THE NEW YORK ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

(Lyceum or Natura History, 1817-1876)

OFFICERS, 1910

President—J ames F. Kemp, Columbia University

Vice-Presidents—GEorcE F, Kunz, CHarues B. DAVENPORT,

Maurice Ftstrpere, WILLIAM CAMPBELL

Recording Secretary—EvMunp Otis Hovey, American Museum

Corresponding Secretary—HeErMon C. Bumpus, American Museum

Treasurer

Emerson McMiIriin, 40 Wall Street

Librarian—Racteu W. Tower, American Museum

SECTION OF GEOLOGY AND MINERALOGY

Chairman—Grorece F. Kunz, 401 Fifth Avenue

Secretary—Cuarues P. Berkey, Columbia University

SECTION OF BIOLOGY

Chairman—CHuanr_es B. Davenport, Cold Spring Harbor, N. Y.

Secretary—L. Hussaxor, American Museum.

SECTION OF ASTRONOMY, PHYSICS AND CHEMISTRY

Chairman—WILLIAM CAMPBELL, Columbia University

Secretary—Epwarp J. THatrcuer, Teachers’ College

SECTION OF ANTHROPOLOGY AND PSYCHOLOGY

(‘hairman—MAvrick FIsHperc, 1337 Madison Avenue

Secretary—R. S. Woopwortu, Columbia University

CONTENTS OF VOLUME XX.

Page

SECEDE. 521 5 ee a) me ec keke Soca ee cu bse ahaleues i

ECOL rare ee ee eas eioneh save oats Wiais wc a nels Rie a Meie ii

GOMUCTNICS ocean a ema e aisio 6 ed ove nee oe cuuleupenes iii

Dates! Of LUPIICAMONS AMGNeMUEMOTS: SEM AMGES cc cb wok slecee sas oes es nee oe ili

ENSHOR LMUSEEA ONS esac etre riete sso ae here 2 Se po ce ate Sea ba aE ee iv

(Part I) Art. 1. The Phylogeny of Certain Cerithiidze. By Etvira

Vi CODES WX CLEA ROS) TESS ON elias Caen Aap ae ee ae ae 1

(Part II) Arr. 2. The Watchung Basalt and the Paragenesis of its Zeo-

lites and other Secondary Minerals. By CLARENCE

IN; CHENNER | CE AGeS Ne NOL le elacys cceisc-aiene s 0) soolaneie 93

ArT. 3. New Genera and Species of Carboniferous Fossils from

the Fayetteville Shale of Arkansas. By Gerorce H.

(IRIN? Bonk, reson < hves HER, Te IO RIORONG che Rec en en me oe 189

ArT. 4. New Species of Fossils from the Thaynes Limestone of

ita ar ya GPORGH Es Gates siete: sercreys-o eo oo oie ks) «13 239

ArT. 5. The Coal Basin of Decazeville, France. By Joun J.

SPEVEINSON: se Lales: Noli VeNGVO) neta ele ars ae ele cicioys' «1s, DAS

Art. 6. The North American Ants of the Genus Camponotus

Mayr. By WILLIAM MORTON WHEELER............-. 295.

ArT. 7. Measurements of Dakota Indian Children. By Crark

STIS STAR Sepa egera ei che a Pererer sire eer ees Mary oa Ro Hebe e,3) 28 oO

(Part III) Arr. 8. Geology and Economics. By James F. Kemrp...... Bec 210,

ArT. 9. Biographical Memoir of Robert Parr Whitfield. By

Eon GZACDAGAPS. (Uae NaVeo) ete iota adic iss ocies oe) OD

ArT. 10. Records of Meetings, 1910. By Epatcunp Oris Hovey.. 399

itherOrganizationsor the Ncadeniv... 05-00-2622 6.2 5-45 5

MhevOrisinasOnariere can tee craks oie bse wae 443,

ORCC eG fae COIs er ee ts cate Sie ze Ns 8 Seas dm ths, g 445

MherAmendedeGlavierwese soe. aes atin ais oS ac cislecsbrs 446

CONS HUMIEIOM Mery eee Ne eene ete ete, sow chats aleawese +49

ESVolL Suerte eter. ee ae oe hates cic os Lor meek 450

Membership rests. ole DECemNer OO: seme set idee ce es nace 457

SaXGIENS eh euch BiG Ge OPS OL eG Gn oe Ce ONS eo en 471

DATES. OF PUBLICATIONS OF AUTHORS’ SEPARATES.

Hdition.

(Parr I) Art. 1, pp. 1-92, 14 May, 1910. 275 copies.

(Part IL) Art. 2, pp. 93-187, 4 August, 1910. 275 copies.

ART. 5, pp. 189-238, 26 October, 1910. 175 copies.

ART. 4, pp. 259-242, 26 October, 1910. 175 copies.

ART. 95, pp. 245-294, 20 December, 1910. 375 copies.

ART. 6, pp. 295-854, 30 December, 1910. 325 copies.

ART. 7, pp. 355-864, 7 February, 1911. 125 copies.

(Parr III) Art. 8, pp. 365-384. 23 February, 1911. 225 copies.

ArT. 9, pp. 385-398, 31 March, 1911. 125 copies.

ART. 10, pp. 448-469, 5 July, 1911. 75 copies.

iil

LIST OF TLLUSTRATIONS.

Plates,

1.—NSurface features of Cerithium and Vulgocerithium.

I1.—Vicinocerithinn bouei (Deshayes).

Vicinocerithinm paralleliin sp. nov.

Cerithium adansoni Bruguiére, a young individual.

Cerithiwm tuberosum Colamne.

Cerithimm aquispirale sp. nov.

Cerithium retardatum sp. nov.

Cerithiwm bicarinatwin mut. trispiralis mut. noy.

Cerithiwm bicarinatiwn Deshayes.

I11.—Ontogeny of six species of Cerithium.

Cerithium tuberosum, fourth volution.

Cerithinum adansoni, protoconch.

Cerithiwn adansoni, second volution.

Cerithinim adansoni, third volution.

Cerithiun? noduloswmn, fourth volution.

Pseudovertagus aluco, fourth volution.

Cerithinm ltamellosinn, protoconch and first volution.

Cerithium lamelloswn, third volution.

Cerithium retardatin, second volution.

Cerithium retardatiun, third volution.

1V.—Ontogeny of six species of Cerithium (continued).

Cerithium tuberosum, eighth volution.

Cerithinm adansoni, fifth volution.

Cerithium adansoni, eighth volution.

Cerithinmn? noduloswn, sixth volution.

Cerithinm? nodulosum, eighth volution.

Pseudovertagus aluco, seventh volution.

Pscudovertagus aluco, eighth volution.

Cerithinm lanellosum, fifth voluation.

Cerithium retardatum, fifth votution.

Cerithium retardatum, seventh volution.

V.— Ontogeny of six species of Cerithium (continued).

Cerithinm adansoni, ninth volution.

Cerithium adansoni, aperture.

Cerithium cequispirale, ninth volution.

Cerithium equispirale, twelfth volution.

Pseudovertagus aluco, tenth volution.

Pseudovertagus aluco, eleventh volution.

Cerithiwm lamelosin, ninth volution.

Cerithimm lamellosion, eleventh volution.

Cerithium retardation, ninth volution.

V1.—Ontogeny of six species of Cerithium (continued).

Cerithium tuberosion, thirteenth volution.

Cerithinm tuberosum, fourteenth volution.

Cerithiwn wquispirale, fourteenth volution.

Pseudovertagus aluco, thirteenth volution.

Pseudovertagus aluco, fourteenth volution.

Cerithium lamellosum, aperture.

Ceritthium retardatum, fourteenth yolution.

Cerithiwm retardatum, aperture.

V1Il.—Ontogeny of Cerithiide.

Cerithium callisoma, third volution.

Cerithium menkei, second yvolution.

Cerithium menkei, fourth volution.

Vicinocerithium paralleluim, second volution.

Vicinocerithium parallelum, third yvolution.

Vieinocerithium bouei, fourth volution.

Potanidopsis tricarinata, second volution.

Potamidopsis tricarinata, third volution.

Potamidopsis trochleare, fractured protoconch.

Potamidopsis trochleare, fourth volution.

VIII.—Ontogeny of Cerithiidz (continued).

Cerithium callisoma, sixth volution.

Cerithium callisoma, eighth volution.

Cerithium menkei, fifth volution.

Vicinocerithium parallelum, fitth volution.

Vicinocerithium parallelum, seventh volution.

Vicinocerithium bouei, eighth volution.

Potanmidopsis tricarinata, sixth volution.

Potamidopsis tricarinata, tenth yvolution.

Potamnidopsis trochicare, sixth volution. ;

Potamidopsis trochleare, twelfth volution.

IX.—Ontogeny of Cerithiidz (continued ).

Cerithium callisoma, tenth volution.

Cerithium menkei, tenth volution.

Vicinocerithium parallelum, twelfth yvolution.

Vicinocerithinm parallelum, aperture.

Viceinocerithiun bouei, twelfth volution.

Vicinocerithium bouei, aperture.

Potamidopsis tricarinata, twenty-third volution.

Potamidopsis tricarinata, twenty-fourth volution.

Potamidopsis trochleare, aperture.

X.—Quarry in Basalt at West Paterson, N. J.

X1I.—Magnified sections of Basalt and Secondary Minerals.

Normal crystallization of dense Basalt.

Dense Basalt bordered by Secondary <Albite.

Dense Basalt bordered by Secondary Albite (Ab) with fanlike groups

of Prehnite (Pr) and some Calcite (Ca).

Groups of radiating quartz crystals surviving from an early period of

alteration in a slide in which Zeolites and Chlorite form the principal

features.

Garnet (Gr), fibrous green Amphibole (Am) and Prehnite (?r) encrust-

ing dense Basalt.

Garnet grains (Gr). acicular Amphibole (Am) and long needles of

Pectolite (Pc) in Prehnite (Pr).

XIT.—Magnified sections showing alteration in Basalt.

Breccia of an original glass, whose interstices have been filled with

ferruginous clay from the lake bottom.

Incipient stage of Zeolitic alteration of glass, showing effect’ of chill

cracks in directing percolation of solutions.

Alteration effects in brecciated glass.

Prominent banding in secondary products, due to cracks in the criginal

glass.

Geometrical patterns in garnet, interpreted as due to resorption of

olivine.

Incipient alteration of glass, showing accentuation of physical and

chemical differences by a slight degree of alteration. :

NIII.—Magnified section of Secondary Minerals in Basalt.

Association of Garnet (Gr), fibrous green Amphibole (Am), Albite

(Ab), Prehnite (Pr), Specularite (Sp), Chabazite (Ch), and Calcite

(Ca), forming a crust on dense Basalt.

Association of Garnet, Amphibole and Prelhnite.

Complex forms of Secondary Minerals found in an advanced stage of

alteration of glass.

NIV.—Outcrop of Bourran Coal Bed at Firmy.

Southerly end of the Decazeville Découverte.

NYV.—A “local fault’ in the easterly wall of the Decazeville Découverte.

The Domergue Découverte.

WO Portrait of R. P. Whitheld:

Text Figures.

Page

(ONE FULEIIOT TN AAD OMS ee ORRERERCREio ace ok SG ok oan: SadodouecodSsuodppupoDs 10

Microlitic growth of phenocrysts in vitrophyric crusts.................--- 100

Ohilociie nodules from resorption: of Olivameseerre ies eerie iets een 102

Basalt bordered by vein albite, prelmite and natrolite.................... 122

Single crystal of secondary albite, showing both carlsbad and albite twin-

MUD epee eieis.c.nicte Sus 3.0udhole a) 0 ateee sake ne ee nen ene kshokes suck Ric eniane te Mean a eee 12

Crystal of secondary albite partly replaced by pectolite.................. 124

Replacement of albite! by, Pue lM hey Sees) eeeeke rete ree teenth eat 127

Veplacement Of albite by MetrOliter occ nene eli erin ieie ee tare eee alee

Fragments of quartz outlining former crystal, now almost completely re-

placed! by satolitess. «Herc cxccd = arse cic cee eee ee Menem ete erect tetenal IB:

Fragments of quartz with prehnite being replaced by apophylite......... 154

Quartz cut by vein of chabazite and corroded by same on margin......... 15

Replacement of quartz (clear) by chabazite (blocky)...............2..... 135

Replacement of quartz (clear) by heulandite (stippled)................. 16

Replacement of quartz by calcite.......... 55 (5.1 bie AREA eS Rechegeyete tae tieys. ait 137

Shreds of an abnormal amphibole (probably arfvedsonite) in calcite...... 141

Association of amphibole, datolite, chabazite, stilbite and calcite......... 145

Remnants of datolite crystals perched upon prehnite in contact with stilbite 150

Corroded crystals of prehnite in the midst of datolite.................-. 151

Datolte replaced by: chabazite and calcite. .5......0ne see eee eee eee 152

teplacement of datolite by stilbite................... Sacto kee eee meee a alas

SwWwatims Of Gorrodederystals of datolite in stilbite.. 22-2 25-6 sees Aa Al

aie

Page

Remnants of prelnite groups in stilbite..... Pp aPer Gao ORR ACACIA Ge ee 155

Re MOUCe CW DV: Vell Oh OMNIA TGS). syslaucpe parm ahe-cveley oy eters secs ale tee eter ete em ic 156

Masses of pectolite needles and isolated remnants of same in the midst of

oy own AUK! Bod aapdoodace Ea enn ee eee ol yn Scinct siene-a it scneuareree Se 158

Porous, decomposed analcite, penetrated by needles of natrolite.......... 166

Replacement, Of Chabazikea ya Ne@uMUeaM GUC ecrccis.s oi oe os ees Slee ccsis see ss ete 168

Replacement of chabazite by stilbite and of both by natrolite............ 169

Phantom crystals of some replaced mineral found as inclusions in stilbite. 170

Needles of natrolite which have penetrated areas of stilbite.............. 171

Remnants of scolecite needles in the midst of natrolite.................. 173

Chart showing order of deposition and periods of stability of the various

primary and Secondary minerals.............. SNe are ea Ke rnc Mak ce ck eee aM 179

MAD ROMmELemCONMe ASIN Ofte MCCHAZEVINIG A fons cnec.cc sc aleve cin acole oe 6 da qisva wens 246

VOL. XX PART I

ANNALS

| NEW YORK

ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

EDITOR

Edmund Otis Hovey

NEW YORK

PUBLISHED BY THE ACADEMY

1910

THE NEW YORK ACADEMY OF SCIENCES —

(Lyceum or NaturaL History, 1817-1876)

OFFICERS, 1910

President—JameEs F. Kemp, Columbia University.

Vice-Presidents—GrorGE F. Kunz, CuHarLEs B. DAVENPORT,

Mavrice Fisuperc, WILLIAM CAMPBELL

Recording Secretary—EpmunpD Otis Hovey, American Museum

Corresponding Secretary—HeERMoN C. Bumpus, American Museum

Treasurer—EMERSON McMItuin, 40 Wall Street

TAbrarian—RaLpu W. Towrr, American Museum

SECTION OF GEOLOGY AND MINERALOGY

Chairman—GeEorGE F. Kunz, 401 Fifth Avenue

Secretary—Cuartes P. Berkey, Columbia University

SECTION OF BIOLOGY

Chairman—Crartes B. Davenport, Cold Spring Harbor, N. Y.

Secretary—L. Hussaxor, American Museum

SECTION OF ASTRONOMY, PHYSICS AND CHEMISTRY

Chairman—WILUIAM CAMPBELL, Columbia University

Secretary—Epwarp J. THatcHeER, Teachers’ College

SECTION OF ANTHROPOLOGY AND PSYCHOLOGY

Chairman—MAvRICE FisHBERG, 1337 Madison Avenue

Secretary—R. 8S. WoopwortuH, Columbia University

The sessions of the Academy are held on Monday evenings at 8:15

o’clock from October to May, inclusive, at the American Museum of

Natural History, 77th Street and Central Park, West

[ANNALS N. , ACADEMY oF SCIENCES, VoL. XX, No. 1, Part I, pp. 1-92,

Pll. I-IX. 14 May, 1910]

THE PHYLOGENY OF CERTAIN CERITHITIDA

By Etvira Woop

(Presented in abstract before the Academy, February 7, 1910)

CONTENTS

Page

NN EMAATANIG UL OT On rats 2) Veleralc)'s o.0\e))0\ajelolsi< oleic oles cisie seJdieles a0 Saree hale esd iota iakeiere 2

rears TPES 2 hase ite nse! ade Ws Ge Bininfa 8.0 ci 4 oh0r% + 0,gi0isiaia oa 2

PA CIATOWACUSINEIES Melee leis oar slelsreleln sloccre's is tel «ovate cole le(o.0 o.st'« © irks; ehele] olny 6

II. Selection of a genotype for Cerithiwn sensu strictO............+.--- 6

MolerGenus) Cerithiun Colmmmane sie odes bins ee cee ees enitioees cee siectees 10

IV. Ontogenetic description of SPeCieS....... 2... cece eee cece eee eee ceeee 14

} APU EVOCED Gy SPECIOSac, \« checlsie esis c's: ofs's. ihe CHO OD BOE iG Ore 14

1. Oerithium Mideroswm ZLOuUP 22.66.20 2. ccc vices ccc ccses 14

@. HUTOPCAN SPECICS 6c se ccie cc 2 oe ace ec oo oe wre as ole 14

DaPAUNCHICATI SPECIES. | Baar svelte) clejelclela,c lel oe eye lovehaleie = 30

2. Genera and species related to the Cerithiwm ee osum

Cait) GBt ope seubo ces.o Purbad cba nods ope Soooa or 33

AG DEA GAUL Ds OE OBOE SOP ISD OTOP COD ado 33

B. Pleistocenic species of Vulgocerithiwm........ce ee ceececeeees 39

©. Pliocenie species Of Ceminiiuini.. 2. oo. once wie ie cic ewes 20 aele® 39

DP NTIGECHIC MSOCIES: eictatelers ie, oilsteterelera-e bidhe te oe) ,.0) dyeitcia el ee: wd lavfarerailerstevelin 43

TO TU VUUITGAL. Bion eA Gene ORS oi COC OL Ac aor ine aa cet ne 43

PV ALO OCENUCILULIIE wre ieler tes tereie tah eles si s)'s) ove iclielel'e\a 'o),a16 elsleiateileha ae 46

HeOlizocenievand HOCENIC ISPECIES ee ice is oc vise ce wasn oe weds wes ole 47

Tea OG UU OTIC: OEBIE otic Gene GGG Ot SOS CIO RIC Pearse 47

2. Vicinocerithium ..... Bre ate eiete ate als tetetaae bs duanetahe, dumb 57

SR DECI TITRE RD pele Aa toca IG COREE. O CHCRCIE, CROTER OSC TER Cac aa ICT EU A 59

SeMELOLE TUS CODSUS: mates estoy a1 cietaks inva alale. 18, chee Me alee sa: cveje)cbate atesee 65

5. Vulgocerithium ....6ccecees Celera yc tSus ute. € Gicuteteatane (M

Hen reEleie. SHCCIOS (Ol AOCMIMNUIMbele x2 cies ojeis «| ole.s 2 0:00, se'eja0 t's 0 vieie 79

Gea suracsie Species! OF VOCE... 1!.% cieveiciane oul o old's 's oiele ice ew e.e's 80

Vil SRUIMED Te Gee 0G dod dod. Sho dG COR BORO ACO ODCUe e COU Oana nes OhCicc 81

VI. Phylogenetic table of certain Cerithiida.............2eccccccscecces 85

Norn. The author alone is responsible for the terminology used throughout this

article. EDITOR.

Cav)

ANNALS NEW YORK ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

I. INTRODUCTION

The literature of the genus Cerithium is already extensive, including

papers which treat the subject from both the paleontological and the

zoological point of view. The genus is treated to a greater or less extent

in all general works on conchology, but such treatment is confined to

descriptions of the genus and of the different species referred to it,

without any attempt to trace phylogenetic relationships, and the same is

true, with few exceptions, of paleontological papers on the subject.

Recently M. Cossmann [1906] has published a monograph on the

Cerithiide, in which he takes account of the relationship between differ-

ent forms and presents an elaborate classification of the various genera

and sub-genera included within the family.

M. Cossmann’s conclusions are largely based on characters appearing

late in the life history of the individual, and he lays especial stress upon

the various features of the aperture. The present paper, being founded

upon a different method of work, as explained below, necessarily reaches

conclusions somewhat different from those of M. Cossmann.

A complete bibliography of the works consulted in the preparation of

this paper is given on pages 86 to 91.

The principles of phylogenetic development discovered and formulated

by Hackel, Hyatt, Cope and others have been successfully applied in

studies of the phylogeny of several groups of greater or less extent, such

as Hyatt’s studies on the Cephalopoda, Jackson’s on the Echinodermata

and Grabau’s on the Fuside. ‘The present paper is an attempt to apply

these principles in working out the relationships of such species of

Cerithium as could be obtained.

The fundamental law upon which all the work is based is the law of

morphogenesis, which has been stated by Hyatt! as follows:

A natural classification may be made by means of a system of analysis in

which the individual is the unit of comparison, because its life in all its

phases, morphological and physiological, healthy or pathological, embryo,

larva, adolescent, adult and old (ontogeny), correlates with the morphological

and physiological history of the group to which it belongs (phylogeny).

According to this principle, a study of the life history ‘of individuals

furnishes a ready and most reliable means of tracing the development of

the group to which they belong. Hence, in the present investigation,

the starting point has been the study of individual development and a

comparison of the records thus obtained. Similarity in the character

1A. Hyatt: “Genesis of the Arietide,” p. viii. 1889.

WOOD, PHYLOGENY OF CERTAIN CERITHIIDA S.

and order of introduction of the various features of the shell are indica-

tions of relationship, and the comparison of a sufficient number of life

histories will furnish a phylogenetic tree whose completeness depends

upon the abundance and perfection of the material available for study.

In making such comparisons, it is important to take account of paral-

lelism in development, in consequence of which similar characteristics

may appear for a greater or less portion of the life history in individuals

belonging to divergent groups. An illustration of this is to be found in

Vicinocerithium bouei DrsH. and V. parallelum sp. nov. of the Eocenic

of the Paris basin. These shells are closely similar in the adult and have

been referred to the same species, but they differ in developmental his-

tory. Both have, in the adult, one extremely prominent spiral around

the middle of the whorl, with strong ribs crossing it and a less prominent

spiral below. The remainder of the surface is covered with spirals of

secondary, tertiary, and higher orders. In the young, Vicinocerithium

bowei has three spirals, the lowest of which is the most prominent (plate

vil, fig. 6). Later, in the growth of the shell, finer spirals are inter-

calated, and all are crossed by ribs. At a still later stage, the upper

spiral of the three primary ones becomes the most prominent and finally

develops into the strong carina of the adult (plate v1, fig. 6, and plate

1X, figs. 5, 6). Vicinocerithium parallelum also begins with three spirals,

of which the lowest one is the most prominent, but ribs are present as

soon as the third spiral appears (plate vu, figs. 4,5). Later, the median

spiral becomes as prominent as the lower, and for several volutions the

two are equally prominent, while the upper spiral diminishes in propor-

tion, and additional fine spirals are introduced on the shoulder thus

formed (plate vin, figs. 4, 5). The median spiral continues to increase

until it forms the carina of the adult (plate 1x, figs. 3, 4), a feature

which was formed in the preceding species by increase in the upper spiral

of the three primary ones. These shells are parallel in the adult, but

differ in development and are to be traced to different ancestors.

The phylogenetic record is obscured by the fact that not all of the

history of a group is expressed in the ontogeny of a single species. As

new characters are introduced in the evolution of the group the record

becomes too long to be repeated during the lifetime of a single individ-

ual, and each of the ancestral stages occupies a shorter and shorter por-

tion of the length of the shell, until some stages disappear altogether.

An individual thus shows the adult characteristics of its ancestors at an

early period of its life history. These facts are expressed as follows in

Hyatt’s law of acceleration :?

2A. HyATT: “Genesis of the Arietide,” p. ix. 1889.

4 ANNALS NEW YORK ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

All modifications and variations in progressive series tend to appear first in

the adolescent or adult stages of growth, and then to be inherited in successive

descendants at earlier and earlier stages according to the law of acceleration,

until they either become embryonic, or are crowded out of the organization,

and replaced in the development by characteristics of later origin.

This law is well illustrated in the development of two Paris Basin

shells, Potamidopsis tricarinata LamarcK of the Calcaire Grossier and

Potamidopsis roissyi DesH. of the Sables Moyens. In the young, the

surface ornamentation of the latter species consists of two rows of nodes,

the lower being the more prominent. The same is true of the young P.

tricarinata, but this stage lasts much longer in the latter than in the

former species. The stage with two rows of nodes is followed by one in

which there is an additional row of fine nodes intercalated between the

two, and the lowest row is still the most prominent. At about the ninth

volution of P. roissyi this ornamentation is fully developed, and it repre-

sents the adult ornamentation of P. tricarinata, which is found at a lower

geological horizon. The adult characteristics of P. tricarinata last for

hardly more than one volution on P. roissyi, which soon develops its own

characteristic adult ornamentation of three rows of nodes, the uppermost

of which are largest and transversely elongated. (See Deshayes, 1824,

plate L, fig. 13.) P. tricarinata is the ancestor from which P. roissyi

developed, and the latter records this fact in its ontogeny.

Two individuals belonging to the same phyletic series and living dur-

ing the same time period frequently do not reach the same degree of

complexity in structure. One may retain its primitive characteristics

until late in its life history, only diverging from the ancestral type on

becoming fully adult, while another may pass through its ancestral stages

early in life and show a long succession of characteristics of later origin.

The former is retarded in its development in comparison with the latter.

Cerithium tuberosum is an illustration of a retarded shell, retaining, as

it does, the two equally strong spirals until the tenth volution, the whorls

only acquiring their acute angled outline on the twelfth volution. Ce-

rithium adansoni passes through the same ancestral stages as C. tuber-

osum, but loses the obtuse angled outline of the whorls at about the sixth

volution and after that acquires nodes, blunt spines and numerous addi-

tional spirals. It is a highly accelerated recent shell.

Acceleration and retardation are expressed not only in the ontogeny

of the individual as a whole, but each character may be independently

accelerated or retarded. Cerithium graciliforme (Tryon, 1887, plate

xxi1, fig. 77) retains the obtuse angled outline of the whorls to the

ninth volution, while C. echinatum (Kobelt, 1898, plate xx, fig. 6) loses

WOOD, PHYLOGENY OF CERTAIN CERITHIIDZ 5

this type of outline at about the seventh volution. C. graciliforme is

therefore a more retarded shell than C. echinatum in this respect. In

the acquisition of nodes, however, it is accelerated, for it acquires nodes

on the ninth volution, while C. echinatum does not develop them until

the thirteenth volution. This differential acceleration and retardation

often produces a wide difference in the appearance of adult shells, with-

out the introduction of any new character.

Individuals having the same development for a greater or less portion

of their life history, but differing in the adolescent or adult stages, may

be regarded as divergent descendants from the same ancestral stock. A

striking illustration of such divergence is found among recent species of

Cerithium in the group of which C. tuberosum may be taken as a type.

In addition to the types of variation already noted, there is a kind of

individual variation which seems to differ from all, and that is in the

slight accentuation of the characters ot the shell from their earliest ap-

pearance to the last volution. This is seen in individuals of Cerithiwm

lamellosum, some of which show secondary spirals distinctly on all the

whorls, while on others these spirals are but faintly indicated. This may

be due to some condition in the environment, possibly to more lime in

the water or to better food supply in the case of the well-marked indi-

viduals, or it may be due only to an inherent tendency to variation.

Acceleration and retardation and the introduction of new characters

may cause divergence sufficient to serve as a basis for the separation of

species, or they may appear to a less degree in individuals referred to the

same species. Where many individuals are present, we find gradations

in the various characters compelling us to establish varieties, and the

more extensive the material the more insensible the gradations become,

so that if our collections were sufficiently extensive, it would doubtless be

possible to establish a perfect gradational series among various species of

Cerithium, as in the classic example of the Planorbis of Steinheim.*

As might be expected, the greatest difficulty encountered in determin-

ing the phylogeny of Certthiwm has been due to the scarcity of material.

It has been impossible to secure specimens of shells from the early Meso-

zoic horizons which might be expected to furnish the ancestors of the

forms occurring in such abundance in the Eocenic. A similar difficulty

arises in connection with late Tertiary and early Quaternary material in

which we should expect to find the connecting links between Hocenic and

recent species. In the absence of specimens of shells, figures and de-

scriptions have been freely used, but the figures of the early portions of

®* A. Hyatt: Mem. Boston Soc. Nat. Hist. 1880.

6 ANNALS NEW YORK ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

the shell are unreliable, and in all the older works they were considered

too unimportant even to be mentioned in the descriptions. In most later

works, also, insufficient attention has been given to the character of the

protoconch and early conch stages of the shell. For this reason all sug-

gestions concerning phylogeny which are based on figures and descrip-

tions alone are to be considered as merely theoretical and as subject to

revision, if actual specimens become available.

Acknowledgments and thanks are extended with pleasure to those who

have rendered assistance during the preparation of this paper; to Dr.

Carlotta J. Maury for the loan of Oligocenic shells from the Paris Basin,

and to Dr. Amadeus W. Grabau for many helpful suggestions The writer

desires especially to express her appreciation of the very liberal manner

in which Mr. Samuel Henshaw, Director of the Museum of Comparative

Zodlogy, has placed at her disposal the resources of the collection in his

care. The following officers of the American Museum of Natural His-

tory have also been most generous in providing opportunities for the

study of the material in that museum: Dr. Hermon C. Bumpus, Director,

and Prof. R. P. Whitfield and Dr. E. O. Hovey, Curators of the Depart-

ment of Geology and Invertebrate Paleontology. Valuable assistance in

collecting the literature of the subject has also been given by the libra-

rians of both the above mentioned institutions.

II. SELECTION OF A GENOTYPE FOR CERITHIUM SENSU STRICTO

The selection of a type of the genus Cerithium has given rise to much

difference of opinion, and the determination of the proper species to be

used as a standard of comparison for other species of the genus has led

to a revision of the literature on the subject.

The name Cerithiwm was first used by Fabii Columne [1616] in his

treatise, “De aquatilibus aliisque nonnulis animalibus.” He figures a

shell under the name of Buccinum tuberosum, which in his description

he says should be referred to “Cerithia.” On the margin of the page op-

posite this reference are the two names Buccinum tuberosum and Ceri-

thium parvum. No description or figure accompanies the latter name, and

it is possible that Column intended to substitute this name for that of

Buccinum tuberosum, for the shell figured on page 53 of his work; but

since this is not definitely stated, the specific name tuberosum is retained

for the shell figured and referred to Cerithium. Columne gives no de-

scription of the genus Cerithiuwm, and his description of the species tuber-

osum is meager, but his figure of the latter is sufficiently good clearly to

identify his shell with the one described by Lamarck [1843, p. 292]

WOOD, PHYLOGENY OF CERTAIN CERITHIIDA v

under the name of Certthiwm erythreonense and by Sowerby [1855]

and Reeve [1866] as Cerithium tuberosum.

Adanson [1757] described and figured a shell from Senegal which he

believed to be identical with that of Columne. His figure closely re-

sembles Cerithium tuberosum, except in the aperture, which is more like

that of the shell from Senegal described by Bruguiére as Cerithiuwm adan-

soni. Adanson was describing a shell collected by himself at Senegal,

and his description seems to indicate quite definitely that his shell is

really C. adansoni BRUGUIERE, since it mentions the strongly spinose

tubercles not found on C. tuberosum and gives the size as two inches, or

about 50 mm. The youngest specimen of C’. tuberosum seen in the col-

lections studied was 57 mm. long, and full-grown individuals are 64 mm.

or more in length. The similarity in the figures may perhaps be ac-

counted for by a tendency on the part of the artist to imitate a figure

already published and believed to be of the same species. Adanson named

his shell simply “Le Cerite,” and this name would not stand, since it does

not conform to the binomial nomenclature.

The first published description of the genus Cerithium is by Bruguiére

[1792]. He divides the genus into three groups, the first of which corre-

sponds to Vertagus Kirin and the second to Cerithium sensu stricto.

The first species of this second group is Cerithium nodulosum, which the

author believed to be of the same species as C. tuberosum CoLUMNA,

since he cites the latter species in his synonymy. The description, how-

ever, corresponds with C. nodulosum, as the name is now applied. The

second species of this group is C. adansoni, the description of which cor-

responds closely with that of “Le Cerite’ by Adanson, and Bruguiére

states definitely that he is describing a shell of the same species as Adan-

son’s shell.

At a still earlier date Martyn [1784] figured under the generic name

of Clava four species which Dall [1907, p. 366] now refers to Cerithium,

as follows:

1. Clava rugata MARTYN = Murer asper LinNe.

2. Clava herculea MaRrtyN = Cerithium ebeninum BRuGuI=RE.

3. Clava maculata Martyn = Cerithium clava BRUGUIPRE.

4. Clava rubus Martyn = Cerithiwm echinatum LAMARCK.

On the strength of these figures, Dall [ibid., p. 368] claims for Martyn

the first recognition of the genus Cerithium, but Martyn published no

descriptions either generic or specific, and it hardly seems that these fig-

ures alone furnish a valid reason for changing the name of the genus

from Cerithiwm to Clava Martyn. Clava has long been established as

8 ANNALS NEW YORK ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

the name of a genus of hydroids, and the confusion that would arise in

the literature furnishes another reason for avoiding such a change.

In the first published description of the genus Cerithiwm by Bruguiére

no genotype was designated, and the first to make a definite selection was

Lamarck [1799]. He chose Murex aluco Linn&, which was described

by Bruguiére with the name of Cerite chenille. This shell belongs to

the first of the three groups described by Bruguiére, and it might well

remain the type of that group to which the name Pseudovertagus has

since been applied. It does not belong in the same group with the shell

to which Column gave the name of Cerithium, as will be seen by com-

paring the life histories of the two species as given on plate 111, figs. 2,

3, 4; plate rv, figs. 2, 3; plate v, figs. 1, 2; plate 111, fig. 6; plate Iv, figs.

6, 7; plate v, figs. 5, 6, and plate v1, figs. 4, 5. Lamarck himself seems

to have been dissatisfied with his own choice of a genotype, for two years

later [1801, p. 85] he redescribed the genus and mentioned Cerithium

nodulosum as an example of it.

Later authors have adjusted the claims of their predecessors in various

ways. Most credit the genus to Bruguiére, but others refer it to La-

marek or Adanson. A few of these may be mentioned: thus Montfort

[1810] credits the genus to Lamarck, choosing the genotype selected by

him in 1799. Link [1807] and Schumacher [1817] solve the difficulty

by dividing the genus into two groups, the former following Lamarck, in

1799, for his first group, and Bruguiére, with Cerithtum adansoni as an

example of his second group, to which he gives the name Aluco. Schu-

macher retains the name Cerithium for both his groups, crediting them

to Lamarck, with C. aluco as genotype for one anid C. nodulosum for the

other. Among the authors who refer the genus to Adanson are Deshayes

[1824], d@Orbigny [1842-1843], Sowerby [1855], Fischer [1887] and

Tryon [1887]. Bruguiére, being the first to describe the genus as such,

is still more widely recognized, and a few of the authors who have fol-

lowed him are Swainson [1840], Reeve [1866], Cossmann [1906] and

Dall [1907].

In the choice of a genotype equal diversity is shown, for Fischer, while

he refers the genus to Adanson, chooses C. nodulosum as the genotype.

Deshayes is consistent in choosing for the type of the genus C. adansoni.

Of those who refer the genus to Bruguiére, Swainson and Cossmann

choose C. nodulosum, and Dall and Dautzenberg and Dollfus [1882-

1885] choose Murex aluco LANNE as the type of the genus.

Summarizing the facts already given, it appears that Column was

4The author has been unable to see this work, and is indebted to Dall [1907, p. 364]

for the reference.

WOOD, PHYLOGENY OF CERTAIN CERITHIIDA 9

the first to propose the name Certthium, which he did in connection with

a description -and an easily determinable figure of a well-known species.

He gave it a name which conforms to the Linnean system of nomencla-

ture, and it appears to the writer that these facts are sufficient ground

for referring the genus to Columne. Apparently the only reason for

discrediting his work and referring the genus to a later author is found

in the rule of the International Congress of Zodlogists, according to which

the date 1758 is taken as the starting point of the binomial nomenclature.

This rule is useful, but to enforce it indiscriminately would do great in-

justice to the pioneers in science whose work conforms with the standards

at present in use. This is especially true when, as in the present case,

there are additional reasons for recognizing the earlier work. In actual

practice the rule is not closely followed, since many genera described pre-

vious to the year 1758 are still retained under the name of the original

author. For example, among the Cephalopoda we have Belemnites Lis-

TER, 1678; Orthoceras BREYN, 1732; Lituites BrEYN, 1732, and among

Gastropoda Planorbis GuETTARD, 1756, and Haliotis Linn#é, 1735. Fur-

thermore, the reference of the genus to Columnz would have the great

practical advantage of settling at once the vexed question of a genotype,

and this type is of such a character that it would, on the basis of phy-

logenetic studies, retain within the genus Cerithiwm a large number of

the species known by that name throughout the literature of the subject.

The work of Adanson, like that of Columne, is pre-Linnzan, and it

furthermore fails to conform to the binomial nomenclature.

If the rule of discrediting pre-Linnean descriptions be rigidly adhered

to, the genus would be referred to Bruguiére, and the choice of Cerithium

nodulosum as genotype seems to come nearest to that author’s own con-

ception of the genus. The choice of Murex aluco for a genotype, as at

first suggested by Lamarck [1799], would result in substituting the name

Cerithium for Pseudovertagus and the use of a new name for the group

to which the former was originally applied. This would cause great

confusion in the literature and make the genus a different one from

what was intended by the early writers on the subject, since Bruguiére

was obviously trying to follow both Columne and Adanson in describing

first, C. nodulosum, which he believed to be identical with Columnz’s

shell, and second, C. adansoni, which was “Le Cerite” of Adanson. He

merely fell into the common error of including under one name groups

of shells which he himself recognized to be different.

Cerithium nodulosum bears a superficial resemblance to C. tuberosum

and has been considered by some authors to be of the same species. It

is, however, quite distinct. According to the youngest specimens of

10 ANNALS NEW YORK ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

C. nodulosum at first obtainable, it seemed that the two species belonged

to the same phyletic series, but the absence of ribs on a somewhat younger

individual, received later, throws some doubt upon this supposed relation-

ship. The point can only be determined by a study of younger stages of

C. nodulosum than are now available, and in case the latter shell proves

to be different in its development from C. tuberosum, it must represent

a very restricted group, for among species now referred to Cerithiwm

the absence of ribs on individuals having a well developed shoulder is an

extremely rare feature. In this case also, with C. nodulosum as geno-

type, the name Cerithiwm would be used in a very restricted sense, and a

new name would have to be given to the genus as understood by Column

and Bruguiere.

For the purposes of this paper, Cerithium tuberosum CoLUMN2: will

be used as a standard of comparison for other species of the genus.

III. Genus CrerritHium Columne

1616. Cerithiwn Fasir CoLuMN2, De Aquatilibus, pp. 53, 57.

1784. Clava Martyn, The Universal Conchologist, London.

1792. Cerithium BruGui&rRe, Hist. Nat. des Vers., Encye. Méth., I, pt. 2, 467.

1799. Cerithium LAMARCK, Prodrome nouy. class., p. 738 (not seen).

1801. Cerithium LAMARCK, Syst. des animaux sans vert., p. 85.

1898. Cerithiwm Kosett, Syst. Conch.-Cabinet von Martini u. Chemnitz, Bd. I,

Abth. 26, 2. .

1906. Cerithium CossMANN, Essais de Paléoconch. Comp., VII, 65.

Fic. 1.—Cerithium tuberosum. Copy of Columnee’s original figure X 1.

After the description of Buccinum maximum and mention of other

species of Buccinum, Columne refers to this species as follows:

Sed rariorem hane parui Buccini tuberosi candidi, ad Cerithia referendam,

oris margine supra tubulum elata, et incumbens non inuersa ut in alijs magnis

WOOD, PHYLOGENY OF CERTAIN CERITHIIDA Tih

effigiem omittere noluimus, quanimus huiusmodi alias differentias habeamus,

colore cinero orbitas depressioribus, magis densis minutisque tuberculis asperas.

While this description is meager, it is sufficient, with the aid of the

figure, for the identification of the species designated. The character-

ization of the shell as a small one excludes Cerithium nodulosum, with

which it has been confused. The reference to the margin of the mouth

as raised above the canal and resting upon it is hke C. tuberosum and

unlike C. adansoni. The figure also resembles C. tuberosum in its high

spire, in the character of the aperture and of the ornamentation, so far as

this is indicated by the imperfect figure.

Description of Cerithium by Bruguiére:

Genre de coquilles univalves, uniloculaire, 4 spire reguliére, qui a pour

caractere,

Une coquille turriculée, ’ouverture oblique, terminée 4 la base par un canal

étroit, totalement recourbé, ou moyennement recourbé, ou droit et trés-court,

mais jamais échancré.

Genotype selected by Lamarck, 1799, Murex aluco LINNE; 1801,

Cerithium nodulosum BRUGUIERE.

The protoconch of the genus Cerithium has been observed in many

species and is found to be uniform in character. It forms a low, regu-

lar spiral of usually about one and one-half volutions. The limits of the

protoconch are not sharply defined, as the ornament begins faintly at

first and becomes gradually stronger, but for convenience the protoconch

has been assumed to end where the first traces of ornament appear. Prac-

tically the only difference found in the earliest whorls of the species

studied is in the extent of the smooth portion of the shell, which varies

from one and one-fourth to one and one-half volutions. This is due to

difference in degree of acceleration, the more accelerated forms having

the ornamentation crowded back to an early stage in shell growth.

The surface ornamentation of Cerithium consists of spirals, ribs and

nodes, the great diversity observable in the ornamentation of the different

species being due to the relative development which each of these feat-

ures attains. In forms sufficiently retarded to show the order of intro-

duction of the various features of the ornamentation, it appears to begin

as one spiral, or in accelerated forms as more than one, additional spirals

coming in above the first. Ribs next appear and nodes are formed by

the concentration of material where the ribs and spirals cross. In a few

cases ribs appear after the first and before the formation of a second

spiral, but in no case have ribs been observed before the appearance of at

least one spiral. Intercalated spirals may come in either before or after

12 ANNALS NEW YORK ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

the introduction of ribs, and they often become extremely numerous..

While the order of introduction of the types of surface ornamentation is.

fairly constant, the precise volution at which a new feature will appear

is dependent on the degree of acceleration which the shell has attained

and often shows considerable variation within the same Linnean species.

In highly accelerated forms, both spirals and ribs may appear together

at the close of the protoconch stage. This is seen in Cerithium adan-

soni, plate 111, fig. 3.

The amount of embracing of the whorls in shells of this genus varies.

within considerable limits, but as a rule the body volution is shorter than

the remainder of the spire.

The aperture is oval, with an oblique, more:or less widely open an-

terior canal. Primitive forms have no posterior tooth, but in some

Kocenic and later forms a projection of the callus of the inner lip forms

a distinct tooth which defines a short canal between itself and the outer

lip. |

In the earlier literature of the subject, the name Cerithiwm was applied

to all forms having in common the characters of a high spire, a short

body whorl and a short anterior canal, although Bruguiére himself recog-.

nized the heterogeneous character of the genus, for he separated it into

three groups which are now properly recognized as distinct genera. Fur-

ther subdivision has been found necessary from time to time, until in

M. Cossmann’s Essais de Paléoconchologie, volume 7, after the separa-

tion of several groups of family rank, we find seventeen genera, thirty-

one subgenera and forty-five sections.

Choosing Cerithium nodulosum BrucutIbreE as the genotype, M. Coss-

mann lays especial stress upon the projecting tooth on the anterior por-

tion of the outer lip, and he restricts the genus so as to include those

forms in which this tooth crosses the opening of the canal. This ena-

bles him to place only two species within the genus, the genotype and

Cerithium erythreonense (= C. tuberosum), but a close study of the

anterior tooth seems to indicate that its importance as a basis for classifi-

cation has been greatly overestimated. It appears on the last portion of

the body whorl, a position in which the highest-degree of variation in the

shell is to be expected, and features appearing at this stage should serve

as reasons for separating end members of evolutionary series, but not for

uniting species as genera, if the classification is to be a natural one—

that is, based on community of descent. The tooth is formed by the

more rapid growth of the anterior part of the outer lip, and when a

spiral is present on this part of the shell, it often determines the point

at which an extra amount of calcareous material is deposited. The de-

WOOD, PHYLOGENY OF CERTAIN CERITHIIDZA 13

velopment of this tooth is extremely variable among individuals undoubt-

edly of the same species; for example, among six adult individuals of

C. ? nodulosum showing no trace of fracture, two develop this feature

to a very slight extent and do not form a tooth which crosses the aperture.

C. echinatum is referred to a different section on account of the less

development of this tooth, but certain individuals have the tooth devel-

oped to a greater extent than some specimens of C. nodulosum.

Not only is the tooth variously developed in species which are shown

by their ontogeny to be related, such as C. tuberosum and C. echinatum,

but it is strongly developed in species undoubtedly of different descent ;

for example, Pseudovertagus aluco and related species have such a tooth

very strongly developed, yet the wide difference between the ontogeny of

Pseudovertagus aluco and Cerithium tuberosum will be readily appre-

ciated by comparing the figures of C. tuberosum in the first column of

plates 111 to vi with those of Pseudovertagus aluco in the fourth column

of the same plates.

Of the genera and subgenera of Cerithiide already established, there

will be considered in this paper only the Cerithiwm tuberosum group and

others closely related to it.

In the description of species which follow no attempt has been made

to give a complete synonymy. In each case the original description or a

reference to it is given, and also a reference to a good modern description.

Where necessary to make the identification of the species clearer, addi-

tional references are given. Descriptions are based on one individual

which may be considered typical of the species, but where variations such

as differences in color, in the number of varices and the like are charac-

teristic features, other individuals are considered. Measurements are

also from one individual, usually the largest of those referred to the

species. The method of taking measurements of the apical angle is sim-

ilar to that described by d’Orbigny [1842-1843, pp. 10-14], with the ex-

ception that in the case of convex or concave shells two measurements are

given representing the extreme angles obtained, and, as nearly as possi-

ble, the volution at which the change takes place. The sutural angle is

measured as described by d’Orbigny, holding the aperture of the shell

downward and taking the upper angle made by the suture with the right

side of the shell in dextral forms and the left side in sinistral forms.

14. ANNALS NEW YORK ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

IV. ONTOGENETIC DESCRIPTION OF SPECIES

A. RECENT SPECIES

1. Cerithium tuberosum Group

a. European Species

Cerithium tuberosum Columne

Plate 1; plate 11, fig. 4; plate 111, fig. 4; plate Iv, fig. 1; plate v1, figs. 1, 2.

1616. Cerithium [Buccinwm] tuberosum Fasit CoLUMNa&, De aquatilibus, pp.

Humor

1843. Cerithium erythrwonense LAMARCK, Animaux sans vertébres, éd. 2, IX,

292.

1855. Cerithium tuberosum SoweErsy, Thesaurus Conch., II, 855, pl. 178, fig. 49..

1866. Cerithiwm tuberosum REEVE, Conch. Iconica, XV, pl. 1, fig. 5, No. 5.

1898. Cerithium erythrwonense IKoBetr, Syst. Conch.-Cabinet von Martini u.

Chemnitz, Bd. I, Abth. 26, 78, pl. 15, figs. .2, 3.

1887. Cerithium erythrawonense Tryon, Manual of Conch., IX, 123, pl. 20, fig. 16.

1906. Cerithiwn erythreonense COSSMANN, Essais de Paléoconch., VII, 67.

The original description by Fabii Columne is given under the discus-

sion of the genus.

MEASUREMENTS: Length, 64 mm.; greatest diameter, 29 mm.; apical angle,.

34°, changing on the 9th volution to 29.5°; sutural angle, 91°.

CoLor: Pale brown or brownish yellow.

The protoconch is not preserved on any of the specimens obtainable.

The first volution retained is .7 mm. in diameter, and this corresponds.

in size with the first volution beyond the protoconch of Cerithiwm adan-

som. The surface features are entirely obliterated on this volution, but

the next shows traces of the ornamentation, which is apparently the same

as that of CO. adansoni at the same age. The fourth volution has two

strong spirals, the upper of which defines the shoulder, with one spiral

intercalated between them. There are also four equal spirals above and

two below the primary ones. All the spirals are crossed by ribs, of which

there are nine on this volution. On the succeeding volutions more

spirals are added on the shoulder and the lower slope of the whorls, and

their number is also increased by intercalation between those already ex-

isting. At about the eighth volution the spirals become much crowded,

and are raised into a strong ridge just below the suture. The same type

of ornamentation persists for eleven volutions, but on the twelfth the

lower of the two equal spirals becomes weaker, and the outline of the

WOOD, PHYLOGENY OF CERTAIN CERITHIIDA 15

whorl changes from an obtuse angle to one both of whose sides stand at

angles of about 45° with the axis of the shell. This tendency increases

until, on the body whorl, the lower primary spiral is inconspicuous, and

the upper forms the most projecting portion of the strong nodes into

which the ribs have become contracted. The sub-sutural ridge above

described is, on this volution, raised at short intervals into a row of

smaller nodes, and on the lower portion of the body whorl there are three

strong nodose ridges formed, like the sub-sutural ridge, of groups of fine

spirals. On the under side of the body whorl ribs and nodes are nearly

obliterated along the surface upon which the animal rested when with-

drawn into its shell; but just beyond this area, on the side of the volution

opposite the outer lip, the surface is raised into a strong varix.

The aperture is oval, with a strong posterior tooth. The outer lip is

slightly flaring, with its margin crenulated by the spirals of the outer

surface. The lower portion of the outer lip grows more rapidly than the

upper portion, and the lowest of the nodose ridges is produced into a

toothlike process which, in some individuals, crosses the opening of the

anterior canal. The length of this process varies considerably in differ-

ent specimens of the species. The inner lip has a strong callus. The

anterior canal is long and comparatively narrow.

HORIZON AND LOCALITIES: Recent. Red Sea and Indian Ocean.

No. 20124, Columbia University collection.

REMARKS: Cerithium tuberosum is especially well adapted to serve as

a type of the group of shells to which it belongs, since it is a retarded

form passing through the various stages in its development slowly and

retaining primitive characteristics until a late period of its life.

Cerithium ? nodulosum Bruguiére

Plate 111, fig. 5; plate tv, figs. 4, 5.

1792. Cerithium nodulosum BruGuIbRE, Hist. naturelle des Vers, Encycl. Méth.,

I, pt. 2; 478:

1887. Cerithium nodulosum Tryon, Manual of Conch., IX, 122, pl. 19, figs. 13,

14s) ple 20; firs 5:

1898. Cerithiwm nodulosum Kopett, Syst. Conch.-Cabinet von Martini u. Chem-

nitz, Bd. I, Abth. 26, 76, pl. 15, fig. 1.

1906. Cerithium nodulosum CossMANN, Essais de Paléoconch. Comp., VII, 66,

MEASUREMENTS: Length, 95 mm.; greatest diameter, 47 mm.; apical angle,

87°; sutural angle, 84°.

Cotor: Grayish white, more or less closely covered with interrupted bands

and patches of dark brown.

16 ANNALS NEW YORK ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

The youngest volution available for study is 1.9 mm. in diameter, and

it is probable that several volutions have been broken away above this.

It has a sharply angled outline, with the most projecting portion slightly

above the middle of the whorl. It is ornamented with three strong, con-

tinuous spirals, the uppermost of which is stronger than the others. Two

finer spirals are present on the shoulder, and one is visible just above the

suture. The entire surface is roughened by exceedingly fine, thread-like

cost crossing the spirals at right angles. They are too fine and too

closely set to appear like ribs, and ribs of the usual kind are entirely

absent at this stage. The ornamentation remains similar in type, with

the intercalation of finer spirals between those already existing, until the

sixth volution, on which widely spaced ribs appear. At this stage the

volution is about 6 mm. in diameter. The fine spirals increase rapidly

in number, and on the later volutions the primary spirals seem to be

made up of clusters of finer spirals with the clusters separated by deep,

smooth grooves. At about the ninth volution the median of the three

spirals becomes almost as strong as the uppermost spiral, so that for two

or three volutions the obtuse angled outline of the whorl characteristic

of Cerithium is suggested. The upper spiral, however, soon becomes

again the most prominent one, and this tendency increases until, on the

body volution, this spiral forms the margin of very large, blunt, flat-

topped nodes, with the ribs nearly obsolete above and below them. On

the late whorls the finer spirals are sometimes confluent and the former

cluster becomes a broad, flattened ridge defined by a narrow groove on

either side. The body volution below the nodes bears three broad nodose

spirals.

The aperture is oval, with the outer lip flaring and thrown into strong

folds by the coarse spirals of the outer surface. The lowest of the spirals

on the body whorl is sometimes produced to such an extent that it forms

a projecting tooth which crosses the opening of the canal. The inner

lip bears a strong callus with a prominent tooth near the posterior portion

of the aperture. The siphonal canal is broad and deep and slightly bent

backward.

HORIZON AND LOCALITIES: Recent. Moluccas, Philippines, Indian Ocean.

No. 40203, Columbia University collection.

The young individual figured is from the exhibition collection of the Museum

of Comparative Zodlogy.

ReMARKS: Although the adult of this species bears some resemblance

to Cerithium tuberosum, its development is unlike that of any species of

Cerithiide studied. The formation of a distinct shoulder so long before

the appearance of ribs and the presence of the fine coste crossing the

WOOD, PHYLOGENY*OF CERTAIN CERITHIIDA liye?

spirals are features which have not been observed elsewhere. So far as

the information at present available goes, it would appear that C. ? nodu-

losum is the sole representative known of a distinct genus, but it is left

for the present in the genus Cerithium, awaiting an opportunity to study

still younger stages of the shell and to obtain other shells which will

throw light upon this peculiar type of development.

Cerithium adansoni Bruguiére

Plate 1; plate 11, fig. 3; plate 111, figs. 2, 3, 4; plate Iv, figs. 2, 3; plate v,

fies. hee.

1757. “Le Cerite’ ApANSON, Histoire Naturelle du Sénégal, 152, pl. 10, fig. 2.

1792. Cerithium adansoni Bruauizre, Hist. Nat. des Vers, Ency. Méthod.,

I, pt. 2, 479. ;

1855. Cerithiwn adansoni Sowrersy, Thesaurus Conch., II, pl. 178, fig. 45.

1898. Cerithium adansoni Kopsert, Syst. Conch.-Cabinet von Martini u. Chem-

nitz, Bd. I, Abth. 26, 142, pl. 27, figs. 4, 5.

The following is Adanson’s description of “Le Cerite” :

Fabius Columna s’est servi du mot grec latinisé Cerithium pour defigurer

une espéce du genre des coquillages que je vais décrire sous le nom commun

de Cerite.

La coquille de cette espéce n’a guéres que deux pouces de longueur et une

fois moins de largeur.

On n’y compte que douze spires, renflies dans leur milieu, qui est garni d’un

rang de boussettes assez grosses, élevées sur une cote parallel a sa longueur.

Le reste de leur surface est entouré de dix 4 douze petit filets peu élevés. La

seconde spire porte quelquefois un gros bourrelet sur la gauche.

La longueur du sommet surpasse presque une fois sa largeur et la premiére

spire.

L’ouverture est exactement ronde, et paroit beaucoup plus evasée que la

précédente, parce qu’elle se porte presqu’ entiérement hors de la coquille, sur

sa droite. Son canal inférieur est creusé en demi-cylindre, recouvert en partie

par une cote assez grosse, elevée sur la base de la lévre gauche. Le canal

supérieur est reserré, et de moitié plus profond que large.

La lévre droit n’est pas sensiblement prolongée dans sa partie supérieure,

et elle ne forme pas l’auvent comme dans la premiére espéce.

La lévre gauche n’est pas non plus repliée comme la sienne; elle est recou-

verte seulement par une lame courte, mais épaisse, et relevée en bas d’un filet

assez gros qui tourne en dedans de la coquille.

Sa couleur est blanche, sans melange dans les jeunes, et légérement tachée

de brun dans les vieilles.

Je nai remarqué dans cette coquille qu’ une légére variété, qui consiste en

ce que les boussettes des spires sont quelquefois assez longues et pointues:

cela se rencontre ordinairement dans les jeunes; et c’est vraisemblablement

le frottement qui les use et les arrondit dans les vieilles.

Cette espéce vit aussi dans la vase mais on ne la voit qu’en petite quantité

dans le fleuve Gambie, vis-a-vis le comptoir d’Albreda.

18 ANNALS NEW YORK ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

The description of this species given by Bruguiére is closely similar to

that of Adanson, and much of it is even worded in the same way. Prac-

tically the only addition made by Bruguiére was in giving the species a

binomial name.

MEASUREMENTS: Length, 43 mm.; greatest diameter, 3 mm.; apical angle,

50° to the eighth volution, changing to 31.5°; sutural angle, 72.5°.

Cotor: White, sparingly dotted with pale brown.

The protoconch of Cerithium adansoni consists of about one and one-

fourth volutions. The ornamentation begins as two spirals crossed by

distant ribs on the first volution beyond the protoconch (plate 11, fig. 2).

The second volution bears three fine spirals on the shoulder. These

are increased by a fourth fine spiral on the third volution, and an

intercalated spiral appears between the two primary ones. Tertiary

spirals and those of higher order are soon developed, and these fine spirals

do not increase greatly in size, but they become extremely numerous, so

that the entire surface of the adult is covered with thread-like coste. On

the fourth volution, just below the upper suture, there is an elevation of

the surface to form a coarse spiral which carries with it the fine spirals

already existing. Later in the life of the shell other coarse spirals arise

in a similar manner on the shoulder and below the two primary spirals.

The lower of the primary spirals becomes gradually weaker and the upper

more prominent, until at about the sixth volution the outline of the

whorl has lost its vertical element formed by the two equal spirals and

has become an acute angle. On the next volution the center of the rib

becomes so prominent that it might almost be called a spine, and on this

volution also rows of large nodes are formed by the breaking up of the

coarse spirals just below the upper suture and above the lower one. On

the eleventh volution there are three coarse spirals above and three below

_ the central extremely prominent one, all of which are irregularly nodose.

The median spiral of the body volution is spinose on the dorsal side,

but on the ventral side the spines are represented by low nodes only.

Below the prominent spiral on the body volution there are six or more

coarse spirals with finer intercalated ones, and the whole is covered, like

the rest of the surface, with the fine coste described above.

The aperture is a broad oval in outline. The outer lip is thick, some-

what flaring, and crenulated by the spirals of the oyter surface. The

inner lip has a thick callus, raised into a strong blunt tooth which, with

the outer lip, forms a short canal at the posterior end of the aperture.

The anterior canal is short and slightly curved, and its opening is nar-

rowed by the rapid growth of the lower portion of the outer lip. This

WOOD, PHYLOGENY OF CERTAIN CERITHIIDA 19

growth does not, however, form a distinct tooth as in Cerithium tuber-

osum and some forms of C. echinatum.

HORIZON AND LOCALITIES: Recent. Senegal, west coast of Africa and spar-

ingly near the mouth of the Gambia River. M. Cossmann [1906, p. 66] as-

sumes that this shell is a fresh-water form, but this is hardly borne out by

the statement of Adanson, who collected the animals in their native locality.

According to his account of the habitat quoted above, it seems that the animal

is typically marine, and comparatively few individuals have migrated up the

Gambia River.

No. 20125, Columbia University collection.

Museum of Comparative Zodlogy, museum collection.

Remarks: This shell, from the protoconch to the seventh volution,

corresponds exactly in development with Cerithium tuberosum. It is,

however, a more accelerated shell, since the stage with two equal spirals

persists in C. tuberosum for ten volutions, while in C. adansoni this

feature is lost on the sixth volution. The adult of C. tuberosum cor-

responds approximately to the seventh volution of C. adansoni, but the

correspondence is not exact, for at this stage C. adansoni has not ac-

quired a sub-sutural row of fine nodes, while its ribs have become even

more spinose than those of C. tuberosum. C. adansoni is not to be re-

garded as a descendant of C. tuberosum, but rather the two are descended

from a common ancestor, C. adansoni passing through its ancestral stages

rapidly and adding new characters, while C. tuberosum is retarded in its

development and never attains the high degree of ornamentation charac-

teristic of the adult C. adansont.

Cerithium echinatum Lamarck

1843. Cerithium echinatum LAMARCK, Animaux sans vert., éd. II, IX, 291.

1887. Cerithium echinatum Tryon, Manual of Conch., IX, 123, pl. 20, figs. 25-27.

1898. Cerithium echinatum Kosett, Syst. Conch.-Cabinet von Martini u. Chem-

nitz, Bd. I, Abth. 26, 100, pl. 20, figs. 5-8.

1906. Gourmyia echinatum CossMaANN, HEssais de Paléoconch., VII, 69.

MEASUREMENTS: Length, 49.4 mm.; greatest diameter, 27.3 mm.; apical

angle to the ninth volution, 45°, changing to 37.5°; sutural angle, 82.5°.

Cotor: Grayish white, sometimes marked with transverse patches of brown,

which is deepest on the spirals.

The protoconch of Cerithiwm echinatum is much worn on the only

available specimen showing that feature, but so far as can be determined,

it is precisely like that of C. adansoni, and the first four volutions are

indistinguishable on the two shells. On the fifth volution there is less

contrast between the primary spirals and those of higher order than on

20) ANNALS NEW YORK ACADEMY OF SCIENCES.

C. adansoni. In other words, the primary spirals are not so highly de-

veloped, and spirals of higher order are coarser. This difference persists

throughout the remainder of the shell growth. On the sixth volution,

beyond the protoconch, the upper of the two primary spirals becomes

more prominent. This tendency increases until, on the body volution,

the ribs have become contracted into spines, of which the upper primary

spiral forms the most projecting portion. The spirals of higher order

increase rapidly in number until they become so crowded that they

coalesce, forming broad, flattened ridges which are in places finely striated,

indicating the original spirals of which they are composed. On the body

whorl the uppermost spiral breaks up into fine nodes, and just before the

end of this volution three spirals on the shoulder become similarly no-

dose. On the lower slope of the volution there are also three strong

spirals which become nodose toward the end of the whorl. Spines are

absent from the under side of the body volution, as in C. adansoni.

The aperture is broadly oval. The inner lip bears a strong callus,

with a well-developed tooth forming, with the outer lip, a short canal at

the posterior portion of the aperture. The anterior canal is short and

slightly curved. The outer lip is flaring, its margin being crenulated by

the spirals of the outer surface. The lower margin of the outer lip

grows more rapidly than the upper, forming a projection somewhat as in

Cerithium tuberosum, but not so strongly developed as in the latter

species. There is considerable difference in the degree to which this

feature is developed on several individuals of C. echinatum.

HorRIZON AND LOCALITY: Recent. Zanzibar.

No. 40181, Columbia University collection.

ReMARKS: This shell bears a strong resemblance to C. adansoni, but

differs in the coalescence of the fine spirals, which on C. adansoni remain

- distinct throughout the life of the shell, covering all the coarser features

with fine thread-like lines. On C. echinatum also nodes are developed

to a less degree, appearing only on the latest portion of the body volution.

The more rapid growth of the lower portion of the outer lip on C. echina-

tum is an important distinguishing feature, since it does not occur on

C. adansoni.

C. echinatum, as shown by its early development, is closely related to

C. tuberosum, but it is a more accelerated shell, since it loses the vertical

element from its outline on the sixth volution, instead of the tenth,

as in (. tuberosum. While more accelerated than C. tuberosum, it is

more retarded than C. adansoni, since it does not acquire nodes until

near the end of its life history.

WOOD, PHYLOGENY OF CERTAIN CERITHIIDA 91

Cerithium menkei Deshayes

Plate vil, figs. 2, 3; plate vi11, fig. 3; plate 1x, fig. 2.

1863. Cerithiwn menkei DESHAYES, Moll. Réunion, p. 97, pl. 9, fig. 15.

1887. Cerithium columna Tryon, Manual of Conch., IX, 123, pl. 20, fig. 19.

1898. Cerithiwm menkei Kopeit, Syst. Conch.-Cabinet von Martini u. Chem-

nitz, Bd. I, Abth. 26, 208, pl. 37, fig. 1.

MEASUREMENTS: Length, 29 mm.; greatest diameter, 16.5 mm.; apical angle

to the eighth volution, 47°, changing to 35°; sutural angle, 76.5°.

CoLor: Uniformly cream-colored, or occasionally having a few pale brownish

spots scattered irregularly over the surface.

This shell is thin and delicately sculptured, with all the features of

the surface ornamentation distinctly shown.

The protoconch is not preserved, but the first volution remaining,

which is probably the first beyond the protoconch, is ornamented by two

spirals and faint ribs only. This volution has a diameter of .6 mm. On

the next volution three fine spirals appear on the shoulder. Intercalated

spirals are first developed on the third volution, and they increase rapidly

during subsequent growth until, on the body whorl, those of the fifth

order may be counted. The two primary spirals remain of equal strength

for eight volutions, but on the later volutions the lower spiral becomes

weaker, until it is reduced to the size of a secondary spiral, and the out-

line of the whorl is changed from an obtuse angle to approximately a

right angle. At intervals on the later volutions of the shell one rib is

slightly stronger than the others, and on the body whorl there is one

strong varix. A sub-sutural band, as in C. tuberosum, is developed on

the ninth and later volutions. Toward the end of the body whorl this

band becomes tuberculate, and on the lower slope of this whorl two strong

spirals are developed.

The aperture is elongate oval, with a posterior tooth on the narrow

callus of the inner lip. The outer lip is flaring, crenulated by the spirals

of the outer surface. The anterior canal is comparatively long.

HoRIZON AND LOCALITY: Recent. Indian Ocean.

No. 20126, Columbia University collection.

REMARKS: Certthium menkei differs from C. columna in having a

thinner shell, finer and more delicate sculpture, broader and less widely

spaced ribs.

The development of the ornamentation of this shell is so closely par-

allel to that of C. tuberosum that, taken in connection with the similarity

in the form of body and aperture, it leaves no room for doubt that the

22 ANNALS NEW YORK ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

two are developed from a common ancestor. This is clearly brought out:

by a comparison of the figures of young whorls on plate vit, figs. 2, 3,

and plate 111, fig. 4. -

Cerithium columna Sowerby

1855. Cerithium colwmna SowrErRBy, Thesaurus Conch., II, 855, pl. 178, figs.

55-58. .

1866. Cerithiwm columna REEVE, Conch. Icon., No. 2, pl. 1, fig. 2.

1887. Cerithiwn columna Tryon, Manual of Conch., IX, 123, pl. 20, figs. 17, 18.

1898. Cerithiuwm columna Koper, Syst. Conch.-Cabinet von Martini u. Chem-

nitz, Bd. I, Abth. 26. 85, pl. 16, figs. 7, 8.

MEASUREMENTS: Length, 29.2 mm.; greatest diameter, 17.1 mm.; apical

angle, 41°; sutural angle, 87°.

Cotor: Ground, white or cream white, with irregular patches of dark reddish

brown, the amount of brown on different individuals varying greatly.

The shell is thick and heavy, with relatively coarse spirals and narrow,

sharp ribs.

The youngest volution preserved is 2 mm. in diameter. It bears two

strong, equal spirals with intercalated spirals of two higher orders and

fine spirals on the shoulder. All are crossed by ribs, which on the later

volutions of the shell become narrow, with wide interspaces. The orna-

mentation retains the same character, with an increase in the number of

intercalated spirals for the three succeeding volutions, after which the

lower of the two primary spirals becomes weaker, changing the outline of

the volution, as described above, from an obtuse angle to a right angle.

Varices occur on the later whorls to the number of about two to the

volution. The spirals become closely crowded just below the suture, and

there is a tendency toward the formation of a sub-sutural band, but it

never becomes well developed. On the later portion of the body volution

small nodes are developed on the stronger spirals.

The aperture is broadly oval, with a well-developed posterior tooth

and short, oblique anterior canal. The callus of the inner lip is thick and

rather narrow. The outer lip is flaring and crenulated.

HorIzoN AND LOCALITIES: Recent. Indian Ocean, Japan, Oceanica.

No. 20127, Columbia University collection.

Remarks: This species is a near relative of C. menkei, differing in the

characters enumerated above and, like that species, reveals in its devel-

opment its relationship to C. tuberosum.

WOOD, PHYLOGENY OF CERTAIN CERITHIIDA 29

Cerithium citrinum Sowerby

1855. Cerithium citrinwn SowrErRBy, Thesaurus Conch., II, 855, pl. 179, fig. 66.

1866. Cerithium citrinwm Reeve, Conch. Icon., No. 1, pl. 1, fig. 1.

1887. Cerithium citrinum Tryon, Manual of Conch., IX, 128, pl. 20, fig. 21.

1898. Cerithium citrinum Kosett, Syst. Conch.-Cabinet von Martini u. Chem-

nitz, Bd. I, Abth. 26, 110, pl. 22, fig. 23.

MEASUREMENTS: Length, 30.5 mm.; greatest diameter, 15.5 mm.; apical

angle, 37°; sutural angle, 87°.

Coton: Cream white, with streaks and patches of pale brown.

The youngest volution preserved on this shell is 2 mm. in diameter,

and its ornamentation is similar to that of the fourth volution on C.

menket. It has two strong equal spirals, one intercalated spiral and

five fine spirals on the shoulder. One spiral is on the lower slope of the

whorl. The ribs on this species are broad and, for the first five volu-

tions, broader than the spaces between them. The two primary spirals

remain equal in strength for seven volutions, after which the lower spiral

is weaker, but the outline of the volution never becomes sharply angular,

as in the preceding species. The secondary spirals of the shoulder and

the lower slope of the whorl become as strong as the primary ones, and

the outline of the volution becomes regularly curved. Extremely fine

spirals of higher order are rapidly introduced, while the primary and

secondary spirals are raised into ridges carrying the finer spirals with

them, so that the whole surface appears to be covered with bundles of

fine spirals having deep grooves between them. The ribs disappear on

the body volution, with the exception of one strong varix on the side op-

posite the aperture, as is usual in shells of this group. Nodes are absent

from the entire surface.

The aperture is broadly oval. The callus of the inner lip is thick and

narrow, with a prominent posterior tooth. The anterior canal is long

and the margin of the outer lip thick and crenulated.

Horizon AND LOCALITY: Recent. Bird Islands, Pacific Ocean.

No. 20128, Columbia University collection.

REMARKS: Cerithium citrinum differs from C. columna in the more

delicate surface ornamentation, the rounded outline of the volutions and,

with the exception of one varix, the absence of ribs and nodes on the

body volution. It also has a longer anterior canal. This species differs

from C. menkei in the absence of sharply angular volutions and in the

disappearance of ribs on the body whorl.

94 ANNALS NEW YORK ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

Cerithium citrinum mut. bicolor Hombron et Jacques

1842-1853. Cerithium bicolor HompBron et Jacg. Voyage au Pole Sud., pl. 23,

figs. 14, 15.

1887. Cerithium citrinum Tryon, Manual of Conch., 123, pl. 2, fig. 22.

1898. Cerithiwn citrinwm Kopeit, Syst. Conch.-Cabinet von Martini u. Chem-

nitz, Bd. I, Abth. 26, 111.

MEASUREMENTS: Length, 29.7 mm.; greatest diameter, 16.38 mim.; apical

angle, 44°, changing to 30° on the last three volutions; sutural angle, 86°.

Cotor: Cream white with patches of a slightly darker yellowish tone.

The first two of the volutions preserved are precisely similar to those

of Cerithium citrinum. On the third volution the ribs become con-

tracted, leaving broad interspaces, as in C’. columna, but the spirals retain

the characteristic development of C. citrinum—that is, bundles of spirals

with deep grooves between them. This type of ornamentation is carried

still farther on the mutation bicolor, until, as early as the seventh volu-

tion, the interspaces are smooth and nearly or quite as wide as the groups

of spirals themselves. The upper of the two primary spirals becomes

slightly stronger than the lower as early as the fourth volution, and the

two retain the same relative strength for seven volutions. The eighth

volution attains the angular outline characteristic of C. columna. All

the spirals of this form are prominent and sharply defined, even more

so than on either C. citrinum or C. columna. On the body volution all

the strong spirals break up into fine nodes.

The aperture is broadly oval, with a posterior tooth and short, oblique

anterior canal. The outer lip is strongly crenulated. The callus of the

inner lip is strong and not closely applied to the surface of the shell.

HorRIZzON AND LOCALITY: Recent. Philippines.

No. 20129, Columbia University collection.

ReMARKS: This shell has the prominent shoulder of C. columna, while

retaining the thin shell, fine sculpture and development of spirals char-

acteristic of C. citrinum.

Cerithium scabridum Reeve

1866. Cerithium scabridum Reeve, Conch. Iconica, XV, No. 52, pl. 8, fig. 52.

1887. Cerithium columna mut. scabridum Tryon, Manual of Conch., IX, 123,

pl. 20, fig. 20.

1898. Cerithium scabridum Kopett, Syst. Conch.-Cabinet von Martini u. Chem-

nitz., Bd, 1, Abth: 26; 210) ple 3%, fe16:

MEASUREMENTS: Length, 20.5 mm.; greatest diameter, 11.4 mm.; apical

angle, 34.5°; sutural angle, 82.5°.

Coton: White with the more prominent spirals sparingly touched with

brown.

WOOD, PHYLOGENY OF CERTAIN CERITHIIDA 95

The youngest volution preserved probably corresponds with the fourth

volution of C. menkei, being 2 mm. in diameter. This volution has two

strong, equal spirals and three intercalated ones. The shoulder hag five

and the lower slope of the whorl one additional spiral. Ribs are present

to the number of eleven on this volution. The ornamentation resembles

that of Cerithiwm citrinum in being made up of bundles of fine spirals,

but the depressions between the groups are less deeply carved than in

that species. ‘The two primary spirals remain equal for five volutions,

after which the outline of the volution becomes angular, but not sharply

so as in C. menkei. On this shell, as usual in this group, it is the upper

of the primary spirals which is most prominent. The ribs become weaker

on the body volution and disappear on the later portion of it. On this

portion of the shell, also, all the coarser spirals break up into rows of

small nodes. A large varix is present on the side of the body volution

opposite the aperture.

The aperture is broadly ova}, with a well-developed posterior tooth,

narrow callus and short anterior canal. The outer lip is finely crenu-

lated by the spirals of the outer surface and not flaring.

Horizon AND Locality: Recent. Both Reeve and Kobelt report the locality

of the species as unknown. The specimens in the collection of Columbia Uni-

versity referred to this species are from the Bird Islands, Pacific Ocean.

No. 20130, Columbia University collection.

Remarks: This little shell is nearest to C. citrinum, but it differs in

its smaller size, white color, less deeply carved surface ornamentation,

the more angular outline of the volutions and the short anterior canal.

From the mutation bicolor, it differs in size and color and in the less

prominently developed shoulder.

Cerithium mediterraneum Lamarck

1843. Cerithium mediterraneum LAMARCK, Animaux sans vert., IX, 313.

“1855. Cerithium mediterraneum Sowerpy, Thesaurus Conch., II, 865, pl. 178,

fig. 50; pl. 101, figs. 128, 131-133.

1866. Cerithium mediterranewn REEVE, Conch. Iconica, XV, No. 53.

1887. Cerithium rupestre Tryon, Manual of Conch., IX, 126, pl. 21, fig. 48.

MEASUREMENTS: Length, 25 mm.; greatest diameter, 12.4 mm.; apical angle,

39.8°, changing to 25° on the seventh volution; sutural angle, 77.5°.

Cotor: Cream white, mottled with streaks of yellow or brown. Color bands

usually passing transversely across the spirals, but when parallel with them

seeming to occupy the depressions between the spirals rather than their more

‘convex portions.

The youngest volution preserved is .9 mm. in diameter. This volution

26 ANNALS NEW YORK ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

is ornamented by two strong, equal spirals, with two finer spirals on the

shoulder and all the spirals crossed by ribs. The succeeding volution

has a fine spiral intercalated between each two of the three already exist-

ing, and more spirals are rapidly introduced on the later volutions. The

spirals on the adolescent and adult whorls of this shell are all flattened,.

their limits being defined only by the exceedingly fine grooves between

them. The lower primary spiral begins to decrease in strength on the

sixth volution, and the seventh has a sharply angled outline. On this

volution a row of fine nodes is formed just below the upper and above

the lower suture. On the body volution the shoulder is lost, and the

surface is ornamented by five or more rows of low nodes.

The aperture is oval. The callus of the inner lip is thick and has a

strong posterior tooth. The outer lip is thick and smooth. The an-

terior canal is short and slightly bent backward.

HORIZON AND LOCALITY: Recent. Mediterranean Sea.

No. 20131, Columbia University collection.

REMARKS: Cerithium mediterraneum has its nearest relative in C. citri-

num mut. bicolor. It differs in having flattened spirals not grouped

in bundles, as in the latter species. On the whorls having an angular

outline the reduced primary spiral becomes so much flattened that the

outline of the lower as well as the upper slope of the volution is nearly

a straight line. In the preceding species, which are similar to C. medi-

terraneum, the lower primary spiral is always stronger and easily distin-

guishable from the secondary ones. From C. coluwmna this species differs

in having finer surface ornamentation, with flattened spirals and broader

ribs and in the loss of the shoulder on the body volution.

The last five species and one variety, namely, C. menket, C. columna,

C. citrinum and its mutation bicolor, C. scabridum, C. mediterraneum,

constitute a group of closely related forms. They are evidently all de-

veloped from a common ancestor and for the early portion of their life.

history follow the same path of development. The divergence observed

in the neanic and ephebic stages of growth are all due to differences in

. the degree of development or in the grouping of the various features of

the surface ornament. In C. menkei the development of the spirals and

the sharply angled outline of the whorls are emphasized; in C. columna

the development of the shoulder and of the ribs are distinctive, and in

C. citrinum and its variety the grouping of the spirals in clusters is no-

ticeable. They might all be regarded as varieties of one species, as sug-

gested by Tryon, or their divergence in the adult stage might be con-

sidered great enough to entitle them to rank as distinct species. The

WOOD, PHYLOGENY OF CERTAIN CERITHIIDA a7

latter method seems to the writer best to represent the degree of devel-

opment which these shells have reached.

Cerithium dialeucum Philippi

1851. Cerithiwm dialeucum Puitiprl, Abbildungen, III, 14, pl. 1, fig. 5.

1866. Cerithium dialeucwm REEVE, Conch. Iconica, XV, No. 18.

1887. Cerithium dialeucunm Tryon, Manual of Conch., IX, 1380, pl. 28, figs.

87, 88.

1898. Cerithium dialeucum Koper, Syst. Conch.-Cabinet von Martini u. Chem-

nitz, Bd. I, Abth. 26, 167, pl. 31, figs. 8, 9.

MEASUREMENTS: Length, 31.4 mm.; greatest diameter, 15 mm.; apical angle,

45°, changing to 25.2° on the last two volutions; sutural angle, 79°.

Coton: Grayish white on the spirals with alternating bands of dark reddish

or purplish brown in the grooves between the spirals.

The youngest volution preserved is 1.5 mm. in diameter, but it reveals

nothing of the development at this stage, for the ornamentation is nearly

obliterated on the first three volutions. The third volution, however,

indicates the presence of two strong spirals crossed by ribs. The fourth

volution has an oblique-angled outline formed by two primary spirals

and three intercalated ones. Spirals of the first, second and third orders

are present on the shoulder and all are crossed by prominent ribs, with

varices to the number of about three on a volution. The different orders

of spirals on this shell are clearly indicated by a marked difference in

size. The two primary spirals remain of equal strength for about six

volutions, after which the lower becomes somewhat weaker and one of

the spirals on the shoulder becomes stronger, so that on the last two volu-

tions the shell has three strong spirals, of which the median one is the

most prominent, and intercalated spirals to the fourth order are also

present. The whorls of the neanic shell are rounded in outline, and only

the later portion of the body volution becomes somewhat angular. The

lower slope of the body whorl bears six or more strong spirals with inter-

calated ones, all of which tend to become nodose toward the end of the

whorl.

The aperture is oval. The callus of the inner lip is narrow, with a

prominent posterior tooth. The anterior canal is oblique and of moder-

ate length. The interior of the outer lip is deeply grooved to correspond

with the spirals of the outer surface. The grooves of this surface are

white like the spirals, and the ridges are colored to correspond with the

depressions of the outer surface. A narrow margin of the outer lip is

thick, smooth and white.

Horizon AND LOCALITY: Recent. Philippines.

No. 20132, Columbia University collection.

28 ANNALS NEW YORK ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

ReMARKS: This shell is distinguished from all members of the Ceri-

thium columna group by the strong and regular variation in the width of

the spirals to correspond with their order of introduction. The regular

banding in color is also a distinguishing feature. The general form of —

the shell, its early development and the form of the aperture all indicate

its relationship to the C. tuberosum group.

Cerithium album Hombron et Jacques

1842-1853. Cerithiwn album Hompron et Jacg., Voyage Pole Sud., V, 101, pl. 23,

eS, BY

1887. Cerithiwn echinatum Tryon, Manual of Conch., IX, 124, pl. 20, fig. 26.

1898. Cerithiwm echinatum Kopet, Syst. Conch.-Cabinet von Martini u. Chem-

nitz, Bd. I, Abth. 26, 102.

MEASUREMENTS: Length, 31.4 mm.; greatest diameter, 17.3 mm.; apical

angle, 52.5°, changing abruptly to 23° on the last two volutions; sutural angle,

GiDe.

Cotor: White or cream white with occasional streaks of dark brown.

Youngest volution, 3 mm. in diameter, bearing the two strong spirals

always found in the young stages of this group, with three intercalated

spirals. Fine additional spirals are present on the shoulder and the lower

slopes of the whorl. The ribs are numerous and nearly as wide as the

spaces between them. Fine spirals are rapidly introduced, becoming so

crowded below the suture that they form a broad sub-sutural band which,

unlike that of Cerithium tuberosum, retains the slope of the remainder

of the shoulder. On the fifth volution preserved, which is probably the

ninth of a complete shell, this sub-sutural band breaks up into a row of

small nodes, and the ribs become ill-denfined, giving ‘place to a row of

strong nodes on the upper of the two primary spirals. The angle of the

shoulder, except in the youngest stages, is very wide, and on the body

volution it disappears altogether, being replaced by strongly nodose

spirals, of which there are five on this volution with fine rows of nodes

between them.

The aperture is oval, with a well-developed posterior tooth and short,

oblique anterior canal. The outer lip is strongly fluted, and the callus of

the inner lip is narrow.

HorIzoN AND LOCALITY: Recent. Baker’s Island, Pacifie Ocean.

No. 20138, Columbia University collection.

REMARKS: This species has been considered synonymous with Cerith-

ium echinatum, but it differs from the latter species in several important

respects. Beyond the young stages, the shoulder of C. album is never

WOOD, PHYLOGENY OF CERTAIN CERITHIIDHA 29)

well defined, and the neanic whorls lack altogether the strongly spinose

character of C. echinatum at the same age. The apical angle of C. album

is much wider, and the abrupt change in the slope of. the sides on the last

two volutions is not found on C. echinatum. The youngest stages of this

shell are closely similar to those of the species already described, but in

the adult the ornamentation develops rows of small nodes instead of the

shoulder angle present on many species of the group.

Cerithium graciliforme Sowerby

1866. Cerithiwm graciliforme SowERBy, apud REEVE, Conch. Iconica, XV, No. 49.

1887. Cerithium eburneum TRYON, Manual of Conch., IX, 129, pl. 22, fig. 77.

1898. Cerithiwn graciliforme YWosreir, Syst. Conch.-Cabinet von Martini u.

Chemnitz, Bd. I, Abth. 26, 124, pl. 24, fig. 9.

MEASUREMENTS: Length, 24.2 mm.; greatest diameter, 9.7 mm.; apical angle,

35.3°, changing on the ninth volution to 26°; sutural angle, 86.7°.

CoLtor: White with occasional spots of pale brown.

The youngest volution preserved is .5 mm. in diameter, but it is too

much corroded to show its form. The next volution is also much worn,

but shows that it has two equal spirals crossed by ribs. On the third

volution the same type of ornamentation continues, with three fine spirals

on the shoulder. A single spiral is intercalated between the two primary

ones on the fourth volution, and there are four fine spirals on the shoulder

and one on the lower slope of the whorl. On the fifth volution, three

varices are developed, while the ribs between them become much narrower.

Varices continue to be formed throughout the life of the shell and con-

stitute a striking feature of its ornament. The shoulder becomes nearly

obsolete, and the ribs break up into nodes until, on the tenth volution,

the surface is marked by a strong varix and four rows of nodes, of which

the second below the suture is weaker than the others. This type of orna-

mentation continues for the remaining three volutions.

The aperture is broadly oval. A posterior tooth is present, but is not

strongly developed. The callus of the inner lip is thin, and the outer lip

is nearly smooth. The canal is short and slightly reflexed at the margin.

HORIZON AND LOCALITY: Recent. The locality of this species is not given in

any of the descriptions of it that have been published, and the specimen in

the Columbia University collection is also unlabeled.

No. 20134, Columbia University collection.

REMARKS: This species resembles most closely Cerithium eburneum,

and is considered only a variety of that species by Tryon; but it differs

in its more slender form, nearly obsolete shoulder and in the great devel-

30 ANNALS NEW YORK ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

opment of varices. It differs also in color, being nearly white. The few

pale brown spots are visible only with a lens.

b. American Species

Cerithium eburneum Bruguiére

1792. Cerithium eburneum BruauiezRe, Hist. Nat. des Vers, Encyclop. Méthod.,

I, pt. 2, 438.

1887. Cerithium eburneum Tryon, Manual of Conch., TX, 129, pl. 22,. fig. 75.

1898. Cerithiuwm eburneum’ Kosett, Syst. Conch.-Cabinet von Martini u. Chem-

nitz, Bd. I, Abth. 26, 219, pl. 39, figs. 3-6.

MEASUREMENTS: Length, 25.7 mm.; greatest diameter, 11 mm.; apical angle,

34°, changing to 29.5° on the ninth volution; sutural angle, 85.5°.

Cotor: White, irregularly marked with patches of color which vary from

golden brown to dark reddish brown.

The youngest volution preserved, which is probably the first beyond the

protoconch, is .5 mm. in diameter. It has two equal spirals, which re-

main the only ornamentation of the shell for about one-fourth of a volu-

tion. Less accelerated individuals retain this ornamentation for a com-

plete volution. The next features to appear are ribs and two fine spirals

on the shoulder. Intercalated spirals are first introduced on the fourth

of the volutions preserved, and the same type of ornamentation continues,

with the addition of fine spirals for eight volutions. Beyond this the

ribs become ill defined and gradually break up into rows of nodes, which

are developed on all the strong spirals until, on the volution before the

last, there are five such rows. At about the ninth volution the lower of

the two primary spirals becomes weaker, while the upper remains strong

and defines a slight shoulder at about the middle of the volution. Varices

are irregularly developed with not more than two on a volution, and fre-

quently less than two.

The aperture is oval, and a posterior tooth is well developed. The

anterior canal is short and rather widely open. The outer lip is crenu-

lated, and the callus of the inner lip is thick and narrow.

HorIzoN AND LOCALITIES: Recent. West Indies, Florida.

No. 20135, Columbia University collection.

REMARKS: The development of this species and its general form are so

closely similar to those of Cerithiwm tuberosum as to leave little doubt of

their descent from a common ancestor, in spite of the fact that the two

shells come from such widely separated localities as the West Indies and

the Red Sea. The American species of other genera, as well as Cerithium,

WOOD, PHYLOGENY OF CERTAIN CERITHIIDEA 3

show such strong evidence of relationship with European forms that we

must assume some at present unexplained means of intercommunication

between species of the east and west shores of the Atlantic. This connec-

tion probably existed at some earlier geological period, since Miocenic

species show the same similarity to European forms as do the recent

species.

Cerithium caudatum Sowerby

1855. Cerithiuwm caudatwn SowrErBy, Thesaurus Conch., II, 856, pl. 179, figs.

(al, “WA

1866. Cerithium caudatum REEVE, Conch. Iconica, XV, No. 16.

1898. Cerithium caudatum Kopeut, Syst. Conch.-Cabinet von Martini u. Chem-

nitz, Bas I, Abth: 26, 112! pl. 22. fig: 4:

MEASUREMENTS: Length, 31.5 mm.; greatest diameter, 14.2 mm.; apical

angle, 41°, changing to 29° on the last three volutions; sutural angle, 75°.

Cotor: Golden brown. Lighter in color at the apex and on the varices.

Margin of the outer lip white streaked with black.

The apex of the shell is much corroded. The youngest volution to

show the surface is 2 mm. in diameter, and has the ornamentation char-

acteristic of this group of ribs and two strong spirals. At this stage

intercalated spirals are already introduced between the two primary ones,

and spirals of at least two orders are present on the shoulder and on the

lower slope of the whorl. The surface ornamentation remains of the

same type, with the introduction of more spirals, until the eighth volu-

tion, after which the ribs become discontinuous and the stronger spirals

break up into nodes. On this volution there is a sub-sutural row of

nodes, and each of the two primary spirals also forms a row of nodes.

The outline of the volution is an obtuse angle, with a sloping or concave

upper surface and vertical sides. On the ninth volution preserved the

finest of the spirals have become obsolete, and between the rows of nodes

the spirals are comparatively few and coarse, with narrow interspaces.

On the body volution the nodes of the lower primary spiral become very

small, no larger than those of the secondary spirals. This volution has

one row of strong nodes—those of the first primary spiral—a row of sub-

sutural nodes somewhat smaller and three rows of fine nodose spirals on

the lower slope of the whorl. The intermediate spirals are crenulated,

but not distinctly nodose.

The aperture is oval and the callus of the inner lip is thin, with a well-

developed posterior tooth. The outer lip is distinctly flaring and finely

crenulated along its outer margin. The anterior canal is short and

widely open.

89 ANNALS NEW YORK ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

HoRIZON AND LOCALITY: Recent. Island of Guadeloupe.

No. 20136, Columbia University collection.

The shells of the Cerithium tuberosum group, although differing greatly

in size, have a general similarity in form and in the essential character-

istics of the aperture. Their variation is expressed most strongly in the

features of the surface ornamentation. ‘These features consist of spirals

of the first and higher orders, ribs, nodes which may develop into spines,

and a shoulder varying in extent of development and in form. In order

to bring out more clearly the relation between these shells as expressed in

their surface ornamentation, they have been plotted in diagrammatic

form, arbitrary signs being chosen to represent certain features of. the

ornamentation. On plate 1 the numbers at the left of the page indicate

the volutions, the protoconch being numbered one. The protoconch,

when present, is represented by a circle. The spirals are represented as

horizontal lines, for while they are actually longitudinal elements, on the

shell they appear horizontal, and the diagram being intended merely to

represent certain features in graphic form, it retains the line most readily

associated in the mind with what is seen on the shell. For a similar

reason ribs are represented as vertical lines. Secondary spirals and those

of higher order are represented by two horizontal lines. Nodes are indi-

cated by dots, and the outline of the volution is represented by the lines

which would be used in drawing its two upper slopes—that is, an obtuse

angle changing to a right angle to agree with the development of certain

shells. The diagram is intended to represent resemblances and differ-

ences In a general way only. It records the introduction of spirals, ribs

and nodes, but does not attempt to show the different kinds and degrees

of development which they attain or such features as size, degree of em-

bracing of the whorls, etcetera. More complete details are given in the

descriptions and figures of the different species.

The diagram brings out the fact that some species are more retarded

than others; for example, Cerithiwm menkei is a more retarded shell than

C. adansoni, as shown by the fact that on the former species the change

in the outline of the whor! does not take place until the ninth volution,

and nodes are not acquired until the last volution, while both these

changes occur much earlier on C. adansoni. A similar comparison has

already been made between (’. tuberosum and C. adansont.

The diagram also shows differential acceleration and retardation of re-

lated species as in C. echinatum and C. graciliforme. On the former the

oblique-angled outline is lost on the seventh volution, while retained until

the tenth on the latter. Nodes are, however, acquired on the ninth volu-

tion of C. graciliforme, and do not appear until the twelfth volution of

WOOD, PHYLOGENY OF CERTAIN CERITHIIDE 33

C. echinatum. As compared with C. graciliforme, therefore, C. echina-

tum is accelerated in the acquisition of the sharply angled outline of the

volution, but retarded in the development of nodes.

A. marked similarity in the early development of these species is well

illustrated by the diagram. If a card be placed over the lower part of it

the eye is at once struck by the uniformity of the figures; moving the

card downward, differences begin to appear, becoming wider as repre-

sentations of the adult stages are reached. The divergence would be even

more marked if all the features of the shell could be indicated, instead

of the mere presence or absence of the five features represented.

2. Genera and Species of Recent Shells closely related to the Cerithium

tuberosum Group

Genus Vulgocerithium Cossmann

1906. Vulgocerithium CossSMANN Essais de Paléoconch. Comp., VII, 77.

Genotype Cerithium vulgatum BRUGUIERE:

This genus is closely related to Cerithium sens. str. The early stages

of the genotype Cerithium vulgatum are closely similar to those of C.

tuberosum. The adult differs in a number of rather constant features

and therefore may be considered distinct. The surface ornamentation

of the adult shell is characterized by the development of ribs or large

nodes, a sub-sutural row of smaller nodes, and by the coalescence of the

fine spirals into flattened bands defined by extremely narrow grooves.

The margin of the anterior canal is usually slightly reflexed.

M. Cossmann’s main points of difference from Cerithium sens. str. are

not only the elongate form of the shell and characteristic surface orna-

ment, but especially the form of the aperture. The absence of the more

rapid growth on the anterior part of the outer lip, which forms a project-

ing tooth in some species of Cerithiwm, is considered of most importance,

and the shorter siphonal canal and less flaring outer lip are also men-

tioned.

Vulgocerithium vulgatum Bruguiére

1757. Le Goumier ADANSON, Histoire Naturelle du Sénégal, 1757, p. 156, pl. 10,

fig. 3.

1792. Cerithium vulgatum Brueuire, Dictionaire, No. 13.

1855. Cerithium vulgatum Sowerspy, Thesaurus Conch., IT, 864, pl. 178, fig. 43;

pl. 179, fig. 67.

1898. Cerithiwn vulgatum Koper, Syst. Conch.-Cabinet von Martini u. Chem-

nitz, Bd. I, Abth. 26, 87, pl. 17, figs. 1-8; pl. 18, figs. 1-4.

1906. Vulgocerithium vulgatum CossMANN, Essais de Paléoconch. Comp., VII,

dad

(é.

34 ANNALS NEW YORK ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

MEASUREMENTS: Length, 63.7 mm.; greatest diameter, 21.4 mm.; apical

angle, 26.5°, changing to 23° on the twelfth volution; sutural angle, 88°.

Cotor: Background of bluish white, marked by numerous spiral bands of

reddish brown, which on the young shell is deepest in the grooves between

the spirals, but on the later and adult whorls irregular patches of color cover

most of the surface.

The only specimen studied which retains the protoconch is somewhat

worn at the apex, but the protoconch appears to be like that of Cerithium

adansont. 'The second and third volutions are so similar as to be well

illustrated by the drawings of these two whorls on C. adansoni (plate 111,

figs. 3, 4), but the shell at this age is about twice the size of C. adansoni

at the same age. The fourth volution is like that of C. adansoni, except

that about every third rib is much larger, forming a strong varix. These

varices occur at gradually wider intervals up to the eleventh volution,

when they disappear from the specimen described. The presence of

varices is a variable feature, since in a series of specimens otherwise simu-

ilar the varices are more prominent and persist for a longer time on some

specimens than on others. Except for the presence of varices, the surface

ornamentation is like that of Cerithium tuberosum to the seventh volu-

tion, when small nodes appear on the sub-sutural band, one at the end of

each rib. Beginning with the ninth volution, the lower of the two pri-

mary spirals becomes gradually less prominent and the ribs become less

well marked, until on the twelfth volution the upper of the two primary

spirals only is prominent, forming a row of nodes slightly above the mid-

dle of the volution. The ribs, as such, have disappeared, being replaced

by the two rows of nodes. Spirals of secondary and higher orders in-

crease rapidly in number, and on the later whorls the finest spirals become

confluent, producing broad, flattened bands, with extremely narrow de-

pressions between them. On the body volution below the lower row of

strong nodes from three to five large spirals are faintly nodose.

The aperture is elongate oval, with a distinct but not very prominent

tooth defining the posterior canal. The outer lip is slightly flaring and

shows faint crenulations. The callus of the inner lip is thin. The an-

terior canal is wide and short, with its margin slightly reflexed.

HoRIZON AND LOCALITIES: Recent. Mediterranean Sea, west coast of Africa,

and southward to Senegal.

No. 20187, Columbia University collection.

ReMARKS: Individuals of this species vary somewhat in the width of

the apical angle, in the strength and spacing of the nodes, and the extent

to which the fine spirals coalesce and become flattened. At present the

WOOD, PHYLOGENY OF CERTAIN CERITHIIDA 35

species is made to include many synonyms and a large number of varie-

ties, some of which, with a more detailed study of the shells, may prove

to be distinct species.

The close similarity of the young stages of this shell to those of Cerith-

tum tuberosum has already been referred to, but the very considerable

divergence at an early period of the ontogeny entitles it to rank as a dis-

tinct, though closely related, genus.

Vulgocerithium breve sp. nov.

MEASUREMENTS: Length, 34.1 mm.; greatest diameter, 15 mm.; apical angle,

43°, changing to 25.5° on the last two volutions; sutural angle, 76.2°.

Cotor: Grayish white, mottled with dark brown. Bands of dark brown

occupy the depressions between the spirals.

The apex of this shell is much worn. The youngest volution to show

the surface ornamentation is 2 mm. in diameter and has the two strong

spirals, as in the young of V. vulgatum. At this stage intercalated spirals

are present, both between the primary spirals, on the shoulder and on

the lower slopes of the volutions. On the sixth volution of those pre-

served the ribs become especially prominent at the level of the upper

primary spiral, and a sub-sutural row of nodes is also developed. On the

whorl before the last the center of the rib becomes very prominent, and

on its lower slope the spirals have a tendency to coalesce and become flat-

tened, but this tendency is never carried very far on this species. On the

body volution the ribs become weaker and the sub-sutural row of nodes

stronger, until the two are of about equal strength.

The aperture is broadly oval, and the callus of the inner lip is thin, with

a prominent posterior tooth. The outer lip is slightly flaring and faintly

crenulated. The anterior canal is short, with its margin slightly re-

curved.

HORIZON AND LOCALITY: Recent. The specimens in the collection of Colum-

bia University were collected by D. M. Sankey in deep water off the mouth of

Grand River, northwest Mauritius.

No. 20138, Columbia University collection.

Remarks: The species is distinguished from Vulgocerithium vulgatum

by its shorter form, wider apical angle and heavier and more prominent

nodes, which make the outline of the volutions sharply angular. The

shell is also thicker and the spirals are more rounded than is usual with

V. vulgatum.

36 ANNALS NEW YORK ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

Vulgocerithium plicatum Philippi

1836. Cerithium plicata PHiLipp1, Enum. Moll. Sicil., p. 192.

1887. Cerithiwn vulgatum Tryon, Manual of Conch., p. 126.

MEASUREMENTS: Length, 25.1 mm.; greatest diameter, 1.4 mm.; apical angle,

42°, changing to 24° on the last three volutions; sutural angle, 78°.

Coton: Background white, thickly mottled with yellow and golden brown.

The apex of the shell is much corroded, but a volution 1 mm. in diam-

eter shows that it possesses ribs and two spirals. The fifth volution is

the first to show the ornamentation plainly, and on this the spirals are

broad, but not greatly flattened, and the oblique-angled outline is still

retained. The embracing of the whorls is so great as to nearly cover the

lower slope of the whorl. The succeeding volutions develop a sub-sutural

row of nodes and the ribs are strongly defined. The upper primary

spirals remain always the more prominent, and the vertical element in the

outline of the shell disappears at about the eighth volution. The adult

ornamentation consists of strong ribs, which are most prominent at the

level of the first primary spiral, and a sub-sutural row of nodes. The

spirals are broad and somewhat flattened, with narrow depressions be-

tween them. On the body volution the ribs become narrow, crowded

and so low as to be nearly obsolete. The sub-sutural row of nodes is here

the most prominent feature of the ornamentation.

The aperture is oval, and the callus of the inner lip is thick, with a

well-defined posterior tooth. The outer lip is thick and smooth, with an

entire margin. The anterior canal is short and widely open.

HorRIzON AND LOCALITY: Recent. Locality unknown.

No. 40237, Columbia University collection.

REMARKS: Vulgocerithium plicatum has been regarded by Tryon as a

variety of Vulgocerithium vulgatum, but it differs from that species in

its smaller size and in its more continuous and more prominent ribs, with

their most convex portion at the center of the volution instead of above

the center. It also has broader and more rounded spirals, and the ante-

rior canal is proportionally shorter.

This species is related to the V. vulgatum group in the development of

the young whorls and in the general form of the shell and of the aperture.

The sub-sutural row of nodes and the ribs are the most noticeable features

of the ornamentation.

WOOD, PHYLOGENY OF CERTAIN CERITHIIDEA or

Vulgocerithium gracile Philippi

1836. Cerithium gracilis PuHitipr!, Enum. Moll. Sicil., p. 193.

1887. Cerithium vulgatum Tryon, Manual of Conch., p. 126, pl. 21, fig. 43.

MEASUREMENTS: Length, 30.8 mm.; greatest diameter, 11 mm.; apical angle,

39.5°, changing to 17° on the last three volutions; sutural angle, 82.5°.

Cotor: Yellowish white, mottled with reddish brown, which usually passes

in sinuous lines across the spirals.

The ornamentation is entirely obliterated on four volutions of the best

specimen available. The fifth volution has the usual two strong spirals,

and there are at this stage three intercalated spirals, with at least four

on the shoulder and two on the lower slope of the volution. All the

spirals are crossed by ribs, and varices occur to the number of about three

to the volution. A similar type of ornamentation persists to the seventh

volution. At this stage the spirals are still distinct, and the embracing

of the whorls is loose enough to leave a well-marked slope below the lower

strong spiral. On the next two volutions the finer spirals gradually

coalesce with the coarser ones, which then become broad and flattened.

The ribs between the varices become very narrow, and a sub-sutural row

ef nodes is developed. The adult ornamentation is characterized by

numerous narrow ribs projecting in a sharply pointed but not very promi-

nent node at the level of the first primary spiral. The shght shoulder is

concave and the lower slope of the whorl gently convex. A sub-sutural

row of, nodes-is present on the adult whorls, and a row of fine nodes ap-

pears just above the suture. The ribs become nearly obsolete on the body

volution, being represented by two rows of nodes.

The aperture is of the type usual in this group, with an oval outline, a

narrow callus and a posterior tooth. The outer lip is slightly flaring,

and the anterior canal is a little longer than in the last species, with a

narrow opening and slightly reflexed margin.

HorRIzoN AND LOCALITY: Recent. Locality unknown.

No. 20139, Columbia University collection.

REMARKS: The species has been referred to Vulgocerithium vulgatum,

but it is distinguished by its smaller size, proportionally coarser and more

rounded spirals and by the more sharply pointed form of the main row

of nodes. The spirals below the slight shoulder become rounded and

irregularly nodose, instead of flattened and inconspicuous, as in V. vul-

gatum.

The shell bears a close resemblance to the last species described, but it

differs in several important respects. The development is much more

retarded than that of V. plicatum, since the coalescence of the spirals does

38 ANNALS NEW YORK ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

not begin until the seventh volution, as compared with the fourth volu-

tion on the preceding species. The embracing of the whorls is not so

close as on V. plicatum. The adolescent and adult stages are distinguished

by the much smaller nodes of the present species and by the form of the

node, which is sharp and pointed at the apex in V. gracile, as compared

with the blunt but more prominent and more elongate nodes of V. plica-

tum. The anterior canal also differs in being longer, narrower and

slightly recurved.

Vulgocerithium adenense Sowerby

1866. Cerithium adenense SowERBy, apud REEVE, Conch. Iconica, XV, No. 89.

1887. Cerithium adenense Tryon, Manual of Conch., IX, 124, pl. 20, fig. 30.

1898. Cerithiwm adenense Kopett, Syst. Conch.-Cabinet von Martini u. Chem-

nitz, Bd. I, Abth. 26, 196, pl. 35, fig. 12.

MEASUREMENTS: Length, 23.2 mm.; greatest diameter, 8.4 mm.; apical angle,

32.5°, changing to 21° on the last four volutions; sutural angle, 83.5°.

Cotor: Yellowish or grayish white, with ill-defined sinuous lines of reddish

brown crossing the spirals.

The apex of the shell is broken away. The youngest volution studied

is 1.4 mm. in diameter and has the usual two strong spirals, with one

intercalated spiral and one or two spirals on the shoulder. Well-developed

ribs cross all the spirals. The ornamentation remains of the same type,

with the addition of spirals for the next three volutions. On the fifth of

the volutions preserved a sub-sutural row of irregular, low nodes is devel-

oped, and the upper primary spiral forms sharp-pointed nodes where

crossed by ribs. On the later volutions the coarser spirals become broad

and flat, with fine grooves between them, and the finer spirals become

obsolete. The adult ornamentation is that of widely spaced ribs, which

are almost spinose where crossed by the upper primary spiral. The upper

slope of the rib is concave and the lower slope straight or slightly convex,

which gives the center of the rib the appearance of an upward-pointing,

blunt spine. There are three rows of finely nodose spirals on the lower

slope of the body volution.

The aperture is elongate oval. The callus of the inner lip is moder-

ately thick, with a well-developed posterior tooth, and the outer lip is

thin. The anterior canal is short and widely open.

HORIZON AND LOCALITIES: Recent. Island of Karak, Persian Gulf, Gulf of

Aden.

No. 20140, Columbia University collection.

ReMARKS: This little species is nearest to V. vulgatwm but is distin-

guished by the great difference in the size of the shell and the size and

WOOD, PHYLOGENY OF CERTAIN CERITHIIDA 39

extreme sharpness of the principal row of nodes, which give the volution

a distinctly angular outline. The sub-sutural row of nodes is less well

defined than on V. vulgatum.

The species is distinguished from V. plicatum and V. gracile by its

sharp nodes and the greatly flattened spirals.

B. PLEISTOCENIC SPECIES OF VULGOCERITHIUM

Vulgocerithium vulgatum

M. Cossmann figures, on plate 3, fig. 14, of his Essais de Paléconcho-

logie, a specimen from the Pleistocenic of Saix, which he refers to this

species. It is smaller than the normal recent individuals, and the nodes

of the principal row are prominent and somewhat widely spaced.

C. PLIOCENIC SPECIES OF CERITHIUM

No specimens of the Cerithium tuberosum group from the Pliocenic of

the Eastern Hemisphere are available for study, and the information fur-

nished by the literature is meager.

Cerithium crenatum Broccut, figured in Quenstedt’s Petrefaktenkunde

Deutschlands, plate 204, fig. 46, is of a small specimen from the Pliocenic

of Asti, which may belong in this group. It has the oval aperture, pos-

terior tooth, and crenulated outer lip of Cerithium sens. str. It also has

in the young stages two rows of nodes which are stronger than the others,

but in the absence of specimens it is impossible to be sure that it is cor-

rectly placed here.

In the American Pliocenic several species occur which apparently be-

long in this group. Of these only two actual specimens were obtainable,

but good figures and descriptions aid in determining the relationaship of

others.

Cerithium callisoma Dail

Plate vit, fig. 1; plate vui1, figs. 1, 2; plate rx, fig. 1.

1892. Cerithium callisoma Datu, Trans. Wagner Free Institute of Sci., III,

pt. 2, 282, pl. 14, fig. 8.

MEASUREMENTS: Length, 20.8 mm.; greatest diameter, 8 mm.; apical angle,

85°, changing to 26° on the last three volutions; sutural angle, 80°.

The youngest volution preserved on the specimens studied is .4 mm. in

diameter and has three spirals, of which the two lower are equal in size

and stronger than the upper one. Ribs are also present at this stage.

40 ANNALS NEW YORK ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

On the fourth of the volutions preserved one spiral is intercalated between

each pair of primaries and the upper primary spiral becomes weaker,

making the shoulder more pronounced. The sixth volution has three

fine spirals intercalated between the two strong primary ones, with one

above and one below the third primary spiral. The lower slope of the

volution has at this stage two spirals, one stronger than the other. The

same type of ornamentation persists throughout the growth of the shell,

with an increase in the number of spirals, which vary in strength accord-

ing to the order of their introduction. The third primary spiral-on the

shoulder remains always stronger than any secondary spiral, but not so

strong as the other two primaries. The latter become very prominent

and produce the well-defined oblique-angled outline of the volution so

characteristic of Cerithium tuberosum.

The aperture has the usual oval form of the shells of this group, with

a narrow, thick callus and prominent posterior tooth. The anterior canal

is short and widely open.

HorIzON AND LOCALITY: Pliocenic of the Caloosahatchie beds, Florida.

No. 12569, American Museum collection.

Remarks: The first three volutions preserved on this shell recall the

seventh, eighth and ninth volutions of the Eocenic species, Cerithium

retardatum (plate Iv, fig. 10; plate v, fig. 9). On the latter shell three

spirals are developed, the two lower of which are stronger than the upper,

and the first intercalated spiral appears between the strong spirals. A

similar development is seen on C. callisoma, but it is more accelerated

than C. retardatum, since its shoulder is distinguishable from the first,

while C. retardatum never acquires a distinct shoulder, but retains the

primitive rounded outline of its volutions throughout life.

C. callisoma is most closely related to the recent species C. tuberosum,

but it is more primitive than the latter species, since it retains the oblique-

angled outline of the volutions throughout life without a trace of weaken-

ing of the dower spiral, while on C. tuberosum the lower primary spiral

becomes gradually less prominent, until on the body volution the outline

is sharply angular. The resemblance of the adult C. callisoma to the

young C. tuberosum is most striking, and if the latter species were from

a less distant locality, we might at once assume it to be the Pliocenic an-

cestor of C. tuberosum. As it is, we may suppose that C. callisoma is

the American representative of this ancestor, which existed in the vicinity

of the Red Sea or the Indian Ocean, but has not yet been recorded from

that locality.

WOOD, PHYLOGENY OF CERTAIN CERITHIIDA 41

Cerithium floridanum Mérch

1876. Cerithium floridanum Morcnu, Malacologia Blatter, XXIII, 114.

1892. Cerithium floridanum Dawu, Trans. Wagner Free Institute of Sci., Phila.,

III, pt. 2, Dec., 282, pl. 14, fig. 10.

MEASUREMENTS: Length, 34.2 mm.; greatest diameter, 14 mm.; apical angle,

29°, changing to 22° on the twelfth volution; sutural angle, 86°.

The protoconch of the specimen studied is much worn, but is appar-

ently of the same form as that of Cerithium adansoni. The succeeding

three volutions are too much worn to show the ornamentation. The first

volution on which surface features appear distinctly is the fifth, which

has a diameter of 1.9 mm. It bears ribs and two strong spirals. The

shoulder is long and has three fine spirals, with a sub-sutural band com-

posed of two elevated spirals. A single spiral is intercalated between the

two strong ones, and the lower slope of the volution is very short. The

earlier whorls of the shell bear an irregular number of varices averaging

about two or three on a volution. On the sixth and seventh volutions the

sub-sutural band gradually breaks up into a row of nodes and the spirals

become larger, but do not increase rapidly in number. On the eighth and

ninth volutions the larger spirals become nodose where crossed by the ribs,

and on the next volution the nodes of the sub-sutural row and those of

the first primary spiral become larger than the others and of equal

strength. At the same time the nodes of the second primary spiral be-

come weaker. On the two succeeding volutions the large nodes just

below the suture and those of the upper primary spiral are in line verti-

cally, forming distinct ribs, while the nodes of the lower primary spiral

are small and twice as numerous as those of the upper row. ‘The spirals

on both the shoulder and lower slopes of the whorl alternate in strength

according to their order of introduction and are strongly defined by the

‘deep, narrow grooves between them. On the thirteenth and last volution

the nodes of the lower primary spiral become very small and numerous—

‘a mere line of beading around the shell.

The body volution and the aperture are much broken, but the inner lip

is preserved, showing that it has a thick callus with a blunt posterior

tooth, and the anterior canal is short and rather widely open.

HorRIZON AND LOCALITIES: Pliocenic. Caloosahatchie beds and Osprey, Man-

atee County, Florida.

No. 12568, American Museum collection.

REMARKS: The adult ornamentation of this little shell shows some

variation from the figure given by Dall [1892, plate 14, fig. 10] in the

492 ANNALS NEW YORK ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

marked difference in the strength of the subordinate spirals and in the

more angular outline of the adult volutions, but the shell agrees with the

description and figure in essential respects. Its early development and

the general character of its adult features show it to belong undoubtedly

to the Cerithium tuberosum group. :

Cerithium glaphyrea Dall

1892. Cerithiwm glaphyrea Dat, Trans. Wagner Free Institute of Sci., Phila.,

III, pt. 2, p. 283, pl. 14, fig. 4.

MEASUREMENTS (Dall): Length, 16 mm.; greatest diameter, 6 mm.; REMAIN-

ING MEASUREMENTS FROM FIGURE: Apical angle, 23°; sutural angle, 88°.

No specimen of this species has been obtainable, but from the original

description and figure the following features of interest in this connection

may be determined. From the figure it appears that the shell has two

spirals stronger than the others, with fine spirals between the two primary

ones and on the shoulder. A third strong spiral on the shoulder becomes

nodose, but is not so strong as the two main spirals. All the spirals are

crossed by numerous closely set ribs. The two strong spirals remain of

equal strength and continue to form an oblique angle for the whorl until

the body volution is reached, when the lower of the two becomes weaker.

The aperture is of the type usual in the Cerithium tuberosum group,

with a narrow callus and strong posterior tooth, flaring, crenulated outer

lip and short anterior canal.

HoRIZON AND LOCALITY: Pliocenic of the Caloosahatchie beds, Florida.

Remarks: This species has a strong fundamental resemblance to Ceri-

thium callisoma in the form of the body and of the aperture, and in the

persistence of the oblique-angled outline of the whorls formed by two

strong spirals with a weaker one on the shoulder. The most striking dif-

ference is in the very numerous ribs of C. glaphyrea, which are so closely

set as to appear like rows of nodes where crossed by the coarser spirals.

C. glaphyrea appears to have the essential characteristics of the C. tuber-

osum group, but probably represents a lateral branch from the main line,

expressing its divergence in the development of numerous ribs.

Cerithium glaphyrea mut. litharium Dall

1892. Cerithium glaphyrea var. lithariwm Datu, Trans. Wagner Free Institute

of Sci., Phila., III, pt. 2, 284, pl. 14, fig. 9.

MEASUREMENTS (Dall): Length, 19 mm.; greatest diameter, 6.5 mm.

WOOD, PHYLOGENY OF CERTAIN CERITHIIDA 43

The mutation litharium evidently belongs to the same phyletic series

as the species to which it is related, differing only in minor features of

the ornamentation, such as more prominent nodes and additional rows of

fine beading.

Cerithium algicola ADAMS and C. muscarum Say, from the character

of their apertures and the general appearance of the shells, seem to be

related to this group, but in the absence of specimens and with very im-

perfect figures, it is impossible to be certain of their position.

D. MIOCENIC SPECIES

1. Cerithium.

So far as can be determined from the literature, the Miocenic of the

Eastern Hemisphere furnishes few specimens of the Cerithium tuberosum

group. This is due doubtless to lack of preservation, rather than to a

paucity of species existing during that period.

Cerithium bronni PArtscH, of the Miocenic of the Vienna Basin, may

possibly belong here. [See Hérnes and Partscu, 1856, plate 42, figs.

12a, b.] The figure, which gives no clue to the ornamentation of the

young shell, is insufficient evidence for placing the shell definitely, but

the aperture corresponds with that of C. tuberosum, and the ornamenta-

tion of the adult is similar-in type to that of other species of Cerithium

sens. str.

An unnamed variety of C. crenatum Broccut is mentioned by HérNEs

and PartscH [1856, p. 409] as occurring in the Miocenic of the Vienna

Basin. According to their figures [Joc. cit., plate 42, figs. 13, 14], the

shell has the adult characteristics of this group, but the features of the

young shell cannot be determined from the figures.

Cerithium mediterraneum, described with recent species of Cerithium,

is recorded by Hérnes and PartscH [1856, p. 393] from the Miocenic

of the Vienna Basin.

Cerithium calculosum Basterot

1825. Cerithium calculosum BastrerRoT, Mem. géol. sur les environs de Bor-

GEAUXS Doss pleco tion:

MEASUREMENTS: Length, 29.8 mm.; greatest diameter, 14.1 mm.; apical

angle, 37.2°; sutural angle, 79.3°.

The protoconch is absent from this shell, but the youngest volution

preserved is probably the first beyond the protoconch, and it is 1 mm. in

diameter. This volution is ornamented by ribs and two equal spirals.

44 ANNALS NEW YORK ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

The second volution is like the first, except that it has a third weaker

spiral just below the suture and numerous ribs are present at this stage.

On the sixth volution of those preserved the sub-sutural spiral becomes

nearly as strong as the two primary,spirals, and all three become strongly

nodose where crossed by the ribs. On the next two volutions the shoulder

practically disappears, and the volution seems to be ornamented by three.

rows of strong nodes with intercalated spirals between them. Varices

are irregularly developed from the fifth volution onward and on the later

whorls become extremely prominent, forming a conspicuous feature of the

ornamentation. Both ribs and varices are set at an angle with the verti-

cal axis of the shell, so that they appear to twist in passing from whorl to

whorl. On the tenth volution of those present the two lower spirals

again become more prominent than the sub-sutural row, giving an oblique-

angled outline to the volution, which has vertical sides and a row of strong

nodes on the shoulder. Rather coarse intercalated spirals cover all the

surface between the rows of nodes. Just above the suture a row of fine

nodes is partially concealed by the succeeding whorl. On the body volu-

tion the shoulder is nearly obsolete, and there are six rows of nodes, of

which the two upper are the strongest. A very strong varix is present

on the side opposite the outer lip.

The aperture is elongate oval, with a narrow, thick callus and well-de-

veloped posterior tooth. The outer lip in some individuals is extremely

thick, and the aperture in these specimens is somewhat constricted by the

addition of material to the inner margin. Other specimens do not show

such thickening of the lip. The siphonal canal is short and slightly re-

flexed at the margin. At an earlier stage of growth the canal was bent

toward the left, but the animal has abandoned this position and continued

the canal in a downward direction, the earlier growth being left as a

curious knob on the outside of the tube.

HorIzon AND LOCALITY: Miocenic. Martillac near Bordeaux.

No. 20141, Columbia University collection.

Remarks: This species bears a striking resemblance to the Florida

species, C. glaphyrea, in the closely set ribs, the number of the spirals

and the form of the aperture; but it differs in being a more closely coiled

form and in having numerous very strong varices.

This species has been made the type of a new genus, Chondrocerithium,

the distinguishing characteristics being the presence of a columnellar pli-

cation and slight differences in the aperture. The development of the

species shows its close relationship to Cerithiwm, and the aperture does not

differ in any essential respect from many species of that genus. A faint

WOOD, PHYLOGENY OF CERTAIN CERITHIIDA 45

trace of columnellar plication was found on only one of the seven speci-

mens studied, and this barely distinguishable feature seems insufficient

ground for the establishment of a new genus.

Cerithium calculosum, mut. globulus n. mut.

Like Cerithium glaphyrea, C. calculosum has a variety which differs

from the type in having finely nodose spirals intercalated between the

stronger ones and in having the row of fine nodes just above the suture

fully exposed rather than covered by the next whorl, as in the case of

the original species.

Horizon AND LOCALITY: Miocenic. Martillac near Bordeaux.

No. 20142, Columbia University collection.

Cerithium chipolanum Dail

1892. Cerithium chipolanum Datu, Trans. Wagner Free Institute of Sci., Phila.,

Me pie 2 2ch>s ply 22s. 7

MEASUREMENTS (Dall): Length, 10 mm.; greatest diameter, 4.5 mm.

A specimen of this species has not been obtainable, but a good figure

and description make possible the determination of its relationship with

a fair degree of probability. The author of the species describes four

spirals on each volution, and the figure shows that in the young shell two

of these are more prominent than the others, forming the oblique-angled

outline of the whorl characteristic of the Cerithium tuberosum group.

Later in the growth of the shell the lower of the two strong spirals be-

comes weaker, giving a sharply angled outline to the whorl. On the

body whorl two of the spirals on the shoulder increase in size, so that the

ornamentation of this volution consists of a shoulder with two strong

spirals on its slope and two below the shoulder angle.

The aperture is of the type usual in this group, with a well-developed

posterior tooth and short, widely open anterior canal.

HorizoN AND LOCALITY: Older Miocenic of the Chipola beds, northwest

Florida.

REMARKS: Dall states that C. chipolanum is not closely related to any

of his preceding species, which would include C. callisoma and C. gla-

phyrea, but he does not say in what respect the divergence is expressed,

unless the high development of varices mentioned is considred such a dif-

ference. Varices are, however, characteristic features of Cerithiwm sens.

str. This little species is more closely coiled than the Pliocenic C. calli-

46 ANNALS NEW YORK ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

soma or the recent C.tuberosum and resembles in that respect C’.adansoni.

It may be the American representative of the Miocenic ancestor of the

latter species rather than a member of the direct line toward C. tuber-

osum.

2. Vulgocerithium

Specimens of Vulgocerithium vulgatum are reported by Hornes and

Partsch [1856, p. 388] from the Miocenic of Italy and the Vienna Basin.

The species seems to persist through the Miocenic and Pliocenic to recent

time.

Hoérnes and Partsch describe several other species which are evidently

closely related to V. vulgatum.

Vulgocerithium minutum Serres

This species is recorded by Hérnes and Partsch [1856, p. 390] from

the Miocenic of the Vienna Basin. Specimens have been obtained from

the upper Oligocenic of Saucats, and the species is described with others

from that horizon. The Oligocenic specimens differ from the figures of

Hornes and Partsch [1856, plate 41, figs. 8, 9] in their smaller size and

the less prominent nodes of the median row.

Vulgocerithium zelebori Hérnes and Partsch

1856. Cerithium zelebori HOrnes and Partscu, Abhand. der k. k. geol. Reich-

sanstalt, III, 391, pl. 41, fig. 10.

This species seems to be closely related to V. minutum, differing in the

more rounded nodes, less continuous ribs and the greater distinctness of

the sub-sutural row of nodes. The young stages are not described in

detail, and the figures are not sufficiently enlarged to show them clearly,

but the general form, aperture and surface ornamentation are so similar

to those of V. vulgatum that they may be referred to the same group with

a high degree of probability.

Vulgocerithium doliolum Brocchi

1814. Cerithium doliolum Broccut, Conchiologia fossile subappen., II, 442, pl.

9, fig. 10.

1856. Cerithium doliolum Hornes and PartscH, Abhand. der k. k. geol. Reich-

sanstalt, III, 392, pl. 41, fig. 11.

Hornes and Partsch record this species from the Miocenic of Italy and

the Vienna Basin. It has a somewhat shorter spire than most species of

Vulgocerithium, but it is similar to shells of this group in the character

WOOD, PHYLOGENY OF CERTAIN CERITHIIDA 44

of the ornamentation:and the form of the aperture. The nodes of the

sub-sutural row and of the first primary spiral have a somewhat more

rounded form than most species of the genus, and rows of fine nodes are

intercalated between them.

A variety represented by fig. 12a, b, has the high spire characteristic

of the typical Vulgocerithium.

Vulgocerithium rubiginosum Lichwald

1830. Cerithium rubiginosum EtcHwaLp, Naturh. Skizze von Lithauen, Vol-

hynien u. s. w., p. 224.

1856. Cerithium rubiginosum HorNES and PArtscH, Abhand. der k. k. geol.

Reichsanstalt, III, 396, pl. 41, figs. 16, 18.

So far as can be learned from the descriptions and figures, this little

species has all the characteristics of Vulgocerithium. It differs from the

last species in the absence of the intercalated rows of fine beading, and

the nodes are somewhat more prominent. The species is recorded by

Hornes and Partsch from the Miocenic of the Vienna Basin.

E. OLIGOCENIC AND EOCENIC SPECIES

1. Cerithium

The relationship between the Oligocenic and Eocenic species is so close

that it has been thought best to consider them together, taking up the

forms in the phylogenetic rather than the stratigraphic order.

Cerithium zquispirale sp. nov.

Plate 11, fig. 5; plate v, figs. 3, 4; plate v1, fig. 3.

MEASUREMENTS (last five volutions) : Length, 23 mm.; greatest diameter,

10.1 mm.; apical angle, 33.5°, changing to 26.8° on the last three volutions;

sutural angle, 85°.

The general form of this shell is high and narrow, with moderately

embracing whorls and but slightly impressed sutures. The apex of the

shell is broken away, and the earliest volution preserved has a diameter of

4 mm. and height of 1.4 mm. On this volution, two spirals are stronger

than the others and are equal in strength. A third primary spiral at the

base of the whorl is partly covered by the succeeding volution. Between

the stronger primary spirals a secondary and two tertiary ones appear,

and one primary, with four secondary spirals, is above the shoulder

angle. This volution bears eleven strong, rounded ribs, which are well

48 ANNALS NEW YORK ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

developed from suture to suture. The first, fourth and eighth ribs are

much stronger than the others, forming varices. On the later volutions,

these varices appear at irregular and less frequent intervals, having in

the adult from five to ten ribs between the varices. On the succeeding

volutions more spirals appear, until those of the fifth order may be

counted. These are very fine, but still preserve their rounded character,

and several of equal strength are crowded between the coarser spirals.

The strong shoulder and the two equal primary spirals persist until the

body volution is reached. On the latter volution the primary spiral on

the shoulder becomes as strong as the primary ones below it, and the

shoulder, which is still present on the preceding volution, disappears. The

body volution bears below the three primary spirals already mentioned

three more strong spirals, with finer ones between them. Here, too, the

ribs become weaker, the spirals stronger, and at the crossing of the two

there is a tendency to form nodes, though the development does not go

far enough to form actual nodes. On the later portion of the body whorl

the sub-sutural spiral becomes as strong as the two primary ones.

The aperture of the shell is oval, with short, reflexed anterior canal. A

well-defined posterior canal is also present, the inner margin of which is

bounded by a ridge, but not a distinct tooth, such as appears in Cerithium

tuberosum. 'The inner lip is covered by a narrow callus, and the outer

lip is slightly flaring and notched to correspond with the strong spirals

of the exterior surface.

HORIZON AND LOCALITY: The precise horizon of this species is not known, but

it was found in a collection of unidentified shells from the Hocenic of the

Paris Basin.

No. 10323, Columbia University collection.

REMARKS: Cerithium equispirale has a close resemblance in form and

in the features of the aperture to C. lamelloswm, but it differs from that

species in the character of the spirals, which are strongly developed and

have a rounded form instead of appearing like imbricating lamelle, as in

the latter species. C. lamelloswm also differs in the loss of its secondary

spirals on the adult whorls.

C. wquispirale has the two strong spirals and the numerous spirals of

higher order characteristic of C. tuberosum, and it retains these features

throughout life. The body volution has especially strong spirals on its

lower slope, and the lower part of the outer lip grows a little more rapidly

than the upper part. The persistence and development of this tendency

would in time produce a strong projection of the lower spirals like that

seen on the aperture of C. tuberosum. At the same time the prominent

WOOD, PHYLOGENY OF CERTAIN CERITHIIDA 49

sub-sutural spiral on the later part of the body volution of C. equispirale

suggests the Vulgocerithium group. The species may well be a type from

which the C. tuberosum group arose, but Vulgocerithium probably arose

from the ancestor of C. wquispirale, C. cornuelianum.

The young stages of C. e@quispirale are unfortunately missing, but the

adult shell is so similar in general character to C. lamellosum that the

young stages may also have been similar, although this is not certain to

be true, for similarity in adults does not necessarily mean similarity in

the young.

Cerithium lamellosum Bruguiére

Plate 111, figs. 7, 8; plate Iv, fig. 8; plate v, figs. 7, 8; plate v1, fig. 6.

1792. Cerithium lamellosum BrucuiérReE, Encycl. Méthod., p. 488.

1824. Cerithiwnm lamellosun. DESHAYES, Dese. des coquilles foss. des environs

de Paris, p. 370, pl. 64, figs. 8. 9.

1866. Cerithiuwm lamellosum DESHAYES, Desc. des animaux sans vert. décou-

verts dans le bassin de Paris, III, 159.

1906. Ptychocerithium lamellosum CosSMANN, Hssais de Paléoconch. Comp.,

WA0K cshile

MEASUREMENTS: Length, 48.4 mm.; greatest diameter, 13.8 mm.; apical

angle, 29°, changing to 18° on the eleventh volution; sutural angle, 84°.

The volutions of this species embrace but slightly, producing a long,

slender shell. The general outline of the whorls is gently rounded, with

slightly impressed sutures.

The early stages of growth are best seen on a young individual of nine

volutions. The beginning of the protoconch of this specimen is not

preserved, but it seems to have comprised about one and one-half volu-

tions. Beyond this a spiral appears at about the middle of the whorl,

the portions above and below the spiral becoming flattened until a dis-

tinct shoulder is produced. On the second volution beyond the proto-

conch the spiral has become elevated at regular intervals to form faint

nodes, and on the third volution another spiral appears below the first,

while the nodes are elongated into faint ribs. The second spiral soon

becomes as strong as the first, and the two form a slight projection

around the median portion of the whorl. The two equal spirals remain

stronger than the others throughout the life of the animal, but the shoul-

der is never a conspicuous feature of the ornamentation. On the suc-

ceeding volution, the fourth beyond the protoconch, there is a faint con-

striction of the shell below the suture, which, with the suture itself, out-

lines an indistinct spiral. The two volutions which follow are like the

50 ANNALS NEW YORK ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

fourth, with a gradual strengthening of the characters already intro-

duced. On the seventh volution faint secondary spirals are intercalated

between the first two and on the shoulder above the first spiral. The

ribs are well defined and extend from suture to suture, about one on each

volution being enlarged to form a varix, a feature which persists on all

the later whorls. The ninth volution differs only in having an addi-

tional faint spiral just below the sutural one.

An adult individual shows twelve volutions, from which, as shown by

comparison with the young, about four volutions in addition to the

protoconch have been broken away. On the eleventh volution of this

specimen the spirals are five in number, with ribs extending from suture

to suture, and separated by interspaces slightly wider than themselves.

Although the surface is much dissolved, faint traces of secondary and

tertiary spirals may be seen. The strength of all the spirals varies con-

siderably, not only with the condition of preservation, but in different

individuals similarly preserved. Some individuals show the secondary

and tertiary spirals distinctly, while they are hardly visible on others.

The spirals of this species, especially on the later volutions, have their

upper edge projecting sharply and their lower edge merging into the sur-

face of the shell, so that the whorls appear to be made up of overlapping

lamelle with their edges turned upward. On the later part of the body

volution the spiral just below the suture is broken up into nodes, and the

three spirals below the central band become extremely strong.

The aperture is oval, with a deep anterior canal and a well-defined

posterior canal. The callus of the inner lip is narrow but comparatively

thick. The outer lip is folded into a series of prominent lobes, which

correspond in position with the spirals on the outside of the shell.

HorizoN AND LOCALITIES: Calcaire Grossier (Upper Hocenic). Chaussy and

Grignon, Paris Basin.

No. 20148, Columbia University collection.

REMARKS: This species begins its life history in a much simpler man-

ner than any of the species thus far described, and it is not until the

sixth volution that it fully acquires the shoulder, which in recent accel-

erated forms begins immediately after the protoconch. The primitive

stages preceding the formation of ribs, and with one volution only, have

been crowded out of the ontogeny by acceleration in such forms as Ceri-

thium adansomi and C. tuberosum.

Cerithium lamellosum does not continue its development in the direc-

tion of C. tuberosum, for, after having acquired intercalated spirals of

high orders, it nearly or quite loses them on the adolescent and adult

WOOD, PHYLOGENY OF CERTAIN CERITHIIDEA 51

whorls, and the form of the spirals changes to the imbricated type de

scribed above. On account of this divergence expressed in the adult

shell, C. lamellosum may be considered a lateral branch from the line

developing in the direction of C. tuberosum. No descendants of C.

lamellosum have been found in the material studied, and it may have

died out at the end of the Eocenic without giving rise to later species.

The young of C. lamellosum gives a clue to the kind of development

which preceded the stage with ribs and two strong spirals, and it is to be

expected that from such primitive conditions development would take

place in several different directions. This we find to be the case, as illus-

trated by several of the following species.

M. Cossmann refers this species to Ptychocerithium on account of the

narrow opening of the canal and the strong varix opposite the outer lip.

He considers it as closely related to Vulgocerithium, but from the devel-

opment of the early stages it seems to be more closely related to Cerithium

than to either of. these.

Cerithium inabsolutum Deshayes ?

1866. Cerithium inabsolutum DESHAYES, Desc. des animaux sans vert. décou-

verts dans le bassin de Paris, III, 170, pl. 74, fig. 28.

1906. Ptychocerithium inabsolutum CosSMANN, p. 80.

MEASUREMENTS (young individual): Length, 10 mm.; greatest diameter, 4

mm.; apical angle, 23.5°; sutural angle, 85°.

Two very small individuals probably represent the young of C. inabso-

lutum, but are referred to that species with doubt, since no adult is avail-

able for comparison with them.

A part of the protoconch is present on one specimen and, so far as can

be determined, is like that of C. adansoni. The first complete volution

is .8 mm. in diameter and bears two continuous spirals, one of which

appears slightly before the other. This type of ornamentation continues

for six volutions, but on the seventh ribs are developed, fine spirals appear

on the shoulder and a spiral is intercalated between the two primary

spirals. Strong varices to the number of one or two to the volution are

developed on the remaining whorls. On the eighth volution a constric-

tion below the suture defines a sub-sutural band which is raised into

nodes where crossed by the ribs, and numerous spirals of higher order

are introduced. The shell comprises eleven volutions, and the two

strong, equal spirals characteristic of Cerithiwm remain undiminished in

strength on the last volution present. The lower slope of the body volu-

tion bears two strong spirals with three finer ones below them.

52 ANNALS NEW YORK ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

The aperture is oval, with a long columella and poorly formed siphonal

canal. No callus is present on the inner lip, and the outer lip is too

much broken to determine its character.

HORIZON AND LOCALITY: Calcaire grossier. Grignon, Paris Basin.

No. 2564, Museum of Comparative Zodlogy collection.

ReMarkKS: The absence of a callus on the inner lip and the poorly

formed siphonal canal accompanying a surface ornamentation character-

istic of young Cerithiwm seem to indicate that these specimens are young

individuals. They are referred to C. inabsolutum on account of the elou-

gation of the lower part of the aperture and the character of the orna-

mentation, which seems to correspond with that described for the species.

Whether or not the specific identification is correct, they belong undoubt-

edly to the genus Ceritthiwm sens. str.

Cerithium calcitrapoides Lamarck

1804. Cerithium calcitrapoides LAMARCK, Ann. du Mus. Nat. d’hist. naturelle

de Paris) lie 274 ;

1824. Cerithium calcitrapoides DESHAYES, Desc. des coquilles foss. des envi-

rons de Paris, 347, pl. 46, figs. 18, 19, 23.

1906. Batillaria calcitrapoides COSSMANN, Essais de Paléoconch. Comp., VII,

134.

MEASUREMENTS: Length, 50 mm.; greatest diameter, 18 mm.; apical angle,

25°; sutural angle, 87°.

The youngest volution studied has an ornamentation of one spiral

only. On the next volution a second spiral appears above the first, and

on the fourth volution of those preserved, the two spirals are crossed by

ribs, but it is not until the fifth volution that the two spirals become

equal in strength. At this stage the shell has the shoulder characteristic

of Cerithium, with two equal spirals crossed by ribs. On the seventh

volution a spiral is intercalated between the two primary spirals, and fine

ones appear also on the shoulder and on the lower slope of the whorl. On

the ninth volution the lower primary spiral has become weaker than the

upper, a tendency which increases until, on the twelfth and later volu-

tions, the lower primary spiral is reduced to the size of the secondary

ones, and the upper spiral forms the projecting margin of a sharply

angled volution.

The aperture is elongate oval, with a thick callus on the inner lip and

short, widely open canal. The outer lip is slightly crenulated.

HorIzoN AND LOCALITIES: Calcaire grossier, Sables Moyens. Grignon and

many other localities in the Paris Basin.

No. 3377, American Museum collection.

WOOD, PHYLOGENY OF CERTAIN CERITHIIDA 53

Remarks: This species resembles C. wquispirale in the young but

diverges from the type of development illustrated by that species in the

adult. It may be considered a lateral branch from the main line of evo-

lution of Cerithium.

Cerithium bicarinatum Deshayes

Plate 11, fig. 8.

1824. Cerithium bicarinatum DESHAYES, Desc. des coquilles foss. des environs

de Paris, p. 356, pl. 53, figs. 14, 15.

MEASUREMENTS: Length, 24 mm.; greatest diameter, 9.5 mm.; apical angle,

30°; sutural angle, 85.5°.

The youngest volution preserved on the specimen described is .7 mm.

in diameter and is ornamented by two spirals, the lower of which is the

stronger. Ribs are absent at this stage. The two succeeding volutions

are like the first, except that the upper spiral becomes equal to the lower

in strength. On the fourth of the volutions preserved ribs appear, and

on the fifth a faint constriction below the suture defines a slight sub-

sutural band, which, however, lasts for only two volutions and is not seen

on the adolescent and adult stages. The specimen thus far described is

a young individual preserving only eight volutions, but the same type of

ornamentation persists on full-grown specimens, the adult ornamentation

being simply two strong spirals with a long shoulder slope, a concave

surface between the two spirals and a short lower slope. The body volu-

tion has two spirals below the primary ones.

The aperture is nearly circular, with a short siphonal canal so widely

open that its cross-section does not represent a curve of more than 180°.

The callus of the inner lip is narrow and has a slight projection near the

posterior end, although a distinct tooth is not formed. The outer lip is

broken on all the specimens obtainable, but it was evidently thin and,

according to the figure of Deshayes, was not crenulated.

HORIZON AND LOCALITIES: Sables Moyens (Upper Hocenic). Acy-en-Multien

and many other localities in the Paris Basin.

No. 20144, Columbia University collection.

ReMARKS: The adult of this species corresponds in essential character-

istics with the fifth volution of Cerithium lamellosum and with the sec-

ond of (. adansoni, and although occurring at a higher horizon than

C. lamellosum, it illustrates a more primitive type of development. It

represents the persistence of a type of shell which was probably devel-

54 ANNALS NEW YORK ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

oped as far back in geologic time as the Triassic, since we have in Jurassic

time a shell with rounded volutions and an ornament of three simple

spirals, which was probably developed from a two-spiraled form just as

the mutation trispirale, described below, arose from the type species by

the development of another spiral on the shoulder.

Cerithium bicarinatum mut. trispirale n. mut.

Plate 11, figs 7,

1824. Cerithium bicarinatum DESHAYES, Desc. des coquilles foss. des environs

de Paris, p. 356, pl. 53, fig. 6.

1866. Cerithium bicarinatum DrESHAYES, Dese. des anim. sans vert. découverts

dans le bassin de Paris, p. 180.

MEASUREMENTS: Length, 25 mm.; greatest diameter, 10.2 mm.; apical angle,

25°; sutural angle, 85°.

The development of the variety is precisely the same as that of the

type species to the seventh volution, on which a faint third spiral is in-

troduced above the two primary ones. This spiral grows rapidly until

it equals in strength the lower primary spiral. The median spiral is

slightly stronger than the others, so that the outline of the volution

would be a regular curve if represented by a line touching the edges of

the spirals. This type of ornamentation persists throughout the re-

mainder of shell growth. The body volution has two strong spirals and

three or more fine ones below the three primary spirals. The aperture is

like that of the type species.

HorIzON AND LOCALITIES: Sables Moyens (Upper Eocenic). Acy-en-Multien

and other localities in the Paris Basin.

No. 20145, Columbia University collection.

ReMARKS: This mutation differs from the type species only in the

presence of a third spiral, which becomes strong enough to change the

outline of the volution. There is a perfect gradation between the species

and its mutation, since specimens of the former are found in which the

third spiral is barely distinguishable as a faint elevation on the adult

whorls, and others in which this feature appears earlier and earlier in

the ontogeny until the typical form of the mutation is developed. The

mutation represents merely the next step in the evolution of this group.

Cerithium retardatum sp. noy.

Plate 11, fig. 6.

MEASUREMENTS: Length, 27.2 mm.; greatest diameter, 1.5 mm.; apical angle,

24°; sutural angle, 86°.

WOOD, PHYLOGENY OF CERTAIN CERITHIIDA 55

The early stages of this species are described from a young individual

of ten volutions. The protoconch of this specimen is missing, but the

youngest volution preserved is .6 mm. in diameter and is probably the

first volution beyond the protoconch. It is ornamented by a single

spiral only, and no ribs are present. Another spiral is added above the

first on the next volution, and on the third volution of those preserved,

the two spirals become of nearly equal strength. Ribs first appear on

the fourth volution and on the fifth, a fine third spiral appears above the

two primaries. The three spirals are well developed on the seventh volu-

tion, and on the eighth the first intercalated spiral is introduced between

the two lower primary ones. Another intercalated spiral soon appears

between the two upper primary spirals, and the adult whorls have one

spiral intercalated between each pair of primaries, with two fine spirals

above and two below the three primary spirals. The body volution has

two strong and six very fine, closely set spirals on its lower slope.

The aperture is similar to that of C. bicarinatum, being nearly circular,

with shallow anterior canal. The callus of the inner lip is wider and

the posterior ridge better developed than on C. bicarinatum. The outer

lip is somewhat broken, but the lines of growth indicate that its lower

margin grew more rapidly than the upper one.

HORIZON AND LOCALITIES: Sables Moyens (Upper Hocenic). Le Guépelle, Acy-

en-Multien, Paris Basin.

No. 20146, Columbia University collection.

REMARKS: Cerithium retardatum represents a step in advance of U.

bicarinatum mut. trispirale in the development of intercalated spirals.

The three forms, C. bicarinatum, its mutation, trispirale, and C. retarda-

tum, constitute a direct series in evolution. C. bicarinatum develops

ribs and two equal primary spirals only. The mutation frispirale car-

ries the development farther in the growth of a third primary spiral, and

C. retardatum advances still farther in the introduction of intercalated

spirals.

C. retardatum illustrates the law of recapitulation, for its fifth volu-

tion is like the adult of C. bicarinatum, and its seventh volution repre-

sents the adult of the mutation trispirale. At the same time the law of

acceleration is illustrated by this shell, since the evolution represented by

the entire life history of both C. bicarinatum and C. bicarinatum mut.

trispirale is passed over in the first seven volutions of C. retardatum.

But while C. retardatum is accelerated as compared with C. bicarinatum,

it is retarded as compared with C. wquispirale and other shells occurring

in the Upper Eocenic. It may be compared with the Upper Cretacic

C. albense in the main line of evolution of the C. tuberosum group.

56 ANNALS NEW YORK ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

Cerithium sp. undt.

MEASUREMENTS: Length, 13.5 mm.; greatest diameter, 5.38 mm.; apical angle,

85°, changing to 26° on the last three volutions; sutural angle, 83.2°.

Two small specimens of nine volutions each are the only representa-

tives of this species in the collections studied. They are probably young

individuals, but it is impossible to identify young shells from the figures

and descriptions as usually written.

The youngest volution preserved is .4 mm. in diameter and has one

spiral only. The next volution is too much worn to show the ornamenta-

tion, but the third volution has two spirals crossed by ribs. The two

spirals become of equal strength and, with the ribs, remain the only orna-

mentation until the sixth volution, when a fine spiral is introduced below

the lower spiral. On the next volution a spiral is intercalated between

the two primary ones, and on the eighth volution a fine spiral appears on

the shoulder. The body volution retains the characteristic two strong

spirals and has two fine spirals on the shoulder, with one intercalated be-

tween and one below the two primary spirals. The lower slope of the

body volution has two strong spirals and several finer ones below the

primary spirals. Spirals of the third order also appear on this lower

slope.

The aperture is circular, with a shallow anterior canal. The callus of

the inner lip is comparatively wide and has a distinct ridge near its pos-

terior end. The outer lip is thin and not crenulated on the young shell.

HorIzoN AND LocALITY: Eocenic, Paris Basin. Precise horizon and locality

unknown.

No. 201638, Columbia University collection.

Remarks: This little shell is like C. bicarinatum to the sixth volution,

after which it develops in a direction different from that of the two de-

scendants of C. bicarinatum already described, namely, C. bicarinatum

mut. trispirale and C. retardatum. This divergence is expressed in the

acquisition of a third spiral on the lower slope of the whorl, instead of

on the shoulder, as in the line of evolution just described. The spirals

of the shoulder slope are introduced later, but always remain fine, and

the shoulder persists to the last volution present on these forms, while it

is lost on CO. bicarinatum mut. trispirale. This species may be consid-

ered a descendant of C. bicarinatum, but it represents a different path of

evolution from that, including C. retardatum.

WOOD, PHYLOGENY OF CERTAIN CERITHIIDZ 57

2. Vicinocerithium

Vicinocerithium parallelum gen. et sp. nov.

Plate vit, figs. 4, 5; plate viii, figs. 4, 5; plate rx, figs. 3, 4.

MEASUREMENTS: Length, 29 mm.; greatest diameter, 12 mm.; apical angle,

30.5° ; sutural angle, 81.5°.

The protoconch of this species is not preserved. The youngest volu-

tion present bears three spirals, the lowest of which is the most promi-

nent, and is separated by a wide interspace from the two upper spirals.

On the next volution ribs appear, and the median spiral becomes stronger

than the upper, but not quite so prominent as the lowest spiral. A slight

ridge below the suture forms a fourth ill-defined spiral. On the third

volution present the two lower spirals are equal in strength, and a fine

spiral is intercalated between them. ‘The third spiral has also become

stronger, so that the outline of the volution is a regular curve. Two ad-

ditional fine spirals appear just below the suture. The fourth and fifth

volutions are essentially like the third, with an increase in the number of

fine spirals. On the sixth volution the median primary spiral becomes

stronger than the other two, and this tendency increases until, on the

adult whorls, this spiral forms the margin of a sharply angled volution,

with numerous fine spirals on the shoulder and the lower slope of the

whorl. The uppermost primary spiral is reduced to the rank of a sec-

ondary spiral, and the lowest primary spiral, originally the strongest on

the shell, is much reduced in relative size, though still stronger than the

secondary spirals. This and another strong spiral just above the suture are

crenulated, showing a tendency toward the formation of nodes, which on

the latest portion of the body volution are fairly well developed. A third

nodose spiral is present below those just described, and fine spirals are

intercalated between all coarser ones on the lower slope of the body

volution.

The aperture is nearly circular and the anterior canal is rather long

and widely open. The outer lip is thin and the inner lip is covered by a

strong callus.

HorIzon AND LOCALITY: Sables Moyens. Le Guépelle, Paris Basin.

No. 20156, Columbia University collection.

REMARKS: This species has been considered identical with Cerithiwm

(Vicinocerithium) bouei DesH., and if the adult characters alone are

considered, they are hardly distinguishable, the only difference being that

the present species has a somewhat higher spire and the shoulder is far-

58 ANNALS NEW YORK ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

ther from the horizontal. The development of the two shells is quite

different, and for this reason they should rank as at least distinct species.

By comparing figs. 4, 5 on plate vi1, 4, 5 on plate vitr, 3, 4 on plate 1x

with figs. 6 on plate vu, 6 on plate v1i1, 5, 6 on plate 1x, it will be seen

that V. parallelum acquires its sharp shoulder by developing its median

primary spiral and retaining the lowest primary spiral in a subordinate

position, while V. bowei develops its uppermost primary spiral to form

the shoulder angle and the median spiral is reduced to the rank of a

secondary spiral, and is finally indistinguishable from them.

The development of V. parallelum and V. bower differs so widely from

that of Cerithiwm that they should be referred to a distinct genus, as is

here done. A full diagnosis of the genus awaits a more extended study

of related species which should be included in the same genus. The two

species are described here to illustrate the case of parallelism mentioned

in the introduction.

Vicinocerithium bouei (Deshayes)

Plate vu, fig. 6; plate vir1, fig. 6; plate rx, figs. 5, 6.

1824. Cerithium bouei DESHAYES, Desc. des coquilles foss. des environs de

Paris, II, 347, pl. 52, figs. 9-11.

1906. Batillaria bouei CoSSMANN, Essais de Paléoconch. Comp., VII, 134.

MEASUREMENTS: Length, 22 mm.; greatest diameter, 9.5 mm.; apical angle,

32°; sutural angle, 81.5°.

A portion of the protoconch is preserved on one specimen. It is about

.4 mm. in diameter and apparently has the form of the typical Cerithium

protoconch. The next volution beyond the protoconch has apparently

but one primary spiral, forming a shoulder angle just above the suture.

The third volution has more fine spirals on the shoulder, and both ribs

and intercalated spirals appear for the first time on the fifth volution.

On the sixth volution two of the primary spirals above the spiral of the

shoulder angle become stronger, until on the succeeding volution all three

are of equal strength, making the outline of the volution an obtuse angle

with sloping upper surface and vertical sides. On the next two volu-

tions the uppermost of the three primary spirals becomes stronger, until

it forms the margin of an exceedingly sharp shoulder angle. Later the

median spiral becomes reduced to the size of a secondary spiral, the lowest

primary spiral becomes irregularly undulating, and another undulating

spiral of somewhat less strength is developed just above the suture.

These changes produce in the adult stage a volution that is almost indis-

tinguishable from that of V. parallelum.

WOOD, PHYLOGENY OF CERTAIN CERITHIIDZ 59

The aperture of this species is like that of V. parallelum, except that

the canal is somewhat shorter.

HorRIZON AND LOCALITIES: Sables Moyens. Le Guépelle and many localities

in the Paris Basin.

No. 20160, Columbia University collection.

REMARKS: V. bouei is referred by M. Cossmann to the genus Batilla-

ria, but a comparison with the type of that genus, B. zonale, shows a wide

difference in development, the latter species resembling Cerithium in its

early stages. As will be seen by comparing fig. 6, plate vi, with figs.

2, 3, 4, plate m1, V. bowei differs from Cerithiwm from the protoconch

stage onward, and this difference entitles it to rank as a distinct genus, as

noted above.

3. Potamides

Genus Potamides Brongniart

1810. Potamida BRoNGNIART, Ann. du Mus. Nat. d’hist. naturelle, XV, 468.

1822. Potamides BRONGNIART, in Cuvier’s Recherches sur les ossemens fossiles,

106

1906. Potamides CoSSMANN, Essais de Paléoconch. Comp., VII, 103.

Genotype Potamides lamarcki BRONGNIART.

The genus Potamides is distinguished from Cerithium mainly in the

slight development of the siphonal canal. In the type of the genus P.

lamarcki this canal is short, widely open, and with its anterior margin

slightly reflexed. This type of canal persists with little change from the

middle Eocenic to recent time.

The early stages of Potamides, as pointed out in connection with the

description of the genotype, are closely similar to those of typical Ceri-

thium, but after having developed the Cerithium-like outline of the volu-

tion with two equal spirals crossed by ribs, species of the genus continue

to emphasize the formation of nodes as their most characteristic surface

feature, instead of accenting the spirals, as in Cerithium. In this paper

only those species are included in the genus Potamides which have not

only an aperture similar to the genotype, but also have young stages in-

dicating a similar path of development.

Cerithium and Potamides are without doubt closely related genera,

and Potamides is the more primitive in structure. The aperture of the

young Potamides is almost destitute of canal, while the aperture of the

young Cerithium is like that of Potamides, and it is reasonable to suppose

that the order of evolution has been from forms without canal to those

60 ANNALS NEW YORK ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

with the slight canal of Potamides, and later to the well-developed canal

of Cerithium. Hence the ancestor from which both genera are derived

must have been more like Potamides than like Cerithium, although the

type of Potamides, P. lamarcki, and other species of the genus occur at

higher horizons than many well-developed species of Cerithium. They

represent the persistence of a primitive type of structure throughout a

long period of geologic time, while Cerithium, though descended from a

common ancestor, represents a more rapid evolution of highly specialized

forms.

Potamides lamarcki Brongniart

1810. Potamides lamarcki Bronentart, Ann. du Mus. Nat. dhist. naturelle,

XV, 468, pl. 22, fig. 5.

1824. Cerithiwm microstoma DESHAYES, Desc. des coquilles foss. des environs

de Paris, II, 412, pl. 59, figs. 32-34.

1866. Cerithium lamarcki DESHAYES, Desc. des animaux sans vert. découverts

dans le bassin de Paris, III, 177, pl. 80, figs. 25-28.

1906. Potamides lamarcki CoSSMANN, Essais de Paléoconch. Comp., VII, 103.

MEASUREMENTS: Length, 22.8 mm.; greatest diameter, 6.6 mm.; apical angle,

19°; sutural angle, 88.5°.

The protoconch of this species is beautifully preserved on a small indi-

vidual of seventeen volutions. The form is similar to that of Cerithium

adansom, and the surface is smooth and shining. It comprises about

one and one-half volutions, after which two fine spirals of equal strength

appear and remain the only ornamentation of the shell for three volu-

tions. On the fifth volution the spirals are crossed by ribs, and for the

next four volutions the shell has the characteristic ornamentation of the

young Cerithtwm—that is, an angular outline formed by:two equal spirals

crossed by ribs. On the ninth volution a third spiral is added just below

the suture, and all the spirals form nodes where crossed by the ribs. The

median row of nodes lags slightly behind the others, so that the ribs are

curved in crossing the volutions. The ornamentation of the adult con-

sists of three strong nodose spirals which are rectangular in cross-section

and a fine continuous spiral just above the suture. The ribs are faint

or obsolete in the adult, and the entire surface of the shell is covered by

extremely fine, closely set spirals, which are only visible with a strong

lens. Some specimens show gerontic characters in the thickening of the

shell and the loss of the nodes on the body volution. The lower slope of

this volution bears three spirals in addition to those already mentioned.

The aperture is nearly circular. The callus of the inner lip is thin

and spread out broadly over the lower surface of the body volution, and

WOOD, PHYLOGENY OF CERTAIN CERITHIIDA 61

the outer lip is thin and strongly sinuous. The anterior canal is very

short, shallow and has a reflexed margin.

HoRIZON AND LOCALITY: Oligocenic. Aurillac, Paris Basin.

No. 20153, Columbia University collection.

ReMarKS: This species follows the same path of evolution as Ceri-

thium adansoni for the first nine volutions, but is more retarded in the

development of ribs than that species. After the ninth volution the

shoulder is lost, and the species diverges from the Cerithium line of evo-

lution. The adult has flattened volutions and an ornamentation of rows

of nodes instead of the angular outline of the whorls and several orders

of spirals characteristic of Cerithium.

As compared with Eocenic species of Cerithium—C. equispirale, for

example—Potamides lamarcki is more primitive in structure, having a

less well-developed canal and simpler type of ornamentation, and it rep-

resents, as noted in connection with the genus, the persistence of a primi-

tive form while more rapid evolution was taking place in related groups.

Potamides cordieri mut. typum n. mut.

1824. Cerithium cordieri var. a DESHAYES, Desc. des coquilles foss. des en-

virons de Paris, II, 338, pl. 52, fig. 8.

MEASUREMENTS: Length, 29.8 mm.; greatest diameter, 11.5 mm.; apical angle,

25°; sutural angle, 84.5°.

The youngest volution present is .6 mm. in diameter and is ornamented

by ribs and two equal spirals. The same ornamentation continues for

four volutions, and on the fifth a nodose spiral appears just below the

suture. This spiral increases in strength and becomes more distinctly

nodose until, on the eleventh of the volutions preserved, it is as strong

as the two nodose spirals below it. At this stage the general outline of

the volution is straight and parallel with the slope of the spire, and its

surface is ornamented by three equal rows of nodes without ribs. The

same ornamentation is continued until the fourteenth volution, when the

loose coiling reveals a continuous spiral just above the suture. On the

fifteenth volution present a fine, slightly nodose spiral appears between

the two upper rows of nodes. The same kind of ornamentation contin-

ues throughout the remaining whorls. The body volution has three rows

of strong nodes—one fine intercalated row and two strong continuous

spirals below the ornamentation of nodes. On the later part of this volu-

tion the growth lines are crowded, the shell somewhat thickened and the

nodes indistinct or obsolete.

62 ANNALS NEW YORK ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

The aperture is quadrangular, with short, widely open siphonal canal.

The callus of the inner lip is thick and broad. The outer lip is strongly

sinuous. :

HoRIZON AND LOCALITIES: Sables Moyens. La Chapelle, Le Guépelle and

other localities in the Paris Basin.

No. 20153, Columbia University collection.

ReMARKS: Were it not for the old-age features present on the later

part of the body whorl, this variety might be taken for the young of the

type species mentioned below, but the shell appears in all ways like a full-

grown individual, with a length only about half that of P. cordieri.

The development of this form is closely similar to that of P. lamarcki,

and the adult differs but slightly in general appearance. It is, however,

larger, has a wider apical angle and lacks the extremely fine spirals coy-

ering the surface between the nodes as in P. lamarcki.

Potamides cordieri Deshayes

1824. Cerithium cordieri DESHAYES, Desc. des coquilles foss. des environs de

Paris lie aac. Dl p25 tes. 1A es

1866. Cerithium cordieri DESHAYES, Desc. des animaux sans vert. découverts

dans le bassin de Paris, ITI, 137.

1906. Ptychopotamides cordieri CoSSMANN, Essais de Paléoconch. Comp. VII,

108.

MEASUREMENTS: Length, 60 mm.; greatest diameter, 20 mm.; apical angle,

23.5° ; sutural angle, 90°.

The only specimen of this species available for study is broken at the

apex, but enough remains to show that the development of this shell is

like that of the mutation typwm and remains the same in all ways except

in the number of spirals on the last two or three volutions. P. cordieri

differs from its mutation only in its greater size and in the fact that

while P. cordieri mut. typuwm has only one row of fine nodes intercalated

between the coarser ones, the type species has a similar row intercalated

between the two lower and also below the lowest of the three rows of

strong nodes. The intercalation of fine nodes in the remaining inter-

spaces would naturally follow their introduction in one of them, so that

the adult P. cordieri constitutes the next step in this line of evolution

beyond that of P. cordiert mut. typum. For this reason it would have

been more appropriate to consider the mutation typum the type species;

but the name being already established for the larger specimens, it should

not be changed.

HorRIzoN AND LOCALITIES: Sables Moyens. La Chapelle and other localities

in the Paris Basin.

No. 20154, Columbia University collection.

WOOD, PHYLOGENY OF CERTAIN CERITHIIDA 63

RemMarKS: Potamides cordieri and its mutation are referred by M.

Cossmann to Ptychopotamides, a genus which is distinguished from

Potamides by the presence of a columellar plication, but such a plication

is certainly absent from all of the eleven specimens studied, and the

close similarity in development between this form and P. lamarcki has

led to the placing of the species in the genus Potamides.

Potamides involutum Lamarck

1804. Cerithium involutum LAMARcK, Ann. du Mus. Nat. d’hist. naturelle de

Paris, III, 348.

1824. Cerithium involutum DESHAYES, Dese. des coquilles foss. des environs

de Paris, II, 328, pl. 41, figs. 10-13.

1906. Tympanotomus involutum CosSMANN, Essais de Paléoconch. Comp., VII,

120.

MEASUREMENTS: Length, 30 mm.; greatest diameter, 10 mm.; apical angle,

25°; sutural angle, 87°.

The youngest volution seen on this species is .8 mm. in diameter. It

has at this stage ribs and two equal spirals. The same ornamentation

continues for three volutions, and on the fourth a third spiral is intro-

duced above the two already existing. This spiral increases gradually

in strength until, on the eighth volution, it is as strong as the two below

it. At this stage the shoulder has disappeared, and the surface is orna-

mented by three equal rows of nodes and a fine continuous spiral just

above the suture. On the later whorls, at a stage varying in different in-

dividuals, the nodes are lost, leaving the surface marked by continuous

spirals only. Still later the two lower spirals also disappear, leaving a

single spiral which forms the margin of a strong shoulder angle just

below the suture. The extent of this smoothing of the shell varies

greatly on different individuals, occupying three or more volutions, or the

spirals, and even the nodes, may persist nearly to the end of the body

volution. Specimens on which the smooth portion comprises several

volutions have also a narrower angle of slope for the sides in this portion

of the shell, indicating a flattening of the whorls parallel to the axis of

coiling. The embracing of the whorls is greater than in the young por-

tion of the shell, and on some specimens also a distinct canal is formed

at the posterior margin of the aperture by this overlapping of a fold in

the outer lip upon the preceding whorl.

The aperture is closely similar to that of Potamides lamarcki. The

siphonal canal is short and widely open, the callus of the inner lip thick,

and the margin of the outer lip strongly sinuous.

HorIzoN AND LOCALITY: Caleaire grossier. Cuise-la-motte, Paris Basin.

No. 20155,.Columbia University collection.

64 ANNALS NEW YORK ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

Remarks: The shells included under this name form a perfect grada-

tional series from forms in which the loss of nodes appears only on the

later part of the body volution to those in which both nodes and spirals

are absent, if we include the forms figured by Deshayes, from nearly the

whole surface. So perfect is the gradation in the collection studied that

hardly two individuals are alike, and each may be considered a mutation,

though for convenience they are described under one name.

The loss of ornamentation, the flattening of the whorls and the over-

lapping of the later whorls upon the earlier are all old-age features which

indicate a progressive gerontism and approaching extinction in the

branch of evolution which they represent.

The life history of this species is closely similar to that of P. cordiert

mut. typicum, down to the stage when gerontic features begin to appear.

It differs from that species in having a wider apical angle, but the two

species are doubtless closely related.

Potamides lapidum Lamarck

1804. Cerithium lapidum Lamarck, Ann. du Mus. Nat. d’hist. naturelle de

Paris; Ml, 350:

1824. Cerithium lapidum DESHAYES, Desc. des coquilles foss. des environs de

Pariss Wev42i pl: GO} figs) 21-22;

1906. Potamides lapidum CossMANN, Essais de Paléoconch. Comp., VII, 104,

pl. 10, figs. 6-7.

MEASUREMENTS: Length, 31 mm.; greatest diameter, 9.5 mm.; apical angle,

18.5° ; sutural angle, 88°.

The youngest volution studied is .8 mm. in diameter, and there are

evidently several volutions missing above this. Its ornamentation con-

sists of two very fine, equal, continuous spirals. On the next volution

these spirals are crossed by very faintly developed, oblique ribs which are

present with varying strength and frequency on the succeeding ten volu-

tions. These ribs are never well developed, and on the adolescent and

adult whorls they give place altogether to crowded lines of growth. On

the later volutions the spirals also become indistinct, and the whorls have

a rounded outline, with a surface roughened by the crowded lines of

growth and faint traces of one or two spirals. On the young of some

specimens the lower of the two spirals is more prominent than the upper,

and the ribs in crossing give it a nodose appearance, but this ornamenta-

tion also disappears from the later whorls.

The aperture is circular, with a thickened callus on the inner lip, and

the margin of the outer lip is sinuous. The siphonal canal is shallow

and broad, with a strongly reflexed margin.

WOOD, PHYLOGENY OF CERTAIN CERITHIIDZ 65

HorIzoN AND LOCALITIES: Calcaire grossier. La Frileuse and many other

localities in the Paris Basin.

No. 20157, Columbia University collection.

Remarks: The highest development of ornamentation on this shell

advances but little beyond the stage with two simple spirals represented

by the second to the fourth volutions of P. lamarcki, and the develop-

ment of the ribs is so feeble as to correspond with only the earlier part

of the fifth volution of that species. P. lapidum is doubtless developed

from the same ancestor as P. lamarcki, but since in the adult it becomes

more smooth, instead of developing a higher degree of ornamentation in

the direction of P. lamarcki, it probably represents a lateral branch from

the main Potamides line of evolution.

4. Potamidopsis

Genus Potamidopsis Munier-Chalmas

1900. Potamidopsis MUNIER-CHALMAS, Congrés géol. Paris, V, Chideville. Liste

générale, p. 375.

1906. Potamidopsis CoSSMANN, Essais de Paléoconch. Comp., VII, 109.

Genotype Cerithium tricarinatum LAMARCK.

M. Cossmann distinguishes this genus from true Cerithium as follows:

Enfin Potamidopsis se distingue des vrais Cerithine par son canal court,

par son labre non replié en travers du canal, et aussi par ses tours imbriqués.

La séparation—qu’a proposée Munier-Chalmas, dans de simples listes de fos-

siles publiées 4 occasion du Congrés de 1900, sans aucene diagnose—est done

a retenir.

The earliest stages in the development of the genotype show that this

shell is derived from the same stock as the true Cerithium, but it diverges

from the main line of evolution so strongly and at such an early stage

that it deserves to rank as a distinct genus. M. Cossmann describes

Potamidopsis as a sub-genus of Potamides, but the group is more closely

related to Cerithium than to Potamides; hence it should not rank as a

sub-genus of the latter. It is also too distantly related to Cerithiwm to

constitute a sub-genus of that group, and hence it is here ranked as an

independent genus. ‘T'o the distinguishing characters enumerated by M.

Cossmann may be added the numerous volutions producing a very high

spire ; the close embracing of the whorls; the general outline of the volu-

tions, not convex, but conforming to the slope of the spire; the high

development of nodes and the absence of ribs on all except the nepionic

volutions of the shell. The aperture also varies in its angular outline—

66 ANNALS NEW YORK ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

the broad and thick callus of the inner lip, with no trace of posterior

tooth, and the short, oblique siphonal canal. The outer lip is often

thickened, and its anterior portion grows more rapidly than the posterior

part, making the outline of the margin strongly sinuous.

Potamidopsis tricarinata Lamarck

Plate vil, figs. 7, 8; plate v1, figs. 7, 8; plate rx, figs. 7, 8.

1804. Cerithium tricarinatum LAMARCK, Ann. du Mus. Nat. d’hist. naturelle,

III, 272, No. 4.

1824. Cerithium tricarinatum DESHAYES, Desc. des coquilles foss. des environs

desParis, Uieo2o, pl. 51, figs: 1.78:

1866. Cerithium tricarinatum DESHAYES, Dese. des anim. sans vert. découverts

dans le bassin de Paris, III, p. 1238.

1902. Potamides tricarinatum COoSSMANN, Catal. illust. des coquilles foss. de

l’Eoc. des environs de Paris, IV, p. 69.

19038. Tympanotomus tricarinatum CosSMANN, Paleontologia Universalis, Cent.

Ie plesystiess ale:

1906. Potamidopsis tricarinatus CoSSMANN, Essais de Paléontol. Comp., VII,

1095 ply day figs: 5, 6:

MEASUREMENTS :*° Length, 45 nm.; greatest diameter, 17 mm.; apical angle,

20°; sutural angle, 87°.

The early stages of the species are described from a young individual

of fifteen volutions. The protoconch is missing, but the youngest volu-

tion preserved is probably the first beyond the protoconch, as it has a

diameter of only .8 mm. It has an ornamentation of two equal spirals

without ribs, and the same ornamentation persists on the next volution.

Ribs appear on the third volution, which has an ornamentation exactly

similar to the adult of Cerithium bicarinatum. On the fourth volution

the lower spiral becomes stronger and the upper one weaker, a tendency

which increases on the next three volutions until, on the seventh and

eighth volutions, the upper spiral has entirely disappeared, and the orna-

mentation consists merely of a single strongly nodose spiral, forming a

projecting shoulder angle just above the suture. The ninth volution has

a sub-sutural spiral the nodes of which are connected with those of the

shoulder angle by well-developed ribs. This type of ornamentation per-

sists for seven volutions more, and on the fourteenth volution a fine

spiral is intercalated between the two already existing. Comparing this

young individual with an adult, it is found that the latter is more re-

tarded in the growth of this fine spiral than the former. It does not

5 The specimen measured is the one which seems to correspond most closely with the

figures of the type given in the Paleontologia Universalis, centuria 1, plate 3, figs. 1, 2.

WOOD, PHYLOGENY OF CERTAIN CERITHIIDEA 67

appear on the adult individual until the sixteenth volution, after which

it becomes stronger and soon breaks up into a row of fine nodes placed

half way between the two rows already formed. The ribs become discon-

tinuous, and the last seven whorls are ornamented by three rows of nodes,

of which the lowest forms a projecting shoulder angle just above the

suture, and the median row is very slightly finer than the upper one. On

the later part of the body whorl all the nodes become indistinct or obso-

lete, where the crowding of the growth lines and thickening of the shell

indicate old-age conditions.

The aperture is about equal in length and width and somewhat angular

in outline. The callus of the inner lip is very thick and broad, its pos-

terior part often spreading out for a considerable distance over the pos-

terior part of the body whorl. There is no trace of posterior tooth, as in

Cerithium sens. str. The outer lip is often greatly thickened, strongly

flaring at the margin, and it overlaps more or less upon the preceding

whorl. The thickening of the shell, the loss of ornamentation and the

encroaching of the later part of the body whorl upon the preceding whorl

are all old-age features which indicate that the species is approaching its

extinction.

HorRIzON AND LOCALITIES: Calcaire grossier, Sable Moyens. Grignon and

many other localities in the Paris Basin.

No. 20122, Columbia University collection.

REMARKS: The young stages of this species furnish a clue to its devel-

opment from a form resembling Cerithiuwm bicarinatum, since its devel-

opment for the first four volutions is closely parallel to the development

of that species, and the fourth volution (counting the protoconch as one)

is the counterpart of the adult C. bicarinatum. The species could not,

however, have been developed from C. bicarinatum itself, since it occurs

at an earlier horizon, but was probably developed from the pre-Jurassic

ancestor of C. bicarinatum mentioned in connection with that species—

the same ancestor which probably gave rise along a different path of

evolution to C. corallense and its descendants, C. @quispirale, C. tubero-

sum, etcetera.

Potamidopsis tricarinata has developed many mutations by the accentu-

ation or suppression of one or another of its surface features. Of these

mutations, Lamarck has described one and given it the designation “8,”

and Deshayes has indicated five others by letters from “b” to “f,” the

letter “a” being used for the type species. The mutations occur at the

same horizon and localities as the type, and, as might be expected, transi-

tional forms exist between all of them.

68 ANNALS NEW YORK ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

Potamidopsis tricarinata mut. baucis mut. nov.

1804. Cerithium tricarinatum var. 8 LAMARcCK, Ann. du Mus. Nat. d’hist nat-

urelle, Paris, III, 272.

The author says of this species:

Dans la variété g, la caréne supérieur de chaque tour est un peu plus émi-

nente que celle du milieu.

The mutation is apparently more common than the type species, since

it is rare to find specimens in which the two upper rows of nodes are

equal. The upper row is slightly stronger, even in the type figured in

Paleontologia Universalis, but the varietal name may be retained for

those forms in which the difference is strongly developed.

No. 20121, Columbia University collection.

Potamidopsis tricarinata mut. brontes mut. nov.

1824. Cerithium tricarinatum var. b DESHAYES, Desc. des coquilles foss. des

environs de Paris, II, 325, pl. 51, fig. 2.

This mutation is distinguished by the strong carina which forms a

projecting shelf around the whorls and by the fine nodes of the two upper

spirals. The shells of this variety are usually larger than those of the

typical form.

No. 20123, Columbia University collection.

Potamidopsis tricarinata mut. cronus mut. nov.

1824. Cerithium tricarinatum var. @ DESHAYES, Desc. des coquilles foss. des

environs de Paris, II, p. 325, pl. 51, figs. 3, 4.

The carina of this mutation is also very strong, but the nodes are more

widely spaced and more prominent than in the mutation brontes. The

median row of nodes is obsolete and the upper row is poorly developed.

Potamidopsis tricarinata mut. doris mut. nov.

1824. Cerithium tricarinatum var. d DESHAYES, Desc. des. coquilles foss. des

environs de Paris, II, p. 326, pl. 51, fig. 6.

This mutation is similar to the last, but in this form it is the sub-

sutural row of nodes which becomes obsolete.

WOOD, PHYLOGENY OF CERTAIN CERITHIIDA 69

Potamidopsis tricarinata mut. eris mut. nov.

1824. Cerithium tricarinatum var. e DESHAYES, Desc. des coquilles foss. des

environs de Paris, II, 326, pl. 51, figs. 4, 7.

On this species the carina is not prominent, and its nodes are nearly

obsolete, leaving the margin but slightly wavy. The two upper rows of

nodes are present.

Potamidopsis tricarinata mut. fatua mut. nov.

1824. Cerithium tricarinatum var. f DESHAYES, Desc. des coquilles foss. des

environs de Paris, II, p. 326, pl. 51, fig. 9.

This is an extreme mutation, which is distinguished by the almost

entire absence of nodes, in the adult stages, from both the carina and the

two spirals above it. The variation is carried so far in this form that it

would be described as a distinct species if the nodes had altogether disap-

peared.

Potamidopsis acus Deshayes

1866. Cerithium acus DESHAYES, Desc. des animaux sans vert. découverts dans

le bassin de Paris, III, 199, pl. 75, figs. 19, 20.

MEASUREMENTS (Deshayes): Length, 25 mm.; greatest diameter, 6 mm.

Deshayes records the discovery of a single specimen only of this species.

According to his figures and description, it has a long, slender spire of

twenty-five volutions. The adult is ornamented by two rows of nodes

connected by ribs, the lower row being more prominent than the upper.

A fine undulating spiral is present just above the suture.

The aperture is like that of P. tricarinata, except that it does not show

gerontic characters in the thickening of the shell and loss of ornamenta-

tion seen on many specimens of the former species.

Deshayes calls attention to the similarity of this shell to the young

P. tricarinata, and it might be considered the young of that species were

it not that all the specimens of P. tricarinata studied, of 25 mm. in

length or of twenty-five volutions, have passed beyond the stage repre-

sented by the last whorl of P. acus in the intercalation of a finely nodose

spiral between those already existing. If P. acus is actually adult, as it

appears to be, it represents a more primitive form than P. tricarinata

and may well be the immediate ancestor of that species. This hypothesis

would be confirmed if other specimens showing young stages similar to

those of the very young P. tricarinata were discovered.

HorIzoN AND LOCALITY: Calcaire grossier. Monchy, Paris Basin.

70 ANNALS NEW YORK ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

Potamidopsis mixta Deshayes

. Cerithium mixtum DEFRANCE, Nom. nud.

1824. Cerithiwm mixztum DESHAYES, Dese. des coquilles foss. des environs de

Paris, II, 324, pl. 45, figs. 6-11.

1866. Cerithium mixtwm DrESHAYES, Desc. des animaux sans vert. découverts

dans le bassin de Paris, III, 128.

1906. Ptychopotamides mixtum CossMANN, Essais de Paléoconch. Comp., VII,

108.

MEASUREMENTS: Length of the eleven volutions preserved, 41 mm.; greatest

diameter, 15 mm.; apical angle, 27.5°, changing to 21.8° on last three volu-

tions; sutural angle, 80°.

The youngest volution preserved on the shell studied is 3 mm. in diam-

eter; hence a considerable portion of the apex has been broken away.

The first three volutions are much worn, destroying all the finer surface

features, but the fourth has precisely the ornamentation of P. tricarinata

mut. brontes, namely, a strong nodose carina near the base of the volu-

tion, a sub-sutural row of rather strong nodes and a median row of

nodes much finer than either of the others. This remains the ornamenta-

tion of the shell until the third from the last volution, when the sub-

sutural and the lowest row of nodes become equal in strength, finer and

much crowded. A fourth, finely nodose carina is developed at the base

of the volution and is partially concealed by the succeeding whorl. On

_ the body volution the nodes of the upper row are small and in places so

élose together as to become confluent. Two nodose carine and several

fine spirals are present on the lower slope of the body volution.

The aperture is similar to that of P. tricarinata, with an expanded

callus on the inner lip and a comparatively long, twisted siphonal canal.

A slight columellar plication defines the posterior margin of the canal.

The outer lip is broken in the specimen at hand, but the figures of

Deshayes, cited above, show it to be similar to that of P. tricarinata.

HORIZON AND LOCALITIES: Sables Moyens. Anvers and other localities in the

Paris Basin.

No. 20147, Columbia University collection.

Remarks: So far as can be determined, the life history of this species

is like that of P. tricarinata until the last three volutions, when the orna-

mentation changes to that of three rows of crowded nodes, the uppermost

being slightly more prominent than the lowest. It is probably a de-

scendant of P. tricarinata, showing its divergence from its ancestor on

the last three volutions only.

The columnellar plication which furnishes the reason for placing this

WOOD, PHYLOGENY OF CERTAIN CERITHIIDA V1

species in the genus Ptychopotamides is indistinct, and does not consti-

tute a sufficient reason for separating the species from the group to which

it is closely related in its development.

Potamidopsis tuberculosa Lamarck

1804. Cerithium tuberculosum LAMARCK, Ann. du Mus. Nat. d’hist. naturelle,

III, 348.

1824. Cerithium tuberculosum DESHAYES, Desc. des coquilles foss. des environs

de Paris, II, 48, figs. 1-5.

1866. Cerithium tuberculosum DESHAYES, Desc. des animaux sans vert. décou-

verts dans le bassin de Paris, III, 122.

1906. Serratocerithium tuberculosum COSSMANN, Hssais de Paléoconch. Comp.,

VII, 75.

MEASUREMENTS: Length, 33 mm.; greatest diameter, 12.2 mm.; apical angle,

26°; sutural angle, 86.4°.

The early stages of this species are described from a young individual

of fifteen volutions. The protoconch of the specimen is missing, and the

first two volutions are too much worn to show the surface ornamentation,

but the third volution present is ornamented by a sub-sutural spiral and

a stronger spiral forming a shoulder angle just above the suture. Both

spirals are rendered nodose and connected by ribs which are continuous

across the volutions. This type of ornamentation persists for five volu-

tions and is closely similar to the ornamentation of P. tricarinata at a

slightly later stage. The nodes of the lower and upper rows gradually

become equal in strength, and the shoulder disappears. On the sixth

volution of those preserved a spiral is intercalated between the two rows

of nodes already formed, and two volutions later this spiral is broken up

into a row of very fine nodes. The ornamentation at this stage resem-

bles that of P. tricarinata at the same stage, except that the lower row

of nodes is more prominent on the latter species. At the eleventh volu-

tion the nodes of the sub-sutural row become more prominent and more

widely spaced than those of the lowest row. This tendency increases

until a shoulder angle composed of strong, transversely elongate nodes

is formed just below the suture. This becomes the ornamentation of the

adult shell, except that a fourth spiral which is partially exposed just

above the suture also becomes wavy or faintly nodose. The body volu-

tion bears one nodose ridge in addition to those already described and

several fine spirals on its lower slope.

The aperture is nearly circular. The callus of the inner lip is broad

and thin. The outer lip is thin; its margin, growing more rapidly at

vi?) ANNALS NEW YORK ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

the anterior portion, gives it a sinuous outline. The siphonal canal is

broad and deep, bordered by a strong ridge on its columellar side.

HoRIZON AND LOCALITIES: Sables Moyens (Upper Hocenic). Widely distrib- ~

uted in the Paris Basin.

No. 20148, Columbia University collection.

ReMArRKsS: The earliest volutions of this shell are missing, but the

youngest preserved has an ornamentation similar to that of the ninth to

the thirteenth volutions of Potamidopsis tricarinata. It adds an inter-

calated spiral as in the latter species, but it diverges from the line of evo-

lution represented by P. tricarinata by forming its shoulder angle at the

upper instead of the lower margin of the whorl. This species may be

regarded as derived from the same ancestral stock as P. tricarinata, but

it represents a divergent line of evolution.

M. Cossmann refers this species to Serratocerithium, a sub-genus

founded mainly on characters of the aperture, but the aperture of P.

tuberculosa does not appear to differ to a marked degree from that of

P. tricarinata. The canal is slightly longer and the outer lip thinner

and less flaring. The present reference of the species, being founded on

descent as revealed by the ontogeny, necessarily arrives at a different

result from one founded on adult characters alone.

Potamidopsis roissyi Deshayes

1824. Cerithiwm roissyi DESHAYES, Dese. des coquilles foss. des environs de

Paris, II, 322, pl. 50; figs. 13-20:

1866. Cerithium roissyi DESHAYES, Desc. des anim. sans vert. découverts dans

le bassin de Paris, p. 127.

1906. Tympanotonus roissyi COSSMANN, Essais de Paléoconch. Comp., VII, 120.

MEASUREMENTS: Length, 25.7 mm.; greatest diameter, 8 mm.; apical angle,

20°; sutural angle, 90°.

The protoconch is missing from the best specimen available, and it is

probable that two or three more volutions are also broken away. The

youngest volution present is .? mm. in diameter, and it has exactly the

ornamentation of P. tricarinata from the ninth to the thirteenth volu-

tions. The same ornamentation continues for four volutions, after

which the ribs disappear and the two rows of nodes become equal in

strength and often alternate in position as compared across the whorl.

On the sixth volution a fine spiral is intercalated at about the middle of

the volution. This spiral soon breaks up into a row of extremely fine

nodes. At about the same stage of growth the sub-sutural row of nodes

becomes stronger than the others, a tendency which increases until the

WOOD, PHYLOGENY OF CERTAIN CERITHIIDEA 13

adult condition is reached. The ornamentation of the adult consists of

three rows of nodes of which the upper are larger and more widely spaced

than the others, and the nodes of the median row are very fine. An

irregularly nodose fine spiral is barely visible just above the suture. The

body volution has two strong spirals below those already mentioned. On

this volution the growth lines become very much crowded, and all the

nodes become indistinct, especially toward the later part of the volution.

The aperture is about equal in length and breadth and is roughly quad-

rangular in outline. The callus of the inner lip is-broad and thin. The

siphonal canal is short, widely open and somewhat twisted. The outer

lip is thin and has a strongly sinuous outline.

HorizoN AND LOCALITY: Sables Moyens superieur (Upper Hocenic). La

Chapelle, Paris Basin.

No. 20149, Columbia University collection.

REMARKS: The ornamentation of this species closely resembles that of

P. tuberculosa, both in its development and in the adult stage. The

species differs from P. tuberculosa in its smaller size; narrower apical

angle, which makes it a more slender shell; its shorter canal and more

angular aperture.

This species bears the same relation to P. tricarinata as does P. tubercu-

losa—that is, it is derived from the same ancestor as both, but develops

in the direction of P. tuberculosa, to which it is closely related.

Potamidopsis crassinoda sp. nov.

MEASUREMENTS: Length of specimen with apical whorls missing, 39.8 mm. ;

greatest diameter, 26.7 mm.; apical angle, 32°, changing to 23.8° on the sixth

volution; sutural angle, 85°.

This species is distinguished from Potamidopsis tuberculosa, to which

it is closely related, in being a larger and thicker shell and in having the

nodes of the surface much larger and more prominent. This difference

begins at an early stage of growth and continues throughout the life of

the animal. The youngest volution preserved is 2.5 mm. in diameter,

and several whorls have evidently been broken away above this. The

first three volutions have an ornamentation of about the same strength

and character as the adult of P. tuberculosa, but beyond this the large

nodes characteristic of all the later volutions are developed. ‘The nodes

of the uppermost row are large, blunt cones; those of the lowest row,

smaller and transversely elongate. The median nodes are very fine and

on some specimens nearly obsolete. The base of the volution is produced

into lobes, which sometimes overhang the succeeding volution.

74. ANNALS NEW YORK ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

The aperture is similar to that of P. tuberculosa, but the canal is

longer and more strongly reflexed, and the callus of the inner lip is

thicker and is not closely applied to the surface of the shell. The outer

lip is thickened with crowding of the growth line and loss of ornamenta-

tion for some distance back of it.

HorIzoN AND LOCALITY: Sables Moyens. Rosoy-en-multiens, Paris Basin.

No. 20150, Columbia University collection. ;

REMARKS: This species has been regarded as a variety of Potamidopsis:

tuberculosa, but its much greater size, strongly marked surface features,

and longer siphonal canal, as well as its more accelerated development,

entitle it to rank as a distinct species. It is evidently derived from the

same ancestor as P. tuberculosa, following the same path of evolution

but strengthening all the features of the shell. The three species, P..

roissyt, P. tuberculosa and P. crassinoda, possess the same type of orna-

mentation, and they form a series in which P. roissyi is at one extreme,

characterized by small size, thin shell and delicacy of ornament, and

P. crassinoda, at the other, characterized by thick shell, strong tubercles.

and wide apical angle.

Potamidopsis conjuncta Deshayes

1824. Cerithium conjunctum DESHAYES, Desc. des coquilles fossiles des en-

; virons de Paris, II, 387, pl. 73, figs. 1-4.

1866. Cerithiwn conjunctum DESHAYES, Desc. des animaux sans vert. décou-

verts dans le bassin de Paris, III, 128, pl. 80, figs. 9-16.

1906. Tympanotonus conjunctus COSSMANN, Essais de Paléoconch. Comp., VII,

120.

MEASUREMENTS: Length of specimen from which apex is broken, 29.4 mm. ;

greatest diameter, 10.8 mm.; apical angle, 28.2°, changing to 18.2° on the last

three volutions; sutural angle, 86°.

The youngest volution available for study is 2 mm. in diameter, and

several volutions have been broken away above it. The ornamentation

is that of two rows of nodes, one near each suture, the lower row being

the more prominent. The upper and lower nodes are connected by ribs.

This ornamentation resembles that of P. tricarinata from the ninth to:

the thirteenth volutions. On the third volution present a fine spiral is

intercalated between the two rows of nodes. This spiral soon becomes

finely nodose, and the ornament of the adult is that of three rows of

nodes of which the uppermost and lowest are large and of equal size,

while the nodes of the median row are very small. The body volution

has two strong spirals and several fine ones on its lower slope.

WOOD, PHYLOGENY OF CERTAIN CERITHIIDZA 75

The aperture is roughly quadrangular. The callus of the inner lip is

thick and expanded posteriorly. The siphonal canal is short, twisted

and has a strong columellar ridge defining its posterior margin. The

outer lip is broken in the specimens studied, but, according to the figures

of Deshayes, cited above, it is thin and strongly sinuous.

HorIzoN AND LOCALITY: Oligocenic. Jeures, Paris Basin.

No. 20151, Columbia University collection.

REMARKS: The development of this shell is closely similar to that of

P. tricarinata, so far as can be determined from the specimens studied.

The adult differs only in the fact that the lowest row of nodes equals the

uppermost in prominence, instead of exceeding it. This causes the out-

line of the volution to be parallel with the slope of the spire, instead of

forming a shoulder. P. conjuncta probably occupies about the same

relation to P. tricarinata as does P. tuberculosa, diverging from the tri-

carinata line of evolution at about the same stage in its development, but

in a different direction. The adult of P. tricarinata shows greater prom-

inence of the lowest row of nodes; that of P. tuberculosa emphasizes the

prominence of the sub-sutural row, and in P. conjuncta they are equal.

Potamidopsis trochleare Lamarck

1804. Cerithium trochleare LAMARCK, Ann. du Mus. d@’hist. naturelle, III, 349.

1824. Cerithium trochleare DESHAYES, Desc. des coquilles foss. des environs de

Paris, II, 388, pl. 55, figs. 10, 11.

1866. Cerithium trochleare DESHAYES, Desc. des animaux sans vert. découverts

dans le bassin de Paris, III, 129, pl. 80, figs. 1-8.

1906. Tympanotonus trochleare CoSSMANN, Essais de Paléoconch. Comp., VII,

LISS pl ake, tis: 19:

MEASUREMENTS: Length, 25 mm.; greatest diameter, 12 mm.; apical angle,

25.2°; sutural angle, 85°.

One of the specimens studied shows the protoconch. This is similar in

form to the protoconch of Cerithiwm adansoni and comprises about one

and one-half volutions. The volutions immediately succeeding the proto-

conch on this specimen are poorly preserved; but another specimen,

whose youngest volution is .7 mm. in diameter, retains the surface feat-

ures. This is the third volution, as shown by comparison with a com-

plete individual. It is ornamented by two nodose spirals, of which the

lower is the more prominent, and a third fine intercalated spiral. This

is the ornamentation of the adult P. tricarinata. The median spiral per-

sists for two volutions only, after which the shell has two rows of nodes

only, with the lower more prominent than the upper. The latter stage

"6 ANNALS NEW YORK ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

lasts for a variable number of volutions on different specimens, but

usually from five to eight volutions. Beyond this the ribs disappear,

and the shell is ornamented for the remainder of its growth by two ex-

tremely prominent continuous spirals with deep concave depressions

between them. A third spiral, partly concealed by the embracing of the

whorls, is shown on the body volution to be less prominent than the

others.

The aperture is distinctly quadrangular. The callus of the inner lip

is thick and rather narrow. The siphonal canal is short and deep. The

outer lip is often thickened in large individuals, sinuous and folded into

lobes to correspond with the spirals of the outer surface.

HorIzON AND LOCALITIES: Oligocenic. Morigny, Jeures and many other local-

ities in the Paris Basin.

No. 20152, Columbia University collection.

RemMArKsS: The youngest volution of this species to show the surface

has the ornamentation of the adult P. tricarinata. The first change to

take place in this ornamentation is in the loss of the median spiral, which

was the last feature to be acquired in the development of the latter spe-

cies. ‘The succeeding three or four volutions of P. trochleare correspond

with a still younger stage of P. tricarinata, namely, that with two rows

of nodes only. The adult P. trochleare has two continuous spirals, as

in the earliest stages of P. tricarinata. The facts thus far stated seem

to indicate a loss of characters by gerontism and the return to the primi-

tive conditions of an ancestor, but that this is not the case is shown by a

study of the intervening stages of P. tricarinata. Studying the develop-

ment of that species in reverse order, the stage preceding that with two

rows of nodes only is one in which the sub-sutural row of nodes is absent,

and, earlier still, a fine spiral.is present immediately above the shoulder

spiral (plate vit, fig. 7). This is not the same feature as the median

row of nodes in the adult, although it occupies the same position, because

it disappears and gives place to another character before the appearance

of the adult median nodes. It is this spiral, however, which, on the

fourth volution, is as strong as the spiral at the shoulder angle and forms

the upper of the two continuous spirals on the second volution. In P.

trochleare, on the contrary, it is the sub-sutural spiral which persists and

forms the upper of the two strong spirals in the adult. The lower of the

two corresponds with the spiral at the shoulder angle in P. tricarinata.

These two spirals have not the character of primitive structures, but are

on the contrary, extreme in their development. P. trochleare is a de-

scendant of P. tricarinata, with its youngest stages like the adult of the

WOOD, PHYLOGENY OF CERTAIN CERITHIIDA 77

latter species. From this stage it progresses toward simplification of sur-

face forms rather than complication of them, as in the species previously

described. It illustrates the fact that progressive development does not

always mean complication of structures, but may also travel in the direc-

tion of simplification of structures. Although P. trochleare does not

add new types of ornamentation, it does emphasize strongly the one

feature retained in the extreme prominence of its two continuous spirals.

Illustrations of progressive development resulting in more simple struc-

tures are found in other genera; for example, Claviger matoni GRAY has

young stages in which the whorls are ornamented by four strong spirals

crossed by numerous oblique ribs, changing abruptly to an ornamentation

of two very prominent continuous spirals, but without other features to

indicate gerontism as a cause for the loss of ornamentation.

Deshayes’s figures of this species, cited above, indicate an extreme de-

gree of variation, including forms with three spirals, or one spiral, or

rows of strong nodes, and it is probable that several of these should be

considered distinct species. In the absence of specimens showing these

variations, they will not be considered here.

5. Vulgocerithium

Vulgocerithium minutum de Serres

1822. Cerithium minutum DE Serres, Essai pour servir a Vhistoire des anim.

du midi de la France, p. 60.

1856. Cerithium minutum HOrNES and PartscH, Abhand. der k. k. geol. Reich-

sanst., IIT, 390, pl. 41, figs. 8, 9.

MEASUREMENTS: Length, 25 mm.; greatest diameter, 9 mm.; apical angle,

33.5°, changing to 16° on the last four volutions; sutural angle, 83.5°.

The youngest volution preserved on the specimen studied is 1.2 mm. in

diameter. It has a well-defined shoulder with two strong spirals, one

finer intercalated spiral and four on the shoulder. On the next two

volutions the sub-sutural spiral becomes broad, another spiral is added

between the two primaries, and one appears on the lower slope of the

whorl. On the succeeding volutions the sub-sutural spirals become ele-

vated at intervals as a row of nodes, the lower slope of the volution be-

comes nearly continuous with its vertical sides and numerous intercalated

spirals appear. The adult ornamentation is that of a sub-sutural row of

nodes, a median row with nodes slightly more prominent than those of

the upper row and ribs which are more or less continuous toward the

upper suture but are represented by irregularly spaced nodes below the

78 ANNALS NEW YORK ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

median line. The shoulder on the last three volutions is nearly obsolete,

being defined merely by the median row of low nodes.

The aperture is of the form usual in this group, with a narrow callus

on the inner lip, a strong posterior tooth and a short anterior canal. The

outer lip is thin and slightly crenulated.

HoRIZON AND LOCALITY: Upper Oligocenic (Aquitanian). Saucats, France.

No. 3123, Museum of Comparative Zoélogy.

REMARKS: This species continues into the Miocenic, but the specimens

studied are from the Oligocenic. Except for its small size, the shell is

closely similar to V. vulgatum, and it may well be the immediate ancestor

of that species.

Vulgocerithium pupzforme Basterot?

1825. Cerithium pupeforme BastTEeRoT, Mémoire géol. sur les environs de Bor-

deaux, p. 58, pl. 3, fig. 18.

1906. Dizoniopsis pupeforme CossMANN, Essais de Paléoconch. Comp., VII,

147, pl. XII, figs. 22-24.

MEASUREMENTS: Length, 12 mm.; greatest diameter, 4.8 mm.; apical angle,

36.5°, changing to 26° on the last three volutions; sutural angle, 76°.

The protoconch of this species is not preserved, but a volution .6 mm.

in diameter probably represents about the second volution beyond it.

This whorl is ornamented by two equal spirals, and on the next volution

the spirals are crossed by ribs. On the third volution of those preserved

a spiral is added between the two primary spirals and one just below the

suture. On the later volutions numerous fine spirals appear until those

of the third order may be recognized. On the body volution the shoulder

is less prominent and the nodes formed by the crossing of the ribs and

the sub-sutural spiral are larger, so that without a lens the surface ap-

pears to be ornamented by two rows of nodes, the lower of which is formed

by the crossing of the ribs and the shoulder. The body volution has two

or three strong spirals, with finer intercalated ones on its lower slope.

The aperture is elongate oval, with a broad and thick callus on the

inner lip. The siphonal canal is long and slightly curved. The outer

lip is thin and not expanded.

HorRIZON AND LOCALITY: Oligocenic (Aquitanian). Saucats, near Bordeaux.

No. 2521, Museum of Comparative Zodlogy.

ReMARKS: The original description of Cerithium pupeforme has not

been obtainable, and the reference to this species is somewhat doubtful.

WOOD, PHYLOGENY OF CERTAIN CERITHIIDA 79

The development of this shell, as well as its adult ornamentation, has

all the characteristics of Vulgocerithium. It resembles V. minitum to

such an extent that it was at first thought to be the voung of that species,

but it is more accelerated than V. minutuwm, acquiring its tertiary spirals

at an early stage. It differs further from the latter species in having a

narrower aperture and longer canal. The well-developed callus and

nearly uniform size of all of the ten individuals studied seem to indicate

that the specimens are fully adult.

F. CRETACIC SPECIES OF CERITHIUM

No actual specimens of true Cerithiwm from horizons earlier than the

Aptien were available for study, and the following phylogeny worked out

from the literature is subject to revision, if more material should be

obtained.

Cerithium cornuelianum d’Orbigny

1842-1848. Cerithium cornuelianum vD’ORBIGNY. Paléontol. Francaise, Terrains

Crétacés, II, Gastéropodes, p. 361, pl. 228, figs. 11-13.

1906. Atresius cornuelianum COoSSMANN, Essais de Paléoconch. Comp., VII, 195.

The original description is as follows:

DIMENSIONS: Ouverture de l’angle spiral, 27°; longeur totale, 27 millim.;

largeur, 12 millim.; longeur du dernier tour, par rapport 4 l’ensemble 35/100;

angle sutural, 89°.

Coquille allongée, turriculée. Spire formée d’un angle régulier, composée

de tours convexes, ornés en travers, 4 la derniére révolution spirale, de dix

cétes fliexuenses, ondulées, non arrétées, se correspondant obliquement d’un

tour 4 l’autre. Sur ses cdtes viennent se croiser de légers sillons longitudi-

nmaux trés-inégaux. Bouche ovale, prolongée en avant et terminée par un

sinus; labre trés-échancré en arriére, saillant antérieurement.

HorRIZON AND LOCALITY: Aptien. Grange-au-Ru, near the Varin bridge, com-

mune de Wassy (Haute Marne).

ReMarks: This species has volutions of a rounded outline, ribs con-

tinuous across the whorl and numerous spirals of different orders. It is

thus a simple shell, having the characteristics which might be expected

in an early type of true Cerithium. A specimen in the Museum of Com-

parative Zodlogy does not show the young stages, but on the last three

volutions two of the spirals are stronger than the others. This suggests

the beginning of the development which becomes a characteristic feature

of Cerithium equispirale and later species of the genus.

A posterior tooth is not developed on the inner lip, but this would

hardly be expected before the spirals have become strong on the body

80 ANNALS NEW YORK ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

volution, for the presence of such a tooth appears, in many cases, to be

due to a strong spiral on the body volution, which projects into the ape

ture and is accented by the passage of the callus over it.

M. Cossmann refers this species to Atresius, but in the description of

that genus, the beak is said to be large and bent backward and the spire

to be ornamented by nodulose costs, characteristics which do not appear

on this species. It seems to bear little resemblance to the type of the

genus Atresius.

Cerithium albense d’Orbigny

1842-1848. Cerithiuwm albense pD’ORBIGNY, Paléontol. Francaise, Terrains Cré-

tacés, II, Gastéropodes, p. 355, pl. 227, figs. 10-12.

The original description is as follows:

DIMENSIONS: Ouverture de l’angle spiral, 20°; longeur totale, 13 millim. ;

diamétre, 4 millim.; longeur du dernier tour, par rapport a l’ensemble, 30/100.

Coquille trés-allongée, aciculée. Spire formée d’un angle régulier, composée

de tours convexes, séparés par des sutures, ornés, en long, de cdtes inégales,

dont quatre, plus grosses, plus saillantes, tranchantes, vont diminuant de

grosseur des supérieures aux inférieures. Entre chacune de celles-ci existe

une petite cote trés-étroite; il y a encore, en travers, par révolution spirale,

de onze ou douze cédtes arrondies, droites, sur lesquelles passent les premiéres.

Le dernier tour a de plus une seule cote longitudinale. Bouche ovale, pro-

longée en canal, en avant. Labre mince, tranchant.

HorIzZON AND LOCALITY: Neocomian. Marolles (Aube), France.

REMARKS: The figures of this species show a simple type of shell with

rounded volutions, well-developed ribs and three strong spirals on each

volution. A finer fourth spiral is also present just below the suture, and

the shell is further ornamented by a single intercalated spiral between

each pair of the coarser ones. The outer lip has the crenulated margin

characteristic of C. w@quispirale and later species of Cerithium.

This shell is simpler than C. cornuelianum in possessing two orders of

spirals only, and, so far as can be determined without an examination of

the shell, it seems to constitute an earlier member of the Cerithiuwm line

of evolution.

G. JURASSIC SPECIES OF CERITHIUM

Cerithium corallense Buvignier

1843. Fusus corallensis BuviaNieR, Mémoire de la Soc. Philomatique de Verdun,

p: 22; pl. 6; fig T.

1889. Brachytrema corallensis pk Loriot, Abh. Sweiz. Paliiont. Gesell., XVI, 65,

pl. 9, figs. 1, 2

1906. Brachytrema corallensis COSSMANN, Essais de Paléoconch. Comp., VII,

p. 18.

WOOD, PHYLOGENY OF CERTAIN CERITHIIDZ 81

The original description of this species is as follows:

Coquille turriculée, allongée, 4 cdtes longitudinales, au nombre de cing sur

les tours supérieurs, mais plus nombreuses sur les autres; elles sont recoupées

par des sillons transverses au nombre de trois sur chaque tour. Bouche ovale,

anguleuse supérieurement, échancrure large, profonde et oblique.

Horizon AND LOCALITY: Jurassic, Coral-rag. St. Michiel, France.

Remarks: This species of Cerithium shows primitive characteristics

in its simple ornamentation consisting of primary spirals and ribs only,

its moderate degree of embracing of the whorls and its simple aperture,

with short, straight canal. The points of intersection of the spirals and

ribs are often elevated, giving the surface a nodose appearance, but the

ornamentation is composed essentially of the ribs and three simple spirals

only. In this respect the shell is more primitive then C. albense and

must resemble the young of that species before the introduction of inter-

calated spirals.

Specimens of this species were not obtainable, but from the evidence

furnished by the literature it seems to be an ancestral form of Cerithium

and the earliest representative thus far obtained of the line of evolution

terminating in C. tuberosum.

This species has been referred to the genus Brachytrema, but a com-

parison with the type of that genus, B. buvigniert, shows a wide contrast

in form and ornamentation, the latter species having the low spire and

wide apical angle of the genus Trochus, with the outer lip much ex-

panded and the body volution longer than the remainder of the shell.

V. SUMMARY

Reviewing the facts already presented, it is found that, while no speci-

mens of true Cerithium were obtained earlier than the Aptien, it appears

from the literature that the Jurassic species, Cerithium corallense, may

represent the earliest known species of the genus. This is a primitive

type of shell of small size, with rounded whorls and having on its adult

volutions three spirals crossed by ribs.

In studying the development of retarded species of Cerithium, it is

found that the shell forms first a single spiral, with a second spiral added

above the first. Later the two spirals become of equal strength and are

crossed by ribs. This stage reappears constantly throughout the genus

and its near relatives. The fact that it is so persistent a feature suggests

that it probably formed the adult stage of an early Jurassic or Triassic

ancestor of Cerithium, from which forms like C. corallense were devel-

82 ANNALS NEW YORK ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

oped by the addition of a third spiral above the two primary ones. Such

a type of development is epitomized in three species of the upper Eocenic.

C. bicarinatum has adult ornamentation like the supposed primitive an-

eestor of C. corallense—that is, two equal spirals crossed by ribs (plate —

Iv, fig. 9). The immediate descendant of the former species is C. bicari-

natum mut. trispirale, a form which corresponds with C. corallense in

having a third spiral present above the two primary ones, producing a

shell with rounded volutions and an ornamentation of three simple spirals

crossed by ribs.

The lower Cretacic species, C. albense, shows an advance upon C.

corallense in the introduction of intercalated spirals, and it has its par-

allel in the Eocenic species, C. retardatum, which differs from its imme-

diate ancestor, C. bicarinatum mut. trispirale, only in the presence of

intercalated spirals. C. bicarinatum is descended from an early ancestor

of Cerithium, and is so retarded as to retain its ancestral characteristics

nearly unchanged. Its descendants pass through rapidly, in one geo-

logical period, a path of evolution which has been traveled more slowly

in the main line of evolution from early Jurassic, or possibly Triassic, to

Cretacic time.

An advance upon the type of development shown in C. albense is seen -

in C. cornuelianum, of later Cretacic (Aptien) time. This shell has

many intercalated spirals, and two of the primary spirals are stronger

than the others, forming a slight projection around the median portion

of the adult volutions. This projection, although similar in form, is not

the developmental equivalent of the primary two-spiraled stage, for in

the phylogeny of the genus it appears after the stage with three primary

spirals and after the development of intercalated spirals. In recent,

highly accelerated species of the genus, intercalated spirals appear so

early in the ontogeny that the stage with three simple spirals is either

omitted altogether or obscured by the fact that the third spiral on the

shoulder never becomes as strong as the others. In such cases the stage

just described seems to be continuous with the primitive two-spiraled

stage, from which it differs morphologically only in the presence of in-

tercalated spirals.

The greater abundance of Eocenic material in the collections studied

furnishes an opportunity for determining the phylogeny with greater

certainty than in the earlier horizons. At that time C. equispirale rep-

resents the next stage in the phylogeny of the genus beyond C. cornue-

lianum, for on this specimen the two equal spirals are well developed and

persist to the adult whorls, and spirals of several orders are easily recog-

nizable. The young stages of C. wquispirale are unfortunately missing,

WOOD, PHYLOGENY OF CERTAIN CERITBUDA 83

but they were doubtless simpler than the youngest stage preserved, and

were probably not unlike the young specimens referred to C. inabsolu-

tum; but if these specimens are correctly idenified, the adult differs from

C. equispirale in the direction of loss of fine spirals and of the shoulder.

C. lamellosum carries this loss of ornament still farther, and the two

constitute a lateral branch in the phylogeny of Cerithium. C. calcitra-

poides represents another lateral branch, having its young stages like the

adult C. cornuelianum, but its later stages have a shoulder with a sharp

angle of the type seen on recent species of the genus.

As stated above, the European Miocenic and Phlocenic furnish no un-

doubted species of Cerithium sens. str., but in the Miocenic of Florida

O. chipolanum seems, so far as can be determined from the description

and figure, to belong to this genus and to represent a branch in which a

comparatively low spire is developed. C. chipolanum is probably an

American representative of an undescribed European form which was

the ancestor of the somewhat low-spired recent species, such as C. adan-

sont, C. echinatum, etcetera.

The Pliocenic C. callisoma has the high spire characteristic of the type

of the genus C. tuberosum, and it, too, probably had its European par-

allel, which was the ancestor of C. tuberosum and other high-spired re-

lated forms. The abundance of material in the collections of recent

shells reveals a great flowering out of the genus in recent time, and how-

ever different the appearance of the adult shells, all reveal their common

ancestry by a similarity in their young stages, as described above and indi-

eated on plate I.

Among the genera closely related to Cerithium, Vulgocerithium is per-

haps the nearest, developing as it does at an early stage the two strong

spirals with intercalated spirals, and diverging from the main line of

evolution only in the greater development of nodes and in the absence

of a sharp shoulder angle in the adult. Species of this genus seem to

undergo little change from Oligocenic to recent time, and all the species

described are similar in general appearance and differ from one another

only in details.

The genus Potamides is closely related to Certthiwm. The type of the

genus P. lamarcki develops the bicarinate ornamentation in the same

manner as in C. retardatum (plate 111, figs. 9, 10, and plate rv, fig. 9)

or other retarded or primitive species of Cerithiwm, but retains each

stage for a greater portion of the spire, or, in other words, its early on-

togeny is like that of Cerithiwm, but more retarded. The adult expresses

its divergence from Cerithium by developing nodes as the chief feature of

its ornamentation. As pointed out above, Potamides is a more primi-

tive genus than Cerithium in its slightly developed canal, in the sim-

84 ANNALS NEW YORK ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

plicity of its ornamentation and in its retarded ontogeny. It is probably

developed from the same bicarinate ancestor from which Cerithium arose,

but includes primitive types which persist throughout several periods of

geological time. Locenic species of Potamides form, like Vulgoceri-

thium, a compact group the members of which do not diverge strongly,

even in the adult stages.

The genus Tympanotonus is founded upon Murex fuscatus LINN, a

species formerly referred to Potamides, and this shell has the typical

Potamides young stages, forming the peculiar ornamentation of the adult

by developing its median row of nodes into large spines. The genus

should be restricted to those forms which are like Potamides in the young

and only show divergence in the neanic or adult stages. As thus re-

stricted, the genus is a direct descendant from Potamides.

The genus Potamidopsis, having for its genotype Cerithium tricarinatum

LAMARCK, is also closely related to Cerithiwm, as shown by the develop-

ment of the genotype. This species forms a bicarinate ornamentation in

the same manner as both Cerithiwm and Potamides (compare plate VII,

figs. 7, 8, with plate 111, figs. 9, 10, and plate tv, fig. 9), but it is more

accelerated than Potamides. Beyond this stage, Potamidopsis diverges

strongly from Cerithiwm in forming its shoulder angle just above the

suture and in having its surface ornamented by rows of nodes. The

genus as a whole is less accelerated than Cerithiwm.

As a probable ancestor of P. tricarinata we have P. acus, whose adult

stages resemble the ninth to the thirteenth volutions of P. tricarinata,

and from this species we have developed P. roissyi and P. tuberculosa,

whose development is parallel to that of P. tricarinata up to the P. acus

stage. After this stage these forms diverge from P. tricarinata by de-

veloping the uppermost instead of the lowest row of nodes.

The ancestor of Cerithtum immediately preceding the Jurassic species

described probably possessed a bicarinate ornamentation crossed by ribs

and a very slightly developed canal. The young stages probably had

rounded whorls, with one spiral at first and later two continuous spirals.

The collections thus far studied do not furnish sufficient evidence for a

statement as to the canalless form from which this primitive ancestor of

the genus was derived.

Cerithium is a genus which shows a strong tendency to vary, as shown

by the great diversity of forms present in the Eocenic and still greater

variety in recent time; but, notwithstanding the wide differences in

adults, relationship may be traced by similarity in the young stages,

pointing out the path of evolution which all have traveled.

WOOD, PHYLOGENY OF CERTAIN CERITHIIDA

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86 ANNALS NEW YORK ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

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uh ptiee, Paty ar. 1806-1897,

v.> Matos ‘of the Orag Mottnec, 4

ciety roe =. 1949.

> Wies-fine, Sicipaiangeat, 1 Band. 1652, 9,

‘ode Barret, B+ eMerovoten dex: Strauihecper Belial Ps

Braphion, HY niangun Natsrgeschicbte der Yorwelt. Sennen

gia 4: 1 aTAII

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STHINYIME HasiMtinsoonis T bor wuiKined to saioaqa ta

_-evbioloy ou 1 eran asi etalq ont Yo Hel odd dm erdmoma 91

4 beedatnn gated donor

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PLATE III

ONTOGENY OF SIX SPECIES OF CERITHIUM

Numbers at the left of the plate indicate the numbers of the volutions.

Dotted lines indicate gradual transition from one volution to the next figured.

The amount of enlargement is given on the plate; actual measurement of the

portion of the shell figured is given below. All the figures on Plates III to IX

are from original drawings by the author.

Fic. 1. Cerithium tuberosum, fourth volution. 1.6 X .8mm.

Fie. 2. Cerithium adansoni, protoconch. .6 X .4mm.

Fie. 3. Cerithium adansoni, second volution. .8 X .8mm.

Fic. 4. Cerithium adansoni, third volution. 1.1 X .56mm.

Fic. 5. Cerithium? noduloswn, fourth volution. 1.9 X 1mm.

Fic. 6. Pseudovertagus aluco, fourth volution. 2.2 X 1.1mm.

Fic. 7. Cerithiwn lamellosum, protoconch and first volution. .5 X .7 mm.

Fic. 8. Cerithium lamellosum, third volution. .7 X .82 mm.

Fic. 9. Cerithium retardatwm, second volution. .5 X .25 mm.

Fig. 10. Cerithium retardatum, third volution. .75 X .87 mm.

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PLATE IV

ONTOGENY OF SIX SPECIES OF CERITHIUM (continued)

. Cerithium tuberosum, eighth volution. 4.6 * 2.2 mm.

. Cerithium adansoni, fifth volution. 3.5 x 1.5mm.

. Cerithium adansoni, eighth volution. 9 < 3.4mm.

. Cerithium? nodulosum, sixth volution. 6 X 3mm.

. Cerithium? nodulosum, eighth volution. 65mm. Later whorls of

this shell are not figured, as they are too large to show details when

reduced to the scale of this plate.

. Pseudovertagus aluco, seventh volution. 5.2 * 2.3mm.

. Pseudovertagus aluco, eighth volution. 7 X 3mm.

. Cerithium lamellosum, fifth volution.. 1.2 * .5 mm.

. Cerithium retardatum, fifth volution. 1.2 * .5mm.

Cerithium retardatum, seventh volution. 2 * 1mm.

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ANNALS N. Y. ACAD. SCI.

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PLATE V

ONTOGENY OF SIX SPECIES OF CERITHIUM (continued)

. Cerithium adansoni, ninth volution. 12 X 7mm.

. Cerithium adansoni, aperture. 16 X 12 mm.

. Cerithium equispirale, ninth volution. 2.5 * 1.4mm.

. Cerithium cequispirale, twelfth volution. 4.4 * 8.5mm.

Pseudovertagus aluco, tenth volution. 10 * 4.5mm.

Pseudovertagus aluco, eleventh volution. 16 7mm.

. Cerithium lamellosuwm, ninth volution. 3.4 * 1.5mm.

. Cerithium lamellosum, eleventh volution. 6 X 3.5mm.

. Cerithium retardatum, ninth volution. 3.8 « 1.8mm.

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PLATE VI

ONTOGENY OF SIX SPECIES OF CERITHIUM (continued)

. Cerithium tuberosum, thirteenth yolution. 12 < 11.5 mm.

. Cerithium tuberosum, fourteenth volution. 24 x 29mm.

. Cerithium equispirale, fourteenth volution. 9.5 <* 9.2 mm.

. Pseudovertagus aluco, thirteenth volution. 19 * 11mm.

. Pseudovertagus aluco, fourteenth volution. 22 x 20mm.

. Cerithium lamellosum, aperture. 12 X 11mm.

. Cerithium retardatum, fourteenth volution. 8.5 x 4mm.

. Cerithium retardatum, aperture. 7 X 9mm.

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PLATE VII

ONTOGENY OF CERITHIIDA

. Cerithium callisoma, third volution. .8 * .3mm.

. Cerithium menkei, second yolution. .2 * .6mm.

Cerithium menkei, fourth volution. 1.8 x .8mm.

. Vicinocerithium parallelum, second volution. 1.2 * .5 mm.

Vicinocerithium parallelum, third volution. .2 * .8mm.

Vicinocerithium bouei, fourth volution. 1.4 * .6mm.

. Potamidopsis tricarinata, second volution. .4 * .19 mm.

. Potamidopsis tricarinata, third volution. .6 X .38mm.

Potamidopsis trochleare, fractured protoconch. .4 * .3mm.

. Potamidopsis trochleare, fourth volution. 1 x .4mm.

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PLATE VITI

ONTOGENY OF CERITHIID2 (continued)

Fig. 1. Cerithium callisoma, sixth volution. 1.8 X .8mm.

Fic. 2. Cerithium callisoma, eighth volution. 2.6 * 1mm.

Fic. 3. Cerithium menkei, fifth volution. 1.8 X 1mm.

Fic. 4. Vicinocerithium parallelwm, fifth volution. 2.4 * 1mm.

Fig. 5. Vicinocerithium parallelum, seventh volution. 3 * 2mm.

Fic. 6. Vicinocerithium bouei, eighth volution. 2.8 * 1.4mm.

Fic. 7. Potamidopsis tricarinata, sixth volution. 1.4 X .6mm.

Fie. 8. Potamidopsis tricarinata, tenth volution. 2.7 * 1mm.

Fic. 9. Potamidopsis trochleare, sixth volution. 1.8 * .6mm.

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PLATE IX

ONTOGENY OF CERITHIID2 (continued)

Cerithium callisoma, tenth volution. 7.3 X 7mm.

Cerithium menkei, tenth volution. 13 * 11.5mm.

Vicinocerithium parallelum, twelfth volution. 6 * 4mm.

Vicinocerithium parallelum, aperture. 9.8 X 8 mm.

Vicinocerithium bouei, twelfth volution. 8 X 2mm.

Vicinocerithium bouei, aperture. 8.5 X 6.5mm.

Potamidopsis tricarinata, twenty-third volution. 12 * 5mm.

Potamidopsis tricarinata, twenty-fourth volution. 19 * 11mm.

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CONTENTS OF VOL, XX, PART I

aia

Wood, Elvira. The Phylogeny of Certain Cerithiide. .

‘

3 /

VOL. XX | | P ART II

ANNALS

OF-“THE

NEW YORK

ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

EDITOR

Edmund Otis Hovey

NEW YORK

PUBLISHED BY THE ACADEMY

1910

THE NEW YORK -ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

(Lycrum or Narurat History, 1817-1876)

OFFICERS, 1910

President—James F. Kemp, Columbia University

Vice-Presidents—GrorGE F. Kunz, CHARLES B. DAVENPORT,

MaAvrRICE FISHBERG, WILLIAM CAMPBELL

Recording Secretary—EpMunpD Otis Hovey, American Museum

Corresponding Secretary—HeErMon C. Bumpus, American Museum

Treasurer—EMERSON McMItLuIn, 40 Wall Street

Inbrarian—Ratru W. Tower, American Museum

SECTION OF GEOLOGY AND MINERALOGY

Chairman—GeEorGE F. Kunz, 401 Fifth Avenue

Secretary—CHarLes P. Berxey, Columbia University

SECTION OF BIOLOGY

Chairman—CHarkLeEs B. Davenport, Cold Spring Harbor, N. Y.

Secretary—L. Hussaxor, American Museum

SECTION OF ASTRONOMY, PHYSICS AND CHEMISTRY

Chairman—WILLIAM CAMPBELL, Columbia University

Secretary—EpwarpD J. THATCHER, Teachers’ College

SECTION OF ANTHROPOLOGY AND PSYCHOLOGY ;

Chairman—MA0vURICE FISHBERG, 1337 Madison Avenue zi

Secretary—R. 8. WoopwortH, Columbia University F.

The sessions of the Academy are held on Monday evenings at 8:15

o’clock from October to May, inclusive, at the American Museum of

Natural History, 77th Street and Central Park, West

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PLATE X

QUARRY IN BASALT AT WEST PATERSON, N. J.

Vertical face showing “pahoehoe” structure of basalt. Hach bowlder is

sheathed with glass, whose alteration has supplied the principal components

entering into the secondary minerals.

[ANNALS N. Y. ACADEMY OF SCIENCES, Vol. XX, No. 2, Part II, pp. 93-187,

Pll. X-XIII. 4 August, 1910]

THE WATCHUNG BASALT AND THE PARAGENESIS OF ITS

ZEOLITES AND OTHER SECONDARY MINERALS

BY CLARENCE N. FENNER

(Read by title before the Academy, 2 May, 1910)

CONTENTS

Page

MATEO CU CULO Mas tedors ai -sereuon ayers stereos Gus arash eecevene.e ebaiioterele orerae al sis) Sele cucio om & acinhes 94

ee G COLO Svar O fee HERE ET OI teyavere voisteiteie ates ove ai sivie)-oi onctereiieie eater aid el eb oleh edoveneretonecete 95

CoOngiiIONSPOLMUTIASSIG depositions cic cia visi alae sched Greer oe ere 95

HETCOMS A CULV bye cy a eccstarerapscs le) tystore ver susvt'a).e ee euere spttiver ste ie whrese. sree Nenoters 98

Local peculiarities of the First Watchung sheet................. 99

Source of the waters which effected recrystallization and of the

Newer minerals eposwieds s.'-:ccis « coche ee ees eee e Sk ones 104

Chemistry of the process by which alteration was effected. ..... 108

Bvidences asstor time involv eg!s aici eee aeeeis cit ae aleie cee e er ae ali

Desreetot superheatine vot the Solutions. «06 eee laste cee eee 111

hieeeetrocraphy, of the, secondary mineralst. += 2s. aeries «ee cos ede ces oe 113

Methods of study of mutual relations of minerals............... 1113

GTS te OfesTNITVELALS Ay cyeie 2 erstatenercrelctsus eileen sees Oe aeveis & cuts sual oroloncrewnetece 114

AN OETA, OIE Wee WOR IHU. oomecome voend be anemolle bo Doo Gb eae 115

Kirstapenod vote alterationiyosic. a5 ose ecmievatt ete oon eaeiadicvelars Ges 6 stens ual

ANIM VEN Ue chy Cure een ter OO SECTOR RCL OT CREEPER NEL Tesi Pca ae TCR SS ae 121

Replacements of wall bi ierrs scyciae a cctools ont een heteet ae Bini ae 126

(GNUED EATS © 16 pho eichch elect Re CLCR RONAN TCU ACR VCRETL Aah TR AY 132

IRE OI BKEETIACIALE COVE ACN Wore atea.o a ole mic ula Ore Ol Chae ro oer cee 133

CEG NET Py i acic) Creu cae ONOEaE Loree SSI AURORE Cee 138

Mew amp MiUpOlES Ms eae were Nchsy seatiae oe «Sie cache tess ieleLG cha sisteterels ane 140

SS DECUT ATMO Maas 4 area Pek ararery oie Sioouss ouavcras Ghovelotove m aur lev shsnae ots ekous a oe di's 147

EV Eten Ce CHA CODY rile melts siaayscleralererstae ole stains cueuekeks sas) So 148

Dy AOU Raerarereear cay yon Petove terres stan ansiren shovel okeve) alos sweseva tor oheycine te cdi 88 [See ova eles 150

PROWMULG MN Male yena cues tatiet bitiesemheta let acr ose samsalcvarioiens ares Ole eee we one 154

IPG CHOUTSMeper sist sraietcrerctetst ters ey eek ote tase) Pee CRN ie Goad Soelaneleists eS 157

General results of the first period of alteration....-......... 158

Second eperiod moa teratlomcryaicrs0sia eric cierto le aisles soi ote 160

LEARY) Ce, Havel: GaN OEYS GIs aoe oo O00 c.Uie ohn Soe cacke BUR OO OGOEe 160

PTE WED. My.3 Sue ois POU CB HOMER CCS O GSAS oO EE EEE OE Orc 164

Chabazitesheulanditerands Stilbites. secemieeciele oclet ee\ « « 2 01+\+ 0c 167

2 IEE CUTTS YA GE Lee rately ay tetsyaieis. «crust Mevelalel sine veteiaioa atataiatciaians:< =< «x alae 7G

SCOLECHLORE ayy terashcin statis o aie ck axavotaencmeme rereem ate totetaten ance cela aieraiclaher sie 172

MAR é 0 rt]

94 ANNALS NEW YORK ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

Page

INAETOMIGC RR: ers je staciones chet e eiaiels 63) he sisi oie are nidterelat eRe ene een 172

APOp Wylie Masi Pek eue-or edo 6.ohb vols ¥.0.4 gee itioe aeaio Te ee ee 1738

Gin KovghICh: Bos Aoosiol at ceeece aa eer emer ON SAV VASE eb oe 174

NELPeMbIMes eerie ciepaaie e.citra ci sieis Gis Giaho'« one RA Pee aaa ee 174

ThirdeperiodsokPulteration: 5. - 2s sive) cceee cee oe ee eee ilps}

WalCitG ee motiric tie iiaie.c.d ae oo po SRE Ie eo eee 175

haumMasitemande yi SUM. .. 4st. cite cee ieee ne eho Lai

III. Comparison with other deposits and general conclusions............ 178

PRES UINAG Wea teche ee i Gia aie ss 5.5 aio 0's tev bres Btoule le EP Se oreo Te ee eee 185

FO as

Sa VE aa INTRODUCTION

Certain localities within the area covered by the basaltic ridge which

forms the First Watchung Mountain in Northern New Jersey have for

many years been famous among mineral collectors in the East for the

beautiful specimens of zeolitic minerals which they have yielded. A\I-

though from a purely utilitarian point of view nothing of economic value

has been discovered among these minerals or their associates, yet to the

mineralogist, the size and perfection of crystal groups and the delicacy of

form and coloring which are exhibited render them most attractive and

desirable acquisitions. In these respects, the finest specimens found in

the New Jersey localities are but little inferior to the similar zeolitic

groups brought from the world-famous collecting-grounds at Berufiord in

Iceland and the Poonah District in India.

Beyond the attraction which these minerals offer as objects of beauty

or from a mineralogic standpoint, they present to the geologist many

problems which add greatly to their interest. From this side, the rela-

tions which they bear to the enclosing rock and the cause and manner of

their deposition are matters of greater importance. It is easy to recognize

from their field associations that the veins and pockets in which they are

found have many points of similarity with metalliferous veins, and that a

full understanding of the processes involved in the formation of the zeo-

lites would be of the greatest value in interpreting certain of the features

of the economically important metalliferous deposits. From another

point of view, one can recognize in the genesis of the zeolites a phase of

manifestation of the processes of hydrothermal metamorphism, which

operate in various forms to alter the crystalline character and the min-

eralogic composition of igneous and sedimentary rocks.

Study of the zeolites by various workers has resulted in considerable

literature on the subject. The greater part of what has been written,

however, deals purely with the crystallographic or optic properties of the

FENNER, THE WATCHUNG BASALT 95

minerals. It has been found that the optic characteristics present many

anomalies, not all of which have found explanation, and that the laws

governing the crystallographic forms of the various species are very com-

plex, especially as regards twinning. These are matters which are largely

of a physical nature and are apart from the scope of the present paper.

They will not be considered, except that the results which have been

attained will be utilized as offering valuable criteria for determination

- and discrimination. Efforts have also been made to determine the order

of succession of the various associated species from different localities,

but, so far as the writer is aware, the resources of microscopic petrography

have been little utilized in this direction.

The present paper embodies the results of a study of various questions

of geology and manner of formation of the zeolites and associated sec-

ondary minerals which are found within the area of Watchung basalt

mentioned. The work has been carried out under the direction of the

Geological Department of Columbia University, and the microscopic

studies of rock sections have been made in the petrographic laboratory of

that institution. The writer takes the greatest pleasure in acknowledging

his sense of deep obligation to the members of the Geological Department,

Professor Kemp, Professor Berkey and Professor Grabau, for their kind-

ness and assistance throughout in guidance and suggestions.

The chief features which will be considered in the paper are the

geologic conditions which gave rise to the formation of the secondary

minerals and the order of succession of the various species as determined

by petrographic methods, and in connection with this the results attained

will be interpreted, so far as has been found possible, in the light of the

laws of physical chemistry. The application of this branch of science in

its modern aspects to the problems of the mineralogist and petrographer

is at the present time at a most interesting stage, where the applicability

and value of the principles are perceived, but application to specific cases

has been slight.

I. GEOLOGY OF THE REGION

CONDITIONS OF TRIASSIC DEPOSITION

An understanding of the major features of the geologic history of the

region under discussion for a short period prior to the extrusion of the

First Watchung basalt is essential for a comprehension of the processes

which resulted in the formation of the secondary minerals. There has

been some lack of agreement among different observers as to the interpre-

tation of certain features of Triassic history. Earler views were influ-

96 ANNALS NEW YORK ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

enced by the supposed necessity of attributing the accumulation of all

sedimentary terranes to deposition in large bodies of water. The possi-

bilities of fluviatile accumulation on piedmont slopes or in depressed

basins were not recognized. Later studies of the eastern Trias, carried

out with this conception in mind, have shown that many strong arguments

may be advanced favoring this interpretation, and there is now a strong

tendency toward a general adoption of this point of view. To the writer,

the evidences in support of this view appear of great weight, and through-

out the present paper it is accepted without reservation.

With this explanation, the conditions of Triassic deposition may be

summarized as follows: The processes of mountain-folding which

brought the Permian period to a close in eastern North America found

expression along lines approximately parallel to those which had charac-

terized previous periods of orogenic movement along the Atlantic border

and resulted in the uplift of the Appalachians along axes having in

general a northeasterly-southwesterly trend, but in places (as through

Pennsylvania) departing quite widely from the general course. As a

phenomenon which was probably closely associated with the structural

instability attendant upon this period of orogenic development, secondary

adjustments continued throughout a prolonged period.2_ The most im-

portant later movements of this character, so far as their history may be

read, resulted in the formation of depressed areas closely parallel to the

axes of Appalachian folding but in general somewhat to the southeast-

ward of the main ridges. The downthrow or downwarping of these areas

does not seem to have been sufficient to bring the depressions beneath the

level of the sea, but, owing to their low-lying position, they formed,

during the Triassic, areas of rapid accumulation of sediments of conti-

nental type, brought in by torrential streams as a result of the waste of

the bordering uplands under climatic conditions of semi-aridity.

There is some question as to the former extent of the areas on which

1For evidences ‘of sub-aérial accumulation see

W. M. Davis: 18th Ann. Rept. U. S. Geol. Surv., pt. 2, p. 32, 1896-1897.

J. V. Lewis: ‘“‘The Origin and Relation of the Newark Rocks,’ Ann. Rept. State

Geol. N. J. for 1906, pp. 99-129. ;

C. N. FENNER: ‘‘Features Indicative of Physiographic Conditions Prevailing at the

Time of the Trap Extrusions in New Jersey,” Jour. Geol., vol. 16, pp. 229-327, 1908.

21. C. RUSSELL: ‘‘The Newark System,’ Bull. 85, U. S. Geol. Surv., pp. 77 and 83,

1892.

E. J. Scumitz: ‘‘The Structure of the Richmond Coal-Basin,”’ Trans. Am. Inst. Min.

Eng., vol. 24, pp. 397-408, 1894.

J. V¥. LHwis: Op; cit., p. 107,

O. J. HeINRIcH: “‘The Mesozoic Formation in Virginia,’ Trans. Am. Inst. Min. Eng.,

vol. 6, p. 266, 1878.

W. M. Davis: “The Triassic Formation of Connecticut,” 18th Ann. Rept. U. S. Geol.

Surv., pt. 2, p. 35, 1896-1897.

FENNER, THE WATCHUNG BASALT 97

the sediments accumulated. On the one hand, it is contended that they

were of wide-spread distribution and that the present more or less de-

tached areas are merely remnants of a broad terrane. Others have argued

in favor of local basins or troughs of depression, which may have pre-

sented analogies to the “graben” of the Rhine or to the Rift Valley of

East Africa. To the writer, the intermediate view presented by the New

Jersey Survey appears to offer many grounds for favorable consideration.

It is as follows :*

These conditions are believed to be fully met by the hypothesis of river

deposition across a relatively smooth Piedmont plain, fronting the newly up-

lifted crystalline foreland, or protaxis, of the Appalachian Mountains, with

concurrent synclinal wrinkling and down-faulting of the long basin-like areas

in which the present remnants of these rocks have been preserved.

Numerous short but vigorous streams brought down the débris of the disin-

tegrating and decomposing granites, gneisses and metamorphic sediments of

earlier Paleozoic age and deposited them in coalescing alluvial fans across the

smoother plain of the crystalline Piedmont. Occasional downward move-

ments, of warping or faulting, gave opportunity for local thickening of the

deposits along the belts affected.

According to this conception, the Piedmont plain was of much greater width

than the present areas of the Newark strata, and it probably merged into

coastal marine and estuarine deposits along the eastern border. As a rule,

however, the deposits were probably not very thick except in the elongated

areas of progressive or intermittent deformation. Hence, when the whole

Piedmont was eventually uplifted, the relatively thin mantle of débris was

removed by erosion from the greater part of the region, and only those narrow

belts that were protected by downwarping and faulting between adjacent

areas of the harder crystalline rocks have been preserved to the present time.

The writer is inclined to lay especial stress upon the movements of

deformation, which appear to have been renewed at intervals through a

prolonged period at the same time that deposition was proceeding. They

may have been a consequence, in part, of accumulating load, but they

were also probably due to deep-seated causes connected with the primary

movements. After each movement, the streams were rejuvenated, and the

topographic depressions which otherwise would have been eliminated by

the constant degradation of the bordering uplands and the accumulation

of sediments were accented afresh.

Within these areas of fluviatile aggradation, certain depressed portions

of the surface (in New Jersey at least) were occupied by a series of

shallow lakes when the First Watchung lava-flow occurred.* The existence

of these lakes and their arrangement along lines parallel to the bordering

2. Vi. LEWis: Op. cit:, p. LOT.

*C. N. FENNER: Op. cit., p. 309 ff.

98 ANNALS NEW YORK ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

highlands support the view that the movements of deformation caused

the areas of accumulation to assume at times troughlike characteristics.

The lakes are believed to have been an all-important factor in giving

rise to the conditions which resulted in the subsequent alteration of the

basalt and the formation of the zeolitic minerals. Indications of their

existence beneath the First Watchung flow can be found at Paterson and

for a number of miles southward, and again near Plainfield.

IGNEOUS ACTIVITY

During some portion of Triassic time, probably the middle or later

portion, the general uneasiness which had manifested itself in repeated

crustal deformation assumed a somewhat different phase of expression.

Numerous outbreaks of igneous activity occurred throughout the entire

region from Nova Scotia to North Carolina. There is little indication

that these outbursts anywhere assumed the form of centralized volcanic

activity, but the fused material appears to have been ejected quietly

through fissures whose direction coincides closely with the dominant

lines of weakness. “It seems safe to conclude that both the dikes and

faults are closely related and were probably, in part at least, contempora-

neous.” °

The dikes and extruded sheets are found not only in the areas now

covered by Triassic sediments, but petrographically similar dikes have

been traced through the intervening areas, and the region traversed by

them is prolonged southward through South Carolina and Georgia and

into Alabama, where they disappear beneath younger strata. The known

length is about 1,000 miles. On the borders of the Triassic also, they

occur in approximately parallel lines. The various intrusions are re-

garded by Russell® as probably referable to the same general period, and

the evidence appears to indicate that an area parallel with Appalachian

folding, 1,000 miles or more in length and attaining a maximum width

of 200 miles, was involved in a history of deformation and igneous injec-

tion which presents somewhat similar features throughout.

The chemical and mineralogical composition of the erupted magmas

shows a remarkable uniformity.” The general coincidence of the areas

of eruption with the areas of deformation, and the extrusion of magmas

which may be referred to closely related petrographic types, have un-

doubtedly a profound significance, but only the more superficial aspects

can be interpreted.

ee ie LS ee .

57. GC. RUSSELL: Op. cit:, p. TT.

6 Op. cit., pp. 71-72.

TE. S. Dana: Am. Jour. Sci., 3rd ser., vol. 8, p. 390, 1874.

FENNER, THE WATCHUNG BASALT 99

In Northern New Jersey, the igneous rocks associated with the Triassic

(Newark) sediments include the intruded sheet of the Palisade diabase

and the three extruded flows of Watchung basalt. The Palisade diabase

appears to form a continuous sill, approximately parallel to the stratifica-

tion, stretching diagonally across the State from New York into Pennsyl-

vania but concealed in places by late sediments or glacial drift. The

Palisade ridge in the North and Rocky Hill and Sourland Mountain in

the South are considered portions of the same sheet. Its thickness is

everywhere several hundred feet and in places is believed to reach nearly

1,000 feet.6 At several places, dikes and apophyses thrown off from the

main mass reach the surface in small detached areas.

The three surface flows form the Watchung ridges and several isolated

knobs. A maximum development of 1,200 feet is believed to be attained

in the thickest parts of Second Mountain. In both First and Second

Mountains, certain slight differences in composition and appearance verti-

cally indicate a composite character of flow. An interbedded shale in the

southern portion of Second Mountain is held by Lewis® to be evidence of

differential downward movements within the area between successive |

flows. Such movements would not be unexpected in a region experienc-

ing the history described.'°

LOCAL PECULIARITIES OF THE FIRST WATCHUNG SHEET

The basal layer of the First Watchung sheet apparently marks the

initiation of igneous activity. The flow spread over the surface of the

accumulating sediments and filled the depressions occupied by the playa

lakes. ‘Over the dry areas, the lava came to rest quietly, and the normal

process of cooling and crystallization followed without interruption. The

rock formed under these conditions presents a dense, homogeneous mass,

which, under the microscope, is found to have the holocrystalline texture

normal to basalts. Over the lake beds, however, the lava, which appears

to have approached in composition the eutectic ratio of its component

minerals and to have been almost at the temperature of crystallization

thus determined,’? was quickly chilled from the effects of water and

vaporized steam. An exposure of the bottom layer in a quarry in the

southwestern part of Paterson shows a mixture of lava and very fine mud

8 J. V. Lewis: Ann. Rept. State Geol. N. J. for 1907, p. 129.

® Ann. Rept. State Geol. N. J. for 1906, pp. 110-115.

10Compare the geological history of the Rift Valley of East Africa, as described by

J. W. GreGorY: “The Great Rift Valley,’ London, 1896, especially chapter 12.

uC. N. FENNER: ‘“‘The Crystallization of a Basaltic Magma from the Standpoint of

Physical Chemistry,’ Am. Jour. Sci., 4th ser., vol. 29, pp. 217-234, 1910.

100 ANNALS NEW YORK ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

several feet in thickness, and in many other places the lava was rendered

extremely vesicular. The upper portions were not so thoroughly impreg-

nated with steam but were, nevertheless, quickly -cooled and became

viscous. The jets and tongues of fused material seem to have assumed

the consistency of a thick syrup and instead of spreading laterally they

solidified in smoothly rounded bowlder-like masses, having considerable

similarity to the “pahoehoe” of Hawaiian flows which were first reported

by J. D. Dana’? and more fully described and illustrated by C. E. Dut-

ton.* The pasty character of the fluid and its sluggish movements are

well attested in the billowy forms presented when quarrying operations

have attacked bodies of trap of this character (Plate X). The rounded

forms are sometimes built up to a thickness of 60-70 feet. The interior

Fig. 1. Microlitic growth of phenocrysts in vitrophyric crusts. xX 35. Slide 152.

of the bowlders cooled with sufficient slowness to permit the basalt to

crystallize with normal texture, but each is sheathed with a crust of glass

(tachylite) varying from an inch to several inches in thickness, having

often a laminated structure.* Where unaltered, the color is usually dark

olive-green or brown, and the appearance is decidedly vitreous. Under

the microscope the rock is found to consist of a paste of glass, in which

are set a few phenocrysts of labradorite and diopside, commonly sur-

rounded by aggregates of hairlike microlites, which mark the continua-

tion of growth of the phenocrysts during the initial stages of chilling

before crystal-growth was wholly blocked by increasing viscosity (fig. 1).

1, S. Exploring Expedition—Geology, p. 162.

134th Ann. Rept. U. S. Geol. Surv., pp. 96 and 98, 1882-1883.

4B. K. Emerson: “Liabase Pitchstone and Mud Enclosures of the Triassic Trap of

New England,” Bull. Geol. Soc. Am., vol. 8, pp. 59-86, 1897.

FENNER, THE WATCHUNG BASALT

Between the glassy crusts and the holocrystalline interior, transitions of

crystal-development produce aphanitic phases.

The crusts frequently present a shattered appearance due to the sudden

chill which they experienced, and at times pockets among the bowlders

are filled with considerable masses of breccia of this nature.

probably originally a usual feature, but, as will appear presently, such

pockets of glass were, for several reasons, peculiarly subject to the action

of the processes which formed the secondary minerals.

The chemical composition of the basalt is shown in the following

analyses of typical examples :*°

a) elle Seis! ee) sia) a) oe) lee) ele

C0 Sed Oo CoC OMOeC ers

ele) elle: .eu)'w ‘se: eee) « « «

0111p) ee) e oie 6)\e) © 6) = «0

6 Oo ted coped hoo OO

wi! 0) (a) (e/\e) a @; a\'e 6:4) ven e ©

epralee\s islelels eee alelee

=) slye) @) «'\v\(e\ 0) 0) ¢)0) (es. « ©

Analysis I was recast by Hawes to show percentage of mineral con-

stituents as follows:

Anorthite, 15.52; albite, 22.16; potash feldspar, 2.32; augite, 54.47;

titanic iron, 2.68; magnetite, 1.76; apatite, 0.32; total, 99.23.

The augite was isolated by specific gravity solutions and found to have

the following composition :

K.O {

1° 7. West Rock, New Haven, Conn., G. W.

4, pp. 129-134, 1881.

II. Watchung Mt., N. J., L. G. HAKINS, Analyst, Bull. 150, U. S. Geol. Surv., p. 255,

1898.

III. Scotch Plains, N. J., R. B. Gacu, Analyst, Ann. Rept. State Geol. of N. J. for

1907.

IV. Nr. Springfield, N. J., R. B. Gaar, Analyst, Ann. Rept. State Geol. of N. J. for

1907.

CeOeCnOsOntecl On

iE Il Ill

51.78 51.36 51.82

12.79 16.25 14.18

3.59 2.14 0.57

8.25 8.24 9.07

0.44 0.09 0.13

7.63 Coe 8.39

10.7 10.27 8.60

2.14 1.54 2.19

0.39 1.06 1.26

1.41 eG

0.14 wats O)akiz/

1.33 1.70

CACO CCN CECE NCEE ICE CC IChO mC CHOU CURT MOCK TORCH SCI EC HNC E

CWer eine) (ee) \e'. .¢) \) «1 «) Pe) wi (a0) (0! (0! (ew) ele. (e fe je eo je (s,s) 0) o) 6c) eee

OC On OO CRON Oe OOO PON Ch hCr OPU ONCCMONC) OnCn ao mo Cec

isp a! aiieltel\e)\s.-s\ tate) le; (we) (alle) eee (0; site eho a).

a) ‘Js 24/6)\e'7@) (o'(6) ‘#) e's o/s) (=e \4e) e) .0\(w||s' (6) Wie) 0) 016

This was

50.19

14.65

3.41

6.96

0.07

7.95

9.33

2.64

0.75

al, ale?

0.18

3.04

HAwEs, Analyst, Proc. U. S. Nat. Mus., vol.

102 ANNALS NEW YORK ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

Petrographic examination of the unaltered basalt in the area with

which we are more especially concerned accords with the above analyses

and shows a rock of simple mineralogic composition. The components

are a pyroxene approaching diopside in optic properties, but shown by a

large extinction-angle to deviate somewhat from the typical mineral; a

plagioclase feldspar of the composition of labradorite; and’ magnetite.

The texture is normal ophitic. The appearance is illustrated in Plate XI,

file ; ;

In both the crystalline and glassy facies, remnants of phenocrysts of |

resorbed olivine are not uncommon. These phenocrysts appear to have

been developed during a period of intra-telluric crystallization and to

have become unstable as a consequence of changes in temperature and

Fie. 2. Chloritic nodules from resorption of olivine (X—open field). x 35.

Slide 48.

pressure attendant upon extrusion, with simultaneous variation in the

composition of the magma consequent upon the evolution of contained

vapors. Resorption of olivine by the magma often proceeded so far that

the only traces of the mineral that survive are small, spheroidal nodules,

which, by subsequent alteration, have been converted almost wholly

into chlorite or serpentine (fig. 2). The general character of the

crystallized rock and such special features as the resorption of olivine are

of importance in following out the process of formation of the secondary

minerals; for vestiges of the primary character often remain even in ad-

vanced stages of alteration and show clearly that much of the action of

recrystallization proceeded from stage to stage in a close-textured rock,

without the presence of any important cavities.

A study of the field relations has shown that the spheroidal masses of

FENNER, THE WATCHUNG BASALT 103

basalt, sheathed with glassy crusts, appear in those areas which, at the

time of the lava flow, were covered by shallow lakes, and that these areas

are coincident with those in which the formation of zeolitic minerals has

occurred.

Evidence along various lines leads tothe belief that the processes of

alteration were directed by the features impressed upon the solidified

basalt by the presence of the bodies of water. Among the spheroidal

masses, a considerable amount of interstitial space had been left. More-

over, the crusts were much shattered, and frequently the interiors of the

masses were penetrated by a multitude of cracks produced by shrinkage

in cooling. Where the openings were of sufficient size to permit the free

passage of superheated aqueous vapors from the water-impregnated sedi-

ments beneath, these gases appear to have rushed upward with great force

and velocity, carrying with them quantities of finely comminuted dust

from the lake beds and depositing it in the various interstices, in the

form of a reddish-brown powder. Much of this is probably of a clayey

nature, but it is so fine that it is not resolvable under the microscope,

though some of it shows also grains of quartz and feldspar such as are

found in the coarser sediments. Mingled with this material, there are

many fragments of basaltic glass, whose nature is easily recognized. In

some cases, these deposits appear to have filled open spaces of considerable

size and in others to have penetrated minute cracks. At a quarry for-

merly worked near Great Notch, the igneous rock carries between the

bowlder-forms irregular blocks of this character, ranging in size up to a

foot or more in diameter, at first sight counterfeiting inclusions of fine-

grained sandstone. Examination under the microscope, however, shows

the presence in this pseudo-sandstone of a notable admixture of glass, and

the manner in which the material ramifies into cracks of the basalt sug-

gests its origin. Hand-specimens may sometimes be found, in which the

peculiar relation appears of small dikelike bands of reddish sandstone

cutting the basalt. This reversal of the usual relations is interesting

from its unusual character.

The formation of such deposits appears in some instances to have sealed

the larger spaces left open after the consolidation of the igneous masses,

but nevertheless the brecciated material around the bowlders and the

multitude of shrinkage-cracks often present would offer spaces of capil-

lary size or larger and would undoubtedly render the piled-up masses of

bowlder-like structure above the lake beds distinctly more porous and

susceptible to the circulation of water than the dense, massive basalt

beyond the borders of the lakes. Field observations lead to the conclusion

that such is clearly the case.

104 ANNALS NEW YORK ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

SOURCE OF THE WATERS WHICH EFFECTED RECRYSTALLIZATION AND OF

THE NEW MINERALS DEPOSITED

The query arises as to the origin of the circulating waters, whether

meteoric or magmatic. The writer adheres strongly to the views enun-

ciated by J. F. Kemp and other authorities that in the majority of metal-

liferous deposits the metallic minerals are almost wholly, and the solu-

tions largely, of magmatic derivation. In the case of these zeolitic

deposits, however, several lines of evidence lead to the conclusion that the

waters were of extraneous origin. Field observation shows that the

secondary alteration extends to within a few feet of the lower surface of

the trap sheet, and points to the uprise of waters from the underlying

shales. In its theoretical aspects, the situation is distinctly different from

that of mineral veins. In the latter case, it is conceived that underlying

masses of fused material, slowly cooling and crystallizing, give off various

emanations which are forced to rise to the surface either through channels

in the overlying rock, or through fractures in previously consolidated

portions of the same mass, toward which the emanations are driven in

their effort to find vent.

In surface flows, however, there is little obstruction to the escape of the

vapors into the open air. It can hardly be conceived that the evolution of

vapors from surface flows continues long after the complete consolidation

of the magma, for the process of crystallization necessarily excludes the

gaseous material. The structure of the Watchung sheet, in the situation

which we are considering, indicates that consolidation was almost simul-

taneous with accumulation and, consequently, that the emanation of

vapors must have ceased shortly after the termination of the flow. On

this point, the following quotation from Professor Kemp’s article on “The

Role of the Igneous Rocks in the Formation of Veins” ** is pertinent.

The vapors contained in surface-flows of igneous rock pass off directly into

the atmosphere, and therefore do no geologic work of this character. The

most that could be expected of them would be small incrustations in the

cracks in their upper and first chilled portions, such as the copper minerals

and specular hematite found in the crevices of Vesuvian lavas.

The greater number of the secondary minerals are traceable to the

primary minerals of the magma. Pectolite, prehnite, amphibole, the

zeolites, hematite, chlorite etc., contain only elements which are present

in feldspar, diopside and magnetite. There are others, however, such as

datolite and various metallic sulphides, containing elements that are only

16 Trans. Am. Inst. Min. Eng., vol. 31, pp. 169-198, 1901.

FENNER, THE WATCHUNG BASALT 105

found in minute quantities at most in the normal basalt. These could

not have been formed by a simple rearrangement of the ingredients of the

primary minerals in contact with the circulating waters. -

If the conditions under which the lava consolidated have been correctly

interpreted, it is not difficult to account for the relative concentration of

these latter ingredients. The elements which are in excess are those

which have often been observed as sublimates deposited in crevices in lava

flows. They differ from aqueous vapors in that the temperature of subli-

mation is high, and a relatively slight cooling causes deposition in the

solid form, often near the point of derivation.

The elimination of vapors of B,O, from consolidating lavas and their

deposition in crevices appear to be norma! phenomena of volcanic activity.

Deville and Leblanc in their observations at Vulcano™’ found that gas

from one of the craters, issuing at a temperature above the melting point

of lead and emitting flames, deposited boric acid. At the “soffionis” of

Tuscany, jets of steam carrying boric acid emerge from the ground. The

condensible vapors from the fumaroles of Monte Cerboli contain boric

acid, together with ammonia and hydrogen sulphide. Borates are also

found in hot springs in numerous volcanic regions,—Northern Cali-

fornia, the Yellowstone Park, the Cordilleras of Coquimbo, Argentina,

Tibet, on the sea of Azoyv and in other localities. Borates appear, indeed,

to be among the commonest volcanic sublimates."*

A. von Groddeck?® has reviewed the geological occurrence of boron

ininerals and expresses the conviction that the borosilicates (tourmaline,

axinite, datolite, danburite) and water-free borates (rhodizite, jeremeje-

vite ete.,) with the exception of boracite, appear exclusively as autogenic

forms in eruptive, archean and metamorphic rocks; and that in the whole

series of fossil-bearing strata, borosilicates which have been formed with-

out doubt in situ are wanting. By the latter, however, he doubtless did

not intend to exclude the effects of contact metamorphism by means of

vapors given off by an intruded eruptive, by which tourmaline is fre-

quently formed. He emphasizes the fact that axinite, danburite and

datolite are only crevice and druse minerals, and he considers that the

chief field of distribution of axinite and datolite is notably in basic erup-

tive rocks, hornblende schists, chlorite schists and green schists, in which

tourmaline almost not at all or only seldom appears.

It is interesting to note, however, that at the contact of the diabase sill

which forms the Palisades along the Hudson, the arkose Newark shales

17. W. CLARKE: ‘‘Data of Geo-Chemistry,” Bull. 3380, U. S. Geol. Surv., p. 214, 1908.

18 A, GEIKIE: ‘Textbook of Geology,’’ London, p. 269, 1908.

18 Zeitschr. deutsch. geol. Gesell., vol. 39, p. 253, 1887.

106 ANNALS NEW YORK ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

have been metamorphosed in places to a tourmaline hornfels,?° while in

the sill itself fissures are lined with nests of datolite.

Metallic sulphides, pyrite and chalcopyrite especially, are often obsery-

able among the secondary minerals but are rarely seen in the unaltered

basalt. Although present in but small amount, there was undoubtedly

some concentration of sulphides in and near the channels of circulation.

This may likewise be accounted for by the emanation of sulphur com-

pounds and sublimates of copper and iron given off by the magma.

(ovellite (CuS) has been found on the lavas of Vesuvius,** and atacamite

(CuCl,, 3Cu(OH),) is also found in crevices in the Vesuvian lavas, as

well as the chlorides of iron.2? Among the fumarolic deposits in the

crater of Vulcano,?* which are partly sublimates and partly secondary

products, A. Bergeat gives compounds of cobalt, zine, tin, lead and copper.

Sulphides have also been found as sublimation products at Vesuvius,

formed perhaps by the action of H,S upon volatilized metallic chlorides.

The small amount of fluorine represented by apophyllite may also be

referred to the magma. Fluorite sometimes appears on volcanic lavas.?*

It is possible, however, that the crusts of glass retained sufficient fluorine

to supply the very moderate amounts required to account for the forma-

tion of apophylite.

Such sublimates given off by the consolidating Watchung lava were

probably deposited in crevices and interstitial spaces upon a slight fall of

temperature. The places favorable for deposition were the very ones

which would be easily reached later by circulating waters.

The aqueous contents of the lava would be completely expelled into the

open air. The source of the waters which effected alteration must there-

fore be sought elsewhere. A theory of derivation from meteoric sources

by a process of underground circulation appears to fulfill the require-

ments of the situation and to offer no obstacle. The preéxistent topo-

graphic depressions in the areas occupied by lakes, although buried by the

flow of lava, would nevertheless be reached by waters flowing in from the

edge of the sheet through the porous sedimentary strata lying just beneath

the impervious mass of normally crystallized igneous tock. Having

reached such depressions, the hydrostatic head would be that due to the

difference in elevation between the depressions and the point of ingress.

The somewhat loose and porous structure of the accumulations of lava

- 20 ANDREA and OSANN: Verh. des naturhist.-med. Ver. zu Heidelberg, n. f., vol. 1, 1892.

26. S. Dana: ‘System of Mineralogy,” 6th edition, p. 68, 1893.

23 Tbid., p. 165.

23, W. CLARKE: Op. cit., p. 220, ff.

“HW, W. CLARKE: Ibid., p. 274.

FENNER, THE WATCHUNG BASALT 107

above the preéxistent lakes being favorable for percolation, the waters

would naturally tend to rise to the surface. A circumstance favorable to

this result lay in the fact that the lava retained a store of heat long after

consolidation. Immediately after the latter event the temperature was

so high that apparently all water which gained access was vaporized, not-

withstanding the impediments to escape caused by restrictions of the

channel ; but as the temperature fell, the water level in this arm of the

system of circulation slowly rose.

The system of circulation thus conceived is analogous to that of arte-

sian flows, only modified in this respect, that the effective head was due

not so much to a difference in elevation between the points of ingress and

exit, as to vaporization of the water in the upper portions of the channels

of exit. It embodies the principle by which C. R. Van Hise has sought to

explain the deposition of metallic minerals in fissure veins.2° Exception

has been taken to Van Hise’s conception of the origin of metalliferous

deposits, and in this case, where the operation of the principle seems

almost demonstrable, the effects are distinctly different from what he has

conceived that they should be. In justice, however, attention should be

called to the fact that present exposures show only the lower portions of

the return channels, and the possibility that higher levels would present

more similarity to metalliferous veins is not necessarily excluded.

An alternative hypothesis to the one which has been offered should be

considered, that is, the descent of meteoric waters direct from the surface

through the channels in which alteration was effected. The form of this

hypothesis which would consider cold surface waters as the agent may be

dismissed almost at once; the results are entirely at variance with it. At

the present time, such waters are effecting the solution of certain of the

minerals, are decomposing others to pulverulent or clayey masses, are

oxidizing the iron compounds to hydrated, rusty-looking material, and in

short are giving to the whole the appearance which is characteristic of

surface weathering. There still remains, however, the idea that the action

may have taken place while the rocks were still highly heated. Two chief

objections appear. The leaching which the rocks experienced while alter-

ation was in progress, as shown by the great reduction in iron and mag-

nesia contents, and the marked migration of other compounds implies a

fairly rapid circulation. It is difficult to conceive of the means by which

this could be secured under the hypothesis which we are now considering.

Secondly, the nature of the secondary minerals shows conclusively that

the process was not one of oxidation. Surface waters passing through

* Trans. Am. Inst. Min. Eng., vol. 30, pp. 27-177, 1900.

108 ANNALS NEW YORK ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

several miles of underground channels might easily be deprived of their

dissolved oxygen in several ways, but waters descending directly from the

surface would necessarily produce oxidizing effects.

CHEMISTRY OF THE PROCESS BY WHICH ALTERATION WAS EFFECTED

The principal réle of the water seems to have been to form a medium

in which recombination of the elements of the rock could be easily effected.

The minerals arising from the crystallization of the magma were those

which were in mutual equilibrium under the conditions of temperature,

pressure and concentration prevailing at the time of consolidation. In

the presence of heated water, they were, to a slight extent, dissolved and

were thereby transferred to a solution in which entirely different condi-

tions of temperature, pressure and concentration were present. As the

chemical equilibrium is dependent upon these factors, new reactions fol-

lowed, and it may be profitable to devote a short space to an inquiry into

the mechanism of the process. According to modern conceptions of ioni-

zation, a mineral or salt which is soluble in only minute quantities in

water undergoes in such a solution a change by which the molecular

grouping which characterized the solid is broken up into simpler groups

termed ions.?® A familiar example of this is the dissociation of AgCl,

by which an Ag and a Cl ion are formed, carrying electrical charges

which are equal and of opposite sign. The quantity of un-ionized AgCl

in the solution is extremely minute, but is not negligible. Addition of a

second salt, such as NaCl, which has an ion in common, drives back the

ionization of AgCl and causes some to be deposited from the solution.

Chemical reactions between such salts in solution are believed to be

chiefly of an ionic nature. If in the formation of new compounds, the

quantity produced to satisfy the conditions of equilibrium demanded by

the nature of the reacting substances is in excess of the solubility, a por-

tion will be deposited in the solid state. Such a reaction abstracts ions

and permits a further dissociation of molecules. This in turn permits

more of the original solid to pass into solution, and in this manner the

process is continuous and will proceed until all the available material has

been used up.

The process thus described enables us to form a mental picture of the

mechanism of alteration but does ot suggest any explanation of the

26 There has lately arisen some doubt as to whether the theories of ionization which

have been founded upon older conceptions of the molecule represent with exactitude

actual conditions and processes. Whether this is true or not, the idea forms a practical

working hypothesis, not out of harmony with main facts, and of value accordingly.

There is no tendency to abandon it, until a better substitute can be found.

FENNER, THE WATCHUNG BASALT 109

forces by which the mechanism is urged forward. A little further insight

into this is permitted by the fact, which has been ascertained to be true

in many instances and is believed from thermodynamic considerations to

be a general law, that in any association of compounds, the stable forms

are those for which, under the given conditions of temperature, the vapor

pressures are a minimum. ‘The vapor pressures of solids are generally so

minute as to appear almost infinitesimal, but are not therefore negligible.

Even without the intervention of a medium of solution, molecular re-

arrangements take place. This is well established for metallic alloys and

sometimes occurs with natural minerals. In general, however, a solvent

is requisite, and in its presence the compounds having higher vapor pres-

sures pass more readily into solution and those with least vapor pressures

crystallize out.

The principle is of immediate applicability in explaining the facility

with which the glassy crusts of the basalt were attacked by the circulating

waters. A glass, as is well known, is, from the standpoint of physical

chemistry, a greatly under-cooled liquid, in which crystallization has been

checked by the viscosity. Its metastable condition is expressed in the

excess of its vapor pressure over that which the component minerals

would possess in their crystalline phase. It should therefore pass into

solution more readily than the normally crystalline basalt, and such

seems undoubtedly to have been the case.. When the structure of’ the

deposits is examined in the field, it is found that the secondary minerals

form nests and pockets in the angular spaces between adjacent bowlder-

forms and wrap around them in bands in the situation in which the

glassy crusts were originally developed. This is in part due, no doubt, to

the fact that channels of easiest circulation followed such features, but

the whole effect cannot be ascribed to the latter cause, for cracks pro-

duced by shrinkage or by deformation and passing through the interior

of the bowlders do not exhibit an equal development of alteration prod-

ucts. Confirmatory evidence of selective alteration of glass is found in

the slides. In a number of instances, crystalline crusts of later minerals

show structures which seem best explainable as survivals of original forms

in glass. Recrystallization seems to have been checked, however, when

the normal basalt was reached, and at times its effects almost disappear

within the area of the thin section.

Slide 53 affords an instructive illustration of several of these points, as

is shown in Plate XI, fig. 5. The microscope shows crusts of recrystal-

lized minerals composed of prehnite, green amphibole, specularite, sec-

ondary albite and garnet. Although recrystallization has produced large

crystals, an indication of a former structure survives in certain curved

110 ANNALS NEW YORK ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

bands and circular markings, suggesting in form the spherulites and

similar features found frequently in the glasses. The resemblance to the

chloritic nodules of fig. 2 and other sketches is obvious, and their occur-

rence in the present case is ascribed to a persistence of the spherulitic

structure during recrystallization, the effects being preserved by an in-

soluble dust of Ti0, or MnO,. Next to these crusts lies a narrow band

in which the basaltic texture appears, but in finely crystalline develop-

ment, and this is believed to mark the transition from glass to normal

basalt in the original rock. Beyond this the texture is that of ordinary

basalt. Recrystallization has been complete in the glass, except for the

insoluble inclusions. In the finely crystalline border and in the normal

facies of the rock, it has made sufficient advance to change the labradorite

and diopside to prehnite and albite for a short distance without much

disturbance of the texture. A little further, and both the texture and

mineralogic composition are almost unchanged. Similar phenomena,

showing that alteration was checked when the crystalline portion of the

basalt was reached, are seen in several slides.

The fact that circulation was comparatively rapid had important

results in the nature of the secondary minerals. Under these conditions,

rapidity of solution or time taken for a mineral to form a solution of a

certain strength, considered apart from total solubility or quantity present

in a saturated solution, affects the nature of the changes which take place.

When water is at rest in the interstitial spaces in a rock, a mineral which

dissolves slowly may nevertheless reach a comparatively large total solu-

bility, but if the water moves along channels of circulation, the amount

of a slowly soluble substance which is taken up may never reach the

amount necessary to carry forward sufficiently those reactions by which

new minerals of less solubility containing its elements are deposited, and

whatever amount goes into solution is removed altogether.

In the original basalt, magnesia and the oxides of iron reach a large

percentage, being principal constituents of the diopside and magnetite.

In the later minerals, the proportion of iron and magnesia is insignificant.

In places, large masses of zeolitic minerals and calcite are found from

which all compounds containing iron and magnesia have been removed.

Another effect of the circulation of the waters is that the substances

dissolved are distributed through the solution, and new products may

crystallize at a distance from those from which their elements were de-

rived. With standing, interstitial water diffusion of dissolved substances

can only occur through the slow action of osmotic pressure. Conse-

quently, under the latter circumstances, the new minerals are much more

apt to show intimate association with the old and little tendency to mi-

FENNER, THE WATCHUNG BASALT cial

grate. In the more open channels of these rocks, the circulation was

naturally much more rapid than in the capillary spaces. Some difference

in concentration of dissolved material thus arises, and to this cause in

part is probably to be attributed a marked banding parallel with cracks,

which appears in many slides (Plate XII, figs. 3 and 4).

It appears from what has preceded that the glassy crusts of the

bowlder-like forms of basalt, lying next to relatively open channels and

being in a chemically metastable condition, were naturally the portions of

the rock most attacked. Alteration also follows the shrinkage cracks

which penetrate the normally crystallized interior of the bowlders and

produces veinlike bands of secondary minerals in a breccia of unaltered

basalt. There is also evidence that deformative stresses acted upon the

region within a comparatively short period of the extrusion of the basalt,

for shear-planes often show alteration. On the whole, however, move-

ments or mechanical disturbances of any nature appear to have been

almost negligible during recrystallization.

EVIDENCES AS TO TIME INVOLVED

It has not been found possible to determine from field observations

what depth the flow of lava reached. At the quarry at West Paterson

which has been mentioned, a section shows a thickness of 60—70 feet from

the underlying shale to the surface of the ground, throughout which the

characteristic features of pahoehoe are developed. This merely indicates

what the minimum thickness was at this point and does not afford infor-

mation as to the amount removed by erosion. There are indications,

however, that the entire thickness of the First Watchung sheet was not

involved, for in several localities, it has been found that the phase of the

basalt in which the bowlder-like structure is prominent passes under

normal massive basalt, which appears to be a later flow. If this inference

is correct, the whole history of alteration must have occupied only a com-

paratively brief period, geologically considered ; for a second flow of lava,

it would seem, would spread an impervious seal over the entire area and

terminate the process at whatever stage had been reached. From other

considerations also, the history is believed to have been brief. A sheet of

lava, even several hundred feet in thickness, subjected to the cooling

effects of percolating waters, would not retain its store of heat for a

period which would be considered long from a geologic standpoint.

DEGREE OF SUPERHEATING OF THE SOLUTIONS

Although a rapid circulation has been spoken of in referring to the

movements of the waters, this term has been intended merely in a relative

112 ANNALS NEW YORK ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

sense. It is believed that the openings in the rock were in general only

of capillary dimensions. Great obstacles were thus presented to the easy

circulation of water in the lower part of the channels and to the free

escape of steam in the upper part.. The temperature of vaporization was

thus increased and superheating permitted. The maximum temperature

possible under the circumstances was that corresponding to the pressure

to which the water was subjected due to the hydrostatic head. Before

the temperature fell to this point, the water was probably converted into

steam and escaped in this form, but it is not believed that any important

recrystallization was effected, until the temperature reached the point at

which the liquid form was retained.

On account of uncertainties as to the thickness of the lava sheet, no

close estimate can be made as to the probable degree of superheating, but

some approximation can be arrived at. If a thickness of 300 feet is

assumed as a probable maximum, the pressure at the bottom of a column

of water of this height would be 130 pounds per square inch, or, taking

account of additional atmospheric pressure, 145 pounds per square inch.

The corresponding temperature of vaporization is 180° C., and this may

be considered as a probable maximum for the temperature which the

solutions attained. No great degree of accuracy is to be claimed for such

an estimate, but it will serve to show the probable order of superheating,

and it indicates that no approach to the critical temperature of water

(364.3° C.) was attained. Nevertheless, the minerals formed at this stage

were similar to those which are found in highly metamorphosed schists

and gneisses.

From the maximum, the temperature gradually fell as the mass of rock

cooled. There are indications that, to the last, the temperature was some-

what above average climatic temperature. Among the products in the

last stages, actinolite and chalcopyrite appear to have been formed, and

these would hardly be expected as products of cold solutions.

The general process was that of the slow but constant and uninter-

rupted cooling of a mass of igneous rock through which aqueous solutions

were percolating, deriving their temperature from the inclosing rock and

eooling as it cooled. Material for solution was contributed by the basalt

and by the previously evolved sublimates, and reactions followed by which

new minerals were crystallized out. With progressive fall of temperature,

conditions of chemical equilibrium within the solutions were shifted, and

new species were deposited. In these later changes, the material which

participated was derived both from the first-deposited minerals, which

had now become unstable, and from new supplies of igneous rock to

which access was gained.

FENNER, THE WATCHUNG BASALT 113

The constant removal of material in solution undoubtedly enlarged the

channels of circulation and, in places, produced cavities of considerable

size. The most perfect crystals are naturally found in vugs of this kind.

It does not appear, however, that such openings were at all necessary for

recrystallization, and in most cases they were not present. The leaching

appears to have been somewhat selective, for iron and magnesia are

greatly reduced in the later stages.

II. PETROGRAPHY OF THE SECONDARY MINERALS

METHODS OF STUDY OF MUTUAL RELATIONS OF MINERALS

All the material for petrographic work has been obtained from the

region lying between Paterson and Montclair Heights. In many places

throughout this district, natural exposures of surface rock show evidences

of the features which have been ascribed to underlying lake beds; but

weathering has produced its usual effects of solution and decomposition,

and such exposures do not afford desirable material for investigation. In

a number of places, however, quarries have been opened for the purpose

of obtaining road material or railroad ballast, and the fresh rock thus

brought to view offers all the desired opportunities for study. A quarry

at West Paterson and two at Great Notch have furnished the bulk of

the material, but a considerable amount has been obtained from the

waste-dump of a tunnel driven through the mountain near Great Notch a

number of years ago for a water-supply system.

Before beginning the microscopic study of the relations which the

various minerals bore to each other, it had been observed from macro-

scopic specimens that there was probably a definite order of deposition,

and the writer presented a tentative determination of the sequence in a

previous paper,?" although stating that there were often great difficulties

in coming to a decision. As the petrographic work progressed, it was

found necessary to revise previous ideas along several lines. Certain

criteria which had been followed in accordance with general conceptions

were found in this instance to be unreliable guides. The manner in

which bands of granular calcite frequently appear between unaltered

basalt and other secondary minerals may be cited as an example. The

inference would be that the calcite was of earlier formation and was the

first to be deposited on the basalt, but in numerous instances, it has been

found to be later, and the latter relation is believed to be the general one.

Similar effects appear with other minerals. Not infrequently, partial

27 Jour. Geol., vol. 16, pp. 297-327, 1908.

114 ANNALS NEW YORK ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

replacement causes an earlier mineral to appear to rest upon a later, and

often those minerals which have an acicular habit seem to have had the

ability to penetrate without difficulty through earlier-formed minerals of

a more massive nature. For these reasons, it is believed that macroscopic

observation alone is unreliable. On the other hand, microscopic observa-

tions have certain limitations, and it has been found advantageous to

employ both methods as supplementary to each other.

In some respects, the zeolites are difficult subjects for petrographic

study in random rock sections, when it is desired to differentiate the

various members of the group, because of the rather negative character

of the optical properties and the resemblances among different species.

By careful study of known sections, however, it was found that differences

of habit could be perceived which were often sufficiently distinctive for

rapid identification, when checked in doubtful cases by further tests.

Throughout the various portions of the district covered, the relations

of basalt and secondary minerals appear to be almost identical. There

are differences in the same quarry which are as great as in parts of the

field several miles apart. Such differences embrace the greater or less

prevalence of the bowlder-structure in places and the variations in the

predominant minerals. The latter is probably an effect of the somewhat

variable amount of sublimation products condensed in the crevices and of

the facility with which solutions percolated through the channels.

LIST OF MINERALS

In the hand specimens the following minerals are observed to occur in

quantity: quartz, datolite, prehnite, pectolite, analcite, chabazite, heu-

landite, stilbite, natrolite, laumontite, apophyllite, thaumasite and cal-

cite. Gypsum is found, but is much more rare. Pyrite and chalcopyrite

are frequent, but almost always in small grains. Galena and sphalerite

are known to occur, but they have not been met by the writer. Hematite

is often noticeable as a finely divided purplish dust disseminated through

crystals of silicates and calcite. Tabular hematite crystals of larger size

also occur. Gmelinite has been reported, but in a number of instances

which have come under the writer’s observation the specimens appeared

to be more probably chabazite. The two, however, doubtless form a con-

tinuous series analogous to the plagioclases, and considerable variability

in composition is to be expected. The relation of chabazite and of gmel-

inite to other zeolites probably presents no essential difference, and no

attempt was made to distinguish the two in microscopic work. Scolecite

has also been reported, but the writer has not met with satisfactory ex-

FENNER, THE WATCHUNG BASALT 115

amples in hand-specimens. In several thin sections, small remnants of a

mineral which is probably scolecite were observed in association with

natrolite. The chemical relationship between natrolite and scolecite is

somewhat similar to that between chabazite and gmelinite, but the group

appears to present an example of a different type of solid solutions,

namely, that in which the two components do not form a continuous

series of mixed crystals, mutual solubility being limited and the end

members being of distinct crystallographic forms.?* Most of the speci-

mens are plainly natrolite. Chlorites, probably of séveral species, are

very abundant, but are more prominent under the microscope than in

larger specimens. Serpentine is also found in thin sections, but is not of

so frequent occurrence as chlorite. Several minerals occur in small quan-

tities and have been identified by optical methods. Albite, garnet and

several varieties of green amphibole were thus recognized, and their occur-

rence will be described in its appropriate place.

APPLICATION OF THE PHASE RULE

In reviewing the, list of minerals given, it will be observed that the

majority of the species are composed of those elements which form the

plagioclase feldspars. Frequently there is an addition of the water mole-

cule, but otherwise there is no change except in the relative proportions

of the various oxides. Different forms of combination of soda (Na,O),

lime (CaO), alumina (A1,0,), silica (Si0,) and water (H,O) are ac-

countable for all of the following minerals: labradorite, albite, quartz,

prehnite, pectolite, analcite, chabazite, heulandite, stilbite, natrolite,

scolecite and laumontite. In what follows, it is proposed to make a

special investigation of the mutual relations of these species, based upon

those methods of physico-chemical analysis which are embraced under

Gibbs’s phase rule. It is desirable, therefore, to make a preliminary

inquiry into their composition.

The plagioclase feldspars: The recent investigations of A. L. Day and

E. T. Allen?* into the nature of the plagioclases, carried out in the Geo-

physical Laboratory at Washington, have shown almost beyond question

that the albite and anorthite molecules form a continuous series of solid

solutions of the type in which mutual solubility is unlimited and in which

the fusing points of intermediate members lie between those of the

isomorphous end-compounds. All the members from albite, Na,OA1,0,-

°8 For analogues among artificial salts, see ALEXANDER FINDLAY : ‘‘The Phase Rule and

its Applications,’ New York, p. 189, 1906.

22 Am. Jour. Sci., 4th ser., vol. 29, pp. 52-70, 1909.

‘

116 ANNALS NEW YORK ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

6SiO,, to anorthite, CaOAl,0,2Si0,, form, therefore, a single chemical

phase. While natural plagioclases are, in the great majority of instances,

combinations of albite and anorthite, there are reasons for thinking that

soda anorthite (Na,OA1,0,2Si0O,) and lime albite (CaOAI1,0,6Si0,) are

also possible compounds. Doelter showed a number of years ago that

fusion and slow recrystallization of some of the zeolites resulted in the

formation of the compound CaOAl,0,6810,, and H. 8. Washington and

F. E. Wright*® have lately investigated the composition of a feldspar from

Linosa, whose formula from analysis corresponds to (4 Ca, # Na) Al,Si,-

O,,-_ They consider the most probable explanation of composition, on

chemical and crystallographic grounds, to be the presence in solid solu-

tion of Ab, Or, An and a new compound, Na,OA1,0,2810., for which

‘they propose the name carnegieite. They point out the resemblance of

the mixed crystals which compose the feldspar to an unhydrated natrolite

or mesolite. The matter has an important bearing ager the relations of

the zeolites to the feldspars.

Quartz (Si0,), prehnite (H,Ca,Al,8i,0,, or 2CaOAl,0,38i0,H,0)

and pectolite (HNaCa,(Si0,), or Na,04Ca06Si0,H,O) form each a

phase of invariable composition. They are composed of the same oxides

as the other members of the group which we are considering, but they do

not present the same analogies in chemical structure.

The zeolites proper are all feldspathoid compounds whose resemblance

in composition to the plagioclases has often been commented upon. The

ratio of lime plus soda to alumina is 1 : 1, but the amounts of silica and

water vary. They and the feldspars might all be embraced under a

general formula ROAI,0,mSi0.nH,O. - With certain of the species, the

composition appears to be fixed, as in laumontite (CaOA1,0,4Si0,4H,0O),

but the majority of species form groups whose composition varies within

rather wide limits. A typical example of this is the chabazite group,

whose variability appears only explicable on the assumption that four

distinct feldspar-like molecules enter independently (CaOA1,0,2Si0,-

4H,0), (Na,OA1,0,2810,4H,0), (CaOAl,0,6Si0,8H,0) and Na,O-

Al,0,68i0,8H,0). The resemblance in composition which the various

molecules bear to albite and anorthite and the assumed calcium-albite

and sodium-anorthite is evident, and, like the ordinary plagioclase mole-

cules, they appear to possess unlimited mutual solubility and form but a

single phase. The structure of stilbite is similar, but less complex. The

essential molecule appears to be CaOAI,0,68i0,6H,O, with which is

united in small but variable proportions the corresponding soda molecule,

37 Am. Jour. Sci., 4th ser., vol. 29, pp. 52-70, 1909.

FENNER, THE WATCHUNG BASALT 17

Na,OAI,0,6Si0,6H,O. In heulandite we have similar relations, but

with 5H,O. Typical analcite is Na,OAI1,0,4810,2H,O, but a small

amount of lime usually enters. Similarly, natrolite is Na,OA1,0,3810,-

2H,O, with a little lime sometimes present.

With most of the species, a little potash is frequently present and

doubtless would be found by analysis in the Watchung minerals, but no

distinctively potash zeolite has been noted.

From the manner in which the ratios of the molecules vary in the same

mineral, it appears necessary to consider the form of union in the zeolites

to be that of solid solutions rather than that which is usually termed

chemical combination.

Each of the species enumerated may be considered a separate and

distinct chemical phase. Including prehnite, pectolite and quartz, the

phases present are as follows:

1. Labradorite and albite, 7. Heulandite,

2. Quartz, 8. Stilbite,

3. Prehnite, 9. Natrolite,

4. Pectolite, 10. Scolecite,

5. Analcite, 11. Laumontite.

6. Chabazite,

The phase rule states the number of phases which may be present in a

system in equilibrium under given conditions of temperature, pressure

and concentration.**

In the fundamental equation P= C + 2 — F,

P= number of phases,

C—number of components,

F = degrees of freedom (i. e., the numerical value of the variables,

temperature, pressure and concentration).

In the system which we are considering, the components are five in

number as follows: Na,O, CaO, Al,O,, Si0,, H,O.

With regard to the numerical value which should be ascribed to F,

some consideration is necessary. ‘Temperature is without doubt in this

case an independent variable. Pressure should be considered as depend-

ent upon temperature, for in those portions of the system in which it was

somewhat independent of temperature, no gaseous phase was present.

Concentration probably varied from an independent function in the

earlier stages to a dependent function in the later on account of the dis-

turbing feature introduced by the presence of boric acid. After this had

31 ALEXANDER FINDLAY: Op. cit., p. 16.

W. D. BANcRorT: ‘“‘The Phase Rule,” Ithaca, N. Y., pp. 1-5, 1897.

Thais ANNALS NEW YORK ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

been taken completely into solution and had reacted with lime and silica

to form datolite, no further supply was available, and it became an almost

negligible factor. It appears probable from observations as to the period

of stability of datolite which will be noted later, that from the beginning

of alteration up to the time of formation of zeolites (a period in which

garnet, amphibole, prehnite and pectolite were deposited, but in which

feldspathoid compounds are small in amount or entirely lacking), con-

centration should be considered an independent variable, but in the later

periods, in which zeolites are prominent, it should be considered to be

nearly or altogether a function of temperature. ‘To a minor degree, the

presence of ferromagnesian silicates acted in a manner similar to boric

acid in giving to the factor concentration an independent character, for

the presence in solution of any compound having an ion in common with

the feldspathoid series would affect their solubility, independently of

temperature. The chief effect of these also is believed to have been in

the first stages of alteration and to have become more nearly negligible

during the later stages. The numerical value of F may be considered to

vary from 2 in earlier stages to 1 in later.

Solving the equation for P, it appears that during the earlier period

the greatest possible number of phases which could exist in equilibrium

was five. The liquid and gaseous phases may be neglected, leaving three

solid phases. During the later period, it seems at first that four solid

phases in equilibrium would be a possibility, but a number of limiting

conditions may be applied.*?

In all the feldspathoid combinations, which alone are now to be con-

sidered, the proportion Na,O + CaO : Al,O, ::1:1 obtams. This de-

creases by one the number of phases possible and limits it to three. It

appears also that with certain members of the series, there is merely a

difference in the ratio of SiO, or H,O to the other components. With

analcite and natrolite, for instance, the only essential difference appears

to be in the ratio of Si0,: analcite == Na,OAI1,0,2S8i0,2H,O; natrolite

= Na,OAI,0,3810,2H,O. These two species, therefore, cannot coexist in

equilibrium under any change of conditions.** With heulandite and stil-

bite, the essential factor of difference appears to be the ratio of combined

water.

With chabazite, the constitution is very complex, and it is doubtful

what molecules could be removed without causing the crystals to break

up. It is apparent, however, that one of the molecules cannot coexist

32 W. D. BANCROFT: Op. cit., p. 234.

%3 In the application of the phase rule, there is no concern with the absolute composi-

tion of the molecule. Only the ratios are of importance.

FENNER, THE WATCHUNG BASALT 119

with the anorthite molecule of plagioclase or with the essential molecule

of laumontite and a second with the albite molecule, except at transition

points, which, in the present case, are of little importance.

It is possible that there are other limiting conditions which are more

obscure or regarding which present knowledge is insufficient. The evi-

dent relations, however, make clear the fact that not more than three of

the feldspathoid minerals could exist together in stable equilibrium, and

with several combinations not more than two could coexist.

It is necessary, however, to keep in mind the fact that, even under

unstable conditions, solution may be so slow that portions of the mineral

or even perfect crystals may persist through a prolonged period. There

are indications that certain minerals formed during the first stages of

recrystallization disappeared utterly and their nature can only be guessed

at, but with the great majority of species, portions have survived through-

out.

In applying the phase rule to the problem, the author does not wish to

imply that he believes that a case of this kind is capable of treatment

with a high degree of mathematical rigidity. The nature of the case

renders this impossible. Hach of the minerals present in addition to the

feldspathoid compounds introduces an element of uncertainty which can-

not be taken into account. It is believed, however, that these effects were

rather feeble except with boric acid, which has been considered, and that,

using some broadness of interpretation, the deductions of the phase rule

are applicable.

The general results which should be expected are that the minerals

formed from various combinations of soda, lime, alumina, silica and

water should present a series in which one mineral after another will be

found to have been deposited, to have survived through a certain period

of stability, and then, with progressively changing conditions, to have

passed again into solution, to be redeposited in new combinations. Re-

garding the order in which various species should appear, the phase rule

affords no information. The tracing out of the sequence will form a

chief feature of the petrographic portion of the present paper.

Without enlarging here upon the evidence which will be presented, it

may be stated that the general inferences and conclusions drawn from the

application of the phase rule appear to be fully warranted. Careful ex-

amination of hand specimens gives additional confirmation. Numerous

examples have been collected which afford proof of the instability and

breaking down and even the total removal of minerals. Such proofs are

the etched and rounded surfaces of crystals, the development of porosity

and drusy openings and finally the “negative pseudomorphs,” or cavities

120 ANNALS NEW YORK ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

from which crystals have been removed. Before a detailed study was

made, such effects were ascribed to ordinary processes of weathering, but

they occur repeatedly in material in which oxidation and other normal

effects of weathering are lacking, and it is frequently seen that later

minerals have been deposited in the cavities formed by the removal of

earlier. .

The ferromagnesian minerals present a series parallel to the feld-

spathoid compounds, but in these rocks their quantity is too small to form

the basis of an investigation similar to that which has been applied to the

others. They present a number of interesting features, however, which

will be described.

The phase rule supplies no information as to sequence of deposition,

but simply shows how many phases can coexist in equilibrium. Never-

theless, if conditions were the same throughout the region, a sequence

which has been determined in any instance should apply to all cases. In

general, this appears to be true, but occasionally exceptions occur, imply-

ing local variations in concentration. This should be expected in a sys-

tem of circulation of the kind described, depending probably upon the

restrictions or freedom of flow and upon the tendency of minerals toward

segregation.

Effects of this kind are exhibited especially by the ferromagnesian

compounds. It is found, for instance, that the deposition of pleochroic

green amphibole was conditioned largely by questions of concentration ;

and that, depending probably upon circulation becoming more free,

amphibole which had been deposited was dissolved again at an early

period, while under other circumstances its deposition was still con-

tinuing.

Another example is furnished by certain observations on analcite.

From the prevailing evidence, it appears that in general analcite was one

of the first of the zeolites to form, and, in several slides, it is found that

chabazite and heulandite encroach upon it. On the other hand, a speci-

men has been found in which crystals of analcite rest upon heulandite in

such a manner as to seem of necessity to imply later deposition. In

this case, some local enrichment of the solutions in soda or impoverish-

ment in lime is suggested. In later pages some inquiry will be made as

to how far the sequence of minerals which has been observed should be

considered an invariable one.

The processes of alteration may be divided along the lines indicated

into two periods, which with their characteristic minerals are as follows:

FENNER, THE WATCHUNG BASALT 121

Period I. Boric acid period.

Stage 1. Albite, quartz, garnet, amphiboles, specularite, sulphides.

Stage 2. Datolite, prehnite, pectolite, amphiboles, specularite, sulphides.

Period II. Zeolite period.

Analcite, chabazite, heulandite, stilbite, natrolite, scolecite, lau-

montite, apophyllite, amphiboles, chlorite, specularite, sulphides.

To these may be added a third period, whose significance will be shown

later.

Period III. Calcite period.

Thaumasite, calcite, gypsum, amphiboles, chlorite, specularite,

sulphides.

FIRST PERIOD OF ALTERATION

In the primary stage of alteration, temperature and pressure were at a

maximum. The resulting minerals are those which are characteristic of

a rather intense form of hydrothermal metamorphism. They include

albite, arfvedsonite and other amphiboles, specularite (specular hema-

tite), sulphides, garnet and quartz.

Albite

The feldspar of the unaltered basalt is a medium labradorite of about

the composition albite 40, anorthite 60, occurring in hypidiomorphic

erystals of lathlike habit, whose largest dimensions seldom exceed 0.5 mm.

Among the alteration products, this is replaced by albite, whose size

seldom falls below the maximum of the labradorite and ranges from this

to a length of 3 mm. or more.

The process by which the transformation of labradorite into albite has

been effected appears most explicable, if the plagioclase feldspars are

regarded as members of a continuous series of solid solutions formed of

the two molecules albite and anorthite, as appears to have been rendered

certain by the researches of A. L. Day and E. T. Allen, to which refer-

ence has been made. The ratio in which the two will enter a crystal is

dependent upon the composition of the solution in which crystallization

is proceeding, and the crystal will continue in equilibrium with the solu-

tion only so long as the ratio of albite and anorthite molecules in the

latter undergoes no change.

It is evident that, as the two molecules are chemically distinct, their

fields of stability will not coincide and that, under a change of conditions,

the crystals may find themselves in contact with a solution in which the

anorthite molecule is unstable, while albite is not affected. Under these

circumstances, the small amount of albite which dissolves in the liquid

122 ANNALS NEW YORK ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

soon effects saturation, but the anorthite enters reactions by which new

compounds are formed from it and its identity is destroyed. The original

crystals are thus placed in contact with a solution saturated with albite

but lacking anorthite, and with such a solution only pure albite is in |

equilibrium.

At the beginning of the recrystallization of the basalt induced by the

passage of heated aqueous solutions, the anorthite molecule appears to

have undergone reactions by which garnet and datolite and possibly other

compounds were produced from it. Albite under the new conditions was

stable. Anorthite was therefore continually leached out of the labra-

dorite, while albite was deposited in its place, a chief feature of the

process being probably a growth of crystals at the expense of others in

the vicinity.

Albite

Remnants

Albi Te

Fic. 3. Basalt bordered by vein of albite, prehnite and natrolite. Albite is

developed from the labradorite of the basalt. Crystals of prehnite rest upon

it and both are replaced by natrolite. 35. Slide 127.

In figs. 83-7 and in Plate XI, figs. 2, 3, albite is shown in characteristic

forms and in typical relations with the basalt and with secondary min-

erals. Slide 127, a portion of which is sketched in fig. 3, was taken from

a hand specimen in which the ordinary dense basalt is seen to be cut by

narrow veins of secondary minerals. Under the microscope, the basalt

presents the usual microcrystalline development, and the veins are found

to consist of natrolite, prehnite and plagioclase feldspar. The crystals of

the last occur in interlocking aggregates of varying crystallographic

orientation. They form borders to the basalt and project at various

angles into the veins, whose principal filling is natrolite. Crystals 0.5

mm. in length are not uncommon. Most of the crystals show albite twin-

FENNER, THE WATCHUNG BASALT 1123

ning repeated in two or three stripes. ‘Terminal faces are often well.

developed.

These features characterize the secondary plagioclase in most of the

slides in which it occurs. The identification of the plagioclase as albite

has been determined by numerous tests. The statistical method of

Michel-Lévy, applied to a great number of crystals, gives maximum ex-

tinction angles of 15° to 16°. The index of refraction is slightly less than

that of balsam ; optical character, positive. Sections perpendicular to the

acute bisectrix Z give extinction angles of 1314° to 15°, measured from

the 001 cleavage. These tests are mutually confirmatory and indicate a

practically pure albite.

An interesting feature observed in many instances is that the crystals

of vein feldspar are plainly in crystallographic continuity with the

plagioclase laths in the walls. It is notable, however, that among

those which project farthest, the larger and stouter forms show a ten-

dency to parallelism in a direction at right angles to the walls, as if their

growth had been favored at the expense of those which projected at more

acute angles. The average of size is decidedly larger than that of the

plagioclase in the unaltered basalt. It is what might be expected if the

original feldspars had grown until they occupied the space left by re-

moval of diopside and magnetite, and in some cases, the relations are

such as to force the conviction that this has occurred.

In the process of chemical readjustment by which crystals of a solid

solution place themselves in equilibrium with the surrounding medium,

when the composition of the latter becomes altered, two methods seem

possible. The crystal might wholly dissolve and new and distinct crystals

of the stable form might be deposited, or the identity of the crystal might

be preserved, while the excess of one constituent was remoyed by solution

and its place taken. by a sufficient amount of the second constituent to

supply the deficiency. The evidence of the thin sections described indi-

cates that the process was to a large degree at least of the latter nature,

the identity of the crystals being preserved. It is probable that this

method of substitution, however, can advance only when the liquid in

contact is very mobile and capable of penetrating within the interior of

the crystals. If of the viscous constituency of most magmas, the contact

would be merely at the surface and exchange between solid and liquid

could proceed only through the almost infinitely slow agency of osmotic

diffusion in the solid.

Albite in much larger crystals and showing a very different form of

development appears in several slides. In these, the process of readjust-

ment by which labradorite was transformed into albite appears less evi-

124 ANNALS NEW YORK ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

dent than is the case with the smaller form of albite crystals, but it is

believed that the same process prevailed in a slightly modified form.

Crystals of the larger type are best seen in slides 133 and 134. The hand

Fic. 4. Single crystal of secondary albite showing both carlsbad and albite

twinning. Crossed nicols. X 35. Slide 133.

specimen from which both of these slides were prepared shows numerous

clear, glassy crystals imbedded in pectolite. The microscopic appearance

yee

SE Ai omy ith

Lo ae NT 4

“a,

HUM}

Bee

a7e

i <

Fig. 5. Crystal of secondary albite partly replaced by pectolite. Outline is

corroded and interior clouded in places, and pectolite fibres are advancing

across it. x 35. Slide 134.

of a single crystal between crossed nicols is shown in fig. 4, and one in

which the albite has been partly replaced by pectolite is shown in fig. 5.

FENNER, THE WATCHUNG BASALT 125

The appearance is so unlike that of the commoner form that numerous

tests were made to establish its identity. Some of these were as follows:

1. All sections giving maximum interference (perpendicular to optic nor-

mal) give practically parallel extinction.

2. Sections perpendicular to both albite twinning and to basal cleavage give

extinction angles of 13° to 16°. .

3. Crystals which were found to be nearly or quite perpendicular to the

acute bisectrix Z give extinction angles of 11° to 18° with the basal cleavage.

4. In most erystals, a combination of albite and Carlsbad twinning is found.

By selecting those crystals which give approximately maximum extinction for

albite lamelle in both halves of the Carlsbad twin, corresponding angles of ex-

tinction were found as follows: 1214° and 1314°, 121%4° and 1314°, 13%° and

14144°, 111%4° and 13%°.

5. The index of refraction is less than that of balsam.

With all these facts in mutual accord, it can hardly be doubted that the

mineral is nearly or quite pure albite.

The crystals are many times the size of the form of albite first de-

scribed, attaining a maximum length of 3 mm. or more, being thus com-

parable with the crystals in granitoid rocks. Carlsbad twinning is very

common. ‘The two parts are joined along a somewhat irregular line, as

shown in fig. 4. The most characteristic feature is the curiously mottled

appearance, due to the irregular manner in which the albite twinning

lamelle are placed in juxtaposition. The lamelle do not in general

traverse the whole length of the crystal, but often they stop abruptly.

Between crossed nicols, the different interference colors thus brought to

view in a single crystal have a patchwork effect, and careful study shows

that, curiously enough, the form of the patches outlined is suggestive of a

multitude of lathlike plagioclase crystals disposed more or less at random.

It is conceived as possible that this is a clue to the manner in which these

large crystals of albite originated ; that in fact each individual is built up

of a multitude of labradorite laths of the original basalt, which have been

incorporated within a single expanding crystal, and whose molecules have

been swung into approximately correct crystallographic orientation. That

the crystallizing forces of the major crystal were not able to exert rigid

control throughout is indicated by certain anomalies in extinction and

by a curving of the ends of the crystals which is frequently shown.

In slide 129, several groups of albite crystals of the large type shown

in slides 133 and 134 appear in the midst of apophyllite. The borders

are corroded and the interiors muddy, and they are plainly remnants

giving way to the apophyllite. It is not improbable that a great deal of

secondary albite of this form appeared among the first products of altera-

126 ANNALS NEW YORK ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

tion, but little of it now survives. Intermediate forms between the large

and small types described appear in several slides, for instance, 68, 70,

119 and 120, generally in isolated crystals or small groups, and show

active replacement.

A frequent mode of occurrence of albite in these rocks is as part of the

filling of small, sharply defined veins which often cut the walls of quar-

ries. They have a northeasterly and southwesterly strike. The veins

bear evidence of being the result of deformative stresses which have

affected the region. The presence of albite, which was probably one of the

first products of recrystallization and which was formed while the rocks

were still in a superheated condition, indicates probably that the regional

adjustments by which the cracks were formed took place within a com-

paratively short period after the extrusion of the lava.

Replacement of Albite

A normal association of albite with fibrous amphibole, garnet and

specularite, in which the relations are but little obscured by further

stages of replacement, appears in slide 98 (Plate XIII, fig. 1). In this

slide a normally crystalline basalt is crusted with a variety of secondary |

minerals, which in places show evidence in their structure of having

replaced a glassy crust of lava. The primary alteration seems to have

resulted in albite, green amphibole, garnet and specularite, which appear

in close association next to the unaltered basalt. Further out, these

products are giving way to prehnite, and at one place shown in the sketch,

chabazite is the replacing mineral.

The typical manner in which replacement attacks the albite is shown

in Plate XI, fig. 3, from slide 62. In this slide, finely crystalline basalt

is cut by veinlets (probably originating as shrinkage-cracks in cooling)

whose filling consists principally of albite and prehnite. In the more

minute veins, where there is little prehnite, the albite looks perfectly

fresh. The crusts, between crossed nicols, have the appearance shown in

Plate XI, fig. 2, the albite being finely granular next to the basalt and

assuming a development of larger crystals at a short distance. In the

more open areas, where prehnite is abundant, the albite crystals have

assumed a spongy appearance (suggestive of ice which has been exposed

to the sun) and have lost their sharpness of outline. Fanlike groups of

prehnite appear to spring up at any point within the massed crystals of

albite and gradually encroach upon them, as shown in Plate XI, fig. 3.

The albite in association then appears corroded at the edges and turbid

within. By a continuation of the invasion, albite has disappeared over

FENNER, THE WATCHUNG BASALT 127

large areas, and the only trace of it left is a hazy or muddy appearance of

the prehnite. In many places, the patches of turbid material within the

prehnite still show in their outlines the appearance of albite groups.

In slide 65, a similar process of replacement has produced the results

shown in fig. 6. As in slide 62, veinlets of albite and prehnite are found

cutting a crystalline basalt. The albite lies next to the walls and gives

way rather abruptly to prehnite, but a few outlying crystals of albite,

greatly corroded, appear to have survived within the prehnite at some

distance from the walls. Still farther out, phantom forms of former

albite crystals are outlined by a slight turbidity in the prehnite. They

are completely replaced by prehnite and can be connected with albite

only by the appearance of the terminal crystal faces. These, however,

are characteristic. The radiating and fanlike groups of prehnite crystals

Prehnite

Alb ite

Fic. 6. Replacement of albite by prehnite. Phantom forms of former albite

crystals are dimly perceptible. X 35. Slide 65.

are superimposed upon the former structure of the albite, but in places

the albite has had an influence upon the crystallization of the prehnite.

In slide 63, minute veins similar to those described are filled with

albite and datolite. The albite crystals occur in interlocking aggregates

of varying crystallographic orientation. In places, they occupy the veins

to the exclusion of all other material, or they may project at various

angles from the sides of the vein into masses of datolite. Crystals up to

0.5 mm. in length are not uncommon, and the general average of size is

noticeably larger than the plagioclase rods in the walls. In most places,

there is no evidence of corrosion of albite at contact with datolite, but in

some areas, phenomena of replacement similar to those which have been

described in association with prehnite appear.

OS ANNALS NEW YORK ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

Hand specimen 70 consists of a crystallized mass of secondary minerals,

among which natrolite, heulandite and datolite are prominent. The slide

shows at one point a group of rather large albite crystals within the

datolite, evincing much corrosion of outline.

In 133 and 134, the hand specimen shows large, apparently clear crys-

tals of albite, imbedded in beautifully crystallized pectolite. Under the

microscope, the albite appears quite turbid in places, and the outlines

show evident encroachment of pectolite fibres (fig.5). In 136, albite and

natrolite appear as the filling of a shear vein in dense trap. The manner

in which natrolite is replacing albite is sketched in fig. 7. It is evident

that the orientation of natrolite has been strongly influenced by the direc-

tion of elongation of the albite crystals which they are replacing. In 127

WNatrolite

Fic. 7. Replacement of albite by natrolite. 35. Slide 136.

(fig. 3), the relations are similar, but in this case an intermediate stage

is shown, for little groups of prehnite crystals are perched upon the

partly corroded terminal faces of the albite. The prehnite, however, did

not attain a strong development, and both it and albite are giving way to

natrolite. It appears probable that, conditions being suitable for the for-

mation of natrolite, albite would yield to its advance with great facility

on account of the similarity in the composition of the two minerals (al-

bite = Na,O, Al,0,, 6Si0, ; natrolite = Na,O, Al,0,, 38i0, + 2H,0).

In 136, numerous remnants of albite are buried in natrolite fibres, and

the natrolite appears to have always assumed a position parallel to the

elongation of the albite. Slides 56 and 137 resemble 126 as being minute

veins in zones of vertical shearing, which produced sharply defined cracks

in quarry walls. In 56, the filling of the veinlet appeared to the naked

FENNER, THE WATCHUNG BASALT 129

eye to be wholly stilbite, but with the microscope it is found that this is

replacing albite, of which numerous remnants are seen. Similarly in 137,

small albite crystals are being replaced by chabazite. In 123, veinlets,

which may be due either to shrinkage on cooling or to shear movements,

contain albite, datolite and calcite, whose succession is in the order given.

In 129, a large crystal of apophyllite carries several isolated inclusions of

turbid-looking and much corroded albite of the larger type described.

Numerous other slides show more or less albite, in some places in

rather fresh-looking crystals and in others in isolated groups of greatly

clouded appearance. Occasionally its alteration has proceeded so far that

the only trace of its former existence lies in turbid patches in other

minerals, suggestive of albite merely by their form.

As to the mode of occurrence of albite in these rocks, it has been found

most frequently in minute veins, but this may be due to the fact that

under such circumstances the formation of the first products of alteration

would tend to seal up the veins and render it difficult for later solutions

to enter and attack the albite. In 95, the relations are different. Small,

amygdaloidal cavities are filled with secondary products, among which

albite and green amphibole and minute grains of garnet appear. It seems

also that phenocrysts of diopside of the primary crystallization of the

magma have been replaced by albite groups, illustrating two facts observ-

able in many cases in these rocks, namely: that ferromagnesium minerals

tend to disappear and that the replacing minerals often pay little atten-

tion to the composition of the material replaced. Slide 62 also shows this

replacement of diopside by albite. Slide 100 illustrates again the filling

of amygdaloidal cavities by albite and amphibole, but in this instance

later stages of alteration are shown, and chabazite, calcite and chlorite are

prominent.

In several slides, albite is found in a mode of occurrence which has

been referred to before in discussing the manner in which solutions at-

tacked the rock. The original texture of the normally crystalline basalt

is preserved, but the mineralogic make-up is quite altered. In such cases,

the laths of labradorite of the original have frequently been altered to

albite. Slides 62 and 118 show this effect plainly.

The position of albite in the replacement series is determined by the

minerals in respect to which it has been found to exhibit instability.

Datolite, prehnite, pectolite, chabazite, stilbite, natrolite, apophyllite and

calcite have all been found in relations which indicate energetic corro-

sion and replacement of albite, and these minerals are therefore regarded

as belonging to later periods of alteration. This conclusion is confirmed

by the relations of these minerals among themselves and to other min-

130 ANNALS NEW YORK ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

erals and may be regarded as established. On the other hand, albite has

not been found in any case to replace minerals other than those of the

primary consolidation of the magma. It is concluded, therefore, that it

appeared among the first results of alteration. At the same time quartz,

green amphibole, garnet, hematite and sulphide minerals (pyrite and

chalcopyrite) appear to have been produced. Where albite is found in

association with these, the contacts show no alteration on either hand.

In the breaking-down of the original labradorite into albite and various

lime minerals, the presence of boric acid and other sublimates was un-

doubtedly a factor of great importance. Similar results of the action of

hot aqueous solutions upon igneous rocks, by which an original lime-soda

feldspar has disappeared and albite has been deposited in its place, are of

fairly common and widespread occurrence, and it appears that in general

the albite molecule possesses a much wider range of stability under condi-

tions which are apt to occur in nature than does the anorthite molecule.

While the more calcic feldspars normally occur as products of crystalliza-

tion from igneous fusion, albite is most frequently found under condi-

tions indicative of deposition from aqueous or aqueo-igneous solution at

much more moderate temperatures. Fouqué** observed that albite never

occurs individualized among the crystals of the voleanic rocks. Dana*®

mentions instances of its formation under metamorphic conditions or as

a product of aqueo-igneous deposition as follows:

It is found in disseminated crystals in granular limestone, thus in the lime-

stone (Jura and Trias) of the Col du Bonhomme, near Modane in Savoy;

also in microscopic crystals with quartz and orthoclase in limestone at Meylan

near Grenoble; in minute crystals in fossil radiolarians in limestone near

Rovegno, Province of Pavia, Italy, also in the limestone itself; in limestone at

Bedous, Basses Pyrénées, at the contact with diabase. Some of the most

prominent European localities are in cavities and veins in the granite or gran-

itoid rocks of the Swiss and Austrian Alps, associated with adularia; smoky

quartz, chlorite, titanite, apatite and many rarer species.

An instance of the passage of a lime-soda feldspar into albite is cited

by Dana**:

Miinzing has investigated the Pfitschthal pericline and finds that the erys-

tals consist essentially of an oligoclase, rich in soda, upon which albite has

been deposited in parallel position, especially in the cavities of the original

crystals.

W. C. Broéceer,*” in following out the paragenesis of the minerals of

*€. HINTZE: ‘Handbuch der Mineralogie,” Leipzig, p. 1433, 1892.

% “System of Mineralogy,” 6th ed., p. 331.

*% Ibid., p. 1026.

* Zeitschr. fiir Kryst. und Min., vol. 16, p. 167, 1890.

FENNER, THE WATCHUNG BASALT 131

the nepheline-syenite pegmatite veins of southern Norway, notes a de-

velopment of secondary albite in a form of microperthitic intergrowth

with orthoclase along cleavage lines. He finds evidence that the forma-

tion of this secondary albite belongs to a period of mineral-formation

previous to zeolite-deposition, and continues:

One finds also at times that the albite of the microperthite was later re-

moved again during the zeolite-phase, whereby quite cellular, spongy, porous

feldspar-remnants result. Perhaps a small part of the analcite of the vugs

may even have been formed at the expense of the dissolved albite.

The process and results described by him appear to be closely analogous

(taking account of somewhat different conditions) to those which oc-

curred in the Watchung rocks.

W. LinpGreEN,** in discussing the minerals characteristic of various

zones of vein-formation, considers soda-lime feldspars unstable in all

vein zones, while albite is found in contact-metamorphic deposits, in

deeper vein zones and in middle vein zones. The physical conditions

prevailing in the Watchung rocks during the short period of formation

of albite appear to have corresponded, so far as can be inferred, to those

of deeper or middle vein zones.

The stability of the albite molecule, under conditions under which

anorthite breaks down into other compounds, gives rise at times to the

special effect which Sir Archibald Geikie*® terms “albitisation,”

a process in which, while the lime of the plagioclase is removed or crystallized

as calcite, instead of forming a lime-silicate like epidote or zoisite, the rest of

the original mineral recrystallizes as a finely granular aggregate or mosaic of

clear grains of albite.

F. Becke*® describes an occurrence of secondary albite which offers

considerable similarity to the manner of occurrence in the Watchung

rocks. His explanation of its formation is interesting and suggestive in

this connection. Referring to changes in the rock after consolidation,

epidote and zoisite are recognized among the products, and in the same

category is placed albitic plagioclase, which, in the form of irregular

veins of crystallographically parallel orientation, penetrates the original

plagioclase crystals. He continues:

I cannot recognize in mechanical effects upon the rock the origin of these

new forms. I would much rather believe that our rocks, after the magmatic

consolidation was finished, were for a long time under other conditions, in

8 “The Relation of Ore-Deposition to Physical Conditions,’ Econ. Geol., vol. 2, pp. 105-

127, 1907.

*» “Textbook of Geology,’’ London and New York, vol. 2, p. 790, 1903.

“Petr. Stud. am Tonalit der Rieserferner,’’ Tsch. Mitth., vol. 13, p. 420, 1892-1893.

132 ANNALS NEW YORK ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

which the combinations created by consolidation did not present the condition

of most stable equilibrium; especially does this apply to the basic plagioclases,

whose silicates tended toward a breaking-up into soda-aluminum silicate (al-

bite) on one hand, into lime-aluminum silicate (zoisite, epidote) on the other.

In this citation, Becke brings out clearly the conception that the sta-

bility of a mineral compound depends upon the conditions surrounding

it, and that a compound which is stable under the conditions of its forma-

tion may become unstable under later conditions, and, if opportunity is

afforded, will recrystallize in stable form. The writer wishes to empha-

size this point on account of the manner in which a mineral is often

spoken of as being very stable or very unstable. Unless the surrounding

conditions are known, these terms have little meaning, for a reaction

which proceeds in a certain direction under given conditions will (gener-

ally) proceed in the opposite direction under a reversal of conditions.

This is very clearly expressed by C. R. Van Hise, who, in his work on

“Metamorphism,”*! refers repeatedly to the manner in which reactions

occurring in the zone of katamorphism are reversed in the zone of ana-

morphism, but many writers appear to ignore the principle. Through-

out the present paper, one of the chief objects which has been kept in

view is to show how quickly minerals respond to an alteration of external

conditions, and express this facility of response in recrystallization, if

opportunity is given.

Hintze*® gives numerous additional illustrations of the formation of

secondary albite. In the vein-granite of the Riesengebirge, it is found in

druses in the form of clustered rosettes or cockscomb crystal-aggregates.

At Striegau, it covers walls of vugs and at times rests upon potash feld-

spars; in the Harz, it occurs in beautiful crystals in gabbro; near Mar-

burg, Hesse, it forms a later deposit in crevices in diabase.

These various illustrations of the occurrence of secondary albite are

cited to show its relations to the feldspars of the original rocks and are

believed to confirm the view held by the writer that the various molecules

which enter into feldspars are chemically independent and that the anor-

thite molecule (in some cases also the orthoclase molecule) may enter

new combinations without affecting in any manner the stability of the

albite molecule.

Quartz

Unlike albite, whose crystals are generally minute, quartz is often

prominent in hand-specimens. The crystals frequently attain a thickness

“1 Monograph 47, U. S. Geol. Surv., pp. 170, 172, 176, and especially 364-368.

@ Op. cit., pp. 1433-1454.

FENNER, THE WATCHUNG BASALT 133

‘of 10-15 mm., and much larger ones occasionally appear. It is generally

colorless, but not infrequently amethystine, and more rarely smoky. The

faces shown are usually simple combinations of prism and pyramid. In

addition to the groups of euhedral crystals which are most common,

granular aggregates sometimes occur, as well as deposits of chalcedonic

silica.

Frequently specimens are found which show numerous cavities, indi-

eating plainly the removal of groups of crystals of some mineral which

was intergrown with the quartz. Most of the cavities are diamond-shaped

in cross-section, but others are apparently rectangular. They are un-

doubtedly due to the removal of groups of crystals, but the forms do not

suggest those of any of the species known from these localities. It ap-

pears most probable that among the various transformations experienced

one or more minerals disappeared completely. There are indications that

formation and removal occurred early in the history of the series, for at

times the cavities have been filled with later-deposited quartz.

Replacement of Quartz

In slide 70, of which the hand specimen consists principally of dato-

lite, heulandite and natrolite, the datolite, under the microscope, is seen

to contain at one place a small group of albite crystals, greatly corroded

Fic. 8. Fragments of quartz outlining former crystal, now almost completely

replaced by datolite. x 35. Slide 70.

as previously described, and scattered through the datolite are minute

remnants of quartz. One occurrence takes the form shown in fig. 8. It

is clear that the scattered particles are portions of the pyramidal termina-

134 ANNALS NEW YORK ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

tion of a single quartz crystal, which has been almost completely replaced

by datolite. There is little turbidity in either quartz or datolite. In

Fic. 9. Fragments of quartz with prehnite being replaced by apophyllite.

Quartz is conventionally stippled to distinguish it from apophyllite. ™ 35.

Slide 138.

numerous other places, parting planes in the datolite appear to outline

former quartz crystals, that is, the replacement of quartz has given rise

Yvorle

Chebazite

Fig. 10. Quartz cut by vein of chabazite and corroded by same on margin.

xX 35. Slide 146.

to roughly pseudomorphic forms of datolite. In 125, also, pyramidal

quartz crystals have been slightly replaced by datolite.

FENNER, THE WATCHUNG BASALT 135

In 138, a large apophyllite crystal carries a great variety of inclusions,

most of which are in process of replacement by the apophyllite. They

comprise quartz, garnet, amphibole, prehnite, pectolite and calcite.

Fragments of quartz are numerous. Relations to both apophyllite and

prehnite are shown in fig. 9. The prehnite carries a sharply defined im-

pression of a quartz pyramid, but only portions of the quartz crystal are

left. The remainder of the space is occupied by apophyllite. The rela-

tions indicate that prehnite was deposited upon the terminal pyramid of

a quartz crystal and that later both were removed during the formation

of apophyllite or were partly incorporated within the latter.

In 87, fragments of quartz are inclosed in prehnite and pectolite in

such a manner as to indicate replacement by both. In fig. 10, the rela-

Fic. 11. Replacement of quartz (clear) by chabazite (blocky). The quartz

extinguishes nearly as a unit. Outside the field the radiating crystals of

quartz spring from a centre. X35. Slide 77.

tions of quartz and chabazite in slide 146 are illustrated. The contact

along one margin is perfectly straight, and it appears that corrosion has

had no effect there. In other places, the quartz is greatly attacked, and

chabazite has replaced it. A narrow vein of chabazite crosses the crystal,

probably following some minute crevice which gave access to the solu-

tions, and in various places lines of turbidity show the manner in which

replacement begins.

In 77, replacement of quartz by chabazite in somewhat different rela-

tions appears. -Heulandite also replaces the quartz. It is believed that

the slide as a whole illustrates a frequent form of attack and replacement

of quartz by later minerals. Figs. 11 and 12 show characteristic features.

The original habit of the quartz in this slide seems to have been as groups

136 ANNALS NEW YORK ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

of radiating crystals, the individuals increasing in size outward. There

was also probably a small amount of the unknown mineral whose removal

by solution left the prismatic cavities previously described. In this case,

the cavities have been refilled by heulandite, but are still sharply out-

lined. In other parts of the slide, quartz is giving way to heulandite, but

in such cases the habit of the heulandite is different from that shown in

its deposition in the open cavities.

In fig. 11, some indication of the radiating form of the quartz can be

distinguished, and outside the field the center of radiation is plainly

seen. The replacement by chabazite has taken a most irregular form, but

the influence of the crystallographic character of the quartz upon its

solution and removal are perceptible in places.

Fig. 12. Replacement of quartz (clear) by heulandite (stippled). Arrows show

direction of vertical axes of quartz crystals. Many of the crystallographic

lines approach parallelism, but few are strictly parallel. X 385. Slide 77.

In fig. 12, the major portion of the field is occupied by a single quartz

crystal, in nearly basal section, as is shown by the interference figure.

Surrounding it are other quartz crystals of various optical orientation.

Replacement by heulandite has taken the form shown, extremely irregular

but yet plainly governed more or less by differences of solubility in the

quartz.

Plate XI, fig. 4, illustrates one of the complex zeolitic groupings often

found. Even at this stage of alteration, vestiges of the original texture

of the rock and of the results of mechanical action upon it can be seen

in many places. Phenocrysts of diopside are quite numerous outside of

the field illustrated. Traces of plagioclase laths can be made out, and the

subcircular chlorite nodules due originally to resorption of olivine are

FENNER, THE WATCHUNG BASALT 137

plentiful. There are many fracture-lines, into some of which a reddish-

brown deposit of sand and clay has been carried from the underlying

lake beds. Most of the slide is in the stage of recrystallization in which

zeolites are prominent, but in places has advanced to the stage of calcite

and kaolin. Stilbite and analcite can be recognized, and others may be

present. In the illustration, the radiating groups somewhat simulating

forms of vegetation are probably crystals of quartz surviving from a much

earlier period. They appear to branch from minute cracks. In some por-

tions of the slide they show strongly the effects of solution. As regards

the replacing mineral, it is not possible to be more specific than to say

that it is probably a zeolite. In 125, quartz crystals which have begun

Fig. 18. Replacement of quartz by calcite. The quartz has the fan structure

generally supposed to be typical of vein quartz, but it has probably replaced

basalt. The granular-looking calcite shows features which are plainly a

survival of those in the quartz. > 35. Slide 58.

their growth in similar groups radiating from cracks have reached a

large size.

In slide 58, a dense, normally crystalline basalt is crusted with quartz

and chalcedony. The quartz has the fanlike crystallization supposed to

be typical of vein quartz, although certain circular lines and markings

(similar to those shown in fig. 2, though not so pronounced) suggest that

much of the quartz may have replaced a glassy crust of basalt. The

chalcedonic SiO, has a fibrous appearance and negative elongation.

Within the basalt, the normal texture is preserved, but with crossed nicols

it is seen that in places both diopside and plagioclase have been replaced

by a mosaic of quartz. In the outer crusts, calcite in a finely granular

form is working in and replacing the quartz. It is developed most

138 ANNALS NEW YORK ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

strongly in a band lying between the quartz and the basalt, and it might

appear at first that it was earlier than the quartz, but its general char-

acter and the manner in which it branches minutely into the quartz are

indicative of replacement. In addition, certain features shown in fig. 13

can be explained only in this way. Inclusions, plainly original in the

quartz, survive within the replacing calcite. |

This form of replacement, by which later calcite has worked in between

erystallized quartz and basalt, seems to have been very common. - Another

good example is found in slide 41, and in repeated instances hand speci-

mens are found to show a narrow band of calcite between the two, which,

without microscopic examination, would naturally be inferred to be

earlier than the quartz. A similar development of calcite as regards

other minerals is referred to elsewhere.

It is not easy to understand why a deposition of calcite should effect

the simultaneous removal of quartz or why the solution of quartz should

cause the deposition of calcite, since the two minerals have no ion in

common. It is known, however, that the solubility of a salt in water is

often diminished by the presence of another salt, even when there is no

common ion.

The observed relations indicate that quartz is earlier than datolite,

prehnite, pectolite, chabazite, heulandite, stilbite, apophyllite and calcite.

It is referred therefore to the first period of alteration.

Garnet

In several of the thin sections, numerous small grains of some mineral

of high relief and hexagonal or rounded outline are found, regarding

whose identification there is some slight doubt, but which may be referred

to garnet with most probability. They occur normally in association with

that group which is believed to have been the result of the most intense

metamorphic action. In hand specimens, individual grains cannot be

distinguished, but the presence of small clumps of some substance of a

peculiar, light, ashy-green color in certain associations have been found

to be due to a multitude of grains of this character.

One of the best examples is slide 98. The relations are sketched in

Plate XIII, fig. 1. The garnet is here associated with albite, actinolite,

specularite and prehnite, forming crusts on dense basalt. The grains in

juxtaposition form considerable aggregates, or they are scattered in

swarms through the prehnite. The average diameter of individual grains

is 0.02 mm., and the maximum is not much greater. Each individual

consists of a clear, colorless exterior and a darker nucleus of a brownish

FENNER, THE WATCHUNG BASALT 139

color, which, under the highest powers, has a granular appearance. This

opaque substance is not identifiable with certainty but is evidently some

material which could not be worked over or digested in the process of

recrystallization and therefore remained as an insoluble residue. It

would appear that either TiO, or MnO, might act in this manner. Both

are shown by analysis to be present in the basalt, and the opaque, brown-

ish dust generally present in the garnet and at times in other secondary

minerals may be referred with great probability to one or both of these

oxides. The relief of the crystal grains is very high. The Becke test

indicates much higher index than adjacent prehnite and therefore higher

than 1.65. The characteristic outline is that of a regular haxagon. On

account of the high relief, it is sometimes possible with good magnifica-

tion to make out a number of faces of an individual grain and to deter-

mine that the form is that of a rhombic dodecahedron (110). In most

cases, the grains appear isotropic, but occasionally a very low birefringence

is perceptible. The crystalline form, high relief, habit of including for-

eign material, lack of cleavage and anomalous birefringence correspond

with garnet. This mineral has not heretofore been recognized under

exactly similar circumstances, so far as the writer is aware.

The hexagonal outline of the garnet is best preserved where the growth

of the associated prehnite has made least advance. Where the prehnite

reaches a more notable amount, the garnet grains become rounded, and,

with good magnification, the surface appears pitted. At a further stage,

the grains become smaller and finally disappear, leaving the brown dust

remaining as a turbidity in the prehnite. There is some evidence that the

garnet is likewise yielding to the advance of the green amphibole. The

inference is that the period of deposition or field of stability for the

garnet was very limited.

In slide 53 (Plate XI, fig. 5), an original glassy crust on dense basalt

has been metamorphosed to a mixture of garnet, green amphibole and

specularite, which has subsequently been attacked by prehnite. The in-

soluble residue of the original glass (TiO, or MnO.) has been included as

before as a muddy brown sediment in the garnet grains, giving to many

of them an opaque appearance. By reflected light, this has a milky look.

The spherulitic markings and curved bands, which have been spoken of

before and which are illustrated in the figure, are probably surviving

structures of the original glass. The garnet grains are individually

rather larger than those in 98 (about 0.075 mm.) and in places are so

crowded as to form considerable masses, some of which are perfectly

opaque from undissolved residue. Where invasion by prehnite has pro-

gressed, the garnets are much corroded. Slide 109 is from the same hand

140 ANNALS NEW YORK ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

specimen as 53, and, so far as the relations of garnet are concerned, is

almost a duplicate (Plate XIII, fig. 2).

In 115 and 118, the same relations hold. In several places in 115, the

geometrical patterns in which the garnet grains are arranged show up in

a remarkable manner. Plate XII, fig. 5, is a sketch of a portion of the

slide. With encroachment of prehnite, the figures become obliterated.

The resemblance to chloritic nodules derived from resorbed olivine, shown

in fig. 2, slide 48, is striking.

In most of the slides in which garnet has been found in any notable

quantity, these circular patterns are a marked feature. The resemblance

in form to chlorite nodules is so close that a similar explanation of genesis

appears probable. The origin of the chlorite nodules may be traced

backward through intermediate steps to phenocrysts of olivine, which, it

appears, became unstable during the primary consolidation of the magma

and were largely resorbed. Such nuclei of olivinitic material, which had

suffered refusion and partial absorption, remained unchanged in the glass

after consolidation until circulating waters gained access. The time

required for this varied according to the relations of the channels of cir-

culation, and the nature of the resulting minerals depended upon this

period. It appears that when alteration was delayed until a rather late

stage, the nodules of resorbed olivine passed over into chlorite, but in an

earlier period, while temperature was high, garnet was the chief mineral

formed.

The garnet seems to alter into prehnite with great facility. Both in

the derivation of garnet from olivinitic material and in its transforma-

tion into prehnite, the process appears to have followed the usual line

taken in these rocks, by which magnesia and iron were reduced.

In several other slides (for example, 50, 95, 100), small grains of

similar characteristics (isotropic and of high relief and hexagonal out-

line) are found. Occasionally they form considerable clusters, but fur-

ther stages of alteration have supervened and obscured the relations. In

slide 50a, Plate XI, fig. 6, clusters of them are seen to form a band in

prehnite immediately adjacent and parallel to what appears at first to be

unaltered basalt. In the latter, it is found, however, that the feldspars

and diopside have been wholly replaced by prehnite, garnet and amphi-

bole, while the magnetite has been left almost undisturbed and still out-

lines the original texture.

The Amphiboles

A number of distinctly different varieties of amphibole occur among

the secondary minerals. Some of these possess decidedly abnormal char-

FENNER, THE WATCHUNG BASALT 141

acteristics. Their relations among themselves and to the associated

minerals present several interesting features.

Variety 1. In a hand specimen of pectolite, altered in part to crystal-

line calcite, small, tabular crystals of some mineral of a dark-green color

were noted. A thin section (116) disclosed the relations shown in fig. 14.

The dark mineral is surrounded by calcite, and between the two there is

often a muddy border, indicative of decomposition. The process of re-

placement has frequently left the curious projecting shreds shown in the

figure. The general habit and the optical properties indicate an amphi-

bole, but several features are abnormal.

The pleochroism is strong. X—dark blue-green, Y —claret and

Z=pale yellow-green. Intermediate sections show tints of gray, lilac,

}

mT i ahs

He, Af dlc Y>

WW? i Ht fh} vB

WD | | ees

I Wy fey; t' J ap 5 = 5

Fig. 14. Shreds of an abnormal amphibole (probably arfvedsonite) in calcite.

xX 32. Slide 116.

purple and brown. Absorption formula, X > Y > Z. There is a well-

defined cleavage, probably parallel to the prism, and probably another

cleavage whose character could not be determined. Elongation tabular

parallel to the prism. Optic character biaxial and negative, optic angle

large. Extinction measured from the X-axis of elasticity to what is

probably the vertical cleavage makes a maximum angle of 14-15°.

Unusual features are the reversal of the ordinary formula of absorp-

tion for amphiboles, the position of the X-axis, and the great range of

pleochroism. These features agree very closely, however, with the rare

variety arfvedsonite (Na,, Ca, Fe), 8i,0,, with (Ca, Mg), (Al, Fe),

Si,0,., as described by A. N. Winchell.** In the same slide, a small de-

43 “Optical Mineralogy,” p. 114, 1909.

142 ANNALS NEW YORK ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

tached portion of the section shows calcite and quartz, with a shred of

amphibole. Using the birefringence of the quartz as a basis, the amphi-

bole gives a maximum birefringence of 0.025, which agrees very well with

arfvedsonite. The possibility of egirite was considered, but the proper-

ties agree much less perfectly with those of that mineral. Not many

oceurrences of arfvedsonite in this country have been noted and these

only in eruptive rocks. A further study of its properties with more cer-

tain identification would be of interest. It is to be regretted that so little

of it has been found. In slide 153, containing pectolite and large albite

crystals, a few shreds appear to be the last remnants of arfvedsonite. In

108, a single shred shows the characteristic pleochroism (blue-green and

lilac) and in 77, a half dozen remnants show pleochroism as in 116,—X

blue-green, Y claret and Z yellow-green, with X > Y > Z. A search has

been made through a large number of hand specimens in the endeavor to

find other occurrences. A few cases were observed, but always so much

decomposed that thin sections could not be obtained. In its typical habit,

the mineral consists of groups of tabular crystals or somewhat scattered

individuals resting upon or intergrown with quartz, datolite, pectolite or

albite. It was always decomposed to a large degree to a grayish-green,

pulverulent substance, or its total removal had left narrow gashes in the

associated minerals. An interesting feature brought out was that similar

gashes were not uncommon in many specimens in which there was no

other evidence of arfvedsonite. Their frequent occurrence suggests that

arfvedsonite may have been formed in considerable quantity at one stage

of alteration but that in most cases it has totally disappeared.

Varieties 2 and 3. The usual amphibole found in the slides is of very

different character. It occurs in tufts or bundles of fibres or in groups of

slender prisms, and in general character resembles actinolite. It is found

in small quantities in a great number of the thin sections, but in several

in which the minerals associated with it are those belonging to the first

periods of alteration, it is present in notable amounts. In 98, it occurs in

tufts of small fibres, dispersed in columnar or plumelike forms, and at

times occupying most of the field (Plate XIII, fig. 1). Pleochroism

strong, from a clear emerald-green parallel to Z to pale brown tinged with

green at right angles to Z. No difference in pleochroism between X and

Y can be perceived. Absorption strong parallel to Z, weak parallel to X

and Y. Extinction nearly parallel to elongation of the needles, but angles

up to 11° were obtained. Direction of elongation makes an acute angle

with the Z-axis of elasticity. Index of refraction greater than prehnite

and approximating that of calcite, indicating a value of about 1.65. The

maximum interference color in the section is a blue of the first order,

FENNER, THE WATCHUNG BASALT 143

corresponding very closely to that of associated prehnite, and indicating a

value of birefringence of about 0.033. Its affinities seem to be with actin-

olite. Its strong pleochrism points to a high content of ferrous iron.**

In 53, green amphibole occurs in associations very like those in 98.

Plate XI, fig. 5, shows a portion of the slide, but not that in which the

amphibole is best developed. The pleochroic colors are the same, and the

general appearance is very similar, but the habit is more columnar, and

the plumose development is much less prominent. Extinction angles

measured from the elongation gave maximum angles up to 32 or 33° (in

a doubtful case still higher). Pleochroism, emerald-green parallel with Z,

pale yellow and brown parallel with X and Y. Absorption corresponds.

The elongation makes an acute angle with the vibration direction Z. The

birefringence is practically that of prehnite, or about 0.033. Index of

refraction greater than that of calcite (> 1.66). The high birefringence

may indicate an approach to the iron amphibole, griinerite, but the

large extinction angle and character of the pleochroism are somewhat

anomalous.

The relation of the amphibole and garnet in this slide is at variance

with what was found in 98 (described under garnet). In the latter, the

amphibole held inclusions of the garnet and was quite plainly replacing

it. In 53, it is even more evident that garnet occupies areas formerly held

by the amphibole. The replacing garnet is transparent (free from opaque

dust), so that the forms of the former amphibole prisms are distinctly

outlined. In some instances, the replacement is not complete and rem-

nants of amphibole are still left.

In 109, from the same hand specimen as 53, there appears to be the

following relation of garnet and amphibole (Plate XIII, fig. 2). The

stouter prisms of amphibole have been partly replaced by garnet. This

has not proceeded very far, and a reversal of the process has occurred by

which a bordering rim of fibrous amphibole has grown out among the

garnet grains, partly replacing them. At the same time, the stouter

prisms themselves have broken up into the fibrous form, which preserves

fairly well the outward boundary but has assumed an internal structure

which is even plumose in places, without much regard to the original

crystallographic orientation. In the middle portion of the drawing, a

single prism of amphibole illustrates both processes. At one end, the

amphibole has been replaced by colorless garnet. Toward the other end,

fibres of amphibole have shot out among the garnet grains for considerable

distances beyond the original border of the rod. The structure of the

WANA: Op. cit., p. 389:

WINCHELL: Op. cit., p. 109.

144 ANNALS NEW YORK ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

interior of the prism has altered into masses of fibres of various orienta-

tion.

The fibrous form of amphibole with low extinction angle is found in

numerous slides. In 115 and 118, it occurs in abundance. Invasion of

garnet areas by amphibole is exhibited in a number of places. In 117, a

series of subspherical growths of amphibole, built up of plumose or ray-

like fibres, form a border between comparatively unaltered basalt and

transparent prehnite. Pyrite (or chalcopyrite) is in intimate inter-

growth. The pleochroism of the amphibole is much less marked in this

instance. Colors vary from yellow-green, parallel to Z, to very pale bluish

green or almost colorless at right angles to this. Elongation of fibres is

nearly parallel to Z as before.

In the occurrences described, the very fibrous amphibole is found under

circumstances which show that its formation began in early stages of

alteration. Its range of stability appears to have been very extended,

however. It has been observed macroscopically in small acicular tufts or

sheaves resting upon the free crystal faces of heulandite, laumontite,

apophyllite and calcite, minerals of a late stage of alteration, in such

manner as to show later deposition. This inference is confirmed in the

slides. In 72, very fresh-looking groups are found in the midst of heulan-

dite, and in 51a, it is associated with heulandite and calcite. In 120, a

group of fibres is surrounded by laumontite, and in 98 perfectly fresh

amphibole is surrounded by chabazite. Slide 129 shows a sheavelike

bundle of amphibole fibres in the midst of a large apophyllite crystal. In

the hand specimen of the last, similar tufts were seen, resting on a free

face of the apophyllite crystal. Slide 138 shows similar inclusions. In

a great many other slides (50, 50a, 62, 110), small quantities are found

in various associations. In some cases, there might be a question whether

the amphibole might not be a survival from a previous period of more

intense metamorphic activity, but when it is seen macroscopically, resting

upon the faces of projecting euhedral crystals, the only inference which

appears justifiable is that it is of later formation. From these relations,

it appears probable that it continued stable at rather moderate tempera-

tures. There was, however, in the more open channels, a tendency toward

solution because of a diminution of iron and magnesia in the circulating

waters. In the places where it is found, there appears to be always some

comparatively unaltered basalt within a short distance, generally in the

same slide, but in the large masses of secondary minerals sometimes found

in the cavities in the trap sheet, there is no distinctly iron or magnesia

mineral left. The writer has seen masses a foot or more in size consisting

of pectolite, prehnite, natrolite and thaumasite lying between the bowlder-

FENNER, THE WATCHUNG BASALT 145

forms of basalt, and showing apparently the complete removal of iron and

magnesia compounds. The inference is that in the channels in which cir-

culation was most free, the waters were too dilute in iron and magnesia

for the deposition of these minerals, and it was only where the circulation

was more obstructed and therefore slower, and where a supply of iron and

magnesia was at hand in the less altered basalt, that these compounds

were deposited.

The manner in which the amphibole was removed by dilution of the

solutions appears in slide 108. The bundles of acicular fibres are losing

their characteristic euhedral terminations and appear as small masses

with irregular outline. There is no indication of alteration products, and

Ca/csfe Pale-green

3 Amphibole

Dafolire

‘ Colorless

Amphibole

ChohbaziTe

Fic. 15. Association of amphibole, datolite, chabazite, stilbite and calcite. The

amphibole shows both green and colorless varieties. Datolite shows corro-

sion at contact with zeolites, chabazite is cut by veinlike stilbite, and gran-

ular calcite replaces all. xX 32. Slide 108.

it appears as if the amphibole were simply being dissolved out. Datolite

and heulandite are the associated minerals.

Variety 4. Under certain circumstances, the amphibole appears to

suffer a diminution in iron content without destruction of the crystals,

perhaps altering in the direction of tremolite. This is observable in

several slides. The green and brown pleochroic colors have practically

disappeared. The crystals retain their outline and fresh appearance, but

are colorless or show a very faint tinge of green. A group in slide 108

(fig. 15) shows transitions between individuals which are decidedly pleo-

_chroic and those in which the green is barely perceptible. Datolite is

associated, but zeolites and calcite are the prominent minerals present.

146 ANNALS NEW YORK ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

In other parts of the slide, the amphiboles are a pale green to deep green.

In several places in 94, groups of very pale green crystals are seen. In

120, 100 and 51a, similar, almost colorless crystals are observable.

Among the several varieties of amphibole present in these rocks, the

arfvedsonite is believed to have been first in order of formation, the

columnar prisms with large extinction angle second, the fibrous form

resembling actinolite third and the colorless variety fourth.

The changes noted in the amphiboles conform to those which a complex

solid solution might be expected to undergo when the external conditions

are continually changing. The relations of amphiboles among themselves

and to pyroxenes are undoubtedly very complex and are not well under-

stood, but the researches which have recently been carried forward in the

Geophysical Laboratory at Washington have cleared up a number of

hitherto doubtful matters.

In a study of the nature of the MgSi0, series of minerals, E. 'T. Allen,

F. E. Wright and J. K. Clement* found that MgSiO, exists in four

modifications or phases: a monoclinic and an orthorhombic pyroxene and

a monoclinic and an orthorhombic amphibole, and that the last three pass

into monoclinic pyroxene at high temperatures (1150° and upward) with

a slight evolution of heat. They draw the conclusion that all are mono-

tropic toward the monoclinic pyroxene, which is the only stable phase at

all temperatures. Somewhat opposed to this inference, however, is the

fact, which they and other investigators record, that monoclinic amphi-

bole is produced experimentally by heating the necessary ingredients at

moderate temperatures (375-475°) for 3 to 6 days in aqueous solutions;

also the numerous examples in which the transformation of pyroxene into

amphibole has been observed in nature (as in uralitization). They re-

gard natural occurrences of amphibole as examples of the persistence of

metastable phases, but this explanation seems hardly adequate to account

for all the phenomena which petrographers have observed. A factor

which is undoubtedly of great importance in the matter is that no member

of the series ordinarily occurs pure in nature, but contains other members

associated with it either in chemical combination or in solid solution.

This may exert a powerful effect upon the direction of transformation

under given conditions.

Further study in the same laboratory on “Diopside and its Relations to

Calcium and Magnesium Metasilicates” ** has brought out very interest-

ing relations. The investigation was devoted to pyroxenes and did not

“Am. Jour. Sci., 4th ser., vol. 22, p. 385, 1906.

“6 ALLEN, WHITH, WRIGHT and LARSEN: Am. Jour. Sci., 4th ser., vol. 27, pp. 1-47,

1909.

FENNER, THE WATCHUNG BASALT 147

include the amphiboles, but it may be inferred that somewhat analogous

relations hold. It seems most probable that the amphiboles consist of a

series of metasilicates which are capable of uniting among themselves in

compounds of definite composition and in mixed crystals (solid solutions)

of variable composition. In such complex solid solutions as are formed

by associations of various members of the series, equilibrium with the

liquid with which the crystals are in contact is necessarily easily dis-

placed by changes in the composition of the liquid, and perhaps also by

changes of temperature. The metamorphoses which the amphiboles of

the Watchung rocks are found to have experienced are in harmony with

this conception and would be expected from the conditions to which they

were subjected.

Somewhat similar phenomena to those described are mentioned by J. P.

Iddings :*7

Common hornblende and basaltic hornblende in some instances alter by the

loss of color and subsequent passage into pale or colorless amphibole, re-

sembling actinolite and tremolite; often becoming recrystallized as acicular or

fibrous aggregates (strahlstein). :

The chemically simpler varieties, like tremolite and actinolite, are more

stable than the more complex hornblendes. In fact, the former frequently

result from the breaking-down of the more complex amphiboles.

Regarding relative stability, however, the present writer would adopt a

somewhat different form of expression. The more complex hornblendes

are probably perfectly stable under the conditions of deposition, but with

a change of external conditions they tend to change in accordance.

In the study of the transformation of labradorite into albite, it was

found that the original crystals gave up to the liquid that constituent

which was in excess and received that which was deficient, but with the

amphiboles it appears that the process which prevailed was a breaking-up

and solution of old crystals and deposition of new.

Specularite (Specular Hematite)

Specularite is seldom present in large quantity, but a small amount is

often found. It has been observed without the microscope in dark blade-

like crystals or groups or as a bright crimson or iridescent purplish dust

on faces and as inclusions in crystals of almost every mineral in the series.

The magnetite of the original rock appears to have broken up almost as

soon as recrystallization began, and its place was taken by-hematite. In

slide 53, it is found in tabular crystals, reddish-brown by transmitted,

“7“Rock Minerals,” p. 340.

148 ANNALS NEW YORK ACADEMY OF SCiENCES

blue-black by reflected light. In 98, crystals with hexagonal outlines are

prominent (Plate XIII, fig. 1). One of these reflects light in such a

manner that the three upper faces of a flat rhombohedron can be seen. In

61, hexagonal tablets are associated with analcite, heulandite and calcite.

It is occasionally found in other slides, but no features of special interest

have been observed.

During the process of ordinary weathering, hematite is not usually

formed, but some hydrated compound of the sesquioxide of iron. This

applies to the original basalt and to its secondary minerals. Surface

decay results in the familiar rusty brown color from the iron compounds,

and the hematite itself partakes of this transformation. It is quite evi-

dent, therefore, that the processes which were at work in the formation

of the zeolitic and associated minerals were essentially different from

weathering. The principal factor involved, so far as the hematite indi-

cates, would seem to be difference of temperature. There is probably a

fixed point at which transition occurs under ordinary conditions from

hematite into hydrated forms of Fe,0,, or vice versa, and the presence of

hematite indicates that the temperature throughout was in excess of this

minimum.

The presence of a purplish dust of hematite often adds to the beauty of

crystal specimens. It occurs both as an outer coating and as inclusions,

and the inclusion of hematite in a very finely divided condition may ac-

count for the delicate pink or flesh tints which the zeolites often show.

There is some question, however, whether in the latter case the phenomena

may not frequently be due to a ferric compound in solid solution. It has

been found in the thin sections that some of the specimens which show

such tints carry inclusions of ferric oxide, but on the other hand many of

them exhibit nothing to which the color can be attributed. According to

interpretations of mineral analyses which have prevailed until recently,

the presence of ferric oxide in a zeolite would at once be attributed to a

mechanical impurity. It is now recognized, however, that quite diverse

compounds may enter a solid solution. A great deal of work requires to

be done to ascertain the limitations of this form of combination and what

interpretation is correct for individual cases.

Pyrite and Chalcopyrite

The total amount of pyrite and chalcopyrite is small, and their occur-

rence is of interest chiefly because of the indication it affords of the nature

of the processes of alteration. Their presence is attributed to emanations

from the consolidating magma and deposition in crevices. In contact with

FENNER, THE WATCHUNG BASALT 149

circulating waters some migration and recrystallization may have fol-

lowed, but the survival of such readily oxidizable compounds argues

strongly against any oxidizing property in the waters. They have been

observed with the naked eye associated with many members of the series

under conditions which imply contemporaneous deposition. When surface

waters have reached them, the ordinary oxidation products appear, but

when seen in their original condition, they are fresh and bright.

One is apt to consider chalcopyrite as a mineral deposited from highly

heated solutions, and its formation among the later minerals of the

Watchung series might be considered an argument that a high degree of

superheating still prevailed. This, however, is opposed to evidence from

other directions and does not appear necessarily true. W. Lindgren**

places pyrite and chalcopyrite among minerals persistent from igneous

conditions up to near surface, and also believes that they were formed at

times in the lower ground-water zone (zone of sulphide enrichment).

Direct evidence on the formation of chalcopyrite at moderate temperatures

is supplied by the observations of Daubrée*® upon copper minerals found

upon Roman coins at the hot springs of Bourbonne-les-Bains. The

temperature of the water in this case was only 58-68°C. It carried in

solution chlorides and sulphates of alkaline bases and of lime and mag-

nesia, together with bromides, carbonates and silicates, and traces of

various other compounds. A number of copper minerals of recent deposi-

tion were recognized: cuprite, chalcocite, tetrahedrite, covellite, tennan-

tite and chalcopyrite. The last was recognizable both by its characteristic

yellow color and by its octahedral crystalline form. Mammelonated forms

were also deposited.

The minerals so far studied appear to have been formed in the first

stage of recrystallization. Some of the new species were limited to a very

short period of deposition, while with others the range was more extended.

It is interesting to observe that all of the minerals resulting from the

primary consolidation of the magma were attacked and recrystallized

during this first stage of alteration. The chemical rearrangements, how-

ever, were not so complete as is implied in the disappearance of all the

mineral species. Of the two molecules which made up the plagioclase

feldspar of the basalt, anorthite was broken up, but albite remained stable

and recrystallized as such. Several of the molecules which formed the

mixed crystals of diopside probably merely suffered a change of phase in

their recrystallization into amphiboles. A portion of the magnetite was

“4 Hcon. Geol., vol. 2, pp. 122, 125, 1907.

* “Géologie Expérimentale,’”’ Paris, pp. 72-86, 1879.

150 ANNALS NEW YORK ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

split off as hematite, implying a certain amount of chemical reaction.

For the formation of such compounds as are entirely new, reactions must

be assumed. In this way, garnet, quartz and some of the amphibole

molecules must be accounted for.

The second stage of alteration was characterized by prehnite, pectolite

and datolite. Of the three, prehnite and pectolite are formed of the

oxides to which the phase rule was applied in the earlier pages of this

paper ; that is, they belong to the soda-lime-alumina-silica series, to which

quartz, the feldspars and the zeolites belong, and their relations to pre-

ceding and following members of the series are of especial interest in the

inquiry as to the applicability of the phase rule. Datolite cannot be con-

sidered a member, on account of the presence of boric oxide. Its relations

to other minerals are of interest, however, on account of the evidence of

changing conditions which they offer.

Datolite

In the slides, the datolite is easily recognized by its moderate refraction

(much higher than most of the associated minerals) and brilliant polari-

zation tints. Prehnite is the only mineral with which it might be con-

( | i ; I! Wi,

| WW

Fig. 16: Remnants of datolite crystals (Da) perched upon prehnite (Pr) in

contact with stilbite (St). x 85. Slide 101.

fused, but this assumes a radial development or a twinning structure

which are unmistakable. In hand specimens, datolite is often seen in

large, beautifully developed crystals, not infrequently an inch or an inch

and a half in diameter, clear, glassy and of a light green color, showing

a great number of distinct crystallographic faces. The finely granular

FENNER, THE WATCHUNG BASALT 151

‘ageregates, however, in which it is mixed with other minerals, afford

better subjects for the microscopic study of replacement phenomena.

In slide 63, in which datolite is in association with albite, as previously

described, the normal appearance of the unaltered mineral is shown. It

forms an aggregate of interlocking anhedral crystals, approximately equi-

dimensional. The character is biaxial and negative, optic angle large,

dispersion formula p>v. The manner in which albite is replaced by

datolite in slides 63, 70 and 123 was described under albite, and the

replacement of quartz in 70 under quartz. The last is shown in fig. 8.

The relations of datolite and prehnite are shown in several slides. The

deposition of the two minerals is considered to have been approximately

contemporaneous, on account of similar relations to preceding and follow-

Fig. 17. Corroded crystals of prehnite (Pr) in the midst of datolite (Da).

x 35. Slide 67.

ing species, but in the cases where it has been possible to determine the

relative succession of the two, datolite appears to be later than prehnite.

In slide 101, small crystals of datolite are perched upon a radiate group

of prehnite crystals in contact with stilbite, as shown in fig. 16. From

their position, it seems necessary to suppose that they were deposited upon

previously-formed prehnite. In 67, radial and columnar prehnite is mixed

with datolite in an involved manner. In places, the prehnite shows strong

corrosion, and outlying fragments are on the verge of disappearance.

Small portions have been isolated by datolite. The apparent relations are

shown in fig. 17. In 74, there is undoubted replacement of prehnite by

datolite.

The relations of datolite to the zeolitic minerals seem very plain. It

appears that under normal conditions datolite was in process of removal

152 ANNALS NEW YORK ACADEMY OF SC.ENCES

during the entire period of formation of zeolites. Such a condition does

not appear surprising, if the inferences as to the source of the boric acid

are correct. The amount deposited by sublimation in the crevices of the

lava would be a definite quantity, and no further supply would be avail-

able during progressive alteration of the basalt. Under the continual

leaching of the uprising waters, it should therefore gradually disappear.

In section 95, the relations of datolite and chabazite are well shown.

The rock is a quickly chilled basalt, in which phenocrysts of plagioclase

and diopside are scattered through a groundmass of feathery microlites.

It contains numerous irregular cavities which probably represent steam

vents. The chief filling of the spaces is chabazite and heulandite, but

along the margin of the amygdules are numerous corroded crystals of

Fic. 18. Datolite (Dat) replaced by chabazite (Ch) and calcite (Cal). X 35.

Slide 95.

datolite. The manner in which the datolite is yielding to chabazite is _

sketched in fig. 18. Frequently the datolite crystals retain strong sugges-

tions of their outward form, but the core is gone and its place is occupied

by chabazite. Between the datolite and the less altered basalt, finely:

granular, muddy-looking calcite has entered in the manner which has

been found to be so frequent.

In 110, there is a similar replacement of datolite by stilbite (fig. 19).

It is noticeable in many cases, as the figures indicate, that parts of the

datolite crystals are unattacked and retain their proper outlines, while

other parts are deeply corroded.

In 94, there is replacement by heulandite. At one point, there is a sug-

gestion in the structure of the datolite, heulandite and associated calcite,

FENNER, THE WATCHUNG BASALT 153

and in the radial disposition of included dust, of a former spherulite in

the basalt, various occurrences of which have been described.

In 75, there is probably a replacement of datolite by natrolite. Slide

108 furnishes a fine example of deeply corroded crystals in contact with

Fic. 19. Replacement of datolite (Da) by stilbite (St). x 35. Slide 110.

stilbite, heulandite and chabazite. Fig. 15 shows the association at one

point. With the datolite, a considerable quantity of amphibole is found.

In one or two places, the basalt is very little altered and is seen to have a

typically vitrophyric texture. The remnants of datolite and amphibole

Stilhite

Datelite ; = = Calerte

Fic. 20. Swarms of corroded crystals of datolite in stilbite. X 35. Slide 83.

show a distinct tendency to form borders to the less altered rock, while

the zeolites are best developed farther out. This is probably the result of

leaching-out of datolite where circulation was most free.

154 ANNALS NEW YORK ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

Fig. 20 shows the appearance of swarms of corroded datolite crystals in

stilbite in 83. Many of them have the rounded and etched appearance

which is seen when crystals of a salt slowly dissolve in water.

Other examples might be given of the corrosion of datolite in contact

with heulandite, chabazite, stilbite and calcite. In a great number of

slides, there are at least a few remnants of datolite, and it may have been

present originally in great quantity. The general relations and mode of

replacement have been brought out in the examples given. ‘These show

that albite, quartz and prehnite were replaced by datolite, which in turn

yielded to chabazite, heulandite, stilbite, natrolite and calcite. This order

has been found to be true in so many cases that there is little doubt that

it is general. Nevertheless, one abnormal occurrence has been observed,

in which crystals of heulandite and calcite are encrusted with datolite,

implying deposition at a much later period. The formation of datolite

was probably conditioned chiefly by the concentration of boric acid in the

solutions. In the ordinary course of events, the solutions appear to have

gained access to the available supplies of this material at an early period

and to have effected the reactions by which datolite was formed, while at

a later period the process appears to have been one of gradual removal ;

but it is not difficult to conceive that under somewhat irregular condi-

tions of circulation the boric acid might have been left until a much later

period before it was taken up in the general circulation.

Prehnite

Prehnite is found in the familiar form of groups of tabular crystals,

more rarely in small, distinct prismatic forms. Both varieties appear in

the thin sections. The structural characteristics and optic properties are

normal. The microscopic twinning lamination, which produces a plaid

effect, is well shown in a number of the slides, and when seen, differen-

tiates it immediately from all other minerals present. Equally charac-

teristic is the deep azure-blue, low-order interference color. It is observed

that when sections give the normal gray tone as the minimum interfer-

ence, the dispersion may he either p > v or p< v, but in those in which

the minimum is the abnormal Berlin blue, the dispersion for red is much

less than that for violet. Iddings gives p >v, in some cases p < v,

Leather-brown tints are also distinctive. The interference figures rarely

show distortion, except when it is evident that several individuals or

groups of twinned crystals are concerned in the effect. Commonly the

habit is radiating or plumose, but in two or three slides (for example, 74

and 67), it is found in small distinct prisms. The feathery forms and

brilliant polarization colors often suggest bright-colored plumage.

FENNER, THE WATCHUNG BASALT 155

The relations of prehnite to albite, quartz, garnet and datolite have

been described. With regard to pectolite, the slides appear to present

evidence that in its growth, needles of the mineral have been advanced

through previously deposited prehnite, as if the latter offered no resist-

ance. It will appear later that natrolite also, whose habit of growth is

in similar slender needles, possesses the same property of advancing

through previously existing crystals. In 87, finely felted pectolite lies in

contact with a spherical mass of radiating prehnite. The terminations

of the prehnite crystals have lost their characteristic appearance and

sharpness of outline, and the borders appear muddy. In places, the felt

of pectolite is plainly advancing across the prehnite.

In 76, masses of prehnite are thoroughly impregnated with pectolite

needles. These cross the prehnite areas singly or in groups of three or

Fic. 21. Remnants of prehnite groups (Pr) in stilbite (St). x 35. Slide 74.

four or lie in bundles or diverging rays. The perfectly straight and

sharply defined needles pierce numerous grains of prehnite without diver-

sion. Similar effects, though not developed so extensively, appear in 50a

and are illustrated in Plate XI, fig. 6. In this illusrtation, the straight

needles near the center represent pectolite.

In 93, the hand specimen shows grains of prehnite, the size of buckshot

or smaller, which lie isolated in the midst of masses of pectolite. In the

thin section, the prehnite appears turbid and between crossed nicols has a

mottled look. Along the borders, it is difficult to decide what is pectolite

and what is prehnite, though normally the two have a very different look.

In 67, badly corroded prisms of prehnite are being replaced by chabazite.

Fig. 21 (slide 74) illustrates the manner in which originally radiate

156 ANNALS NEW YORK ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

groups have been broken up by stilbite into isolated individuals or small

scattered clusters. In 101, a prehnite group is cut by veins of stilbite.

In 127 (fig. 3), which was described under albite, it is found that the

prehnite clusters which had been deposited upon albite are in turn giving

way to natrolite. In 68, also, prehnite is being replaced by natrolite, and ~

portions of groups have been cut off by the later mineral.

The relations of prehnite and apophyllite are shown in 138. Small

groups and fragments of prehnite are isolated by the apophyllite in

numerous instances. The manner in which a vein of apophyllite cuts off

a portion of a radiate group of prehnite crystals is illustrated in fig. 22.

Calcite effects striking results. Crystals appear in the midst of preh-

nite and develop in euhedral forms, which cut out areas of the earlier

mineral as sharply as by a knife. This appears in slides 53, 62 and 76

a ophylr. Te

Fig. 22. Prehnite cut by vein of apophyllite. x 35. Slide 138.

By a continuation of the process, fragments of prehnite of extreme

irregularity are left, whose outer form is determined by calcite, but

through all portions of which the same fan structure prevails.

Occasionally in specimens of basalt which appear to the naked eye

perfectly normal and unaltered, small, shotlike nodules of prehnite are

seen. The rock seems entirely impervious, and the relations are such as

to make it appear that the prehnite had developed in the fused magma.

This is so improbable that another explanation is naturally looked for,

and the effects seem to be very well explained by certain phenomena

which appear in several of the slides, for example, 50a, 58, 65 and 118.

In 50a, crusts of prehnite border areas of basalt in which the texture

appears normal at first sight, but it is found that the diopside and

FENNER, THE WATCHUNG BASALT 157

plagioclase have been almost wholly replaced by prehnite, whose brilliant

tints and radial structure when seen with crossed nicols give a quite un-

expected appearance to the former diopside and plagioclase areas.

Although without doubt the effects of alteration and replacement are

generally most pronounced immediately adjacent to cracks and crevices

of various kinds, or where the solutions acted upon the glassy phase of

the rock, nevertheless it appears that in places the solutions were able to

penetrate by capillary action to considerable distances within unbroken

rock of normally crystalline character and effect almost complete miner-

alogic rearrangement. At the same time, the texture was left almost

undisturbed. Prehnite seems to be especially characteristic of this

process, and the effects are visible in the slides mentioned. Under such

conditions, large diopside phenocrysts or nuclei of resorbed olivine would

partake of the transformation and would appear as prehnite nodules. A

nearly circular form of radial prehnite, probably of the latter derivation,

appears in slide 65.

Prehnite is determined to be later in the sequence than albite, quartz

and garnet, and earlier than datolite, pectolite, chabazite, stilbite, natro-

lite, apophyllite and calcite.

: Pectolite

Pectolite occurs in the usual groups of radiating fibres, some of which

reach a length of two or three inches, but usually they are smaller. It

commonly occurs in hemispherical masses. It is very frequently asso-

ciated with prehnite, but it is found also with a great variety of other

minerals. It is not specially well represented in the slides, but the posi-

tion in the series can be fairly well determined. In descriptions of

albite, quartz and prehnite which have preceded, it was found to replace

these minerals. It appears under the microscope as masses of finely

radiating fibres of rather high birefringence, elongated parallel to Z. It

strongly resembles natrolite, but is distinguished therefrom by the higher

interference colors.

In 143, the hand specimen shows an association of pectolite and natro-

lite in which the appearance of pectolite suggests decomposition. This

inference is confirmed in the slide. The radiating needles of pectolite

are buried in a mass of natrolite, the sharpness of outline has been lost

and at the terminations, the crystals appear to fade out gradually, as it

were, instead of terminating abruptly with sharp definition.

In 130, the hand specimen shows small clumps of pectolite fibres which

are quite evidently portions of originally larger masses, buried in chaba-

zite. The thin section was taken at the contact and shows the increasing

158 ANNALS NEW YORK ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

turbidity of the pectolite in the vicinity and the manner in which the

fibres disappear in the chabazite. At one point, the pectolite area is cut

across by small veins of chabazite and calcite.

Fig. 28. Masses of pectolite needles and isolated remnants of same in the midst

of apophyllite. x 35. Slide 129.

In the hand specimen from which 86 was cut, crystals of chahazite

rest upon the hemispherical surfaces of pectolite masses. In fig. 23, the

replacement of pectolite by apophyllite in 129 is sketched. Slide 135

shows practically the same relations.

General Results of the First Period of Alteration

In the slides which have been described, in which the minerals belong-

ing to the first period of alteration are best developed, there are com-

monly but obscure indications as to the nature of the original material

which has been replaced. Mention has been made, however, of certain

circular figures and curved lines and markings, due apparently to an

insoluble residue of TiO,, etc., upon which the forces of recrystallization

had no effect. These have been interpreted as survivals of an original

structure in the glass. Examples are shown in Plate XI, fig. 5, Plate

XII, fig. 5, and Plate XIII, fig. 2. There are instances, too, in which

the secondary minerals are separated from the basalt of normal texture

by a marginal band in which the texture is of much finer grain. This is

believed to represent a transition between glassy crusts and more slowly

cooled interiors. In all these cases the original glass has totally disap-

peared, and with it such phenocrysts of diopside and plagioclase as may

have been present, but in a few instances it is seen that portions of it

survived.

FENNER, THE WATCHUNG BASALT 159

Slide 61 is plainly a shattered glass, with whose angular fragments

considerable quantities of reddish-brown clayey sediment from the under-

lying lake-bottom are mingled, forming a remarkable-looking mosaic.

The greater portion of the glass breccia is now altered to analcite and

chlorite, but in certain areas albite groups survive. Slide 119 is quite

similar in origin, but alteration has proceeded to the calcite period. In

many places, nevertheless, remnants of albite groups and a small quantity

of pleochroic green amphibole are perceptible.

In 12, we have again a breccia mingled with sedimentary dust, but the

greater portion of the glass is now represented by groups of interlocking

albite crystals. The complex appearance is illustrated by Plate XII,

fig. 1. In this, the lighter areas throughout are mostly albite, through

which there is a sprinkling of insoluble residual dust (Ti0, or MnO,),

distributed without regard to the crystallization of albite. The light

gray in the figure is chloritic material which appears to have migrated

into cracks, and the darker portions are chiefly foreign sediment. Diop-

side crystals are present in several places in the slide. Their outlines

appear rounded, whereas the interiors have remained perfectly fresh. A

little acicular amphibole is visible. The effects of later alteration are

represented in a little calcite and in the bands of chlorite. In none of

the slides in which the reddish sediment is present does it seem to have

been affected in the slightest degree by the processes of alteration.

Although it appears that the solutions reached it at the early period at

which albite and amphibole were formed, nevertheless its areas and lines

of distribution remain sharp and distinct.

In 120, a little albite and amphibole are scattered through zeolitic

material. In one portion of the section, there are indications of an orig-

inal glassy texture. In 59, the groups of minute quartz crystals shown

in Plate XI, fig. 4, occur in what was originally a glass breccia. In those

slides in which the geometrical figures similar to those illustrated in

Plate XI, fig. 5, and Plate XII, fig. 5, appear, the distribution of min-

erals is suggestive of replacement of a breccia.

On the whole, the processes of recrystallization during this period are

believed to have acted so vigorously upon the glass that a very small por-

tion of that to which the solutions gained access escaped such thorough

transformation that the structure was almost completely destroyed. A

decided contrast is presented to the effects of the second period (that of

zeolitic alteration). In the latter, it is possible to trace with ease the

progress of the changes. In the less altered portions, the channels through

which the solutions percolated may be followed and the differential effects

upon more and less soluble material and the gradual spread of the areas

noted.

160 ANNALS NEW YORK ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

Further evidence of the more intense activity of the metamorphic

processes in the earlier stages is supplied by the fact that the holocrystal-

line phase of the basalt was undoubtedly attacked and recrystallized to a

certain degree and that the phenocrysts of diopside and plagioclase left

little or no trace. In the later stages, recrystallization appears to have

acted only upon the glass or upon aphanitic basalts whose crystallization

was of the hairlike microlitic type, and remnants of phenocrysts persist

for a long time.

SECOND PERIOD OF ALTERATION

Progress of the Changes

At this point, a marked change occurs in the nature of the minerals

deposited. The differences between the two periods have been ascribed,

both on theoretical grounds and on the evidence of the microscopic sec-

tions, to falling temperature and to the disturbing influence of boric

acid in the solutions during the first period and its elimination during

the second period.

In the primary consolidation of the magma, plagioclase was present in

abundance. During the first period of alteration, the anorthite molecule

was immediately broken up to form new compounds to which it bore no

resemblance in chemical structure. The albite molecule persisted for a

short time, but soon followed a similar course. The molecular groupings

characteristic of the plagioclases were destroyed. The components en-

tered into such compounds as garnet, arfvedsonite, prehnite, pectolite

and datolite. Other compounds may have been formed in the solutions,

but they did not reach the point of crystallization, unless represented in

minerals which subsequently disappeared completely.

During the second period, there was no further source of boric acid

which could be drawn upon, and that which had been deposited as dato-

lite was gradually taken up by the solutions and removed. The effects

of the presence of boric acid disappeared. Ferromagnesian constituents

also became greatly diminished. Feldspathoid compounds reappeared,

and it seems as if the conditions approached those of a closed system in

which feldspathoid combinations alone were present and in which the

only independently variable factor of importance was temperature, which

gradually diminished. As a result, the feldspathoid group of the zeolites

formed the principal constituents deposited during the second period.

Coincident with the change in the chemical nature of the minerals, a

change in physical characteristics appears. The minerals of the first

period were predominantly rather hard and of fairly high relief and

FENNER, THE WATCHUNG BASALT 161

birefringence. In the second period, the characteristic minerals are soft,

the refraction is less than that of balsam and the birefringence is very

low.

In the glassy crusts of basalt, there is frequently a lamellated appear-

ance, which is doubtless an original structure developed at the time of

consolidation. In addition to the parallel parting-surfaces due to this

feature, the glass is cut by numerous chill cracks running in every direc-

tion, so that only a little force is required to break it into a multitude of

angular fragments. Definite openings of these kinds, though of capil-

lary dimensions, doubtless offered the means for the first ingress of

waters, and along these cracks, alteration first attacked the rock. This

is well shown in slide 30, illustrated in Plate XII, fig. 2. Along the

cracks, which show a predominant parallelism, the glass has become

bleached to a much lighter color and shows a hazy birefringence. The

lighter portions represent the first step in alteration and probably consist

of an intermixture of zeolites and chlorite, so complete that it is entirely

beyond the powers of the microscope, and no individual crystals can be

perceived. It is worthy of note that among the first effects there is

always a distinct bleaching, indicating removal of ferromagnesian com-

pounds.

In addition to the openings by which the solutions were directed, there

were present in the glass a number of features of physical or chemical

nature which strongly influenced the course which alteration first took

and traces of which remained at a stage at which recrystallization had

become complete. Such were the phenocrysts of plagioclase and diopside,

bubble cavities, and, perhaps more marked in their effect than all others,

the nodules of olivine which were in process of resorption when solidifica-

tion occurred. In the refusion of olivine, each nodule supplied a source

of material somewhat different in composition from the average of the

magma, and this material streamed out along flow-lines before being in-

corporated in the liquid. The interruption of the process by stiffening

and solidification fixed and retained these differences of chemical com-

position. Effects of this kind may not be perceptible in the glass, but

they are accentuated in the process of alteration. Brecciation of the

glass and an overwhelming of the fragments in a fresh supply of lava

also probably had its effect in determining differences of a physical or

chemical nature and gave rise to a lack of homogeneity, which was ac-

centuated by subsequent alteration. Various features of this kind influ-

enced the course of alteration, and their results may be traced in many

of the slides. Phenomena which are ascribed to them are shown in

Plate XII, figs. 2, 3, 4 and 6, and Plate XITI, fig. 3. In some cases, the

162 ANNALS NEW YORK ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

complications are of an extreme order, and it is only by following the

process through various degrees of alteration that it has been possible to

arrive at satisfactory conclusions as to the genesis of the forms.

In slide 54 (Plate XII, fig. 6), the inception of the process is illus-

trated. The greater portion of the slide shows a fairly normal glass of a

dark olive-green color, with a sprinkling of phenocrysts. Serpentinous

or chloritic nodules from resorbed olivine are numerous. The attack by

heated waters results characteristically in the appearance shown in the

figure. The lighter bands represent lines of replacement, which often

assume vermicular or crescentic forms. The course of the waters was in

many cases guided by chill cracks which often show distinctly along the

middle of bleached bands. Phenocrysts and spherulites have had an

influence in the replacement, and there are indications that differences

of composition or of physical state along flow lines, and the form ot

fragments of partly reabsorbed breccia were not without effect. The

change consisted of a chemical rearrangement by which the soda-lime-

alumina silicates passed into zeolites, and the ferromagnesian constit-

uents were altered to chloritic aggregates or, less commonly, to serpentine.

At the point sketched, the zeolite appears perfectly isotropic and

almost structureless. In other parts of the slide, similar bands show a

feeble but unmistakable polarization. Analcite, chabazite and heu-

landite are suggested as possibilities, but specific identification is not

attainable.

In 30 (Plate XII, fig. 2), the process has reached a slightly more ad-

vanced stage. In both this illustration and in Plate XII, fig. 6, a struc-

ture may be seen which is very characteristic of these incipient stages of

alteration, that is, a sort of “stream effect’? from the darker to the lighter

areas. This may possibly be similar in origin to the stream lines seen

when crystals of a soluble salt are placed in water, and is accentuated by

the first stages of alteration. In other portions of the slides, the transi-

tions from the bleached into the darker areas are by almost imperceptible

gradations.

Much of the original diopside looks fresh, but it is plainly breaking

up into separate granules by chloritic alteration along cracks. The small

plagioclase laths retain their form, but have altered into some material

giving aggregate polarization.

Slide 3 was prepared from a specimen of glass which appears to have

been shattered in cooling. Along the cracks thus opened up, ferruginous

sand from external sources had been deposited. Later the heated solu-

tions followed the same lines. The resulting alteration has taken a

similar course to that described for 54 and 30, but it has advanced far-

FENNER, THE WATCHUNG BASALT 163

ther, and less of the original structure survives. The resulting forms

appear very complex at first and would be difficult of interpretation, if

clues had not been found in other sections. Plate XIII, fig. 3, illustrates

a typical portion. In the upper part, one large and two small diopside

crystals are seen, survivals of original phenocrysts of the vitrophyre, and

at various points there are remnants of small feldspar laths. Some parts

of the original glass are little altered and retain the brown or olive-green

color. In other places alteration has bleached the color or has formed

chloritic aggregates.

The presence of much analcite is a prominent feature of slide 3. It

follows generally the vermicular courses of percolation, but in two places

it hes in broad bands between lines of ferruginous sand and would seem

to have filled open cracks of some width. A portion of one of these bands

appears in the upper right-hand portion of the figure. The width of this

band is about 0.2 mm. The other is broader, averaging 0.75 mm. The

analcite includes aggregates of light-colored plumose chlorite. A small

amount of non-isotropic zeolitic material is also present.

Slide 61 (Plate XII, fig. 3) is another example of a shattered glass

whose angular fragments have become mingled with ferruginous sedi-

ment. The sedimentary material appears to be unaltered, whereas the

brecciated glass has been changed to albite, zeolites and chlorite. Among

the zeolites, analcite is prominent. There are also aggregates of hematite

scales and a few grains of chalcopyrite. The forms assumed in alteration

resemble those which have been described for other sections and are illus-

trated in the figure.

Slide 60 (from the same hand specimen as the last) shows similar

phenomena. Analcite is exceptionally prominent, and other zeolites

almost lacking. Chlorite and serpentine are in notable quantity. Plate

XII, fig. 4, shows the characteristic structure. The banding assumed by

the secondary products, which forms a prominent feature in many of the

slides, is well brought out. The broad band which lies across the field: a

little below the center consists of a middle portion of light-green chlorite

in rather large scales, bounded by darker and lighter bands of similar

material in finer scales, possibly with some serpentine. Beyond, on each

side, there is a sharply defined narrow band of colorless analcite, followed

in most places by a band of fibrous chlorite, and more analcite in broad

areas. The large circular form in the upper portion of the field is a

chlorite nodule, encircled by narrow bands of analcite and chlorite. A

small grain of chalcopyrite appears in the middle of the large band at the

intersection with the vertical cracks.

164 ANNALS NEW YORK ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

The supposition that the bands represent original cracks is confirmed

in another portion of this slide, where a very fresh-looking diopside

crystal has been broken across. The two parts are now separated about

0.2 mm. and have been faulted slightly out of line, but still extinguish

in unison. The faulting band is filled with chlorite and a small amount

of ferruginous sediment from external sources. These cracks undoubtedly

formed the passages along which the heated waters percolated, and the

chemical rearrangement proceeded outward into fragments of breccia.

To this process the banding must be ascribed, but it frequently repro-

duces the effect of a succession of layers deposited in a cavity.

Analcite

In the Watchung series, analcite was one of the first of the zeolites to

appear, but under exceptional circumstances was apparently preceded by

others. In the slides, it appears quite frequently, and conclusions regard-

ing its sequence have been supplemented by macroscopic observations.

When fresh, it is perfectly isotropic and, where free from inclusions, is

water-white, but with incipient decomposition it becomes very muddy.

Further advance produces a porous mass, riddled with eavities. Under

the latter conditions, it loses its isotropic character and becomes notice-

ably birefringent. Crystal outlines are sometimes lacking or very doubt-

ful. In the fresher specimens, there appears to be a slight indication of

cubic cleavage, but the fracture is in general conchoidal or follows irregu-

lar lines. Index of refraction less than balsam. Chabazite resembles

analcite in its low refraction and low double refraction, but chabazite has

such very low refraction that the effect of high relief is given. In addi-

tion, it has a form of blocky cleavage which is characteristic, and, in most

cases, there is very little doubt as to which is present.

Analcite sometimes occurs in broad areas, as in 60 and 61, but is also

apt to appear in vermicular bands. Both modes of occurrence are shown

in Plate XIII, fig. 3, from slide 3. The bleached bands and cusplike

figures which have been spoken of in connection with the manner in

which zeolitic alteration attacks the rock are believed to consist largely of

analcite, mixed probably with some lime zeolite. The transformation of

albite and anorthite molecules of the glass into zeolites was probably

effected with the greatest facility on account of the small amount of

chemical rearrangement necessary. The first effect of such a change

would probably be an intimate intermingling of species, but later, on

account of the tendency which large crystals have to grow at the expense

of smaller, segregation would occur, and the crystals would be individual-

ized.

FENNER, THE WATCHUNG BASALT 165

In slide 94, the chief constituents are analcite, chabazite and heulan-

dite. The last two appear perfectly fresh, while the analcite is turbid

and shows evident corrosion in contact with the other two.

In 92, the first period is represented by remnants of albite, green

amphibole and datolite, which have probably replaced aphanitic basalt.

The second period is represented by analcite and stilbite, with a little

heulandite, and the third period by calcite. The analcite, which has

become very turbid and is quite decidedly anisotropic, has been corroded

and replaced by stilbite. Calcite appears to replace everything.

In 61, the analcite is found in areas of considerable size, in some places

perfectly clear and isotropic and in others showing turbidity and incip-

ient alteration. At one place, calcite is encroaching upon the analcite.

In a hand specimen, large crystals of analcite are covered with a solid

erust of stilbite, composed of tabular crystals disposed normally to the

crystal faces of the analcite. There is no doubt of the later deposition

of the stilbite.

These relations of analcite to chabazite, heulandite and stilbite are in

mutual accord and appear to make the period of analcite earlier than

that of either of the others. This may, however, have been true in only a

limited sense. Analcite is a soda compound, whereas chabazite, heulan-

dite and stilbite are essentially lime compounds, and the period of anal-

cite may have overlapped those of several lime zeolites. If such were the

case, a slight difference in the relative concentration of soda and lime in

the solution might suffice to cause the deposition of analcite at one point,

while it was being removed at another. One of the hand specimens shows

a reversal of the order of analcite and heulandite, probably thus explain-

able. Large cockscomb crystals of heulandite have small crystals of

analcite resting upon their surfaces. There seems to be no doubt that

this analcite is of later deposition.

The relations of analcite and natrolite are of especial interest because

of the inferences derived from the application of the phase rule. It

should be found that where the two exist together, one belonged to a

period of higher temperature and remained stable until a definite tran-

sition point was reached, when it began to pass over into the other. It

appears that this is true and that the direction of the change is from

analcite to natrolite. The relations are brought out in slide 82 (fig. 24).

In the specimen from which this was prepared, small nests in a mass of

porcelainlike natrolite contained crystals of analcite and laumontite,

easily recognizable macroscopically. With these, natrolite crystals of

much larger size than the general average of the mass were mingled. In

the thin sections, the analcite appears spongy and decomposed and has

166 ANNALS NEW YORK ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

lost its normal isotropic character. The natrolite, on the contrary, looks

perfectly fresh. The outline of the contact is very irregular, but it is

observed that at some distance back in the natrolite, the crystals of the

latter suddenly change from a finely felted to a coarsely crystalline char-

acter. The border between the two varieties is easily seen in the thin

section with the naked eye and suggests the outline of an analcite crystal.

It does not seem impossible that the natrolite replaced various minerals

(of which laumontite and analcite were two), and that the coarseness of

crystallization depended upon the facility with which replacement was

accomplished. In portions of the slide where it is plain that laumontite

is being replaced, the crystals of natrolite are of a fine character, but

where there are reasons for supposing that analcite has been replaced,

Fig. 24. Porous, decomposed analcite (An), penetrated by needles of natrolite

(Na). X 35. Slide 82.

the natrolite crystals reach dimensions many times those shown in the

first variety.

Slide 124 is from the same hand specimen as 82 and shows essentially

the same relations. In 73b, there is again a sudden increase in the

coarseness of crystallization of natrolite along definite boundaries.

Within the masses of larger crystals, there are two extremely irregular

patches of a nearly isotropic, spongy mineral which appears to be analcite.

This is confirmed in another portion of the slide, where similar forms

still show crystal outlines. Replacement of analcite by calcite is also

shown. In 68 also, a small group of isotropic crystals in natrolite show

in places typical outlines of analcite. Portions are corroded, and replace-

ment by natrolite is evident.

FENNER, THE WATCHUNG BASALT 167

In a hand specimen, there is an association of analcite and natrolite in

what appears to be a reversal of the usual conditions, that is, analcite

crusts appear to rest upon natrolite. It is found, however, on close

examination, that the analcite crystals are porous and drusy, while the

natrolite is fresh, and the crystals show characteristic pyramidal termina-

tions. They grow up among and probably through the analcite. The

specimen is a good example of the deceptive appearance which replace-

ment relations often assume.

The observations of Brégger*® upon analcite found as a mineral of late

development in the Norwegian syenite-pegmatite veins are of interest.

He finds that analcite is the oldest and most widespread of all the zeolites

found in open vugs and continues his description as follows:

As Lemberg has ascertained, analcite is formed very easily at the expense

of various soda-rich silicates at somewhat high temperature. Friedel and

Sarasin™ obtained beautiful crystals of analcite by heating the ingredients of

albite with water up to 400°; A. de Schulten™ obtained, by 18 hours’ heating

of a solution of soda silicate or of soda in closed tubes of an aluminous glass

at 180°-190°, analcite crystals up to 0.1 mm. in size, also™ by heating (during

17 hours up to 180°) soda silicate and soda aluminate in the proportions cor-

responding to the composition of analcite in lime-water in closed copper tubes.

We recall further that among the soda-rich zeolites of Plombiéres observed by

Daubrée (where the thermal waters, which have here deposited zeolites in

recent times, show only about 70°), analcite was not found, so we may almost

venture to estimate the temperature at which the abundant deposition of

analcite in our veins ensued at more than 70°, perhaps at about 200°.

The high temperature which Brégger assumes for analcite deposition

hardly appears justified for the Watchung rocks, but a considerable de-

gree of superheating may well have existed.

Chabazite, Heulandite and Stilbtite

Chabazite, heulandite and stilbite are so frequently associated, both in

hand specimens and in the slides, that they may very well be considered

together. In the larger specimens, they are among the most abundant

minerals and frequently form showy groups. The chabazite crystals are

usually of a light salmon or salmon-pink color, and in general show only

rhombohedral faces (or pseudorhombohedral, if this view be taken).

Heulandite sometimes exhibits pink tints but more frequently is almost

colorless. Single crystals occur, but grouped forms with curved faces,

% Zeitschr. fiir Kryst. und Min., vol. 16, p. 169, 1890.

5. Compt. rend., vol. 97, p. 290, 1883.

52 Bull. de la soc. min. de France, vol. 3, p. 150, 1880.

53 Ibid., vol. 5, p. 7, 1882.

168 ANNALS NEW YORK ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

frequently in cockscomb growths, predominate. Stilbite is prevailingly

of a light straw color, and the usual sheavelike clustering is the common

mode of growth. .

In the thin sections, heulandite and stilbite bear such a close resem-

blance to each other that great care must be used to distinguish them.

There are two tests, however, depending upon optical characteristics,

which are of such a nature that one is especially applicable to those sec-

tions in which the other fails to give good results. The first is that

heulandite is positive in character and stilbite is negative, but in sections

in which the lamellar cleavage is most apparent, this test fails. In such

sections, however, the direction of the plane of the optic axes can usually

be ascertained. In heulandite, this plane is perpendicular to the cleavage,

but in stilbite, it is parallel.

Fic. 25. Replacement of chabazite (Ch) by heulandite (H). 32. Slide 95.

There is some variability in the size of the optic angle in both heulan-

dite and stilbite. It is never large but may become very small. In 121,

a section of stilbite gives practically a uniaxial cross. The positive or

negative character, however, does not seem to vary. In chabazite, the

figure is usually biaxial and always positive so far as tested. In some

crystals, the interference figure is distinct and the optic angle rather

large, but, in many, the birefringence is so weak that it is difficult to

perceive any figure whatever.

The relations of chabazite to heulandite are shown 1n a number of

slides (for example, 95, 108, 94, 51a, 77 and 128), and it appears that

chabazite always precedes heulandite. With growth and advance of the

later mineral, the chabazite breaks down along the border in a character-

istic manner. An example is shown in fig. 25 (slide 95). In the upper

FENNER, THE WATCHUNG BASALT 169

left-hand portion of the sketch, the chabazite retains its normal outline,

but at most places along the border it has a brecciated appearance. This

feature is observable in a great number of instances.

The replacement of chabazite by stilbite usually takes a similar form.

It is well shown in slides 110, 108, 80 and 121. In slide 108: (fig. 15),

the chabazite is cut by distinct veins of stilbite, portions of which are

shown in the sketch. The irregular boundaries of the veins are probably

determined both by differential solution of chabazite and by the crystal-

lizing tendencies of stilbite. In fig. 26 (slide 121), also, stilbite is ad-

vancing into chabazite in irregular veinlike form.

In slide 110, isolated crystals of chabazite surrounded by stilbite show

deep corrosion. At one point in the slide, the phantom forms shown in

Fic. 26. Replacement of chabazite (Ch) by stilbite (St) and of both by

natrolite. The natrolite needles have shot forth with apparently little oppo-

sition across areas of chabazite and stilbite, and they have also worked in

along cleavage lines of chabazite. X 35. Slide 121.

fig. 27 appear. These are simply inclusions in stilbite, but the forms out-

lined are plainly those of preéxistent crystals, which are believed to have

been chabazite.

Heulandite and stilbite frequently occur together, but it is rather rare

for either to show unmistakable corrosion at the contact. In slide 108,

however, the evidence is fairly good that heulandite inclosed within stil-

bite is being replaced by the latter. In 110 and 92 also, some confirma-

tory evidence is found. The more usual form of contact is shown in 88,

where it is perfectly sharp. In several hand specimens, more indubitable

evidence is given. The heulandite appears fresh and glassy but is crusted

with stilbite. The inference from the phase rule is that heulandite and

170 ANNALS NEW YORK ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

stilbite cannot coexist in equilibrium except at one fixed temperature,

which represents a transition point. Although heulandite might very

well persist in an unaltered form beyond this point, it should never be

deposited from solution simultaneously with stilbite.

The replacement of chabazite, heulandite and stilbite by natrolite

seems to have been effected with great ease, natrolite needles shooting out

across areas of the three’lime zeolites as if no obstacle were offered. The

manner of growth as regards chabazite and stilbite appears in 121 and is

illustrated in figs. 26 and 28. In the hand specimen, a polished face was

prepared, and it could be seen that the chabazite and stilbite were filled

with slender filaments of natrolite radiating from a large area at one side.

ies xe re ,

a: y we ce

¥, Wet

NS oe VARS apn

es x oe an eas Coa

Re Ss rites Fash iy

‘ ny ye RAS

ce ay NY A:

yes Yh

Fig. 27. Phantom crystals of some replaced mineral (probably chabazite)

found as inclusions in stilbite, which extends uninterruptedly across the:

areas. X 35. Slide 110.

In the microscopic section, the effects are similar. The slender needles of

natrolite cross areas of the older minerals and also work in along joints

of chabazite.

A similar replacement of stilbite by natrolite appears in 71 and of

heulandite by natrolite in 70. These two are from the same rock. In

both cases, crystals of the earlier minerals have become isolated in masses

of natrolite. The characteristic outlines have been lost, and the borders

are so impregnated with natrolite fibres that one mineral seems to fade

into the other.

In 84, the hand specimen consists largely of dense white natrolite, in

which small pinkish areas have a geometrical appearance and suggest that

some mineral has been replaced. In the thin section, several of these

areas appear. It is seen that the pink color is due to separated grains of

FENNER, THE WATCHUNG BASALT zal

hematite, while the areas thus outlined have the form of chabazite, al-

though wholly occupied by interlocking natrolite crystals. In 94 also,

natrolite is seen to be advancing across chabazite.

Several hand specimens show a distinctive method of replacement of

chabazite by laumontite. The laumontite appears to start from some

nucleus within a solid crystal of chabazite and grow in radial crystals,

until there may be only a crust of chabazite left. Slide 147 contains

several radial groups of this kind. In 77 also, there is replacement of

chabazite by laumontite, though in neither of the thin sections does the

evidence appear as decisive as in large specimens.

Fig. 28. Needles of natrolite which have penetrated areas of stilbite. 35.

Slide 121.

In 120 and 128, there is an association of laumontite and heulandite.

The relations are not as clear as might be desired, but laumontite appears

later.

Replacement of all three minerals by calcite is seen in numerous in-

stances. It appears that chabazite, heulandite and stilbite followed each

other in this order and that they were all earlier than natrolite, calcite

and laumontite.

Laumontite

Because of the friable nature of laumontite, it was found difficult to get

good microscopic sections showing it. There are only a few, therefore,

which illustrate its occurrence, and in these the relations rarely appear

of a decisive nature. On the other hand, fortunately, it is one of the few

minerals which occur in the large specimens in such a manner as to make

the sequence beyond question. It is frequently seen resting upon drusy

172 ANNALS NEW YORK ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

chabazite crystals, and the manner in which it replaces chabazite has been

described.

In slide 120, it appears to be replacing heulandite, and in a great many

hand specimens, it is seen to have been deposited upon previously formed

heulandite. In one or two instances, it has been found resting upon

stilbite.

In 82, it is found in contact with natrolite, and it is quite certain that

natrolite crystals are advancing through the laumontite. On the other

hand, in a large specimen, the appearance is decidedly in favor of the

interpretation that laumontite is later than natrolite. It is probable that

the relations of lanmontite and natrolite are similar to what was found for

heulandite and analcite, that is, the periods of the two overlap, and rela-

tions in a given case depend upon slight differences in concentration of

lime and soda.

Similarly, in 128, it appears that calcite replaces laumontite, but in a

great number of hand specimens, laumontite groups are perched upon

calcite crystals. From this last occurrence it appears that laumontite

forms one of the end members of the zeolite series. The period did not

come to a sudden end, but a transition period intervened, during which

both laumontite and calcite were deposited.

Scolecite

In a number of slides (89, 730, 68, 71, 143), remnants of some mineral

are found which is believed to be scolecite. It gives inclined extinction

and is probably triclinic. Birefringence about 0.007, refraction >

natrolite and < balsam, elongation negative, optical character indeter-

minate.

It has been found only in association with natrolite, which replaces it

in the manner shown in fig. 29. Its exact position in the series is there-

fore uncertain.

Natrolite

Natrolite is one of the most abundant zeolites and is found in a great

many of the thin sections. There is little to add to what has already

been written, for the reason that, like laumontite, it is one of the end

members and replaces practically ‘everything else, and these replacements.

have been described under the corresponding minerals. In its relations

with calcite it appears to differ from laumontite, for wherever the two

come together, the natrolite always appears earlier. The replacement is

well illustrated in 121. Natrolite needles which have advanced through

stilbite and chabazite are wiped out abruptly by encroaching calcite.

FENNER, THE WATCHUNG BASALT 173

In hand specimens of natrolite, several features are notable. It is often

observed that a finely felted variety changes abruptly to one more coarsely

crystalline. The border between the two frequently has a geometrical

pattern. There may also be a deposition of hematite dust within the

figure outlined, which produces areas of a pinkish color in the midst of

Fic. 29. Remnants of scolecite needles in the midst of natrolite. 35.

Slide 143.

solid natrolite. At times, small cavities of similar appearance are lined

with projecting natrolite needles. These features are interpreted as

attributable to the solution and removal of some preéxistent mineral.

Generally, this has gone on pari passu with the growth of the natrolite,

but in some cases it has been more rapid, leaving cavities for the develop-

ment of well-formed terminated crystals. ;

A pophyllite

The replacement of various minerals by apophyllite in several of the

slides has been described (figs. 9, 22, 23). From these relations, but

more especially from its relation to calcite, its period of deposition is

believed to be among the late members of the zeolite group. In slide 138,

it is found in contact with calcite, which appears to be encroaching upon

it, but on the other hand, it has been observed in hand specimens appar-

ently resting upon calcite. It is probably one of those minerals whose

period overlaps that of calcite.

Ordinarily, a small amount of fluorine is found in apophyllite (on the

average about 1.5 per cent). It is possible that in our rocks, this can be

ascribed to some preéxistent mineral, but it seems more probable that it

was derived from a small quantity locked up by the magma when it

174 ANNALS NEW YORK ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

‘

stiffened into a glass and was subsequently set free by the decomposition

of the latter by solutions.

Apophyllite is the first mineral met in the series in which potash plays

a prominent part in the formula. The source of the potash, however, is

not far to seek. The analyses of typical examples of basalt given on an

earlier page show potash to be universally present, and while the earlier-

formed minerals are essentially soda and lime compounds, some of them

undoubtedly carried a certain amount of potash replacing a portion of

the soda.

Chlorite

Chlorite is almost universally present. In those slides, however, in

which the minerals are prevailingly of the first period of alteration, the

quantity of chlorite is so small as to lead to the suspicion that it does not

properly belong here. Throughout the second period, however, it seems

to have been developed in considerable quantity and to have extended

through the third period likewise.

Considerable variation in appearance and properties is observable, and

a number of members of the chlorite group may be present, but it has not

been considered a favorable opportunity to make a detailed study to deter-

mine this. The color varies from bright emerald-green to pale yellowish

green, or almost colorless. Birefringence is never strong, but varies from

moderate to almost isotropic. The general habit is aggregates of minute

scales, but it may develop in fairly large blades, especially when in

nodules from alteration of resorbed olivine. There is quite a tendency

to become segregated in definite areas or to migrate into cracks.

The constant tendency for magnesium and iron to be leached out

throughout the whole process of alteration has been mentioned in several

places. It was observed that the green amphibole was usually found in

close association with the less altered basalt, while in the less obstructed

channels it was seldom found. This relation is probably even more

characteristic of chlorite. One exception has been noted, however. It is

not uncommon to find vugs lined with calcite crystals which show small

spheroidal groups of chlorite perched upon them.

Green amphibole is often found in the same slides as chlorite but

seldom in intimate association. There is little to indicate an alteration

of one into the other.

Serpentine

The quantity of serpentine is so small as to be almost negligible. It is

probably present in some cases, associated with chlorite.

FENNER, THE WATCHUNG BASALT 175

THIRD PERIOD OF ALTERATION

Calcite

Calcite occurs in quantities almost equal to all the other minerals

combined. In habit, it is very variable. The most common form of

erystal is probably the unit rhombohedron, but slender scalenohedrons

(dog-tooth spar) are frequently found, and complex combinations of

crystal faces are not unusual. It is also frequently developed in

finely granular masses. Its presence is so nearly universal that it is

rather rare to find a specimen of any mineral or group of minerals which

does not show the presence of calcite, if tested with acid. In the earlier

part of the work, it was found a hindrance, because of the frequency with

which it obscured the study of desired relations. It was finally found

necessary to apply the acid test in every case before making sections, in

order to make sure that the later introduction of calcite had not destroyed

the desired evidence. Its frequent presence necessitated the rejection of

a great quantity of otherwise available material, and in some cases re-

quired that a long search be made before specimens free from calcite

could be found.

Reference has already been made to the manner in which granular

calcite of later growth frequently develops between crusts of earlier min-

erals and the less altered basalt and simulates earlier deposition. At

times, this takes the form of well-developed crystals, upon which the

older crusts appear to rest, but in such cases, microscopic examination

frequently shows certain abnormalities in the relations.

In the great majority of cases, there can be little doubt that calcite is

of later formation than all the minerals of the feldspathoid series, with

the exception of laumontite. Occasionally its deposition may have begun

somewhat earlier, but this was a rather abnormal condition, and in

general, calcite is the replacing mineral.

It was found difficult at first to account in a satisfactory manner for

the introduction of such quantities of carbonic acid as the abundance of

calcite requires. The writer was disposed to look for its sources in

vapors evolved from the magma, but although such vapors were probably

given forth, they would, like aqueous vapors, have opportunity under the

conditions of consolidation to dissipate freely in the air, unless they were

locked up in some nonvolatile combination until the late period at which

calcite appeared. Search was made for evidence of some intermediate

mineral to whose decomposition the carbonic acid of the calcite could be

ascribed, or for indications of an early appearance of calcite, but evidence

in both directions appeared to be entirely lacking.

176 ANNALS NEW YORK ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

The possibility was also considered that while the majority of the

minerals originated through the form of circulation described, the forma-

tion of calcite should be assigned to a far later period, in fact to the

present cycle of events, in which cold surface waters carrying CO, in

solution leach directly downward. The vital objection to this conception

is that such waters would also be oxidizing in nature, and the associations

of the greater part of the calcite render this idea very improbable.

The hypothesis which was finally adopted as being most probable was

that the meteoric waters of the general form of circulation, which has

been accepted as responsible for the series of earlier minerals which we

have considered, retained some store of the originally dissolved carbonie

acid (probably as bicarbonate of lime, CaH, (CO,)., and carbonates of

the alkalies) at the period of their history at which they entered the

basalt sheet on the return journey to the surface. When conditions be-

came favorable, this supply of dissolved carbonic acid reacted with the

various original and secondary lime compounds and gave rise to the

formation of calcite. Carbonation, as is well known, is one of the most

common effects of the action of meteoric waters upon lime silicates at

moderate temperatures. When the temperature is high, on the contrary,

the process is reversed, so that carbonate rocks carrying silica, passing

from the zone of katamorphism into the zone of anamorphism, where

high temperatures prevail, have the carbonic acid driven off, while the

lime combines with silica and produces lime silicates. The process is,

therefore, evidently an easily reversible one under variations of tempera-

ture. This probably accounts for the observed fact that little or no cal-

cite appears to have been formed in the Watchung series during the

prevalence of the more elevated temperatures under which the minerals of

the first and second periods were deposited, and it was not until very

moderate temperatures were reached that carbonation became the chief

feature, tending to destroy the previously formed silicates. Naturally, no

sharp border-line can be drawn between the periods. For a time more or

less prolonged after the deposition of calcite had begun, the formation of

silicates continued. Jaumontite and apophyllite were deposited simul-

taneously with calcite almost beyond question. It is not impossible that

some slight deposition of calcite began at an earlier stage, but decisive

evidence of this is lacking. The fact must not be overlooked that the

temperature at which deposition of calcite began would be a function of

the concentration of the carbonic acid in the solutions. Under the con-

ditions which seem to have existed in our rocks, the quantity of carbonic

acid was probably minute, and the large amount of calcite found must

be referred to the continued passage of the water for a prolonged period.

FENNER, THE WATCHUNG BASALT 177

Under different conditions, a much larger quantity of CO, might be

present, and the formation of calcite would begin at an earlier date. For

example, in the not unusual zeolitic deposits in which the minerals form

distinct veins cutting sheets of basic eruptives, it is extremely probable

that circulation is generally begun while emanations are still being given

forth by the cooling magma and that these are added to the ascending

waters. Under such circumstances, the concentration of CO, might be

supposed to reach a much higher value, and as a consequence, the period

of calcite deposition would be much advanced. In the zeolitic veins cut-

ting the great intrusive sill of Palisade diabase, it is observed that large

crystals of calcite are encrusted with analcite and stilbite. An earlier

period for calcite is indicated, which may thus be accounted for. In

specimens from other localities, also, with whose geological relations the

writer is not familiar, an early period of deposition of calcite has been

observed.

Thaumasite and Gypsum

At about the same period as calcite, a small amount of gypsum was

deposited and also the unusual mineral thaumasite. The latter is appar-

ently a combination of silicate, carbonate and sulphate of lime. Its

occurrence has been noted in only a few localities throughout the world.

Gypsum has been observed resting apparently upon calcite crystals, and

masses of thaumasite are found to contain nodules of pectolite, heulan-

dite and apophyllite, imbedded like raisins in a pudding. These rela-

tions indicate a late period of deposition for the two minerals. The sul-

phates necessary for their formation can likewise be considered referable

to meteoric sources. .

During the calcite period, green amphibole, chlorite, specularite and

probably pyrite and chalcopyrite were also deposited as has been described.

The presence of gypsum affords an approximate mark on the thermo-

metrical scale. Van’t Hoff and his associates** have made elaborate in-

vestigations on the relations of gypsum and anhydrite. They fixed the

transition point between gypsum and natural anhydrite at 63.5° C. and

175 mm. vapor pressure. The presence of other salts in solution some-

what affects the value of the transition point. In a saturated solution of

NaCl, they decided upon a mean value of 30° for the temperature of

formation of anhydrite from gypsum. In our solutions, not all the con-

ditions are known, but it seems certain that if the temperature at this

time had exceeded 63.5° C., the sulphate of lime would have been de-

posited in the form of anhydrite instead of gypsum.

4 Zeitschr. phys. Chem., vol. 45, pp. 257-306, 1903.

178 ANNALS NEW YORK ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

III. CoMPARISON WITH OTHER DEPOSITS AND GENERAL CONCLUSIONS

With these minerals, the processes of alteration through ascending

waters appear to have been brought to a close. This may perhaps be

considered due to any one or to a combination of several causes. The

waters may have reached a temperature which was practically the average

climatic temperature of the region and were therefore unable to effect

further changes, or the circulation may have become much enfeebled be-

cause of diminution of the stores of heat-energy in the rock, or the

velocity of reaction at these lower temperatures may have become so

small that its effects are negligible. The writer is inclined to believe that

all of these causes codperated.

The general order in which the minerals appeared is shown in the

accompanying chart (page 179). The question arises as to the extent to

which this sequence should be considered an invariable one applying to all

zeolitic deposits. In considering this, the first point which must be kept

in view is that the conditions under which the formation of minerals

occurred in other deposits must have been similar in order that the results

should be comparable. A frequent occurrence of zeolites is in fissure-

veins cutting masses of intruded igneous rock, as in the Palisades. In

such cases, sublimates given off by the magma at the same time that

processes of alteration are in progress (such as boric oxide, carbonic acid,

fluorine vapors, sulphur compounds and possibly others) and passing into

~the channels of circulation must affect most decidedly the periods of

deposition of the compounds into which they themselves enter. Such

minerals as datolite, calcite, apophyllite and the metallic sulphides might

therefore appear at periods somewhat different from what has been ob-

served in the Watchung minerals.

It has been shown, too, that the presence of boric acid in considerable

quantity acts as a disturbing factor, which affects the nature of the other

minerals deposited, and such other emanations as are capable of uniting

with soda and lime would probably have similar effects. On the whole,

however, it appears that the zeolites proper would usually follow a similar

sequence in such fissure deposits to that observed in the Watchung rocks.

In zeolitic formations in surface flows of basalt, which have been

brought about by a similar uprise of meteoric waters, the processes should

normally be very similar, but it appears that in some instances interrup-

tions occur. From the studies of Whitman Cross and W. F. Hillebrand®

on the minerals from the basalt of Table Mountain at Golden, Colo., it

appears that the zeolitic deposits there occur both in fissures and in

55 Bull. 20, U. S. Geol. Surv., 1885.

ais)

FENNER, THE WATCHUNG BASALT

| Gypsum

| Thaumasite

| Calcite

| Apophyllite |

| Chlorite |

| Laumontite |

| Heulandite | Stilbite |

| Chabazite |

| Analcite | Natrolite |

Datolite

| | Pectolite [ j

|Prehnite |

| Sulphides

| Specularite

| Amphiboles

| Garnet

| Quartz |

| Magnetite |

| Diopside .

| Labradorite | Albite |

Olivine

Chart Showing Order of Deposition and Periods of Stability of the Various

Primary and Secondary Minerals

180 ANNALS NEW YORK ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

roundish cavities in an amygdaloidal zone near the surface of the older of

two basaltic flows. They may be divided into two groups, according to

mode and time of formation. On considering all the species which occur

in relations which permit inferences to be drawn as to relative age, the

following sequence was determined :

1. Laumontite, 7. Thomsonite,

2. Stilbite, 8. Analcite,

3. Thomsonite, 9. Apophyllite,

4. Calcite (yellow), 10. Calcite (colorless),

5. Stilbite, 11. Mesolite.

6. Chabazite,

It will be observed that this order is different from that which has

been found in the Watchung sheet, but it is seen at once that several

species are repeated at intervals, implying irregularities in conditions

which would have to be explained before comparisons could be made with

other localities in which the sequence is normal. In such cases as this,

we have, perhaps, a reversal of conditions by which the circulating waters

which should, in the usual course of events, gradually become cooler, are

again highly heated.

A somewhat similar condition is implied in the zeolitic deposits occur-

ring in the copper-bearing amygdaloids of Lake Superior. The sequence

here as determined by Pumpelly*® was as follows:

The chlorite of the melaphyre, and consequently the distinctive character

of that rock, is due to the alteration of hornblende or pyroxene. This seems

to have been the first step toward the production of melaphyre proper. Lau-

montite . . . appears to have been formed either contemporaneously with

the chlorite, or as the next step in the process.

The next step appears to have been the individualization, in amygdaloidal

cavities, of nonalkaline silicates, viz: laumontite, prehnite, epidote, respect-

ively, according as the conditions favored the formation of one or the other of

these.

Following these came the individualization of quartz in these cavities.

Perhaps we may be warranted in considering these minerals, together with

the lime of the calcite that more rarely occurs in this portion of the series, as

chiefly due to the decomposition of the pyroxenic ingredient of the rock.

So far as we may infer from the tabulated results, the concentration of

copper in the amygdaloidal cavities does not appear to have begun till after the

formation of the quartz.

In this part of the series falls also the formation of a chloritiec or green-

earth mineral, which in some manner has displaced prehnite, quartz, calcite,

and with which copper, when present, appears to stand in intimate relation.

5¢“Paragenesis and Derivation of Copper and its Associates on Lake Superior,” Am.

Jour. Sci., 3rd ser., vol. 2, pp. 188-198, 243-258, 347-355, 1871.

FENNER, THE WATCHUNG BASALT 181

Subsequently to this came the individualization of the alkaline silicates, viz:

analcite, apophyllite, orthoclase. Here also seems to belong the formation of

datolite.

The fact that calcite occurs at almost every step in the paragenetic series

and forms one of the most common of the secondary minerals is proof that

carbonic acid was very generally present throughout the whole period of meta-

morphism; it was probably the chief mediating agent in the processes, with-

out being sufficiently abundant to prevent the formation of silicates.

In this series again, the sequence is quite different from that observed

in the Watchung rocks. Pumpelly, however, has hardly touched upon the

question of the conditions under which the secondary minerals originated,

especially as regards attitude of the beds, and those who have paid some

attention to these matters have considered it rather from a theoretical

standpoint than from internal evidence. Portions of the copper-bearing

series are now buried to a depth of several thousand feet, and an unknown

thickness has been removed by erosion from their upper surface. Such

facts as the not unusual paramorphic change of laumontite into ortho-

clase might be considered to imply a reversal of the progress of alteration

brought about by deep burial subsequent to a cycle of alteration in a

more superficial zone. A detailed investigation of these deposits, which

would include a review of former evidence in the light of more recent

knowledge and a consideration of additional evidence brought to view in

the depths to which mining operations have now penetrated, would be

most interesting and valuable in throwing light on the difficult question

of the origin and circumstances of precipitation of the native copper.

Until more information is available regarding the conditions of deposi-

tion of the secondary minerals in the Lake Superior rocks, they will

hardly afford a basis of comparison as regards sequence with the

Watchung series.

There are undoubtedly numerous zeolitic deposits in which conditions

of formation were closely analogous to those prevailing in the Watchung

rocks, but, as was remarked in the early pages of the present paper, few

observers appear to have made detailed observations regarding the se-

quence in which the minerals were deposited. Instances have been met

also, in going through the literature, which bear internal evidence of

rather hasty judgment in drawing conclusions as to sequence. This does

not appear surprising from the misleading character of the evidence en-

countered in some instances in the study of the Watchung rocks, which

has brought into prominence the necessity of constant caution.

In Hintze’s “Handbuch der Mineralogie” a compilation is made of a

great number of occurrences of the zeolites, with short summaries of the

182 ANNALS NEW YORK ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

relations which they bear to each other and to other minerals. In such

cases as observations on sequence have been made, the order appears to-

correspond in most instances to that observed in the Watchung series.

There are a number of instances recorded, however, of pseudomorphs of

minerals which, from observations of the Watchung series, should be of

early formation, but which have taken the form of zeolitic species. Preh-

nite and orthoclase appear especially likely to do this. This may pos-

sibly be due, as was suggested before, to a reversal of the normal sequence

by a change of conditions due to external agencies. On the other hand,

the data available are not sufficient to exclude the possibility that this

was a normal order under the conditions of the case and that such factors

as the composition of the original rock may enter in determining the

sequence of deposition.

In discussing in previous pages the application of the phase rule to

the. problem and again in describing analcite, the inference was drawn

that analcite and natrolite should possess a transition point, at which sin-

gle point only they could coéxist in equilibrium; and the observed rela-

tions of the two were found to confirm this conclusion. Two instances

taken from Hintze** add further evidence: On the Kunetitzer Mountain,

Bohemia, analcite crystals are found

up to 12 mm. in size in cavities of the basalt; often porous and covered with

natrolite ;

and again in the Tyrol

at the Cipit-Bache at the north foot of the Schlern-Gebirg, milk-white to

flesh-red crystals, scarcely more than 1 cm. in size, covered with apophyllite,

more seldom with calcite and natrolite-needles; many crystals porous and

altered to an aggregate of small needles (?natrolite).

Heulandite and stilbite are believed to possess a similar transition

point. The well-known German mineralogist, Breithaupt, devoted special

attention to paragenesis of minerals. His work dates back sixty years or

more but as far as macroscopic observations go appears to be accurate

and reliable. In regard to heulandite and stilbite, he records the sequence

(a) heulandite, (6) stilbite, and remarks :°* “This paragenesis is fol-

lowed with perfect constancy in many localities of occurrence.” It should

be noted that in Breithaupt’s usage, stilbite was called “desmin” and

heulandite “stilbit.” He Zives numerous examples of the order observed

for various other zeolites and for quartz, prehnite, datolite and calcite

Op. cit:, ps LiL.

“Die Paragenesis der Mineralien”’ Freiberg. v. 105, 1849.

FENNER, THE WATCHUNG BASALT 183

from many localities.°® In nearly all cases, they agree with that which

the author has determined for the Watchung series.

Breithaupt arrived at certain well-founded conclusions regarding the

conditions of formation of zeolites,°° as follows:

It is notable that it (that is, their formation) occurs not only in the younger

eruptive rocks, in whose bubble cavities the zeolites are especially at home,

but also in much older varieties of rock. But where the zeolites also

appear, they can be observed as always only products of leaching, and have

depended upon lateral secretion, and herein they accord perfectly with the

occurrences in bubble-cavities. The bubble-cavities, as well as the veins in

which they appear, are mostly wholly free from magnesia or iron-oxide con-

taining minerals; at the most, only traces of these ingredients occur, whose

nonexistence is related to the mineralogical-chemical character of the zeolites.

In a recent article appearing in the Annals of the New York Academy

of Sciences, vol. x1x, pp. 121-134, 1909, W. G. Levison has recorded his

observations on the sequences of the minerals of the Newark igneous

rocks at various New Jersey localities. His results indicate that he

found no fixed order in the sequence in which the minerals appeared

even in specimens from the same locality. His work, however, was done

without the aid of the microscope. The present writer’s investigations

have indicated that replacement phenomena in these rocks have followed

such a course that it is hardly possible to reach satisfactory conclusions

from macroscopic observations alone.

As a final citation, which bears upon both the sequence of deposition

and the general nature of the process, Brogger’s well-known paper on

“Die Mineralien der Syenitpegmatitgange der Stidnorwegischen Augit-

Nephelinsyenite” ®* is so interesting and instructive that the writer de-

sires to quote certain parts at considerable length.

Brogger takes up the geological relations in the following order:

1. Phase of magmatic consolidation.

2. Chief phase of the pneumatolytic minerals. These are rich in

fluorine, boron and sulphur, whose derivation he ascribes to the magma.

3. Phase of zeolite formation.

Regarding this phase, he says in part:

Under the continued cooling of the veins and their surroundings, the condi-

tions of mineral formation must by degrees change more and more; finally the

pneumatolytic exhalations, which at first must have consisted principally of

fluorine, chlorine and boron-rich combinations, then of sulphurbearing combi-

59 Op. cit., pp. 103-107, 260-261.

Op. Cit.. p. 259.

®1 Zeitschr. f. Kryst. und Min., vol. 16, 1890.

184 ANNALS NEW YORK ACADEMY, OF SCIENCES

nations, appear to have ceased by degrees, and the circulating solutions be-

came, therefore, principally aqueous solutions which, at relatively low tem-

perature, strove to effect among the earlier formed vein materials the re-

combinations possible under these changed conditions. The products of min-

eral deposition in cavities still open (or produced by destructive work), as

well as the products of pseudomorphosis of the earlier formed vein minerals,

must, therefore, now become different; observation shows that almost exclu-

sively waterbearing silicates—zeolites—were thereby formed. Just as little

as we could draw a sharp boundary between the first and second phases, can

we perceive the second and third phases of vein formation to be sharply dif-

ferentiated from each other. Indeed, the formation of sulphurbearing ores

continued after the beginning of zeolite formation. : :

That the zeolites have been formed at relatively low (although not ordinary)

temperature has been determined with certainty through the researches of Dau-

brée, Lemberg, de Schulten and others; apparently the successive changes of

temperature with constant decrease thereof has influenced the formation of

zeolites in this manner, that certain zeolites can form preferably within a

somewhat higher, others within a somewhat lower range of temperature. {t

appears that in that way most simply can the sequence of the zeolites be ex-

plained, which everywhere is in the main nearly constant in the veins of the

border-zone.

The sequence for the deposition of zeolites in open vugs is as a rule the

following:

Analcite,

Eudidymite, Thomsonite,

Stilbite,

Apophylilite.

Of all the zeolites formed in open vugs, analcite is the oldest and also the

most widespread in our veins.

The analcite is often formed in Prcatiat extent at the expense of the elzo-

lite; in part, however, other soda-rich silicates, especially sodalite and albite,

have also given rise to the formation of analcite, as will shortly be men-

tioned below. Where it has been formed from elolite, so much substance

appears to have been removed simultaneously in part with its appearance that

apparently new open druses were thereby formed, in which besides the anal-

cite other minerals also could later be deposited. In part, however, the anal-

cite has been deposited in older, preéxisting vugs, for it rests often on crystals

of leucophane and fluorspar, for example, of the second phase of vein-forma-

tion.

The next zeolite in the sequence is eudidymite, which is only known from

one vein upon the island of Ober-Ard. It rests here upon analcite and is

itself covered with natrolite.

The normal sequence of zeolites in the vugs of our veins shows natrolite

after analcite.

Apparently simultaneously or nearly simultaneously with the formation of

natrolite, that of thomsonite began.

In a single specimen belonging to the Imperial Museum from an unknown

occurrence of our veins, fine blades of stilbite rest upon thomsonite needles as

FENNER, THE WATCHUNG BASALT 185

a younger formation in secondary vugs in a hydronephelite spreustein formed

from elsolite.

Younger than the natrolite is apophyllite in all occurrences where it ap-

pears; it is, however, in comparison with the soda-rich zeolites—analcite and

natrolite—almost always present in wholly subordinate amount. I have not

observed it with stilbite; it is, therefore, not possible to say with certainty

whether the stilbite or the apophyllite is the older of the two; but to judge by

the character of its occurrence, the last may be considered with some proba-

bility as almost always the youngest of all zeolites of our veins. Apophyllite

also belongs to the zeolites of Plombiéres made known by Daubrée, formed at

a late period at only about 70°.

4. Phase of fluo-carbonates and carbonates, etc.

As the youngest formation in the vugs, perhaps deposited at almost

ordinary temperature, one finds here and there calcite, usually only compact,

seldom in idiomorphic crystals—for example, upon natrolite of RisO; only

traces of a chloritic (?) mineral have I observed as a still younger deposit upon

the calcite.

Rf&sUME

The zeolites and associated secondary minerals of the Watchung basalt

are found in certain localized areas of the sheet. These areas possess

well-marked peculiarities of structure which are plainly of primary

origin and due to conditions present at the time of consolidation. The

chief peculiarity in these limited areas is an accumulation of bowlder-

like masses of “pahoehoe” lava, which consist of an interior of normally

crystallized basalt and an exterior crust of glass. From a study of the

geological relations in the field, it is believed that the basalt sheet repre-

sents a surface flow of lava poured out over a continental area which had

been depressed by crustal movements of deformation (either warping or

faulting) and in whose lowerlying portions a lake or series of lakes occu-

pied shallow basins. The pahoehoe structure of the basalt is believed

to have been developed over or immediately adjacent to the lake beds

through quicker cooling of the flow.

The secondary minerals are held to have been developed from the

elements of the basalt (especially the glassy crusts) and from sublimates

given off by the magma in cooling, and deposited in crevices of the flow.

The medium in which recrystallization took place was an aqueous solu-

tion, which was enabled to percolate through the sheet of basalt, because

of the more permeable structure above the lake beds. A purely meteoric

origin is indicated for the waters, which probably worked in from the

edge of the sheet through the porous sandstones below and returned to

186 ANNALS NEW YORK ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

the surface through the interstices of the basalt in the situations de-

scribed. 5

Recrystallization was probably begun as soon as the lava had cooled

sufficiently to permit the waters to hold a liquid form. A considerable

degree of superheating was permitted because of the head to which they

were subject. By degrees, however, the whole mass of lava became cooler,

so that in the final stages of alteration, the temperature may have been

but little above the average climatic temperature of the region.

The majority of the secondary minerals are found to consist of the

elements present in the original plagioclase feldspar, with or without the

addition of water. The possibilities of equilibrium among the great

number of compounds present was considered in the light of Gibbs’s phase

rule, and some inquiry was made into the applicability of this rule to the

conditions of the problem. It was deemed most probable that, although

various modifying conditions entered whose effect could not be wholly

taken into account, the general conclusions to which the phase rule

pointed should hold and that the possibility of all the compounds present

coéxisting in equilibrium could not be admitted.

Petrographic examination of thin sections confirmed these conclusions,

and the sequence of minerals and the form taken by processes of replace-

ment have been described at length. It was found that in addition to the

zeolitic minerals which form such a prominent feature of the occurrence,

and to such minerals as prehnite, datolite, quartz etc., which are present

in notable amount, traces of other minerals have survived. Such are

albite, garnet, arfvedsonite ete., which represent the effects of intense

metamorphism in the early stages of recrystallization. There is reason

to believe that these were formed in considerable quantities, but were

almost destroyed during succeeding stages.

It was found possible to trace very perfectly the alteration of the glass,

or less often the normal basalt, into various associations of secondary

minerals; and several features present in the original rock were found to

have left traces through all stages of recrystallization. In some instances,

the theory of solid solutions was of assistance in affording a basis of

explanation of the changes which minerals had undergone. This was

especially true in the case of the development of albite from original

labradorite and in the transformations of the amphiboles.

As a final effect of alteration, quantities of calcite were formed. The

greater part of this is believed to have been produced at temperatures but

little above the ordinary. The presence of the carbonic acid is attributed

to a derivation from the atmosphere at the beginning of the cycle of cir-

culation.

FENNER, THE WATCHUNG BASALT 187

Comparison was made between the Watchung deposit and similar

mineral formations elsewhere. In some cases, there was evidence that

conditions during the formation of zeolites were different, or that the

subsequent history had effected changes which made impossible a strict

comparison with the Watchung rocks. In most cases, however, judging

from the rather scanty evidence available, conclusions regarding sequence

ate confirmed.

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PLATE XI

MAGNIFIED SECTIONS OF BASALT AND SECONDARY MINERALS

Fig. 1. Normal crystallization of dense basalt. x 24. Slide 18.

Fig. 2. Dense basalt bordered by secondary albite. X 24. Slide 62.

Fic. 3. Dense basalt bordered by secondary albite (Ab) with fanlike groups of

prehnite (Pr) and some calcite (Ca). X 24. Slide 62.

Fic. 4. Groups of radiating quartz crystals surviving from an early period of

alteration in a slide in which zeolites and chlorite form the principal

features. X 24. Slide 59.

Fic. 5. Garnet (Gr), fibrous green amphibole (Am) and prehnite (Pr) encrust-

ing dense basalt. The garnet forms clear grains where it borders

the prehnite, but the greater portion is in masses which are nearly

opaque from dust of TiO, or MnO,. The circular markings are inter-

preted as due to nuclei of resorbed olivine in the original glass which

the secondary minerals have replaced. x 24. Slide 53.

Fig. 6. Garnet grains (Gr), acicular amphibole (Am) and long needles of

pectolite (Pe) in prehnite (Pr). x 24. Slide 50a.

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VOLUME XX, PLATE XI.

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ANNALS N.

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Vic.

Fig.

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PLATE XII

MAGNIFIED SECTIONS SHOWING ALTERATION IN BASALT

. Breccia of an original glass, whose interstices have been filled with

ferruginous clay from the lake bottom. Recrystallization of the

glass has resulted chiefly in albite and chlorite. x 24. Slide 12.

. Incipient stage of zeolitic alteration of glass, showing effect of chill

eracks in directing percolation of solutions. X 24. Slide 30.

. Alteration effects in brecciated glass. x 24. Slide 61.

. Prominent banding in secondary products, due to cracks in the original

glass. The darker portions are chiefly chlorite, the lighter analcite.

x 24. Slide 60.

. Geometrical patterns in garnet, interpreted as due to resorption of

olivine. Gr—garnet, Am —amphibole, Pr=prehnite. x 32. Slide

115.

. Incipient alteration of glass, showing accentuation of physical and

chemical differences by a slight degree of alteration. x 35. Slide 54.

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ANNALS N. Y. ACAD. Scr.

VOLUME XX, PLATE

[Annas N. Y. ACADEMY OF SCIENCES, VoL. XX, No. 3, Part II, pp. 189-238.

26 October, 1910]

NEW GENERA AND SPECIES OF CARBONIFEROUS FOSSILS

FROM THE FAYETTEVILLE SHALE OF ARKANSAS?

By Gerorce H. Girty

(Presented by title before the Academy, 3 October, 1910)

The Fayetteville shale is named from its occurrence about Fayetteville

in northwestern Arkansas. Its character and distribution in this region

are described in detail in the Fayetteville folio,? and only a brief sum-

mary will be given here. It is a black, fissile shale containing beds of

sandstone and thin limestone, and, in the southeastern part of the Fay-

etteville quadrangle, it attains a thickness of 200 feet, owing to the de-

velopment of a sandstone member in its middle portion. The shale rests

either directly on the eroded surface of the Boone formation or on some

sandy strata of sporadic occurrence which have been correlated with the

Batesville sandstone.

The more or less impure limestones of the Fayetteville contain abun-

dant fossils. A rather persistent calcareous bed at the very base of the

formation has furnished the new species described below, except for a

very few which came from a locality in the Batesville sandstone near the

town of Fayetteville. This collection from the Batesville shows, as would

be expected, a close relationship with the fauna whose horizon is just

above. (eographically, most of the collections studied came from the

Fayetteville quadrangle, but a few were obtained beyond its borders,

where the typical character and relationship of the formations are main-

tained.

The Fayetteville shale has usually been referred to the horizon of the

St. Louis limestone. A discussion of this point is deferred until the

entire fauna of the Fayetteville has been studied.

Michelinia meekana sp. nov.

Zoarium lenticular, attaining a large size, about 85 mm. in diameter and

45 mm. in thickness, more or less. Upper surface irregular. Coralites very

variable in size; the large ones reach a diameter of 7 mm., but very few are

of this size. The rudimentary septa consist of fine ridges, more distinct in

1 Published by permission of the Director of the United States Geological Survey.

2U. S. Geol. Survey, Folio 119. 19035.

(189)

190 ANNALS NEW YORK ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

some specimens than in others, and are very numerous. They are so fine and

obscure that no satisfactory count can be made in the material available.

Mural pores apparently are small and regularly disposed. They seem to

occur in longitudinal rows near the angles of the cells. Tabulze very closely

arranged and irregular. In some instances, they are one fifth to one eighth of a

cell diameter apart and seem to extend completely across in parallel plates.

In other instances, they are somewhat farther apart. oblique and vesicular.

Walls moderately thick.

Menophyllum excavatum var. arkansanum var. nov.

Corallum rather small, conical, showing much variation in the rapidity of

enlargement and in the amount of curvature. Exterior marked by the usuai

longitudinal striation, the striz being rather numerous and closely arranged

but not very strong. Calice deep. Septa at maturity about 28, fewer, of

course, in the earlier stages. Secondary septa present only toward the upper

limit of the theca where they appear merely as slightly elevated ridges. Septa

and walls much thickened by stereoplasma, so that the interseptal loculi are

nearly closed. The three fossule are often clearly distinguishable, especially

in the more mature part of the corallum. Interseptal tissue practically ab-

sent, rarely developed about the margins of the calicinal portion.

Palzacis carinata sp. nov.

Corallum much compressed, having flattened sides, narrowly rounded ends

and carinated lower portion. The height is less than the breadth, and the

ends are considerably lower than the middle. The cell-like cavities in the

specimens examined open onto the upper surface. They are few in number,

only four or five, and very shallow. The walls which separate them are low

and moderately thin. Fine and strong liree cross the external surface. The

lire are slightly narrower than the striwe and begin near the point of attach-

ment as tubercles, which arrange themselves in rows and become connected

into continuous linear elevations.

Fistulipora excellens var. harrisonensis var. nov.

Under the present title, I am including thin zoaria characterized tangentially

by having rather large. closely arranged zocecia with a distinct Junarium.

The zocecia average about .28 mm. in diameter, have a well-developed lunarium

and a conspicuously petaloid shape. They are sometimes in contact, but

usually are separated by narrow intervals of about one half their own diam-

eter occupied by single rows of cells. In or near macular areas, they stand

at about their own diameter apart and are separated by two rows of cells.

When closely arranged, 5 zocecia come in a distance of 2 mm.

In vertical section, the zocecia are seen to have between them single columns

of subquadrate mesopores, while the diaphragms are rather abundant though

variable, standing at about a tube diameter apart.

Fistulipora excellens var. williamsi var. nov.

The zoaria occur as thin sheets 1 mm. or less in thickness and of no great

spread. The zoccia are small, about .21 mm. in diameter, with strongly

GIRTY, NEW CARBONIFEROUS FOSSILS 191

marked lunarium. They are separated by one or two rows of mesopores and

stand at one half or one diameter apart, coming about 5 or more in 2 mm. In

longitudinal section, the mesopores are seen to occur in one or more tiers, and

the zowcia develop few or no diaphragms.

This form is more closely related to the variety harrisonensis than to

typical excellens, but it has smaller zocecia which are rather more dis-

tantly arranged (since none are in contact), and fewer diaphragms.

Batostomella anomala sp. noy.

Zoarium consisting of slender cylindrical branches about 2 mm. in diameter.

Cortical zone sharply defined but very narrow, about .25 mm. wide. Zocecial

tubes very long and slightly oblique in the median portion of the stem, near

the outer end abruptly bent outward to a direction perpendicular to the sur-

face. Where the direction is longitudinal, the zocecial walls are thin; where

radial, strongly and abruptly thickened. The thickening sometimes has the

appearance of two partly fused beads; more often it has only an oval shape

without trace of moniliform structure. Occasional slight swellings occur at

other points in the wall. Apertures rounded. usually elongated, separated by

walls equal to or greater than their own diameter, the longitudinal distance

being often a little greater than the lateral. Owing to the thickness of the

wall, the diameter of the apertures is unusually small; about 5 cells occur in

2 mm. when they are end to end, and about 7 when they are side by side.

Large acanthopores occur at the corners of the cells, but, owing to the thick-

ness of the walls, they do not encroach upon them. There is also developed

near the surface a row of small granules through the middle of most of the

walls, possibly through all. Mesopores are rare, possibly absent altogether.

Diaphragms are also rare, 1 or 2 near the aperture in many of the zoe@cia,

some of them distinctly perforated.

Batostomella parvula sp. nov.

Zoarium in the form of slender, solid branches having a diameter of 2 mm.,

more or less. Branching irregular, three or four branches being occasionally

given off at a time, in which case the stem is very much enlarged, often

broadened and relatively compressed. Zocecia thin-walled and longitudinal in

the middle of the stem, thick-walled in the mature zone, which is very nar-

row. They meet the surface obliquely, or with a very short horizontal por-

tion. The apertures are more or less elliptical to subpolygonal, elongated in

the longitudinal direction of the branch, separated by intervals of about one

half their own width, but showing extreme variation. Six or 7 occur in

2 mm. longitudinally, more transversely, although as the average branch has

a diameter of about 2 mm., the number is not readily ascertained in those

terms.

Mesopores rather rare, irregularly distributed. in some places apparently

absent, in others occurring in groups of two or three. Acanthopores numer-

ous and large, occurring in the angles of the cells, most of the angles being

furnished with them. Owing to the thickened walls, the zomcia have a

rounded shape, and the acanthopores imbedded in the walls do not indent

192 ANNALS NEW YORK ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

them. Where the walls are especially thick, and possibly where thin, there

are additional small spines or granules in single rows. Therefore tangential

sections vary considerably in appearance. In some, mesopores are rare, in

others, abundant; in some again, only the large acanthopores at the cell angles

can be made out, while in others, there are smaller spines in addition in vary-

ing numbers.

It may be that two distinct types have been confused under this title,

but, from the study of weathered specimens, such is thought not:to be

the case. As a rule, however, only the larger spines are seen on weathered

surfaces. Owing to the thinness of the mature portion, the irregularity

of growth and the character of fossilization, it has been found extremely

difficult to secure satisfactory tangential sections, even such as are cor-

rectly oriented being more or less altered and obscured as to structure.

The thickening of the walls is not as a rule periodic, but is restricted to

the superficial portion. Rare instances of thickening can elsewhere be

noticed. The remainder of the walls is probably very thin, but its char-

acter is largely obscured in all material by alteration or by secondary

deposits. There is occasional evidence, however, of appreciable deposits

which are intrinsic, although not at all moniliform. Diaphragms are de-

veloped at rare intervals, more commonly near the surface. In so far as

my observations extend, they do not show the characteristic perforations

of Stenopora.

Batostomella? armata sp. nov.

Zoarium ramose, slender, about 4 mm. in diameter, bifurcating or laterally

branched. Zoocia longitudinal in the central part, gradually sloping outward,

then more abruptly until. for a short distance. a radial direction is assumed.

Zocecia rounded owing to the thick walls, 6 or 7 in 2 mm. Walls much thick-

ened for a short distance near the surface, either strongly moniliform or fused

into a continuous mass. Mesopores (young cells ?) rather abundant. Acan-

thopores numerous and very large, occurring in most of the angles.

In tangential section, the walls appear to be greatly thickened in some areas

and much thinner in others. The zoomcia are completely rounded or sub-

angular, according to the degree of development of this feature. The large

acanthopores are imbedded in the thick walls but indent the cells where the

walls are thinner. Where the walls are thick, a row of large granules occu-

pies the median line: where thin, the granules are wanting, but a strong, con-

tinuous line appears. Diaphragms are developed to a limited extent and

chiefly in the cortical zone. Their distribution is rather scattering and far

apart, slightly more than one diameter on an average, but varying from about

two thirds to nearly 2. Macule probably present and indicated in thin sec-

tions by groups of not conspicuously larger cells, possibly also by the varying

thickness of the walls.

GIRTY, NEW CARBONIFEROUS FOSSILS 193

Dyscritella subgen. nov.

The two species included in this group are ramose with well-differenti-

ated and rather thick, mature zones. Zocecia, mesopores and acantho-

pores are all present. The zoccia are rounded in section, circular or oval.

Mesopores are fairly numerous, rather more numerous than in typical

Batostomella and much less numerous than in typical Lioclema. The

acanthopores are also fairly numerous and in both species of two differ-

ent sizes. In typical Batostomella, the acanthopores are much more

numerous and all small. In typical Lioclema, the acanthopores are per-

haps not quite so numerous and all large. Tabule appear to be entirely

lacking in both mesopores and zocecia. In typical Lioclema, tabule are

abundant in the mesopores and rather rare in the zoccia. In Batosto-

mella, the diaphragms are remote, delicate and originally perforated. The

mesopores are open as in Batostomella, not closed as in the typical sec-

tion of Lioclema.

On the whole, perhaps, these species are more closely allied to Batosto-

mella than to Lioclema, but they can hardly be included under either

genus without introducing anomalous features.

Type—Dyscritella robusta.

Dyscritella robusta sp. nov.

Zoarium consisting of solid cylindrical stems having a diameter of about

8 mm. The stems increase, according to the only specimen examined, by

lateral branching, the branches making an angle of about 45° with the main

stem. Zocecia are longitudinal in the axial region, those nearer the side lean-

ing slightly outward. By a rather abrupt turn, they assume a radial direc-

tion, and at the same time their walls are thickened, and mesopores and acan-

thopores are introduced. The mature zone occupies one fourth of the width

at either end of the axis.

The apertures are small, circular to oval, from .083 to .11 mm. in diameter.

Mesopores are fairly numerous, varying in number and circular in shape.

Rather extensive aggregations of these cells make large maculz, but for the

most part, they occur in single rows between the zoccia, or in groups of two

or more in the angles between several of the tubes. Occasionally the zocecia

are in juxtaposition without any mesopores intervening. As many as 10 or 11

of the zowcia occur in 2 mm. (though straight rows of that length are hard

to find), where the mesopores are in normal abunadnce. In or near a macula,

the number is of course much less. The walls are thick, varying from one

half the diameter of a zocwcium to twice the diameter. Acanthopores are

abundant and of two orders, differing greatly in size. The larger ones are

extremely large and rather scantily developed, two to four near each zoccium.

The smaller acanthopores are very unequally distributed, being rare in some

areas and abundant in others. Tabulz seem to be entirely absent from both

mesopores and zocecia. The mesopores, however, are hardly discriminable in

longitudinal or transverse sections, and may be tabulated.

194. ANNALS NEW YORK ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

Dyscritella inzqualis sp. nov.

Zoarium ramose, branching freely at intervals of about 16 mm. Branches

slender, 4 mm. in diameter. Cortical zone well defined, .5 mm. or less in

thickness. Zocecia thin-walled and longitudinal in the median portion of the

stem, rather abruptly changing to a radial direction in the cortical zone,

where the walls are considerably thickened. Apertures oval to circular and

arranged with some regularity, usually 8 in 2 mm., probably more when the

oval apertures are measured in lines passing through their short diameters.

The apertures seldom exceed .14 mm. in diameter. Mesopores fairly numer-

ous, of varying size, much smaller than the zocwcia, between which they occur

as a rule in single rows. Occasionally, however, the zoccia have no meso-

pores between them (laterally), and occasionally the mesopores are grouped

in more than single rows. Acanthopores are fairly abundant and of two

sizes, the larger ones perhaps the more numerous. Three or four of the larger

and one or two of the smaller occur around each zocecium. The walls are

rather thick, their diameter being usually equal to or greater than the short

diameter of the mesopores, which are apt to be elongated. They are sufii-

ciently thick, so that the larger acanthopores, which are very large, do not

indent the walls. Tabulze appear to be entirely lacking in both zocecia and

mesopores.

Stenopora perattenuata sp. nov.

Zoarium in the form of thin expansions having a discoidal or infundibuli-

form shape, more or less contorted. Lower surface with a concentrically

wrinkled epitheca. The size is large for the thickness, which only measures

one half to 1 mm., while the diameter may be 50 mm. or more.

In some sections, the zoccia appear to rise directly from the epitheca, but

others show that there is a brief prostrate portion. The zocmcia are rather

regular, so that a hexagonal shape and a linear arrangement are locally some-

what conspicuous. In size, they vary, and it is possible that there are macule

of larger cells. Owing to the tendency noted above as to shape and arrange-

ment and the fact that the hexagons are apt to be wider than long, as many as

8 may be counted in 2 mm. when measured through a short diameter, but ordi-

narily only 6. The zoocial walls are moderately and regularly thickened, but

not annulated. A more or less obscure median line, lighter than the rest, can

be made out. Diaphragms are irregularly developed, in some cells none at all,

in others one or two. Acanthopores and mesopores appear to be altogether

absent.

The extreme thinness of the zoarium, the apparent absence of acantho-

pores and the non-annulated condition of the walls distinguish this form

from other species of Stenopora. In fact, in a general way it is sug-

gestive of Proutella, but it fails to show the peculiar characters of that

genus.

Stenopora longicamerata sp. nov.

Zoarium apparently massive, hemispherical. The present material consists

of a single specimen having an irregularly conical shape. The longest diam-

GIRTY, NEW CARBONIFEROUS FOSSILS 195

eter of the upper side is 28 mm. and the height 22 mm. (perhaps 30 mm., when

complete). It does not consist of superposed layers, but the cells are contin-

uous and consequently 20 mm. long or more. They are very irregular in size.

Some of the smaller ones are suggestive of mesopores, but may be merely

immature cells, the introduction of which was necessitated by the radiating

direction of the zocecial structure. There is no conspicuous arrangement into

macule, the very largest and the very smallest being contiguous in many

cases. To a certain extent, however, the smaller cells are grouped together

(interspersed with others), but there are considerable spaces without them.

Even if the very small cells are avoided, the number varies considerably.

When a-row of large ones is brought under the microscope, a little over 5

occur in 2 mm., while as many as 7 of the smaller or 6 to 61% of the medium

size occur in the same distance. The large cells vary from .28 to .25 mm. in

diameter.

The walls are somewhat thickened. In some instances, the median line can

be seen, but it is not conspicuous. The acanthopores are small and may be

readily overlooked. They do not indent the cells, being determined chiefly by

a densification of the material at the junction of the walls. In longitudinal

section, the characteristic annular thickenings are almost absent. The dia-

phragms are situated at irregular, usually long intervals, seldom as close to-

gether as the diameter of the cell—sometimes three or even four diameters

apart. The maximum interval observed is about 1.5 mm. The diaphragms

occur throughout the length of the tubes examined. Their characteristic

perforations are clearly shown in many instances.

Stenopora emaciata var. inzequalis var. nov.

Typical Stenopora longicamerata is based on a form which grows in hemi-

spherical masses and has long zoccial tubes intersected by relatively few

diaphragms. Another and much more abundant type occurs in the collection

which resembles longicamerata in most of its microscopic characters, but dif-

fers in having an explanate mode of growth. The thin sheets, which seldom

have a thickness of more than 4 mm., are much contorted. in some cases bend-

ing around completely so that the edges are confluent and hollow cylinders

are formed. The cell walls are thin, with only occasionally a beadlike swell-

ing. Transverse sections show thick- as well as thin-walled areas, the thick-

ened walls being probably where the section passes through these swellings.

The acanthopores are small and the diaphragms relatively distant.

Stenopora emaciata var. arkansana var. nov.

Zoarium consisting of lamellar expansions covered on the under side by a

wrinkled epitheca. The expansions seem to range to 20 mm. in thickness,

but are usually less than 10 mm. and in many cases much less. Relatively

massive bodies are formed by the superposition of successive layers which are

irregular in thickness and in shape, being often much contorted.

Zocecia rather large, very variable in size, aggregations of larger ones form-

ing macule. The maximum diameter of very large cells is .7 mm., but as a

rule, the larger ones are not over .56 mm. in diameter and the smaller .35 mm.

(even .29 mm. or less). Thus. about 4 of the larger ones or 5.5 to 6 or 7 of

196 ANNALS NEW YORK ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

the small ones occur in 2 mm. Mesopores rare or absent. The walls are

thin and the zocecia polygonal. Acanthopores moderately large, developed at

the angles of the cells which they often indent, rarely at the sides. Occasion-

ally, a section is so directed that acanthopores seem to be almost absent. In

longitudinal section, the prostrate portion is seen to be short and the rest of

the zoccium long and straight. The walls are thin, with inconspicuous thick-

enings which are small in degree and apt to occur at long and rather irregular

intervals. For this reason, the walls in cross section appear thin, the cells

angular and the acanthopores projecting into them. The diaphragms are thin,

often conspicuously perforated, abundant, occurring from one half to two

diameters apart. The average is one diameter or less, and the longer intervals

are rare, tending to occur simultaneously in several cells.

Stenopora emaciata var. megastylus var. nov.

Zoarium explanate, from 2 to 7 mm. thick in different parts. Lower sur-

face covered with a wrinkled epitheca. Distinctly monticulate with large cells

on the monticules. Zocecia very variable in size, 6 or 7 in 2 mm., subangular.

Walls thin, with gently elongate swéllings. In tangential section, thin-walled

areas alternate with areas made up of cells having distinctly thicker walls.

Acanthopores large, usually on the cell angles, truncating the angles or in-

denting the cells. Diaphragms closely arranged, from one half to one diam-

eter apart, conspicuously perforated.

Stenopora intermittens var. harrisonensis var. nov.

Zoarium in the form of thin expansions less than 5 mm. in thickness. Super-

ficial characters not known. Aggregations of larger and smaller cells rather

conspicuous. About 6 occur in 2 mm. In sections transverse to the tubes,

their walls show great variation in point of thickness, the thin ones being

almost linear and the thick ones in extreme cases one half the diameter of

the tube. The cells which are bounded by them are in the one case angular

and in the other circular. The acanthopores are extremely large. Where the

walls are thin, they indent the cells, although part of the wall is carried

around on either side, tending to give the cells a more circular shape, but

they are completely imbedded in the walls, when the latter are thick. When

such is the case, there is seldom any visible median line, but there are oceca-

‘sional spines in addition to the true acanthopores. In longitudinal section

also, two types of thickening can be noted, some of the walls being almost

linear with only occasional short but not very strong swellings, while others

‘are continuously and regularly thickened.—some very heavily so. Diaphragms

are irregularly distributed, a diameter or less apart in some areas and much

more than a diameter in others.

Stenopora miseri sp. nov.

Zoarium consisting of thin expansions covered below by a wrinkled epitheca.

The individual sheets are apt to be contorted. They occur singly or super-

posed, or interlaminated with Fistulipora excellens. In combination, they

form bodies of considerable thickness, but they are not solid, since relatively

GIRTY, NEW CARBONIFEROUS FOSSILS 197

large cavities are left between the contorted layers. The different sheets are

seldom over 2 mm. thick.

The zocecial walls are much thickened, but areas in which this feature is

developed occur adjacent to others in which the walls are thin. When the

walls are thick, the zoccia are more or less circular; when thin, they are

more or less angular. They are rather irregular in size and shape. Macule

composed of groups of larger or smaller cells seem to be present, but the dif-

ference in size is not great nor are the areas well defined so far as observed.

The thickening of the walls is accomplished by means of strong swellings

close together or more or less confluent. Typical acanthopores rare or pos-

sibly absent. The thickened walls, however, show a strong median line, in

some sections appearing as a row of granules, often with a group of granules

at the cell angles. The median line is usually observable even where the

walls are thin, and it can also be made out in longitudinal sections. About

6 cells occur in 2 mm. The larger ones are from .28 to .35 mm. in diameter

(measured from the median line of the thickened walls). Mesopores (young

cells ?) fairly abundant. Diaphragms scantily developed. In some sections,

they seem to be absent; in others, one or two occur in each cell.

Stenopora miseri var. tubulata var. nov.

This form resembles S. misert in most of its characters, differing only

in the degree in which they are developed. ‘The acanthopores are more

numerous, most of the cell angles being occupied by them, but they are

for the most part small, not indenting the zoccia. The thin-walled

areas are more extensive than in the other. When thickened, the walls

usually show a distinct median line and they are marked by fine granules,

varying in quantity in different parts of the zoarium. The diaphragms

are rather abundant and closely arranged, usually less than a diameter

apart. Groups of large cells occur such that only five or even four are

found in 2 mm.

Stenopora simulans sp. nov.

This species, in its mode of growth, is like S. mutabilis, forming extremely

irregular bodies partly ramose, partly explanate or massive, and apparently

more or less confluent. The branches are small, 5 mm. in diameter.

The walls vary from thick to thin, in some places changing rather abruptly,

and while this may be due in part to the irregularity of growth, in part it

must doubtless be assigned to variation at the same stage of development.

The cells vary from subcircular to more or less strongly polygonal and occur

about 6 in 2 mm. Mesopores are rare. Normal acanthopores (with concen-

trie structure) appear to be absent. At the same time the walls are beset

with large acanthopore-like granules, many of which seem to have a tubular

axis about which little dots of denser material are assembled. Where the

walls are thick, the dots are more spread out, and where the walls are thin,

they are more concentrated. Where the walls are thin, also, the granules

sometimes indent the cells. Similar and not conspicuously larger granules

occur at the cell angles. The granules are developed in the thin as well as

198 ANNALS NEW YORK ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

the thick walls, although they are less numerous in the former. Even where

the walls are more attenuated, however, a few can occasionally be distin-

cuished. The mature zone is long and the walls as a rule continuously thick-

ened, though in varying degree. Here and there the characteristic moniliform

structure is shown or suggested. Diaphragms are fairly abundant and very

irregularly distributed, varying from one half to 2 or more diameters apart.

Stenopora mutabilis sp. nov.

Zoarium in the type specimen in form of a slender cylindrical branch a

little less than 3 mm. in diameter, but assuming in other specimens a very

irregular growth, partly explanate, partly more massive, very much contorted

and sending up from its base short (?) branches of varying size, but probably

always small, which appear to inosculate with one another and with the rest

of the zoarium, when the irregular mode of growth brings them in contact.

Zocecia small, rounded, about 9 in 2 mm., varying considerably in size, but

without conspicuous groups forming macule. Walls usually thick, measuring

about one half the diameter of the zoccia, thin in the central portion, but

with a very long mature region. At the same time, the walls vary greatly

in thickness (in tangential section) within very short distances and are in

places almost linear. in which case, of course, the cells are polygonal. Owing

to the very irregular, contorted growth of this form, the variation in the

thickness of the walls may sometimes be due to varying distances from

the immature region. The thickening of the walls is continuous and not

beaded. Mesopores (young cells ?) rather rare and in the preservation of

my specimens difficult to distinguish from acanthopores. Acanthopores ex-

tremely large, in some cases about one half the diameter of the cells, which

they strongly indent, except when the walls are thick. Diaphragms numerous

and irregularly arranged, from one half to rather more than a diameter apart,

somewhat doubtfully perforated.

Stenopora ramosa var. fayettevillensis var. nov.

Zoarium consisting of rather slender, solid, cylindrical stems about 5 mm.

in diameter. Zocecia vertical in the median region, rather gradually bending

outward to the circumference, only a short portion, however, having a radial

direction. Five or 6 apertures occur in 2 mm. Mesopores moderately abun-

dant for the genus, occurring singly or in groups, associated with cells larger

than the ordinary. Zoccia and mesopores polygonal with rounded angles.

Walls moderately thickened in the mature region. which is narrow, two or

three times the diameter of the larger cells. The thickenings are continuous,

but swollen and irregular. The division lines in the walls’ are well defined,

in places intermittent or granulose. Acanthopores are of moderate size and

abundance occupying nearly all the angles, but not indenting the zoccia.

Tabule are rather abundant in the narrow cortical zone to which they are

perhaps restricted; from one half to one cell diameter or more apart.

Stenopora gracilis sp. nov.

Zoarium ramose, consisting of solid branches which have a diameter of

5 mm. or more. The zoccial tubes run lengthwise in the axial region and

GIRTY, NEW CARBONIFEROUS FOSSILS 199

bend gradually outward, meeting the surface either somewhat obliquely or

with a very short radial portion. The walls are thin throughout, only slightly

thickened toward the surface, the thickenings being continuous, but suggesting

the moniliform structure by their irregular outlines. Mesopores appear to be

few (more abundant in a second specimen than in that from which this de-

scription is drawn). Acanthopores nearly absent, but better developed in the

second specimen just mentioned. Tabule few and irregularly distributed.

Walls with a fairly distinct median line where thickened. Zocecia 5 or 6 in

2mm.

Stenopora inermis sp. nov.

Zoarium in the form of rather large, solid, clumsy branches having a diam-

eter of 8 to 12 mm. or more. Surface marked by macule about 5 mm. apart,

often elevated into monticules, a few of which are prominent. Zocecia thin-

walled and vertical in the axial region, gradually bent outward so that the

mature portion has a radial direction. Mature region not well defined, one

fourth of a diameter on a side or less. Mesopores abundant for the genus,

groups of them in conjunction with zoccia of unusually large size forming

macule. Five or occasionally 6 zoccia occur in 2 mm. The walls are often

much thickened, but may be fairly thin, strong contrasts occurring close to-

gether in the same specimen. Acanthopores are either exceedingly rare or

absent altogether. A few doubtful occurrences have been noted in tangential

section, but they probably represent the starting point of one of the numerous

mesopores. Tabule appear to be absent in the mesopores, but are abundant

in the mature region of the zocecia. usually less than a diameter apart and

showing the characteristic median perforation. The thickening of the walls is

a marked feature, and it is continuous, not moniliform, though occasional sug-

gestions of that structure are presented in sections passing lengthwise through

the walls. The median line is strongly marked, in whatever way the walls

are cut.

Amphiporella gen. nov.

The term Amphiporella is introduced for a type of bryozoan which is

related to Stenopora and others of the Batostomellide, to which family

it obviously belongs, but differs therefrom in growing in large, tortuous,

bifoliated fronds. The Batostomellide have been described as never

bifoliate, and the present type is only bifoliated in a sense. It has a

median immature region from which the cells bend outward in two

opposite directions and open on surfaces which are relatively parallel to

one another, but it does not consist of two colonies growing back to back,

and consequently there is no median plate. This growth can therefore

be considered as consisting of branches which are greatly expanded later-

ally, rather than as exemplifying the typical bifoliate structure. Acan-

thopores are fairly abundant and of very large size in the type species.

Mesopores are also fairly abundant and are apt to be grouped together

in macule associated with large zocecia. Their distribution is irregular.

200 ANNALS NEW YORK ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

Diaphragms are of the typical perforated sort and are abundant. The

cell walls are thickened and strongly moniliform in the mature region.

This type probably begins as a basal expansion of considerable extent

and thickness, covered underneath by a wrinkled epitheca, and from this

expansion the fronds or flattened branches spring. Organisms having

such an expanded growth, but otherwise having all the characteristics

of the bifoliate fronds, occur associated with them. Amphiporella differs

from all the members of the Batostomellidz in its mode of growth, but

seems to be especially related to Stenopora. This is shown by the annu-

lar thickenings of the walls. It differs in the abundant development of

mesopores, the grouping of which is also a peculiar character.

Typr.—Amphiporella maculosa.

Amphiporella maculosa sp. nov.

Zoarium large, consisting of a basal expansion, sending off extensive tor-

tuous bifoliate fronds. The latter seem seldom to exceed 7 mm. in transverse

diameter, but may be 80 mm. or perhaps very much more in length. The cell

walls are thin in the immature region, which occupies from one fourth to

one third the thickness of the frond. In the mature region, the cells are

nearly straight and perpendicular to the outer surfaces. Their walls are

thick, showing, however, great variability. That is, in tangential sections

parallel to the surface, some of the walls are rather thin and others are mucn

thickened. Of course, where the walls are thick, the cells are subcircular and

where thinner, proportionately angular. Mesopores are rather abundant, and

their distribution is irregular. Occasionally 6 or 8 or more occur together,

making a noticeable macula, but usually they are distributed in twos or threes,

though considerable areas can be observed in which none are developed at all.

The zooecia vary considerably in size, the larger ones usually occurring where

the mesopores are most abundant. The macule caused by the groups of

mesopores are, however, a much more striking feature than the congeries of

cells of larger size. Usually 6 or 7 zomwcia occur in a distance of 2 mm.;

when unusually large, 5; or when unusually small, 8, the measurements

being made where mesopores do not interfere.

The walls are generally divided by a distinct median line of darker color

than the rest, and in one or two cases where the walls are especially thick,

the slender, solid line appears broken up into a broader band of granules.

Acanthopores are numerous and very large. They usually occur at the angles,

but occasionally on the sides of the cells, and not all the angles are occupiea.

Where the walls are thick, the acanthopores do not greatly indent the cells,

but where the walls are thin, they do indent them, especially when of large

size. When the cells are cut longitudinally, the walls have the characteristic

swellings conspicuously developed. ‘They are large, abrupt and closely, though

somewhat irregularly, arranged. In this view, also, the walls sometimes show

fine, transverse bands of lighter and darker color, as if they were originally

composed of alternating layers of varying density. The mesopores appear

not to be tabulated, except perhaps very rarely. In the zomcial tubes, the

GIRTY, NEW CARBONIFEROUS FOSSILS 201

tabule are numerous, usually about a diameter apart, occasionally somewhat

less, more often somewhat more, rarely two diameters. They are centrally

perforated after the manner characteristic of this group.

To this species I have also referred some specimens which occur associ-

ated with the types and agree with them in microscopic peculiarities, but

differ in being uniserial expansions, one side of which is covered by an

epitheca (?). The growth is very irregular and attains a thickness of

15 mm. or more, appearing to consist of several successive layers in some

cases. Sections through such specimens transverse to the zoccia show

the rather characteristic groups of mesopores with extra large zocecia

associated with them. The walls manifest great diversity in thickness,

being exceedingly thin in some areas and much thickened in others near-

by. Acanthopores are somewhat sparsely developed, but are very large,

strongly indenting the chambers when the walls are not too thick. In

some cases, where the thickness is very great, there seem to be a number

of granules distributed along the median line instead of one large acan-

thopore situated at the angle. Sections cutting the walls longitudinally

show them to be thickened in the mature region and annulated, the annu-

lations being strong, abrupt and frequent. The diaphragms are rather

closely arranged, a diameter or less apart, but, in the younger region and

-also near the outer surface, occasionally much more. The early prostrate

portion appears to be, in some cases at least, very long and very slender.

Owing to irregularities of growth, such areas of slender, non-tabulated

cells occasionally recur in the midst of the more mature conditions. In

some cases, if not all, the zocecia, after they leave the prostrate position

and are of more nearly mature size, are thin-walled and non-tabulate

for a longer or shorter distance, after which the annulations and tabule

begin to appear. In the explanate specimens, the tabule are sometimes

quite closely arranged over considerable areas, one half a cell diameter

apart, more or less.

Cceloclemis subgen. nov.

Of this variety of structure, only one species is known and it is there-

fore taken as the type. It comprises small, irregular, hollow, dichoto-

mous branches lined with an epitheca. The zocecia are naturally short,

as the central cavity of the branches is large and the bounding zoarium

thin. They are prostrate and thin-walled in the immature portion, erect

and thick-walled in the mature. The amount of thickening varies much

from point to point, and it is regular and not moniliform. Macule and

monticules are present, but are neither well marked, abundant nor regu-

larly arranged. Tabule may be present (in the prostrate portion), but

2()2 ANNALS NEW YORK ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

they are rare. Acanthopores are large and moderately numerous. Meso-

pores absent.

This type belongs without much question to the Batostomellide but

can not be placed in any of the groups there recognized as at present

defined. The mode of growth is that of Anisotrypa, but the structure is

otherwise different. The structure is that of some not quite typical

species of Stenopora (not typical because of the rarity of the diaphragms

and the continuous or fused thickening of the mature wall), but the

mode of growth is distinct from that of Stenopora.

To some extent, the mode of growth seen in this group appears gener-

ally to be regarded as a generic character, and probably the present type

can with propriety be assigned to subgeneric rank on that account.

Type.—Celoclemis tumida.

Cceloclemis tumida sp. nov.

Zoarium consisting of hollow stems lined with an epitheca; irregularly

branched and with swollen portions, monticules (7), ete. Cross sections gen-

erally circular. just preceding bifurcation, compressed. The largest diameter

observed is 9 mm., but the average is about 5 mm., while the smallest noted

is 8 mm. The thickness of the wall. that is the thickness of the zoarium, is

from .5 to 1 mm. or more.

The zoccia appear to have a rather long. prostrate portion from which they

bend outward strongly to a radial direction. The presence of tabulze has not

been definitely determined. If developed at all, they appear to be rare and

restricted to the prostrate portion. The walls are as usual thin in the imma-

ture zone. At the surface. they vary. certain areas being thin- and others

thick-walled. The thick-walled areas are sometimes. though not always,

associated with prominences (monticules). The zoccia vary in size, there

being occasional groups of large cells, though there are considerable areas

upon which the cells appear to be undifferentiated in that way. The aper-

tures are angular, with rounded corners where the walls are thick. Five or

6 occur in 2 mm. Acanthopores are fairly abundant, situated at the angles

where developed. but not all the angles are filled. Where the walls are thin,

the acanthopores indent the cells: otherwise they are imbedded in the walls

without deforming the zomwcia. In addition to the large acanthopores. the

walls where thickened have many small spinules distributed through them.

Though especially abundant there, these are not restricted to the median line,

which is well defined by a continuous dark band. The median line is also

shown when the walls are quite thin. When cut lengthwise, the walls are

thin in the immature and usually much thickened in the mature region. This

thickening begins abruptly and is continuous.

Pycnopora subgen. nov.

This name is introduced in a subgeneric sense for a bryozoan type

whose affinities are clearly close with Lioclema. The type species grows

GIRTY, NEW CARBONIFEROUS FOSSILS 203

in a thin lamellar expansion, a type of growth also possessed by another

species which can with propriety be placed here (Lioclema? araneum

Ulrich). It has rather numerous mesopores and rather rare and small

acanthopores. Diaphragms are fairly abundant in the zoccia, and they

are centrally perforated. The walls are thickened in the mature region.

All these characters belong also to Lioclema, from which the present type

is distinguished by the degree of their development. It differs from

Lioclema in the greatly reduced number of mesopores and the much

smaller acanthopores. The difference is so marked as to deserve separa-

tion into a distinct group, probably of subgeneric importance.

Type.—Pycnopora regularis.

Pycnopora regularis sp. nov.

“oarium consisting of a thin expansion, one side of which is covered with a

wrinkled epitheca. Thickness .56 to 1 mm. Zocecia circular, usually in con-

tact, the interspaces occupied by mesopores, generally 2 or 3 ina group. Eight

zocecia occur in 2 mm. The walls of the mesopores are of equal size with

those of the zoccia. and the mesopores are often not distinctly angular. Acan-

thopores are rare and small and imbedded in the rather thick walls so that

they do not indent the cells. The zocecia vary considerably in size, and there

are macule at rather wide intervals formed by groups of mesopores of various

sizes with which are usually associated a few large zocecia. The average

diameter of the apertures is .17 mm.. but the larger ones measure .22 mm.

The tubes are prostrate for a short distance, later becoming erect and the

walls are somewhat obscurely moniliform. Tabule are fairly abundant, con-

sidering the length of the cells, and they are in many cases incomplete when

seen in longitudinal section. owing to the central perforation. They seem to

be restricted to the zocecia, none having been observed in the mesopores.

Pycnopora bella sp. nov.

Zoarium in the form of a thin expansion. The zomcia are at first slender

and prostrate for a considerable distance. later erect. Near the surface, the

walls are somewhat thickened, and the apertures are rounded. The apertures

occur about 8 in 2mm. They have a diameter of .17 to .21 mm., the average

being nearer the smaller size. In spite of the rather thin walls. the zocecia

are usually but obscurely polygonal, owing to occasional mesopores and the

numerous acanthopores. Mesopores are scantily developed and small, more

abundant on some areas than on others. Acanthopores are rather abundant

and rather large. more or less strongly indenting the cells. They are strik-

ingly tubulate. Jn addition to the acanthopores, the walls in some cases have

small granules along their margins. Diaphragms are rare and appear to be

restricted to the prostrate portion of the zoccia.

This form resembles P. hirsuta, from which it is distinguished by its

larger and Jess numerous acanthopores and thinner walls.

904. ANNALS NEW YORK ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

Pycnopora hirsuta sp. nov.

Zoarium in the form of a very thin expansion. Thickness .14 mm.

Zocecia prostrate and thin-walled below for a short distance, thick-walled

and erect at the surface. The apertures are rounded, more or less elongated,

rather regularly arranged in quincunx, about 7 or 8 in 2 mm. (7 in the direc-

tion of their longitudinal diameters). They are about .21 mm. long and from

11 to .14 mm. wide. The mesopores are small, rounded, distributed one or

two at a time in the angles between the zocecia. Walls thick, the intervals

between the zoccia being from one fourth to one half the shorter axis of the

latter or about as thick as the average mesopore. Acanthopores very numer-

ous, imbedded in the walls, occasionally indenting the cells, to which they

then give an irregular and undulating outline, medium-sized to large, often

10 or 12 around a zocecium. In some areas, the acanthopores are much larger

than in others, and I believe that this is not due to distance from the surface.

Tabule very rare in the zoccia and absent from the mesopores.

Stenocladia subgen. nov.

Zoarium in the form of bifoliate fronds which branch and perhaps inoscu-

late. A median plate is probably lacking. In no instance can the presence

of such a structure be demonstrated, and usually there is no trace that could

be so construed.

Zocecia elongated, slender and longitudinal in the median portion of the

frond; considerably larger and perpendicular to the surface at maturity. The

walls are thin in the immature zone, thickened near the surface. Mesopores

fairly abundant, variable in distribution, occasionally forming large groups

or macule. Acanthopores moderately abundant, small, not greatly indenting

the cells. Zocecia and mesopores thin-walled and angular to near the surface,

where the deposit of sclerenchyma closes the mesopores completely or in large

part and gives the zocecia a circular or oval shape at the same time diminish-

ing their caliber. The acanthopores also are metamorphosed nor do they

project as spines. The walls at the surface appear to be marked by granular

dots of several sizes, the larger ones distributed down the center of the walls,

the smaller ones more marginal. The acanthopores have conspicuous tubular

axes which proceed in straight lines to the surface. In addition to these

structures, the walls in sections at right angles to the surface show many

fiber-like lines of denser material which appear to curve and divide. seldom

being normal to the surface. There are thus three fairly distinct zones on

each side: an axial zone, a superficial zone in which all the structures are

modified by sclerenchyma and an intermediate zone in which the zocecia. acan-

thopores and mesopores have their more usual characters.

Typre.—Stenocladia frondosa.

Although presenting many analogies to the tvpe of structure which I

have included under Jdioclema, it seems probable that this must be re-

garded as having widely different affinities. The most marked resem-

blances are found in the wall structure, with its inosculating fibers and

granulose, strikingly tubulated acanthopores. On the other hand, we

GIRTY, NEW CARBONIFEROUS FOSSILS 205

have the mode of growth, bifoliate in the present type and ramose in

Idioclema, the entire absence of any structures resembling the hemisepta

seen in the latter, and the presence of a stage with numerous angular

mesopores and normal acanthopores which is not found in Jdioclema.

On the whole, and chiefly because of the stage with distinct angular

mesopores and normal acanthopores, I am including this form as a sub-

genus under Lioclema in which a group of species is also known having

a superficial sclerenchymatose deposit. In some respects, this form sug-

gests Intrapora (cf. I. basalis) and some analogies can be drawn, but the

absence of hemisepta in the present form and of acanthopores in [ntra-

pora seems to show widely different affinities.

Stenocladia frondosa sp. nov.

Zoarium in the form of rather extensive though thin bifoliate fronds which

are considerably flexed or distorted and which divide and perhaps anastomose,

being considerably thickened at such points. Normal thickness .5 mm. to

2mm.

Zocecia small, longitudinal and thin-walled in the median portion of the

frond, considerably expanded toward the surface, near which they are directed

outward and have thick walls. The apertures are rounded and generally

somewhat elongated, .17 to .2 mm. in longest diameter. Eight or 9 apertures

occur in 2 mm. and they are separated by about one half their own diameter.

Cortical and mesial zones sharply and strongly marked. The cells are oblique

and the walls thin in the mesial portion; the cells perpendicular to the surface

and the walls thick in the cortical portion, the changes being effected very

abruptly. The mature zone is of varying length in different specimens, rela-

tively narrower in the narrower specimens, ranging frum about one third to

one sixth of the width on each side. Acanthopores and mesopores are present

in abundance, but they are obscured near the surface by a deposit of scleren-

chyma, so that sections present remarkably different aspects, according as

they pass through different levels. Apparently in the young part of the ma-

ture zone, the mesopores are numerous and rather large, very variable in

numbers in different areas of the zoarium. They form rather extensive aggre-

gations or maculz in some areas. In others the zocecia are in contact, with

the mesopores distributed in groups of two or three, while in still others the

zocecia are separated by single rows of mesopores. Acanthopores are fairly

numerous and small, but nevertheless they indent the cells more or less by

reason of the extreme thinness of the wails. Diaphragms are very rare and

appear to be non-perforated. They are confined to the zowcia. At the sur-

face, the mesopores are closed by a deposit of sclerenchyma, and the acantho-

pores also seem to be modified to some extent. The surface namely appears

to be without spines and often without mesopores, though, when slightly

weathered, and perhaps here and there when not, the mesopores are clearly to

be seen in varying numbers as described above. When the mesopores are not

visible. the interspaces between the zoccia appear to be thick and structure-

less, Thin sections just at the surface show few, if any. mesopores. Acan-

thopores are numerous. Whereas below the surface they appear as small

206 ANNALS NEW YORK ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

dense bodies having, however, a tubular axis, in the thickened mature portion

they are much larger and more nebulous, apparently composed of many little

fibers. Rows of large ones range down the middle of the thickened walls, and

smaller ones occur more marginally. A little deeper, the walls appear to be

thin, the zocecia larger, and angular, more or less numerous, mesopores appear,

while the acanthopores are less numerous and smaller. In some tangential

sections, instead of distinct acanthopores of two sizes, the wall appears to be

intersected by numerous small uniform granules or fibers. In sections cutting

the walls longitudinally, the tubular axes of the acanthopores can be seen

passing completely through the thickened walls, which are, in addition, more

or less speckled with the granules mentioned in the description of the tan-

gential appearance.

Syringoclemis gen. nov.

Zoarium consisting of hollow cylindrical branches lined with an ‘epitheca

(?). Zoccial apertures somewhat elongated, irregular, ovate or subpetaloid.

Mesopores abundant, subangular. Acanthopores scantily developed, of two

sizes in the typical species, the larger very rare, the smaller much more abun-

dant but reduced to mere granules. Mature region narrow. Walls thin

below, much thickened in the cortical zone to which the mesopores are con-

fined. Diaphragms apparently lacking.

TyPe.—Syringoclemis biserialis.

The affinities of this form are somewhat doubtful. In some respects,

it is suggestive of the Rhabdomesidz or Cycloporide. It is provisionally

placed with the Batostomellide, although the thin layers of which the

zoarium is composed, together to some extent with its growth as hollow

branches, joined with the character of the zocecia with their raised peri-

stomes, are not characteristic of that group. Syringoclemis differs from

typical Lioclema in several particulars, especially in its mode of growth,

since none of the species referred to that genus form hollow branches.

The narrow mature zone, the absence of diaphragms, the obsolescence of

acanthopores and the open mesopores are all characters which are alien

to typical Lioclema. The mode of growth is, of course, like that of

Amisotrypa, but the other characters are different.

In a general way, this is similar to the form which I have called Callo-

cladia, but that type possesses hemisepta, has a vestibulum, ete., and

probably belongs to an altogether different group. In some respects, it

resembles Dyscritella. It differs markedly in the mode of growth, the

shortness of the zocecial tubes, their elevated peristomes and the great

abundance of mesopores.

Syringoclemis biserialis sp. nov.

Zoarium consisting of hollow, dichotomous branches having a diameter of

5 mm. or less. The zoarium itself is less than 1 mm. in thickness and lined

with an epitheca. Apertures with a slightly projecting peristome and an

GIRTY, NEW CARBONIFEROUS FOSSILS 207

irregularly oval or slightly petaloid shape. Variable in size and outline,

usually from .18 to .21 mm. in longest diameter, rarely .28 mm. Irregularly

arranged, rarely in contact, more often with one or even two rows of mesv-

pores intervening. Mesopores irregular in size and arrangement. The largest

are of about half the diameter of the zocecia, but it is rare to find them so

large. They are subangular and of regular shape, usually separating the

zocecia in a single row, less often two rows, rarely three. Six or less of the

zocecia occur in a linear distance of 2 mm. There are rare macule consisting

of mesopores or small cells. Acanthopores are of two sizes. One kind is

very large and very rare, developed in the walls of the zoccia, which they in-

dent. The other is much smaller, developed as rows of granules along the

middle of the walls of the zoccia, occasionally in the mesopore walls. Both

kinds are, however, scantily developed and considerable areas occur in which

no acanthopores can be seen at all.

When the cells are cut lengthwise, they are seen to be Slightly oblique, very

rapidly expanding, with a short prostrate portion, perhaps strictly vertical

only in the mature region, which is quite narorw (.14 to .28 mm.). The

cortical zone is abruptly and greatly thickened, the mesopores being confined

to it, so that the zocecia are much larger below than near the surface. Tabule,

so far as observed, are entirely lacking both in the zowcia and the mesopores.

Polypora mesleriana sp. nov.

Zoarium apparently rather small for the genus, very irregular in growth,

with the surface contorted and the branches often strongly bent. Owing to

this irregularity, the measurements and relations vary greatly. There are

5 branches and 4 rows of fenestrules in 5 mm., but 4 branches and 3 rows

may occur on the same specimen. The branches are relatively slender when

first introduced and about twice as broad before division, to which circum-

stance and the fact that they sometimes diverge rapidly the difference in

measurement noted above may be ascribed. Longitudinally, from 2 to 2.5 or

even 3 fenestrules occur in 5 mm. They are usually elongate, nearly twice as

long as they are wide and subrectangular to subelliptical in shape, but they

vary considerably in proportion. The branches range from one half to nearly

twice the fenestrules in width in extreme cases, but the average is inter-

mediate. They are rounded when narrow and flattened when broad and are

very much broader than the dissepiments which are slender (on the reverse)

and somewhat depressed. On this side, the branches are marked by fine but

sharp and regular longitudinal stris, which, in some instances, swing off onto

the dissepiments. Over the older portions, these markings appear to be lost,

but they are apt to show when exfoliated, indicating that they are’structural

as well as superficial. There is some evidence that they are marked by fine

granules or spines.

On the obverse, tae apertures usually occur in 4 rows (more rarely 3 or 5).

They are situated in grooves, which lie between rather strong ridges. The

erests of the latter seem to have a zigzag course and bear strong spinules

which have a regular arrangement alternating with the aperture. Of the

latter, 5 to 7 occur opposite a fenestrule. They are oval in shape with sharply

elevated peristomes and appear to be covered in some cases at least with

centrally perforated opercula.

208 ANNALS NEW YORK ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

Septopora pustulifera sp. nov.

Zoarium probably small, very irregular in growth. Four rows of fenestrules

and 8 branches to 4 rows and 5 branches, occur in 5 mm. Three and one half

to 4 fenestrules occur in the same distance longitudinally. The branches and

dissepiments are usually about equal in size, both more or tess expanded at

their juncture. Fenestrules subquadrate to subcircular, irregular in size and

shape. Dissepiments sometimes oblique, sometimes forming zigzag lines,

rarely meeting in an angular or curved figure, as is rather characteristic of

the genus. On the obverse, the zocecia are in two rows separated by a carina

(?), and the dissepiments also show two rows. The reverse is marked by

rather numerous, large, conspicuous pustules or accessory pores. These often

look like spines which have been broken off, but probably are crater-like

openings with raised edges. There are also (in one specimen) smaller pointed

elevations like low papille. Lire are likewise present, but they are discon-

tinuous. Infrequently a median lira is found, which causes the back to have

a more or less carinated appearance, while there are finer, less persistent lirze

lateral to it. The pustules occur on both branches and dissepiments, but the

lirse appear to be restricted to the branches.

Rhombopora persimilis var. miseri var. nov.

Zoarium ramose, bifurecating at frequent but irregular intervals. Branches

about 1.5 mm. in diameter. Apertures regularly arranged in longitudinal and

oblique rows of which there are about 16 lengthwise around the stem. The

oblique series intersect at angles of about 30° longitudinally and 60° trans-

versely. The apertures are strongly elongated and separated by thick angular

walls. Longitudinally, 4 apertures occur in a distance of 2 mm. One or two

large tubercles are developed in the long distance which separates the top of

one aperture from the bottom of the one above in the longitudinal series,

and a row of smaller spinules occupies the crests of the dividing ridges

laterally.

This form is known chiefly from thin sections, and such statements as

relate to superficial appearance are based upon few observations. In

transverse sections, the thickened portion seems to be narrow, often not

more than one sixth or one eighth of the whole at either end of a

diameter. The bounding ridges appear as elliptical bodies with their

long axes in a radial direction when the section cuts through a cell.

When it passes between two cells, the thickenings of course coalesce, and

when it passes through a spinule, it terminates in a strongly projecting

point. Each thickened mass shows a median line of darker color which

has of course a radial direction.

None of the longitudinal sections examined probably passes quite

through the middle of a branch. The blocks of thickened tissue have a

rectangular shape and are much longer than in the transverse section,

but they are somewhat similarly modified as they cut different portions

of the zoarium. The zocecial tubes are without tabule.

GIRTY, NEW CARBONIFEROUS FOSSILS 209

In tangential section, the zocecia are seen to be elliptical in section, not

quite twice as long as wide. The intervals laterally are slightly less than

the width of the tubes. Longitudinally, the distance is more than the

length of the long diameter, but occasionally less and occasionally also

twice as great. A large acanthopore-like spine occurs near the end of

each aperture, while a row of smaller ones traverses the middle of each

wall. The smaller spines are more superficial than the large ones, and

fewer of them show in proportion as the section is cut farther from the

surface, so that in some cases they appear to be well-nigh absent.

Streblotrypa nickelsi var. robusta var. nov.

Zoarium in the form of long, cylindrical stems which are sometimes more

or less bent and but seldom branched. Diameter a little less than 1 mm.

Apertures in alternating linear rows, about 12 to the circumference. They

are ovate, broader and more truncated on the posterior side, surrounded by a

distinct peristome which is confluent with the raised longitudinal lines that

divide the rows of apertures. The longitudinal lines are somewhat sinuous,

contracting downward from the base of one aperture to the top of the next.

Spaces between the zoccial apertures in the same row twice or more the

length of the apertures themselves, somewhat depressed, occupied by about 12

pores, variable in number and in size. Usually they are arranged in 2 rows,

5 or 6 pores in each, while the widening of the interzoccial areas toward the

top leaves room for an additional intermediate incomplete row of 2 or 3.

There are 4 apertures and 4 interzocwcial areas in 2 mm. longitudinally. The

zocecial tubes are long, gradually diverging, rather abruptly turning outward

when near the surface. Hemisepta about as in S. nickelsi.

Cceloconus tuba sp. nov.

Zoarium in the form of a gradually enlarging cone, more or less contorted,

attaining a length of at least 138 mm. and a diameter of 3.5 mm. Usually the

fossil appears as a mold of the interior, partly embedded in rock, the

zoarium itself adhering to the external rather than to the internal matrix.

In this condition, it appears to be marked by more or less closely arranged,

regular constrictions or by fine sharp annulations. In one specimen, the con-

strictions are much coarser and more irregular. There are also fine concen-

tric striz and obscure linear longitudinal markings. Some of the specimens

taper gradually to a point, while others contract suddenly, so that the lower

end appears truncated and rounded. These differences may be indicative of

different species, but my material is so scanty that it has seemed inexpedient

to sacrifice it to ascertain this fact by sectioning.

As the specimens examined show no external characters beyond those men-

tioned, which are probably not truly specific in value, the essential part of the

description is based on thin sections. The walls of the zoarium are 28 mm.

in thickness. The basal plate is thin. The partitions extend obliquely up-

ward; the ends bend somewhat inward into hook-like hemisepta, while the

outer surface is abruptly and strongly thickened, forming more or less

210 ANNALS NEW YORK ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

quadrate blocks when seen in longitudinal section. The inferior hemisepta

have not been observed. Tangential sections show the cells to be circular

or slightly elongated and arranged rather regularly in quincunx, so as to

form oblique rows as well as longitudinal ones. About 7 cells occur longi-

tudinally in 2 mm. The walls are thick, those separating laterally adjacent

cells being about one half the width, and those separating longitudinally adja-

cent cells about one half the length of the cells. The central line of the walls

is occupied by a row of spinules outlining a hexagon having perhaps 2

spinules to a side and one on each of the angles, although such an arrange-

ment is by no means constant.

Idioclema gen. nov.

The following description is based upon the only species known, and it

may therefore have to be modified when other related forms are brought

to light. The name /dioclema is then introduced for a Bryozoan type

having solid, straight, probably branching stems of small diameter.

There is a well-defined cortical zone in which the zocecia are radial and

have greatly thickened walls, and an inner or immature region in which

the zocecia have thin walls and for a long distance preserve a longitudinal

direction. On the interpretation of structure adopted here, mesopores

are absent, but acanthopores of abnormal type are abundant. In fact it

would appear that the cortical zone, in which alone these structures

occur, was dominated by them and that they formed the walls by which

the irregularly oval or even tortuous zocecial tubes are separated, by

becoming confluent with one another as they come in contact. Each

acanthopore is as thick as the entire wall, and by uniting laterally they

form inosculating bands. The constituent unit can often be made out as

(in tangential section) large circular bodies having a tubular axis and

a row of elongated granules about the margin. The granules are perhaps

oblique inosculating fibers and show conspicuously when the tubes are

cut longitudinally. They appear to be irregular in direction and do not

make continuous lines for any considerable distance. Tabule appear to

be absent. Hemisepta are, however, developed just within the cortical

zone. One projects upward and somewhat obliquely inward from the

proximal portion of the wall at the commencement of the thickened zone

and about at the point at which the tubes turn into a radial direction.

A second projects upward and somewhat obliquely outward from the

opposite wall a little farther down the tube.

The affinities of the form are very much in doubt by reason of the

very unusual character of the wall structure. The presence of hemisepta,

however, is a diagnostic character and seems to forbid placing the genus

with the Batostomellide, to which it shows some points of resemblance.

GIRTY, NEW CARBONIFEROUS FOSSILS tat

While forced to conclude that Idioclema cannot rightly be referred to

the Batostomellide, I am none the less in doubt as to where it should

properly be placed. Provisionally I am including it in the Rhabdome-

side. It may form the nucleus for an independent family, the Idio-

clematide.

Typr.—Idioclema insigne.

Idioclema insigne sp. nov.

Zoarium in the form of freely branching stems, more or less circular in

cross section, but expanded and compressed at points of bifurcation. Diam-

eter ranging to 5 mm., usually less, and averaging about 3 mm. Superficial

characters not known.

Cortical zone strongly marked and very variable in thickness, probably

according to age, ranging from one third to one sixth of the diameter of the

stem on each side. Zocecial tubes long and straight in the axial region where

they are .098 to .14 mm. in diameter, then slightly inclined to the surface and

later abruptly turned to a radial direction. Diaphragms appear to be want-

ing, but hemisepta are well developed. There occurs an incomplete partition

projecting inward and upward from the lower wall of each tube just as it

turns into an axial direction. A second incomplete partition projecting

obliquely upward and outward frequently occurs a little farther down the.

tube on the opposite wall, where it has a slightly inclined direction.

The structure of the walls is difficult to describe, and the terms used depend

largely upon whether the appearances in section are interpreted as much

modified acanthopores with large tubular axes or as mesopores without true

acanthopores. The walls are thin in the axial region and strongly and

abruptly thickened in the cortical zone. In tangential section, the zoarium

appears to consist of tortuous, inosculating bands which leave between them:

the openings for the zomwcia. The bands, representing the walls, seem to main-

tain a rather regular width, but the tubes between are irregular in size and’

shape, subcircular, oval, or even more or less tortuous. The structure of the

walls is peculiar. In places, they are represented by what may be considered!

very large abnormal acanthopores, having a circular shape in section and a

diameter about that of the entire wall. In the center is a relatively large

tubular axis and about the circumference a few fairly regularly arranged

granules which are slightly elongated and radially arranged. It appears to

be the fusing of these acanthopores (?) that produces the continuous walls,

which are intersected by similar granules, especially about the margins, and

have distributed down the centers a row of similar axial tubes. When the

zocecia are cut longitudinally, the structure of the cortical zone appears to be

more regular, consisting of the tubular cavities of the zocecia alternating with

bands of varying width representing the walls and separable into units by the

tubules of the acanthopores. These large straight persistent tubular axes

are a striking feature, and there are in addition granules like those of the

tangential section, circular or elongated and either without conspicuous agree-

ment in direction or directed more or less obliquely downward toward the

tubular axis, showing that. if they are continuous fibers, the granules must

run irregularly through the acanthopore-like mass.

912 ANNALS NEW YORK ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

There can hardly be a doubt that the unit of which the walls is constructed

is the cylindrical body with small tubular axis and oblique fibres or granules.

This structure may be interpreted as a small mesopore (the tubular axis)

and a wall beset with granules, but the interpretation here tentatively adopted

seems to be the more likely. Stellate acanthopores, somewhat comparable to

these, are figured by Ulrich in Bactropora simple.

Callocladia gen. nov.

This type forms hollow cylindrical branches with the walls made up of one

or more layers. The walls of the zoccia are thin in the immature region,

much thickened in the mature region, with angular crests on the external sur-

face. Acanthopores are fairly abundant, showing clearly on the exterior,

rather obscure in thin sections unless the latter cut the walls where they are

thin, in which case’ the acanthopores are striking and indent the cells. Meso-

pores are abundant, usually in groups of two or more. Hemisepta are present.

The superficial appearance of this organism is extremely suggestive of

Intrapora (J. basalis and I. undulata), but the mode of growth, not bi-

foliate but in the shape of hollow cylinders, and the undoubted presence

of acanthopores, ete., debars it not only from that genus but from the

same family. The mode of growth, the presence of acanthopores and

presence of hemisepta suggest a relationship with C@loconus, in the

Rhabdomesidz, but the presence of abundant mesopores debars it from

that genus and all but debars it from that family.

If the structures the nature of which is not clear but which are sug-

gestive of hemisepta can be interpreted as perforated diaphragms, this

form could find admission into the Batostomellide with the relationship

probably closer to Stenopora than to the other members of the family.

The mode of growth as small, hollow, cylindrical branches having very

thin walls is rather alien to Stenopora, as is also the shortness of the

zocecial tubes and the increase by superposed layers, rather than by the

extension of the tubes themselves. Mesopores are abundant—much more

so than in any species of Stenopora. 'Tabule appear to be wanting or

extremely rare, which is also uncommon in Stenopora, while the walls

are strongly thickened in a solid mass, instead of by annulations. On

the external surface also, they have an angular crest which gives the cells

an appearance of being vestibulate. Acanthopores are rather more spar-

ingly developed than in most species of Stenopora.

If the structures which suggest hemisepta have really that nature,

Callocladia would clearly be debarred from the Batostomellide and would

probably find place among the Rhabdomeside.

Typre.—Callocladia elegans.

GIRTY, NEW CARBONIFEROUS FOSSILS 213

Callocladia elegans sp. nov.

Zoarium in the form of hollow tubes which vary in size in different speci-

mens, the largest, however, rarely exceeding 5 mm. in diameter. The walls

contract and expand more or less irregularly in the same specimen. Inner

surface lined with an epitheca. Zoarium thin, 1 mm. more or less in thick-

ness, made up of one or more layers each of which is from .43 to .70 mm. in

diameter.

The zocecia are oblique for a short distance, when they bend abruptly to a

radial direction, increasing rapidly in size. The walls are thin where oblique

and strongly and abruptly thickened where they have a radial direction. The

appearance in fact is as if there were two distinct walls, the inner one thin

and oblique, to which just back of its extremity is attached another, very

much thicker and almost at right angles to it. The projecting end of the

inner wall makes a structure like a hemiseptum, and there is evidence of an-

other on the opposite side answering to it. On the external surface, the walls

have an angular crest from which a slope descends on either hand to the

rounded tubes. In thin section, they show a median line which is more or

less distinct. The apertures are rather regularly arranged in oblique rows

and come about 5 in 2 mm. Maculz and monticules are absent. Owing to

the thick walls, the zocecia are subcircular or obscurely polygonal. The aver-

age diameter is .28 mm., but it varies from .21 to .85 mm. Mesopores are

abundant, 2 or 3 occurring in the angles where three cells meet. In some

cases, a row of mesopores separates a cell from that which lies above or below

it on the branch, but laterally the zocecia are in contact. The mesopores are

of various shapes and sizes, their naturally angular outline being modified by

the thick walls. Acanthopores are fairly abundant ou the external surface,

projecting as small granules from the angles of the cells. In thin section,

they are rather obscured in the thick walls, with which they merge to a

greater or less degree. Just below the thickened portion, however, they are

again conspicuous and indent the cells. The occurrence of projections re-

sembling hemisepta seems to be rather regular, one to a zoccium, and they

must be interpreted as perforated diaphragms, if this genus is to be admitted

to the Batostomellide.

Cystodictya pustulosa var. arcta var. nov.

Zoarium growing in flat bifoliate branches which have a width of about

2.5 mm. and a thickness of about .5 mm. There is considerable variation in

both these measurements, the width ranging from less than 2.5 mm. to 3 mm.

or a little more, and the thickness from somewhat less than .5 mm. to nearly

1mm. The branches. divide frequently but irregularly, bifurcations occurring

close together in some examples and far apart in others. My material, though

abundant, is too much broken up to show the range of this variation, but

6 mm. is perhaps the average length between divisions. The zomcia often

appear to have no regular arrangement either longitudinally or diagonally.

In some instances they occur in two oblique, intersecting series. Rarely they

are developed on short, oblique ridges near the margin of the branch. The

longitudinal order is perhaps less conspicuous than the oblique, and it is diffi-

eult to determine the number of longitudinal rows in which the zocecia occur.

914 ANNALS NEW YORK ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

When determinable, from 6 to 8 seems to be the number, which varies accord-

ing to the width. In parts of some specimens, the zocecial openings seem to

occur in rows which are neither longitudinal nor transverse but slightly in-

clined from a strictly longitudinal direction. The apertures are circular or

slightly elongated, and, when not worn down, their margins are elevated in

such manner as to give the surface a strongly pustulose appearance. Longi-

tudinally about 4 apertures and 4 interspaces, or 5 apertures and 4 interspaces

occur in 2 mm. They are separated on an average by intervals which are

about equal to their own diameters (about .17 mm.), but vary from consider-

ably less to double the diameter. The intervals between the apertures are

smooth. Of longitudinal furrows or ridges there is no trace. In fact, the

irregular distribution of the apertures would hardly be correlated with such

superficial markings.

Orthotetes subglobosus sp. nov.

Shells attaining a rather large size, maximum width about 50 mm. Shape

semicircular, transverse. Cardinal angles often rounded so that the greatest

width is a little in front of the hinge.

Ventral valve generally flat or slightly concave, moderately elevated pos-

teriorly, rarely distorted. Cardinal area nearly perpendicular to the plane of

the margins. Pseudodeltidium narrow, higher than broad with a sulcus down

the middle. Upon the inside, a long median septum unites with the two dental

plates, thus forming with the pseudodeltidium a small chamber.

Dorsal valve convex. Often highly inflated, especially in the umbonal

region.

Surface marked by thin, sharp radii separated by relatively broad, flat in-

terspaces, crossed by rather strong. coarse, crenulating liree. The radii are

often strikingly and regularly unequal. In number and appearance, they vary

greatly owing to the number of intermediate ones that happen to be present.

In some specimens, only about 7 large subequal lirze can be counted in 5 mm.,

having broad interspaces between; in others, 7 with alternating small ones

occur; and in still others, 13 or 14 rather fine subequal ones; but in still others,

the latter number can be observed alternating with very fine initial lire. As

new lirze are not interpolated with absolute regularity, the count varies much

within the broad limits indicated. depending not only upon what lire are

actually present, but also upon how many are regarded as primary and sec-

ondary, or even are sufficiently well developed to be counted at all.

Orthotetes subglobosa var. protensa var. nov.

This variety is based upon a single specimen distinguished principally by

having a more elevated and distorted ventral valve than the normal. The

height of the pseudodeltidium must have been about 11 mm. and a width below

of 7 mm. The area is rather strongly inclined to the plane passing through

the margins of the shell.

This specimen was found associated with a ventral valve having the

low area and regular growth of the typical form, of which it will prob-

GIRTY, NEW CARBONIFEROUS FOSSILS 215.

ably be best to regard it as a distinct variety. In addition to the typical

specimen, several other examples have more or less doubtfully been as-

signed to this group.

Chonetes sericeus sp. nov.

Shell of medium size, a width of 16 mm. being about the maximum observed.

Frequently rather transverse with somewhat extended hinge line; some speci-

mens with proportionately greater height and more quadrate shape,

Convexity of ventral valve moderate. In some specimens, this valve is only

slightly convex with an inconspicuous beak and presumably a rather high

area. Occasionally in specimens of this type, the chief convexity lies towards

the margins. In other specimens, the umbonal region is moderately vaulted

and the beak fairly prominent. The cardinal spines are rather slender,

strongly oblique, and there are probably four or five on each side.

Dorsal valve like the ventral in shape, varying from flat to gently concave.

Surface marked by fine radiating liree of which some 13 to 15 occur in a

distance of 2 mm. They are rather sharply defined and crossed by strong,

somewhat irregular strize of growth, which over some areas are prominent

and sinuous. They are also specially noticeable on the cardinal angles, where

the radii are apt to be faint or lacking for a considerable distance.

Strophalosia subcostata sp. nov.

Shell small, productiform. Ventral valve strongly arched; umbo flattened

by attachment. Ears strongly depressed and rather spreading. Sculpture

consists of moderately strong, coarse strive of growth, of large spines upon the

ears, which spring directly from the surface, and of interrupted cost or elon-

gated spine bases which end abruptly with the formation of a small spine at

the anterior end.

Dorsal valve unknown.

Productus inflatus var. clydensis var. nov.

Shell rather small, often much produced and deeply enrolled. Fold and

sinus more or less evanescent. Hars small, subquadrate.

Surface marked by fine, rigid lire, about 16 in 10 mm. In specimens which

are much produced, they seem to become evanescent anteriorly. In the ven-

tral valve, a cluster of large spines occupies the ears, while a considerable

number of smaller ones are scattered over the surface. The visceral area is

crossed by transverse wrinkles which tend to be coarse, faint and irregular.

Productus inflatus var. coloradoensis var. nov.

21890. Productus boliviensis (non @Orbigny). Nikitin, Com. Géol. [Russia],

Mem., vol. 5, No. 5, p. 57, pl. 1, figs. 4a, 40, 4c.

Gschelstufe: Near Moscow, Russia.

21902. Productus inflatus (non McChesney). Tschernychew, Com. Géol. [Rus-

sia], Mem., vol. 16, No. 2, p. 261, pl. 28, figs. 1-6.

Gschelstufe: Ural and Timan Mountains, Russia.

916 ANNALS NEW YORK ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

1903. Productus inflatus (non McChesney). Girty, U. 8. Geol. Survey, Prof.

Paper 16, p. 359, pl. 3, fig. 1-1b, 2, 2a,3. ~

Hermosa formation: San Juan region and Ouray, Colorado.

Weber limestone: Crested Butte and Leadville districts, Colorado.

Carboniferous: Glenwood Springs, Colorado.

1904. Productus inflatus ? (non McChesney). Girty, U. S. Geol. Survey, Prof.

Paper 21, p: 52, pl. 11, figs. 5, 6.

Pennsylvanian (Naco limestone) : Bisbee quadrangle, Arizona.

In 1903, I referred to McChesney’s P. inflatus a group of shells from

the Pennsylvanian of Colorado, expressing at the time a certain doubt

whether they were actually identical with it. For this group I would

now suggest the varietal name coloradoensis. The western variety is of

different geological age and associated with a very different fauna from

typical Productus inflatus. Intrinsically it is larger and broader and

marked by much larger spines.

The Arkansas shells provisionally referred to the same variety are as-

sociated with P. inflatus in the Fayetteville shale and probably inter-

graduate with it. They are chiefly distinguished by being larger and

broader, though, as the specimens thus far obtained are neither numerous

nor perfect, other differences may develop with closer knowledge. I have

observed, upon most of the specimens sufficiently preserved to show this

character, a diagonal line of spines about where the ear may be said to

join the body of the shell. This feature occurs in P. inflatus rarely, if

at all, but I have called attention to a similar thing in Productus semt-

reticulatus var. animasensis. There are few specimens about which one

would hesitate whether to refer them to P. inflatus or to P. inflatus var.

coloradoensis, and perhaps there would be fewer still if the specimens

themselves were more perfect.

These Arkansas shells simulate typical P. inflatus var. coloradoensis

rather closely. Much of the Arkansas material is broken or exfoliated,

but I believe it does not have as numerous or as large spines as that from

Colorado. The sinus is also deeper.

Productus arkansanus sp. nov.

The shells included under this title present so many variations that

it is difficult to frame a general description of them. They attain a size

which may be called medium or even rather large, but many of the

specimens actually handled are small. In the young (small) stages, the

shape is subquadrate and rather transverse, while in a mature condition,

the length is sometimes greater than the breadth. Nevertheless, the

transverse shape is in certain instances retained to the mature condition,

while, on the other hand, the tendency to elongate is sometimes mani-

GIRTY, NEW CARBONIFEROUS FOSSILS oni;

fested at an early stage. The outline usually contracts toward the hinge,

and the ears are small and inconspicuous.

Ventral valve strongly convex with gradually enlarging umbo. Of course,

in the narrow specimens the umbonal angle is more acute than in the broader

ones. Ears small and depressed. There is usually a broad, shallow, some-

times indistinct median sinus.

In the dorsal valve the shell is gently concave over the visceral area, more

strongly fiexed around its border. A median fold is usually present. The

ears are small and indistinct.

The coste vary greatly in character. They are usually rather irregular.

with relatively broad strize in between. At rather frequent and regularly

increasing intervals they give off small spines and are swollen and elevated

at the spines and constricted and depressed just in front, so that in some cases

the surface looks as if marked less by continuous coste than by elongated

spine bases which terminate rather abruptly at the anterior end with the

development of the spine which gave rise to them. This effect is more marked

in some specimens than in others, and also in some specimens the cost are

finer and more closely arranged than in others. Toward the front, the coste

tend to be more regular and continuous. Distinct strive of growth usually

show upon well-preserved specimens, to which are in some cases added trans-

verse wrinkles more or less irregular and obscure, except on the ears. In

some cases, also, there are well defined. regularly arranged transverse bands.

The arrangement of the spines is more regular in some specimens than in

others, and occasionally they appear to occur in transverse rows, especially in

connection with the sub-lamellose bands just mentioned.

In the dorsal valve, the sculpture is the reverse of that described. In the

most strongly characteristic specimens, the external mold appears to be marked

by sharply defined regular spine bases with prominent spines. In others,

the appearance is more that of continuous cost. Regularly concentric sub-

lamellose bands frequently occur, and spines are developed on this valve, as

well as on the other.

Productus arkansanus var. multiliratus var. nov.

One or two localities have furnished a phase of this species which

seems to warrant discrimination as a distinct variety. It is characterized

by being unusually large, broad and with very fine continuous lire and

small spines. The dominating form at these two stations, it is yet even

there associated with examples which can most appropriately be referred

to the original species, while with the latter an occasional specimen is

found which, by reason of its finer markings, might perhaps be referred

to the variety multiliratus. Because of this intergradation, more or less

complete, the present form could hardly be considered more than a

variety.

Diaphragmus subgen. nov.

This name is introduced for Productus elegans Norwood and Pratten,

a specific name for which Worthen later substituted cestriensis. The

218 ANNALS NEW YORK ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

general aspect of this species is that of Producti of the semireticulatus

group, only somewhat abnormal in that the typical semireticulati are

broad, subquadrate shells and marked by numerous regular concentric

wrinkles passing across the visceral area from one large ear to the other.

P. elegans, however, has a narrow, more gradually expanding shape; the

ears are small and the concentric wrinkles few and irregular. The coste

are strong and subequal, but tend to be discontinuous over the visceral

parts and to have the appearance of appressed spines. While not one of

the typical semireticulati in expression, P. elegans is at least typical

Productus. The diagnostic character is internal and consists of a par-

tition passing completely across the interior of the shell. This structure

appears to be an outgrowth of the dorsal valve from the geniculation,

where the flattened visceral area abruptly joins the lateral areas. It lies

in the same plane with the visceral area and appears, as it were, an

extension of it.

This structure frequently forms a plane of dehiscence when specimens

are broken out of the rock, the visceral area of the dorsal valve, the vis-

ceral area of the ventral valve and the diaphragm remaining on one

piece, while the lateral and anterior extensions of both valves (which

are almost in contact), together with the mold of the diaphragm and of

the visceral area of the dorsal valve, remain on the other. The dia-

phragm and visceral area of the dorsal valve, while essentially on the

same plane, are readily distinguishable, being separated by a slight ridge

(or groove) and marked by different sculpture, the regular strong coste

of the external shell being replaced on the diaphragm by fine radiating

striae.

There is no doubt that this type should be distinguished from true

Productus, but there may be some question as to whether it is not already

covered by Waagen’s genus Marginifera. Waagen’s description reads as

if Diaphragmus might be an extreme example of Marginifera, but there

can hardly be a doubt, I believe, that Diaphragmus is something distinct

from Marginifera splendens, the typical species of Marginifera. Indeed,

I am inclined to suspect that Waagen, who apparently did not have

access to specimens of the American species and was working from the

literature alone, may have been led to misinterpret the figures and de-

scriptions of NV. splendens so as to imagine that the bevel of the dorsal

valve was an internal feature exposed by fracture rather than an external

feature which is shown on the outside of all perfect, well-preserved speci-

mens. However this may be, it seems to me that Marginifera must ad-

here to the characters shown by M. splendens, and that that species is

clearly a distinct type of structure from Diaphragmus.

Tyer.—Diaphragmus elegans.

GIRTY, NEW CARBONIFEROUS FOSSILS 219

Camaroteechia purduei sp. nov.

Shell rather large, a length of 15 mm. being about the maximum. Length

and width nearly equal, the one being greater in some specimens and the

other in others. Outline variable, subtriangular, subpentagonal or subovate,

the greatest width being sometimes nearer the anterior end and sometimes

about midway. Beak of the ventral valve small, suberect and somewhat flat-

tened. Fold and sinus strongly elevated and sharply defined.

Surface marked by subangular plications reaching backward to the beaks.

As a rule, 4 of these occupy the fold and 3 the sinus, but in many instances the

fold has 3 and the sinus 2 plications. Rarely are 5 developed on the fold.

When 8 are present, sometimes they are of equal size, but sometimes the

median one is larger and more elevated so that the fold and sinus are pointed.

In some eases, 3 of the mesial plications are equally elevated, while the fourth

is developed on one side of the fold or on the other. In a few cases, there are

3 mesial plications and an additional one on either side, making 5 altogether.

As a rule, the 4 plications are of equal size and elevation. The lateral plica-

tions number 5 usually, but occasionally 6 and sometimes 4 or even 3. The

plications vary in different specimens in size and angularity. Some specimens

are more tumid than others, and in some the front is rounded downward, thus

obscuring the fold, which is usually highly and abruptly elevated.

Although from this it will be inferred that specimens might be se-

lected to present rather widely different expressions, as a whole these

shells make up a fairly uniform group.

Camaroteechia purduei var. laxa var. nov.

In a few instances, there have been obtained specimens which seem to

deserve recognition as a distinct variety, though their relationship to C.

purduei can not be doubted. They have about the same number of plica-

tions similarly arranged, their chief claim to distinction resting on the

fact that while in the typical variety the plications are rather angular,

in the present one they are obsolescent, depressed-convex and separated

by narrow, shallow stria. The plications in this condition appear to be

somewhat coarser, but apparently they are not so, as the number remains

about the same.

Harttina brevilobata var. marginalis var. nov.

The shells referred to H. brevilobata are only two in number. Our

collection contains, however, a series of specimens rather numerous,

which are of the same general type as the others, but differ in being,

though larger, much less convex and marked by less deep fold and sinus

and less distinct lobation. ven the examples in which these characters

are most marked are evidently inferior in their development to the speci-

220 ANNALS NEW YORK ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

mens upon which Swallow bases his description of Terebratula brevilo-

bata. In the smaller examples, of course, the convexity is still lower, and

no trace of lobation is to be seen.

While recognizing the relation of these faintly plicated shells to the

two examples which more closely agree with Swallow’s description, it has

seemed to me from the evidence at hand that it would be well to recog-

nize them as representing a distinct variety.

Harttina anna var. graciliformis var. nov.

Under this title, I am including two specimens which I at first, though

really against the evidence in hand, provisionally identified with Dielasma

gracile. Their size is much smaller, but their shape is almost exactly

that of the larger shell, elongate and subpentagonal, with the greatest

width near the middle or a little below. No fold or sinus appears to

have been developed. The ventral valve has the usual dental plates and

the dorsal a median septum.

Harttina indianensis var. exporrecta var. nov.

Associated with examples which have been referred to Harttina brevi-

lobata var. marginalis and to H. indianensis, I have in several instances

found shells more or less closely resembling them, but distinguished by

having a broader, rounder shape. Neither valve has a distinct sinus, but

traces of a sinus can sometimes be noticed in both valves.

So far as observed, the specimens referred here have only the median

septum of Harttina without the lateral plates and platform of Dielasma.

Dielasma formosum var. whitfieldi var. nov.

This species is abundant at two or three localities almost to the ex-

clusion of other types of Terebratula. It is one of the poorly character-

ized forms, having a broadly ovate shape and nearly obsolete fold and

sinus. The greatest width is usually below the middle, and the outline

in front is often somewhat flattened. The sinus, when present, is de-

veloped only toward the front, where it is shallow and undefined. Ven-

tral beak small. The convexity varies from rather low to rather high.

There is also variation in the width, some specimens being wider than

others.

Dielasma formosum var. seminuloides var. noy.

This form resembles D. formosum var. whitfieldi, except that it is

much more spreading. Though the variety whitfieldi manifests a tend-

ency to pass into these rotund forms, some of them could not, I think,

GIRTY, NEW CARBONIFEROUS FOSSILS Deal

with any propriety be included immediately with the typical specimens

or with the variety gracile. Nevertheless, it is difficult to establish any

line between them, partly, no doubt, because of imperfect material, whose

real characters must be more or less estimated, but partly also because

of intermediate specimens. The specimen selected as the type has both

valves of nearly equal convexity. It has a subpentagonal shape with a

distinct, though ill-defined, sinus in the ventral valve. Another example

is still more rotund.

Dielasma planiconvexum sp. nov.

Shape broadly subovate or spatulate, length but slightly in excess of the

width. Outline regularly rounded. Ventral valve moderately convex longi-

tudinally and transversely. Dorsal valve nearly flat, slightly convex in a

transverse direction. Fold and sinus practically absent, although the anterior

portion of the ventral valve is flattened out and slightly bent upward, causing

an almost imperceptible deflection of the margin.

This species is described from an imperfect specimen.

Amboceelia planiconvexa var. fayettevillensis var. nov.

Shell small, subcircular and transverse. Width probably always slightly

in excess of the length and in some specimens considerably so. Cardinal

angles rounded; hinge much shorter than the width below. Greatest width

occurs about the mid-length or a little posterior to it.

Ventral valve only moderately convex for the genus and rapidly expanding.

Beak rather small, not strongly elevated, inclined backward, or incurved.

The area is not very distinctly defined, and it is intersected by a moderately

broad delthyrium, much higher than broad, which occupies from one fourth to

one third of its width at the cardinal line.

Dorsal valve gently convex to subplanate, with a fairly distinct though nar-

row sinus developed near the front of mature and half-grown specimens.

The shells of this genus vary so little that the greater portion of a

detailed description of the present form would apply to most of its

species.

Spiriferina subelliptica var. fayettevillensis var. nov.

Shell small, rarely exceeding 12 mm. in width, transverse. Cardinal angles

rounded with the greatest width a little anterior.

Dorsal valve moderately convex.

Ventral valve strongly convex with a high, well-defined area which is con-

siderably narrower than the greatest width. Area slightly convex and strongly

oblique to the plane of the valves. Foramen rather broad. Beak strongly

projecting and moderately incurved.

The surface is marked by rather few, very strong. high. rounded plications.

The fold and sinus are simple and distinctly larger and higher (especially the

929 ANNALS NEW YORK ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

latter) than the lateral plications. The sinus is flattened or perhaps very

obscurely elevated along the median line, but no median plication is developed

in it, and no corresponding sulcus has been observed along the fold. The

lateral plications number from 5 to 7 on either side of the sinus. The sculp-

ture consists of regular, transverse, imbricating lamelle.

Hustedia multicostata sp. nov.

Shell rather large, a length of 13 mm. being about the maximum observed.

Shape regularly ovate, broad in some specimens, narrow in others. Convexity

moderate to high, about equal in both valves.

The ventral valve has a distinct though undefined sinus and a beak moder-

ately projecting and incurved. ;

The dorsal valve is without a distinct fold. Its cardinal line is short.

The surface is marked by from 25 to 32 gradually enlarging costs. When

unexfoliated, these are high and narrow and separated by strize of about their

own width. When exfoliated, the ribs are narrow and abruptly elevated from

broad, flat interspaces.

Composita subquadrata var. lateralis var. nov.

The shells included under this title are rather large with a subquadrate

shape and strongly elevated fold and sinus. The sides are extended and

sharply rounded.

In the ventral valve, the sinus begins as a narrow depression and re-

mains so until the shell is about half grown. ‘Then it becomes the

median line of the real sinus, which then develops with rapid increase of

width and depth. The fold is developed with equal rapidity, when it

once begins to appear, being defined by two strongly diverging grooves,

which curve downward, and, if it were not for the fact that they appear

to bend backward at their posterior end, are so directed that they would

intersect some little distance in front of the posterior margin.

Composita acinus sp. nov.

Under this title is subsumed a group of diminutive shells which have,

in spite of their size, characters indicating maturity. They are elongate,

ovate and highly convex. The ventral valve has a fairly prominent in-

curved beak and a moderately deep, narrow sinus. The dorsal valve does

not develop a distinct fold to correspond to the sinus of the ventral, the

effect of which is often to produce an emargination of the anterior out-

line, an effect which is in some instances enhanced by the circumstance

that the dorsal valve not only does not develop a fold but sometimes

develops a median sulcus of its own.

GIRTY, NEW CARBONIFEROUS FOSSILS 223

Cliothyridina sublamellosa var. atrypoides var. nov.

Shell rather small, a length of 17 mm. being about the maximum. Length

and breadth nearly equal; sometimes one is observed to be distinctly greater

and sometimes the other. The greatest width is usually about midway, but

occasionally it is posterior to the middle, the shell having rather prolonged

cardinal slopes which join the lateral outline in more or less distinct shoulders.

The ventral valve is moderately convex with a rather small, not strongly

incurved beak. <A fairly deep, though undefined, sinus is a constant feature

in mature shells.

The dorsal valve is apt to be gibbous at maturity. A moderately strong

fold is present, though seldom conspicuous except along the front margin.

Sometimes it is quadrate and comparatively well defined, sometimes rounded

and searcely distinct from the general convexity, very rarely low with a faint

median sulcus.

The surface has the usual spinose lamellz, which are apparently rather

crowded. Most of our specimens, however, are exfoliated and the sculpture is

obscure. In this condition, the surface is apt to appear nearly smooth; some-

times with more or less crowded but regular concentric ridges; sometimes

with more or less discontinuous radiating costs and sometimes with both, so

that a cancellated effect results. The shell appears to be thick and not pearly.

Cliothyridina elegans sp. nov.

Shell rather small, probably not exceeding 17 mm. in width. Regularly,

though not strongly, transverse. Greatest width posterior to the middle.

Often the hinge is extended, and the greatest width is just in front. Shape

lenticular.

The ventral valve is transversely subelliptical with a small, not very strongly

incurved beak. The convexity is low. A rather narrow, shallow, undefined

sinus is developed toward the front.

The dorsal valve is transversely elliptical, gently and regularly convex. In-

stead of a fold, there is usually a shallow, linear, median depression, creating

with the ventral sinus an emargination of the anterior outline.

The surface is marked by fine, sublamellose lire, a few of which are more

prominent than others.

Solenopsis nitida sp. nov.

Shell of medium size, linguliform. very transverse. Width nearly three

times the greatest height. Convexity low, compressed posteriorly. Beak very

small and inconspicuous, situated posterior to the front margin by one half or

one third the height. Anterior end apparently gaping, especially above. Upper

and lower margins subrectilinear and parallel over the median portion, curv-

ing together symmetrically toward the posterior extremity, and abruptly

rounded at the end. Anterior extremity broadly and regularly rounded.

Surface marked by concentric stri# and very fine concentric lire.

994 ANNALS NEW YORK ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

Sanguinolites simulans sp. nov.

Shell rather small, very transverse, subelliptical. Convexity moderate.

Umbonal ridge not very prominent, but very distinct. Post-cardinal slopes

compressed. Beaks small, strongly incurved, situated near the anterior ex-

tremity. Cardinal line long, apparently over two thirds the entire width,

nearly straight. Lower border gently convex, nearly parallel to the hinge,

bending upward more strongly behind. The short anterior end is strongly

rounded beneath the beak. The posterior outline is doubly truncated, the

lower truncation being nearly vertical and the upper slightly oblique, so as to

make an obtuse angle with the hinge. There appears to be a small but dis-

tinct lunule, while the shell back of the beaks is sharply inflected so as to

form an elongated escutcheon the entire length of the hinge line.

The shell is thin, and the surface is marked by strong, regular, subequal,

concentric plications, extending from the front to the umbonal ridge. At the

umbonal ridge they abruptly cease, the post-cardinal slope being marked by

much finer, less conspicuous strise, which are, however, stronger and coarser

than growth lines. The umbonal ridge is an angular plication. A second

somewhat similar radiating line divides the post-cardinal slope about midway.

It is scarcely distinguishable as an elevation, however, though very noticeable

as a line along which the strive and the posterior outline abruptly change

direction.

Sphenotus branneri sp. nov.

Shell small, transversely subovate, strongly contracting toward the front.

Greatest width about twice the greatest height or a little more. Convexity

strong. Umbonal ridge indistinct. A constriction more or less pronounced

passes across the shell. meeting the lower border a little anterior to the mid-

dle. The beak is small, strongly depressed and almost terminal. The cardinal

line is nearly straight or gently convex, about three fourths of the entire

width. The lower border converges with it toward the front, having a slightly

sinuous course. The posterior outline is strongly and rather regularly rounded.

sometimes more or less straightened or obliquely truncated above. The an-

terior outline below the almost terminal beaks is narrow and strongly rounded.

The surface is marked by radiating plications or costs, which are confined

to the posterior portion back of the constriction. The highest of the plications

marks an inflection of the shell near the hinge to form a long, rather broad

escutcheon. Below and anterior to this, there are about nine regularly dis-

posed costie, diminishing in strength toward the front. Where well preserved,

the surface shows traces of fine radial lirse intermediate with the costs. In

most specimens, these and all but three or four of the cost are obscured.

There are alSo numerous concentric strie and sharp, regular, concentric lire.

The internal characters are unknown, save that some specimens show a

large anterior scar.

Sphenotus washingtonense sp. nov.

Shell of medium size, subquadrate, very transverse. Greatest width dis-

tinctly more than twice the greatest height. Cardinal line straight. somewhat

longer than half the greatest width. Lower margin subrectilinear and par-

GIRTY, NEW CARBONIFEROUS FOSSILS 225

allel with the hinge, curving up rather strongly in front. Anterior outline

concave above for about one third the height, rather strongly convex below,

more abruptly rounded near the emarginate portion. Posterior outline some-

what obscurely truncated in a broken line. The upper truncation, which

covers about one half the height, is very oblique, while the lower is nearly

perpendicular to the lower margin. No distinct angles are formed where the

lines join. The convexity is high. The beak, rather small and strongly in-

curved, is situated but a short distance posterior to the margin. The umbonal

ridge is strongly elevated and angular. A second distinct, though not very

prominent ridge divides the post-cardinal slope longitudinally, and the shell

is abruptly inflected near the cardinal line to form a large, long escutcheon

with sharply angular outlines. The post-cardinal slope is somewhat com-

pressed, as is also the anterior portion. A broad, shallow constriction occurs

just in front of the umbonal ridge.

The surface is marked by regularly arranged. moderately fine and deep con-

centrie strie, which toward the front and back, and possibly all over when

the preservation is good, are separated by rather thin, high, concentric lire.

Traces of fine radial lire have been seen on the post-cardinal slope of one or

two small specimens.

There is a large subcircular anterior scar.

Sphenotus dubium sp. nov.

Shell small, transverse, subquadrate. Greatest width twice the greatest

height. Beak about one fourth the width posterior to the margin, small,

strongly incurved. Convexity high, somewhat compressed posteriorly. Um-

bonal ridge rounded. Mesial portion, or the portion just anterior to a line from

the beak to the middle of the base, somewhat flattened or slightly depressed

into a broad, shallow constriction. Anterior extremity bent inward and down-

ward to form an elongated lunule with very sharply defined, angular border.

A long narrow escutcheon is similarly formed along the margin behind the

beak. The post-cardinal slope descends somewhat abruptly and is divided

longitudinally by a more obscure ridge.

The hinge line is straight nearly three fourths the entire width of the shell.

The lower margin is gently convex, straightened through the middle, sub-

parallel to the hinge, but bent upward behind, so that this end is distinctly

narrower than the other. Posterior extremity truncated by a nearly straight

outline very slightly oblique, making a distinct cardinal angle somewhat

greater than 90°. Anterior outline abruptly truncated by the nearly straight

oblique line formed by the flexure of the shell which produces the lunule;

sharply rounded below.

Surface marked by rather strong, more or less irregular and unequal con-

centric stris, which are distinctly weaker over the post-cardinal slope, and by

fine papillee which tend to have a radial arrangement.

Sphenotus? meslerianum sp. nov.

Shell rather small, subcuneate, transverse. Greatest height a little less

than half the extreme width. Strongly convex; umbonal ridge subangular, dis-

tinct. Post-umbonal slope somewhat compressed. A slight constriction de-

226 ANNALS NEW YORK ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

fines the anterior third of the shell. The beak is about one third the width

back from the front margin, small, strongly incurved. The anterior extremity

is nasute. The hinge is straight, about one half the entire width. The lower

margin is gently and regularly convex. The posterior outline is gently con-

vex, truncating the shell with a slight obliquity such as to make the posterior

superior angle somewhat obtuse and the posterior inferior angle somewhat

acute. The anterior outline is abruptly rounded and concave under the beak.

The surface is marked by very fine subequal concentric striz.

Edmondia equilateralis sp. nov.

Shell very small, transversely elliptical. Width slightly less than one half

the greatest height. Hinge line straight, about one half the width. Basal

margin gently convex. Anterior and posterior outlines strongly and regularly

curved, nearly equal, gradually merging with the outlines above and below.

Convexity rather high and regular. Umbonal ridge indistinct. Beak small,

depressed, scarcely projecting beyond the hinge line, only slightly posterior to

the margin.

Surface marked by fine, strong, sharp, subequal concentric lire. The in-

ternal structures are not known, and the reference to the genus Hdmondia is

therefore provisional.

Cardiomorpha inflata sp. nov.

Shell of medium size, the largest specimen having a length along the um-

bonal ridge of 29 mm. Convexity high, equal in the two valves. Upper and

lower margins gently convex, somewhat converging toward the front. Pos-

terior margin subrectilinear, strongly oblique, merging with the cardinal bor-

der in a gentle curve and with the inferior border in an abrupt turn. Ante-

rior end subtruncate. Beaks nearly terminal. Inferior-anterior angle sharply

rounded. Convexity high, especially along the broad, undefined umbonal

ridge, from which the shell descends abruptly to the hinge anteriorly and more

gently posteriorly. A distinct, though ill defined, sinus passes diagonally

across the shell just in front of the umbonal ridge, meeting the lower margin

about midway.

Surface marked by numerous closely arranged subequal lamellose lines.

Leda stevensiana sp. nov.

The size is small, a larger specimen when complete haying a width of

10 mm. and a smaller a width of only 7 mm. The greatest height is one

half the width. The beak is situated about one third the width back from

the anterior outline. The lower margin is gently convex, the posterior exten-

sion long and subangular, the anterior end symmetrically rounded. The upper

posterior border is gently concave. The convexity is moderate and the surface

marked by very fine, somewhat inosculating lire.

Of this species, our collection contains but two specimens, both right

valves, one of them complete but small and failing to show the sculpture,

the other larger and retaining the sculpture, but imperfect at the ante-

rior end.

GIRTY, NEW CARBONIFEROUS FOSSILS Dy

Paleoneilo sera sp. nov.

Shell small, attaining a width of 12 mm., transverse, subovate. Greatest

width about 1.5 times the height. Beak about one third the width back from

the anterior extremity. Lower margin strongly convex, straighter toward the

posterior (longer) end. Cardinal line nearly straight, strongly converging

with the lower border. Posterior extremity narrow and abruptly rounded.

Anterior extremity broadly and regularly curved. Convexity rather high;

umbo small and strongly incurved.

The surface is marked by regular and closely arranged concentric lines.

Cypricardinia fayettevillensis sp. nov.

Shell small, attaining a width of 10 mm., which is about twice the greatest

height. Shape subrhomboidal. Cardinal line straight, about one half the

entire width. Ventral border straight in the middle, rounding upward at the

- ends, more rapidly at the anterior end. Posterior extremity obliquely trun-

eated with a broad, rounded posterior inferior angle and a distinct posterior

superior angle of about 150°. Anterior extremity strongly and regularly

rounded under the nearly terminal umbo which is large and strongly incurved..

Convexity high. Umbonal ridge rounded, undefined. A distinct constriction

passes aéross the shell, meeting the ventral margin a little in front of the

middle.

Surface marked by a few (about 9) strong, regularly arranged strie which

give the shell a lamellose appearance. No trace of radial sculpture has been.

observed.

Conocardium peculiare sp. nov.

Shell small, highly convex, ‘triangular. Length along the umbonal ridge

distinctly less than the width along the hinge. Umbonal ridge broad, well

defined on both sides, prominent, moderately oblique. Beaks subcentral,

nearer the anterior end. Umbonal ridge sharply defined from and elevated

above the posterior portion. On the anterior side, the shell is strongly com-

pressed.

The sculpture is different on the three portions of the shell thus defined.

On the anterior side, the lire are rounded, separated by angular strie and

rapidly decreasing in size toward the extremity. They do not conform to

those of the umbonal ridge which is defined by an unusually large rib on the

anterior side, but run obliquely, so that new ones are introduced at intervals

toward the ventral margin. On the umbonal ridge itself, the cost# are rather

smaller than on the anterior portion and separated by broad, flat intervals,

about twice the width of the costze. Two or three of the latter are crowded

together near the anterior boundary of the ridge. The coste on the posterior

portion are broader than those on the anterior, flat-topped and separated by

narrow, rather flat strie. The whole surface is crossed by fine, equally

spaced, lamellose, concentric lines.

Caneyella? peculiaris sp. nov.

Shell small. the largest specimen referred here having a length of 15 mm..

equivalve, oblique. the axis sloping slightly backward. Hinge line nearly as

928 ANNALS NEW YORK ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

long as the greatest width, much longer behind than in front. Outline broadly

and regularly rounded below and in front. curving strongly inward toward the

hinge, where it is slightly straightened. On the posterior side, it is convex

below and concave above, sloping strongly outward in a gentle curve below

the broad posterior wing. Convexity moderately high. Anterior wing small

and undefined. Posterior wing large, triangular, usually though not always

abruptly depressed and distinctly defined.

The sculpture consists of fine regular concentric undulations or striz and

fine radiating lire. The undulations are shallow and rounded, and they are

broad in comparison with the angular ridges which separate them and which

are lamellose at least toward the sides. The radial sculpture is on a finer

scale than the concentric, subordinate to and more or less interrupted by it.

The radii are very fine and slender with relatively broad interspaces. They

seem to die out toward the posterior side of the left valve and to be replaced

by a few of larger size on the posterior wing of the right valve.

Aviculipecten squamula sp. nov.

Shell small, the largest specimen referred here having a length of 7 mm.;

length and width about equal; slightly oblique, somewhat inclined backward.

Hinge line but little shorter than the greatest width. Outline gently con-

tracted below the hinge, then widening again. Lower extremity broadly

rounded. Conyexity low. Wings broad and undefined, the posterior one hay-

ing perhaps for its boundary a low, narrow fold extending obliquely from the

umbo to the posterior margin not far below the hinge line.

The sculpture consists of fine, regular, concentric striz crossed radially by

fine irregular costz so obscure that they are made out with more or less diffi-

culty. They are interrupted and obscured to. some extent by the concentric

markings.

Aviculipecten jennyi sp. nov.

This form resembles A. squamula, having a subquadrate shape, a hinge

nearly as long as the width below, and subparallel sides with scarcely any

deflection defining the wings. The convexity is low. The umbo small and in-

conspicuous and the axis nearly perpendicular to the hinge line. In one speci-

men, the posterior wing has a fold as in* A. squamula.

The sculpture consists of somewhat irregularly distributed costs with rela-

tively broad, flat interspaces. The costs, though low and rounded, are well

defined, but they do not extend onto the wings. There are also very fine,

equal, closely arranged, concentric lire and numerous stronger incremental

strie, especially conspicuous over areas near the hinge where the costz are

not developed.

Aviculipecten multilineatus sp. nov.

Shell small and subquadrate, about as in A. squamula, which is closely

related. Convexity moderate; hinge long, but little shorter than the greatest

width, which is about equal to the greatest length. Umbo moderately ele-

vated. Axis but slightly oblique, inclined backward. ~The wings are large,

subquadrate and poorly defined either upon the surface or by any deflection

GIRTY, NEW CARBONIFEROUS FOSSILS 229

in the outline. The posterior one is bounded by a fold which in fact appears

to be double.

Surface marked by very numerous, fine, sharply elevated, radiating lire,

which decrease in size and definition toward the sides and are not developed

at all on the posterior wing. The intervening striz are about equal in size

and shape to the lire. There are also many closely arranged, more or less

irregular and unequal concentric strive, finer than the radiating lire and

subordinate to them. Occasional varices of growth sometimes deflect the

lire and give them a wavy appearance.

Aviculipecten morrowensis sp. nov.

Shell small, a length of 11 mm. being about the maximum observed. Length

and breadth nearly equal, or the breadth a little in excess. Hinge long but

considerably shorter than the width below. Axis slightly inclined backward,

with a greater development of the shell behind than before. Wings broad,

undefined either’ by being abruptly depressed or by a sinus in the outline

which is nearly straight and slightly oblique on the anterior side, slightly

concave and strongly oblique on the posterior side. The lower part of the

outline is regularly rounded. The anterior wing is larger than the posterior.

The convexity is low and the umbones small and inconspicuous.

The surface is crossed by numerous exceedingly fine lire which are scarcely

visible without a lens. These are sharply elevated, rounded, with interspaces

of about their own width, and they are in some cases slightly wavy. They

bifureate occasionally and thus tend to form groups or fascicles which in one

specimen are visible to the naked eye as very obscure, regularly arranged

costze, of which there appear to be six or seven. The radii are also more or

less alternating. They are crossed in some cases by regular, fine, sublamel-

lose, concentric lirze, which are differently arranged in different examples. In

one specimen, they are much farther apart than the radiating lire; in another,

only slightly farther apart. In most examples, they do not appear at all, the

concentric markings consisting of fine, incremental strie, of which a few at

irregular and distant intervals are stronger than the rest. On the wings, the

radii become very obscure, while the concentric striz are intensified and con-

spicuous. In some specimens, the radii are sharp and strong; in others, pos-

sibly by exfoliation, they are more obscure. It may be owing to the same

causes that the lamellose concentric lire appear to be absent.

Aviculipecten inspeciosus sp. nov.

Shell small, a length of 16 mm. being about the maximum observed; length

and breadth nearly equal. The hinge is rather short, about one half as long

as the greatest width. The axis seems to be curved so that the greater devel-

opment of the shell is on the anterior side. The posterior wing is small and

not defined by a sinus in the outline. The latter contracts strongly as it ap-

proaches the hinge, near which, however, it appears to be somewhat straight-

ened on the posterior side. On the anterior side, it rounds strongly inward

to the base of the anterior wing, where it changes direction, becoming nearly

straight and sloping gently inward (from below) so as to meet the cardinal

line at a slightly obtuse angle. The convexity is rather high. The posterior

930 ANNALS NEW YORK ACADEMY OF SOIENCES

wing is small, depressed, oblique and undefined; the anterior wing larger,

more abruptly depressed and therefore more sharply defined.

The sculpture consists of rather indistinct, subequal, radiating cost, be-

coming finer and fainter toward the sides, which, with the wings and umbonal

portion, appear to be uncostate. The cost are relatively broad and flat and

the strizs between them narrow and shallow. Concentric markings are indis-

tinct or absent.

Cypricardella subalata sp. nov.

Shell small, subquadrate, transverse. Width about 1.5 times the height.

Beak prominent, about one third the width posterior to the margin. Hinge

line straight, two thirds of the width. Lower margin gently convex, nearly

parallel to the hinge. Posterior outline almost vertically truncated, the pos-

terior cardinal angle being if anything rather acute than obtuse. Lower mar-

gin bends up strongly in front to about one half the height, from which point.

by an abrupt change of direction, the outline becomes concave to the beak.

The convexity is moderate to low. There is no distinct umbonal ridge.

The post-cardinal portion is, however, somewhat compressed, and a faint con-

striction crosses the shell to about the middle of the base. Probably there is

a well-defined lunule beneath the beak.

The surface is marked by relatively coarse, deep, regular striz, separated

by thin lamellose ridges. In the type, this sculpture dies out along the line

where the umbonal ridge should lie, and the post-cardinal slope is crossed only

by very fine strise, but in other specimens it appears to be persistent to the

hinge line.

Euconospira disjuncta sp. nov.

Shell of medium size. Maximum diameter 23 mm. Height 20 mm. Volu-

tions about 7, gradually enlarging. Umbilicus small, open (?). Peritreme

section very transverse, subrhomboidal, gently concave on the upper interior

side, nearly straight on the upper exterior side, gently convex on the lower

exterior side and strongly convex on the lower interior side. The upper

interior surface slopes gently downward; the upper exterior surface slopes

strongly downward in the opposite direction, and the lower exterior surface

slopes gently downward. The periphery is therefore acutely angular and

earries a narrow slit band defined by sharply projecting edges. The volutions

do not embrace quite to the slit band, so that the conical shape of the shell,

as a whole, is broken into steplike descents. The peripheral portion on which

the slit band occurs is rendered more or less carinate by two relatively narrow

sulci, one above and one below, of which the latter is the more conspicuous,

because of being more distinctly defined on its outer side, where there is a

fairly distinct shoulder. It is up to this shoulder that each volution embraces

the preceding one.

The surface is marked by regular transverse strie having a gently convex

eurvature and a strong backward direction. On the lower surface of the

peritreme, they have a sigmoidal curve, concave toward the band and convex

toward the umbilicus. They also have a strong backward sweep, so that the

aperture is very oblique. In crossing the slit band, they make strong, regular

cerenulations, which do not extend onto the elevated edges of the band. Traces

of revolving lines are present also, especially on the lower surface.

GIRTY, NEW CARBONIFEROUS FOSSILS 231

Bembexia lativittata sp. nov.

Shell small, subglobose, consisting of three or four rather rapidly expand-

ing volutions. The largest specimen seen has a diameter of about 5 mm. The

height is equal to the greatest diameter or a little greater. The spire is about

one third the entire height. The sutures are deeply depressed. The peri-

treme section is very nearly circular except for the impressed zone, somewhat

flattened above, regularly rounded below. The slit band is very broad, situ-

ated on the periphery, defined by thin elevated edges.

The sculpture consists of fine growth lines which are fasciculated at regular

intervals, producing transverse cost. These are more distinct above the

band than below, and near the suture they are apt to be especially strong,

forming little elongated nodes. They slope backward gently from the suture

to the band and are curved, presenting the convex side toward the aperture.

On the band, they are distinct and rather strongly concave, but assume the

convex curve below and are nearly transverse.

Patellostium levigatum sp. nov.

Shell rather small, rapidly expanding. At maturity, the growth appears to

be rather straight than involved, and the widely expanded lip extends com-

pletely around the aperture and is continuous, though with a slight emargina-

tion, on the inner side. Umbilicus small. Slit band not elevated above the

general curvature, except toward maturity, when it is raised into an angular

ridge. .

Surface without radiating strive, it would appear, and with only fine incre-

mental lines. These indicate that the aperture has a slight median insinua-

tion, with a shallow notch where the band occurs.

Oxydiscus venatus sp. nov.

Shell small, sublenticular. Whorl section helmet-shaped. Sides somewhat

flattened, strongly rounded inward at the broad (?) umbilicus, regularly con-

verging to the periphery, which is keeled, the keel being defined on either side

by a slight though distinct groove and bearing a median ridge down its cen-

ter. The sculpture consists of costze which have a transverse direction for

one third the distance across the side and then are strongly and abruptly bent

backward. This angular change of direction taking place at a corresponding

point causes the surface to appear broken into a distinct band about the um-

bilicus, an appearance which is enhanced by the fact that after the backward

turn, the costs abruptly become much finer, and some of them bifurcate so

that the median portion of each side is more finely and more closely costate

than the band near the umbilicus. Over the broad, carinated portion, how-

ever, the costze again become coarser, stronger and more distant, some of

them dying out to allow this transformation to be effected.

Anomphalus? discus sp. nov.

Shell rather large, discoidal. Diameter 10 mm. Height 3.5 mm. Spire

flattened. Volutions probably 4 or & in number, rather rapidly expanding.

Peritreme section transversely elliptical with slightly pointed ends; flattened

932 ANNALS NEW YORK ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

above, subangular on the periphery, about one third of the upper surface

depressed by contact with the preceding volution. The volutions are em-

braced up to the keeled periphery. so that the top of the shell is nearly flat.

Suture scarcely depressed. Umbilicus probably closed. Surface without

ornamentation.

Platyceras subelegans sp. nov.

Shell small, rapidly enlarging, completing about one half a turn, more

strongly curved at the apex, but very slightly spiral, broad on the outer side,

contracting toward the inner, so that the section is subtriangular; marked by

numerous longitudinal plications, especially by a narrow peripheral carina

defined by two deep sulci and more persistent toward the apex than the

others. Surface crossed by lamellose concentric lines whose direction ts made

very sinuous by the plications.

Orthonychia compressa sp. nov.

Shell of medium size, oblique, conical, compressed, nearly complanate or

bilaterally symmetrical, very rapidly enlarging and slightly bent, making one

half a volution or less. Cross section subelliptical, very much longer than

broad. Surface nearly smooth, marked only by obscure sublamellose growth

lines. No coste or spines.

Two specimens have been included in this species, each having certain

individual peculiarities. The larger contracts distinctly toward the outer

or convex edge of the shell, while the smaller is more nearly symmetrical,

if anything, has the external side somewhat broader and marked by an

obscure carina defined by two faint grooves. In this specimen also, the

aperture appears to have been rather strongly oblique, one side project-

ing considerably farther than the other.

Paraparchites nickelsi var. cyclopea var. nov.

This species is represented primarily by an extremely large specimen,

which agrees with P. nickelst in most characters, except that it is very

much larger than any of the associated fossils referred to that species,

and the shell is much more coarsely pitted or punctate. The left valve

has the base of a well-developed spine, but the right seems to be without

a spine. This specimen clearly shows a small subcireular, undefined

muscle (?) spot, situated near the center of the shell. It is characterized

by being slightly depressed and by being smooth, without the puncte

with which the rest of the surface is covered. Traces of a similar spot

have been observed also upon specimens referred to P. nickelsi.

Primitia fayettevillensis sp. nov.

Shell small, transverse, subquadrate. Lower margin gently convex, con-

verging anteriorly with the long, straight hinge line. Anterior extremity

GIRTY, NEW CARBONIFEROUS FOSSILS 923

strongly rounded. Posterior extremity obliquely truncated, projecting. Con-

vexity high. Umbilical pit deep, elongated but not continued to the hinge,

posterior to the middle.

Primitia seminalis sp. nov.

Shell small, transversely subovate. Cardinal line straight or nearly so,

converging strongly toward the front with the gently convex lower margin.

Anterior end sharply rounded. Posterior end broadly and rather regularly

rounded. Post-cardinal angle distinct. Convexity moderately high, with a

flattened band about the margin. This band is narrow and sharply defined

around the potserior portion of the shell, broad and not well defined at the

front end, narrow and ill defined along the middle of the dorsal and ventral

borders. Central pit rather large, subcircular, poorly defined, situated very

near the middle of the convex portion, slightly above and distinctly posterior

to the middle of the entire shell.

Halliella? retiferiformis sp. nov.

Shell small, subrhomboidal. Dorsal border long and straight. Ventral

border gently curved along the middle, strongly curved at the ends, con-

verging anteriorly with the cardinal line. Anterior extremity strongly

rounded. Posterior extremity more broadly rounded, subtruncate. Convex-

ity high and inflated at the anterior end, more gentle across the broad pos-

terior end. A deep, somewhat elongated pit is situated a little above and

distinctly posterior to the middle. It lies near the dorsal border without

apparently extending to it. The shell posterior to the pit is elevated into a

sort of low tubercle.

Surface rather coarsely reticulate.

Kirkbya Jones

The genus Kirkbya has for its type the species A’. permiana, which is

distinguished by having somewhat the shape of a parallelogram, but with

the posterior end higher than the anterior. The obliquity is backward.

There is a subcentral muscular pit. The surface is reticulated, and the

free margins are provided with one or two flanges. The right valve is

larger than the left and overlaps it on the ventral border. With this

species were associated in the same genus other forms presenting very

considerable differences in sculpture and general expression.

A number of species more or less resembling the English ones have

been found in the lower Fayetteville fauna, but they present differences

from one another which make it undesirable, in my judgment, to include

them all in a single genus. Three groups of generic or subgeneric rank

can in fact be distinguished. One of these seems to have the essential

characters of typical Kirkbya and includes K. lindahli var. arkansana,

K. oblonga var. transversa, K. reflexa and K. simplex. Another group

which it is proposed to call Amplissites has the two valves equal, neither

234 ANNALS NEW YORK ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

overlapping the other. The surface is reticulate, but is also marked by

prominences and projecting lamellze. Only one species belongs to this

group, A. rugosus. A third type has the surface marked by relatively

very coarse, oblique, inosculating coste and has the two valves unequal,

but the left overlapping the right, just the reverse of typical Kirkbya.

This group, Glyptopleura, includes G. inopinata and G. angulata.

I have not been able definitely to ascertain to what family it has been

the practice to refer the Kirkbyas, but I have the impression that they

have been considered as belonging to the Beyrichiide. It seems to me a

question deserving careful consideration whether these shells do not

constitute an independent family, the Glyptopleuride. Indeed, the dif-

ferences between Glyptopleura, on one hand, and Kirkbya and Amphis-

sites, which are doubtless more closely allied to one another than to

Glyptopleura, on the other, are such as to suggest that careful revision

might even prompt the erection of a third family, the Kirkbyide.

Kirkbya lindahli var. arkansana var. nov.

The general appearance and sculpture are like those of K. lindahli, though

the size is much smaller and the width proportionately greater. The shape

is subrhomboidal, narrowing slightly toward the front, and with a distinct

backward swing. The surface is finely checkered as in K. lindahli, and there

is a subcentral pit. The right valve overlaps the left on the free margins.

The double rim shown by Dr. H. O. Ulrich’s figures seems to be lacking, and

the ventral border of the left valve is rather abruptly infolded for a short

distance toward the middle. Because of its smaller size, its lack of marginal

bands and its infolded margin, I am disposed to regard this as varietally dis-

tinct from K. lindahli.

Kirkbya oblonga var. transversa var. nov.

Our collection contains but a single specimen of this species, which is

so similar to the form which Dr. Ulrich identified as K. oblonga that I

am a little doubtful whether the varietal distinction here suggested is

altogether justifiable. The shape is strongly transverse, the dorsal border

being straight and extending very nearly the entire width. The ventral

border is nearly straight along the middle, more strongly rounded toward

the ends. One cardinal angle of our specimen is nearly quadrate, the

other is imperfect, but I believe was slightly extended. There is a well

marked flange separated from the ventral and lateral borders by a sulcus

and defined also upon its upper side by another sulcus. The remainder

of the shell is moderately convex, somewhat pinched together near the

middle with a subcentral pit a little below the median line. The surface

is finely reticulated.

GIRTY, NEW CARBONIFEROUS FOSSILS 235:

Kirkbya reflexa sp. nov.

Shell rather large, strongly transverse. Dorsal border straight, very nearly

as long as the greatest width. Ventral margin gently convex across the middle,

more strongly curved toward the ends. Ends very nearly symmetrically

formed. Cardinal angles almost equal, the anterior being slightly more acute

than the other. A deep groove surrounds the ventral and lateral borders, the

marginal portion of the shell being bent upwards in a broad border or

flange. The remainder rises gradually and regularly to the middle of the

dorsal border, and this portion of the shell would have the shape of one half

of a spreading cone, if it were not that the posterior (?) half of the cone is

somewhat compressed, which makes the most elevated portion into a curved

oblique ridge.

The surface is finely and deeply reticulated, the apertures increasing in

size toward the reflexed border, upon which they are prolonged into relatively

large, transverse grooves, so that the border looks fluted or perforated,

though having the margin entire.

Kirkbya simplex sp. nov.

Shell small, transverse. Dorsal border long and straight, converging an-

teriorly (?) with the gently convex ventral outline. Ends nearly equally

rounded, the anterior being narrower and more strongly curved. Convexity

moderate, chiefly marginal, regular, without sulci or tubercles. Surface

strongly and finely reticulate, except marginally, where the shell seems to be

smooth and dense. Position of median pit not determined.

Amphissites gen. nov.

A number of ostracod shells in the fauna-of the basal Fayetteville

shale belong to types which have been loosely referred to the genus

Kirkbya, but they really appear to represent three generic or subgeneric

groups. Kirkbya itself is described as having the right valve larger than

the left and overlapping it. This is the condition of K. lindahlv var.

arkansana. The shell described below as Amphissites rugosus has the

two valves equal, meeting each other along a line, neither one overlap-

ping the other. It is furthermore distinguished by having the surface

marked by a number of tubercles in addition to the fine reticulations.

On both these accounts, it seems that this form can readily and advan-

tageously be distinguished from Kirkbya proper. The third type is repre-

sented by Glyptopleura inopinata, which has the left valve overlapping

the right. Conjoined with this difference in configuration is one of

sculpture, the sides being without knobs or plications, but ornamented

with oblique, inosculating coste instead of the fine reticulations and

flanges of the other types.

Type.—Amphissites rugosus.

236 ANNALS NEW YORK ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

Amphissites rugosus sp. nov.

Shell small, subquadrate, with the two ends nearly symmetrically formed,

so that it is difficult to distinguish which is anterior and which posterior.

The dorsal and ventral margins are straight and parallel. The ventral is

curved upward at the ends, which are regularly rounded; the posterior is

slightly oblique and projecting. Cardinal angles rounded.

The convexity is rather high, developed especially about the margins. The

surface is modified in a rather complicated manner, there being four flanges

or ridges, while the median portion of the side is occupied by a large knob

or boss. The margins of the base and sides are slightly thickened and pro-

jecting, making what may be called the first flange. The second is just above,

separated by a narrow, deep groove, and it projects beyond the true margin.

The third lies considerably within the second and does not conform to it,

since a broader space is left at the inferior angles (especially the anterior

one) than along the ventral border, while it meets the dorsal margin at the

eardinal angles. The fourth flange or ridge is less distinct than the others,

tending to become obsolete ventrally, becoming much thicker and more ele-

vated anteriorly, so that where it terminates abruptly at the dorsal border, it

forms in the cardinal view a large flat triangular area. The median pit is

small and situated just below the inflated umbonate median portion of the

shell. The surface is finely reticulated, except along the flanges, which are

dense and smooth.

Glyptopleura gen. nov.

Shell rather small, subquadrate, with a backward swing, the posterior end

being higher than the anterior and somewhat truncated. Inequivalve; the

left valve is much the larger and overlaps the other all around save along

the distinct straight hinge. There is a subcentral pit. The surface is marked

by inosculating coste.

TyPr.—Glyptopleura inopinata.

This type has the general appearance of certain species referred to

Kirkbya, but it is distinguished from Kirkbya by the fact that the left

valve is larger than the right—the reverse of Airkbya—and that it over-

laps the right strongly and throughout the circumference save along the

hinge. This difference, of course, depends partly upon the orientation of

the shell. In the Beyrichiide and in Kirkbya itself, the shape is sub-

rhomboidal, and the higher, truncated, more projecting end is called the

posterior. If the same criteria are applied to the present species, the left

valve is the larger and overlaps the right as described above. In the

contrary interpretation, the overlapping of the valves in the present shell

would more nearly correspond with Kirkbya, though more pronounced,

but the other data of orientation would be reversed. It seems to be more

probable that the configuration is the same as in Kirkbya and the Bey-

richias.

GIRTY, NEW CARBONIFEROUS FOSSILS

ra)

Glyptopleura inopinata sp. nov.

Shell rather small, transverse, subquadrate. Width about 1.75 mm., which

is distinctly less than twice the height. Hinge line nearly as long as the

greatest width. Lower margin gently convex over the median portion, more

strongly curved in front and behind, convergent anteriorly with the dorsal

border. Posterior outline distinctly truncate and oblique, so that the post-

eardinal angle is distinct and obtuse. The anterior extremity is acutely

rounded above. The convexity is moderately high and obscurely constricted

across the middle, with the anterior portion more inflated than the posterior.

A small, deep, circular pit forms a depression a little above and a little pos-

terior to the center. The sculpture consists of large curved, inosculating ridges

which cross the surface transversely and more or less obliquely. There is a

smooth, finely striated border which surrounds the shell everywhere, save

along the hinge.

The two valves are distinctly unequal, the left being the larger. The left

valve thus overlaps the other on all sides save along the hinge, at the ends

of which this arrangement appears to produce a primitive sort of articulation.

Glyptopleura angulata sp. nov.

Shell small, transverse, subovate. Hinge line straight, nearly as long as

the entire width, converging anteriorly with the gently convex lower border.

Anterior end strongly rounded. Posterior end more broadly rounded, not

much produced beyond the hinge extremity. Convexity high, chiefly centered

along a diagonal ridge, extending obliquely from near the upper anterior

angle to the lower posterior angle. As the lower margin also is oblique, the

descent to this margin is abrupt and regular, while that to the post-cardinat

angle is long and gradual. Anterior extremity of the ridge very prominent

and embellished with a little knob.

Median pit situated above the middle (above the ridge) and near the mid-

dle transversely or a trifle posterior to it.

Surface marked by a few rather coarse, strong, angular lirse, more or less

transverse and inosculating.

Bairdia attenuata sp. nov.

Shell rather large, very transverse. Lower margin nearly straight across

the median portion, strongly and equally turned upward at the ends, which

are pointed and slightly lower than the middle. Upper margin strongly con-

vex across the median portion, slightly concave near the ends. The point of

greatest convexity, and therefore of greatest height, is distinctly posterior and

the outline is more concave near the posterior than the anterior end. Convex-

ity moderate, compressed at the ends. Surface smooth. Left valve slightly

overlapping the right at the hinge; elsewhere neither valve seems to extend

beyond the other.

Bairdia cestriensis var. granulosa var. nov.

This form is very closely related to B. cestriensis, of which Ulrich

figures two specimens, a large and a small. It is a more slender shell

938 ANNALS NEW YORK ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

than the larger specimen and larger than the other—larger even than the

larger of the types, from both of which it appears to be distinguished

by having the surface conspicuously roughened over the convex portion

but smooth about the margins. The shape is extremely similar to that

of the smaller of Ulrich’s specimens. This is a highly convex little

shell, rather strongly compressed at the ends.

Griffthides mucronatus sp. nov.

Head: glabella large, inflated, considerably narrower behind; basal lobes

triangular, small, strongly defined. Neck ring defined from the glabella by a

deep sulcus, strongly arched in the middle with moderately long lateral pro-

jections. Eye lappets small, oblique. Border anterior to the glabella, mod-

erately narrow, depressed, slightly convex, defined by a groove. Surface ot

glabella granulose, much more finely in front than behind. Median portion of

neck ring and projecting end of eye lappets also marked by coarse granules.

Outer margin of anterior border with fine parallel raised lines. The remain-

der of the surface, including the more depressed portions, finely pitted.

Free cheek with a wide, gently convex border defined by a strong groove.

Eye large, prominent, many faceted, bounded below by a curved ridge. Genal

angle much produced into an elongated spine. Surface finely pitted, outer

margin marked by regular, fine, parallel lire.

Thoracic segments nine, strongly lobed, axial portion a little less than one

third of the whole. Longitudinally furrowed.

Pygidium semi-elliptical or shield-shaped, length and breadth about equal.

Border broad and gently convex or nearly flat. From its well defined inner

margin, the main portion of the pygidium rises abruptly, the axis being also

abruptly and strongly elevated above the pleural areas. At its anterior end,

the axial and pleural portions are about equally broad, and the border about

one half as broad as the three other divisions. In old specimens, the border is

relatively narrower. The segments are defined by deep angular grooves.

There are 16 on the axis and 9 or 10 on the sides. The lateral segments are

sometimes partly divided by indistinct furrows. Besides the number given

above, there is a small articulating segment at the front end of the axis, and

the anterior of the lateral segments is made double by a groove which divides

it into two parts, the posterior having the normal size, the anterior being

somewhat smaller. The surface of the lateral segments is rather coarsely

granulated, and sometimes the granules are segregated along a raised line.

Each of the axial segments is marked by a row of still larger granules. The

border is traversed by, a few delicate, inosculating lines and is finely rough-

ened.

This species is abundant in the basal limestone of the Fayetteville shale,

rare and somewhat doubtfully identified in the Batesville sandstone below.

[ANNALS N. Y. AcADEMY OF SCIENCES, VoL. XX, No. 4, Parr II, pp. 239-242.

26 October, 1910]

NEW SPECIES OF FOSSILS FROM THE THAYNES LIME-

STONE OF UTAH?

By Grorce H. Girty

(Presented by title before the Academy, 3 October, 1910)

The few species described below are from the rocks in the Wasatch

Mountains of Utah, which were discriminated by the geologists of the

Fortieth Parallel Survey under the title “Permo-Carboniferous.” At

the same time, Meek, in describing Aviculipecten occidaneus, a species

which is abundant in and characteristic of the “Permo-Carboniferous, ”

cites the horizon as the “Upper Coal Measures Limestone,” a series which

occurs below the “Permo-Carboniferous” and in which A. occidaneus is

not found at all.

As a result of more detailed study of the “Permo-Carboniferous” in

the Park City district of the Wasatch Mountains, Mr. J. M. Boutwell

found occasion to divide the series into three formations, which he named

from below upwards, the Woodside, the Thaynes and the Ankareh. From

the typical Woodside, which is a red shale formation, no fossils are

known. The Thaynes, consisting of thin muddy lmestones and earthy

beds, has furnished an extensive molluscan fauna, chiefly characterized

by a great diversity of pectinoid species which may belong to several

genera. Of these a few have already been described, Aviculipecten utah-

ensis, A. weberensis, A. curtwardinalis, A. parvula, A. occidaneus, to-

gether with Sedqwickia concava, Myacites inconspicuus and the shells

probably wrongly identified as Myalina aviculoides and M. permiana.

All of these species occur in the Thaynes and were probably originally

described from that formation. The Ankareh has proved scantily fossil-

iferous in the typical area, but the fauna so far as known is closely

related to that of the Thaynes.

The “Permo-Carboniferous,” however, is not confined to the area of

the Wasatch Mountains, but it outcrops through central Utah and is

found again in the Grand Canyon region, where it constitutes the Per-

mian of Walcott’s Kanab Canyon section. There is yet no reason to

believe that Walcott’s Permian is not essentially the same in its limits as

the “Permo-Carboniferous” and that it does not contain beds equivalent

to the Woodside, the Thaynes and the Ankareh.

1 Published by permission of the Director of the United States Geological Survey.

239)

240 ANNALS NEW YORK ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

The “Permo-Carboniferous” extends also to the northward, where it

outcrops extensively in southern Idaho and also in Wyoming. There is

every reason to believe that in this region also the three formations of

the “Permo-Carboniferous” occur, for there is a remarkable agreement

faunally, stratigraphically and lithologically between the beds in southern

Idaho and in the Park City district. Indeed, they have already been

mapped in Idaho by Veatch. Furthermore, the “Permo-Carboniferous”

of southern Idaho contains the strata furnishing the ammonite fauna

which Hyatt and Smith have assigned to the lower Trias. The ammonite

beds occur at the horizon of the Thaynes limestone, which is conyention-

ally taken to begin with the lowest ammonite zone. In this region, the

lower red shale corresponding to the Woodside contains thin limestones

having a fauna which agrees closely with that of the Thaynes.- Thus

the three members of the “Permo-Carboniferous” are related faunally

and form a natural lithologic group also, with distinct boundaries above

and below, especially the latter. This instrinsic relationship of the rocks

found expression in their inclusion by the earlier geologists in a single

formation or series.”

Although the evidence is not yet in shape for presentation in detail,

it seems all but certain that the “Permian” of the Grand Canyon area,

‘the “Permo-Carboniferous” of the Wasatch Mountains and the “Lower

Triassic” of southern Idaho are a single series of strata originally con-

tinuous from one region to the other and having essentially identical

faunas. The whole group, therefore, must be either Permian or Triassic.

It remains for a more careful and critical survey of the evidence to

determine which.

Aviculipecten ? boutwelli sp. nov.

Shell small, subovate, a little longer than wide. Hinge line more than one

half the greatest width, which is found about midway. From there the shell

contracts rather regularly in both directions. The ventral outline is narrower

than the cardinal and strongly rounded. The sides straighten somewhat

toward the hinge or even bend slightly outward but without producing any

distinct sinus. While fairly symmetrical, the greater development appears to

be on the anterior side of the shell. Convexity moderately strong, especially

about the umbo. Beak subcentral, small, incurved. Wings about equal, un-

2 The relationship of the beds in southern Idaho with the ‘‘Permo-Carboniferous” was

recognized in a general way by the earlier geologists. The relation was more satisfac-

torily demonstrated several years ago by collections of fossils made by F. B. Weeks and

reported on by me. It was not until the season of 1909 that evidence was obtained, by

a party in charge of H. S. Gale, with which I had the pleasure of being associated,

showing that the lower Triassic ammonite fauna occurs within the limits of this series.

After his work in southern Idaho, Mr. Gale visited the typical section of the Park City

district, verifying the close lithologic and sequential relationship which exists between

the beds in the two areas.

GIRTY, NEW FOSSILS FROM THAYNES LIMESTONE 944

defined, a small portion of each near the hinge slightly upturned. This flat-

tened area, which may possibly be regarded as the entire wing, is larger and

more sharply defined on the posterior side.

Surface nearly smooth, marked by fine, somewhat irregular and unequal

concentric stris and by obsolescent radial costs. Of the latter, 9 or 10 are

stronger than the rest, but between these and at the sides are other very fine

obscure raised lines, 5 or more between 2 of the stronger ones. The whole

sculpture is rather irregular and so fine and obscure as to be hardly visible

without a lens.

The type specimen, from the absence of a byssal sinus, is evidently a

left valve, unless the two sides of the shell are similar in configuration,

in which case the genus would be neither Pecten nor Aviculipecten.

In its specific relations, this form is doubtless most closely allied to

A. occidaneus, from which it is distinguished by some differences in

shape, such as the less well-defined wings and by the nearly obsolete

sculpture

Aviculipecten wasatchensis sp. nov.

Shell small, subovate, distinctly longer than wide. Hinge line straight,

slightly shorter than the greatest width below. Ventral margin regularly

rounded. Sides nearly straight, gently contracting toward the hinge near

which they curve slightly outward.

Convexity moderately high, rather strong at the umbo. A small triangular

area either side of the beak is slightly flattened into an undefined wing. The

sides below these areas are deflected from the body of the shell, forming a

larger feature, which may also be regarded as the wing instead of the other.

Beak nearly central. Axis about perpendicular to the hinge.

Surface marked by fine, regular, closely arranged concentric striz and by

radial cost of several sizes. Between each pair of larger ribs are one or two

distinctly smaller, while a third series, one or two at a time, occurs between

the second ones. This arrangement is subject to more or less irregularity,

and toward the sides the coste tend to be more distinctly of one size, but the

general effect is that of regularity. The cost are not sharply or strongly

elevated and do not extend onto the sides.

The absence of any sinus for the byssus indicates that the specimen

described is a left valve. The right valve is unknown.

This species differs from A. boutwelli in having the coste stronger

and more conspicuously alternating and in having sharper and more

regular concentric strie.

Aviculipecten thaynesianus sp. nov.

Shell small, subovate, longer than wide. Hinge line straight and shorter

than the extreme width below. Ventral margin regularly rounded. Sides

nearly straight, curving gradually below into the ventral outline and contract-

ing slightly toward the hinge.

249 ANNALS NEW YORK ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

Convexity moderate, fairly prominent in the umbonal region. Sides de

pressed, especially near the hinge, but without forming well-defined wings.

Beak nearly central, somewhat posterior to the middle of the hinge. Axis

about parallel to the hinge line and the whole growth nearly symmetrical.

Surface marked by fine, fairly strong and sharp, subequal to somewhat

alternating radial coste, which extend obscurely onto the anterior wing, but

probably not onto the posterior. There are also moderately strong, irregular

and widely spaced concentric strise due to unequal growth and probably be-

tween these more or less distinct concentric strive of a finer character. The

concentric markings are more sharply expressed on the wings than on the

body of the shell.

Astartella ? forresteri sp. nov.

Shell small, subquadrate, nasute. Width about one and one third the

height. Cardinal and ventral margins slightly convex, almost parallel or

gently converging posteriorly. Posterior truncated with a slightly oblique

outline which tends to make a little more than a right angle with the car-

dinal outline and a little less than a right angle with the ventral

outline. Posterior inferior angle strongly rounded; posterior superior angle

more or less distinct. Anterior extremity strongly projecting, in some speci-

mens about one third the entire width. The outline is concave above for

about one half the height, leaving the beaks small and incurved but rather

prominent. Convexity low; valves occasionally somewhat compressed near

the hinge. Lunule and escutcheon large, sharply defined.

Surface smooth, except for an occasional strong stria of growth near the

margin.

The proportions vary considerably, some specimens being less trans-

verse than others. Another point of variation consists in the degree of

projection of the anterior extremity. The contraction of the upper and

lower margins varies likewise, those specimens in which it is strongest

having a less distinct cardinal angle. In extreme cases, the shape is

somewhat like that of an abbreviated Leda. This occurs where the

anterior portion is unusually long, the posterior unusually short, the

cardinal line oblique and the posterior superior angle not well defined.

So completely do these different modifications intergrade, however, that

it seems unwise to attempt to distinguish separate varieties.

The dentition of this form is unknown, but the configuration is that

of our Carboniferous Astartellas. All the Astartellas, however, have

strong, concentric lamelle. Cypricardella (Microdon) has also much

the same shape, but these regularly have strong concentric strie. There

is no form in our American Carboniferous with which this species is

liable to be confused.

I have the honor to name it for Mr. Robert Forrester, of Salt Lake

City, who collected the specimens on which it is based.

[ANNALS N. Y. ACADEMY OF SCIENCES, VoL. XX, No. 5, Part II, pp. 2438-294,

Pry. XIV-XV. 20 DEcEMBER, 1910]

THE COAL BASIN OF DECAZEVILLE, FRANCE

By JoHN J. STEVENSON

(Read in abstract before the Academy, 7 November, 1910)

CONTENTS

Page

LGBRTRGYOUTVE LORENA TOT RERIS ese net eae eri iain Gitin OSS KOILG Gane. CISAE eee ee ce 243

ROCKS SSiIELOUN Gin Stes DAI.) area ete cis arora teusiotoks ais sins vial ciclo. ne wleiclene is, oils 245

DCSCLipP HON OfechesDAasin ev. mis sracecereerslSe co otisive re mews evea cs Sie ertra Scie sw Sue 247

HE PANIZIESE SYS COIN perenne tay siseectarey oie io cievorsrnGuornoaro aoetsl a olnieyovece shales alone Aes 250

hey Cam PAsnaciSy SteMe staal: estas ote e he He Senco is ieieie atalino cane 252

RHE SE OULTATIMSY SUCIIE sree cle sores iets) oe choretorci ova icone esesio sites sea ble 261

Characterrotatheucoal eternity ecto tte er ae hale Gehan siete ieee ares wade 271

Onieinalgextent andy characterrof the) DASINes =). se cise cco eciels «lee e]ele el eles 273

Mode,in which the basin was filled................. EN Se OE eee 276

Hb enigo tatliemcO All DEUS a4 .cyarchers clare oerccrera cred croieus ei clete sibitersi= ial ole sueraloueneks 279

Ori sing ometheco alg Des ya yseratetarins cee tel avehera Soro ered estab oie exetel cy oneal ol eat eo suavelecstors 281

HaStorysot the) Decazeyille (coal PAsiM 2 coco cseln oes Accuses cilece so maecee 291

INTRODUCTORY NOTES

The Decazeville coal basin, named from the chief city within its borders,

is in the department of Aveyron, about 400 miles south from Paris and

about 190 miles south from Commentry. The mines, originally opened

for the Duc de Decazes, have been in operation for more than a century.

The proporties are controlled by two great organizations, the Compagnie

anonyme de Commentry, Fourchamboult et Decazeville, with important

steel works at Decazeville, and the Compagnie des Mines de Campagnac at

Cransac, five miles farther south. Within a short distance from the latter

city, is the widely extended area of exploitation by the Société des Acieries

de France, from which the greater part of the coal has been removed.

The basin is rudely triangular in form; the longer axis, from west of

north to east of south, is about 12 miles long, and the width varies from

nearly six miles at the south to barely one third of a mile at the north,

where the coal rocks pass under deposits of early Tertiary age. The total

area of Coal Measures is not far from 30 square miles, so that it is about

five sixths as large as a township in Ohio. The interest attaching to the

(243)

244 ANNALS NEW YORK ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

basin is far out of proportion to its extent; the coal beds are of unusual

thickness, the plications and other disturbances are very complicated, and

the conditions observed there have been regarded as arguing strongly in

favor of the doctrine that coal beds have been formed from transported

vegetable matter. |

No elaborate description, such as that by Fayol of Commentry or that

by Gruner of Saint-Etienne, has appeared respecting the basin of Decaze-

ville; but several brief memoirs have been published, some of which are

important. Blavier in 1806 described the coal, which even then had been

opened at several localities; Cordier in 1809 made incidental reference to

the coal beds and expressed surprise at the irrecularity of their occur-

rence; Dufrenoy in 1841 discussed the region somewhat in detail; Boisse

in 1870 differentiated the deposits and grouped them into two systems,

while suggesting that there may be three. Somewhat later, Grand’ Eury

investigated the Coal Measures of this basin from the viewpoint of paleo-

botany and made correlations with other areas.

The first systematic statement known to the writer was given by Ber-

geron' at the reunion of the Geological Society in Aller. He recognized

three systems of deposits and described the method by which the basin

was filled and the coal beds formed, applying the doctrine of deltas as an-

nounced by Fayol in the preceding year. This paper was accompanied by

a preliminary map, showing the positions of three deltas. His memoir,

published in the following year, defined sharply the three systems of

rocks, to which the terms Auzits, Campagnac and Bourran were applied.

The conclusions throughout are the same as those in the earlier paper, of

which this is but an elaboration, in so far as it relates to the Decazeville

area. Three years later, the properties near the city of Decazeville passed

into the possession of the Compagnie de Commentry et Fourchambault,

and, under direction of M. Fayol, the engineers of that company began

careful researches throughout the basin, which still continue.

In 1900, an extremely important memoir appeared,? in which the au-

thors summed up the results of studies made by Jardel and Picandet and

their associate engineers, as complementary to the work done by Bergeron

prior to the consolidation of the properties. It explains the relations of

the three systems, the mode in which the basin was filled, the sources of

1J. BERGERON: “Note sur les bassins houillers de Graissessac et de Decazeville,’’ Bull.

Soc. Géol. de France, 3me. Ser., t. xvi, p. 1032. This contains detailed reference to the

work of his predecessors.

“tude du massif ancien situé au sud du Plateau central,” Ann. des Sci.

Géol., t. 22, p. 196.

23. BerceRon, (A) JArRpDEL et PICANDET, “Htude géologique du bassin houiller de

Decazeville (Aveyron), Bull. Soc. Géol. de France, 3me. Ser., t. xxviii, pp. 715-749,

map and plate of sections.

STEVENSON, COAL BASIN OF DECAZEVILLE, FRANCE — 2.45

the materials, the directions of the contributing streams, the development

and the interferences of the little deltas during advance from the shore.

This admirable synopsis has been utilized throughout by the writer; its

clear descriptions enabled him to pass rapidly over some portions, ren-

dered unnecessary the examination of others and made possible the practi-

eal confining of his attention to localities in which the phenomena of coal

accumulation are shown most notably.*

ROCKS SURROUNDING THE BASIN

Long ago, it was recognized that the basin of Decazeville, like those on

the central plateau, occupied a depression in Archean rocks; the mica .

schists with granite being continuous from the Commentry to the Decaze-

ville basin. But patches of other rocks exist, whose distribution on the

borders is of great importance to one endeavoring to trace the history of

the area. Bergeron in his first paper gave some notes respecting these

rocks, but the later memoir by Bergeron, Jardel and Picandet gives in

detail their distribution along the approximately 30 miles of contour. A

synopsis of their statement is essential, though the relations are shown on

the accompanying map,* page 246.

The prevailing rock is mica schist, containing here and there some

granulite and occasionally becoming gneissoid. Granite appears at the

southwest, and, on the western side, a narrow strip of gneiss extends north-

ward from the southern boundary for about four miles. Just beyond is

a mass of granite, sharply defined as if by a fault at the west, which is

about half a milé wide and three miles long, extending almost to the Riou

Mort and showing on its eastern side a very narrow strip of mica schist.

A small area of microgranulite is cut by the Riou Mort. At a little way

north from that stream, one reaches andesite which extends to the north-

ern end of the basin, forming the western boundary for about four miles.

Andesite forms the eastern boundary also to beyond the Lot River. It

is almost continuous across the basin at the extreme north, but it has

suffered great and irregular erosion in the broad valley of the Lot, and

the Coal Measures reach eastward to the mica schists. These form the

boundary for somewhat more than four miles, to be succeeded by grani-

37] must express my high appreciation of courtesies received from M. H. Fayol, Direc-

tor of the Comp. Anon. de Commentry, etc., M. A. Jardel, Director of that company’s

mines in the Decazeville basin, and M. E. Brocard, the metallurgical engineer of the

company, as well as from M. Saint-Martin, geometrician of the Campagnac company.

The generous assistance given by these officials makes me regret keenly that the studies

at Decazeville compel me to the belief that the coals of that basin, like those of Com-

mentry, are of in situ origin.

4This map has been taken from the memoir by Bergeron, Jardel and Picandet; the

scale has been reduced slightly, but no change has been made in the geology.

246 ANNALS NEW YORK ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

Légende

Couches ( A#~L /aisceau d Auzits

at> — id. de Campagnac

houille | =e id. de Bourran

Am.......Amphibolite

LTT pes

Roches } GnGr..Gneiss granulitique

veveeee- Howiller

....Surassigue

Micaschistes

Microgranulite

....-Permien moyen

....Permien inferieur

Serpentine

R.Pa._Roche porphyrique alteree

diverses

Echelle

Lénguefont

If,

eee Vf

UY,

Om ==

poor MONTBAZENS?

MAP OF THE COAL BASIN OF DECAZEVILLE.

Reproduced with slight reduction from the memoir by Bergeron, Jardel and

Picandet.

STEVENSON, COAL BASIN OF DECAZEVILLE, FRANCE 944

toid gneiss, in which is implanted a boss of serpentine. These rocks are

well shown in the valley of Riou Mort, being reached at only a few rods

from the stream. Opposite the village of Firmy, one finds Permian beds,

which are the boundary thence for four miles to the end of the ridge

overlooking Auzits, where they rest on the mica schist. From Auzits

southward and then westward, mica schist is probably the boundary rock,

though for nearly two thirds of the distance along the southern border, an

irregular line of more than six miles, it is covered by Jurassic beds. In

the southeast corner are some patches of microgranulite, whose relations

should be well fixed in mind, as fragments derived from those patches

gave the first positive clue to the mode in which the basin was filled.

One finds occasionally within the basin fragmentary areas of rocks

belonging to the boundary types. Two small patches of Jurassic remain

in the southwest at one and three miles from the outcrop. Permian is

present in the region south from Decazeville to beyond the Ruisseau de

VEnne. Midway along the southern boundary, some bosses of a “‘roche

porphyrique alterée” project into the Coal Measures, and a similar rock

appears in small quantity at several places beyond the border of the basin.

These bosses are in line with islets of andesite and microgranulite, the

last of which is more than four miles from the southern boundary.

Aside from these rocks, one finds indicated on the map a small area of

Coal Measures in the extreme southwest corner; another of less size on

the granite, and still another on the mica schist of the western boundary.

DESCRIPTION OF THE BASIN

To determine the stratigraphical relations from surface exposures

would be well nigh impossible. The region has suffered greatly from ero-

sion, but the slopes of the hills, though usually rather steep, rarely give

any but fragmentary exposures; while side cuttings on the well-graded

roads are too widely separated to yield satisfactory information respecting

an area which is closely folded and is slashed by faults. The great open

workings, termed “découvertes,” and the extensive underground develop-

ments have provided material for determination of the structure. The

conditions are far less simple than in les Pegauds of Commentry, where

the coal accumulated in a wholly insignificant area.

The cutting to which the present topography is due was determined

by the Lot River, which crosses the north end by a tortuous course. The

Riou Mort, Ruisseau Banel, Ruisseau de l’Enne and the Riou Vieux,

draining the basin, unite beyond the western boundary near Viviez and

enter the Lot River within three miles. The course of that river within

the basin seems to have some relation with the distribution of andesite,

948 ANNALS NEW YORK ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

while that of Riou Vieux at the southeast appears to owe its direction in

great measure to the distribution of rocks in that region. This erosion is

later than the middle Tertiary and, by most writers, is referred to the

Quaternary. All phenomena testify to its recent origin. The valleys,

for the most part, are narrow and the hill slopes are abrupt, while the

summits are clearly remnants of a plain. The granitic rock on the west

side has yielded much the same topography as that of the Coal Measures

area. The steep hillsides must have been captured early by vegetation, as

they show comparatively little gashing.

The later work of removal has been confined chiefly to corrasion, and

erosion has done comparatively little toward leveling the region. But a

long-anterior erosion, probably preceding the Jurassic and following the

time of folding and faulting, removed the Permian and newer portions

of the Coal Measures from much of the basin and exposed the oldest de-

posits in the southeast. The Quaternary erosion increased the area in

which the early beds reach the surface; while trenching of the basin by

valleys 400 to 600 feet deep has made the coals accessible at many places

and rendered possible those mining operations which have attained so

great economical importance.

Boisse, forty years ago, recognized at least two distinct systems of

deposits and suggested that the succession might be divided into three.

Bergeron, twenty years ago, determined the three systems, Auzits, Cam-

pagnac and Bourran. This division may not be supported strongly by

paleontological evidence, but it is sufficiently distinct, for the physical

conditions are unlike in the several systems.

The Auzits system consists of a succession of conglomerates, sandstones

and some shales, the materials having come almost wholly from the south-

ern border. These deposits have been exposed by erosion, and they pass

under the newer rocks at a very short distance north from the Riou

Vieux; but the upper beds are at the surface inthe valley of Riou Mort,

on the eastern border. This system includes toward the base the Soulier-

Abiracs coal bed and, apparently higher, the unimportant coal deposits

north from Auzits known as the beds of l’Estang.

The Campagnac system, beginning with the coal bed known as Rulhe,

Campagnac, Paleyrets, Bouquies, in the several localities where it is

worked, consists very largely of conglomerates with some sandstones and

shales. Its rocks are exposed in much of the eastern half of the basin,

and the great coal bed at the bottom is mined at many places. The con-

glomerates are shown frequently on the roads and, though the composi-

tion varies, the features are such as to show that substantially the same

physical conditions prevailed along most of the streams which supplied

STEVENSON, COAL BASIN OF DECAZEVILLE, FRANCE 2949

the material. The deposit of conglomerate began very soon after accu-

mulation of the Campagnac coal bed.

The Bourran system, beginning with the Grande Couche de Bourran,

known as Negrins, Crol, Fraysse, Firmy, Bourran, Saint-Roch at the

several mines, consists of shales and shaly sandstones succeeded by a con-

siderable thickness of coarse, more or less conglomeratic sandstone. It oc-

cupies the central and western parts of the basin ; and a small area, caught

in the jaws of faults, remains on the eastern side near Firmy. The

studies by Bergeron, Jardel and Picandet leave little room for doubting

that practically all of the water-carried deposits west from the central

line of the basin date from the beginning of the Bourran system.

The Decazeville basin, unlike that of Commentry, is characterized by

great irregularity of structure, the beds being folded and faulted in com-

plicated fashion. The folds will be noted in the local descriptions, but

the principal faults must be mentioned here that those descriptions may

be clear.

The Grande Faille de Bagnaud is distinct. at la Puech, the summit of

the road from Firmy to Cransac, about a mile east from the latter town ;

but southeast from la Puech it could not be traced, as exposures thence to

Auzits are indefinite; northward, however, it seems to be crossed by the

Riou Banel and its existence is highly probable thence to Riou Mort at

Decazeville, where a well-marked fault exists. Northeast from Cransac,

the throw is sufficient to bring the Campagnac and Bourran beds to nearly

the same level.

An east and west fault passes from the Bagnaud fault to the eastern

border; it will be spoken of as the Firmy fault. A third fault is very

distinct between the outcrops of the Bourran bed, northwest from Cran-

sac. A fourth was recognized by Bergeron, Jardel and Picandet in the

south-central part of the basin and designated as the Grande Faille de

Lugan. These four are the only ones with extensive throw, but the mine

maps and the découvertes exhibit many others of 20 to 50 feet, some of

them very complicated. These, however, though numerous and perplex-

ing to the mining engineers, need no consideration here.

The writer’s detailed observations were made in the space between the

Riou Mort and the Ruisseau de l’Enne, where the coal beds have their

chief development; but the southeast corner as well as the area north

from Riou Mort was visited and the relations were made out. No studies

were attempted along the southern border or in the southwest corner,

where investigations by Bergeron, Jardel and Picandet have made the

conditions so clear that nothing except visual familiarity with the phe-

nomena could be gained by an examination. For the localities not vis-

ited, citations will be made from the memoir by those students.

250 ANNALS NEW YORK ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

The Auzts system of Bergeron.—The Auzits system is exposed in the

southeast corner of the basin and passes under the Campagnac at a little

way north from Riou Vieux. Only the highest beds are shown farther

north along the eastern side, so that its full extent cannot be determined.

The faults bounding the basin at the east bring the newer systems against

the old rocks. The earliest deposits of the system are not shown along

the road followed by the writer, as they are within the space inclosed by

the Soulier outcrop. The oldest deposit assigned to this system is near

Antaignargues, where a mica-schist breccia, composed of great blocks with

angles barely rounded, rests on the mica schist of the region. Above this

and passing over to the mica schist is a conglomerate, which has been fol-

lowed for several kilometers; its fragments are smaller and much more

rounded, though still breccia-like; they are mica schist, microgranulite

and white quartz. This is succeeded by a conglomerate rich in micro-

granulite at the west, but in granulitized mica schist at the east. The

overlying rock is a coarse sandstone of more or less greenish tint, becom-

ing yellowish eastward. This contains the Soulier coal bed. The coarse

rocks underlying that coal bed have an extreme thickness of 200 meters,

as determined by A. Jardel.

In going northwestward from Auzits, one finds only indefinite expo-

sures along the road, and those are mostly sandstone. The l’Estang coal

beds are reached in somewhat more than a half-mile from the village.

Little is known respecting them beyond the fact that a company formed

for their exploitation soon came to grief, but evidently coal is present in

small quantity. The incomplete exposures show only some thin streaks

of coal associated with shale, and not coarse sandstone, dipping northeast-

wardly at approximately 30 degrees. A similar sandstone is exposed on

the opposite side of the stream. These beds are above the middle of the

Auzits system.

Less than half a mile beyond the l’Estang property, one reaches an

abandoned coal opening at about 500 feet south from the road. Expo-

sures along the road are widely disconnected, and one passing along can-

not determine the relations; but loose pebbles on the hillsides at several

places indicate the existence of a conglomerate, which is well marked at

the opening, and there is clearly an underlying sandstone which is asso-

ciated with the coal bed. The opening is on the Soulier bed, the first

well-defined coal deposit in the basin. The coal was not seen, as the

opening is closed by mud and water, but the dip is northward at about 30

degrees. On another tributary stream, possibly half a mile farther, there

was at one time an extensive group of openings from which a large quan-

tity of coal was taken out. The works seem to have been abandoned com-

STEVENSON, COAL BASIN OF DECAZEVILLE, FRANCE 251

pletely and a definite measurement of the bed cannot be obtained now;

but A. Jardel states that the bed is double, divided by a thick clay part-

ing, and in all about 16 feet thick. The strike of the bed has been

changed to almost north-south, for the openings are along the stream

which flows toward the north. There is in this space a fold with sharp

northward pitch, there being easterly dips on the Auzits side, northerly

dips where the coal was first reached, and now on the western side dis-

tinctly westerly dip, so that the Soulier bed has an elongated curved out-

crop. The thickness is such that one should expect to find the bed in a

boring at a considerable distance north from Riou Vieux.

Separated from the coal bed by a sandstone rich in feldspar is an extra-

ordinarily coarse conglomerate, broken by thin shales and, at its maxi-

mum, almost 400 feet thick as determined by A. Jardel. This, the

feldspathic conglomerate of Bergeron, Jardel and Picandet, is persistent

eastward to where it passes under Riou Vieux and equally persistent

southward along the western side of the exposed area. It consists mostly

of microgranulite pebbles, thoroughly rounded and varying from one inch

to upwards of one foot in diameter, those of the largest size being very

numerous. Pebbles of other rocks occur locally. Study of these frag-

ments enabled those investigators to determine finally the source of the

materials; the microgranulite came from the areas indicated on the map,

the most distant being, at its southern termination, barely four miles

south from Riou Vieux. This conglomerate seems to become less coarse

east and west from the first coal opening observed. The sandstones and

shales enclosing the |’Estang coal beds have been taken by Bergeron,

Jardel and Picandet as being most probably equivalent to the upper part

of the conglomerate, which has its full development at half a mile toward

the west. Those students have worked out the details of the area so thor-

oughly by investigation of the fragments as to prove beyond question that

three little streams entering near Auzits, Haute Serre and Lugan, con-

tributed to the formation of these deposits, now exposed in an area of

about three square miles, and that the course of the main or central

stream during deposition of the later beds is marked distinctly by distri-

bution of the larger fragments.

The feldspathic conglomerate is succeeded by conglomerates and shales,

in all about 600 feet as determined by A. Jardel, which continue to the

top of the system; they are exposed here and there beyond Riou Vieux.

The extreme thickness of the Auzits system is not far from 1800 feet, the

measurement being made along the line of maximum development, near

the supposed course of the Haute Serre stream. The average thickness

is very much less.

252 ANNALS NEW YORK ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

The Campagnac system of Bergeron——The deposits of the Campagnae

system in the southeastern part of the basin are clearly a continuation of

those seen within the Auzits, for study of the included fragments leaves

no room for doubting that they came from the south. The outcrops of

the coals give evidence of the relationship, which is not masked by the

Bagnaud fault, as the section seems to be continuous along the eastern

side to Firmy, where one reaches the Bourran system.

Folding and subsequent erosion have removed much of the Campagnac

coal bed from the southeastern corner, how much, of course, cannot be

determined. But the series from the upper part of the Auzits into the

Campagnac is distinctly conformable, and the dips in the Rulhe bed, as

well as in its branch, Richardie, would carry the coal only a short dis-

tance above the hills on the southerly side of Riou Vieux. The condi-

tions justify the suggestion that the Campagnac coal bed at one time coy-

ered much of the Auzits area. The Campagnac deposits were made in

this southern area by the three streams already mentioned, and the char-

acter of the material shows that each was torrential and short, not more

than three or at most four miles long.

The outcrop of the Campagnac coal bed extends practically to the

southern edge of the basin. Near the hamlet of Rulhe, the bed is said to

be irregular, tending to lens-form, and it is triple, the main bed being on

top. Half a mile farther north, near where the outcrop is crossed by

Riou Vieux, the intervals between the divisions increase and the lower

benches show an east and west outcrop as they cross the fold. Centraliy

along this, they have a northward dip, showing that the fold retains its

pitch in that direction. The Bagnaud fault interrupts the continuity at

the north end of this area, but the condition was the same throughout, for

near Cransac the outcrop of the main bed curves toward the east, to be

cut off by the fault.

On Riou Vieux, the Campagnac bed is reached just beyond the place

where the railroad from Auzits to Viviez leaves that stream. The mine

has been abandoned, and no examination of the coal could be made, but it

is apparently on a lower division of the bed, probably the Couche de

Richardie. The overlying rocks are shale and sandstone with, at some-

what more than 30 feet above the entry, a sandstone containing much

conglomerate. At about one third of a mile farther, one comes to the

shaft of Sainte Genevieve on the main bed. No work was in process

when the locality was visited, but the mine is extensive, the coal having

been removed from a rudely triangular space almost 1100 by 1700 feet.

The coal is said to be 45 feet thick. An exposure at about 75 feet above

the coal and continuing for nearly 200 feet showed shales underlying the

conglomerate and the dip is almost southwest at 18 to 20 degrees.

STEVENSON, COAL BASIN OF DECAZEVILLE, FRANCE 253

Pits have been opened at several places between Sainte Genevieve and

Cransac ; near the latter place, the Compagnie des Mines de Cransac has

removed the coal by open workings, or découvertes, from an extensive

area, and now the mining is done in underground workings, which reach

westwardly for a long distance, the coal having been taken out to a dis-

tance of more than a kilometer from the shaft. Faults are very numer-

ous, and the coal varies from 33 to almost 100 feet in thickness.

Exposures outside of the great découvertes are so rare that any con-

tinuous section becomes interesting to the student. In going eastward

along the railroad from Cransac station, one comes to a through cut in

shales. These have been stripped alongside from a considerable space in

order to secure the ironstone which they contain. The succession, de-

scending, is, the thicknesses being estimated,

Feet

1. Dark shale with ironstone and streaks of coal.............. 6

2. Shales, mostly hard, weather yellowish, are gray or drab on

ATES SUPLACEH 1s, 5S ia atrais ac tvetetessterone bsg eelece a) ictaleteS atageles cies. 6

3. Shale, distorted, with irregular patches of coal toward the

DO CUO IIe cpa Macrarsnc con oreo teb al siicnefeie ekake ole weet oue oye baetstanel a turvarel mis 15.

4. Shales, rather hard, dark to brown, with some streaks of black

PDI eerie at sostoret cicxersxese) oceratever sie srereiatee e Wie) ay re tuceeie Seems: ae aus Bate 8

5. Shales with ironstone and coal streaks..................... 3

6. Coal and clay, with 3 inches of fireclay below............... 1

Cora les An Ge COBMSUPCARISK ac 0c s:e-s bieyae tiem ofeltie MIDE Sete she) ave o/e'e'8 las 5

Sa siake Mostly Grabs wert Mers) Gamke cn oo ps cus cisicieieve see ee calves 20

OUCoalirresularmwithelay PATCMe ec clere + cpus «leis aie eee ciereve i

SPURT CCI AY: irae tete cts tvctetersvsve ete oh kecele et ere O ovcle alle ser ayo evevessy ore 6 oleuelereve) © 1

11. Shale and conglomerate sandstone, with irregular pockets of

COMM aR gen aap are Oke akalerdte Sate hiatal el aioe aa cele als « osrdarmaee 10

12. Coal in lenses of 12 inches thickness, mingled with fireclay... J

13. Shale and sandstone, some conglomerate................0000% 9

14. Sandstone and shale, with irregular lenses of coal........... 125

No. 9 is thicker on the southern side of the railroad, and it is said to

reach three feet at some places, but it is always irregular. The under-

lying shales and sandstones rise very rapidly on that side toward the east,

and they are shown in somewhat distorted condition on the northerly side

where the Rulhe-Cransac road crosses the railroad. The dips there are

all westward, varying from 27 to 35 degrees, but on the other side of the

railroad, the dips in the same direction increase to 60 degrees. Evidently

the axis of a fold is near, but it is not exposed. The lenses of coal in No.

12 are apparently fragments of a small bed broken up during the sharp

folding. No effort was made to determine the exact relations of this sec-

tion, but it is in the Campagnac system at a considerable distance above

the main coal bed; judging from exposures elsewhere, the conditions may

954 ANNALS NEW YORK ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

be local, but the section is of interest, as it is of the type familiar to those

who work in American coal fields.

Eastward from the main outcrop, the southeast area of the Campacitay

system reaches almost to the village of Firmy and covers most of the area

north from Riou Vieux. The road from Auzits to Firmy follows a very

tortuous line, as divides between the several streams are high and rather

rugged, showing the hard conglomerates of the Campagnac system. On

the ridge road, northeast from Auzits, one sees the reddish brown, more

or less conglomeratic beds of the Permian resting on the mica schist.

Within an eighth of a mile the Coal Measures are reached, but the expo-

sures of conglomerate and shale are fragmentary. They belong to the

Auzits system and have northeasterly dips. As one descends from the

summit near la Vignerie towards la Bussiére, half a mile from Cransac, he

sees an occasional exposure of shale, with here and there something which

resembles a coal blossom and at times a block of conglomerate shows

itself. The deposits belong to the Campagnac and the traces of coal

mark places of the lower subdivisions of the Campagnac bed. At la

Bussiére, where the road crosses the Ruisseau de l’Enne, coal has been

mined, but the bed seems to be unimportant.

From la Bussiére up to la Puech, the summit between Cransac and

Firmy, there are many though disconnected exposures, but, in the upper

part, there is an exposure of nearly 100 feet of shale, sandstone and con-

glomerate underlying a coal cropping near the summit. That coal seems

to be the highest of the Campagnac divisions, possibly the Couche de

Mazol. It underlies about 15 or 20 feet of shale on which rests a massive

conglomerate. When the summit is reached at la Puech, one sees the

bold conglomerate as a rounded boss descending toward Firmy. The

Bagnaud fault is crossed west from the summit, but it is obscure farther

toward the southeast, and it does not interfere with continuity of the sec-

tion. The conglomerates of the Campagnac system are sharply defined

to within half a mile of the village of Firmy.

The second important area of the Campagnac is bounded at the south

by the Firmy fault. Jt extends continuously to the north end of the

basin and is limited at the west by the outcrop of the Bourran coal bed.

Along the eastern outcrop, going northwardly from Firmy, the charac-

teristic conglomerates of the Campagnac system appear somewhat

abruptly at about half a mile from that village, the fault having been

crossed near the hamlet of la Foresie. ‘The coal bed has been opened at

la Gouzinie and la Buscalie, but no work is in process. The dip at la

Buscalie is not wholly definite, but it is westerly at not more than 18 de-

grees. The important work in process, south from Riou Mort, is at Tra-

STEVENSON, COAL BASIN OF DECAZEVILLE, FRANCE 255

mont, the “découverte nouvelle,” recently opened by the Decazeville

company. This great excavation is at the summit of a narrow ridge and

opens to both north and south.

The road southward from Decazeville to Tramont passes the grande

découverte on the Bourran bed, the Bourran shaft on the same bed, as

well as the broad expanse on which the Decazeville company roasts the

blackband ore. Where the road turns eastward at somewhat more than

a mile from Decazeville, an exposure of sandstone and conglomerate, be-

longing to the Campagnac system, dips westwardly at 25 to 30 degrees,

and a similar dip is shown at another exposure beyond. The Campagnac

coal bed has been mined for a long time along the west face of the ridge

at about 250 feet above Decazeville, and work is still carried on in some

of the openings. The last dip observed in coming up the hill is westward,

but at the first pit reached, the dip is eastward at 55 degrees, so that a

sharp fold has been crossed within 500 feet. At that pit, the coal under-

lies a coarse conglomerate, but at the entrance to the découverte, 100

yards beyond, the coal is covered by five to six feet of clay shale. The

short through cutting which leads into the découverte shows the coal

greatly disturbed, and a complex fold is displayed on the westerly wall

within the quarry. As the longer axis of the découverte crosses the fold

diagonally, a good section of the coal is exposed in the easterly wall,

where disturbances are of limited vertical extent. The following meas-

urements are approximately correct, as they are almost vertical to the

bedding. The order is descending:

Feet Inches

PAO@ONSTOMOETALCIM a chelaveicicieheiciaicieters eisicteialelsiercicielsicicl ots) <taVoiakele

2. Coal and shale; very irregular owing to erosion during

deposition of the overlying rock; coal and shale

layers are very distinct; but films of coal pass down-

ward into the underlying shale as irregular wedges.

AMS TOC tant Opererel caee cheaters seal ohe ls ebeitleheirazetiousisl o)ic)'< esalaietersiiearors)-<' 8 0

8. Clay shale; this also has been removed in places; it

contains numerous plant impressions with films and

lenses of coal, as well as some ironstone........... 5 0

. Coal, 3 to 4 inches, black shale, 6 to 8 inches.......... 0 10

5. Clay shale, somewhat contorted, contains streaks of

coal, some of which come from below and extend for

a foot or more across the laminz..................

6. Coal, with regular roof, many thin partings, of ap-

PAreMbhyamiIMeral CHATCOAM! roc cmc -' ctsiecleieletel <b ickelenarelele 4 6

7. Coal and argillaceous sandstone; 7 layers of coal and

5 of sandstone. In some places, the coal layers be-

come thin and the mass is mostly sandstone, while

in others the upper sandstones disappear and the

coal layers become continuous with the overlying

(ee)

-1

256

ANNALS NEW YORK ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

bench. The lower 2 feet, very argillaceous, contains

many strings rising from the underlying coal and

dividing into branches. This is one of the most per-

sistent members of the section............. 6 feet to

. Coal, containing several thin clay streaks and partings,

which seem to be persistent along the whole face of

the wall. The coal is very regular, having suffered

little distortion. The dip is 25 degrees E. N. E

. Clay and coal, the latter midway and 8 inches thick;

the clay is light colored and has thin films of coal..

. Coal, with two clay partings apparently persistent and

varying from 1 to 3 inches; they carry some iron-

S LOMO Mereteg vate teaciots (oceans ts Sve robepe ereemeuene ner aee: ee re eer ree

. Clay, persistent along the whole face.................

. Coal, with four partings, all very thin except when iron-

stone is present; balls of iron-stone are common in

the coal, which is always distorted around them....

13. PLONSTONE@WPeLSIStENIC.. «a> aicraclaee cee tetaete ier 1 inch to

LAY COMA aeeecre tency evs: 6 fo 'ei'eo.s 8 ls a,oravoray el Mere ei ehoee Se eee

TRIE UU ROTO OID! 5 Oo OO OE RIO OOO OTE mobo ce node Beco

16. Coal with persistent thin clay parting midway........

18.

19.

20.

21.

22.

23.

24.

25.

The beds, Nos. 8 to 16 inclusive, may be taken as a

single mass, 28 feet thick.

. Coal and clay shale; 4 bands of coal, 4 to 19 inches,

and 4 of clay, 4 to 10 inches; all showing great

variation in thickness. Thin streaks of coal are in

eachyoLethesshalebands........ 0<aeenceseinnieiemer bebe

Clay shale, irregularly bedded, somewhat distorted, has

a 2 to 8 inch coal layer and several thinner streaks..

This mass is a notable feature on the opposite wall.

Coal) with: thing parties. « xi<:s, <1 sels scoisre euereteeheciaer totes

Shaleswitherronstom@rec. si. scl. sistas 2 inches to

Coal with midway a bony parting of 2 to 8 inches.....

Clay, persistent, irregular, contains a lens of coal.....

GOAT A Bac. cotas cre cron a totere Rete neteNGtc Tass “a's .o fae ehoteimucle lene Tomine aor

Shale; dark, sareillaceouSteescci s\c.c-c ose Ge aie 6 inches to

Sandstone, coarse, feldspathic; hardly coarse enough

to be conglomerate, as no fragments larger than a

pea were seen. The thickness is uncertain as this

rock, shown only midway in the découverte, is folded

closely ; as exposed in a pit it seems to be not less

EAM oio15 slats svar wc ce Pe he i erelieteeae oleiies ro. lare 5:9 gl orsletonrole

Nos. 23 and 24 fold over the sandstone.

Ignoring the layers above No. 6, the bed, known here as the Paleyrets,

is about 70 feet thick; the coal on this easterly side is very regular in bed-

ding and shows few traces of disturbance; in that respect it is greatly in

Feet Inches

rFoOoNO ©

For RO Oo

wo bw

aaon on

ocoowmwona eo

STEVENSON, COAL BASIN OF DECAZEVILLEH, FRANCE 257

contrast with conditions to be described in the Bourran bed: and it is un-

expected, for on the western side of this découverte, one finds the most

complicated of the folds in this basin.

The conglomerate, overlying the coal in some places but separated from

it by clay shale at others, is recognizable at once as that belonging in the

Campagnac system. In ascending order, the succession at Tramont is

Feet

1. Conglomerate, light gray; pebbles vary from grains to 10

inches, ordinarily not more than 3 inches, though those of

4 inches are abundant; white quartz, microgranulite, white

mica schist and gneiss are the rocks represented; some

large chunks of shale as well as irregular blocks of coal

wece seen) inthe slower portion-ay-ysceseesicl oe oes aioe e ee 9

2. Sandstone, somewhat argillaceous, not coarse grained, a few

pebbles, much cross-bedded; contains streaks of coal and

COMLV eM ACEET AIRS. per are tara, aks ehehereseka oretn aes ro cS 2 eave aia oua ial aid eets 3

3. Conglomerate, like No. 1, except that the pebbles are not so

[Giigeye ey ARR AR SIE AS Sen A Bits Cai Aa ee ae rr 5

The dip is eastward like that of an underlying coal; it

passes rather abruptly into

4. Sandstone, fine grained and cross-bedded above, where it is

markedly argillaceous; the lower portion contains some

pebbles, but they are small and not abundant; lenses of

coal, 2 to 3 feet long and 2 inches thick........... 8 feet to 12

5. Massive conglomerates, closely resembling Nos. 1 and 3,

divided! by an ‘occasional shaly bed’. ....2....0<6.0+0.c.e 40

Still higher beds are here, but they were not measured. Evidently

there is a succession of mostly coarse conglomerate for more than 150 feet

above the Paleyrets bed. Some petty faults were seen in the eastern wall

near the line of measurement, but the largest is barely 10 feet. The

whole series, coal and conglomerate, has the same dip; but the contact

between the conglomerate and the upper parts of the coal bed shows nota-

ble uncomformability of erosion. At times, everything has been removed

down to No. 6; occasionally the upper portion of No. 2 was lifted like a

flap and the mass of pebbles thrust in under it as a wedge. At several

places, the top coal is bent down under the conglomerate, the lamin fol-

lowing rudely the contact between coal and conglomerate; at some other

places the upper layers of the section were shoved into irregular folds and

conglomerate occupies the synclinals. It is evident that the passage from

coal making to deposition of conglomerate was very abrupt and that the

coal, though perhaps well advanced in transformation, was still imper-

fectly consolidated.

' In the western wall, the coal and the accompanying rocks have been

pushed into an exceedingly close double fold. This begins at a little dis-

258 ANNALS NEW YORK ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

tance north from the découverte and increases very rapidly toward the

southeast. At the bottom of the western wall, the sandstone, No. 25,

rises barely 5 feet above the floor of the excavation ; at 120 feet southward,

it is 15 and at an equal distance farther it is 25 feet above the floor. The

fold continues to increase; in the western wall the top of the coal is

reached on the sixth bench, whereas on the eastern wall the coal rises to

the tenth bench and the crest has not been reached. Apparently the fold

extends southwardly to the Firmy fault. The full extent of the disturb-

ance is not shown in the découverte wall, for the folding is conspicuous

beyond on the way down the hill. The anticlinal evidently consists of

not less than three close folds in a width of not more than 350 feet. The

coal is removed in benches, each about 13 feet high.

That the fold is at least double is apparent at once in the first bench;

the disturbance is less on the northeasterly side and there the succession

is regular. The same condition is found on the second bench, where the

partings of No. 6 are undisturbed, though the coal has been pressed into

laminz, usually almost vertical to the bedding, but sometimes distinctly

curved. The mass, Nos. 8 to 16, being somewhat nearer to the axis, is

more affected, some portions being finely polished. On the third bench

the coals on the easterly side are often polished like a mirror. On the

westerly side the coal is cut off by a fold in the shales, but farther on both

coal and shales reappear. This coal comes up thick from the second

bench, but in the folding it was cut out by the conglomerate, which comes

down from the fourth bench.

In this fourth bench the conglomerate describes two petty folds and

then turns almost vertically alongside of the coal. Though folded with

the coal, the conglomerate is not conformable with it, for almost 20 feet

of the coal is missing. The relations seem to suggest that when the con-

glomerate was deposited, the coal was torn away; indeed, one is almost

justified in conceiving that here is cut the course of a streamlet loaded

with pebbles, for at a few feet from the abrupt change in dip, conglomer-

ate is seen resting on the edges of the coal and shale. Above the con-

glomerate is a mass of more or less argillaceous, crossbedded rock, Nos.

2, 3 and 4 of the overlying section, apparently much thicker than in the

eastern wall, for it reaches to the top of the fifth bench. In crossing the

axis here, two folds are seen, but the coal is still quite regular on the

easterly side.

On the fifth bench, on the westerly side, the shaly beds of the conglom-

erate seem to follow the folding of the underlying conglomerate, but ex-

posures on the bench above indicate that the apparently increased thick-

ness is due to a squeeze and that the more yielding rock has been pressed

*\e Ye

STEVENSON, COAL BASIN OF DECAZEVILLE, FRANCE 259

into a pocket between the two rigid conglomerates. On this bench, the

double fold becomes more intricate, for the westerly wrinkle has been

pushed past the vertical, the conglomerate underlies the coal, while the

shaly mass above the conglomerate shares in the fold. On the easterly

side, the conglomerate rests on the eroded surface of No. 6, but at a few

feet away it has the same dip as Nos. 8 to 16, which underlie the badly

crushed and contorted mass, No. 7.

The highest exposure of the coal is on the sixth bench, where it is over-

lain by shale. The coal rises to not more than three feet above the floor

of this bench. Thirty feet away on the easterly side the conglomerate is

at the floor; at the crest of the fold, it is 10 or 12 feet; at 25 feet away

toward the southwest it is again at the floor. But in the latter interval

it describes an extremely close fold; the two conglomerates are almost in

contact ; the shaly mass has been so squeezed that barely one foot of shale

separates the conglomerates, the rest being in the pocket seen on the

lower bench. This shale has lamine of carbonaceous matter, which pass

down vertically alongside of the conglomerate, in which the pebbles have

their longer axis almost vertical.

The distortion of the conglomerate is most marked on the southwesterly

side of the fold, the dip being quite regular on the opposite side. The

severe effect of the crush was expended on the coal and the shaly beds

above the first conglomerate, which moved between the massive beds above

and below, giving local faulting in the coal and local crumpling in the

shales. Higher up on the hillside, where one reaches the thicker con-

, glomerates, evidence of extreme distortion is wholly wanting, and the

dips throughout are comparatively regular.

The easterly outcrop of the Campagnac-Paleyrets coal bed has been

followed northwardly beyond Riou Mort to the Lot River at the north

end of the basin. The Grande Faille de Bagnaud evidently crosses Riou

Mort just west from: Decazeville, for the conglomerates of the Campagnac

system are reached at little more than 50 rods north from that stream ;

but no trace of them appears in the hills west from Decazeville, where

apparently all of the deposits belong to the Bourran or highest system.

The Campagnac conglomerates appear rather abruptly on the road

leading northward from Decazeville to Levinhac by way of the hamlet of

les Estaques, and they remain in sight almost continuously until one

passes beyond the Bouquies mine near the river. Those conglomerates,

in beds 6 to 20 feet thick, alternate with fine grained sandstones and ar-

gillaceous shales, 8 to 10 feet thick, showing alternations of torrential and

moderate flow in the stream which supplied the material. The pebbles,

often flattened in shape, are one to three inches long, but many of them

260 ANNALS NEW YORK ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

have a longer diameter of six inches. The difference in form as well as

in the composition of the pebbles enabled Bergeron, Jardel and Picandet

to determine that the stream giving this deposit entered the basin at the

northeast near the Pont de Bourran. The dip of these beds, though

slightly interrupted at times, is southwestward or south of west at not

far from 30 degrees, until one passes the summit at les Estaques, some-

what more than a mile north from Decazeyville.

At barely 750 feet from the fork in the road at les Estaques, a-con-

glomerate is shown dipping south of west at 30 degrees; but there the

dip is reversed to north of east. At 300 yards farther the southwestward

dip is resumed, and it is retained until one is directly above the entrance

to the Bouquies mine. There a deep side cut shows a sharp fold with

steeper dips on the northeasterly side, the beds being almost vertical; but

this decreases to 20 degrees within a few rods, and that rate continues as

far as the beds were followed. The exposure at this place shows between

sandy and conglomerate beds, a mass of shale almost 25 feet thick and

containing some thin streaks of coal. No other trace of carbonaceous

material was observed at any exposure along this line; this exposure is

more than 200 feet above the Bouquies mine. No closer determination

was made, as atmospheric conditions rendered the aneroid useless. The

coal at this mine was not measured; it is reported as being 48 feet thick.

The Campagnac deposits show only slight differences in type, and such

as are shown are due mostly to the sources whence the materials were

derived. They were made by streams from the southeast and northeast,

and the physical structure of the deposits shows that practically similar

conditions of flow existed contemporaneously on all. The thickness of

the Campagnac system varies. A cross section constructed by Saint-

Martin of the Campagnac company seems to make the interval between

the Campagnac and Bourran coal beds not far from 175 meters at the

bottom of the syncline west from Cransac. But A. Jardel, director of

the Decazeville company’s mines, states that in the Puits de Decazes, near

Cransac, he reached the Campagnac coal at about 200 meters below the

surface, and he is inclined to think that the interval between the beds is

nearly 300 meters, the dip of 27 to 30 degrees being ignored. It is

wholly probable that each determination is correct for its locality and

that the interval between the beds decreases toward the west. A trial pit

was sunk below the Bourran coal bed near Decazeville, but the test was

not continued directly; at the bottom of the pit a horizontal entry was

driven in the direction of the dip and a new pit was sunk at its end near

the bottom of the syncline. It is difficult to determine accurately the

relation of the two pits to the Bourran bed, but beyond doubt the test

was carried to approximately 1000 feet without reaching the Campagnac

STEVENSON, COAL BASIN OF DECAZEVILLE, FRANCE 261

bed. In this the dip of at least 30 degrees is ignored. Apparently, the

interval between the coal beds is between 750 and 800 feet along the

middle line of the basin and decreases toward the west.

A stream entering at the southwest near Valzergues is believed by Ber-

geron, Jardel and Picandet to have begun its work during the Campagnac

period. They refer to the agency of this stream an isolated area of

granite conglomerate south from Valzergues, covering about 30 hectares

and resting on mica schist. It consists of granite blocks, four to five

meters in diameter, with rounded angles, and the intervals are filled with

granitic sand rich in feldspar. They think that the great size of the

blocks proves that they had been carried only a short distance. Farther

north is a conglomerate of mica schist and granite, also resting on mica

schist and succeeded by sandstones and shales containing some thin coal

beds, which are thought to be older than the Bourran system.

The Bourran system of Bergeron.—Prior to the close of the Campag-

nac system, streams bringing noteworthy loads of detritus came almost

wholly from the south and the northeast, as proved by fragments inclosed

in the deposits. The outlet of the basin is supposed by Bergeron, Jardel

and+Picandet to have been near Firmy, where those observers found a

commingling of materials from the north and the south. There is every

reason to accept this conclusion as correct. During the long period of

the Auzits and Campagnac systems, the western part of the basin received

little material, for except in the extreme southwest corner, there is hardly

anything on that side which can be recognized as certainly older than the

Bourran. The Lugan and Valzergues seem to have been important dur-

ing the formation of the earlier Bourran deposits; and another, entering

from the west near the present Moulin du Faux, is supposed to have be-

come efficient at the beginning of the Bourran.

The earliest deposit, as described by Bergeron, Jardel and Picandet, is

a conglomerate formed everywhere of ‘enormous granite blocks, whose

“colossal dimensions” are seen as one goes from the Riou Vieux up to

the hamlet of Faux. Some of them measure “10 metres cubes.” The

intervals are filled with granitic sand, and blocks of granulite are seen

occasionally. This “granite conglomerate” is followed readily south-

ward for three miles, to near Montbazens, the blocks becoming smaller,

though still of great size. An insignificant outler remains north from

Faux on the granite itself. The “granite conglomerate” is succeeded by |

a mica schist-microgranulite conglomerate, derived in chief part from

the south; and this in turn is succeeded by sandstones and shales with

some coal beds, most of which are too thin to repay working. This whole

series is referred by its describers to the Bourran system. Its rocks were

not examined by the writer.

962 ANNALS NEW YORK ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

In descending the Enne valley from Cransac to Viviez, one finds only

few and isolated exposures along both the railroad and the wagon road.

For the most part the sandstones, as shown, are not very coarse. The

coal of the Bourran system is cut by the stream, but the thin beds, being

without economic importance at present, are not mined, and no trace of

them was observed along the roads. Ata very little distance from Aubin,

one passes abruptly from Coal Measures to gneiss and to granite as by

a fault. This granite must be largely of the type which yields readily to

weathering, as the topography is almost as rounded as that in the basin.

From Viviez to Decazeville along Riou Mort, the conditions are. unlike

those observed in the Enne valley. At Viviez, one is in the mica schists,

which are less yielding than the granite west from Aubin. The Riou Mort

valley passes abruptly from the bold angular hills of schist to the rounded

hills of the Coal Measures. But before reaching the latter, one crosses

a narrow prong of microgranulite, which intervenes between the schist

and the Coal Measures. The contact with the latter rocks is not shown

at road level on either side of the valley, but on the northerly side the

concealed space is very small, and one comes quickly to a great conglom-

erate with the pebbles all rounded and frequently six inches in diameter.

The exposures begin opposite the pottery at Laboudie and continue to

within half a mile of Decazeville, the higher beds being less coarse and

containing much shale as well as fine-grained sandstone.

On the southern side, everything is concealed beyond the microgranu-

lite exposure for almost half a mile by a thick deposit of stream clay, used

in the pottery. Beyond that the conglomerate is shown, containing peb-

bles of white quartz, white mica schist, some of gneiss and very many of

microgranulite. These pebbles are smaller than those seen on the north-

ern side and are from one to three inches in diameter. The source of the

material is from the direction of Viviez, as suggested by Bergeron, Jardel

and Picandet. At about 200 yards farther, as one reaches the outskirts

of Decazeville, an imperfect exposure at the roadside shows higher rocks

for 100 feet,

Feet

teConclomeratey with SOMe MSI ale sralcisle rele e's /s\ <)elsieie ate elateleleicnelaieneree 10

The pebbles are one fourth of an inch to one inch; there

are very few of white quartz, white mica schist and gneiss

prevail; none of microgranulite was seen.

Ze Shales sweathering Michteorsdyeriemisicteicleisis loi l/c are lsiaisieteloleterietetate 15

Contain pockets of coal 2 to 3 inches thick; the Snes are

contorted and the coal pockets may be fragments of a con-

tinuous bed.

SSHales and Shaly sSAMGScOMESeristeetersyateterelo cleiclal elie alcleleilelatetelelt= 10

The dip of No. 3 is eastward at about 25 degrees.

STEVENSON, COAL BASIN OF DECAZEVILLE, FRANCE 263

All of the beds along this line are to be taken as belonging to the

Bourran system and the Bourran coal bed extends northward beyond

Riou Mort to be known as the Couche de Saint-Roch. It is continuous

almost to the north end of the basin, but, though retaining considerable

thickness, it contains much shale, and, owing to the proximity of the

great deposits of both Campagnac and Bourran systems, its economic

importance at present is very small.

At Decazeville, one reaches the area in which the Bourran bed has its

great development. The Bourran coal bed has escaped erosion at only

one locality in the eastern portion of the basin, where a small area re-

mained, south from the Firmy fault. The coal has been mined there

for much more than a century, but mining operations are almost at an

end, as the workings have reached the village under which the bed

passes. The découverte is about 2 kilometers long by one fourth to one

half kilometer wide, and the coal has been removed to be replaced by

waste from the iron and steel works at Decazeville. As now exposed,

the coal at Firmy is compressed into a very close fold, whose axis passes

directly under the Firmy church. Only a small part of the bed is

shown, as rubbish covers the slope on both sides of the exposure. The

dips are abrupt, 50 to 60 degrees on the northwesterly side, but so

crumpled and distorted on the opposite side that no determination can

be made. Exposures on the road to Auzits show that the fold is double.

The company’s engineers give the thickness of the coal as about 50

feet. Blavier, as cited by Bergeron, gave the visible thickness in 1906

as 70 meters, and he believed that the mass exceeded 100 meters. This

exaggerated estimate was due to the fact that the workings at that time

exposed the face of the double fold. The dips become comparatively

gentle at a little way from the fold, so that winning of the coal by

découverte was a simple and not expensive method, the amount of cover

to be removed being comparatively small. In this découverte, one ob-

serves the unfortunate tendency of the Bourran coal to spontaneous

combustion, which has led to loss of vast quantities of coal in the several

découvertes. The ignited mass gives ashes at the surface, coke lower

down and still lower a beautiful anthracite with no apparent trace of

porosity or weakness of structure. This charred coal cannot be utilized

by the company, as a very small proportion ruins the coke, but it is em-

ployed in manufacture of brick and in some other industries.

Passing over to the principal area of the Bourran, one finds the coal

with only moderate thickness toward the southern border; and no mines

are in operation south from Cransac, because the thicker deposits are

available at the north. The bed forms a syncline, cropping out again at

264 ANNALS NEW YORK ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

the west as it approaches the line of eruptive rocks. It is said to be

thinner and less pure toward the west, where it breaks up into several

benches separated by considerable shale partings. Openings, no longer

in operation, were seen along the eastern outcrop south from Cransac,

where the extreme thickness reported is 18 feet. At Cransac, one is

barely 1,000 feet from the great découverte of the Société des Acieries

de France. The outcrop of the coal in this space is represented by an

oval on the map and the deposit is known as the Couche de Fraysse; but

the coal is continuous from Cransac to Decazeville and the interrupted

outcrop indicates only erosion where the anticline is crossed by the

Ruisseau de Banel.

Note has been made of a serious disturbance in the beds near Cransac.

If one go north-northwest from that city and climb the hill, following

a path passing an abandoned opening in the Bourran and crossing the

summit near the old house known as la Montet, he sees, in the rolling

space beyond, the Fraysse découverte, which occupies a space of fully

half a square mile. A broad complex fold has kept the coal near the

surface and made it so readily accessible throughout the space that now

comparatively little remains. The present workings on the east side

were not visited; the thickness varies from 15 to 20 meters. A vast

quantity of coal has been lost by spontaneous combustion, and one por-

tion of the area is known as “les Estuves.”

Going northward along the ridge with the old workings constantly in

sight at the east, one soon reaches an abandoned découverte, in which

the laminated sandy shales overlying the Bourran coal are dipping

sharply toward the west; but within a few rods an anticline is reached

and the same beds have eastward dip of 385 degrees. At the La Gua-

Combes road, a quarter of a mile beyond, the lower portion of the bed

describes two close folds. West from this point as the road descends

toward La Gua, the coal and its overlying laminated sandy shales are

shown with sharp westward dip, while the upper part of the bed is high

up in the hill overlooking the summit of the road. At this summit, one

looks northward to the Banel, erosion having removed most of the coal

bed along the axial line.

The fold diminishes northwardly with great speed. At the road sum-

mit, only the lowest part of the bed is shown, the greater portion being

in the hill at the west. Descending thence towards the découverte

Domergue, belonging to the Decazeville company, one sees the coal out-

crop dropping in the hill at the west, while the middle lines of the fold

are distinct in the declining hill followed by the steep road. At the

Domergue, almost 300 feet below the summit of the La Gua road, the

STEVENSON, COAL BASIN OF DECAZEVILLE, FRANCE 265

coal is under the surface on the western side and its overlying laminated

shales are shown in the bluff behind the machine house, a northward fall

of fully 500 feet in less than half a mile. The coal is traceable directly

from the Fraysse to the Domergue découverte and the lower portions

have been mined at several places along the hill descending to the Banel.

The dip of the coal is sharply westward on the hillside facing the

Enne valley. A serious and somewhat complicated fault exists between

the Fraysse area and the hill west from Cransac, where one finds the

outcropping Couche du Crol, the same bed. This fault apparently de-

creases toward the north..

The section above the coal in Domergue découverte is

Feet

1. Sandstone, more or less conglomeratic, in thick beds, xiii, xii. 60

Pe SUNSTONE TAN GUS al Gu ex) lereperstete ce istetevetstelelciel overs sishels eves (elle ‘sale sicl aie 15

Saale wee COLOLEH peRllsiatecrsielora cketorecole eveleiele ies elclc/ere ove! sosvee clleileice 4

4 Shale: dark with) IrONSTOME: Xd nyicleciceie.s stele cep so sicles ogiers ie) si 10

He shale; fissile, DlaIsh eTays, linc. cisicie wlers vias ord oo nee eisrass se sees 20

6. Sandstone and shale, the sandstone in part laminated and

GLOSS eal CGC Cisew al pe Ree rsrresecy che tee es anter otentensh chee sipor eitaiione joues obey shatter Sass oteus 12

fea Shales! weathering darks x. ixe Willis ccc selec pos ds~iss ee ce 40

See Sandstone wiohtoray wVilien valent sere setcnto ers aicie tcivete ee ose 9

GE Sees, Ze ese WD yall \alilo oda boosabdoudonodnooécoeaocoopetio” 20

10. Sandstone, light gray, fine grained, vii, vi.................. 8

11. Shales and sandstones, laminated throughout; thickness can-

not be determined exactly from the exposures; is very

undulating on the benches; extremely flexed at west end of

découverte; appears to rest directly on the coal south from

the La Gua road; thickness not far from................. 50

So that the interval from the coal to the first of the conglomerates sand-

stones is approximately 170 feet, filled mostly with argillaceous shale.

No trace of coal was seen anywhere in this interval or in the sandstones

above, of which only 60 feet were measured. The exposure is complete

throughout. The coal is mined by shaft on the east side of the décou-

verte. The removal of material in the open work is by benches and the

Roman numbers in the table indicate the benches on which the expo-

sures occur.

This découverte cuts the axis of the Cransac-La Montet anticline, but

exposures are very poor below the fifth bench. In great part, the exposed

coal has been destroyed by spontaneous combustion, and fire is still at

work; the hill is known as the “volcano,” for clouds of smoke rise from

many fissures. The coal, below the surface on both sides, rises midway

to the seventh bench, about 150 feet below the summit on the La Gua

road, where only the lowest part of the bed is shown.

266 ANNALS NEW YORK ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

On the fifth, sixth and seventh benches, the coal is thrown into com-

plex folds, which are faulted, for on the seventh, the sandstone, No. 8,

is at only three or four feet above the coal, from which it is separated

by shale, rolled into flakes like pastry. The shales, No. 7, are closely

plicated as they pass over the folds, but all complexity ends with the

sandstone, No. 6, which shows, as the only trace, a crumpling of the thin

inclosed shales. The higher beds are regular. The faulting and sharp

folding end with No. 6; the effects of the lateral pressure were expended

on the yielding lower rocks, which slipped and bent sharply or were

faulted locally, while the hard upper rocks made simply a broad fold,

the conditions in this narrow anticline being precisely those observed in

disturbed regions of great extent, where some beds are faulted, crumpled

or pushed into pockets, while other and more massive inclosing beds

seem to be little affected by the disturbance.

The fold is very narrow. Climbing out of the découverte at the

eleventh bench on the eastern side, one finds the easterly dip already

gone, the beds on the twelfth and thirteenth benches show westerly dip of

25 to 30 degrees, and this dip prevails to the supposed line of the Bag-

naud fault, only a few rods farther east. Just outside of the découverte

is the road from Decazeville to Combes; following that to the summit,

one sees fumes issuing from many fissures, while farther west on the

hillside is the outcrop in an old découverte, marked by a broad space of

white, whence dense fumes arise constantly. Here one looks down on

the ventilating shaft of the Bourran mine, now used for removal of

waste and the blackband which in that mine covers the coal bed. The

coal crops out in the steep road just below an abandoned dwelling,

where it is exposed for several rods. The dip is such that, if continued,

it would carry the coal far above the Tramont découverte, barely one

fourth of a mile away at the east; but it is interrupted, for Bergeron,

Jardel and Picandet have recognized the Bagnaud fault in the interval.

The Bourran shaft is reached at somewhat more than half a mile from

the Domergue. The coal, 40 meters below the surface, is said to be 45

meters thick. At the Domergue, the thickness is given as 60 meters,

the dip being ignored. At the Domergue, the dip where last seen at the

east is 40 degrees eastward; near Bourran, the surface rocks dip between

25 and 30 degrees.

The great découverte of Decazeville is only 700 feet north from the

Bourran shaft. Like the découvertes already mentioned, it was begun

along the crest of a close fold and the old workings were confined to a

narrow space on each side of the anticline, where that was at nearly the

maximum. The great excavation is farther north and reaches better

coal, as this fold, like the others, decreases toward the north very rapidly.

STEVENSON, COAL BASIN OF DECAZEVILLE, FRANCE 267

The coal in the newer portion is 120 meters below the hilltop, and the

whole of this cover must be removed. The work of removal is done in

benches, each four meters high, and the coal occupies the first eight,

midway in the excavation. The disturbance in the coal is such that a

definite section cannot be obtained such as that at Tramont; it is impos-

‘sible to determine even the original thickness of the bed. But the fine

exposure on the easterly wall enables one to ascertain the general struc-

ture of the bed, while that on the southerly wall exhibits in part the

fold. Serious faults are distinct, but the mass of coal reaching to the

eighth bench is outside of the main fault and is continuous.

On the eighth and seventh benches, there are eight meters of coal with

indefinite partings; whether or not these were persistent in any case

cannot be determined, because the coal is crushed by petty faults and

irregular folds. A clay parting three inches thick was seen on the sixth

bench and was followed for some distance, but it disappears abruptly,

as if cut off by a fault. Ironstone concretions are numerous on this

bench, and the coal has concentric structure around them. Some part-

ings and pockets of shale were seen on the fifth bench, but they are not

in their original position and their relations cannot be determined. A

three-inch bed of clay is shown on the fourth bench, where also are

numerous thin clay partings; but most of them have been broken up into

small pieces with polished surface. A large mass of ironstone is a nota-

ble feature at this exposure. Throughout, the coal has been broken into

wedges, large and small, some of the former showing a lens-shaped sec-

tion. On the third is a streak of hard clay, six inches to one foot thick,

evidently persistent, for it crosses a fold on the main floor of the excava-

tion. The coal on this bench, as on those below, is much curled, and

faults of two to three feet are numerous.

Here is a face, more than 100 feet high, and containing no certainly

persistent parting more than a few inches thick; indeed, to all intents,

the mass is continuous coal. Dips of 25 to 40 degrees were observed ;

one may take 25 degrees as the average without danger of underesti-

mating the mass; the thickness of the bed may be about 90 feet.

But underlying this coal is an argillaceous shale with some sandstone,

the top of which is seen in the lowest part of the découverte. It is a

striking feature in the southerly wall, where its light color makes clear

the vagaries of the fold. When first encountered in the northerly part

of the excavation, this mass was 22 meters thick; but it decreased rapidly,

so that in the bottom of the découverte it is only six meters, while in

the Bourran shaft, 200 meters away, it has disappeared. Below it is

coal, more than six meters thick, which is not removed in the open work-

268 ANNALS NEW YORK ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

ings, being reserved for underground working by means of a shaft out-

side. It is exposed in the southerly wall.

The top of the coal is reached on the eighth bench, where one fide a

few feet of the overlying shale; but there is no continuous section above,

as at Domergue, for this easterly wall is cut by some important faults,

whereby the coal reaches successively higher benches toward the south,

before the folded area has been reached. In descending the incline from

the thirteenth to the twelfth bench, one crosses a fault which brings the

conglomerate sandstone, No. 1 of Domergue, against the laminated beds

No. 11 of Domergue, while on the eleventh bench that sandstone and

the coal are almost in contact. This fault appears on the thirteenth

bench at the point of the hill, but it is equally well defined at the north-

erly end, where exposures reach to the fifteenth bench and the coal,

rising eastward, is shown much folded and with only 10 feet of shale

between it and the fault. This fault, viewed from the southwest corner.

is very distinct from the thirteenth bench down into the coal of the

ninth. The measurement of the coal already given was made on the

easterly side of this fault; at a few yards southeast, the coal reaches to

the tenth bench. The other faults are of slight vertical extent.

The interval between the coal and the great sandstone is not fully

shown in this wall, owing to the faults, but the beds in contact with the

coal resemble those seen in the Fraysse and Domergue workings. The

sandstones above are light gray, with many layers of pea to chestnut con-

glomerate and are not far from 200 feet thick; while near the top of the

hill are reddish or reddish brown beds which have been recognized as

Permian. When the great disturbance occurred, the massive rocks above

broke into huge blocks or were pushed into a broad fold, but the coal and

shale, the weaker materials, were crumpled, thrown into multitudinous

petty folds and broken by local faults. At the Bourran shaft, one is

apparently outside of the faulted area, for there one sees the shales and

sandstones to fully 200 feet above the coal, the dip of rather more than

30 degrees being ignored in the measurement. The succession seems to

be regular on the westerly side of the Decazeville découverte, where the

section resembles that at Domergue, except that two sandstone beds, six

to eight feet thick, in the lower part contain streaks of conglomerate with

pebbles sometimes one inch in diameter. Several sandy layers show

many impressions of plants and of stems, some of them large enough to

be regarded as tree trunks.

Standing at the northwest corner of this découverte and looking

toward the southeast, one sees in the southerly wall a sharp carinated

fold, whose abrupt middle portion is marked by the light-colored shale

STEVENSON, COAL BASIN OF DECAZEVILLE, FRANCE 269

underlying the main coal. Beyond that is a broad valley, rising rapidly

and marking the place of the old découverte, whence the coal was taken

prior to the consolidation of the Commentry and Decazeville companies.

The direction of these old workings is indicated by a white space covered

with ashes and by the fumes which rise in such dense clouds that the hill

is known as the “montagne-qui-brule.” An immense quantity of coal

was removed from this old découverte, where owing to rapid develop-

ment of the fold the bed was reached with minimum of stripping. But

the crush was very great, and the coal must have been much more broken

than in the present workings. The systematic methods pursued by the

director, M. Antoine Jardel, have led to securing coal much less injured

and to reducing very greatly the loss by fire.

The coal in the southerly wall is no longer recognizable above the

twelfth bench; but before the great destruction by fire, the face of coal

shown along the fold must have been at least 250 feet high and more

than 300 feet wide at the bottom, fully deserving the name, “mountain

of coal.” The bizarre arrangement in the wall, which is not well shown

in the defective photograph, is that of the underlying clay; the great

coal was exposed on both sides. This clay enables one to recognize the

rapidity with which this fold, like the others already mentioned, de-

creases toward the north. In the southerly wall, one of the lower clays

is squeezed into a carina on the eleventh bench; but, midway in the

excavation at the level of the third bench, the highest of the clays folds

over the anticline, a fall of 130 feet in barely 300. The exposures in

the wall are very good and illustrate well the manner in which the read-

ily yielding clays were divided and pushed into spaces between blocks of

more rigid materials.

The coal is traceable on the twelfth as well as on the eleventh bench,

but in great part it has been baked so as to be worthless. A fine expo-

sure on the eleventh consists almost wholly of beautifully compact an-

thracite with no macroscopic evidence of porosity. This proves that,

under proper conditions of pressure, bituminous coal can be converted

into anthracite within a brief period by slow distillation alone. On the

lower benches, beyond the influence of the fire, there are many illustra-

tions showing the effect of pressure on structure. The shales vary ac-

cording to composition; the harder, coarser beds have been folded so as

to show long curved faces, often along the bedding, while the finer, more

argillaceous beds have been squeezed into wrinkles, sometimes vertical to

the bedding, sometimes parallel; while in many cases they have been

crushed into lenses, polished so as to resemble talcose schist.

270 ANNALS NEW YORK ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

The coal above the shale is distorted seriously only in the lower por-

tion, where the wrinkling is complex on the easterly side, the dips some-

times reaching 70 degrees. The thicker coals on that side, in several

places, have lost their original structure and they are now in slabs, one

to three inches thick, extending continuously in the wall of two or even

three benches. The dips on the opposite side rarely exceed 40 degrees,

and the coals above the clay are less affected, but they are folded gently

and occasionally show petty faults.

Within the fold of shale, the underlying coal has suffered materially.

An accurate measurement of this exposure cannot be given, as the wall

is sometimes diagonal to the dip and at others parallel to the strike; the

succession descending is

Feet Inches

1. Shale, argillaceous, much contorted.................- 1 0

24, (CURL, Theealene, smb Ooi airls Sagdocdocausane 1 foot to 1 6

3. Shale, argillaceous, drab, foliated like schist, has a

COAIEStEAK SMI GWAY «. <:5 ss. cere avers) wlote cierereretorerersi oteretorene 8 0

4. Coal, many pockets of shale, much ironstone; the shale

is argillaceous, irregular and flaky............... 15 0

5. Argillaceous shale; this has its carina on the eleventh

bench, but forks on the tenth and it is the roof of

the underlying coal bed; averageS..........ee.cees 4 0

GAC ODM Mee CHD ooier esis Gis, 8s © wi avdie, sie ats eeenerel oiebenerer meen eT ter oiatte 6 0

HELCIEN 6 Sao G0 TOSCO TEE OCI CEO oi 3D a osO 1 0

The coals are broken into wedges with polished and often rounded

surfaces. Exposures in this wall are complete down to the third bench;

as one descends, the effects of the crush become more complex, the coal

and shale are broken into large fragments and intermingled, until on the

third bench the material seems to be hardly worth removing.

But northwardly, the condition becomes simpler. An exposure at the

foot of the incline, on the level of the third bench, shows the decreased

fold with these beds:

Feet

1. Coal, mined on the third bench, where it is wrinkled into a

fold, which is distinct on the fourth and fifth benches.....

2. Shale, argillaceous, dark, often with an almost cone-in-cone

structure; when blown down, it breaks into rudely cylin-

drical fragments with highly polished surface............ +

3. Coal and shale, rolled into laminz one eighth to one inch

thick, with curved and polished surfaces................. 6

4. Sandstone’ or Sandy (Shale tere cteteieveretsiels s-s e's,0 010 « vrsterelolere ciotorsierels 5

Bs GOD: sisics te aiwve chs laid le che SISO orege ISG orbs ore a idin Siete ereiare ie retetee 3

6. Shale, apparently the upper light colored shale seen in the

southern wall; is sharply contorted on the westerly side of

STEVENSON, COAL BASIN OF DECAZEVILLE, FRANCE PATA

Feet

the fold, the condition being complicated by a small fault,

so that it has been rubbed into close wrinkles by the verti-

CAlSIMOVEMENE Nass aetelectoie clalevarscleloietets’ ciel ale/cvovels |e) cileye (he) alelcf ere! etre 7

7. Coal and shale, involved in the fault, beyond which it is

almost vertical, but its laminz are curved with concavity

WO og AE EPS h oon Oba obo 005 ic GO DID ODDDOUCUBDU OOOO UCHE 2

There are few exposures in the hill west from Decazeville. The coa:

passes under it at the découverte. Just beyond the church square, one

sees the Vialarel mine at a short distance above the level of the street.

Around the hollow occupied by the mine buildings as well as along the

road leading to a hamlet higher up the hill, are exposures of massive

sandstone, with thin beds of shale and with many pebbles, though not

enough of them to make a conglomerate. This rock has no resemblance

to the conglomerates of the Campagnac system, which are exposed at

barely half a mile away toward the north beyond Riou Mort; it resembles

rather the sandstones above the Bourran bed. The coal bed reached in

this shaft was supposed to be the Campagnac, but a tunnel, driven

through from the découverte, encountered no conglomerate. The bed

evidently belongs to the Bourran system and is low down in it, but its

precise relation to the great bed is still undetermined. The coal is 15

meters thick and of excellent quality.

CHARACTER OF THE COAL

The following analyses are by M. Neyron Saint-Julien, chemist of the

Decazeville company.

Vol. mat. Fixed—(C, Ash Fuel ratio

AEP BOUELATY pyseyciclayvels, tele 34 55 11 1.6

EPPA SSOuie creisiieaisl sre sree. 35 59 6 1.67

32 DOMeETEUC 2554.62 006 35 51 14 igs

A IMI So RRA CSO ae 35 57 8 1.6

5}, IWDUTEIOOINE as olgoeoodcs 37 53 10 1.44

Ge AVialanels oe acne etree 35 52 12 is:

(a Campacnacaria erie. 382 58 10 1.8

Ss I SOUCUIES vac tiersrctcreiele bat) 57 8 1.6

OM Rulbenass Geterdee sie wists 37 56 7 ee)

LOS SOUHCEy veietjersieie sock 28.3 54.6 irl 1.94

The analysis in each case is of dry coal, the moisture not exceeding

0.47. Nos. 1 to 6 are from the Bourran bed; from 7 to 9 are from the

Campagnac bed; the one analysis from the Soulier bed is that of a hand

specimen taken from the old workings,® so that it may not represent

5T am indebted for this analysis to M. BE. Brocard, who collected the specimen and

secured the analysis after my departure.

99 ANNALS NEW YORK ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

fully the composition of the coal. There is notable variation in the seve-

ral parts of the bed, Nos. 1, 5 and 6 being from contiguous localities.

There seems to have been little change as the result of the abrupt folding;

hence, a series of analyses showing the composition of the coal in each

yard from the bottom to the top ought to prove serviceable to the student

busied with the origin of coal; such a series should show variations like

those in the Mammoth bed of the Southern Anthracite field. The coals

from Miramont, Domergue and Bourran are under cover of the Bourran

and Permian deposits; but the coal of Fraysse and Firmy are in locali-

ties which must have been freed from most or all of the Permian and

perhaps some of the Bourran load during the pre-Jurassic erosion.

At first glance, one might be tempted to draw some conclusions from

the relations of the fuel ratios; but several ultimate analyses by M. Ney-

ron Saint-Julien induce hesitation. These show that the composition is

unusual for a Carboniferous coal; at all events, it is very unlike that of

Carboniferous coals in Great Britain and America. The results are:

Carbon Hydrogen Oxygen and nitrogen

i BOULTATE.. ele\- 63 4 33

Pe MUNRO, Geange 70 5 25

3. Miramont ... 69 5 26

4. Rulhe ....... 70 6 24

The composition is that of the dry coal in each case. M. Brocard

states that a cold solution of caustic potash ordinarily has no effect on

the coal, but, most commonly, boiling colors the solution pale yellow to

black. This test is employed to determine the coking value of the coal;

when the coloration is brown, the coal gives a poorly consolidated coke.

This incidental observation by M. Brocard is evidence that material dif-

ferences in composition exist within the bed. Several years ago, Steven-

son® subjected a number of Carboniferous and Cretaceous coals to the

caustic potash test and found that those giving a good coke were not

attacked even after long boiling, while the open burning were attacked

readily. He supposed that he was in the way to discover a convenient

mode of determining the value of the coal, but Canadian reports of recent

years give numerous instances of coals readily attacked by caustic potash

yet yielding strong coke. These coals are closely allied in composition to

lignites. The Decazeville coal cokes readily, but the coke is not strong

and the burden must not exceed 60 feet.

The peculiarity of the Bourran coal which at once attracts attention

is its tendency to spontaneous combustion. A heap more than six feet

6J. J. Srrvenson, “Jurassic coals of Spitzbergen,’’ Ann. N. Y. Acad. Sci., vol. xvi,

p. 90, 1895.

STEVENSON, COAL BASIN OF DECAZEVILLE, FRANCE — 273

high quickly develops an internal temperature of 60° C., and, if neg-

lected, ignites within a few days. The zinc company at Viviez, two

miles from Decazeville, stored a great quantity of the coal in a heap

somewhat more than 8 feet high. The rapidly increasing temperature

was discovered just in time to prevent destruction of the mass. The

danger is always present at outcrops, new or old. Fifteen jets of smoke

_ were seen at one time on the easterly wall of the Decazeville découverte,

where the watch to prevent conflagration is incessant. Everywhere in

the great découvertes the ravages of spontaneous combustion are proved

by areas of whitened surface and cindered rocks. Some of the under-

ground workings are charged with grisou and miners use only safety

lamps. The Campagnac coal has the same tendency, but it is less marked,

for an official of the company at Cransac stated that heaps eight feet

high are safe. The sulphur in these coals is not excessive, little more

than one per cent. |

In this connection, it may be well to note that the Campagnac bed is

separated at most by two or three yards from the overlying conglomerate

beds, open-grained rocks, while the Bourran bed underlies a great thick-

ness of more or less argillaceous deposits, close-grained rocks. If the

process of transformation continue to any great extent after burial of the

coal material under the inorganic load, the Campagnac coal should show

a greater difference from that of the Bourran than is indicated by the

analyses ; the more so as they are separated by an interval of 750 feet.

The writer’s purpose in studying the Decazeville basin was to ascertain

whether or not the conditions existing there favored the doctrine that

coal beds are composed of transported vegetable matter. Any hypothesis

offered to account for formation of the coal beds must take into consider-

ation certain important features of the basin, such as

The original extent and character of the basin,

The manner in which the mineral detritus was deposited and the

features of the streams which did the work,

The extent and distribution of the coal beds.

Certain structural features, such as the folding and faulting, being of

later origin, have no bearing upon the general question.

THE ORIGINAL EXTENT AND CHARACTER OF THE BASIN

The Decazeville Coal Measures occupy a depression in the Archean

schists and are bounded, at least in part, by faults which have no direct

relation to those observed within the basin.

Q74 ANNALS NEW YORK ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

The limiting fault at the west, recognized by Bergeron‘ in 1888, is

distinct from the southern border northward, passing on the west side of

the granite area, but making an angle at Riou Mort, whence it is trace-

able to its disappearance under post-Carboniferous rocks at the north.

On the eastern side a well-defined fault extends northwardly to beyond

Riou Mort, east from Firmy; and the map by Bergeron, Jardel and

Picandet makes it very probable that a fault continues from Riou Mort

to the northern part of the basin, as was suggested long ago by Bergeron.

Whether or not the basin was limited by a fault at the south cannot be

determined from the observations now available; but the existence of

such a fault seems to be more than probable. Bergeron’s sketch-map

marked it as extending from the western boundary near Valzergues south-

eastward to the mica schists on the opposite side, but the map in the later

memoir does not show it, as its place along the greater part of the south-

ern border is concealed by Jurassic beds. 'The basin owes its origin to

these limiting faults, along which as lines of weakness those adjustments

were made which, by changing the relative levels, made possible the depo-

sition of a thick mass of Coal Measures. They may have been involved

in the final changes, causing the present complicated structure, but their

share in them was merely subordinate. The Permian on the ridge road

above Auzits appears to be affected very slightly by the limiting fault.

The area of deposit was confined at first almost wholly to the south-

east corner, but it expanded gradually until, at the close of the Campag-

nac period, it embraced almost the whole of the eastern half and a con-

siderable space along the southern border. During the Bourran, the

whole of the present area received deposits. The studies by Bergeron,

Jardel and Picandet leave no doubt respecting conditions in the western

part of the basin during the Bourran, and the writer adds his testimony

in corroboration for localities examined by him. There is no reason

whatever to believe that the basin was occupied at any time by a body of

deep water; for a long time a great part of the area was exposed to sub-

aérial action. The evidence is positive.

Bergeron, Jardel and Picandet report the occurrence near Antaig-

nargues of a mica-schist breccia, composed of great blocks, which they

seem inclined to regard as part of a delta, therefore as deposited by run-

ning water. This explanation of the origin is open to question. The

vast size of the angular blocks would lead one to think rather of sub-

aérial disintegration as the causal agent. Somewhat similar deposits are

described from the southeastern corner. A small area of about eight

7 Réunion, ete., dans l’Allier, p. 82.

STEVENSON, COAL BASIN OF DECAZEVILLE, FRANCE Q75

acres, south from Valzergues, is covered with a mass of granite blocks

with rounded angles, 13 to 16 feet in diameter, and bound together by a

granitic sand rich in feldspar. This rests on mica schist and in general

character is closely related to a granitic mass at a little distance south-

east. Along the western border and extending to the granite area inside

of the limiting fault, the earliest deposit is a “granite conglomerate”

which can be followed from near Montbazens to the granite north from

Riou Vieux. The fragments are of large size even near Montbazens, but

they increase northwardly until beyond Riou Vieux, as one approaches

the granite, very many of them are “10 metres cubes” and the intervals

are filled with granitic sand, holding blocks of granulite. A small patch

of similar conglomerate exists farther north on the granite itself.

When one considers the colossal dimensions of the blocks at these

localities, the conception of transport by the insignificant streams enter-

ing and traversing the basin becomes at least improbable. The phenom-

ena point rather to atmospheric action; the rounding of the angles in the

great blocks west from Montbazens is a commonplace feature of granite-

weathering beginning at the joint planes. The writer long ago observed

many instances in Colorado, one of which he placed on record.* But it is

unnecessary to go far from Decazeville to find a deposit like the “granite

conglomerate.” Along the railroad from Bort to Aurillac and thence to

Capdenac, one sees at many places a thick deposit of granitic sand hold-

ing great rounded and angular blocks of granite. At Viescamp-sous-

Jalles, near Aurillac, this is well exposed in a long cut, and it covers

the hillsides for a considerable distance southward toward Capdenac.

Where this readily disintegrating granite prevails, the valley widens, but

beyond in the schist it narrows. The granite area within the Decazeville

basin must be largely of the readily disintegrating type, for its topogra-

phy is hardly more abrupt than that of the Coal Measures.

The presence of these conglomerates, the absence of deposits earlier

than Bourran in the western portion of the basin and the resemblance to

dejection cones shown by the earliest deposits in the southeast corner, all

indicate that for a long period much of the basin was dry land, that the

water encroached very slowly and that the entire area was not submerged

or water-soaked prior to deposition of the Bourran system. The isolated

conglomerate south from Valzergues cannot be regarded as affecting the

question of the original extent of the basin; and it appears to be alto-

gether probable that Bergeron, in his original paper, defined the limits of

the depression as nearly as possible. The width can have suffered very

SU. S. Geogr. Expl. W. of 100th Mer., vol. iii, p. 348, 1876.

276 ANNALS NEW YORK ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

little contraction by lateral pressure; the folding and 1 faulting of the

beds may be due to a different cause. Apparently, the only difference

between present and original limits is due to the sight transgression of

Jurassic at the south and of andesite at the north.

MODE IN WHICH THE BASIN WAS FILLED

More than 20 years ago, Bergeron recognized in the Decazeville basin

all the features required by Fayol’s doctrine of delta formations. Deltas

deposited in a body of deep water are subaqueous cones of dejection,

whose characteristics have been discussed elaborately from the mathe-

matical viewpoint by Lemiére. Bergeron saw evidence of three such

deltas, two at the southern end and one at the northeast. Twelve years

later, when the careful studies, initiated under Fayol’s direction and

conducted according to the method employed at Commentry, had led to

a great accumulation of facts, Bergeron, Jardel and Picandet were able

to prove by the included fragments the existence of at least four deposit-

ing streams along the southern border, of one at the northeast and the

probable existence of two on the western border. Their observations

have been referred to incidentally in preceding pages, but they must be

summarized here. They show the value of patient study in what too

many think petty matters, for the results are farther-reaching than ap-

pears at first glance. The writer desires to pay tribute to those students,

whose accuracy of observation and acuteness of discrimination provoked

admiration at more than one locality.

Three streams codperated in forming the early deposits at the southeast

corner of the depression, one passing near Longuefort and entering near

Auzits after having crossed microgranulite and mica schist; a second at

less than a mile westward, entering near Haute Serre, and a third enter-

ing near Lugan. The especial deposit of each is characteristic and the

confluence of the cones is well marked. The course of the Haute Serre,

the most important of the brooks, is made distinct by the distribution of

coarse fragments for a considerable distance northward. A fourth

stream, entering at the southwest near Valzergues, contributed its share

somewhat later in the history, while a fifth, entering at the northeast

near the Pont du Bourran, gave the deposits marking that portion of the

basin. All of these were active during the deposition of the Campagnac

system, and the inflowing waters found exit on the east side near Firmy,

where elements from north and south are commingled. The western

streams, those entering near the Moulin du Faux and from Viviez, gave

no deposits in the western part of the depression until the beginning of

STEVENSON, COAL BASIN OF DECAZEVILLE, FRANCE Or”

the Bourran, when they codperated with the Valzergues and possibly with

the Lugan in filling up that side of the basin.

The studies by Bergeron, Jardel and Picandet have shown that each of

these streams was short, especially those entering along the southern

border. ‘Those students make no reference to this matter, but the facts

recorded by them leave room for no other conclusion. The Longuefort-

Auzits stream as well as the Haute Serre could have cut back their valleys

barely three miles into the ancient rocks, even so late as the end of the

Auzits system. The same is equally clear respecting the Lugan; for the

massive conglomerate above the Soulier coal bed consists almost wholly

of microgranulite pebbles, so that by that time the stream headed in the

microgranulite area, the Auzits brook had cut back across the schists to

the other area of microgranulite, for its deposit shows mingling of the

two rocks. In the case of each one of the three streams, the source of

the fragments is open to no doubt. The streams were longer during

deposition of the Campagnac beds, though even then the character of the

materials shows little change; possibly there was a rehandling of the

older beds. Studies of deposits made by the other streams lead to similar

conclusions, so that up to the close of the Campagnac, one has to do only

with streams of insignificant extent outside of the basin and which in no

case could have had an additional length of more than four miles within

the basin.

The matter is somewhat less clear on the western side, where, except

in the southwest, no deposit was made prior to the Bourran and the con-

ditions already described indicate dry lands during the Auzits and Cam-

pagnac. The streams recognized by Bergeron, Jardel and Picandet may

have been in existence throughout the whole period, carrying their load

over to the eastern side of the basin, comparatively gentle streams con-

tributing largely to the finer deposits separating the Campagnac con-

glomerates. But certainly at the beginning of the Bourran, these streams

became rapid, bringing in large pebbles, which were dropped abruptly on

the border of the basin, while the finer materials were carried farther

eastward.

The suggestion that the Viviez and Moulin du Faux streams were

already old at the beginning of the Bourran seems all the more probable,

when one compares the conditions above the Campagnac coal -bed with

those above the Bourran. At times, the Campagnac bed passes upward

through the ordinary changes of coal and shale to the coarser rocks above,

while at others, the passage to coarse conglomerate is abrupt, with evi-

dence of erosion during deposit of the first layers of the overlying rock.

Everywhere, the interval from coal to the mass of conglomerate is short,

2°78 ANNALS NEW YORK ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

represented at most by a few feet. But the interval between the Bourran

coal and the coarse rocks above is great, nowhere less than 150 feet, filled

with shale and mostly fine-grained sandstone, while the overlying coarser

sandstones are only finely conglomeratic, as though composed of older

deposits worked over.

Evidence derived from the character of the transported material leaves

no room for doubt that the streams were short. The quantity of material

transported by them leads to equally positive conclusions. The extreme

thickness of the Auzits system approximates 1800 feet, but this measure-

ment is made along the supposed line of the Haute Serre stream. ‘The

basal deposit, with an extreme thickness of 600 feet, is very coarse, its

fragments are subangular and the exposed area is somewhat less than two

square miles. The general character suggests that the material is very

near its original source and that it is largely of subaérial origin. It must

decrease very rapidly in all directions, especially toward the north, and

the Soulier coal bed, if it exist, should be very near the Archean beyond

Riou Vieux. The Auzits area increased with the newer beds, so that at

the close, its deposits must have covered the eastern half of the depres-

sion. One seems to be justified in assigning to this system an area of

six square miles with an average thickness of 1000 feet and a content of

somewhat more than a cubic mile. For this considerable mass, one must

look in great part to the three streams at the south, since the exposed

area is in their region and the recognized materials could have come only

from rocks cut by them. If those streams by the end of the Auzits had

dug valleys such as one sees in the upper reaches of the Enne or Riou

Vieux, the removed material would suffice for the whole deposit. The

Campagnac system covered the eastern half of the basin, not less than 15

square miles in area, with an average thickness of say 600 feet. The

content would be somewhat less than two cubic miles, to which all streams

contributed. The Bourran system covered apparently the whole area,

30 square miles, with a thickness of say 450 feet and a content of two

and one half cubic miles, to which all streams contributed, not only those

whose work has been recognized, but also others of less importance.

These estimates may be open to charge of exaggeration, but they have

been made liberally. A calculation of cubical content of the deposits

suffices to make wholly clear that the whole work of removal and distribu-

tion could have been done by streams, gradually lengthening and deepen-

ing their ways until at the close of the Coal Measures the streams and

valleys in the schists resembled in size and extent those now existing in

the Decazeville basin.

STEVENSON, COAL BASIN OF DECAZEVILLE, FRANCE — 9

EXTENT OF THE COAL BEDS

Little can be said respecting the original or even the present extent of

the Soulier-Abiracs coal bed; the outcrop marked on the map encloses

an area considerably less than two square miles, from most of which ero-

sion may have removed the bed. How far the coal extends northward

and westward under the Campagnac system has not been ascertained, as

the matter has no economic importance and no explorations have been

made. The greatest thickness is west from the supposed line of the

Haute Serre stream, where there is about 10 feet of coal; the total amount

must be large, as the bed goes under cover with undiminished thickness.

It is less difficult to determine approximately the extent and distribu-

tion of the great Campagnac-Paleyrets-Bouquies coal at the base of the

Campagnac system. That bed is practically continuous along the out-

crop indicated on the map, though it is said to be lens-shaped at some

localities. How far it extends toward the west has not been ascertained

in the northern part of the basin; an exploratory pit in the Bourran mine

did not reach it, having been stopped before coming to its place; but near

Cransac the underground workings of the Compagnie des Mines de Cran-

sac have been pushed beyond the outcrop of the Couche de Crol, the Bour-

ran coal bed. This is clear from all the cross-sections constructed by

Saint-Martin, in which the bed shows only the ordinary variations,

thinning toward some of the faults, thickening towards others. This bed

has been recognized definitely nowhere west from a line connecting Levin-

hac at the north with Lugan at the south, but there seem to be good

reasons for referring to approximately the same horizon some thin and

irregular deposits in the southwest corner. The bed, practically single

at the south as the Couche de Rulhe, divides near Riou Vieux, the inter-

vals between the lower benches increasing northwardly in the Firmy re-

gion, so that in going by the wagon road from Firmy to Cransac, one

crosses the whole series from the main bed down. The dips throughout

are conformable in the Campagnac system and conformable also to the

underlying Auzits. There is every reason to believe that the Campagnac

coal covered much of the region south from Riou Vieux, that it underlies

the Firmy area and that northward from that area it extended to the

eastern border. The conditions observed along the comparatively narrow

valley of Riou Mort show that the bed has been removed by erosion there.

The presence of Permian in the interior of the basin and its conforma-

bility to the Bourran system seems to be a final argument. Permian is

present along the eastern border and along the middle of the basin, but is

lacking in the intervening space. Its absence is evidence of great erosion

280 ANNALS NEW YORK ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

by which not only the Permian, but also the underlying deposits, were

removed from the southeastern and eastern portions. The relations of

the strata throughout indicate that all of the beds, mineral and organic

alike, had at one time a much greater extent than now. One cannot be

far wrong in estimating the original extent of the Campagnac coal bed

as at least 12 square miles, almost all of it on the eastern side of the basin.

The thickness of the coal varies, but one is safe in taking it as 35 feet,

that being the least reported in any locality where work has been done in

recent years and from one half to one third of that observed or reported

in localities where work is now in process. Almost the whole of the

eastern half of the basin was covered by a coal bed from 10 to 90 feet

thick and averaging not far from 35 feet.

The extent of the Bourran bed was greater. It covered the whole of

the eastern area, as is shown by the preservation of the Firmy block as

well as by the distribution of Permian beds. The Permian covers the

Bourran deposits along the central strip, but the Bourran coal crops out

on both sides of that strip. The thickness is greatest in the central por-

tion of the basin, but it is still great on the eastern border at Firmy, while

at the extreme south, as at the extreme north, it becomes irregular and,

though still thick, is broken by many shale partings. On the western

side of the syncline south and west from Cransac, it is much thinner than

at the eastern outcrop, while at the south on that side, shale partings in-

crease at the expense of the coal. The thinner, irregular beds in the

western part of the basin are contemporaneous with some part of the

great Bourran bed, and it may be that the bed was practically continuous

over the whole basin; but owing to the energetic erosion, evidence to sup-

port that suggestion cannot be obtained. One can only take the area as

approximately 20 square miles, confined to the eastern two thirds of the

basin. The minimum thickness reported is 18 feet; from that it ranges

up to more than 100 feet, so that one is not in danger of exaggeration, if

he regard the area as covered originally by the equivalent of 35 feet of

coal.

The section of the Campagnac coal bed, obtained at the Tramont dé-

couverte, closely resembles that of the ordinary bed with underclay and

with clay partings throughout; but no such section of the Bourran bed is

available, for in the Decazeville découverte, the coal has been faulted and

folded within the bed to such an extent that one cannot determine

whether or not any of the inclosed clays was continuous, but there is

ample underclay. No impressions of Stigmaria were seen anywhere, so

that neither Lepidodendron nor Sigillaria contributed materially to for-

mation of the coal.

STEVENSON, COAL BASIN OF DECAZEVILLE, FRANCE 281

The sterility of the intervening deposits should not be overlooked.

The whole succession above the Bourran coal bed is exposed in the hill

between Domergue and Decazeville and no trace of coal was seen any-

where in the section. The interval between the Bourran and the Cam-

pagnac is certainly 750 feet along the eastern exposures; the lower por-

tion is shown well at Tramont, fragmentary exposures are numerous

along the road from Firmy to Cransac and much of the higher portion

is shown north from Decazeville. In this great interval, there are few

horizons in which traces of coal occur, and those seem to be local.

In this connection, one must not forget that the series is complete and

continuous; that a borehole at Decazeville would pass through the Bour-

ran and Campagnac systems into at least the upper part of the Auzits,

seen under the Campagnac coal at a little way east; that the Campagnac

rocks continue to the eastern boundary, and that the Campagnac coal bed

is far under the Bourran coal bed at the most southerly exposures. In

this basin, the coal beds are of independent origin; they do not come

together at the border.

ORIGIN OF THE COAL BEDS

The only hypothesis thus far presented to account for the accumula-

tion of coal beds in this basin is that the vegetable matter was brought

in by the streams. Bergeron in 1888 announced that the delta theory,

newly proposed by Fayol in his brilliant memoir on Commentry, was

fully applicable to Decazeville. Bergeron, Jardel and Picandet, in 1900,

were more explicit, as they had better knowledge of the conditions. The

Soulier-Abiracs coal bed was formed by the Haute Serre stream; the

Campagnac bed was formed at the south by accumulation of vegetable

matter brought down by the Lugan and Haute Serre, while at the north,

the Pont du Bourran stream contributed the needed material; the com-

paratively unimportant Bourran beds at the west are irregular and in-

definite because of their proximity to the entering currents, the fine

vegetable materials being carried farther east, there to accumulate beyond

disturbing influence of the streams.

The mode in which the coal occurs within the Decazeville is in notable

contrast to that observed in the basin of Commentry. Accumulation of

coal in important quantity began at a comparatively late time in the his-

tory of Commentry, and it was confined to two insignificant areas sepa-

rated by the barren zone of Montassiégé.® But at Decazeville the basin

® For explanation of these references to Commentry, see H. Fayo.u,: “Réunion extra-

ordinaire dans l’Allier,’’ Bull. Soc. Géol. de France, 3me. ser., t. 16me., Separate, p. 12;

or J. J. STEVENSON, ‘“‘The coal basin of Commentry in central France,’ Ann. N. Y.

Acad. Sci., vol. xix, pp. 161-204, 1909.

289 ANNALS NEW YORK ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

was not divided by a main delta deposit, and it maintained its integrity

throughout, the area of deposit apparently increasing as time went on.

The coal making was not confined to petty areas, but the beds formed

practically continuous sheets over a great part of the surface, the Bour-

ran and Campagnac extending to the outlet at Firmy. In Commentry,

there is no coal on the delta of the Bourrus brook, the barren zone of

Montassiégé, or even on the deltas of the Chamblet and Colombier

brooks, as defined by Fayol. Aside from some insignificant patches along

the northern border, one finds coal only in the recesses between the Mon-

tassiégé and Colombier zones on one side and between Montassiégé and

Chamblet on the other. But in the southeast corner of the Decazeville

basin, one finds the coal crossing the conjoined deposits of the Longuefort

and Haute Serre brooks—and this condition continued there throughout,

for the curved outcrops of the Soulier, Campagnac and Bourran beds are

shown crossing the area of stream deposit from Haute Serre to Firmy.

One must bear in mind that the curved outcrops are no evidence of origi-

nal form or extent of those beds; they are due to erosion of a fold with

strong northward pitch. The distance from Haute Serre to Firmy is

about four miles. Farther north, the Campagnac bed crosses the area of

deposit as clearly as at the south.

The contrast between Commentry and Decazeville is so great that the

delta theory as determined at Commentry would have to be modified in

important respects before becoming applicable to Decazeville. The

theory, as formulated by Fayol, may be summarized thus:

The coal terrains have great analogies to present deltas; both are composed

essentially of materials carried by streams of water; the plant beds of deltas

are represented in the coal terrains by combustibles of plant origin. In the

coal terrains, as in deltas, the extent of the beds varies from a few square

meters to some thousands of square kilometers; the thickness varies from a

mere trace to several dozens of meters; the size of the elements from the

finest grain to blocks of several cubic meters. At Commentry, a lake sur-

rounded by mountains was in the place now occupied by the Coal Measures.

Rain water gradually ate away the surrounding region, dug valleys and car-

ried to the lake pebbles, sand, mud and plants, which finally filled it; these

are the materials which constituted the beds of conglomerate, sandstone, shale

and coal making up the Coal Measures. The lake of Commentry was nine

kilometers long by three wide and its greatest depth was about 800 meters.

The distribution of materials depends on their specific gravity or fineness, as

well as upon the condition of the water, whether quiet or agitated, into which

they are ‘carried. The finer, lighter elements will be carried much farther

than the others before reaching the bottom.”

1A. FAyou, “Réunion, etc.,”’ pp. 14, 19, 13.

STEVENSON, COAL BASIN OF DECAZEVILLE, FRANCE 283

The essential features of the doctrine are that the basin was occupied

by a deep lake into which streams brought detritus of all kinds, mineral

and vegetable, to be deposited on the bottom in the order of their specific

gravity, very fine mineral matter being equivalent in distribution to plant

material. An important and attractive feature in Fayol’s presentation

is the assertion that the coal deposit accumulating on the floor of a basin

may be, in its several benches, contemporaneous with deposits at several

horizons on the delta slope and thus, though resting on the floor, it may

be continuous with a bed which, at the shore, is 1000 feet above the bot-

tom of the basin. This is to explain the shoreward bifurcation of coal

beds.

There is no room for difference of opinion respecting the origin and

mode of deposit of the inorganic materials in so far as they owe their pres-

ence to the transporting power of water; the only question is respecting

the origin and mode of deposit of the organic materials now found as coal

beds.1?_ Unquestionably, the so-called delta theory explains satisfactorily

some features of the Decazeville as well as of other basins and, regarded

from this viewpoint, it has much to commend it. The flexibility and

adaptability of the doctrine in the hands of some of its adherents are

thought to be strong arguments in its favor; but these matters are merely

secondary. When a hypothesis is presented, the first question to be asked

respecting it is, Is it possible? and the second is, Is it probable? To be

convinced that this double test is essential at the outset, one need only

read some of the old works on cosmogony. Whiston is especially worthy

of study, for his work contains not merely a vast accumulation of actual

facts, but also a wealth of mathematical demonstration which appar-

ently leaves nothing to be desired. No recorded observation, no known

fact, no phenomenon in earth, sea or sky failed as buttress to his elabo-

rate theory respecting the origin of things. That was the panacea for

perplexities in cosmogony, and its only defect was that it was based on

assumptions. Equally satisfactory as an illustration is the celebrated

hypothesis presented by Piazzi-Smyth respecting the great pyramid at

Ghizeh, which explained the purpose of every part of that structure so

beautifully as to arouse admiration as well as to carry conviction. The

only objection to it is that it is based on assumptions which are not true.

In passing, it may be well to mention a matter of minor importance. The writer

was informed several times while in Decazeville that, as the mineral detritus is due

necessarily to transport, the natural conclusion would be that the interstratified coal

had the same origin. Those who advance this argument seem to regard it as conclu-

sive; but it is not so. Applied to a coral reef inclosed in sandstone or to a sunken

swamp covered by sand on the New Jersey or Baltic shore, one would be justified in

asserting that since the reef and the swamp are of known in situ origin the inclosing

sand must also be of in situ origin.

ANNALS NEW YORK ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

One must concede that a hypothesis might be framed which wouid ac-

count satisfactorily for many conditions in a given locality and still be

based on an impossibility. Before considering the applicability of the

delta theory to Decazeville, one must ascertaim whether or not the funda-

mental conditions demanded by that hypothesis existed in the region

under consideration.

The Decazeville basin is very small; the earliest deposits were laid

down very soon after the depression was formed, for the rocks belong to

one subdivision of the Coal Measures and there is no evidence that rocks

of greater age intervene between them and the Archean. The character

of the Coal Measures shows that the streams in the earlier period were

short and torrential; that even during the greater part of Campagnac

deposition they had cut back only a few miles, had not a wide fan of

tributaries, but were still more or less torrential and flowed in narrow

valleys such as are seen now in and around the basin. They emptied

into an at most wholly insignificant body of water, so small that during

floods such as have been imagined by some adherents of the transport doc-

trine everything except coarse stuff would be carried directly to the outlet

at Firmy, and the finer materials would be deposited outside of the basin.

Under such conditions, all citation of phenomena observed on deltas of

the Mississippi, Nile, Ganges, La Plata or even of the Rhone, would be

irrelevant. Streams flowing hundreds or thousands of miles through

broad plains and carrying for the most part fine material in their lower

reaches, along with trees gathered from immense areas by undermining

of banks cannot be utilized to illustrate what a three or even 10 mile tor-

rent, flowing over tough mica schist or microgranulite and inclosed in a

narrow valley would or could or might. do. Nor may the deposit at the

mouth of a petty stream emptying into a pond be compared in any sense

with the delta of a vast river. In fact, the term “delta” as applied to

the theory seems to have been chosen without full consideration. The

writer has not been able to discover in the Montassiégé area of the Com-

mentry basin any evidence of a true delta. The deposit is rather a great

dejection cone, largely under water perhaps, with no doubt temporary

delta conditions during excessive floods, but during most of the time

trenched by only one waterway. It might be well in discussing the con-

ditions to avoid the term delta as not wholly appropriate, and to think

instead of broad dejection cones such as one sees in the Rhone valley

between Viége and Martigny. At least one of those cones is so much

like the earliest Auzits deposit in form and extent as to make not un-

reasonable the suggestion that the latter began as a subaérial deposit.

Another matter may be noticed in a preliminary way. The delta doc-

STEVENSON, COAL BASIN OF DECAZEVILLE, FRANCE 285

trine in its original form conceives of the coal basin as occupied by a lake

of great depth; this no doubt to avoid the difficulty of accounting for the

2500 feet of rock by continental subsidence. But the great original

depth of the depression, as shown by Delaunay, is by no means essential

to the hypothesis, which without that deserves all the praise which has

been lavished upon it for its ingenuity. Lemiére has expended much

labor and great skill in the effort to determine the forms which the de-

posits would assume in deep water; but that question does not concern

the matter in hand, for there is no evidence whatever to support the sug-

gestion that the basin held a deep Jake; such evidence as does exist all

indicates that the water area was often small and that it was never deep:

that until the end of Campagnac deposition a considerable part of the

basin was exposed to subaérial action; even that the Haute Serre deposits

may have been begun as a subaérial dejection cone.

The Decazeville basin embraces about 30 square miles; the entering

streams, at first short and abrupt, cut back their valleys until in the

Bourran time they may have attained a length of 10 miles, sufficient to

account for the whole deposit of inorganic detritus. Adding to the sur-

face of the basin itself a strip 10 miles wide, surrounding the depression,

the extreme area whose waters found outlet at Firmy would not be more

than 350 square miles at the time of greatest extent. In all probability

it was much less. The vegetation to supply detritus for the coal beds

must have been derived from that area, and the detritus could reach the

basin only by way of streams, torrential during a great part of their exist-

ence and flowing over tough, resistant rock.

The type of valley through which these streams flowed is familiar in

France. The gorge between Eygurande and Bort and that between

Allassac and Vigeois on the way to Limoges suffice for illustrations of

cutting in the schists. One has only to vary the scale in order to have

all the features shown by the Decazeville streams in the several stages of

their development.

The work around the basin was confined at first necessarily to cor-

rasion, and erosion made slow progress. But it may be that disintegra-

tion of the upland rocks was rapid and afforded material in which

vegetation quickly became as luxuriant as at many places between Mont-

lucon and Viviez, within the schist area; that even the walls of the early

valleys were covered by a dense growth, such as is seen in close gorges

within the same area. One may well imagine this condition, since the

Coal Measures flora is taken to be proof of a warm and rather humid

climate. One may picture to himself the upland region as covered in

great part by a forest, its surface imperfectly drained and its borders

indented by short, abrupt streams.

286 ANNALS NEW YORK ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

But one is confronted at once by serious difficulty in the effort to apply

the doctrine of transport. The Soulier-Abiracs bed rests almost directly

on the lowest deposit of the Auzits system; its curved outcrop is from

one fourth of a mile to a mile and a half from the schists, so that the

coal must have covered much of the space inclosed by that outcrop; it

may have been spread over four square miles, or even more, with an aver-

age thickness of three feet. While this bed was accumulating, the three

streams of Longuefort, Haute Serre and Lugan must have been utterly

insignificant. The Campagnac coal bed had an area of at least 12 square

miles with an average thickness of 35 feet; the length of the streams,

outside of the basin, may have become as much as six miles. The -Bour-

ran coal bed was formed when the whole basin was receiving deposits, so

that its material must have come wholly from outside, from an area of

not more than 300 square miles. One can concede that enough vegetable

matter, several times over, was produced on the drainage area to form

the coal beds and, at the same time, he would be justified in doubting the

possibility of its transference to the basin. Of course, every one knows

that small streams at all times carry twigs and leaves and that they carry

larger fragments during flood; but that is nothing, for one is concerned

here not with patches of carbonaceous matter but with coal accumula-

tions 70 to 100 feet thick.

Rainfall, even when heavy, does little toward shifting the vegetation

growing on steep slopes, unless the rock material be loose, in which case

landslides may occur; but those are of limited extent, even when greatest.

If there be a coating of humus, the effect of the rain is practically noth-

ing. It is unnecessary to go far from Decazeville in search of proof.

At Viviez, two miles away, fumes from the zinc works have destroyed

almost all vegetation on the abrupt hillslope alongside ; rains have already

gashed the face deeply and the cover of disintegrated rock is accumulating

at the bottom. The limit of the devastated space is defined sharply;

southward from it the vegetable cover remains, and the surface is unin-

jured. This protective power of humus is familiar. That material accu-

mulates under forest cover everywhere, even on very steep slopes; it ab-

sorbs water and then coheres tenaciously. Studies made near New York

in the effort to solve the problem of water supply for some towns prove

that the humus coating is permanent on exceedingly steep slopes and that

water from such slopes is limpid, practically free even from vegetable

matter. The hills bounding the gorges below Eygurande and above Allas-

sac have slopes often reaching 30 degrees and sometimes exceeding that

angle, while walls in railroad cuts frequently approach the vertical.

During the summer of 1910, the rainfall in that portion of France was

STEVENSON, COAL BASIN OF DECAZEVILLE, FRANCE 287

unusually great, and the numerous showers were almost tropical in vio-

lence; water swept down the hillsides in sheets and petty rivulets were

converted into torrents. Yet one traveling through those gorges on the

railroad cvuld see little trace of destruction—even the plants growing on

the walls of cuts were uninjured.

As the Carboniferous climate is supposed to have been tropical or sub-

tropical, reference to conditions observed in the tropics is proper. ‘The

writer has had opportunity to examine at close range fully 100 miles of

the Venezuelan coast, much of western Trinidad and about 50 miles of

the Jamaican coast. The slopes in Venezuela and Trinidad are abrupt,

and the strata are often inclined at a high angle. Landslides are not

rare, and they always leave a broad scar on the face; but elsewhere the

only evidence of heavy rainfall is an occasional gully in yielding rock;

the vegetation is practically intact on the steepest slopes. Jamaica illus-

trates well the relations of rock, rainfall and vegetation. Near Kingston,

the rock is a yielding slate on which vegetation can hardly secure a hold;

the rainfall is but 30 inches per annum, yet the slopes are gashed. East-

ward, where the rock is better, one sees an occasional gully and here and

there a landslide; but for the most part the vegetation is very dense.

Where trees have been burned off, Guinea grass has taken prompt posses-

sion of the surface on even the steepest slopes, giving great spaces of

bright green which are notable features of the scenery. During Novem-

ber of 1909, the rainfall in the mountains of the island was excessive,

there having been at one locality a fall of 120 inches in eight days, while

there were falls of 20 to 30 inches within 24 hours at many others.

Banana plantations, with unprotected soil, were washed down the hills

and the plants became projectiles with which the flood destroyed vegeta-

tion on the lowland; but the cocoanut forests remained almost uninjured

and the litter of vegetable débris covering the ground under them was not

disturbed. Where the surface was protected by vegetation, the damage

was confined to gullies dug by fallen trees pushed forward by the water.

These gullies widened in soft material and trees tumbled into the torrent

were carried down to the lowland, where they were deposited péle méle

with mineral detritus over the cultivated area.’?

It would seem altogether probable that rainfall on slopes along streams

could do little toward forming the coal beds of the Decazeville basin.

But on the great rolling upland area, drained by the streams and covered

by forest growth, the decaying vegetable matter accumulated during a

427 am under obligations to Mr. C. Leslie Mais, C. E., of Kingston, for statistics of

rainfall in Jamaica, and also for information respecting localities which I could not

visit.

288 ANNALS NEW YORK ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

long period and formed a thick coating of humus, which, torn off by a

mighty flood, might be carried into the basin, there to become coal. It

has been suggested many times that such removal would be necessary in

order to maintain continued growth of the forest, there being something

in humus which is repugnant to trees.

The latter suggestion should be considered first, for it has been urged

as showing that the transport doctrine is the necessary explanation of a

thick mass like the Bourran bed, almost unbroken by partings. But it is

due to a misconception of the conditions. Plants do not find repulsive

materials in humus. Almost 150 years ago, De Luc wrote in one of his

letters that the old fortifications of Oldenburg, made of material taken

from the swamps, were covered with trees showing remarkably luxuriant

growth. It is well known that advancing swamps destroy forests by

obstructing the drainage, so that the trees are literally drowned by the

imereasing moisture. There are many plants, among them some trees,

which not only endure the moisture, but even thrive in the moist humus ;

some indeed attain their best estate only when growing in the humus

itself. The cedar of the New Jersey swamps, as shown by Cook many

years ago, yields its finest wood only where the roots do not reach the

subsoil; for where the swamp is shallow and the roots penetrate the under-

lying beds only inferior wood is produced. The vast thickness of appar-

ently uninterrupted coal in the Bourran bed is in no sense an argument

in favor of origin by transport; on the contrary, it may be an important

argument against the doctrine as apphed to the Decazeville basin.

The floods, upon which some authors lay great stress, could do little

along the lines of the streams, even were the valleys as wide at bottom as

are those now crossing the basin. It is true that large streams in flood

carry houses and logs, but those are, so to speak, only loose materials lifted

from open spaces. Transported trees are merely those which have fallen

into the water from undermined banks. But along the streams entering

the basin, the amount of vegetable matter available for removal could be

in only insignificant quantity. The area with abundance of vegetation

was mostly in the forested upland region, which is supposed to have been

a rolling surface, ill-drained in portions, with broad rather deep swales

in which at times the water would collect and flow with increasing force,

these conditions being most favorable for accumulation of humus or half-

decayed vegetable matter. This humus cover on the upper surfaces could

not be affected by the moving waters: the only spaces to be considered are

the lower broad hollows falling toward the streams, through which the

mass of water would tend to flow rapidly.

One must recognize that the conditions observed in floods of the Seine

STEVENSON, COAL BASIN OF DECAZEVILLE, FRANCE 289

and Loire are not the same as those probable in the region under consid-

eration. Those rivers rise in the highlands and flow for a long distance

through a plain country. Yet there are resemblances and the movements

of the water are much the same. The devastation produced by rain-

‘floods is not brought about by the moving water directly, but by the ma-

terial which is carried, and that is collected by the way. In any case,

the water does not come down as a high wave, but with the face rising

gradually up stream. No matter how rapid the rise of a rain-flood may

be, it is gradual, and only loose materials lying on the surface are gath-

ered up to be carried off. When deep, the water moves slowly below,

rapidly above. If the flood pass over a forested plain, its speed is checked

in flowing through spaces between the trees, and practically the only

injury done is by deposit of mineral material. Even when a flood passes

over meadow land bordering the stream the destruction is by burying the

soil, as every one knows who has observed the conditions on rivers subject

to floods. After a high flood on the Connecticut river, the maize growing

on unprotected soil of the “bottoms” had not been washed away; but the

rapidly moving water at six feet above the ground had pushed against

the spreading tops and had overturned the plants, which lay spread on the

surface. The peat bogs existing in many places along the sides of the

river have been exposed to floods, great floods, for centuries, but they are

intact except along the border, where undercutting of the loose material

on which they rest has caused portions to fall into the stream and has

made the edge ragged. Kuntze has told the same story about the great

peat areas of the La Plata region.

That the running water of floods is not the direct cause of destruction

is certain. Every one has observed little islands in streams subject to

floods, islands covered with trees, though in flood time these may be sub-

merged for a brief period to the depth of 10 feet or more. The streams

issuing from the eastern face of the Rocky Mountains are given to fre-

quent rise of 10 or more feet, the rise being very sudden, yet many of

them have wooded islets, most inviting camping places for the imex-

perienced traveler. Above Vigeois, between Brive and Limoges, the

stream has been dammed. Near the head of the pond, the writer saw in

1910 a young tree about eight feet high growing midway in the stream

in the cleft of a large rock fragment and only a few inches above the |

level of the water. That tree had resisted the floods of at least five years,

and some of the floods ‘in that torrent must be extremely violent. Unless

the stream be loaded with débris, it can do little damage to the flooded

area; it will not tear up peat bogs, it will not remove the humus, it will

do insignificant injury to a forest.

290) ANNALS NEW YORK ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

It is evident that conditions necessary for serious destructive work

could not exist in the upland area under consideration. In that area,

covered by dense vegetation, the waters would collect slowly in the lower

portions ; flowing from the humus-covered surface under the forests, they

would be almost limpid and with no mineral detritus, carrying only such

chance stems as had escaped entanglement while floating through the

forest. Even in the broad hollows the flow would be impeded by a dense

growth of herbaceous plants, so that rapid movement could be attained

only when the water reached the streams; and there alone could a load

of detritus be gathered with which to do cutting. There is no conceiva-

ble mode whereby vegetable matter growing densely on the upland could

be conveyed to the basin. )

In this connection another matter requires consideration. The Bour-

ran coal bed, not less than 90 feet thick at Decazeville, is a practically

continuous mass, unbroken by persistent clay partings, and it extends

with decreasing thickness over much of the basin. No matter which

theory of formation be accepted, transport or im situ, one must recognize

that the accumulation of such a mass would require a great length of

time. If one accept the transport theory, a great area is essential as

source of supply, and equally a vast period of time. The suggestion that

a single flood might provide material for a coal bed, by bringing down

vegetable débris which had accumulated during a long period, involves in-

surmountable difficulties. The total area tributary to the basin could not

have exceeded 350 square miles; the material for the Bourran coal bed

would require a cover of humus at least 20 feet thick over the whole area,

and this would have to be removed by a flood of a type unknown and

operating as no flood of modern times acts, for the whole mass from the

whole area would have to be brought down. The suggestion, moreover,

is not consistent with an argument offered by its author in support of the

delta theory, for it demands a thickness of humus which would be fatal

to growing plants. In any event, one can readily see that the inpouring

of a flood so terrific in extent would churn up the little lake and all light

materials would be driven at once to the outlet, to be deposited far out-

side of the basin.

It is equally difficult to understand how the great bed could be formed

by gradual deposit of transported vegetable matter during the vast period

of time. One is told that during formation of the sterile deposits, the

streams concentrated their attention upon inorganic materials and that

during the great floods, they concentrated their attention upon vegetable

matter. Such intelligent discrimination on the part of running water

is incredible.

STEVENSON, COAL BASIN OF DECAZEVILLE, FRANCE — 99]

One may not appeal here to Fayol’s ingenious explanation of condi-

tions observed at Commentry, for those conditions do not exist in the

Decazeville basin. In the former basin, the bifurcation of the Grande

Couche toward the shoreline is regarded as evidence that while the delta

advanced, coal was deposited continuously in the basin beyond, but the

deposition was interrupted on the delta slope; so that several thin beds,

widely separated at the shore might be one far out in the basin. That

explanation is not available for Decazeville, for no such relation exists

between the coal beds there, the greatest intervals between them being in

the central and eastern parts of the basin.

Whatever may or may not be the worth of the Fayol doctrine respect-

ing the formation of coal beds as applied to other localities, the fact

remains that the fundamental requirements of that doctrine do not exist

in the Decazeville region. The doctrine is wholly exact when applied to

the accumulation of inorganic materials, but one must look elsewhere for

an explanation accounting for the accumulation of the coal beds, an ex-

planation consistent with phenomena known to have existed at many

periods in the earth’s history and known to be existing now. And this is

found only in the doctrine of origin in situ.

HISTORY OF THE DECAZEVILLE BASIN

In the later portion of the Carboniferous, a triangular block of schist

and coarse granite was dropped within the three limiting faults, with its

surface sloping gently toward the southeast, thus giving a slight depres-

sion, in form of a gaping fault. Midway on the eastern side, near the

present village of Firmy, there seems to have been a valley, eroded by a

preéxisting stream, and with floor still below that of the depressed area.

The vertical displacement, small at first, was sufficient to disturb the

drainage, for streams entering from the south evidently originated at

this time. Water from all sides escaped through the outlet near Firmy,

while detritus was dropped on the borders. The especial line of weak-

ness was along the southeastern side, where subsidence continued until

the floor sank beneath the outlet valley and water accumulated to form a

pond with an area of several square miles. The little streams carried

their loads into the pond, filled it and flowed across the newly made land.

The finer materials, spread during flood time over this area, converted it

into a muddy flat, of which plants took possession. During extremely

slow subsidence, vegetable débris accumulated in the swamp to form the

Soulier-Abiracs coal bed. Conditions favoring such growth and accumu-

lation obtained first where the Haute Serre and Lugan deposits were con-

fluent, and thence they extended slowly in each direction.

992 ANNALS NEW YORK ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

But the subsidence became more rapid along the eastern border, the

land surface sank below the outlet, the pond was formed anew and with

gradually increasing area. Evidently the movement was enough to dis-

turb the little streams at the southeast, to render them torrential, so as

to sweep out the pebbles, large and small, which had accumulated, as

well as to provide a continuing supply. But this condition was of com-

paratively brief duration, and one finds above the feldspathic conglomer-

ate a recurrence of shales and more or less coarse sandstones. Once more

the area is one of muddy flats, but much larger than before. This condi-

tion was reached first between the Enne and Riou Mort, where the marshy

growth which was to give the Campagnac bed originated. ‘There the

streams from north, east and south had dropped their finer materials and

thence the marsh expanded, until it reached the border on all sides of the

swampy area. Whether or not it extended to the southeast corner cannot

be determined. In any case, the subsidence was irregular in that part

of the basin; the Haute Serre brook was more or less torrential for con-

siderable periods, and the advance of the Campagnac marsh across its

deposits was interrupted several times. The Haute Serre and Longue-

fort streams covered the swamp again and again with more or less coarse

deposits, so that the bifurcation of the bed as it crosses the area of de-

posit is one of the most interesting features observed in the basin. But

this condition had ceased practically at an early period in the history of

the Campagnac coal bed. The vest thickness of that bed in the central

part of the area and the decreasing thickness in all directions suffice to

show that the great marsh had its origin near Cransac. The gentle sub-

sidence was long-continued, permitting the accumulation of more than

100 feet of coal.

One would expect to find that so long a period of comparative quiet

was followed by one of rapid and extensive adjustment, and in the basin

of Decazeville the expectation is fulfilled. Subsidence, still mostly in the

east and south, again brought the swampy surface below water and it was

covered with a thin coat of fine detritus. The streams became torrential

at the east and south, pushing their loads of coarse material into all por-

tions of the flooded area. The water was always of moderate depth;

frequent shale beds show that the streams were often sluggish, while

occasional deposits of coal and coaly material are evidence that here and

there mud banks reached to the surface and became swamps. But for the

most part, conditions were unfavorable to the development of plants, and

mineral deposits continued to a maximum thickness of 750 feet, a mass

practically devoid of coal.

STEVENSON, COAL BASIN OF DECAZEVILLE, FRANCE 293

During this long period the water-covered area expanded, and very

possibly some of the deposits in the western portion, assigned by Berge-

ron, Jardel and Picandet to the Bourran system, may antedate slightly

the Grande Couche de Bourran. It is wholly probable that many of the

later deposits there are contemporaneous with earlier parts of the Bour-

ran bed. Until the closing stages of the Campagnac system, the western

third of the basin had been above water and its rocks had been exposed

to subaérial agencies, while the streams draining the western border had

carried their water and their loads to the eastern side. But toward the

close of Campagnac deposition, the relative conditions were changed; the

unstable east side became comparatively stable, while the hitherto stable

west side subsided rapidly. While the eastern portion of the basin was

becoming an area of mud flats, the western portion became a pond into

which streams from that side dropped their coarse materials and the silts

were carried eastward to be spread over the emerging land. This condi-

tion continued into the Bourran.

When the area between the Enne and Riou Mort, midway in the basin,

had been converted into an ill-drained plain, the swamp took possession

and advanced thence in all directions, rapidly toward the east, but less

rapidly toward the north and the south. The period of very gentle sub-

sidence, following the abrupt change on the west side, was very long,

sufficing for the accumulation of at least 100 feet of coal within the

original area. The western portion of the basin was filled slowly, and it

seems probable that there was little addition to the swamp land in that

direction, until late in the formation of the Bourran bed. The irregu-

larities of the swamp border at the west are proved by the clay partings

in that direction, especially in the southern prolongation of the bed,

where the stream deposits were confluent.

Slow subsidence of the whole block continued long after the accumula-

tion of the Bourran bed. The streams had cut down their channels, and

as they flowed over the marsh, they deposited only fine material until a

thickness of at least 150 feet had been reached, in marked contrast with

conditions succeeding the formation of the Campagnac bed. More rapid

adjustment followed, the speed of the streams was increased and the Car-

boniferous was closed by a deposit of moderately coarse sandstones.

There was no return of coal-making conditions. After the deposition of

several hundred feet of rock, the land and freshwater features disap-

peared, and the Permian sea invaded the basin from the south and laid

down its beds in practical conformity with the older series below.

The date of andesitic eruption is somewhat uncertain. Bergeron,

Jardel and Picandet, who devoted much time to the investigation, seem

294. ANNALS NEW YORK ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

inclined to believe that the eruptions came at different times. The rock ©

is a notable feature in the northern part of the basin, but it is not con-

fined to that area. Three islets of eruptive rock, in part andesite, are

seen north from Lugan, which are in line with an islet of andesite in the

northwestern corner, as well as with prongs of an “altered prophyritic

rock” projecting from the southern border near Lugan. Cross sections

by Bergeron, Jardel and Picandet as well as those by Saint-Martin show

that in approaching those islets from the east, the coal is turned up

toward the west. Saint-Martin’s sections farther north and south, in

which the eruptive rocks do not come to the surface, show similar ar-

rangement of the coal beds. Along this line the eruptive rock is ‘newer

than the Permian, since that system is involved in the folds. The com-

plicated structure of the basin probably dates from the issue of these

rocks; the petty outcrops are only projecting portions of a great mass

below, continuous from the southern to the northern part of the basin.

For the most part, the local faults and other irregularities of bedding,

thought to be due to causes acting during deposit, have resulted merely

from movements of softer between harder beds during the final dis-

turbance.

PLATH XIV

Ig. 1—OUTCROP OF BOURRAN COAL BED AT FIRMY.

Fic. 2.—SoUTHERLY END OF THE DECAZEVILLE DECOUVERTE.

The old workings are shown in the background, with fumes due to

spontaneous combustion.

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ANNALS N. Y. ACAD. SCI. VOLUME XX, PLATE XIY.

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PLATE XV

Fig. 1.—A “LOCAL FAULT’ IN THE EASTERLY WALL OF THE DECAZEVILLE

DECOUVERTE.

Fig. 2—THE DOMERGUE DECOUVERTE.

Shows effects of spontaneous combustion.

[ANNALS N. Y. ACADEMY OF SCIENCES, VOL. XX, No. 6, Part II, pp. 295-354.

30 DECEMBER, 1910]

(Contributions from the Entomological Laboratory of the Bussey Insti-

tution, Harvard Unwersity. No. 32)

THE NORTH AMERICAN ANTS OF THE GENUS

CAMPONOTUS MAYER

By Witit1am Morton WHEELER

(Presented by title before the Academy, 14 November, 1910)

Our North American Camponoti, which comprise not only our largest

and most conspicuous, but also many of our most abundant ants, were

admirably revised in 1893 by Prof. Carlo Emery* on the basis of a rather

extensive collection received from Mr. Theo. Pergande. So much new

material, however, has come to light within the past seventeen years, that

it seems advisable again to take account of stock. Emery recorded 28

forms of Camponotus from America north of Mexico. These represent

11 species, 9 subspecies and 12 varieties. The present paper records from

the same territory 58 forms, representing 21 species, 17 subspecies and 27

varieties. Most of the new forms have been found in western and south-

western Texas and southern Arizona and properly belong to the fauna of

northern Mexico. Careful search will undoubtedly bring to light several

additional forms in the southwestern states and possibly also in tropical

Florida, but I believe that few new forms remain to be discovered in other

parts of the Union. I have seen all the recorded forms except two

varieties of C. fallax (var. cnemidatus Emery and var. paucipilis Emery),

and I have observed most of the species, subspecies and varieties in living

colonies.

Ethologically, our Camponoti may be divided into two sections, one of

which, embracing only the maculatus group, contains species that nest in

the ground under stones or logs or more rarely in obscure crater nests,

whereas the other section embraces all the other groups and contains

species that usually nest in dead wood or oak galls. These wood-inhabit-

ing species, however, exhibit considerable diversity of habit.

No genus of ants has a more interesting or significant geographical

distribution than Camponotus. In North America, only one of the

1 Beitriige zur Kenntniss der nordamerikanischen Ameisenfauna, Zool. Jahrb. Abth. f.

Syst. VII, pp. 633-682, Taf. 22. 1893.

(295)

296 ANNALS NEW YORK ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

species ranges over Alaska, British America and the United States, viz:

the circumpolar C. herculeanus, and of this the variety whympert, which

is almost indistinguishable from the north European and Alpine type

and is said by Emery to be identical with the Siberian variety, is prac-

tically confined to Alaska, British America and to higher elevations in the

United States. The variety noveboracensis extends across the continent

through the northern states and Canada at low elevations; the subspecies

pennsylvanicus occurs apparently only in the United States and Canada

east of the one hundredth meridian and at ordinary elevations, the

variety modoc only west of the same meridian at higher altitudes. The

varieties mahican and ferrugineus seem to be confined to the northeastern

and middle western states. Another species of wide range is the circum-

polar C. fallax, which is represented by at least 12 subspecies and varieties

in the United States and southernmost British America. All the remain-

ing species are decidedly local. The various subspecies and varieties of

the maculatus group are confined to the western and southern states, the

subspecies of maculatus occurring only west of the one hundredth merid-

ian, except in Texas, where one of the forms (sansabeanus) is found at

least as far east as Austin, and in Florida, where there is a subspecies

(tortuganus) of tropical origin. The southwestern states have a few

peculiar species of the maculatus group, in all probability of Mexican

provenience. These are C. fumidus, vafer and acutirostris. A tropical

species of this group, C. socius, is known to occur only in southern

Florida, and two members of the maculatus group, which are peculiar to

North America, viz: C. castaneus and its subspecies americanus, are con-

fined to the region east of the one hundredth meridian and south of

British America. In this region, americanus ranges farther north than

castaneus. A single very constant species of the herculeanus group, C.

levigatus, is confined to rather high elevations in the Rocky Mts., Coast,

Cascade and Sierra Nevada Ranges. The fallax group is represented in

Arizona and Texas by a few large and handsome species, C. sayt, texanus

and schaeffert, and in California by a small and somewhat aberrant

species, C’. hyatti, with the variety bakert. C. mina, subsp. zunt, C. bruesi

and ulcerosus are properly Mexican forms of rare and sporadic occurrence

in Texas and Arizona. T'wo tropical species, C. planatus and abdominalis,

enter the United States at two widely separated points, from the West

Indies at the tip of Florida and from the “tierra caliente” of Mexico at

the mouth of the Rio Grande. C. planatus is the same in both these

regions, but abdominalis is represented by a distinct subspecies (flori-

danus) in Florida and a Mexican subspecies (transvectus) in Texas.

The species of the subgenus Colobopsis seem to be confined to the Gulf

WHEELER, NORTH AMERICAN ANTS 997

States and the Mississippi Valley, but, as these ants form small colonies

and live very secluded lives, their exact distribution cannot be determined

at the present time. All four of the forms enumerated in this paper

have been taken in Texas. I have seen a single worker minor, which

seemed to belong to C. pylartes, from southern Illinois.

In the following pages, I have given descriptions of all the forms,

except those of the fallax and Colobopsis groups, which have been de-

scribed in detail in two papers already published.? As our knowledge of

the precise distribution of our North American Camponoti has been very

vague and incomplete heretofore, I may be pardoned for citing all the

localities from which I have seen specimens, together with the names of

correspondents who have most generously assisted me in collecting

material.

The following table will facilitate the identification of the major

(maxima) workers.®

1. Head of worker major truncated anteriorly; truncated surface

eircular; intermediate forms (mediz) between largest and

smallest workers lacking or extremely rare. (A) Subgenus

(DUBIN) OSUS tated Soria O ORLA D ARE BIOENG EA a OEP CUO CHIR TSR SEER OR 54

Head of worker major not, or at most very obliquely, truncated

anteriorly; truncated surface not circular; intermediates

nearly always present. (B) Subgenus Camponotus......... 2

2. Head rectangular, as broad in front as behind, obliquely trun-

eated in front; each cheek with an irregular longitudinal

impression bordered laterally by a crenate ridge........ (53)

ulcerosus Sp. NOV.

Head always somewhat narrower in front than behind; cheeks

without a longitudinal impression and ridge................ 3

3. Anterior median clypeal margin, with a distinct but narrow notch. 38

Anterior clypeal margin entire, or at most feebly and broadly

excised or sinuate in’ the middles. 325. a< ccs. sie os sass severe 4

4. Clypeus .carinate ..2........ Sia le SU Syeeereicles nyeua i: siete: slgva teleba aMaier el stonsues 5

Clypeus ecarinate, or with a very feeble or blunt carina......... 27

Bsmallespecies:notemore: LnanyG— cj mim) LONE. < . < oiercicic) so oielsielenstelelers 37

Large species, averaging more than 8 mm.................e.20. 6

6. Anterior clypeal border produced as an angular lobe, with a sharp

DOMED IM Phe MTS 2s 5 ce8e sida oc se eiansiel's wave leveiel o e/ajeieteebere ac leysta a

Anterior clypeal border more or less produced as a broad trun-

eated lobe, with rounded or angular lateral corners and

straight or feebly excised or sinuate median margin......... 8

2“The American Ants of the Subgenus Colobopsis,’ Bull. Amer. Mus. Nat. Hist., XX,

pp. 139-158, 7 figs., 1904; and “The North American Forms of Camponotus fallax

Nylander,” Journ. N. Y. Ent. Soc., XVIII, No. 4, 1910.

3The numbers in parentheses preceding the names of the species, subspecies and

varieties refer to the descriptions in the text.

298

10.

12.

13.

14.

15.

16.

ALG

18.

19.

20.

21.

ANNALS NEW YORK ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

. Tibie brown. Length, 12-13 mm........ (18) acutirostris sp. nov.

Tibiz black. Length, 15 mm..... -(19) acutirostris primipilaris

subsp. nov.

. Middle and hind tibize with a row of graduated bristles on the

MEX OMPSUTEACO Tere iete na yoi's 10 aiane ayatelousieve einer aie ee Ge ke eee

Surface OfMSaASter ODAGUE s sic feotrsisc cies sis em na nace ee ae ee

Surfacesotacaster SHINING: -\..0%:,<0 se nieeraciere Maciel eelec eee

Posterior corners of head without yellow spots; thorax dark red

OL ADIGA CK ier okie is sie ds slate ore winleye Seal ete ee ioeveisde hobo s ee eel ater arene

Posterior corners of head, with yellow spots; thorax yellowish

11210 Le a ee (3) maculatus vicinus var. luteangulus var. nov.

Head ferruginous red; base of gaster, with golden yellow bands.

(20) socius Roger.

Head black; gaster black, or black with red basal segments......

Thorax brownish red or chestnut; gaster often red at the base.

(1) maculatus vicinus Mayr.

Thorax, with black pro- and mesonotum; gaster not red at base.

(2) maculatus vicinus var. plorabilis var. nov.

Antennal scapes not only flattened but slightly lobulate at the

PASO © 5 Shcraystevercttaressret sie 's'yo-i0' uy a: va6 'ececetavestelere retayeueuoce oye tel eneneuemelarereteuenere ets

Antennal scapes not lobulate at the bases... ei)s reels cietereeieleie ere

Length, 10-13 mm.; head brown in front, black behind; thorax,

legs, petiole and at least the base of the gaster light brown or

brownish yellow... e.- so. (8) maculatus maccooki Forel.

Length, 9-11 mm.; black; petiole and base of gaster slightly red-

OHS] Mlrereececics 6.06 ous ote (11) maculatus bulimosus subsp. nov.

Thorax black like the head and gaster....(F) maculatus vicinus

var. infernalis var. nov.

Thoraxsred Oreprowmishy yellows. sisson semitone «ele oeieteie ier enceraieete

"PMO AR TOM ois re Sahesteometeraneteueial sits: « \a es aceretebueisha ane age ovahotep etn er eksweneeay ae tee

PHOTAXADTOW NISHA VellOwereieis os d.0.-. 6:5 {e cnevalenarenete Melersie loko Ore ere teaeneae ets

Length, 11-13 mm.; gaster often red at the base...(5) maculatus

vicinus var. nitidiventris Emery.

Length, 8-10 mm.; gaster entirely black...(6) maculatus vicinus

var. maritimus var. nov.

Apical half of gaster infuscated...... (9) maculatus sansabeanus

Buckley.

Whole: casters yellows: ci: 4 ec cpeteyorenoieivie ls ce Gs 5. o lle'c mistoveloraye oteuerclietehelerelotens

Head brown or reddish... (4) maculatus vicinus var. senitestaceus

Emery.

Head blacker cle (10) maculatus sansabeanus var. torrefactus

var. nov.

Antennal scapes not flattened at the base; tibise without long

Oblique: WaITrs), .< Qecis qcheustelere trois beiererccelesstelel s-eleyetenevetencie < On eo

22.

23.

25.

26.

“J

29.

30.

31.

32.

33.

34.

35.

WHEELER, NORTH AMERICAN ANTS

Antennal scapes flattened at the base; tibize with long oblique

TRS 90 Bb DOO SIG COU G00 GOD OOUICO ODO OOORELC OCI TRC CECE

Head, thorax and petiole subopaque, ferruginous brown; scapes

without short, erect hairs..(13) maculatus tortuganus Emery.

Thorax shining, wholly or in part clay yellow; scapes with short,

SINE G I TENN ESee G ora 6 OOOO OOO TT 0 LO CO REI UOIIO BOC OOM IO IOGE Or

Mandibles 7-toothed: Tueneth, S10 mms.. s. 656.066 sci eecc sees

Mandibles 5- to 6-toothed. Length, 12-14 mm.(17) vafer sp. nov.

. Head pale yellow, not infuscated behind...... (15) fumidus var.

fragilis Pergande.

Head brownish, vertex of head infuscated or black.............

Occipital border of head yellow or brown..... (14) fuwmidus var.

festinatus Buckley.

Whole dorsal surface of head dark brown or black......... (16)

fumidus var. spurcus var. Nov.

Head entirely ferruginous red; cheeks with small foveole, with-

OUETeCTECCE NAILS) techeleleie > (23) abdominalis. floridanus Buckley.

Vertex of head dark brown or black, cheeks with deep, elongated

foveole and erect hairs....... (24) abdominalis transvectus

sub. sp. nov.

. Small species, not more than 6 mm. long; head rugose in front.

(52) bruesi sp. nov.

Large species, at least 8-9 mm. long; head never rugose in front..

. Antennal scapes, with short erect hairs, body shining, black. . (25)

levigatus Smith.

ATILCHAlESCADES) WILHOUi) CEEGie MAES ora tele cate ale elerolekels) «cl elevelerstle rere

Head small (3.2 x 2.8 mm.); body shining; mandibles 6- to 7-

Ltrs vara exer ates ole veirat oi ere rellnus eichevcral oy oleleyevtelro eller atten avo oudhenevehal oe leeveliere

Head large (3.4 x 3.4 mm.) ; the head and thorax at least opaque

Or Subopaques mandibles! 5-toothed 5. eis. «= ele) -le «olole = cielo elo)

Body entirely yellow or reddish yellow..... (21) castaneus Latr.

The head at least dark brown or black.......... (22) castaneus

americanus Mayr.

Gaster opaque or subopaque.................. Sr NCt ts Syrtes BSES Cn.C

GOR GUN. cooboooncdomse, ONO DODO OD ORME ODL DDO oO coo Oonoree

IPP SHOHVES Ci ERs SIMOE. sopocuanoupoooUCUuouOOMcUccHooddOooe

PWbESCeNCEROns SASH VCE Yi LOW So cree) c/e) 0) ola slic 1 0/eselalelel elle) o) <1 «i statebeleteie

Sculpture coarse; hairs and pubescence golden yellow...........

Sculpture finer; hairs and pubescence pale yellow or white. . (29)

herculeanus pennsylwanicus var. mahican var. noy.

Posterior portion of thorax red..(26) herculeanus var. whymperi

Forel.

Whole thorax black...... . (27) herculeanus var. modoc var. noy.

Thorax, petiole, gaster and usually also the legs black; pubescence

pale yellow or white....... (28) herculeanus pennsylvanicus

De Geer.

Posterior portion of thorax, petiole, legs and base of gaster red-

dish yellow ; pubescence and pilosity golden yellow...... (30)

herculeanus pennsylvanicus var. ferrugineus Fabricius.

299

300

36.

37.

38.

39.

40.

41.

42.

43.

45.

46.

48.

49.

51.

ANNALS NEW YORK ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

Gaster black in female and worker. . (31) herculeanus ligniperda

var. noveboracensis Fitch.

Gaster deep red in female...... (382) herculeanus ligniperda var.

rubens Wheeler.

Thorax marginate on the sides and behind; head and thorax fer-

PUSINOUSSNCH sis sae 5 d:2 cd edie cis cision clever (51) planatus Roger.

Thorax not marginate; head and thorax black....(50) mina zuni

subsp. nov.

Large species, averaging 10-11 mm.; middle and hind tibiz with

DLISHESTONeCHeIr® flexOLTSUEEACES are. cleucisaiewuelsiene ie eteier ene arene neaens :

Small species, averaging 6-8 mm.; middle and hind tibize without

Dristleswon ether Mexornes Una CES peri telstetyarleliietert-ter- tere 1d.0:0

Entirely yellowish red; clypeal notch rather shallow........ (47)

schefferi Wheeler.

Head black, thorax and legs red; gaster black, with first segment

yellow, aity the bases. eo ct crac series (46) texranus Wheeler.

Thorax, with a distinct impression at the mesoépinotal suture...

Thorax without a distinct impression at the mesoépinotal suture.

Gaster entirely black or dark brown......... (48) hyatti Emery.

Basal two-thirds of first gastric segment red....(49) hyatti var.

bakeri Wheeler.

Head large, very broad, excised behind; gaster very shining, with-

out pubescence. Length, 8 mm............ (45) sayi Emery.

Head smaller, narrower; gaster pubescent, less shining; length

USUAL YUTeESs) HAMES. GIN, 61/2 se eu) asi oie: silelisliona atsireltelettetonsyevelisestietcuette

Cheeks and clypeus with elongate, piligerous foveolw............

Cheeks and clypeus without such foveols.....................-

. Body black, thorax at most only partially red; average length,

G5 MING Ae ee teteiake eters (338) fallax var. nearcticus Emery.

Of a. different) COlOM sae. Sess bc a ale Hal eleteies eels eis eh olettel a tony aaaeeee

Both head and thorax reddish brown or yellowish red...........

Head Wargely dark brown or blacks .e.m emcee sete cae rae ee

Average Ven gts “D:D MMe aye sisys-aie: 6's ie Sievers ahelevsieiavel ciate sioisiee shereuerereens

Average length, 7 mm.; base of gaster banded with yellow.. (36)

fallax var. tanquaryi Wheeler.

7. Thorax dark red, head and gaster black........ (384) fallax var.

; minutus Emery.

Thorax ivory yellow, spotted with brown, base of gaster often

banded with yellow........ (35) fallax var. pardus Wheeler.

Average length,’ G=G.5 MM Mietyreisvere els, o.c\ cers iatele jslonaistale eielete ootateiaiaie re

Average length, 8 mm.............. (88) fallax rasilis Wheeler.

Gaster yellow at the base........ (39) fallax rasilis var. pavidus

Wheeler.

Gaster black throughout....... (37) fallax var. decipiens Emery.

. Piligerous foveole few on the cheeks, usually absent on the

CHYPOUS. 5 2 jel io eaters aks Sa, eietete lee erties 2 lle’ e ic toes SRE AST eeaee Nees

Both cheeks and clypeus with numerous piligerous foveolw.......

Yellowish brown, gaster paler, with brown bands....(40) fallax

subbarbatus Emery.

WHEELER, NORTH AMERICAN ANTS 301

Brownish black... (41) fallax subbarbatus var. paucipilis Emery.

OMEGA e DIlACKISIMG) DRO Willarsrer ters /e/chere@ sleiciclstc @/ siete relies ele se (ole! ='a)'0/=)/0) 61016 53

Head and thorax yellowish red...... (42) fallax discolor Emery.

53. Thorax blackish....(44) fallax discolor var. cnemidatus Emery.

ANG OHS MHEOIG 3 GC aloo (43) fallax discolor var. clarithorax Emery.

54. Thorax feebly and evenly arcuate above, without a distinct im-

pression at the mesoépinotal suture; border of truncated sur-

face of head sharp....(54) abditus var. etiolatus Wheeler.

Thorax, with a distinct impression at the mesoépinotal suture ;

border of truncated surface of head blunt.................. 5D

Hoe Gaster entirely DlHGK cc. s aleleel cle eieie ol (55) impressus Roger.

Gasters banded with yellowraltit Mes DalS@rir. iets cle) 0hoclle)sle whole ie rari 56

56. Thorax and posterior portion of head dark brown.. (56) pylartes

Wheeler.

Head and thorax yellow...... (57) pylartes var. hunteri var. nov.

A, SUBGENUS CAMPONOTUS

I. Maculatus Group

1. Camponotus maculatus vicinus Mayr

Camponotus vicinus Mayr, Verh. zool. bot. Ges. Wien, XX, p. 940, 3, 1870;

Foret, Bull. Soc. Vaud. Sci. Nat., (2) XVI, p. 60, 3, 1879; Datta Torre,

Catalog. Hymen., VII, p. 257, 18938.

O. sylvaticus var. vicinus Mayr, Verh. zool. bot. Ges. Wien, XXXVI, p. 422.

1886.

C. maculatus subsp. vicinus Emery, Zool. Jahrb. Abth. f. Syst., VII, p. 671,

% 9, 1893; Foret, Biol. Centr. Amer., p. 131, 1899-1900.

Worker major. Length, 11-13 mm.; head, 3.7 x 3.5 mm.; scape, 3.2 mm. ;

hind tibia, 3.8 mm.

Head, excluding the mandibles, nearly as broad as long, broader behind than

in front, with feebly concave posterior and feebly convex lateral borders, con-

vex dorsal and flattened gular surfaces. Mandibles strong, convex, 6-7-toothed.

Clypeus carinate, its anterior border moderately produced in the form of a

broad flap-like lobe with rounded corners and crenate edge. Frontal carinz

lyrate. Eyes moderately large, flattened. Antennal scapes distinctly flattened

at the base and but slightly widened at their tips, which reach a short distance

beyond the posterior corners of the head. Thorax robust in front though

narrower than the head; pro- and mesonotum slightly flattened; meso- and

metapleural regions compressed; in profile, the dorsum is evenly arched, the

epinotum with subequal base and declivity, forming at their juncture a

rounded, obtuse angle. Petiole with convex anterior and flattened posterior

surface and rather blunt border. Gaster of the usual shape. Legs long;

middle and hind tibize elliptical in cross-section, neither compressed nor

grooved.

Mandibles and anterior borders of cheeks shining, the former very coarsely

striato-punctate; head, thorax and gaster subopaque; head densely shagreened

302 ANNALS NEW YORK ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

behind, in front very densely and finely punctate or granular, sides also with

numerous small rounded foveolz; sides of clypeus and inner borders of frontal

carinze with a few large piligerous foveole. Thorax, petiole and legs more

finely, gaster more coarsely and transversely shagreened, also with small

transverse foveolz bearing the pubescence and large piligerous foveolz across

the middle and along the posterior border of each segment.

Hairs and pubescence yellow, the former long, sparse and erect, confined to

the mandibles, clypeus, dorsal surface of head, thorax, border of petiole, gula

and both dorsal and ventral surfaces of the gaster. Pubescence sparse, espe-

cially on the gaster, but very distinct on the posterior portions of the head,

thoracic dorsum, scapes and legs. Middle and hind tibiz with rows of stiff,

graduated bristles on their flexor surfaces. There are a few short hairs at

the tips of the antennal scapes and at the femoro-tibial articulations.

Head and antennal scapes black; mandibles, clypeus, cheeks and antennal

funiculi often tinged with red. Thorax and legs brownish red or chestnut;

gaster black, with dull brown posterior segmental margins; base of first seg-

ment or the whole of the first and second segments red like the thorax.

Worker minor. Length, 7-8.5 mm.

Head longer than broad, not contracted but rounded behind the eyes, with

rather straight, subparallel sides. Clypeus and antennal scapes much like

those of the worker major, the scapes reaching nearly half their length beyond

the posterior corners of the head. Thorax about as broad as the head, base of

the epinotum somewhat longer than the declivity. Petiole subcuneate, with

more convex posterior surface and blunter border than in the worker major.

Sculpture, pilosity and color much as in the worker major, but gaster not

red at the base.

Female. Length, 14-16 mm.

Head similar to that of the worker major but proportionally longer and

narrower behind, with more nearly parallel sides. Thorax about as broad as

the head. Epinotum with short, convex base and much longer, steep and

Slightly concave declivity. Petiole rather high, thick below, compressed ante-

roposteriorly above, with sharp border. Wings long (16-17 mm.).

Differs from the worker major in sculpture to the extent of having the

thorax, gaster, legs and lower lateral borders of the head shining.

Pilosity, pubescence and color much as in the worker major, but the meso-

notum, scutellum and metanotum black and the pronotum, pleure, tibie and

femora sometimes infuscated. Gaster frequently red at the base. In some

specimens, the whole of the thorax and the legs are very dark brown or black.

Wings suffused with brown; veins and stigma light brown.

Male. Length, 8-11 mm.

Head somewhat longer than broad, with large, convex eyes, broader and

rounded postocular region and concave cheeks. Clypeus carinate, with broadly

rounded anterior border. Mandibles edentate. Antennal scapes slender,

terete, not flattened at the base. Thorax robust; epinotum like that of the

female. Petiole very low and thick, its upper border transverse, blunt, some-

times with a broad but shallow excision.

WHEELER, NORTH AMERICAN ANTS 303

Head, thorax and gaster very finely shagreened, shining.

Pilosity much as in the worker; pubescence shorter and much less con-

spicuous.

Black; mouthparts, funiculi, genitalia, tarsi and articulations of the legs

and wings brownish or reddish. Wings colored like those of the female.

This, the typical form of the subspecies vicinus, as defined by Emery,

is represented in my collection by specimens from the following localities :

California: Alameda, Harris, Humboldt County and Felton, Santa

Cruz Mts. (J. C. Bradley) ; San Jacinto Mts., 6000 ft. (F. Grinnell, Jr.) ;

Mt. Lowe (5000 ft.) and Palmer’s Canyon, near Claremont (Wheeler).

Nevada: King’s Canyon, Ormsby County (C. F. Baker).

Oregon: Corvallis (Amer. Mus. Nat. Hist.).

Washington: Seattle and Almota (A. L. Melander) ; Friday Harbor

(T. Kincaid) ; Grand Coulée; Pullman (W. M. Mann).

Idaho: Julietta and Moscow (J. M. Aldrich).

New Mexico: Mera Chaco Canyon (Pepper).

British America: Lardo, Kootenay Lake (J. C. Bradley).

Emery cites this form from Descanso, Calif. Mayr mentions it from

Connecticut and Virginia, but this is evidently an error, probably trace-

able to incorrectly labeled specimens or to confounding the form with the

very similarly colored C. noveboracensis.

QO. vicinus and its varieties live in the soil under stones in rather dry,

sunny places. The eggs and young larve are of a peculiar salmon-yellow

color. The sexual phases seem to occur in the nests at all times of the

year.

2. C. maculatus vicinus var. plorabilis var. nov.

Very similar to the typical vicinus in sculpture and pilosity, but differing in

eolor. The thorax, petiole and legs of the worker forms are deep red, the pro-

and mesonotum of the worker major black, the gaster entirely black, except

for the brown posterior segmental margins.

The female is decidedly smaller than that of the typical form (12-13 mm.)

and black, with the exception of the antennal funiculi, pleurz, declivity of

epinotum and legs, which are dark red.

The male is indistinguishable from that of the typical form.

I have seen specimens of this variety from the following localities:

California: Pacific Grove (H. Heath).

Nevada: (Amer. Mus. Nat. Hist.).

Washington: Pullman, Kiona, San Juan Island and Ellensburg

(W. M. Mann) ; Seattle.

Idaho: Moscow (J. M. Aldrich).

Apparently the small workers mentioned by Emery from Beckwith,

304 ANNALS NEW YORK ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

Calif. (5000 ft.) belong to this variety, which at first sight may be con-

founded with forms of C. herculeanus colored like the European type or

like the American C. whympert.

3. C. maculatus vicinus var. luteangulus var. nov.

Very similar to the typical vicinus, but the thorax of the major and minor

workers is paler, of a more yellowish red color and all of the worker forms

have a bright yellow spot on each of the posterior corners of the head. . The

gaster of the largest workers is more or less yellowish red at the base. The

surface of the body is a little more shining than in vicinus but less so than in

the var. nitidiventris. Males without varietal characters.

Described from several workers and males taken by C. R. Biederman

in Carr Canyon, Huachuca Mts., Arizona, one worker from the Yakima

River, Washington, taken by Samuel Henshaw, four workers taken by

W. M. Mann on Moscow Mt., Idaho, and three workers from Wawawai,

Washington, taken by the same collector.

4. C. maculatus vicinus var. semitestaceus Emery

Emery, Zool. Jahrb. Abth. f. Syst., VII, p. 672, 3, 1893.

Described by Emery from a couple of workers from Plummer County, Calif.,

5000 ft. (Theo. Pergande), which had the thorax and legs reddish yellow, the

head dark ferruginous red, the vertex, mandibles and antennal scapes piceous

brown, the gaster clay yellow. Other specimens from Fuller’s Mill, San

Jacinto, Calif., were still paler, being entirely clay-yellow, with the head

partly pale dirty brown. The cheeks bore a few very short bristles, the erect

pilosity was more abundant than usual, especially on the gula.

There are in my collection a worker media and a minor from the San

Jacinto Mts., Calif. (F. Grinnell, Jr.), referable to this variety. In the

media, however, the head and antennal scapes are entirely black and

opaque. The worker minor is red throughout, with the top of the head

slightly darker.

5. C. maculatus vicinus var. nitidiventris Emery

Emery, Zool. Jahrb. Abth. f. Syst., VII, p. 672, 3, 1893.

Differing from the typical vicinus in the sculpture of the worker forms, the

shagreening of the gaster and often also of the head and thorax being finer

and more superficial, so that these parts are shining. The pubescence on the

body is also shorter and much less conspicuous, especially on the gaster.

There are no erect hairs on the cheeks. The thorax, legs and petiole are yel-

lowish red; in major workers of most colonies, the gaster is black throughout,

but in some, it is more or less red or yellowish red at the base. In some

specimens which form a transition to the var. luteangulus, the posterior cor-

WHEELER, NORTH AMERICAN ANTS 305

ners of the head are rather indistinctly reddish or yellowish. The female

nitidiventris differs from that of vicinus in its more shining head. The male

seems to lack varietal characters.

Of this variety, which is common in the western states, I have seen

many specimens from the following localities:

Colorado: Salida, Boulder, Florissant, Buena Vista, Colorado City,

Colorado Springs, Manitou (Wheeler); Steamboat Springs (T. D. A.

Cockerell) ; Pueblo (Jerome Schmitt) ; Stout, Ft. Collins and Dixon

Canyon (E. G. Titus).

Wyoming: Carbon County (Wortmann).

New Mexico: Romeroyille, San Ignacio, Gallinas Canyon, Santa Fe,

Raton, Pecos, Silver City, Dripping Spring in Organ Mts. and Las Vegas

(T. D. A. Cockerell) ; Alamogordo (G. vy. Krockow) ; Albuquerque (F. C.

Pratt):

Arizona: Coconino Forest, Grand Canyon (Wheeler) ; Ramsey Canyon,

Huachuca Mts. (W. M. Mann and Wheeler).

California: Santa Rosa; Marin County.

Emery cites this variety from Louisiana, but I believe that this must

be an error, for, according to my observations, it does not descend, at least

to the eastward, much below an altitude of 6000 feet, and is properly an

ant of the high plains and slopes of the Rockies. The two California

localities above mentioned are represented only by a couple of major

workers and these may be rubbed specimens of the true vicinus.

6. C. maculatus vicinus var. maritimus var. nov.

Closely resembling the preceding variety, but of smaller size in all phases

except the male. Length of worker major, 8-10 mm.; worker minor, 6-7 mm. ;

female, 11-12 mm. (wings 12 mm.) ; male, 9-10 mm. The gaster is entirely

black in the worker major and female, or reddish only at the extreme base;

the wings of the male are very vale. The female has the head, pro- and

mesonotum, scutellum and metanotum black, the remainder of the thorax, the

legs and petiole yellowish red, the mandibles, clypeus and antenne dark red.

California: Pacific Grove and San José (H. Heath) ; Catalina Island

(C.F. Baker).

7. C. maculatus vicinus var. infernalis var. nov.

This variety is based on several major and minor workers from Las

Vegas, N. Mexico (Wheeler) ; a single worker media from Santa Cruz

Mts., Calif. (J. C. Bradley) and three minor workers and two males

from Palo Alto, Calif. (W. M. Mann). These all closely resemble the

nitidiventris in sculpture, but the thorax is black like the head and

306 ANNALS NEW YORK ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

gaster, the lower pleure, the petiole, legs and funiculi dark brown. The

clypeus, mandibles and scapes are black.

8. C. maculatus maccooki Forel

C. sylwaticus stirps maccooki ForeL, Bull. Soe. Vaud. Sci. Nat., (2) XVI, P.

81, p. 69, 3 9 4, 1879; Tbid., (2) XX, P. 91, p. 347, 1884.

C. maccooki DALLA TorRE, Catalog. Hymen., VII, p. 241, 1893.

C. maculatus subsp. maccooki Emery, Zool. Jahrb. Abth. f. Syst., VII, p. 672,

Taf. XXII, Fig. 29, 3, 1893.

Worker major. Length, 10-13 mm.; head, 3.2 x 3 mm.; scape, 2.7 mm.;

hind tibia, 3.6 mm.

In structure closely resembling C. vicinus, but the antennal scapes are more

thickened at their tips, and their bases are not only flattened but dilated to

form a small but distinct, rounded lobe on the outer side. Mandibles 5- to 6-

toothed. Base and declivity of epinotum subequal. Middle and hind tibize

elliptical in cross-section, not sulcate.

Sculpture of body as in the var. nitidiventris, the sides of the head covered

with punctures or small foveolz as in that form.

Pilosity as in vicinus, but pubescence much less developed, being as short

and inconspicuous as in nitidiventris. There are no hairs on the cheeks.

Middle and hind tibize with bristly flexor surfaces.

Head, cheeks, clypeus, mandibles and antenne deep reddish brown or ferru-

ginous; front and vertex black, mouthparts yellowish. Thorax, legs, petiole

and gaster sordid light brown or brownish yellow, the gaster usually more or

less dark brown at the tip and often transversely banded with fuscous on the

more anterior segments, rarely black throughout.

Worker minor. Length, 6-8 mm.

Resembling the worker major in sculpture, pilosity and color, but the head

is more shining. The lobular dilation at the base of the antennal scape is

small but perceptible.

Female. Wength, 12-14 mm.

Resembling the female of nitidiventris in sculpture and pilosity; color like

that of the major worker, but the mesonotum, scutellum and metanotum are

dark brown, the pronotum more or less infuscated. In some specimens the

whole gaster is brownish yellow and lighter than the pleure and legs; in

others it is dark brown at the tip and obscurely transversely banded with

brown more anteriorly. Wings suffused with brownish yellow; veins yellow,

stigma brownish.

Male. Length, 9 mm.

Very similar to the male of vicinus and its varieties. The antennal scapes

are flattened, dilated and lobulate at the base.

The types of this subspecies came from the Island of Guadalupe, about

200 miles off the west coast of Lower California. I have seen numerous

WHEELER, NORTH AMERICAN ANTS 307

worker and female specimens but only a single male from the following

places in the Pacific States:

California: Palo Alto (H. Heath and W. M. Mann); San José (H.

Heath) ; Alameda and Marin County (Amer. Mus. Nat. Hist.) ; Ukiah,

Mendocino County and Berkeley (J. C. Bradley); Point Loma, San

Diego (P. Leonard) ; Pasadena (Wheeler).

Washington: (Osten Sacken).

Oregon: (Osten Sacken) ; Corvallis (Amer. Mus. Nat. Hist.).

Emery cites maccooki also from Descanso, Calif.

9. C. maculatus sansabeanus Buckley

Formica sansabeana Bucxktey, Proc. Ent. Soc. Phila., VI, p. 167, 8 @ @,

1866.

Camponotus marginatus var. sansabeana Mayr, Verh. zool. bot. Ges. Wien,

XXXVI, pr 365, 1886; DALLA Torre, Catalog. Hymen., VII, p. 242, 1893.

C. maculatus subsp. maccooki var. sansabeanus Emery, Zool. Janrb. Abth. f.

Syst., VII, p. 672, 3 9, 1893; WHEELER, Trans. Tex. Acad. Sci., IV, Pt. II,

INO 2 Dy 2a, On a, 1902;

Worker major. Length, 9-11 mm.; head, 2.8 x 2.7 mm.; scape, 2.5 mm.;

hind tibia, 2.6 mm.

Resembling maccooki but stouter, more thick-set, with proportionally larger

head and shorter legs. The flattened dilatation at the base of the antennal

scape is broader than in vicinus, but slightly narrower and less lobulate than

in maccooki. Clypeal carina blunter, lobe of the anterior border shorter.

Sculpture and pilosity as in maccooki, but lower surface of head with more

numerous erect hairs. Cheeks with a very few erect hairs arising from some-

what elongated foveolz. Pubescence very short and sparse.

Color much like that of maccooki, but thorax more brownish, basal half of

gaster yellow or yellowish brown, apical half and sometimes the whole gaster

more infuscated.

Worker minor. Length, 5-7 mm.

Antennal scapes less dilated at the base than in the worker minor of mac-

cooki. Cheeks without erect hairs. Color much like that of the worker major.

Female. Length, 12-14 mm.

Head broader than in maccooki, especially behind. Surface, especially of

the thorax and gaster, very smooth and shining. Pubescence more dilute and

inconspicuous than in the worker major. Wings long (12-13 mm.), suffused

with yellow; veins and stigma brownish yellow.

Male. Length, 8-9 mm.

Head proportionally shorter than in the male maccooki. Cheeks hairy.

Antennal funiculi, tarsi and tibiz yellowish brown; wings less suffused with

yellow and paler than in the female; veins and stigma pale yellow.

308 ANNALS NEW YORK ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

The types of this form were, in all probability, collected by Buckley in

central Texas, where it is rather common, nesting under stones in dry

woods. Emery’s specimens also came from this region and from Lou-

isiana. I have before me specimens from the following localities :

Texas: Austin, topotypes (Wheeler) ; Marble Falls (Wheeler) ; Hand-

ley (J. C. Crawford) ; Leary (W. D. Pierce).

New Mexico: Pecos (T. D. A. Cockerell and M. Grabham).

Arizona: Prescott (Wheeler).

Colorado: Manitou (Wheeler).

Although Emery records sansabeanus as a variety of maccooki, I be-

lieve that it should rank as an independent subspecies of maculatus, on

account of its smaller size and the different proportions of the head, body

and legs in the worker major.

10. C. maculatus sansabeanus var. torrefactus var. nov.

The worker major differs from that of sansabeanus in having the whole

gaster brownish yellow, like the thorax, petiole and legs. The head is deep

red, with the front and vertex black and the posterior corners each with a

yellow spot; in the worker minor the head and antennze are brown, the

mandibles darker. The antennal scapes in all the workers are less dilated at

the base than in the corresponding phases of sansabeanus. The male has the

funiculi, tarsi and tibise paler, the pleurse and often the thoracic dorsum and

gaster piceous instead of black. The head is very broad, with shorter and less

coneave cheeks than in the preceding subspecies and varieties, and the anterior

portion of the head is conspicuously hairy. The wings are scarcely suffused

with yellow, the veins and stigma very pale. I have not seen the female.

~ Described from numerous workers and males from three colonies, two

taken by myself in the Coconino Forest and Indian Garden, Grand

Canyon, Arizona, the other by Mr. R. V. Chamberlin at East Mill Creek,

Utah.

11, C. maculatus bulimosus subsp. nov.

Worker major. Length, 9-11 mm.; head, 3.2 x 3.2 mm.; scape, 2 mm.; hind

tibia, 2.5 mm. :

With the stature of sansabeanus, but differing in the following particulars:

head proportionally larger, as broad as long, with the anterior angles larger

and more inflated as in C. herculeanus, so that the mandibles appear to be

more retracted. Clypeus even less produced, with the median border crenate

and slightly pointed in the middle and the carina more distinct. Antennal

scapes shorter and much more flattened and dilated at the base, with a small

lobe as in maccooki, and nearly as broad at the tip as at the base. Thorax

thickset, with high, rounded epinotum, the declivity being as long as the base.

Body subopaque; mandibles, legs and venter more shining; surface of head

and thorax rather coarsely, gaster more finely and superficially shagreened.

Whole head, including the clypeus and front, covered with small punctures,

WHEELER, NORTH AMERICAN ANTS 309

which are more scattered on the posterior corners. Posterolateral borders of

elypeus, inner borders of frontal carinz, the pro- and mesonotum with a few

piligerous foveole.

Hairs much as in sansabeanus, even on the cheeks.

Black; thorax, petiole and base of gaster slightly reddish; insertions and

tips of scapes, funiculi and legs deep reddish brown; posterior borders of

gastric segments sordid yellowish.

Worker minor. Length, 5-7 mm. ,

Differing from the minor worker of sansabeanus in the shorter and broader

head; with more prominent anterior corners, the shorter and basally more

dilated antennal scapes.

Body more shining than in the worker major. Pilosity and color as in this

phase, but mandibles, clypeus, cheeks and scapes deep red and legs sometimes

more yellowish.

Female. Length, 13-15 mm. y

Resembling the major worker, but head longer than broad and thorax and

gaster more shining. Black; mandibles, funiculi, femora and tibize deep red-

dish brown; venter and sides of two basal gastric segments blotched with

brownish yellow; trochanters and tips of coxze of the same color. Wings

strongly tinged with brown; veins and stigma pale brown.

Male. Length, 7-8 mm.

Resembling the male of sansabeanus, but the head and thorax somewhat

more opaque. Hairs dirty yellow, rather abundant on the cheeks, which are

somewhat broader in front than at the eyes. Black; funiculi and tarsi light

brown. Wings somewhat paler than in the female.

Described from a number of specimens of all four phases from a single

colony found by C. R. Biederman nesting in the ground under a stone at

Palmerlee, Arizona, (5500 ft.) and several workers and males taken by

W. M. Mann in Ramsey Canyon, Huachuca Mts., (5800 ft.) in the same

territory.*

This form is readily distinguished by the shape of the head, short

antennal scapes and the combination of the characters of the antenne of

maccooki with the thickset stature of sansabeanus and the coloration of

the darkest forms of vicinus. It deserves a higher rank than as a mere

variety of sansabeanus.

12. C. maculatus ocreatus Emery

CO. maculatus subsp. ocreatus EMrEry, Zool. Jahrb. Abth. f. Syst., VII, p. 673,

%, 1893; Ibid., VIII, p. 336, 1894.

C. maculatus race ocreatus PERGANDE, Proc. Calif. Acad. Sci., (2) IV, p. 26,

3, 1893.

4During November, 1910, I found this ant very common under stones in Miller Can-

yon, Huachuea Mts., Ariz., between 5000 and 6000 ft.

310 ANNALS NEW YORK ACADEMY OF SCIENCES A

Worker major and media.

“Both in habitus and structure of the head and clypeus this subspecies bears

the greatest resemblance to maccooki Forel, but differs from this form in its

feebler sculpture; the whole head is therefore more shining in the worker

major (hardly less shining than in the typical castaneus). The scattered

punctures on the sides of the head are smaller and less numerous. The anten-

nal scape is more slender, longer and neither flattened nor dilated at the base.

The color of the three specimens before me (one major and two media

workers) is clay-yellow; head, antennal scape, first funicular joint, knees,

tibize and first tarsal joint black, remainder of tarsi and funiculus brown ; in

the large worker the thorax is darker, pro- and mesonotum piceous brown;

tip of gaster blackish. Epinotum, even in the large workers, with its basal

surface nearly twice as long as the declivity; in this respect differing from

the subsp. maccooki and vicinus, which have a much higher epinotum.

“Length of worker major, 12 mm.; head, 3.5 x 3.2 mm.; scape, 3.4 mm.; hind

tibia, 4 mm. ‘

“Panamint Mts., California, from Mr. Pergande.” (Emery.)

Pergande records this form also from San Luis and San Esteban,

Mexico.

I have not seen the worker forms, but I have before me five dealated

specimens which I take to represent the female of this subspecies. Four

of these are from Palmerlee, Arizona, 6000 ft., (C. R. Biederman) and

one from the Huachuca Mts. in the same territory (Dr. H. Skinner).

They vary from 14-16 mm. in length. The structure of the antenne

and the coloration of the legs and gaster are as described for the worker,

the thorax is brown, with the pro-, meso- and metanotum and scutellum

either entirely black or spotted with dark brown. The posterior portion

of the head is subopaque and densely shagreened, the remainder of the

body very smooth and shining. The clypeus is like that of maccooki, the

lobe of the anterior border being very short, the carina distinct. There

are several large punctures or foveole on the clypeus and also on the

cheeks where they are somewhat elongated. Pilosity sparse, absent on

the cheeks. Pubescence very short and dilute. The middle and hind

tibiz are somewhat triangular in cross-section and grooved on their

anterior surfaces, and the series of graduated bristles extends along

nearly the whole length of their flexor surfaces.

13. C. maculatus tortuganus Emery

C. maculatus subsp. tortuganus Emery, Zool. Jahrb. Abth. f. Syst., VIII. p.

336, 3, 1894.

Worker major. Wength, 9-11 mm.; head, 2.6 x 2.8 mm.; scape, 2.2 mm.;

hind tibia, 2.8 mm.

Head rather long and narrow, with very feebly convex sides, Eyes large,

moderately convex. Mandibles 7-toothed. Clypeus strongly carinate, the lobe

WHEELER, NORTH AMERICAN ANTS Sa:

of its anterior border moderately produced, rather narrow, with very faintly

sinuous median edge and rounded lateral corners. Frontal carinz lyrate,

rather closely approximated. Antennal scapes terete at the base, neither

dilated nor flattened, enlarged towards their tips. Thorax slender, low, evenly

arched above in profile; epinotum with the base fully twice as long as the

declivity, which is slightly concave. Petiole rather high and narrow, with

convex anterior and flattened posterior surface and blunt lateral and upper

border. Legs rather long; middle and hind tibize triangular in cross-section,

with suleate anterior surface.

Head, thorax and petiole subopaque, very densely and finely shagreened.

Mandibles shining, coarsely striato-punctate. Anterior border of cheeks and

clypeus shining, cheeks and sides of head with small, elongate punctures or

foveole; clypeus and inner borders of frontal caring, pro- and mesonotum

with a few coarse piligerous punctures. Gaster finely and superficially sha-

greened, shining.

Hairs yellowish, erect, moderately abundant on the dorsal surface, very

short and appressed on the antennal scapes and legs; femora with a few long

hairs on their flexor surfaces; bristles lacking on the flexor surfaces of the

tibiz. Cheeks without erect hairs, those on the anterior border of the clypeus

short and inconspicuous. Funiculi with very minute erect hairs. Pubescence

very sparse, short on the head and thorax, somewhat longer on the gaster.

Ferruginous brown; head darker than the thorax, and the upper surface of

the latter often darker than the pleurze. Mandibles and anterior borders of

cheeks and clypeus blackish. Scapes infuscated except at the base. Gaster

black or dark brown, venter, base of first segment and posterior margins of

segments paler. Coxee and femora yellow, tibiz and tarsi ferruginous.

Worker minor. Length, 6-7 mm.

Head very long, more than twice as long as broad, excluding the mandibles,

somewhat narrowed behind in the occipital region; cheeks long, parallel.

Clypeus like that of the worker major. Thorax very slender; base of epinotum

more than three times as long as the declivity.

Head, thorax and petiole more shining than in the worker major, paler and

more yellowish brown; head somewhat darker, mandibles brown. Gaster and

legs colored as in the worker major. Pilosity also similar, but there are no

minute erect hairs on the antennal funiculi. Cheeks without foveole or only

with a few faint elongate punctures.

Female. Length of body, 10-11 mm.; of wings, 11 mm.

Resembling the worker major in sculpture, pilosity and color. Head propor-

tionately longer. Eyes large and convex. Thorax as broad as the head,

rather depressed; epinotum with indistinct base and declivity, the former

fully as long as the latter. Petiole similar to that of the worker major.

Wings suffused with sordid yellow; veins and stigma pale brownish yellow.

Male. Length, 7 mm.

Head through the eyes about as broad as long. Eyes and ocelli very large.

Cheeks much shorter than the eyes, straight and parallel. Posterior portion

of head broad and rounded. Clypeus subcarinate, with broadly rounded, pro-

on ANNALS NEW YORK ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

jecting anterior border. Mandibles narrow, edentate. Antenne slender, first

funicular joint as long as the second, distinctly incrassated. Thorax robust,

with low, evenly rounded epinotum; its base and declivity indistinctly differ-

entiated, the former about twice as long as the latter. Petiole longer than

high, with a low, thick, transverse node. Gaster and legs slender.

Head and thorax subopaque or somewhat shining, especially the pleurze and

the front of the head, very minutely and indistinctly shagreened; gaster

shining.

Hairs yellow, erect, rather long and abundant on the head and gaster,

petiole and epinotum, sparse on the remainder of the thorax. Legs and

antenne naked. Pubescence rather long on the gaster, but inconspicuous or

absent elsewhere.

Head yellowish brown beneath and behind, with a large dark brown or

black spot on the vertex. Antenne, thorax, petiole and legs brown; gaster

dark brown or blackish, with paler posterior margins to the segments; mouth-

parts and genitalia yellowish. Wings dull whitish, with pale yellow veins and

stigma.

Described from a long series of specimens of all four phases belonging

to a single colony taken by myself at Miami, Florida. I have also taken

this subspecies at Planter on Key Largo, and have specimens from Lake

Worth (Jerome Schmitt) in the same State. Emery based the subspecies

on a single worker from the Dry Tortugas. This he supposed to be a

worker media, but it was undoubtedly a worker major (maxima), since

this has a smaller head than our other Camponoti of the maculatus

group. C. tortuganus is closely related to the subsp. lucayanus Wheeler

from the Bahamas, to C. vafer and C. fumidus var. festinatus, but all of

these forms have erect hairs on the antennal scapes.

14, C. fumidus Roger var. festinatus Buckley

Formica festinata Buck ry, Proc. Ent. Soc. Phila., VI, p. 164, 3 9, 1866.

Camponotus festinatus DALLA TorRE, Catalog. Hymen., VII, p. 231, 1893.

C. fumidus var. pubicornis EMrry, Zool. Jahrb. Abth. f. Syst., VII, p. 670, 3,

1893.

C. fumidus var. festinatus WHEELER, Trans. Tex. Acad. Sci., IV, II, No. 2,

Ds 22, 1902:

Worker major. Length, 8-10 mm.; head, 3 x 2.6 mm.; scape, 2.6 mm.; hind

tibia, 3 mm. ;

Head rather small, longer than broad, broader behind than in front, with

feebly excised posterior border and rather convex sides. Eyes slightly convex.

Mandibles 7-toothed. Clypeus carinate, moderately produced in front as a

broad flap-shaped lobe, rounded at the sides and slightly sinuate in the middle.

Antennal scapes rather long, reaching about one-quarter their length beyond

the posterior corners of the head, terete at the base, neither fiattened nor

dilated. Thorax slender, evenly arched above; base of epinotum fully twice as

long as the sloping declivity. Petiole with convex anterior and flattened

WHEELER, NORTH AMERICAN ANTS 313

posterior surface and rather sharp border. Gaster of the usual shape. Legs

slender; middle and hind femora scarcely compressed, elliptical in cross-sec-

tion, not sulcate.

Mandibles shining, sparsely punctate. Head rather coarsely, thorax and

gaster more finely shagreened, so that the head, especially in front, is opaque

or subopaque, its posterior corners, the thorax and, especially the gaster, more

shining. Whole of head, except the spaces between the eyes and the frontal

caring, covered with sparse, elongate foveolz, which are deepest and largest

on the cheeks, clypeus and front.

Hairs tawny yellow, abundant and erect on all parts of the head and gaster,

thoracic dorsum, fore coxze and petiolar border. Femora with a few scattered

erect hairs on their flexor and posterior surfaces; tibize with very short slant-

ing hairs; middle and hind pairs without graduated bristles on their flexor

surfaces. Antennal scapes with short, erect and delicate hairs, in some speci-

mens abundant, in others very sparse or almost absent. Fringe of hairs on

the clypeal border short. Pubescence short and dilute, but distinct on the

head, thorax, gaster and antenne.

Clay-yellow ; legs somewhat paler than the body, head more reddish, with

the mandibles, cheeks, border of the clypeus, vertex and middle portion of the

antennal scapes to a variable extent dark brown or blackish. In some speci-

mens the whole head, except the occipital border, is dark brown. Hach gastric

segment with a more or less distinct transverse brown band, broadened in the

middorsal line.

Worker minor. Length, 6-7 mm.

Head, excluding the mandibles, more than twice as long as broad, dis-

tinctly narrowed behind, with long, straight, parallel cheeks. Lobe of clypeus

without median sinuosity and with short, sharp, lateral corners. Thorax very

low and slender, base of epinotum more than three times as long as the

declivity. Petiole in profile conical, with blunt border. Legs and antennz

long and slender.

Head, thorax and gaster moderately shining, very finely shagreened ; foveolze

of the head represented only by a few, faint, elongate impressions on the

cheeks.

Hairs pale yellow, less abundant than in the worker major. Erect hairs on

the antennal scapes shorter and more delicate, lacking on the legs. Pubescence

extremely short and dilute, visible only on the gaster and scapes.

Pale clay-yellow throughout; mandibular teeth and edge of clypeus and

cheeks brown or black.

Female. WUength, 11-14 mm.

Resembling the worker major in sculpture, pilosity and color, but with the

head narrower behind and with straighter, more parallel sides. Insertions of

wings and anterior edge of scutellum black. Mesonotum immaculate, at most

with brownish streaks representing the underlying musculature seen through

the thin, yellow integument. Wings tinged with yellow; veins and stigma

pale brown.

Male. Length, 6-7 mm.

Head somewhat longer than broad, with rather large eyes and ocelli,

314 ANNALS NEW YORK ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

rounded and broader behind, with slightly concave, subparallel cheeks which

are somewhat shorter than the eyes. Mandibles narrow, edentate. Clypeus -

carinate, with broadly rounded anterior border. Antenne slender, first funicu-

lar joint incrassated at its tip, nearly as long as the second joint. Thorax

robust, epinotum sloping, base not more than half as long as the declivity.

Petiole very low and thick, transverse, its upper surface flattened and some-

what impressed in the middle, without a border.

Head and thorax moderately shining, the former subopaque behind; gaster

smoother, surface of body very finely nhnereeueal

Erect hairs pale yellow, rather abundant, covering the thorax as well as the

head and gaster, absent on the scapes, cheeks and legs. Femora and tibie

with minute, appressed hairs.

Brownish yellow; posterodorsal portion of head, scutellum and upper sur-

face of gaster, except the anterior and posterior borders of the segments, dark

brown. In some specimens, the whole thorax or only its dorsal surface and

the epinotum are light brown.

This variety was first very inadequately described by Buckley from

specimens taken in Texas, in all probability near Austin. I have rede-

scribed it from topotypes. It is represented among my material by

numerous specimens from the following localities:

Texas: Austin and throughout Travis County (topotypes) ; San An-

tonio, New Braunfels, San Angelo, Marble Falls, Kenedy, Brownwood

and Terlingua (Wheeler) ; Laredo (J. F. McClendon) ; Dimmitt County

(Schaupp) ; Chisos Mts. (O. W. Williams) ; Abilene (A. W. Morrill) ;

Kerrville (F. C. Pratt) ; Lampasas (W. D. Hunter).

Arizona: Nogales (Oslar) ; Huachuca Mts. (H. Skinner and Wheeler).

Mexico: Cuernavaca (Wheeler) ; Guadalajara (J. F. McClendon).

Worker major specimens, often in the same colony, are extremely

variable in the coloration of the head. In general they agree very well

with Roger’s description of C. fumidus from Venezuela, but he does not

mention the erect hairs on the antennal scapes. On this account, Emery

regarded his specimens, which came from Colorado, as representing a

variety, which he called pubicornis. As there is no question in my mind

concerning the identity of this form with Buckley’s festinatus, and as

long series of specimens from all the localities mentioned above show the

erect hairs on the antennal scapes, I believe that I am justified in con-

signing pubicornis to the synonymy.

C. festinatus nests in the ground under stones, logs or dried cow dung

in dry sunny pastures. It forms colonies varying from a few to several

hundred individuals. It is extremely timid, and, as I have never seen it

abroad during the day-time, I infer that it must be either crepuscular or

nocturnal. This is also indicated by the very pale coloration of the

minor workers. .

WHEELER, NORTH AMERICAN ANTS 315

15. C. fumidus var. fragilis Pergande

Camponotus fragilis PerGANpDE, Proc. Calif. Acad. Sci., (2) IV, p. 26, 3, 1893 ;

Fore., Biol. Centr. Amer., III, p. 188, 1899-1900.

C. fumidus var. fragilis Emery, Zool. Jahrb. Abth. f. Syst., VIII, p. 336, 1894.

Differing from festinatus only in its paler color. Both worker major and

minor are pale, whitish yellow; the former with the mandibles and antennal

scapes pale brown and pale brown bands on the gaster. The pilosity is like

that of festinatus, and the antennal scapes have numerous, very delicate,

white, erect hairs. The female and male are unknown.

This variety was originally described from San José del Cabo and San

Fernando, Lower California (G. Hisen). I have examined three cotypes.

One worker major and one minor which I took at Alamito, Presidio

County, Texas, seem to belong to this variety, but the yellow tint of the

body is deeper and more like that of festinatus. They may represent

very pale specimens of this variety.

16. C. fumidus var. spurcus var. nov.

Differing from festinatus in the darker coloration of the workers and female.

In all of these phases the body is more sordid yellow; the worker major has

the whole dorsal surface of the head dark brown or black, the mandibles deep

red, with black borders, the antero-median portion of the clypeus and anterior

portion of the front reddish, the antennal scapes, except their extreme base

and apex, black, the dorsal surface of the thorax and petiole and the bands

on the gaster dark brown. The femora and tibiz may also be more or less

infuscated. In the minor worker, the posterior portion of the head and often

also the thoracic dorsum are brown. The female is colored like the worker

major, with the mesonotum and scutellum dark brown and subopaque and the

bands on the gaster darker and broader than in the female festinatus. Tarsi,

antennal scapes and funiculi brown. I have not seen the male.

Described from numerous specimens collected by myself in southwest-

ern Texas (Toronto and Paisano Pass, in Brewster County, and at Fort

Davis) and a female and worker taken by Oslar in the Huachuca Mts.,

Arizona. There can be little doubt that in the dry regions of Mexico,

western Texas and southern Arizona, both this variety and fragilis will

be found to be connected with festinatus by numerous transitional forms.

17. C. vafer sp. nov.

Worker major. Length, 12-14 mm.; head, 3.5 x 3 mm.; scape, 2.8 mm.;

hind tibia, 3.2 mm.

With the stature of vicinus. Head resembling that of vicinus in shape

Mandibles 5- to 6-toothed. Eyes rather convex. Clypeus keeled, its anterior

border distinctly notched in the middle, with a short, rounded lobe on each

316 ANNALS NEW YORK ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

side, separated by a rather deep notch or sinuosity from the lateral corner of

the sclerite. Antennal scapes slender at the base, neither flattened nor dilated,

enlarged towards the tip. Thorax long and slender, low in profile and regu-

larly arched above; epinotum sloping, its base nearly twice as long as the

declivity. Petiole rather high and narrow, with feebly convex anterior and

posterior surfaces and blunt border. Legs long; middle and hind tibiz some-

what flattened, triangular in cross-section, grooved on their anterior surfaces.

Shining throughout, head more opaque behind; mandibles coarsely striato-

punctate; head densely shagreened and covered with sparse punctures or

foveole, which are large and elongate on the cheeks, clypeus and front, small

and round on the sides. Thorax and gaster very finely and superficially

shagreened. ina”.

Pilosity yellow, resembling that of vicinus but more abundant; mandibles,

clypeus, cheeks and sides of head with short, erect hairs; antennal scapes

with numerous short, stiff hairs arising from coarse punctures; hairs on the

clypeal border short and inconspicuous. Legs with very short, scattered and

oblique hairs; flexor surfaces of middle and hind tibie without rows of

bristles. Pubescence very feebly developed, especially on the thorax and

gaster, where it is very short and scattered, somewhat longer and more con-

spicuous on the posterior portion of the head.

Mandibles and head dark reddish brown or black, clypeus and front usually

paler. Antennal scapes dark brown, yellow at the extreme base; funiculi

yellow, first joint brown. Thorax clay yellow, sometimes brownish on the

pro- and mesonotum. Petiole and legs yellow, tarsi and tibiz sometimes

brownish or reddish. Gaster dark brown, posterior borders of segments and

base of first segment clay-yellow.

Worker minor. Length, 8-10 mm.

Head much as in vicinus, longer than broad, with parallel sides and rounded

posterior border. Clypeus like that of the worker major. Antenne long and

slender. Thorax narrow. Petiole very blunt, almost conical. Legs long and

slender.

In sculpture and pilosity very similar to the worker major, even to the

foveole on the head and the short, erect hairs on the antennal scapes and

sides and front of head. Color also similar, but the head is pale brown, the

clypeus, cheeks and front yellow and the yellow at the base of the gaster is

more extensive, sometimes embracing the whole of the first and much of the

second segment.

Female. Length, 14 mm.

Resembling the worker major in sculpture, pilosity and color. Base of

epinotum much longer in proportion to the declivity than in vicinus. Petiole

broader, with more acute border. Wings long (13 mm.), strongly suffused

with yellow; veins and stigma brownish yellow.

Described from numerous workers taken by Mr. C. R. Biederman

from two large colonies nesting under stones at Palmerlee, Arizona,

(5000 and 6000 ft.) and a single female taken by Dr. H. Skinner in the

Huachuca Mts. of the same territory.°

5] have taken this species in Hunter’s Canyon in the same mountains.

WHEELER, NORTH AMERICAN ANTS alt

This species is evidently rather closely related to both C. festinatus and

C. ocreatus, but is readily distinguished from the former by its greater

size, the shape of the clypeus, the coloration, the stiffer hairs on the scape

and coarser foveolation of the head, from the latter by the shape of the

clypeus, foveolation of the head, coloration of the legs and the presence

of erect hairs on the antennal scapes.

18. C. acutirostris sp. nov.

Worker major. Length, 12-13 mm.; head, 3.5 x 3.3 mm.; scape, 3 mm.; hind

tibia 3.9 mm.

With the stature of vicinus, but with’ a proportionally smaller head, which

has rounded. convex cheeks and posterior corners and broadly excised pos-

terior border. Eyes feebly convex, rather large. Mandibles 6-toothed. Cly-

peus carinate, produced in front as a pointed angle, which is slightly turnet

up at the tip. Just behind this tip the carina is interrupted for a short dis-

tance by a feeble transverse impression. The anterolateral border of the cly-

peus is deeply sinuate on each side. Frontal area and groove distinct; frontal

carinze feebly lyrate and more approximate than in vicinus and vafer. An-

tennal scapes slender and terete at the base, neither flattened nor dilated,

slightly enlarged at their distal ends. Thorax narrower than the head and

shaped much as in vicinus, but the epinotum is more like that of vafer, having

its basal surface about twice as long as the declivity. Petiole high and rather

narrow, with both anterior and posterior surfaces convex, the former more

than the latter; border sharp, feebly emarginate in the middle above. Gaster

of the usual shape. Legs long; middle and hind tibiz sulcate on their anterior

surfaces and rather triangular in cross section.

Head subopaque, densely shagreened ; mandibles, cheeks, gula, sides, frontal

area and anterior half of front rather smooth, shining. Mandibles finely and

densely striate and coarsely punctate. Cheeks with numerous elongate

foveole; clypeus, front and vertex with large, more scattered and rounded

foveole. The punctures on the sides of the head very small and scattered.

Thorax subopaque and shagreened like the head; petiole and gaster more

finely shagreened, shining.

Hairs yellow, erect, rather short and sparse on the upper surface of the

head, thorax and gaster and border of petiole, more numerous on the gula.

Marginal hairs of clypeus rather long and prominent. Cheeks with a few

short, erect hairs. Femora with a row of long, sparse hairs on their flexor

surfaces; tibize without hairs on their extensor surfaces, but with a row of

stiff graduated bristles along the whole length of their flexor surface. Pubes-

cence very short and dilute, discernible only with difficulty except on the

scapes.

Head black; mandibles, clypeus and frontal area deep red; antennal scapes

black, with yellow or red bases and tips; funiculi brown or yellow. Thorax

and legs yellowish brown; pronotum and, to a less extent, the mesonotum

sometimes blackish or dark brown; tibiz and tarsi light brown. Gaster

brown, with yellow posterior borders to the segments: venter and base or

whole of first segment yellow.

S18 ANNALS NEW YORK ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

Worker minor. Length, 7.5-9 mm.

Head longer than broad, with straight parallel sides, postocular portion pro-

longed and rounded, but distinctly narrowed at the occiput. Clypeus like that

of the worker major, but the point in the middle of the anterior margin is

more obtuse and less projecting. Antenne very slender. Thorax through the

pronotum about as broad as the head. Epinotum low, with its base twice as

long as the declivity into which it passes without a perceptible angle. Petiole

thick and rather conical, with blunt, entire Jateral and dorsal border.

Sculpture and pilosity much as in the worker major. Cheeks with a few

seattered, erect hairs.

Dull yellow; mandibles and cheeks brown; sides and posterior portions of

head darker; dorsal surface of gaster, with the exception of the posterior

edges of the segments, light brown. Antennal scapes and tarsi brownish.

Female. Wength, 18 mm.

Resembling the worker major in sculpture, pilosity and color. Head nar-

rower, with straighter, more nearly parallel sides. Epinotum with convex,

rounded base, nearly as long as the declivity. Petiole broad and thick, com-

pressed antero-posteriorly near the margin, which is sharp. Thorax smooth

and shining, epinotum opaque and shagreened; scutellum, metanotum and

pronotum, except for a large anteromedian blotch, dark brown or black.

Wings long (15 mm.), scarcely tinged with yellow near the costal margin;

veins brown, stigma blackish.

Male. Length, 10 mm.

Head very small, longer than broad, occipital border straight, not broader

than the anterior border and equal to the surface on each side between the

posterior orbit and the corresponding end of the occipital border. This surface

is not convex, but flat. Cheeks subparallel, straight, not concave. Clypeus

with broadly rounded border and refiected edge. Mandibles indistinctly biden-

tate. Thorax through the insertions of the wings nearly twice as broad as

the head, narrowed behind, with the epinotum as long as broad, rounded and

sloping in profile, without distinct basal and declivous surfaces. Petiole very

low, thick and blunt, as long as high. Gaster, antennze and legs long and

slender.

Mandibles and head subopaque, very finely shagreened; clypeus, cheeks and

front with a few coarse punctures. Thorax shagreened like the head, sub-

opaque in front; scutellum, epinotum and gaster smooth, shining, more finely

and superficially shagreened.

Hairs pale, short, erect and sparse, most abundant on the gaster, absent on

the scapes and tibis, present in a single row on the flexor surfaces of the

femora.

Black; mandibles, distal portion of antennal scapes, genitalia and tarsi

brown; articulations of thorax, gaster and legs whitish. Wings whitish hya-

line, with pale yellow veins and brownish stigma.

Described from numerous workers, one female and one male taken

from a single colony living in the ground under a stone at Alamogordo

in the foot-hills of the Sacramento Mts. of New Mexico (G. von Kroc-

WHEELER, NORTH AMERICAN ANTS — 319

kow), and several workers from Box Canyon in the same territory (A. G.

Ruthven).

This species is readily distinguished from all our other Camponoti by

the peculiar shape of the clypeus in the worker and female phases. Its

other characters are, however, so much like those of the preceding forms,

notably C. ocreatus and vafer, that it must be included in the maculatus

group. The resemblance to ocreatus is even closer in the following sub-

species.

19. C. acutirostris primipilaris subsp. nov.

Worker major. WLength, 15 mm.

Differing from the worker major of the typical form in its large size, in

lacking the deep, elongated foveole and erect hairs on the cheeks and in

coloration. The whole head, including. the scapes and first funicular joint of

the antenne, the tips of the femora, the whole of the tibix, the dorsal por-

tions of the pro- and mesonotum, black.

Worker minor. Length, 10-11 mm.

Resembling the worker major in sculpture, pilosity and coloration, but

without black on the dorsum of the pro- and mesonotum.

Female. Length, 16-17 mm.

Like the worker major. Pro- and mesonotum, scutellum and metanotum

black; pleurz, epinotum, coxee, petiole and femora brown; gaster black, first

and also the second segment, except its posterior border, yellowish brown.

Petiole with the upper border more or less excised in the middle. Wings dis-

tinctly suffused with yellow; veins and stigma brown.

Described from a single worker major taken by C. R. Biederman at

Palmerlee, Arizona, 5500 ft.) ; six minor workers and a media taken by

W. M. Mann in Ramsey Canyon, Huachuca Mts., Arizona, and three

females taken by Dr. H. Skinner at Nogales in the same territory.®

This subspecies in the coloration of the antenne and legs closely re-

sembles ocreatus, but it is readily distinguished by its larger size and by

its clypeal border which is angular and pointed like that of the typical

acutirostris.

20. C. socius Roger

Roger, Berlin Ent. Zeitschr., VII, p. 140, &, 1868; Foren, Bull. Soc. Vaud.

Sci. Nat., (2) XVI, p. 74, 3, 1879; Mayr, Verh. zool. bot. Ges. Wien, XXXVI,

p. 422, 9, 1886; Datta Torre, Catalog. Hymen., VII, p. 253, 1893; Emery, Zool.

Jahrb. Abth. f. Syst., VII, p. 670, 1893.

Worker major. Length, 11-18 mm.; head, 3.3 x 3.2 mm.; scape, 3.5 mm.;

hind tibia, 3.5 mm.

6 Since the above was written, I have found this subspecies very abundant in various

canyons of the Huachuca Mts. It nests under stones at altitudes of between 5000 and

6000 ft.

320 ANNALS NEW YORK ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

Head but little longer than broad, broader behind than in front, with

slightly excised posterior border and slightly convex cheeks, convex dorsal and

flattened gular surface. Eyes moderately large, feebly convex. Mandibles 6-

toothed. Clypeus rather indistinctly carinate, its anterior border produced as

a broad lobe, rounded on the sides and sinuately excised in the middle.

Frontal carinz lyrate. Antennal scapes flatten d but not dilated at the base,

thickened towards the tips, which reach well beyond the posterior corners of

the head. Thorax rather robust, in front narrower than the head, laterally

compressed behind ; in profile with evenly arched dorsum. Epinotum rounded,

its base fully twice as long as the sloping declivity. Petiole rather high and

narrow, with strongly convex anterior, more feebly convex posterior surface

and blunt, rounded margin. Gaster of the usual shape. Legs long, middle

and hind tibize distinctly flattened.

Mandibles shining, striatopunctate near the teeth, but elsewhere with scat-

tered punctures. Body, femora and antennze opaque, very minutely and

densely punctate, tibiz somewhat shining. Clypeus and sides of head with

small, scattered punctures.

Hairs and pubescence yellow, the former moderately abundant but short,

present on the postero-lateral portions of the head but not on the cheeks; on

the legs short, scattered and oblique, except on the flexor surfaces of the

femora, where there is a row of long erect hairs. Middle and hind tibize with

a row of rather short, graduated bristles extending nearly their entire length.

Scapes without erect hairs. Pubescence short and sparse, distinct only on the

dorsum of the gaster.

Ferruginous red; mandibles and scapes darker; anterior border of clypeus

and cheeks black. Gaster black, with golden yellow posterior border to each

segment, a broad transverse golden band on the first, and another at the base

of the second segment.

Worker minor. WUength, 7.5-10.5 mm.

Head longer than broad, slightly broader in front than behind, with rounded

postocular portion and feebly convex sides. Clypeus more distinctly carinate

than in the worker major, broadly rounded in front, with a very faint median

notch. Antennal scapes very slightly flattened at their bases. Thorax similar

to that of the worker major, but base of epinotum fully three times as long as

the declivity. Petiole longer than broad, but higher than long, thick and sub-

conical, with blunt border.

Sculpture, pilosity and color as in the worker major, but mandibles not

darker than the remainder of the head, clypeus somewhat yellowish and

antennal scapes red like the funiculi.

Female. WLength, 15-16 mm.

Pale ferruginous, antennal funiculi, gaster and legs more or less yellowish

red, mandibles reddish brown, scutellum, especially near its edges, and the

tarsi brown, posterior border of gastric segment and anterior portion of same,

excepting the first segment, dark brown. Pilosity as in the worker, but

sparser. Head as in the major worker very finely and densely punctate,

partly finely Shagreened, and in addition, especially on the clypeus and cheeks,

with scattered punctures. Mandibles nearly smooth, With seattered punctures.

WHEELER, NORTH AMERICAN ANTS BT

6-toothed. Clypeus not carinate, its anterior border produced as in the

worker major and with rounded corners mesial to the excisions. Thorax

finely reticulate-rugulose, above moderately shining. Petiole moderately thick,

with rounded upper border. Gaster very finely transversely rugulose.

Male. Length, 9 mm.

Head longer than broad; rounded behind; cheeks subparallel, concave, as

long as the eyes. Clypeus convex, scarcely carinate, with rounded anterior

border. Mandibles edentate. Eyes rather small. Antenne slender, scapes not

flattened at the base, first funicular joint very feebly incrassated, as long as

the second. Thorax robust, epinotum rounded, sloping, with subequal base

and declivity. Petiole low and thick, upper border sharp, distinctly excised

in the middle. Gaster small; legs and antennze long and slender.

Surface of body shining; head and thorax more coarsely, gaster much more

finely and superficially shagreened. Mandibles subopaque, finely punctate.

Pilosity similar to that of the worker, but erect hairs absent on thorax, on

legs much shorter and appressed.

Chestnut brown; anterior portion of head, antennz, legs, articulations of

thorax and edges of gastric segments yellowish brown. Wings faintly suffused

with yellow; veins and stigma pale yellow.

This species, originally described from Brazil, enters the United States

only in southern Florida. The description is drawn from several workers

and two males, some of which were taken by the late Rev. Jerome Schmitt

at Sanford, while others are labeled simply Florida and belong to the

American Museum of Natural History. Forel redescribed the worker

from specimens taken at Green Cove Spring by Mrs. Mary Treat. Both

Mayr and Emery saw specimens from Florida. The description of the

female is translated from Mayr.

21. C. castaneus Latrelle

Formica castanea LATREILLE, Hist. Nat. Fourm., p. 118, Pl. III, Figs. 11, 12

AG Ce ands Deo Oa. 1802:

Formica mellea Say, Bost. Journ. Nat. Hist., I, 3, p. 286, ¢, 1836; LeconTE,

Writings of Thos. Say, II, p. 731, ¢@, 1859.

Camponotus melleus Mayr, Sitzb. Akad. Wiss. Wien, LIII, p. 485, 3 @ 4,

1866 ; FoREL, Bull. Soc. Vaud. Sci. Nat., XVI, P. 81, p. 60, 3 @ 4, 1879.

C. castaneus Mayr, Verh. zool. bot. Ges. Wien, XXXVI, p. 420, %3 9 4, 1886;

Foret, Ann. Soc. Ent. Belg., XXX, p. 141, 1886; Datta Torre, Catalog. Hymen.,

VII, p. 224, 1893; Emery,. Zool. Jahrb. Abth. f. Syst., VII, p. 673, 1893;

WHEELER, Bull. Amer. Mus. Nat. Hist., X XI, p. 402, 1905; Occas. Papers Bost.

Soc. Nat. Hist., VII, 7, p. 22, 1906.

Worker major. Length, 9-10 mm.; head, 3.2 x 2.8 mm.; scape, 3 mm.; hind

tibia, 3.4 mm.

Head small, but little broader behind than in front, with rounded sides and

feebly excised posterior border. Eyes somewhat convex. Mandibles 6- to 7-

toothed. Clypeus convex in the middle, ecarinate or bluntly and indistinctly

322 ANNALS NEW YORK ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

earinate; its anterior border broadly rounded, not produced, sinuate at the

sides, with crenate edge. Frontal carine lyrate, rather far apart. Frontal

area indistinct, extremely small; frontal groove distinct. Antennal scapes

rather long, reaching about one-third their length beyond the posterior corners

of the head, their bases terete, neither flattened nor dilated, distal ends not

incrassated. Thorax slender, laterally compressed, moderately high, in profile

rather evenly arched above; epinotum with indistinct base and declivity, the

former about twice as long as the latter. Petiole thick, with strongly convex

anterior and flattened posterior surface and very blunt, rounded and entire

margin. Gaster of the usual form. Legs long; middle and hind tibize neither

compressed nor sulcate, elliptical in cross section.

Whole body shining, very finely and superficially shagreened, more coarsely

on the anterior portions of the head. Mandibles coarsely and uniformly punc-

tate. Cheeks with small, slightly elongated foveolze, or punctures; sides of

clypeus and front feebly punctate.

Hairs yellow, erect and sparse, very short on the mandibles, rather long on

the border of the clypeus, absent on the sides and corners of the head and on

the legs and scapes, except at the tips of the latter and of the femora. Middle

and hind tibize with a series of short bristles on the distal half of their flexor

surface. Pubescence very short, dilute and indistinct.

Yellow or yellowish red, head and gaster somewhat darker; mandibles,

antennal scapes, anterior border of clypeus and cheeks very dark red or

blackish ; tibia and tarsi also sometimes brown or dark red. Gastric segments

sometimes obscurely brownish posteriorly. Mandibular teeth black.

Worker minor. WLength, 7-8 mm.

Head somewhat less than twice as long as broad, sides subparallel, slightly

convex, postocular portion rounded, slightly contracted towards the occipital

border. Clypeus similar to that of the worker major, but more truncated in

front. Antenne long and slender, the scapes reaching nearly half their length

beyond the posterior corners of the head. Sculpture, pilosity and coloration

like that of the worker major.

Female. Gength, 18-15 mm.

Closely resembling the worker major, but the head has straighter and less

convex sides, the petiole is much compressed anteroposteriorly, with a rather

sharp border, which is distinctly notched in the middle above, and the color

of the whole body is often deeper and more brownish. Wings long (15 mm.),

strongly suffused with yellow; veins and stigma brownish yellow.

Male. Length, 8-9 mm.

Head longer than broad, but little broader behind than in front; cheeks con-

cave, subparallel, about as long as the eyes, which are moderately large. Cly-

peus convex, but not carinate, with broadly rounded anterior border. Mandi-

bles edentate, rather broad. Thorax robust, epinotum convex, without distinct

basal and declivous surfaces. Petiole low, thick, transverse and very blunt

above. Gaster, antennse and legs slender.

Sculpture, pilosity and color like those of the female, but hairs shorter and

less conspicuous, absent on the cheeks and thorax, except the epinotum, which

WHEELER, NORTH AMERICAN ANTS 323

bears a few erect hairs. Mandibles scarcely darker than the head; mesonotum

often streaked with brown. Wings colored like those of the female.

The types of this species, which is easily recognized by the red color of

all the phases, came from the Carolinas and Pennsylvania. I have seen

no specimens from British America or from any portion of the Union

west of the one hundredth meridian. Mayr’s citation of specimens of

this or the following subspecies from California, Colorado and New

Mexico is very questionable. The material before me represents the fol-

lowing localities :

North Carolina: Belmont (Jerome Schmitt) ; Raleigh (F. Sherman).

Maryland: Chestertown (H. Viereck); Georgetown, D. C. (E. G.

Titus).

Virginia: Ashland (J. F. McClendon).

Florida: (Amer. Mus. Nat. Hist.).

Louisiana: Mansfield (R. C. Howell).

New Jersey: Caldwell (E. T. Cresson) ; Sea Isle City (H. Viereck) ;

Fort Lee (W. Beutenmueller and Wheeler) ; Great Notch (Wheeler).

New York: West Farms (J. Angus).

Connecticut: Westville (W. E. Britton).

Massachusetts: Cambridge (Mus. Comp. Zool.).

Indiana: Bass Lake, Hammond and Mount Vernon (W. S. Blatchley).

Although thus widely distributed through the eastern half of the

Union, C. castaneus seems nowhere to be common except, perhaps, in the

South Atlantic states. It forms moderately populous colonies, which nest

in the ground under stones in open woods, in the same manner as the

species of the maculatus group. The workers are very timid and probably

nocturnal.

22. C. castaneus americanus Mayr

C. americanus Mayr, Verh. zool. bot. Ges. Wien, XII, p. 661, 3 9, 1862.

C. castaneus Mayr; Ibid., XXXVI, p. 420, 1886; Daria Torre, Catalog.

Hymen., VII, p. 223, 1893.

C. castaneus subsp. americanus Emery, Zool. Jahrb. Abth. f. Syst., VII, p.

674, 3 9 $, 1893; WHEELER, Bull. Amer. Mus. Nat. Hist., XXI, p. 402, 1905;

Occas. Papers Bost. Soc. Nat. Hist., VII, 7, p. 22, 1906.

This subspecies, as Mayr and Emery have observed, is highly variable in

color, and this is true of individuals of the same colony. The only features in

which it seems always to differ from the typical castaneus are the deeper and

more elongate foveolz on the cheeks of the major workers and the coloration

of the head, which is black or dark brown in all four phases, with the mandi-

bles, clypeus and cheeks more or less brown or reddish. The thorax, gaster,

legs and antennze of the worker major may be dirty or clay-yellow throughout,

but usually the dorsal surface of the thorax, especially of the mesonotum, and a

394. ANNALS NEW YORK ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

broad transverse band on each gastric segment are light or dark brown. Some

specimens have the thorax and gaster piceous, with the thoracic dorsum and

gastric bands black; or more rarely the body may be black, with the pronotum,

legs and petiole dark red or brown. In the female, the thorax is nearly always

black above, the gaster dark brown or with yellow base and pale borders to

the segments. The male usually has the thorax, gaster, petiole, legs, antennze

and anterior portions of the head brown or piceous, but specimens are occa-

sionally found with the thorax and gaster black. The wings of the female and

male are, as a rule, less suffused with yellow than in the typical castaneus.

O. americanus occurs over much the same territory as castaneus, but it

ranges further north and is much more common. I have seen specimens

from the following localities:

New Hampshire: Pelham (Bridwell).

Massachusetts: Weston, Newton and Middlesex Fells, Boston (A. P.

Morse) ; Essex County and Mt. Tom (G. B. King) ; Sutton (Bost. Soe.

Nat. Hist.) ; Andover (Morse and King) ; Medford (Dall) ; Blue Hills,

Arnold Arboretum, Boston and Ellisville (Wheeler).

New York: Montgomery; Staten Island (W. T. Davis).

Pennsylvania: Rockville (H. Viereck) ; Edge Hill (Greene).

New Jersey: Manumuskin, Iona and Da Costa (C. Daecke) ; James-

burg and Patterson (W. T. Davis) ; Halifax, Newfoundland and Lake-

hurst (Wheeler) ; Lacy; Fort Lee (W. Beutenmueller).

North Carolina: Black Mts. (W. Beutenmueller); Lake Toxaway

(Mrs. A. T. Slosson).

Georgia: Clayton, 2000-3000 ft. (W. T. Davis) ; Chickamauga.

Florida: Quincy (W. A. Hooker).

Indiana: Wyandotte and Mitchell (W. S. Blatchley)..

Illinois: Rockford (Wheeler).

Missouri: (Forel).

Indian Territory: Ardmore (C. R. Jones).

Oklahoma: Ponca City (A. C. Burrill).

Texas: College Station (F. C. Pratt); Palestine (F. C. Bishopp) ;

Calvert (C. R. Jones).

C. americanus is as variable in color as the typical castaneus is con-

stant. As these forms are distinguished merely by the coloring of the

head and the foveolation of the cheeks, americanus would properly be

merely a variety, but I have followed Emery in regarding it as a sub-

species, for the reason that I have been quite as unsuccessful as he has

been in finding transitions between the two forms.

WHEELER, NORTH AMERICAN ANTS 325

Il. Abdominalis Group

25. Camponotus floridanus Buckley

Formica floridana Bucktiry, Proc. Ent. Soc. Phila., VII, p. 161, 3, 1866.

Camponotus atriceps stirps Yankee Foret, Bull. Soc. Vaud. Sci. Nat., (2)

XX, p. 340, %, 1884.

C. atriceps var. floridanus Mayr, Verh. Zool. bot. ges. Wien, XXXVI, p. 423,

3 QO 36,1886.

C. floridanus DALLA TorrE, Catalog. Hymen., VII, p. 231, 18938.

C. abdominalis subsp. floridanus Emery, Zool. Jahrb. Abth. f. Syst., VII, p.

670, 1898.

Worker major. Length, 8-10 mm.; head, 3.5 x 3.4 mm.; scape, 2.7

hind tibia, 83 mm.

Head large, nearly as broad as long, broader behind than in front, with

broadly excised posterior and convex lateral margins. Eyes flattened. Man-

dibles 5- to 6-toothed. Antenne short, scapes flattened at the base but not

dilated, enlarged towards their tips, which do not extend beyond the posterior

corners of the head. Clypeus carinate, its border produced as a prominent lobe

with sharp corners, between which the median edge is angularly excised.

Frontal carine lyate, rather far apart; frontal area small, triangular; frontal

groove distinct. Thorax robust, narrower than the head in front, compressed

and more narrowed in the pleural region; in profile rather unevenly arched,

with deep pro-mesonotal suture, highest in the mesonotal region; epinotum de-

pressed, sloping, with indistinct and subequal base and declivity. Petiole in

profile cuneate, with similar, feebly convex anterior and posterior surfaces;

seen from behind, evenly rounded above, with rather blunt border. Legs

moderately long and robust; middle and hind tibis neither compressed nor

suleate, elliptical in cross section.

Mandibles opaque, very finely striated and sparsely punctate; teeth smooth

and shining. Head opaque, very densely and minutely punctate or shagreened.

Cheeks with small, scattered foveole; clypeus and lateral borders of front

with a few large piligerous foveole. Thorax, gaster and legs moderately shin-

ing, more superficially shagreened.

Hairs coarse, long, fulvous, erect, rather abundant, shorter on the anterior

surface of the antennal scapes and on the legs, absent on the cheeks and sides

of the head, very short on the mandibles and clypeal border. Pubescence very

short and dilute, distinct only on the gaster.

Head ferruginous red; mandibles, antennal scapes and anterior border of

cheeks and clypeus darker. Thorax and legs more yellowish red. Gaster

black, with the posterior edges of the segments narrowly yellow.

mm. ;

Worker minor. Length, 5.5-7 mm.

Head, excluding the mandibles, about twice as long as broad, with straight,

parallel sides and short evenly rounded postocular portion. Eyes rather large

and convex. Clypeus like that of the worker major. Antenne slender, scapes

not flattened at the base, reaching about half their length beyond the posterior

corners of the head. Thorax low, narrow and evenly arcuate above, epinotum

without distinct base and declivity. Petiole like that of the worker major.

396 ANNALS NEW YORK ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

Head more shining and sometimes of the same yellowish red color as the

thorax and legs. Antenne dark red throughout. Pilosity as in the worker

major.

Female. Length, 18-15 mm.

Head broad, much like that of the worker major. Dorsum of thorax and

gaster smoother and more shining. Petiole compressed anteroposteriorly, with

sharper border, somewhat notched in the middle above. Color and pilosity as

in the worker major, except that the erect hairs are shorter and somewhat

sparser, and that in some specimens (probably immature) the mesonotum has

three pale brown blotches. Wings long (14 mm.), grayish hyaline, suffused

with yellow only near the costal margin; veins and stigma yellowish brown.

Florida: Lake Worth (Jerome Schmitt); Miami and Key’ Largo

(Wheeler) ; Caloosahatchie River (Heil).

Georgia: St. Mary’s (O. Bangs).

This ant is not uncommon in southern Florida, nesting in old stumps

and logs. Like the other subspecies of abdominalis, which are widely

distributed over tropical America, it is very pugnacious. Occasionally it

is found nesting in epiphytes in the green-houses of the northern states.

I have before me a series of workers taken by Mr. G. yon Krockow from

a vigorous colony that had been living for some time in one of the hot-

houses of the New York Botanical Garden. The male, which I have not

seen, is described by Mayr as indistinguishable from that of the typical

abdominalis of Brazil, and it is probably very much like the male of the

subspecies transvectus described below.

24. C. abdominalis transvectus subsp. nov.

Worker major. Length, 8-9 mm.

Resembles floridanus, but differs in the smaller average size and in the fol-

lowing particulars: foveolz on the cheeks elongated and deeper; cheeks and

sides of head with erect hairs; vertex of head very dark brown or black; hairs

somewhat more abundant, especially on the antennal scapes; pubescence longer

and more conspicuous. Thorax, legs and gaster colored as in floridanus.

Worker minor. Length, 6-7 mm.

Differing from the worker minor of floridanus in the same characters as the

worker major.

Female. Length, 12 mm.

Resembling the worker major, but with the mesonotum and scutellum

blotched with black. Wings as in the female floridanus.

Male. Length, 7 mm.

Head through the eyes about as broad as long; cheeks converging somewhat

anteriorly, shorter than the eyes. Mandibles rather broad, bidentate. Thorax

robust, with rather steep epinotum, its base shorter than the declivity, which

is slightly concave. Petiole low and thick, transverse, with blunt margin.

Gaster small, legs and antenne slender.

WHEELER, NORTH AMERICAN ANTS Br)

Surface subopaque, very densely and finely shagreened, gaster shining.

Hairs pale yellow, abundant, shorter than in the minor worker. Cheeks

with a few erect hairs. Antennal scapes naked, legs with minute oblique hairs.

Dark brown; mandibles,’ clypeus, antennz and gaster black; pleurze and

legs light brown; genitalia, funiculi, tarsi and articulations of legs and thorax

yellowish. Wings dull hyaline, with pale yellow veins and stigma.

Described from ten workers, two females and a single male, taken by

Mr. J. D. Mitchell at Harlington, Cameron County, Texas, and a single

worker taken by the same collector at Brownsville, Texas.

I have described this form as a subspecies, although its exact status is

doubtful, owing to the extreme variability of the species, which is in

urgent need of revision. The same form, which I took some years ago at

Cuernavaca, was identified by Professor Forel as “C. abdominalis, new

subspecies between esuriens F. Smith and mediopallidus Forel.” I have

since received it also from Juanacatlan, Mexico (J. F. McClendon).

Other specimens from Tuxpan, sent by the same collector, have the head

of the major and minor worker yellowish red like the thorax and legs,

and numerous specimens collected at Esquinapa by Mr. J. H. Batty and

at Guadalajara by Mr. McClendon have paler heads and no hairs on the

sides of the head. These therefore represent a transition to floridanus.

All the Mexican specimens are larger than the Texan. As Texas is at

the extreme edge of the northern range of the species, we may suppose that

this smaller average stature of transvectus is a sign of depauperation.

Ill. Herculeanus Group

25. Camponotus levigatus F. Smith

Formica levigata F. SMitH, Catalog. Hymenop. Brit. Mus., VI, p. 55, No. 197,

8 9, 1858; Lorp, Natur. in Vancouver I. and Brit. Col., II, p. 341, 1866.

Camponotus levigatus Mayr, Verh. Zool. bot. Ges. Wien, XXXVI, p. 420,

% 9, 1886; Emery, Zool. Jahrb. Abth. f. Syst., VII, p. 671, 1893.

C: levigatus DALLA TorrE, Catalog. Hymen., VII, p. 238, 1893.

Worker major. Length, 10-13 mm.; head, 3.4 x 3.4 mm.; scape, 2.7

hind tibia, 3.2 mm.

Head as broad as long, somewhat broader behind than in front, with very

round, convex sides and posterior corners and scarcely excised posterior

border. Eyes small, flat. Mandibles convex, 5-toothed. Clypeus short, evenly

convex, without a carina, its anterior border not produced, with a shallow,

rounded median excision and a slightly deeper and more angular excision on

each side. Frontal area obsolete, frontal groove distinct. Antennze with short

scapes, not reaching beyond the posterior corners of the head, neither flattened

nor dilated at the base, distinctly enlarged at the tips. Thorax robust and

rather high, narrower than the head in front, laterally compressed behind,

mm. ;

328 ANNALS NEW YORK ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

evenly arched above in profile, epinotum with subequal base and declivity

meeting in a rounded, obtuse angle. Petiole high, compressed anteropos-

teriorly, with feebly convex anterior and flattened posterior surface; border

entire, evenly rounded and rather blunt. Gaster of the usual shape. Legs of

moderate length; middle and hind tibiz neither compressed nor sulcate, ellip-

tical in cross section.

Entire surface smooth and shining; mandibles coarsely striato-punctate.

Head, thorax, scapes and legs covered with scattered, rather small, but deep

punctures; intermingled with these on the cheeks, clypeus, front and vertex,

there are large but equally scattered punctures or foveol, those on the cheeks

being elongated. Gaster very finely, transversely shagreened and with scat-

tered, piligerous punctures. Pubescence apparently lacking.

Hairs white or pale yellow, delicate, abundant, short and erect on the body,

longest on the gaster. Antennal scapes and legs with numerous short, erect

hairs. Flexor surfaces of middle and hind tibiz with a few short bristles at

their distal ends.

Deep black throughout; mandibles, clypeal border and cheeks rarely deep

red; tarsi brownish towards their tips; posterior edges of the gastric segments

dull brown.

Worker minor. Length, 7-9 mm.

Head similar to that of the worker major, but little longer than broad, with

less convex sides, short and broadly rounded behind. Eyes feebly convex.

Clypeus subcarinate. Antennal scapes extending about one-third their length

beyond the posterior corners of the head. Epinotum and petiole like those of

the worker major, but basal surface of the former longer in proportion to the

length of the declivity.

Sculpture, pilosity and color as in the worker major.

Female. Length, 13-15 mm.

Very similar to the worker major. Sides of head less convex. Epinotum

with flattened base, shorter than the abrupt, concave declivity. Petiole even

more compressed anteroposteriorly than in the worker major, with sharper

border, narrowed and feebly excised above. Wings long (15 mm.), strongly

tinged with brown; veins and stigma brown.

Male. Length, 9-10 mm.

Head, including the eyes, about as broad as long, evenly rounded and broad-

est behind; cheeks subparallel, slightly concave, about as long as the eyes.

Mandibles edentate. Clypeus convex, but scarcely carinate, with broadly

rounded, entire anterior border. Ocelli very small. Antenne long and slender ;

first funicular joint incrassated distally, a little longer than the second.

Thorax robust; epinotum convex, sloping, without distinct basal and declivous

surfaces. Petiole thick, rather high, transverse, evenly rounded and blunt,

slightly impressed in the middle above. Gaster slender. Legs long, with long

tarsal claws and very large empodia.

Surface of body very finely and densely shagreened; mandibles, head, pro-

and mesonotum subopaque, remainder of thorax, gaster and legs shining.

Pilosity similar to that of the worker, but less abundant. absent on the

WHEELER, NORTH AMERICAN ANTS 329

scapes and thorax, with the exception of the epinotum. Pubescence very short

and dilute, but visible on the head, thorax and gaster.

Black; mandibles, antennal funiculi, tarsi and articulations of the legs

brown; wings colored like those of the female.

The types of this species, which is very constant and easily recognized

by its deep black color, smooth surface and peculiar pilosity, came from

California. I have examined specimens from the following localities:

California: Yosemite, Sierra Nevada, Sierra Valley, San Jacinto Mts.,

6000 ft. (F. Grinnel, Jr.) ; Baldy Peak, San Gabriel Mts. (Brewster,

Joos and Crawford) ; Blue Lake, Humboldt County; Felton, Santa Cruz

Mts. ; Alta Peak (9500-11,000 ft.), Giant Forest to Marble Fork, Sissons

(J. C. Bradley) ; McCloud and Castle Crag (A. Fenyes).

Washington: Seattle (T. Kincaid) ; Union City (J. C. Bradley).

Oregon: Corvallis (Amer. Mus. Nat. Hist.).

Montana: Weeksville (S. Henshaw).

Idaho: Moscow Mt. (W. M. Mann), Lewiston and Moscow (J. M.

Aldrich).

Colorado: Ute Pass and Cheyenne Canyon (Wheeler) ; South Boulder

Canyon and Sugar Loaf (T. D. A. Cockerell).

Utah: Beaver Canyon (C. Schaeffer).

_ New Mexico: Santa Fé (on Populus), Pecos and Glorieta (T. D. A.

Cockerell).

Arizona: (A. P. Morse).

Mexico: Gulf of California (A. Agassiz).

As shown by this list of localities, C. levigatus is a mountain ant

peculiar to the high ranges of the western states. It extends into

Mexico and also for a short distance into British America (Vancouver

Island, according to Lord). I believe that it will rarely be found below

an altitude of 6000 ft. I have seen it only at elevations of 7000-8000 ft.

in the mountains of Colorado. It forms large colonies which nest in dry

stumps or logs after the manner of C. herculeanus and its various sub-

species and varieties. In behavior it closely resembles the south European

C. vagus.

Emery mentions three female specimens from Descanso, Calif., which

seemed to represent a form allied to but distinct from /e@vigatus. These

resembled the females of the herculeanus group, but had 6-toothed

mandibles and an indistinctly carinate clypeus. The whole head was

opaque, densely punctate, with scattered piligerous, shallow foveole, and

the sides of the head bore short, stiff bristles. The tibizee had short,

oblique hairs; the color was like that of the C. ligniperda female. I

have not been able to find any specimens answering to this description

among my material.

330 ANNALS NEW YORK ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

26. C. herculeanus L,. var. whymperi Forel

Formica herculanea Lorp, Natur. in Vancouver I. and Brit. Col., II, p. 341, ~

1866.

? Formica semipunctata W. Kirspy, Fauna Bor. Amer., IV, p. 262, No. 362,

@, 1837.

? Camponotus semipunctatus Mayr, Verh. Zool. bot. Ges. Wien, XIII, p. 401,

1863.

C. herculeanus Foret, Bull. Soc. Vaud. Sci. Nat., (2) XVI, p. 57, 1879, 1881;

PROVANCHER, Natur. Canad., XII, 81, p. 354, No. 1, 3 9 ¢@, 1881; Faune Ent.

Canad. Hymén., p. 597, No. 1, 3 9 ¢, 1888; Addit. Faune Canad. Hymén., p.

231, No. 1, 1887; Datta Torre, Catalog. Hymen., VII, p. 233, 1893; Emery,

Zool. Jahrb. Abth. f. Syst., VII, p. 674, 1893.

C. herculeanus var. whymperi Foret, Trans. Ent. Soc. London, p. 699, 3 9,

1902; Bull. Soc. Ent. Belg., XLVIII, p. 152, 1904; Emery, Deutsch. Ent.

Zeitschr., p. 184, 3, 1908; WHEELER, Geol. Survey Mich., p. 328, 3, 1908.

Worker major. Length, 10-13 mm.; head, 3.5 x 3.5 mm.; scape, 2.7 mm.;

hind tibia, 3.3 mm.

Head as broad as long, broader behind than in front, with broadly excised

posterior border, rather convex sides and swollen cheeks. Eyes moderately

large, flat. Mandibles 5-toothed ; convex at the base, flattened or slightly con-

cave on their distal halves. Clypeus evenly convex, not carinate, its anterior

border scarcely produced, squarely truncated or feebly excised in the middle,

with a deeper excision on each side near the cheeks. Frontal area large, sub-

triangular; frontal groove distinct. Frontal carinz lyrate, rather far apart.

Antennal scapes rather short, not extending beyond the posterior corners of

the head, terete, neither dilated nor flattened at the base, incrassated distally.

Thorax robust, rather high, feebly and evenly arcuate above, narrower than

the head, laterally compressed behind; epinotum obtusely angular, with sub-

equal base and declivity, the former feebly convex, the latter feebly concave in

profile. Petiole high, compressed anteroposteriorly, with convex anterior and

nearly flat posterior surface, its border rounded, entire and rather sharp.

Gaster of the usual shape, legs moderately long and stout; middle and hind

femora neither compressed nor sulcate, elliptical in cross section.

Opaque; very densely and rather coarsely shagreened; mandibles, eyes,

anterior portion, sides, lower surface and posterior corners of head more shin-

ing. Mandibles coarsely striato-punctate. Whole head covered with sparse.

shallow punctures, which are larger, but not elongated, on the cheeks. Upper

surface of thorax and gaster with scattered piligerous foveolze, the latter also

with numerous small, often transverse punctures bearing the pubescence.

Hairs brownish yellow, coarse, short and erect, not very abundant; absent

on the cheeks and sides of head. Antennal scapes and legs covered with short

slanting or appressed hairs. Pubescence very short, dilute, scarcely visible on

the thorax, most distinct on the gaster but not concealing the sculpture.

Black; mandibles, anterior border of head, antennz, legs, petiole, posterior

portion of thorax and the base of the first gastric segment, deep red. Posterior

borders of gastric segments dark brown. In some specimens, the posterior por-

tions of the thorax, the mandibles, anterior portion of the head, the antennal

WHEELER, NORTH AMERICAN ANTS 331

scapes and femora are black. Middle and hind tibiz with only a few short

bristles at the distal ends of their flexor surfaces.

Worker minor. Length, 6-8 mm.

Head somewhat broader than long, but little broader behind than in front,

with feebly convex sides and nearly straight posterior border. Eyes slightly

convex, clypeus carinate. Antennal funiculus extending about one-third its

length beyond the posterior corners of the head. In other respects like the

worker major.

Female. Length, 13-16 mm.

Very much like the worker major. Head with somewhat straighter sides,

but broader behind than in front. HEyes larger and more convex. Thorax

through the wing-insertions scarcely broader than the head; epinotum with

convex base, impressed in the middle; declivity longer and distinctly concave.

Petiole more compressed than in the worker major, narrow and bien with

rounded, entire and more acute border.

Surface throughout more shining than in the worker, especially the thorax,

which is quite glabrous above; epinotum opaque, shagreened. Gaster very

finely transversely shagreened and covered with small punctures. Mesonotum

and gastric segments also with a few scattered piligerous foveole.

Pilosity like that of the worker, but sparser and shorter. Pubescence also

shorter and sparser, especially on the gaster.

Black; mandibles, legs, antennz and often also the epinotum, pleurz and

petiole tinged with red. Wings very long (in large specimens 18 mm.),

strongly tinged with brown; veins and stigma yellowish brown.

Male. Gength, 9-10 mm.

Head through the eyes about as broad as long; broadly rounded behind;

cheeks feebly convex, converging anteriorly, as long as the eyes. Ocelli very

small. Mandibles edentate. Clypeus convex in the middle, but scarcely cari-

nate, its anterior border broadly rounded and slightly sinuate in the middle.

Thorax robust; epinotum with flattened and subequal base and declivity meet-

ing to form a rounded obtuse angle. Petiole rather high, distinctly compressed

anteroposteriorly, with thin, rather acute border, which is deeply excised in

the middle above.

Opaque ; very finely shagreened ; gaster shining.

Hairs and pubescence shorter and sparser than in the worker, especially on

the head and thorax. Cheeks without hairs. Short hairs on the legs and

antennal scapes appressed and scarcely more than pubescence.

Black ; mandibles, antennsze and legs reddish. Wings paler than those of the

female; veins and stigma yellow.

Forel based this variety on specimens from Alberta. I have seen a

large number of individuals from the following localities :

Alberta: Field, Vermillion Pass and Lake Louise, cotypes (Whym-

per) ; Red Deer; Banff (J. C. Bradley).

Alaska: (Dall); Kasiloff Lake, Kenai Peninsula (Berlin Mus.) ;

Koyukuk (W. J. Peters).

332 ANNALS NEW YORK ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

British Columbia: Goldstream to Downie Creek, Selkirk Mts. (J. C.

Bradley) ; Golden (W. Wenman) ; Carbonate River, Moraine Lake, Val- |

ley of Ten Peaks, Hector and Emerald Lake (J. C. Bradley).

Saskatchewan: Methy Lake (Kennicott); Farewell (V. A. Arm-

strong).

Vancouver I.: (U. 8. Nat. Mus.).

Quebec: James Bay and Rupert House (Alanson Skinner) ; Saguenay

River (Engelhardt) ; Montmorency ; Amherst Island and Anticosti Island

(Samuel Henshaw).

Ontario: Moose Factory (Alanson Skinner); Rat Portage (J. C.

Bradley).

Labrador: (A. 8. Packard) ; Cape Charles.

New Brunswick: St. John (Mus. Comp. Zool.).

Newfoundland: East Coast; Cod Roy (L. P. Gratacap).

Nova Scotia: Digby (John Russell) ; Ship Harbor (Samuel Hen-

shaw).

Oregon: Umatilla (Samuel Henshaw).

Washington: Brinnon, Hoods Canal (J. C. Bradley); Wenass and

Spokane (Samuel Henshaw).

Idaho: Moscow (J. M. Aldrich).

Wyoming: Douglas; Laramie (U. S. Nat. Mus.) ; Carbonate (Wort-

mann).

Colorado: Pike’s Peak, 10,500 ft. (Wheeler) ; Pike’s Peak, half-way

house (T. D. A. Cockerell) ; Cripple Creek, 10,200 ft., Cascade; Floris-

sant, 8500 ft., and Williams Canyon, Manitou, 8000 ft. (Wheeler) ; El-

dora, 8600 ft., and Ward, 9000 ft. (T. D. A. Cockerell) ; Ft. Collins

(Ho G- Titus).

New Mexico: Clouderoft (H. Skinner) ; Beulah, 8000 ft., and Pecos

(T. D. A. Cockerell) ; Barela Mesa (Miss A. Gohrman) ; Manzanares

(Miss M. Cooper).

Michigan: Isle Royale and Porcupine Mts. (O. McCreary and C. C.

Adams) ; Marquette (M. Downing).

Wisconsin: White Fish Bay, near Milwaukee, in tamarack bog

(Wheeler).

Maine: Reeds Isle, Penobscot Bay (A. C. Burrill) ; South Harpswell

(Wheeler) ; Heald Pond, near Jackman (F. A. Jones).

Vermont: Jay Peak summit, 4018 ft.

New Hampshire: Mt. Washington, 3840 ft. (W. Reiff).

Pennsylvania: St. Vincent (Jerome Schmitt).

I have followed Forel and Emery in placing under the var. whymperi

all the American ants which were formerly regarded as belonging to the

WHEELER, NORTH AMERICAN ANTS 333

typical C. herculeanus of boreal and alpine Europe, but I must admit

that the differences which, according to Forel, separate the two forms are

very slight, not to say elusive. These differences are merely a somewhat

coarser sculpture and slightly longer and more abundant, oblique or sub-

erect hairs on the antennal scapes and tibiew in the American specimens.

After carefully comparing a couple of the cotypes of whymperi kindly

given me by Professor Forel with many specimens of C. herculeanus

collected by myself during two summers in the high Alps, I have some

doubts as to the validity of whymperi as a true variety. Moreover, the

specimens I have examined from Newfoundland and Isle Royale, Michi-

gan, have the hairs on the scapes and tibie neither longer nor more erect

than in European specimens and the differences in sculpture are to me

imperceptible. Forel states that the female of whymperi measures only

12-13.5 mm. and is therefore smaller than that of the typical herculeanus,

but I have before me a number of females from British America and the

Rocky Mts. which measure 15-16 mm. Emery states that the var.

whympert occurs also in Siberia and Mongolia and has therefore included

it in the palearctic fauna.

The list of localities given above shows that the true home of C. whym-

pert is British America, Alaska and high elevations in the Rocky Mts.

(8000 ft. and over) and White Mts. (3000 ft. and over). When it strays

to lower levels, it is found only in cold tamarack bogs (in Wisconsin),

coniferous forests (in Maine, Michigan, Oregon and Washington) or in

the cold woods of the Alleghanies (in Pennsylvania). It is therefore

quite as clearly a boreal or alpine form in America as is the typical

herculeanus in Europe. Its habits, too, are the same. It forms large

colonies nesting in logs and stumps, especially of conifers, and may be

regarded as the prototype of our various North American “carpenter

ants.”

27. C. herculeanus L. var. modoc nom. nov.

C. pennsylvanicus var. semipunctatus, Foret (nec Kirby), Bull. Soc. Nat.,

XVI, p. 57, 1881; Ann. Soc. Ent. Belg., XLVIII, p. 152, 1904.

Worker major and minor.

Differing from whymperi in sculpture, pilosity and color. The shagreening

of the head is coarser, so that it is even more opaque, especially on the sides

and posterior corners. The punctures of the gaster are larger and the whole

surface rougher and more opaque. Hairs and pubescence golden yellow, the

former much as in whymperi, except that they are shorter and more appressed

on the scapes and tibize. The pubescence is much longer and more conspicuous,

especially on the upper surface of the gaster, but decidedly shorter than in

pennsylvanicus. Head, thorax, petiole and gaster black; legs deep red. Coxe

dark brown; antennz varying from black to dark brown, the funiculus usually

334 ANNALS NEW YORK ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

somewhat paler than the scape. In the worker media and minor, the mandibles

may be tinged with red.

Female.

Closely resembling the worker major in sculpture, color and pilosity. The

thorax differs from that of the female whymperi in being opaque and densely

shagreened, except the scutellum and metanotum, which are smooth and shin-

ing. In some specimens, the mesonotum is subopaque, but not as smooth as in

whymperi.

Male.

Indistinguishable from the male of whymperi.

Described from numerous specimens from the following localities :

California: King’s River Canyon (H. Heath) ; Marin County, Fallen-

leaf Lake, Giant Forest and Alta Meadow Trail (J. C. Bradley) ; Sierra

Nevada (Amer. Mus. Nat. Hist.) ; Tahoe City (A. Fenyes).

Washington: Umatilla and Khkitat Valley (Samuel Henshaw) ; Pull-

man (C. V. Piper) ; Olympia and Seattle (T. Kincaid) ; San Juan Island

(W. M. Mann) ; Union City (J. C. Bradley).

Oregon: Corvallis (Amer. Mus. Nat. Hist.).

Nevada: (Amer. Mus. Nat. Hist.).

Idaho: (R. W. Doane) ; Moscow (J. M. Aldrich).

Colorado: Boulder Canyon (T. D. A. Cockerell).

New Mexico: Upper Ruidoso, 8500 ft. (C. H. T. Townsend) ; Har-

vey’s Ranch, Las Vegas Range, 9600 ft. (Miss Ruth Raynolds) ; same

range, 10,000 ft. (E. L. Hewitt) ; James Canyon, near Cloudcroft (A. G.

Ruthven).

Utah: Little Willow Canyon (R. V. Chamberlin).

South Dakota: Black Hills (Amer. Mus. of Nat. Hist.).

British Columbia: Alert Bay (H. I. Smith).

I would regard California as the type locality of this form, which

seems to be rather constant. The specimens from Utah and South Da-

kota have paler and somewhat longer pubescence and therefore form a

transition to pennsylvanicus. All of my specimens, however, show that

there is little difficulty in separating this form from whymperi. In the

northern and western portion of its range, it seems to descend to lower

levels than this form, but in the mountains of New Mexico it seems to

occur in the same stations.

I do not believe that this is the form described by Kirby as semi-

punctatus. Kirby’s description, which evidently refers to a female speci-

men, is quite worthless. That it refers either to whymperi or pennsyl-

vanicus seems to be proved by the locality. He says that the specimen

was “taken on a journey from New York to Cumberland House.” Now

WHEELER, NORTH AMERICAN ANTS 335

Cumberland House is in Keewatin, and in the region through which he

traveled to reach that point, he could only have happened on whymperv or

pennsylvanicus, and as most of his journey lay through British America,

it is more probable that he had a specimen of whympert. I believe there-

fore that Forel is mistaken both in attributing the western form of

herculeanus above described to semipunctatus and in placing it under

pennsylvanicus. It is clearly more nearly related to whymperi and the

typical herculeanus of Europe.

28. C. herculeanus pennsylvanicus De Geer

Formica Pennsylvanica DE GEER, Mém. Serv. Hist. Insect., III, p. 608, No. 4,

Pl. 31, Figs. 9-10, 3 9 ¢, 1773; GOzE, DE Geer, Abb. Gesch. Ins., III, p. 391,

No. 4, Pl. 31, Figs. 9-10, 3 9 @, 1780; Rerzius, Gen. et Spec. Insect., p. 75,

No. 332, 1783; Oxivier, Encycl. Method. Insect., VI, p. 501, No. 52, 1791;

LATREILLE, Hist. Nat. Fourmis, p. 99, Pl. 2, Fig. 3, 1802; LEPELETIER, Hist. Nat.

Ins. Hymen., I, p. 213, No. 14, 3 9, 1836; BucKteEy, Proc. Entom. Soe. Phila.,

VI, p. 155, & 9, 1866; ProvancHER, Natur. Canad., XII, p. 355, No. 2, 8 9,

1881; Faune Hnt. Canad. Hymén., p. 598, No. 2, 3 @ @, 1888; McCook, Trans.

Amer. Ent. Soc., V, p. 277-289, Pl. 2-4, 1876.

? Formica semipunctata W. Kirsy, Fauna Bor. Amer., IV, p. 262, No. 362,

@, 1837.

Formica carye Witcu, Trans. N. Y. State Agri. Soc, XIV, p. 151, 3 @ 4,

1854.

Camponotus pennsylwanicus Mayr, Verh. Zool. bot. Ges. Wien, XII, p. 666,

No. 24, 3 9, 1862; McCook, Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci. Phila., 1878, p. 15-19; Ann.

Mag. Nat. Hist., (5) XIII, p. 419, 1884; Lbid., p. 140, 1879; Ern. AnpRE, Spéc.

Hymen. Hurope, II, Pt. 13, p. 141, 1882; Lbid., Pt. 14, p. 153, No. 3, 3 9, 1882;

DaLia Torre, Catalog. Hymen., VII, p. 246, 1893.

C. herculeanus race pennsylvanicus Foret, Bull. Soc. Vaud. Sci. Nat., (2)

OVE, PE. Si, p. di, 1879:

C. herculeanus var. pennsylvanicus Mayr, Verh. Zool. bot. Ges. Wien,

XXXVI, p. 420, 1886.

C. herculeanus subsp. pennsylvanicus Emery, Zool. Jahrb. Abth. f. Syst.,

VII, p. 675, 1893; WHEELER, Bull. Amer. Mus. Nat. Hist., XXI, p. 402, 1905;,

Occas. Papers Bost. Soc. Nat. Hist., VII, 7, p. 23, 1906.

Worker major and minor.

Differing from the preceding forms of herculeanus in sculpture, pilosity and

color. The head and thorax are somewhat less coarsely shagreened and ap-

pear therefore more shining. This is especially true of the sides and posterior

corners of the head. The gaster is opaque and very coarsely shagreened, with

the punctures that bear the pubescence larger and more transversely elongated.

The hairs and pubescence are more abundant and longer than in whymperi

and modoce and of a pale yellow or white color. On the gaster, the pubescence

is extremely long and takes the form of dense, appressed hairs which conceal

the ground surface and give this region of the body an ashy tint and silky

luster. In what may be regarded as the typical form of the subspecies, the

336 ANNALS NEW YORK ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

body, including the posterior margins of the gastric segments is black through-

out, with only the antennal funiculi, tarsi and articulations of the legs dark.

brown or reddish. In many major workers, however, and especially in minor

workers, the mandibles, antennal scapes, legs, pleurze and petiole may vary

from very deep to pale red.

Female.

Resembling the worker major, but the whole thorax and gaster are more

shining, as in the female whymperi; hairs and pubescence shorter than in the

worker major, especially on the gaster, which has the pubescence only a little

longer and denser than in whymperi.

Male. :

Indistinguishable from the male of whymperi; black throughout, with only

the antennal funiculi and tarsi brown. Wings often as deeply tinged with

brown as in the female.

I have examined many specimens of this well-known ant from the fol-

lowing localities :

Pennsylvania: North Mts., Bartram’s Park, Philadelphia and Lehigh

Water Gap (C. Daecke).

New York: Saranac Lake, Big Moose, Oswego, Nassau, Cedar Hill

and Keene Valley (N. Y. State Coll.) ; Ithaca (Cornell Univ. Coll.) ;

Garrison-on-Hudson (T. D. A. Cockerell) ; Bronxville and Cold Spring

Harbor, L. I. (Wheeler) ; Bergen Beach (G. von Krockow) ; West Farms

(J. Angus) ; Staten Island (W. T. Davis) ; Turin (Lucy Armstrong).

New Jersey: Caldwell (E. T. Cresson) ; Riverton (H. Viereck) ; Med-

ford and Westville (Phila. Acad. Coll.) ; North Woodbury and Delair

(C. Daecke) ; Newfoundland (W. T. Davis); Halifax and Fort Lee

(Wheeler) .

Maine: Mt. Katahdin (Hamlin) ; Bethel (Mus. Comp. Zool.).

New Hampshire: Canobie Lake (G. B. King) ; Exeter (Mus. Comp.

Zool.).

Vermont: Jay Peak (A. P. Morse).

Massachusetts: Sherborn, Natick, Winchendon, Palmer, Needham,

Wellesley and West Roxbury (A. P. Morse) ; Worcester, Haverhill, Cam-

bridge and Brookline (Mus. Comp. Zool.); Boston and Blue Hills

(Wheeler) ; Springfield and Essex County (G. B. King) ; Milton (Bost.

Soc. Nat. Hist.) ; Warwick (Miss Edmunds); Woods Hole (Miss A.

Fielde). :

Connecticut: Woodmont (Butrick) ; New Haven and Branford (W. E.

Britton) ; Colebrook (Wheeler).

Maryland: Chestertown and Pomona (H. Viereck) ; Washington, D. C.

(W. V. Warner).

Virginia: Ashland (J. F. McClendon).

WHEELER, NORTH AMERICAN ANTS 337

North Carolina: Black Mts. (W. Beutenmueller) ; Lake Toxaway

(Mrs. A. T. Slosson).

Georgia: Clayton, 2000-2700 ft. (W. T. Davis).

North Dakota: Ellison (Miller).

South Dakota: Medicine Root, Pine Ridge Ind. Res. (Thompson).

Wisconsin: Milwaukee (Wheeler).

Michigan: Battle Creek.

Illinois: Urbana (Pricer) ; Mossville (F. Blake) ; Algonquin (W. A.

Nason) ; Rockford (Wheeler).

Indiana: Arlington and De Long (W. 8. Blatchley).

Tennessee: Springdale (C. C. Adams).

Missouri: St. Louis (C. F. Baker).

Kansas: Ottawa (E. G. Titus).

Arkansas: Fort Smith (A. W. Morrill).

Oklahoma: Ponca City (A. C. Burrill).

Texas: Austin (Wheeler) ; Meridian and Beaumont (W. H. Long) ;

Brownwood (J.C. Crawford) ; Joaquin, Longview and Lovelady (W. W.

Yothers and HK. S. Tucker) ; Victoria (J. D. Mitchell) ; Calvert (C. R.

Jones); Dallas (W. D. Hunter and F. C. Pratt); Palestine (F. C.

Bishopp).

Louisiana: Logansport (W. D. Pierce) ; Shreveport and East Point

(F. C. Bishopp) ; Baton Rouge (W. Newell) ; Mansfield (W. D. Hun-

ter) ; Orange (R. C. Howell) ; Natoches (Cushman and Pierce).

Ontario: Toronto (R. J. Crew).

Quebec: Montreal (T. D. A. Cockerell).

Worker specimens from St. Louis, Missouri, and from some of the

Texas localities, notably from the vicinity of Austin, have a pceuliar

brown tinge to the body, and the legs and antenne are much paler than

in the typical form of the subspecies, but I have not deemed it advisable

to separate them as an independent variety.

From the foregoing list of localities, which might be very easily in-

creased, it will be seen that C. pennsylvanicus ranges over southern

Canada and the states as far west as Victoria, Texas, and the Pine Ridge

Indian Reservation in South Dakota. Unlike whymperi and modoc it is

a lowland form. It is far and away the most abundant Camponotus in

the North Atlantic states and Middle West, showing a range of adapta-

bility to differences in temperature and humidity second only to that of

Lasius americanus and Formica subserica. On this account, it is the

only one of our Camponoti that has attracted general attention. It is

commonly found nesting in old logs and stumps or in the dead wood of

standing trees, but occasionally it nests in old houses. In such places it

338 ANNALS NEW YORK ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

may do considerable damage by tunneling in beams and rafters and may

become a domestic nuisance by visiting the sweet food-stuffs in kitchens

and pantries. Its habits were first studied by McCook. Recently Pricer

and Miss Edith Buckingham have made many interesting observations

on its polymorphism and behavior.

29. C. herculeanus pennsylvanicus var. mahican nom. nov.

C. herculeano-pennsylwanicus Foret, Bull. Soc. Vaud. Sci. Nat., XVI, P. 81,

p. 57, &, 1879:

C. herculeanus var. herculeano-pennsylvanicus EMrery, Mem. R. Acad. Sci.

Ist. Bologna, p. 770, 1896.

Worker major and minor.

Differing from the typical pennsylvanicus only in pilosity and color. The

hairs and pubescence are pale yellow as in pennsylvanicus, but the pubescence

on the gaster is shorter and sparser, though longer than in modoc. The legs

and petiole are red and the thorax is more or less tinged with the same color,

at least on the pleure. Posterior borders of gastric segments dull yellow. On

the whole, this variety seems to be intermediate between whymperi and peni-

sylvanicus.

Described from a number of workers taken in the following localities:

Massachusetts: Cambridge (Mus. Comp. Zool.); Woods Hole

(Wheeler).

New Jersey: Englewood (Wheeler).

Forel mentions this form also from the Alleghanies, New York, Illi-

nois and South Carolina.

I have attached this variety to pennsylvanicus, because it shows a

greater affinity to this form than to the true herculeanus, and I have

ventured to give it a new name, because the one by which it has been

known is not properly a varietal name and is very unwieldy. Whether

this form is worthy of recognition as an independent variety cannot be

decided without more material than I have been able to examine.

50, C. herculeanus pennsylvanicus var. ferrugineus Fabr.

Formica ferruginea Fasrictus, Suppl. Entom. Syst., p. 279, No. 11-12, 8 9,

1798; LATREILLE, Hist. Nat. Fourm., p. 94, 1802; Fasricrus, Syst. Piez., p. 399,

No. 14, 1804; F. Smiru, Catalog. Hymen. Brit. Mus., VI, p. 53, No. 187, 1858.

Camponotus ferrugineus Mayr, Verh. Zool. bot. Ges. Wien, XIII, p. 399, 1863.

C. pennsylwanicus var. ferrugineus Foret, Bull. Soc. Vaud. Sci. Nat., (2)

XVI, P. 81, p. 56, 1879; Emery, Zool. Jahrb. Abth. f. Syst., VII, p. 668, 1893;

DALLA ToRRE, Catalog. Hymen., VII, p. 247, 1898; WHEELER, Bull. Amer. Mus.

Nat. Hist., X XI, p. 402, 1905; Occas. Papers Bost. Soc. Nat. Hist., VII, 7, p. 23,

1906.

WHEELER, NORTH AMERICAN ANTS 339

Worker major and minor.

Closely resembling the typical pennsylvanicus in sculpture and in the length

and abundance of the hairs and pubescence, but differing in color. The hairs

and pubescence are bright golden yellow instead of pale yellow or white.

Thorax, petiole, coxz, femora and base of first gastric segment yellowish fer-

ruginous; pronotum and often also the mesonotum black. Antennal scapes

black, with yellow tips and insertions; funiculi, mandibles, anterior border of

head, tibize and tarsi deep red; posterior margins of gastric segments yellow.

Female.

Resembling the worker. Pronotum, mesonotum, except its anterior portion,

seutellum and metanotum black. Remainder of thorax, base and sometimes

the whole of the first and the base of the second segment yellowish red. Wings

rich yellowish brown with resin-yellow veins and stigma. Hairs and pubes-

cence golden yellow, shorter than in the worker, especially on the gaster.

Male.

Differing from the male of pennsylvanicus in having the whole of the

antennee and legs, and sometimes also the metasterna, coxse and ventral por-

tion of the petiole, red or brown. Edges of gastric segments dull yellow. The

whole body is densely and coarsely shagreened and the gaster is somewhat

more opaque than in pennsylvanicus.

Described from numerous specimens taken in the following localities :

Massachusetts: Sherborn (A. P. Morse); Medford (Mus. Comp.

Zool.) ; Boston (Wheeler).

Connecticut: New Haven (Moore and Viereck); Orange and New

Canaan (W. E. Britton).

New York: West Farms (J. Angus); Mosholu and Bronxville

(Wheeler) ; Forest Park (G. v. Krockow) ; Staten Island (W. T. Davis).

New Jersey: Delair(C. Daecke) ; Camden and Boonton (H.Viereck) ;

Westville (Phila. Acad. Sci.) ; Fort Lee and Great Notch (Wheeler) ;

Ocean County.

Maryland: Pomona (H. Viereck).

Pennsylvania: Lawndale.

Indiana: Mitchell (W. S. Blatchley).

Illinois: Rockford (Wheeler) ; Mossville (F. Blake) ; Urbana (Pricer).

This variety has a much more limited range than pennsylvanicus, since

it does not extend as far south or north, and seems to be confined to

rather low, warm woodlands. It varies so little that it might be regarded

as a subspecies. I have been unable to find any specimens that would

represent transitions between ferrugineus and any of the other forms of

herculeanus. In certain respects it resembles the Japanese subspecies

obscuripes Mayr, but this form has much darker legs and in sculpture

and pilosity is much like ligniperda.

340 ANNALS NEW YORK ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

31. C. herculeanus ligniperda Latreille var. noveboracensis Fitch

Formica noveboracensis Firtcu, Trans. N. Y. State Agri. Soc., XIV, p. 52, 3,

1854.

Camponotus herculeanus race ligniperdus var. pictus ForEL, Bull. Soc. Vaud.

Sci. Nat., (2) XVI, P. 81, p. 59, 3 9 @, 1879; Ann. Soc. Ent. Belg., XXX; p:

141, & 9, 1886.

C. herculeanus subsp. ligniperdus var. pictus EMrry, Zool. Jahrb. Abth. f.

Syst., VII, p. 674, 1893; WHEELER, Bull. Amer. Mus. Nat. Hist., XXI, p. 402,

1905.

C. ligniperda var. pictus DALLA Torre, Catalog. Hymen., VII, p. 240, 1893.

C. herculeanus race ligniperdus var. noveboracensis Foret, Ann. Soc. Ent.

Belg., XLIII, p. 447, 1899. ;

C. herculeanus ligniperdus var. noveboracensis WHEELER, Occas. Papers Bost.

Soc. Nat. Hist., VII, 7, p. 28, 1907.

Worker major and minor.

Sculpture finer and more superficial than in whymperi and pennsylvanicus,

so that the whole surface of the body and especially the gaster is smoother

and more shining. Hairs and pubescence pale yellow or white, sparse and

short; the pubescence on the gaster being nearly as short as in whymperi and

decidedly more dilate; the minute hairs on the scapes and legs more appressed.

Head, antennze and gaster black; thorax, petiole and legs red, the tibiwe and

tarsi often somewhat darker. Posterior edges of gastric segments yellowish.

In the worker media and minima, the mandibles and sometimes also the

clypeus are red.

Female.

Resembling the worker major, but the thorax and gaster very smooth and

shining; the latter with shorter hairs and very short and dilute pubescence.

Dorsal portion of pronotum, scutellum, metanotum and three more or less dis-

tinct longitudinal bands on the mesonotum, black. In some specimens, the

whole mesonotum and dorsal portion of the epinotum are black. Extreme base

of first gastric segment often red or yellow. In other respects, the color is like

that of the worker. Wings strongly tinged with yellowish brown; veins and

stigma yellow.

Male.

Indistinguishable from the male of pennsylvanicus. Wings somewhat paler

than in the female.

Of this variety I have examined specimens from the following locali-

ties :

Nova Scotia: Digby (J. Russell) ; Bedford (W. Reiff).

Maine: West Beach (Mus. Comp. Zool.) ; South Harpswell (Wheeler).

New Hampshire: Mt. Washington, summit (Mrs. A. T. Slosson and

C. S. Bacon) ; White Mts. (W. F. Fiske) ; Canobie Lake (G. B. King) ;

Exeter (Mus. Comp. Zool.); Pelham (Bridwell); Hanover (C. M.

Weed) ; Durham.

WHEELER, NORTH AMERICAN ANTS 341

Vermont: Jay Peak (A. P. Morse).

Massachusetts: Winchendon, Wellesley, Needham and Sherborn (A. P.

Morse) ; Malden, Warwick, Cambridge, Medford and Eastport (Mus.

Comp. Zool.) ; Essex County and Mt. Tom (G. B. King) ; Lynn (Davis) ;

Boston and Woods Hole (Wheeler).

Rhode Island: Providence (Davis).

Connecticut: New Hartford and Orange (W. E. Britton) ; Colebrook

(Wheeler).

New York: Ithaca (Cornell Univ. Coll.); Keene Valley, Essex

County, Oswego, Elizabeth, Karner, Cedar Hill and Saranac Lake (N. Y.

State Coll.) ; Boonville (E. G. Titus).

Pennsylvania: White Haven (J. C. Bradley) ; North Mts.

Indiana: Pine (W. S. Blatchley).

Michigan: Ann Arbor (J. Dawson).

Illinois: Rockford (Wheeler) ; Algonquin (W. A. Nason).

Wisconsin: Milwaukee County (Wheeler).

Colorado: Williams Canyon, Manitou (Wheeler).

Washington: Union City (J. C. Bradley).

Oregon: (Amer. Mus. Nat. Hist.).

Although C. noveboracensis ranges across the continent from the At-

lantic to the Pacific, it is not known to occur further south than Mary-

land or further north than Nova Scotia. In the Atlantic states, it lives

by preference in hilly country, usually at higher elevations than pennsyl-

vanicus and ferrugineus. To judge from the specimens before me,

noveboracensis exhibits very little variation in color. The specimens

from Washington, however, have the coarse opaque surface of whymperi

and may be regarded as transitions to this variety.

32, C. herculeanus ligniperda var. rubens Wheeler

C. herculeanus ligniperdus var. rubens WHEELER, Psyche, p. 41, 2 ¢, 1906;

Occas. Papers Bost. Soc. Nat. Hist., VII, 7, p. 24, 1906.

This variety differs from noveboracensis in having all the gastric segments

of the female deep red, except their posterior margins, which are black. The

male is indistinguishable from the male of noveboracensis. The worker forms

are unknown.

Described from two females from Norway, Maine (S. J. Smith) ; one

male and one female from Bethel, Maine (A. M. Edwards) and four

females taken in Michigan (Clark).

It is somewhat doubtful whether this form can be maintained as an

independent variety. Reéxamination of the type specimens shows that

they are very old, and the red color of the gaster in the female may be

due to bleaching.

342 ANNALS NEW YORK ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

IV. Fallax Group

As I have recently published the synonymy and descriptions of the

twelve North American subspecies and varieties of C. fallax Nyl., which

is the type of this group (Journ. N. Y. Ent. Soc., XVIII, No. 4, 1910),

I shall here confine myself to listing the various forms, with the states

in which they are known to occur.

33. Camponotus fallax Nyl. var. nearcticus Emery

New York; New Jersey; Pennsylvania; Connecticut; Massachusetts ;

Rhode Island; Illinois; Wisconsin; Nebraska; Washington; Idaho;

Oregon ; California; Florida; Texas; Canada.

34, C. fallax var. minutus Emery

New Jersey; New York; Pennsylvania; Massachusetts; Illinois;

Canada; Vancouver.

39, C. fallax var. pardus Wheeler

New York; New Jersey.

‘

36, C. fallax var. tanquaryi Wheeler

Illinois.

37, C. fallax var. decipiens Emery

Indiana; Kansas; Colorado; Utah.

38. C. fallax rasilis Wheeler

Texas; Arizona; Louisiana; Florida.

39. C. fallax rasilis var. pavidus Wheeler

Texas: Louisiana: Florida.

40. C. fallax subbarbatus Emery

Maryland; Virginia; New Jersey; Illinois; California.

41. C. fallax subbarbatus var. paucipilis Emery

Maryland.

42. C. fallax discolor Buckley

Texas ; Oklahoma; Missouri; I1linois.

WHEELER, NORTH AMERICAN ANTS 343

48. C. fallax discolor var. clarithorax Emery

California ; Illinois; Pennsylvania.

44. C. fallax discolor var. cnemidatus Emery

Maryland.

45. C. sayi Emery

Emery, Zool. Jahrb. Abth. f. Syst., VII, p. 679, Pl. 22, Figs. 27, 28, 3, 1893.

Worker major. Length, 7-8 mm.; head, 2.5 x 2.4 mm.; scape, 1.7 mm.; hind

tibia, 2 mm.

Head large, but little longer than broad, broader behind than in front, with

broadly excised posterior margin and prominent posterior corners. Eyes

moderately large, feebly convex. Mandibles 5-toothed, convex. Clypeus with

very short lateral limbs and subrectangular median portion, which is slightly

convex but not carinate, with depressed border and small median notch.

Frontal carinz lyrate, rather far apart. Frontal area subtriangular, broader

than long. Frontal groove distinct. Antennal scapes short, not reaching the

posterior corners of the head, slender and terete at the base, somewhat thick-

ened distally. Thorax stout and short, narrower than the head, robust in

front, narrowed and laterally compressed behind; pro- and mesonotum flat-

tened, in profile moderately arcuate; epinotum with subequal base and de-

clivity meeting to form a distinct though obtuse angle. Petiole high and

rather narrow, compressed anteroposteriorly, with convex anterior and flat-

tened posterior surface, its margin entire and rather acute. Legs short,

femora stout.

Head and thorax shining, very finely shagreened; cheeks and front with

small, round, scattered punctures. Mandibles more coarsely punctate. Gula,

sides and posterior corners of head glabrous. Gaster very finely, transversely

shagreened, with small, scattered, piligerous punctures, its surface even more

shining than the head and thorax.

Hairs white or pale yellow, erect, very sparse; present in a transverse row

on the epinotal angle, margin of petiole and in two rows on each gastric seg-

ment, one across the middle and the other along the posterior edge. Legs and

scapes naked. Pubescence extremely short and dilute, even on the gaster.

Head, antenns, thorax and legs yellowish red; the head slightly darker;

gaster black, with the posterior borders of the segments yellow.

Worker minor. Length, 4.5-6 mm.

Head proportionally longer than in the worker major, with straight and

more nearly parallel sides, straight posterior border and rounded posterior

corners. Clypeus more convex in front, but not carinate, its anterior border

with a minute median notch. Mandibles less convex, eyes more convex than

in the worker major. Antennal scapes extending about one-third their length

beyond the posterior corners of the head. Thorax less robust; petiole with

blunt border.

In sculpture, color and pilosity much like the worker major; head more

shining and without small, scattered punctures on the sides and front.

344 ANNALS NEW YORK ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

Arizona: Phcenix, cotypes (Th. Pergande) ; Phcenix and Prescott,

running on trunks of cotton-wood trees (Wheeler).

This species, as Emery has remarked, is very similar to C. fallax dis-

color. It is even more like fallax rasilis, but the head and thorax are

more robust, the head is more excised behind, the clypeal notch smaller,

the epinotum more angular and the sculpture is different, the punc-

tures on the sides and front of the head being much smaller and the

surface of the head and thorax somewhat more shining. ‘These differ-

ences, however, are not very pronounced and it may be necessary, when

sayi is better known, to reduce it to the rank of a subspecies of fallax.

46. C. texanus Wheeler

As I have published a detailed description of all four phases of this

handsome species (Psyche, 1903, p. 108), it may be passed over here

with a few remarks. It is readily distinguished from all the other mem-

bers of the fallax group by its large size (worker major 10-12 mm.),

and coloration, the worker major having a black head and gaster, red

thorax and legs, a yellow base to the first gastric segment and dark red

antenne. The male differs from all the known males of the fallax group

in the color of the thorax and legs, which are reddish yellow, with the

scutellum, metanotum and three spots on the mesonotum black and the

epinotum more or less infuscated.

The types are from Travis County, Texas, and were found nesting in

oak logs.

47, C. schaefferi Wheeler

The female and worker phases of this species have been described in

detail in Journ. N. Y. Ent. Soc., XVII, p. 88, 1909. The worker major

is as large as that of teranus and measures 9-12 mm., but it is yellowish

red throughout with darker mandibles, scapes and anterior border of the

head. The mandibles are distinctly flattened distally, and the anterior

border of the clypeus is flat and has a broader, shallower notch than in

sayi and texanus, with a small tooth on each side. In these characters

and in the sculpture of the head, there is an unmistakable resemblance to

the smoother forms of herculeanus, such as ligniperda. The middle and

hind tibie have two rows of stiff, graduated bristles on the distal half of

their flexor surface. In ftexanus, these bristles are smaller and less

numerous and seem to be rather inconstant; in sayi, they are lacking.

In the worker minor and female of schaeffert, which are colored like the

worker major, the median excision of the clypeal border is still shallower

and even more like that of herculeanus and levigatus. The wings of the

WHEELER, NORTH AMERICAN ANTS 345

female are deeply tinged with brown and have resin-yellow veins and

stigma. The male is unknown.

The types are from southern Arizona and comprise a media and a

minima worker taken by Mr. C. Schaffer at Palmerlee, Cochise County,

Ariz., a winged female taken by Mr. E. J. Oslar in the Huachuca Mts.

and a long series of females and workers of all sizes taken by Mr. C. R.

Biederman in Carr Canyon in the same mountain range from a “nest

partly in the ground and partly in rotten wood, six inches deep, at an

altitude of 5000 ft.”

48. C. hyatti Emery

Emery, Zool. Jahrb. Abth. f. Syst., VII, p. 680, Pl. 22, Figs. 25, 26, 3, 1893.

“Worker. Closely allied to C. marginatus [C. fallax], but the head with

more shining and more nearly parallel sides; posterior corners less rounded,

mandibles shining ; thorax impressed in the region of the meso-epinotal suture ;

epinotum with the convex base and concave declivity meeting to form an

obtuse angle. Piceous black; mouth, pronotum and legs more or less ferrugi-

nous or red. Abdomen black. Length, 3.5-6.5 mm.

“Head of the worker maxima, 1.9 x 1.8 mm.; scape, 1.2 mm.; hind femur,

tejamms:;bhoraxs, 2 xdeosmm:

“From San Jacinto, California; collected by Mr. Ed. Hyatt; received fron:

Mr. Pergande.

“In habitus very similar to C. marginatus ; body more thickset. The head im

the worker major has more nearly parallel, less convex sides, more concavely

excised posterior border, more prominent anterior and posterior corners, the

latter being less broadly rounded. In the worker minor the head is somewhat

broader than in the minor worker of the same size, the anterior corners some-

what more rounded. The sculpture is very similar to that of the typical

marginatus, but much more superficial; the impressed punctures much shal-

lower, scarcely visible on the clypeus, smaller on the cheeks; the integument is

therefore much more shining. The mandibles are less prominent than in

marginatus, with more convex outer borders, also 5-toothed, shining, sparsely

punctate. The clypeus also has a very short, rounded lobe, with anterior

border strongly emarginate in the middle; flat in the worker major, bluntly

roof-shaped in the minor. The lobe is less conspicuous in the large worker,

owing to the more prominent anterior corners of the head. The thorax is pro-

portionally broader than in marginatus, in profile distinctly constricted be-

tween the meso- and epinotum; the somewhat convex basal and the distinctly

coneave declivous surface form together a rounded angle. Seen from above,

the pronotum is especially broad and rounded on the sides; the mesonotum is

strongly narrowed posteriorly to the mesoépinotal suture, where the thorax is

narrowest; the sides of the epinotum are nearly parallel. The petiolar scale

is somewhat broader and thinner than in marginatus, its upper margin broadly

arched and rather sharp. The sculpture of the thorax and gaster are as in

marginatus, and the same is true of the pilosity of the whole body.

“The color is variable; usually pitch black; mouth, gula and tibiz somewhat

reddish; prothorax, coxze, femora and tarsi light red; gaster black, with red-

346 ANNALS NEW YORK ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

dish yellow margins to the segments. Often, especially in minor workers, the

pale color is more extensive and the whole insect may be ferruginous red with

brownish black gaster.”

As I possess only a few small workers (cotypes from Mr. Pergande)

of this species, I have translated Emery’s original description.

49. C. hyatti Emery var. bakeri Wheeler

WHEELER, Bull. Amer. Mus. Nat. Hist., XX, p. 271, 3 9, 1904.

Worker media. Length, 5.5 mm.

Differing from the typical form in coloration, which is like that of C. fallax

var. discolor, except that the basal two-thirds of the first gastric segment are

red, like the head, thorax and appendages. The sculpture is quite as sharp as

in fallax, and the surfaces of the head and body are quite opaque. The man-

dibles and cheeks are coarsely punctate. In profile, the thorax is like that of

the typical hyatti, except that the basal surface of the epinotum has a trans-

verse impression behind.

Female. WLength, 7.5-S mm.

Resembling the female of C. fallax var. discolor. Head longer than broad,

with nearly straight posterior border and prominent posterior angles; cheeks

converging in front, distinctly concave. Mandibles 5-toothed. Whole body

more shining than in discolor, though it is throughout distinctly shagreened.

Mandibles, cheeks and front coarsely punctate. Body and appendages yellow-

ish red, teeth of mandibles, anterior border of cheeks and clypeus, scutellum,

metanotum, a narrow band across the posterior portions of the first and

second gastric segments and the remainder of the gaster, black. Posterior

edges of all the gastric segments yellow. There is a more or less distinct

brown cloud on the anteromedian and in one specimen also on the lateral sur-

face of the mesonotum. Wings yellowish gray, with brownish yellow veins.

Described from two mediz and two female specimens taken by Prof.

C. F. Baker on Catalina Island, California.

V. Senex Group

50. Camponotus mina zuni subsp. nov.

Worker major. Length, 6.5-7 mm.

Head rather small, subrectangular, a little longer than broad and a little

broader behind than in front, with slightly excised posterior and feebly convex

lateral borders. Eyes rather large, slightly convex. Mandibles 5-toothed, with

convex external borders and upper surfaces. Clypeus distinctly carinate, very

slightly produced anteriorly as a broadly rounded lobe, with a faint median

sinus. Frontal area distinct, triangular, as long as broad. Frontal carinse

strongly lyrate, approximated anteriorly, twice as far apart behind as in

front. Frontal groove distinct. Antennz short; scapes slender and terete at

the base, somewhat enlarged towards their tips, which do not extend beyond

WHEELER, NORTH AMERICAN ANTS 847 1

the posterior corners of the head. Thorax narrower than the head, broader in

front than behind, scarcely compressed laterally, in profile feebly arcuate

above, the pro- and mesonotum and base of the epinotum subequal, flattened,

separated by pronounced sutures; the base of the epinotum somewhat longer

than the sloping, straight declivity with which it forms an obtuse angle.

Petiole rather high, in profile convex in front, flattened behind, with rather

blunt border; seen from behind, narrow below, expanded above, with broadly

rounded upper border, feebly notched in the middle. Gaster of the usual

shape. Legs rather short, with stout femora; tibiz without rows of bristles

on their flexor surfaces.

Mandibles lustrous or somewhat shining, very finely striated, with scattered,

coarse punctures towards their inner borders. Head, thorax and antennz

opaque or subopaque, finely and densely punctate. Cheeks and clypeus also

with scattered, somewhat elongated, piligerous foveole. Petiole, gaster and

legs more shining, rather coarsely and transversely shagreened, with scattered

piligerous punctures.

Hairs on the body rather abundant, delicate, short, erect and sordid white;

absent on the sides and posterior corners of the head, short and obtuse on the

clypeus and cheeks; absent on the scapes, except at their tips. Legs with very

short, sparse, oblique hairs; femora with a row of long, erect hairs on their

flexor surfaces. Pubescence extremely short and sparse, visible only on the

antennal scapes, posterior portion of the head and basal gastric segment.

Color black; mandibles, clypeus, cheeks, antenne, tibiz, tarsi and tips of

femora ferruginous or dark red.

Worker minor. Length, 4-5 mm.

Head resembles that of the worker major, but is smaller, with straighter

sides, more converging anteriorly. Hyes more convex. Antennal scapes reach-

ing about one-third their length beyond the posterior corners of the head.

Like the worker major in sculpture, pilosity and color, except that the red

coloration of the head is confined to its anterior border. There are no foveolse

on the cheeks and clypeus. The hairs on the body are also shorter and less

abundant.

Described from numerous specimens taken by myself on the bark of

old mesquite (Prosopis velutina) trees at Tucson, Arizona.

This subspecies differs from the typical mina first described by Forel

from Cape St. Lucas at the tip of Lower California and subsequently

redescribed from the same locality as C. erythropus by Pergande, in the

following characters: The clypeus of the worker major is distinctly cari-

nate, the piligerous foveole on the cheeks and clypeus are much smaller,

shallower and less abundant, the punctures on the gaster are smaller and

sparser, there are no erect hairs and long pubescence on the antennal

scapes, except at their extreme tips, none on the sides and posterior

corners of the head, and the hairs on the thorax, petiole, gaster and legs

are much shorter, more delicate and much less abundant. These differ-

ences are shown by comparison of zuwnt with two major worker cotypes of

348 ANNALS NEW YORK ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

Pergande’s C. erythropus, which, as Emery has stated, is merely a syno-

nym of Forel’s mina.

51. C. planatus Roger

C. planatus Rocer, Berl. Ent. Zeitschr., VII, p. 148, No. 24,3 9 @, 1863;

DALLA TorRE, Catalog. Hymen., VII, p. 248, 1893; Foret, Biol. Centr. Amer.

Hymen., III, p. 141, 1899-1900.

C. senex stirps planatus Foret, Bull. Soc. Vaud. Sci. Nat., (2) XVI, P. 81,

p. 97, &, 18795 Pbid., (2)) XX, P: 91, p: 346, 1884.

C. senex subsp. planatus EMrEry, Mem. R. Accad. Sci. Ist. Bologna, p. 775,

1896.

Worker major. Length, 5-6 mm.

Head small, as broad as long, a little broader behind than in front, with

straight posterior and convex lateral borders and rounded anterior corners.

HKyes rather large, moderately convex. Mandibles 6-toothed, with convex outer

borders and upper surfaces. Clypeus sharply carinate, broadly rounded in

front, with the anterior border feebly sinuate in the middle. Frontal area dis-

tinct, subtriangular, much broader than long. Frontal carinze not very strongly

lyrate, twice as far apart behind as in front. Frontal groove distinct. An-

tennz moderately long; scapes terete at the base, slightly enlarged distally,

extending to the posterior corners of the head. Thorax short, a little narrower

in front than the head, somewhat broader in front than behind, the dorsal sur-

face evenly arcuate in profile, flattened when seen from above and marginate

on each side, where it passes over into the somewhat concave, perpendicular

pleural surface. Epinotum with subequal base and declivity, the former

slightly convex and square, the latter distinctly concave, the two surfaces

meeting with a rather sharp transverse margin. Petiole moderately high,

compressed anteroposteriorly, with convex anterior, flattened posterior surface

and rather sharp margin; seen from behind, narrow below, expanded above,

with broadly rounded border, entire or feebly notched in the middle. Gaster

of the usual shape. Legs rather short; tibize without bristles on their flexor

surfaces.

Opaque throughout, except the mandibles, which are shining, finely striated

and coarsely punctate on their lateral and apical surfaces. Head, thorax and

gaster densely punctate; legs coarsely shagreened. Cheeks and clypeus with

large but rather shallow, somewhat elongated, scattered foveole; gaster with

coarse, sparse, piligerous punctures.

Hairs very abundant, erect, glistening white; covering the head, thorax,

petiole and gaster, especially dense and conspicuous on the epinotum and

gaster. Hairs on the legs somewhat shorter and more oblique; on the antennal

scapes still shorter and more appressed. Pubescence on the gaster long and

dense; much shorter and more dilute on the head and thorax.

Head, thorax, petiole and legs rather dark ferruginous red; mandibles,

cheeks, clypeus and often also the antennz suffused with yellow. Mandibular

teeth and gaster black; femora, tibise and tarsi often infuscated, except at the

articulations.

Worker minor. Length, 3.5-4 mm.

Closely resembling the worker major, but the head smaller and with less

convex cheeks and the petiole thicker and blunter.

WHEELER, NORTH AMERICAN ANTS 349

Female. Length, 6.5-8.5 mm. ‘

Resembling the worker major, especially in the shape of the head. Thorax

robust and flattened dorsally. Petiole broader and more compressed than in

the worker major, its apical margin sharper and with a rather deep and broad

median notch. Hairs much shorter and less glistening than in the worker,

though abundant and erect. Wings rather short (7 mm.) ; almost colorless,

with pale yellow veins and dark brown stigma.

Male. Length, 4.5-5 mm.

Head slightly longer than broad, with large eyes and ocelli, its posterior

border broadly rounded; cheeks subparallel, straight, somewhat shorter than

the eyes. Clypeus convex, bluntly carinate, with somewhat projecting, rounded

and entire anterior margin. Mandibles edentate. Antenne very slender, first

funicular joint swollen, longer than the second. Thorax robust, with convex,

rounded epinotum, without distinct basal and declivous surfaces. Petiole low,

thick and transverse, with rather sharp, entire dorsal border. Gaster and legs

of the usual conformation.

Whole body subopaque, finely shagreened or punctate.

Pilosity much as in the worker minor, but less abundant. Scapes naked.

Cheeks with a few blunt, erect hairs. Hairs on legs short, subappressed,

longest and most conspicuous on the gaster. Pubescence apparently absent.

Black ; mandibles, mouthparts, tarsi, genitalia and articulations of legs and

thorax brownish. Wings like those of the female, but with even paler veins.

Described from numerous specimens of all four phases taken in the

following localities:

Florida: Miami, Card’s Point and Planter, Key Largo (Wheeler).

Texas: Esperanza Ranch, Brownsville (C. Schaeffer).

This tropical species is widely distributed through Central America,

Mexico and Cuba, but enters the United States only at the two points

mentioned above, namely, at the southern extremity of Florida and at

the mouth of the Rio Grande del Norte. Like the other species of the

senex group, it forms rather small colonies and is exquisitely arboreal in

its habits. On Key Largo and at Card’s Point, I found it nesting in

epiphytic Tillandsias in mangrove thickets; at Miami I saw a fine colony

nesting under a piece of loose bark on the trunk of a living tree.

VI. Novogranadensis Group

52. Camponotus bruesi sp. nov.

Worker major. Length, about 6 mm.

Head rather small, subrectangular, a little broader behind than in front,

with feebly excised posterior border and slightly convex sides; anterior corners

lobular and rounded, slightly reflected. In profile the head is obliquely trun-

cated anteriorly, but the truncated surface has rounded lateral borders. Eyes

rather large, slightly convex. Clypeus flattened, about one-third again as long

350 ANNALS NEW YORK ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

as broad, about one-half as broad behind as in front; its anterior border

broadly rounded and entire, its lateral and posterior borders also rounded, the

former diverging anteriorly. A raised, longitudinal line, most distinct on the

posterior portion of the clypeus, represents the carina. Frontal area present

only as a minute triangular impression. Frontal carine lyrate; frontal groove

distinct. Antennal scapes slender and not flattened at the base, enlarged

towards their tips, which surpass by about one-sixth their length the posterior

corners of the head. Thorax rather long, narrower than the head, broadest

in front and gradually narrowed behind, but with the pleurze scarcely com-

pressed ; in profile rather low, arched, with pronotum somewhat fiattened, the

mesonotum convex and the epinotum depressed and sloping, without distinct

basal and declivous surfaces. Petiole high and cuneate in profile, with blunt

border; seen from behind, the scale is narrow at the base, gradually expanding

above, with broadly rounded, entire border. Gaster of the usual shape. Legs

rather long and slender.

Mandibles and head opaque, the former very finely and indistinctly striated,

sparsely punctate; teeth smooth and shining. Clypeus and cheeks irregularly

rugose and coarsely punctate, remainder of head densely and uniformly punc-

tate. Thorax somewhat shining, densely, but somewhat more superficially

punctate than the head; gaster and legs still more shining, transversely sha-

greened ; the upper surface of the gaster also with scattered, piligerous punc-

tures. k

Hairs delicate, white, erect; abundant on the thorax, petiole and gaster.

Head with a few long hairs on the vertex, sides with short, erect hairs; those

on the truncated surface still shorter and appressed. Scapes and legs with

short, stiff, oblique hairs, less abundant on the femora, which have a row of

longer, erect hairs on their flexor surfaces. Tibize without bristles on their

flexor surfaces. Pubescence lacking.

Black; mandibles, cheeks, posterior end of clypeus, anterior portion of front,

antenne and tarsi, except the first joint, deep red. Posterior edges of gastric

segments brownish.

Worker minor. Length, 4-5 mm.

Differing from the worker major only in the head, which is smaller, not

broader than the prothorax, somewhat longer than broad, narrower in front

than behind, with straight sides and posterior border. It is not obliquely

truncated in front, but has a rather convex, sharply carinate clypeus, with

broadly rounded, entire anterior border. Eyes more convex, antennal scapes

reaching about half their length beyond the posterior corners of the head.

The whole head is uniformly and densely punctate and a little more shining

than in the worker major. Cheeks and clypeus with a few scattered foveolz.

Hairs on the dorsal surface of the head more abundant, those on the cheeks

more delicate than in the worker major. Mandibles, antenne and tarsi, except

the first joint, deep red; remainder of the body black.

Described from a single worker major and a number of minor workers

taken by myself on the trunk of a small desert Acacia at Fort Davis,

Texas. There are also in my collection three minor workers taken by

Mr. C. H. T. Townsend at Cerro Chilicote, Chihuahua, Mexico, and

WHEELER, NORTH AMERICAN ANTS 351

three minor workers collected by Mr. J. F. McClendon at Guadalajara,

Mexico.

This species seems to be very closely related to C. frontalis Pergande

from Tepic, Mexico, but it is decidedly smaller, the clypeus is much

broader and more rounded in front, the scapes have no erect hairs and

the gaster lacks bluish reflections. Pergande gives no description of the

thoracic structure. Another allied Mexican species is C. andrei Forel,

but this has a more nearly rectangular clypeus, the head is not obliquely

truncated in front and is neither rugose nor red in this region. C. bruesi

shows an unmistakable approach to the species of the subgenus Colobopsis

through forms like C. abscisus Forel of Guatemala and C. ulcerosus

described below.

VII. Ulcerosus Group

53. Camponotus ulcerosus sp. nov.

Worker major. Length, 6.5 mm.

Head rather large, subrectangular, a little longer than broad, as broad in

front as behind, with nearly straight posterior and very feebly concave, sub-

parallel lateral borders; posterior corners rather angular, anterior corners

produced forward as rounded lobes beyond the anterior border of the clypeus

and the closed mandibles. In profile the head is high and convex behind,

obliquely truncated in front, with flattened gula. The truncated surface is

bordered on each side by a coarsely crenate ridge, which runs from the outer

edge of the lobe-like anterior corner to a little in front of the eye, where it

turns inward and subsides before reaching the frontal carina. This ridge

forms the outer boundary of an elongated, irregular and rather deep impres-

sion resembling the scar of an ulcer. Eyes rather small, feebly convex.

Mandibles apparently 4-toothed, flattened; their outer borders sinuate towards

the base. Clypeus flat, ecarinate, trapezoidal, one and one-half times as long

as broad, with straight, somewhat crenate anterior border, about twice as long

as the posterior border, which is also straight; the sides slightly curved out-

ward and diverging anteriorly. Frontal area distinct, triangular, as long as

broad. Frontal carinze far apart, more approximated and lyrate in front, par-

allel behind, forming the inner boundaries of rather deep scrobes for the bases

of the antennal scapes. Frontal groove distinct. Antennal scapes much

curved at the base, slender, but distinctly flattened, enlarged towards their

tips, which reach nearly to the posterior corners of the head. Thorax de-

cidedly narrower than the head, rather long, gradually narrowed posteriorly,

but with distinctly convex pleurz; in profile, the dorsum is rather flat, feebly

arcuate; epinotum with subequal base and declivity, both slightly concave

and meeting at a rounded angle. Petiole high, cuneate in profile, with thick

base and narrower summit, and both anterior and posterior surfaces flattened ;

border obtuse; from behind, the scale is narrow at the base, expanding above,

with broadly rounded, entire upper margin. Gaster of the usual shape. Legs

slender.

352 ANNALS NEW YORK ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

Head opaque; occiput and posterior angles shining; the truncated anterior

portion, including the mandibles, clypeus, the portions of the cheeks within»

the ridges and the anterior portion of the front, uneven and irregularly rugose;

remainder of the head covered with dense, uniform punctures and more scat-.

tered and rather deep foveolz, which are slightly elongated on the cheeks out-

side the ridges. Thorax, petiole, gaster and legs densely punctate, more shin-

ing than the anterior portion of the head, less so than its posterior corners.

In addition to the dense punctures, the surfaces of these parts are covered

with coarse, scattered piligerous punctures.

Hairs glistening white, erect, abundant; longest on the gaster, petiole and

thorax, shorter on the head; blunt on the cheeks and sides of the head.

Antenne with short, delicate, erect hairs on the anterior surfaces and tips of

the scapes. Hairs on legs sparse, rather long and oblique or suberect. Tibi

without bristles on their flexor surfaces. Pubescence apparently lacking.

Black; mandibles, clypeus, front and cheeks to a little outside the ridges

which bound the truncated surface, yellowish brown; posterior edges of gastric

segments, antennze and tarsi, except the first joint, dark brown, antennal

scapes somewhat paler and more reddish towards their bases.

Described from a single specimen taken by Mr. C. Schaeffer at Palmer-

lee, Huachuca Mts., Arizona.

This remarkable species differs from all our other North American

Camponoti in the peculiar structure of the head, which shows a decided

resemblance to certain species of Colobopsis and furnishes additional

proof, if it were needed, that this group cannot be defined with sufficient

precision to constitute a genus. Except in the structure of the head, C.

ulcerosus is very closely related to C. bruesi and C. frontalis Pergande.

Indeed, the worker minor of ulcerosus must be almost indistinguishable

from that of bruesi, although it probably differs in having a higher and

more angular epinotum.*

B. SUBGENUS COLOBOPSIS MAYR

As I have given a full description of our North American species of

this peculiar subgenus and of their habits in a paper published several

years ago,® I may here confine myself merely to enumerating the different

forms with their synonymy and habitats and to describing a new variety

which has come to light more recently.

54. Camponotus (Colobopsis) abditus Forel var. etiolatus Wheeler

WHEELER, Bull. Amer. Mus. Nat. Hist., XX, p. 150, 3 9 ¢, 1904.

7I recently found two colonies of C. ulcerosus in the type locality (Miller and Carr

Canyons, Huachuca Mts.). These colonies were nesting in the ground under large

stones at altitudes of 5500 and 6000 ft., respectively. The minor worker, which will

be described on another occasion, is, as I surmised, very much like that of C. bruesi.

8“The American Ants of the Subgenus Colobopsis,’ Bull. Amer. Mus. Nat. Hist., XX,

pp. 139-158, 7 figs., 1904.

WHEELER, NORTH AMERICAN ANTS 353

Texas: Austin, in galls of Holcaspis cimerosa on Quercus virginiana:

(Wheeler) ; Victoria and Jackson County, in twigs of Hicoria pecan

(J. D. Mitchell).

55. C. (C.) impressus Roger

Colobopsis impressa Rocer, Berl. Ent. Zeitg., p. 160, 3, 1863; Mayr, Ver-

handl. Zool. bot. Ges. Wien, p. 423, 424, 3, 1886.

Camponotus impressus DALLA TorRE, Catalog. Hymen., VII, p. 235, 1893.

Camponotus (Colobopsis) impressus EMrry, Ann. Mus. Civ. Genova, XXVII,

p. 517, 1889; Zool. Jahrb. Abth. f. Syst., VII, p. 681, %, 1893; WHEELER, Bull.

Amer. Mus. Nat. Hist., XX, p. 144, 3 9, 1904.

Georgia: (Mayr).

Florida: Lake Worth (Jerome Schmitt) ; Belleair (Mrs. A. T. Slos-

son).

Texas: Dallas (Schwarz and Pratt).

Indian Territory: Okmulgee (J. D. Mitchell).

56. C. (C.) pylartes Wheeler

WHEELER, Bull. Amer. Mus. Nat. Hist., XX, p. 147, 8 9, 1904.

Texas: Delvalle, in twigs of Hicoria myristicefolia (Wheeler) ; Vic-

toria (W. D. Hunter) ; Longview and Liberty (S. S. Tucker).

Louisiana: Shreveport, in spine of Gleditsia aquatica (W. D. Hunter).

57. C. (C.) pylartes Wheeler var. hunteri var. nov.

Both the major and minor workers of this form differ from the corresponding

phases of the typical pylartes in color, the head, thorax, petiole, antenne, legs

and two basal gastric segments being yellow, the head of a little deeper and

more reddish, the base of the gaster of a paler tint than the thorax. Tips of

the antennal funiculi black. First and second gastric segments with a narrow,

transverse, fuscous band near the posterior edge; remaining gastric segments

black. In some specimens, the base of the third segment is also pale yellow.

Described from numerous specimens taken by Mr. J. S. Mitchell in

twigs of pecan (Hicoria pecan) at Victoria, Texas, and sent me by Dr.

W. D. Hunter.

POSTSCRIPT

While this paper has been going through the press, I have had an

opportunity to collect additional material of Camponotus in southern

Arizona and California and have succeeded in finding several new forms

belonging to the maculatus group. Descriptions of these, with the excep-

tion of the following interesting subspecies, must be reserved for another

occasion.

354 ANNALS NEW YORK ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

58. Camponotus maculatus dumetorum supsp. nov.

Worker major. Length, 10-18 mm.; head, 3.3 x 3 mm.; scape, 2.5 mm. ; hind

tibia, 3 mm. -

Combining characters of maccooki and the typical vicinus. Antennal scape

not only flattened at the base but dilated to form a lobule which is even larger

than that of maccooki and often obtusely angular. Body coarsely shagreened ;

head and thorax subopaque, gaster slightly shining. Clypeus with several

large, elongate, piligerous foveole; cheeks with more numerous and smaller,

elongate foveole; remainder of head feebly punctate; frontal region with a

few deep, piligerous punctures. Hairs and pubescence as in the typical vicinus,

yellow, the former absent on the cheeks, erect and abundant on the dorsal and

gular surfaces of the head, thoracic dorsum, petiolar border, gaster and flexor

surfaces of the femora Pubescence long but sparse, conspicuous on the head,

pleurs, legs and gaster. Head, mandibles, scapes and gaster black; funiculi,

legs, thorax, petiole and extreme base of first gastric segment dull brown.

Worker minor. Length, 6-9 mm.

Resembling the worker major, but with the usual differences in the shape

of the head, which is often more or less brown like the thorax, especially in

front. The lobule at the base of the antennal scape is very large and con-

spicuous and more angular, so that the scape at this point may be broader

than at the tip.

Male. Length, 10-11 mm.

Resembling the male of vicinus, but the head is proportionally shorter and

broader, the cheeks are more convex and the scapes are flattened and lobulate

at the base. The whole head, especially its sides and gular surface, is con-

spicuously hairy. Pleurz, gaster and legs also with numerous, but less con-

spicuous, erect, tawny yellow hairs. Head and thorax opaque, gaster and legs

more shining, but the whole surface densely shagreened. Body black; funiculi

and tarsi brown; wings suffused with yellow, with yellow veins and stigma.

Described from numerous specimens taken from many colonies in the

dry foot-hills of the San Gabriel Range near Pasadena and Claremont,

California, up to an altitude of 2,000 feet.

This ant appears to be the dominant insect of the chaparral. It nests

in the ground among the bushes, forming flat craters varying from a few

inches to a foot in diameter, with a round or, more frequently, elongate

entrance. It does not go abroad in the day time, at least during the dry

season. The number of its nests in the chaparral is surprising, but it is

difficult to study these, except in places where the brush has been burned

over or where it has been cleared away to leave fire guards. The workers

probably derive their sustenance from the aphids and coccids on the scrub-

oaks (Quercus dumosa) and other bushes that compose the chaparral.

[ANNALS N. Y. Acap. Scr., Vol. XX. No. 7, Part I], pp. 355-364. 7 February,

1911.]

MEASUREMENTS OF DAKOTA INDIAN CHILDREN’

BY CLARK WISSLER

The measurements here discussed were made by Dr. J. R. Walker, for

thirteen years physician in charge at the Pine Ridge Agency, in connec-

tion with the regular inspection of children required in the administra-

tion of the Indian schools. These include stature, weight and chest

measurements of all ages to maturity, for both full and mixed blood

individuals. The writer compiled these measurements and presents in

the following pages a discussion of the results as compared with those

secured for white children under similar conditions. While the number

of cases for each age and sex is much less than desirable, it is probable

that from no other definite Indian group could so great a number be

obtained in the same period of time, this being one of the largest reserva-

tions. The number of full bloods is estimated as 5242 and mixed bloods

as 1877. Of these, Dr. Walker has 1770 and 1193 measurements re-

spectively. The Indians on Pine Ridge Reservation are chiefly of the

Ogallala subdivision of the Teton, with an almost negligible mixture of

Cheyenne. The mixed bloods are due to white men marrying Indian

women and include in our classification the offspring of all such unions

even to the third degree.

So far as we know, no such extended series of measurements have been

reported for the children of a single tribe. Mention may be made, how-

ever, of some fragmentary series for Indians of the Southwest and

Mexico by Dr. Ales Hrdlicka.’

As the values of these measurements will depend almost entirely upon

the accuracy of the ages given for children, it seems best to take up that

point at once. While Dr. Walker and the writer are sure that there is

here sufficient accuracy for our purpose, the mere assertion of it will not

suffice. For several years, the agency at Pine Ridge has kept a birth

record and enforced registration of all births. The registration in day

schools, which all children of proper age are required to attend, also serves

1Investigation prosecuted with the ald of a grant from the Esther Herrman Research

Fund of the New York Academy of Sciences.

2 Bureau of American Ethnology, Bull. 34,

356 ANNALS NEW YORK ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

to perpetuate this record. On the other hand, the Indians themselves

maintain a winter-count, or calendar, by which they keep track of their

ages and other more important events. With this calendar, Dr. Walker

familiarized himself so that parents could be carefully questioned. All

this gives the age of the child as to year; but in the determination of the

birth month and hence the nearest birthday, there is necessarily greater

error than in the case of similar measurements for white children. The

mixed blood ages, on the other hand, are almost as accurate as those for

whites. Now we may waive all this and pass to the data themselves. It

seems scarcely necessary at this late day to state that, as errors of age

are likely to be due to guesses and memory lapses and hence accidental,

they will have little effect upon the average measurements, but will in-

crease the calculated variability to an appreciable extent. ‘Thus, a com-

parison of variabilities for Indian and white children may serve as a

check on accuracy in age. For the white standard, we may take values

calculated for a publication by Professor Franz Boas and the writer,

from which Table 4 has been compiled.2 A comparison with Table 1

shows at a glance that the variabilities for stature and weight are, with

few exceptions, less for Indian children; for the mixed blood the same

tendency is clear, but of less magnitude. As these differences cannot be

accounted for by absolute differences in stature and weight, we are forced

to the alternative that either these Indians show an almost abnormal

lack of variability in the type, or that the ages and measurements as

taken are about as accurate as those made on white children. The

former seems unworthy of serious consideration. Of course, it is ap-

parent that these Indian children are less variable than white, but their

ages have been given with sufficient accuracy as not to obscure that differ-

ence. Further, in giving the age of white children by year, it should not

be overlooked that in the group for any year there are children who differ

in age almost a full year and that no matter how accurately the ages are

known this great difference will tend to conceal differences and disturb

the variability. Even in cases where Indians did not give the part of

the year of birth correctly, the assignment of the case to the age shown

by the year-count would, it is true, give a greater error than where such

assignment was made according to the nearest birthday; but the differ-

ence would be of degree rather than kind and affect chiefly the variability

in the group, as some children would be somewhat too young and some

too old.

* Report of the U. S. Commissioner of Education for 1904, p. "95. 1905.

WISSLER, MEASUREMENTS OF DAKOTA INDIAN CHILDREN 35%

TABLE 1.—Stature of Indian and Mixed Children.*

Indian males. Indian females. | Mixed males. | Mixed females.

Age,| No.| Av’ge.| Var. | No.| Av’ge.| Var. No eal Var. | No. | Av’ge.| Var.

BOE Sita bP | an ed cpe eA eee eae | MPN Siam dapaae yd eet eee:

2 I GSa One eee 4 85.5 4.6 1 (CONT ecgiael Ne ecotrecl Iepesror

3 7498-0 G9) eds SOE i ad-G, |) 4 920°) $9. |" 4 91.0 1.8

4; 10} 108.1 2.8 Shel, Bheed OC eis | lOz 2, | 2.4 ND ertere ees eee

Boiss) LELO | 8:9) 25 FOS) aed 2) | E115} 1.2) 12) 103:6' | 75

Orlrst, | LIG.3 At 40h RIAA) G1 19) [119 1) 36-26" 115.8 3.7

Meet bee | AQ | UI ir Ao 14 fF 123-0) | ah. (43 12959") 6.0

Sresons 2956) |) Coe jr48e Leia O26) jeod | 127245) Ook (PSS 126108 |) 8:2

OO ee ls3=2 4.8 | 58 | 134.4 yen || 1) Mailer 8.1 | 52 | 130.4 6.1

HO) "O6) 137.5°| 6.7 | 46 | 137.3°)' 6-2 |S) | 135.9 | 4.4 | 55 | 134.7 dell

MiG.) W417 6.8 | 48 | 140.8 | 6.4 | 51 | 189.3 | 5.7°| 45 | 140.6] 6.4

12 | 70 | 145.1 0.6) 250) PAROS 428) S25 \) 142545) 728 | 60)| 2146.7 5:5

13 | 72 | 150.5 | 5.3 | 68 | 152.6 | 6.1 | 39 | 148.5 6.3 | 44 | 153.2) 6.8

ig too:4 | 6-5 7s } loos | Val 128 | 157-88 6:8. |.49 1157.8 ) 6

fa eOsa T6101) 95:9") 52: 16057) |) 4.1") 33") 163.6 7.3 | 39 | 156.5 | 5.5

161598") 166.6 | “5:8. [59 | 162:3|° 3.2 | 26 | ‘168.94 5.0 |'56 | 160.7 | 5&3

17 | 55 | 173.4 8.3 | 50} 161.1 Ot ZO 69 855 coed 1/47 AG2I07 hors

18 | 30 LiAcO Os S eZ GO Ne 43 (eb WA Ged 24 | IGS 2.8

ESE lee | 0:8) 9:1) PIO! 16t 8: So) |) 8.) A779 | 4.3. |. 8h) 1678 7.5

2A) | St el ae gee Baus fect (ea geoeet (he eat aera aoe | 5 | 172.9} 6.2 | 3] 160.0 8.0

Adults eA Gt es lil oe see 134] 160.1 | 5.2 | 47 | 174.4 | 5.7 | 42 | 162.1 4.2

TABLE 2.-—Weight of Indian and Mixed Children.

Indian males. | Indian females. | Mixed males. Mixed females.

Age.| No.| Av’ge.| Var. | No.| Av’ge. | Var. | No. | Av’ge. | Var. | No. | Av’ge. | Var.

id AE! | Os Fs Saal apne Maan Pee oe Ret eS a al eed Sete

7Fa SN eee Oe ee 4 29 i Le (a ie (ee ee geet id Pa, it [es

3 7 34 5.5 | 15 32 fede SEV aa 4 31 2.5

4/10 43 3.1 8 34 3.2 Sly A Sas VA lcickaese crcl moo pee

5 | 18 47 6.3 | 26 4] Olea ell * OOM e. Soe 12 Sou} 4d

6 | 36 50 5.0 | 40 47 eS 220) 5S 1 ee pep 47 45

CON A 58 6.1 | 78 dd 6.0. | 42") | 5% 6.3 | 42 OLA cited

8 | 85 64 | ada | 48 DT Baki») 54 | ~ 60%.) See pib2 58 6.6

a) ral 69 6.8 | 55 65 o.f | 50) (6455). °8:2" |kosui | 163 7.8

10 | 65 75 8.7 | 47 72 Gedy alle] re! 7.8 |-5d 69 9.0

Ly | 7A 80 7.6 | 45 77 8.3 | 50 76 | 9.6 | 44 76 28

Ia) ai 86 9.5 | 49 86 10.6 | 30.) S4— 1-2 One 90 14 2

13 | 68 92 WRI || (oii 95 13.2 | (139 _\ 1.2887) he. Sear aah 96 | 12:0

14 | 67 102 11.5 | 68 106 143 | 27 103 14.1 | 44} 105 | 17.5

15 | 66 110 13.3 | 48 119 15:8...) 1829\) LIS yel4eT Nod pulses alae

16 | 59 121 14.1 | 58 125 12.7 | 25 1285) 19:9" | S25) 1ea" PIES

17 | 48 132 | 14.7 | 46 126 14.5 | 19 129 | 14.0 | 46 130 17.2

18 | 30 139% eZ Ls 136°‘) 15:5" | TAG eS a LS Pe

OS LZ, 146 150 | 6] 125 9.7 5} 147 | 10.2 8 132 18.3

BORE eee aos ble ee 3 tC ee ee eee | 5 | 144 18.0 2 102 |

AMM es FY OE ec DE 127,.| 160 29:1 | 41 Li7Z | 21.0 | .42 150 32.1

*Measurements are in centimeters.

358

ANNALS NEW YORK ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

TaBLe 3.—Chest Measure in Kxhalation, for Indian and Mixed Children.®

Indian males.

Mixed males.

Mixed females.

Age Indian females.

yts-| @ | Av’ge.| Var.| @ | Av’ge.| Var. | @ | Av’ge.| Var. | @ | Av’ge.| Var.

S | Ss) | on Ss Bae cs

| |

3 7 50.2 129 3 51.3 me | ales} 51.5 Sil} ncticll’s bis crevere oe

44/59 55.0 229 5 54.4 | 2.5 9 51.1 Sia Wisi. llth. cele ele

5 | 16] 56.5 3.4 ey 06:6.) 3S 1e2i 52.7 2.6 | 10 HAS e229)

6 | 25] 58.0 26m 17 | 08.8. | 3.0) ) al 56.7 | 30 | 13 56.6 | 3.4

7 | 46 60.3 2.6 | .28 | 09:8 | 2.7 | 56 59.7 4.1 | 26 59.1 49

8 | 43 62.2 2.5 | 35 09.8 | 3.4 | 33 60.4 2.5 | 38 60513) 1229

9 | 33 64.4 2.5 | 36 62.6 | 3.0 | 40 63.4 42 | 40 60.8 4.2

10 | 41 65.1 Byll || ats 64.9 35 | 39 64.1 3.7 | 42 63.2 | 4.9

11 | 38 | 66.6 3 189) 165.3) | 3:6)))/730 66.8 | 4.5 | 33 64.8 | 5.1

2M e29) | O80 3.5 | 30} 66.6 3.7 | 34 67.8 | 4.6 | 46 66.8 | 4.6

13)| 32 | 70:0 4.4 | 32 | 67.3 4.4 | 52 ess eke) i] aie: 70.0 | 4.1

14/31] 71.6 Pete) || Aa || Fey 4.7 | 48 73.7 | 8.5 | 133 72.7 | 6.2

15 | 31 74.4 3.0 | 26 73.7 5.1 | 34 74.9 | 6.0 | 35 73.7 4.9

16 | 31 77.8 Seif |) 240) | Ceir4 4.6 | 46 76.6 | 4.9 | 48 74.2 | 5.0

ly |) SRF) Ray 4.9 | 20 | 77.3 4.3 | 37 76.9 | 5.2 | 32 (637 a olG

18 | 31 80.2 4.7 8 82.0 2.9) 118 ew) || Gee || 2} 78.3 | 6.0

19} 12) 83.7 5.0 5 82.6 | 4.0 3) 78.3 | 3.5 9 Ti) aa

Adults,| 179 | 91.4 5.6 | 45 | 90.9 | 5.3 | 131) 90:2) 9:1 | 43 84.0 | 8.5

TABLE 4.— Measurements

of White Children.®

Stature. Weight.

Age |

in White males. White females. White males. White females.

yrs.

a , s g Pees | ap slat th easel | MBG enece ee ate

wm |Av’ge.| Var. | @ |Av’ge.| Var. | 2 | Avge | Var. | @ | Av’ge. | Var.

oO int fr oO iE wide | er |

Sus ALDOR Gk sO 4 e230 | Aly | 109! 45279) oib | 97| 43.8 4.8

71203) 117:9-) 5:0 | 143) yeas) S26: |.202) 497 | e928) “47-05 Gm

89} 198i) 122789) 5.3) 46 22s si 190)" -b4 | Gre 14 2a olen Gra

97252) 127589) 5.5) ) 174s 12 72ON | Sars | 220) 59:45) VS 14 ei 258208 eee

10 | 252] 132.9 | 5.9 1215) 183.0 | 6.5 |221/ 65.8 | 8.5 !170; 64.1 | 10.5

11 | 244) 137.4:) 6.2 | 283) 137.21) 6:4 | 210) 71.3°-) 10:3 1991 70:0) 10.4

12 | 274) 142.6) 6.4 | 252) 1443) 7.2 | 246| 78.4 | 12.2 | 201) -81.0 | 18.1

13 | 258) 147.9 5 °7.7 | 213) 149.99) N69) 204! 86.9) 15:7 |. 183)) 89.7% nibs

14 | 228) 154.6] 8.4 | 164} 153.9 | 7.2 |203| 98.2 | 16.5 | 149) 100.6 | 16.8

15 191} 162.0 8.4 147! 156.9 a.6. | 162)) 113.8 | 20.8 |136) 10627) 13:9

16 |120| 166.0] 6.5 |107| 157.2) 6.0 | 93) 122.6 | 17.1 | 100) 108.7 | 12.1

17 | 53} 168.6] 5.6 | 69; 159.1 | 5.2 | 39} 132.7 | 14.9 | 64) 1146 | 13.6

5 Measurements xnre in centimeters.

6 The stature is given in centimeters ;

the weight, in pounds.

WISSLER, MEASUREMENTS OF DAKOTA INDIAN CHILDREN 359

TaBLE 5.—Stature and Weight Correlations for Indian and Mixed Children.

Age | Indian males. Indian females. Mixed males. |

in = ee eee |

tad R. n. EAN illawaraeely ‘iit Ube.

| i}

| ean ee be 7 fol , i ;

ecietblit jn} 208 Tinh y 464 61 78 38 64 |

Sia 84 | 70 39 74 sO 53 82

Oy, 70 | 70 55 46 47 78

10% 6a | 90 | 40 ie. | 88. 4 58

11 71 | 90 37 | 86 50 50

12 82 60 43 95 30 72

13 69 89 68 ZOU yeas 46

14 69 | 61 5d 55 21 92

15 66 72 58 28 | 32 76

16 o7 71 58 40 23 62

17 46 | 97 41 40 = He

The averages and their calculated variabilities for stature and weigh:

are presented in Tables 1 and 2. As a check on these, we have added

chest measurements at exhalation, Table 3. By observation, it appeared

that the variability was far less for this measurement than for the full

expanded chest, giving us a fair value for another size character. As

will be observed, the cases between the ages of six and eighteen are suffi-

cient in number to give an average of fair certainty, but irregularities

must be expected. Were there more Indians, the result would be more

satisfactory, yet a glance at the tables shows that the regularity of

growth from year to year is nearly equal to that for the much larger

series of white children. This is conspicuous for the full blood children,

of whom we have many more cases than from the mixed blood.

Perhaps the first point of interest is the relation of Indians to whites.

Taking the values in Table 4 as the standard stature for whites, we find

the following deviations :

oi Indian | Indian el ixed Mixed

| years. males. | females. | males. females.

| | |

6 34. 24 62 3

if 38 37 51 51

8 68 50 | 46 3¢ |

9 54 74 34 34

10 46 43 | 30 17

11 43 36 19 34

| 12 Pa 2 Bote vn ne o4

| 13 26 D7 for MaraG 23

| 14 8 24 32 39

aes) —10 38 16 =i!

| 16 6 51 29 35

| iy 48 | 20 12 29

360 ANNALS NEW YORK ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

There can be no doubt that these children are taller than whites of

corresponding age. ‘The peculiar breaks are not sufficiently numerous

to be taken into consideration, and they appear to be due in part to acci-

dental variation and to differences in the periods of greatest annual in-

crement, to be discussed later. Between mixed blood and full blood,

there appears a tendency for the latter to exceed in stature; in the

twenty-four possible cases, the mixed bloods exceed in but nine. While

it is clear that the differences are small, it is positive that the mixed

bloods do not exceed the stature of full bloods.

As a check on the preceding, we have the tables for weight, from which

the following deviations from the white standard may be calculated:

Age : : : 3

oa Indian Indian Mixed Mixed

years. males. females. males. females. |

—s—'

i ee emo lananio ol

—

OV OU O> S100 CIO 11

— ee

CO Sd GO SUS St 7 OC 7 O17 0

—

[on]

DS STR ODO OD SOLOIST

pond

—

This is consistent with the foregoing, in that these Indian children of

all ages are heavier than white children, with the possible exception of a

few ages to be discussed later. Again, there are nine cases in which the

mixed bloods exceed the weight of full bloods out of a possible twenty-

four. Of these nine, four are common to both stature and weight.

Another point of interest is the respective variabilities as shown in

these tables. Again taking the white stature as the standard, we have

| Age Indian Indian Mixed Mixed

fences males. females. males. females.

6 =) an 25 —10

ii —8s | —I1 — 5 +14 |

8 ee 0 ee =

9 —7 + 4 —4 +7

10 + 8 —13 —15 + 6

11 +6 | 0 — 5 0

12 +12 —24 +14 —17

ile —24 — 8 —14 —]1

14 —19 —25 —16 —1]

15 —25 —12 —l] + 2

16 — 6 —28 —15

17 8 il 4 9

WISSLER, MEASUREMENTS OF DAKOTA INDIAN CHILDREN 361

The predominating negative sign makes it clear that these Indian

children are less variable than the whites, and again the mixed bloods

fall between the white and full blood standards. As a check upon this

difference, we may use the variability values in Table 3 (exhalation).

Taking the full bloods as the standard, we find the following differences

for the mixed blood children:

Age

in Males. Females.

| years.

3 —16 S6

4 = 4 ae |

5 —3 3

6 4 4

i 1 5

5 io 4

9 5 0

10 4 8

11 5) 6

12 2 0

13 0 2

14 19 7

3) 21 —l

16 9 1

17 — 6 4

18 ks 8

19 —10 12

Adults. . —3 —6

The predominating positive values show clearly that even here the

variability is greater for the mixed bloods, thus confirming the general

tendency of this class to approach the white standard in size relations,

in contrast to the full bloods.

Most studies of this kind for white children have concerned themselves

with the annual increments and the periods of maximum growth. Our

data readily lend themselves to comparison with the results so far at-

tained. Growth is usually estimated by the absolute increments, or the

differences between the averages for the respective ages. From our tables

we obtain the following for stature:

362 ANNALS NEW YORK ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

Males. Females.

Age. |——— Ae eh =

5-6 io 76 53 iz 122 62

627 50 39 64 51 64 74

7-8 49 44 69 50 38 53a

8-9 50 38 36 49 44 ote

9-10 51 47 43 60 43 29

10-11 45 34 42 42 59 Ber

11-12 52 31 34 71 61 67

12-13 53 61 54 56 65 51

13-14 67 93 49 40 46 37

| 14-15 74 58 56 30 7) daa

15-16 40 53 56 3 42 | 16

| 16-17 26 9 68 19 13 11

| 17-18 46 15 5 29

| 18-19 35 9

| |

A close inspection of these increments will show that the general trend

of all is similar. The same peculiar difference between the growth curve

for white girls and that for boys is observable among both Indian and

mixed children. For girls, the adolescent period of increased growth

reaches its maximum at about the same time for all alike; for boys, the

Indians seem to reach it later than the mixed and whites. In case of

both mixed bloods and Indians,’ the pre-adolescent acceleration is more

in evidence than among white children, the mixed bloods again falling

nearer the white standard.

As the number of cases is small, we may

check this result by a similar treatment of the values for weight.

| Males. Females.

Age... | SS =

| White. Mixed. Indian. White. Mixed. Indian.

| a M

5-6 ate | 3 3 oe 8 6

6-7 + | 4 8 4 7 8

7-8 6 | S 6 4 4 2

8-9 5) 4 5 6 5 8

9-10 | 6 10 6 6 6 7

10-11 6 2 5 6 fi 5

11-12 7 | 8 6 11 14 9

P12 i neine 4 6 9 6 9

13-14 | 11 0) 10 iat 1 11

| 14-15 | 16 10 8 6 8 13

| 15-16 | 10 15 11 3 12 6

| 16-17 1] 1 11 6 5 il

17-18 18 i 1 10

WISSLER, MEASUREMENTS OF DAKOTA INDIAN CHILDREN 363

Owing to the expected greater variation in weight, the results are less

readily compared, but they seem to agree with the preceding. The gen-

eral result of measurements of white children is that the periods of maxi-

mum increase in stature occur at 13-15 for boys and at 13-14 for girls.

Now, our measurements show that for mixed bloods the corresponding

periods are 13-15 and 11-13 respectively; for Indians, 15-17 and 13-14.

Inspection shows that there is a corresponding range for weight and that

it holds equally well in exhalation. As the important point has been

made that the period of greatest increment is also the period of maxi-

mum variability, we may apply another check to this result. For mixed

bloods, the maximum variability for stature occurs at 12-15 and 10-14;

among Indians, these are 11-14 and 11-13. For weight, there is corre-

sponding agreement. Further, a glance at the tables will make it clear

that the tendency is toward the maximum variability values during these

intervals. While the number of cases is small and the irregularities in

some values distressing, the general consistencies of the above differences

in maximum period gives them considerable probability.

Tn some recent studies of this character, the method of correlation was

used to show that the relation between stature and weight and perhaps

other size values also reached its maximum at the period of greatest

growth. While the number of cases in our data is scarcely sufficient for

satisfactory results, they are, nevertheless, as large as used in some other

investigations. Hence, we have made some of the calculations for com-

parison, Table 5.

For white children the following correlation values may be taken as

the standard:

eve oh |

Age.| Males. | Females. |

| / | |

6 86 68

ii 78 71

8 69 79

9 12 79

Gy | 83 82

Si 88 88

14 81 74

13 74 70

14 87 74

15 8] 87

16 71 65

17 56 59

For white boys, the maximum correlation occurs for 10-12; for Indian

boys, 10-13; for white girls, 10-11; for Indian girls, 11-12. The mixed

364 ANNALS NEW YORK ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

blood boys show a peculiar reverse relation; low correlations for 10-13

with the maximum at 8 and 14 respectively. We did not calculate the

correlations for mixed females. In general, we find here about the same

correlated values for Indian children as for whites, though there is, as

elsewhere, a suggestion of later manifestation of maximum growth,

which, however, is far from certain with so few cases. The results for

the mixed blood are curious and might be set down as accidental, if this

group did not show other tendencies 1o depart from the normal. Thus,

it may turn out that erratic values are a characteristic of such a mixture.

Tn contrast to the preceding, the correlation values of the mixed blood

do not tend toward an intermediate position with respect to Indian and

white standards.

Tn general, it appears that these Dakota children are taller and heavier

than white children as measured and reported; that the mixed blood

children stand between the values for the two races, and that while there

is a suggestion of a later maximum growth period for the Indian, the

difference is not decisive, the probability being that there is no difference

in the time periods of growth. The tables, however, suggest a slightly

more rapid maturity for Indian children during the 15th and 16th years

of life. The variability for these Indian children is less than for white

children. It is often said that the children of mixed parents are taller

than either parent, but these results are in direct contradiction to that.

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‘

CONTENTS OF VOL. XX, PART II

Fenner, Clarence N. The Watchung Basalt and the Para-

genesis of its Zeolites and Other Secondary Minerals....

Girty, George H. New Genera and Species of Carboniferous

Fossils from the Fayetteville Shale of Arkansas

Girty, George H. New Species of Fossils from the Thaynes

Limestone of Utah

Stevenson, John J. The Coal Basin of Decazeville, France. .

Wheeler, William Morton. The North American Ants of the

Genus* Camponotus Maye 3), 5...°..0e.< aie. ston Oholararsmeranmceeigts pies

Wissler, Clark. Measurements of Dakota Indian Children. .

Page

93-187

189-238

239-242

243-294

295-354

355-364

VOL. XX : 3 PART IIl

ANNALS

GF: THE

NEW YORK

ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

EDITOR

Edmund Otis Hovey

NEW YORK

PUBLISHED BY THE ACADEMY

1910

THE NEW YORK ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

(Lyceum or Naturau History, 1817-1876)

OFFICERS, 1910

President—James F. Kump, Columbia University

Vice-Presidents—GrorGE F. Kunz, CHARLES B. DAVENPORT,

Maurice FISHBERG, WILLIAM CAMPBELL

Recording Secretary—EpMmunp Otis Hovey, American Museum

Corresponding Secretary—HerMon C. Bumpus, American Museum

Treasurer—EMERSON McMILuin, 40 Wall Street

Inbrarian—Rawru W. 'Towrr, American Museum

SECTION OF GEOLOGY AND MINERALOGY

Chairman—GnroreE F. Kunz, 401 Fifth Avenue

Secretary—CHARLes P. Berkey, Columbia University

' SECTION OF BIOLOGY

Chairman—Cuaries B. Davenport, Cold Spring Harbor, N. Y. ‘

Secretary—L. Hussaxor, American Museum.

SECTION OF ASTRONOMY, PHYSICS AND CHEMISTRY

Chairman—WILLIAM CAMPBELL, Columbia University

Secretary—Epwarp J. THatcoHer, Teachers College

SECTION OF ANTHROPOLOGY AND PSYCHOLOGY

Chairman—MavricE FisHBErG, 1337 Madison Avenue

Secretary—R. S. WoopwortH, Columbia University

The sessions of the Academy are held on Monday evenings at 8:15 °

o'clock from October to May, inclusive, at the American Museum of

Natural History, 77th Street and Central Park, West.

VY st ORG

[ANNALS N. Y. ACADEMY OF SCIENCES, VOL. XX, No. 8, Part III, pp. 365-384.

23 February, 1911.]

LIBRARY

NEW YORE

GEOLOGY AND ECONOMICS BOTANICAL

GARDEN.

By James F. Kemp

Presidential Address, read at the Annual Meeting of the New York

Academy of Sciences, December 19, 1910

During the century which has just closed, the various branches of

natural science, botany, zodlogy, geology and their relatives, having earlier

completed their childhood, attained to the well-rounded development of

maturity. Their broad truths were given clear expression; they were

widely apprehended, and they became the foundations of various inven-

tions and applications of far-reaching influence upon human welfare.

Geology, although closely bound up with agriculture, has, nevertheless,

been especially concerned with mining. And justly so, because its con-

tributions to the art of mining have been no more than a filial return,

since mining as practised in the middle ages was the parent of geology.

Until recent years, geology’s services to the industry have been chiefly

rendered in spreading sound and reasonable ideas regarding the nature

and distribution of the useful minerals; in solving the perplexing struc-

tural questions affecting their occurrence, and in facilitating the discovery

of new fields.

The problems of the production of the metals and non-metalliferous

substances, as we know them to-day, are of quite recent growth. High

explosives, efficient engines and pumps, steam shovels and the like are all

not so old as many men who are still living. They have so greatly re-

duced costs that practically a new world has opened to the miner. Not

only on the surface or near it has he been able to work, but the depths

have become accessible, and where the value of the ore justified the effort,

no floods of water have sufficed to keep him out.

These successes, coupled with ever-expanding markets, have until re-

cently directed attention almost wholly toward discovery and production.

But the last ten years have brought a further change. We are now less

concerned about new discoveries than about the maintenance of old ones.

We are not altogether intent on production, but are much given to fore-

casting and husbanding. From being solely an aid to the miner, the

(365 )

366 ANNALS NEW YORK ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

active worker, the producer, geology has become the colleague and helper

of the economist, the statistician and the philosopher.

Like all other changes in fundamental points of view, this one has not

come with absolute suddenness. As far back as 1879, certain geologists

and engineers began to raise and discuss the question of the duration of

the Pennsylvania anthracite. In 1894, the late Richard P. Rothwell,

long the able editor of the Engineering and Mining Journal, gave these

coal fields a future of 70-100 years. Thus, for over thirty years, the

question of their death has been a very live one. Even earlier, the future

of the coal-fields of Great Britain came up for discussion. A parlia-

mentary commission was appointed in 1866 and reported upon the ques-

tion in 1871. For forty years, anxiety has prevailed regarding the con-

tmued production of our petroleum wells, and naturally so. The very

means of production of this useful source of heat and hght starts a train

of thought along the lines of its permanence.

Some ten years ago, the question of our reserves in iron ore began to

excite interest. Mr. Andrew Carnegie gave most forcible expression to

the feeling of alarm in his rectorial address in 1902, at the University of

St. Andrews, Scotland. Mr. Carnegie was known from one end of the

world to the other as one of our greatest ironmasters, and his words made

a profound impression. In his address, he assigned us only enough first-

class ore to last for sixty or seventy years and only enough of the inferior

grades for thirty years thereafter. We all trembled for some years with

the prospect of seeing our greatest industry in the production of metal

disappearing within a century. Many thoughtful people began to wonder

what would become of us with its extinction.

I have thought, therefore, that it might be not without interest if we

take up this evening the more important of our metals and pass in review

some of the fundamental facts of their production, the yield of their ores,

the foreign sources, the future probabilities and the effect upon the civili-

zation of our own and other lands which would result from their curtail-

ment. In a word, we may for a time discuss geology and economics.

The iron industry in the United States took its rise in the colonies

along the Atlantic seaboard and at the outset was based upon the mag-

netic ores and brown hematites there occurring. For one hundred and

fifty years, its growth was slow. In the decade of the forties and fifties

of the past century, it had spread to the Adirondacks and in the fifties

began its development in the Lake Superior region. Not until after the

close of the Civil War and the resumption of peaceful activities did this

great industry manifest its possibilities. With improved facilities of

navigation which placed Lake Superior in easy communication with the

KRYWP, GEOLOGY AND ECONOMICS 367

coal-producing states of Pennsylvania and Ohio, the iron-ore-producing

states of Michigan, Wisconsin and later Minnesota, came rapidly into

prominence. In somewhat slower growth, Alabama, during the seventies

and eighties, gathered headway. At present four fifths of our ore supply

comes from the three Lake Superior states and three out of the four fifths

from Minnesota alone. Alabama, Tennessee and Georgia together yield

one tenth, and the remaining one tenth is divided among a dozen or more

other states, of which New York is the leader. Since 1880, the total has

increased about sevenfold, and Pennsylvania, then the source of about

one quarter the supply, now yields approximately one and one half per

cent. Minnesota, now the great source of ore, only entered the lists in

1884 and only began to utilize its present great mines about ten years

later.

Thus, in the brief course of thirty years, there have been very great

rearrangements, not only in geographical sources of supply, but still more

in actual amount of output. In normal, prosperous years, the annual

production is somewhat more than fifty million tons of ore.

But there have also been other changes not less striking. In early days

and in remote situations, only the richest ores could be mined. Mag-

netites for example in the lump from the Adirondacks afforded over 60

per cent. metallic iron. Specular hematites from the Lake Superior dis-

tricts necessarily yielded 65. For some years, no one regarded them with

respect if they contained less. Red hematites from Alabama afforded

forty-five to fifty. The minor ores near the furnaces were often much

lower—but they may be passed over for the moment in emphasizing the

larger features. Magnetites in the Adirondacks are now concentrated

before shipping, and in instances two and one half to three tons are con-

densed to one of 65 per cent. tenure. The crude ore carries 33-35 per

cent. During the early years of the present decade, the general average

yield of Lake Superior shipments fell off about one per cent. per year—

so that now the soft ores, so called in contrast with the hard lump spec-

ular of earlier days, range somewhat above 50 per cent. Alabama ores,

once 45 to 50, now are very uniform at 36 to 37. So far as the brown

hematites are concerned, which in the form of lumps, crusts, pipes, etc.,

are distributed throughout ochres and clays, the percentage of available

iron in the crude ore is lowest of all. We wash from eight to ten tons of

crude in order to get one ton of concentrates of say 40-45 per cent. in

iron, and under favorable circumstances may treat much lower raw mate-

rials. Soft magnetites in Pennsylvania, which on the richer outcrops

gave 45 to 50 per cent., are now dug in very large amounts with a yield

of 43. If we take the total production of ore in the United States and

368 ANNALS NEW YORK ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

the total production of pig iron, we find the yield in the large way to be

about 50 per cent.

In order to gain some idea of the comparative merits of these figures

when set alongside the percentages in the ores produced in other lands,

a few cases may be cited. Germany, in 1907, produced 27,700,000 tons

of ore, exported nearly four millions and imported eight and one half

millions. Of the local production, three quarters were obtained from

Elsass, Lothringen and Luxemburg, whose percentage in iron ranges

between 30 and 40 and is on the whole not very different from Alabama’s

present percentages of 36-37. Germany’s imports, of course, range

much above these figures, else the ore could not stand the freight charges

from mines in such remote countries as Sweden, Spain and Algiers.

Great Britain produced, in 1907, approximately, 15,000,000 tons, of

which about three quarters were the so-called impure carbonates yielding

30-35 per cent. iron. One ninth of the total was red hematite at 50-55.

The general average would be somewhat less than that of Alabama. Im-

portations of richer ores, especially from Spain, helped to raise the fur-

nace yield.

France, in 1908, produced 10,087,000 tons, of which 88 per cent. was

mined in French Lorraine of the same type as the main German supplies.

The ore ranged from 33 to 40 per cent., again not far from the Clinton

ores of Alabama. We are justified, therefore, in saying that the largest

part of the output of the next three producing countries of the world is

about the same as the lowest grade of lump ore, which can be profitably

mined under present conditions in the United States. When, therefore,

we come to estimate comparative reserves, we must realize that in the

Lake Superior region—our greatest producer—we pay no attention to-day

to ores, which are, nevertheless, much richer than those of Great Britain

and continental Europe.

In the opening sentences, I spoke of the anxiety which was felt a few

years ago regarding the reserves upon which the industry would of neces-

sity rely for its future. I mentioned Mr. Carnegie’s remarks in 1902 at

the University of St. Andrews. But he was not the only one who dis-

cussed this question, and now in referring to one or two other forecasts,

I think you will have in mind some of the fundamentals which establish

a correct point of view. }

In 1905, Professor Térnebohm, the eminent and greatly esteemed

former director of the Geological Survey of Sweden, assigned to us a

reserve of only one billion and sixty millions of tons. Obviously, at an

annual production of over fifty millions, this reserve would only last

twenty years. The future thus looked still darker than when seen

KEMP, GEOLOGY AND ECONOMICS 369

through Mr. Carnegie’s spectacles. Much opposition arose at once, how-

ever, to Professor Térnebohm’s data, because from them had been omitted

the red hematites of Alabama, which can be very accurately estimated

and which of themselves are thought by competent observers to have at

least a half billion tons for the future. Additional modifications must

also be introduced when we properly appreciate the downward tendency

of workable percentages. The lower the percentage of iron which we

require in the product of our mines, the greater the amount of ore which

at once becomes available. This is peculiarly true of iron, because of its

very wide, general distribution.

In 1907, in anticipation of the International Geological Congress of

1910, which was to be held in Stockholm, the Swedish committee of

arrangements began the preparation of a series of estimates of iron re-

serves in all the countries of the globe. Geologists familiar with local

conditions were requested to prepare the figures each for his own country.

It fell to the speaker to start the collection of American estimates, and

much aid was afforded by several of the largest companies owning re-

serves. Shortly thereafter, however, the interest in the conservation of

natural resources sprang up, and Dr. C. W. Hayes, of the United States

Geological Survey, was empowered to use all the resources of this great

organization in assembling data on iron. In this way, figures as reliable

as can be expected are now available. We learn from them that we may

consider three and one half billion tons of fifty per cent. ore as assured in

the Lake Superior region. Of this great total of three billions, one hun-

dred millions are in the Mesabi range of Minnesota. At thirty millions

of tons per annum, the present output of Minnesota, we have a reserve

for a century.

On the other hand, if we drop to 40 per cent. or slightly below, still,

however, remaining a few per cent. above the Alabama grade, the drill

holes show above depths no greater than those already reached in some

mines, two or three hundred billions of tons of siliceous hematites, giving

amounts practically inexhaustible.

In the Alabama ore beds, we feel assured of five to six hundred million

tons of the grades now utilized, and there may well be twice that number.

The conservative estimate would afford enough to last at the present out-

put of that state longer than a century. In addition, there is much

reason for thinking that there may be two or three times as much.

Speaking for the country as a whole, we may say that there is an as-

sured and demonstrated supply, at the present rate of output and the

present percentage of yield, for about a century. There is, furthermore,

a less accurately measured but still very probable addition, when we allow

370 ANNALS NEW YORK ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

for lower grade but still practicable ores, which will be sufficient to last at

present rate of production for fifteen hundred years to come.

If, however, production increases, as indeed it may with a rapidly

growing population, and if in this way heavier and heavier drafts are

made upon even this great reserve, where shall we look for more? There

may be some new discoveries within the United States, but at present it

is impossible to speak definitely of them. We may ask if there are other

supplies in neighboring lands. To this question we may answer, yes.

Along the north shore of Cuba, toward its eastern end and near the sea,

three areas of what formerly appeared to be a barren, ferruginous soil

have been discovered and tested, so that we now know that there are two

to three billions of tons of a very pure iron ore, which, when deprived of

the large percentage of water which it contains—a cheap and simple

process—will yield from 40 to 45 per cent. iron. This variety of ore

already begins to enter our ports, and the deposits will undoubtedly con-

tribute in no unimportant way to the output of our furnaces.

The report of the International Geological Congress has shown further

that in Newfoundland there are quite probably more than three billions

of tons of red hematite, whose present yield averages 54 per cent. From

Brazil, moreover, in the state of Minas Geraes, but pretty well back from

the coast and not yet opened up by rail, as estimated by Dr. O. A. Derby,

there are from five to six billion tons of 50—70 per cent. ore awaiting the

drill and the steam shovel. Ore from Brazil faces a long sea voyage, but

the grade is rich, and the ironmasters of this and other countries are look-

ing upon these deposits as well within the possibilities of the future.

Ocean freights are kept at very reasonable rates in these later days, and

once on a steamship even so low-priced a commodity as iron ore, if of good

percentages and cheaply mined, can be taken relatively great distances.

This is demonstrated by the shipment this year from the mines of Kiruna,

112 miles within the Polar Circle in Lapland, of 300,000 tons of ore, 113

miles to the Norwegian coast by rail, and over 4,000 miles to Philadel-

phia by sea, with no great prospect of a return cargo. These shipments

also demonstrate that we are not without the range to which European

ores may be shipped when exceptionally rich. Some portion of the vast

ore body of Kiruna, with its demonstrated 500 millions of tons of 60-69

per cent. ore, will also reach American furnaces.

But even were ourgactual ores of present grade to become exhausted.

iron as a metal would not fail. The basic rocks with their low percent-

ages still remain. The trap-rock of the Palisades contains 7-8 per cent.

of metallic iron, a value that is far above the general yield of our copper

ores in the red metal.

KEMP, GEOLOGY AND ECONOMICS (al

Iron, therefore, will never fail. It will probably not change in its

general relations to modern conditions for a very long time to come, so

far as its ores are concerned. We may have greater anxiety about the

supplies of coking coals than about the iron ore, but there are always such

possibilities of improvements or changes in processes that no one can

justly give way to unqualified forebodings.

Copper is the metal generally considered next in importance to iron.

It is a very old one in the history of the race. The bronze age, you will

recall, preceded the iron age. Prehistoric man in Europe solved the

mixed metallurgy of copper and tin before he learned the smelting of

iron. Prehistoric man in America found native copper on the shores of

Lake Superior and passed it in trade a thousand miles from its home.

As a cherished possession, it constituted his ornaments while he lived, and

it was buried with him after he had died.

Among the moderns, copper is most extensively employed in brass, but

as a conductor of electricity, it finds year by year increasing applications

in the purest condition in which the metallurgist can supply it. If at

home or in your office you look around your chair or desk, you will be

surprised to find how universally employed it is.

Greatly stimulated by the development of electricity in later years, the

production of copper has advanced by leaps and bounds. At present, the

United States is the heaviest producer, with Spain following next, but

yielding only one eighth as much. The United States furnishes over half

the total. In 1850, this country yielded 728 tons; in 1900, over 303,000,

and in 1908, 471,000. Meantime, in 1850, the price of copper was about

30 cents per pound. Its lowest point in recent years was nine cents in

1894. Its highest, 25 cents, was attained in 1907. We may each of us

imagine the variation in the profits of a mining enterprise as between

11 cents a pound and 15 cents, let alone 20 or 25 cents. Mining costs,

smelting and freight charges, show no such variation, so that with rising

prices profits greatly increase. Indeed, few of the metals have such ex-

traordinary ups and downs as does copper.

In its ores, the yield varies greatly. On Lake Superior, where the

native metal is distributed through ancient lava flows in little pellets,

leaves and sheets, it has been profitably mined and produced through

periods of years, when it constituted but three quarters of one per cent.

of the ore. The general run is, however, one per cent. and above. If we

recall that in a ton of 2,000 pounds, one per cent. is 20 pounds, and three

quarters of one per cent. 15 pounds, and if copper is selling at, say, 13

cents, the mining manager must break down, hoist, concentrate with

attendant losses and smelt an ore worth less than two dollars for all the

B09 ANNALS NEW YORK ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

metallic contents which it contains. We can thus gain an idea of the

close and economical work required and the ability demanded of a man--

ager. As the price rises, the profits greatly increase, and temporarily idle

mines are brought within the widening remunerative zone and are quick-

ened into life. As the price falls, the mines dangerously near the line

close down and production ceases. The lowest cost of production claimed

is from the low grade and very large ore bodies of the west and is placed

at or about eight to nine cents per pound laid down in New York.

In copper ores outside of the Lake Superior region, we usually find the

metal in composition with sulphur. The ores as they come from the mine

may be rich enough to go directly to the smelter, or they may require con-

centration before the grade is sufficiently high. The ores which are directly

smelted reach the minimum of copper in the Boundary district of British

Columbia, but associated gold and silver raise the value per ton above

four dollars. Copper ores yielding copper alone were smelted at Duck-

town, Tenn., during long campaigns at a little less than 2.5 per cent. In

earlier years and in many mining districts, ores as high as 20 per cent.

were found, rarely even higher, but they in time were exhausted, and five

per cent. would be quite rich for day in and day out averages.

These statements will serve to establish a point of view and likewise

afford a standard of comparison. What is the outlook for the future of

copper production ?

We can not predict copper with the certainty of iron. It seldom ap-

pears in bedded deposits which can be measured. In the deep mines, we

can not always see ahead for more than a year or two. In some mines,

we know from exceptionally complete development of twenty years’ sup-

ply. But the great advance in copper mining has been the entrance of

relatively low-grade ores into the productive field. The wall rocks of ten

years ago have become the ores of to-day. Where we find in porphyries

or schists copper sulphide disseminated in fine particles or as coatings

along crevices and in sufficient richness to yield two to two and one half

per cent. throughout very large bodies, it can be mined very cheaply and

concentrated in enormous quantities so as to return a safe margin. If the

ore lies near the surface, steam shovels make excavation extremely low

in cost. The huge pits and open cuts of this type of mine in the West

are now among the great sights for the traveler. Mills whose insatiable

crushers take as much as eight or ten thousand tons per day are no longer

unknown. The drill blocks out the ore long before mining begins, and

reserves can be estimated more closely than in the vein mines.

If a mine is called upon to furnish a mill with 2,000 tons per day and

we allow 300 working days in the year, 600,000 tons must be supplied per

KEMP, GEOLOGY AND ECONOMICS 373

annum. For a life of twenty years, a time practically demanded of

such an enterprise to justify the great expense of installation, at least

12,000,000 tons must be shown by the drill before the enterprise can

safely begin. If we expect to mine three times this amount per day, we

call for three times as much ore. These figures, large as they may seem,

are not beyond the estimates of ore bodies as now blocked out in several

places in the West, and even with these great demands, twenty years’ sup-

ply and even more in instances have been demonstrated.

Let us now imagine again a 2,000-ton daily output of say 2.25 per cent.

ore, of which the mill saves two thirds, or 30 pounds of copper in the ton.

The output in copper per day will be 60,000 pounds, or 30 tons, and for

the year 9,000 tons. Should three new companies start up with four or

five times this output, 36,000 to 45,000 tons will be added to a yearly

supply, which in 1909 was 552,668 tons. We see great need of a growing

demand in order that these vast contributions may be absorbed. Yet I

have made no unreasonable assumptions nor have I overstepped the prac-

tical certainties of the next few years.

How long will our copper hold out? Mines come and go, and for the

immediate future there will certainly be no scarcity. Copper does not

oxidize as readily as iron and is not lost. The world’s stock steadily

accumulates. But twenty years is not a long look ahead. Are there new

countries which will be producers? Some of the old mines in Europe are

now no longer great sources of the metal.

We do know of possibilities in Alaska that will add some contributions.

We know of new or recently opened ore bodies in Peru, Bolivia and Chile

that promise well. We hear of very large deposits in the southeastern

corner of the Congo State, once worked by the ancients, now revived by

the moderns and possessing large reserves of 15 per cent. copper ore.

The Cape to Cairo railway will give them great impetus. For the imme-

diate future, there is no lack, but if we look fifty years or a century ahead,

we can speak with less confidence. In a general way, we may say that

probably new discoveries will, for a time at least, more than keep pace

with demands. But when we look fifty years into the future we are not

so certain. It behooves the producers to use no treatment of an ore ex-

cept a careful and economical one. If tailings and waste from our mills

now contain one third the copper in the original ore, they should be im-

pounded and kept from being washed away by floods, against the possible

call of the future. We dare not say that they will never be within the

ranges of profitable treatment even though their low percentage places

the copper beyond reach to-day. The copper situation is not one to ex-

cite anxiety, yet it is also one not to encourage extravagance.

374 ANNALS NEW YORK ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

Following copper, we may take up lead and zinc, which are the next

metals in amount of production. Of the three, zinc is the least in total

tons and in total value. We may gain some idea of the relations from

the small table given below, in which zinc is taken as unity and the fig-

ures relate to 1908. Price per

Amount Value Pound

VAS OR ee SOLS Boe 5 od OOD ODIO IOS a3) 1.0 1.0

iOS YC te BAe Ra eac ao Ln ose coo aap OG i 1.45 0.9

OMjiiGe Goconnos soon caoupDpanadonO G6 2.46 7.0 2.8

Thus we see that the lead production is one and three fifths that of

zinc, and the copper is two and one half times; that the lead is about one

and one half times the value of the zinc, and the copper is seven times;

and that zinc is worth more per pound than lead and only about one third

as much as copper. The red metal is not only produced in greater

amount, but is worth more per pound and in the aggregate than both the

others taken together.

Among the nations of the world, the United States has become the

chief contributor of lead and yields year by year proportions varying from

27 to 33 per cent. of the total. The next country is Spain with about

two thirds as much, and Germany follows with three fifths.

In this country, the state of Missouri is the heaviest contributor and is

responsible for practically 40 per cent. of the total. Idaho is next with

about 32 per cent. and Utah follows with 13 to 14. The western lead

all carries silver. The precious metal is an important factor in the value

of the product. When we come to forecast the future, it is not possible

to see more than a few years in advance or to speak in more than a general

way. The miners would be glad to be assured of reserves of ore for a

goodly period of years, but it is seldom possible or practicable to demon-

strate their presence. Operations necessarily continue with a few years’

supply blocked out in advance of the actual mining, and the hope is main-

tained that more will be found. Very often the expectations prove justi-

fied. We may, therefore, in a measure forecast future experience some-

what by the past. In the Missouri lead region, mines have been operated

for forty or fifty years, not on so large a scale at the outset as now, but

continuously. For some years at least, no change may be anticipated.

In Idaho, the lead ores are now known to continue to depths of nearly

2,000 feet beneath the overlying surface and to be holding out without

essential change in character. In Missouri, however, the mines never

have been very deep, that is over three or four hundred feet, and the

compensation comes in wide horizontal extent.

Some of the old time heavy producers have greatly declined. Nevada,

KEMP, GEOLOGY AND ECONOMICS 375

once an extremely important source of lead, is now a comparatively small

contributor. Colorado, in former years our chief source, has dropped to

only a third of its one-time yield, and yet the total of the country has

gone quite steadily on. The fall in the price of silver was a hard blow

to the western lead miners and naturally not only cut off their profits but

raised the necessary percentage of metal in the ore.

If we look ahead for a century or some such long period, we may not

feel assured that production can be maintained at present rates. There

may, of course, be new discoveries in lands not as yet fully explored.

Being distant from present centers of consumption as they necessarily

would be, their entry into the markets would imply higher prices so as to

meet the charges of freight.

On the other hand, lead is a metal which oxidizes or changes very

slowly. In its applications in the metallic state, it tends thus to accu-

mulate unless lost in use, as in the case of shot and bullets. It is exten-

sively employed in the manufacture of paint, and in this form is of course

never recovered. About two per cent. of the entire output is destroyed

to give us white and red pigments.

It behooves us on the whole to be careful in the use of lead and to

avoid, when possible, its unnecessary sacrifice.

Zine is a metal of comparatively late introduction into commerce in

the large way. Although known for centuries, it has found its chief

applications in the last sixty years. There was no zinc mine in the

United States until approximately the year 1850, and from the Missouri

region whence we now obtain our chief supplies, the really serious con-

tributions began about 1870. Lead, indeed, was mined and prized long

before this, but the associated zinc ore was thrown one side on the dumps.

In the West, the same experience continued until much later. Zine was

a nuisance in the metallurgical treatment of lead, and even the lead was

sought and smelted either because of its own silver contents or because it

made possible the treatment of other refractory silver ores. Jn the metal-

lurgical work, the zine was volatilized or slagged off and was lost. In-

deed, one of our most serious metallurgical problems has been the success-

ful treatment of lead-zine ores, and many investigators have addressed

themselves to its solution. Now that anxiety is beginning to manifest

itself regarding zine supplies for the future, the desire to save it is

stronger than ever.

Zinc, however, is a peculiar metal, and because of the exigencies of its

treatment, its ores must possess greater richness and greater purity than

those of other base metals. Thus in the case of copper, a ten per cent.

ore is in later days phenomenally rich, and as it can be smelted in a shaft

376 ANNALS NEW YORK ACADEMY OF SCLENCES

furnace, the presence of iron or lime or other bases that make fusible

slags is an advantage. But zinc ores, perhaps after preliminary roasting,

must be reduced and the metal must be volatilized at a high temperature

from a small charge in a retort. The presence of fusible bases destroys

the retort, and the bases are therefore debarred beyond certain small per-

centages. Thus it happens that a forty or fifty per cent. zinc ore might

be valueless if contaminated by iron or lime beyond a narrow margin.

While almost any conceivable mineralogical aggregate that contained ten

per cent. of copper would be a very valuable ore, a zinc-bearing aggregate

with four or five times as much zinc might be unsalable.

Suppose we compare them from another standpoint. Copper ores, if

at all profitable, are worth about so much per unit of copper, that is, so

much for each per cent. While there is some variation, yet the contrasts

as among three per cent., five per cent. and ten per cent. ores are much

the same as the ratio of the per cents to each other. But if we think of a

zine-blende ore or concentrate of 60 per cent. as the standard of richness,

a fifty per cent. ore is not worth five sixths as much, nor a forty per cent.

ore two thirds. On the contrary, a forty per cent. ore might be entirely

unsalable. As the zine decreases, other deleterious bases take its place,

and a worthless mixture soon results. Zinc is in many ways the most

peculiar of the metals, and when we come to deal with its profitable treat-

ment analogies with other metals fail.

In 1907, the United States was the chief producer of zinc among the

nations, but, as a rule, Germany leads, followed by this country and Bel-

gium in the order named. In later years, our output has varied from

26 to 30 per cent. of the total. As a rule, Germany is 2—4 per cent. in

excess of us and Belgium is 4-5 per cent. less.

In America, Missouri is the chief source of zinc. Its production from

the mines in 1908 was approximately one half the output of the entire

United States. New Jersey follows with somewhat over one quarter the

total, while all the rest are much smaller.

The Missouri ores as thus far produced have been obtained from com-

paratively shallow depths. They extend lengthwise and sometimes later-

ally to greater dimensions than vertically. While it is not beyond the

possibilities that lower lying deposits may be discovered, since zinc ores

are found in Arkansas in strata of lower geological position, anticipations

of this reserve have not as yet been demonstrated on a large scale. Kan-

sas, Oklahoma and Arkansas, the states neighboring to southwest Mis-

souri, also have some zinc ores, but they are not of great importance:

southwestern Wisconsin is a very old mining district and has many small

mines, which were earlier worked for lead. They have been revived for

}

-~?

“~

KEMP, GEOLOGY AND ECONOMICS

zine in later years and are now an appreciable but not great factor. They

may develop somewhat more extensively and may last for a goodly series

of years, but the mines are relatively small and are wet, so that explora-

tion does not go very far in advance of mining.

In New Jersey, the future is best forecast of all. For thirty or forty

years, there is no occasion of anxiety. Yet thirty or forty years pass

quickly, and then we must prepare to look for other sources. To make

the zinc-blende of the Rocky Mountain region available, an increase in

price is practically necessary, otherwise the metal can not stand the

freight charges. There is zinc ore in the west, but to what extent we

can not well say. It has been avoided rather than sought in most of our

mines. Yet we do note symptoms of attention to it. In Butte, Montana,

efforts are being made to concentrate it. Shipments of oxidized ores

have been made from New Mexico for some years past. Until recently

large amounts of peculiar appearance seem to have been entirely over-

looked at Leadville, Colorado. They now promise to be an important

resource. A government commission has reported upon the occurrence

of the metal in British Columbia in the hopes of utilizing the ores. From

Mexico, too, we learn of explorations for zinc. Conditions are changing

in the case of this metal, and more and more it is certain to be brought

from remoter localities. But when we look a long way ahead, say for a

century, we can not feel free from anxiety. This condition of mind is

even more prominent in Europe than in America. The waning of the

famous old mines near Aix-la-Chapelle and the apprehensions felt

regarding other sources have led to a world-wide search. Zine ores, for

example, now reach Hamburg from the Pacific shore of Siberia, and as

other discoveries are made, additional points remote from present smelt-

ing centers are likely to be shippers, provided that transportation is by

water. Nevertheless, all these new conditions call for advances in price,

and before many years zinc bids fair to take the upward course.

The precious metals, silver and gold, are the only other two which we

may pass in quick review. Silver is a less attractive object of mining

than it was twenty years ago, and yet with the improvement of processes

of extraction and with the great development of the output of copper and

lead in which it is a by-product, the fall in its price of the early nineties

has been less disastrous to the amount produced than one might have

supposed. Our maximum output was reached in 1892, when it was

63,500,000 ounces, valued at $55,662,500. In the same year, about

1,600,000 ounces of gold were produced, valued at somewhat over thirty-

three millions of dollars. In 1908, we are credited with approximately

fifty-two and a half million ounces of silver, valued at twenty-eight mil-

BU is ANNALS NEW YORK ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

lion dollars. Gold, meantime, with the fall of silver, has advanced to

4,574,340 ounces, valued at $94,560,000. .

In the United States, we have now comparatively few distinctively

silver mines. Among them Tonapah, Ney., has been chief. Mexico is the

particular home of silver, but the remarkable district of Cobalt, Ontario,

has given great present importance to Canada. In our own country, we

must expect the white metal to share the fortunes of the copper and lead

with which it is chiefly produced. As influencing its future, copper is a

more serious factor than lead, both for the reason that Missouri lead con-

tains little if any silver, and because western copper ores display greater

reserves than do western lead ores. As sources of silver, there were in

1908 no very great differences among Montana (a copper-silver state),

Colorado (a silver and lead-silver state) and Nevada (a silver state).

Utah (both a lead-silver and a copper-silver state) afforded about five

sixths Montana’s output; and Idaho (a lead-silver state) about three

fourths Montana’s;? Arizona (a copper-silver state) follows after a long

interval, and the others are much smaller.

As an indication of relative magnitudes, while the output of the United

States was placed at 52.5 million ounces in 1908, Mexico afforded 72.6

and Canada 22 millions. Australia with 17.3 follows and then Peru with

7.2 millions. A metal with so high a value as silver will stand transpor-

tation from remote points, and although the production in one country or

another may fluctuate, the world’s supplies are not likely to be seriously

affected for many years. Silver is largely used in the metallic state, and,

being resistant to change, it tends to accumulate. Photography is the

most destructive industry to it, and when once employed in this art, it is

practically lost.

Gold is mined for itself alone to a far greater degree than is silver.

Thus in this country in 1908, almost 93 per cent. of the gold was pro-

duced without regard to other metals, and only 7 per cent. was obtained

with copper and lead; whereas about 60 per cent. of the silver was pro-

duced in association with the base metals. Gold in later years has in-

creased in amount of production beyond all previous experience. The

steady and scientific digging and washing of low-grade gravels are, in the

long run, more productive than the rich skimmings of the early Califor-

1 In ounces they range:

MOM EAN: —28e << te tone oe eee ET esis clic tevano lg Gel ete niee 10,356,200

Colorado. WA. shes Bsis sede rs Ee ean eae Gems, fore coals, o's) onl Syeee 10,150,200

IN@ VAG Zi clteae oiebe csi ete ake OTe ee oR edie te ats a s)s, 3s pera elene 9,508,500

TT EMT ee citomes Ske so SRW K oe heel aoe nes Ree EER SHY. Ln fa leah da eee 8,451,300

JIC WV 6 pLewkctags, woe SORA RR ed sity Slee oe ate iy koh cy SN La ac ge ene me RGR Te 7,558,300

KEMP, GEOLOGY AND ECONOMICS 379

nia, Australia and Klondike placers. The world’s total of 444 millions

of dollars in 1908 was in excess of any previous year. The Transvaal

furnished the most, nearly 146 millions. The United States followed,

with 96 millions; Australasia yielded 72.5; Russia, nearly 40; Mexico,

24.5; Rhodesia, 12.2, and British India, 10.4. All the rest were under 10.

The countries mentioned supply about 90 per cent. of the total.

In the United States, 28 per cent. of the gold comes from gravels, and

these are the least permanent of the sources of the metal. With their

exhaustion, the output will decline. In the deep mines, there are signs

of waning output in some districts. In our own country, new districts

have come to the front from time to time to give on the whole a steady

increase in output for forty years past. So far as the future is con-

cerned, however, the ups and downs of any one or of several countries

make slight difference in the world at large. Gold can be readily shipped

from point to point, and the place of its production is a comparatively

small matter.

Like silver and to an even greater degree, it resists chemical change,

so that the world’s stock constantly augments. No very important por-

tion is permanently lost in the arts.

Gold and silver are so extensively employed in coinage that they have

received more attention at the hands of economists than have any other

‘metals. Gold in later years, with its increasing production, has led to

much philosophical speculation. The establishment of it as the monetary

standard and the elimination of silver from this position have occasioned

some of the most heated political controversies in the history of our coun-

try. Into these, a geologist is not competent to enter. We all probably

realize from old-time experience how easy it is to become befogged. But

the geologist can say that for some years to come the gold production will

undoubtedly be maintained. And that while the Klondike and Alaska

may wane, Siberia will increase.

We may now briefly summarize the main facts affecting the six metals

which have been passed in review. It will then be possible to draw some

general conclusions. Of iron ore, there is no lack, nor need any one be

apprehensive regarding the supply of this metal, but before very many

years have passed, the yield of the ore will have decidedly declined. While

the falling off will be gradual, it will undoubtedly tend in the long run

toward forty per cent. This change is in itself important, because, unless

otherwise neutralized, it will raise the cost of production. It makes

necessary the melting of more barren materials in the furnace, so that the

consumption of fuel rises with respect to the amount of iron produced.

It means also the mining and freighting of an additional burden which

380 ANNALS NEW YORK ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

yields no return. From whatever point of view we regard it, other things

being equal, the cost of production rises. The great reserves of lower

grade ore than is at present mined are in the Lake Superior district. They

are siliceous ores and will require in smelting the admixture either of

limestone or of other iron ores high in the bases. The Clinton ores of

Alabama are of this type, and except for the hitherto unfortunate per-

centages of phosphorus which they might add to Lake Superior ores, they

would doubtless make an advantageous mixture with the latter. But. the

southern ores are remote from the northern. In order to meet them at

or near the supplies of fuel, a long railway haul would be necessary.

While this is not impossible, it would add to the cost so greatly as to be

highly improbable. There is one further consideration. The greater

part of our pig iron is used in the manufacture of steel. For this pur-

pose, in the two processes most extensively employed hitherto, we need,

respectively, either a very low or a fairly high percentage of phosphorus.

If our irons are in between, and like the church at Laodicea, neither hot

nor cold, they have been ill-adapted to steel manufacture. Unless the

growth of the open-hearth process introduces great changes, the mixture,

therefore, of southern basic ores and northern siliceous ones is not alto-

gether promising for this reason.

The greatest cause of apprehension as regards present processes of iron

manufacture lies in the supply of coking coal. We have built lofty fur-

naces, and in their use we place upon the fuel as it progresses downward

in the furnace a heavy load of overlying ore and limestone. We need a

very strong coke to stand up under the burden. The coals which yield

these high-grade cokes are found in a small portion of the total coal-

bearing area, and the life of the supply is one of the very serious phases

of the present situation. I do not know what the amount of reserves

may be.

While these physical and chemical factors operate to increase costs,

there is always the possibility of improved processes and of greater effi-

ciency to keep them down. The improvement most frequently in people’s

minds to-day is the utilization of water powers to generate electricity,

which in turn may supply heat. Now, in a blast furnace smelting iron

ores, one third the fuel is employed in reducing the iron oxide and two

thirds in developing the necessary heat for the reaction. Were we able

with water powers to furnish electricity economically and from it derive

the necessary heat, we might save two thirds of the present amount of

required fuel. We might reduce costs. The remaining one third of the

fuel we should always need, but it is possible that poorer grades than

high quality coke might answer. The saving would lie, of course, in the

KEMP, GEOLOGY AND ECONOMICS 381

difference between the cost of the fuel and the cost of the electric current,

provided the latter could be furnished more cheaply than the former.

The water powers in our own country, or at least in the more thickly

settled portions of it, have not failed to attract attention, nor have they

gone altogether unutilized. The more conveniently situated ones are

already harnessed to the dynamos. But in countries like Norway and

Sweden, where there are large water powers still available, where there

are rich deposits of ore and where coal fails, the applications of electricity

to iron smelting are likely to be first worked out successfully. Data may

be furnished in the lifetime of many of us which will cast light upon

these improvements in their world-wide relations.

The only other apparent possibility of reducing costs lies in the labor

charges. Wages at present are not unduly high, and unless the increas-

ing population of the country brings to pass an inevitable struggle for

existence, which will cause the greater subdivision of tasks at lower pro-

portionate returns, or unless the general reduction of expenses for subsist-

ence makes lower wages possible, there would seem to be slight prospect

of change in this item. In any event, the reductions from this cause can

not compensate the falling off in the yield of iron as foretold above.

Suppose iron goes up in cost—other conditions of our daily life re-

maining the same—transportation and all manufacturing based on

machinery would become more expensive, and less freely carried on.

Undoubtedly an appreciable pressure would be developed to turn our

people back to tle rural districts and to tilling the soil for a livelihood.

The tendency under the stimulus of manufacturing development has

been the other way. The migration of late years has been toward not

from the cities. Shall we perhaps find in the long run, in the increasing

cost of iron and steel a partial solution of a much vexed problem? Will

the cry “back to the soil” receive support in a way not generally antici-

pated? The question is an interesting one for speculation.

The general inference regarding copper is that the pinch of higher cost

of production will be felt sooner than in the case of iron. We have no

knowledge of such enduring reserves of copper ores as we have of iron.

On the other hand, copper, despite its vast importance, is not the funda-

mental necessity that is iron. It is used in less quantity in machinery,

and its increase in cost would less vitally affect manufacturing industries

based on machinery. Advancing cost would cut it out of much orna-

mental work of inferior esthetic merit. The most serious effect would be

found in raising the expenses of service in the applications of electricity.

Electrical transportation, telegraphy and telephony would be more expen-

sive than to-day. Unless wireless methods of transmission eliminate

2—NY

389 ANNALS NEW YORK ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

(2)

copper, or unless some discovery in the domain of physics which we do

not now foresee, furnishes a substitute for the omnipresent copper wire of |

to-day, we may find ourselves face to face with some curtailment in these

modern aids to the easy conduct of life’s affairs. If, in the course of

several centuries, the falling off in supply and the growth in population

should raise copper to relatively high figures, we may wonder if a return

in a way to the conditions of the middle ages will not result. Will copper

then become to a greater degree than now the basis of skilled handiwork?

Will the by-gone craftsmanship be revived, and with a lessening total

output shall we see an advance in artistic skill? In fact, if the vast

development of machinery and the huge output of metallic objects at low

cost—a condition so characteristic of to-day—should be checked or cur-

tailed, would not hand-work on more valuable mediums of expression be

restored? It is not altogether unreasonable to anticipate fewer objects

and higher craft in their production.

The cases of lead and zinc are even more emphatic than that of copper.

We have still fewer assured reserves, and the pinch of increasing cost may

manifest itself at an earlier date. The two metals are not, however, quite

such vital factors in modern life as is copper, and the larger effects would

be less apparent. Zinc is a necessary component in the manufacture of

brass, the industry which absorbs the greater part of the copper output.

A curtailment of either lead or zinc would cause inconvenience but would

scarcely occasion fundamental changes.

Silver will be very seriously affected by a decrease in the output of

either copper or lead. Gold will feel these changes in an appreciable but

far less degree. There will always be sufficient, however, of each of the

precious metals for coinage, and beyond this use their applications, except

perhaps in photography, concern luxuries rather than fundamental neces-

sities. We can not attribute to them any profound possibilities in their

influence upon civilization should the contributions of the mines decline.

In the recent past, we have been more apprehensive regarding a too great

supply of the precious metals, than regarding one too small.

With the increasing interest in the discussions of the conservation of

natural resources, there has been an increasing disposition of the authori-

ties to assume supervisory powers oyer mining and metallurgical opera-

tions. The old-time idea that to the crown, or, as we are accustomed to

say, to the state, belongs the mineral wealth of the earth, is experiencing

something of a revival. The disposition to restrict the waste of valuable

metals or minerals in processes of manufacture is commendable, and after

careful demonstration that it is feasible and that it is just to the oper-

ating concerns, it may be wisely done. The rejected product of concen-

KEMP, GEOLOGY AND ECONOMICS 383

trating mills or the “tailings,” so called, when provided with appreciable

percentages of metals, may well be stored where they can be utilized by

future generations, if processes improve so as to make them available.

That is to say, they should not be run into rivers or placed where they

will be dissipated. The same remark applies to slags from metallurgical

works. The moderns, for example, are now working over the lead-

bearing slags left by the ancients at the great lead mines of Laurium,

Greece. Even the slags of early smelters in the West and in Mexico may

again pass through the furnace.

Another question relates to the discovery, location and ownership of

mining property. So far as the metals are involved, and with the metals

this address has been alone concerned, the valuable discoveries are so few

in comparison with the disappointing attempts to develop, that only by

encouragement and rather generous conditions will the prospector be

enabled to follow his arduous calling. He must be offered large prizes

proportionate to the many failures. He must be assured of possession

by a very circumspect and conscientious administration, if confidence in

the justice of the government is to be maintained. People in the parts

of the country where mining for the metals is not carried on hear only

of the great successes and little of the innumerable disappointments. Far

-the largest part of the population thus acquire very distorted views of the

_real conditions of mining. The interference by the government, other

than in the ways which I have mentioned, and in maintaining reasonably

safe conditions for the workman, is a matter to be regarded with great

caution, lest irreparable injury be done to the large problem of maintain-

ing our future supplies with such new discoveries and developments as

may be feasible. The wisest course is to improve the method of estab-

lishing and recording titles to new discoveries, and then, except in the

matters already mentioned, to let the natural course of business assert

itself. The proper share of the state will be obtained through the normal

processes of taxation.

The mines for the metals do not, however, present the most important

phase of this subject. Coal is a more serious problem, and one demand-

ing more extended treatment than would be justifiable in an address

primarily devoted to other themes. One may only express the hope that

where cases of dispute arise they may be determined in the courts, aceord-

ing to the established rules of evidence.

The resources in the metals which have been found in the United States

have proved so great as to make the industries based upon them a very

vital factor in our whole civilization. Great changes in the supply or the

cost will inevitably react in the long run upon the opportunities for em-

384 ANNALS NEW YORK ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

ployment and support and upon the very nature of our national life.

While it will be a long time before rearrangements in the case of the most .

important of the metals, iron, will be manifest, and while they will assert

themselves gradually, we are quite certain to face new conditions in cop-

per, lead and zinc at an earlier date. In the end, however, we can per-

haps justifiably forecast a future in which agriculture will figure more

and more prominently and in which the moral, intellectual and spiritual

life of the nation will readjust itself accordingly. Great and concen-

trated wealth is likely to be less in evidence, materialistic influences less

pronounced, and from the vantage ground afforded by the greater com-

forts and opportunities of modern life as compared with that of a century

or a half century past, we may in the distant future look forward to an

evolution upon somewhat different lines. Broadly viewed, the national

life will probably be increasingly sympathetic with art and with ideals.

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ANNALS N. Y. ACAD. SCI. VOLUME XX, PLATHD XVI.

[Annas N. Y. Acap. Sct, Vor. XX, No. 9, Part III, pp. 385-398, pl. XVI.

31 March, 1911]

BIOGRAPHICAL MEMOIR OF ROBERT PARR WHITFIELD

By L. P. Graracap

Professor R. P. Whitfield was born at Willowvale, New Hartford

Township, Oneida Co., New York, on May 27, 1828. His parents came

from England, where his father had been engaged at spindle-making for

himself. His father possessed very considerable mechanical ability, and

from him Professor Whitfield inherited his own marked manipulative

skill. His early life was not accompanied by those incentives to the

study of nature with which so many naturalists begin their careers, nor

did he have any advantages of encouragement either in books or in per-

sonal intercourse. In fact, the temperament of his father opposed his

occasional indulgence in study and exercised a most unfortunate re-

pressive influence upon the child’s natural tastes.

By a lucky chance, such as often determines the tenor of a life, when

a very small child, scarcely four years old, a nurse girl ministered in an

extraordinary way to the impulses of his nature. This untutored, un-

trained companion, who filled a humble domestic réle, frequently took

the young Whitfield and the other children out into the fields and woods

at Willowvale, a pleasant mill-site five miles southwest of Utica, and

turned their attention to the life and habits of wild animals, plants and

insects. This girl, as I have heard Professor Whitfield himself designate

her, was a “born naturalist” ; she was utterly innocent of any book learn-

ing, but possessed an intuitive faculty of observation. Every field, each

stretch of wood, the fence posts and the quarry stones, the common gravel

walk and the flowering wayside were full of delight and wonders to this

woman. In the absence of any erudition or any terminology, she sup-

plied both from the flow of her own invention and the stores of her own

experience and study. It was a wholesome delighted interest, naive and

spontaneous, and she touched a responsive chord in Whitfield’s nature.

She knew the various caterpillars, had her own names for them, watched

their development into butterflies and taught the children the steps of

the wonderful change. The decaying logs of the wood gave up their

secrets to her prying and watchful curiosity, the flowers were mentally

catalogued and the course of the seasons marked by their unbroken suc-

cession from spring to autumn. How deeply this illiterate instruction

(385 )

386 ANNALS NEW YORK ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

impressed the young naturalist can be partly inferred from the keen

recollection of her tuition in Professor Whitfield’s mind seventy years

afterwards. It is indeed interesting to note that among other objects of

nature which his young instructor brought to the attention of the future

paleontologist were the fossil inclosures of the Clinton and Hudson River

slates.

When Whitfield was about seven years of age, in the fall of 1835, the

family moved to England. Here again the instincts of the naturalist

were nourished by the charm and flowering beauty of English lanes and

fields. Employed at a place four miles distant from his home, his daily

morning and evening walk brought him, at that impressionable age, at

the two loveliest periods of the day, into new relations with plants, birds

and insects. J have often heard him recall these quiet walks so full of

pleasure, the hastening footsteps to work in the morning and the linger-

ing and delayed return at night. Whitfield, at that tender age, was

wont to hunt for fossils in a clay bank near his home, where clay for

luting retorts was quarried.

The Whitfields returned to America in November of 1841. They went

first to Paterson, N. J., thence to central New York to Whitestown, ad-

joing Utica. It may again be recalled that the efforts of the young

Whitfield to make collections and to study animal life were discouraged,

sometimes with an unkind violence. The collecting instincts of a natu-

ralist defy repression, and many collections, almost surreptitiously gath-

ered, were preserved in odd bottles and jars in white whiskey, while

insects in boxes, impaled on the domestic pin, gave comfort, in stolen

moments, to the eager young observer. These collections often met with

violent eviction, while from their perishable nature they were more fre-

quently abandoned from necessity. The family later moved to a farm

at Osceola, Lewis Co., New York, and the young man became engaged

with a Mr. Chubbock in the making of philosophical instruments at

Utica. The business of spindle-making was broken up by new inven-

tions, and it was found necessary to abandon it.

Young Whitfield was employed nine years in his new vocation, in the

manufacture of philosophical instruments, and his leisure time was

devoted to the acquisition of knowledge. He enjoyed, in comparison

with most men who attain eminence in science, but slender educational

opportunities. His reading had been, in England, limited to the mis-

cellaneous contents of a Sunday School library at Stockport, in which

also pedagogical instruction was vouchsafed. This interesting institu-

tion was an experiment of some importance. It contained 6210 scholars

and over 500 teachers, was non-sectarian and formed practically for a

GRATACAP, MEMOIR OF ROBERT PARR WHITFIELD 387

great number of men their only access to the rudiments of education.

Here were taught reading, writing, arithmetic and grammar. There

were services in the morning and afternoon, and the rest of the day was

given up to study. This huge aggregate of scholars was divided up into

eight divisions and about sixty classes. From its library, old works on

ancient history, the Holy Land and Egypt were obtained by Whitfield,

and he reveled in the twice-told tales of departed empires, the sacred

land of biblical tradition and the land of the Pharaohs. He often con-

fessed to the thrill of enthusiasm these works awoke in him and his life-

long desire to visit the land of Judea.

At Utica, under broader and more genial auspices, his reading was

continued, and he came in contact with scientific men, collectors and

learned societies. Here was the Utica Society of Naturalists, which met

once a week, and whose members in papers, conferences and through the

exhibition of specimens, stimulated each other in a friendly rivalry to

explore the natural resources of the adjacent counties.

Professor Whitfield was very successful in his new business. He studied

geometrical drawing, read philosophical works, passed from stage to

stage in the work, until after eight months he was able to take charge of

the entire office and remained practically the foreman until his removal

to Albany. He obtained a microscope about this time, and its revela-

tions gave him a new interest in natural history. He became especially

interested in entomology, raised broods of larve, studied their habits and

began a collection of insects. This impulse was strengthened by the

advice and encouragement of an uncle who came to America in 1845.

He had been a student of insect life in England and belonged to a group

of entomological societies known as “fly clubs.” This unexpected sym-

pathy renewed and deepened Whitfield’s predilection for natural study.

During these years, he became acquainted with Colonel Jewett and

thus came in contact with a more representative collection of fossils and

shells than any he had previously met, as well as with a larger group of

geological books. Then, it seems likely, were laid the beginnings of his

interest in paleontology, which finally excluded all other branches of

scientific activity. Whitfield worked in Colonel Jewett’s cabinet, re-

paired and labeled his shells, worked over, mounted and arranged his

fossils. _

Colonel Jewett later became curator of the State Cabinet at Albany,

and through this avenue of approach Whitfield met James Hall. Pro-

fessor Hall was much pleased with Whitfield’s perception and intuition

with fossils and examined Whitfield’s private cabinet. He suggested

that Whitfield should work over the Hall cabinet, and for three months

888 ANNALS NEW YORK ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

Professor Whitfield was engaged in this work, which resulted in his

permanent engagement in July, 1850.

The immediate occasion leading to this radical change of life was the

serious illness which Professor Whitfield incurred from metallic poison-

ing. The constant employment of copper wire in an atmosphere more

or less surcharged with floating particles of metal induced a chronic

intestinal trouble, which, throughout his life, attacked him periodically

with severity. In Albany, the scientific influences were deepened and

strengthened, educational facilities increased, and a continuous inter-

course with workers and leaders in science began. Nothing could have

been more helpful. Meek, Hunt, Logan, Billings, Leslie, Safford, Agas-

siz, Conrad and Hayden were a few names among the crowd of visitors to

Professor Hall’s home, and in this multifarious circle, Whitfield’s ac-

quaintance with men, facts and literature was greatly extended. Among

his new acquaintances, none so beneficently influenced his subsequent

career as Professor Newcomb. This well known conchologist took an

evident interest in the young student, opened up to him his cabinet of

shells, explained the characters of the genera, the limits of species, and

distinctly started him on the path of original investigation.

Professor Whitfield soon gave evidence of his morphological instinct.

His keen appreciation of form, together with his increasing skill in

drawing, made him a most valuable adjunct to the Paleontological Sur-

vey of the State and the varied work outside of the State, then engaging

the attention of Professor Hall. One of the first drawings, if not the

first, made by Professor Whitfield which secured publication was a dia-

gram of Actinocrinus longirostris Hall, in the Geology of Iowa, Vol. I,

Pt. 2, p. 590. This drawing had some significance. In this drawing,

Professor Whitfield elucidated the structure of the crinoid upon a differ-

ent scheme than any previously employed by Hall, and although De

Konick had made use of the same plan, his interpretation was unknown

to Whitfield. He showed the radial construction of a crinoid and cor-

rected the misunderstanding of the symmetry of the plates, based on a

concentric scheme. Hall adopted this device at once.

Professor Whitfield was now continuously engaged in drawing, the

preparations of specimens, comparison of species and the making of

critical notes. Meek had preceded Whitfield in this work, and the plates

of the Iowa Paleontology and also a large number of those of the third

volume of the Survey of New York were his. With him was associated

F. J. Swinton. Beyond the Tenth Annual Report of the Regents of the

University, the figures appearing in the subsequent reports were almost

exclusively Whitfield’s, while, with the exception of three plates, all the

GRATACAP, MEMOIR OF ROBERT PARR WHITFIELD 389

figures of the Fourth volume of the Paleontology of New York were

drawn by his hand.

It is not too much to claim that in a certain indefinable delicacy and

perfection of form and shading, these drawings of Professor Whitfield’s

were unexcelled. Fossils had not previously been treated with such fine

discrimination. They almost created a new standard of comparison in

fossil portraiture.

Somewhere about 1858, the graptolites of Canada had been put into

Professor Hall’s hands, and the preparations of the drawings and pre-

liminary studies had been entrusted to Professor Whitfield. This diffi-

cult and trying work caused an impairment of vision. Dr. Noyes was

consulted, and the hopeless prediction of a loss of eyesight was confidently

made. Fortunately this did not occur. At this time, while in consulta-

tion as to the condition of his eyes in New York City, Professor Whit-

field studied the crustacea to be obtained along the shores of Long and

Staten Islands and prepared comparative studies which were usefully

incorporated in the diagnosis of Hurypterus.

Professor Whitfield at this time studied the Troost crinoids which

were placed at Hall’s disposal by Agassiz. The results of this study

were never published. When the threatened collapse of Professor Whit-

field’s eyes interrupted his work in Albany, attempts were made to secure

provisional draughtsmen, but they seemed unsuccessful.

The Devonian Lamellibranchs came into view, and their separation

and preparation for study was the last important work done by Professor

Whitfield in connection with the New York Survey. Drawings were

made up to Limopteria, when Professor Hall proposed a joint author-

ship. At this time, it was apprehended that Professor Marsh was about

to do this work. To forestall this and to secure the results, already im-

portant, obtained by Professor Whitfield’s examinations, the work was

hastened, and Professor Whitfield, almost unaided, completed the out-

lines and contents of a report to be embodied in the Regents’ reports.

His time from spring to the fall of 1874 was occupied in this, and it was

quite independent work. Professor Hall reviewed the manuscript, short-

ened and revised it. Then took place the regrettable episode which per-

manently separated Professor Whitfield from the work of Professor Hall

and which in a measure embittered their subsequent relations.

The work on the Lamellibranchs appeared as a pamphlet entitled

“Preparatory to New York Geological Survey.” It was anonymous, but

invited the inevitable inference that Professor Hall had written it. Its

distribution ceased upon Professor Whitfield’s protest. It is perhaps a

difficult question to determine the exact limits of discretion in speaking

390 ANNALS NEW YORK ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

of such a matter, but this statement is intended to have a significant

value in protecting Professor Whitfield’s claim to the original work on

these fossils and the justice of an association of his name with Professor

Hall’s in their authorship. Later, as is well known, the Lamellibranchs

of the New York Survey appeared as a separate volume. The genera -

were greatly increased and the species in many instances renamed, but

Professor Whitfield’s drawings were used and, substantially, his delimita-

tions of many genera and species.

Professor Whitfield, for a few years before his separation from the

New York Survey, had been engaged in lecturing at the Troy Polytech-

nical Institute, in the chair of Applied Geology. The classes were taken

on field excursions every spring, and in this way examinations were made

of the geology of Northern New York and Northern New Jersey.

In March, 1876, Professor Whitfield resigned his position in Albany

and came to the American Museum of Natural History, where he re-

ceived and installed, with the writer’s assistance, the Hall Collection of

Fossils and remained the Curator of the Department of Geology until

about four months before his death, when he was made Curator Emeritus.

Professor Whitfield’s scientific work has been entirely confined to

paleontological studies. He possessed a very remarkable memory of

form and names and was quick to discover analogies in organic function.

His love for nature was very great, and he exhibited to the last day of

his life enthusiasm in collecting.

Besides the work on the New York Survey, Professor Whitfield was

engaged in work for the Ohio, Wisconsin, New Jersey and the Black

Hills Surveys, while papers furnished to journals of science and the

series of special studies published in the Bulletin of the American Mu-

seum of Natural History complete his life of scientific activity. Before

Professor Whitfield left Albany, the plans for a revision of Brachiopoda

had been outlined, and a number of preliminary studies completed. In

this work, Professor Whitfield made a number of preparations of the

brachiopoda, an occupation that led Davidson once to say of him that he

and the Rev. Mr. Glass “had probably revealed more of these structures

than any other paleontologists.” It was Davidson who, in this connec-

tion, created the genus Whitfeldia from Meristella tumida Dalm., a

genus which completes the developmental phases of the loop in these

brachiopods.

In his convictions relative to the development of life, Professor Whit-

field was an evolutionist, though he never emphasized any special views;

he believed in the mutability of a species. the inheritance of acquired

characters and the modifying influences of environment. His work was.

BIBLIOGRAPHY OF ROBERT PARR WHITFIELD 391

for the most part, systematic. He described a great number of new

species, genera and families. His insight into relationships of animal

forms was rapid, and his apprehension of generic references usually ac-

curate. The determination of genera from partial, fragmentary remains

and internal casts, especially as shown in his work on the Cretaceous and

Tertiary formations of New Jersey, was remarkable. Among contribu-

tions to science which merit the distinction of being classed as discoy-

eries were his detection of the muscular impressions in “true Lingula” in

the Trenton Limestone, his observations on the internal appendages of

Atrypa, his reference of the fossil forms Dictyophyton and Uphantenia

to sponges, his description of a fossil scorpion from the Silurian rocks of

America (afterwards made by Scudder the type of the family Hoscor-

pionide), his notice of new forms of marine alge in the Trenton Lime-

stone and description of the occurrence of a Balanus from the Marcellus

Shale. The long series of papers on systematic paleontology, in which

many new genera and species, observations in morphology and correla-

tion, are given, have firmly identified Professor Whitfield’s name with

American paleontology.

Unostentatious, of a reserved, almost severe demeanor, animated by an

intense love of his science, his life was passed peacefully and pleasantly,

amid unruffled domestic relations, in unbroken association with the ob-

jects of his conscientious and unremitting study.

Professor Whitfield was married at Utica, N. Y., in his twentieth

year. His wife died in New York in 1887. Four children were born

of this marriage, of whom one, a son, died in youth, and three, two sons

and a daughter, survive.

BIBLIOGRAPHY OF ROBERT PARR WHITFIELD

By L. Hussakor

1862

With C. A. WuitEe: Observations upon the rocks of the Mississippi valley

which have been referred to the Chemung group of New York, together

with descriptions of new species of fossils from the same horizon at Bur-

lington, Iowa. Proc. Bost. Soc. Nat. Hist., VIII. pp. 289-306.

1865

Descriptions of new species of Eocene fossils. Amer. Journ. Conchology, I,

pp. 259-268, pl. 27.

392 ANNALS NEW YORK ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

1867

Observations on the internal appendages of the genus Atrypa; with a notice

of the discovery of a loop, connecting the spiral cones. 20th Ann. Rep.

NV. Y. State Mus., pp. 141-144.

1872

[Remarks on the new crustacean lately discovered by the Hassler Expedi-

tion.] Proc. Albany Instit., I, pp. 322-324.

With James Hat: Description of new species of fossils from the vicinity of

Louisville, Kentucky, and the Falls of the Ohio. 24th Ann. Rept. N. We

State Mus. Nat. Hist., pp. 181-200a; also published separately in 1872, in

advance of the 24th report, 13 pp. Albany.

With JamMres Hatt: Remarks on some peculiar impressions in sandstone of the

Chemung group, New York. 24th Ann. Rept. N. Y. State Mus. Nat. Hist.,

pp. 201-204, 1 text fig.

1873

With James Hatt: Descriptions of new species of fossils from the Devonian

rocks of Iowa 23d Ann. Rep. N. Y. State Cabinet Nat. Hist., pp. 228-243,

pll. 9-13; also published separately July. 1872, in advance of the 23d

report, 21 pp., 4 pll. Albany.

With James Hawi: Descriptions of invertebrate fossils, mainly from the Silu-

rian system. Rep. Geol. Surv. Ohio, II, Part II. Paleontology, pp. 65-

157, pll. 1-10.

With JAMES HALL: Crinoids of the Genesee slate and Chemung group. /J/bid.,

pp. 158-161, pl. 13.

With JAMES HALL: Crinoidea of the Waverly group. Jbid., pp. 162-179, pll.

ia ee

Descriptions of new fossils. Pp. 103-104, with 1 pl. in William Ludlow’s

“Report of a reconnaissance of the Black Hills of Dakota made in the

summer of 1874.” 4°, Washington, D. C.

Remarks on changes undergone by one of our fresh-water mollusks, showing

a tendency to specific variation. Proc. Albany Instit., II, pp. 199-201.

1876

Descriptions of new species of fossils. Pp. 141-145, pll. 1, 2, in William TLud-

low’s “Report of a reconnaissance from Carroll, Montana Territory, on

the upper Missouri, to the Yellowstone National Park, and return.”

Made in the summer of 1875. 4°, Washington, D. C.

1877

Preliminary report on the paleontology of the Black Hills. 49 pp. Washing-

ton, 8°.

With JAMEes Hatt: Paleontology. Pp. 197-302, pl. 7, in Clarence King’s “U.S.

Geol. Exploration of the fortieth ‘parallel.’ Vol. IV, 4°. Washington,

DAO:

BIBLIOGRAPHY OF ROBERT PARR WHITFIELD 393

1878

Remarks on some lamellibranchiate shells of the Hudson river group, with

descriptions of four new species. Journ. Cincinnati Soc. Nat. Hist., I,

pp. 187-141, pl. 6, figs. 5-8a.

1879

Discovery of specimens of Maclurea magna, of the Chazy, in the Barnegat

ca)

limestone, near Newburg, New York. Amer. Journ. Sci., 3 ser., XVIII, p.

227.

1880

Paleontology of the Black Hills of Dakota. Pp. 325-468, pll. 1-16, in Henry

Newton and Walter B. Jenney’s “Report on the Geol. and Resources of

the Black Hills of Dakota.” 4°, Washington, D. C. ,

Notice of new forms of fossil crustaceans from the upper Devonian rocks of

Ohio, with descriptions of new genera and species. Amer. Journ. Sci.,

3 ser., XIX, pp. 33-42.

Notice of the occurrence of rocks representing the Marcellus shale of New

York, in central Ohio. Proc. Amer. Assoc. Adv. Sci., 28th meeting (1879),

pp. 297-299.

On the occurrence of true Lingula in the Trenton limestone. Amer. Journ.

Sci., 3 ser., XIX, pp. 472-475, 2 text figs.

1881

Description of a new species of Crinoid from the Burlington limestone, at

Burlington, Iowa. Bull. Amer. Mus. Nat. Hist., I, pp. 7-9, pli. 1, 2.

Remarks on Dictyophyton, and descriptions of new species of allied forms

from the Keokuk beds at Crawfordsville, Ind. Jbid., I, pp. 10-20, pll. 3, 4.

Observations on the purposes of the embryonic sheaths of Endoceras, and

their bearing on the origin of the siphon in the Orthocerata. Jbid., I,

pp. 20-28, 4 figs.

Notice of a new genus and species of air-breathing mollusk [Anthracopupe

ohioensis] from the Coal-measures of Ohio, and observations on Dawson-

ella. Amer. Journ. Sci., 3 ser., XXI, pp. 125-128, 6 text figs.

Observations on the structure of Dictyophyton and its affinities with certain

sponges. Ibid., 3 ser., XXII, pp. 53-54.

On the nature of Dictyophyton. Tbid., 3 ser., XXII, p. 182.

1882

Descriptions of new species of fossils from Ohio, with remarks on some of the

geological formations in which they occur. Annals N. Y. Acad. Sci., he

pp. 193-244.

Description of Lymnea (Bulimnea) megasoma Say, with an account of

changes produced ia the offspring of unfavorable conditions of life. Buill.

Amer. Mus. Nat. Hist., I, pp. 29-37, pl. 5.

On the fauna of the Lower Carboniferous limestone of Spergen Hill, Ind.,

with a revision of the descriptions of its fossils hitherto published, and

394 ANNALS NEW YORK ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

illustrations of the species from the original type series. Jbid., I, pp.

39-97, pll. 6-9.

Paleontology. In Geol. Wisconsin, IV, pp. 161-363, pll. 1-26.

1885

Observations on the fossils of the metamorphic rocks of Bernardston, Mass.

Amer. Journ. Sci., 3 ser., XXV, pp. 368-369.

[List of Utica slate graptolites from near Poughkeepsie.] Jbid., 5 ser., XXVI,

p. 380. i

1884

Notice of some new species of primordial fossils in the collections of the mu

seum, and corrections of previously described species. Bull. Amer. Mus.

Nat. Hist., I, pp. 139-154, pll. 14, 15.

1885

Brachiopoda and lamellibranchiata of the Raritan clays and greensand marls

of New Jersey. Monographs U. S. Geol. Surv., YX. Washington, 4°. 35

pll. and 1 map. Pp. xx + 338. Also issued in 1886 with imprint of the

Geol. Sury. of New Jersey, with same pagination and plates.

[Fruiting of] the ginkgo-tree [in the United States]. Science, VI, p. 4.

An American Silurian scorpion. Science, VI, pp. 87-88, 1 text fig.; [Addi-

tional note] p. 184.

On a fossil scorpion [Proscorpius osborni] from the Silurian rocks of America.

Bull. Amer. Mus. Nat. Hist., I, pp. 181-190, pll. 19, 20, 2 figs.

Notice of a new cephalopod [Lituites bickmoreanus| from the Niagara rocks

of Indiana. 7bid., I, pp. 191-192, pl. 21.

Notice of a very large species of Homalonotus [H. major n. sp.] from. the

Oriskany sandstone formation. Jbid., I, pp. 193-195, pl. 22. [Describes

Homalonotus major, n. sp.]

1886

Professor Thorell and the American Silurian scorpion. Science, VII, pp.

PNG 2

Notice of geological investigations along the eastern shore of Lake Champlain,

conducted by Prof. H. M. Seely and Pres. Ezra Brainerd. of Middlebury

College, with descriptions of the new fossils discovered. Bull. Amer.

Mus. Nat. Hist., I, pp. 293-345, pll. 24-34, 1 map, 1 fig.

Notice of a new fossil body, probably a sponge related to Dictyophyton. Tbid.,

I, pp. 346-348, pl. 35.

1887

Remarks on the mollusean fossils of the New Jersey marl beds, contained in

vols. 1 and 2 of that paleontology, and on their stratigraphical relations.

[Abstract.] Proc. Amer. Assoc. Adv. Sci., 35th meeting (1886), p. 215.

Notice of geological investigations along the eastern shores of Lake Cham-

plain, conducted by Prof. H. M. Seely and Pres. Ezra Brainard, of Middle-

bury College, with descriptions of the new fossils discovered. [Abstract.]

Proc. Amer. Assoc. Adv. Sci., 35th meeting (1886), pp. 215-216.

New Jersey Cretaceous. Amer. Naturalist, XXII. pp. 66-68.

BIBLIOGRAPHY OF ROBERT PARR WHITFIELD 395

1888

Evidence confirmatory of Mastodon obscurus Leidy, as an American species,

Proc. Amer. Assoc. Adv. Sci., 36th meeting (1887), pp. 252-253.

1889

Observations on some imperfectly known fossils from the Calciferous sand-

rock of Lake Champlain, and descriptions of several new forms. Bull.

Amer. Mus. Nat. Hist., 11, pp. 41-63, pll. 7-10 and 15 (part).

Additional notes on Asaphus canalis Conrad. Ibid., II, pp. 64-65, pll. 11, 12.

Description of a new form of fossil balanoid cirripede [Protobalanus hamil-

tonensis], from the Marcellus shale of New York. Jbid., II, pp. 65-68, pl.

3, fig. 22.

Note on the faunal resemblance between the Cretaceous formations of New

Jersey and those of the Gulf States. Jbid., II, pp. 115-116.

1890

Observations on the fauna of the rocks at Fort Cassin, Vermont, with de-

scriptions of a few new species. Bull. Amer. Mus. Nat. Hist., 111, pp.

25-39, pll. 1-8, 1 text fig.

Observations on a fossil fish from the Hocene beds of Wyoming. Jbid., III,

pp. 117-120, pl. 4. [Describes Protocatostomus constablei n. sp.= Noto-

goneus osculus Cope. ]

Description of a new genus of inarticulate brachiopodous shell. Jbid., III, pp.

121-122, § figs.

Former abundance of the wild pigeon in central and eastern New York. The

Auk, n. ser., VII, pp. 284-285.

The Fort Cassin rocks and their fauna (supplement to the memoir on the

Calciferous formation in the Champlain valley by Professors Brainard

and Seely). Bull. Geol. Soc. Amer., I, pp. 514-515.

1891

Observations on some Cretaceous fossils from the Beyrfit district of Syria in

the collection of the American Museum of Natural History, with descrip-

tions of some new species. Bull. Amer. Mus. Nat. Hist., 111, pp. 381-441,

pll. 4A-11, 3 figs.

Notes on some fossils from Bolivia, collected by Mr. Arthur F. Wendt, and

description of a remarkable new genus and species of brachiopod

[Scaphiocalia boliviensis]. Trans. Amer. Inst. Mining Engineers, XIX,

pp. 104-107, 4 figs.

Contributions to invertebrate paleontology. Annals N. Y. Acad. Sci.. V, pp.

505-620, pll. 5-16. Reprinted in Rep. Geol. Surv. Ohio, VII, 1893, pp. 407-

492, 494, pll. 1-11.

The common edible crab found in fossil in the Hudson River tunnel. Science,

XVIII, p. 300.

Mastodon remains on New York Island. Science, XVIII, p. 342.

1892

Visitors’ guide to the geological and paleontological collections in the Amer-

ican Museum of Natural History. 68 pages with 49 text figs. New

York, $°. ;

396 ANNALS NEW YORK ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

Gasteropoda and cephalopoda of the Raritan clays and greensand marls of

New Jersey. Monographs U. S. Geol. Sury., XVIII. Washington, 4°.

402 pp. and 50 pill. Also issued with imprint of the Geol. Surv. of New

Jersey, with same pagination and plates.

1893

Notice of new Cretaceous fossils from the lower Green Marls of New Jersey.

The Nautilus, VII, pp. 37-39, pl. 2 (explanation of plate is on pp. 51-52).

New genus and species of burrowing fossil bivalve shell [Corallidomus con-

centricus]. Rep. Geol. Surv. Ohio, VII, pp. 492-493, pl. 18, and 1 text fig.

Republication of descriptions of Lower Carboniferous Crinoidea from the Hall

collection now in the American Museum of Natural History, with. illus-

trations of the original type specimens not heretofore figured. J/em.

Amer. Mus. Nat. Hist., I, pp. 1-37, pli. 1-3.

Republication of descriptions of fossils from the Hall collection in the Amer-

ican Museum of Natural History, from the report of progress for 1861 of

the Geological Survey of Wisconsin, by James Hall, with illustrations from

the original type specimens not heretofore figured. Jem. Amer. Mus.

Nat. Hist., I, pp. 39-74, pli. 4-12.

1894

Mollusca and crustacea of the Miocene formations of New Jersey. J/ono-

graphs U. 8S. Geol. Surv., XXIV. Washington, 4°. 195 pp., 24 pil.

On new forms of marine alge from the Trenton limestone, with observations

on Buthograptus laxus Hall. Bull. Amer. Mus. Nat. Hist., VI, pp. 351-

358, pl. 11.

The food of wild ducks. The Auk, n. ser., XI, p. 328.

1895

New forms of marine algze from the Trenton limestone, with observations on

Buthograptus latus Hall. [Abstract of a paper read at the Tth meeting

of the Geological Soc. of Amer.] Science, n. s., I, p. 67.

1896

Description of a new genus of fossil brachiopod [Lissoploura] from the Lower

Helderberg limestones. Bull. Amer. Mus. Nat. Hist., VIII, pp. 231-232,

figs. 1-5.

Notice and description of new species and a new genus [Entomocaris] of

Phyllocaridz. Jbid., VIII, pp. 299-304, pll. 12-14.

1897

Note on the hypostome of Lichas (Terataspis) grandis Hall. Ibid., IX, pp.

45-46, 3 figs.

Descriptions of new species of Silurian fossils from near Fort Cassin and else-

where on Lake Champlain. Jbid., IX, pp. 177-184, pll. 4, 5.

Descriptions of species of rudiste from the Cretaceous rocks of Jamaica,

W. I., collected and presented by Mr. F. C. Nicholas. Jbid., IX, pp. 185-

196, pll. 6-22.

——- a.

BIBLIOGRAPHY OF ROBERT PARR WHITFIELD 397

Observations on the genus Barrettia Woodward, with descriptions of two new

species. Jbid., IX, pp. 233-246, pll. 27-38.

1898

Observations on the genus Barrettia. Proc. Amer. Assoc. Adv. Sci., 46th

meeting (1897), p. 200. [Abstract.]

Notice of a remarkable specimen of the West India coral Madrepora palmata.

Bull. Amer. Mus. Nat. Hist., X, pp. 463-464, pl. 24.

Assisted by E. O Hovey: Catalogue of the types and figured specimens in the

paleontological collection of the geological department, American Mu-

seum of Natural History. Part I. Bull. Amer. Mus. Nat. Hist., XI, pp.

iii-vii, 1-72.

1899

Assisted by E. O. Hovey: Catalogue of the types and figured specimens.

Part II. Bull. Amer. Mus. Nat. Hist., X1, pp. 73-188.

Observations on some “mud fiow”’ markings on rocks from near Albany,

N. Y., now in the American Museum of Natural History, New York.

Ibid., XII, pp. 183-187, 3 figs.

Notice of two very large lobsters in the collection of the American Museum

of Natural History. Jbid., XII, pp. 191-194, pl. 9.

List of fossils, types, and figured specimens, used in the paleontological work

of R. P. Whitfield. showing where they are probably to be found at the

present time. Annals N. Y. Acad. Sci., XII, pp. 189-186.

1900

Assisted by E. O. Hovey: Catalogue of types and figured specimens. Part ITI.

Bull. Amer. Mus. Nat. Hist., XI, pp. 189-356.

Observations on and descriptions of Arctic fossils. Jbid., XIII, pp. 19-22,

pupa 2:

Description of a new crinoid from Indiana. Jbid., XIII, pp. 23-24, pl. 3. °

Note on the principal type specimen of Mosasaurus maximus Cope, with illus-

trations. Jbid., XIII, pp. 25-29, pll. 4, 5.

1901

Assisted by E. O. Hovey: Catalogue of types and figured specimens. Part IV.

Ibid., XI, pp. 357-488; Index [to entire volume], pp. 489-500.

Notice of a new sponge from Bermuda and of some other forms from the

Bahamas. I[bid., XIV, pp. 47-50, pli. 1-5.

Note on a very fine example of Helicoceras stevensoni preserving the outer

chamber. Jbid., XIV, p. 219, pll. 29, 30.

Notice of a remarkable case of combination between two different genera of

living corals. Jbid., XIV, pp. 221-222, pll. 31, 32.

Some observations on corals from the Bahamas, with description of a new

species. Jbid., XIV, pp. 223-224, pll. 33, 34.

1902

Description of a new form of Myalina from the Coal Measures of Texas,

Bull. Amer. Mus. Nat. Hist., XVI, pp. 63-66, 2 figs.

3—NY

398 ANNALS NEW YORK ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

Observations on and emended description of Heteroceras simplicostatum Whit-

field. Jbid., XVI, pp. 67-72, pll. 23-27.

Description of a new Teredo-like shell from the Laramie group. Jbid., XVI,

pp. 73-76, pll. 28, 29, 1 text fig.

Notice of a new genus of marine alge fossil in the Niagara shale. J[bid.,

XVI, pp. 399-400, pl. 53.

1903

Notice of six new species of Unios from the Laramie group. Bull. Amer. Mus.

Nat. Hist., XIX, pp. 483-487, pll. 38-40. Fp.

Observations on a remarkable specimen of Halysites and description of a new

species of the genus. Jbid., XIX, pp. 489-490, pll. 41, 42.

1904

Notice of a new genus and species of lower Carboniferous bryozoan. Bull.

Amer. Mus. Nat. Hist., XX, p. 469, pl. 11.

Notice of a remarkable case of reproduction of lost parts shown on a fossil

erinoid. Jbid., XX, pp. 471-472, pll. 12, 13.

Note on some worm (?) burrows in rocks of the Chemung group of New York.

Ibid., XX, pp. 473474, pl. 14.

1905

Notice of a new crinoid and a new mollusk from the Portage rocks of New

York. Bull. Amer. Mus. Nat. Hist., XXI, pp. 17-20, pll. 1-4.

Descriptions of new fossil sponges from the Hamilton group of Indiana.

Tbid., XXI, pp. 297-800, pll. 9-11.

Notice of a new species of Fasciolaria from the Eocene green marls at Shark

River, N. J. Jbid., XXI, pp. 301-303, 2 figs.

1906

Notes on some Jurassic fossils from Franz Josef Land, brought by a member

of the Ziegler Exploring Expedition. Bull. Amer. Mus. Nat. Hist., XXII,

pp. 131-134, pll. 18, 19.

With E. O. Hovey: Remarks on and descriptions of Jurassic fossils of the

Black Hills. Jbid., XXII, pp. 389-402, pll. 42-62.

1907

‘Notice of an American species of the genus Hoploparia McCoy, from the Cre-

taceous of Montana. Bull. Amer. Mus. Nat. Hist., XXIII, pp. 459-461,

pl. 36.

Remarks on and descriptions of new fossil Unionidzse from the Laramie clays

of Montana. Jbid., XXIII, pp. 623-628, pll. 3842.

1908

Notes and observations on Carboniferous fossils and semi-fossil shells, brought

home by members of the Peary expedition of 1905-1906. Bull. Amer. Mus.

Nat. Hist., XXIV, pp. 51-58, pll. 1-4.

[AnNaLs N. Y. Acap. Sct, VOL. XX, No. 10, Part III, pp. 399-486.

31 March, 1911]

RECORDS OF MEETINGS

OF THE

NEW YORK ACADEMY OF SCIENCES.

January, 1910, to December, 1910.

By Epmunp Otis Hovey, Recording Secretary.

BUSINESS MEETING.

JANUARY 3, 1910.

The Academy met at 8:20 Pp. M. at the American Museum of Natural

History, President Kemp presiding.

Professor Dean presented a memorial of Kakichi Mitsukuri, a deceased

Honorary Member of the Academy. This has been published in Vol. XIX

of the ANNALS.

On motion, the business meeting was adjourned at 8:34 P. M.

EpmMuND OTis Hovey,

Recording Secretary.

SECTION OF GEOLOGY AND MINERALOGY.

JANUARY 3, 1910.

Section met at 8:35 Pp. M., Vice-President George F. Kunz presiding.

The minutes of the last meeting of the Section were read and approved.

The following programme was then offered:

George W. Tower, Jr., Grotocicat Notes oN NORTHERN BraZIL.

Henry S. Washington, Brizr Notes oN SoME OF THE GEOLOGICAL As-

PECTS OF THE PROVINCE OF BaHtA, BRAZIL.

SUMMARY OF PAPERS.

Mr. Tower gave an account of an expedition into some little explored

territory in connection with studies of deposits of iron, manganese and

copper. Remarks were made by Professor J. F. Kemp.

(399)

400 ANNALS NEW YORK ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

Dr. Washington described the features observed on a recent trip to the

Province of Bahia. The economic resources of a mineral character were

noted, especially manganese, copper, diamond and carbonado. This dis-

trict is the chief source of this last mineral. Professor Kemp, Dr. Kunz

and Mr. Tower joined in the discussion.

The Section then adjourned.

Cuar.es P. BERKEY,

Secretary.

SECTION OF BIOLOGY.

JANUARY 10, 1910.

Section met at 8:15 Pp. m., Roy W. Miner presiding.

The minutes of the last ene of the Section were read and approver:

The following programme was then offered:

Roy W. Miner, SoME REMARKS ON MYRIAPODS.

Max Morse, THE ULtTra-MICROSCOPE AND ITS APPLICA-

TION TO THE STUDY OF MICROSCOPICALLY

INVISIBLE PARTICLES.

Barnum Brown, . NoTES ON THE RESTORATIONS OF THE CRE-

TACEOUS BirpDS HESPERORNIS AND Bap-

TORNIS.

Alexander Petrunkevitch, Some New or LITTLE KNOWN AMERICAN

SPIDERS.

SUMMARY OF PAPERS.

Mr. Miner gave an illustrated talk on the Myriapods, dwelling on their

classification, evolution and morphology. Handlirsch’s theory of the

derivation of the Crustacea, Myriapoda and Hexapoda from pro-anneli-

dan stock through trilobite forms was discussed in some detail, special

attention being given to the evolution of the ancestral insects (Paleo-

dictyoptera) from the trilobites and their relation to the primitive myria-

pod stock. All the more typical myriapods were illustrated and their

striking anatomical features commented on.

The paper was illustrated with lantern slides.

Mr. Morse said in abstract: The ultra-microscope was devised by Zsig-

mondy and Siedentopf on the principle determined by Tyndall, that if a

solution is examined under the microscope by means of horizontal illumi-

nation and not by light transmitted through it by the sub-stage mirror,

RECORDS OF MEETINGS 401

the particles within the solution polarize the light and thereby render

them visible as scintillations against a dark background. By means of

this instrument, solutions which appear perfectly homogeneous by means

of the ordinary microscope are shown to be composed of particles in sus-

pension. Bodies approaching the dimensions of molecules can be made

visible. Colloidal solutions have been analyzed by means of the ultra-

microscope and shown to be suspensions of particles in a homogeneous

medium. Thus, colloidal gold and platinum are resolved into such

pseudo-solutions. Albumens fall under this heading, and studies of their

nature have shown that they are not homogeneous in solution but are

rather fine suspensions. The ultra-microscope as first devised has been

modified so as to be adapted to the study of living bacteria. The sub-

stage condenser of a microscope is replaced by one where the lens, in place

of being bi-convex, is parabolic, and a stop is placed in the centre of the

dise so that no direct rays pass to the eye but only those that have been

polarized by the bacteria which receive the rays that are sent through

them horizontally. The bacterial flora of teeth was shown. Spirocheetes

and rodforms are seen, and their locomotor organs are made visible.

The paper was illustrated with demonstration of apparatus.

Mr. Brown presented a few brief notes from a forthcoming paper, as

follows: The anatomy of Hesperornis as known from described material

was discussed and compared with a skeleton recently mounted in the

American Museum. In this specimen, for the first time, a complete tail

is known. The swimming pose here chosen is accepted as the one that

best represents its aquatic habits and more nearly conforms to the struc-

ture of the limbs. The peculiar arrangements of the palate bones in

Hesperornis and the contemporary Baptornis were shown to constitute

characters that distinguish them from all known birds. Two new speci-

mens have made possible a paper restoration of Baptornis which in some

characters is more primitive than Hesperornis. The striking features are

the complete fibula, heretofore known only in Archeopteryzx, and a very

long tail, of which fourteen vertebrz are preserved. There were at least

sixteen. This is complete though reduced in size. The palate bones are

like those of Hesperornis.

The paper was illustrated with lantern slides.

The Section then adjourned.

L. Hussakor,

Secretary.

402 ANNALS NEW YORK ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

SECTION OF ASTRONOMY, PHYSICS AND CHEMISTRY.

JANUARY 17, 1910.

Section met at 8:15 Pp. M., Vice-President W. M. Campbell presiding.

The minutes of the last meeting of the Section were read and approved.

Edward Thatcher was duly elected Secretary of the Section.

Professor Campbell then showed a new form of microscope for the

examination of metal surfaces of large size, such as a rail in place, a gun

barrel or large casting.

The Section then adjourned.

EpwarbD J. THATCHER,

Secretary.

SECTION OF ANTHROPOLOGY AND PSYCHOLOGY.

JANUARY 24, 1910.

Section met in conjunction with the American Ethnological Society at

8:15 p. M., Gen. James Grant Wilson presiding.

The minutes of the last meeting of the Section were read and approved.

The following programme was then offered :

Franz Boas, THE CHANGES IN THE PHYSICAL CHARACTERISTICS OF THE

IMMIGRANTS TO THE UNITED STATES.

The paper embodied some of the results of the speaker’s recent investi-

gations under the auspices of the United States Immigration Commis-

sion. In the discussion following the lecture, Professor Giddings, Dr.

Fishberg and Dr. Tenney took part.

R. 8S. WoopwortH,

Secretary.

BUSINESS MEETING.

FEBRUARY 7, 1910.

The Academy met at 8:15 p. M. at the American Museum of Natural

History, President Kemp presiding.

The minutes of the last meeting were read and approved.

The following candidates for active membership in the Academy, rec-

ommended by Council, were duly elected.

Clarence Roe Gardner, 401 Fifth Avenue,

Edmund B. Southwick, 206 West 83rd Street.

RECORDS OF MEETINGS ; 403

The Recording Secretary then announced the following deaths:

Julius Bien, an active member for 33 years,

Professor Friedrich Kohlrausch, a corresponding member for 11

years,

Edward Mitchell, an active member for 33 years.

The Academy then adjourned.

EpMuUND Oris Hovey,

Recording Secretary-

SECTION OF GEOLOGY AND MINERALOGY.

Fresruary 7, 1910.

The Section met at 8:20 p. M., Vice-President George F. Kunz pre-

siding.

The minutes of the last meeting of the Section were read and approved.

The following programme was then offered:

Elvira Wood, ON THE PHYLOGENY OF CERTAIN CERITHIIDA..

Henry Fairfield Osborn, THE ErprpeRMAL CoverING or TRACHODON.

Walter Granger, TERTIARY BeDs OF THE W1ND River Bastn.

W. D. Matthew, CLIMATE AND EVOLUTION. PRELIMINARY OB--

SERVATIONS UPON THE GEOGRAPHIC Dis--

PERSAL OF LAND ANIMALS IN ITs RELATION.

TO PROGRESSIVE CLIMATIC CHANGE.

The Section then adjourned.

CHARLES P. BERKEY,.

Secretary.

SECTION OF BIOLOGY.

FEBRUARY 14, 1910.

Section met at 8:15 p. m., Vice-President Charles B. Davenport pre-

siding.

The minutes of the last meeting of the Section were read and approved.

The following programme was then offered:

Charles B. Davenport, VariasiLiry oF LanD SnaILs (CERION) IN THE

BaHAMA ISLANDS WITH ITS BEARING ON THE

THEORY OF GEOGRAPHICAL FoRM CHAINS.

W. K. Gregory, APPLICATION OF THE QUADRATE-INCUS THEORY

TO THE CONDITIONS IN THERIDONT REPTILES

AND THE GENETIC RELATIONS OF THE LATTER

TO THE MAMMALIA.

404 ANNALS NEW YORK ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

SUMMARY OF PAPERS.

Dr. Davenport said in abstract: Professor Plate has described, in the

Archiv. f. Rassen- und Gesellschaftsbiol., Bd. IV, the different forms of

a genus of land snails (Cerion) from the Bahama Islands; and declares

that the Cerions of the north coast of New Providence constitute the best

known and most known and most manifold example of such a morpho-

logic-geographic “form chain” as the Sarasins describe. Going from the

west to the east end of the island, “regular and definitely directed

changes” are said to occur “conditioned by the amount of precipitation

together with an inner factor—a high responsiveness of the protoplasm.”

In January, 1910, I collected shells in New Providence from the localities

specified by Plate and from several others. I am now attempting to

breed them. Meanwhile the evidence seems opposed to Plate’s view, since

the “western” type is found at various localities in the east alongside of

the eastern type. The facts seem to accord better with the view of the

immigration into the eastern end of New Providence of snails having the

characteristics of Cerions from the Eleuthera Island (an immigration

facilitated by geographic conditions) and by the formation of varied

combinations of characters and pseudo-blends by hybridization.

Dr. Davenport’s paper was illustrated with specimens and diagrams.

Mr. Gregory said in abstract: Reichert’s conclusion that the incus and

malleus of mammals represent the vestigial and metamorphosed jaw ele-

ments of lower vertebrates, together with the opposing view that these

ossicles in the mammalia have been derived directly from the supra- and

extra-stapedial cartilages of reptiles, were considered. Exception was

taken to Dr. Broom’s form of the latter theory, which took the auditory

ossicles of the crocodile as a theoretical starting point. All the bones sur-

rounding these elements in the crocodile had evidently undergone certain

peculiar specializations and it would be surprising if the auditory ossicles

themselves had not also suffered considerable modification in the endeavor

to evolve an improved auditory apparatus. The resemblances in the

ossicles between crocidile and mammal may therefore be due chiefly to

convergent evolution. The modern upholders of the incus-quadrate, mal-

leus-articular theory demand for the ancestral mammal a freely movable

quadrate, similar to that of the lizard; but this was because they seem to

push too far the biogenetic law. The incus or supposed homologue of the

quadrate at present appears in the embryo as a freely movable bone, but

this does not prove that it has always been freely movable. These inves-

tigators had passed by the theridonts of the Permian and Triassic because

in these reptiles the quadrate was fixed at its upper end; but a slight

RECORDS OF MEETINGS 405

atrophy of the posterior border of the squamosal would have greatly in-

creased the mobility of the quadrate.

Paleontological and embryological evidence showed that the existing

joint between the skull and the lower jaws in mammals is a neomorph,

probably developed pari passu with the atrophy of the quadrate and

articular bones. The application of Reichert’s theory to the Theriodontia

required only that the vestigial quadrate should be freed from its squa-

mosal socket, and secondly that it and the articular should be brought

into contact with the stapes or primary auditory rod. But how can we

conceive an adaptive, mechanical motive for this extraordinary change?

Such seems to be furnished by the embryology of the tympanic chamber

of mammals. As is well known, this chamber appears below the ossicles

as a diverticulum of the first gill opening. It grows upward and em-

braces the ossicles, which finally appear to be inside the cavity but are

morphologically outside of it, since they never pierce its epithelium. So

in the hypothetical pro-mammal the vestigial quadrate and articular on

the one hand and the stapedial rod on the other may have been embraced

by the up-growing tympanic sack or chamber and finally pressed into con-

tact with each other. The vestigial jaw elements may thus have come to

share in the vibrations of the chamber and of the stapes, and thus was

initiated their career as accessory auditory ossicles. A somewhat analo-

gous case is the transformation in siluroid fishes of certain vertebral ap-

pendages into a chain of ossicles for transmitting vibrations from the air

bladder to the internal ear.

Mr. Gregory’s paper was illustrated with lantern slides.

The Section then adjourned.

L. Hussakor,

Secretary.

SECTION OF ASTRONOMY, PHYSICS AND CHEMISTRY.

FEBRUARY 21, 1910.

By permission of the Council, no meeting was held.

Epwarkp J. THATCHER,

Secretary.

SECTION OF ANTHROPOLOGY AND PSYCHOLOGY.

FEBRUARY 28, 1910.

Section met at 8:15 P. M., in conjunction with the New York Branch

of the American Psychological Association, at the American Museum of

Natural History.

406 ANNALS NEW YORK ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

The following programme was presented :

H. L. Hollingworth, PsyCHOLOGICAL MEASUREMENTS OF THE

“PULLING POWER” OF AN ADVERTISEMENT.

Frederic Lyman Wells, Practisr anp INDIVIDUAL DIFFERENCES.

Joseph Jastrow, . THE PHYSIOLOGICAL SUPPORT OF THE PERCEP-

TIVE PROCESSES.

Wendell T. Bush, THE EMANCIPATION OF INTELLIGENCE IN THE

Stupy oF PHILOSOPHY.

SUMMARY OF PAPERS.

Dr. Hollingworth discussed the defects of modern methods of “keying”

an advertisement and advocated the substitution of psychological tests.

The results of an experiment with seventy-five subway advertisements,

by the order of merit method, were presented. In codperation with the

New York Advertising Men’s League, the keyed results of various kinds

of “copy” are being compared with psychological measurements of the

same advertisements. The work in progress is directed toward four chief

problems: (1) the validity of individual judgments of persuasiveness ;

(2) the relative strength of the various human instincts as the basis of

appeal and conviction; (3) the relative strength of various “effective con-

ceptions”; (4) the practical psychology of color in advertising.

Dr. Wells said: In thirty days’ practise with five subjects on the num-

ber checking test (a form of the A test) and in the Kraepelinian addition

test, the general indication seemed to be that the subjects who did well at

the start had as much opportunity for further improvement as those who

did poorly. This would indicate that in the functions tested, the relative

superiority of certain subjects was a manifestation, not of their being

nearer the end of the practise curve, but of an inherent ability to profit

more by such practise as they had had.

Prof. Jastrow said in abstract: The purpose of this paper is to con-

sider a more adequate formulation of the relation between the physio-

logical factor and a complex sensory process in which it participates. A

typical instance is found in the visual perception of distance. The con-

ventional statement sets forth that in the presence of a situation requir-

ing judgments of distance, we bring into play the physiological mech-

anism, testing by the clearness of the retinal image the necessary accom-

modation; and concominantly throwing into gear the convergence ap-

paratus, and thus tentatively, though quickly, finding the proper adjust-

ments, and, lately, that only when this process is accomplished is the

product handed over to the mental elaboration which, utilizing this basis,

RECORDS OF MEETINGS 407

makes of it a perception of such and such objects at such and such dis-

tances. The point of view urged in opposition to this is that while these

- factors are significant, they are so in almost a reverse order of values.

Complex sensory perceptions are so much more psychological that the

habit of mind is to jump to an interpretation on the very slightest data

and then use the physiological adjustments merely to corroborate the

psychological anticipation. The proof for this view is found in the un-

willingness of the eyes and indeed their inability, when deprived of a

psychological clue and thrown wholly upon physiological support, to ob-

tain any satisfactory judgments at all. In judging the distance of spots

of light in a dark room, the greatest diversity appears; and there appears

also, just as soon as the least glimmer of light gives any clue to the real

situation, the tendency to guess the result and then merely use the physio-

logical processes to check it. Two corollaries from this principle may be

said to support it. The one indicates the importance of extreme care in

avoiding suggestion, and the other explains why, in complex sensory judg-

ments, we are so prone to illusion. As a working hypothesis for complex

judgments, this restatement of the physiological support is not only in

itself suggestive but unites a variety of experimental data in a consistent

interpretation.

Dr. Bush said in abstract: The study of philosophy is still hampered

by the claims of problems which are the products of presuppositions

which no candid observer is obliged to make but which are remnants from

a long tradition. The tradition had its origin in natural conditions char-

acteristic of primitive culture. The resulting metaphysical concepts,

since they are not required in order to describe observable facts, but since

they do still play a great réle in philosophy, particularly in the philosophy

of religion, are most readily explained as survivals from prehistoric cul-

ture. The problems which depend upon taking for granted the authority

of these survival-concepts are, accordingly, entirely artificial, and the

philosophy whose stock in trade is arguments about these problems is an

artificial philosophy. The philosophy which operates with these survival-

concepts is monistic idealism, and its two determining ideas are the abso-

lute and consciousness, but systems of philosophy that operate with un-

verifiable survivals are not the only artificial systems. Systems which

exist only to oppose the former derive all their vitality from the existence

of their artificial opponent. Accordingly, the various realisms which get

their problems from dialectical situations developed by idealism have a

subject-matter that is equally unreal. Mythology has been, in the past,

an instrument for maintaining very important social relations, but if

social progress continues, the time should come when misrepresentations

408 ANNALS NEW YORK ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

of nature may be appropriately replaced by the laws of facts, the only —

laws that any ideal whatever can intelligently appeal to. Gifted men are,

however, devoting their time and wits to debating questions which would

not exist save for the survival of three primitive ideas—God, the soul, the

universe. The ideas of God and the universe were united in pantheism to

give the idea of the absolute, and from the idea of the soul was derived

the concept of mental states which yielded the idealistic conception of

consciousness. Modern technical observation does not substantiate any

claim to existential validity for these ideas. Their persistence, therefore,

in disguised forms, as the presuppositions of problems which men feel

obliged to discuss, is a burden for intelligence in the study of philosophy.

That part of anthropology which is devoted to the study of origins ought

to be the means of liberating many from the perplexities of artificial

problems. Disguised theological reminiscence should not continue to be

an obstacle to thoroughgoing empiricism.

The Section then adjourned. :

R. S. Woopworta,

Secretary.

BUSINESS MEETING.

Marcu 7, 1910.

The Academy met at 8:15 Pp. m. at the American Museum of Natural

History, Vice-President George F. Kunz presiding in the absence of

President Kemp.

The minutes of the last business meeting were read and approved.

The following candidate for active membership in the Academy, recom-

mended by Council, was duly elected :

Rev. J. L. Zabriskie, 28 Regent Place, Brooklyn, N. Y.

The Recording Secretary then brought forward an amendment to the

Constitution, making the fourth sentence of Article II read, “Correspond-

ing and Honorary Members shall be chosen from among persons who have

attained distinction in some branch of science.”

On motion, the above amendment, having been proposed in due form

at a preceding meeting of the Academy, was unanimously adopted.

The Academy then adjourned.

Epmunp Otis Hovey,

Recording Secretary.

RECORDS OF MEETINGS 409

SECTION OF GEOLOGY AND MINERALOGY.

Marcu 7, 1910.

Section met at 8:25 p. m., Vice-President George F. Kunz presiding.

The minutes of the last meeting of the Section were read and approved.

The following programme was then offered:

Paul Billingsley, STRUCTURE, ORIGIN AND STRATIGRAPHIC SIG-

NIFICANCE OF THE SHAWANGUNK GRIT.

A. C. Boyle, Jr., PROBLEMS CONNECTED WITH THE OCCURRENCE

oF GYPSUM IN THE BuLLy HILL anp Ris-

Inc STaR Mines, CALIFORNIA.

Edwin W. Humphreys

and Alexis A. Julien, THr PrEeGLAcIAL DECAY oF SCHIsTsS aT WEST-

CHESTER AVENUE AND BOULEVARD, Bronx,

New York CIry.

Section then adjourned.

CHarLes P. BeRKEY,

Secretary.

SECTION OF BIOLOGY.

Marcon 14, 1910.

Section met at 8:15 Pp. m., Vice-President Davenport presiding.

The minutes of the last meeting of the Section were read and approved.

The following programme was then offered:

Alexander Petrunkevitch, Retation Bretwren Species AND INDI-

VIDUAL IN THE STRUGGLE FOR EXIST-

ENCE.

Elvira Wood, A CasE OF APPARENT REVERSION AMONG

GASTROPODS.

Ignaz Matausch, THE PREPARATION OF A MuseuM ANa-

TOMICAL MODEL.

SUMMARY OF PAPERS.

Dr. Petrunkevitch tried to show from examples taken from the groups

of spiders and insects that the advantage of the individual is often op-

posed to the advantage of the species. Structures and habits dangerous

to the individual but of use to the species are not uncommon. Their ex-

istence proves that the individual is “enslaved” by the species, which con-

410 ANNALS NEW YORK ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

dition may be understood only if we consider the individual a mere carrier

and protector of the germ. In the evolution of species not the characters

of the fittest individual are selected and transmitted to the descendant

but those of the fittest to preserve the progeny.

The paper was illustrated with specimens and lantern slides.

Miss Wood said in abstract: The ornament of Potamidopsis tricarina-

tum begins as two continuous spirals, passes through a stage with two

rows of nodes and interpolates a third row of nodes in the adult. Potami-

dopsis trochleare has three rows of nodes in the young, later loses the

median row and has in the adult two continuous spirals. This suggests

reversion in the latter species, but in P. tricarinatum, the upper spiral

disappears before the introduction of the subsutural and median rows of

nodes, while in P. trochleare, the upper continuous spiral of the adult is

developed from the subsutural nodes; hence the two spirals of the adult

are not equivalent to the two spirals of the young P. tricarinatum. P.

trochleare illustrates progressive development resulting in simplification

of structures.

Miss Wood’s paper was illustrated with specimens and diagrams.

Mr. Matausch gave an account of the successive stages in the construc-

tion of an anatomical model of a spider for museum exhibition. He ex-

hibited a number of dissected specimens of Lycosa, upon which the model

is based, as well as a series of wax models which are made preliminary to

casting the final model.

The Section then adjourned.

L. Hussakor,

Secretary.

SECTION OF ASTRONOMY, PHYSICS AND CHEMISTRY.

Marcu 21, 1910.

Section met at 8:15 p. M., Vice-President Campbell presiding.

The minutes of the last meeting of the Section were read and approved.

The following programme was offered :

William Campbell, Notes oN THE StrucTURE oF Wrovucut Iron.

SUMMARY OF PAPER.

Professor Campbell, in the first part of his paper, dealt with the vari-

ous methods of manufacture: (1) The charcoal, hearth processes; (2)

Puddling; (3) Rolling of piled or bushelled scrap. Next, the various

uses of wrought iron were discussed and the names and trade-marks of

RECORDS OF MEETINGS 411

several well-known brands shown, chiefly Swedish iron. Then, by a series

of fifty lantern slides, the various structures met within the microscopic

examination of wrought iron were set forth and contrasted, both with

each other and with those of Bessemer steel. Differences in properties

and chemical analyses were mentioned.

The Section then adjourned.

EDWARD J. ‘l‘HATCHER,

Secretary.

SECTION OF ANTHROPOLOGY AND PSYCHOLOGY.

MarcH 28, 1910.

Section met, in conjunction with the American Ethnological Society,

at 8:15 p. M., Gen. James Grant Wilson presiding.

The minutes of the last meeting of the Section were read and approved.

The following programme was offered:

Paul Radin, SoME PROBLEMS OF WINNEBAGO ETHNOLOGY.

A. A. Goldenweiser, AUSTRALIAN CLAN ExoGamy.

SUMMARY OF PAPERS.

Dr. Goldenweiser contended that exogamy was not a primary but a

derivative trait of Australian clans. These are exogamous simply because

they are parts of the larger exogamous phratric units. The speaker fur-

ther illustrated the necessity of taking note of the subjective attitude

assumed by the natives towards their marriage regulations. Objectively

considered, the systems of many Australian tribes might be regarded as

based on endogamic considerations, and from this point of view they have

actually been described by a recent observer, Klaatsch.

R. 8S. WoopwortH,

Secretary.

BUSINESS MEETING.

APRIL 4, 1910.

The Academy met at 8:20 p. m. at the American Museum of Natural

History, President Kemp presiding.

The minutes of the last meeting were read and approved.

The following candidates for active membership, recommended by the

Council, were duly elected:

412 ANNALS NEW YORK ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

George E. Ashby, 11-13 Cliff Street,

John Hendley Barnhart, N. Y. Botanical Garden,

Edward Bennet Bronson, 10 West 49th Street,

L. Duncan Bulkley, 531 Madison Avenue,

James G. Cannon, 14 Nassau Street,

William J. Cassard, 125 Riverside Drive,

H. A. Cassebeer, Jr., 1095 Steinway Avenue, see Leck;

William Childs, Jr., “42 East 14th Street,

Perey Chubb, 5 and 7 S. William Street,

William P. Clyde, 24 State Street,

Robert Collier, 416 West 13th Street,

Maunsell S. Crosby, Rhinebeck, N. Y.,

Carlton C. Curtis, Columbia University,

Theodore L. De Vinne, 300 West 76th Street,

William J. Ehrich, 141 West 74th Street,

Allen W. Evarts, 60 Wall Street,

William H. Farrington, 23 Murray Street,

F. J. Fohs, Lexington, Ky.,

’ Charles D. Fuller, 139 Greenwich Street,

Lawrence Godkin, 36 West 10th Street,

Frederic G. Goodridge, M. D., 123 East 73rd Street,

Madison Grant, 22 East 49th Street,

James W. Green, Hotel Endicott,

A. M. Guinzburg, 56 West 89th Street,

Mrs. BE. H. Harriman, 1 East 69th Street,

F. C. Havemeyer, 113 Wall Street,

Berthold Hochschild, 52 Broadway,

J. KE. Hyde, Columbia University,

Miss P. R. Kautz-Eulenburg, 3 West 8th Street,

Nicoll Ludlow, University Club,

Frank Lyman, 82-88 Wall Street,

A. Monae-Lesser, M. D., 16 West 68th Street,

William Fellowes Morgan, Short Hills, N. J.,

John P. Munn, 18 West 58th Street,

Abram G. Nesbi#& Kingston, Pa.,

George Notman, 99 John Street,

John J. Paul, Watertown, Florida,

Albert Plant, 28 East 76th Street,

Selig Rosenbaum, 48 West 85th Street,

A. Rothbarth, 330 West End Avenue,

John H. Sage, Portland, Conn.,

RECORDS OF MEETINGS 413

Mrs. Herbert L. Satterlee, 37 East 36th Street,

Dr. L. Schoney, 2460 Seventh Avenue,

Jefferson Seligman, 1 William Street,

William Shillaber, 60 Wall Street,

Louis Morris Starr, 206 Fifth Avenue,

Edward Steinbrugge, Jr., 29 Broadway,

J. M. Stettenheim, 127 West 86th Street,

Theodore N. Vail, 26 Cortlandt Street,

Frederick K. Vreeland, 80th Street and East End Avenue,

W. H. Waite, Greystone, Yonkers, N. Y.,

William I. Walker, 11 Mt. Morris Park West,

William C. Wood, 51 Madison Avenue,

The Recording Secretary then reported the following deaths:

Alexander Agassiz, an honorary member for 23 years,

Rey. J. L. Zabriskie, an active member for 1 month.

The death of Professor Agassiz was referred to the Council Committee

with the recommendation that a suitable memorial be prepared.

The Academy then adjourned.

EpMuND Otis Hovey,

Recording Secretary.

SECTION OF GEOLOGY AND MINERALOGY.

APRIL 4, 1910.

Section met at 8:30 P. M., Vice-President George F. Kunz presiding.

The minutes of the last meeting of the Section were read and approved.

The following programme was then offered:

Dr. George F. Kunz reported a find of labradorite from Sonora,

Mexico. The mineral is especially clear, like quartz, and very similar to

that reported from time to time from other western localities. Dr. Kunz

suggested that Sonora may be the original source of all of them.

Several photographic prints made by zircon crystals were also exhibited.

The principal address of the evening was by

John M. Clarke, THE GroLocicaAL SURVEY OF THE STATE oF NEW

YORK.

SUMMARY OF PAPER.

Dr. Clarke called attention to the fact that it was seventy-five years

since the then Secretary of State, John A. Dix, proposed a plan for a

4—_NY

414 ANNALS NEW YORK ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

state survey. Next year, the New York Survey will be able to celebrate

seventy-five years of actual continuous existence. He gave a rather de-

tailed and most interesting account of the origin and successive stages of

work and progress to the present time. Remarks were made by Professor

James F. Kemp, Dr. E. O. Hovey and Dr. George F. Kunz.

A vote of thanks was given by the Section in acknowledgment of Dr.

Clarke’s entertaining and instructive address.

The Section then adjourned.

CHARLES P. BERKEY,

Secretary.

SECTION OF BIOLOGY.

APRIL 11, 1910.

Section met at 8:15 p. m., Mr. Roy W. Miner presiding.

The minutes of the last meeting of the Section were read and approved.

The following programme was then offered:

Roy W. Miner, Coritectinc INVERTEBRATES IN THE Woops HOLg

REGION.

SUMMARY OF PAPER.

Mr. Miner gave an account of his collecting experiences during the

summer of 1910 in the Woods Hole region. The methods and results of

a dredging expedition were first outlined, and then the speaker gave an

account of the habits of some of the more interesting and typical inverte-

brates found in the vicinity of Buzzard Bay and Vineyard Sound, dwell-

ing especially on the Annulata. The address was illustrated with colored

lantern slides of the living animals.

The Section then adjourned.

W. K. Grecory,

Secretary pro tem.

SECTION OF ASTRONOMY, PHYSICS AND CHEMISTRY.

ApRIL 18, 1910.

By permission of Council, no meeting was held.

EpWaArpD J. THATCHER,

Secretary.

RECORDS OF MEETINGS 415

SECTION OF ANTHROPOLOGY AND PSYCHOLOGY.

APRIL 25, 1910.

The Section met in conjunction with the New York Branch of the

American Psychological Association. The afternoon session was held at

4 p. M. at the Psychological Laboratory, Schermerhorn Hall, Columbia

University, where the following programme was offered:

J. V. Breitwieser, THE ATVENTION WAVE.

B. R. Simpson, CoRRELATION OF MENTAL ABILITIES.

Henry H. Goddard, DEVELOPMENT OF THE SENSE OF ForRM IN FEEBLE-

MINDED CHILDREN.

Will S. Monroe, INDICATIONS OF INCIPIENT FATIGUE.

The evening session was held at 8:15 P. M. at the American Museum

of Natural History, the following programme being offered:

J. McKeen Cattell, Tor MrasuREMENT oF PsycHoLogicaL MERIT.

Joseph Jastrow, Recent APPLICATIONS OF THE STEREOSCOPIC PRIN-

CIPLE.

James E. Lough, ExprrRIMENTS IN STEREOSCOPIC VISION.

W.P.Montague, Lirt as PoTeENTIAL ENERGY.

R. S. WoopwortH,

Secretary.

BUSINESS MEETING.

May 2, 1910.

The Academy met at 8:20 Pp. M., at the American Museum of Natural

History, Vice-President Campbell presiding in the absence of President

Kemp.

The minutes of the last meeting of the Section were read and approved.

The following candidates for election to active membership in the

Academy, recommended by the Council, were duly elected :

Eugene M. Berard, 43 Cedar Street,

W. B. Bourn, Ski Farm, Burlingame, Calif.,

William T. Davis, 146 Stuyvesant Place, New Brighton, S. L.,

James J. Frederich, M. D., 480 East 179th Street,

Albert C. Goodwin, 1070 Bushwick Avenue, Brooklyn, N. Y.,

Edward Griffith, 66 Pine Street,

H. W. Guernsey, 230 West 59th Street,

416 ANNALS NEW YORK ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

George W. Hodges, 37 Wall Street,

Frederic H. Humphreys, Morristown, N. J.,

Mrs. William E. Iselin, 745 Fifth Avenue,

Philip M. Lydig, 38 East 52nd Street,

Charles R. McNeil, 39 West 42nd Street,

George F. Norton, 71 Broadway,

Mrs. William C. Osborn, 40 East 36th Street,

Jacob Rossbach, 1 West 86th Street,

Adelbert J. Smith, 15 William Street,

Frank Morse Smith, 149 Seventh Avenue, Brooklyn, N. Y.,

James Streat, 62 Leonard Street,

Mrs. J. A. Vanderpoel, 22 Gramercy Park,

Mrs. Woerishoffer, 11 East 45th Street.

The Recording Secretary reported the following deaths:

Robert Parr Whitfield, Curator of Geology and Invertebrate Paleon-

tology at the American Museum of Natural History from 1877 to 1909,

inclusive, and Curator Emeritus of the Department since 1 January,

1910, died 6 April, 1910, at Troy, N. Y. Professor Whitfield had been

an active member of the Academy since 1879, and in the early years of

his residence in this city, he took much interest in its work. He was a

vice-president from 1894-1895 and a Fellow of the Academy. A paleon-

tologist of the old school, a keen observer of form, a wonderfully skillful

draughtsman, an assiduous describer of species, his influence was for

many years great in his chosen specialty, and his impress upon paleonto-

logic science is permanent.

Rutherford Stuyvesant, an active member for 42 years and a Fellow

of the Academy for 1 year.

On motion, the death of Professor Whitfield was referred to the Com-

mittee on Members with the recommendation that a suitable memorial

be prepared.

The Recording Secretary read a letter from Professor Viktor von Lang

sending greetings and acknowledging the receipt of his appointment as

delegate to represent the Academy at the semi-centenary of the founda-

tion of the Verein zur Verbreitung naturwissenschaftlicher Kenntnisse

of Vienna.

The Academy then adjourned.

EpmMunD Otis Hovey,

Recording Secretary.

RECORDS OF MEETINGS 417

SECTION OF GEOLOGY AND MINERALOGY.

May 2, 1910.

Section met at 8:30 Pp. M., Vice-President George F. Kunz presiding.

The minutes of the last meeting of the Section were read and approved.

Arrangements were made for a joint meeting with the geologists and

mineralogists of the neighboring region for this last meeting of the year.

The regular formal session of the Section was preceded by a field meeting.

A party of 38 assembled at the Eagle Hotel in Kingston, N. Y., the even-

ing of April 30. A conference was then held at which the general

geology of the Rondout region was presented by Dr. Rudolph Ruedemann

and Mr. Hartnagel of the New York State Survey, Professor Charles

Schuchert of Yale University, Dr. E. O. Hovey of the American Museum

of Natural History, Professor D. W. Johnson of Harvard University and

Professor A. W. Grabau and Dr. Charles P. Berkey of Columbia Uni-

versity.

The next day was spent in studying the Helderberg series at Kingston

and in making a cross section of the ridge at the old cement mines. Later

in the afternoon the party divided, one section going with Professor

Grabau to study the fauna of certain formations more fully, and the

other section following Dr. Berkey to High Falls to see the stream gorge

at that point and the excellent exposures of High Fall shale, Binnewater

sandstone and Shawangunk conglomerate, all of which are additional to

the formations seen in the morning at Kingston.

Another conference was held in the evening which was participated in

by most of the visiting geologists. Several of the more obscure questions

were discussed at this session in which considerable difference of opinion

was developed.

On the morning of May 2, the whole party went to Browns Station in

the margin of the Catskills to see the Ashokan Dam and other work being

done at the reservoir site by the New York City Board of Water Supply

as part of the Catskill water system. Mr. J. S. Langthorn, Division

Engineer, in charge of a division of this work, kindly took the party over

the most interesting portions of the field, among which were the 50-foot

trench being cut into the Sherburne sandstone, one of the large dikes and

the Ashokan Dam itself.

At noon the party left Kingston for New York City, where, at 4 o’clock,

a short meeting was held in the rooms of the Department of Geology of

Columbia University with the following papers:

418 ANNALS NEW YORK ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

A. A. Julien, THE GENESIS OF ANTIGORITE.

Victor Ziegler, THE RAVENSWOOD GRANODIORITE.

Charles P. Berkey, GractaL MODIFICATION OF THE CHANNELS ABOUT

New York.

At 8:30 in the evening, the regular session of the Section of Geology

and Mineralogy was held in the Academy room at the American Museum

of Natural History, Vice-President George F. Kunz presiding.

The following programme was offered:

Douglas W. Johnson, THE ORIGIN OF THE YOSEMITE VALLEY.

James F. Kemp, A SPHEROIDAL Basic DIKE FROM ARKANSAS.

A. W. Grabau, RELATION OF MIDDLE AND UPPER SILURIC IN

THE EASTERN UNITED STATES.

The following paper was read by title:

Clarence N. Fenner, THE WatcHuNG BASALT AND THE PARAGENESIS

OF ITs ZEOLITES AND OTHER SECONDARY MIN-

ERALS.

SUMMARY OF PAPERS.

Professor Johnson discussed the gradients of the tributary streams and

showed that the present valley bottoms are 2200 to 2400 feet deeper than

would be expected from their behavior. The conclusion reached from all

sources of evidence is that the result is due to overdeepening by glacial ice.

Professor Kemp showed several specimens, and the type of dike was

compared to others of spheroidal habit from different localities.

Professor Grabau showed a series of typical geological sections in ex-

planation of the correlation proposed.

The Section then adjourned.

CHARLES P. BERKEY,

Secretary.

SECTION OF BIOLOGY.

May 9, 1910.

Section met at 8:15 Pp. M., Professor Bashford Dean presiding.

The minutes of the last meeting of the Section were read and approved.

The following programme was then offered:

W. K. Gregory, Noves ON THE INSECTIVORE GENUS Tupaia AND

ITs ALLIES.

Henry E. Crampton, FourtH JouRNEY OF EXPLORATION IN THE SOUTH

SEAS.

RECORDS OF MEETINGS 419

SUMMARY OF PAPERS.

Mr. Gregory said in abstract: In 1904, Dr. W. D. Mathew interpreted

the characters of many Eocene mammals of various orders as pointing to

a common stem form of arboreal habits and structure. The oriental in-

sectivore Tupaia and its little known Bornean ally Ptilocercus lown,

serve to illustrate these characters in still living forms. They have a

divergent but not yet opposable thumb and great toe, their habits are

chiefly arboreal and the diet insectivorous-frugivorous. Tupaia retains

many skeletal features that were characteristic of Eocene unguiculates,

e. g., long humerus and femur, humerus with entepicondylar foramen,

femur with third trochanter, radius and ulna and tibia and fibula sepa-

rate, flexible carpus and tarsus, semiplantigrade, five-toed manus and pes

with divergent digit I, free central carpi, astragalus without trochlear

keels and with a rounded head, vertebral formula C. 7, D. 13, L. 6 or 7,

S. 3, Cd. 23-26—and many others. Other features distinctly foreshadow

the primate type, e. g., relatively large brain case, broad forehead, large,

posteriorly closed orbits and especially the structural details of the audi-

tory bulla and ossicles, dentition and astragalus. In Ptilocercus, the skull

and dentition is even more distinctly lemuroid, but the rest of the skele-

ton is unknown. It is of course possible that these lemuroid characters

are entirely due to convergent evolution, but the provisional conclusion is |

that the Tupaiide are descended from the Insectivore stock that gave rise

to the primates. Attention was called to the resemblances between Ptilo-

cercus and the lower jaw from the Bridger Eocene described by Matthew

as Entomolestes grangert. The only differences are such as frequently

separate more generalized forms from their descendants.

The paper was illustrated with lantern slides and specimens.

Professor Crampton gave a brief account of the new results obtained

in the course of a journey of seven months’ duration among the Society,

Cook, New Zealand, Tongan, Samoan, Fiji and Hawaiian Islands. The

organisms forming the material of investigations were terrestrial snails

of the genus Partula, a strictly Pacific group. The species differ when a

comparison is made of forms occurring in neighboring but isolated valleys

of one island, in different islands of the same group and in different

‘groups of islands. The uniform principle of distribution summarizing

the observed facts is that the degree of geographic proximity of any two

comparable regions is correlated with the degree of biological differentia-

tion of their species.

420 ANNALS NEW YORK ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

Professor Crampton also gave a description of two active volcanoes, —

namely, Savali in Samoa and Kilauea in Hawaii. Other older islands of

volcanic nature were brought into relation with these examples, as later

stages in the production of deeply-furrowed land masses like Tahiti,

where conditions are such that isolated valley stations are found to be the

homes of separate colonies of snails. Regarding -the relation of such

islands to other weathered peaks like Borabora, to coral atolls and to

islands of uplifted coral limestone like many examples in the Cook and

Tonga groups, the Darwin-Dana doctrine was contrasted with the view of

Agassiz. It was pointed out that the phenomena of distribution in the

case of species of Partula gave unquestioned support to the Darwin-Dana

doctrine of a major process of subsidence, although secondary sporadic

examples of the reverse process of uplift may be demonstrated at different

points of the South Pacific Ocean.

The paper was illustrated with lantern slides and specimens.

The Section then adjourned.

WILLIAM K. GreEGory,

Secretary pro tem.

SECTION OF ASTRONOMY, PHYSICS AND CHEMISTRY.

May 16, 1910.

The Section met at 8:15 p. m., Vice-President W. Campbell, presiding.

The minutes of the last meeting of the Section were read and approved.

The programme for the evening consisted of the following public

lecture:

S. A. Mitchell, Tor Return or HALLey’s CoMET.

Epwarp J. THATCHER,

Secretary.

BUSINESS MEETING.

OcToBER 3, 1910.

The Academy met at 8:15 p. Mm. at the American Museum of Natural

History, Vice-President George F. Kunz presiding.

On motion, the business meeting was adjourned to October 17, 1910.

CHARLES P. BERKEY,

Secretary pro tem.

[ANNALS N. Y. AcapEMy oF Scrences, Vol. XX, pp. 420a-420s. ]

{Omitted by error from its proper piace. Please insert.]

BUSINESS MEETING.

May 28, 1910.

The Academy met at 5 p. M., at the American Museum of Natural

History, President James F. Kemp presiding.

The minutes of the last meeting were read and approved.

The following candidates for election as active members, recom-

mended by the Council, were duly elected:

Miss M. C. Bishop, 9 East 84th Street,

Charles Lyman Brinsmade, 166 Columbia Heights, Brooklyn,

Mrs. M. E. Dwight, 31 Mt. Morris Park West,

Richard E. Follett, Pittsfield, Mass.,

Karl Hutter, 241 Lafayette Street,

J. A. Lindbo, St. Edward, Nebraska,

Dr. William N. Polk, 7 East 84th Street.

On motion, the President, Recording Secretary and Treasurer were

given power to elect to membership in the Academy persons applying

during the vacation season for membership under the circular authorized

at the meeting of 7 February and approved by the Council.

The following communication was then read:

Wallace Goold Levison, THE CHARACTER OF CoMETS.'

My present hypothesis of the character of comets is that they are allied

to foci of radiant matter, and that the train corresponds to the cathode

beam in a Crookes tube. As the latter is confined within and sur-

rounded by the glass vessel while the former is developed in unlimited

vacuous space, it is not surprising that they may differ in some details.

It seems to me that the polyfurcation of comets’ tails is effected by the

sun or planets acting as great magnets; just as the cathode beam in a

Crookes tube may be similarly divided by an artificial magnet into

streamers closely resembling those of multiple-tailed comets.’

While in some details as to their spectra, comets differ somewhat from

the ordinary cathode phenomena as yet noted, probably for the reason

1 Manuscript received by the Editor 16 May, 1910.

2This hypothesis I have described in more detail and illustrated with comparative

photographs of comets and cathode beams in the following publications:

Papers of the American Astronomical Society, No. 2, p. 54, 1887.

Prospectus BkIn. Inst. Arts and Sci. for 1894-5, p. 18. 1894.

Yearbook BkIn. Inst. Arts and Sci. for 1895-6, p. 120. 1896.

Trans. New York Acad. Sci., Volume XV, p. 156, 1895-1896.

Scientific American, Volume LXXV, No. 10, p. 3038, Sept. 5, 1896.

4208 ANNALS NEW YORK ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

above explained, or more likely because no special effort has been made >

to reproduce them experimentally under suitable conditions, I anticipate —

that they will eventually prove to be of similar origin.

If the comet’s train be a beam of radiant matter, the following phe-

nomena might attend upon the earth’s transit through it: (1.) Being

composed of negatively charged electrons (the smallest conceivable par-

ticles of matter), each with a long, free path or collectively at compara-

tively great distances apart, it must consist of highly attenuated material

such as Faraday and Crookes regarded as a fourth state of matter. (2.)

It could exist only in a near vacuum and, therefore, impinging against

our atmosphere, it could only penetrate its superficial and highly rarefied

exterior. There it might develop a slight phosphorescence, but as this

would occur on the hghted side of our planet, it would be invisible to us.

The beam would thereby however become arrested or would terminate.

(3.) During the earth’s immersion in the comet’s train, those of us near

the center of its night or dark side would see it passing on all sides as a

faintly luminous cylinder, extending above us into space, but modified

perhaps by perspective to an apparently coronal form like an aurora.

To those of us near the terrestrial horizon beyond the area locally illumi-

nated by sunrise or sunset, it might appear brighter than to those nearer

the night center. (4.) The behavior of the comet’s train would, how-

ever, perhaps depend upon its direction with respect to the magnetic axis |

or polarity of the earth. In certain directions, it would possibly or even

probably be repelled by the earth’s magnetism wholly to one side so that

we should escape it altogether. (5.) Whether deflected or not, it might

occasion terrestrial magnetic perturbations as does the aurora. (6.) If

not deflected by the pressure of its impact, it might disturb the equi-

librium of the atmosphere and so commingle the upper and lower air as

to produce a reduced temperature.

Whether there is in this hypothesis anything inconsistent with the

assumption that comets’ trains may consist of any kind of matter indi-

cated apparently by spectroscopic records, or of associated meteoric par-

ticles projected simultaneously by the pressure of light, has yet to be

demonstrated, if possible. Their development in unlimited vacuous

space seems to involve a condition beyond experimental provision. It is

of interest in this connection that certain kinds of solid matter glow

with a vivid phosphorescence under the cathode rays and give a line

spectrum very similar to that of the substance indicated when in the

condition of an incandescent gas or vapor.

According to this hypothesis, little effect need apparently be antici-

pated upon the earth from Halley’s comet, in case its train is traversed

well away from its head.

RECORDS OF MEETINGS 421

SECTION OF GEOLOGY AND MINERALOGY.

OcTOBER 3, 1910.

The Section met at 8:20 p. m., Vice-President George F. Kunz pre-

siding.

The minutes of the last meeting of the Section were read and approved.

Before proceeding to the regular programme of the evening, Dr. George

F. Kunz presented some of the results of explorations conducted by the

commission investigating choice of site for the proposed Hudson River

bridge. Dr. Kunz reported that rock foundations are wanting, except on

the present river margins, a condition that would seem to require a span

of such extraordinary length that it is a question whether it should be

attempted at all. It is his opinion that the bridge plan will finally be

abandoned in favor of tunnels, several of which could be constructed for

the cost of one bridge. Furthermore, they could be so placed that the

several tunnels would accommodate different sections of the city and

together be of greater service than the bridge.

The following programme was then offered:

G. S. Rogers, ORIGINAL GNEISSOID STRUCTURE IN THE CorT-

LANDT SERIES.

Jesse E. Hyde, SoME STRUCTURAL MODIFICATIONS OF THE INWOOD

LIMESTONE.

Charles P. Berkey, AppitroNat NoTEs ON THE INTERBEDDED LIME-

® STONE IN THE ForRDHAM GNEISS OF NEW YORK

CIT.

George H. Girty, New Species oF Fosstis FROM THE THAYNES

LIMESTONE OF UTAH.

George H. Girty, DrscriprioN oF SOME NEW GENERA AND SPECIES

OF CARBONIFEROUS FOSSILS FROM THE LA-FAY-

ETTEVILLE SHALE OF ARKANSAS.

SUMMARY OF PAPERS.

Mr. Rogers gave the results of his own observations in field work and

illustrated his remarks by lantern slides. Remarks on the similarity of

these occurrences to those of the Scandinavian Peninsula were made by

Professor J. F. Kemp.

Mr. Hyde called attention to the evidence of dynamic results of a dif-

ferential nature in different layers of the Inwood near Spuyten Duyvil

422 ANNALS NEW YORK ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

Creek. The more brittle bands or layers are broken, and the purer adja-

cent matter has “flowed” in, accomplishing a stretching of the whole

mass. The discussion was illustrated with specimens. Remarks were

made on the meaning of these characters by Dr. C. P. Berkey.

Dr. Berkey’s paper dealt with the newer discoveries of interbedded

limestone layers, which were described briefly, and special attention was

called to the evidence of such occurrences in the recent lower east side

deep boring explorations. This facies of the Fordham gneiss series is

now well established for southeastern New York.

Dr. Girty’s papers were read by title.

The Section then adjourned.

CHARLES P. BERKEY,

Secretary.

SECTION OF BIOLOGY.

OctToBER 10, 1910.

Section met at 8:15 Pp. m., Vice-President Chas. B. Davenport pre-

siding.

The minutes of the last meeting of the Section were read and approved.

The meeting was devoted to a series of informal reports by members

of the Section on their summer’s work.

L. Hussakor,

Secretary.

BUSINESS MEETING.

OctToper 17, 1910.

The Academy met at 8:15 p. m., at the American Museum of Natural

History, President Kemp presiding.

The minutes of the meeting of May 23 were read and approved.

The following candidates for active membership, recommended by the

Council, were duly elected:

David R. Abercrombie, 311 Broadway,

Oakes Ames, North Easton, Mass.,

Mrs. William H. Bliss, 6 East 65th Street,

Frederick A. Camp, 32 West 129th Street,

José Edward Chaves, 31 East 49th Street,

G. Warrington Curtis, Southampton, N. Y.,

David T. Davis, 55 Liberty Street,

C. Stuart Gager, Central Museum, Brooklyn,

RECORDS OF MEETINGS 423

Charles J. Harrah, 27 East 64th Street,

J. C. Havemeyer, 58 Lamartine Avenue, Yonkers, N. Y.,

Miss Amelia B. Hollenback, 460 Washington Avenue, Brooklyn,

Alfred R. Hoyt, 934 Fifth Avenue,

Jacob Hasslacher, 100 William Street,

Dr. V. H. Jackson, 240 Lenox Avenue,

J. Herbert Johnstone, 18 Washington Square,

Francis G. Landon, 29 Broadway,

M. Lichtenstein, 401 West End Avenue,

J. M. McCarthy, 40 Wall Street,

Dr. Henry S. Oppenheimer, 11 East 43rd Street,

Very! Preston, 136 East 64th Street,

Lycurgus Relkoyer, Montevedio, Minn.,

Mrs. Emilie B. Risley, 1 West 72nd Street,

John A. Roebling, Bernardsville, N. J.,

Basil W. Rowe, 71 Broadway,

Dean Sage, 49 Wall Street,

Robert Scoville, 62 Cedar Street,

Dr. Louis L. Seaman, 247 Fifth Avenue,

Miss Ellen J. Stone, 34 East 50th Street,

Charles Strauss, 141 Broadway,

Frederick Strauss, 1 William Street,

Miss P. Caroline Swords, 48 East 67th Street,

Mrs. B. B. Tuttle, Naugatuck, Conn.,

Chas.-E. A. Winslow, American Museum of Natural History,

Henry H. Wotherspoon, 46 West 127th Street.

The Academy then adjourned.

Epmunp Otis Hovey,

Recording Secretary.

SECTION OF ASTRONOMY, PHYSICS AND CHEMISTRY.

OcToBER 17, 1910.

Section met at 8:25 p. m., Vice-President Wm. Campbell presiding.

The minutes of the last two meetings of the Section were read and

approved.

The following programme was then offered:

C. C. Trowbridge, THr DirEcTION SensE IN BrrDS AND ANIMALS FROM

THE STANDPOINT OF PHySICs.

W. Campbell, THE Microscopic EXAMINATION OF SOME FAULTY

RAILROAD MATERIAL.

424 ANNALS NEW YORK ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

SUMMARY OF PAPERS.

Dr. Trowbridge first of all discussed the various theories which have

been given to explain this direction sense, especially in birds, and showed

how they were untenable from the standpoint of physics. Then he set

forth his own theory, which for want of a better name he called the pylex

triangulation theory, and explained its principles.

Dr. Campbell, in his paper, took several examples of failures of rail-

road material from wrought iron to rail steel, and by means of the micro-

structure he demonstrated the cause of failure. First of all, the various

constituents met with were described, and the methods of distinguishing

them were explained. Then, by numerous lantern slides and specimens,

the structure of faulty material was contrasted with that of good. Lastly,

he explained why rails of older manufacture had apparently given better

service than some of modern make.

The Section then adjourned.

Epwarp J. THATCHER,

Secretary.

SECTION OF ANTHROPOLOGY AND PSYCHOLOGY.

OcToBER 24, 1910.

The Section met in conjunction with the American Ethnological So-

ciety, at 8:15 Pp. M., Gen. James Grant Wilson presiding.

The minutes of the last meeting of the Section were read and approved.

The following programme was then offered :

Robert H. Lowie, CEREMONIAL ORGANIZATIONS OF THE Crow INDIANS.

SUMMARY OF PAPER.

Dr. Lowie said in abstract: The societies of the Crow at present com-

prise purely social clubs, without any religious features and without any

adoption ceremony; the Medicine Pipe organization, and the several To-

bacco societies, all of which are of a sacred character and can be entered

only upon formal adoption. The military societies of the Crow, which

are no longer in existence, rather resembled the social clubs, for religious

features were practically lacking. There was no adoption ceremony, no

sacred origin myths, and they were to a certain extent mutual benefit

associations like the clubs of to-day.

R. 8S. WoopwortH,

Secretary.

RECORDS OF MEETINGS 425

BUSINESS MEETING.

NOVEMBER 7, 1910.

The Academy met at 8:15 Pp. M., at the American Museum of Natural

History, President James F. Kemp presiding.

The minutes of the last meeting were read and approved.

The following candidates for election as active members, recommended

by the Council, were duly elected:

Frederick Billings, 279 Madison Avenue,

Benedict J. Greenhut, 36 West 72nd Street,

Theodore R. Hoyt, 72 Gold Street,

Nathaniel Cushing Nash, 10 Post Office Square, Boston, Mass.,

Lawrence E. Sexton, 34 Pine Street,

W. A. Taylor, 18 East 66th Street,

Robert M. Thompson, 43 Exchange Place,

Chas. Willis Ward, Lovells, Crawford County, Mich.,

John J. Watson, Jr., 390 West End Avenue.

The Recording Secretary announced from the Council that, through

the generosity of one of the members of the Academy, a seismographic

station was to be established at the American Museum of Natural His-

tory, the instruments pertaining thereto to be and remain the property of

the Academy.

The Academy then adjourned.

EpMwUND OTs Hovey,

Recording Secretary.

SECTION OF GEOLOGY AND MINERALOGY.

. NOVEMBER "%, 1910.

The Section met at 8:20 p. m., Vice-President George F. Kunz pre-

siding.

The minutes of the last meeting of the Section were read and approved.

After the reading of the minutes, Professor Stevenson moved that the

present officers of the Section be nominated as candidates for another

term and that nominations be closed. Professor J. F. Kemp put the mo-

tion, which was carried, and Dr. George F. Kunz was declared the nomi-

nee for Vice-President and Chairman of the Section, and Dr. Charles P.

Berkey was declared the nominee for Secretary of the Section.

426 ANNALS NEW YORK ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

The following programme was then offered:

J. F. Kemp, THE ELEVENTH INTERNATIONAL GEOLOGICAL CONGRESS

AT STOCKHOLM, JULY AND AuGustT, 1910.

J.J. Stevenson, THE Coat BAsIN oF DECAZEVILLE, FRANCE.

E. O. Hovey, Some OBSERVATIONS ON THE YOSEMITE VALLEY.

SUMMARY OF PAPER.

Professor Kemp gave an account of the several excursions preceding

the Congress, and a summary of the topics and papers presented at the

regular sessions was read. The chief feature of the Eleventh Congress

was the preparation of a series of monographs on the iron ore reserves of

the world. Professor Kemp is the author of those on the iron reserves of

the United States, the Philippines, Central America, the West Indies

and several of the South American countries. Many of the features of

special interest in Sweden and Norway were described, and several lan-

tern views were shown in illustration.

Professor Stevenson gave an instructive account and discussion of the

structure and origin of the coals of Decazeville. It is his opinion that

they have been formed by peat bog growth instead of transported vegeta-

tion, as the French geologists have held.

Dr. Hovey’s description was based upon a trip made during the sum-

mer. A magnificent set of lantern views was shown to illustrate the

different features.

The Section then adjourned.

CHARLES P. BERKEY,

Secretary.

SECTION OF BIOLOGY.

NovEMBER 14, 1910.

Section met at 8:15 p. m., Dr. Alexander Petrunkevitch presiding.

The minutes of the last meeting of the Section were read and approved.

The following programme was then offered:

Raymond C. Osburn, THE EFFECTS OF EXPOSURE ON THE GILL

FILAMENTS OF FISHES.

Alexander Petrunkevitch, CourTsHIP IN TARANTULAS.

W. M. Wheeler, Tue NortH AMERICAN ANTS OF THE GENUS

Camponotus mayr.

RECORDS OF MEETINGS 427

SUMMARY OF PAPERS.

Dr. Osburn said in abstract: Salmonoid fishes hatched and reared

under artificial conditions frequently show a malformation of one or both

of the gill covers, as a result of which the gill filaments are exposed. This

condition has been observed in many hatcheries, the percentages some-

times being as high as twenty per cent. The deformity in the fishes

studied is produced by the rolling in of the operculum. 486 yearling

silver salmon reared in the New York Aquarium were examined with the

following results: Normal, 397; right opercle short, 44; left opercle

short, 27; both opercles short, 18; percentage of abnormality, 18.31. On

examination under the microscope, the exposed filaments are found to be

quite abnormal. The epithelium, instead of being composed of thin flat-

tened cells, is greatly thickened, consisting of cuboid or columnar cells,

and in some cases several layers of the cells are found. The secondary

laminz, in which respiration for the most part takes place, are often re-

duced or wanting, and the blood capillaries are not fully developed. The

hypertrophy of the epithelium, while it undoubtedly protects the fila-

ments against abrasion, must at the same time seriously interfere with

their function in respiration. The cause of the deformity of the opercle

_is unknown. Fish culturists have noted its appearance very early in fry,

but whether it is congenital or is induced by crowding or by other un-

toward conditions in the hatching trays, further observations must decide.

Dr. Petrunkevitch said in abstract: The instincts of the male taran-

tulas change suddenly at the period of maturity. From a creature with

domestic habits, he develops into a vagabond. Disregarding personal

danger, he constructs a spermweb into which he throws out his sperm and

pumps it then into both of his palpi. In the search for the female, he is

entirely dependent upon his sense of touch, his sense of sight being en-

tirely inadequate for the purpose. The courtship is therefore very short

and consists in beating the female with his front legs. The danger of

being hit by the fangs of the excited female is prevented by catching

them with the hooks on the front legs. The coitus lasts not longer than

one-half minute, after which the spiders cautiously separate. A few

weeks later the males die, apparently a natural death.

Professor Charles B. Davenport, Chairman of the Section, was renomi-

nated for the Chairmanship for 1911.

Dr. lL. Hussakof, Secretary of the Section, was renominated and re-

elected for 1911.

The meeting then adjourned.

L. HussaKor,

Secretary.

428 ANNALS NEW YORK ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

SECTION OF ASTRONOMY, PHYSICS AND CHEMISTRY.

NovEMBER 21, 1910.

Section met at 8:15 p. M., Vice-President Wm. Campbell presiding.

The minutes of the last meeting of the Section were read and approved.

The following programme was then offered:

Charles Conrad Sleffel, Tur WastrE Wax Process oF Castine BRONZE.

SUMMARY OF PAPER.

Mr. Sleffel explained the process in detail from the artist’s model to

the finished and colored casting, showing that the ancient process differed

but slightly from the modern. The lecture was illustrated by actual

models and castings, also by lantern slides.

Two letters of request for grants from the Esther Herrman Research

Fund were read, one from Prof. C. C. Trowbridge, The sense of direction

in birds and animals. The other from Prof. W. Campbell as to the micro-

structure of metals. These letters were approved and referred to the

Council.

The Section then adjourned.

EpwarbD J. THATCHER,

Secretary.

SECTION OF ANTHROPOLOGY AND PSYCHOLOGY.

NOVEMBER 28, 1910.

Section met in conjunction with the New York Branch of the American

Psychological Association at 4 Pp. M. at Columbia University.

The following programme was offered :

F. Lyman Wells, PRACTISE EFFECTS IN FREE ASSOCIATION.

H. L. Hollingsworth, Drowsiness.

Clyde Furst, MENTAL HYGIENE.

The evening programme was taken up at the American Museum of

Natural History at 8:15 o’clock as follows:

D.S. Miller, SUBJECTIFYING THE OBJECTIVE.

F. J. E. Woodbridge, Srconpary QUALITIES.

Robert H. Lowie, A ForGoTTEN PRAGMATIST, LUDWIG FEUERBACH.

RECORDS OF MEETINGS 429

SUMMARY OF PAPERS.

Dr. Wells said in abstract: When subjects are practised in the free

association test through a long series of different words each day, there

normally appears a decrease in the association time that may be as high

as forty per cent. This practise effect consists essentially in bringing

down the long times of a series to the approximate level of the few words

showing the shortest time at the beginning of practise. It is an over-

coming of the resistances originally present in the majority of responses.

It is very striking that the practise of this test, where the given situation

is essentially different in each observation, is not markedly less than in

other psychological tests where the situations are the same or but slightly

different, as in the addition or the number checking tests. Besides this

practise effect in the reaction time, it also appears that there are certain

changes in the character of the responses; they tend to become more spe-

cific, but also more superficial, and less determined by the influence of so-

called emotional “complexes.”

Dr. Hollingworth reported an attempt to study the hitherto inade-

quately explored transition state between waking and sleeping. Two ob-

servers have for two years recorded hallucinations occurring during the

drowsy state, and typical cases are reported. Their examination discloses

several clearly-defined principles or tendencies, the exposition of which

seems to constitute a fairly true though perhaps only partially complete

analysis of the state of drowsiness.

1. Transformation of imagery type. Imagery modes ordinarily vague

and feeble become dominant and vivid, even tending to replace customary

imagery habits. Thus H—who is predominantly auditory and motor in

type and can only with difficulty summon up visual images of even the

most moderate vividness—has, in the drowsy state, visual’ experiences

which constantly startly him by their clearness. I—to whom visual

imagery is a common habit, but who, in her waking consciousness, can

not understand what kinesthetic imagery is like—tends, in the drowsy

state, to relive motor experiences almost exclusively.

2. Substitution of three types, sensory, perseverative, and ideal.

Within the drowsiness fusion a present impression, a perseverative ten-

dency, or even a pure memory element often substitutes itself for some

other datum whose role it fills in the perceived composition of the halluci-

nation.

3. Fluid association on a sensory basis, with removal of constraining

mental sets and controls, leading to bizarre analogies, naive statements,

and unusual verbal juxtapositions.

5—NY

430 ANNALS NEW YORK ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

4, Isolation. Association trains may develop when the drowsy state is

extended over a long period of time, and show the same behavior as to the

“flash-light” perceptual or ideational states in drowsiness proper, the

essential thing being the release of all intellectual inhibition.

5. Grandeur and vastness characterize the simpler perceptual compli-

cations as well as the more developed thought processes.

6. Amnesia for processes and events occurring during the drowsy state

comes quickly.

7. Absence of special symbolism, except in so far as the halliciainae

reflects the recent experiences or occupations and hence, perhaps, the

fundamental interests of the observer.

Summary. The drowsiness hallucination seems to be a “flash-light”

perceptual fusion or complication, and is further characterized by trans-

formation of imagery type; sensory, perseverative, and ideal substitution ;

fluid association on a sensory basis; and by isolation of association trains

when they develop; and it is accompanied by tendencies toward grandeur

and vastness, by rapidly ensuing amnesia, and by absence of symbolism.

Mr. Furst gave a collection of items from biography and autobiography

selected so as to illustrate the ways in which such material may suggest

fruitful fields and methods for psychological study. Thus, in the field of

mental hygiene, individual equipment for sensation, and individual habits

of confinement or exercise, food and sleep, and individual habits of work

appear to have an adjustable relation to youth and age, to climate, season,

and weather, and to weekly and daily rhythms of efficiency. Similarly,

environment, appliances, habit and variety, freedom and restraint, society

-and solitude may be, at least partially, controlled in their effect upon

mental attitudes, interests, aims, and ideals as these, in turn, are related

to mental spontaneity and efficiency. Study of mental action and re-

action may thus be directed toward a definite selection of stimulus and a

deliberate adoption of methods of work that will enhance both the welfare

of the mental mechanism and the quality of its product.

Mr. Miller said in abstract: It has been maintained that the meaning

of the proposition “it ought to be” can never be expressed by any propo-

sition about human feelings, preferences, approvals, or the like; that

there is something objective and absolute in the ethical proposition which

is missing in the psychological form. But there is an exactly analogous

relation between subjective and objective statement in a long list of cases

other than the ethical. Thus we make objective statements about what is

comic, and their absoluteness is lost when we only state propositions about

human feelings of amusement. The whole column of correlatives would

RECORDS OF MEETINGS 431

run as follows: obligation—approval, the comic—amusement, the beauti-

ful—esthetic pleasure, value—desire, the strange—surprise, the sub-

lime—awe, probability—expectation, “up and down”—certain feelings of

effort and relaxation, etc. In each of these cases the one term has an ob-

jective and absolute character which is missed in the other, the other

making a psychological and personal reference which is absent from the

first ; the meaning of the first can not be translated, without change, into

the second. This fact is, however, fully explicable, and must needs be so

because the person subject to the feelings does not in his primary experi-

ence psychologize upon himself or class what he feels as his own feeling.

Why in all these cases does the objective come by reflective people to be

subjectified? And in what does subjectifying consist? The objective in

such cases is subjectified simply because it is found to vary of necessity

with the life and organism of the person experiencing it; and in this very

fact and in nothing else consists its subjectivity.

Dr. Woodbridge said in abstract: The usual question suggested by

the mention of secondary qualities is that of their existential status,

namely, in what context may they be said to possess reality or to exist?

The discussion of this question does not appear to have been profitable in

the history of thought. It has moreover tended to divert attention from

more important considerations.

Since secondary qualities do exist in the context of experience, one may

ask what function they there serve. In answer to this question it may be

pointed out that they serve as the means of identifying different efficien-

cies. Their importance, for instance, in chemical analysis and in the use

of the spectrum is evident. It is to be noted that while they are the in-

dices of efficiency, so to speak, no efficiency is assigned to them directly.

Their methodological value appears to be thus their value as signs. Fur-

thermore, the existence of secondary qualities appears to be bound up with

the specific differentiation of the nervous system in the direction of sense

organs. Indeed, it appears impossible to assign any other function to the

development of sense organs and a codrdinating nervous system than that

of securing reaction of the organisms to its environment by means of a

specialization in view of the operation of secondary qualities. Bringing

together, then, the considerations based upon the methodological value of

secondary qualities and those based upon the significance of secondary

qualities in the development of the sense organs and the nervous system,

it would appear that reaction to secondary qualities as stimuli would

afford both a criterion for the existence of consciousness and a definition

of consciousness itself. In the life of an organism such reactions would

serve as indications of the general connectedness of its surroundings.

432 ANNALS NEW YORK ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

Dr. Lowie said in abstract: While it is commonly assumed that Ger-

many lags behind in the development of pragmatic philosophy, the speaker

contended that the theoretical principles of pragmatism have been long

ago defended by Ernst Mach, while a humanistic conception of philosophy,

joined with a conception of truth identical with that of Schiller and

James, was postulated by Ludwig Feuerbach nearly seventy years ago.

As modern pragmatism is primarily a protest against neo-Hegelism, so

Feuerbach’s philosophy meant a secession from the older Hegelian school.

Like James, Feuerbach insisted that philosophy must be based on the

totality of human nature as opposed to its exclusively rational compo-

nents. As an empiricist and nominalist, Feuerbach taught the primacy

of the concrete as compared with the abstract. His refusal to abstract

from the given totality of human nature prevented him from holding the

materialistic views erroneously ascribed to him. He considered reality

and thought as incommensurate, and accordingly rejected all systems as

artificially cramping the contents of experience. In the treatment of his

special problem, the philosophy of religion, Feuerbach pursues a method

strikingly similar to that of James and Schiller in their critique of “pure

truth” and of Mach in his critique of the Ding an sich: the divine is

recognized as based on human traits mystified and set up as non-human

by the religious consciousness. Feuerbach’s atheism in no way contra-

venes his pragmatism; for it is based not on the metaphysical question of

the existence of the deity, but on the purely practical question whether

religion has “worked” satisfactorily. This Feuerbach denies, considering

religion an obstacle to social and political progress; but this difference

from James and Schiller is merely a difference in the interpretation of

historical data and only emphasizes his insistence on pragmatic standards.

The meeting then adjourned.

R. S. WoopworrtH,

Secretary.

BUSINESS MEETING.

DECEMBER 5, 1910.

The Academy met at 8:15 p. mM. at the American Museum of .Natural

History, President Kemp presiding.

The minutes of the last meeting were read and approved.

The following candidates for election as active members, recommended

by the Council, were duly elected:

J. R. Healy, West 118th Street,

F. Lyman Wells, Columbia University.

RECORDS OF MEETINGS 433

The Recording Secretary presented the following overture from the

Section of Geology and Mineralogy of the Brooklyn Institute of Arts and

Sciences :

The officers of the Brooklyn Institute of Arts and Sciences, Department of

Geology, desire the New York Academy of Sciences to appoint a committee of

three to act with a similar committee that has already been appointed by the

Department of Geology of the Brooklyn Institute of Arts and Sciences in con-

sidering the advisability of some action being taken jointly by the New York

Academy of Sciences and the Brooklyn Institute and such other scientific

bodies as they can associate with them to induce the New York State officials

to prepare and publish a series of volumes that shall comprise a complete

treatise on the geology of the State of New York, as developed by public re-

searches, together with a bibliography inclusive of all available records to date.

As the geology of the State of New York is scattered through an immense

number of pamphlets and papers, it is thought desirable that the whole matter

should be worked up and digested into a complete treatise.

On motion, the President was authorized and requested to appoint a

committee of three, including himself as chairman, to confer with the

similar committee from the Brooklyn Institute and report back to the

Academy. The committee then was constructed as follows: Messrs.

James F. Kemp, J. J. Stevenson and E. O. Hovey.

The Academy then adjourned.

Epmunp Otis Hovey,

Recording Secretary.

SECTION OF GEOLOGY AND MINERALOGY.

DECEMBER 5, 1910.

The Section met at 8:30 p. M., Vice-President George F. Kunz pre-

siding.

The minutes of the last meeting of the Section were read and approved.

The Secretary presented the application of Mr. J. E. Hyde for a grant

from the funds of the Academy in support of certain field investigations

of a physiographic nature. To questions, Mr. Hyde replied that the re-

sults were to be published in the Annals of the Academy. A motion was

passed, approving the application for the sum of $100.00. This recom-

mendation was transmitted with the original application to the Council

of the Academy.

The following programme was then offered:

J. E. Hyde and Charles P. Berkey, Oricinat Ice Srrucrurss Inpr-

CATED BY CORRESPONDING STRUCTURES IN UNCONSOLIDATED SANDS

AND GRAVELS OF THE Drirt ON MANHATTAN ISLAND.

J. E. Woodman, Srructure or THE Mecuma Sertes or Nova Scorta.

434 ANNALS NEW YORK ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

SUMMARY OF PAPERS.

Mr. Hyde’s paper was given with the aid of lantern slides and was fol-

lowed by a brief discussion by Dr. Berkey. It was pointed out that a

complicated lot of structures are preserved under conditions that point ta

very different behavior at some former time. There is brecciation, fault-

ing, bending, oversteepening and other phenomena that seem to implicate

former incorporation in the ice sheet and the development of differential

movements while frozen and suffering deformation with the rest of the

ice mass.

Professor Woodman illustrated his talk with many charts and maps

and gave an instructive account of the results of detailed field work in

Nova Scotia.

Dr. George F. Kunz announced the discovery of a new gem district at

Mount Bitz, in Madagascar. The gems occur in a pegmatite vein carry-

ing, among other rare minerals, a pink beryl. It is a cesium beryl of re-

markable rose-red color and capable of furnishing beautiful gem stones.

The name Morganite is proposed for this gem.

The Section then adjourned.

CHARLES P. BERKEY,

Secretary.

SECTION OF BIOLOGY.

DECEMBER 12, 1910.

Section met at 8:15 p. m., Mr. Roy W. Miner presiding.

The minutes of the last meeting of the Section were read and approved.

The following programme was then offered:

G. G. Scott, THE EFFECT OF CHANGES IN WATER DENSITY ON THE

Boop oF FISHES.

Roy W. Miner, Marine EcoLocy aNnD ITs REPRESENTATION IN A

MUSEUM.

Ignaz Matausch, ExHIBITION or MopELS OF MEMBRACID&.

SUMMARY OF PAPERS.

Mr. Scott said in abstract: When salt water fishes are placed in fresh

water, they gain in weight. Investigation of the blood shows that there

is a decrease in number of corpuscles per cu. mm. and that the specific

gravity of the blood decreases. Tests with the Beckmann apparatus

RECORDS OF MEETINGS 435

shows that the freezing point of the blood of such fishes is higher than

that of normal blood. If the fishes are placed in a solution of sea water

plus sea salt, the corpuscles count is increased, the specific gravity of the

blood is greater and the freezing point of the blood is depressed. A

chemical examination of the chlorides of the blood of normal fish as com-

pared with the chlorides of fishes kept in fresh water shows that the loss

of chlorides in case of the fishes experimented on is greater than the mere

dilution of the blood by the endosmosis of water would account for.

Hence, under the abnormal conditions to which the fish is subjected, the

gills become permeable to salts. The osmotic pressure of the blood is

thus profoundly changed. That these changes reach the tissues is indi-

cated by investigations now going on. The death of the fish which usually

accompanies such sudden transitions as are employed in these experiments

is possibly caused by conditions set up similar to those in such diseases as

dropsy. It is hoped that further investigations being carried on at present

will clear up this question.

Mr. Miner described the chief associations of marine animals to be

found between the tides or just below the lower tide limits along the

north Atlantic coast, with especial reference to the annulates and mol-

luses and the fauna of wharf piles in the Woods Hole region and the

north shore of Long Island. The methods of collecting and the chief

steps for preserving data, observations, etc., for museum ecological groups

were then briefly outlined. The speaker then spoke of the problems con-

nected with constructing and installing groups and models of inverte-

brates in a museum. Colored slides were shown both of the living inver-

tebrates and their habitat and also of the models and groups in course of

construction and as completed at the American Museum. The speaker

concluded by exhibiting two sketch-models prepared to take in the field

under his direction by Messrs. Matausch and Shimotori of the museum

staff as preliminary studies for the Annulate and Pile Fauna Groups

which are in course of construction in the American Museum.

Mr. Matausch exhibited a series of six enlarged models in wax which

he had prepared for the American Museum of Natural History, as well as

a series of 23 colored drawings and a collection of typical specimens

which had been sent him by Professor F. Silvestri, of Portici, Italy. The

Membracide, or tree-hoppers, are among the most interesting of insects.

Very little is yet known concerning the life histories of these forms, a

subject to which the speaker said he had devoted considerable attention.

They are remarkable for the extraordinary variation in the form of the

prothorax. In order to make an enlarged model, it is necessary to dis-

member the insect and to prepare drawings of the different parts to a

436 ANNALS NEW YORK ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

selected scale. The separate parts are then copied in clay; plaster moulds

are then prepared and casts made in wax. These are then finished, the

details put in and the whole put together and colored.

The Section then adjourned.

L. Hussakor,

Secretary.

ANNUAL MEETING.

DECEMBER 19, 1910.

The Academy met for the Annual Meeting on Monday, December 19,

1910, at 8:50 p. m., at the Hotel Endicott, at the close of the annual

dinner, President Kemp in the chair.

The minutes of the last Annual Meeting, December 20, 1909, were

read and approved.

Reports were presented by the Recording Secretary, the Corresponding

Secretary, the Librarian and the Editor, all of which, on motion, were

ordered received and placed on file. They are published herewith. On

motion, a vote of appreciation was extended to the Recording Secretary

on account of the work done by him during the year which resulted in the

gratifying increase of membership experienced by the Academy.

The Recording Secretary read the detailed report of the Treasurer,

showing a net cash balance of $3,259.74 on hand at the close of business,

November 30, 1910. On motion, this report was received and referred to

the Finance Committee for audit.

The following candidates for honorary membership and fellowship,

recommended by Council, were duly elected:

Honorary MEMBERS.

Prof. Dr. Theodor Boveri, University, Wurzburg, Germany, presented

by Prof. E. B. Wilson.

Sir Francis Galton, Kings College, London, England, presented by

Prof. J. McKeen Cattell.

FELLOWS.

J. H. Barnhart, M. D., Botanical Garden,

Wendel T. Bush, Brooklyn, N. Y.,

Carlton C. Curtis, Ph. D., Columbia University,

B. E. Dahlgren, D. M. D., Field Museum, Chicago, II1.,

W. T. Davis, M. A. A., New Brighton, N. Y.,

RECORDS OF MEETINGS 437

C. Stuart Gager, Ph. D., Brooklyn, N. Y.,

R. H. Lowie, Ph. D., American Museum of Natural History,

Raymond C. Osburn, Ph. D., New York Aquarium and Barnard College,

Edmund B. Southwick, Ph. D., Department of Parks,

Edward J. Thatcher, Teachers College,

C.-E. A. Winslow, M.S., American Museum of Natural History and

City College.

The Academy then proceeded to the election of officers for the year

1911, Professors C. P. Berkey and C. C. Curtis having been appointed

tellers. The ballots prepared by the Council in accordance with the By-

Laws were distributed, and after the votes had been counted, the follow-

ing officers were declared unanimously elected, the requisite number of

votes having been cast by members of the Academy entitled to vote:

President, FRaNz Boas.

Vice-Presidents, Grorce F. Kunz (Section of Geology and Miner-

alogy), Cuas. B. DAvENPoRT (Section of Biology), WILLIAM CAMPBELL

(Section of Astronomy, Physics and Chemistry), R. S. WoopwortH

(Section of Anthropology and Psychology).

Recording Secretary, EpMuND OT1s Hovey.

Corresponding Secretary, HErMon Carey BumpPvs.

Treasurer, EMERSON McMILLIN.

Librarian, RALPH W. TOWER.

Editor, E>MuND OTIs Hovey.

Councilors (to serve 3 years), C. C. Trowsripce, THomas HUNT

Morean.

Finance Committee, CHartes F. Cox, Grorce F. Kunz, Freperic S.

LEE.

At the close of the elections, Professor James F. Kemp, the retiring

President, delivered his Presidential address upon the subject “Geology

and Economics.” This-address has been published as pages 365-384 of

this volume.

After a vote of thanks to the retiring President, which was offered

with felicitous remarks by former President N. L. Britton, the Academy

adjourned.

EpmMoUND OTIs Hovey,

Secretary.

438 ANNALS NEW YORK ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

REPORT OF THE RECORDING SECRETARY.

During the year 1910, the Academy held 9 business meetings and 27

sectional meetings, at which 71 stated papers were presented on the fol-

lowing subjects:

Geology, 20 papers; Biology, 13 papers; Ornithology, 1 paper; Paleon-

tology, 2 papers; Ethnology, 3 papers; Psychology, 24 papers; Physies,

7? papers; Astronomy, 1 paper. '

Three public lectures by noted home and foreign scientists have been

given at the Museum to the members of the Academy and the Affiliated

Societies and their friends. These lectures were as follows:

“With Peary in the Arctic.” By Donald B. MacMillan, a member of

Peary’s North Polar Expedition.

“The Geological Survey of the State of New York.” By John M.

Clarke, State Geologist of New York.

“Halley’s Comet.” By Samuel A. Mitchell of Columbia University.

At the present time, the membership of-the Academy includes 538

Active Members, 17 of whom are Associate Active Members, 131 Fellows,

90 Life Members and 13 Patrons. The election of 11 Fellows is pending.

There have been 10 deaths during the year, 18 resignations have become

effective and 2 names have been transferred to the list of Non-Resident

Members. The new members elected during the year number 131, 6 of

whom have not yet completed their membership. As the membership

of the Academy a year ago was 437, there has been a net gain of 101

during the year 1910. Announcement is made with regret of the loss by

death of the following members:

M. H. Beers, Active Member for 12 years,

Julius Bien, Active Member for 35 years,

EK. H. Harriman, Active Member for 6 years,

John 8S. Huyler, Active Member for 6 years,

Edward Mitchell, Active Member for 25 years,

Rutherford Stuyvesant, Active Member for 43 years,

A. H. Wellington, Active Member for 4 years,

R. P. Whitfield, Active Member for 32 years,

F. H. Wiggin, Active Member for 13 years,

J. L. Zabriskie, Active Member for 1 month.

Respectfully submitted,

EpmuNpD Ot1s Hovey,

Recording Secretary.

RECORDS OF MEETINGS 439

REPORT OF THE CORRESPONDING SECRETARY.

We have lost by death during the past year the following Honorary

Members:

Alexander Agassiz, elected in 1887,

William James, elected in 1901,

and the following Corresponding Members:

Frederich Kohlrausch, elected in 1899,

William H. Niles, elected in 1881,

George B. Post, elected in 1888,

C. O. Whitman, elected in 1898.

There are at present upon our rolls 48 Honorary Members and 136

Corresponding Members.

Respectfully submitted,

Hermon C. Bumpvs,

Corresponding Secretary.

REPORT OF THE LIBRARIAN.

The library of the New York Academy of Sciences has received during

the year ending December, 1910, through exchange and donation, 294

volumes, 26 separata and 1762 numbers. The Institut National Genevois

has presented us with 13 volumes of its Mémoires dating from 1854 to

1883, and the Société d’Histoire Naturelle de Toulouse has presented 26

volumes of its Bulletin for the years 1876-1893. Special acknowledg-

ments are herewith made to these two societies for their generosity and

assistance in supplying much needed lacune.

The library may be consulted by members and the public between the

hours of 9:30 a. M. and 5 p. M. daily, and it is desired that the members

assist in further extending its use.

Respectfully submitted,

RaLtpH W. Tower,

Inbrarian.

REPORT OF THE EDITOR.

The Editor reports that during the past fiscal year there were issued

No. 6 completing Part I, Nos. 7-11 forming Part II and No. 12 form-

ing Part III of Volume XIX; and of Volume XX, No. 1 forming Part I

and Nos. 2-4 of Part II. We have, furthermore, two articles in press and

one in manuscript to complete Part II, while Part III will be devoted to

440 ANNALS NEW YORK ACADEMY OF SOIENCES

the address of the retiring President, memorials of deceased members,

the records of the Recording Secretary for 1910 and the index to the

volume.

Respectfully submitted,

Epmunp Otis Hovey,

Editor.

REPORT OF THE TREASURER.

RECEIPTS.

DECEMBER 1, 1909-NovEMBER 30, 1910.

Cashyonvhand, pbecempberale: WOOO .65 sis: e'ers w.0hee whe cneyeis elelerale siebersialeenee $1,737.69

Income from investments:

Interest on mortgages on New York City real estate.. $886.00

Interest on railroad and other bonds............... 1,120.00

interest on bank balances’. «...26:. 2/2 << cise o eies seiewe s 67.53

—————_ 2,073.53

Vite eMEMDELSHIp MEGS cierae s.cicleie (ss, c18 esas: seuss te 'ejeiloja lollies eke versie eletere cies 2,400.00

ACTIVE SMe MbershipvGuesse OOser ccm ae is <2 10) 2 slices Flcleleratolete $60.00

es ss i OS eet see ets lows sc seis. o: vl ecovevenenele elaterers 80.00

os st “s OO aera etc woe ters be ers, (oehatetoreieere 175.00

cs rs sf MOTOR teins aonvons eats < wisteiein eos 3,680.00

ss se cs OUTS, Bigs CCE aR AMEN ORES oc 70.00

4,065 .00

Associate mMembershiprauess TOMTOM .)er. cic - =: 1o1s ls wle's« lalate ee teheieieveraretates 42.00

males of pPUDICAT ONS cer tic ie er deter cheese oi ease sare we. o o's Savona tot fevetmenotevctermneberrs 276.36

Annual dinner and meeting, Contributions toward................. 130.00

Esther Herrman Research Fund, Return of grant................. 200.00

Perinanent Wane: ‘GICE tose reese hoods co cac cae Toe eee 10.00

Collection yOf CHECKS. oreo reneletot tala Cie teictc Ricielalotoe wlois 6 sociales eetaensiete oe .20

ETO GAS s revoke oho: sic yous¥etic shove took oetveuete che feelers fai cco le 0. ers eo opereMorenerate aeke $10,934.78

DISBURSEMENTS.

DECEMBER 1, 1909-NOVEMBER 30, 1910.

Publicationvon-aecount/ of eAnialsse errr remiaccin cet. osc citeeeneiene $2,262.37

Recording Secretary’s expenses, including publication of Bulletin... 1,057.75

Recording Secretary’s and Editor’s allowance.............cceeeees 1,200.00

Esther Herrman Research Hund (Grants). ............-cccceccsecs 550.00

Lecture: WommMitteeh ci) chee eves eres Mie eee tele sa. ole ocereeiemer eaters 100.00

Expenses of Membership Committee, soteemecss es 0.0. aus onmelesien ae 237.35

Expenses of annual meeting and dinner, 1909..................0.. 140.26

Hxpensesnor Section of sGeologyec a. saecitee ec eketelen bers eure elas cioedenetnett 8.48

RECORDS OF MEETINGS 441

Expenses of Section of Anthropology.............2e-.ses seer ees $10.00

General exWenseswesrejeteieereietectelcicieleloretotelel cielel Veter Nene CiNels ella) sels) relates IAs:

Porchasevof, DONGS GUMVEStMeNt)) Ie <clelelelere! ole! ele ciel! olelelnle ole wlelele) ele elele 1,960.00

anterest charge enone DONGSs! DULGCHASCC ere sjeiaielalelelele/aiclelsielelel>)e/<1ole)elel°ls)<i< 22.50

Collection’ of Gheck.)..\.). 0.0 Sar eiisins aNovercyatel s: o¥ Wore svat shaver ceteris ng .10

WASHHONM NAT Gast eicrereielercieretalersteteielalcletaterelcrheketerereVeies ol oievelclaicl</evsvole| avers cic 3,209.74

Day rl Leaks econ Buc sie Co O.0 CT OIG COD DOI GOS D DE TIODIEICID ORE IEE AOD icici $10.934.78

BALANCE SHEET, NOVEMBER 30, 1910.

ANY. ESGIRENTS: 3 .cccomtenctestetere $38,562.50 Permanent Fund.......... $22,512.57

Cashion) hang! ie ene e - 3,259.74 Publication Fund......... 3,000.00

ATIGUDONNHUNG:. «<7. «ss cle 2,500.00

Building Mund’. «31.22 31 --rens 10,400.00

Newberry Fund........... 1,046.25

' Income of Permanent Fund 560.00

Income of Publication Fund 000.00

Income of Audubon Fund .. 75.00

Income of Building Fund... 1,126.96

Income of Newberry Fund. 299.01

General Income........... 302.45

$41.822 . 24 $41,822 .24

Examined and found, to be correct,

CuHas. F. Cox,

GEORGE F.. KUNz,

FREDERIC S. LEE,

Auditing Committee.

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THE ORGANIZATION OF THE NEW YORK ACADEMY OF

SCIENCES

THE ORIGINAL CHARTER

AN ACT TO INCORPORATE THE

LYCEUM OF NATURAL HISTORY IN THE CITY OF NEW YORK

Passed April 20, 1818

WHEREAS, The members of the Lyceum of Natural History have peti-

tioned for an act of incorporation, and the Legislature, impressed with the

importance of the study of Natural History, as connected with the wants,

the comforts and the happiness of mankind, and conceiving it their duty

to encourage all laudable attempts to promote the progress of science in

this State—therefore,

1. Be it enacted by the People of the State of New York represented in

Senate and Assembly, That Samuel L. Mitchill, Casper W. Eddy, Fred-

erick C. Schaeffer, Nathaniel Paulding, William Cooper, Benjamin P.

Kissam, John Torrey,, William Cumberland, D’Jurco V. Knevels, James

Clements and James Pierce, and such other persons as now are, and may

from time to time become members, shall be, and hereby are constituted a

body corporate and politic, by the name of Lyceum or Natura History

IN THE City oF NEw York, and that by that name they shall have per-

petual succession, and shall be persons capable of suing and being sued,

pleaded and being impleaded, answering and being answered unto, de-

fending and being defended, in all courts and places whatsoever ; and may

have a common seal, with power to alter the same from time to time; and

shall be capable of purchasing, taking, holding, and enjoying to them and

their successors, any real estate in fee simple or otherwise, and any goods,

chattels, and personal estate, and of selling, leasing, or otherwise dispos-

ing of said real or personal estate, or any part thereof, at their will and

pleasure: Provided always, that the clear annual value or income of such

real or personal estate shall not exceed the sum of five thousand dollars:

Provided, however, that the funds of the said Corporation shall be used

and appropriated to the promotion of the objects stated in the preamble

to this act, and those only.

2. And be it further enacted, That the said Society shall from time to

time, forever hereafter, have power to make, constitute, ordain, and estab-

lish such by-laws and regulations as they shall judge proper, for the elec-

(445)

444 ANNALS NEW YORK ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

tion of their officers; for prescribing their respective functions, and the

mode of discharging the same; for the admission of new members ; for the

government of the officers and members thereof; for collecting annual

contributions from the members towards the funds thereof; for regulat-

ing the times and places of meeting of the said Society; for suspending

or expelling such members as shall neglect or refuse to comply with the

by-laws or regulations, and for the managing or directing the affairs and

concerns of the said Society: Provided such by-laws and regulations be

not repugnant to the Constitution and laws of this State or of the United

States. :

3. And be it further enacted, That the officers of the said Society shall

consist of a President and two Vice-Presidents, a Corresponding Secre-

tary, a Recording Secretary, a Treasurer, and five Curators, and such

other officers as the Society may judge necessary; who shall be annually

chosen, and who shall continue in office for one year, or until others be

elected in their stead ; that if the annual election shall not be held at any

of the days for that purpose appointed, it shall be lawful to make such

election at any other day; and that five members of the said Society,

assembling at the place and time designated for that purpose by any by-

law or regulation of the Society, shall constitute a legal meeting thereof.

4. And be it further enacted, That Samuel L. Mitchill shall be the

President; Casper W. Eddy the First Vice-President; Frederick C.

Schaeffer the Second Vice-President; Nathaniel Paulding, Correspond-

ing Secretary; William Cooper, Recording Secretary; Benjamin P. Kis-

sam, Treasurer, and John Torrey, William Cumberland, D’Jurco V.

Knevels, James Clements, and James Pierce, Curators; severally to be

the first officers of the said Corporation, who shall hold their respective

offices until the twenty-third day of February next, and until others shall

be chosen in their places.

5. And be it further enacted, That the present Constitution of the said

Association shall, after passing of this Act, continue to be the Constitu-

tion thereof; and that no alteration shall be made therein, unless by a

, vote to that effect of three-fourths of the resident members, and upon the

request in writing of one-third of such resident members, and submitted

at least one month before any vote shall be taken thereupon.

State of New York, Secretary’s Office.

I certiry the preceding to be a true copy of an original Act of the

Legislature of this State, on file in this Office.

ARCH’D CAMPBELL,

ALBANY, April 29, 1818. Dep. Sec’y.

ORGANIZATION 445

ORDER OF COURT

ORDER OF THE SUPREME COURT OF THE STATE OF NEW YORK

TO CHANGE THE NAME OF

THE LYCEUM OF NATURAL HISTORY IN THE CITY OF

NEW YORK

THE NEW YORK ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

WHEREAS, in pursuance of the vote and proceedings of this Corpora-

tion to change the corporate name thereof from “The Lyceum of Natural

History in the City of New York” to “The New York Academy of Sci-

ences,” which vote and proceedings appear to record, an application has

been made in behalf of said Corporation to the Supreme Court of the

State of New York to legalize and authorize such change, according to

the statute in such case provided, by Chittenden & Hubbard, acting as

the attorneys of the Corporation, and the said Supreme Court, on the 5th

day of January, 1876, made the following order upon such application in

the premises, Viz:

At a special term of the Supreme

Court of the State of New York,

held at the Chambers thereof, in

the County Court House, in the

City of New York, the 5th day

of January, 1876:

Present—Hon. Gro. C. Barrerr, Justice.

In the matter of the application of

the Lyceum of Natural History

in the City of New York to au-

thorize it to assume the corporate

name of the New York Academy

of Sciences.

On reading and filing the petition of the Lyceum of Natural History

in the City of New York, duly verified by John S. Newberry, the Presi-

dent and chief officer of said Corporation, to authorize it to assume the

corporate name of the New York Academy of Sciences, duly setting forth

6—NY

446 ANNALS NEW YORK ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

the grounds of said application, and on reading and filing the affidavit of

Geo. W. Quackenbush, showing that notice of such application had been |

duly published for six weeks in the State paper, to wit, The Albany

Evening Journal, and the affidavit of David S. Owen, showing that notice

of such application has also been duly published in the proper newspaper

of the County of New York, in which county said Corporation had its

business office, to wit, in The Daily Register, by which it appears to my

satisfaction that such notice has been so published, and on reading and

filing the affidavits of Robert H. Browne and J. 8. Newberry, thereunto

annexed, by which it appears to my satisfaction that the application is

made in pursuance of a resolution of the managers of said Corporation to

that end named, and there appearing to me to be no reasonable objection

to said Corporation so changing its name as prayed in said petition: Now

on motion of Grosvenor S. Hubbard, of Counsel for Petitioner, it is

Ordered, That the Lyceum of Natural History in the City of New

York be and is hereby authorized to assume the corporate name of The

New York Academy of Sciences.

Indorsed: Filed January 5, 1876,

A copy.

Wo. WALsH, Clerk.

Resolution of THE ACADEMY, accepting the order of the Court, passed

February 21, 1876

And whereas, The order hath been published as therein required, and

all the proceedings necessary to carry out the same have been had, There-

fore:

Resolved, That the foregoing order be and the same is hereby accepted

and adopted by this Corporation, and that in conformity therewith the

corporate name thereof, from and after the adoption of the vote and reso-

lution herein above referred to, be and the same is hereby declared to be

THE NEW YORK ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

THE AMENDED CHARTER

Marcu 19, 1902

CHAPTER 181 oF THE Laws oF 1902

Aw Act to amend chapter one hundred and ninety-seven of the laws of

eighteen hundred and eighteen, entitled “An act to incorporate the Ly-

ceum of Natural History in the City of New York,” a Corporation now

known as The New York Academy of Sciences and to extend the powers

of said Corporation.

ORGANIZATION 447

(Became a law March 19, 1902, with the approval of the Governor.

Passed, three-fifths being present.)

The People of the State of New York, represented in Senate and As-

sembly, do enact as follows:

Section I. The Corporation incorporated by chapter one hundred

and ninety-seven of the laws of eighteen hundred and eighteen, entitled

“An act to incorporate the Lyceum of Natural History in the City of

New York,” and formerly known by that name, but now known as The

New York Academy of Sciences through change of name pursuant to

order made by the supreme court at the city and county of New York, on

January fifth, eighteen hundred and seventy-six, is hereby authorized and

empowered to raise money for, and to erect and maintain, a building in

the city of New York for its use, and in which also at its option other

scientific societies may be admitted and have their headquarters upon

such terms as said Corporation may make with them, portions of which

building may be also rented out by said Corporation for any lawful uses

for the purposes of obtaining income for the maintenance of such build-

ing and for the promotion of the objects of the Corporation; to establish,

own, equip, and administer a public library, and a museum having es-

pecial reference to scientific subjects; to publish communications, trans-

actions, scientific works, and periodicals; to give scientific instruction by

lectures or otherwise ; to encourage the advancement of scientific research

and discovery, by gifts of money, prizes, or other assistance thereto. The

building, or rooms, of said Corporation in the city of New York used

exclusively for library or scientific purposes shall be subject to the pro-

visions and be entitled to the benefits of subdivision seven of section four

of chapter nine hundred and eight of the laws of eighteen hundred and

ninety-six, as amended.

Section II. The said Corporation shall from time to time forever

hereafter have power to make, constitute, ordain, and establish such by-

laws and regulations as it shall judge proper for the election of its officers ;

for prescribing their respective functions, and the mode of discharging

the same; for the admission of new members; for the government of offi-

cers and members thereof; for collecting dues and contributions towards

the funds thereof; for regulating the times and places of meeting of said

Corporation ; for suspending or expelling such members as shall neglect

or refuse to comply with the by-laws or regulations, and for managing or

directing the affairs or concerns of the said Corporation: and may from

time to time alter or modify its constitution, by-laws, rules, and regula-

tions.

448 ANNALS NEW YORK ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

Srcrion III. The officers of the said Corporation shall consist of a

president and two or more vice-presidents, a corresponding secretary, a

recording secretary, a treasurer, and such other officers as the Corporation

may judge necessary; who shall be chosen in the manner and for the

terms prescribed by the constitution of the said Corporation.

Section IV. The present constitution of the said Corporation shall,

after the passage of this act, continue to be the constitution thereof until

amended as herein provided. Such constitution as may be adopted by a

vote of not less than three-quarters of such resident members and fellows

of the said New York Academy of Sciences as shall be present at a meet-

ing thereof, called by the Recording Secretary for that purpose, within

forty days after the passage of this act, by written notice duly mailed,

postage prepaid, and addressed to each fellow and resident member at

least ten days before such meeting, at his last known place of residence,

with street and number when known, which meeting shall be held within

three months after the passage of this act, shall be thereafter the consti-

tution of the said New York Academy of Sciences, subject to alteration

or amendment in the manner provided by such constitution.

Srcrion V. The said Corporation shall have power to consolidate, to

unite, to co-operate, or to ally itself with any other society or association

in the city of New York organized for the promotion of the knowledge or

the study of any science, or of research therein, and for this purpose to

receive, hold, and administer real and personal property for the uses of

such consolidation, union, co-operation, or alliance subject to such terms

and regulations as may be agreed upon with such associations or societies.

Section VI. This act shall take effect immediately.

State oF NEw YORK,

OFFICE OF THE SECRETARY OF STATE.

I have compared the preceding with the original law on file in this

office, and do hereby certify that the same is a correct transcript there-

from, and the whole of said original law.

Given under my hand and the seal of office of the Secretary of State,

at the city of Albany, this eighth day of April, in the year one thousand

nine hundred and two.

JoHN T. McDonoueH,

Secretary of State.

ORGANIZATION 449

CONSTITUTION

ADOPTED, APRIL 24, 1902, AND AMENDED AT SUBSEQUENT TIMES

ARTICLE I. The name of this Corporation shall be The New York

Academy of Sciences. Its object shall be the advancement and diffusion

of scientific knowledge, and the center of its activities shall be in the City

of New York.

ARTICLE IJ. The Academy shall consist of five classes of members,

namely: Active Members, Fellows, Associate Members, Corresponding

Members and Honorary Members. Active Members shall be the members

of the Corporation who live in or near the City of New York, or who,

having removed to a distance, desire to retain their connection with the

Academy. Fellows shall be chosen from the Active Members in virtue of

their scientific attainments. Corresponding and Honorary Members shall

be chosen from among persons who have attained distinction in some

branch of science. The number of Corresponding Members shall not

exceed two hundred, and the number of Honorary Members shall not

exceed fifty.

ArtTICLE III. None but Fellows and Active Members who have paid

their dues up to and including the last fiscal year shall be entitled to vote

or to hold office in the Academy.

ArTICLE IV. The officers of the Academy shall be a President, as

many Vice-Presidents as there are sections of the Academy, a Correspond-

ing Secretary, a Recording Secretary, a Treasurer, a Librarian, an Editor,

six elected Councilors and one additional Councilor from each allied

society or association. The annual election shall be held on the third

Monday in December, the officers then chosen to take office ‘at the first

meeting in January following.

There shall also be elected at the same time a Finance Committee of

three.

ARTICLE V. The officers named in Article IV shall constitute a Coun-

cil, which shall be the executive body of the Academy with general control

over its affairs, including the power to fill ad interim any vacancies that

may occur in the offices. Past Presidents of the Academy shall be ez-

officio members of the Council.

ARTICLE VI. Societies organized for the study of any branch of

science may become allied with the New York Academy of Sciences by

consent of the Council. Members of allied societies may become Active

Members of the Academy by paying the Academy’s annual fee, but as

members of an allied society they shall be Associate Members with the

450 ANNALS NEW YORK ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

rights and privileges of other Associate Members, except the receipt of

its publications. Each allied society shall have the right to delegate one

of its members, who is also an Active Member of the Academy, to the

Council of the Academy, and such delegate shall have all the rights and

privileges of other Councilors.

ArTICLE VII. The President and Vice-Presidents shall not be eligible

to more than one re-election until three years after retiring from office;

the Secretaries and Treasurer shall be eligible to re-election without

limitation. The President, Vice-Presidents and Secretaries shall be Fel-

lows. The terms of office of elected Councilors shall be three years, and

these officers shall be so grouped that two, at least one of whom shall be a

Fellow, shall be elected and two retired each year. Councilors shall not

be eligible to re-election until after the expiration of one year.

ArTICLE VIII. The election of officers shall be by ballot, and the can-

didates having the greatest number of votes shall be declared duly elected.

ARTICLE IX. Ten members, the majority of whom shall be Fellows,

shall form a quorum at any meeting of the Academy at which business is

transacted.

ArticLE X. The Academy shall establish by-laws, and may amend

them from time to time as therein provided.

ARTICLE XI. This Constitution may be amended by a vote of not less

than three fourths of the fellows and three fourths of the active members —

present and voting at a regular business meeting of the Academy, pro-

vided that such amendment shall be publicly submitted in writing at the

preceding business meeting, and provided also that the Recording Secre-

tary shall send a notice of the proposed amendment at least ten days

before the meeting, at which a vote shall be taken, to each Fellow and

Active Member entitled to vote.

BY-LAWS

As ADOPTED, OCTOBER 6, 1902, AND AMENDED AT SUBSEQUENT TIMES

CHaprTer I.

OFFICERS

1. President. It shall be the duty of the President to preside at the

business and special meetings of the Academy: he shall exercise the cus-

tomary duties of a presiding officer.

2. Vuice-Presidents. In the absence of the President, the senior Vice-

President, in order of Fellowship, shall act as the presiding officer.

ORGANIZATION 451

3. Corresponding Secretary. The Corresponding Secretary shall keep

a corrected list of the Honorary and Corresponding Members, their titles

and addresses, and shall conduct all correspondence with them. He shall

make a report at the Annual Meeting.

4. Recording Secretary. The Recording Secretary shall keep the

minutes of the Academy proceedings; he shall have charge of all docu-

ments belonging to the Academy, and of its corporate seal, which he shall

affix and attest as directed by the Council; he shall keep a corrected list

of the Active Members and Fellows, and shall send them announcements

of the Meetings of the Academy ; he shall notify all Members and Fellows

of their election, and committees of their appointment; he shall give

notice to the Treasurer and to the Council of matters requiring their

action, and shall bring before the Academy business presented by the

Council. He shall make a report at the Annual Meeting.

5. Treasurer. The Treasurer shall have charge, under the direction

of the Council, of all moneys belonging to the Academy, and of their

investment. He shall receive all fees, dues and contributions to the

Academy, and any income that may accrue from property or investment ;

he shall report to the Council at its last meeting before the Annual Meet-

ing the names of members in arrears; he shall keep the property of the

Academy insured, and shall pay all debts against the Academy the dis-

charge of which shall be ordered by the Council. He shall report to the

Council from time to time the state of the finances, and at the Annual

Meeting shall report to the Academy the receipts and expenditures for

the entire year.

6. Librarian. The Librarian shall have charge of the library, under

the general direction of the Library Committee of the Council, and shall

conduct all correspondence respecting exchanges of the Academy. He

shall make a report on the condition of the library at the Annual Meeting.

%. Hditor. The editor shall have charge of the publications of the

Academy, under the general direction of the Publication Committee of

the Council. He shall make a report on the condition of the publications

at the Annual Meeting.

CHAPTER II

COUNCIL

1. Meetings. The Council shall meet once a month, or at the call of

the President. It shall have general charge of the affairs of the Academy.

2. Quorum. Five members of the Council shall constitute a quorum.

3. Officers. The President, Vice-Presidents and Recording Secretary

of the Academy shall hold the same offices in the Council.

452 ANNALS NEW YORK ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

4. Committees. The Standing Committees of the Council shall be:

(1) an Executive Committee consisting of the President, Treasurer, and

Recording Secretary ; (2) a Committee on Publication; (3) a Committee

on the Library, and such other committees as from time to time shall be

authorized by the Council. The action of these committees shall be sub-

ject to revision by the Council.

Cuapter III

FINANCE COMMITTEE

The Finance Committee of the Academy shall audit the Annual Report

of the Treasurer, and shall report on financial questions whenever called

upon to do so by the Council.

CuHapter IV

ELECTIONS

1. Active Members. (a) Active Members shall be nominated in writ-

ing to the Council by at least two active Members or Fellows. If ap-

proved by the Council, they may be elected at the succeeding business

meeting.

(b) Any Active Member who, having removed to a distance from the

city of New York, shall nevertheless express a desire to retain his connec-

tion with the Academy, may be placed by vote of the Council on a list of

Non-resident Members. Such members shall relinquish the full privi-

leges and obligations of Active Members. (Vide Chapters V and X.)

2. Associate Members. Workers in science may be elected to Associate

Membership for a period of two years in the manner prescribed for Active

Members. They shall not have the power to vote and shall not be eligible

to election as Fellows, but may receive the publications. At any time sub-

sequent to their election they may assume the full privileges of Active

Members by paying the dues of such Members.

3. Fellows, Corresponding Members and Honorary Members. Nomi-

nations for Fellows, Corresponding Members and Honorary Members

may be made in writing either to the Recording Secretary or to the

Council at its meeting prior to the Annual Meeting. If approved by the

Council, the nominees shall then be balloted for at the Annual Meeting.

4. Officers. Nominations for Officers, with the exception of Vice-

Presidents, may be sent in writing to the Recording Secretary, with the

name of the proposer, at any time not less than thirty days before the

Annual Meeting. Each section of the Academy shall nominate a candi-

ORGANIZATION 453

date for Vice-President, who, on election, shall be Chairman of the sec-

tion ; the names of such nominees shall be sent to the Iecording Secretary

properly certified by the sectional secretaries, not less than thirty days

before the Annual Meeting. The Council shall then prepare a list which

shall be the regular ticket. This list shall be mailed to each Active Mem-

‘ber and Fellow at least one week before the Annual Meeting. But any

Active Member or Fellow entitled to vote shall be entitled to prepare and

vote another ticket.

CHAPTER V

DUES

1. Dues. The annual dues of Active Members and Fellows shall be

$10, payable in advance at the time of the Annual Meeting: but new

members elected after May 1, shall pay $5 for the remainder of the fiscal

year.

The annual dues of elected Associate Members shall be $3, payable in

advance at the time of the Annual Meeting.

Non-resident Members shall be exempt from dues, so long as they shall

relinquish the privileges of Active Membership. (Vide Chapter X.)

2. Members in Arrears. If any Active Member or Fellow whose dues

remain unpaid for more than one year, shall neglect or refuse to pay the

same within three months after notification by the Treasurer, his name

may be erased from the rolls by vote of the Council. Upon payment of

his arrears, however, such person may be restored to Active Membership

or Fellowship by vote of the Council.

3. Renewal of Membership. Any Active Member or Fellow who shall

resign because of removal to a distance from the City of New York, or

any Non-resident Member, may be restored by vote of the Council to

Active Membership or Fellowship at any time upon application.

CHaAapTreR VI

PATRONS, DONORS AND LIFE MEMBERS

1. Patrons. Any person contributing at one time $1000 to the general

funds of the Academy shall be a Patron and, on election by the Council,

shall enjoy all the privileges of Active Members.

2. Donors. Any person contributing $50 or more annually to the

general funds of the Academy shall be termed a Donor and, on election

by the Council, shall enjoy all the privileges of Active Members.

3. Life Members. Any Active Member or Fellow contributing at one

454 ANNALS NEW YORK ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

time $100 to the general funds of the Academy shall be a Life Member

and shall thereafter be exempt from annual dues; and any Active Mem-

ber or Fellow who has paid annual dues for twenty-five years or more

may, upon his written request, be made a life member and be exempt

from further payment of dues.

Cuaprer VII

SECTIONS

1. Sections. Sections devoted to special branches of Science may be

established or discontinued by the Academy on the recommendation of

the Council. The present. sections of the Academy are the Section of

Astronomy, Physics and Chemistry, the Section of Biology, the Section

of Geology and Mineralogy and the Section of Anthropology and Psy-

chology.

2. Organization. Each section of the Academy shall have a Chairman

and a Secretary, who shall have charge of the meetings of their Section.

The regular election of these officers shall take place at the October or

November meeting of the section, the officers then chosen to take office at

the first meeting in January following.

3. Affiliation. Members of scientific societies affiliated with the

Academy, and members of the Scientific Alliance, or men of science intro-

duced by members of the Academy, may attend the meetings and present

papers under the general regulations of the Academy.

CHaptTer VIII

MEETINGS

1. Business Meetings. Business meetings of the Academy shall be

held on the first Monday of each month from October to May inclusive.

2. Sectional Meetings. Sectional meetings shall be held on Monday

evenings from October to May inclusive, and at such other times as the

Council may determine. The sectional meeting shall follow the business

meeting when both occur on the same evening.

3. Annual Meeting. The Annual Meeting shall be held on the third

Monday in December.

4. Special Meetings. A special meeting may be called by the Council,

provided one week’s notice be sent to each Active Member and Fellow,

stating the object of such meeting.

ORGANIZATION 455

CHAPTER IX

ORDER OF BUSINESS

1. Business Meetings. The following shall be the order of procedure

at business meetings :

1. Minutes of the previous business meeting.

2. Report of the Council.

3. Reports of Committees.

4. Elections.

5. Other business.

2. Sectional Meetings. The following shall be the order of procedure

at sectional meetings:

1. Minutes of the preceding meeting of the section.

2. Presentation and discussion of papers.

3. Other scientific business.

3. Annual Meetings. The following shall be the order of procedure

at Annual Meetings:

1. Annual reports of the Corresponding Secretary, Recording

Secretary, Treasurer, Librarian, and Editor.

2. Election of Honorary Members, Corresponding Members, and

Fellows.

3. Election of officers for the ensuing year.

4. Annual address of the retirmg President.

CHAPTER X

PUBLICATIONS

1. Publications. The established publications of the Academy shall

be the Annals and the Memoirs. They shall be issued by the Editor

under the supervision of the Committee on Publications.

2. Distribution. One copy of all publications shall be sent to each

Patron, Life Member, Active Member and Fellow, provided, that upon

enquiry by the Editor such Members or Fellows shall signify their desire

to receive them.

3. Publication Fund. Contributions may be received for the publica-

tion fund, and the income thereof shall be applied toward defraying the

expenses of the scientific publications of the Academy.

456 ANNALS NEW YORK ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

CHAPTER XI

GENERAL PROVISIONS

1. Debts. No debts shall be incurred on behalf of the Academy, unless

authorized by the Council.

2. Bills. All bills submitted to the Council must be certified as to

correctness by the officers incurring them.

3. Investments. All the permanent funds of the Academy shall be

invested in United States or in New York State securities or in first

mortgages on real estate, provided they shall not exceed sixty-five per

cent. of the value of the property, or in first mortgage bonds of corpora-

tions which have paid dividends continuously on their common stock for

a period of not less than five years. All income from patron’s fees, life

membership fees and donor’s fees shall be added to the permanent fund.

4. Expulsion, etc. Any Member or Fellow may be censured, sus-

pended or expelled, for violation of the Constitution or By-Laws, or for

any offence deemed sufficient, by a vote of three fourths of the Members

and three fourths of the Fellows present at any business meeting, provided

such action shall have been recommended by the Council at a previous

business meeting, and also, that one month’s notice of such recommenda-

tion and of the offence charged shall have been given the Member accused.

5. Changes in By-Laws. No alteration shall be made in these By-

Laws unless it shall have been submitted publicly in writing at a business

meeting, shall have been entered on the Minutes with the names of the

Members or Fellows proposing it, and shall be adopted by two-thirds of

the Members and Fellows present and voting at a subsequent business

meeting.

MEMBERSHIP OF THE

NEW YORK ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

ELECTED.

1898.

1889.

1907.

1910.

1901.

1904.

1899.

1876.

1902.

1901.

1910.

1876.

1901.

1898.

1909.

1889.

1909.

1894.

1899.

1898.

1907.

1896.

1901.

1896.

IS Uee

1876.

1898.

1880.

1900.

1898.

1908.

HONORARY MEMBERS

31 DECEMBER, 1910

ArtHurR Auwers, Berlin, Germany.

CHARLES Barrots, Lille, France.

WiLLIAM Bateson, Cambridge, England.

THeEopor Boveri, Wiirzburg, Germany.

CHARLES VERNON Boys, London, England.

W. C. Bréecer, Christiana, Norway.

Sir Greorce Howarp Darwin, Cambridge, England.

W. Boyp Dawkins, Manchester, England.

Sir James Dewar, Cambridge, England.

Emit Fiscuer, Berlin, Germany.

Sir Francis Gatton, London, England.

Sir ARCHIBALD GEIKI£, Haslemere, Surrey, England.

JAMES GeEIKI£, Edinburgh, Scotland.

Sir Davin Gitt, London, England.

K. F. G6sext, Munich, Germany.

Grorce LINcoLN GoopaLeE, Cambridge, Mass.

PavL von GrotH, Munich, Germany.

Ernst HAcKEL, Jena, Germany.

JuLius Hann, Vienna, Austria.

GEORGE W. Hit1, West Nvack, N. Y.

Sir JosepuH D. Hooxer, Kew, England.

Amprosius A. W. Husrecut, Utrecht, Netherlands.

WILLIAM JAMES, Cambridge, Mass.

FEeLix Kern, Gottingen, Germany.

ALFRED Lacroix, Paris, France.

VIKTOR VON LANG, Vienna, Austria.

EK. Ray Lanxester, London, England.

Sir Norman Lockyer, London, England.

Franz Leypic, Tauber, Germany.

FriprJor NANSEN, Christiana, Norway.

WILHELM OSsTWALD, Gross-Bothen, Germany.

(457)

458 ANNALS NEW YORK ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

ELECTED.

1898. ALBRECHT PENCK, Berlin, Germany.

1898. WILHELM PFEFFER, Leipzig, Germany.

1900. Epwarp CHARLES PICKERING, Cambridge. Mass.

1900. JuLEs HENRI Porncareé, Paris, France.

1901. Sir Witit1am Ramsay, London, England.

1899. Lord RayLercH, Witham, Essex, England.

1898. Hans H. Reuscu, Christiana, Norway.

1887. Sir Henry ENFIELD Roscoe, London, England.

1887. HerrmnricH RosEeNBuscH, Heidelberg, Germany.

1904. KARL VON DEN STEINEN, Berlin, Germany.

1904. G. JoHNsSTONE Stoney, London, England.

1908. Epvarp StTraspurGer, Bonn, Germany.

1896. JosEPH JoHN THOMSON, Cambridge, England.

1900. Epwarp Burnett Tytor, Oxford, England.

1904. Htco DE Vries, Amsterdam, Netherlands.

1907. James Warp, Cambridge, England.

1909. AtucustT WEISSMANN, Freiburg, Germany.

1904. WiLHELM Wunpt, Leipzig, Germany.

1904. FERDINAND ZIRKEL, Leipzig, Germany.

CORRESPONDING MEMBERS

31 DECEMBER, 1910

1883. CHARLES ConrAD ABsBorTt, Trenton, N. J.

1898. Frank D. Apams,. Montreal, Canada.

1891. José G. AcurLEeRs, Mexico City, Mexico.

1890. Wittiam DeWitt ALEXANDER, Honolulu, Hawaii.

1899. C. W. Anprews, London, England.

1876. JoHN Howarp Appleton, Providence, R. I.

1899. J. G. Baxer, Kew, England.

1898. Isaac BacLey Barrour, Edinburgh, Scotland.

1878. ALEXANDER GRAHAM BELL, Washington. D. C.

1867. Epwarp L. BerrHoup, Golden, Colo.

1897. Herpert Botton, Bristol, England.

1899. G. A. BouLenGER, London, England.

1874. T.S. BranpDEcEE, San Diego, Calif.

1884. Joun C. Branner, Stanford University, Calif.

1894. Bonustay Brauner, Prague, Bohemia.

1874. Wuitt1am Brewster, Cambridge, Mass.

1876. GrorcE Jarvis BrusH, New Haven, Conn.

ELECTED.

1898.

1876.

1891.

1877.

1868.

1876.

1880.

1877.

1866.

1895.

1879.

1870.

1885.

1898.

1894.

1899.

1890.

1899.

1876.

1880.

1869.

1879.

1885.

1899.

1879.

1870.

1858.

1865.

1888.

1868.

1883.

1869.

1898.

1882.

1867.

1900.

1890.

1896.

1875.

MEMBERSHIP 459

T. C. CHAMBERLIN, Chicago, Ill.

FRANK WIGGLESWORTH CLARKE, Washington, D. C.

L. Cuierc, Exaterinburg, Russia.

THEODORE B. Comstock, Los Angeles, Calif.

M. C. Cooxe, London, England.

H. B. CorNnwatt, Princeton, N. J.

CuHaARLEs B. Cory, Boston, Mass.

JOSEPH CRAWFORD, Philadelphia, Pa.

HERMANN CREDNER, Leipzig, Germany.

Henry P. Cusuine, Cleveland, O.

T. NELson DALs, Pittsfield, Mass.

Witiiam Hearty Dati, Washington, D. C.

EDWARD SALispury Dana, New Haven, Conn.

Wit1iiam M. Davis, Cambridge, Mass.

RvuTHVEN Deane, Chicago, Il.

CHARLES DEPERET, Lyons, France.

OrvILLE A. DerBy, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil.

Lours Dotto, Brussels, Belgium.

Henry W. Ex.iorr, Lakewood, O.

JoHN B. Etuiotr, New Orleans, La.

Francis E. ENGELHARDT, Syracuse, N. Y.

Herman LERoy Farrcui3p, Rochester, N. Y.

FRIEDRICH BERNHARD Fitrica, Marburg, Germany.

Lazarus FLeTcHER, London, England.

EBERHARD FRaas, Stuttgart, Germany.

REINHOLD FRITZGARTNER, Tegucigalpa, Honduras.

Grove K. GiLBert, Washington, D. C.

THEODORE NICHOLAS GILL, Washington, D. C.

CuHarLes A. GorssmAN, Amherst, Mass.

Frank Austin Goocu, New Haven, Conn.

C. R. GREENLEAF, San Francisco, Calif.

Marquis ANTONIO DE GREGORIO, Palermo, Sicily.

R. J. LECHMERE Guppy, Trinidad, British West Indies.

GrorGE E. Hate, Mt. Wilson, Calif.

Baron Ernst von HeEsse-Wartecc, Lucerne. Switzerland

C. H. Hircucocr, Honolulu, H. I.

Witit1am Henry Howmes, Washington, D. C.

H. D. Hosxorp, Buenos Ayres, Argentine Republic.

J. P. Ipprnes, Brinklow, Md.

MatLvern W. ILeEs, Dubuque, Ia.

460 ANNALS NEW YORK ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

ELECTED.

1899. Orvro JAcKEL, Greifswald, Germany.

1876. Davip Starr Jorpan, Stanford University, Calif.

1876. GrorcE A. Kornia, Houghton, Mich.

1888. Baron R. Kuxt, Tokyo, Japan.

1876. Joun W. LANGLEY, Cleveland, O.

1876. S$. A. Larrrmore, Rochester, N. Y.

1894. WuiLi1am Lipsey, Princeton, N. J.

1899. ArcHIBALD LiversIDGE, London, England.

1876. GEORGE MAcLoskIE, Princeton, N. J.

1876. JoHN WiLLIAM MAaLtet, Charlottesville, Va.

1891. CHarLEes Rrpore Mann, Chicago, Il.

1867. Grorce F. MatrHew, St. John, N. B., Canada.

1874. CHARLES JOHNSON Maynarp, West Newton, Mass.

1874. THroporE LuquEER MeEapD, Oviedo, Fla.

1888. SersH E. Merk, Chicago, Il.

1892. J. DE MeNpDIzABAL-TAMBORREL, Mexico City, Mexico.

1874. Ciinton Hart Merriam, Washington, D. C.

1898. MANSFIELD Merriam, South Bethlehem, Pa.

1890. A. B. Meyer, Berlin, Germany.

1878. CHARLES SEDGwicK MINotT, Boston, Mass.

1876. WuILLiaM GILBERT MrxtTEr, New Haven, Conn.

1890. RicHarD MoLDENKE, Watchung, N. J.

1895. C. Luoyp Morean, Bristol, England.

1864. Epwarp S. Morse, Salem, Mass.

1898. GrorGE Murray, London, England.

. Euveen NeEtTT0, Giessen, Germany.

1866. ALFRED NEwToN, Cambridge, England.

1897. Francis C. NicnHoias, New York, N. Y.

1882. Henry ALFRED ALForD NIcHOLLSs, Dominica, 3. W. 1-

1881. Wiutiiam H. Nixes, Boston, Mass.

1880. Epwarp J. Nouan, Philadelphia, Pa.

1879. FrepEricK A. OpeEr, Hackensack, N. J.

1876. JoHNnN M. Orpway, New Orleans, La.

1900. GrorGE Howarp ParKer, Cambridge, Mass.

1876. StrrepHEN F. PeckHam, New York, N.Y.

1888. GzorcE E. Post, Beirtit, Syria.

1894. Epwarp BaGnaLt Poutton, Oxford, England.

1877. FREDERICK Prime, Philadelphia, Pa.

1868. RapHarEL PumMpetyiy, Newport, R. I.

1876. B. Arex. Ranpawu, Philadelphia, Pa.

a a a a ee eee

MEMBERSHIP

ELECTED,

1876. Ira Remsen, Baltimore, Md.

1874. Roperr Ripeway, Washington, D. C.

1886. Wittiam L. Ross, Troy, N. Y.

1876. Samuet P. Saprier, Philadelphia, Pa.

1899. D. Max Scutossrr, Munich, Germany.

1867. Paun ScHwerrzer, Columbia, Mo.

1898. W. B. Scorr, Princeton, N. J.

1876. Samurt H. Scupper, Cambridge, Mass.

1894. W. T. Srpewick, Boston, Mass.

1876. ANDREW SHERWOOD, Portland, Ore.

1883. J. Warp SmitH, Newark, N. J.

1895. CHarues H. Smytu, Jr., Princeton, N. J.

1890. J. Secpen Spencer, Tarrytown, N. Y.

1896. Ropert Stearns, Los Angeles, Calif.

1890. Water LECONTE STEVENS, Lexington, Va.

1876. Francis H. Srorer, Boston, Mass.

1885. Rajah Sourtnpro Monun Tacorr, Calcutta, India.

1893. J. P. Tomson, Brisbane, Queensland, Australia.

1899. R. H. Traquarr, Colinton, Scotland.

1877. JoHn Trowsriper, Cambridge, Mass.

1876. D. K. Turrre, Philadelphia, Pa.

1871. Henri Van Heurcx, Antwerp, Belgium.

1900. Carrs R. Van Hise, Madison, Wis.

1867. Appison Emery VeErRRILL, New Haven, Conn.

1890. AnrHony WAYNE Voapes, San Diego, Calif.

1898. CHartEs DoonirrLe WaAtcott, Washington, D. C.

1876. Lronarp WALDO, New York, N. Y.

1900. SHo Warask, Tokyo, Japan.

1897. Sruart Wetuer, Chicago, Il.

1874. I. C. Warts, Morgantown, W. Va.

1898. C. O. WHITMAN, Woods Holl, Mass.

1898. HENRY SHALER WILLIAMS, Ithaca, N.Y.

1898. N.H. WINcHELL, Minneapolis. Minn.

1866. Horatio C. Woop, Philadelphia. Pa.

1899. A. SmrirH Woopwarp, London, England.

1876. ARTHUR WILLIAMS WricHt, New Haven, Conn.

1876. Harry Cricy Yarrow, Washington, D.C.

7T—NY

462 ANNALS NEW YORK ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

ACTIVE MEMBERS

1910

Fellowship is indicated by an asterisk (*) before the name; Life Mem--

bership, by a dagger ({) ; Patronship, by a section mark ($).

Abercrombie, David T. Betts, Samuel R.

tAdams, Kdward D. van Beuren, F. T.

*Allen, J. A., Ph.D. *Bickmore, Albert $., Ph.D.

Allen, James Lane *Bigelow, Prof. Maurice A., Ph.D.

*t Allis, Edward Phelps, Jr., Ph.D. Bigelow, William S.

*Amend, Bernard G. Bijur, Moses

Ames, Oakes + Billings, Miss Elizabeth

Anderson, A. A. Billings, Frederick

Anderson, A. J.C. Birkhahn, R. C.

*Andrews, Roy C. Bishop, Heber I.

+Anthony, R. A. Bishop, Miss Mary C.

Arend, Francis J. Bishop, Samuel HH.

+ Armstrong, S. T., M.D. *Blake, J.A., M.D.

Arnold, Felix, M.D. t Bliss, A. B.

Ashby, George E. *+Bliss, Prof. Charles B.

Astor, John Jacob + Blumenthal, George

Avery, Samuel P. *Boas, Prof. Franz

Baekeland, Leo H., Ph.D. Boettger, Henry W.

+Bailey, James M. Bohler, Richard F.

+Barhydt, Mrs. P. H. +Bourn, W. B.

*Barnhart, John Hendley Boyd, James

Barron, George D. Brinsmade, Charles Lyman

*Baskerville, Prof. Charles *Bristol, Prof. Charles L.

Baugh, Miss M. L. Bristol, Jno. I. D.

Beal, Wilham R. *SBritton) Prof, N- 1: Pha:

Bean, Hienry Willard Bronson, Edward Bennet

*+ Beck, Fanning C. T. *SBrown, Hon. Addison

*Beebe, C. William Brown, Edwin H.

Beers, M. H.? Brown, T. Quincy

Beller, A. *Brownell, Silas B.

Berard, Eugene M. Bulkley, lL. Duncan

+ Bergstresser, Charles M. *Bumpus, Prof. IH. C., Ph.D.

*Berkey, Charles P., Ph.D. Burr, Winthrop

*Berry, Edward W. *Bush, Wendell T.

1 Deceased.

MEMBERSHIP

*Byrnes, Miss Esther F., Ph.D.

*Calkins, Prof. Gary N., Ph.D.

Camp, Frederick A.

*Campbell, Prof. William, Ph.D.

“Campbell, Prof. William M.

Canfield, R. A.

Cannon, J. G.

Carlebach, Walter Maxwell

*S$Casey, Col. T. L., U.S. A.

Cassard, William J.

Cassebeer, H. A., Jr.

*+Cattell, Prof. J. McKeen, Ph.D.

Champollion, André

*Chandler, Prof. C. F., Ph.D.

$Chapin, Chester W.

“Chapman, Frank M.

+Chaves, José E.

Childs, William, Jr.

*Cheesman, Timothy M., M.D.

Chubb, Perey

Clarkson, Banyer

Cline, Miss May

+Clyde, Wm. P.

Cohn, Julius M.

Colher, Robert J.

*Collinewood, Francis

+Collord, George W.

Combe, Mrs. William

+Constant, S. Victor

de Coppet, E. J.

Corning, Christopher R.

*Cox, Charles F.

“Crampton, Prof. Henry E., Ph.D.

Crosby, Maunsell 8.

+Crane, Zenas

*Curtis, Carlton C.

Curtis, G. Warrington

*Dahlgren, B. E., D.M.D.

“Davenport, Prof. C: B., Ph.D.

Davies, J. Clarence

Davies, William G.

Davis, Dr. Charles H.

Davis, David T.

*+Davis, Wilham T.

*+ Dean, Prof. Bashford, Ph.D.

+ Delafield, Maturin L., Jr.

Delano, Warren, Jr.

Demorest, William C.

Devereux, W. B.

De Vinne, Theodore L.

De Witt, Wilham G.

Dickerson, Edward N.

Diefenthiler, C. KE.

Dimock, George E.

Dodge, Rev. D. Stuart, D.D.

+Dodge, Miss Grace H.

*Dodge, Prof. Richard E., A.M.

Doherty, Henry L.

Donald, James M.

*Doremus, Prof. Charles A., Ph.D.

*+ Douglas, James

Douglass, Alfred

Draper, Mrs. M. A. P.

Drummond, Isaac W.. M.D.

*Dudley, 2: Eerie).

*Dunham, Edward K., M.D.

+Dunn, Gano

+Dunscombe, George Elsworth

*Dutcher, Wilham

*Dwight, Jonathan, Jr., M.D.

Dwight, Mrs. M. E.

Dwyer, Thomas

*+Elliott, Prof. A. H., Ph.D.

Emmet, C. Temple

Eno, John C.

Eno, William Phelps

Ehrich, Wiliam J.

Estabrook, A. F.

Evarts, Allen W.

*Everman, John

Fairchild, Charles S.

Fallon, G. W. R.

464 ANNALS NEW YORK ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

Fargo, James C. Griscom, C. A., Jr.

Farmer, Alexander 8S. Griswold, Mrs. Chester

* Farrand, Prof. Livingston, M.D. Guernsey, H. W.

Farrington, Wm. H. Guggenheim, William

Ferguson, Mrs. Juliana Armour Guinzburg, A. M.

S Field, C. de Peyster von Hagen, Hugo

Field, Wiliam B. Osgood Halls, William, Jr.

*Winley, Pres. John H. Hammond, James B.

*Wishberg, Maurice, M.D. Harrah, Chas. J.

*Flexner, Simon, M.D. + Harriman, Mrs. E. H.

Fohs, F. J. Hasslacher, Jacob

Follett, Richard Ik. Haupt, Louis, M.D.

Foot, James D. Havemeyer, F. C., Jr.

+ Ford, James B. : Havemeyer, J.C.

Fordyce, John A. Havemeyer, William F.

de Forest, Robert W. Healy, J. R.

Forster, Wilham *Hering, Prof. Daniel W.

Freund, Emil SHerrman, Mrs. Esther

Friedrich, James J., M.D. *Herter, Christian A., M.D.’

Frissell, A. 8S. Hess, Selmar

Fuller, Charles D. Hewlett, Walter J.

*Gager, C. Stuart Higginson, James JJ.

Gallatin, Frederic ~Fiall, Roberted:

Gardner, Clarence Roe Hirsch, Charles 8S.

Gibson, R. W. *Hitcheock, Miss F. R. M., Ph.D.

*Gies, Prof. William J. Hochschild, Berthold

*Girty, George H., Ph.D. Hodges, George W.

Godkin, Lawrence Hodenpyl, Anton G.

Goodridge, Frederick G. Hollenback, Miss Amelia B.

Goodwin, Albert C. *Hollick, Arthur, Ph.D.

$Gould, Edwin +Holt, Henry

SGould, George J. + Hopkins, George B.

$Gould, Miss Helen M. | *Hornaday, William T., Se.D.

*+Grabau, Prof. Amadeus W. Hotchkiss, Henry D.

Grant, Madison *+ Hovey, Edmund Otis, Ph.D.

*Gratacap, Louis P. *Howe, Prof. Henry M.

Green, James W. *Howe, Marshall A., Ph.D.

Greenhut, Benedict J. + Lhoyt; AW:

*Gregory, W. K. +Hoyt, Theodore R.

Griffith. Fdward +Hubbard. Thomas H.

1 Deceased.

MEMBERSHIP 465

Hubbard, Walter C. Lawrence, Amos I.

Hughes, Hon. Charles E. Lawrence, John Bb.

Humphreys, Edwin W. +tLawton, James M.

Humphreys, Frederic H. *Ledoux, Albert R., Ph.D.

+Huntington, Archer M. *Lee, Prof. Frederic S., Ph.D.

*Hussakof, Louis, Ph. D. *§Levison, Wallace Goold

Hustace, Francis Levy, Emanuel

Huyler, John 8.' Lichtenstein, M.

+ Hutter, Karl Lichtenstein, Paul

+tHyde, B. Talbot B. Lieb, J. W., Jr.

Hyde, E. Francis Lindbo, J. A.

+ Hyde, Frederic E., M.D. *Tanyille, H.R) Ph.D.

Hyde, Henry St. John + Loeb, James

Hyde, Jesse E. *Loeb, Prof. Morris, Ph.D.

tIles, George Lounsberry, R. P.

*Trving, Prof. John D. tLow, Hon. Seth, LL.D.

yon Isakovies, Alois *Lowie, Robert H., Ph.D.

Iselin, Mrs. William E. 7uicas We A. Phe:

+Jackson, V. H. Ludlow, Nicoll

*Jacobi, Abram, M.D. *Luquer, Prof. Lea MclI.

James, F. Wilton *Lusk, Prof. Graham, M.D.

+Jarvie, James N. Lydig, Philip M.

Jennings, Robert E. Lyman, Frank

+ Johnson, J. Herbert Lyon, Ralph

Jones, Dwight A. McCarthy, J. M.

*SJulien, Alexis A., Ph.D. +McCook, Col. J. J.

Kahn, Otto H. *+ McMillin, Emerson

Kautz-Eulenburg, Miss P. R. MeNeil, Charles R.

*+ Kemp, Prof. James F., A.B.,E.M. MacArthur, Arthur F.

+ Keppler, Rudolph *MacDougall, Prof. Robert

+ Kessler, George A. Macy, Miss Mary Sutton, M.D.

Kinney, Morris tMacy, V. Everit

KXohlman, Charles Mager, F. Robert

*Kunz, George F., M.A., Ph.D. Mann, W. J).

+Lamb, Osborn R. Marble, Manton

Lambert, Adrian V.S., M.D. Marcon, John B.

Landon, Francis G. Marling, Alfred EF.

Langdon, Woodbury G. + Marshall, Louis

Langeloth, J. Marston, E. S.

*Langmann, Gustav, M.D. +Martin, Bradley

1 Deceased.

466 ANNALS NEW YORK ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

*+ Martin, Prof. Daniel 8. + Parish, Henry

*Martin, I’. Commerford *Parker, Prof. Herschel C.

*+Matthew, W. D., Ph.D. Parsons, Mrs. Edwin

Maxwell, Francis T. *Parsons, John E.

§$ Mead, Walter H. + Patton, John

Meigs, Titus B. Paul, John J.

Mellen, C.S. Pedersen, F. M., M.D.

*Meltzer, S. J.. M.D. *Pellew, Prof. C. E., Ph.D.

*Merrill, Frederick J. H., Ph.D. Pennington, William

Metz, Herman A. +Perkins, Wilham I.

Milburn, J. G. Perry, Charles J.

de Milhau, Louis J. *Peterson, Frederick, M.D.

Miller, George N., M. D. *Petrunkevitch, Alexander, Ph.D.

*+ Miner, Roy Waldo Pettigrew, David L.

Mitchell, Arthur M. Pfizer, Charles, Jr.

Morewood, George Bb. Philipp, P. Bernard

Monae-Lesser, A., M.D. Phipps, Henry

Morgan, J. Pierpont Phoenix, Lloyd

*Morgan, Prof. Thomas H. Pickhardt, Carl

Morgan, William Fellowes Pierce, Henry Clay

Morris, Lewis R., M.D. *Pitkin, Luems, Phe:

Munn, John P. Plant, Albert

+Nesbit, Abram G. Planten, John R.

+Nash, Nathaniel C. Polk, Dr. W. M.

+Nimick, Mrs. A. K. *Pollard, Charles ‘L., Ph.D.

Norton, George F. *Poor, Prof. Charles L.

Notman, George Porter, Eugene H.

Oakes, Francis J. Post, Abram 8.

Ochs, Adolph 8. PIGS, oA

Oettinger, P. J., M.D. *Post, George B.

*+ Ogilvie, Miss Ida H., Ph.D. Preston, Very!

+Oleott, E. E. *Prince, Prof. John Dyneley

Olmsted, Mrs. Charles T. Pritchett, Pres. Henry S.

Oppenheimer, Henry 8. Proctor, George H.

*- Osborn, Prof. Hi. .;Se.D.,)bLiD: “= Pupm Prot. Mods Phap:

*Osburn, Raymond C., Ph. D. +Pyne, M. Taylor

Osborn, William C. Quackenbos, Prof. J. D., M.D.

+Osborn, Mrs. William C. Richardson, Frederick A.

+Owen, Miss Juliette A. *+ Ricketts, Prof. P. de P., Ph.D

Owens, W. W. tiederer, Ludwig

Paddock, Eugene H. tiker, Samuel

MEMBERSHIP

Risley, Mis. Emile B.

Robb, Hon. J. Hampden

tobert, Samuel

Roberts, C. H.

+Noebling, John A.

Rogers, E. L.

Rosenbaum, Selig

Rossbach, Jacob

fothbarth, A.

towe, Basil W.

tde Rubio, H. A. C.

*Rusby, Prof. Henry H., M.D.

Russ, Edward

Sachs, Paul J.

Sage, Dean

Sage, John H.

Satterlee, Mrs. Herbert L.

Saul, Charles R.

Sauter, Fred.

+Schermerhorn, F. A.

Schiff, Jacob H.

Scholle, A. H.

Schoéney, Dr. L.

Schott, Charles M., Jr.

Scott, George 8.

Scoville, Robert

Seaman, Dr. Louis L.

Seitz, Carl

Seligman, Jefferson

SSenff, Charles H.

Sexton, Laurence E.

Shaw, Mrs. John C.

Shepard, C. Sidney

*Sherwood, George H.

Shillaber, William

Shultz, Charles 8.

*Sickels, Ivin, M.D.

Sieberg, W. H. J.

Sloan, Benson B.

Smith, Adelbert J.

Smith, Elliott C.

*Smith, Ernest E., M.D., Ph.D.

Smith, Frank Morse

*Smith, Prof. John B.

Snow, Elbridge G.

*Southwick, Edmund B., Ph.D.

Squibb, Edward H., M.D.

Starr, Louis Morris

*Starr, Prof. M. Allen

Stefansson, V.

Steinbrugge, Edward, Jr.

+Stetson, F. L.

Stettenheim, J. M.

*Stevens, George 'T., M.D.

*+Stevenson, Prof. John J.,

Stokes, James

+Stone, Miss Ellen J.

Stokes, J. G. Phelps

Strauss, Charles

Strauss, Frederick

Strauss, Isidor -

Streat, James

Sturgis, Mrs. Ehzabeth M.

+Swords, P. Caroline

Taggart, Rush

*+Tatlock, John, Jr.

Taylor, George

Taylor, W. A.

Taylor, William 1H.

+Terry, James

Tesla, Nikola

*Thatcher, Edward J., Jr.

Thaw, A. Blair

Thaw, Benjamin

Thompson, Mrs. Frederick F.

Thompson, Lewis 8.

+Thompson, Robert M.

*Thompson, Prof. W. Gilman

Thompson, Walter

*Thorndike. Prof. Edward L.

Thorne, Samuel

*T'ower. R. W., Ph.D.

467

VATED 2

468 ANNALS NEW YORK ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

*Townsend, Charles H., Sc.D. Wells, F. Lyman

Tows, C. D. Wheeler, H. L.

*Trowbridge, Prof. C. C. *White, Horace

Tuckerman, Alfred, Ph.D. +7 Wihitteld, arora dee

Tuttle, Mrs. B. B. Wicke, William

Ullmann, E. 8. Willams, R. H.

+ Vail, Theo. N. Wills, Charles 'I’.

Vanderpoel, Mrs. J. A. * Wilson, Prof. fh. 3. Phabs ian:

+Van Slyck, George W. Wilson, Henry I.

+ Van Wyck, Robert A. Wilson, J. H.

Vreeland, Frederick Kk. Wilson, Miss M. B., M.D.

*tWaller, Prof. Elwyn, Ph.D. *Winslow, Prof. Charles-E. A.

Walker, William I. *Wissler, Clark, Ph.D.

Warburg, F. N. Woerishoffer, Mrs. Anna

Warburg, Paul M. Wood, Mrs. Cynthia A.

Ward, Artemas Wood, William C.

+Ward, Charles Willis *Woodbridge, Prof. IF. J. E.

Ward, John Gilbert *Woodhull, Prof. John F., Ph.D.

Warner, Charles St. John *Woodman, Prof. J. Hdmund

Warren, Charles Elliott *Woodward, Prof. R.S.

*Washington, Henry 8., Ph.D. “Woodworth, Prof. R.S.

Waterbury, J. I. Wotherspoon, Henry H.

Watson, John J., Jr. Younglove, John, M.D.

+ Weir, Col. John Zabriskie, George

Wellington, Aaron H. Zabriskie, Rev. J. 1.?

ASSOCIATE MEMBERS

Billingsley, Paul Johnson, Julius M.

Brown, Harold Chapman, Ph.D Kellicott, W. E., Ph.D.

Brown, ‘IC: McGregor, James Howard

Byrne, Joseph P. Montague, W. P., Ph.D.

Dublin, L. J. Northup, Dwight

Fenner, Clarence N. Rogers, G. Sherburne

Gordon, Clarence E. Stevenson, A. If.

Hunter, George W. Wood, Miss Elvira

Ziegler, Victor

1 Deceased.

MEMBERSHIP

NON-RESIDENT MEMBERS.

*Abbe, Dr. Cleveland

Buchner, Edward F.

Burnett, Douglass

Davis, William H.

English, George L.

Finlay, Prof. G. I.

Frankland, Frederick W.

Hoffman. 8. V.

*Wheeler,

IKkendig, Amos B.

*loyd, Prof. F. i.

2 Mayer Drs ASG.

7 Pratt, Ord. EH:

+RKies. Prof. H.

Reuter, L. H.

Summers Ori: B:

*van Ingen, Prof. G.

Wm. Morton

469

: = mi

—

= '

; * ~_

« a :

; ‘ 7

7 7 -_ a

7 = al! _ —

ra a — 7 _

GENERAL INDEX TO VOLUME XX

Nimes of Authors and other

Titles of Papers

Abercrombie, D. R., Active Member, 422

Active Members, List of, 462—468

ADDITIONAL NOTES ON THE INTERBEDDED

LIMESTONE IN THE FORDHAM

GNEISS OF NEW YorRK CITY,

Charles P. Berkey, [Abstract].

421

PSYCHOLOGICAL MEAS-

UREMENTS OF THE “PULLING

PowER” or AN, H. L. Holling-

worth, [Abstract], 406

Agassiz, Alexander, Death of, 413

Allen, E. T., and Day, A. L., cited, 115.

121

Allen, White, Wright and Larsen, cited,

146

Allen, E. T., Wright, F. E. and Clement,

J. K., cited, 146

Ambocelia planiconvera var.

villensis var. noy., 221

Amendment to the Constitution, 408

American Species of Cerithiida. 30-33

AMERICAN SPIDERS, SOME NEW oR LiIT-

TLE KNowN, Alexander Petrunke-

vitch, [Title], 400

Ames, Oakes, Active Member, 422

Amphiporella gen. noy., 199

maculosa sp. nov., 200

Amphissites gen. noy., 285

rugosus sp. noy., 236

ANATOMICAL MODEL, THE PREPARATION

or A Museum. Ignaz Matausch,

[Abstract], 409, 410

Andreae and Osann, cited, 106

Annual Meeting, 486

Anthropology and Psychology, Section

of, 402, 405, 411, 415, 424, 428

ADVERTISEMENT,

fayette-

Persons in Heavy-face Type

in SMALL CAPS

ANTS OF THE GENUS CAMPONOTUS MAYR,

THE NortH AMERICAN, William

M. Wheeler, 295-354

APPLICATION OF THE QUADRATE-INCUS

THEORY TO THE CONDITIONS IN

THERIODONT REPTILES AND THE

GENETIC RELATIONS OF THE LaAT-

TER TO THE MAMMADLIA, W. K.

Gregory, [Abstract], 403, 404

ARKANSAS, DESCRIPTION OF SoME NEW

GENERA AND SPECIES OF CARBON-

IFEROUS FOSSILS FROM THE F'ay-

ETTEVILLE SHALES OF, George H.

Girty, [Title], 421

ARKANSAS, NEW GENERA AND SPECIES

CARBONIFEROUS FOSSILS

THE FAYETTEVILLE SHALE

George H. Girty, 189-238

ARKANSAS, A SPHEROIDAL Basic DIKE

FROM, James F, Kemp, [Titie]. 418

Ashby, George E., Active Member, 412

Associate Members, List of, 468

Astartella ? forresteri sp. nov., 242

Astronomy, Physics and Chemistry, Sec-

tion of, 402, 405, 410, 414, 420,

423, 428

Atresius cornuelianuin, T9

ATTENTION WAVE, THE, J. V. Breitwie-

ser, [Title], 415

OF FROM

Or,

AUSTRALIAN CLAN Exocamy, A. A. Gol-

denweiser, [Abstract], 411

Auzits system of coal deposits, 248, 250,

251

Avieulipecten ? boutwelli sp. nov.. 240,

241

mee

curticardinalis.

inSpeciOsus noy.. 229

(471)

sp.

Aviculipecten jennyi sp. noy.., 228

NOrrowensisS Sp. Noy., 229

mvultilineatus sp. noyv., 228

occidaneous, 239, 241

parvula, 239

squamula sp. nov., 228

thaynesianus sp. noy., 241

utahensis, 239

wasatchensis sp. noy., 241

weberensis, 239

3AHIA, BRAZIL, GEOLOGICAL ASPECTS OF,

Henry 8S. Washington, [Abstract],

399, 400

Bairdia attenuata sp. noy., 237

cestriensis var. granulosa var. noy.,

237

Bancroft, W. D., cited, 117, 118

Barnhart, John Hendley, Active Mem-

ber, 415

Fellow, 486

SAPTORNIS, RESTORATIONS OF,

Brown, [Abstract]. 400

Batillaria bouri, 58

calcitrapoides, 52

zonale, 59

Batostomella anomala sp. noy., 191

2? armata sp. noy., 192

parvula sp. noy., 191

Becke, F., cited, 131

Bembecia lativittata sp. noy., 251

Berard, Eugene M., Active Member, 415

Berkey, Charles P., Acknowledments, 95

Rondout Region, 417

ADDITIONAL NOTES ON THE INTER-

BEDDED LIMESTONE IN THE ForRpD-

HAM GNEISS OF NEw YorK CITY,

[Abstract], 421

GLACIAL MODIFICATION OF THE

CHANNELS ABout NEw YORK City,

[Title], 418

Berkey, Charles P., J. E. Hyde and,

ORIGINAL IcE STRUCTURES INDI-

CATED By CORRESPONDING STRUC-

TURES IN UNCONSOLIDATED SANDS

AND GRAVELS OF THE DRIFT ON

MANHATTAN ISLAND. [Abstract].

483, 484

Bien, Julius, Death of, 4038

Billings, Frederick, Active Member, 425

Barnum

ANNALS NEW YORK ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

Billingsley, Paul, SrrUCTURE, ORIGIN AND

STRATIGRAPHIC SIGNIFICANCE OF

THE SHAWANGUNK Grit, [Title],

409

Biology, Section of, 400, 403, 409, 414,-

418, 422, 426, 43

Bliss, Mrs. William H., Active Member.

422

Boas, Franz, THE CHANGES IN THE

PHYSICAL CHARACTERISTICS OF

THE IMMIGRANTS TO THE UNITED

Staves, [Abstract], 402

cited, 356

President, 457

Bourn, W. B., Active Member, 415

Bourran system of coal deposits, 249,

261

Boutwell, J. M., cited, 259

Boveri, Theodor, Honorary Member, 45ti

Boyl, A. C., Jr., PROBLEMS CONNECTED

WITH THE OCCURRENCE OF GyYP-

SUM IN THE BuLity HILL AND

RISING STAR MINES, CALIFORNIA,

[ Title], 409

Brachytrema buvignieri, S14

corallensis, 80

BRAZIL, GEOLOGICAL ASPECTS OF BAHIA,

Henry S. Washington, [Abstract].

399, 400

BRAZIL, GEOLOGICAL NOTES ON NORTHERN,

George W. Tower, Jr., [Abstract],

399

Breithaupt, —, cited, 182, 183

Breitweiser, J. V., THE ATTENTION

Wave, [Title], 415

BrigrF NOTES ON SOME OF THE GEOLOG

ICAL ASPECTS OF THE PROVINCE OF

BauHia, Brazin, Henry S. Wash

ington, [Abstract], 399, 400

Brocard, E., Acknowledgments, 271

Brogger, W. C., cited. 130, 167, 1838

Bronson, Edward Bennet, Active Mem

ber, 415

Brooklyn Institute of Arts and Sciences

Overture from the, 483

Brown, Barnum, Nores ON THE RESTO

RATIONS OF THE CRETACEOUS BIRDS

HerSPERORNIS AND Baprornts, [Ab-

stract], 400

GENERAL INDEX

Buceinwie maxinciwin, 10

tuberosum, 6

Bulkley, L. Duncan, Active Member, 412

Bumpus, Hermon Carey, Acknowledg-

ments, 6

Corresponding Secretary, 457

Report of the Corresponding Secre-

tary, 43

Bush, Wendell T., THE EMANCIPATION

OF INTELLIGENCE IN THE STUDY OF

PuILosopny, [Abstract], 406, 407

Fellow, 486

Business Meeting, 399, 402,

415, 420, 422, 425, 432

Callocladia elegans sp. noy., 218

gen. nov., 212

Camarotechia purduci sp. noy., 219

purduei var. lara var. noy., 219

Camp, Frederick A., Active Member, 422

Cannon, James G., Active Member, 412

Campbell, William, NoTES ON THE STRUC-

TURE OF WRouGHT IRON. [Ab-

stract], 410

THE Microscopic HXAMINATION OF

Some Fautty RaiILroapD MATE-

RIAL, [Abstract], 423, 424

Vice-President, 487

Camponotus, 295

abdominalis, 296

abdominalis sabsp. floridarius, 325

abdominalis transvectus, 326

acutirostris, 296

acutivostris primipilaris sabsp. noy.,

319

acutivostris sp. noy., 317

408, 411,

999

americanus, 828, 824

atriceps, 325

atriceps var. floridanus, 325

bruesi, 296

bruesi sp. noy.. 549

castaneus, 296, 321, 323

castaneus americanus, 323

(Colobopsis) abditus var. etiolatius.

302

oro

(CLVMpressus. 355

(C.) pylartes, 355

(0.) pylartes var. hunteri var. nov.,

QFO

wre ded

erylhropus, SAT

TO VOLUME XX 403

Camponotus fallax, 295

jallax discolor, 342, 344

fallax discolor vax. clarithorasx, 343

fallax rasilis, 342

fallax rasilis var. pavidus, 242

fallax subbarbatus, 342

fallax subbarbatus var. paucipilis,

342

fallax var. cnemidatus. 345

fallax vay. decipiens, 342

fallax vay. discolor, 346

fallaz vay. minutus, 342

fallax var. nearcticus, 342

fallax var. pardus, 342

fallax var. tanquaryi, 342

ferrugineus, 338

festinatus, 312, 314

floridanus, 325

fragilis, 315

fumidus, 296, 314

festinatus, 312

fragilis, 315

fumidus var.

fumidus var. pubicornis, 312

fumidus var. spurcus var. Toy., 31

herculeano-pennsylwanicus, 338

herenleanus, 296, 304, 308, 329, 330,

999

one

hereuleanus ligniperda var. nove-

boracensis, 340

hereuleanus ligniperda var. rubens.

341

herculeanus pennsylvanicus, 335

pennsylvanicus var.

ferrugineus, 888

hereuleanus

hereuleanus pennsylvanieus var.

mahican nom. noy., 338

hereuleanus vace ligniperdus var.

noveboracensis, 340

hereuleadnus

pictus, 340

hereuleanus subsp. ligniperdus var.

race Jigniperdus var.

pictus. 340

herculeanus var.

sylranicus, 388

hereuleano-penn-

herculeanus var. modoe nom. var..

BAS

ede ded

herenuleanus var. whymperi, 330

hyatti, 296, 345

hyatti var. bakeri, 3AG

474

CMM PONOtUs TNPVeESSUS, 3D3

levigatus, 296, 327

ligniperda, 329

ligniperda var. pictus, 340

maculatus bulimosus subsp. noy..

_ 308

maculatus dumetorunie subsp. noy..

dot

maculatus maccoohi, 306

maculatus ocreatus, 309

maculatus sansabeanus, 307

maculatus sansabeanus var.

fuctus var. noy., 808

maculatus subsp. vicinus, 304

maculatus tortuganus, 310

maculatus vicinus, 301

torre-

maculatus vicinus var. infervalis

var. noy., 305

maculatus vicinus var. luteangulis

var. nov., 304

maculatus vicinus var. aatitinvus

var. nov., 305

maculatus vicinus var. mitidiven-

tris, 304

maculatus vicinus var. vlorabilis

Var. noy., 503

madeulatus vicinus var. semitesta-

ceus, 504

jnrarginatus, 845

melleus, 32

ring subsp. 2uini, 296

mind zuni subsp. noy., 346

nwoveboracensis, 305

pennsylvanicus, 385

pennsylvanicus var. Ferrugineus. 338

pennsylvanicus var. semipunetatus,

O99

Vow

planatus, 296, 548

pylartes, 297

sayi, 296, 343

schacfferi, 296, 344

semipunetatius, 3380

sener subsp. planatus, 548

socius, 296, 319

sylvaticus var. vicinus, 301

teranus, 296, 544

296

WICeCrosus sp. noy., 551

vafer, 296

HIGCrOSUS,

ANNALS NEW YORK ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

Camponotus vafer sp. noy., B15

vagus, B29

vicinus, 801, 305

whynperi, B04

CAMPONOTUS Mayr, THE NORTH AMERI-

CAN ANTS OF THE GENUS, William

Morton Wheeler, 295-354

Caneyella ? peculiaris sp. noy., 227

CARBONIFEROUS FOSSILS FROM THE Fay-

ETTEVILLE SHALE OF ARKANSAS,

NEW GENERA AND SPECIES OF,

George H. Girty, 189-238

Cardiomorpha inflata sp. noy., 226

CASE OF APPARENT REVERSION AMONG

GAsTROPODS, A, Elvira Wood, [ Ab-

stract], 409, 410

Cassard, William J., Active Member, 412

Cassebeer, H. A., Jr., Active Member,

412

Cattell, J. McKeen, THE MEASUREMENT

or PsycHoLoGicaAL Merit, [Title],

415

CEREMONIAL ORGANIZATIONS OF THE

Crow INpDIANS, Robert H. Lowie,

[Abstract], 424

Cerite chenille, §

CerirHiip.®, Literature of, 86-92

CERITHIDA, THE PHYLOGENY OF CER-

TAIN, Elvira Wood, 1-92, [Title],

405

Cerithium, 2, 10

acus, 69

adenense, 38

adansom, 4, T, 8, 9; 11, 12) 14. 15,

18, 19, 20, 32, 34, 41, 46, 50, 51,

58, 60, 61, 75, 83, 85

cequispirale, 47, 48, 49, 58, 55, 61.

66, 79, 80. 82, 83, 85

albense, 5d. 80. 81, 82, 85

album, 28, 29

algicola, 45

aluco, §

bicarinatiwm, 53, 54, 55, 56, G6. 67,

S285

bicolor, 24, 26

houri, ST

bronni, 48

ealcitrapoides, 52. 83

ealentosum, 48, 45

GENERAL INDEX TO VOLUME XX

Cerithium caliisoma, 39, 40, 42, 45, 85,85

caudatum, 3

chipolanwn, 45, 838, 85

citrinum, 23, 24, 25, 26

clava, 7

colunma, 21; 22, 25, 24, 26, 28

conjunctum, T+

corallense, GT, SO. 81, 82, 85

cornuelianum. 49. T9, SO, 82, 83, 85

crenatum, 39, +5

dialeucum, 27

eburneum, 29, 38

echanatum, 4, 5, T, 13, 19) 20; 28, 29;

Sen ay ep eh

ebeninum, 7

erythrwonense, 7, 12, 14

floridanwin, +1

glaphyrea, 42, +, 45

glaphyrea var. litharimu, 42

graciliforme, 4, 5, 29, 32, 55

gracile, 37, 38

inabsolutwin, 51, 52. $3, Sd

involutum, G3

damellosuim, 5, 48, 50, 51,

lapidum, GA

mediterraneuit, 25, 26. 45

meniet, 21, 22, 25; 25, 26, 52

nicrostonid, GO

minutum, TT

mirtum, TO

nluscarum, 45

MOMULOSUNt, TT, S, 9; 10, Ad, 12, 13,

15, 17

plicatawn, 36

pupeforme, TS

retardatum, 40, 54, 55, 56, S82, 85, 85

roissyl, T2

rupestre, 25

scabridum, ~24, 26

sensu stricto, T

sensu Stricto. Selection of a

type for, 6

tricarinatuwi, 65, 66, GS, GD, S+

trochleare, 75, TO, T7

tuberculosum, 71, 73, TA

tuberosum. 4, by T, 9, 10, 12, 12, 13;

a4, 1a; 16; 19) 20) 21,22, 28, 30; 32,

33, 34, 35, 39, 40, 42, 45, 45, 46, 48.

49° 50, 5, da, OT, 81, S3, Sd

rulgatum, 33, 356, 5

Geno-

475

CHANGES IN THE PHYSICAL CHARACTER-

ISTICS OF THE IMMIGRANTS TO THE

UNITED STATES. Franz Boas, [Ab-

stract], 402

Character of the Basin of Decazeville.

273

Character of the Coal

271

Chaves, Jose Edward, Active Member.

422

of Decazeville.

measurement in exhalation for

Indian and mixed children. 358

Childs, William, Jr., Active Member, 412

Chonetes sericeus sp. noy., 215

Chrondrocerithium, 44

Chubb, Percy, Active Member, 412

Cran PxoGamy, AUSTRALIAN, A. A.

Goldenweiser, [Abstract], 411

Clarke, F. W., cited. 105, 106

Clarke, John M., THE GEOLOGICAL Sur-

VEY OF THE STATE OF NEW YORK,

[Abstract], 415

Clava, 7

hereulea, 7

maculata, 7

Martyn, 10

rubus, 7

rugata, 7

Claviger matoni, T7

Clement, J. K., E. T. Allen, F. BE. Wright

and, cited, 146

CLIMATE AND EyoruTion. W. D. Mat-

thew, [Title], 405

Cliothyridina elegans sp. noy., 225

sublamellosa atrypoides var.

nov. 225

Clyde, William P., Active Member, 412

CosaL BASIN OF DECAZEVILLE, FRANCE,

Tre. John J. Stevenson, 245-294,

[Title]. 426

Coloclemis subgen. noy.. 201

Chest

ace bs ks

tumida sp. nov., 202

Calocenus tuba sp. noy., 209

COLLECTING INVERTEBRATES IN THE

Woops Hore Rercion. Roy W.

Miner, [Abstract]. 414

Colobopsis impressa, 358

Collier, Robert, Active Member, 412

Compagnac system of coal deposits,

248, 252

476

Commentry.

Decazeville,

Compagnie anonyme de

Fourchamboult et

248, 244

Compagnie des Mines de

248

Composita acinus sp. noy., 222

subquadrata var. lateralis yar. noy..

9979

Campagnac,

Conocardium peculiare sp. noy., 227

Constitution and By-Laws, 443-456

CORRELATION OF MENTAL ABILITIES, B. R.

Simpson, [Title], 415

Corresponding Members, List of, 458—

461

Corresponding Secretary, Report of the,

439

CORTLANDT SERIES, ORIGINAL GNEISSOID

STRUCTURE IN THE, G. S. Rogers,

[Abstract]. 421

COURTSHIP IN TARANTULAS,

Petrunkevitch, [Abstract],

427

Charles F., Member

Committee, 457

Crampton, Henry E., FourtTH JOURNEY

OF EXPLORATION IN THE SOUTH

Seas, [Abstract], 418, 419

Cretacie species of Cerithium, 79

Crosby, Maunsell S., Active Member. 412

Cross, Whitman, and Hillebrand, W. F.,

cited. 178

INDIANS. CEREMONIAL ORGANIZA-

TIONS OF THE. Robert H. Lowie,

[Abstract]. 424

Curtis, Carlton C., Active Member. 412

Fellow. 456

Curtis, G. Warrington, Active Member.

499

Cypicardetla subatata sp. nov.. 250

Alexander

426.

Cox, of Finance

Crow

Cupricardinia fayettevillensis sp. nov..

297

Cystodictya pustulosa var. arcta var.

NOW. Sls

Dahlgren, B. E.. Fellow. 456

DAKOTA INDIAN CHILDREN. MEASURE-

MENTS OF. Clark Wissler, 355-364

Dana, E. S., cited. 98. 106. 130. 143

Dana, J. D., cited. 100

Daubree, —, cited. 149. 167

ANNALS NEW YORK ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

Davenport, Charles B., VARIABILITY oF

LAND SNAILS (Cerion). IN THE.

BAHAMA ISLANDS WITH IIS BEAR-

ING ON THE THEORY OF GEO-

GRAPHICAL T’orM [ Ab-

stract], 405

Vice-President, 457

Davis, David T., Active Member, 422

Davis, W. M., cited, 96 :

Davis, William T., Active Member, +15-

Fellow. 456

Day, A. L., and Allen, E. T., cited, 115,

121

Bashford, KAKICHI

399

Deaths, 403, 413, 416

DECAZEVILLE. FRANCE, THE COAL BASIN

or, John J. Stevenson, 243-294

DESCRIPTION OF SOME NEW GENERA AND

SPECIES OF CARBONIFEROUS Fos-

FROM THE FAYETTEVILLE

SHALE OF ARKANSAS, George H..

Girty, [Title], 421

Description of the Basin of Decazeville,

247-271

DEVELOPMENT OF THE SENSE OF FORM IN

F'EEBLE-MINDED CHILDREN, Henry

H. Goddard, [Title]. 415

De Vinne, Theodore L., Active Member,

412

Diaphragnius elegans. 218

subgen. noyv., 217

Dielasma

Wire, WMO, 2240)

formosum var. ahitfieldi var. nov.,

220

planiconverwn sp. nov.. 221

DIRECTION SENSE IN BIRDS AND ANI-

MALS FROM THE STANDPOINT OF

Puysics. THE, C. C. Trowbridge,

[Abstract]. 425. 424

Dizoniopsis pupeforime, TS

Drowsiness. H. L. Hollingworth,

stract]. 428. 429

Dutton, C. E., cited. 100

Dyseritella inaequalis sp. noy.. 194

robusta sp. noy.. 195

subgen. noy.. 195

Eakins, L. G., cited. 191

CHAINS,

Dean, MITSUKURI,.

SILS

formosum var. seminuloides-

[Ab-

GENERAL INDEX

Behinodermata, 2

ECONOMICS, GEOLOGY AND, James F.

Kemp, 365-584, [Title]. 457

Editor, Report of the, 439

Hdmondia equilateralis sp. nov., 226

EFFECT OF CHANGES IN WATER DENSITY

ON THE BLoop OF FISHES, G. G.

Scott, [Abstract], 454

EFFECTS OF EXPOSURE ON THE GILL FIL-

AMENTS OF FISHES, THE, Ray-

mond C. Osburn, [Abstract], 426,

427

Ehrich, William J., Active Meniber, 412

ELEVENTH INTERNATIONAL. GEOLOGICAL

CONGRESS AT STOCKHOLM, JULY

AND AwvGuSsT, 1910, James F.

Kemp, [Abstract], 426

EMANCIPATION OF INTELLIGENCE IN THE

Stupy oF PHILOSOPHY, THE,

Wendell T. Bush, [Abstract], 406,

407

Emerson, B. K., cited, 100

Emery, Carlo, cited, 295, 296, 304

Hocene Species of Cerithiide, 47

EPIDERMAL COVERING OF 'TRACHODON,

; Tuer, Henry Fairfield Osborn,

[Title], 405

Huconospira disjuncta sp. noy., 230

Buomphalus ? discus sp. nov., 231

Huropean species of Cerithiide, 14-30

Evarts, Allen W., Active Member, 412

EVOLUTION, CLIMATE AND, W. D. Mat-

thew, [Title], 405

EXHIBITION OF MODELS OF MEMBRACID®,

Ignaz Matausch, [Abstract]. 454,

EXPERIMENTS IN STEREOSCOPIC VISION,

James E. Lough, [Title]. 415

Extent of the Basin of Decazeville. 273

Extent of the Coal Beds of the Basin

of Decazeville. 279

Farrington, William H., Active Member.

412

FAYETTEVILLE SHALE OF ARKANSAS, NEW

GENERA AND SPECIES OF CARBONIF-

EROUS FOSSILS FROM THE. George

H. Girty, 189-258

Fellows. Election of. 486

S—NY

TO VOLUME XX Agy

Fenner, C. N., cited, 96, 97, 99, 113

THE WaATCHUNG BASALT AND THE

PARAGENESIS OF ITS ZEOLITES AND

OTHER SECONDARY MINERALS, 93-

189, [Title], 418

FEUERBACH, LUDWIG, A FORGOTTEN PRAG-

MATIST, Robert H. Lowie, [Ab-

stract], 428, 432

Findlay, Alexander, 115, 117

Fistulipora execellens var. harrisonensis

var. nov., 190

excellens var. awilliauisi

190

Fohs, F. J., Active Member, 412

FORGOTTEN PRAGMATIST, <A. LUDWIG

FEUERBACH, Robert H. Lowie,

[Abstract], 428, 432

Formica caryoe, 335

eastanea, 321

ferruginea, 338

festinata, 312

floridana, 325

hereulanea, 330

levigata, 327

mellea, 321

novoeboracensis. 340

var. NOv.,

oor

pennsylvanicd, 335

semipunctata, 330, 335

Forrester, Robert, Reference to, 242

FourRTH JOURNEY OF EXPLORATION IN

THE SourH Seas. Henry BE.

Crampton, [Abstract]. 418

Frederich, James J., Active Member, 415

Friedel, —, and Sarasin, —, cited, 167

Fuller, Charles D., Active Member, 412

Furst, Clyde, Menta Hyciene, [Ab-

stract], 428, 430

Fusidie. 2

Fusus corallensis, 80

Gage, R. B., cited, 101

Gager, C. Stuart, Active Member, 422

Fellow. 456

Gale, H. S., cited, 240

Galton, Sir Francis, Honorary Member,

456

Gardner, Clarence Roe, Active Member,

402

478

GasTRopops, A CASE OF APPARENT RE-

VERSION AMONG, Elvira Wood,

[Abstract], 409, 410

Geikie, Archibald, cited, 105, 131

Genera of recent shells closely related

to the Cerithium tuberosum

group, 33-3

GENESIS OF ANTIGORITE, THE, A. A.

Julien, [Title], 418

Genotype for Cerithiwm senso stricto,

Selection of a, 6

GEOLOGY AND Economics, James F.

Kemp, 365-384, [Title]. 457

Geology and Mineralogy, Section of,

399, 403, 409, 413, 417, 421, 425,

GEOLOGICAL NOTES ON NORTHERN BRAZIL,

George W. Tower, Jr., [Ab-

stract], 399

GEOLOGICAL SURVEY OF THE STATE OF

New York, THE, John M. Clarke,

[Abstract], 415

GILL FILAMENTS OF FISHES, THE EF-

FECTS OF EXPOSURE ON THE, Ray-

mond C,. Osburn, [Abstract], 426,

427

Girty, George H., DESCRIPTION OF SOME

NEw GENERA AND SPECIES OF CAR-

BONIFEROUS FOSSILS FROM THE

FAYETTEVILLE SHALE OF ARKAN-

Sas, [Title], 421

New GENERA AND SPECIES OF CAR-

BONIFEROUS FOSSILS FROM THE

FAYETTEVILLE SHALE OF ARKAN-

sas. 189-238

New SPECIES OF FOSSILS FROM THE

THAYNES LIMESTONE OF UTAH,

239-242, [Title], 421

Glyptopleura gen. noy., 236

angulata sp. noy., 237

inopinata sp. noy., 237

GLACIAL MODIFICATION OF THE CHAN-

NELS ABOUT NEW YorK, Charles

P. Berkey, [Title], 418

Goddard, Henry H., DEVELOPMENT OF

THE SENSE OF FORM IN FEEBLE-

MINDED CHILDREN, [Title], 415

Godkin, Lawrence, Active Member, 412

Goldenweiser, A. A., AUSTRALIAN CLAN

Exocamy, [Abstract], 411

ANNALS NEW YORK ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

Goodridge, Frederic G., Active Member,

412

Goodwin, Albert C., Active Member, 415

Grabau, A. W., Acknowledgments, 6, 95

RELATION OF MIDDLE AND UPPER

SILURIC IN THE EASTERN UNITED

States, [Title], 418

Rondout Region, 417

Granger, Walter, TERTIARY BEDS OF THE

Winp River Bastin, [Title], 403

Grant, Madison, Active Member, 412

Gratacap, L. P., Ropert PARR WHIT-

FIELD, 385-391 3

Green, James W., Active Member, 412

Greenhut, Benedict J., Active Member,

425

Gregory, J. W., cited, 99

Gregory, W. K., APPLICATION OF THE

QUADRATE-INCUS THEORY TO THE

CONDITIONS IN THORIODONT REP-

TILES AND THE GENETIC RELA-

TIONS OF THE LATTER TO THE

Mamata, [Abstract], 405, 404

NOTES ON THE INSECTIVORE GENUS

TUPAIA AND ITS ALties, [Ab-

stract], 418, 419

Griffith, Edward, Active Member. 415

Griffithides mucronatus sp. nov., 258

Groddeck, —, cited, 105

Guernsey, H. W., Active Member, 415

Guinzburg, A. M., Active Member, 412

GYPSUM IN THE BULLY HIDL AND RIs-

ING Srar MINES, CALIFORNIA,

A. C. Boyl, Jr., [Title]. 409

Haliotis Linné, 9

HaALiey’s CoMET, THE RETURN OF, S. A.

Mitchell, [Title]. 420

Halliella ? retiferiformis sp. nov., 233

Harrah, Charles J., Active Member, 425

Harriman, Mrs. E. H., Active Member,

412

Hartnagel, —, Rondout Region, 417

Harttina anna var. graciliformis var.

nov., 220

brevilobata var. marginalis var.

noy.. 219

indianensis var. exporecta var. nov.,

220

Hasslacher, Jacob, Active Member, 425

Havemeyer, F. C., Active Member, 412

GENERAL INDEX TO VOLUME Xx 479

Havemeyer, J. C., Active Member, 423

Hawes, G. W., cited, 101

Healy, J. R., Active Member, 433

Heinrich, O. J., cited, 96

Henshaw, S., Acknowledgments, 6

HESPERORNIS, RESTORATIONS OF, Barnum

Brown, [Abstract], 400

Hillebrand, W. F., and Whitmen Cross,

cited, 178

Hintze, C., cited, 130, 132, 181, 182

Hochschild, Berthold, Active Member,

412

Hodges, George W., Active Member, 415

Hollenbeck, Miss Amelia B., Active

Member, 423

Hollingworth, H. L., DrowsInEss., [ Ab-

stract], 428, 429

PSYCHOLOGICAL MEASUREMENTS OF

THE “PULLING POWER” OF AN

ADVERTISEMENT, [Abstract], 406

Hovey, E. O., Acknowledgments, 6

Editor, 437

Recording Secretary, 437

RECORDS OF MEETINGS OF THE NEW

YorK ACADEMY OF SCIENCES, 399-

441

Report of the Editor, 439

Report of the Recording Secretary,

438

Rondout Region, 417

SOME OBSERVATIONS ON THE YOSE-

MITE VALLEY, [Abstract], 426

Hoyt, Alfred R., Active Member, 423

Hoyt, Theodore R., Active Member, 425

Hrdlicka, Ales, cited, 355

Hvupson River Bripce, THE PROpPOSeEn.

Geo. F. Kunz, [Abstract], 421

Humphreys, Edwin W., and Alexis A.

Julien, PREGLACIAL DECAY OF

SCHISTS AT WESTCHESTER AVENUE

AND BouLeEvARD, Bronx, NEw

York City, [Title], 409

Humphreys, Frederic H., Active Mem-

ber, 416

Hussakof, L., Roperr Parr WHITFIELD,

BIBLIOGRAPHY, 391-398

Hustedia multicostata, sp. noy., 222

Hyatt and Smith, cited, 240

Hyde, Jesse E., Active Member, 412

SOME STRUCTURAL MODIFICATIONS OF

THE INwoop LIMESTONE, [Ab-

stract], 421, 422

Hyde, J. E., and Charles P. Berkey,

ORIGINAL IcE STRUCTURES INDI-

CATED BY CORRESPONDING STRUC-

TURES IN UNCONSOLIDATED SANDS

AND GRAVELS OF THE DRIFT ON

MANHATTAN ISLAND, [Abstract],

433, 48

Iddings, J. P., cited, 147

Idioclema, gen. nov., 210

Idloclema insigne, sp. nov., 211

IMMIGRANTS TO THE UNITED STATES.

CHANGES IN THE PuysicaL CHAR-

ACTERISTICS OF THE, F. Boas, [Ab-

stract], 402

INDIAN CHILDREN, MEASUREMENTS OF

Dakora, Clark Wissler, 355-364

INDICATIONS OF INCIPIENT FATIGUE,

Will S. Monroe, [Title], 415

Inwood Limestone, Some Structural

Modifications of the, Jesse E.

Hyde, [Abstract], 421, 422

Iselin, Mrs. William E., Active Mem-

ber, 416

Jackson, V. H., Active Member, 423

Jastrow, Joseph, THE PHYSIOLOGICAL

SUPPORT OF THE PERCEPTIVE PRO-

CESSES, [Abstract], 406

RECENT APPLICATIONS OF THE

STEREOSCOPIC PRINCIPLE, [Title],

415

Johnson, Douglas W., Rondout Region,

417

THE ORIGIN OF THE YOSEMITE VAL-

LEY, [Abstract], 418

Johnstone, J. Herbert, Active Member.

495

Julien, A. A., THE GENESIS OF ANTI-

GORITE, [Title], 418

Julien, Alexis A., Edwin W. Huniphreys

and, PREGLACIAL DECAY OF

ScHISTS AT WESTCHESTER AVENUE

AND BOULEVARD, BRONX, NEW

York City, [Title], 409

Jurassic species of Cerithium. SO

480

Kautz-Eulenburg, Miss P. R.,

Member, 412

Kemp, James F., Acknowledgments, 95

A SPHEROIDAL Basic DIKE FROM

ARKANSAS, [Title], 418

GEOLOGY AND ECONOMICS, 365-384,

[Title], 457

Cited, 104

ELEVENTH INTERNATIONAL

LOGICAL CONGRESS AT STOCKHOLM,

Active

GEO:

JuLY AND AvucusSsT, 1910, [Ab-

stract], 426

Kirkbya Jones, 255

Kirkbya lindahli var. arkansana vay.

nov., 254

Kirkbya oblonga var. transversa var.

nov., 254

Kirkbya reflera sp. nov., 235

|)oFr

Kirkbya simpler sp. noy., 285

Kohlrausch, Friedrich, Death of, 405

Kunz, Geo. F., A New Gem DIstTRIicT AT

Mount Bitry, Mapacascar, [Ab-

stract], 45

LABRADORITE FROM SONORA, MEXICO,

[Abstract], 415

Finance Committee, 457

THE PROPOSED ITuDSON

BrincGeE, [Abstract], 421

Vice-President, 437

LABRADORITE FROM SonorA, MEX, Geo. F.

Kunz, [Abstract], 415

Landon, Francis G., Active Member, 423

Librarian, Report of the, 439

Leda stevensiana sp. noy., 226

Lee, Frederic &.,

437

Levison, W. G., cited, 183

Lewis, J. V., cited, 96, 97, 98

Librarian, Report of the, 439

Lichtenstein, M., Active Member, 425

LIFE AS PoTENTIAL ENERGY, W. P. Mon-

tague, [Title], 415

Lindgren, W., cited, 151, 149

Lough, James E., EXPERIMENTS IN

SrerEoscopic Vision, [Title], 415

Lowie, Robert H., A Forcorren PRaG-

MATIST, LUDWIG FEUERBACH, [Ab-

stract], 428, 432

RIVER

Finance Committee,

ANNALS NEW YORK ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

CEREMONIAL ORGANIZATIONS OF THE

Crow INprans, [Abstract], 424

Fellow, 486

Ludlow, Nicoll, Active Member, 412

Lydig, Philip M., Active Member, 416

Lyman, Frank, Active Member, 412

Mais, C. Leslie, Acknowledgments, 287

MARINE ECOLOGY AND ITS REPRESENTA-

TION IN A MUSEUM, Roy W. Miner,

[Abstract], 454, 455 A

Matausch, Ignaz, HXuIBITION OF MODELS

or MeMpracip£, [Abstract }. 454,

435

THE PREPARATION OF

ANATOMICAL MODEL,

409, 410

Matthew, W. D., CLIMATE AND FEivoLu-

TON, [Title], 403

Maury, Carlotta J.. Acknowledgments, 6

McCarthy, J. M., Active Member, 425

McMillin, Emerson, Report of the Treas-

urer, 440

McMillin, Emerson, Treasurer, 457

McNeil, Charles R., Active Member, 416

MEASUREMENT OF PSYCHOLOGICAL MERIT,

Tue, J. McKeen Cattell, [Title],

415

MEASUREMENTS OF DAKOTA INDIAN

CHILDREN, Clark Wissler, 355-564

Measurements of white children, 358

Meek, —, cited, 239

Membership of the Academy, 457-468

MrEMBRACIDA2, EXHIBITION OF MODELS OF,

Ignaz Matausch, [Abstract]. 454,

ABD

Menophyllin

sanune var. noy., 190

A MUSEUM

[Abstract],

ercavatum var. arkan-

Menta Ilycrene,: Clyde Furst, [Ab-

stract], 428-430

Michelinia meekana sp. noy., 189

Michel-Levy, —, cited, 125

Microscopic EXAMINATION OF SOME

FauLty RAILROAD MATERIAL, THE,

W. Campbell, [Abstract], 425 24

Miller, D. S., SUBJECTIFYING THE OBJEC-

TIVE, [Abstract], 428, 480

GENERAL INDEX TO VOLUME XX

Roy W., COLLECTING INVERTE-

BRATES IN THE Woops IIOLE ReE-

GION, [Abstract], 414

MARINE ECOLOGY AND

SENTATION IN A MUSEUM,

stract], 454435

Some REMARKS ON Myriapops, [Ab-

stract], 400

Miocenic species of Cerithiidie, 45

Mitchell, Edward, Death of, 405

Mitchell, S. A., THE RETURN oF HATL-

LEY'S CoMET, [Title], 420

Mirsvukwri, Kaxkicui, Bashford Dean,

599

Monae-Lesser, A., Active Member, 412

Morse, Max, THE ULrra-MICROSCOPE

AND ITS APPLICATION TO THE

Stupy OF MIcROSCOPICALLY IN-

VISIBLE Particues, [Abstract], 400

Monroe, Will S., INDICATIONS OF INCIPI-

ENT FaticueE, [Title], 415

Montague, W. P., Lire AS POTENTIAL

Enerey, [Title], 415

Morgan, Thomas Hunt, Councilor, 437

Morgan, Wm. Fellowes, Active Member.

412 ;

Munn, John P., Active Member, 412

Mirex aluco, 8, 9, 11

asper, 7

Juscatus, 84

Myacites inconspicuus, 239

Miner,

ITS REPRE-

[ Ab-

Myalina aviculoides, 238

permiana, 239

MyRrIApops, SOME REMARKS ON, Roy W.

Miner, [Abstract]. 400

Nash, Nathaniel Cushing, Active Mem-

ber, 425

Nesbitt, Abram G., Active Member, 412

NEW GENERA AND SPECIES OF CARBONIF-

EROUS FOSSILS FROM THE Fay-

ETTEVILLE SHALE OF ARKANSAS,

George H. Girty, 189-238

NEW SPECIES OF FOSSILS FROM THE

THAYNES LIMESTONE OF UTAH,

George H. Girty, 239-242. [Title].

421

New York, THE GEOLOGICAL SURVEY OF

THE STATE OF. John M. Clarke,

[Abstract], 415

481

NOTES ON THE RESTORATIONS OF THE

CRETACEOUS Birps HESPERORNIS

AND BaprorNis, Barnum Brown,

[Abstract], 400

NOTES ON THE STRUCTURE OF WROUGHT

Iron, Wm. Campbell, [Abstract],

410

NOTES ON THE INSECTIVORE GENUS

TUPAIA AND ITS ALLIES, W. K.

Gregory, [Abstract], 418, 419

Norton, George F., Active Member, 416

Notman, George, Active Member, 412

Officers, Election of, 437

Oligocenic species of Cerithiidze, 47

Ontogenetic description

Cerithiidze, 14

Oppenheimer, Henry S., Active Member,

423

Origin of the coal beds of the Basin of

Decazeville, 281

ORIGIN OF THE YOSEMITE VALLEY, THE,

Douglas W. Johnson, [Abstract],

418

Original extent and character of the

Basin of Decazeville, 273

ORIGINAL GNEISSOID STRUCTURE IN THE

CorTLANDT SERIES. G. S. Rogers,

[Abstract], 421

ORIGINAL ICE STRUCTURES INDICATED BY

CORRESPONDING STRUCTURES IN

UNCONSOLIDATED SANDS AND

GRAVELS OF THE DRIFT ON MAN-

HATTAN ISLAND, J. E. Hyde and

Charles P. Berkey, [Abstract].

433, 454

Orthonychia compressa sp. noy., 232

Orthotetes subglobosus sp. noyv., 214

subglobosa var. protensa var. novy..

214

Osann, Andreae and, cited, 106

Osborn, Henry Fairfield, THr FEpriper-

MAL COVERING OF ‘'TRACHODON,

[Title], 405

Osborn, Mrs. Wm. C., Active Member,

416

Osburn, Raymond C., Fellow. 457

THE EFFECTS OF EXPOSURE ON THE

GILL FILAMENTS OF FISHES, [Ab-

stract], 426, 427

of species of

482

Orydiscus venatus sp. noy., 231

Paleacis carinata sp. noy., 190

Paleoneilo sera sp. noy., 227

Paraparchites nichelst

var. nov., 232

Patellostium levigatum sp. nov., 231

Paul, John J., Active Member, +12

PERCEPTIVE PROCESSES, THE PHYSIOLOG-

ICAL SUPPORT OF THE, Joseph

Jastrow, [Abstract], 406

Pergande, Theodore, Reference, 295

Petrunkevitch, Alexander, COURTSHIP IN

TARANTULAS, [Abstract], 426, 427

Petrunkevitch, Alexander, RELATION BE-

TWEEN SPECIES AND INDIVIDUALS

IN THE STRUGGLE FOR EXISTENCE,

[Abstract], 409

Some NEW oR LITTLE KNOWN

AMERICAN SPIDERS, [Title], 400

PHYSICAL CHARACTERISTICS OF THE IM-

MIGRANTS TO THE UNITED STATES,

Franz Boaz, [Abstract], 402

PHYLOGENY OF CERTAIN CERITHIIDE, ON

THE, Elvira Wood, 1-92, [Title],

403

PHYSIOLOGICAL SUPPORT OF THE PERCEP-

TIVE PROCESSES, THE, Joseph

Jastrow, [Abstract], 406

Planorbis, 5

Planorbis Guettard. 9

Plant, Albert, Active Member, 412

Platyceras subelegans sp. noy., 232

Pleistocenic species of Vulgocerithiwn,

Pliocenic species of Cerithium, 39

Polypora mesleriand, sp. nov., 207

Potamides, 59

lamarcki, 59, 60, 61, 62, 63, 64, 65.

83, 85

lapidum, 85

Potamidopsis acus, 69, S4. 85

conjuncta, T4. T5

cordieri, 61, 62, 63, G4

crassinoda, 73, TA

var. cyclopea

involutiwn, 63

lapidum, 64, 65

mirta, TO

roissyi, 4, 72, 74, 84, S85

ANNALS NEW YORK ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

tricarinata, 4, 66, 67, 69, 70, 71, 72.

(3, TA, 75, 76, 84, 8d

iricarinata mut. baucis, 68

tricarinata mut. brontes, 68

tricarinatad mut. cronus, 68

tricarinata mut. doris, 68

tricarinata mut. eris, 69

tricarinata mut. fatua, 69

trochleare, 75, 85 ;

tuberculosa, 71, 72, 13, T4, 75, S&.

tuberosa, 85

PRACTICE EFFECTS IN FREE ASSOCIATION,

Frederic Lyman Wells, [Abstract] :

428, 429

PRACTISE AND INDIVIDUAL DIFFERENCES,

Frederic Lyman Wells, [Ab-

stract], 406

PREGLACIAL DECAY OF SCHISTS AT WEST-

CHESTER AVENUE AND BOULEVARD,

Bronx, NEw YorK City, Edwin

W. Humphreys and Alexis A.

Julien, [Title], 409

Preston, Veryl, Active Member, 423

Primitia fayettevillensis sp. nov.. 282

seminalis sp. nov., 233

PROBLEMS CONNECTED WITH THE OCCUR-

RENCE OF GYPSUM IN THE BULLY

HILL AND RISING STAR MINES,

CALIFORNIA, A. C. Boyl, Jr.,

[Title], 409

Productus arkansanus sp. nov., 216

arkansanus var. multiliratus

nov., 217

boliviensis, 215

inflatus, 215

inflatus vay. coloradoensis var. nov.,

215

semireticulatus

216

inflatus vax. clydensis var. nov., 215

Pseudovertagus, 89

aluco, 15

PSYCHOLOGICAL MEASUREMENTS OF THE

“PULLING POWER” OF AN ADVER-

TISEMENT, H. L. Hollingworth,

[Abstract]. 406

Ptychocerithium inabsolutum, 51

lamellosum, 49

var.

var. animasensis,

GENERAL

Ptychopotamides cordieri, 62

mirtum, TO

Pumpelly, —, cited, 180, 181

Pycnopora bella sp. noy., 2038

hirsuta sp. noy., 204

regularis sp. noy., 203

subgen. noy., 202

QUADRATE-INCUS THEORY, APPIICATION

OF THE, TO THE CONDITIONS. IN

THERIODONT REPTILES AND THE

GENETIC RELATIONS OF THE LAT-

TER TO THE MAMMALIA, W. K.

Gregory, [Abstract], 403, 404

Radin, Paul, Some PrRospLeEMS OF WINNE-

BAGO Eruno.oey, [Title], 411

RAVENSWOOD GRANODIORITE, THE, Victor

Zeigler, [Title], 418

RECENT APPLICATIONS OF THE STEREO-

SCOPIC PRINCIPLE, Joseph Jastrow,

[Title], 415

tecording Secretary, Report of the, 438

tECORDS OF MEETINGS OF THE NEW YORK

ACADEMY OF SCIENCES, E. O.

Hovey, 399-441

RELATION OF MIDDLE AND UPPER SILURIC

IN THE HASTERN UNITED STATES,

A. W. Grabau, [Title]. 418

Relkoyer, Lycurgus, Active Member, 423

Report of the Corresponding Secretary,

439; Editor, 439; Librarian, 439;

Recording Secretary, 458:

urer, 440

RELATION BETWEEN SPECIES AND INDI-

VIDUALS IN THE STRUGGLE FOR EX-

ISTENCE, Alexander Petrunkevitch,

[Abstract], 409

RETURN OF HALLEY’s CoMET, THE, S. A.

Mitchell, [Title], 420

Rhombopora persimilis var. miseri var.

Treas-

noy., 208

Risley, Mrs. Emilie B., Active Member,

423

Roebling, John A., Active Member, 423

Rocks surrounding the basin of Decaze-

ville, 245-247

Rogers, G. S., ORIGINAL

STRUCTURE IN THE CORTLANDT

Series, [Abstract], 421

Rosenbaum, Selig, Active Member. 412

GNEISSOID

INDEX

TO VOLUME XX 483

Rossbach, Jacob, Active Member, 416

Rothbarth, A., Active Member, 412

Rowe, Basil W., Active Member, 423

Ruedemann, Rudolph, Rondout Region,

417

Russell, I. C., cited, 96, 98

Sage, Dean, Active Member, 423

Sage, John H., Active Member, 412

Sanguinolites simulans sp. nov., 224

Sarasin, —, Friedel, —, and, cited, 167

Satterlee, Mrs. Herbert L., Active Mem-

ber, 413

Schmitz, E. J., cited, 96

Schoney, L., Active Member, 413

Schuchert, Charles, Rondout Region, 417

de Schulten, A., cited, 167

Scott, G. G., Tne Errecr or CHANGES IN

WATER DENSITY ON THE BLOOD OF

ItsHes, [Abstract], 45

Scoville, Robert, Active Member. 423

Seaman, Louis L., Active Member, 42:

SECONDARY QUALITIES, F. J. E. Wood-

bridge, [Abstract], 428, 43:

Sedgivichkia concava, 239

Seligman, Jefferson, Active Member, 413

Septopora pustulifera sp. noy., 208

Serratocerithium tuberculosum, T1

Sexton, Lawrence E., Active Member.

425

Shillaber, Wm., Active Member, 413

Simpson, B. R., CoRRELATION OF MENTAL

ABILITIES, [Title], 415

Sleffel, Charles Conrad, THE WASTE WAX

PROCESS OF CASTING BRONZE, [Ab-

stract], 428

Smith, Adelbert J., Active Member, 416

Smith, Frank Morse, Active Member, 416

Smith, —, cited, 240

SNAILS, VARIABILITY OF LAND (CERION)

IN THE BAHAMA ISLANDS, WITH

ITS BEARING ON THE THEORY OF

GEOGRAPHICAL FORM CHAINS,

Charles B. Davenport, [Abstract].

403

Société des Acieries de France, 248

Solenopsis nitida sp. nov., 228

SoME NEw or LITTLE KNOWN AMERICAN

Sprpers, Alexander Petrunkevitch,

[Title]. 400

484 ANNALS NEW YORK

SOME OBSERVATIONS ON THE YOSEMITE

VALLEY, E. O. Hovey, [Abstract],

426

SomME VROBLEMS OF WINNEBAGO ETH-

NOLOGY, Paul Radin, [Title], 411

SomE REMARKS ON MyrIApops, Roy W.

Miner, [Abstract], 400

SoME STRUCTURAL MODIFICATIONS OF THE

INwoop LIMESTON, Jesse E. Hyde,

[Abstract], 420, 422

SoutH SrEas, FouRTH JOURNEY OF EXx-

PLORATION IN THE, Henry E.

Crampton, [Abstract], 418

Southwick, Edmund B., Active Member,

402

Fellow, 437

Sphenotus branneri sp. noy., 224

dubium sp. noyv., 225

meslerianiwit sp. Nov... 225

washingtonense sp. noy., 224

SPHEROIDAL Basic DIKE FROM ARKAN-

sAS, A, James F. Kemp, [Title],

418

Spiriferina

villensis var. noy., 221

Starr, Louis Morris, Active Member, 415

Stature and weight correlations for In-

subelliptica var. fayette-

oOn¢

dian and mixed children, 35%

Stature of Indian and mixed children,

397

Steinbrugge, Edward, Jr., Active Mem-

ber, 415

Stenocladia subgen. noy., 204

frondosa sp. nov., 205

Stenopora emaciata var. arkansand var.

nov... 195

emaciata var. inaequalis var. nov.,

195

emaciata var. megastylus Var. nov., |

196

gracilis sp. nov.. 198

inermis sp. noy.. 199

intermittens var. harrisoneiusis var.

nov.. 196

longicamerata sp. nov... 194

noy.. 196

miseri var. tubulata var. nov.. 197

mutabilis sp. nov.., 198

miseri, sp.

perattenuata sp. nov.. 194

ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

ramosa var. fayettevillensis var.

nov., 198

SiMMIANS Sp. NOV., 197

Stettenheim, J. M., Active Member, 415

Stevenson, John J., cited, 272, 281

THE Coat BASIN OF DECAZEVILLE,

FRANCE, 245-294, [Title], 426

Stone, Miss Ellen J., Active Member, 425

Strauss, Charles, Active Member, 425

Strauss, Frederick, Active Member. 425

Streat, James, Active Member, 416

Streblotrypa nickelsi var. robusta yar.

nov., 209

Strophalosia subcostata sp. noy.. 215

MEGUMA SERIES OF

J. E. Woodman,

STRUCTURE OF THE

Nova ScOorTIA.

[Title], 455

STRUCTURE, ORIGIN AND STRATIGRAPHIC

SIGNIFICANCE OF THE SHAWAN-

GUNK Grit, Paul Billingsley,

[Title], 409

STRUGGLE FOR EXISTENCE, RELATION BE-

TWEEN SPECIES AND INDIVIDUALS

IN THE, Alexander Petrunkevitch,

| Abstract], 409

Stuyvesant, Rutherford, Active Member,

416

SUBJECTIFYING THE OBJECTIVE,

Miller, | Abstract], 428, 450

Swords, Miss P. Caroline, Active Mem-

ber, 423

Syringoclemis biserialis sp. noy.. 206

gen. nov.. 206

Table to show the phylogeny of certain

Cerithiida, 85

COURTSHIP IN, Alexander

[Abstract]. 426,

Das:

TARANTULAS,

Petrunkevitch,

427

Taylor, W. A., Active Member, 425

TERTIARY BEDS OF THE WIND

BASIN. Walter Granger,

402

Thatcher, Edward J., Jr., Election as

Secretary. 402

Fellow. 427

TTHERIODONT REPTILES. APPLICATION OF

THE QUADRATE-INCUS THEORY TO

THE CONDITION IN, ETC., W. K.

Gregory, [Abstract]. 405, 404

RIVER

[Title],

GENERAL INDEX TO VOLUME XX

THAYNES LIMESTONE OF UTAH, NEW

SPECIES OF FOSSILS FROM THE,

George H. Girty, 239-242

Thompson, Robert M., Active Member,

425

Tower, George W., Jr., GEOLOGICAL

NOTES ON NORTHERN BRAZIL, [Ab-

stract], 399

Tower, R. W., Librarian, 437

Report of the Librarian, 439

Treasurer, Report of the, 440

Trowbridge, C. C., Councilor, 437

THE DIRECTION SENSE IN BIRDS AND

ANIMALS FROM THE STANDPOINT

or Puysics, [Abstract], 423, 424

Tupaid AND ITS ALLIES, NOTES ON THE

INSECTIVORE GENUS, W. K. Greg-

ory, [Abstract], 418, 419

Tuttle, Mrs. B. B., Active Member, 423

Tympanotonus conjunctus, 74

fuscatus, 85

involutum, 63

roissyi, 72

tricarinatum, 66

trochleare, T5

ULtTrA-MIcroscoPe AND ITS APPLICATION

TO THE Strupy oF Mrcroscopic-

ALLY INVISIBLE PARTICLES, THE,

Max Morse, [Abstract], 400

Vail, Theodore N., Active Member, 415

Van Hise, C. R., cited, 107, 132

Vanderpoel, Mrs. J. A., Active Member,

416

Van’t Hoff, —, cited, 177

VARIABILITY OF LAND SNAILS (CERION )

IN THE BAHAMA ISLANDS WITH

ITS BEARING ON THE THEORY OF

GEOGRAPHICAL FoRM CHAINS,

Charles B. Davenport, [Abstract],

403

Veatch, —, cited, 240

Vertagus Klein, 7

Vicinocerithium bouei, 3, 58, 59

parallelum, 3, 57, 58, 59

Vreeland, Frederick K., Active Member,

413

9—NY

485

Vulgocerithiwn, 33

adenense, 38

breve sp. nov., 35

doliolum, 46

gracile, 37, 3§

minutum, 46, 77, 79, 85

plicatum, 36, 37, 38, 39

pupeforme, 78, 85

rubiginosum, 47

vulgatum, 33, 35, 36, 37, 38, 39, 46,

78, 85

zelebori, 46

Waagen, —, cited, 218

Waite, W. H., Active Member, 413

Walcott, Charles D., cited, 239

Walker, William I., Active Member, 413

Walker, J. D., cited, 355, 356

Ward, Charles Willis, Active Member,

425

Washington, Henry S., Brier Notes on

SOME OF THE GEOLOGICAL ASPECTS

OF THE PROVINCE OF BARTA,

Brazin, [Abstract], 399, 400

Washington, H. S., and Wright, F. E.,

cited, 116

WASTE Wax Process or CAsTING

Bronze, Tur, Charles Conrad

Sleffel, [Abstract], 428

WATCHUNG BASALT AND THE PARAGENE-

SIS OF ITS ZEOLITES AND OTHER

SECONDARY MINERALS, THE, Clar-

ence N. Fenner, 93-187, [Title],

418

Watson, John J., Jr., Active Member,

425

Weeks, F. B., cited, 240

Weight of Indian and Mixed Children,

357

Wells, Frederic Lyman, Active Member.

PRACTISE AND INDIVIDUAL DIFFER-

ENCES, [Abstract], 406

PRACTISE EFFECTS IN FREE ASSOCTA-

TION, [Abstract], 428, 429

Wheeler, William M., THe Norru

AMERICAN ANTS OF THE GENUS

CAMPONOTUS Mayr, 295-354, 426

486

Whitfield, R. P., Acknowledgments, 6

Death of, 416

WHITFIELD, Roperr Parr, L. P. Grata-

cap, 385-391

BIBLIOGRAPHY, L. Hussakof, 391-398

Winchell, A. N., cited, 141, 148

WIND RIVER BASIN, TERTIARY BEDS OF

THE, Walter Granger, [Title], 403

WINNEBAGO ETHNOLOGY, SOME PROBLEMS

oF, Paul Radin, [Title], 411

Winslow, Chas. E. A., Active Member,

423

Fellow, 437

Wissler, Clark, MEASUREMENTS OF Da-

KOTA INDIAN CHILDREN, 355-364

Woerishoffer, Mrs., Active Member, 416

Wood, Elvira, A CASE OF APPARENT

REVERSION AMONG GASTROPODS,

[Abstract], 409, 410

THE PHYLOGENY OF CERTAIN CERI-

THIIDZ, 1-92, [Title], 403

Wood, William C., Active Member, 413

Woodbridge, F. J. E., SeconpARyY QUALI-

TIES, [Abstract], 428, 431

GENERAL INDEX TO VOLUME XX

Woodman, J. E., SrrRuUCTURE OF THE ME-

GUMA SERIES OF Nova SCOTIA, -

[Title], 455

Woops Hore REGION, COLLECTING IN-

VERTEBRATES IN, Roy W. Miner,

[Abstract], 414

Woodworth, R. S., Vice-President, 437

Wotherspoon, Henry H., Active Member,

423

Wright, F. E., and J. K. Clement, E. T.

Allen, cited, 146

Wright, F. E., and H. S. Washington,

cited, 116

WROUGHT IRON NOTES ON THE STRUC-

TURE OF, Wm. Campbell, [Ab-

stract], 410

YOSEMITE VALLEY, ORIGIN OF THE, D. W.

Johnson, [Abstract], 418

SOME OBSERVATIONS ON THE, E, O.

Hovey, [Abstract], 426

Zabriskie, J. L., Active Member, 408

Death of, 413

Ziegler, Victor, THE RAVENSWOOD GRAN-

oprorITE, [Title], 418

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