gs Jobe

1, LXXY, 27, 129.

I. Go JO, dl, AORODUL Wz

Cal

dD;

Experiment in electrolysis

Supposed production of

HCl from HO by

electrolysis.

Electrolysis of H.O and

HCl.

Electrolysis of HCl and

KClOs.

Electrolysis of HCl.

;|Decomposition by electri-

city.

Electrolysis of sulphides.

Electrolysis of concen-

trated H.S80,.

HCl by electrolysis.

Electrolysis of HCl.

Theory of electrolysis.

Precipitation of metals.

HCl by electrolysis.

Electrolysis by weak cur-

rents.

Na and K by electrolysis.

Electrolysis of salts.

NH, amalgam by electro-

lysis.

Electrolysis of the alkalies.

Electrolysis of metals.

On Davy’s theory.

Electrolysis of blood.

Electrolysis of Nand NH.

Electrolysis of Na and K.

Letter on electrolysis.

Precipitation of metals.

HCl by electrolysis.

Electro-chemical experi-

ments.

Electrolysis.

The same.

'Electro-chem. researches.

Electrolysis of NHs.

316 Literature of Hlectrolysis.

1810) Wollaston A.c. p., 1, LXXIV, 299. |Electrol. of the secretions.

1811) Anderson Nich., J., 2, XXX, 188. Electrolysis of H.0.

Davy © «2, XXIX, 112. _|Electrolysis of O.

Donovan Phil. Mag., 1, XXXVII,|Davy’s theory.

227, 245.

Gay-Lussac — |A. c. p., 1, LX XVIII, 245. Electrolysis.

1826

1827

1828

1829

and Thénard

Grotthuss

Heinskin

2) Singer

Murray

3) Avogadro

Berzelius

Brande

/Donovan

Acton

Wollaston

2) Fisher

Van Mons

Witting and

Bischoff

‘Becquerel

‘De la Rive

Ferré

Fisher

Davy

Dumas

|Fisher

Becquerel

Davy

De la Rive

Fisher

Nobili

Pouillet

Sérullas

Davy

|Fisher

Libri

Fisher

co il, JEDSOUDL, Ha INTeln.

J., 2, XXX, 112.

Nich. J., 2, XXX, 157, 28.

66 2, OOM UO, Zl,

COD, NORGE S i:

HAVRE MO spttls LXXX VII, 286.

- LXXXVI, 146.

Phil. Mag., 1, XLIV, 124.

XLY, 154, 308,

380.

Phil. Mag., 2, II, 112.

A. c. p., 2, XVI, 45.

Gilb. Ann., LX XII, 289.

e LXXITII, 310.

Be LXXIV, 424.

Mem. del’ Acad., XI, 33.

A.c. p., 2, XXVIII, 190.

ot DSOROWAUOL, BEG

T. Ann., N. §., X, 262.

Poge., IV, 291; VE 43. °

Phil. Traus., CXVI, Pt. 3,

383.

Phil. Trans.,

Phil. Mag.,

T. Ann., N. S., XI, 248.

Ay ic. p., 2) XXXII 265)

Pogg., VIII, 488; IX, 255

A. c. p., 2, XXXV, 118, 23.

Phil. Mag., 2, I, 31, 94, 190,

1825

A. c p., 2 XXXY, 164;

Pogg., X. 311.

Pogg., X, 608.

A.¢. p.,2, XXXIV, 280, 419.

es XXXVI, 5.

ce XXXIV, 192.

Phil. Trans., 1826, Pt. 3:

Rep. of Arts, 3, V, 76.

Pogg., XII, 499.

Edinb. So. Sei., 1, LX, 353

A.¢.p.,2, XX XVIIE, 100;

Rep. of Arts, 38, VIII,

116.

XVI, 124;

Pogg.,

Archiy., X VJ, 219.

Kastn.

std earn

2, LXVIL, 89;

Metallic arborizations.

Electrolysis of NasCOs.

Electrolysis.

Electrolysis of H.O.

Berzelius’s theory.

Theory of electrolysis.

Electrolysis.

Metallic arborization.

K by electrolysis.

Electrolysis.

Precipitation of metals.

Arborizations.

The same.

Electrolysis with

currents.

Electrolysis.

weak

;|Application of the theory

of electrolysis. +

Precipitation of ntetels.

Electrolysis and chemical

changes.

Preservation of metals by

electrolysis.

Electrolysis of CaCQOs.

Precipitation of metals.

Electrolysis by weak cur-

rents.

History of electrolysis.

Hlectrolysis of bromine.

Precipitation of metals.

New phenomena in elec-

trolysis.

Electrolysis.

The same.

Electrical

relations.

Precipitation of metals.

and chemical

;Electrolysis of odorous

substances.

Precipitation of metals.

— 1. =

1829| Becquerel

1830} Becquerel

Bonijol

Dumas

18351) Arago

Barry

Becquerel

Brande

1832|Becquerel

Bonijol

Botts

Hachette

1883) Becquerel

Becquerel

Bouchardat

Faraday

1834 Avogadro

Bessemer

Faraday

1835 Aimé

' |Becquerel

Becquerel

Begriff

Botts

Connell

Martens

Poggendorf

/Van Mons

Literature of Hlectrolysis.

220; Poge., Savi 306 ;

Phil. Mae 2;

Berzl.,

AX © [Ds-

Poge.,

Jahresb., X, 29;

Mag., 2, VII, 226.

Bibl. Univers., Oct., 1830.

AMID: Ne Cle, MWe NO Ig),

Rep. of Arts, 2, VIII, 370.

3, XII, 119.

Phil) Mag,, LX, 357, 33.

Pogg., — 308 ;

Mag., 2, 1OXG Ze

Br, A; A. Sei.,

Pharm. Centrl., WG Bee

J. Roy. Inst., 1 293: Am.

do Sik, I, XXI, 368.

Bibl. Univ., Sept.,

Am. J. Sci.,

A.¢. p., 2, Sept., 1852; Am

di. SGis, Il, KOI, 114,

J. Cs Day Bs ILIV, BAO,

Mem. de l’Acad., XII, 581

As Cs Wes

Pogg.,

Ve XG, Th; ROVIN, BSB}.

1838, 457.

F. R., I, 87, 127; Phil. Mag.

2, Tae 253, 450.

IN, Cx [0b4 2p JUDOMY Hy,

Mech. Mag., 1864, 73.

1M, Teg Ml ge, Bags lel,

Mag. sPamcieoceol MLO

VI, 84, 125, 171, 272,

410.

Geet Tete, IS real

Jahreshb., XIV, 791.

CO) TR. JL, 4am

\Ann. Ch. Pharm., XVI, 129.

‘Bibl. cree 1835, 120; Am.

Bull. Acad. Brus., II, 57, 18.

‘Phil. Mag., 3, VIL, 421.

2 XLII, 131, 380;

XVIOL 143; Berzl.,

Phil.

1831-32, 468.

1882 ;

1, XXIV,197.

.| Electrol.

Dingl., J., L, 289; J. Pharm.,

Mem. del’ Acad. Sci. We, beaks

291; NG

161, 252, 384, 424, ‘456 :

aol,

AVNIC) py 2, LXS 1645 Berle

di, StGl,, XXX, 369.

Edinb. NS Phil. It, XIX,

159.

(Bull. Acad. Brus., 1 11, 199.}

B17

Electrolysis by weak cur-

rents.

The same.

Electrolysis of H.O by at-

mospheric electricity.

Deposits in lead pipe.

Electrolysis of zinc.

Electroly. by atmospheric

electricity.

Electrolysis of oxides of

- Ke and Mn.

Electrolysis

substances.

Electro-metallurgy.

Titanium by electrolysis.

Decomp. of water by at-

mospheric electricity.

Electrolysis.

of organic

by the electric

induction spark.

Effect of vegetation on

electrolysis.

;|Electrolysis by weal cur-

ALAIUL als =

OOK, 465, Ami:

rents.

Electrolysis.

, Electrolysis by frictional

electricity.

Electrolysis.

Electro-metallurgy.

Electrolysis.

Electro-chem. apparatus.

Electrolysis by weak cur-

rents.

Electro-chem. apparatus.

'Klectrolysis.

Electrolysis by terrestrial

magnetism.

Electrolysis of ethers.

‘Theory of electrolysis.

|Vindication of Faraday.

Theory of electrolysis. +

1837

1838

Literature of Electrolysis.

Walford

Becquerel

De la Rive

Kinbrodt

Elkington

Faraday

Gherardi

Paillette

Sché6nbein

Solly

Becquerel

Bird

Connell

Cross

De la Rive

Dulk

Elkington

Faraday

Fox

Noad

Paillette

Pouillet

Schénbein

Sturgeon

Becquerel

Bird

Bottiger

Clarke

Elkington

and Barratt

Phil. Mag., 3, VIII, 170,

Gh 1k5 0b, Bat).

Phil. Mag., 8, LX, 234.

A.c. p., 2, LXI, 262.

Rep. of Arts, 4, VIII, 223.

Phil. Mag., 3, IX, 60.

Nov. Com. Bon., 1, V, 182.

C. R., III, 724.

Poge., XX XVIII, 449.

Phils Mace a3, Xe a3 os

VIII, 130.

Ding eae Nellis

C. R., IV, 824.

es 831.

« -V, 88; Berzelius,

Jahresb., XVI, 129.

Jedmmily Weyer) NG ays

357 ;

J. pr. chem., X, 310.

Phil. Mag., 3, X, 376.

93.

ce ee

Cc. R., TV, 882.

Ann. Chem. Pharm., XXIV)

160.

Ann. Chem. Pharm., X XIV

161.

Rep. of Arts, 4, VIII, 354.

Phil. Mag., 3, X, 175

ee ce

Coie LNG 342.

785.

Phil Mags, a xo tsa. 72:

267, 425.

Ann. Elect., I, 11.

Ces eNoxalle

Ann. Hlect., II, 30; Phil.

Mag., XIII, 379, 3 sr.

Am. J. Sei., 1, XX XIII, 267.

Phil. Mag., 3, XI, 298.

Am. J. Scei., 1, XX XIII, 217.

Br. Pat. Rep., 1888, 1742;

Lond. J., IEG 79.

Davy’s theory of electro-

lysis.

Extraction of Ag from

the ore.

Nobili’s discoveries.

Electro-metallurgy.

Theory of electrolysis.

Gilding.

Passive iron.

Heat in electrolysis.

Electro-chem. phenomena.

Passive iron. .

Electrol. of Cl, Br, I.

Arborization.

Electrolysis in soluble

bodies.

Influence of surface on

electrolysis.

‘Electrolysis in the forma-

tion of minerals.

‘Extraction of minerals by

electrolysis.

Electrolysis of albumen.

Electrolysis by long con-

| tinued currents.

‘Electrol. of iodic acid.

Compounds by electrol.

Electrolysis of chemical

compounds.

The same.

Platinum __ electro-metal-

lurey.

eae of electrolysis on

iron

Crystals by electrolysis.

‘Effect of electrolysis on

iron.

New substance by electro-

lysis.

Electrolysis of water.

Passive iron.

‘Analysis by electrolysis.

Electrolysis by weak cur-

rents.

Platinum electrodes.

\Crystals by electrolysis.

Colors by electrolysis.

Electrolysis by magneto-

| electricity.

[Biggin metal. of zinc.

Literature of Electrolysis.

1838

1889

1840

Faraday

Lepage

Matteucci

Pasley

Schénbein

Schonbein

Becquerel

Bottiger

_|Daniell

Gugegsworth

Grove

Jacobi

J. B.

Maas

Matteucci

Van Mons

Arago

Becquerel

Boquillon

Bottiger

Boutowski

Brongniart

Cartwright

Coulier

Daniell

De la Rive

De Ja Rive

Demidoft

Dumas

Elkington

Faraday

Gorke

‘Phil. Mag., 8, XI, 206, 358.

(Cok. VIL 420.

Phil. Mag., 8, XIII, 469.

Bull. Soe. ? Ind., XX XVII,

1283,

iC. R., VI, 421, 277. .

Phil. Mag., 3, OMI, Bill.

a VIL, 497.

Ann. Ch. Pharm., X XIX, 77

Phil. Mag. 3; XV, 317;

Phil. Trans., 1837.

Ann. Elect., March, 1889.

C. R., Vill, 802.

Phil. Mag., 3, XV, 161.

te 3, XIV, 446.

Bull. Acad. Brus., 1, VI, 2,

438.

2, LXXIV, 99.

Bull. Acad. Brus., 1, if, 199.

Cy IR. OX, Bie, tno,

Bull. Soc. Pind., XX XIX,

407.

Ce TR, OS, Pile OL, Ba, Wes

Bull. Soc. ’Ind., XX XIX,

305, 339.

Poge., L, 45.

C. Re xe 841.

oY XL 768.

Ann. Elect., V, 2286.

Phil. Mag., 8, XVII, 297,

349; Ann. Ch. Pharm.,

XXXVI 321; Arch. Elect.

I, 594.

Bull. Soe. Vind., XX XIX,

190; ae Elect., 1, 669;

A. es Oy LX Xa,

398; 6. R., X, 578; XI, 25,

913.

Pogg., LIV, 402.

Ol, TRin4 2G BG,

Ann. Ch. Pharm., XXX,

288; Phil. Mag., 38, XVII,

183.

Br. Pat. Rep., 1840, 8447;

Rep. of Arts, 4, XVI,

239. Lond. J., KIX, Cc: 8:

~ 63 Mech. Mag., XX XIII,

397: Ann. Electr., VII,

377: OE TRe, O0UE 636, 998.

TRL 1Bte5 JUL 25, 59.

[Phil. Mae., 3, XVII, 299.

319

‘Electrolysis.

Passive iron.

Platinum electrodes.

Passive iron.

Peroxides by electrolysis.

Action of peculiar currents

Sulphates by electrolysis.

Electrolysis of water.

Electrolysis.

Electrolysis of binary com-

pounds.

Electro-metallurgy.

Electrolysis of water.

Mixed O and H by elec-

trolysis.

Platinum electrodes.

Passive iron.

Electrolysis.

Electro-chemical theory.

Hlectro-metallurgy.

Electrolysis of silver.

Electro-metallurgy.

Electrol. of Mn. salts.

Electro- metallurgy.

The same.

Electrotypes.

Hlectro-metallurgy.

Electrolysis of binary com-

pounds.

Electro-gilding.

Electrodes of Pt., Ag and

Cu.

Electro-metallurgy.

Theory of electrolysis.

Electro-gilding.

Electrolysis.

Electro-chem. equivalents.

320

Literature of Electrolysis.

Jacobi

Jotard

Kobell

1840

Krasner

Lockett

Perrott

Richoux

Schonbein

Shore

'Solly

Soyer and Ingé

Spencer

Sturgeon

Von Kobell

1841 Arago

/Barratt

Becquerel

| ce

‘Boquillon

| Connell

David

Davy

Anz, Polyt. J., LXXY, 110.

Go TR. dG fale}

Bull. Soc. ’Ind., XX XIX,

481; XL, 10.

©, IR, SUL 7,

Br. Pat. Rep., 1840, 8610;

Mond I.) SUR TCS Soe

Mech. Mag., XXXIV, 221.

Co ks) IL, MOGs

Gh TL GRD;

Basel. Ber., IV, 66; . Bibl.

Ura, ~ 2OZOWIUUL 3HB)

Pogg., L, 616; Arch. Elect.

IV, 3388; Phil. Mag., 3,

XVII, 2938; Proc. R. Soe.

IV, 226; Edinb. N. Phil.

Vo ROLIDSG, USS: Ch 1B. OX,

679; Ann. Elect., VII, 470;

Nin, of, ISG, i, Ib, 43}

Br. As. A. Sci,, 1840, 209.

Br. Pat. Rep., 1840, 8407;

Ann. Elect., VII, 38.

Phil. Mag., 3, XVI, 309.

(CER. 2X 292:

Br. Pat. Rep., 1841, 8865;

Rep. of Arts, XVI, N.S8.,

spe Ibomel, do, Ok (Ch Sk.

; 166; Mech. Mag., XX XV,

282; Inv. Ady., V, 180:

Gay isciy Mise lVeaO2)-

Ann. Elect., VII, 3880;

ANTM, dia SOl., il, RUG, Wa

Ann. Elect., V, 484.

Gel. Anz., LXXXYVIII,

LXXXIX ; J. pr. Chem.,

XX, Nos. 3, 4; Ann.

Elect., V, 198.

C. R., XII, 509, 779, 957.

Se eNO 6:

Br. Pat. Rep., 1841, 9077 ;|

Rep. of Arts, XVIL N.S.,

367; Mech. Mag., XXXVI,

Ale broil, die5 ON, Ch IS),

438.

Arch. Elect., 1, 281.

Oy, Te, ROVING, enacl SWAOUL S|

Ann. Elect., VI, 411.

Oy Re. UU Rs ny 2

Ann. de M., III, XIX,429;

Bull. Soe. ’Ind., XI, 10.

Arch, Elect., I, 401; Phil.

Mag., XVII, 353.

(OW) IR. SOULE Waa,

Applications of electrol.

Electro-metallurgy.

The same.

Ozone by electrolysis.

Electro-metallurgy.

Precipitation of Cu.

electrolysis.

Electro-metallurgy.

The same.

Electrotypes.

The same.

Electro-metallurgy.

Electro-metallurgy in pho-

tography.

Electro-met. of alloys.

Electrolysis of water.

Chemical force of currents

Electrotypes.

Electrolysis of alcohols.

Electro-metallurgy.

Ann. Elect., VII, 178.

Electrolysis.

1841| Dent

De la Rive

Fizeau

Grove

Hunt

Jordan

Joule

Leseuer

Mallet

Matteucci

Melloni

Moyle

Parks

Ruolz

Soyer

Soyez

Sturgeon

Talbot

Traffant

Walker

1842| Becquerel

Becquerel

Literature of Electrolysis.

321

Am. J. Sci., 1, XLI, 402.

Arch. Elect., I, 175.

C. R., XII, 401.

Phil. Mag., 3, XIX, 99;

XVIII, 548.

Ibid., 8, XIV, 442.

Ann. Elect., VIII, 289; Phil.

Mag., 3. XIX, 452.

Phil. Mag., 3, XIX, 265.

C. R., XIII, 29.

Br. Pat. Rep., 1841, 9018.

Arch, Elect., I, 340.

C. R., XII, 219.

Ann. Elect., VI, 112.

Br. Pat. Rep., 1841, 8905;

Rep. of Arts, 4, XVII, 199.

fe 787.

Bull. Soe. ’Ind., XLI, 83.

jAnn. Hlect., VI, 79.

iBr. Pat. Rep., 1841, 9167 ;

Rep. of Arts, I, E. 8., 47;

Lond. J., X XI, C.§8., 357;

Mech.Mag., XXXVI, 496;

Eng. and Arch. J., V, 358.

iC. R., XIII, 1100.

\Phil. Mag., 3, XIX, 328;

| Arch. Elect., Il, 466.

(Oy Tie, DAYS Wire) eals SOA

ee 4330> Areh: Bleck. iil:

| 465.

‘Ann. Elect., TX, 491.

Bilfied-Lefévre C. R., XV, 32.

Boquillon *

Charriére

Cornay

Crosse

De la Rive

Elkington

Gann

Gannal

Grove

Jacobi

Lieson

Martens

G0 DONG, BUR

a5 IW, 4a

«XV, 678, 850.

Phil. Mag., 3, X XI, 64.

‘Arch. Elect., I, 468; Ann.

Elect., VIII, 216, 333.

iBull. Soc. Vind, Xd;

Ann. Elect., VIII, 125;

Arch. Elect., JJ, 111.

ee It, 236:

C. R., XV, 685.

'Arch. Elect., II, 457.

ee TI, 482.

Br. Pat. Rep., 1842, 9374;

Lond. J., X XII, C.S., 292;

Mech. Mag., XXXVIII,

59; Rec. Pat. Inv., I, 358.

‘Arch. Elect., I, 558.

Electro-gilding.

Electrolysis by magneto-

electricity.

Electo-metallurgy in pho-

tography.

Electro-nitrogurets.

Electrol. of copper salts.

Electro-metallurgy.

_|Heat evolved in electrol.

Electro-metallurgy.

Preservation of

sheathing.

Electrolysis.

Electrotypes.

The same.

Electro-metallurgy.

ship-

Electro-gilding.

Electro-silvering.

Hlectrotypes.

The same.

Electro-metailurgy.

Electro-gilding.

Electro-metallurgy.

Applications of electrol.

Secondary products by

electrolysis.

Electro-metallurgy.

The same.

Electrolysis of minerals.

Electrol. of natural waters.

Electro-metallurgy.

Ozone by electrolysis.

Electro-metallurgy.

Electro-metallurgy in pho-

tography.

Electro-metallurgy.

The same.

Electrolyses.

Electrol. of silver salts. -

Electrolysis of water.

Electro-metallurgy.

The same.

Ferric acid by electrol.

,Electro-metallurgy of zine.

Electrolysis.

Electro-metallurgy of zine.

Electro-metallurey.

Bodies preserved by elec-

tro-metallurgy.

Electro-metallurgy.

New theory of electrolysis.

Electro-metallurgy.

Electrolysis of water.

The same.

Hlectro-metallurgy.

The same,

Metallic oxides by electrol.

Electro-metallurgy.

Electro-metallurgy of Cu.

Discussion about electrol.

Ozone by electrolysis.

‘|Blectrotysis of alcohol.

Heat in electrolysis.

Electro-metallurgy.

Electrolysis of salts.

Elec. of fermented liquors.

Electro-metallurgy.

Bodies preserved by elec-

tro-metallurey.

Electro-metallurgy of Ag. -

Silver-plating.

Electrolysis by magneto-

electricity.

Electro-metallurgy in pho-

322 Literature of Electrolysis.

1842) Matteucci Ann. Elect., IX, 34.

Pearson oe IX, 496.

Perrot Cee Vin oO!

Peyré oo ODY, 782 Jsuillll, SOe.,

| VInd., XLI. 55.

Poggendorff Areh. Elect., ILI, 117; Ann.

Elect., TX, 143.

Ruolz Ch, XGIVE 252) xXeve 280

466; Bull. Soe. VInd.,

| XIULI, 424.

Schénbein Arch. Elect., IT. 241, 509.

Sorel CHR. XV 228513839)

Soyer XV, 466.

“ AXON Se

Tuck Br. Pat. Rep., 1842, 9379;

Lond. J., XXII, C. S., 458;

Rec. Pat. Inv.. I, 373.

BoM i2 Phil. Mag., 3, XX. 72.

Von Kobell Bulls AewSer Bre wlee xen es

315; Am. J. Sci., 1, XLVIII,

222.

Weber Arch. Elect., Il, 661,

Wollaston Ann. Elect... IX, 518.

1843] Arago C. R., XVI, 503.

Barratt Br. Pat. Rep., 1843, 9786;

Lond. J., XXIV, C.8., 24.

Becquerel Of Les OWANES IN) 398 JENS GG: ]Os,

| 3, VIII, 402; Arch. Elect.,

Ill, 345; Ann. Elect., X

151.

be C. R., XVII, 87, 837; Arch.

Elect., III, 671.

Blackwell Br. Pat. Rep:, 1848, 9041;

Rep. of Arts. III, E. S.,

363; Lond. J., XXVI, C. S.,

16; Mech. Mag., XLII,

| 108.

Boquillon Crohn OVALE MOS el G3s

De la Rive |Arch. Elect., III, 308; C. R.,

XVL 1089.

aie |Arch, Elect , II, 175.

OG CRS SWE 881.

Dujardin Soe XGV ALTO)

Hare Phi]. Mag., XXIT, 460.

Hull Br. Pat. Rep., 1843, 9917.

Hulot C. R., XVII, 1309.

Mallet Arch. Elect., III, 661.

Mourey Gh hes SOV B77.

“§ Ann. d. M., 4, III, 579; C.

R., XVI, 660.

Paret C. R., XIV, 1001.

Pelouze fe OXGVALLN (G6:

tography.

Literature of Electrolysis. 323

1843)Pogeendorff |Poge., LXXVI, 586. Electrol. of bismuth salts.

Poole Br. Pat. Rep., 1843, 9741; Electro-metallurgy.

Rep. of Arts, III, E. S., 6;

Lond. J., XXIV, C. S., 14;

Mech. Mag., XU, 14.

Schénbein Pogg., LIX. 240; Arch. Elect. Ozone by electrolysis.

: TT, 295.

1844) Becquerel C. R., XVI, 362; Arch.|Hlectrolysis.

Elect., IV, 156, 224; Phil.

Mag., 3, XXV, 73.

es A. ce. p., 3, XI. 162. 257; Electrolysis by terrestrial

Arch. Elect., IV, 557. currents.

oe CAR eV Oe Métallic oxides by electrol.

bo «XVIII, 449, 554, 715;/ Precipitation of metals.

Arch. Elect., IV, 520. 552.

Bietz Pogg., LXI, 209; Arch. Elect.|Electrolysis.

LV, 276.

ef Poge., LXIT, 234. Passive iron.

Boquillon C. R., XIX, 440. Kiectro-metallurgy.

Christofle «XIX, 405; Bull. Soc.|The same.

VInd., XLIIT, 193.

Connel Arch. Elect., IV, 265. Electrolysis of salts.

Daniell Phil. Trans., 1844; Phil. Mag.,|Electrol. of binary com-

4, XXIV, 468; XXV, 175,| pounds.

246; Arch. Elect., IV, 289;

Pogg.. LXIV. 18.

De la Rive Arch. Elect., IV, 454. Ozone by electrolysis.

‘Desbordeaux jC. R., XIX. 1450. Silver-plating.

Elkington Arch. Elect., IV, 515. Electro-metallurgy.

‘Fontaine- Br. Pat. Rep., 1844, 10282. |Electro-met. of alloys.

moreau

\Joule Phil. Mag., 3, XXIV, 106. Intermittent currents in

3 electrolysis.

‘Hull Dingl. J., XCIV, 388. Electrolysis of wine.

Kobell Arch. Elect., IV, 584. Electro-metallurgy.

‘Levol CG. BR., XVILL, 708, 837. Precipitation of metals.

Louyet “¢ XIX, 1180. Zine-piating.

‘Martens Pogs. LXI, 121. Passive iron.

Matteucci ALC Paya; 22: Electrolysis.

Napier . Phil. Mag., 3, XXV, 379. Electrolysis of double cya-

nides.

Nouailher Bull. Soe. lInd., XLIII, 54;'Electro-metallurgy.

. XLY, 298.

Schoénbein Arch. Elect., IV, 333. Ozone by electrolysis.

‘Smee ae IV, 648. Vheory of electrolysis.

1845 Avogadro A. ec. p., 3, XIV, 330; Mem.|Electro-chemical series.

Acad. Sci. Turin, If, VILLI.

Becquerel C. B., XX, 1509; Arch. Elect.,|Hlecirolysis by terrestrial

V, 233. currents.

fi MAerelpi 3. MEL, 246: Electrolysis.

Bietz Pogg., LXIII. 415. Passive iron.

'\Christofle CHR exexad 1382: Electro-metallurgy.

Church Br. Pat. Rep.. 1845, 11010. |Electrolysis of coke.

Dechaud CG. R.. XX, 1659, 1712; XXI,/Extraction of Cu from

278; Bull. Soc. VInd.,| minerals.

XLIV, 207, 271.

'De la Rive (Ch Tita, DOS PEN Ozone by electrolysis.

B24 Literature of Electrolysis.

1845)De la Rive Arch. Elect., V, 845; Chem.|Structure of metals depo-

Soc. Mem., II, 300; Phil.| sited by electrolysis.

Mag., 3, XX VII, 15; Am.

J. Sci., 1, XLIX, 390.

Desbordeaux |C. R., XX, 108, 248, 353;/Silver-plating.

XXI, 162.

Jacobi Arch. Elect., V, 184. Electro-metallurgy.

Hunt Chem, Soc. Mem., II, 319. |Actinic influence on elec- —

trolysis.

Millon Arch. Hlect., V, 303. Electrolysis of water.

Napier Chem. Soc. Mem., II, 158,/Decomposition of double

200; Arch. Elect., V, 159;| cyanides.

Phil. Mag., X XVI, 211.

Normand Br. dIny., fI, 248. Gilding on silver.

Parkes Br. Pat. Rep., 1845, 10860;|Electro-metallurey.

Rep. of Arts, VII, E. 8.,

308.

Perrot CAR OxXd328) The same.

Philippe Bull. Soc. ’Ind., XLIV, 218;)/The same.

SILA, ali

Rivier Arch. Elect., V, 24. Ozone by electrolysis.

Pouillet C. R., XX, 1544. Electrolysis.

Roseleur Br. d’'Inv., V, 128. Gilding.

Ruolz C. R., XXI, 1487. Electro-metallurgy.

Schonbein Poge., LXY, 161; Arch.|Ozone by electrolysis.

Hlect., V, 11, 337; Br. A.

A. Sci., 1845, 91.

Soyer Bull. Soc. ’Ind., XLIV, 88.|Electro-metallurgy.

Tourasse (Gy It, SOM) Biileh Mirrors silvered by elec-

f trolysis.

Williamson Chem. Soc. Mem., II, 805;/Ozone by electrolysis.

‘ Phil. Mag., XX VII, 372;

Arch. Elect., V, 188.

1846) Barral C. R., XXIII, 35. Electro-gilding.

Becquerel ‘XXII, 781; Ding]. J.,/Electrolysis of minerals.

CI, 267.

Boch Bull. Soc. ’Ind., XLV, 97. |Hlectro-metallurgy.

Boquillon Ca Re, SOX 85a; The same.

Hankel (Pogs., LXIX, 268. Electrolysis of salts.

Howell .Br. Pat. Rep., 1846, 11065;!Electro-metallurgy of Pt.

I Jeti, day, lly YS).

Hulot ‘Bull. Soc. VInd., XLVI,/Electro-metallurgy.

572.

Lemercier Br. d’Iny., VI, 209. The same.

Matteucci IAG CEs Suon DOVE Oe Electro-chemical action.

Napier Phil. Mag., 3, X XIX, 92. /Theory of electrolysis.

Perrot Cos, REX Gi: Electro-metallurgy.

Paget ‘Br, Pat. Rep., 1846, 11448; The same.

Rep. of Arts, X, 83, E. 8.;

Ibomvel, ds, CRO CL Ish.

417; Pat. J. II, 885; Eng.

& Arch. J., X, 292.

Ramont Bred: Inve ay Weill, Electro-metallurgy of Ag.

Woilley C. R., XXII, 924. Hlectrotyping.

‘W ood Sci. Amer., XII, 142. Hlectro-metallurgy.

Barral C. R., XXYV, 556, 602, 760. | Priority in electro-gilding.

4 Literature of Electrolysis. 325

1847-Beequerel C. R., XXIV, 505. Electrolysis.

Bouquillon BOT SONY PAU Priority in electrotyping.

Boutellier Br. dIny.; XI, 201. Electro-metallurgy of Ag.

Coblentz OL Uns ROLY. Bt. Electro-plating.

Crosse Br. Pat. Rep., 1847, 11604. |Electrolysis of liquors.

Delaurie Ci RL, XOX, 975: Precipitation of metals.

DelaSalzede |Br. Pat. Rep., 1847, 11878;|Electro-metal. of bronze.

Rep. of Arts, XI, E. S.,

293; Lond. J., XXXII,

CH S25 260s Pater se VE

505; Eny. & Arch. J., XI,

169.

Garson C. R., XXIV, 466. ‘|Applications of electrol.

Grove WN, dle Ol, 2 IOV, 4ahil Effect of area of electro-

lyte.

Kolbe Ann. Pharm., LXIV, 286. |Electrol. of organic bodies.

Kroening C. R., XXV, 818. Silk gilded.

Maas Bull. Ac. Sci., Brus., XIV,|Passive iron.

2, 10.

Osann Pogg., LX XI, 458; LX XII,|Ozone by electrolysis.

468.

Perrot C. R., XXV, 347, 428. Priority in electro-gilding.

Rochas G6 SOK, Biles Electro-plating.

Ruolz “¢ — X XV, 555, 602. Priority in electro-gilding.

Sainte-Preure PP XONGIV lila 8 Electro-gilding.

Santayra Br. dInv., XII, 384. Electro-metallurgy.

Woilley Cy Be, ROWS 1, The same.

1848 Clement Br. Pat. Rep., 1848, 12885. |Electrolysis of sugar.

Junot Br. d’Inv., XIII, 1. Hlectro-gilding.

Napier Chem. Soc. Mem., III, 47. |Theory of electrolysis.

Osann Poge., LXXV, 386. Ozone by electrolysis.

Poitevin C. R., XXVI, 346. Electro-metal. of bronze.

Rivot Bull. Soc. VInd., XLVII,'Electrolysis of minerals

356. of Cu.

Woilley C. R., XX VI, 506, 573. Electro-metallurgy. |

? Bull. Soc. Vind., XLVII,'Electro-metal. of bronze.

260.

1849 Becquerel A. c. p., 8, XXVIII, 5; J.|Theory of electrolysis.

pr. Chem., XLVIII, 193;

C. R., XXVIII, 650; JB.,

1849, 201.

Bonis C. R., XXIX, 403. Electrolysis.

Fontaine- Br. Pat. Rep., 1849, 12523; Electro-metal. of brass.

moreau| Mech. Mag., LJ, 284; Pat.

Vo JOS 0.

Kolbe Ann. Chem. Ph., LXIX,|Electrolysis of organic

257, 279; J. pr. Chem.,| bodies.

SING wails GIB alse

558; 1849, 335.

Parkes Br. Pat. Rep., 1849, 12334; Electro-metal. of alloys.

Rep. of Arts, XIV. E. 8.,

361; Mech. Mag., LI, 309;

Pat. J., VIII, 42.

Poggendorff j{Arch. ph. nat,, X, 133. Electrolysis of bismuth.

Poncil Br. @Iny., XIV, 213. Gilding on zine.

326 Literature of Electrolysis. *

1849} Russell Br. Pat. Rep., 1849, 12526 ;|Hlectro-metallurgy of al-

Rep. of Arts, XV, HE. 8.,| loys.

163 ; Mech. Mag., LI, 285;

Pat. J., 1X, 70.

Schénbein Poge., LX XVIII, 289; Arch.|Theory of electrolysis.

ph. nat., XIII, 192; JB.,

1849, 201.

Smith Br. Pat. Rep., 1849, 12654;|Electro-metallurgy of Ag.

Mech. Mag., LI, 571; Pat.

J., VIII, 22

2 Sci. Amer., V, 140. Electrotyping.

1850; Avogadro A. c. p., 8, XXIX, 248 ;/Electro-chemical series.

MemiyAce Scr iurinyer2:

Becquerel C. R., XXXII, 83. Electrolysis influenced by

light.

Brazier Ann. Pharm., LXXYV, 265;/Electrol. of organic acids.

JB., 1850, 399.

Lanaux Br. d@Inv., XVI, 270. Electro-metallurgy of Pt.

Lefévre sie XVIII, 318. E'ectro-metallurgy.

Matteucci (Ce Ii, SOKOTUL, 14's. E ectrolysis of salts.

Roseleur Br. Pat. Rep., 1850, 18020;/Hiectro-metallurgy of Sn.

Mech. Mag. , LIT, 250;

Pat. J., IX, 296.

Steele Br. Pat. Rep., 1850, 138216 ;)Electro-metall. of alloys.

Mech. Mag., ive 134;

Pat. J.; X, 220.

Ward Rev. Sci. (SOOaDS 34, Electro-metallurgy.

eS C. R., XXXIV, 29. Minerals by electrolysis.

Bouillet A. c. p., 8, XXXIV, 153;/Electrolysis of double cya-

C. R., XXXII, 618 ;;| nides.

XXXIV, 193, 282.

Brooman Br. Pat. Rep., 1851, 13845. |Electrolysis of organic

matter.

Carptier Br. d’Inv., XXIV, 178: Electro-metallurey.

Cowper Br. Pat. Rep., 1851, 13513;/Gutta-percha in electro-

Mech. Mag., LV, 158;)/ typing.

Pat. J., XI, 279)

Delamotte |Br. @ Inv. ; KOON: 167. _|Electro silvering.

Delisle | Xavi 70! Electro-metallurgy.

Fremy and IC. R. , XXXIV, 379; A.c. p.,|Electrolysis.

Becquerel] 8, XXXV, 62; J.. pr.

Chem., Laie 134: Ann.

Pharm., LXXXIV, 204;

Phil. Mag., 4, ae sles

J. Chem. Soc., V, 2

Knoblouet Rev. Sci., XXIX, 368. Electro-metallurgy. *

Matteucci VANS G5. 10s, Bs KOR RIV, 281;/Electro-chemical combi-

CRUE PRGRONGIIE 663. nations.

Palmer Br. Pat. Rep., 1851, 18726;/Gelatine moulds in elec-

Mech. Mag., LVI, 197. trotyping.

Ruolz C. R., XXXIV, 248. Hlectioly a of double cya-

nides.

Thompson Phil. Mag., 4, IT, 429. Mechanical theory of elec-

trolysis.

Literature of Hlectrolysis.

1852

Thomas

Vigau

Watt

Almeida

Becquerel

Bell

Bunsen

Despretz

Elkington

|Erckmann

‘Foucault

| Gmelin

\Helle

'Hulot

Jamin ©

Junot

| Leblane

‘Lebas

|Morris

Paradis

‘Petrie

‘Power

Ridgway

| Roberts

Roux

‘Soret

{

C. R., XXXIV, 556, 580:

Chem. Gaz., 1852, 415.

CRE PNORONGIV iad

Br. Pat. Rep., 1851, 18750.

C. R., XXXYVIII, 682;

Instit., 1854, 119; J. pr.

Chem., LXII, 129.

C. R., XXXYV, 129, 647:

385; Arch. ph. nat., X XI,

227, JB., 1852, 6.

Br. Pat. Rep., 1852, 14185;

Rep. of Arts, 21, E. S.,

32; Mech. Mag., LVIII, 18.

Ann. Pharm., LXXXII,

137; Pogg., XCII, 648;

JB., 1852, 362.

CG, TR, XOXO; WING BOR s

Arch. ph. nat., XXVI,

138; JB., 1852, 258.

Sci. Amer., VIII, 402.

Br. d@Inv., XXIV, 307.

Arch. ph. nat., XXV, 180;

Insite lal C hie

XXXVII, 580; Phil. Mag.

4, VII, 426: JB., 1852, 258.

Ann. Pharm., LXXXII,

289; Pharm. Centrl., 1852,

385.

Br. dIny., XXII, 334.

C. R., XXXV, 867.

« XXXVIII, 390, 443:

Instit., 1854, 91; Arch.

ph. nat., XXV, 275, 380;

Phil. Mag., 4, VII, 526;

JB., 1852, 257.

Br. Pat. Rep., 1852, 1183.

CO. TR, Sexo wane

Instit., 1854, 92: JB.,

1852, 257.

Br. d’'Inv., XXII, 288.

2h XXVIIL, 50; Br.

Pat. Rep., 1852, 1032.

Br. dInyv., XXII, 3806.

Br. Pat. Rep., 1852, 14346.

Br. dInv., XXIII, 221, 224.

Br. Pat. Rep., 1852, 14080;

Mech. Mag., LVII, 374.

Br. Pat. Rep., 1852, 14198.

Br. VInv., XXIV, 222.

1854, 92 and 822; Arch.

ph. nat., XXVIII; A. ¢.

p., 8, XLIU, 257; JB., 1852,

206.

Electro-silvering.

Electrolysis of water.

‘Separation of metals.

Electrolysis of salts.

Electrolysis of hydrogen.

‘Electrolysis of H. SO..

Electrolysis of Mg.

Electrolysis.

Electrotypes.

Metals applied to fabrics.

Electrolysis.

Electrolysis in analysis.

Electro-silvering.

Electro-metallurgy.

Electrolysis of water.

Electro-metall. of Cr and

Mg.

Electrolysis of water.

Gilding on iron.

Electro-metallurgy.

The same.

Electro-metallurgy of Ag.

Electro-metallurgy.

Electrolysis of sugar.

Electro-metallurgy.

Electrolysis of Cu salts.

328

Literature of Electrolysis.

1852

1853

Soret

Symonds

Viard

Wall

Watson

Becquerel

Bishop

Bolley

Buff

Bussey

Davy

Delamotte

De Medeiros

Fremy and

Becquerel

Gore

Gourlier

Grove

Guthrie

Hittorf

Hulot

Kard

Masse

Masson

Muiis

Nickles

Pershouse

Prax

Shepard

Tourniére

C. R., XX XVIII, 445; Arch.

ph. nat., XXV, 175, 268;

Phil. Mag., 4, VII, 459;

J. pr. Chem., LXII, 40;

JB. ,-1852, 257.

Br. Pat. Rep., 1852, 996.

PNG Os Oey oy 2OSOOVIL, WY)

Arch. ph. nat., X XI, 230.

Br. Pat. Rep., 1852, 576.

ce iad 575.

A.c. p., 3, XXXIX, 48.

C. R., XXXVI, 209; Bibl.

Univ., N.8., 1, 155; JB.,

1853, 8.

Br. d’Inv., X XIX, 182.

Sci. Amer., IX, 96; Chem.

Gaz., 1853; 354; Pharm.

J. Drans:, XU 230.

Ann. Pharm., LXXV, 1;

Arch, ph. nat,, XXII, 344;

Chem. Soc. Q. J., IV, 47;

Am. J. Sci., 2, XV, 426;

J. B., 1854, 280.

C. R., XXXVI, 540.

Bibl. Univ., N. 8., 1, 165;

Bie, Gl hay) OID

XXXII, 321.

Br. Pat. Rep., 1858, 1789.

181 :

Quem, di, S@b, We Bee de

Pharm., XX XI, 320.

Pharm. J. Trans., XIII, 21

Br. d’Inv., XX VII, 332.

Phil. Mag., 4, V, 201.

Arche phe mats) XOX Ss vale

Ann. Pharm., XCIX, 64;

JB., 1858, 573.

Pogg., LXXXIX, 177; JB.,

1854, 279.

C. R., XX XVII, 409.

Phil. Mag., 4, VI, 241.

Ipe, Cb, KOO, UGH,

ae NOXONGIUO ete

Phil. Mag., 4, VI, 457.

Br. dInv., XX XI, 154.

Arch. ph. nat., XXIV, 79;

C. R., Aug., 1853.

Br, Pat. Rep., 1853, 2379.

Br. dInv., XXVIII, 412.

Br. Pat. Rep., 1853, 1591.

ce ce ee 1641.

J. Fr. Inst., 3, XX VI, 187.

Sci. Amer., IX, 21.

Electrolysis.

Cleaning metal surfaces.

‘Electrol. of oxygen.

Electrolysis of H2S0O..

Pigments by electrolysis.

Electrolysis of gases.

Electrolysis of minerals.

Electro-metallurgy of Cu.

Electro-plating.

Laws of electrolysis.

Electrol. of Si, Ti, Mg.

Preservation of ship-

sheathing.

Silvering.

Preservation of ship-

sheathing,

Electrolysis.

Electro-metallic deposi- .

tion.

Electro-metallurgy.

Electrolysis of salts.

Electrolysis of organic

bodies.

Electrolysis.

Electro-metallurgy.

Electrolysis of water.

Electro-silvering.

Electro-metallurgy of Au.

Electro-metallurgy.

Passive Ni and Co.

Electro-metal. of alloys.

Electro-gilding. .

Electrolysis of water.

Manufacture of Naz COs.

Electro-plating on china.

Electrotyping.

Literature of Electrolysis.

1854; Almeida

Becquerel

Black

Bocquet

Boucher

Buff

Bull

Bunsen

Callau

Coblence

Connell

Daniel

De la Rive

Denny

Dida

Dumas

Foucault

6é

Gervaisot

Gore

Gmelin

Harrison

Jamin

Johnson

Leblane

C.R., XX XVIII, 682; Arch.

ph. nat., XXIX, 5; JB.,

1855, 229.

C. R., XXXVIII, 1095;

Chem. Gaz., 1854, 359;

Arch. ph. nat., XX VI, 270;

Dinel., J.,. CX XXIII, 213.

(Oo 18g SOO ADUL, Peariay eal

Mag., 4, VIII; Am. J. Sci.,

2, XVIII, 382.

Ding]. J., CX XXII, 31.

Br. dInv., XXXV, 293.

ue XL, 94.

Ann. Pharm,, LXXXV, 1;

J. Chem. Soc., VI, 54.

Ann. Pharm., LX XXVIII,

117; Instit., 1854, 80; JB.,

1854, 281.

Arch. ph. nat., XXV, 65;

Ann. Pharm., LXX XVII,

117.

Oc ae penile 1619! Ay Tex py,

3, XLII, 854; J. Pharm.,

3, XXV; JB., 1854, 320,

Cae heii. Pore:

XCII, 648; J. Pharm., 3,

OWI BES Dadi dls,

CXXXIII, 273.

Phil: Maeg., 4, VIL, 73s J. Fr.

Inst., 3, XXVIII, 208, 336.

C. R., XX XIX, 846.

Phil. Mag., 4, VII, 426.

Porg. LXIV, 18; JB., 1854,

278.

Arch. ph. nat., XXV, 275.

Br. Pat. Rep., 1854, 478.

Br. d’Inv., XX XIX, 79.

C. R., XX XVIII, 444

Arch, ph. nat., XXIV, 268;

Instit., 1854, 36; JB.,

1854, 281.

C. R., XX XVII, 580; Instit.,

1853, 349; JB., 1854, 281.

-|Arch. ph. nat., XXV, 180.

Br. dInv., XXXIV, 248.

J. Fr. Inst., 3, XXVII, 353;

J. Pharm., 3, XXV, 475.

Pogg., XLIV, 27; JB., 1854,

278.

Br. Pat. Rep., 1844, 1714.

C. R., XX XVIII, 390, 448;

Phil. Mag., 4, VII, 298;

Arch. ph. nat., X XV, 880.

Br. Pat. Rep., 1854, 1471.

C. R., XX XVIII, 444; Phil.

Mag., 4, VIII, 287.

329

Electrolysis of salts.

Electrolysis of minerals

of Ag, Pb, Cu.

Electrolysis in chemical

action.

Electrolysis.

Electro-metallurgy of Cu.

ee oe ce Zn.

Laws of electrolysis.

The same.

Electrolytic researches.

Electrol. of Mn and Cu.

Electrolysis of the alka-

line earths.

Electrolysis of water.

Electro-metallurgy.

Elecirolysis of water.

Electrolysis of salts.

Electrolysis of water.

Electro-metallurgy of Cu.

oe oe ce Zn.

Electrolysis of water.

Electrolysis.

Theory of electrolysis.

Electrolysis of water.

Electro-metallurgy

Electrolysis of Al and Si.

Electrolysis of salts.

Pigments by electrolysis.

Electrolysis of water.

Electro-metallurgy of Cu.

Electrolysis of water.

1854

1855

electro-metall.

Literature of Llectrolysts.

Lenoir Br. dInv., XX XVIII, 119 ;'Electro-metallurgy.

| XXXIV, 340.

Marignac A. c¢. p., 8, XXXVIII, 148;/Heat in electrolysis.

J. Chem. Soc., 1854, 260.

Matteucci C. R., XX XIX, 258. Electrol. in chem. action.

Meideck Br. @Inv., XX XVIII, 186. |Electro-metallurgy.

Meidinger iJ. Chem. Soc., VII, 251. Se electrolysis. of

: SOs.

Osann J. de Pharm., XXVI, 68. | Electrolysis of oxygen.

Peyraud ans dTny., LOCC tl Electro-silvering.

|Person i XXXIV, 122. |Electro-metallurgy of Zn.

| typing.

Soret \C. R., XXXIX, 504; A. c. p.,|Hlectrolysis of Cu salts.

| ee; Soe 207; Arch. ph.

| nat., XXVII, 113.

on ‘Arch. ph. nat., XXV, 175,|Electrolysis of water.

| 268 ; Ann. Pharm.,

LXXXVIII, 57.

Toussaint Br. d’Inv., XXXVI, 324. Electro-metallurgy.

/Van Breda Phil. Mag., 4, VIII, 465. Electrolysis of liquids.

\Vergnesand C. R., XL, 2385, 832, 961;) Extraction of metallic par-

Poey Arch. ph. nat., XXVIII, ticles in the organism

| | 208; Sci. Amer., XI, 251. | by electrolysis.

Viard PACE CETDseios XUII, 5: Arch, Electrolysis of oxygen.

| ph. nat., XX VII, 308.

Waegstaffe Br. Pat. Rep., 1854, 1653. |Electrolysis of ores,

ead ers Arch. ph. nat., XX VI, 134. |Electrolysis of water.

|e Ska; 401 ; aes ph. motion.

nat., XXX,

| oC (Cuts Soe 95 Blecteolgee in the earth.

‘Beetz , Poge. XCIV, 194. Electrolysis.

‘Briant ‘Chem. Gaz., 1850, 153. Electro-metallurgy.

‘Bory Br. dInv., XLVIII, 230. Electro-gilding.

Butt ‘Ann. Pharm., XCVI, 257;|/Electrolysis of water.

Areh.) phe) nate) XOXONTe

198; JB., 1853, 233.

# Ann. Pharm., XCIY, 1, 22;/Electrolysis of salts.

| Areh. ph, nat., XoXTX

| 118: JB, 1855, 239.

ue ‘Ann. Pharm., XCIIL, 256. |Electrolysis of water.

Canot (Br. @Inv., XLVI, 29. Electro-gilding.

Chaudron os XLIX, 335. Baths for

\Decq SS XLY, 259. Electro-metallurgy of Ag.

Deiss of XLIV, 329. Electro-metallurgy of Zn.

Derincenzi (Cr Re XG 782) 1226. Hlectrotyping.

Elkington Nene Eat Rep., 1855, 1548. |Electro-metallurgy.

Fremy 6. 1e5, OG), 966: Chem. Gaz.,|Electrolysis of fluorides.

| 1855, 207.

Gaugain iC. R., Dec. 24, 1855. Polarization of electrodes.

Gedge ‘Br. Pat. Rep., 1855, 1956. | Electro-metallurgy.

Gore ‘Pogg. ; XOV, 173; Phil. Electrolysis of Sb.

| Mag.,4, 1X, 73; J. Pharm.,

3, TOWEL 2838; JB.,

1855, 382.

Literature of Electrolysis. 331

1855

1856

Gore

Gueyton

Haltheisen

Hulot

Johnson

Jewreinoft

Landois

Lesieur

Matthiessen

Osann

Oudry

Pilloy

Petiejean

Rigondeau

Riemann

Soret

Souehier

Schoénbein

Tailfer

Taylor

Thomas

Vannier

Watt

Andrews

Becquerel

Beetz

Beslay

Buff

Burel

Calvert

Cowper

Chailley

De la Rive

Pharm. J., Trans.,

464,

154.

C. R., XL., 12380.

JB,, 1855, 324. \

C. R., XLI, 156.

Br. Pat. Rep., 1855, 18.

Chem. Gaz., 1855, 458.

C. R., XLI, 178; Br. d’Inv.,

XLVITII, 288.

eee dInv., XLII, 312.

5 Chem. Soc., VIII, 27;

Ann. Pharm., *XOIII, O77:

A. ¢. p., 3, xb, 60, 401;

Chem. Gaz.,

J.pr. Chem.,

Chem. Soc. Q.

294; JB., 1855, 328.

Pogg., XOV, 311.

‘Br. d'Inv., LIL, 356.

Waeae XLV, 282.

XLIX, ee

a XLVIIL, 2

Page. XCV, 180.

Phil. Mag. ‘ 4, X, 210; Arch.

ph. nat., YORI, 2655 C.

| R., XL, 220.

Br. d’Inv., XLIV, 301.

J. pr. Chem., LXV, 129.

Br. d'Inv., XLVIL, 221.

Br. Pat. Rep., 1855, 1997.

ee 1855, 258 ;

| 2756.

‘Br. d’Inv., XLIII, 265.

Br. Pat. Rep., 1855, 272.

(Rep. Br. Assoc.,

| Pogg., XCIX, 493; ae

| 1856, 369 ; A. c.

lab, 124; JB., 1856, Ba.

iC. R., XLII, 621.

‘Arch. ph. nat., XXXV, 281;

| C. R., XLII, 1101.

‘Pogg., XCVIL.

C. R., XLII, 657, 853.

‘Ann. Ch. Pharm., CI, 1

| Arch. ph. nat.,

| 204; JB., 1856, 244.

Br. ‘Pat. Rep., 1856, 734.

fs 1856, 3.

‘s a 1856, 2992.

Br. dInv., LVII, 485.

| XLII, 710

J. Pharm., 3, XXVII, 475:

1855, 232:

LXIV, 508 :

Soavalila

1855 ;

Poge. XCIX, 626; C. R.,

Dil

Te Rules

of electro-metal-

lurgy.

Blectro- metallurgy.

Ann. ’Pharm., XCIV, 107; Electrolysis of Li.

Electro-metallurgy.

Electro-metallurgy of Cu.

Electro-metallurgy of Pt.

Electro-gilding.

Hlectrotyping.

the al-

; Electrolysis of

kaline metals.

Electrolysis of hydrogen.

Electro-metallurgy.

Electro-metallurgy of Cu.

Electro silvering on glass.

Electro-gilding

Theory of Nobili’s rings.

Laws of electrolysis.

Electro-metallurgy.

Electrolysis.

Hlectro-metallurgy.

Hlectro-metallurgy of Al.

;|Electro-metal. of alloys.

Electro-gilding.

Hlectro-metallurgy of Zn.

Electrolysis of water.

EHlectro-metallurgy.

Electrolysis with weak

currents.

Theory of Nobili’s rings.

Autotypes.

;Hlectrol. of chromic acid.

NOON,

Manuf. of Prussian blue.

Electrolysis of ores.

Electro-metallurgy of Cu.

Electro-gilding. _

Electrolysis of water.

B32 Literature of Electrolysis.

1856| Delmas Br. @Inv., LIV, 394. Electro-metal. of gold.

Despretz C. R., XLII, 707. Electrolysis of water.

Dufresne Br. dInv., LY, 141. Electro-gilding and_ sil-

vering.

Gaensly “ LVIL, 428. Electro-gilding.

George C. R., XLII, 20. Electro-metallurgy.

Geuther Ann. Pharm., XCIX, 314; Electrol. of chromic acid.

Arch. ph. nat., XX XIII,

228; JB., 1856, 243.

Gore J. Pharm., 3, X XIX, 363;|Electrolysis of Fe and Sn.

Jeneyeam, dj, “Whe, DV,

357.

Guérin C. R., XLII,” 808; Arch.|Electro-gilding.

ph. nat., XXXIV, 282.

Gueyton (CARS Nene 9 oe pili Electro-metallurgy.

Guthrie Ann. Pharm., XCIX, 64. |Hlectrolytic experiments.

Hamel Br. d’Inv., LV, 62. Hlectro-metallurgy.

Hittorf Pogg. XOVIIL 1, 177. Analysis by electrolysis.

Kolrausch Pogg., XCVII, 397, 559;|Measure: of electrolytic

JB., 1856, 239. force.

Lautépin Br. @Iny., LVI, 84. Silvering on wood.

Lenoir C. R., XLII, 415, 476, 618;) Electro-metallurgy.

Arch. ph. nat., XXXII,

219.

Magnus Berl. Acad. Ber., 1856, 188 ; Electrolyticinvestigations.

C. C., 1856, 338; J. pr.

Chem., LX VIII, 54; Phil.

Mag., 4, XII, 157; Arch.

ph. nat.) XXXII, 327;

. JB., 1856, 239.

Osann J. pr. Chem., LXVI, 258;Gypsum moulds in elec-

Pogg. XCVI, 498; XCVII,| trotyping.

Bre Adel, ole TBM.

XXXI, 342.

Oudry Br. dInv., LIV, 219; C. R.|Electro-metallurgy of Fe.

XLII, 1144, 1174; XLII,

42, 110.

Regnault C. R., XLVI, 852. Electrolysis of Mg.

Schénbein Pharm. J. Trans., XV, 513.|/Heat and electrolysis.

Sorel A.c. p., 8, XLV, 11, 119. |Electrolysis of water.

Soret Arch. ph. nat., XX XI, 204./The same.

Van Breda Arch. ph. nat., XX XITI,|Electrolysis.

ye 1etoyere., (Oj il4ig)e “ds18.

1856, 289.

Wiedemann |Poge., XCIX, 177; Arch.|Electrolysis of salts.

ph. nat., XX XIII, 177.

Willigen Pogg., XCVIII, 511; A. c¢.|Ozone by electrolysis.

p., L, 126.

? J. pr. Chem., LXVII, 178. |Electrolysis of water.

? J. Fr. Inst.,"8, XX XI, 412. |Photo-galvanic process.

? iY 3, XX XI, 115.|Electro-chem. engraving.

1857| Almeida AGEs DP. Mulle panne Electrolysis of salts.

Baumert Ann. Pharm., CI, 88. Ozone by electrolysis.

Becker Br. Pat. Rep., 1857, 1274. |Silvering organic bodies.

Beequerel Cok., XG, 938. Electrolysis with weak

currents.

1858

Literature of Hlectrolysis.

Berlin

Bosscha

Breda

Carpentier

Clausius

Coulson

Cowper

Despretz

Dupré

Garnier

Geuthier

Gorde

Hittorf

Kobell

Magnus

Miller

Moigno

Newly

Noualhier

Palagi

Peil

Schlagden-

hauffen|

Sinsteden

Walenn

Beslay

Bottger

Brionde

Buff

Clausius

C. B.,, XLIV, 1273; XLV,

82.

Pogg., CI, 517; CIII, 487;

CV, 396; eave. Ds 3,

TRV, 367; Arch. ph. nat.

ENO PaP tL 361.

Pogg. XCLX, 634.

Br. dInv., XXXIV, 407.

Pogg., Cl, 338.

Br. ‘Pat. Rep., 1857, 2074.

18a A180:

C. R, XLV, 449.

i XLIV, 1009; Phil.

Mag., 4, XIV, 75.

|Arch. ph. nat., XX XV, 98.

Br. d@’Inv., LXI, 174.

|Am. J. Sei, 2, XXVIII,

281.

‘Br. P. Rep., 1857, 8877.

Pose. C1H, ile JB., 1857,

27.

J. pr. Chem., LXXI, 146;

' Chem. Gaz., 1857, 437.

Pes. CII, 1; Ann. Pharm.

3, LU, 345; Arch. ph.

| nat., XXXVI, 300; ‘Ci-

| mento, VII, 56;- C. (Op,

| 1857, 954; JB., 1857, 53;

| Am. i Sci., 2, XXV, 98;

A. ©. Ole 912.

‘Br. A. a ’Sci., 1851, 158.

Edinb. N. Phil. Te INS Sis

| VI, 306.

‘Br. Pat. Rep., 1857, 3115.

| if 1857, 5.

ler. @Inv., LXIII, 919.

\Chem. Gaz., 1857, 220.

J. Pharm., 3, XXXI, 410;

JB., 1857, 57.

Rove, Chal

(Br. Pat. Rep., 1857, 1840.

iBr. dInv., LXVIII, 264;

| Br. Pat. Rep., 1859, 108.

‘Poge., CIV, 292: J.

| pert. Chin., I, 56.

‘J. pr. Chem., "‘LXXIII, 494.

iBr. d@Inv., LXVI, 206.

|Ann. Pharm., CV, 145

Tas Gs ]9e oy LLIDAG Te

Ann. Pharm., CVI, 208.

Pogg. CIII, 525; Phil. Mag.,

| 4, XIV, 94; JB., 1858, 27°

Chem., LX XIII, 484; Re-

‘Platinum electrodes.

; Mechanical theory of elec-

trolysis.

Electrolysis of water.

Electro-metallurgy.

Condition of electrolytes.

‘Electro-metal. of Au.

Electro-metallurgy.

Electrolysis of Pb. salts.

Electrolysis.

Electrolysis of salts.

Electro-metallurey.

Electrolysis of waters.

Electro-metal. of alloys.

Analysis by electrolysis.

Electrol. of chromic acid.

, Electrolysis of salts.

Researches in electrolysis.

Electrotypes.

Electro-metallurgy of Sn.

Hlectro-metallurgy.

Gilding on wood.

Shellac moulds in electro-

typing.

; Electrolysis of salts.

Electrolysis by- magneto-

electricity.

Electro-metall. of alloys.

Ge yt ZAnly fein, 1210s

Electrolysis of Sb.

H NO; by electrolysis.

Gilding on zinc.

;|A. study of electrolytes.

Movements in the elec-

trolyte.

Electrolysis.

Literature of Electrolysis.

1859)

58|Corbelli

Fonvielle

Gore

Grove

Jacquin

Kérikuff

Liebig

‘Linnemann

‘Magnus

Munro

Nezeraux

Osann

Perrot

Quit

Re gnault

Riche

Shepard

Weiske

| Wiedemann

‘Wild

W ittich

Barre

Becquerel

Brewster

Bosscha

Bradbury

‘Butt

'Clausius

Br. Pat. Rep., 1858, 507.

C. R., XLVII. 149.

Phil. Mag., 4, XVI, 441;

JIB. iets, Ue

Phil. Mag., 4, XVI, 426.

Br. P. Rep., 1856, 667.

(On Ri SIUWAIUL, BBue

Br. d’Inv.; LXVI, 405.

J. pk: Chem., at 415;

JB., 1858, 116.

Poge., CIV, D900.

Br. ~d’'Inv., LXIX, AAD...

BG LXVI, 206.

Roce S Cie iGi1G Cs 7c:

1858, 145; JB., 1858, 25.

Cake BAT 180: IE WAUL

| 351 : Arch. ph. nat.,

ENG EA lee8:

iC. R., XLVI, 903; Arch.

ph. nat., [N. P.], II, 262.

PURI, JONG raat, [PN le], OL,

160; C. R., XLVI, 852.

KCB lesa Obs aut) S Jeol

Mag., 4, XV, 328.

Br. Pat. Rep., 1858, 353.

Pogg., CII, 466; JB., 1858,

27.

Pogg. CIV, 162; JB., 1858,

27.

Roger XCIXG 77 Aven ps

3, LII, 224.

Poge. CII, 204; Arch. ph.

nat. 5 (Ne Lee 1h, II, 378.

Ve ovr ‘Chem.,

JB., 1858, 541.

Sci. Amer., XIV, 4.

Br. d@’Inv., LX XIII, 182.

Mem. de l’Ac., XXVII, 2°.

JB., 1859, 86.

Poge., CVIII, 312.

Poge., CV, 896; Arch. ph./]

nat. {INOPs | Vilas

oo°?)

JaeEreinsts ise OXexexevalile

344.

Ann. Pharm., CX, 267

1859, 686; Phil.

Mag., 4, XVIII, 394; A.c.

p., 8, LIX, 120; JB., 1859,

39;

Arches ple maltees Nees»

IX, 134.

Arch. phasnate Neely;

242. :

| Cr 2:

ibe Oe 18;

Chem. News, IJ, 23;

Electro-metallurgy of Al.

Electrolysis of water.

ag of Sb.

Light and electrolysis.

Electro-metallurgy of Fe.

Electrolysis of alkaline

solutions.

Electro-plating on glass.

Electrolysis of K.

Indirect electrolytic action

Electro-metallurgy of Sn.

Electro-metallurgy.

,|Electrolysis of salts.

Effect of electric spark on

alcohol and water vapor.

Electrolysis of gases by

the spark.

Electro-chemical equiva-

lent of Mg.

Electrolysis of Br, CI, I.

Electro-metallurgy of Ag.

Chlorine by electrolysis.

Electrolysis.

Motion of liquids in elec-

trolysis.

Electrolysis of concen-

trated solutions.

Electrol. of organic bodies,

Electrolysis.

Decoration

metallurgy.

Electrolysis by weak cur-

rents.

Electrol. of organic acids,

Heat in electrolysis.

Mechanical theory of elec-

trolysis.

Electro-metallurgy of Zn.

by electro-

;'Electrolysis of the higher

compounds.

| Study of electrolytes.

Literature of Electrolysis. 339

| { .

1859 Friedel Ann. Pharm., CXII, 376. — Electrolysis of water,

Geuther Cis 129; JB. of H. SOx.

1859, 82: Chem. Gaz.,

1859. 289; ae ph. nat. |

NESE: I V,7

Hittort \Poge., CVI, 337° 513. Electrolysis.

Meydinger J. Pharm., 3, OGY, 76. Electro-metallurgy.

Morren C. R., XLVIITI, 342. Electrolysis of gases.

Newton Br. Pat. Rep., 1859, 1045. | Nitric acid by electrol.

Perrot C. R., XLIX, 37; Arch. ph.|Electrodes in sulphate of

nat. [N. P.], IV, 186; VY,!| copper voltameters.

267 ; Phil. Mag., Dec.,

1858.

* On) Tey. LEX, 204; Arch. Electrolysis by the spark.

ph. nat. [N. Pl, VI, 66.

Schmidt Poge., CVII, 556. Electrolysis of H2 SO,.

Schonbein J. pr. Chem., LX XVITI, 63; Polarization of oxygen

Pogg. Ann., CVIII, 471;| during electrolysis.

: A.c. p., LVII, 484.

Wiedemann |Pogg., XCIX, 281. Electrol. of binary salts.

ame J. a Inst., 3, XX XVIII, Durability of electrotypes.

124.

2 J. Fr. Inst., 3, XX XVII, /Electro-metallurgy of Zn.

B44.

? Sci. Amer., 2, I, 275. Roses by light-

ning.

? Rep. Chim. App., I, 419. Gutta- “percha in electro-

typing.

1860) Almeida C. R., LI, 214; Chem. News, Beso vsis of a mixture

II, 144. of H NO; and alcohol.

Bethnoud U.S. Pat. Rep., 1860, 30663. Electro-metall. of alloys.

Buff Arch. ph. nat. [N. P.], LX,|Electrolytic studies.

107.

Coleman Chem. News, I, 242. ‘ apparatus.

E. G. 3 I, 204, 216. |Electrol. of nitrogen com-

pounds.

Gore Phil. Mag., 4, XXII, 555; Musical sounds. by elec-

Arch. ph. nat. [N. P.],| trolysis.

VIII, 323.

Grove Phil. Mag., 4, XX, 126;/Transmission of electro-

A. c. p., 3, LXI, 156;) ‘lysis across glass.

Arches phe nats NE

VIII, 330.

Hoffmann J. Chem. Soc., XII, 278. Electrolysis of gases.

Hughes Br. Pat. Rep., 1860, 1885. | Electro-metall. of alloys.

Kolbe Ann. Pharm., CXIII, 244; Electrolysis of organic

JB., 1860, 245. bodies.

Lerret Cais elin o60) Electro-metallurgy.

Person \Chem. News, II, 275. Electro-metallurgy of Zn.

Perrot Arch. ph. nat. [N. P.], XI,|Electrolysis by the in-

232; A.c.p., 8, LXI, 161,| duction spark.

Piffard Chem. News, II, 323 ; Sci./Electrotyping.

Saint- Victor

Smee

Spigerel

|Br.

Amer., 2, V, 200.

Chan eb 440:

Chem. News, I, 31.

@Inv., LX XVIII, 271

Electrol. of Au and Ag.

Detection of As.

Electro-silvering.

Literature of Electrolysis.

1862

1863

Wright

Abel

Andrews

Beequerel

Beil

Bloxam

Brooman

Gerardin

Lapschin and

Tichanowitsch

Marié

Piffard

Plauté

Von Liebig

Wake

Becquerel

‘Beetz

\Beslay

Dickson

\Garnside

Gore

cé

Miller

Quneke

Walcott

Abel

Baeyer

Becquerel

Bonsfield

Phil. Mag., 4, XIX, 129.

Br. Pat. Rep., 1861, 1792.

J. Chem. Soc., XIII, 344.

C. R., LITT, 1196; JB., 1861,

203.

Chem. News, IV, 5.

Br. Pat. Rep., 1861, 1214.

J. Chem. Soc., XIII, 12.

br. Pat. Rep., 1861, 2028.

C. R., LI, 727; JB., 1861,

Peters. Acad. Bull. [N. S.].

IV, 81; C. C., 1861, 613;

Phil. Mag., 4, XXII, 308;

J. Pharm., 3, XLII, 95;

JB., 1861, 50.

C. B., LIil, 1058.

Chem. News, IV, 110.

C. R., L, 393.

U.S. Pat. Rep., 1861, 33721.

Chem. News, III, 365.

Sci. Amer., 2, V, 361.

J. Fr. Inst., 8, XLII, 330.

Sci. Amer., 2, V, 342.

C. R., LY, 18; Instit., 1862,

221; Arch. ph. nat. [N. P],

XV, 59; Rep. ch. pure, IV,

321; C. C., 1862, 772; J.

pr. Chem., LXXXVI, 503;

Ann. Pharm., CXXIV, 311;

Dingl. J., CLXV, 373;

Zeitschr. Chem. Pharm.,

1862, 478; JB., 1862, 34;

Chem. News, VI, 126.

Poge., CXVII, 17.

U.S. Pat. Rep., 1862, 36750.

Br. Pat. Rep., 1862, 2044,

2266.

Dingl. J., CLXVI, 309.

JB., 1862, 162.

Proce. Roy. Soc., 1862; Phil.

Mag., 4, XXIV, 461; Arch.

ph. nat. [N. P.], XV, 64.

U.S. Pat. Rep., 1862, 34640.

Arch, ph, nat. [N. P], XIII,

185.

U.S. Pat. Rep., 1862. 34470.

J. Chem. Soc., XVI, 235;

Chem. News, VIII, 18.

Ann. Pharm., CXXVII, 38.

CoRR UVa, 2aimeinstite

1863, 41; Ann. Pharm.,

CXXVI, 298; C. C., 1863,

525; JB., 1863, 115 ; Chem.

News, VIJ, 219.

Chem. News, VII, 69.

Mercury as an electrode.

Electro-metallurgy of Ni.

Electrolysis of oxygen.

Hydrates of Si and Al by

electrolysis.

Coloring iron by electrol.

Electro-metallurgy of Al.

Detection of As and Sb.

Electro-metallurgy of Au. ~

Electrolysis of alloys.

].|Electrolysis with large bat-

teries.

Electrol. of alkaline salts.

Electro-metallurgy.

Electrolysis.

Electro-metallurgy of Cu.

Electro-metallurgy.

Electro-plating.

Coloring iron by electrol.

Electro-plating iron,

Electrolysis by weak cur-

rents.

Electrolysis of H, SOx,.

Electro-metallurgy.

Manuf. of Na, COs.

Electrotyping.

Electrolysis of Sb.

Sound by electrolysis.

Electro-plating wires.

Electrolysis.

Electro-metallurgy of Cu.

Electrolytic action.

Ozone by electrolysis.

Electrolysis of insoluble

compounds.

Electro-metallurgy.

Literature of Llectrolysis. 337

1863

1864

Dircks

Gore

Gerardin

Kirchner

Lovel

Moigno

Perrot

Soret

| Werther

Becquerel

EKdme

Jaillard

Kekulé

Martin

Moore

Raoult

Soret

Thompson

Weil

Berlandt

Buff

JArch. Pharm.,

Chem. News, VII. 105.

Phil. Mag., 4, XXV, 479

JB, 1863; 2325 J. Chem.

Soc., XVI, 365; Chem.

News, VIII, 257. 281.

Cant. amie Tnstits.

1861, 378; Rep. chim.

pure, IV. 49; JB., 1863, 52.

C. C., 1863, 837; JB., 1863,

502

GRE LVI, 390.

Br. A. A. Sci.. 1863, 20.

A.c. p., 3. LXI, 161; Arch.

ph. nat. NEPA x 232;

JB., 1863, 52.

Cour. LIV, 390; Buibl.

Univers., XVI; dls [Orr

Chem., XC, 216; Aun.

Pharm., CXXVII, 38;

Pogg., CX VIII, 623; Roma,

Att) XV (638) Phill!

Mag., 4, XXV, 208; Chem.

News, VII, 248; Arch. ph.

nat. (IN. P.], XVI, 208:

J. pr. Chem., LXXXVII,

“Bl: JB., 1863, 502.

iL Bae LIX, 521.

Gee News, X, 91.

Ann. Pharin.,

C. R., LVI, 1203.

Ann. Pharm., CXXXI, 80;

JB., 1864, 374; Bull. Soc.

Chim., I. 242.

C. R., LVI, 108.

Br. Pat. Rep., 1864, 2029.

C. R., LIX, 521; A. ec. p., 4,

IV, 417; Phil. Mag., 4,

XXVIII, 551; JB., “1864,

116.

Arch. ph. nat. [N. P.], XX.

324 ;

Instit, 1864, 316;

Mag., 4,

A @s [Don

1864, 116.

Br. Pat. Rep., 1864, 3095.

«1864, 497; A.

@o Wn 4h UW eee Oe de,

Nov., 1864; Quart. J. Sci.,

1, If, 1380; Bull. Soe.

Chim., II. 472.

Dingl. J., CUXXII, 483.

Jia lite, IMs. Gk, EVID GI.

Phil.

4, Ill, 504; JB.,

Phil. Mag., 4. XXX, 451.

Ann. Pharm., XCIV, 15.

CXXXII, 360;

Cr lk, AB br

History ot electro-metall.

; Electrolysis of Sb.

Electrolysis of K and Na.

Electrolysis of glycerine.

Ozone by electrolysis.

Electro-metallurgy of Cu.

Electrolysis by the induc-

tion spark.

Ozone by electrolysis.

Electrolysis of glycerine.

Electro-chem. equivalents.

Electrolysis of oxygen.

Electrolysis of alcohols.

Electrol. of organic bodies.

Theory of electrolysis.

HKlectro-metallurgy of Au.

Heat and electrolysis.

Electrolysis of gases.

XXVIII, 563;

Electro-metallurgy of Pt.

New process of electro-

CXXI, 54;

metallurgy.

Electrolysis.

Curious electrolytic action.

A new electrolytic process.

Electrolysis of Ag Cl.

1865)

1866

1867

Canderan

Gibbs

Hittorf

Martin

Reid

Renault

Smith

Thompson

Ullik

Viollet

Well

Zaliwski

Brewster

Bouilhet

Bourgoin

Brewster

Brooman

Christofle

Heeren

Balsamo

Bartlett

Becquerel

Bouilhet

Literature of Hlectrolysis.

Dingl J.;

CLXXVIII, 204.

Bull. Soe. Cini. VI, 126;

Am. J. Sci., 2, NOOO,

64.

Pogg., CXXVI, 195; Phil.

Mag., 4, XLVIII, 240.

C. R., LX, 777, 956; Quart.

do Sis, I) JUL x0).

Chem. News, XII, 242;

JB., 1865, 243.

Bull. Soe. Chim., IV, 119.

Sci. Amer., 2, pxalille 404.

Br. Pat. Rep., 1865, 2592.

Wien. Akad. Ber., LIT, 2°,

115; JB., Le 186.

B. Soc. ’Ind., 2, XII, 447,

Oa.

Sci. Amer., 2, XII, 182.

C. R., LXI, 945.

Pogg., CXXIV, ‘5.

SE ODO ona

Chem. News, XII, 3; Cos-|

mos, 2, I, 595.

Chem. News, XI, 60.

Bull. Soc. Chim.,

Arch. Neer. Sci.

296.

B. Soc. l’Ind., 2, XIII, 207.

ALCS amps 4, TV. 157;

Chem. News, XVI, 313-|

Obie TV) 892, 998,

1144; JB., 1867, 381.

JB., 1866, 87.

Br. Pat. Rep., 1866, 3047.

B. Soe. VIna., 2, XIII, 389.

Sci. Amer., 2, XIV, 357.

Quart. J. Sci., 1, II, 300.

Bull. Soc. Chim., VI, 96.

(Ch 1R.5 JODSUUL, ateHL

J. pr. Chem., XCIV, 507.

Pogg., CX XVII, 45.

C. R., LXV, 618.

Chem. News, XVI, 257.

Coes. DDSI 919, 1211;

ay, dL, 720; 752: Instit.,

isto, bya), I}, 353 :

Zeitsch. Chem., 1867, 374,

455, 515; Arch. ph, nat.

[N. P.], XXIX, 55; J.

Pharm., 4, VI, 129; Tee

1867, {tite

B. Soc. IRiGael.; 2, SGDY, Biz,

409.

CLXXV, 184;

VIII, 23;

15 Ih)

Electrolysis.

; Analysis of Cu_and Ni.

Electrolysis of P.

Theory of electrolysis.

Electrolysis of Th.

Analysis of alloys.

Electro-plating of

springs.

Electro-metallurgy of Fe.

Electrolysis of Si.

steel

Electro-metallurey of Cu.

Electro-plating.

Electrolysis.

‘Electrol. of organic bodies,

'Electrolysis.

Electro-metallurgy.

Electrolysis.

Electro-metallurgy.

Electrol. of organic bodies.

cal

The same.

‘Electro-metal. of bronze.

‘Electro-metallurgy.

| Hlectrotyping.

‘Electrolysis of COx.

'Gelatine in electro-metall.

‘Ozone by electrolysis.

|The same.

Electrodes of Al and Mg.

Electro-metallurgy.

|Experiments in electrol.

| Electro- capillarity in elec-

trolysis.

‘Electro-gilding.

Metalloids by electrolysis.

See hy

1867,

1868

Literature of Electrolysis.

339

Buff

Feuquieres

Gaugain

Hoffmann

Lecoq

Levison

Matteucci

Paalzon

Plante

Renault

Salet

Becquerel

Balsamo

Bloxam

Bourgoin

Corson

Darling

Dumas

Farre

Chem. News, XV, 279; Ann.

Pharm.,

JB., 1866, 83.

B. Soc. l’'Ind., 2, XIV, 589.

C. R., LXIX, 1300; Instit.,

Quart. J. Sci., 1, V, 116;

Phil. Mag., 4, XXXIV,

a Chem. News, XVI,

Bea, CXXXII, 607; Bull.

Soc. Chim., X, 228.

Bull. Soc. Chim., VII, 468.

XI, 35.

Am. J. Min., 1867, June

15, July 20.

C. R., Jan., 1867;

J. Sci., 1, V, 116.

Berl. Monatsber., 1868, 490.

Chem, News, XVI, 2438.

A. c. p., 4, XI, 187; JB.,

1867, 115.

Laborat, 1867, 248: JB.,

1867, 117.

Sci. Amer., 2, XVI, 214.

J. Fr. Inst., 3, LIV, 202.

C. R., LXVI, 77, 245, 766,

Quart.

1066; Instit., 1868, 50,

181, 177; Arch. ph. nat.

Ne) Ee eXeXOXT ys;

Phil. Mag., 4, XXXVI,

437; JB., 1868, 82.

C. R., LXVII, 1081; Instit.,

1868, 886; Zeitsch. Chem. ,

1869, 134; JB., 1868, 87.

Bull. Soe. Chim., IX, 250.

Chem. News, XIX, 289;

JB., 1868, 151.

Bull. Soe. Chim., X, 206;

D.C. Ges., II, 563; C. R.,

LXVII, 94.

Bull. Soc. Chim., 2, XII,

438; X, 3, 209; IX, 427,

301, 431, 34; Quart. J.

sie, i, Wik 2Ge de

Pharm., 4, XI, 10; D. C.

Ges., 1869, 659; JB.,

1869, 152; A. c. p., 4,

XIV, 157, 430; Chem.

News, XVI, 38.

Sci. Amer., 2, XVIII, 368.

J. Chem. Soc., X XI, 502.

B. Soc. ’Ind., 2, XV, 383.

C. R., LXVI, 252, 470,

1231; LX VII, 1012; Poge.,|

Sup. IV, 257;

1869, 401; JB., 1867, 147;

Electrolysis of alkaline

sulphates.

Electro-metallurgy of Sn.

Polarization of electrodes.

Electrolysis of water.

Analysis of Cu and Ni.

Separation of Fe and Cu.

Electrolytic action of Na

amalgam in the extrac-

tion of gold.

Polarization of electrodes.

Electrolysis of salts.

Lead electrodes.

Electrolysis of gases.

Laws of electrolysis.

Electro-metallurgy.

Electro-metal. of bronze.

Hlectro-capillarity and

electrolysis.

Silicates by electrolysis.

Electro-metallurgy of Fe.

Electrolysis of nitre.

Electrolysis of water.

Electrolysis

bodies.

of organic

Separation of gold.

Elect of alkaline acetates.

Electro-metallurgy.

Heat and electrolysis.

Literature of Hlectrolysis.

1868

1869

Feuquieres

Gates

Jacobi

Klein

Kness

Kolbe

Lisenko

Raoult

Remington

Rundspaden

Tyndall

Walenn

Warburg

Wilde

Weith

W ohler

Woodworth

Wright

Zaliwski

mH D

Adams

Becquerel

Berthelot

Bourgoin

CXXXV, 300; Phil. Mag.,

4, XXXV, 289; XXXVI

310; JB., 1868, 91.

B. Soc. l'Ind., 2, XV, 278.

U.S. Pat. Rep., 1868, 80402.

/Bull. Soc. 8. Peters., XII,

568.

B. Soc. V’Ind., 2, XV, 286;

Chem. News, XVII, 133;

Bull. Soc. Chim. 2, XI,

428.

Bull. Soce.:Chim., 2, 1X, 416;

Sci. Amer., 2, XX, 184.

J. Chem. Soc., X XI, 195.

Zeitschr. Chem., 1868, 282;

Jahresb., 1868, 91.

OC, 1h, IbVMID, 285 JIB.

1868, 49.

C.R., LXVI, 358; LXYVI,

950, 1006;. JB., 1868, 93.

U.S. Pat. Rep., 1868, 82877.

Ann. Pharm., CLI, 306;

JB., 1868, 150.

Am. J. Sci., 2, XLV, 34;

XLYI, 180.

Chem. News, XVI, 170.

Poge., CXXXYV, 114: JB.,

1868, 93.

Phil. Mag., 4, XXXVI, 81.

Bull. Soc. Chim., X, 121.

Ann. Pharm., CXLYI, 263,

375; JB., 1868, 192; Chem.

News, XVIII, 189.

U.S. Pat. Rep., 1868, 842438.

ait ss 1868, 79427.

C. R., LXVI, 1106.

Sci. Amer., 2, XVIII, 377.

Pogg., CXXXYV, 124.

6eé 6é 293.

6é ce 115.

J. Fr. Inst., 3, LV, 368.

U.S. Pat. Rep., 1869, 90332.

C. R., LXVIII, 1285.

J. Pharm., 4, II, 200; Bull.

Soc. Chim., 2, XIII, 107;

C. C., 1870, 226; JB.,

1870, 159; Quart. J. Sci.,

VI, 320; Chem. News,

XVIII, 82.

Bull. Soc. Chim., 2, XII,

400; JB., 1869, 152.

Bull. Soe. Chim. 2, XI, 39;

XII, 483; D. C. Ges., II,

Fe and Sn by electrolysis.

Electro-plating.

Electro-metallurgy.

Electro-deposition of Fe.

Electro-metallurgy.

Electrol. of acetic acid.

Electrolysis of gases.

Electrolysis of salts.

Heat and electrolysis.

Electro-metallurgy of Ni.

H.O; by electrol. of H.O.

Faraday as a discoverer.

Electro-metallurgy of Fe.

Electrolysis of Hz SOu.

Laws of electrolysis.

Electrol. of nitro-prus-

sides.

Oxidation by electrolysis.

Electro-plating.

The same.

Voltametric

tion.

Paper silvered.

Electrolysis by the spark.

Electrolysis.

Electrolysis at high tem-

peratures.

Electro-bronzing.

Electro-metallurgy of Ni.

Electrol. of organic bodies.

Electrolysis by the in-

duction spark.

decomposi-

Electrol. of organic bodies.

Electrolysis of soda, pot-

ash and ammonia.

Literature of Electrolysis.

341

1869

1870

Clay

Delaurier

Friedel

Gerland

Gore

Hoffmann

Jacobi

Kolrausch

Maisstrasse

Patry

Rust

Tait

Tucker

Ullgren

Varrentrapp

Warburg

Becquerel

Bloomstrand

Bourgoin

Boisfeillet

Bunge

15; Chem. News, XIX,

218; A.c. p., 4, XV, 48.

Sci. Amer., 2, X XI, 346.

C. R., LXVIII, 1124.

Quart. J. Sei, 1, Vi, 471.

AOS OFC RENOIR oneh:

Anz. Ann. Chim., 4,

XVIII, 461; JB., 1869,

147.

Quart. J. Sci., 1, VI, 319.

Deut. Ges. Ber., 1869, 244.

Bull. Soc. Chim., 2, XII,

498; Bull. Sci. S. Peters.,

XIII, 40.

Pogg., CX XXVIII, 385.

B. Soe. l’Ind., 2, XVI, 590;

XVII, 103.

Achivap hes nate | New seals

Noy., 1868; Phil. Mag.,

4, XXXVII, 475.

‘U.S. Pat. Rep., 1869, 98110.

Phil. Mag., 4, XXXVIII,

243.

U.S. Pat. Rep., 1869, 90894.

‘Bull. Soe. Chim., 2, XII,

| 249,

Bull. Soc. Chim., 2, XII,

| 420; Schweiz Polyt. J.,

| 1868, 87; Zeitsch. Chem.,

XI, 732.

A.c.p., 4, XVI, 489; Pogg.,

| CXXXyV, 114.

‘Sci. Amer., 2, X XI, 1538.

enc 2h SNOXGTE 78:

J. Fr. Inst., 3, LVIII, 370.

[SCiaeAmMens 2, UNG OT:

iC. R., LXX, 345; Instit.,

1870, 66; JB., 1870, 144;

Amer. Chem., J, 147;

| Quart. J. Sci., 1, VI, 391.

'C. R., LXXI, 197; Instit.,

1870, 225; JB., 1870, 149.

D. C. Ges., III, 533.

A. c. p., 4, XXI, 264; C. R.,

| LXX, 811; JB., 1870, 274.

A.-c. p,, 4, XXI, 264; C. R.,

LXX, 191; J. Pharm.,

PN ESE Or Onna:

| D.C. Ges., III, 325.

‘Bull. Soe. Chim., 2, XVII,

244: A.c. p., 4, XXVIII,

119; J. Chem. Soc., XXV,

27; JB., 1870, 108.

'B. Soc. l'Ind., 2, XVII, 588.

DiC) Ges wi 29) Oil:

Electro-metallurgy of Fe.

Electro-metallurgy of Cu.

Electrolysis of H,Si.

Electrolysis of water.

Electrolysis of HF.

Laws of electrolysis.

EHlectro-metallurgy of Fe.

Electrolysis of H.SO..

Electro-metallurgy of Zn.

Research on electrodes.

Electrolysis of alloys.

Electrolytic polarization.

Electro-gilding on iron.

Analysis of Cu and Ni.

Electro-metallurgy of Fe.

Heat in electrolysis.

Hlectro-gilding.

Baths for electro-plating.

Electro-metallurgy of Fe.

Electro-plating paper.

Electro-capillarity in elec-

trolysis.

Laws of electro-capillarity.

Classification of elements.

Electrolysis of acids.

Electrolysis of salts.

Theory of electrolysis.

Electrol. in photography.

Electrolysis of salts.

Amer. Chem., I, 36, 310;)

1870

1871

Literature of Electrolysis.

arises ee

Burekhard

Christofle

Gaiffe

Hittorf

Houzeau

Howard

‘Kohlrausch

‘Martin

Royer

/Runspaden

Wernicke

Wright

Adams

‘Bingham

Bourgoin

Brodie

Farre

Lenz

Merrick

Bull. Soe. Chim., 2, XIV,

220; Chem. News, XXIII,

22; JB., 1870, 155.

Jen. Zeitschr., V, 393

Zeitschr. Chem., 1870,

212; Bull. Soc. Chim., 2,

XIV, 35; JB., 1870, 157

Chem.

Amer. Chem.,I, 37; Quart.

dis S@in5 2, 1 Ao.

‘Bull. Sci. S. Peters., XV,

319.

‘Quart. J. Sci., 1, VIL, 289.

Pogg. CVI, 348; JB., 1870,

134.

CVI, 542; JB., 1870,

Pose,

C. wae LXX, 1286; Chem.

| News, XXI, 298; Amer.

| Chem., 1, 68: Quar. J

Sci. [N. S.], TX, 994.

(Ui Si eeate ikepe, asi0}

| 100088.

iA. ce. p., April, 1870; Phil.

Mag., 4, XL, 229.

OP Ties UDO Gilats

| News, XXI, 154.

Chem.

iC. R., LXX, 7381; JB., 1870,

aGoa:

Quart. J. Sci., 1, vue 138.

‘Bull. Soe. Chim. , 2, XV, 50;

Pogg., CXLI, 109; J. pr,

| Chem., 2, II, 419: "Am, Je

| Sei. 3 I, 298.

jU. 5. Pat. Rep., 1870, 101075.

| ne 1871, 113612

B. Soc. lInd., 2, aloe

| 168, 258.

|U.S. Pat. Rep., wre 115926;

Sci. Amer., 2 XXV, 42:

Bull. Soe. Chim.., 9,

XVIII, 139.

| ier, Geile Isl See,

Chime pekinese Dae

| Ges., V, 827.

‘Proc. Roy. Soc., XX, 472

| Bull. Roy. Soc., XXI, 482;

Phil. Trans., CLXII, 495.

C.R. SUX XI 1463; Quart.

ues Sci., 2 2, We 276.

\B. Soe. ’Ind., OXGVAL, 1G),

Chem. News, YOY, 100,

i Li; JB 1871, 933: Bull.

Soc. Chim., 2, XVI, 262.

News, XXI, 238:

|A. c. p., 4, XXII, 361; JB.;

;|Electrolysis of salts.

Electro-metallurgy.

Nickel plating.

Electrolysis of water.

Electrol. of Zn and Cd.

Electrolysis of air.

Electro-metallurgy of Sb.

Ohm/’s law in electrolysis.

Ozone by electrolysis.

Electrol. of organic bodies.

Electrolysis of water.

Electrolysis of salts.

Electro-plating.

;Electro-metallurgy of Ni.

; Electro-metallurgy of Sn.

Electrol. of organic bodies.

;|Electrolysis of gases.

Conduction by electrolysis.

Electro-metallurgy of Fe.

Analysis of Cu and Ni.

Literature of Electrolysis. 343

1871 Moore D. C. Ges., IV, 519; Am.|Electrolysis of C2H10Os..

dic Ck. Bt, LUO, IT

Parmlee U.S. Pat. Rep., 1871, 114191.|Electro-metallurgy of Ni.

Pratt i s 1871, 118090. |Electro-metallurgy.

Quincke Pogg., CXLIV, 1, 161; J.|Hlectrolysis.

Pharm., 1871, 132; Phil.

Mag., 4, XLIII, 396, 518.

Schénn Chem. News, XXIII, 59;)Electrolysis.

Pogg., 1870, Sup. V, 11.

Scoutten Quart. J. Sci., 2, I, 299. Electrolysis of wines.

Skey Chem. News, XXIII. Electrolysis of oxides.

_ |Soret A.c. p., 4, XXII, 150. Electrolysis of oxygen.

Walenn Chem. News, XXII, 1; Sci.|Electro-metall. of brass.

Amer., 2, XXIV, 119.

1872! Aarland Chem. News, XXIV, 313;|Electrol. of itaconic acid.

“i di, joe, Clem, 2, Savsuul

ITAL,

Beardslie U.S. Pat. Rep., 1872, 12988.|Electro-metallurgy of Ni.

Becquerel C. R., LXXV, 1729; JB.,|Electrolysis of amalgams.

1872, 112.

be C. R., LXXIV, 1310; JB.,|Electro capillarity.

1872, 114.

a C. R., Jan., 1872; Chem.|Decomposition by the

News, XXV, 70. spark due to calorific

effects.

Blane Ch IR, IONS Baie H.O2 ae electrolysis of

r HS 4.

Boillot C. R., LXXVI, 628, 869,/Action of the electric

1182, 1712; J. Chem. Soc.,|_ brush on CyH and air.

XXVII, 713; Chem. News,

XXVII, 256; Chem. Soc.

Trans. [V. 8.], XI, 724.

Bottger Quart. J. Sci., 2, Il, 407. | Electro-metallurgy of Zu.

Brown D. C. Ges., V, 484. Electrolysis of sugar.

Carstanjen Bull. Soe. Chim., 2, XVII,/Electrol. of itaconic acid.

: 221; Jour. pr. Chem., IV,

376.

Fearn Bull. Soc. Chim., 2, X VIII,|Electro-metall. of alloys.

AB XOXO 40

Gladstone Proc. Roy. Soc., XX, 218;/Electrolysis.

Phil. Mag., 4, XLIV, 73; ‘

Chem. News, XXV, 146;

Arch, phe nat: (Ny Pay

45, 418; JB., 1872, 111.

Heeren Bull. Soc. Chim., 2, XVIII, | Electro-metallurgy.

371; Dingl. J., CCLV, 487.

Keith Quart. J. Sci., 2, Il, 402. | Electro-metallurgy of Ni.

Kempf Chem. News, XXIV, 157;/Electrolysis of acetates.

Je pr: Chem: CX, 5

Nos. 11, 12.

Lecoq Bull. Soc. Chim., 2, XVI, Separation of Fe and Cu.

41; C. R., LXXIII, 1822.

Lobstein Bull. Soc. Chim., 2, XVII,|Electro-metallurgy.

480.

Mansfeld Z. anal. Chem., 1872, 1;|/Analysis of Cu, Ni, Co.

JB., 1872, 912.

d44

Literature of Hlectrolysis.

1872

1873

Paterno

Raoult

Ruhmkorft

Tavernier

Thenard

Thompson

Wright

Aarland

Becquerel

Brodie

Chalevier

Divers

Dumas

Gourdon

Gramme

Helmholtz

Houzeau

Jean

Kohlrausch

Ladenburgh

Le Blane

Levison

Lippmann

Maistrasse

Maumené

Moncel

Pisati

Raoult

Sundell

D. C. Ges., V, 642.

Cr Rs, TixXOXVG 1106: Be

1870, 111.

Quart. J. Sci., 2, I, 408.

Bull. Soc. Chim., 2, XTX, 90.

CC) Ry, Laxey tls!

Chem. News, XXIV, 194.

fe RVI, 13:

Amer. J. Sci., 3, ve 29:

Chem, Soc. Trans. [N. 8.].

X, 1072.

Sci. ‘Amer., , 2 XXVI, 26.

on pr. pee 2, VI, 256:

Chem. News. XXV ie, 305]

Bull. Soe. Chim., 2, 3 XIX, |

258.

Crs, eXONeValil y= 84a ibs

1873, 128.

JB 1873, 120.

C. Re LXXVIL 1130.

J. Chem. Soce.,

Proc. Roy. Soc., Xi,

245- Phil: Mag. B

XLVII, 309.

J. Chem: Soc., XXVI, 29;

CARE LXXV, oot

D. C. Ges., VI, 7

Cane 1 OOUe ot.

ae a 125

Sci. Amer., 2, MTL 120.

Ber. Mon., 1873.

C. CR, LXXVIL, 1208.

Electrolytic equivalents.

Electrolysis of Cd.

‘Ozone by electrolysis.

Electro-metall. of alloys.

‘Electrolysis of gases.

Electrolysis of Al.

; Ozone by electrolysis.

’ |

Electron metallia LYN

Bleetr olysis of water.

Electro-capillarity.

Electrolysis and chemical

| a. iflnity.

XXVI, 744; batons sis of CO.

Electrolysis by the electric

| brush.

Electrolysis of NHiNOs.

Electrolysis of COs.

‘Electro-metallurgy of Zn.

Electrotyping.

‘Conduction in electrolytes.

‘Electrolysis by the brush.

Be alps ey ‘Action of the brush on

Pogg., CXLIX, 171; JB.,|Hlectrolysis of Ag.

18738, 125.

J. Chem. Soc., XXVI, 26; Electrolysis and molecular

D. C. Ges., V, 753. | weight.

Chem. Soc. Trans., XXVI,/H,O2 i electrol. of

242. | 2

J. Fr. Inst., May, 1878. ‘Production of NH; in

nitric acid batteries.

Pogg., CXLIX, 547; Phil. Action of ions on elec-

Mag., 4, XLVII, 28. trodes.

B. Soc. l’Ind., 2, XX, 689. | Electrolysis of Sn.

C. R., LXXVI, 1146. Electrolysis by the brush.

J. Chem. Soc., XX VI, 833; Mercury electrodes.

CARS I XOXeVal al 3G: |

ne OXON AOL: ‘Electrolysis by the brush.

D. C. Ges., VI, 142. Modifications of electrol.

C. R., LXXVI, 156: JB.,|Hlectrolysis of Zn, Cd, Sn.

1873, 125.

Pogg. ‘CO xanixe 144.

o5*?

Electrolysis of metals.

Literature of Electrolysis.

187 3 Thénard

| ?

1874 Becquerel

Bourg goin

Boillet

Domanlip

Dumas

‘Favre

‘Gladstone

‘Martin

/Onimus

‘Renard

‘Regnon

‘Schrétter

Slavik

Symons

Thénard

Thompson

Wittstein

Wright

1875) Becquerel

oo.

H—

nse

1048, 183, 517; J. Chem.

; soc., XXVI, 1093: Chem,

News, XXVII, 243,

iSci. Amer., 2) XXIII, 23.

ie oY XXIX. Mil.

J. Chem. Soc., 1878, 452.

O.R., LXXIV, 82;LXXVI,

245, 849; LXXVIII, 89,

1018, 1081; LXXIX, 82,

D. C. Ges., VII, 1039.

GC. R., LX XIX, 636.

CC, isis, are

C. R., LXXVITI, 318.

« LXXVIII, 1678; JB.,

1874, 180; D. C. Ges.,

VII, 950; J. Chem. Soc.,

X XVII, 861; Chem. News,

XXX, 63.

Br. A. Ad. Sci.,

Instit., 1874. 354; JB.,

1874, 130; Chem. News,

XX XI, 49>

C. R., LX XVIII, 1354.

« LXXVIII, 648; JB.,

1874, 181.

C. R., LXXIX, 508, 159;

JB., 1874, 128.

C. R., LXXIX. 299; JB.,

1874, 129.

Roger Cul iae Phils

Mag., 4, AL 239,

D. C. Ges., VII, 1051.

Pharm. J. Trans., 3, V,

35) 2 Jee, ALS AL Sel.

1874, 31; JB., 1874, 131.

C. R., LX XVIII. 219.

Proc. Roy. Soc., 1874.

Bull. Soc. Chim., 2, X XI,

565; Dingl. J., CCXII,

137.

Am. J. Sci., 8, VI, 184;

Chem. Soc. Trans. [N. S. ik

XII, 975.

J. Fr. Inst., 3, LX VII, 12.

C. R., LX XX, 411.

JB., 1875, 102, 142.

C. R., LXXXT, 1002.

« LXXXI, 808, 849.

C. R., LXXVI, 1082, 1508,

1281; JB., 1874, 132, 133.|

J. Chem. Soe., XX VII, 645;

1874, 56;

J.Chem. Soc., XXVIII, 328;

Electrolysis by the elec-

tric brush.

| lane acres

Electro-plating with Sn. °

Electrolysis of Zn.

Electro-capillarity.

Oxymalinic acid. ‘

Electrolysis by the brush.

Mechanical theory of elec-

trolysis.

Electrol. of acetic acid.

“of carbonates of

soda.

Electrolysis of Cu and Pt.

Analysis by electrolysis.

Electro-capillarity.

Passive iron.

The same.

Electrolysis of P.

Electrolysis of salts.

Hlectrolysis of oils and

non-conductors.

Electrol. of acetic acid.

Electrolytic conduction in

hot glass.

Silver baths in electro-

plating.

Ozone by electrolysis. ~

Tron electrotypes.

Electrolysis in nutrition.

Electro-capillarity. i

Electrol. of organic bodies.

Electrolysis and chemical

affinity.

Literature of Electrolysis.

1875

1876

Boillet

Budde

Christomanos

Coquillon

Ducretes

Fleming

Gladstone

Goppelsréder

Janeczek

|\Miiller

Obach

Renard

Tribe

Becquerel

Berthelot

Bertrand

Bleekrode

Bunge

Cazeneuve

Christomanos

De la Rue

Dossios

Elsiisser

Fuchs

Gladstone

C. R., LXXX, 1167.

Pogs., CLYI, 618; JB., 1875,

100; J. Chem. Soec., XXIX, |

865,

Gaz. Chim. Ital., 1875, 402;

JB., 1875, 397.

D. C. ’Ges., VIII, 1534.

C. R., LXXX, 280; JB., 1875,

100.

Br. A. Ad. Sci., 1875, 28.|

Proc. Roy. Soc, XXIV, 47;|

JB., 1875, 101.

C. R., LXXXI, 944; D. C.

Ges., IX, 959; JB., 1875,

102.

J. Chem. Soc., XXIX, 182;)

D. C. Ges., VII, 1018;

JB., 1875, 101.

J. Chem. Soc., XXVIII, 123;

Pogg., CLI. 286.

Pogg., VII, Sup., 280; JB..|

1875, 97.

D. C. Ges., VIII, 182; C. B.,

LXXX, 105, 236.

C. R.. LXXXIT 562; LXXXI,|

188; Chem. News, XKXI |

72; RIL, 84.

Proc. Roy. Soe., XXIV, 308;

J. Chem. Soce.,

., 1876, 126.

, LXXXII, 1007.

oA ID OXORTUL, Bi}.

“~~ 6 LXXXIT, 1002.

56 JOXOLOSTNT, USYR0).

Co 1pOO-C0E Bayle i,

Chem. Soc., XXXI,

JB., 1876, 126.

Proc. Roy. Soc., XXV, 322.

D. C. Ges., 1876, 1598; JB.,

1876, 128.

D. C. Ges., IX, 78.

J. Chem. Soc., XXX, 456;

C. R., LXXXIl, 1341.

D. C. Cow VIII, 1359.

Proc. Roy. Soe., XXYV, 323.

D. C. Ges., IX, 1792.

6 IDS Werle TRipilil

Soe. Chim., 2, XXVIII,

469; J. Chem. Soe. , XXXL

676.

Pogg., CLIX, 486; JB., 1876,

126.

J. Chem. Soc., 1876, 2, 152;

JB.. 1876, 127, 129; C. C.,

1876, 545; Chem. News,

XXXIII, 218: D. C. Ges.,

XXX, 36;

Chem. News, XXXII, 13

Ill

Ozone by electrolysis.

Electrolysis.

‘Diphenyl by electrolysis.

‘Electrol. of aniline salts.

Aluminium electrodes.

Electrolysis by the spark.

houses

|Electrolysis of aromatic

compounds.

Theory of electrolysis.

. Distribution of the current

in the electrolyte.

Electrol. of amalgams.

Electrolysis of alcohol.

Electrol. of glycerine.

. Theory of electrolysis.

lWlectyo-cerpilleumtey

Electrol. by the spark.

Currents of high tension.

Electrol. by the brush.

Electrolysis of Al, Mg, Cd,

Sb, Bi, and Pt.

|Electrolysis.

Electrol. of formic acid.

Electrol. of oxalic acid.

Metallic films on organic

substances by electrol.

Electrol. of acetylchloride.

Electrolysis of HCl.

Theory of electrolysis.

Mg and Pt electrodes.

Electrolysis.

Electrolysis of water.

es. ee ee eee ee

Literature of EHlectrolys

sis. BAY

1876

Goppelsréder

Guillaume-

iH. H. B.S.

Monrocy

|Roberts

|\Schiel

Schiff

Wohler

1877| Becquerel

Beetz

Berthelot

Bottger

Bourgoin

Fleming

Frentz

Gibbs

Gladstone

Goppelsréder

Guerout

Heliesen

Jablochkoff

Javelle

Kohlrausch.

Kowalewsky

Parodi

Planté

IX, 950; Bull. Soc. Chim..

2, XXVIII, 107. - |

LXXXi, 1199; Chem.|

News, XXXIV, 118; JB.,

1876, 129.

C. R., LXXXTI, 349.

J. Chem. Soc., XXX, 115;

C. G., 1875, 527.

520.

127.

1877, 165 ; J. Chem. Soe.,

XXIV, 2; D. C. Ges., X,

118.

LXXXVI, 71.

J. Chem. Soc., XXXII, 375;

C. C., 1876, 640.

Bull. Soc. Chim., 2, XXVII,

645; XXVIII, 51; C. R.,

J. Chem. Soc., XXXI, 266;

Phil. Mag., 5, I, 142; Proc.

Roy. Soc., XXVI, 40.

J. Chem. Soc., XXXII,

C. C., 1876. 592.

D. C. Ges., X, 1388.

Proc. Roy. Soc., XXVI, 2.

239;

Dingl. J., CCXXI, 81;

CCXXITI, BIT, 634 ;

CCXXIV, 92, 209; JB.,

1877, 166.

CH Tag IDOCO.QV5” Weiss dBi

1877, 166.

Chem. News, XXXV, 72;

C. R., LXXXIV, 85.

“« Dec., 1877.

«6 LXXXIV, 1171.

J. Chem. Soc., XXXI, 429;

Dingl. J., CCXXII, 283.

Bull. Soc. Chim., 2, XXVII,

000 ; Ber., 1877, 413; JB.,

1877, 166; D. C. Ges., X

413. :

J. Chem. Soc., XXXII, 804;

Gaz. Chim. Ital., VII, 222.

C. R., LXXXIV, 26.

LXXXIV, 1231.

Electrol. of aniline salts.

Electrol. of liquid CO:.

Electrol. in assaying.

Bull. Soc. Chem., 2, XXVI, Electro-metall. of Bi, Sb.

Chem. News, XXXI, 137. Electrolysis of Fe.

Pogg., CLIX, 489; JB., 1876, Electrolysis of gold salts.

D. C. Ges., IX, 344. Electrolysis of salts.

fs [Xe 182i Hat both electrodes.

C. R., LXXXIV, 145 ‘Electrolysis in capillary

tubes.

Ann. Phys., 2, Il, 94; JB.,|Electrolysis with Al. elec-

trodes.

A.c. p, 5, XIV, 361; C. R.,|Electrolysis of water.

Electrolysis of Co.

Electrolysis of pyrotartaric

acid.

Polarization of electrodes.

Electrolysis of Pl.

Electrolysis of NH,NOs.

Conduction of organic

bodies.

Electrol. of organic bodies.

Electrolysis of H.SO..

Electrolysis of strong salts.

Electrolysis of C.

Electrolysis of naphthaline.

Heat and electrolysis.

Electrolysis of Cu SQ,.

Analysis of Zn and Pb.

Electrolysis of Si.

348

Literature of Electrolysis.

1877 ‘Reboulaud

Rout

‘Thénard

‘Thruchot

‘Tribe

Wrightson

1878' Becquerel

‘Berggren

Berthelot

\Bleekrode

Bouvet

Coppola

Delcambre

‘Ebermayer

Hlsiisser

Exner

Gladstone

Herwig

Hittorf

Kayser

Kirmis

Leeds

Lippmann

Morges

J. Chem. Soc.,

C. R., LX XIV, 12381; Bull.

Soe. Chim., 2, X XVII,

545; JB., 1877, 166.

J. Chem. Soc., XX XII, 161,

271; C. C., 1876, 401.

J. Chem. Soc., XX XII, 269;

C. R., LXXXIV, 706.

CO. R., LXXXIYV, 714.

Proc. Roy. Soc., XXVI,

222: JB., 1877, 165.

J. Chem. Soc., XX XI, 340;

Zeitsch. anal. Chem.,

1876, 297.

OC. R., 1878, 1018, 1081.

J. Chem. Soc., XXXIV,

101; A. ec. p., 5, I, 499.

J. Chem. Soc., XXXIV,

Rvs (5 IRs, IDOFOFOW IL.

277.

Ann. Physi 2) UL, 16u;

Phil. Mag., 5, V, 375,

{0A fl Cee oll col C0 mC)

Chem. Soc., XX XIV, 464.

OUR) LUXOXOXGV IN OGSE

J. Chem. Soc., XXXVI,

298.

Gaz. Chim. Ital., VIII, 60;

Ann. Phys. Beibl., II,

353: JB., 1878, 152.

Bull. Soc. Chim., 2, XXX,

431.

J. Chem. Soc., XXXIV,

178; Ding]. J., CCXXIV,

631.

Ann. Phys. Beibl., I, 352.

Wien. Akad. Ber., 2,

LXXVII, 655.

Chem. Soc. J., XX XIII, 139;

Chem. News, XX XVII,

68.

J. Chem. Soc., XX XIV, 191;

Ann. Phys., 2, IV, 178.

ce 9

, LV, 374;

JB., 1878, 149.

J. Chem. Soc., XXXIV,

Reis (OL (Ch, itech, Ue

Anmm: (Phys; 2; LV, ‘502:

JB., 1878, 150.

Ann. N.Y. Acad. Sci., I, 197;

Chem. News, XX XVIII,

224.

XXXIV,

926; Cae. LX xoxve,

1540.

C.R., LXXXVII, 15; C. C.,

1878, 602; JB., 1878, 151.

Electrol. of organic bodies.

Platinum penetrated by

electrolytic gases.

Electro-metallurgy.

Electrolysis by the spark.

Electrolysis.

Analysis by electrolysis.

Electro-capillarity.

Conductivity of electro-

lytes.

Electrolysis of persulphu-

ric acid.

Electrol. of simple salts. —

Electrol. under pressure.

Electrolysis of glucose. —

Electro-metallurgy.

Electro-gilding.

H at both electrodes.

Electrolysis of waters.

Electrolysis.

Movements of mercury in

electrolysis.

Electrolysis of salts.

Electro-metallurgy of Ni.

Research on the ions.

Ozone by electrolysis.

Electrodes in metallic so-

lutions.

Electrolysis of Cr.

1878

1880

Literature of Electrolysis. B49

Pratt

Wright

Berthelot

Bode

Brann

Dewar

Levison

Schéne

Troost

Bandet

Bourgoin

Habermann

Elemiatentllte

_|Leeds

Ohl

Renard

Schucht

Bull. Soc. Chim., 2, XXIX,|Electro-metallurgy of Ag.

142.

J. Chem. Soc., XXXIV,|Specula coated by elec-

251; Am. J. Sci., 3, XIV,| rolysis.

167.

C. R., LXXXIX, 683. Electrolysis of Au.

J. Chem. Soc., XXXVI,/Electro-metallurgy.

760; Dingl. J., COX XXI,

254, 857, 428.

J. Chem. Soc., oe Electrolytic conduction.

fee Ann. Phys., 2, IV,

476.

Proc. Roy. Soc., XXIX, 188.|Electrolysis of HON.

XXX, 170. |Electrolytic experiments.

Juan, Ve SGlsy oy XdGG, 29, Electrolytic phenomena.

J. Chem. Soc., FOOL, Electrolysis of H2Os:.

878.

Quart. J. Sci., 3, I, 708.

Electro-metallurgy of Co.

C. R., XCI, 1004.

Ozone by electrolysis.

« XC, 608; Chem.|Electrol. of malonic acid.

News, XLI, 188.

Wein. Acad. Ber., 3,|Electrol. of organic bodies.

LXXXI, 747; JB., 1880,

175.

Ch, Lita, SCONE esi Electrolysis by the slow

discharge.

Lond. J. Sci., 3, II, 145. Ozone by electrolysis.

Zeitschr. anal. Chem.,/Analysis of Co, Ni, and

XVIII, 521; Chem. News,} Cu by electrolysis.

XLI, 25.

Co 1. XC, @ile

News, XLI, 172.

C. R., XCI, 175. Electrolysis of benzine.

Chemikerzeitung, 1880, 292;)Electrol. of U, Th, V,PIl.

Zeitung, XXXIX, 121;

JB., 1880, 174; Chem.

News, SCLC 280.

JB., 1880, 174; D. C. Ges.,|Electrolysis of iron.

1880, 751.

Ann. Phys. Beibl.,

JB., 1880, 177.

Chem.|Hlectrol. of terebenthine.

IV, 70;|Electro-metallurgy of Ni.

350 Literalure of Electrolysis.

LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS.

ANG (510s Annales de chimie et de physique,—Paris.

Am. Chem. American Chemist,—New York.

Am. J. Min. American Journal of Mining,—New York.

Am. J. Sci. American Journal of Science and Arts, Silliman

Ann. Elect.

Ann. Ch. Pharm.

Ann. d. M.

Ann. N. Y. Acad. Sci.

Ann. Phys. Beibl.

Arch. Elect.

Arch, ph. nat.

Arch. Pharm.

Arch. Neer Sci.

Berl. Acad. Ber.

Berl. Monb,

Berz. Jahresb.

Bibl. Univers.

Br. A. Ad. Sci.

Basel, Ber.

Br. VInv.

Br. Pat. Rep.

Bull. Acad. Brus.

Bull. de St. Pétersb.

Bull. Sci. St. Pétersb.

Bull. Soe. Chim.

B. Soc. Ind.

(COMO!

Chem. Gaz.

Chem. News.

Chem. Soc. Q. J.

Chem. Soc. Trans.

Chem. Soc. Mem.

Cimento.

Cosmos

and Dana,—New Haven, Conn.

Annals of Electricity,—London.

Annalen der Chemie und Pharmacie,—Heidelberg.

Annales des mines, — Paris.

Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences,—

New York.

Beiblitter zu den Annalen der Physik und Chemie.

Archives de Velectricité,—Genéve.

Archives des sciences physique et naturelles,—

Genéve.

Archiv der Pharmacie,—Lemgo.

Archives Neéerlandaises des sciences exactes et

naturelles,—Haarlem.

Bericht iiber die Verhandlungen der K. Preus-

siche Academie cer Wissenchaften zu Berlin.

Berlin. Monatsbericht.

Jahresbericht tiber die Fortschritte der Chemie,—

Berzelius, Tiibingen.

Bibliotheque universelle des sciences,—Genéve.

Report of the British Association for the Advance-

ment of Science.

Bericht tiber die Verhandlungen der naturfor-.

schende Gesellschaft zu Basel.

Descriptions des machines et procédes specifiés

dans les brevets d’inventions,—Paris.

British Patent Reports.

Bulletin de ’ Académie royale,—Bruxelles.

Bulletin de classe physico-mathématique, —

St. Pétersbourg.

Bulletin Scientifique publié par Académie Imp.

des Sciences,—St. Pétersbourg.

Bulletin de la Société chimique de Paris.

Bulletin de la Société d’encouragement pour

Vindustrie nationale,—Paris.

Chemisches Centralblatt,—Leipzig.

Chemical Gazette, Francis and Croft,—London.

Chemical News, Crookes,—London.

Quarterly Journal of the Chemical Society,—

London.

Transactions of the Chemical Society,—London.

Memoirs of the Chemical Society—London.

Il Cimento, giornale di fisica, .ecc.,—Pisa.

Cosmos, les Mondes, Moigno, Paris.

Literature of Llectrolysis. Spl

Cookk.

Ding. J.

D. C. Ges. or Deut.

Ber.

Edinb. J. Sci.

Edinb; N. Phil. J.

Edinb. Phil. J.

Elec. Mag.

Eng. Arch. J.

RL ik

Gaz. Chim. Ital.

Gaz. de L.

Gehlen’s J.

Gel. Anz.

Gilb. Ann.

Gott]. Alm.

G. Sci. Mis.

Hist. ? Acad.

Instit.

Inv. Ad.

JB. or Jabresb.

Jen. Zeitschr.

J. Fr. Inst.

Sepia:

J. Chem. Soe.

J. Roy. Inst.

Journ. de Phys.

J. Pharm.

J. Polyt.

Kastn. Archiv.

Laborat.

Liebig’s Ann.

Lond. J.

Mech. Mag.

Mém. del’ Acad. Sci.

Mém. Soc. Imp. M.

Mem. Acad. T.

Neues Jour.

N. Ed. Phil. J.

Nich. J.

N. Gehl.

N. Pét. Acad. Bull.

Nov. Com. Bon.

ata ed.

Pharm. Ceut.

Want la ’ 7 « ~

‘Comptes rendues des séances de Académie des

scicnces,—Paris.

Polytechnisches Journal, Dingler—Stuttgart.

2s.|Berichte der deutschen chemischen Gesellschaft

| zu Berlin.

‘Edinburgh Journal of Science,—Brewster.

‘Edinburgh New Philosophical Journal.

|Edinbur: oh Philosophical Journal.

Electrical Magazine,—London.

|Engineers’ and Architects’ Journal,—London.

‘Faraday’s Researches. Taylor.—London, 1844.

\Gazzeta chimica Italiana,—Palermo.

‘Gazette de Lausanne.

‘Allgemeines Journal der Chemie, Gehlen,—

| Berlin.

‘Gelehrte Anzeigen,—Miinchen.

‘Annalen der Physik. Gilbert,—Halle.

Gottling’s Almanach fir Scheidekiinstler,—

Weimar.

\Griffin’s Scientific Miscellany,—Glasgow.

Histoire de l Académie des Sciences,—Paris.

\Inventor’s Advocate,—London.

|Jahresbericht tiber die Fortschritte der Chemie,

Giessen.

Jenaische Zeitschrift fiir Medicin und Naturwis-

|_ senschaft,—Leipzig.

Journal of the Franklin Institute—Philadelphia.

Journal fiir praktische Chemie, Erdmann, Leipzig.

Journal of the Chemical Society,—London.

Journal of the Royal Institution of Great Britain.

Journal de physique, Rozier,—Paris.

Journal de pharmacie et de chimie,—Paris.

Journal de Ecole polytechnique,—Paris.

Archiv. fiir die gesammte Naturlehre, Kastner, —

Niirnberg.

|\Labsratory,— London.

Annalen der Chemie und Pharmacie —Liebig.

London Journal of Arts and Sciences,—Newton.

‘Mechanics’ Magazine, —London.

Mémoires de |’ Académie des sciences,—Paris.

‘Mémoires de la Société impériale des naturalistes,

| —Moscow.

‘Memoirs of the Royal Academy of Sciences, Turin.

‘Neues Journal fiir Chemie und Physik, Schweig-

ger-Seidel, Niirnberg.

|Edinburgh New Philosophical Journal, Jameson.

Journal of Natural Philosophy, Chemistry and

the Arts, Nicholson,—London.

Journal fiir Chemie und Physik, Geblen, Leipzig.

\Bulletin de VAcadémie des sciences de St.

Pétersbourg.

‘Novi commentarii academiae scientiarum in-

stituti Bonoviensis,—Bologna.

‘Patent Journal,—London.

|Pharmaceutisches Centralblatt, —Leipzig.

Literature of Electrolysis.

Pharm. J.

Phil. Mag.

Phil. Trans.

Pogg.

Proc. Roy. Soc.

Quart. J. Sci.

Rec. Pat. Inv.

Rep. of Arts.

Rep. Br. Assoc.

Rép. Chim. app.

Rep. Chim. pure.

Rev. Sci.

Roma, Atti.

Schweigg.

Schweiz. polyt. Z.

Sci. Amer.

T. Ann.

U. S. Pat. Rep.

Wien Akad. Ber.

Zeitsch. Chem.

Zeitschr. Chem. Pharm.

Zeitschr. anal. Chem.

Pharmaceutical Journal

London.

London, Edinburgh and Dublin Philosophical

Magazine,—London.

Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society,

—London.

Annalen der Physik und Chemie, Poggendorf,—

Berlin.

Proceedings of the Royal Society of London.

Quarterly Journal of Science, Crookes,—London.

Record of Patent Inventions, —London.

Repertory of Arts and Manufactures -- London.

Reports of the British Association for the Ad-

vancement of Science.

Répertoire de chimie appliquée, — Paris.

Répertoire de chimie pure, — Paris.

Revue des sciences— Paris.

Attidell’ accademia Pontificia dei nuovi Lincei, —

Roma.

Journal fiir Chemie und Physik, Schweigger,

Nirnberg.

Schweizerische polytechnische Zeitschrift, W in-

terthur.

Scientific American, New York.

Thompson’s Annals, —London.

United States Patent Reports.

Sitzungsberichte der naturwissenschaftliche

Classe der Kaiserlich. Akademie der Wissen-

schaften zu Wien.

Zeitschrift fiir Chemie, — Gottingen.

Zeitschrift fiir Chemie und Pharmacie ,—Erlangen.

Zeitschrift ftir analytische Chemie, Fresenius, —

Wiesbaden.

and Transactions, -—

——-

Economical Expansion in Steam Engines. 303

XX.—WNote relating to a Newly-Discovered Absolute Limit to

Eeonomical EHxpansion in Steam-Engines.

BY ROBERT H. THURSTON.

Read October 2d, 1882.

Norre.—This paper was prepared in the latter part of April, 1882, and

sent to the Academy for presentation. But an accidental non-delivery

prevented its reaching the Committee on Papers and Publication, until too

late for reading before the meetings were suspended for the summer. It

was, therefore, presented at the first meeting of the autumn ; but its actual

date of reading is really several months later than it should properly have

been.

DES. NE

A paper ‘‘On the Behavior of Steam in the Steam Engine,

and on Curves of Efficiency,”* was read by the writer before

the New York Academy of Sciences, February 13th, 1882.

In that paper it was shown that, if a ‘‘Curve of Efficiency”

were constructed for any steam engine, such that its ordinates

should be proportional to the work done by quantities of steam

laid down in arithmetical progression as abscissas,—the quantity

used at full stroke, 7. e., without expansion, being taken as

unity,—that such curve would depart from the curve given by

the ideal perfect engine, in character, form and location, and

that it could not pass through the origin, as does that of the

ideal engine, unless by passing through a point of inflection.

It was shown that, such a curve being constructed, ratios of

expansion at maximum efficiency could be determined by draw-

ing tangents to the curve from the junction of the back-pressure

line with the ordinate passing through the origm. It was shown

that the ratio so determined is larger as the ratio of initial to

back-pressure increases. It is the object of this note to call at-

tention to the fact that, for the real engine, there exists an

absolute limit to economical expansion for every such engine,

which cannot be exceeded, however high the pressure of steam

may be carried.

* Trans. N. Y. Acad. Sci., February, 1882; Journal Franklin Institute, Feb., 1882.

B04 Heonomical Hxpansion in Steam Engines.

For: when the steam-pressure (p1) becomes infinite, the

; b

ratio =") becomes zero, and the tangents to the curve of

efficiency are drawn from the origin (O, Fig. 1).

£9 gO bx?) 6o zo 8a

Fic. 1, CURVES OF EFFICIENCY.

The point of tangency, which, for the ideal case, 4 B O

is found at the origin O, where r—« , is for the real case, OC D H

found at H, a poit corresponding to some finite value of r.

This point thus constitutes a limit to economical expansion such

as is here considered, and which is now, so far as the writer is

aware, first discovered. ;

It was shown, in a paper read before the Society of Mechanical

Engineers, April, 1882,* that, by making the distance O 0’,

measured toward the left from the origin, proportional to the

costs of engine, apart from the costs of supplying steam, and

drawing tangents from O’, ratios of expansion at maximum

commercial efficiency could be determined. It is now seen that

such a limit as is above described is found not only for the real

but also for the ideal engine, when commercial efficiency is

studied, their limit being determined by the points of tangency

B or H, given by the lines 0’ B, O' K’.

* Trans. Am. Soc. Mech. Engrs., 1882; Jour, Franklin Inst., May, June and September, 1882.

New Species of Oypselide. 355

It is not only the fact that such limits exist, as here shown ;

but it is also the fact that the limit to economical expansion is

reached at alow value of the ratio of expansion for ordinary

engines—sometimes probably as low as 8 or 4.

Thus, in the condensing unjacketed engine of moderate speed,

as in the United States steamer ‘‘ Michigan,” it will be found

that, whatever steam-pressure is attained, there exists a limit

to economical expansion at some point near r—3, and it can

never, in such a case, be economical to ‘‘ cut-off” within one-

third stroke unless a better curve of efficiency is obtained.

__ In well-designed engines of more economical types, the limit

is found at higher values of 7, but may still occur within the

range of expansion often met with in practice.

Hopoken, N. J., APRIL, 1882.

XX.—Description of a New Species of Bird of the Family

Cypselide.

BY GEORGE N. LAWRENCE. |

Read October 2d, 1882.

Hemiproene minor.

Above, the plumage is of a lustrous black ; the upper tail-coverts and

tail are smoky blackish-brown ; the wings are black ; the quills, with the

exception of the outer three, are narrowly margined with grayish-white at

their ends ; the chin and throat are fuliginous-brown ; the breast, abdomen

and under tail-coverts are smoky brownish-black ; a white collar encircles

the neck, behind it is rather narrow and well-defined, in front it is not

so clearly defined, and widens out on the breast, where the feathers have

their centres mottled with black ; the collar on the hind neck is one-quarter

of an inch in width; on the breast, at the widest part, it is three-quarters

of an inch ; bill black.

Length (skin), 7 inches; wing, 7; middle tail-feathers, 2; outer tail-

feathers, 23.

306 New Species of Cypselide.

Habitat, New Grenada, Bogota. ‘Type in my collection.

Remarks.—This species differs from all its allies in its much

smaller dimensions, and in the character of the collar in front.

The regular gradation in size of the four species of this genus

is remarkable—the difference in total length and in that of the

wing, between each, being approximately one inch.

Hf. semicollaris is in length 10 inches ; the wing, 10.

H. zonaris ue Duet of 9.

H. biscutata, Me Salqies OG Bae

H, minor, of Hae ees UG * lage

The localities of the several species are as given below :—

Hf, semicollaris seems to be strictly confined to Mexico, and

is very rare in collections.

H. zonaris is the most widely distributed species, being noted

from Brazil and the Argentine Republic; I have specimens,

also, from Jamaica and from Guatemala.

H. biscutata, 1 think, has been found only in south-eastern

Brazil; I obtained my specimen of it from a collection sent from

Rio Janeiro.

Hf, minor, so far as known, inhabits only New Grenada.

Vo. II. ANNALS. PLATE Xe

ae Se ey

——oo

——

PLATE XXe

ANNALS.

II.

VoL.

PLATE X XI.

ANNALS.

Vou. II.

OF THE

NEW YORK ACADEMY OF SCIENCES.

VOLUME II, 1880—82.

The “‘Annals,” published for over half a century by the late Lyceum of

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CONTENTS,

XVIIL-—-Fusion‘Structures in Meteorites. By F. G. Wree

(with Pintes oe aman KON ave ee aa

WB Reig 8 Pe tee eS Ear eel A ate apie Vea BROS

XX.—Note relating to a Newly-Discovered Absolute Limit

Economical Expansion in Steam Engines. By Ropert

ADS RUp Sica i ON PRIA Sal ola Oy cael Cpanel ale nett ees ut tees

XXI.—Description of a New Species of Bird, of the tam

selide. By Gro. N. LAWRENCE............ joke

ALS

OF THE

ES,

ADEMY OF SCIENC

YORK A

LATE

“LYCEUM OF NATURAL HISTORY.

eas

i aay

Rew York ;

E Street, N. Y.

34 CARMIN

OFFICERS OF THE. ACADEMY.

1882.

President.

JOHN S. NEWBERRY.

Vice-Presidents.

BENJ. N. MARTIN. ALEXIS A. JULIEN.

Gorresponding Secretary.

ALBERT R.. LEEDS.

Recording Secretary.

OLIVER P. HUBBARD.

Greasuyer

JOHN H. HINTON.

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Committee of Publication. .

DANIEL 8S. MARTIN. JOHN 8. NEWBERRY? |

GEO. N. LAWRENCE. ALBERT R. LEEDS, ~~ }

W. Po TROWBRIDGE,

Origin of Carbonaccous Shales.

XXI.—The Origin of the Carbonaceous Mutter in Bituminous

Shales.

BY JOHN S. NEWBERRY.

Reud April 2d, 1883.

Among the sedimentary rocks, there are none in regard to

the origin and mode of formation of which there has been

more difference of opinion than the bituminous shales. These

are typified by theUtica shale of the Lower Silurian, by the Ham-

ilton shales of the Upper Devonian,—including the Marcellus,

the Hamilton, the Genesee and Gardeau shales of the New

York geologists, and their general equivalent, the Huron shale

of Ohio, —by the Cleveland shale of the Lower Carboniferous, and

by the bituminous shales, with their varieties, blackband iron ore

and eannel coal, of the Coal Measures.

We also find in Colorado a great mass of bituminous shale

occupying the central portion of the Cretaceous series, a part of

the ‘* Colorado Group.”

These bituminous shales usually contain from ten to twenty

per cent. of carbonaceous matter, the remainder being clay and

very fine sand, with occasional specks of mica. As a general

rule, such shales are not very fossiliferous, but the scales of

small ganoid fishes and the singular denticles called Conodonts

are almost always present, and not unfrequently we find minute

flattened, originally spheroidal bodies, which are apparently the

‘spores of plants. In the Utica shale, graptolites are exceedingly

abundant, sometimes quite filling the rock; and trilobites,

sponges and crustacea are sparingly found.

_ In the Devonian shales, the most common fossils are Lingulas,

Discinas, a small Orthoceras, and bivalves of the genera Avicula

and Lunulicardium; sometimes, also, a Pteropod (Tentaculites

fissurella) in countless numbers; all these are minute. In the

Huron shale, and recently, also, in the Devonian shales of

New York, have been found the remains of large placoderm

fishes in considerable numbers; but vast masses of this-rock

308 Origin of Carbonaceous Shales.

may be examined with the discovery of no other fossils than

seaweeds, which in some places quite cover the surfaces of the

layers.

Economically, these shales are of great importance. In places

they attain a thickness of several hundred feet, have a wide geo-

graphical range, and with their percentage of carbon form a

store of combustible material, and a reservoir of power, far ex-

ceeding in quantity all the coal beds of the Carboniferous system;

they are also undoubtedly the source from which the great flows

of petroleum and carburetted hydrogen gas emanate at the

West.

As we study the lateral extension and geological association

of these bituminous strata, we find evidence that they have been

deposited in comparatively shallow and narrow seas, not far dis-

tant from the shores.

Many suggestions have been made in regard to the origin of

the vast accumulation of carbonaceous matter contained in

these shales.

In a paper on the Rock Oils of Ohio, published in the Report

of the State Board of Agriculture for 1859, I attributed the

production of petroleum to the spontaneous distillation of the

organic matter present in these beds, and ascribed the accu-

mulation of this carbonaceous matter, for the most part, to

sea-weeds, but crediting animal tissues with a portion of the

product. later, Mr. Lesquereux took the same view of the

origin of petroleum, and I think this is now endorsed by the

members of the Geological Corps of Pennsylvania who have

given the phenomena of the production of petroleum the most

careful and prolonged attention.

At the meeting of the American Association for the Advance-

ment of Science, held at Montreal in August Jast, a communi-

cation was made to the geological section by Prof. Edward

Orton, of Columbus, Ohio, in which, after citing many cases

where spheroidal flattened organic granules were found in the

Huron shale of Ohio,—bodies which he regarded as the spores of

sea-weeds, or lycopods,—he attributed the carbonaceous matter

which the shales contained chiefly to them. The paper of Prof.

Orton was subsequently published in the American Journal of

Science for September, 1882.

Origin of Carbonuceous Shales. Ba9

My object in now calling attention to this subject, is to point

out some difficulties in the way of the acceptance of this theory,

and to offer additional considerations in favor of the view pre-

viously proposed, that the carbonaceous matter is mainly derived

from alge.

It is true that in a great number of localities these minute

spheroidal bodies occur, but they are not always or even gene-

rally present, and strata many feet in thickness and miles in

extent may be examined without discovering any of them.

They now form but a very insignificant fraction of the carbona-

ceous matter of the shales; and there seem to be good reasons

for believing that they have always done so.

In the first place, they are apparently the organs of fructifi-

cation of plants, but these in quantity always bear an altogether

subordinate position to the vegetative tissues with which they

are connected ; and if it were true that the carbonaceous matter

of these shales was derived only from the reproductive organs,

we must account for the disappearance of the hundred times as

much organic matter which once composed the organs of vege-

tation.

Second, it is one of nature’s wise provisions that the

envelops of the embryo in plants should be specially resistant

to decay, as well as to the action of many destructive agents.

The testa of some stone-fruits-is the hardest plant-tissue known,

and is specially adapted to resist mechanical violence. Many

of the smaller drupes are eaten by birds and other animals,

which have the power to digest the sarcocarp but leave the

stone uninjured. So the spores are somehow much more en-

during than other tissues of the plants that bear them, and

are sure to be preserved out of all proportion to their quan-

tity. Hence we may conclude that the spores of lycupods

watted from the land, or the spores of alge which sunk here

and there with the other materials of the shale, would be pre-

served, while at least all the cellular tissue of the plants would

be disintegrated, though perhaps not destroyed.

Third, the great number of sea-weeds found fossilized in the

shale indicates the abundance of this class of vegetation and

possible source of carbonaceous matter. But the tissue of sea-

weeds is all cellular, is easily disintegrated, and has broken

360 Origin of Caurbonaceous Shales.

down in almost all cases where these plants are found. If the

carbonaceous matter of these shales is due to sea-weeds, it 1s not

surprising that it is so generally decomposed.

Fourth, in addition to the larger forms of sea-weeds, there are

many which are microscopic and uni-cellular; even out in the

open ocean they occur in such numbers as to color the water for

hundreds of square miles. Some of these, called Zodzanthelle

by Brandt, are so associated with the radiolarians as to form

self-supporting communities; that is, the alge draw their sup-

port from the sea-water,the animals subsisting on the alge.

Such organisms exist in overwhelming numbers in both fresh

and salt water, and must be leaving an important residuum in

diffused carbonaceous particles below their places of abode; we

may well believe, therefore, that they have contributed to the

formation of such bituminous strata as we are considering.

That some part of this carbon may have been derived from

the fatty portions of animals, is certainly possible; but their

nitrogenized tissues decay with such rapidity, and these con-

stitute so large a portion of most animal structures, that we

must attribute the greater part of this organic matter to the

preservation of the more abundant, more carbonaceous and

more enduring tissues of plants.

In nearly all fresh water, and many marine basins, the micros-

copic protophytes, diatoms and desmids, swarm in countless num-

bers ; the abundance of the diatcms being attested by the exten-

sive beds of Tripoli (diatomaceous earth), many feet in thickness

and many miles in extent, which are formed of the silicious

frustules that have resisted decay. But the desmids and the

carbonaceous portions of the diatoms have disappeared as such,

yet we have reason to believe that they contributed their car-

bonaceous particles to the sediments which accumulated in the

basins they inhabited.

In studying the area occupied by the bituminous shales which

have been enumerated, we find they were deposited in shallow

and shallowing seas,—the Utica shale in the retreat of the

Lower Silurian sea, the Hamilton shales in the narrowed and

shallowed basin where the Devonian limestones had been laid

down. The Cleveland shale lies on the Waverley shales, the

off-shore deposits of the Carboniferous sea, where the water was

Origin of Carbonaceous Shales. 361

not pure enough and deep enough to produce limestone. So too,

the bituminous shales of the Colorado group were deposited

near the shore of the Cretaceous sea. In Texas, where the

Cretaceous series is nearly all marine limestones, we find no

bituminous shales; but as we go west toward the Wasatch

Mountains, the permanent shore of the Cretaceous sea, over very

extensive areas these limestones are replaced by black shales,

off-shore deposits, which are overlain by the Laramie group,

shore and terrestrial accumulations, sandstone and conglome-

rate with coal strata—that is, old peat beds.

The upper Klamath Lake, in Oregon, is a body of water of

considerable size, but so shallow that water-plants, particularly

a yellow water-lily (Nuphar polysepala) root on the bottom, and

cover a large part of the surface with their leaves. The decay of

these succulent plants, existing in such quantity, must form

a carbonaceous pulpy mass at the bottom. Since however,

the lake is only an expansion of a river course,—as Klamath

River enters at one end and leaves it at the other,—it is evident

that at times the flow of this stream will bring in a con-

siderable quantity of transported sediment to mingle with the

earbonaceous residue; and it requires no prophet to foretell,

that when the bottom of upper Klamath Lake shall be exposed

to view, it will be found to be composed of materials which, if

consolidated, would become bituminous shale.

That sheets of marine vegetation may sometimes cover large

water surfaces, is shown in the existence of what are known as

Sargasso seas. In the wider portions of the North Atlantic is

that through which Columbus plowed his way, greatly to the

alarm of his sailors; and others are known to exist in other por-

tions of the great oceanic basins. Here the sea-weeds in the

““ Horse latitudes” are undisturbed by any storm, and grow dis-

connected with the earth, forming sometimes a matted sheet of

vegetation that conceals the water. With this growth must be

decay, and we are compelled to imagine the accumulation be-

neath these sheets of sea-weed of a carbonaceous mud formed

from the decomposing cellular tissue of the plants, and such

Inorganic matter as may be contained in their tissues, or is

supplied by the decay of the animal organisms which inhabit

such regions.

362 Origin of Carbonaceous Shales.

These very different examples of the operation of causes now

in action would give us strata similar to those we have been

studying; but we look in vain over the earth’s surface for any

illustration or confirmation of the theory which attributes the

- great stores of carbonaceous matter contained in them to the

spores or pollen of plants.

Because the enduring sporangia of lycopods have remained in

considerable numbers in the carbonaceous mass derived from the

trees which bore them, and as sometimes these sporangia are the

only definite forms visible to the eye, the theory has been proposed

that to them chiefly we owe the accumulation of carbonaceous

matter that we call coal; but the difficulty has been already sug-

gested that these spores must have been associated with a thousand

times more plant-tissue; and as they nowhere form more than a

thousandth part of the mass, we cannot credit them with being

the sources of the combustible. The probable cause of their

abundance is, that they alone have preserved their forms, while

other tissues have been disintegrated. The perfect preservation

of the sporangia in the cones of fossil Lycopods,—Lepidostro-

bus, Flemingites, etc.,—show how resistant to decay they are.

It should also be said, that in some cases the spores of plants

may have accumulated in local masses, like the masses of seeds

and nuts in the lignites of Brandon, Vermont, and of Saltzhau-

sen in Germany.

The annual dissemination of pollen in the cypress swamps

affords no good arguments in behalf of this theory; for though

for a brief moment of the year somewhat abundant, scat-

tered widely by the winds, and conspicuous for its color, it has

attracted attention, no one will claim that any considerable

portion of the accumulations of carbonaceous matter which are

now taking place in or around the cypress swamps is derived

from this source.

The composition of bituminous shales may be inferred from

the following analyses, made from specimens taken from several

geological horizons :—

Origin of Carbonaceous Shales. 363

1 2 3 4 a 6

Moisture, 1.10 0.86 0.75 054) == 1.10

Inorganic matter, 87.10 | 84.60] 78.29} 83.17] 79.386 | 76.00

Volatile combustible do. 6.90); 8.36) 14.12] 8.26) 12.60]: 11.30

Fixed Carbon, . 4.90} 6.18) 6.84] 8.03) 8.04] 11.60

100.00 100.00 100.00 | 100.00 | 100.00 | 100.00

No 1. Cleveland Shale, Carboniferous, Cleveland, Ohio, (Wormley. )

No. 2. Huron Shale, Monroeville, Ohio, - - - (Wormley. )

No. 3. Hudson River Shale, Savannah, Ills., - - (Chandler. )

No. 4, Utica Shale, Dubuque, Iowa, - - - (Chandler. )

No. 5 Bs “Collingwood, Canada, - - (Hunt. )

No. 6. Genesee Shale, Bozanquet, ‘‘ - : (Hunt. )

The relations of the bituminous shales to the cannel coals are

very intimate; indeed they may be said to be but different

phases of the same substance, as they have been formed in simi-

Jar conditions, and shade into each other by insensible grada-

tions. I have suggested a theory to explain the origin of cannel

coal, which supposes it to be composed of the completely ma-

cerated parenchymatous tissue of plants, accumulated in lagoons

or water-basius in the coal-marshes. The water of such lagoons

in our present peat-bogs, and of streams flowing from them, is

coffee-brown in color, from the carbonaceous particles dissemi-

nated through it. These, subsiding in basins of quiet water,

form a carbonaceous mud which, when dried, is not unlike can-

nel coal. Where transported by streams, and mingled with a

preponderance of earthy matter, the equivalent of bituminous

shales is produced. In the Carboniferous age, lke causes pro-

duced like effects; and cannel coal is found holding such rela-

tions to cubical coal (ancient peat) and to bituminous shales,

that we can plainly read their closely connected histories.

In attributing the carbonaceous matter of cannels to macerated

cellular plant-tissue, I would not be understood to exclude the

microscopic alge and protophytes (desmids and diatoms) from

B04 Origin of Carbonaceous Shales.

all participation in the process of their formation ; and we must

concede not only the possibility but the probability that the

streams, lakes, and shallow bays, where the cannel and bitu-

minous shales accumulated—in former times as now—were

crowded with the microscopic forms of plant-life, which left a

residuum with the disintegrated tissue of the larger plants.

The cannels as a whole differ from cubical coals not only in

physical structure,—lacking the lamination and pitchy bril-

lancy, as well as containing more ash,—but in chemical compo-

sition, since they yield a larger amount of volatile matter—guases

and oils—and gases which have higher illuminating power.

This, which is true of all cannels, is conspicuously so of the

Torbane Hill cannel of England and the ‘‘ Hartley mineral,”

‘‘Wollongongite,” from Australia. For example, the best cu-

bical caking coals, such as are generally employed for the manu-

facture of gas, like the Pittsburgh or Westmoreland coals (and

which are preferred, as they yield a fair volume of good gas and

leave an excellent coke), furnish about 10,000 cubic feet of gas

to the ton, while the cannels yield as much as 12,000 cubic feet,

and the Wollongongite 15,000. These differences are doubtless

in part due to the kind of vegetation from which the carbona-

ceous material was derived; the parenchymatous tissue probably

furnishing more volatile matter than the lgneous, and the

alge perhaps more than the plants higher in the botanical

scale. Wecan imagine, also, that certain plant-tissues which

have contributed to the formation of such deposits as the Aus-

tralian shale, may have been impregnated with hydro-carbons

elaborated by vital processes, such as the resins. ‘These must,

however, be extreme and rare cases, and the differences between

various coals and carbonaceous shales are probably differences of

degree rather than of kind. ,

‘The spontaneous emission of carburetted hydrogen and petro-

leum from bituminous shales is so general that hundreds of lo-

calities might be cited where it may be observed; indeed a

belt of oil-wells and gas-springs marks the line of outcrop of

each of these beds of bituminous shale of whatever geological age.

The organic portion of the shales, like all other organic matter,

being in a state of unstable equilibrium, is constantly decom-

posing, either by direct and complete oxidation, or by a sort of

= ae ee

Origin of Carbonaceous Shales. 360

distillation through which the end is reached in a series of moye

or less distinct steps; that is, a fractional distillation results in

the formation of evolved products, liquid or gaseous, which are

slowly but constantly generated, and are, for the most part,

immediately liberated, rising to the surface by hydrostatic press-

ure. Usually we find in the shales only the material out of

which the volatile hydrocarbons can be manufactured ; and as

these are rapidly dissipated when formed, hand specimens and

even larger exposed masses rarely show them; but in a great

number of localities petroleum is found saturating the shale,

betraying its presence by its characteristic odor when the rock

is freshiy broken ; and it is sometimes present in such quantity

as to form an oily film when fragments are thrown into water.

Porous and shattered rocks which overlie the black shales are

often the reservoirs which receive the evolved products of their

spontaneous distillation ; and here we find all the great. stores of

petroleum which supp'y the extensive commercial and industrial

operations based upon it. I have elsewhere discussed the genesis

of petroleum and carburetted hydrogen from these shales, and it

is not necessary to treat the subject at length here. ‘The hydro-

carbons which have become so important in the economy of

civilization, have been attributed by some to the action of in-

organic causes. By others, who agree with me in ascribing

them to an organic source, they have been regarded as emana-

tions from other rocks than the bituminous shales; but no

examples of the occurrence of these hydrocarbons in nature,

except in connection with organic substances, are known ; and

as a matter of fact, no considerable accumulation of petroleum

has been discovered except in close relationship with this group

of carbon-bearing rocks. They are the great repositories of the

materials from which the gaseous and volatile hydrocarbons can

be produced, and we may say the only ones. ‘I'hey claim our

interest, therefore, as the apparent source of the liquid and

gaseous hydrocarbons which are of economic importance ; and

we must not only credit them with all the benefits conferred

upon society by the excellent illuminator now furnished to

every family at so low a price, but we must look to them as the

source of supply of this necessity, as we may call it, when in the

not distant future the stores produced by nature’s processes

366 Origin of Curbonaceous Shales.

shall have been exhausted, and we are compelled to manufac-

ture petroleum for ourselves, using nature’s material, but sub-

stituting our quick for her slow methods.

Hither the minute division of the carbonaceous matter con-

tained in bituminous shales, and its distribution through a

preponderating mass of inorganic material, or some inherent

peculiarity of the plant-tissue which has furnished it, makes it

more prone to spontaneous distillation than the pure and com-

pacted hydrocarbons which form coal; for the evolution of the

gaseous and liquid hydrocarbons from the shales is more con-

spicuous than from beds of coal, though noticeable in both ;

and the shales, though quite black when freshly broken, soon

become brown by exposure even in the cabinet. Where sub-

jected to the combined action of sun, air and moisture, they

rapidly lose the carbon at the surface, and ultimately show only

the ashen-grey color of their inorganic constituents.

The occurrence of iron pyrites in bituminous shales may be

regarded as one of their characteristic features, and nothing is

more common than to find the rock along certain lines thickly

set-with small, often spheroidal, and sometimes beautifully erys-

talized, concretions of pyrite. It is also the material by which

organisms of various kinds, shells, bones, wood and the tissue of

sea-weeds, are often replaced. ‘The origin of the pyrites is

probably due to sulphates,—sulphate of lime, etc.,—decomposed

by the oxidation of organic matter. The original source of the

sulphur is perhaps beyond our reach, but we know that sulphates

are constantly present in sea water, and that sulphur exists in

organic combination in sea-weeds, these liberating sulphuretted

hydrogen sometimes abundantly in their decay. It is not at all

uncommon, also, to find concretions of impure carbonate of

lime imbedded in bituminous shales. In the Huron shale on

the Huron River, at Monroeville, and in the same formation

north and east of Columbus, Ohio, such concretions are quite

numerous and sometimes large,—eight or ten feet in diameter.

They have evidently been slowly formed in place by segregation,

and often surround the bones of gigantic fishes (Dinichthys),

which have served as nuclei for the concretionary action.

The lime may have existed as carbonate in solution, or as sul-

phate which was decomposed by decaying vegetable matter.

Origin of Carbonaceous Shales. 367

Tron is almost omnipresent, under such circumstances usually

in the form of carbonate; and the formation of concretions of

carbonate of lime and pyrites would naturally follow the min-

gling of decaying organic matter with sulphate of lime and

carbonate of iron.

The decomposition of the pyrites, so abundant in bituminous

shales, seems to be the chief source of the chemical action

which results in the formation of the mineral springs that issue

from these shales in so many localities. The outcrops of the

Utica and Hamilton black shales are marked by the emission of

sulphur waters, as they are by gas-springs and oil-springs, in

New York, Pennsylvania, Ohio, Kentucky, etc.; and it is also

true that the great black shales of the Colorado group in the

Far West exhibit the same phenomena. Carburetted hydrogen,

carbonic acid and sulphuretted hydrogen, are particularly notice-

able, as the gaseous emanations from such sources. ‘The solid

precipitates include chloride of sodium and various salts of lime,

iron, magnesia, etc.

Among the published papers which have reference to the

origin of cannel coals and bituminous shales, the following may

be consulted :—

On the Formation of Cannel Coal; J. 8. Newberry, Amer.

Jour. Sci., Vol. XXIII (1857), p. 212.

The Rock Oils of Ohio; J. 8. Newberry, Ohio Agric. Report,

for 1859.

On the Chemical and Geological History of Bituminous

Shales; Dr. T. S. Hunt, Amer. Jour. Sci., Vol. XX XV (1863),

paxto7.

The Black Shale; Prof. J. M. Safford, Geol. of Tennessee,

1869, p. 329.

The Huron Shale; J. 8. Newberry, Geol. Survey of Ohio,

Vol. I, 1863, pp. 107 to 158; Vol. III, 1878, p. 13, ete.

A Source of the Bituminous Matter in the Devonian and Sub-

Carboniferous Black Shales of Ohio; Prof. E. Orton, Amer.

Jour. Sci., Vol. XXIV (1882), p. 171.

368 Two New Species of Zonites.

XXII.—Description of Two New Species of Zonites from

Tennessee.

BY THOMAS BLAND.

Read May 2lst, 1883.

Zonites Wheatleyi, nov. sp.

T. umbilicata, depressa, tenuis, nitens, pellucida, fusculo-cornea, de-

licate striatula ; spira sub-planulata; sutura leviter impressa; anfr. 44,

convexiusculis, ultimus basi convexior, ad aperturam rapide accrescens,

vix descendens ; umbilicus pervius; apertura depressa, oblique lunaris ;

peristoma simplex, acutum, marginibus approximatis, callo tenui junctis.

Fig. I.

Shell umbilicated, depressed, thin, shining, pellucid,

brownish horn-colored, finely striated; spire subplanulate,

suture slightly impressed ; whorls little convex, the last

more convex at the base, rapidly increasing at the aperture,

scarcely descending; umbilicus pervious; aperture de-

pressed, obliquely lunate ; peristome simple, acute, the -

margins approximating, joined by a thin callus.

Diam., major 5, min. 34; Alt., 2 mill.

Z. Wheatleyi.

Habitat.—Vhe Cliffs, Knoxville, Tennessee, Mrs. George

Andrews ; also, Tiverton, Rhode Island, J. D. Thomson.

Remarks.—This, with the following species, was discovered

and communicated to me, in 1879, by Mrs. Andrews, who thus

described the locality in which the two species were found :—

«The Cliffs rise up 200 feet on the south side of the river,—

they are very steep and rocky, face the north, are almost always

shady, damp, and covered with mosses and ferns. I collected

the shells on the ledges of the rocks among the dead leaves, at

an elevation above the river of about 100 feet. I have not found

either of the species in any other locality.”

Mr. J. H. Thomson, to whom I submitted specimens, sent

to me examples of the same species collected by him, ‘‘on a

high rocky ledge, covered with old trees, at Tiverton, Rhode

Island.”

Two New Species of Zonites. 369

This species, Z. Wheatley?, is more nearly allied to Z. viridu-

lus, Mke, than to any other North American form, but differs

from it, especially in the form of aperture, in the descending

last whorl], and in haying a wider umbilicus.

I dedicate the species to the memory of my late valued and

lamented friend, Chas. M. Wheatley.

‘Zonites petrophilus, nov. sp.

T. late umbilicata, depresso-subglobosa, tenuis, nitens, translucens, albida,

irregulariter striata; sutura mediocris ; anfr. 53—6, convexiusculis, ulti-

mus convexior, non descendens ; umbilicus extus late excavatus, perspecti-

vus ; apertura rotundato-lunaris ; peristoma simplex, paululo subincrassa-

tum, szepe roseum, margine columellari reflexiusculo.

Fig. TI.

Shell broadly umbilicate, depressed; subglobose, thin,

shining, translucent, whitish, irregularly striated ; su-

ture moderately impressed; whorls 53—6, rather convex,

the last more convex, not descending; umbilicus widely

excavated externally, pervious; aperture roundly lu-

nate; peristome simple, somewhat thickened, often

rose-colored, the columellar margin slightly reflected.

Diam., major 6, min. 5,—54; Alt. fere 3 mill.

Z. petrophilus.

Habitat.—The Cliffs, Knoxville, Tennessee, found with Z.

Wheatleyi, Mrs. Geo. Andrews.

Remarks.—This species is, in general form, nearly allied to

Z. arboreus, but the color is different, the striz are more de-

veloped, and the umbilicus is much wider.

My friend, Mr. W. G. Binney, examined the dentition of

Z. petrophilus, and favored me with notes on the subject. He

found the teeth 15—1—15, with two perfect laterals, one only

on each side. Z. viridulus has the same number of laterals,

but many more marginals.

I would express my deep obligation to Mrs. Andrews for her

uniform kindness and liberality in supplying me, during many,

years, with numerous rare and interesting species.

370 Land Shells from Porto Rico.

Description of Two Species of Land Shells from

Porto Rico, W. I.

BY PROFESSOR EDWARD V. MARTENS.

[Communicated by Thomas Bland. |

Read May 21st, 1883.

Note sy TuHos. BLAND.

In 1882 I forwarded to Prof. v. Martens several shells re-

ceived long since from my late friend, Mr. Robert Swift, col-

lected, I believe, in Porto Rico, and which I was unable

satisfactorily to determine.

I had submitted the shells to Mr. G. W. Tryon, Jr., asking

him to compare them with specimens in the Swift Collection,

the property of the Academy of Natural Sciences, Philadelphia.

Mr. Tryon found no similar forms in the Academy collections,

but pointed out the alliance of one of the species with Chondro-

poma Tortolense, Pfr., especially with specimens so labelled,

from the island of Anegada:—of this I informed Prof. v. Mar-

tens, when presenting the shells to the Berlin Zéological Mu-

seum.

In my correspondence with Prof. v. Martens, I mentioned

that I was preparing notes on the Geographical Distribution of

the Land Shells of the West Indies, with complete lists of the

species of each island. He was kind enough to forward to me

the descriptions subjoined, for insertion in my proposed paper.

The completion of that paper has, from various causes, been

delayed; but I deem it desirable that the publication of the

contribution of Prof. v. Martens should be no longer postponed.

Land Shells from Porto Rico. 371

Cistula consepta, nov. sp.

Testa ovato-conica, umbilicata, verticaliter confertim tenuiter et inszequa-

liter lamellata, pallide brunnea, fasciis compluribus rufis ornata ; anfr. 7,

priores duo leves, sequentes 4 regulariter crescentes, convexi, sutura pro-

funda, ulringue prolongationibus lamellarum albis consepta; anfractus ultimus

in } peripherie solutus, oblique descendens ; apertura subverticalis, fere

ovata ; peristoma duplex, externum late expansum, subundulatum, rufo-

maculatum, internum distincte porrectum. Operculum paucispirum, oblique

radiatim striatum.

Longitudo 13; diam. 83 ; aperture longitudo, incluso peristomate externo,

6, latitudo 53; excluso, 4 et 2} mill.

Porto Rico. R. Swift.

Chondropoma Tortolense, Pfr.

(Mon. Pneum., Suppl. I, p. 142.)

Var. Major.

Testa paulum majore, fere unicolore, denticulis suturee paulo magis pro-

minentibus et magis fasciculatis, peristomatis externi lobo superiore et lobo

columellari majoribus, distinctius pliculosis.

Longitudo 18 ; diameter 18 ; aperture longitudo, incluso peristomate 7 ;

latitudo 6; excluso, 5 et 4 mill.

Porto Rico.

372 Apparatus for Rapid Gas-Analysis.

XXIV.—Apparatus for Rapid Gas-Analysis.

BY ARTHUR H. ELLIOTT.

Read March 5th, 1883.

In many manufactories and metallurgical works, it is often

of great service to be able to make rapid analyses of the gases

resulting from various operations, as these analyses serve to con-

trol the operations and indicate the progress of the processes.

This is especially true for iron and steel works, where a know-

ledge of the composition of the gases from a furnace is an index

of the character of the changes going on inside the furnace.

Such rapid analyses are also often needed in gas-works. ‘To

meet this requirement of technical works, many methods have

been devised and various ingenious forms of apparatus have

been constructed. But all the appliances used for this purpose

have been based upon the principle of absorbing the various -

gases In a mixture by liquid reagents. Of the many methods of

using liquid reagents, that of Orsat is probably the best known,

and the one that has been most used. In this apparatus the

gas, after being measured, is made to pass into vessels contain-

ing the liquid reagents, and so arranged as to expose a large

surface, wet with the reagent, to the mixture of gases. If time

is of little value, this apparatus works very well, but it is too

slow in its action to be desirable for use in technical works.

One great objection to the apparatus itself is the number of stop-

cocks attached to the various parts of it. These stop-cocks be-

come incrusted with the various reagents, and refuse to turn

without great trouble; and any force apphed to them is apt to

cause a fracture, which ruins the apparatus for further work

until the damage is repaired.

Instead of passing the gas into a vessel containing the chemical .

reagents, Raoult* put the reagent into a tube containing the

* F. M. Raouut, Compt. Rend , 1876, 844.

Apparatus for Rapid Gas- Analasis. 373

gas. In treating a mixture of gases with several reagents, it is

necessary to remove one reagent before adding another. This

is accomplished by washing out with water in such a manner

that the gas is not lost. Raoult performed this treatment of the

gases and washing out of reagents, in a graduated tube with two

stop-cocks, one at each end; one of the stop-cocks was sur-

mounted with a funnel to introduce the fluids. But the whole

affair was not gasily managed, and the gases were submitted to

an unnecessary amount of washing while removing the excess of

reagents used.

Wilkinson modified this method, and devised a very simple

and useful apparatus, in which the clumsy manipulations of

Raoult were overcome by using a tube with one stop-cock above,

the lower end of the tube dipping into water in another tube of

much larger diameter. By this means the gases could be treated

with liquid reagents, introduced through a funnel attached to

the stop-cock above ; and by introducing or remoying water from

the outer tube, the gas could be measured at atmospheric press-

ure. ‘To facilitate the removal of liquids from the outer tube,

the latter has a stop-cock attached below. But, as in the appa-

ratus of Raoult, the gases are submitted to an unnecessary

amount of washing when water is introduced to remove the re-

agents. ‘This washing becomes very important in many cases.

For example, take the case of illuminating gas. We introduce

potassic hydrate solution to remove the carbonic acid, then

potassic pyrogallate to remove oxygen; and now we must wash

out the alkali before adding bromine to absorb the illuminants.

To do this, much water is needed, and this large quantity of

water will wash out some of the inant often as much as

two per cent.

To overcome this difficulty of excessive washing, I have de-

vised the apparatus which is the subject of this paper. In this

process, the gas is removed from the absorbent liquid and

measured in another vessel, without washing.

The apparatus is shown in Plate XXII. The tube A is of

about 125 ¢.c. capacity, whilst B, although the same length,

holds only 100 ¢.c. from the point D, or zero, to the mark on

374 Apparatus for Rapid Gas-Analysis.

The attachments to these tubes below are seen from the drawing,

except that the stop-cock J is three-way and has a delivery

through its stem. The bottles A and Z hold about a pint each.

The tubes A and B are connected above with one another, and

also with the cylindrical funnel J, by a series of capillary tubes

about one millimeter in diameter inside. There is a stop-cock

at Gand another at /, while the funnel WY, which holds about

60 ¢.c., is ground to fit over the end of F aboye. At Fis a

piece of rubber tubing uniting the ends of the capillary tubes,

which are filed square to make them fit as closely as possible.*

In beginning the analysis of a mixture of gases, the stem exit

of the three-way cock J is closed by turning it so that L and A

are connected through the rubber tubing; the stop-cocks and ,

G are opened, and water is allowed to fill the apparatus from

the bottles A and L, which have been previously supplied.

When the water rises in the funnel YW, and all air-bubbles

have been driven out of the tubes, the stop-cocks # and G are

closed, the funnel J removed, and the tube delivering the gas

attached in its place.t By now lowering the bottle Z slowly,

and simultaneously opening the stop-cock /, the tube A is

nearly filled with gas, and the stop-cock F’is closed. The tube

delivering the gas is removed, the funnel M replaced, the bottle

L raised, the bottle A lowered, and by opening the stop-cock G,

the gas is transferred to the graduated tube B.

The bottle A is now adjusted so that the level of the water in

it is the same hight as the zero-mark D on the graduated tube.

By means of the bottle L, the gas is adjusted to the zero-marlk

_ D in the graduated tube, and the stop-cock G is closed.

* The hight of the apparatus can be diminished by having bulbs at the

points of union of the capillary tubes and the absorption and measuring

tubes A and B; such bulbs being of about 25 cubic centimetres capacity,

and the graduations continued downwards from the bulb on the tube B.

Making the funnel spherical also reduces the hight of the apparatus.

- + A tube of the same construction as is shown in the explosion-burette

figure can be attached to the end of the stop-cock, and thus facilitate the

attachment of the rubber tubing. See H, Plate XXIII.

Apparatus for Rapid Gas-Analysis. 375

The excess of gas in 4 is expelled by opening the stop cock

Ff and raising the bottle ZL. The gas remaining in the capillary

tube between Cand the vertical part is disregarded, or its value

may be ascertained and an allowance made ; but usually it is too

trifling to be worth notice.

Having measured the gas, it is now transferred by means of

the bottles AK and Z into the tube A, and the fluid chemicals

added by placing them in the funnel M/ and allowing them to

flow down the sides of the tube A slowly, care being taken never

to let the fluids run below the level of the top of the vertical

tube in the funnel. It is best to have a mark on the outside of

the funnel at least three-fourths of an inch above the top of

the level of the vertical tube, and never to draw the fluid down

below this point.

_ Having treated the gas with the chemical, it is transferred by

means of the bottles to the tube B, to be measured. If the

chemical gets into the horizontal capillary tube, the passage of

a little water from the bottle A will remove it, before transfer-

ring the gas. When the gas residue is in B, and the fluid of

A has been adjusted at the mark (on the horizontal tube, the

—stop-cock G is closed, the bottle A’ is lowered till the level of

liquid in it and in the tube B are the same, and the reading is

then made. ‘The tube 4A is now filled with the chemical just

used as absorbent, and water; by turning the stem of the three-

way cock J, so that it communicates with A, and is open below,

and by also opening the stop-cock F’, the contents of the tube

ean be run out, and water added through the funnel I to clean

the tube for a new absorption. When the tube is clean, by turn-

ing the stop-cock J, so that A and Z are connected, the water

is forced into A, and the whole is ready to receive the gas in B

for new treatment.

In using the apparatus, the chemicals are added in the fol-

lowing order :—

1. Potassic Hydrate (1 in 20) to absorb carbonic acid. If illu-

minating gas is under examination, a very little of the reagent

will be necessary, and it is better to use a solution of potassic

hydrate of four times the above strength, in order to prevent

376 Apparatus for Rapid Gas- Analysis.

washing out of the illuminants. For traces of carbonie acid,

and also for the determination of sulphurous acid and sulphur-

etted hydrogen, special methods are necessary.

2. Bromine, to absorb illuminants. ‘This is added to some

water placed in the funnel. It is best handled with a very

small pipette, since only a few drops are necessary. Add it till

the tube is filled with its vapor; then absorb the vapor with

potassic hydrate used for carbonic acid.

3. Potassic Pyrogallate, to absorb oxygen. Solution of po-

tassic hydrate (1 in 8), containing about three per cent. of

pyrogallic acid.

4. Cuprous Chloride, to absorb carbonic oxide. This is a

solution (1 in 4) in concentrated hydrochloric acid. After

using it, and dJefore transferring the gas to the measuring-tube,

a little water is added to absorb the acid vapors.

By this method, a mixture containing carbonic acid, oxygen,

illuminants and carbonic oxide, can be analyzed in from twenty

to thirty minutes, according to the amount of practice the

operator has had with the apparatus.

Compared with Orsat’s process, the work can be done with

the above-described apparatus in one-fourth the amount of time,

and with identical results.

The water used in the apparatus should have the same tem-

perature as the room in which the analysis is made; and by

careful handling, little or none of the chemicals: get into the

bottle Z. When working ina warm place, the tube & should

be surrounded with a water-jacket to prevent change of volume

in the gas while under treatment. *

Having added the above absorbents, the residue of gas may .

consist of hydrogen, marsh-gas, and nitrogen; and for the de-

termination of these, I have devised a simple form of explosion-

burette, shown in Plate XXIII. It consists of a burette, D, of

* Whenever possible, it is better to collect the gas in tubes and transfer it

to the apparatus in a position away from sources of heat.

Apparatus for Rapid Gas-Analysis. B77

heavy glass, graduated in tenths of cubic centimetres, and hold-

ing one hundred cubic centimetres to within about two inches

of the lateral tube, #, below; the upper end is closed by a

stop-cock, &, over which fits a funnel, A, in the same manner

as in the apparatus described above. The graduations on the

tube are made so that the stop-cock is the zero point, and the

100 mark is below, near the lateral tube, 7.

Into the upper end of the burette, at C, are fused two plati-

num wires for an ignition-spark. At the lower end of the

burette, the glass is drawn out to receive, at /, a piece of soft

rubber tubing about three feet long, which in turn communi-

cates with the aspirator bottle, G. Care should be taken that

the opening of /' and the tubulature of the bottle, G, are not

smaller than the bore of the rubber tubing used to connect

them, since any contraction would prevent the cushioning of

the explosion when the spark is passed.* The bent piece, 4, is

ground to fit over the stop-cock, 6, when the funnel, A, is re-

moved, and facilitates the transfer of the gases from the ab-

sorption-burette before described, as it is easier to slip a piece of

rubber tubing over the smooth end of H than over the ground

_end of the stop-cock, B. The stop-cock, and also the fitting,

H, \have capillary tubing of about one millimetre bore. The

stop-cock at /, and its tube attaching it to the burette, are of

ordinary size, about one-eighth to three-sixteenths of an inch.

The operation of the burette is as follows :—

The funnel is removed from the absorption-burette of the

previously described apparatus, and a fitting exactly ike # is

substituted for it. The gas should be previously transferred to

the measuring-tube of the absorption-apparatus. The explosion-

burette is placed in a vertical position in a stand near the ab-

sorption-apparatus. The bent tube on the upper stop-cock of

-* Tt is also most important that the clamp holding the burette should not

hold too tightly, as pressure upon the glass will cause a fracture on explod-

ing the gases. It is better to use a spring clamp.

378 Apparatus for Rapid Gas-Analysis.

the absorption-apparatus is now attached to a piece of rubber

tubing long enough to reach to the corresponding bent tube of

the explosion-burette’ The aspirator-bottle, G, is filled with

water, and by raising it and opening the stop-cock, B, and clos-

ing H, the explosion-burette is filled with water, including the

bent tube, H, fitted over the end of the stop-cock, B. By a

similar movement of the aspirator-bottle attached to the absorb-

tion-apparatus, the corresponding bent tube and its rubber tube

are also filled with water. Care should be taken that the water

completely expels all air-bubbles from the capillary tubes and the

rubber tube, The explosion-burette is now attached to the ab-

sorption-burette by means of the rubber tubing already filled with

water, by slipping this rubber tubing over the bent tube of the

explosion-burette ; taking care to exclude all «air-bubbles when

making the attachment. To facilitate the connecting of the bent

tubes and the rubber tubing, the ends of these tubes should be

drawn ont so that the rubber tubing will easily slip over them.

Having connected the explosion-burette with the absorption-

apparatus in the manner described above, we are now ready to

transfer the gas-mixture for the explosion. For this purpose,

the three-way cock of the absorption-apparatus is turned so that

the bottom of the absorption-tube is closed. By now opening -

the stop-cocks above on the absorption-apparatus, and also on

the explosion-burette, and by moving the aspirator-bottles, any

desired quantity of gas can be transferred from the absorption

apparatus to the explosion-burette. When the proper quantity

(about eighteen or twenty cubic centimetres is sufficient) of gas

has been transferred, the stop-cocks of the absorption-apparatus

are closed, also the stop-cock of the explosion-burette. By

means of the aspirator-bottle, @, the level of the water is ad-

justed so that the gas is at atmospheric pressure, by bringing —

the level of the water in the aspirator-bottle to the same hight

as that in the explosion-burette. This gives the correct reading

of the quantity of gas used. We now have to mix this gas with

the proper quantity of oxygen to cause an explosion on passing a

the stop cock, #,—most conveniently from a gas-holder or cylin-

Apparatus for Rapid Gas-Analysis. 379

der under pressure. Having added the proper quantity of oxygen

(about equal in volume to the gas used),* the correct volume of

the mixture thus obtained is read off in the same manner as that

of the original gas. But before the final reading is made, the

burette is removed from the stand, and by a few movements

from vertical to horizontal positions, the gases are mixed, and

any oxygen that collects in the tube, #, is removed to the bulk

of the gases in the upper part of the burette. Having taken

the final reading of the mixture, the upper part of the tube is

tapped slightly to dislodge any water adhering to the platinum

wires, and the spark from an induction coil is passed between

them, the aspirator-bottle being below the level of /, in order

to expand the mixture. A sharp click is now heard, and the

tube is allowed to stand so that the heat of the explosion may pass

away before reading the contraction. When the tube is cool,

the reading is taken by lifting the aspirator-bottle as before.

This reading gives the contraction, and by removing the bent

tube and replacing the cylindrical funnel, 4, the carbonic acid

resulting from the explosion may be absorbed with potassic hy-

drate, as in the absorption-apparatus, the readings always being .

taken after adjusting the levels of the liquids in the burette and

the aspirator-bottle.

When removing the bent tube and attaching the cylindrical

funnel, care should be taken that the air in the capillary tube

of the stop cock is removed. This is accomplished by attaching

the funnel, putting into it a little potash solution, and then in-

serting « piece of thin copper wire into the capillary tube of the

stop-cock ; by this means the air-bubbles are readily removed.

Like the absorption-apparatus previously described, this explo-

sion-burette is intended for rapid work where some accuracy is

sacrificed to the saving of time. It has the great advantage that

the explosion can be made over water—the long piece of rubber

tubing acting as a cushion to the shock. I have used this

burette for over a year, and with the most satisfactory results.

* Tf the gas mixture contains little or no nitrogen, it is better to add half

the volume of oxygen and one volume of atmospheric air, to moderate the

force of the explosion.

380 Apparatus for Rapid Gas-Analysis.

It is only intended to be used with mixtures of gases, containing

hydrogen, marsh-gas, and nitrogen,—the other ordinary consti-

tuents being determined in the absorption-apparatus.

The following formulas are used in calculating the results of

the explosion of a mixture of hydrogen, marsh-gas and nitrogen,

or hydrogen and nitrogen.

Let C = Contraction. D = Carbonic Acid : then,—

a Obese 0)

———— = Hydrogen.

and D = Marsh-gas.

In the case of hydrogen and nitrogen the above formula be-

comes simply eae

—- = Hydrogen.

3 ‘

These calculations give the quantities of the above gases found

in the number of cubic centimetres of gas-residue used in the

explosion; it is of course necessary to calculate these upon the

total amount of residue left in the absorption-burette. ‘The ni-

trogen is found by adding together the figures for the other

constituents of the gas and subtracting their sum from one hun-

dred. ;

‘The subjoined table illustrates the character of the mixtures

of gases that can be analyzed with the above-described apparatus.

Carbonic Acid 3.4 7.3 0.0 0.7

Iluminants — — 6.3 15.6

Oxygen 0.0 1.0 3 ie),

Carbonic Oxide 40.2 29.8 6.0 8.5

Hydrogen 44.9 55.8 — 13.0

_Marsh-gas —- 0.0 _ 33.8

Nitrogen 11.50 6.1 — 26.9.

With care, and a little practice with the apparatus, results are

obtained within a few tenths of a per cent. of the truth, and this

at an immense saving of time over the older methods of analysis

—the results answering every ordinary purpose in gas and metal-

lurgical works. After some practice, a complete gas-analysis,

using the absorption-apparatus and explosion-burette, can be

made in less than an hour.

School of Mines, New York, 1888.

Descriptions of New Species of Birds. 381

XXV.—Descriptions of New Species of Birds of the Genera

Chrysotis, Formicivora and Spermophila.

BY GEORGE N. LAWRENCE.

Read May 28th, 1863.

i. Chrysotis canifrons.

The general coloring is green, the abdomen washed with bluish, the

feathers of the hind neck edged with black, and those of the throat mixed

with yellow ; the front, the chin, and the upper part of the throat, are gray-

ish ash ; this color is bordered on the crown with dull pale yellow ; sides of

the head dull yellow ; the primaries are deep blue, with a speculum of

bright scarlet ; the bend of the wing is clear yellow, marked with scarlet

next the body ; thighs gray ; tail-feathers green, ending rather broadly

with light greenish yellow ; the basal portions of the feathers are yellow for

half their length, and are marked with red ; the outer feather is bluish on

the outer web ; bill whitish horn-color, with the tip dusky ; feet dark gray.

Dimensions approximately ; length, 14 inches ; wing, 9; tail, 6.

Habitat, Island of Aruba, West Indies.

Remarks.—The above-described parrot was brought alive, by

our associate, Dr. A. A. Julien, in the spring of 1882, when he

returned from the islands of Curagao, Buen Ayre and Aruba.

He obtained it at Aruba, and thinks it occurs in abundance on

Buen Ayre (no specimens, however, were procured there), but

is not found on Curagao.

I saw this parrot soon after his return, and took notes of its

plumage, and also of its dimensions, as well as I could from a

living bird, though it was very gentle. I considered it an un-

described species, but deferred publishing an account of it, for

the sake of a further examination, agd to see if any change

would take place in its plumage, especially in the ashy coloring

382 Descriptions of New Species of Birds.

of the front and chin, though I thought it to be fully adult. It

was left in charge of a bird-dealer in Brooklyn, L. I., from

whom I exacted the promise, that-in case of its death he would

take it to Mr. John Akhurst, to whom I had given directions to

preserve the skin. Unfortunately, it died during the summer,

but the skin was not saved.

Therefore, I have had to rely on my notes, which I was

pleased to find gave quite a satisfactory account of its plumage.

The most marked difference from its allies seems to be, the

ashy front and chin, and these the dealer assured me did not

change at all in coloring while it lived. .

2. Formicivora griseigula.

The upper plumage is of a deep, rather bright, ferruginous ; the front,

lores and crown are brownish ; the tail-feathers are dull black, crossed with

waving bars of very pale dull ferruginous; these bars are of about half

the width of the black interspaces, and are eleven in number; the quills

are dark liver-brown ; their edges and the wing coverts are rufous, like the

back ; the inner edges of the quills are of a very pale salmon-color ; the

sides of the head are blackish ; the shafts of the ear-coverts are white ; the

chin and throat are dark gray, a little lighter in color on the former; the

breast, abdomen and under tail-coverts are of a light dull rufous; the bill and

feet black.

Length (skin’, 5$ inches; wing, 22; tail, 22; tarsus, 7; bill,

Habitat, British Guiana. Type in my collection.

Remarks.—By its general dark coloration. gray throat and

barred tail, this bird is readily distinguished from all others of

the genus.

&o- Spermophila parva.

Female. Upper plumage of a light, warm, earthy-brown, a little deeper

in color on the crown, and brighter under and behind the eyes ; the throat

is grayish-white ; rest of the under parts of a very light shade of brown,

whitish on the middle of the abdomen ; the smaller and middle wing-coverts

are dark brown, the latter ending with whitish ; the larger coverts are also

dark brown and marginedewith whitish; quills dark umber-brown ; the

outer tertials edged with light fulvous, the inner with whitish ; tail, umber-

Descriptions of New Species of Birds. 383

brown, ending with dull white; ‘iris brown; bill light-brownish; feet dark

grayish-ash.”

Length (skin), 33 inches; wing, 2; tail, 18; tarsus, 3.

Habitat, Mexico, Tehuantepec City. Type in National Mu-

~seum, Washington.

Remarks.—I have had this specimen for several years, and

have delayed its description, hoping to get the male. It was

obtained by Prof. Sumichrast, to whom I wrote requesting him

to try to procure the male. As he left that part of Mexico, and

is now deceased, I have thought best to describe it. It somewhat

resembles the female of S. minuta, but is distinguished from it

by the smaller size, lighter color and whitish throat, and by

having the wing-coverts, tertials and tail-feathers edged with

whitish; the bill is not half the size of that of S. minuta.

May 2¢5th, 1883.

384 Observations of the Transit of Venus.

XXVI.— Observations of the Transit of Venus, December 6. 1882.

BY J. K. REES,

Director of the Observatory of Columbia College, N. Y. City.

Read December 11, 1882.

The station occupied was the roof of the unfinished Observa-

tory of Columbia College, where the telescope was placed at the

southwest corner. ‘This roof is extraordinarily strong and

solid. The beams are of iron, 12 inches in depth; and solid

brick arches spring from beam to beam. ‘The hight of the roof

from the street is about 110 feet, and the walls supporting it are

four feet thick. An unobstructed view was had of the whole

transit.

The position of the instrument was a few feet only from the

centre of the old Observatory ; so that we may take the longi-

tude and latitude of our instrument from the American Ephe-

meris.

Latitude, + 40° 45’ 23”.1.

Reduction to Geocentric Lat., —11’ 22”.7.

Log. p = 9.999384.

Longitude—

Pity S33

From Washington, — 0 12 18.40.

ODS

From Greenwich, -+ 4 55 53.69.

The time-pieces used were a mean-time chronometer, No.

1853, made by Parkinson & Frodsham, of London, England,

and a sidereal chronometer, No. 1564, made by Negus & Co.,

of New York City.

Observations of the Transit of Venus. 389

The instrument used in the observations was an equatorially

mounted refractor, made by Alvan Clark & Sons. Aperture,

5.09 inches; focal length of object-glass, 74.3 inches. The

magnifying powers used were 48 on first contact ; 165 on second

and third contacts; 95 on fourth contact.

The telescope was moved by clock-work, and was similar in

all respects to the instruments made for the transit of Venus

expeditions of 1874.

In making chronometer comparisons, the sidereal chronome-

ter was left at the College, and the mean-time chronometer was

carried to the instruments on which signals were to be received.

CHRONOMETER COMPARISONS.

December 5th, P. M., at the College.

NeGus, Sidereal. P. & F. Mean-Time.

h. m. Ss i mM.

al 39 14.0 = 4 26 15.0

ple yy, 42 4.5

ros)

we)

December 5th, P. M., at 42d Street Depot.

West’n Union Time Signals Mean-Time Chronometer. P. & F.

in N. Y. City Hall time.

- 4] 0.0 = 4 45 2.0

4 42 0.0 = 4 44 2.1

4 43 0.0 — + 45 2.0

4 44 0.0 —— 4 46 2.0

4 45 0.0 = + 47 2.0

December 5th, P. M., at the College.

Necus, Sidereal. P. & F. Mean-Time.

22 20 TB 5 q 25.0

22 23 LES O yy Sis 10 15.0

22 26 BOLO Hae 5 13 26.5

386 Observations of the Transit of Venus.

December 5th

Ne«Gus, Sidereal.

1 54 10.0

, P. M., at the College.

P. & F. Mean-Time.

8 40 32.0

2 0 9.0 = 8 46. 30.0

December 6th

Neaus, Sidereal.

13 23 42.5

, A. M., at the College.

P. & F. Mean-Time.

-- 8 8 10.0

13 29 33.9 = 8 14 0.0

At Western Union Build

Reception of the

ing, Broadway and Liberty Street:

Washington 'Time-Signals.

P. & F., Mean-Time Chronometer, Washington Signals.

lost — 30sec. = 11 56 30.0

12 11 14.0 = min. = 11 57 0.0

12 11 44.0 = 30sec. = 11 57 30.0

12 12 lost = min. = 11 58 0.0

12 12 44.0 = 30sec = 11 58 30.0

12 13 14.0 = min. = 11 59 0.0

12 13 44.0 — 30sec. = 11 59 30.0

12 14 14.0 = min.— 12 O° “ey e0s0

December 6th

Negus, Sidereal.

18 18 46.5

18 21 22.0

18 24 12.5

, P. M., at the College: ;

P. & F. Mean-Time.

= il 2 20.0

== 1 4) 0.0

= 1 7 50.0

December 7th, A. M., at the College:

Negus, Sidereal.

16 9 d4.5

16 12 50.0

16 21 56.5

P. & F. Mean-Time.

= 10 49 00.0

= 10 d2 50.0

= Ill iL 50.0

December 7th, A. M., at Western Union Building.

Western Union Time Signals P. & F. Mean-Time.

in N. Y. City Hall time.

11 50 0.0

11 51 0.0

iat d3 0.0

= Il 52 La

= Il D3 1.6

= Ill dd is

Last comparison by Mr. Hamblet.

Observations of the Transit of Venus. 387

December 7th, P. M., at Western Union Building.

Reception of the Washington Time-Signals.

P. & F., M. T. Chronometer. Washington Signals.

lost = 30sec. = 11 56 30.0

LOSste i e— Tae —a eee Te a 0.0

lost = 30sec. — 11 ay 30.0

12 12 S27) SS mains Y=) 1D. 58 0.0

lastene——is URSeeG. en ——i an lul 58 30.0

oi Tani ——) 1 59 0.0

12 IS 4BiGe == SO Rees Sal 59 30.0

12 1A S365 == AGN — Fr 0 0.0

December 7th, P. M., at the College:

NeGus, Sidereal. P. & F., Mean-Time.

19 14 25.0 = 1 53 55.0

19 20 6.0 — Leg 59 39.0

The Western Union time-signals sound the local time of the

New York City Hall. The assumed longitude of the City Hall

from Washington is — 12m. 10.4%s.

Mr. Hamblet, in charge of the system, gives the errors of his

clock and signals as follows:—

December 5th, N. Y. City Hall, noon, 1.11 sec. fast.

66 6th, (x9 66 1.35 66

ne 7th, ef % 1.41 ys

Prof. Wm. Harkness, of the Executive Committee of the

Transit of Venus Commission, has kindly furnished me with

the corrections to the Washington clock-signals, as follows:—

December 4th, correction = — _ 0.24 sec.

i 5th, oe = — 0.47 sec.

We - 6th, ee = — = 0.22 sec.

ay Tth, Ge iG eesece

These corrections refer the time to the centre of the old dome,

from which all longitudes are counted.

388 Observations of the Transit of Venus.

P.&F. Chr, Col. Coll.

. 2, Un-| MT

corrected. | Corrected.*

PHENOMENA. REMARKS.

[agen ssi ‘h. m. s.

Faint clouds before the Sun} 9 9 30 | 9 7 35

( I. Contact.

Notch plainly on, . . 910 44 | 9 8 49 |. Mag. power, 48. Est. Im.

Light thro’ Venus's atmos- | late.

phere, oan : 9 23°55 | 9° 22) 10

Ditto, beautifully seen, : 9 26 15 | 9 24 20

NOG Yel, icicat) yp yesw or Oeee Deal MBAtdoe

| II. Contact.

On (no drop?) 2). = | 19" 30/ 49) ASK a: power, 165. Good

obs.

OClearlyony 8 ay CAO SR PaO eae co

Preceding limb of Venus |

quite dark . . 2 50 28 | 2 48 33 |) ;

Black border at preceding | A very peculiar phenom-

limb extends to following { enon,

limb; 3. e s e eoo pala Ar ole Gaia

Faint show of ‘‘drop,” . 258 56 12 52) 2

| III. Contact.

TRANS eNC Ys cueK 1 ace ear 254 9 | 2 52 14 ee power, 165. Good

obs.

Notryet: fee ets 313 19 | 3 11 24

\ IV. Contact.

Off . . . . . . . . 13 18 47) 3 11 52 8 Mas. power see

f seeing.

The first three contacts were observed with a Pickering solar eye-piece

and a light yellow shade-glass. The last contact was observed with a re-

flecting wedge.

Reducing the contacts to Washington Mean Time, we have:

I Contact 8 56 30.6 Est. 1 min. late.

BT ae ) 16 27.6 Good observation.

Ill a 2 39 55.6 Good observation.

FY, 2481 58 2 59 33.6 Poor seeing.

Remarks on Phenomena Observed. :

I estimated the 1st contact observation as over a minute late.

The light shining through Venus’s atmosphere was a fine

* Norr.—The time-corrections as determined from the Washington

Signals are used.

Observations of the Transit of Venus. 389

sight. I should say that it first appeared to my eye when the

planet was a little more than half-way on the sun, and disap-

peared about a minute before the planet reached 2d contact.

This line of light, marking out the portion of Venus’s disk not

on the sun, changed its appearance considerably while my atten-

tion was fixed upon it.

I first saw a faint arc of light marking out only a few degrees

of the disc not on, and farthest from, the sun. A little later, a

fine semi-circular line of gold was seen; and finally, this line

broadened near the sun, and could not be seen farther out, giv-

ing the appearance of two wings of light.

In the second case, the line of light appeared to be the con-

tinuation of the dark rim of the planet.

In the third case, the bases of the wings resting on the sun

were plainly out of the line of the dark circumference. I

watched for the repetition of these appearances between the 2d

and 4th contacts, but failed to see anything.

The sky between the Ist and 2d contacts was much clearer of

haze than between the 3d and 4th.

At 2d contact, I saw no indication of the ‘‘ black drop.”

The tangency of Venus’s disk and that of the sun was well seen.

During the passage of Venus over the sun’s face, I observed her

disk with magnifying powers, as follows :—48—95—165—385—

but saw no indications of an atmosphere.

The disk of Venus did not appear to be uniform in blackness,

but to be spotted with grayish or whitish matter, reminding one

of patches of snow. ‘This was seen under the different maguify-

ing powers used. When Venus neared the 3d contact, a very

peculiar phenomenon was observed. The preceding limb of

Venus was seen to be darker than the central portion. Later,

the edge of the planet became of a bluish-black color around to

the following limb.

The phenomena connected with this were very distinct.

When the planet was near 3d contact, a faint ‘black drop”

was observed for a brief time. It disappeared very shortly, and

390 Observations of the Transit of Venus.

the 3d contact was finely seen. ‘The 4th contact was interfered

with by the haze and clouds.

For assistance during the transit, I am much indebted to

the civil-engineering students of the class of ’88, School of

Mines. ;

Nore 1.—The contact-times (corrected) differ slightly from the times

given in the ‘‘ Transactions,” owing to data lately received in regard to the

Washington time-signals.

Note 2.—The peculiar marking on Venus’s disc, when near 38d contact,

reminds me of the drawings of the markings on Jupiter’s fourth satellite,

only there we have the light border on dark ground. (See Webb’s

“ Celestial Objects,” p. 168, 4th edition. )

J. K. oR:

ADDENDUM.

I have received the following data from an amateur observer in this city,

Judge Addison Brown, 233 East 48th Street.

CONTACTS. OBSERVED TIME. CORRECTED.

h, mM. Ss. h mM. Se

I, 9 ill 21 9 8 38

not yet, 9 bl 40 9 28 D7

HI, ee PAUTAME Wineyst 9° 89) i Lg pes

Mon: LL. ANNALS. IPA OOS

. 1 Liege ial die Laeiiy tmvaeh orale ce Lael ar aa ey ic el

(ra ro

x ’ } ¢

Nom. LL: ANNALS. 07.4. @. 0 OE

is =)

Uo ce ee Uk IEEE Le

GHNEHRAL INDEX.

} For all names in Botany and Zodlogy, see Index of Nomenclature, fol-

; lowing the General Index.

For full titles of papers in this volume, and names of their authors, see

Table of Contents.

For references to apparatus, discussions, experiments, processes, and

theories, on the following and kindred subjects connected with electrolysis,

see Article XIX, Index to the Literature of Electrolysis, pages 313 to 349.

PAGE. PAGE

Absorbents, in gas-analysis, JAMA LOISTTE a ee a ete AI 16

373—376 | Anguilla, W. I. 118, 122, 124,

. PNCHIMOIECS 9 Sosa ae Ns Do, Ll, 17 190, 191

. Holian sands of New Jersey, ANIMINYVGUANICY o 6 eae uah ose ee hy 18, ls

52, 58, 57, 58 | Ankerite,..................... 16

Aerolites,........ 2802908 298K 299) | Amorthites ese «ca. 2) steer 6, 18 -

also, see Meteorites. : Antigua, W. I........ 118, 190, 191

Aajoandites: 22 io... nae ne 3, 9, 16 | Antilles, see West Indies.

SATO 3.56 eee Oe RP ae TE), TUS) Ii aNoneNONAN aia) y 9k a'ca sie eile .dlaic 17

Algee, as sources of carbonaceous ANT OR URE. Wie (OIG cr een Mey ones 17

GepOsits, oye. ee. ele 308—361 | Apophyllite,................ 12, 16

PAU EMULE S = 3) = lead shores ar etbye lel 0, 11, 17 | Apparatus for gas-analysis, 372—380

) Nimandite; enews ss. TTB LS Uae YeRGVanI (etnies BE Hale aero 8, 16

FAUT CIC ys moa St lena hak ie 12, 16 | Archean rocks of eastern New .

| Analyses of bituminous shales, . .363 GCI ln rae t arudan nce eae 29—32

| of meteorites, .. .293, 294, of Staten Island.....163—168

| 300—303 | Argentiferous lead, treatment

of gases, apparatus for, (OIE tect Ee a eres SUE CE gyi 81—113

Bio atoll) | VANIER NM ols og SBA cae oo ooo 17

NJUGRNESMNIC yer ait a ee bodes 6, 11, 18 | Arseniates, treated with organic

Anegada, W. I........119, 185, 192 ACL SA ED OMe 2, 12, 13, 15—18

Alloys.

Amalgams.

Arborization of metals.

Electro-chemistry.

Electrolysis of various substances.

Electro-metallurgy.

Electro-plating.

Electro-typing.

Metallic precipitation.

Ozone.

Photo-galvanic processes.

392

PAGE

INTSONIG oa carta meant pee 8, 17

Arsenides, treated with pea

CLOG orc ake oie cde eS A bay i

ATSENOP NGL Mars esrae eee ra ele

Aruba, W. I., new bird from... sh

INSIDESTUS sic He tacondeee Aa etee 5, slit 18

INSTI GETATES sa see euch os erase 290

Atacamite,...... ete ede ae 7, 12, 16

Augite Sel Seas RUE eer Pence are 12, 17

in meteorites,........... 293

Att UIMitesy np ueteane ce mama 8, 18, 16

PNY ADI ENN SU ee ee arm ree or Vs coe 16

Bahamas, age of,.......... 185, 192

Jand-shells of,........... 123

physical geography of,

118, 119

Barbadoes, W. I...... 124, 191, 192

JBarrowoley, Vis I oonnoso ea ne 118, 192

Bante Shh, eee Git ears 8, 13, 18

BanyilOcalcitesme ma amare eee se 16

TS BIS AULT Gratin thes deieo wba ais sp 292, 308

IBASCHDUIMON Meher e nee 81

REVS UH@N Teen hs BuPRAbeIe Te er mtn a 6, 11, 17

Benthienitese eee ete 3, 15, 17

Bet itch ces sis Sains ine RO MLO eR

JEKOLITNN SNAIL cele aire tp Mleape tine sat er, 3 12, 18

Birds of Aruba, Wi. 0... 22.55. 381

of Buen Ayre, W. I..... 381

Ole raze: ey eres 356

of Guatemala, .......4.. 856

Of Guiana ee jee eee aoe

of New Grenada, ....... 356

Oe NIE CO ae 5 Goel oo no ales 383

. of Yucatan, 245—248, 287, 288

BISMAUIG epee ens Aine eens ee 17

BNE MONON ok las Gon Goes oe a

Bituminous shales, origin of,

357—367

Blacksshalestnewee se ee ieee 140

Black shale of Tennessee,...... 367

PB ORMIUCR. ale canes tee eee: 17

Boulangerite. .......... al O) alas, 17

OUGMONILCY a san cei ee ay IPF

IB ONGC INTE ase Re aoe eae 6, 11, 18

IEE OUI ae as Gaeeiseay oo 4,10, 17

Erochanititersneemncleeee ase 8,13 16

Brodie’s distillation furnace,

99, 100, 108, 113

Bromine, as reagent, ..... 373, 376

BRUIT pete we eae sa US ee 16, 31

Buen Ayre, W. Ws. 22) eae S8il

Galananine tii ernee eset 12, 16

Cal citer de lama sp thas cia oe 16

Cannel coals, origin of. 363, 364, 367

Index.

PAGE.

Carbonaceous meteorites, . .301—304

Carbonaceous shales, origin of

3857—867

Carboniferous fossils of Ohio,

296232

Caribbean sea, results of sound-

IMGs iy. {5.6 eee 117, 10s

Carnot, researches of in ther-“4 3

MOtics,...2> Ga eae 19—21

Cassiterite, Sete ae hays eee 4,10, 18

Celestite,: 25 {eee 8, 18, 18

Cerussité,: 0s. .22 ua eee 16

Chabazite, 2.3.56 .)2 eee 12,. 16

Chaleocite; «....:..\.scak See ie

Chaleopyrite RE erie t8 8B ic 10,

Chemung beds,.. .140, 148, 149, ie

Chondrodite, ERS oid nisin 12, 16

Chromite, ..-.4.02/.3)0 30 eee 18

Chrysobeiyly en eee 4,10, 18

Chrysocolla, 2a ee eee 12, 16

Chrysolite).. ia: soe eee 12, 16

Chrysotile; 74 epee Test

Cinnabar, ..)...34.. 43 17

Citric acid, action of upon min-

erals) ooiiA. ie ace eee 1—18

Classification of meteorites, 290, 291 —

Clausthalite; eee eee 3. 9, 16

Cleveland shale, Brae se 357, 360, 363

Cobaltite,.. 0.15 eee oy ll

Colophonite) = ace eeee eee 5D, Lie

Colorado Group,...... 307, 361, 367

Columbite 2 4sse eee Velen “lt!

Composition of meteorites, 290—294,

300—303

Conodonts.2.- eee Tu ee 307

Copper, es os eee iG

Coralline Limestone, ...... 149, 151

Corniferous Group,... 149, 160, 174

Jorunc ume ee 4, 10, 18

Covellite;..0o.... ae eee 3, 17

Cretaceous rocks of Staten

Tslanid,’ \\.). one 170-1738

of the West Indies, 119, 188, 189

Crocoitey: SG eee 8, 138, 17

Cryolite; i.) 0S. seers Beene. (le

Cryptomorphite,.......... 8, 18, 16

Cryptosiderous mcteorites...... 291

Crystalline rocks of Staten

Tislari@iie pic eee 168—168

of the West Indies, ..186—188

Crystallites,.......... 291, 292, 309

Cuba, geology of,..... 117, 189, 191

land-shells of,........... 123

Culebra W..eeeee 185, 187

@uprite, so a eee 17

Cuprous chloride,............. d7G

Index.

PAGE.

Wuredo nw Wewlesiessicees.. 122, 123

Curves of efficiency in steam

CNOMIME Sea Sette cs aie. s fs 303, 304

WD AONIMNC A). ken ce he 12 ale

Desilverization of lead ores,

81—113

Brodie’s method, 99, 100, 103

Faber du Faur’s method.

99, 1083—108, 113

Flack’s method ...... 95, 99

IDEF CYNIC eee eee Pa 12, 16

IDO) OSICKC Rete naar 12, 18

DY ONOMMEGS hic lke sitters eee Sars Fee 16

ID Orne) Te pean irae ea By ues

Wonmmicas; WT os. 2s 25k. 118, 124

Drift, of Staten Island..... 173-175

of New Jersey.......- 00—d8

Eifel limestone................ 149

IB AMOdG ere ia ae «let severe 4, 17

HBG HENUGE a Sneha ee cials Oe eleee e L7)

Kocene rocks of the West In-

Chess Se aiecae eae hee 189, 190, 191

OAD) ee Sere DA Oe 31

BUM OU ea ce eke eas iat aly

ems ANe ye os en slo ee 140

Explosion-burette, for gas- ~analy-

SIM, 6 o's Ue ro EE eee 376—880

Faber du Faur’s furnace for de-

silverizing ores, 99, 103—108, 113

IDOI ape one Ae alee 6, 11, 18

Fire-clays of Staten Island, algals 131

Flack process in desilverizing

ORCC es ate = eee ae 95, 99

Flora of Staten Island......... 173

of the West Indies.. 120, 121

UM OTIGC He sons Lopate se eee 18

Rnamielimiten 2.8. fos anak 17

Furnaces for desilverizing ores,

83—113

Fusion-structures in meteorites,

289—312

Cralemitesewepiciias os esas fae 16

Gardeaw shales. 22.2... 2.4. . 307

Gas-analysis, apparatus for,

372—380

Gas-springs, origin of..... 364, 365

Genesee shale............. 307, 363

Gremthite his = sss bass @, iil, 2 ily

Geology of Hudson Co., N. J.,

See Hudson County....... 27—712

Geology of Staten Island, N. Y.,

See Staten Island........ 161—182

393

PAGE.

Gieséchkitienss wee an eee Yo Wik We

Goethites. Si: 220s ee AL MQ), U7

in meteorites........ 303, 304

Guadeloupe, W. IJ.....118, 191, 192

Guatemala, birds of........... 306

Guiana, new bird from........ 382

(GAUMNMANN, oo coo boo nde 4, 10, 16

Gurhontes 75h sass eee 16

(GNA OSD DTN psa Mim la ae cs Ate aa 17

Hamilton? fossils in Ohio,

215—218,

Hamilton Group, 140, 141, 145,

149, 160, 174

244

Hamilton shales.......357, 360, 367

Hausmannite.......+-52.. 558 17

Hayti, geology of, 117, 121,

189, 191

land-shells of... 122, 123, 124

Heat, mechanical equivalent of,

20, 21

Heat of meteorites. ...298, 299, 300

Helderberg fossils of Ohio, 193—211

Veimaybiter oo Py a a 17

TEI@RORAMIG. —nosescousses 6, 11, 16

JUSTO er a ene aver eel

Heulandite........... 05: dl ey

Holosiderous meteorites ....... 290

JnI@MNIDIGMNCIs oa ka dorccvodds 12, We

Jeli oMNeNttiOgs Los soa a aes Sh, UB IL

Hudson Co.,N.J., geology of, 27—72

Archean rocks of 29—32, 65

borings in......... 59, 66—T71

copper-mines in.. 33, 84, 39

drainage of.......... 64, 65

Gritty of). 1 si ep 0ing

GROMOMN Oiescuacoreac 61, 62

HOSSUSPUM Es fei cote eee. le tee 49

gneissic rocks of......29, 30

jasperoid rock of... .. oo ee

minerals in.......... 31, 45

serpentine rocks of ...30, 31

shell-heaps in........... 61

surface geology of....53, 61

LR ADEOMM Rie vo weke eins 3d—d0

Triassic rocks of..... 32, 50

Hudson River shale........... 363

Humus, composition of... .301, 303

Huron Group i in Michigan Walle 140

Huron shale, 140, 357, 363, 366, 367

TBI VENUE A Sy Nthere mee Mblelere 6 Oy IO) >: Ais}

Hydraulic limestones of Ohio,

OSSUSTOLer sey aetae ree 195—195

Hydrocarbons in _ meteoritcs,

302, 3805

394

PAGE.

Hydrocarbons, natural distilla-

HOMO Ieee ae nen ca 364, 365, 366

Hydrogen peioxide, accompa-

INS OOM. 55 55¢cc000 66 - 22—26

Tahoe eM. So ogagueosa Oy lil,» iy

Igneous rocks, comparison of

with meteorites..... ... 307—3 10

Igneous rocks of New Jersey,

39—50

of the West Indies, 186,

187, 192

Jodo-citric mixture, for mineral

AMAVVSISH erm ayaa eee eee 9—17

Ditracdmbe beds, 202. -4. ae 149

Hilkorehniti@is tae asieens ht Sy ches ae i), dial Wy

DOUMITEN eit ane rosie toe: 6; 11, 18

Jamaica, ceology of, 117, 189—191

landeshellsiot en scuee ee 123

Jamesonite...../..... By ge a, hy

Jasperoldsrock ape rere ete 32

ACHRAMISMIClS A onsets sine 6 ised aly)

ISL yoARe pen ieee aye ES ike AS

INGrIMeSIIGA eee ae ate aoe AL aU

Klamath Lake, depositsin..... 361

Michal ch SBD SiG te GG, & 12) 8

Walorad oniteheeseen aw so tllanley sale}

in meteorites............ 293

LenS IRVAMIIL, Jssa ba eeaoaes Sh le

IDE HENTAI ESHOWNO a 6 toss a eon os aoe 361

ILanumMoMinWs 5 sos occp seo 6 6,11, 16

Lavas, microscopic structure of,

292, 307, 308

Lead, argentiferous, treatment of

81—113

Weprdoliticns er eee eee (Oy ial, ils)

CUGITE Reka nce eee (5 Wl, sales}

semcopytite ee. ara seeiae a 8, 1G

Iiibethentter. jes seem Ti, U2,

Limit of expansion in steam en-

EAN SSAA can omitted foe 3038—3D0

lummomite ys uae Meee ee 17

Limonites of Staten Island,

172, 175—177, 181

IBilohaserinevniry Bisons aes oo anne Sea play

Lower Helderberg Group,

149, 160, 174

Ijudlow bed st aseeeeree mane ee 150

Magnesite nc ire se cee Wie Bil

Mase titer: sterile se eye 17

Malachite. acai ebiecieeeces 16

Wiameamite deere rere oe iy

Index.

PAGE.

Marcasite. i... .0..0c.6 Soe ee

Marcellus shale, carbon in..... 357

Marcellus shales in Ohio...... 212

233—236

LOSS iol 213, 214

204, 23), 943° 244

Marie-galante, W.1....... 118, 124

Marmolite.. 325 2 eee 31

Masonite. (cu. 5.2.) oeeee Capel mtbr)

Maxville limestone of Ohio. 219

fossils of ....... 219, 226

Mechanical equivalent of heat,

eee 21

Melaconite::. 2.2. eee eee AO ale

Menaccanite, 2-5. see A OK eat

Mercury... :..:.4 Ste eee Oi oulaa

MeESolites hs .c02 ine GPE aanG

Metallurgy of silver-bearing lead

and zinc ores............ 81—113

Metals, solution of ve organic

acids = sieves 5 ake 2 13

Metamorphic rocks of the West

INS! 030 ae eee 187, 188.

of Staten Island..... 163168

Meteorites: . 2)... 289—312

analyses of, 293, 294, 300—303

Canon ine 3801—304

classification of ..... 290, 291

comparison of, with ig-

neous rocks....... 307—810

fusion-structures in,

292—300, 304—310

Ineativote elena 298, 299, 300

microscopic structure of,

291—297

mineral shih eee 293, 294

organic appearances in,

297, 304807

specific gravity of....... 298

velocity 0h ascent 299

Millerile.’:...2 4. Sees Oy lis

Miinetite:.. ...420)se eee "i 12, 16

Minerals, action of organic

ACIC Sn ON) yewe ee eee 1—18

in meteorites....... 293, 294

of Staten Island.... 165, 181

Miocene rocks of the West

Indlésts nies oe eee 119, 191

Modern beds of Staten Island,

178—181

Moly bdenites {= essen eee 108

Montserrat, W. 1... soeeeeeee 192

Muscovite... «vic ones 12 as

INaeyacite:.) sje 3 1h

Natrolitienin0c.2. coos 12) 16

Index. 395

PAGE. PAGE.

LY CAUING) Be ee 31 | Porto Rico, geology of, 117,

INiepnelite tne ciet ccc. e 6,11, 16 120, 189, 191

NGS. Wie 118, 192 Jand-shells of ....... 119, 124

New Grenada, new bird from.. 356 | Post-pliocene rocks of the West

New Jersey, geology of,

See Hudson County, N. J.

Niagara Group. .

LYiCGOiS 2 J poke ee One eter

Nitro-citric mixture, for mine-

MERE MMAIN SIS )sc0/ task Cte Raleee 9—17

@lioy fossils Of. oss s5.. 45. 197?—244

Carboniferous. . 226—232

Hiamiltom?: 32: 215—218

Helderberg. .... 198—211

Marcellus. ..213, 214,

2o4, 230

Subcarboniferous. ..._

219226 |

Oil-springs, origin of...... 364, 3865 |

MING CIE So. oe le 6, 18

Oligosiderous meteorites....... 291

Olivenite 3 oe eae Te te le AG

OVingimes =e - ss 25. 12; i. 293, 294 |

OYCUIUCH NCIS) eee aes 31 |

Organic appcarances in meteor-

TGS ee eee Beutteros 297, 304—307

Organic matter, in meteorites, |

300—804

Organic acids, action of upon

MEN TASB et aps) bare sates 3 1—18

Oriskany beds. ........2.. 149, 160

(Qi ONT ore Sie eee cee a U0, Uy

Onihoclasesss i. hs os. Tibs ee alee

Oxides, mineral, treated with

organic acids....2, 10. 11, 15—18

Ozone, occurrence of with hy-

Gioszent peroxide... sa4s6 2227

HAGASItez kak 2. Jes cee iy, Lidl ss 107

aMAMerOnMatlOM. .... + sasc ee 189

Peat of Staten Island...... 179, 182

He Cuolinetee sys oe lek hace Sine 2a 6

Peroxide of hydrogen accom-

AMY ING OZONE. -/)2-5 09-0: 22—26

Petalite..... eer DelulemmaltS

Pharmacosiderite........ We, UB, 6

PeMO SOWIE M cae sales de all ily

Phosphates, treated with or-

ganic acids...... 2, 12, 18, 15—18

Pliocene rocks of the West

ATTAIN ESR eg te ae easy evan. a retete 192

Rolivmasitelc: casa sess: AL, 17

Polysiderous meteorites........ 291

Portage Group, 140—142, 145,

149, 156, 160

148, 149, 151— —160 |

Indies canes womans 119, 192

Post-tertiary beds of Staten

Islands. Re ai MI 173178

‘Potassie hydrate: 2.2.5: - - 373, 375

pytogallate..-....-- 373, 376

Potsdam sandstone.........--. 174

rehinites crc ester aera NOE eealan

rochloniiee nesses (Ald UG

IPIROUISIMKOY oo bo ko ude oc 3, 10, iisy) US)

Pseudomalachite.........7, 13, 16

esilomelaneeeseecm eee eee ivi

emia Ounite sn anjacream sens By Or yy

Say OSS fever /sne. dtes deste auc eenNns Os a

Pyrites in bituminous shales... 366

HeayiT OLUSILE: as) esos. ccueepeeusy-yetaies UG

JPRROMMOM OMNI Se ococcococbscce 16

Pyr ORES a easta eco eee ore Galil, ate

Pyrrhotite Ee Eo avy wea ch rene 16

(QUURITI eect oe oie eees 5, LO, us

@uaternary beds of Staten

lislleaycle acces eerans eee 173—178

TRS CVeIIGEY Colestellecicrcece AraeetnL ee 3, WO, 9 Ne

RaCkoMnGe Wiel Geos Son sees rap elge)

eRe GIMaNNG eRe ses or ne Sees eerene U2. ay

IR oOdoGhnosiver an es - lee cie 16

TRINOCKOMNTIO Sees Go aelo ecee c 12 iG

IRINVOMIGs otro mee eco 4 292, 807, 308

Richmond Co., N. Y., eeology

of, see Staten Island... . .161—182

Ripidolite S150 EIS MEE ee 12; 18

Rock oils of Ohio.........858, 367

JROTC ie atere sor rene arenes 4,10, 18

Sada maVViae leeks ee 118, 119, 124, 192

Sadi Carnot, on thermotics..19, 21

CHIMES gas oo epee pen abee oe 18

San Domingo, geology of..

117, 121, 189, 191

Jand-shells of. 122, 123, 124

Sanitary influence of sabe {GOT GL

Santa Cruz, W. I. 118126

"186, 189, 191

flora and fauna of. . 117—126

GEOOBAy Oss sen cocse 119, 120

supposed desiccation of,

125, 126

Sargasso seas, deposits of...... 361

Scheelites sce soe soo Sols ls

Serpentine.....::...-..- ital, al ales

Serpentine rocks of N. J..... 30, 31

396

PAGE.

Serpentine rocks of Staten

TRIG W iG ay See aeetence 164, 165, 182

Shore-wear of Staten Island.... 181

Dideriten sesh eens Seo 17

Siderites (meteorites) .......... 290

Silicates, treated val organic

CEG ovo sasogal 1125118

Silver and organic Ce eer: 17

Silver-bearing ores, treatment

CO ao oa eT eee cies Tc 81—113

Sram elitube ayer \Aln acllcu ae eae ela 17

SMM NAOMI Seo gsesanesuossone 16

Sodus Bay, lake ridges at...... 264

Soils, sanitary influence of..60, 61

Sombrero, W. I..118, 119, 123, 192

South America, former north-

ward extension Of.........- WG

Specific gravity of meteorites .. 298

Sphaleniieesennce cee panera 16

>] OUOKe! eyed Sree aoe Soar ness A Al) alts}

Spirifers, relations among, 148—160

variations Of....... 156—159

SJOOCWMMACNE. seo 440 ones050¢ 12 WG

Sporasiderous meteorites. ..... 291

St. Bartholomew, W.I........

: 118, 119, 124, 189—191

St. Croix, W. I., see Santa Cruz.

StaHustatius: \Wislee soe 118, 192

St. John, W. 1... 185, 186, 187, 188

Stan Karttis Wiggles seas eae 192

St. Lawrence valley in the ice-

GIO Celie ener eM te se 268—266

SteeMiartimvaVVewl tgs weer

118, 119, 124, 189-191

St. Thomas, W.I. 126, 185—188

Staten Island, geology of . .161—182

BAGUIO Ne Seisaaods ae 163—168

champesron levels sees 181

Cretaceous........- 170—173

GUE esc Ben chee 173—175

TINLEXOEIS o nas ooh oe ae 171, 181

MONA Se wei e neta ae eee 73

iron-ores.. 172, 175—177, 181

TAMMUAVSICAM ISI, 5 Sea eas Gs 165, 181

modern deposits. ... 178—181

Quaternary se 173—178

Marielle eee ee tere eee 162

terminal moraine... 173, 174

BR ADisede tice feck 168, 169, 181

MURTASS Mala eae eens 168, 169

Siaunolite sons wote sens tile alte}

Steam-engines, limit of expan-

STOMP ee Nee ces 3538—3)5

SIGNI he gados asa ace AL ty, alley

StU IO ee Suey Ais ees sce Ra 16

Stalntte ns ke en eee os oe ale 12, 16

Index.

PAGE

Strontianite...0.-. 4... 16

Subcarboniferous fossils of Ohio,

219—226

Sulphides treated with organic

ACLUSG ee eee 2, 9, 10; 1548

Sulphur, 2.30. eee OO Ne maley

Sulphur-springs, origin of ..... 367

Surface eeolozy of Western New

a ork RS) 249— 266

291

Tables showing relations of car-

bon minerals............ 269, 270

Talesc iii des. {ae ne ae alc}

Tar-springs’. 20.20. ee 279

Temperature of meteorites, 298 — 300

Tennamnpiies .). eee 4 Vos Ale

Tentaculite limestone...... 149, 160

Nephroitie 22-52 hee Oy il

Terminal moraine on Staten

Island): ccc eee 173; 174

Tertiary petroleunisess seen 278

Tertiary rocks of the West

dics ee 119, 185, 18

Tetrahedrite... 2... eee 17 i

Thermotics, views of Carnot

ALD OI: =. 2%. 2520. eta ee IST il

Thomsonite .). :.2.:. 25...) SOnsletenans

‘Tiemannitese: 0s eee Beeline

Til, features of in Scotland.... 262

in Western N. Y.....255—258

Titanite:2:2 30. aaa Gs ile ie

Topaz TRE R oe ene 6, tit, 18

Torbernitie: sec yee 8, 13). 16%

‘Toronto, ancient lake beaches at 263

Tortola, W. I.... 122, 185, 187, 188

Tourmaline... eee ee ile}

Rrachy te iy. or ene 292, 307, 308

Transit of Venus, see Venus.

Trap-rocks of New Jersey... 85—50

of Staten Island, 168, 169, 181

Triassic rocks of New Jersey, 32—50

of Staten Island..... 168, 169

TramidadeeivViss sere 190, 191

pitch=lalkexoite een 279, 280

rip hiv lites eee eee 1, Lena

Triple. yc oseee mere 7, 12) at

Mulliy: lintestone seer 145, 251

Wlexiteo.sa% Sos eee 8) 3 1G

namie as eer eee Wi

Upper Helderberg group... .251, 261

Upper Llandovery beds........ 150

Wraninite.c. 3. Sie ee eee iY

Utica shale. .276, 280, 283, 357,

360, 363, 367

Pe |

Index. 397

PAGE. PAGE.

Vegetable tissue, Paes ion West Indies, physical geogra-

Shino ee 268, 269 PLA Ole ccs pet, 124126

evolved products of. .269, EVA! Olen aeods coc 120, 121

270, 274281 TOCKSiO Lemar ae 119, 186—192

residual products of 269-274 | Western New York, ancient

Vegetation, see Flora. Graimage Oboes alse sarees 263—266

Velocity of meteorites......... 299 drift-deposits of... ..251—262

Venus, atmosphere of...... 388, 389 elevations in... ........ 265

disk-markings on... 389, 390 lake-basins of. ..251, 253, 260

transit of in 1882. ..3884—390 Palzeozoic rocks of. .249—255

Wesuvianite.{.::.........0; lf, 18

Vieque, W.I., 119, 122, 124, 185, 186

Virein Gorda, W.1........ 185, 186 |

Virgin Islands. ..117—124, 185—192 |

AVIV AL ATT oc yaeh) «) oo scefsp ace oeiNaltle 16 |

Volcanic rocks, comparison of

with meteorites........ 307—310

Volcanic rocks of the West

IUnC IGS oie teens 186, 187, 192

Wag... cee etna ier

Washinetomite. o.5..5.. 2% AO. iG

WWraterhime eroup ic... h. 60.2. 00

Whales c ote o's rss ece sles U,, U3, UG

Wirvenley, shales. ..252.4/5.42 360

Wenlock beds........ 149, 151, 153

WfeTnerite <2 ..65. .cSe nats 12, 18

West Indies, geology of,

117—121, 186—192

land-shells of. ..119, 121—124

ADDENDA

PAM GRUIEC™., Her. tioce Sve Papen se aie 280

Algz, as sources of carbona-

eEOUSH CEP OSIUS: mis sae erieisers 285

2A\STOLING I aaa eer 270, 279, 280

Asphaltic coals....... 270, 280, 281

Centre of glaciation in Western

IN GW: 1 Cir eee eee 258—260

Clinton sroup......-.. 250, 255, 256

Coals, varieties of......... ie

Diamond oriein of .......522: 281

Diappleritewadie cs so. 6s... 281, 282

Genesee slates............. 251, 261

Cor AMANIUILCL i fee Seles inlet 280.

Graphite, origin of... .270, 272,

273, 274, 281, 304

Hamilton group. .251, 261, 276,

Waillemaiten ny nda eek ets 12, 16

AWailh Tite? s4/esicuu eo erd crater 16

Wiollastonitess s225. 44.08 eee

NYicllomeomite Sime ae seal 364

Wiioliteamitene sss er tS, NS Zl

Wautlttemiter 52.55.) ieee th, ey. ALR

Yucatan, birds of, 245—248, 287, 288

VASO ES se eid 2s ave ean 45

Zinc desilverization ........ 81—113

Brodie’s method, 99, 100, 103

Faber du Faur’s method,

99, 1083—108, 113

Flack’s method....... 95, 99

UNC no Ok eR Re i7/

FA COMMEMEE Pe oa Olean 1S

AOI SIC eas iee a hist ah sae ey, Til, ils)

Agozannine lee ysis ao as ences 360

TO INDEX

EMUIMOMPSINAl Hota. po)stae clots apeusters 276

ANGIE seed 6), leet ahaa RR REE rea ar 281, 282

Medina sandstone..... 249, 250,

250, 206, 261

Niagara group. . .200—206, 278, 284

Ontario basin, ancient drainage

OLR PRE ys vcle ss scoaeie ss 263—266

OOK EITC IE arctacisers «sis nats cere Sy. 279

JPR RAIA Be eee per entaene 278, 279

Re Ab eye nent co vate o's 2538, 271, 272

Petroleums, differences in, 278, 279

oxydation Oliseyemeare 279, 280

Roriage? STOUp. 2/2246, c2 5. 201, 261

SANNA OTOWP 2's seer om ans os 200—255

INDEX TO NOMENCLATURE.

[The names of new species are printed in Roman letters ; synonyms and

species to which reference is made are in /talics; names of sub-families,

families, or higher divisions, in SMALL CAPITALS. |

PAGE.

Actinodesma recia............- 215

Subrecta trees nance 215, 244

Ancyrocrinus spinosus........- 288

NOG asec ts See ea ee 138

Allorisma Andrewsi......... . 222

CLGUGO Ee eee net mates 222

Masxvillensisis:< teres | 222

(DLCURODISILG eee ee 233

win) ovetoellias & eG oe ec canine 4 145

Amphibulima patula........... 124

ATeopes Clever, 7M neat ee ee 191

ATLOMUA toe scene Cele 137, 138

PATEY ACM CULGT Sian = tym leee ee 240

Aulacophyllum sulcatum ...... 238

ALO OLALCOnNULC Emre ee ete 237

[UL OTIOUIS coat: ohsiaitie a ee gay ore 237

LUD OT OTITULS eee een ee 201

WA a Cul asda cape eaten mete Sead 357

Aviculopecten crassicostata..... 240

equilaterd...........- 213, 244

DONGIIS cece Nat cieys eaves nce 240

Bellerophon alternodosus...... 225

MONGfOTUONUS 0.) =e eee 225

INEDORTYE. once oem ee 242

WPCLODS 2) ssphys 6 sa ae ek eee ord 242

ROP UUGUUS corre ah.) Set seisre 242

RU CAT Ta a enie meee cle ean 205

Bulimulus elonyatus ....... 122, 123

CHUM CHIES Si seiois Haddad a6.c 122

JROGPRCURIS, 6 Lob bes 85 123, 124

TUCO UBUISS SOAs beaded ac 123

YEAST AIRS Seto ste mene at Beni 122

Cannopora columnaris.......... 236

DENS Cyan aya neue pe ea eee 236

Cara COls isis ier iere sete seek 123

GONGCOUG iret activ ee 122

HUSH ide uae 6 SAG peeo5 Oe 122

DSCUOMRMOP SS .c6sBaadacac 122

STRECGHUM Ds sia scison 506. 122

PAGE.

Catopterus.)... tek eee eee 49

Centurus rubriventris.......5... 247

UTiGOlOT. ee 247, 248

Cerithium giganteuwm........... 190

ChzeturalGaumeiiae= aoe see 245

MelaSGiCd.. .).- seers 246

Votaths.: 3.1. 52 eee 246

Chondropoma basicarinatum.... 121

ONO RONKIMUUD soos son ce - 121

PUlient : cd A ee 123

Santacruzense..-...-- 121, 123

Tortolense......- 122, 370, 371

Chonetes aeutiradiata.......... 239

arcuala, 222 ae eee 239

deflecta). (22 eae 239

MUOMOROM hs oo 09c00c0can- 239

TEVeTSA,. 2.4).22 see 218, 248

Scilla. Da. see 218, 243

Vondellaniae eee eee 239

Chrysotis.. 0.2.0), 2a 381

CaniirOnS)-4 eee 381

Cistula consepta,......-.ssseee av

TUPUGOTIS®. oe el ee een 125

Codaster pyramidatus ...-...... 238

Coleolus’. 2. 0... eee 203, 204

Coleoprion:.- >.) eee eee 203

COLUMBID 2)..: 7 5) seen tet 287

Conocardium Ohioense......... 240)

UG ONGIE = see eee 240

Conularia elegantula............ 242

Coscinium infundibuliforme..... , 199

Crania) carbonanak seer eee 229

Crenistmigtdi~-- ane 238

Homiltonice. .. > - nee 238

modésta..... +. See 229

Permiand .. / ose 229

Cyathocrinus inequidactylus... 219

SOMMETSI 4 eae 226

Cyathophyllum rugosum... 200, 2387

LENCO. : a Ae 237

Cyclostoma Kazika.. 7. o-mene izail

Cylindrella chordata........... 123

Index. 399

PAGE.

Cylindrella pontifica............ 127

CADIZ. cE OR EOE SESE 190

(CAVE NSILIUD yo a te 309

Onpnitaenponrectas. «22. a. 6. se: 150

Cyrtina Hamiitonie............ 259

Cyrtoceras Conradi............ 209

Cneraceum.. ss. s/c: 209, 242

QMOERTZE SOS ape enn Siac 242

UNC DUTMT De ae 5 eso Sane 242

Cystiphyllum Americanum...... 288

ORIGENSOL 3c a a 238

Dalmania Calypso............. 243

LEIGIOINTR a SAO ES Eek a Nee ieeae 243

Onioensé:. =. Bens: gace 243

S CLETUS se wet aS Tae CE 243

Welthiymislevis cs. ce smelt ak 140

SUCH TUNILCOL ams Siete igen tare 150

Dentalium Martini........ 2038, 242

Dictyocrinus dactyloides........ 199

IDRC NUN Sin Gna Seas Oar 366

WD ISCIM ANGTORGIS a= meni) tse 238 |

WOMENSIS: 62) 0S hence 213, 24

IMGCKamarer es 2 Bios toe t. 228

TROCLDUT IS sk ee al oS Me ae ee 213

WVESSOUTIENSISS Aa 1 esse oe 229

AUDUATIT: it eae cn ete oe 229

Dolatocrinus multiradiatus...... 238

THOVOUN OHIO SC ty ming ee ase 23

Emmonsia Emmonsi........... 237

Eridophyllum Simcoense........ 237

SPHOUIUID eee Mer oat ears 237

Verneuilanum............ 237

DMO CANIS sco ue ec es see ese 226

UD ECELD aed Petes GSO nae «i 241

Eupachycrinus tuberculatus..... 227

Bhar any. DNA. dierae ma tents sie cath 137

Eurypterus Eriensis........... 196

WOUGSUUSUGUS reed tee ae gaa ee 196

microphthalmus .......... 196

ETUDES a2) = sys cee ERNE 196, 197

Favosites basaltica............. 237

CF OLELIUOL CO, <8 osm, ae 237

COUSDILETICH = t.85 ee 237

WET LOLON” 5. occas ee ee 237

pleurodictyoides........... 237

OLY MOTI: ieee 237

WUGDINGiOer cra Ss): roe 237

I ORNANO AR TTD An heya 2. s- <7 e 287

Formicarius moniliger.......... 288

7 OEEULLINCG I FSR 92 ce 288

BIOL CUVONAis shes else oes ee 381

fii S(61 (22.0) ete eee 382

Gilbertsocrinus spiniferus....... 215

Gilbertsocrinus spinigerus . ..

Gomphoceras amphora.

207, 242

CAMTINUD so Gop abs ede 208, 242

Fly aii hss 2 206, 242

QUOTE aes ayer 209

Sciotense. .......- 208, 242

Goniasteroidocrinus spinigera... 243

Goniophora perangulata .... .. 240

Grammysia bisulcata....... 215, 244

CiyOCEr aS Mia ee ere ene 232

Columbiense........ 210, 243

cyclops Be eaeeee 210, 243

ICLEG OMS: Bie wees Phere 243

TMS, notin oas6 Ge 243

TXOTMOROUUS cos bcacs 5s 211

seminodosum. .. .. 211, 243

Hadriophyllum D’Orbignyi ..... 237

ANT OTIS Sc Oe ys seen apa ee 205

Helicina picta .... Alice Weta 124.

Heliophyllum confluens Ber ase ae 238

SEL OULU Rou soe ag) sree 238

Helix areolata..... 133, 134, 13 6, 137

USDCRS Geter eee 129139

NORA oc os one 5 aac 138, 139

Cabjonniensism sc. ase 152

CREDLISIFIONG) sae ee eee 139

Dupelithouarsti... 0.0.0... 139

HOLCLO me cetorst al Seah nd sy ee 138

GOD Veen is) ee ee 138

HURON ha o's hele oe occ 134, 138

Kellettii. . -181—1385, 139

LOUIS eee one 1388, 136, 137

Pandore. . .132, 133, 136, 187

TRPOMTOUI De tact Aik a ee 139

FUPMCUMAR I & de gbvese Glsy hae 138

Stearnsiand...... 131, 185, 138

UDMMUOSUMITH I oa ke aa oon sess 138

GUSTS ee (nee ee 139

INFO, ca = 131, 134, 135, 138

VECiChivn Bean nee 136, 137

Hemiprocne biscutata.......... 306

TUNIMO TOG ee eae cert ne 355, 306

CMLICOMANUS Gs or eee ee 356

ZONULT US Ser ae SA ONY Rea 356

EeRCOCCLASI Es eee 211

Holopea Newtonensis.......... 224.

ROU OO Oey ns eats ee 241

AGG bys PEELS eee tm oe nora eerey = 49

Isonema bellatula......... ..... 241

CIYURESRU GEnweee hoccadeae 241

LOT Secs ene eene eeoee oe OF 241

Juneus Gerardi... ....0. 0.05. 178

400 Index.

PAGH.

Med aeBarnisi tests say ccen em ee 217

Leiorhynchus limitaris, 213, 2384, 244

INGOT as Ose nio dae a5-6 5 233

Leperditia alia........ 194, 197, 198

VCR, (aaah os oo odo 4: 197

Mepidosteusuecta.: 625s re. ce)

Leptoptila albifrons ........ 287, 288

hulivsiveninise = — ease eon

Lichenalia lichenoides........... 238

Temimn'ee ale aes Oe cca rcten carte eee 254

pliner mlapeigedinns se ee 213, 243

Manni... .. .212, 213, 234, 2438

Hoxonema Beda... 4% eee eee 241

Eomiltoniqes 4.4 an ss 205, 241

[OUP CUNO 6 5 a eaco ad as 204, 241

FOUN Darren oNe AO eicicus oe c 241

plicahinaeee Aes ee 231

unulteardium. 2253.6 oe tcl ls aeugsonl

Macroceramus #ieneri...... 127, 128

FOOMIMES asi Aa podasgc 127, 128

SLOMOUUS ine ee eee 124

Macrocheilus priscus....... 204, 242

Subcorpullemtusec-)2 er = 224

OGTUMICOSWUS ny seus rar nae niet 204

Mecalodontys cadence cera 244

Mecalomuss on .joua ocr seems 244

Megistocrinus spinulosus ,...... 238

MenistelayOeUaiee exes ite teeeeerer 194

TSU: oeeraileoee SOMMER I oe: 240,

S CHUL eee le de ee 240 |

Mich elimazConvet@rays aie. ts 237

AYECGUIN On \retou chcaie Re Keyeseere ke 25

Microphiysalworten! 2.2 e sc. - 128

Modiomorpha elliptica...... ... 241

(NANO OING) on ard tee ain OF oo 6 241

Murchisonia desiderata......... 242

LAE HG scree eter: 242

GDS OLELO Ae ocelot arate tage 242

Mytilarca alienuaia....:........ 202

percarinata..5.:...- 202, 240

FNOWOROR 9s ago ou 202, 240

INDICA A: ieercies mine eee eaeeea 190

Naticopsis equistriata........... 241

ChELACEU Mees ren noe 241

LOBES NESS ERE Re NR ets 241

TOU pie Bestest ae ES 230

Otome er ee eee 230

NCTA Chine csr ie ees easeoate 223

INfaruilicns: Omiowitlse seis ease 231

DEACON Sore ose od segs 226

SHEClLAULS = ieee er teeter 232

subquadrangularis....... 282

INeritag tke o8 seein ete ees 190

CONOULCH AT Tee eee Pete 190

PAGE.

Nucleocrinus Verneuili......... 238

Nucleospira concinna........+.. 240

rotund ata: so. eee 194

Nuphar polysepala............. 361

INyassatce thats ts eee 216, 244

ENP G rhe) Gig co6 6 6:6 216, 244

Oncocerasy 152.4225. eee 209

Orthis! bicostata,- ==. 157

flabellum. 3s eeeeeeee 201

TAVIO. 33 se 238

PTOPINGUG.. \ a. eee 238

SUOLORDONG |e ee 145

Vanuxemi. eee 238

Orthoceras nuntium........ sees

Ohioense 452 55 Se eee 242

Profundis 242

Orthonema Newberryi.......7-. 242

Palzoneilo Barrisi ............ 217

similise. . ¢ 25:0. eee 217

Paracyclas, liraia. 9. ae 24()

OGCIUERIQIUS: 5 nee 240

Ohidensis..c= 5) sae eeeeLO

Pentamerella arvata............ 240

Pentamerus pes-OVis........... 195

Phacops-rand.. .-em eee 243

Pholadella: 2.2. 222 305. aera 233

Newbernyit =.=. ae eee 233

POTUSE pee one ‘ala See 190

Pinenia: Schramm... eee 124

VieQuensish.. == teen 124

Pinnanjlenicosiatq. eee 221

Maxvillensist- 2) ees 221

Plagioptycha . ...... 5) eee 123

REMOTING. . 6 seat 122

Santacruzensis.......0.6.. 122

Platyceras atlenualum.........- 241

Ducculentiim: sae ene 241

COORD Goan sos 2c0c ce 241

CONIC: “nae eer 244

CUMOSUIMN eee eee eee 241

MUTE SPMOS Ua smear 241

squalodens.......-. 202, 241

Platyostoma lichas..... ...... 241

Pleurotomaria adjutor.......... 242

Dorissac seeks. 242

Bebesccalie: | eee 242

TUONO hs. 242

Mississippiensis.......... 233

leatilhngera.)... . J .e eee 233

Plumulites Jamesi. .seeseee 218

Newberry ies aire ee eae

Polymitay. 0) 43. see 137

Polyphemopsis melanoides.... - 225

Polypterus.). S22 0 eee 49

Index. 401

PAGE. PAGE.

Productella spinulicosta......... 239 | Spirifer setigerus........... 148, 150

Proetus crassimarginatus ....... 243 SUNDIED Aniston ee 151, 152

Pterinea decussala............. 214 subumbona...... 145, 149, 160

[alesse age angen 215, 240 SUL CONUS anette 148—154, 160

GyieT NUS ee 2138, 214, 244 TRO ULES Ae nit ce ee 149, 160

EU a PCHICLOG. - sis. ie ee 125 VOUUREME, 5 oo = line 149, 160

[OVUM bbe peldtn oe 8be 6c 127 | Spirifera acuminata............ 209

Pyranga roseigularis........... 247 (CLIK NGT A eres rin bio OE 239

AUT IMIS Car aoesannod 6 239

IES MDD) Reece cries 191 UNOTICLON eee 144—160, 239

Receptaculites dactyloides....... 199 GNCGOTIGA We eee s )- 212, 284, 239

WDEVONICUS ri -n)-so% ,- 198, 236 CP EETI rperct chore onde Sear 239

infundibulformis .......-. 199 UE RO ints pido OS ee DEE Cid Et 209

OUT Sain eeeere 6 ocac nage 198 macrothyris......... SEES OBO

EROSTON anise we cate cievciinversiane's 190 Moia.......149, 213. 235, 248

Rhynchonella IBOATS acl anne 240 MOOR okt Oe 239

RAR OUR Gs 2) Oke ais laces me ee) MOR CUTS ni Oem Ree 929

[DOLE Go OES ero veka ee ee 240 O/T oe ae esciAle rie 239

yr awed... 27 eo ens os: 194 SEQINETUC ae rane eee 939

TARNICOSInooacoss 0 oeP 201, 240 UGMICOS QIAN weeeaaten ee ee 239

TUNA «eal COR EET OS Te 240 LUOZOK Blip nee o 215, 244

Spiriferina cristata... .. 149, 154, 155

“Sanguinolites Sanduskyensis.... 241 WS CULDLC MoS a eee ee eae 149

Geoihus WPCOMES I: saeep ees sea geet rs 174 Oclonlicdlas arr ne At ae ee 154

Sedgwickia pleuropistha Sep nis eek 233 ROUEN docimc san codee ee BY)

Septipora (CASIRGRSIS Sole Sam Beco BE Pim SHE DOS Vitae. 5). ce taicteon ta Sane eh Sieg 124

Spartina junced...............- Se Su ChOPOmanGalbertiy. 2. ss sje 238

Spermophila........... Soe ee 381 | Streptorhynchus flabellum, 200, 238

TUPLE HRO NS Sor Fan cy ces cycles 388 HuayrelnrenUULN Une vere sss aie 193

OWIWlss ps anoe doe vosce oe 382 JEONG ES Rtas eae pci 239

Spirifer aculeatus.......... 149, 154 ; Stromatopora granulosa. ....... 236

DIGOSIOMUS Eno) soi 34 ois. 148, 151 TOUUIGK he Net eadah eeneee 236

152, 158, 160 DORGELOSOM eet) ia sae 236

CIS] OLS OI oe 148—158, 160 Sanduskyensis, 02.2. .22 15. 236

curvatus....144, 152, 154, 155 SUDSUMIGLCH Gl. Seve 4 eaafass)/thee os 236

CYCIOPLETUS 55.0 ag » LEON OROD MIA ctr. Ge | Akela s es a 123

CISFUTIGIU ara eee hha ok 2 159 | hittitASeee ap keeesuococe 122

CLCUCTLUS erate 149, 150, 1538 PHS! paca el eee 122

fimbriatus.......144—160, 239 | Strophodonta amplu........... 239

GlaDeTe ar stare 144, 145, 152, 155 | SC CIELY eae et attracts 174

QVOUNOSUS oe eee eee eee eee 149 GEMSSUA WO nan: hake ae eer 239

ips... s 2135 es eee 149 LTS RCs soaacobcabe jee ey

WEISS = ores nee 140—160 » inequiradiata.......-+.+-- 239

WCRLULS =. 2 ar) eee 148, 149 TOT ete eacteedic ape eer 239

macropleurus ........2... 174 JECHT SC npoden wapoo ee 239

UVGHO: «6 149, 218, 285, 243 [DERI G beac maison ec 214, 239

PIT COULOIUSS cl xs 0s sos eaten 159 SUICINSS soaosoeccar os 239

MLOUESEUS), «0 0s 6 < swiss 149, 160 | Strophomena rhomboidalis. . 174,

MUCTONGUS .......4.. 159, 175 236, 239, 248

OctOCOSUHMUS ....... 0.0: 149, 160 | Stylastreea Anna....-.-... 199, 237

perlamellosus)...-.--+...- 149 | Succinea approximans.......... 122

(LGHUS:.).oememe <<. 4.2 sane 149 ITS sen golacpobe Epes 123, 124

PTEMAUUTUS we... ... 149, 160 | Synocladia biserialis........... 220

pseudolinedtus........ 148, 149 ORS THIAUSIS 5 SG5d6 Shoe wg cee 221

ROOLOUNS, << .\= » = Metal 149, 150 PAGWISOIG Jeg coonesonoooe 220

WOQORMU Sc .25 «'.,: - aR 149, 160 | Syringopora Hisingeri.......... 237

402 Index.

PAGE. PAGE.

Syringopora, Maciurei......... 287 | Tropidoleptus carinatus........ 240

(OOWNOH hs seo. olsn 6080 408 204 | Tudora:....c2s.-2 oe eee 121

Turbo Kearneyi....... \ eee 241

Tentaculites fissurella.......... 307 Sumordanane see 241

scalariformis.... 212, 234, 235

SCUCUIO Ne geiaytrelcs sie Seine Matte 242) > Voluta. 2.0.02 enn: eee 190

Terebratula carneoides.......... 191

SUMMOTMPs wage ne taaceocse 240 | Xenophora antiqua...........- 241

Thelidomus........... 123

CUSCONCT ean ewer ania s 6 an 123 | Zaphrentis cornicula............ 207

NECTUOUT eusapy easel es te orotee hae 122 Hwardsi. Wha eee 237

PLOLODUISS ai alain pice Coun eas 122 Giganted... 0.2 eae ae 237

Airey e lina aes ste ei 1s aie aan a te 1238 prolificd, . 2.2... Paiste co 237

Trachypora elegantula.......... 237 Worthent).2.-.\.> eee 237

Mremamopus 2 he ayaa wean 205 | Zeacrinus Mooresi............. 227

MinemialOcCerases eee ieee 205 TOMMEROS MUMS > ooodusc8cu5s 228

Ohioense....... 205) 206," 242" | Zonitesvonboreuse 71 see 369

Trematocrinus spiniferus.... . 215 petrophilus!) )yaneeeeeere 369

SPUUGCLUS ae aie ene 215 UIT UCUILES s,s eee 369

Triodopsis Levettei........ 115, 116 Wiheatleyaliee sane 368, 369

ERRATA.

Page 103, line 19 from the top, for ot read to.

Page 237, line 20 from the top, for Hesingeri read Hisingeri.

Page 285, line 15 from the top, for Beckham read Peckham.

Page 288, line 4 from the top, for Furnarius read Formicarius.

Page 333, under 1857, first column, for Geuthier read Geuther.

Page 336, under 1861, first column, for Plauté read Plante.

Page 341, line 7 from the top, for Anz. Ann. Chim. read A. ¢. p.

Page 349, line 22 from the top, for Wein. read Wien.*

Page 357, line 5 from the foot, for Protocardia read Lunulicardium.

Page 3738, line 10 from the foot, for illuminates read illuminants.

ae Ve

me INC N AGES

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VOLUME II, 1880—82.

i ge

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