Pe oe,

VOLUME 74

Number 1

Jour nal of the March, 1984

WASHINGTON

ACADEMY... SCIENCES

ISSN 0043-0439

Issued Quarterly

at Washington, D.C.

SANT HSONIAA™

p&C 10 1984

_UBRARIED

CONTENTS

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Articles:

D. KRITCHEVSKY,S. A. TEPPER, S.K. CZARNECKI, M.A. MUELLER, D. M.

KLURFELD, and J. A. STORY: Effects of Dietary Protein on Lipid Metabolism in

G. PETRAZZUOLO, D. MONOS, and I. GRAY: Phenamethazine Sulfate Interac-

tion with Triton X-100 Solubilized Succinic Dehydrogenase ...............%.

N. Y. COHEN and E. M. BARROWS: The Greenhouse Whitefly, Its Entrapment

by Sticky Yellow Boards, and Tomato Yield in Suburban Yard-Gardens ......

R. P. DENKEWICZ, A. H. WEISS, and W. L. KRANICH: Palladium Zeolites as

NCCUVIEHEe ly GnOrenation: Catalysts: ac ae ois ssc ce dS sieis a oe ce woe owe ee were &

IMSCHUCHIONS LOMO ONENIDULOES. cs aucicc cos bs Slee exe SGleere doe cdideg olslew e's bie 6 dwelt Sabebbele

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JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

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FROM: The Editors of the Journal

SUBJECT: Call for Papers

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Commentary

WHY BUSINESS NEEDS THE

LIBERAL ARTS

The exemplary partnership between business and education in Massachusetts was re-

cently emphasized by a one-day conference, “Striving for Excellence,’ co-sponsored by

U.S. Sen. Paul Tsongas and the New England Council.

Throughout the day, many forward-looking professionals from both sectors expressed

their concern about the need for further improving the business-educational relationship

in Massachusetts to meet the domestic and international challenges of the next 20 years.

Speakers and panelists made many sincere remarks about business education, compu-

ter training and literacy, finance and accounting knowledge and the physical sciences. But

there was precious little mention, despite addresses by Gov. Michael S. Dukakis and other

notables, of the liberal arts, the social sciences and the tradition the humanities play in

developing clear thinking, ethical judgment, expository writing skills, evaluation, the dis-

ciplines of inductive and deductive reasoning, creative problem-solving, and the ability to

take disparate elements from many apparently isolated administrative and technical spe-

cialties and relate them to one another.

There was also seldom any mention of the part that the humanities, liberal arts and

social sciences can play in the international sector, where so much of our business acumen

and profitability in the next 20 years will count. As Harvard University President Derek

Bok has noted, “The critical problems lie in how business can accommodate itself to

larger public concerns expressed by legislatures, government agencies and community

groups,” including international constituencies.

Today’s leaders—and more importantly, the leaders of tomorrow—will profit greatly

from acquiring and improving international negotiating skills, human relations and

communicative skills, and the ability to foster creative problem-solving and entrepre-

neurship. But with so many of these skills currently lacking or needing improvement, we

must ask ourselves where this training will come from. Ideally, such training has come

from our colleges and universities, and increasingly our state university systems must play

the major role here.

Today, however, we have in the commonwealth, as in many other states, what can be

called the aging of the professions. A Fortune magazine story noted that MBA graduates

are in trouble. They’re searching for jobs and opportunities that don’t exist. They know

that their professional forbears, now in their mid-30s to 40s, have taken their place on the

career ladder, and unless they decide to go into business for themselves will seldom vacate

the posts they have worked so hard to acquire.

This means we must motivate millions of new, young, potentially enthusiastic em-

ployees facing the rigors of a new age with demographic statistics against them. Today’s

pressures to get a good job, study for grades and not the love of learning, choose careers

not out of committed interest but for practical reasons, all tend to limit the focus of our

students, limit risk-taking and generally impoverish the pool of exceptional talent we need

to revitalize business.

The business schools have just now begun to include more liberal arts courses in their

curriculums because of complaints from companies about MBA performance. Essen-

tially, though, the liberal arts have been devalued to the point that attrition among the pro-

fessional teaching ranks in these areas will take 10 to 20 years to bolster. Unfortunately,

we need leaders today to solve the problems of remaining competitive tomorrow.

Although many managers and business leaders can define objectives and command

employees, it is the unusual and gifted manager who can be called truly visionary, espe-

cially where motivating today’s young professionals is concerned. Because we are now

living, as Peter F. Drucker says, in “‘turbulent times,” it is precisely the skilled, visionary

leader we need to assure the costs of doing business tomorrow. Such leaders have an in-

stinctual ability to see the big picture, to plan strategically, to coordinate, to network new

arrangements in a changing world—to be, in a word, innovative: technically, organiza-

tionally, cross-culturally. But instinct alone cannot help us weather the storm. If we fail to

provide both education and a continuity of professional experience for our younger man-

agers and aspiring leaders, our international influence will falter.

We are at a watershed in our educational history. President Reagan’s bipartisan com-

mission report on education, A Nation at Risk, and a dozen other similar studies have

shown that. What we choose to implement today for the next 20 years—because of our

can-do attitude—will determine to a great degree nationally, and more important interna-

tionally, our success in an increasingly hostile, confusing and complex world.

To insure security for ourselves and our future demands a scrutinizing look at our coun-

try’s current and future educational needs. At this critical juncture, before setting an in-

flexible policy that excludes the liberal arts, business and government and educational

leaders need to re-evaluate how the liberal arts tradition can significantly contribute toa

strengthened economy.

Richard Sawyer is president of Richard Sawyer Associates, a management and communica-

author and NEW ENGLAND BUSINESS.

Journal of the Washington Academy of Sciences,

Volume 74, Number 1, Pages 1-8, March 1984.

Effects of Dietary Protein on Lipid

Metabolism in Rats

David Kritchevsky, Shirley A. Tepper, Susanne K. Czarnecki, '

Maryann A. Mueller,’ David M. Klurfeld, and Jon A. Story?

The Wistar Institute of Anatomy and Biology, 36th Street at Spruce,

Philadelphia, PA 19104, U.S.A.

ABSTRACT

The influence of animal and vegetable proteins on experimental atherosclerosis and choles-

terol metabolism have been the subject of vigorous research in recent years. Carroll and Ha-

milton (1) demonstrated the range of effects exerted by different animal and vegetable proteins

on cholesterol levels in rabbits. We have demonstrated that the effect of animal or vegetable

proteins on experimental atherosclerosis can be mediated by the type of fiber in the diet (2).

We have attributed part of the difference between casein and soy protein to the different ratios

of lysine to arginine present in these proteins and have shown that lysine enhances the ath-

erogenicity of soy protein and arginine exhibits the atherogenicity of casein (3, 4). Recently we

have shown that a straight line is obtained (r = 0.9979; p < 0.05) when the average athero-

sclerosis established in rabbits fed fish protein, casein or milk protein is plotted against the

ratios of lysine to arginine present in those proteins (5).

The effect of diets containing various proteins on lipid metabolism in rats is the subject of

the ensuing discussion.

Materials and Methods

Male Wistar rats were used throughout.

They were maintained in individual cages

in an air-conditioned room and kept ona

12-hour light-dark cycle. The rats had ad

libitum access to food and water. Rats were

fed a basal semi-purified diet consisting of

40% sucrose (41.5% of calories), 25% pro-

tein (25.9 of calories), 14% coconut oil

' Present address: National Heart Lung and Blood

Inst., National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, MD

2020S.

* Present address: Beth Israel Hospital, Boston, MA

02115.

> Present address: Dept. Foods and Nutrition, Pur-

due University, W. Lafayette, IN 47906.

(32.6% of calories), 15% cellulose, 5% AIN

salt mix and 1% AIN vitamin mix. Each

experiment was of a 21-day duration. At

the end of each study, rats were fasted

overnight, weighed, killed by decapitation

and serum and liver analyzed for total cho-

lesterol (6), triglycerides (7), phospholipids

(8) and protein (9). Levels of liver micro-

somal HMG CoA-reductase (10) and cho-

lesterol 7 a-hydroxylase (11, 12) were also

determined. To measure absorption, rats

were given 0.5 mCi of [4-'*C]cholesterol 3

days before termination of the experiment.

Feces were collected daily, pooled and the

neutral and acidic steroids extracted, se-

parated and assayed for radioactivity (13).

Data are presented as mean values

D. KRITCHEVSKY ET AL.

Table 1—Influence of Lysine or Arginine on Lipid Metabolism in Rats Fed 25% Protein*

Group?

CASEIN SOY CAS-ARG SOY-LYS

Weight gain, g L7G ose alt) 133. 184 +6 tee Ss

Liver weight, gt 9.673703 OS eae OFS 25" a"0:3 9:0 + 0.2

Relative liver weight, % 29s Osta 2.58 + 0.04ab 2.79 + 0.06b 2.070105

Serum

Cholesterol mg/dl? Tle se) 09 Gao! sun) © AM) 62.2) pode

Triglyceride, mg/dl AS ae 54 CF eal 0 AS) ate 5 36°. 2 6

Phospholipid, mg/dl SO hae 3 oe Sais et Tisha nga all 84 +2

Protein, g/dl + Qt33°s= “OMT c 4.45 + 0.24 4.74 + 0.06cd 4.47 + 0.09d

Liver

Cholesterol, g/100g 0.26 + 0.02 0.25 220.02 0.26 + 0.02 0.29 + 0.02

Triglyceride, g/100g + 169.2 0) 14er e230 ale 0.99 + 0.11f 1.32 S028

Phospholipid, g/100g t 2:0 O13 2.07 2=;0:10 2.00 + 0.07 27 = 0:09

Protein, g/100g oP 02 18.4 + 0.6 18.2 + 0.4g 19.4 +03

* Twelve rats/group fed 21 days.

TCAS-ARG, 23.9% casein plus 1.1% arginine; SOY-LYS, 22.9% soy plus 2.1% lysine. Diets contain:

25% protein; 40% sucrose; 14% coconut oil; 15% cellulose. Values bearing same letter are significantly dif-

ferent (p < 0.05) by f-test.

{Significantly different by analysis of variance.

+ SEM. Statistical analysis was carried out fed soy protein. Addition of arginine to ca-

by ANOVA (14) or t-test (14). sein increased HMG-CoA reductase activ-

ity by 67% and addition of lysine to soy

protein reduced it by 17% (Table 2). Cho-

lesterol absorption was not significantly

Results and Discussion affected.

We have compared in rabbits the ather-

The results of the first experiment are ogenic effects of beef protein, casein, tex-

summarized in Table 1. tured vegetable protein (TVP) anda 1:1

Addition of arginine to casein lowered mixture of beef protein and TVP. Casein

serum cholesterol levels by 20%; lysine had and beef were equally hypercholesterolemic

no effect when added to soy protein. Liver and atherogenic. Dilution of the beef with

cholesterol levels were unaffected by die- TVP resulted in diets no more lipidemic or

tary protein, but liver triglycerides in rats atherogenic than those containing only

fed casein were higher thanthey wereinthe TVP (15). We studied similar diets in rats.

other three groups. Levels of hepatic HMG-__ Because the beef protein was dehydrated

CoA reductase were affected by diet being but not defatted, all test diets contained tal-

lowest in rats fed casein and lowestinthose low rather than coconut oil. In this study

Table 2—Influence of Lysine or Arginine on Hepatic Enzymes of Rats Fed 25% Protein* (Six Per Group)

Enzyme Activity

HMG-CoA Reductase Cholesterol 7 a-Hydroxylase

Grou (nmol/30 min/mg protein) (pmol/min/mg protein)

Casein 0.39 + 0.07ab 210 == US

Soy Protein 0.74 + 0.13a 3.40 + 0.64

Casein-Arginine 0.65 + 0.11b 5.24, se 1525

Soy-Lysine 0627-2017, 4.95 + 0.86

* Values bearing same letter are significantly (p < 0.05) different.

EFFECTS OF DIETARY PROTEIN ON LIPID METABOLISM IN RATS 3

Table 3—Composition (%) of Diets used in Protein Experiments

TVR

Protein

Beef D5 —

TVP — 25

Spent Flakes — —

Casein — —

Fat

Beef 4.7 —_—

Beef Tallow 9.3 14

Coconut Oil —_ i

Carbohydrates

Sucrose 40 33.6

TVP — 6.4

Spent Flakes — —

Fiber

Cellulose 15 4.5

TVP — 10.5

Spent Flakes — —_

BEEF (B)

Diets*

BSF BIVe CAS-T CAS-C

22.8 125 — o

—_ 125 —_— —

2:2 —_— — —

4.2 2: —_— —

9.8 bey 14 a

— — 14

39.4 36.8 40 40

—_ 32 —_ —

0.6 — — —

4.5 9.8 15 15

— a — —

10.5 — — —-

*TVP-Textured Vegetable Protein; BSF-Beef plus 14.2% soy insolubles (Spent Flakes); BT VP-Beef-TVP

(1:1); CAS-T-Casein plus Tallow; CAS-C-Casein plus Coconut Oil. All diets contain 5% salt mix and 1%

vitamin mix.

we added a casein-coconut oil group. The

diets are described in Table 3.

The results (Table 4) show that the only

significant difference in serum lipids is in

the phospholipid levels, but that all liver

lipid parameters are significant different by

analysis of variance. The highest liver cho-

lesterol and triglyceride levels were ob-

served in the rats fed casein and tallow. The

results from rats fed casein and tallow were

surprisingly similar to those from rats fed

casein and coconut oil. The protein is the

determining factor.

The diets did not significantly affect he-

patic cholesterol 7 a-hydroxylase, although

the highest activity was present in the rats

fed diet BSF, which contained the highest

level of fiber other than cellulose. Hepatic

HMG-CoA reductase activity was lowest

in rats fed beef protein or beef-TVP 1:1;

highest activity was observed in rats fed ca-

sein plus tallow (Table 5). Cholesterol ab-

sorption ranged from 53% (beef) to 69%

(casein-tallow). The differences among the

six groups were significantly different by

analysis of variance (p < 0.01).

Huff et al. (16) had tested varying mix-

tures of casein and soy protein in rabbits

and found that a 1:1 mixture did not ele-

vate cholesterol levels and a 3:1 mixture

gave cholesterol levels intermediate be-

tween those of 100% casein or 100% soy

protein. We tested similar mixes of casein

and soy protein in rats using beef protein

and TVP as the proteins and tallow as the

fat. As can be seen from Tables 6and 7, the

1:1 mixture gave the highest cholesterol

levels which were significantly higher than

those of rats fed TVP: beef 1:3 or 100%

beef protein. There were no differences in

liver lipid levels. Rats fed TVP/beef protein

3:1 exhibited significantly higher levels of

cholesterol 7 a-hydroxylase than the other

four groups.

In a final study we compared the effects

of 25% casein, fish protein, whole milk pro-

tein and beef protein (Table 8). Their lysine/

arginine ratios are: fish protein—1.44; beef

protein—1.60; casein—1.89; and whole

milk protein—2.44.

Weight gains were significantly different

by analysis of variance as were serum cho-

lesterol and protein levels. Serum choles-

terol levels in rats fed fish protein (37 + 3

mg/dl) were significantly lower than in the

other groups. Serum triglyceride levels in

D. KRITCHEVSKY ET AL.

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EFFECTS OF DIETARY PROTEIN ON LIPID METABOLISM IN RATS 5

Table 5—Influence of Dietary Protein on Hepatic Enzymes in Rats* (Average of 6 Animals)

Enzyme Activity

Dietary HMG-CoA Reductase Cholesterol 7 a-Hydroxylase

Group (nmol/30 min/mg protein) (pmol/min/mg protein)

BEEF (B) 0.43 + 0.10ab 179 0532

EVP 0.86 + 0.12ac LTT EOE 37

BSF 0.81 + 0.19d 2.66 + 0.34

BTVP 0.28 + 0.06cdef 223i. 75

CAS-T 1.01 + 0.15beg jas syeas | \) Gy

CAS-C 0.61 + 0.08fg 2.39 + 0.42

* Values bearing same letter are significantly different by f-test.

rats fed beef or casein (60 mg/dl) were

lower than in rats fed fish or milk protein

(42 mg/dl). There were no significant dif-

ferences in liver cholesterol or triglyceride

levels. Cholesterol absorption (% of a sin-

gle dose of [4-'*C]cholesterol) was: casein,

60; fish protein, 61; milk protein, 55; and

beef protein, 53.

The results of the four experiments are

not strictly comparable since we used dif-

ferent sources of vegetable protein and fat.

In the first study (Tables 1 and 2) rats fed

casein exhibited the highest serum choles-

terol levels and liver triglyceride levels.

Microsomes prepared from livers of soy

protein-fed rats showed the highest HMG-

ColA reductase activity and those from ca-

sein-fed rats the lowest. Addition of argi-

nine to casein or lysine to soy protein gave

intermediate values. In the second experi-

ment (Tables 3—5) we used textured vegeta-

ble protein (which contains some nonnutri-

tive fiber) and beef tallow. Rats fed casein

plus tallow showed highest levels of liver

lipids. Hepatic cholesterol 7 a-hydroxylase

activity was similar in all dietary groups.

HMG-CoA reductase activity was lowest

in rats fed beef-TVP 1:1 and those fed

beef. In this experiment the type of fat

present in the diet influenced HMG-CoA

reductase activity, which was significantly

higher in rats fed casein-beef tallow than in

those fed casein-coconut oil. In the third

study (Tables 6 and 7) we compared the ef-

fects of various ratios of beef protein and

TVP. Rats fed TVP:beef protein 3:1 had

the highest levels of serum triglycerides and

high hepatic cholesterol 7 a-hydroxylase

activity. HMG-CoA reductase activity was

lowest in rats fed beef protein. There were

no differences in liver lipids. The last exper-

iment (Table 8) showed fish protein to be

much less cholesterolemic than casein,

whole milk protein or beef. Triglyceride

levels were highest in rats fed beef or casein.

No differences were observed in liver lipid

levels.

Reiser et al. (17) found HMG-COA re-

ductase activity in rats fed casein to be sig-

nificantly lower than in rats fed soy pro-

tein. Nagata et al. (18) made a similar

observation and also observed that when

mixtures of amino acids resembling casein

or soy protein composition were fed the ef-

fect was reversed, i.e., the rats fed casein

amino acids showed significantly higher

HMG-CoA reductase activity. Rats fed

either casein or the amino acid mixture of

casein had significantly higher cholesterol

levels than those fed soy protein or its

amino acids.

Sugano et al. (19) reported that rats fed

casein exhibited higher cholesterol levels

than those fed soy protein. Adding enough

arginine to the casein to give the lysine/

arginine ratio of soy protein did not affect

cholesterolemia, nor did adding lysine to

soy protein. Rats fed casein had higher

plasma insulin levels than those fed soy

protein, but their plasma glycagon levels

were similar. Addition of arginine to casein

raised both plasma insulin and glucagon

levels; addition of lysine to soy protein had

little effect on either plasma insulin or glu-

D. KRITCHEVSKY ET AL.

‘SABP [Z 1OJ SI9IP prj SLY »

rl'0 = LOS 170 + 90'S 810 F LPs 61:0 FEps 91°0 = L's p/3 ‘ulaj01g

S+ LOI L + 001 9+ OZI 9 + ZI CF 6 [p/sw ‘spidijoydsoyg

e+ €€ € F- €€ CF v2 Ce ES LE EF vv [P/SuW ‘saplsoA]s1s

CF 9 F IS LF SL 91 F 89 LF 8g [P/3u ‘o1s}sa]oYyD wnta¢g

L0'0 = 98°7 p00 + P87 90°0 F S8°2 80:0 F ¥6'7 E10 F 08°7 % “WYBIOM IAT] SANLIIY

EOF 78 90 + £8 ZTOF 8 SO F 88 SOF 78 3 QYZIOM IOArT

9F OL pI + 82 9F I8 6 F £8 y+ 6L 3 ‘ured 1Y4SI9M

001 ‘0 CLiSZ 0S:0S S7:SL 0:001

(d/dAL) dnoip

ySJVY Ul WISTTOqujJaJQI pidry uo (qA J) UlgjJ01g a[qujJadeA painjxay, pue (q) FAA JO sonvey durdieA Jo aduantuy—g9 e]quy,

EFFECTS OF DIETARY PROTEIN ON LIPID METABOLISM IN RATS 7

Table 7—Influence of Varying Ratios of BEEF (B) and Textured Vegetable Protein (TVP) on Liver Lipid

Metabolism in Rats*

Group (TVP/B)

100:0 T5525 50:50 25775 0: 100

Liver Cholesterol, g/100g 0:28 a00298 0.28 7100204 0.30 2::0/02)% .0.3.1e5-10,02 » 0.33.420:01

Triglycerides, g/100g 0.50 + 0.01 0.43+0.06 0.45+0.08 0.48 + 0.08 0.45 + 0.05

Phospholipids, g/100g 0.21 + 0.01 0.22 + 0.01 0.21 + 0.01 0.22.<E 0.01 0:23,250:01

Protein, g/100g DOV Geta a8 oe les 2.0926. 17.6. + 1.56 19.4 e10.69\04.18-.5. ts 0.98

Liver Enzymes

HMG-CoA Reductase OD8.-6 0.06er 0:51 2-009" 048 =E'0: 13% 0/45, =: 0:09" + 0:44-0:08

(Gie@lesterol 7\a-Hydroxylase . | 12.83. 1.57 23:08 £4.51 11.32 £1.01 10.00 + 2.82 8.9722 2:01

*Rats fed diets for 21 days.

Table 8—Influence of Protein on Liver Lipid Metabolism in Rats (10/Group; Fed 21 Days)

Protein

Casein Fish Milk Beef

Weight gain, g* Tdeasete 9a D5: - sate. 7, (Sag = 1D 109" *a=” Sab

Liver weight, g 8.6 + 0.4 828 == 06 8.8 + 0.6 tgs Pane a 1B

Relative liver weight, % 3.09 + 0.09c 2.94 + 0.13 3.20! +.0.29 2.87 a= .0:05¢

Serum

Cholesterol, mg/dl* 54. == 6d 37° gee sdet. 54° es5e Coke Wee |

Triglyceride, mg/dl 60 <= 6gh 42 + 6g 42 44h 62.9 10

Protein, g/dl* 3.90 + 0.11 4.12 + 0.06kl 4.63 + 0.10ik 4.45+ 0.101

Liver

Cholesterol, g/100g 0.32 + 0.04 0:27 72,0202 0:35'2210:03 0:32 530.03

Triglyceride, g/100g 1.23 + 0.24 1.11+0.14 1.20 + 0.15 11S t= 10.05

Protein, g/100g 13:50) se -93 18.96 + 0.50 20.66 + 0.88 19.81 +- 0.52

Values bearing same letter are significantly different (p < 0.05) by /-test.

*Significantly different (p < 0.05) by analysis of variance.

cagon. The hypocholesterolemic effect of Acknowledgments

soy protein in man has been attributed to

an effect on insulin and glucagon levels (20).

Summary

A comparison of the effects of animal

and vegetable protein on cholesterol me-

tabolism in rats has shown that animal pro-

tein (casein or beef) is more cholestero-

lemic than soy protein isolate or textured

vegetable protein. Hepatic HMG-COA re-

ductase activity is generally lower in rats

fed animal protein but there appears to be

no influence on hepatic cholesterol 7

a-hydroxylase.

This work was supported, in part, by

grants HL-03299 and CA-09171 and a Re-

search Career Award (HL-0734) from the

National Institutes of Health; by a grant

59-2426-0-1-479-0 from the U.S. Depart-

ment of Agriculture—SEA; and by grants

in aid from Miles Laboratories, ADM, the

National Live Stock and Meat Board and

the Commonwealth of Pennsylvania.

References Cited

1. Carroll, K. K. and Hamilton, R. M. G. J. Food Sci.

40: 18 (1975).

2. Kritchevsky, D., Tepper, S. A., Williams, D. E. and

Story, J. A. Atherosclerosis 26: 397 (1977).

3. Kritchevsky, D. J. Am. Oil Chem. Soc. 56: 135 13. Kritchevsky, D., Casey, R. R. and Tepper, S. A.

(1979). Nutr. Reports Int. 7: 61 (1973).

4. Czarnecki, S. K. and Kritchevsky, D. J. Am. Oil 14. Sokal, R. R. and Rohlf, F. J. Introduction to Bio-

Chem. Soc. 56: 388A (1979). statistics. W. H. Freeman and Co., San Francisco,

5. Kritchevsky, D., Tepper, S. A., Czarnecki, S. K. CA (1969).

and Klurfeld, D. M. Atherosclerosis 41: 429 (1982). 15. Kritchevsky, D., Tepper, S. A., Czarnecki, S. K.,

6. Rudel, L. L. and Morris, M. D. J. Lipid Res. 14: Klurfeld, D. M. and Story, J. A. Atherosclerosis

364 (1973). 39: 169 (1981).

7. Levy, A. L. and Keyloun, C. Adv. Automated 16. Huff, M. W., Hamilton, R. M. G. and Carroll,

Anal. 1: 497 (1972). K. K. Atherosclerosis 28: 187 (1977).

8. Sokoloff, L. and Rothblat, G. H. Proc. Soc. Exp. 17. Reiser, R., Henderson, G. K., O’Brien, B. C. and

Biol. Med. 146: 1166 (1974). Thomas, J. J. Nutr. 107: 453 (1977).

9. Lowry, O. H., Rosebrough, N. J., Farr, A. L. and 18. Nagata, Y., Ishiwaki, N. and Sugano, M. J. Nutr.

Randall, R. J. J. Biol. Chem. 193: 265 (1951). 112: 1614 (1982).

10. Shefer, S., Hauser, S. Lapar, V. and Mosbach, 19. Sugano, M., Ishiwaki, N., Nagata, Y. and Imai-

E. H. J. Lipid Res. 13: 402 (1972). zumi, K. Br. J. Nutr. 48: 211 (1982).

11. Shefer, S., Hauser, S. and Mosbach, E. H. J. Lipid 20. Noseda, G. and Fragiacomo, C. In “Diet and

Res. 9: 328 (1968). Drugs in Atherosclerosis”, eds. G. Noseda, B.

12. Nicolau, G., Shefer, S., Salen, G. and Mosbach, Lewis and L. Paoletti. Raven Press, NY (1980),

E. H. J. Lipid Res. 15: 146 (1974).

Journal of the Washington Academy of Sciences,

Volume 74, Number 1, Pages 8-13, March 1984.

pp. 61-65.

Phenamethazine Sulfate Interaction with Triton

X-100 Solubilized Succinic Dehydrogenase

Gary Petrazzuolo, Dimitrios Monos and Irving Gray

Department of Biology

Georgetown University

Washington, D.C. 20057

ABSTRACT

A novel solubilization of succinate dehydrogenase has been employed and the interactions

between the enzyme and phenazine methosulfate (PMS) studied. The enzyme can be solubil-

ized in the absence of exogenous succinate with a high concentration of Triton X-100 and

apparently still yield a fully active soluble enzyme.

The effect of PMS is observed to be biphasic and appears to act as a positive modulator at

low concentrations but is inhibitory at higher concentrations. PMS altered both Vmax and Km

for succinate. The effect is less over the lower, activating range of PMS concentrations than

over the inhibitory range.

A Hill Equation analysis has shown the enzyme to possess a minimum of three binding sites

for PMS. At lowconcentrations of the dye, the Hill Coefficient is 1.99; in the inhibitory range

of concentrations, the Hill Coefficient increases to 2.86.

It is suggested there is cooperativity between SDH and PMS at the low concentrations of

PMS and that the enzyme can be activated by the binding of PMS ata regulatory site. At the

_—

PMS INTERACTION WITH SOLUBILIZED SDH 9

inhibitory concentrations the binding of a third molecule of PMS causes sufficient configura-

tional change to bring about an increase in Km decrease in Vmax.

Introduction

In the course of our studies on changes in

the enzyme properties during thermal ac-

climation by rainbow trout, we have exam-

ined the properties of succinate dehydro-

genase (EC 1.3.99.1), SDH. In order to

study this enzyme, the artificial electron

acceptor system phenazine methosulfate

(PMS) and 2, 6-dichlorophenol indophenol

(DCIP) introduced by Ells (1) was used.

Furthermore, it has been shown that the

activity using artificial receptors was de-

pendent on the preparative procedures

(2,3,4). While there are several methods

employed in the solubilization of SDH

(5,6,7), the procedures are not entirely

equivalent.

This report concerns the use of Triton X-

100 as an alternate method for the solubili-

zation of SDH which has certain advan-

tages over those already in use.

Materials and Methods

Isolation of Mitochondria. Rainbow trout

(Salmo gairdneri) were obtained from the

Eastern States Federal Fish Disease La-

boratory and Hatchery at Leetown, West

Virginia. They were sacrificed by decapita-

tion and the lateral muscle mass from three

fish combined. Mitochondria were isolated

according to Ernster and Nordenbrand (8)

with the modification that EGTA was used

in place of EDTA and ATP was added only

just prior to use. The mitochondria could

be stored (at —98°C under N> in 0.1 M bo-

rate buffer, pH 7.8, at 40-50 mg protein per

ml, as estimated by ultraviolet absorption)

for at least six days without loss in activity.

Assay Procedure. Prior to assay, the mi-

tochondria were thawed at 25°C in a water

bath and Triton X-100 added at 5 ul/mg

mitochondrial protein. This suspension was

allowed to stand at room temperature for

15 min with occasional, gentle agitation,

and then centrifuged at 15,000 g for 10

minutes at 0°C. The supernatant fluid was

carefully decanted and placed on ice for the

duration of the assay procedure. Protein

concentration was determined by Biuret

reaction (9). The reaction mixture was

composed of the following: 2.0 ml 75mM

borate buffer, pH 8.2; 0.3 ml 3% BSA; 0.1

ml 50 mM KCN; 0.2 ml sodium succinate,

varying from 0.13-8.33 mM, pH 8.2. The

reaction was initiated by the sequential ad-

dition of 0.1 ml enzyme preparation (0.5-1.0

mg protein), 0.1 ml 1.5 mM DCIP and fi-

nally 0.2 ml of various concentrations of

PMS. The mixture wax mixed by inversion,

and the course of the reaction followed at

600 nm. PMS solutions were stored at

—20°C for up to three days, and once

thawed, used for no longer than three

hours while maintained on ice.

Activity Determination. Specific activity

is defined as production of reduced DCIP,

in nmoles per minute per mg protein. Be-

cause there is a broad range of reported

values for the molar absorption coefficient

of DCIP (16.1 — 21.0 X 10° M’’), and the

reported variability in commercial prepa-

rations (10,11) as well as the very substan-

tial pH dependence of the absorption coef-

ficient of the dye (11), the value was

determined under the conditions of assay

and found to be 17.5 X 10° M ‘cm’’.

Data Analysis. The calculations to de-

termine activities, kinetic parameters and

statistical analyses were combined into a

single program, written in Fortran IV, G

Level. The values reported derive from

weighted (by the reciprocal standard devia-

tion) regressions of plots of 1/v versus 1/S.

Correlation coefficients were calculated

and the value of p determined from a Table

of r (12). Because of the high levels of sub-

strate-independent activity (13), the pro-

10 GARY PETRAZZUOLO, DIMITRIOS MONOS AND IRVING GRAY

Table 1°.—The Effect of the Triton/Protein Ratio

on SDH Activity

Triton X-100 added,

ul/mg protein

Activity,

nMoles-min '-mg

0.2 S25 One -36

1.0 4.15 + 54

2.0 SOUS 19

5.0 5:51" a2"4f8

10.0 3330032

“Triton X-100 was added to mitochondria at the

indicated ratio of detergent to mitochondrial pro-

tein, and allowed to stand at room temperature for

15-20 minutes. The mixture was centrifuged at

15,000 xg for 10 min, at 2°C. The supernatant fluid

was decanted and placed on ice, with an aliquot re-

served for Biuret determination. The assay proce-

dure as described in the text was followed using a

PMS concentration of 1 mM and a succinate con-

centration of 2 mM. The activity is the corrected

mean of three assays (succinate-dependent minus

succinate-free activities) + the standard deviation.

See text for further details.

gram was designed to determine baseline

activity from succinate-free assays and sub-

tract this activity from succinate-stimu-

lated activities prior to their use in the de-

termination of kinetic parameters.

Materials. EGTA, tris base and HCl,

ATP, disodium succinate, DCIP, PMS and

BSA (fraction V powder) Triton X-100;

nitrogen (Ultra-high purity and Oil-Free)

and all other reagents were at reagent grade

or better. Centrifugation was performed in

an IEC Model B 20 refrigerated centrifuge.

Assays were carried out using a Beckman

Model DB-G spectrophotometer with scale

expander and five-inch recorder.

Results

The Effect of Triton X-100 on SDH Activity

From the data given in Table 1 it appears

that a broad optimum ratio of detergent to

mitochondrial protein exists. The activity

appears to plateau between 2 and 5 yl de-

tergent/mg protein. The data presented

in Table 2 show several aspects of Triton —

solubilization. First. disruption of the mito-

chondrial membrane system by rapid freeze-

thawing prior to solubilization has no ef-

fect on the activity of the Triton-solubilized

SDH. Second, simple addition of the de-

tergent to the mitochondrial suspension

produces a 45% inhibition of SDH activity.

Third, centrifugation following addition of

detergent results in localization of essen-

tially all activity in the supernatant fluid

(96-98% for 10, 15 or 30,000 xg for 10 min-

utes) at the same specific activity as the

untreated mitochondria. The inhibition

noted upon addition of Triton (Table 2)

was somewhat less than that usually ob-

served for other solubilization procedures.

The data presented in Figure | demon-

strate the biphasic effect of PMS concen-

tration on the observed SDH activity. It

should be observed that for the data pre-

Table 2*.—The Effect of Triton and Freezing on SDH Activity

Treatment

Untreated

Triton X-100

(Freeze/Thaw) & Triton X-100

Triton X-100, Super

(Freeze/Thaw) & Triton X-100, Super

Triton X-100, Pellet

(Freeze/Thaw) & Triton X-100, Pellet

Activity

Activity Recovered

nMoles-min '-mg ' %

G19 ee 256 100

3.40 + .10 60

3.45 + .10 39

623 se 12 55

6.12 + »38 59

Olio 208 2

0.28 + .04 ]

“Untreated mitochondria were freshly prepared and used prior to storage. The freeze-thawed prepara-

tions were subjected to five cycles of immersion of untreated mitochondria (1.25 ml, in a 13 ml Pyrex

tube) into an acetone/dry ice bath, followed by thawing in a 25°C water bath. Where indicated, Triton X-

100 was added at 5 ul/mg protein. Incubation, centrifugation, protein determination and assay procedures

were as described in the text and Table 1.

PMS INTERACTION WITH SOLUBILIZED SDH 11

nmol-min-

Vmax ’

05 10 15 20 25

PMS , mM

Fig. 1. Relationship between Vnax and PMS Con-

centration. The procedures for obtaining the enzyme

preparation, assay procedures, and statistical analysis

are given in the text. For the determination of Vee

succinate concentrations ranged from 50-833 uM.

Regression lines were obtained from either five or six

concentrations of succinate, each concentration rep-

resenting four or five assays in the presence of succi-

nate and three assays in the absence of succinate. All

lines were found to give p < .05, determined from

their correlation coefficients and degrees of freedom.

sented here the notation Vnax is used to em-

phasize that these values are derived at

fixed concentrations of PMS and extrapo-

lated to infinite succinate concentration. It

is apparent that SDH activity is propor-

tional to PMS at low concentrations but is

inhibited at higher levels. The inhibition

has been previously reported (14,15). The

previously proposed mechanisms of inacti-

vation, based on either a direct or indirect

(21) oxidation of necessary sufhydryls, are

believed insufficient to explain that ob-

served in our study: (1) peroxides generated

from reoxidation of PMS by molecular oxy-

gen would be unlikely, due to the use of

DCIP as a terminal electron-acceptor; (2)

the results were based upon initial (15-45

seconds) activities before appreciable de-

pletion of DCIP could occur, allowing

for PMS/O) coupling. Under the condi-

tions of our experiments the inhibition

appears to asymptote towards a value

which approximates a 50-60% reduction in

activity from that obtained under optimal

conditions of PMS concentration and sub-

strate. This is the same general range of in-

hibition produced by a number of agents or

treatments which have previously been

considered to damage one of two sites of

PMS reductase activity (16,17). Although

the inhibitory effect on Veax has been rec-

ognized, and the appropriate procedures

recommended to normalize data for com-

parison among laboratories, (14,15), no

such precautions have been noted for the

effect of PMS on Kn. In Figure 2, however,

it is apparent that there is a significant ef-

fect upon the observed Km for succinate. It

also would appear that in the range where

activity is proportional to the PMS concen-

tration, the Km changes little, within the

limits of error for the experiment. How-

ever, at inhibitory concentrations of PMS

the change in Km becomes substantial,

approximately an eightfold increase in

Km Over a change in PMS concentration of

1.83 mM.

The Hill Equation (18) has been used to

estimate the minimum number of binding

sites for several enzymes, some more suc-

cessfully than others (19,20). For the Hill

analyses, Vnax was estimated from the curve

in Figure 1. The Hill Coefficient (n) is a

measure of cooperativity between enzyme

and ligand (in this case succinate or PMS).

For succinate, the initial velocity was that

0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 N

Fig. 2. Relationship of Km succinate to PMS Con-

centration. All conditions and procedures involved

in the derivations of Km succinate are described in

Figure 1.

12 GARY PETRAZZUOLO, DIMITRIOS MONOS AND IRVING GRAY

Table 3°.—Hill Coefficients

Binding of Succinate to SDH

PMS, mM: 2.67 1.67 1.00 0.83 0.67 0.50

n 1.08 1.60 1.00 1.02 1.05 .968

p <.01 <205) he <.05 <=.05 <.01 <.02

n = 1.12 + 0.047

Binding of PMS to SDH

(PMS = 5.00 — 10.0 X 10 *M)

succinate, mM: .365 .260 .156 .104

n: 2.02 2AM 1.96 1.87

jo <702 Fe =<<5 <.05 <.05

n= 1.99 + 0.101

Binding of PMS to SDH

(PMS = 8.33 — 26.7 X 10 *M)

succinate, mM: .417 .208 .104 .052

n: 2.54 3.00 2.91 2.98

Dp: <.01 <.02 <.05 <.02

n = 2.86 + 0.215

“Hill Plots were performed. For succinate, the plots were performed varying succinate, and at six differ-

ent concentrations of PMS. For PMS, the plots were performed varying PMS over two ranges, (a) where

activity is proportional to PMS and (b) where activity is inversely proportional to PMS. The Hill coeffi-

cient, n, for each condition, and the p-value (linearity of the plot) are given. The mean Hill coefficient, n,

is given + the standard deviation.

observed at constant PMS concentration

and several concentrations of succinate,

i.e., six different concentrations of PMS,

but in each experiment the specified con-

centration of PMS was held constant while

succinate was varied. For the n-value for

PMS, a similar set of experiments was car-

ried out except that the specified concen-

trations of succinate were held constant

while PMS was varied. The reported value

of n, is the mean of the n-values at each

constant concentration of succinate or PMS

derived from results obtained when the

other was the variable. Table 3 summarizes

the Hill Coefficient data. It is observed that

the minimum effective number of binding

sites for succinate was independent of PMS

and yielded the value, n = 1.12 + 0.043.

The minimum effective number of binding

sites for PMS, however, was dependent

upon its concentration and independent of

succinate, and yielded n = 1.99 + 0.101

for the low, activation range of concentra-

tions and n = 2.86 + 0.215 for the high,

inhibitory range of PMS concentrations.

Discussion

Solubilization of SDH by Triton X-100

produces an active enzyme with reproduci-

ble characteristics. Disruption of the mito-

chondrial membrane by freeze-thawing does

not affect the efficiency of the solubiliza-

tion procedure and it would appear that

60% of unchanged enzyme is recovered. It

would seem that upon treatment with this

detergent the enzyme remains in a hydro-

phobic configuration (perhaps bound to

other hydrophobic lipoproteins) that re-

tains the same specific activity of the intact

mitochondrial enzyme. In addition, it would

appear that this procedure does not change

the Km for succinate as reported by Hatefi

PMS INTERACTION WITH SOLUBILIZED SDH

and Stygall (21) nor the minimum number

of binding sites for succinate when studied

with the PMS-DCIP assay system.

However, as the data were analyzed, it

appeared that PMS did, indeed, have an ef-

fect on SDH activity similar to that already

reported (14), an increase in activity at low

concentrations followed by inhibition in

what might be considered as typical ‘“‘sub-

strate inhibition.”” From the Hill Coeffi-

cients it would appear that there is a degree

of cooperativity in the binding between

SDH and PMS. The degree of cooperativ-

ity changes as the concentration of PMS in-

creases so that when calculated over the

range where inhibition by PMS occurs, the

Hill Coefficient, changes from 2 to 3. As

inhibition increases, it appears to asymp-

tote to a value about 60% of the maximum

value. As noted earlier this was the degree

of inhibition seen when one of the two PMS

reductase sites had been altered. It is also

apparent that over the range of inhibitory

concentrations, PMS causes a very marked

increase in the Km for succinate. Thus, at

the lower concentrations of PMS there is a

degree of cooperativity which causes an in-

crease in the activity of SDH toa maximum

at about 0.9mM. Above this concentration

inhibition seems to result from a change in

the enzyme-substrate binding character-

ized by an increase in the Km for succinate

and an increase in what appears to be the

minimum number of binding sites for PMS.

The additional binding of PMS brings

about what may be considered as “‘sub-

strate inhibition”’.

Thus, Triton X-100 solubilization of

SDH yields an enzyme that has characteris-

tic and reproducible kinetic characteristics

in a simple and quick procedure.

—

References Cited

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2. Tisdale, H. D., Wharton, D. C. and Green, D. E.

WwW

1963. Arch. Biochem. Biophys., 102: 114.

. King, T. E. 1963. J. Biol. Chem., 238: 4037.

. Bruni, A. and Racker, E. 1968. J. Biol. Chem., 243:

962.

. Ackrell, B. A. C., Kearney, E. B. and Singer, T. P.

1978. Mammalian Succinate Dehydrogenase. in

**Methods in Enzymology’”’, Fleischer, D. S.and

Packer, L., eds. Vol. LIII, pp. 466, Academic

Press, New York.

. Davis, K. A. and Hatefi, Y. 1971. Succinate Dehy-

drogenase. I. Purification, molecular properties

and substructure. Biochemistry, 10: 2509.

. Singer, T. P., Kearney, E. B. and Kenney, W. C.

1973. Succinate Dehydrogenase. in ““Advances

in Enzymology”’’, Meister, A., ed. Vol. 37. p.

189, Wiley and Sons, N.Y.

. Ernster, L. and Nordenbrand, K. 1967. Methods

Enzymol., 10: 86.

. Bailley, J. L. 1967. ‘Techniques in Protein Chemis-

try’, 2nd Ed., pp. 341, Elsevier, Amsterdam.

. Basford, R. E. and Huennekens, F. M. 1955. J. Am.

Chem. Soc., 77: 3873.

. Armstrong, J. McD. 1964. Biochim. Biophys.

Acta, 86: 194.

. Pearson, E. S. and Hartley, H.O. 1954. “‘Bio-

metrika Tables for Statisticians’, Vol. 1, Table

13, pp. 138. Cambridge University Press,

Cambridge.

. King, T. E. 1963. J. Biol. Chem. 238: 4032.

. Arrigoni, O. and Singer, T. P. 1962. Nature, 193:

1256.

. Bernath, P. and Singer, T. P. 1962. Methods En-

zymol., 5: 597.

. Ohnishi, T., Lim, J., Winter, D. B. and King, T. E.

1967. J. Biol. Chem., 251: 2105.

. Beinert, H., Ackrell, B. A. C., Kearney, E. B. and

Singer, T. P. 1975. Eur. J. Biochem., 54: 185.

. Hill, A. V. 1913, Biochem., J. F: 471.

. Westley, J. 1969. ‘“‘Enzymic Catalysis’, pp. 173,

Harper and Row, New York.

. Roberts, D. V. 1977. ‘‘Enzyme Kinetics”’, pp. 218;

pp. 49, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge.

Hatefi, Y. and Stiggall, D. L. 1976. Metal-con-

taining flavoprotein dehydrogenase. in ““The

Enzymes”’, Boyer, P. D.,ed., 3rded., Vol. XIII,

pp. 175, Academic Press, N.Y.

Journal of the Washington Academy of Sciences,

Volume 74, Number |, Pages 14-18, March 1984.

The Greenhouse Whitefly,

Its Entrapment by Sticky Yellow Boards,

and Tomato Yield in

Suburban Yard-Gardens

Nancy Y. Cohen and Edward M. Barrows

Department of Biology

Georgetown University

Washington, D.C. 20057

and

Ralph E. Webb

Agricultural Research Service

United States Department of Agriculture

Beltsville, Maryland 20705

ABSTRACT

Sixty-four Better Boy® tomato plants were grown in 16 four-plant plots in yard-gardens in

the Washington, D.C., area. Greenhouse whiteflies (Trialeurodes vaporariorm), which often

infest outdoor tomatoes, were artificially introduced into all plots in June and July. A pair of

sticky yellow, plastic boards was placed in each of eight plots in August and September. Board

capture of whiteflies demonstrated their potential usefulness as monitoring devices of these

insects outdoors.

There was no significant correlation between whitefly abundance and tomato yield in the

high-vigor plants; however, these variables were negatively correlated in the low-vigor plants.

Therefore, gardeners may be able to increase yield of less vigorous Better Boy® tomato plants

by controlling their whiteflies.

In addition, this investigation revealed that whiteflies show marked variability in popula-

tion build up on individual tomato plants; nontarget insects, pollen, dust, and other debris can

greatly reduce the tackiness of the boards outdoors in only about | week; and the boards cap-

ture other pest insect species besides whiteflies, but they also capture beneficial insect species.

Introduction

Greenhouse whiteflies, Trialeurodes va-

porariorum (Westwood), damage many cul-

tivated plants including squashes, toma-

toes, cucumbers, melons, lettuce, kidney

beans, soybeans, strawberries, chrysanthe-

mums, and poinsettias. These insects are

significant pests in greenhouses (Lindquist

et al., 1972) and outdoor gardens, harming

plants by sucking their juices and deposit-

ing honeydew on them. The honeydew

supports the growth of sooty mold fungus

which interferes with plant photosynthesis

and respiration, and fruit covered with this

mold requires cleaning.

In greenhouses, whiteflies have been

controlled mainly with chemical pesticides,

WHITEFLIES,

although alternative methods such as the

chalcidoid wasp Encarsia formosa Gahan

(Vet et al., 1980), fungi (Kanagaratnam et

al., 1982), and sticky yellow boards (Webb

and Smith, 1980) exist. The board’s color

attracts whiteflies and their adhesive coat-

ings entrap them (Vaishampayan et al.,

1975; Webb and Smith, 1980). Because

greenhouse whiteflies can become abun-

dant in vegetable gardens (pers. obs.) and

some strains are resistant to many com-

monly used pesticides (Wardlow et al.,

1975), we tested two experimental hypoth-

eses concerning tomatoes grown in subur-

ban yard-gardens: (1) sticky yellow boards

can be used to reduce the population size of

whiteflies within tomato plots and (2) to-

mato plants with light infestations of white-

flies produce more fruit than those with

heavy infestations. These hypotheses as

they relate to tomatoes grown indoors have

been supported by experiments done in

greenhouses (Lindquist et al., 1972; Webb

and Smith, 1980), but they cae not been

tested outdoors.

Materials and Methods

Four Better Boy® tomato plants were

planted in each of 16 0.9-by-1.2-m plots in

12 suburban-yard gardens in Bethesda and

Glen Echo, Maryland in 1982. The plots

were at least 7 m apart and were part of

larger gardens or were isolated plots sur-

rounded by lawn. The plants were placed at

the corners of a 0.6-by-0.9-m rectangle cen-

tered within each plot. Each plant was sup-

ported by a 1.8-m wooden pole and its lat-

eral shoots were removed throughout the

growing season. Plants were treated with

5- 10-5 fertilizer and occasional hornworms

were eliminated by hand picking when

found. The plots were tentatively desig-

nated as matched pairs (one plot with

sticky boards and one without).

Three attempts were made to introduce

whiteflies onto uninfested plants. On 16

June, 400 adults were released from vials

into each plot. All 64 tomato plants ap-

peared healthy at this time. On 22 June, 150

more whitefly adults were released from

YELLOW BOARDS, AND TOMATOES IN YARD-GARDENS 15

vials into each plot and between 22 June

and the second week in July, a highly in-

fested leaflet with whitefly pupae from an

Early Girl® tomato plant was placed on

any of the plants that remained uninfested.

Two plastic yellow boards were used to

entrap whiteflies in each of eight tomato

plots (Figure 1). The boards, manufactured

by Almac Plastics of Maryland, Inc., were

0.3 X 35 X 35 cm and sulfur yellow (rating

6A, Royal Horticultural Society, 1966).

They were suspended by vertical cords at-

tached to horizontal ones tied to the four

poles in each plot. Board faces were paral-

lel to one another and the top edges of the

boards were at canopy height. Boards were

placed in plots on 27 July, and coated with

Tack Trap® thinned to a paintable consis-

tency with Varsol®. On 11 August, en-

trapped whitefly adults were counted, the

boards were cleaned, replaced, and repainted.

On 16 September, the boards were re-

moved for the second and last time and

their entrapped whiteflies were counted.

Relative population sizes were determined

from counts of immatures and adults in

these ways. The relative number of pupae

(living pupae and pupal skins) and eggs on

a plant were ascertained by counting them

ona 18-mm-diameter leaf disk using a dis-

secting microscope at from 7 to 30 X mag-

nification. Both pupae and eggs were counted

in the third week of September. Pupae were

counted on one leaf disk per plant that was

taken from the penultimate leaflet of a leaf

that was located about two thirds up a

plant. Egg counts made in August are

based on one disk per plant that was taken

from a terminal leaflet, and those made in

September are averages based on three

disks per plant taken from terminal leaf-

lets. The relative number of adults per

plant was approximated to the nearest ten

by counting the number of the top five

leaves in the third week of July. We made

counts of adults on every board on 11 Au-

gust and 16 September by placing a 30-xX-

30-cm wire grid with 144 equally sized

squares over each side and the whiteflies

within the same 12 randomly chosen squares

were counted and summed.

The ‘‘yield’’ of a tomato plant is desig-

16 NANCY Y. COHEN, EDWARD M. BARROWS AND RALPH E. WEBB

nated as the total weight of its berries,

based on all ripe or nearly ripe fruit over

30 g that it produced during its growth sea-

son. A “‘high-yield plant” is one of the 32

plants that produced from 2,129 to 8,219 g

of fruit: a “low-yield plant,” 520 to 2,119 g

of fruit. A ‘heavily infested plant”’ is one of

the 32 plants that had an August pupa-

plus-egg count of greater than 20; a “‘lightly

infested plant,’ a count of less than or

equal to 20. Quantitiative analyses were

made using SAS computer packages (Ray,

1982a, b). The Spearman correlation coef-

ficient (SCC) was used to examine possible

correlations between variables. t test anal-

yses were adjusted for heteroscedasticity

when necessary.

Results and Discussion

The tomato plants had 40.23 + 5.03 SE

(0-308, 64) whitefly eggs in August, 58.52 +

11.23 (0-355, 62) eggs in September, 15.3 +

22.28 (0-62, 64) pupae in August, and

123.36 + 178.20 (10-1000, 64) adults in

July. The 32 low-yield plants had 1459.8 +

81.14 (520-2119) and the 32 high-yield

plants had 4235.8 + 291.95 (2129-8219) g

of fruit. Yield for all 64 plants was 2847.8 +

230.59 (520-8219) g of fruit.

The eight pairs of boards captured

730.8 + 205.29 (200-1972) whiteflies per

plot in September. However, our attempt

to test the hypothesis that sticky yellow

boards reduce the population size of white-

flies within tomato plots failed because to-

mato plants in matched plots showed marked

between and within plot variability in size

and whitefly infestation level as the grow-

ing season progressed. Likely reasons for

this variability include genotypic and phe-

notypic differences among plants and mi-

crohabitat differences.

We tested the hypothesis that tomato

plants with light infestations of whiteflies

produce more fruit than those with heavy

infestations by determining whether or not

there was a negative correlation between

whitefly number and tomato yield. To take

plant vigor variability into account, we di-

vided the 64 plants into the 32 more vigor-

ous ones (high-yield plants) and the 32 less

vigorous ones (low-yield plants). Whitefly

(based on August pupa-plus-egg counts)

and tomato yield were not correlated in the

high-yield group, but they were negatively

correlated in the low-yield one (r = 0.007,

p = 0.970, r = —0.372, p = 0.036, respec-

tively). Coupled with the fact that white-

flies reduce tomato yield indoors (Lind-

quist et al., 1972), this negative correlation

Suggests that these insects decrease yield

outdoors of less vigorous tomato plants.

Thus, gardeners may be able to increase

production of less vigorous Better Boy®

plants by controlling their whiteflies.

Further data analysis revealed eight other

points about Better Boy® tomatoes, white-

flies, and sticky yellow boards under yard-

garden conditions. First, the high-yield

plants had 74.9 + 17.97 (0-364) and low-

yield ones had 36.1 + 9.86 (0-260) pupae

and eggs, showing a significant difference

between groups (p = 0.0013, t test). Mean

pupa-plus-egg count approached being

correlated with mean yield (r = 0.475, p =

0.063). These findings suggest that micro-

habitats favoring vigorous tomato plants

also favor whitefly population increase;

that whiteflies may establish and develop

better on healthy, vigorous tomato plants

than on less vigorous ones; or both. The

second suggestion contradicts the popu-

larly held belief of some organic gardeners

that healthy plants tend to ward off ar-

thropod pests.

Second, although the tomatoes were all

of the same horticultural strain, there was a

marked difference in the ability of white-

flies to build up on individual plants within

high- and low-yield groups. This may have

been due to factors such as differences in

biochemical and other phenotypic traits (as

in poinsettias Biderbeck et. al., 1977). To-

mato breeders should consider such factors

in relation to developing whitefly resistant

and repellant tomato strains.

Third, the same plants usually had high

whitefly numbers in both July and August.

The July adult count was positively corre-

lated with the August egg count and pupa

count (r = 0.646, p = 0.0001; r = 0.508,

p = 0.0001; N = 64 plants; respectively).

WHITEFLIES, YELLOW BOARDS, AND TOMATOES IN YARD-GARDENS 17

Fig. 1. A plot of four tomato plants with two sticky yellow boards in place.

Thus, whiteflies tend to grow well on some

plants, but not others, throughout this part

of their growth season.

Fourth, the yellow boards should be use-

ful in monitoring whitefly populations on

tomatoes grown outdoors. In the eight

plots, the number of whiteflies captured

was positively correlated with the number

of highly infested plants per plot in both

August and September (r = 0.824, p =

0.012; r = 0.776, p = 0.024; respectively).

The August per-plot count of adult white-

flies on boards was positively correlated

with their July count on plants (r = 0.910,

p = 0.0001) and the August and September

per-plot counts of adults on boards were

positively correlated (r = 0.853, p = 0.001).

Fifth, unfortunately, the kind of sticky

yellow boards that we used, remained

tacky for only about | week compared to

about 3 months under greenhouse condi-

tions (Webb and Smith, 1980). Outdoors,

our boards lost stickiness because many

kinds of insects besides whiteflies, pollen,

dust, and other debris became mired in the

Tack Trap®. In another outdoor study,

Dapsis and Ferro (1983), who used yellow

stakes coated with Tangletrap® to capture

cabbage maggots, found that their traps

also lost tackiness due to entrapment of

18 NANCY Y. COHEN, EDWARD M. BARROWS AND RALPH E. WEBB

nontarget objects such as windblown soil

particles.

Sixth, the boards captured other pestif-

erous insects besides whiteflies, such as

squash vine borers and spotted cucumber

beetles. However, they also trapped many

beneficial insects including small bees, syr-

phid flies, ladybird beetles, lacewings, and

parasitic wasps.

Seventh, although whiteflies evidently

significantly decreased tomato yield on

only low-yield Better Boy® plants; it may

be worthwhile for gardeners to try to con-

trol these insects on both high- and low-

yield plants because their honeydew sup-

ports the growth of sooty mold on fruits.

This increases the labor necessary to clean

them. Moreover, these insects build up on

tomato plants and then move to squash,

whose yields they evidently decrease out-

doors (pers. obs.), and they move to cut

flowers and house plants before they are

brought indoors in autumn. Indoors, white-

flies can become abundant and markedly

damage ornamental plants including Fuchsia

and Lantana (pers. obs.).

Finally, a survey conducted by the En-

vironmental Protection Agency in Dallas,

Philadelphia, and Lansing, Michigan showed

that homeowners used more potentially

harmful pesticides per acre than farmers

did in the surrounding agricultural land

(von Rumker et al., 1972). Given the sur-

prisingly high usage of pesticides in such

urban and suburban areas and the abun-

dance of yard-gardens, it should be worth-

while to develop integrated pest manage-

ment (IPM) programs for such gardens.

Sticky yellow boards would be useful as

monitoring devices for whiteflies, and other

pests. Further, an improved method of

using sticky yellow boards could prove

beneficial as an alternative to chemical pes-

ticides utilized for whitefly control.

Acknowledgments

Philip Sze (Georgetown University) made

helpful comments on a preliminary manu-

script. Anne Wieber, Paul Ford, and Gary

Okey helped to obtain data. Good neigh-

bors, Alberta Bartkas, James Berry, Ca-

rolyn Reptsik, Cynthia Eichberg, Robert

Fn, Ruth Hubley, Joseph Kingsbury, Frederick

Meyers, Irene Talbott, and Robert Youker

graciously allowed us to plant and study

tomatoes in their yards.

References Cited

Bilderback, T. E. and R. H. Mattson. 1977. Whitefly

host preference associated with selected biochemi-

cal and phenotypic characteristics of poinsettias.

Journal of the American Society of Horticultural

Science 102: 327-331.

Dapsis, L. J. and D. N. Ferro. 1983. Effectiveness of

baited cone traps and colored sticky traps for moni-

toring adult cabbage maggots: With notes on fe-

male ovarian development. Entomologia Experi-

mentalis et Applicata, 33: 35-42.

Kanagaratnam, P., R. A. Hall and H. D. Burges. 1982.

Control of glasshouse whitefly, Trialeurodes vapo-

rariorum, by an ’aphid’ strain of fungus Verticillium

leucantii. Annals of Applied Biology, 100: 213-219.

Linquist, R. K., W. L. Bauerle and R. R. Spadafora.

1972. Effect of the greenhouse whitefly on yields of

greenhouse tomatoes. Journal of Economic Ento-

mology, 65: 1406-1408.

Ray, A. A. 1982a. SAS User’s Guide: Basics, 1982 Edi-

tion. SAS Institute Inc., Cary, North Carolina. 923

Pp.

Ray, A. A. 1982b. SAS User’s Guide: Statistics, 1982

Edition. SAS Institute Inc., Cary, North Carolina.

584 pp.

Royal Horticultural Society. 1966. The Royal Horti-

cultural Society Colour Chart. The Royal Horticul-

tural Society, London.

Vasihampayan, S. M., G. P. Waldbauer and M. Kogan.

1975. Visual and olfactory responses in orientation

to plants by the greenhouse whitefly, Trialeurodes

vaporariorum (Homoptera: Aleyrodidae). Entomo-

logia Experimentalis et Applicata, 18: 412-422.

Vet, L..E. M., J. C. van Lenteren and J. Woets. 1980.

The parasite-host relationship between Encarsia

formosa (Hymenoptera: Aphelinidae) and Trialeu-

rodes vaporariorum (Homoptera: Aleyrodidae).

Zeitschrift fur angewandte Entomologie, 90: 26-51.

von Rumker, R. E., E. W. Lawless and A. F. Meiners.

1972. The use of pesticides in suburban homes and

gardens and their impact on the aquatic envi-

ronment. Pesticide Study Series 2. PB 213960. EPA

Office of Water Programs Applied Technology Di-

vision, Washington, D.C.

Wardlow, L. R., F. A. B. Ludlam and R. P. Hammon.

1975. A comparison of the effectiveness of insecti-

cides against glasshouse whitefly (Trialeurodes va-

porariorum). Annals of Applied Biology, 81: 433-435.

Webb, R. E. and F. F. Smith. 1980. Greenhouse white-

fly control of an integrated regimen based on adult

trapping and nymphal parasitism. International

Organization for Biological Control of Noxious

Animals and Plants, Bulletin Section Regionale

Ouest Palearctique/ West Palearctic Regional Sec-

tion, 3: 235-246.

Journal of the Washington Academy of Sciences,

Volume 74, Number 1, Pages 19-26, March 1984.

Palladium Zeolites as Acetylene

Hydrogenation Catalysts*

R..P. Denkewicz, A. H. Weiss, and W. L. Kranich

Chemical Engineering Department, Worcester Polytechnic Institute,

Worcester, Massachusetts 01609

ABSTRACT

Acetylene impurities in commercial ethylene streams are removed by selective hydrogena-

tion over palladium/AI,O; catalysts. This process produces economically undesirable side

products such as ethane and oligomers. Mixtures of 0.3% C2H, 0.4% H2 and 99.3% C2H,

were prepared and palladium exchanged zeolites were tested for their catalytic activity as well

as their ability to selectively hydrogenate acetylene to ethylene and to suppress oligomer for-

mation. The zeolites were exchanged with sufficient Pd(NH3)4Cl. to produce 0.04 wt% palla-

dium using conventional ion exchange procedures. At steady state conditions, Pd/Linde 13X

was found to be not active; Pd/Na Mordenite (back exchanged with Na2CO;), Pd/ZSM-5 and

Pd/Silicalite were both active and selective for the acetylene hydrogenation system. The re-

sults show that palladium zeolites are potentially good selective hydrogenation catalysts. The

reasons for this improved selectivity are discussed in terms of shape selectivity, Si/Al ratios,

and acidity.

Introduction

In order to utilize ethylene for polymer

manufacture, small quantities of acetylene

impurity must first be removed since acety-

lene destroys the polymerization catalyst.

Therefore, hydrogenation of trace acety-

lene in ethylene is an important industrial

process. The necessary reduction of the

acetylene concentration below 5 ppm’ can

be accomplished in two ways: physical sepa-

ration of the acetylene from the ethylene,

or selective hydrogenation of the acetylene

preferably to the more desirable ethylene.

Industrially, it is not economically feasible

to separate the acetylene physically from

the ethylene; hence, selective hydrogena-

tion is employed.

This reaction system has been the subject

* Presented at the Eastern Colleges Science Confer-

ence, Wilkes College, Wilkes-Barre, PA, April 14-16,

1983:

of numerous in-depth studies.”* Palladium

supported on a-Al2O; (alpha-alumina) was

found to be the most selective catalyst for

acetylene hydrogenation.” ’

Hydrogenation of acetylene produces

economically undesirable side products

such as ethane and oligomers (higher mo-

lecular weight hydrocarbons). Buildup of

thesé oligomers on the catalyst surface re-

duces the catalyst’s selectivity.” Thus, it

seems that a catalyst which can discrimi-

nately prevent or suppress the formation of

oligomers would be very desirable. With

this in mind, zeolites, known for their

shape selectivity, were loaded with palla-

dium and tested for their ability to hydro-

genate acetylene selectively and suppress

oligomer formation. Suppression of olig-

omer formation would be due to steric hin-

drance resulting from the known shape-se-

lective ability of zeolites.

Zeolites, commonly referred to as mo-

lecular sieves, are synthesized or formed in

20 R. P. DENKEWICZ, A. H. WEISS, AND W. L. KRANICH

nature as crystalline, hydrated aluminosili-

cates. Structurally, they comprise a frame-

work based on a three-dimensional net-

work of

O—Si—O

and

tetrahedra linked together through com-

mon oxygen atoms. The SiO, group of the

zeolite is electrically neutral whereas the

A1O, group has a net negative charge which

is compensated by cations of Group I and

II elements. Cations are located in the

pores of the zeolite to balance the charge,

thereby forming a neutral structure. Zeo-

lites can be represented by the formula:

MnO: Al2O3+° xS1O2* yH20 where Mis the

compensating cation with valency n.

The fundamental building blocks of all

zeolites are silica (SiO,) and alumina

(A10,) tetrahedra. These tetrahedra are ar-

ranged so that each of the four oxygen

atoms is shared in turn with another silica

or alumina tetrahedron. Crystalline struc-

tures result that have cavities and channels

connected by uniform pores of molecular

dimension. Molecular sieves possess a large

intracrystalline volume, a regular pore

structure, and exchangeable cations. The

chemical compositions and structural prop-

erties of the molecular sieves used in this

investigation are listed in Table 1.

Table 1.—Physical Data for Zeolites Studied”

The small uniform pores and large intra-

crystalline volume characteristic of zeolites

make them ideally suited as shape-selective

catalysts or catalyst supports.'* Since the

first demonstration of molecular shape-

selective catalysis by Weisz and Frillette in

1960,’ numerous catalytic studies have

been performed. In fact, studies with a mo-

lecular sieve as the catalyst support have

been made on selective hydrogenation reac-

tions using zeolites. Weisz etal.’ have selec-

tively hydrogenated 1-butene in a mixture

of 1-butene and 2-methyl propene using

platinum supported on a CaA zeolite and

have shown that such shape selectivity is

not observed for the same reaction with Pt

on Al,O3. Ina related paper, Weisz et al.'°

showed that a variety of different olefins

could be selectively hydrogenated with Pt

on CaA zeolite. Similarly, Dessau’' has

shown that ZSM-5 with Pt can selectively

hydrogenate 1-hexene ina mixture contain-

ing the linear olefin with some branched

olefins.

Molecular sieve effects with zeolite cata-

lysts are not limited to hydrogenation reac-

tions but occur whenever the zeolite pore

size restricts the passage of the reactant(s)

or the product(s) or the formation of a par-

ticular transition state inside the zeolite

(Figure 1). Oftentimes, zeolites are not

themselves catalytically active but are used

to support metals and organic complexes

which are the catalytically active centers

for a particular reaction. In this study, pal-

ladium is the catalytically active center and

zeolites are used as the catalyst support.

Since the prevention of oligomer forma-

tion in the acetylene hydrogenation reac-

tion has not been successful to date with the

industrial alumina (a-Al.O3;) catalyst, and

Zeolite Formula Si/Al Ratio Pore Size(A)

Linde 13X NasgA15gS11340384 240H:20 2321 7.4

CaA Ca¢6Al12Si1204 : 27H20O 1) 5.0

HMordenite HsAlgSiqoOo6 : 24H20 Sau 6.7 X 7.0

Na Mordenite NagAlsSiaoOo6 G 24H,0O Bye | 6.7 X 7.0

ZSM-5 Naj.35Ali.35Si94.65O192 * 16H2O 70:1 S13 OG5a15

Silicalite SiO, oo 5. SOs

PALLADIUM ZEOLITES AS ACETYLENE HYDROGENATION CATALYSTS 21

Reactant Selectivity

jane lemma cee

©)

ae es 7 te

Product Selectivity

Ay ceil NO

Chs-{O)-tH

— Sy

Transition State Selectivity

Fig. 1. Molecular Sieve Effect in Zeolites.

since it is believed that oligomers are

formed by the addition of acetylene to an

adsorbed precursor,” zeolites are used in

this study as supports in the hope that they

will suppress the unwanted oligomers to a

level which is at least comparable to the

present industrial catalyst.

It is possible that the limited space inside

the zeolite will inhibit the chain growth

phenomena leading to oligomers, particu-

larly if the palladium atom Is so located as

to orient an adsorbed species preferably

across the channel. If this is true, then the

formation of molecules whose length ex-

ceeds the diameter of the zeolite channel

may be inhibited. Table 2 gives the pore

dimensions of the zeolites used and the

lengths of some various hydrocarbons.

22 R. P. DENKEWICZ, A. H. WEISS, AND W. L. KRANICH

Table 2.—Molecule Size Versus Zeolite Pore Size!

Molecule Size* (A)

C,H2 3.3

C,H, 3.9

n-C,4Hio 43

1-Butene 4.5

n-C.6Hi4 6.7

*Length of Molecule

Note that a hydrocarbon such as n-hexane

may not be formed easily inside of ZSM-5,

for example, simply due to size limitations.

Experimental Procedure

A. Catalyst Preparation

Palladium catalysts were prepared by a

conventional ion exchange” of the zeolitic

support with an aqueous solution of a pal-

ladium salt followed by oxidation with air

at 210°C for six hours and reduction to the

metallic state with hydrogen at 350°C for

fourteen hours. All zeolitic materials used

as carriers for Pd, with the exception of

CaA, were of the sodium form.

The palladium cations were introduced

as follows: a very dilute solution of

Pd(NH3)sCl2 was added dropwise at 25°C

to the rapidly stirred aqueous slurry of the

zeolite over a period of two hours. Stirring

was continued for two hours after the addi-

tion of the salt solution was complete.

The quantity of palladium salt employed

was calculated to yield the desired concen-

tration of palladium (0.04 wt% Pd) in the

finished catalyst. For the low Pd concen-

trations in this investigation, exchange of

Pd(NH;)s° ions with zeolite cations is ex-

pected to be 100% complete.’ The final

palladium content (0.04 wt%) is inferred

from the experimental procedure; direct

analysis to determine the actual palladium

deposition is presently underway to quan-

titatively establish the Pd content.

The palladium cation-exchanged zeolite

was filtered, washed free of chloride, and

dried at 120°C. In most cases, a sodium sul-

fide test was performed on the filtrate to

determine qualitatively the degree of ca-

Zeolite Pore Size(A)

Linde 13X 7.4

CaA 5.0

NaMordenite 6.7 X 7.0

ZSM-5 5.7 < SoS

Silicalite a 75x Sus

tion exchange. No PdS precipitate was ob-

served. In addition, all catalyst supports

were tested without palladium and found

to be completely inactive for acetylene hy-

drogenation. Although many of the cata-

lysts with palladium rapidly deactivated

with time, they were found to be at least in-

itially active for hydrogenation.

The following nominally 0.04 wt% pal-

ladium catalysts were prepared: Linde 13X,

CaA, NaMordenite, NaMordenite (back

exchanged with Na2CO;),* ZSM-5, and Sil-

icalite. An industrial catalyst, 0.04 wt%

palladium on a-Al203, was obtained from

ICI (ICI 38-1).

B. Apparatus and Procedure

The studies were carried out in a contin-

uous flow stainless steel recycle reactor,

shown in Figure 2. The recycle rate through

the reactor was measured at | liter/minute

and the fresh gas flow rates used were

13-15 ml/min; therefore, good back-mix-

ing was assumed. In all runs, approxi-

mately 1.5 grams of catalyst was placed in

the reactor between plugs of glass wool.

The reactor was 3/8” in diameter (ID) and

5” in length.

In order to approximate the industrial

situation, specially prepared gas supply

tanks containing 99.3% ethylene, 0.3%

acetylene, and 0.4% hydrogen were used in

the experiments. The reactions were at

room temperature (~25°C), 80°C, and

160°C and at ambient pressure.

* After the oxidation, reduction, and ion exchange

processes, NaMordenite was slurried with a | M

Na>CO; solution for 2 hours. It was then reduced with

H2 at 350° for 2 hours.

PALLADIUM ZEOLITES AS ACETYLENE HYDROGENATION CATALYSTS 23

Circulation

a Pump

E Rotameter

rm ()

x] o4e H, iT

T) 99.3% CoH, th

bad

* Tet

To vent

6 -Port

Valvey

Chart

—~ OD) “ie Recorder

g Column

Isothermal

Reactor

Fig. 2. Back Mixed Reactor For Zeolite Studies.

Analysis of both the feed mixture and

reaction products was by gas chromatog-

raphy. A Perkin-Elmer FID gas chroma-

tograph Model 880 witha 10’ X 1/8” (OD)

stainless steel column filled with 80-100

mesh Porasil B packing was used for the

separation of the C2 hydrocarbons. The

separation of higher molecular weight hy-

drocarbons (oligomers) was achieved by

back-flushing the column after the C, com-

pounds had eluted. The FID output was

recorded on a Sargent Welch chart re-

corder and integrated by a Perkin-Elmer

M-2 integrator.

After a catalyst was oxidized and re-

duced in situ, the reactant mixture was

charged into the system. Periodically,

product samples were sent to the gas chro-

matograph using a 6-port valve and N> gas

as an inert carrier. The resulting chromato-

gram was used to calculate the conversion

level of C2H: and the selectivity to products

such as CoH¢, C2Hs, and oligomers. Con-

centrations of reactants and products

as well as moles of reactants and prod-

ucts were obtained by the relative areas on

the chromatograms and an overall mass

balance.

Conversion of C,H» was defined as

follows:

Con, =

inlet C>H> conc.-outlet C>H> conc.

inlet C>H> conc.

Selectivities for the system were defined

as:

Gres

C.He conc. in product

inlet C>H> conc.-outlet C>H> conc.

Seleeenices am

oligomer conc. in product X 2

inlet C.H> conc.-outlet C.H» conc.

SoH, = 100 — SoH a Soligomers

24 R. P. DENKEWICZ, A. H. WEISS, AND W. L. KRANICH

The selectivity values obtained for CH,

can be negative since ethane can be formed

from ethylene as well as from acetylene.

This can result in a net consumption of eth-

ylene and, hence, a negative selectivity to

ethylene if more ethylene is consumed

through the production of ethane than is

formed from the hydrogenation of

acetylene.

Results

Table 3 summarizes the operating condi-

tions as well as the conversion and selectiv-

ity values for the zeolite catalysts examined

compared to the industrial catalyst at

steady state conditions. Steady state was

assumed to have occurred when no apprec-

iable change with time in conversion and

selectivity was noted. The results indicate

that for acetylene hydrogenation:

1) the Linde 13X, CaA, and NaMorde-

nite zeolites (without palladium)

yielded no activity;

2) the Pd/Linde 13X catalyst yielded no

activity;

3) the Pd/CaA and Pd/NaMordenite

catalysts were active (40% and 85%

conversion, respectively) but not se-

lective to ethylene (—10% and —15%

selectivity, respectively);

4) the Pd/NaMordenite (back ex-

changed with Na»CO;), Pd/ZSM-5,

and Pd/Silicalite catalysts were all ac-

tive (90%, 30%, and 75% conversion,

respectively) and selective to ethylene

(30%, 60%, and 50% selectivity,

respectively).

Discussion

The Linde 13X, CaA, and NaMordenite

zeolite (without palladium) were found to

be unreactive for acetylene hydrogenation.

This was as expected since acetylene hy-

drogenation is known to be a metal-cata-

lyzed reaction; that is, a reaction which will

not occur unless a metal catalyst like palla-

dium is present.

The palladium zeolite which appears

neither active nor selective for the hy-

Table 3—Conversion and Selectivity* Values Obtained in Selective Hydrogenation Reaction at Steady State.

Fresh Feed

Rate Temp. Sau. SGH, Soligomers Conv.

Catalyst (ml-g ‘+ min ') (CC) (%) (%) (%) (%)

Linde 13X 9.9 22 3 * no oligomers = My

9.9 80 4 . no oligomers 0

CaA 9.1 24 i: no oligomers ‘Si

9.1 80 ¥ ; no oligomers ~if)

Na Mordenite 9.5 23 - - no oligomers =U

0) 80 = z no oligomers =i)

HMordenite 9.8 25 * - oligomers casi)

9.8 80 + * oligomers ack |

Pd/Linde 13X 93 22 : Y no oligomers 4720

9.3 80 . bi oligomers ve

Pd/CaA 9.4 4p, 3 = no oligomers =~ 0

9.4 80 = 10 90 20 40

Pd/Na Mordenite 10.2 24 — 10 85 25 28

10.2 80 iS 90 25 85

Pd/NaMordenite 9.7 80 30 50 20 90

(back exchanged)

Pd/ZSM-5 9.7 80 55 40 <5 10

9.7 160 60 30 <10 30

Pd/Silicalite 9.3 80 50 40 <10 75

Pd/a-Al20; 23.4 80 45 35 20 60

* When the conversion level is very low, the selectivity values become inaccurate and, subsequently, se-

lectivity values for some of the catalysts have been omitted.

PALLADIUM ZEOLITES AS ACETYLENE HYDROGENATION CATALYSTS 25

drogenation of acetylene at either 22°C or

80°C is Pd/Linde 13X. This is possibly due

to formation and retention of oligomers in

the pores resulting in blockage. This par-

ticular phenomenon of oligomer retention

may be attributable to zeolites like Linde

13X which have a cage-like structure which

has a larger diameter than its access ports.

Other investigators~’ have observed oligo-

mer blockage in a zeolite catalyst.

From Table 3 it would appear that oligo-

mers are only formed in the Pd/Linde 13X

catalyst at the higher temperature (80°C);

however, it is believed that the oligomers

were formed at both temperatures and only

at the higher temperature did the oligomers

have enough thermal energy to desorb and

diffuse out of the pores.

The palladium zeolites which are active

catalysts for acetylene hydrogenation but

are not selective to ethylene are Pd/CaA at

80°C and Pd/NaMordenite at both 24°C

and 80°C. A good conversion level (85%) is

obtained for Pd/NaMordenite at 80°C,

and a fair conversion level is obtained for

Pd/CaA at 80°C (40%) and NaMordenite

at 24°C (28%), but the selectivities of these

catalysts to the various products are poor

(Table 3). Certainly, the selectivities to

oligomers for these catalysts are compara-

ble to that of the industrial catalyst

(20-25%), but the poor selectivities to

ethane and ethylene would not make these

commercially useful catalysts.

The palladium zeolites which are both

active and selective for hydrogenation are

Pd/NaMordenite (back exchanged with

Na2CO; at 80°C), Pd/ZSM-5 at 80°C and

160°C, and Pd/Silicalite at 80°C. Pd/Na-

Mordenite back exchanged with sodium

carbonate was prepared for the sole pur-

pose of determining if acidity was a factor

in oligomer formation. Decreasing the acid-

ity of Pd/Na Mordenite (through treatment

with Na2CO3;) considerably improved the

catalyst’s nature. The selectivity to oligo-

mers was improved from 25% to 20%, the

selectivity to ethane was improved from

90% to 50%, and the selectivity to ethylene

was improved from —15% to 30%. Al-

though the selectivity to oligomers ob-

served with Pd/NaMordenite (back ex-

changed) was only slightly lower than the

selectivity to oligomers observed with Pd/

NaMordenite, it is, nonetheless, consistent

with findings that oligomerization is de-

creased with decreasing acidity.”’’ Direct

comparison of Pd/NaMordenite (back ex-

changed) with the industrial catalyst is dif-

ficult because of the different conversion

levels.

At low conversion levels (10% and

30%), Pd/ZSM-S appears to be a highly

selective catalyst. Bond et al.** have shown

that a decrease in selectivity to ethane oc-

curs with increasing temperatures. Here it

is seen that the selectivity of Pd/ZSM-5 to

C,H. and C.H, improves with increasing

temperature.

Based on activity and selectivity values,

Pd/Silicalite is the most promising zeolite

catalyst tested thus far. Ata temperature of

80°C, a conversion level of 75%, and a se-

lectivity to oligomers less than 10%, Silical-

ite appears comparable to, if not better

than, the industrial catalyst. The apparent

improvement in the selectivity to oligomers

observed with Silicalite over the industrial

catalyst (10% and 20% selectivity to oligo-

mers, respectively) may be the result of the

shape-selective effect of the catalyst. If this

is true, then shape-selective catalysis using

zeolites is, indeed, promising for the selec-

tive hydrogenation of acetylene. Other fac-

tors beside shape-selectivity could be re-

sponsible for the suppression of oligomer

formation. In particular, it is interesting to

note that the catalysts which yielded the

most promising results were those which

had the highest Si/Al ratios (Table 1). Zeo-

lites with high Si/AI ratios have fewer ca-

tions available for ion exchange and, con-

sequently, the cations probably are much

farther apart. Theoretically, this also

means that no two palladium atoms will be

near each other and oligomerization will be

suppressed, since oligomerization is be-

lieved to required the joining of acetylene

molecules adsorbed on adjacent palladium

atoms.

Another factor which may account for

the zeolite’s selectivity is acidity. At temper-

26 R. P. DENKEWICZ, A. H. WEISS, AND W. L. KRANICH ~ -

atures of 25°C and 80°C a test with HMor-

denite (with no palladium) which has acidic

hydrogen sites, promoted the formation of

oligomers. It should be emphasized here

that HMordenite was the only zeolitic sup-

port studied which showed any oligomeri-

zation activity at all. It is believed that the

formation of oligomers in this zeolite is due

to the acidic H-sites. The comparison of the

Pd/NaMordenite catalyst with the Pd/Na-

Mordenite back exchanged catalyst also

indicates that acidity is a factor in oligo-

merization activity.

Conclusions

Zeolites are potentially good catalyst

supports for palladium in the selective hy-

drogenation of acetylene. Determination

of the reason behind their favorable per-

formance is necessary if an even better cata-

lyst is to be developed. It has been observed

in this study that selectivity may be a func-

tion of the molecular sieve effect, the Si/Al

ratios, and acidity in zeolites.

Acknowledgments

The authors appreciate the help of

Vinayan Nair and Huifen Yang in the

experimentation and to Dr. L. B. Sand for

his instruction in the ZSM-5 synthesis.

References

1. Zdonik, S. B., Green, E. J. and Hollee, L. B., Oil

Gas J. 68, 94 (1970).

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Press, New York (1963).

3. Wells, P. B., Surface and Defect Properties of Sol-

ids, Vol. 1, p. 24, Special Periodical Reports, The

Chemical Society, London (1972).

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Vol. 3, p. 109, Reinhold, New York (1955).

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demic Press, New York (1962).

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(1964).

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382 (1960).

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Mower, E. B., J. Catal. 1, 307 (1962).

11. Dessau, R. M., J. Catal. 77, 304 (1982).

12. Meier, W. M. and Olson, D. H., Atlas of Zeolite

Structure Types, Structure Commission of the In-

ternational Zeolite Association (1978).

13. Csicsery, S. M., in Zeolite Chemistry and Cataly-

sis (J. A. Rabo, Ed.), ACS Monograph 171, p.

680, Amer. Chem. Soc., Washington, DC (1976).

14. Sheridan, J., J. Chem. Soc., 133 (1945).

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Weast, Ed.), 59th Edition, F-215, 1978-1979.

16. Union Carbide, Ion Exchange and Metal-Load-

ing Procedures, Linde Molecular Sieves Catalyst

Bulletin.

17. Mostowicz, R. and Sand, L. B., Zeolites, Vol. 2,

p. 143 (April 1982).

18. Somorjai, G. A., Kesmodel, L. L. and Dubois,

L. H., J. Chem. Phys. 70, 2180 (1979).

19. Lanewala, M. A., Pickert, P. E. and Boulton, A. P.,

J. Catal. 9, 95 (1967).

20. Kranich, W. L., Ma, Y. H., Sand, L. B., Weiss,

A. H. and Zwiebel, I., Adv. Chem. Ser. 101, 510

(1971). .

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51, 180 (1969).

22. Figueras, F., Gomez, R. and Primet, M., Adv.

Chem. Ser. 121, 480 (1973).

23. Bond, G. C., Dowden, D. A. and MacKenzie, N.,

Trans. Faraday Soc. 54, 1537.

Journal of the Washington Academy of Sciences,

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CONTENTS

Commentary:

EDWARD M. BARROWS: A Symposium Emphasizing Animal Behavior Held at

Seoccciommul minerstivcy all. ORS aku cwcete coe ws vee sew he dam ecas ce ees

Articles:

IRENE MATEJKO, and DANIEL J. SULLIVAN, S. J.: Interspecific Tertiary

Parasitoidism Between Two Aphid Hyperparasitoids: Dendrocerus carpenteri and

Alloxysta megourae (Hymenoptera: Megaspilidae and Cynipidae) .............

J.R. ALDRICH, J. PD. KOCHANSKY, W. R. LUSBY, and J. D. SEXTON: Semio-

_chemicals From a Predaceous Stink Bug, Podisus maculiventris (Hemiptera: Penta-

WO ELECTS) Oe dian Sonn eh Cain ee OO a oe eee a ae

F. BIRMINGHAM, E. W. RIDDICK, W. E. LABERGE, J. W. WHEELER, and

R. M. DUFFIELD: Exocrine Secretions of Bees IX. Aliphatic Esters in the Dufours

Pane Sceretion Of SVHNGIOWMIA HOMAIG 2.062. shee ee ee ek ean en tees

GEORGE MIDDENDORF III: The Effects of Population Density on Patterns of

Resource Utilization by Yarrow’s Spiny Lizard §.. occ... ce ee eee ee eee eens

eee eT a eee i ay ah enna win, anaiih ape, sanuaiore-symis

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Journal of the Washington Academy of Sciences,

Volume 74, Number 2, Pages 29-30, June 1984

Commentary

A Symposium Emphasizing Animal Behavior

Held at Georgetown University, Fall, 1983

Edward M. Barrows

Department of Biology, Georgetown University, Washington, D.C.

Animal behavior, the scientific study of

animal activities, strives to understand both

the proximate (physiological) and ultimate

_(evolutionary) reasons why animals show

their particular activities. It is a highly

complex science that can be considered to

include American Behaviorism, behavioral

ecology, ““behavioral evolution,” behavior

genetics, ethology (European Traditional-

ism), sociobiology, and humanology. It

draws from concepts of all other sciences,

especially ecology, evolution, and neuro-

biology. Further, animal behavior uses

a diverse array of techniques including

chemical, computer, mathematical, photo-

graphic, and statistical ones. Due to the

wealth of behavioral information, much of

it recently generated, it is unlikely that any

one person could now fully understand the

entire field.

The principal subdisciplines of animal

behavior and their temporal occurrences

are shown in Figure |. All areas, except be-

havioral evolution, the investigation of

animal behavior from an evolutionary per-

spective, essentially arose in the 20th cen-

tury. Behavioral evolution, the oldest se-

rious branch of behavior, germinated in the

19th century soon after the publication of

Charles Robert Darwin’s (1859) monumen-

tal book On The Origin of Species by Means

of Natural Selection or The Preservation of

Favoured Races in The Struggle for Life.

In celebration of the current burgeoning

of animal behavior and the awarding of the

1973 Nobel Prize for Physiology or Medi-

cine to Konrad Lorenz, Karl von Frisch,

and Niko Tinbergen, for their studies of

animal behavior, a symposium emphasiz-

ing animal behavior was held at George-

town University in fall, 1983. One seminar

was given during each of six successive

weeks. In chronological order of presenta-

tion, the speakers and their seminar titles

were:

Daniel J. Sullivan, S. J., Parasitic Micro-

wasps of Aphids

Jeffrey R. Aldrich, What Makes a Bug Be-

have? Perfumes and Prophylactics

Richard M. Duffield, Behavioral and Chem-

ical Studies on Bee and Wasp Exocrine

Glands

George Middendorf III, Social Organiza-

tion in Yarrow’s Lizards

Luther P. Brown, Maintenance of Horn

Size Variation and Its Consequences in

30 EDWARD M. BARROWS

2000

1950

1900 a

“Odd

1850)

1800

-. Changing Milieu of

. Philosophy & Science

oe. et

Fig. 1. Amounts of activity in subbranches of animal behavior. Inany particular year, the width of a subdis-

cipline suggests the relative amount of activity that occurred or will occur in it, based on” * *. AB, American

Behaviorism; BE, “‘behavioral evolution;’’ BEc, behavioral ecology; BG, behavior genetics; E, ethology; H,

humanology; S, sociobiology.

Fungus Beetles Bolitotherus cornutus

(Tenebrionidae)

Devra G. Kleiman, Behavioral Character-

istics Associated with a Monogamous

Mating System in the Golden Lion Ta-

marin, A New World Primate

Four of these speakers have contributed

the following papers to this symposium

series.

Acknowledgements

I thank Professors George B. Chapman

and Peter K. Chen, both of the Department

of Biology, Georgetown University, for en-

couraging this symposium, the speakers,

and many others who helped it to come

into fruition. Professors Irving Gray and

Joseph H. Neale kindly extended an invita-

tion from the Journal of the Washington

Academy of Sciences to publish this series

of papers.

References Cited

1. Drickamer, L. C. and S. H. Vessey. 1982. Animal

Behavior. Willard Grant Press, Boston, Massachu-

setts. 510 pp.

2. Mayr, E. 1982. The Growth of Biological Thought.

Harvard University Press, Cambridge, Massachu-

setts. 974 pp.

3. Wilson, E. O. 1975. Sociobiology. Harvard Uni-

versity Press, Cambridge, Massachusetts. 697 pp.

Journal of the Washington Academy of Sciences,

Volume 74, Number 2, Pages 31-38, June 1984

Interspecific Tertiary

Parasitoidism between Two

Aphid Hyperparasitoids:

Dendrocerus carpenteri and

Alloxysta megourae

(Hymenoptera: Megaspilidae

and Cynipidae)

Irene Matejko and Daniel J. Sullivan, S.J.

Department of Biological Sciences, Fordham University,

Bronx, New York 10458

ABSTRACT

The behavior of aphid hyperparasitoids is briefly reviewed, including their taxonomy and

ecological impact. Interspecific tertiary parasitoidism between the ectophagous megaspilid

Dendrocerus carpenteri and the endophagous cynipid A//loxysta megourae was studied. The

primary parasitoid was Aphidius smithi, using the pea aphid, Acyrthosiphon pisum, as the host.

During 17 test days available for attack by the second hyperparasitoid, D. carpenteri, on the

host inside the dead aphid ‘“‘mummy,” its overall success was 31.4%. Tertiary parasitoidism,

however, was not possible during all 17 test days. Although test days 1-8 resulted in average D.

carpenteri emergence of 49.3%, tertiary parasitoidism was not in fact occurring during this

period because the first hyperparasitoid, A. megourae, was still inside the A. smithilarva within

the mummy. Only during test days 9-17, could tertiary parasitoidism be accomplished when

the larva of A. megourae was feeding externally onits primary host larva, and was thus availa-

ble to be attacked by D. carpenteri. Yet, even then, only on test days 9 and 10 did D. carpenteri

reach a peak emergence of 50.0%. Thereafter, the success rate of tertiary parasitoidism de-

clined markedly, so that the average emergence of D. carpenteri during the remaining test days

11-17 was only 8.1%. Host specificity by D. carpenteri may account for this decline.

Introduction

Aphids are world-wide pests of agricul-

tural crops, orchard and forest ecosystems.

Fortunately, they are attacked by a number

of natural enemies, especially by the two

types of beneficial entomophagous insects:

1) predators, such as ladybird beetles (Co-

leoptera: Coccinellidae), and 2) parasitoids,

such as the “parasitic”? microwasps (Hy-

menoptera: Aphidiidae and Aphelinidae).

These latter are the wasp parasitoids that

serve as hosts for our present research.

They are often called ‘“‘parasites”’ in earlier

32 IRENE MATEJKO AND DANIEL J. SULLIVAN, S.J.

publications, but “‘parasitoid”’ is a more

precise term which indicates that the host is

killed by larval progeny, not by an adult

female wasp that has oviposited into her

aphid host.

Primary Parasitoids

The beneficial wasp used in our experi-

ments was the aphidiid parasitoid, Aphidius

smithi Sharma and Subba Rao. It has only

one host in which its progeny can develop:

the pea aphid, Acyrthosiphon pisum (Har-

ris). The female wasp has a typical oviposi-

tion behavior: after initial contact has been

made with a host aphid by antennal tap-

ping, she stands facing the aphid and bends

her abdomen anteriorly beneath the thorax

and between the legs. Then, by moving her

abdomen forward, she quickly inserts her

Ovipositor into the aphid and deposits an

egg in the hemocoel. The egg hatches, and

there are four larval instars during which

time the aphid is gradually devoured inter-

nally. After approximately 8 days, a fourth

instar larva spins a cocoon inside the dead

aphid, and the latter’s skin becomes hard

and turns from green to light brown, being

referred to as a ““mummy.”’ The prepupal,

pupal and preadult stages develop within

the mummy over the next 4 days. Approx-

imately 12 days after the egg was originally

deposited inside the aphid, the new adult

cuts a circular emergence hole in the dor-

sum of the mummy and pulls itself out.

This hole has an attached lid made of

mummy skin.

Hyperparasitoids

As might be expected in such a plant-

aphid-parasitoid complex, however, there

is yet one higher trophic level, viz., that of

the secondary parasitoids or hyperparasi-

toids. These Hymenoptera attack the bene-

ficial primary parasitoids.” ** Because of

their interference with the impact of pri-

maries on aphids, hyperparasitoids are

considered detrimental to a biological con-

trol program, and are never purposely in-

troduced into a region.” '° There continues

to be some debate, nonetheless, about the

actual harm and even instead, the possible

positive beneficial role of hyperparasitoids

in maintaining a balance between popu-

lations of insect species in the ecosys-

tem because multispecies complexity

might help to effect community stabil-

ity.” 7 7%,1® 17181 21 Hence, aphid hyper

parasitoids provide a microcosm for re-

search on this fascinating and practical

ecological puzzle.

Taxonomy

Hyperparasitism and its associated be-

haviors evolved in three superfamilies of

Hymenoptera: Chalcidoidea, Ceraphro-

noidea, and Cynipoidea.* A currently ac-

ceptable summary of the five families and

nine genera of these aphid hyperparasi-

toids is given below:

1) Superfamily Chalcidoidea:

a) Family Pteromalidae:

Asaphes, Pachyneuron, Coruna

b) Family Encyrtidae:

Aphidencyrtus

c) Family Eulophidae: Tetrastichus

2) Superfamily Ceraphronoidea:

a) Family Megaspilidae:

Dendrocerus (=Lygocerus)

3) Superfamily Cynipoidea:

a) Family Cynipidae (Subfamily

Alloxystinae).:

Alloxysta (= Charips),

Phaenoglyphis, Lytoxysta

In order to examine possible relationships

between taxonomy and behavior, it is use-

ful to divide aphid hyperparasitoids into

two major categories based on their larval

feeding behavior: endophagous and ecto-

phagous hyperparasitoids. In endoparasi-

toids, a female wasp deposits her egg inside

a primary parasitoid larva while it is devel-

oping inside the live aphid before it is killed

or ““mummified,” and then the hyperpara-

sitic larva feeds internally on the primary

larva. In ectoparasitoids, a female wasp

deposits her egg on the surface of a primary

parasitoid larva only after the aphid is

killed and mummified, and then the hyper-

TERTIARY PARASITOIDISM BETWEEN TWO APHID HYPERPARASITOIDS 33

parasitic larva feeds externally on the pri-

mary larva, but still within the mummy.

Therefore, in view of these two different

behaviors of both the adult female wasp

and her resulting hyperparasitoid larva, the

taxonomic listing of genera given above

can be rearranged to reflect their general

behavior:

1) Endoparasitoids:

Alloxysta (=Charips), Phaeno-

glyphis, Lytoxysta, and Tetra-

Stichus;

2) Ectoparasitoids:

Dendrocerus (=Lygocerus), Asaphes,

Pachyneuron, and Coruna

Aphidencyrtus aphidivorus (Mayr) is a spe-

cial case because it has a “‘dual”’ oviposi-

tional behavior. Although it is in the cate-

gory of being endoparasitic, it can attack

the primary parasitoid larva either while

the aphid is still alive as A. megourae does,

or also after the mummy is formed in the

manner of D. carpenteri. In both cases,

however, the egg of the A. aphidivorus fe-

male is laid inside a primary parasitoid

larva where it feeds as an endophagous hy-

perparasitoid. Hence, A. aphidivorus

closely resembles the typical behavior of an

endoparasitoid larva, yet the adult female

can show both kinds of ovipositional be-

havior. Experiments have shown that when

given a “choice”’ of hosts (primary larva

either in a live aphid or ina mummy), the

second of the dual attack behaviors is pre-

ferred, viz., Oviposition into the primary

parasitoid larva after mummy formation. ''

Tertiary Parasitoidism

Besides attacking primary parasitoids,

aphid hyperparasitoids can also attack

each other, resulting in tertiary parasitoid-

ism. This has been demonstrated, at least in

the laboratory, in several combinations of

cases:

1) Intraspecific tertiary parasitoidism or

autohyperparasitoidism:

a) When a second adult aphid hyper-

parasitoid, Dendrocerus carpenteri

(Curtis), successfully attacked and

oviposited on a first D. carpenteri

larva developing inside a dead aphid

mummy. The progeny of the second

D. carpenteri female fed as a larva on

the first D. carpenteri larva and

eventually emerged as an adult 16

days later.’

b) When a second Asaphes lucens (Pro-

vancher) does the same to a first A.

lucens larva, and emerges as an adult

21 days later.’

2) Interspecific tertiary parasitoidism or

allohyperparasitoidism:

a) When the adult aphid hyperpara-

sitoid, Asaphes californicus Girault,

successfully attacked and oviposited

on another aphid hyperparasitoid,

Alloxysta victrix (Westwood). The

larva of the A. californicus fed on the

A. victrix larva inside the mummy

and eventually emerged as an adult

21 days later.”

b) When Dendrocerus carpenteri (Cur-

tis) does the same by attacking the

larva of Alloxysta megourae (Ash-

mead). This last example of inter-

specific tertiary parasitoidism forms

the basis of this paper, and a brief in-

troduction to the methodology of

our research is given below.

In our study, the primary endoparasitoid,

Aphidius smithi, was allowed to parasitize

the pea aphid, Acyrthosiphon pisum, in the

laboratory. The A. smithi egg hatched in 2

days and, under our laboratory conditions,

after 6 days it would have developed into a

fourth instar larva. However, on that day,

the endophagous hyperparasitoid, Alloxysta

megourae (Ashmead), was permitted to

Oviposit within the developing A. smithi

larva that was slowly devouring the still live

pea aphid (Table 1). The A. megourae egg

hatches 2 days later, or about the same time

as the A. smithi larva kills the aphid, spins a

cocoon inside the dead aphid, and the

“‘mummy”’ is formed. This would ordinar-

ily occur on the eighth day after the A. smi-

thi egg was initially deposited inside the live

aphid.

After hatching, the A. megourae feeds in-

34 IRENE MATEJKO AND DANIEL J. SULLIVAN, S.J.

Table 1.—Composite life cycles of a primary parasitoid, Aphidius smithi, and a first hyperparasitoid, Allo-

xysta megourae, in the pea aphid under experimental laboratory conditions when an aphid mummy is attacked

by a second hyperparasitoid, Dendrocerus carpenteri, during the 17 test day period.

Age in

days Aphidius smithi

0 Egg deposited in aphid

2 Ist larval instar

3 Age in

4 2nd larval instar days Alloxysta megourae

5 3rd larval instar

6 4th larval instar — — — —0O— ——Egg deposited in A. smithi 17 Test days

7 1

8 Host aphid mummified“ ——- —- 2— ——Egg hatches—— — — — — — 1

3 2

4 Ist larval instar 3

5 4

6 2nd larval instar 5

7 6 | Dendrocerus

8 3rd larval instar 7 | carpenteri

9 8 | has only 17

10—— ——Mature larva feeds externally — ——9 ? test days

1] 10 | to attack

12 Prepupa (meconium voided) 11 | the mummy‘

13 Pupa 1

14 13

15 14

16 Preadult 15

17 16

18 17

ie Adult A. megourae emerges”

, When hyperparasitized by A. megourae, the A. smithi larva ceases development.

When hyperparasitized by D. carpenteri, the A. megourae will never emerge.

“If successful, an adult D. carpenteri emerges 16 days after its mother lays her egg.

ternally as an endoparasitoid on the A. smi-

thi host causing the latter to cease further

development inside the mummy. On the

tenth day after the A. megourae egg was

deposited, the larva emerges from the dete-

riorating A. smithi larva and feeds exter-

nally on its remains. The A. megourae com-

pletes its development while still inside the

mummy, and becomes an adult on approx-

imately the nineteenth day after oviposi-

tion. In emerging from the mummy, the

adult cuts a distinctive jagged hole and will

soon copulate if a mate is available.

The second hyperparasitoid is ectophag-

ous, and so the Dendrocerus carpenteri

(Curtis) female can attack her host only

after the mummy is formed. In the sequence

of events just described, the mummy is

available for attack only during 17 days

(Table 1). Our present research studied the

results of permitting a D. carpenteri female

to oviposit on the surface of whatever host

was inside the mummy, 1.e., either the A.

smithi larva already parasitized by A. me-

gourae, or the A. megourae larva itself. In

both cases, an adult D. carpenteri would

emerge approximately 16 days after its

mother had oviposited. These experiments

were conducted with replicates for each of

the 17 available “‘test days.”

Materials and Methods

The pea aphid, Acyrthosiphon pisum,

served as the laboratory host in this study,

and was reared on broad bean, Vicia faba

Linnaeus. The primary parasitoid was

Aphidius smithi, and there were two hyper-

parasitoids: the endoparasitic cynipid A/-

loxysta megourae, and the ectoparasitic

megaspilid Dendrocerus carpenteri. All in-

sects were laboratory reared ina controlled

TERTIARY PARASITOIDISM BETWEEN TWO APHID HYPERPARASITOIDS 35

bioclimatic chamber according to the

method described in an earlier publication.’

The daytime (16 hr) temperature was

21.1 + 0.6°C at 75 + 5% RH, while night-

time (8 hr) temperature was 15.5 + 0.6°C

aps) = 5% RH.

Parasitizing the fourth instar aphid by

the primary parasitoid wasp was done ina

glass cylinder or “‘stinging-tube”’ used by

Matejko and Sullivan.” This reference on

the bionomics and behavior of Alloxysta

megourae also detailed how an A. megourae

female attacked and oviposited into a par-

asitized aphid containing a 6-day-old A.

smithi larva. In our procedure, about 15-20

parasitized aphids were placed in the glass

stinging-tube with 3-4 mated A. megourae

females. After 6 hr, the hyperparasitoids

were removed and the live, parasitized (and

now hyperparasitized) aphids were re-

turned to broad bean plants. Here, each

hyperparasitized aphid remained ona plant

while feeding normally until it was killed by

a primary larva developing within it. The

dead aphid became completely mummified

within 24 hr. As shown in Table 1, this oc-

curs about 8 days after the initial oviposi-

tion by an A. smithi female.

After 2 days, these mummies were re-

moved from the broad bean plants and

were placed in uncoated Dixie® containers

covered with clear plastic covers. Only

those mummies with “wound scars,”’ indi-

cating hyperparasitoidism by A. megourae,

were used in the next step of the experiment

on tertiary parasitoidism.””

Each aphid mummy parasitized by A.

smithi and hyperparasitized by A. megou-

rae is normally attached to the broad bean

leaf. We did not pry the mummies loose

from this substrate, but instead carefully

cut out the broad bean leaf tissue around

each mummy with a pair of fine scissors.

This leaf area was needed by a female D.

carpenteri because she uses it as a substrate

on which to anchor herself as she backs

into the mummy when she oviposits.' This

Oviposition behavior is unlike the two spe-

cies in the genus Asaphes that had been stud-

ied earlier, viz., A. californicus and A. lu-

cens. In these cases, the female climbs atop

a mummy and oviposits through its dor-

12, 20 °

sum.” *’ One such mummy was placed ina

60 X 15mm, covered plastic petri dish into

which one mated female D. carpenteri was

introduced for 1 hr and then removed.

Since a D. carpenteri female must first drill

a hole through the mummy with her ovi-

positor, we used the presence of sucha “‘drill

hole’’ as proof that a particular mummy

had at least been attacked. Mummies with-

out such drill holes were discarded. The

remaining experimental mummies were

held for a minimum of 25 days to allow

time for the two different species of hyper-

parasitoids (A. megourae or D. carpenteri)

to emerge even if development were de-

layed. In our experiments, approximately

25 replicates were done for each of the 17

test days, making a total of 420 mummies

that were used.

Time of Attack

Our experiments on interspecific tertiary

parasitoidism were based on the time se-

quence of development inside the mummy

of the first hyperparasitoid as summarized

above in the introduction and in Table 1.

Because D. carpenteri attacks its host only

after formation of a mummy by an A. smi-

thi larva, our experiments on interspecific

tertiary parasitoidism were limited to 17

“test days,” 1.e., from mummy formation

(which coincides with hatching of an A.

megourae egg) to the day before emergence

of A. megourae as an adult from the

mummy.

Results and Discussion

Success Rate of Tertiary Parasitoidism

Of the 420 mummies that had definitely

contained both hyperparasitoids, 341 adult

hyperparasitoids emerged. Non-emergence

or mortality of the remaining 79 mummies

will be discussed later. During the 17 test

days available for attack by the second hy-

perparasitoid, D. carpenteri, its mean suc-

cess rate was 31.4%. However, as in the

three earlier reports on similar experiments

36 IRENE MATEJKO AND DANIEL J. SULLIVAN, S.J.

involving two hyperparasitoids, Asaphes

californicus and Alloxysta victrix,”° Den-

drocerus carpenteri and D. carpenteri,' or

Asaphes lucens and A. lucens,'’ a first hy-

perparasitoid is not always directly availa-

ble for attack as a host. In our experiments,

the vulnerability of A. megourae depends

on its developmental stage and the time se-

quence of the 17 test days. Hence, regard-

less of which hyperparasitoid (first or sec-

ond) eventually emerges as an adult, true

tertiary parasitoidism may not have oc-

curred. In this case, the endophagous 4A.

megourae larva feeds within an A. smithi pri-

mary larva during the first 8 test days. A.

megourae could not be attacked directly,

therefore, because the ectophagous D. car-

penteri larva is feeding on the surface of

whatever host is inside a mummy at the

time. During these first 8 test days, the only

available host is an A. smithi larva within

which is the first hyperparasitoid, A. me-

gourae (Table 1). The second hyperparasi-

toid, D. carpenteri, continues to feed exter-

nally, and there is no possibility of direct

tertiary parasitoidism on an A. megourae

larva, although this first hyperparasitoid is

indirectly consumed because at this time, it

is still within the A. smithi larva.

Test days 1-8

Based on 152 adults that emerged from

mummies of these first 8 test days, the aver-

age of the two hyperparasitoids was 50.7%

A. megourae and 49.3% D. carpenteri.

Test days 9-10

Beginning with test day 9, as explained

above, an A. megourae larva emerges from

an A. smithi host inside the mummy and Is

exposed for the first time to direct attack by

a D. carpenteri female (Table 1). Only now

could true or direct tertiary parasitoidism

occur, and it might be expected that at least

beginning with these 2 days, the second hy-

perparasitoid, D. carpenteri, would be more

successful. Yet, of the 40 adults that

emerged from mummies of test days 9 and

10, the averages were equal: 50.0% A. me-

gourae and 50.0% D. carpenteri.

Test days 11-17

The remaining test days 11-17 are

grouped together because they represent a

marked drop in the success of D. carpenteri.

Of the 149 hyperparasitoids that

emerged, only 8.1% were D. carpenteri.

This failure at tertiary parasitoidism re-

sulted in 91.9% of the emerged adults being

A. megourae. In fact, no D. carpenteri

emerged on the last 3 test days (15-17).

Evaluation

Although there is definitely some ter-

tiary parasitoidism by D. carpenteri during

test days 9-14 (when A. megourae becomes

available for attack), the success rate is

quite low. This is especially evident as the

diminishing emergence of this second hy-

perparasitoid drops to zero during the last

3 test days when no D. carpenteri emerged,

thus lowering the average for test days

11-17 to 8.1%. This was not entirely unex-

pected, however, because it had already

been reported,’ that in the latter days of

development in similar experiments using 2

different hyperparasitoid species, Alloxysta

victrix pupae and preadults become highly

sclerotized. This deterred oviposition and

tertiary parasitoidism by the second hy-

perparasitoid, Asaphes californicus. This

also occurs between A. megourae and D.

carpenteri.

Low success at tertiary parasitoidism

was also reported intraspecifically between

Dendrocerus carpenteri attacking another

D. carpenteri, wherein the second hyper-

parasitoid had a success rate of only 8.0%.’

It was suggested that a defensive behavior

(violent twitching) and morphological

changes (spine-like projections and a pos-

terior conical process) in fourth instar lar-

vae of D. carpenteri caused this relative

failure at tertiary parasitoidism by the sec-

ond D. carpenteri. Also, the venom of D.

TERTIARY PARASITOIDISM BETWEEN TWO APHID HYPERPARASITOIDS 37

carpenteri may have been less effective

against its own species (intraspecific im-

munity) than against the more susceptible

Aphidius smithi primary larva as shown in

the color plate published by Bocchino and

Sullivan in 1981.°

Host Specificity

Another explanation for this low success

rate at tertiary parasitoidism by D. carpen-

teri may be a certain degree of “‘host speci-

ficity’’ that we did not suspect. Normally,

we have no problem in rearing D. carpen-

teri on A. smithi in the laboratory when

maintaining the colony. It is even the dom-

inant hyperparasitoid (64.7%) in New Jer-

sey alfalfa fields when Aphidius ervi Hali-

day mummies were collected over a 3-yr

period and the hyperparasitoids permitted

to emerge in the laboratory.

For many years, host specificity had

been discounted among the hyperparasi-

toids, but evidence to the contrary has

gradually been presented that this may not

be true for the genus Alloxysta.* * ”*»*

Perhaps D. carpenteri is another example of

a hyperparasitoid displaying some degree

of host specificity. It may be that a host

other than a primary parasitoid larva such

as Aphidius spp. is unsuitable either for

Oviposition or larval development. It should

be remembered that feeding behavior with

regard to number of species eaten is a con-

tinuum, and that it is only for convenience

that at each end of this spectrum, the terms

monophagy and polyphagy are used. With

this in mind, van den. Bosch had empha-

sized that “‘host specificity’’ should not

have a restricted meaning, but can range

from monophagy to some level of oligoph-

agy. He predicted that further study of

hyperparasitoids would reveal a kind of

flexible host specificity in other groups

similar to that shown in the genus Alloxysta

that is an endoparasitoid. Perhaps Den-

drocerus carpenteri, as demonstrated in this

present research, is one more example. This

would be especially interesting because D.

carpenteri is an ectoparasitoid, and there-

fore in a class usually considered more

polyphagous.

Mortality

Of the 420 mummies used in these exper-

iments, 79 or 18.8% showed no parasitoid

emergence, neither A. smithi, A. megourae

nor D. carpenteri. These mortality results

are similar to the three other parallel exper-

iments on tertiary parasitoidism conducted

under similar laboratory conditions referred

to earlier: Alloxysta victrix and Asaphes ca-

lifornicus (18.0%),°° Dendrocerus carpenteri

and D. carpenteri (15.0%),' Asaphes lucens

and A. lucens (20.0%)."°

References Cited

1. Bennett, A. W. and D. J. Sullivan, S. J. 1978. De-

fensive behavior against tertiary parasitism by the

larva of Dendrocerus carpenteri, an aphid hyper-

parasitoid. J. New York Entomol. Soc., 86:

153-160.

2. Bocchino, F. J. and D. J. Sullivan, S. J. 1981. Ef-

fects of venoms from two aphid hyperparasitoids,

Asaphes lucens and Dendrocerus carpenteri (Hy-

menoptera: Pteromalidae and Megaspilidae), on

larvae of Aphidius smithi (Hymenoptera: Aphi-

diidae). Can. Entomol., 113: 887-889.

3. Evenhuis, H. H. 1976. Studies on Cynipidae Al-

loxystinae. 5. Alloxysta citripes (Thompson) and

Alloxysta ligustrin.sp., with remarks on host spec-

ificity in the subfamily. Entomologische Berichten,

36: 140-144.

4. Flanders, S. E. 1963. Hyperparasitism, a mutual-

istic phenomenon. Can. Entomol., 95: 716-720.

5. Gutierrez, A. P. 1970. Studies on host selection

and host specificity of the aphid hyperparasite

Charips victrix (Hymenoptera: Cynipidae), 5.

Host Selection. Ann. Entomol. Soc. Am., 63:

1495-1498.

6. Gutierrez, A. P. and R. van den Bosch. 1970. Stud-

ies on host selection and host specificity of the

aphid hyperparasite Charips victrix (Hymenop-

tera: Cynipidae), 1. Review of Hyperparasitism

and the Field Ecology of Charips victrix. Ann. En-

tomol. Soc. Am., 63: 1345-1354.

7. Hafez, M. 1961. Seasonal fluctuations of popula-

tion density of the cabbage aphid, Brevicoryne

brassicae (L.) in the Netherlands, and the role of

its parasite Aphidius ( Diaeretiella) rapae (Curtis).

Tijdschrift Plantenziekten, 67: 445-548.

8. Hagen, K. S. and R. van den Bosch. 1968. Impact

of pathogens, parasites, and predators on aphids.

Ann. Rev. Entomol., 13: 325-384.

12:

13:

14.

16.

IRENE MATEJKO AND DANIEL J. SULLIVAN, S.J.

. Hassell, M. P. and J. K. Waage. 1984. Host-para-

sitoid population interactions. Ann. Rev. En-

tomol., 29: 89-114.

. Huffaker, C. B. and P. S. Messenger, eds. 1976.

Theory and Practice of Biological Control., Aca-

demic Press, New York. 788 pp.

. Kanuck, M. 1981. The biology and host preference

behavior of Aphidencyrtus aphidivorus (Mayr), an

aphid hyperparasitoid (Hymenoptera: Encyrti-

dae). Ph.D. Dissertation, Fordham University,

New York, New York.

Keller, L. J. and D. J. Sullivan, S. J. 1976. Oviposi-

tion behavior and host feeding of Asaphes lucens,

an aphid hyperparasitoid (Hymenoptera: Ptero-

malidae). J. New York Entomol. Soc., 84: 206-211.

Levine, L. and D. J. Sullivan, S. J. 1983. Intraspe-

cific tertiary parasitoidism in Asaphes lucens (Hy-

menoptera: Pteromalidae), an aphid hyperpara-

sitoid. Can. Entomol., 115: 1653-1658.

Luck, R., P. S. Messenger and J. F. Barbieri. 1981.

The influence of hyperparasitism on the perform-

ance of biological control agents. In: The Role of

Hyperparasitism in Biological Control: A Sympo-

sium. D. Rosen, ed., Division of Agricultural

Sciences, Univ. Cal. Publ., 410: 34-42.

Matejko, I. and D. J. Sullivan, S. J. 1979. Bionom-

ics and behavior of Alloxysta megourae, an aphid

hyperparasitoid (Hymenoptera: Cynipidae). J.

New York Entomol., 87: 275-282.

May, R. M. 1973. Stability and Complexity in

Model Ecosystems. Princeton University Press,

New Jersey. 235 pp.

. May, R. M. 1976. Theoretical Ecology: Principles

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Ape

2S,

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and Applications. W. B. Saunders, Philadelphia,

Pennsylvania. 317 pp.

. May, R. M. and M. P. Hassell. 1981. The dynam-

ics of multiparasitoid-host interactions. Amer.

Nat., 117: 234-261.

. Stary, P. 1970. Biology of Aphid Parasites (Hyme-

noptera: Aphidiidae) with Respect to Integrated

Control. W. Junk Publishers, The Hague, The

Netherlands. 643 pp.

Sullivan, D. J. 1972. Comparative behavior and

competition between two aphid hyperparasites:

Alloxysta victrix and Asaphes californicus (Hyme-

noptera: Cynipidae; Pteromalidae). Environ. En-

tomol., 1: 234-244.

Sullivan, D. J. 1985. Hyperparasites. In: Aphids,

Their Biology, Natural Enemies and Control. P.

Harrewijn and A. K. Minks, eds., Elsevier Science

Publishers, Amsterdam, The Netherlands (in

press).

Sullivan, D. J. and R. van den Bosch. 1971. Field

ecology of the primary parasites and hyperpara-

sites of the potato aphid, Macrosiphum euphor-

biae, in the East San Francisco Bay Area (Ho-

moptera: Aphiididae). Ann. Entomol. Soc. Am.,

64: 389-394.

van den Bosch, R. 1981. Specificity of hyperpara-

sites. In: The Role of Hyperparasitism in Biological

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Agricultural Sciences, Univ. Cal. Publ., 410:

27-33.

van den Bosch, R., P. S. Mesenger and A. P. Gutier-

rez. 1982. An Introduction to Biological Control.

Plenum Press, New York. 247 pp.

Journal of the Washington Academy of Sciences,

Volume 74, Number 2, Pages 39-46, June 1984

Semiochemicals from a predaceous

stink bug, Podisus maculiventris

(Hemiptera: Pentatomidae)'

J. R. Aldrich, J. P. Kochansky, W. R. Lusby, and J. D. Sexton”

ABSTRACT

A total of 19 volatile compounds from 6 different exocrine glands have been identified for

the spined soldier bug, Podisus maculiventris. In addition to the exocrine glands responsible

for the well-known stench of stink bugs, there are other odor-producing glands in adults and

immatures whose secretions are not released in defensive contexts. The secretion from the

large dorsal abdominal glands of adult males is a blend of (E)-2-hexenal, benzyl alcohol, and

monoterpenes and serves as a long-range attractant pheromone. At least 4 parasitic species

use this pheromone as a kairomone to find the bugs. The secretions from the other exocrine

glands found in the spined soldier bug are also idiosyncractic, suggesting they, too, are

pheromones. Possible pheromonal roles for the various volatile secretions of P. maculiventris

are discussed.

Insects are fantastic natural product

chemists. For example, Blum' listed 620

different defensive compounds (allomones)

from about 1000 arthropod species, the

majority insects. Intraspecific chemical sig-

nals (pheromones), often consisting of

blends of compounds, have been identified

and synthesized for nearly 250 insect spe-

cies.” The so-called true bugs (order He-

miptera, suborder Heteroptera) account

for about a tenth of the known insect allo-

mones, but none of the synthetic insect

pheromones. ” ”

Descriptions of sexually dimorphic exo-

crine glands in predaceous stink bugs (Pen-

tatomidae: Asopinae)’ suggest that these

hemipteran insects also use pheromones.

' Received for publication 7/12/84.

Mention of a commercial product does not consti-

tute an endorsement by the USDA.

* USDA-ARS, Insect Physiology Laboratory, Bldg.

467, BARC-East, Beltsville, MD 20705

Aldrich et al.* identified the components of

a male-specific secretion from a common

North American predaceous pentatomid,

Podisus maculiventris (Say), the spined

soldier bug. We have demonstrated that

this secretion is, in fact, a long-range at-

tractant pheromone and that insect para-

sites of P. maculiventris use the pheromone

as a kairomone to locate this host.’ The

adult and immature stages of the spined

soldier bug possess additional exocrine

glands that produce the familiar stench of

stink bugs,’ plus other smaller exocrine

glands of unknown function. Volatiles from

six different exocrine glands have now been

identified. In this paper, the positions and

relative sizes of these glands are illustrated,

the chemical compositions of the newly

identified secretions are reported, and the

compositions of previously examined se-

cretions are updated by inclusion of re-

cently identified compounds.

40 J. R. ALDRICH, J. P. KOCHANSKY, W. R. LUSBY, AND J. D. SEXTON

Methods and Materials

A culture of P. maculiventris was main-

tained in the laboratory on Tenebrio molitor

L. (Rainbow Mealworms, Compton, CA)

larvae and pupae.” Laboratory-reared bugs

were used for all the drawings and chemical

analyses.

Figures 1-4, illustrating the dorsal ab-

dominal glands (DAGs) of adults and fifth-

stage nymphs and of the metathoracic

gland (MTG) of adult spined soldier bugs,

were made using a Wild dissecting micro-

scope equipped with a camera lucida.

Details of the preparation of exocrine

gland extracts have been previously re-

ported.* ° Briefly, exocrine glands were dis-

sected from CQO>-anesthetized bugs sub-

merged in tap water, tissues surrounding

the excised glands were removed, and the

glands were macerated in 50-200 ul of

CHCl, or CS2.

Gas chromatography (GC) of exocrine

gland secretions, reported here for the first

time (all the nymphal DAG secretions) or

re-examined here (MTG and male 3-4

DAGs), was performed on a 14-m-fused-

silica capillary column coated with a 0.25-

um film of DB-1™ phase (J & W Scientific,

Rancho Cordova, CA) using helium as the

Figs. 1-4. The exocrine glands of Podisus maculiventris. Finely stippled areas outline underlying glands, and

numbers indicate the position of intersegmental openings. (1) Dorsal abdomen of a fifth-stage nymph. (2) Ven-

tral thorax of an adult showing its metathoracic gland. (3) Dorsal abdomen of an adult female. (4) Dorsal ab-

domen of an adult male. DAG = dorsal abdominal gland; EA = evaporative area; LSTs = lateral secretory

tubules; O = ostiole; P = peritreme; R = reservoir.

P. MACULIVENTRIS SEMIOCHEMICALS 41

carrier gas (linear flow = 40 cm/sec). A

Varian 3700 GC equipped with a flame-

ionization detector was used with a Shi-

madzu C-R1B peak area integrator.

Gas chromatographic-mass spectromet-

ric (GC-MS) analyses were conducted using

a Finnigan 4500 GC-MS with 30-m col-

umns coated with a 0.25- or 0.1-um film of

DB-1 phase. The GC oven temperature

was usually held at 45°C for 2 min and then

raised to 255°C at 10°/min. Minor modifi-

cations of this temperature program were

made for some analyses to improve separa-

tions. Electron impact mass spectra were

collected at 70 eV with the separator at

240°C and the source at 150°C.

Each compound was identified by com-

parision of its mass spectrum with the pub-

lished mass spectrum and/or the mass

spectrum of the authentic standard.” * Sub-

sequently, all compounds identified by

mass spectral data were cross-checked by

comparison of the GC retention of the natu-

ral product to that of an authentic stan-

dard. Standards of previously identified P.

maculiventris exocrine components were

obtained commercially or synthesized as

reported earlier.* Tetradecanal was pur-

chased from Aldrich Chemical Company

(Milwaukee, WI), and trans-piperitol was

purchased from PCR Research Chemicals,

Inc. (Gainesville, FL). Piperitone (K & K

Laboratories, Inc., Plainview, NY) was re-

duced with lithium aluminum hydride in

ether’ to give a mixture of cis-piperitol

(29%) and trans-piperitol (66%), plus sev-

eral minor components by GC.

Results

Morphology

Podisus maculiventris nymphs have or-

ange DAGs opening between tergites 3 and

4,4 and 5, and 5 and 6 (Fig. 1). The 3-4

DAGs are paired and spherical with gland

cells surrounding a small cuticle-lined res-

ervoir. Each gland opens exteriorly by a

single intersegmental ostiole. The 4-5 and

5-6 DAGs are large, unpaired dorso-ven-

trally flattened sacs that open exteriorly by

a pair of ostioles. The 4-5 and 5-6 DAGs

have large cuticle-lined reservoirs with glan-

dular cells confined to their lower walls."

All the DAGs have muscularly controlled

valves at their ostioles, and the 4-5 and 5-6

DAGs have stretch muscles inserted on the

gland sacs, presumably to aid in ejecting

the secretions.'” Apparently, scent emis-

sion from DAGs can be independently

controlled by these bugs. The contents of

the 4-5 and 5-6 DAGs can be forcibly

sprayed away from a nymph’s body, and

the valve-apparatus enables a nymph to

aim the spray without moving its body.’

At metamorphosis nymphal 4-5 and 5-6

DAGs are inactivated, and only deflated

cuticular linings of these glands can be

found in adults. The 3-4 DAGs are re-

tained; in adult female bugs, the 3-4 DAGs

appear to be identical to those of nymphs

(Fig. 3), but in males the 3-4 DAGs are

tremendously hypertrophied (Fig. 4). Me-

tathoracic glands (MTGs), which are to-

tally absent in nymphs, are present in both

sexes of adults (Fig. 2).

The 3-4 DAGs of male and female

adults are paired, orange, and have muscu-

larly controlled ostioles as in nymphs. Al-

though the adult male 3-4 DAGs are larger

than the nymphal 4-5 and 5-6 DAGs, they

do not have muscles attached to their walls.

There is a pronounced sexual dimorphism

of the tergal sutures associated with the

3-4-DAG ostioles in adults (Figs. 3 and 4).

In females, a suture projects posteriorly

from each ostiole connecting the 3-4 and

4—5 intersegmental sutures; the 5-6 and 6-7

intersegmental sutures are not connected

by longitudinal stutures (Fig. 3). In males,

the longitudinal suture from each ostiole

extends posteriorly to the 6-7 intersegmen-

tal suture, and tergite 6 is bisected laterally

by transverse sutures (Fig. 4). The sutures

probably channel secretion laterally from

the ostioles.'* The more extensive system of

sutures in males is probably an adaptation

to disperse the larger volume of secretion

from these 3-4 DAGs.

42 J. R. ALDRICH, J. P. KOCHANSKY, W. R. LUSBY, AND J. D. SEXTON

The MTGs of spined soldier bugs are not

sexually dimorphic, but they are morpho-.

logically more complex than the DAGs

(Fig. 2). The MTG is situated ventrally in

the thorax, opening lateroventrally between

the meso- and metathoracic coxae. There is

a ridge around each ostiole (the peritreme)

and a surrounding area of convoluted cuti-

cle (the evaporative area) (Fig. 2, P and

EA). The gland consists of two conspicu-

ous parts; an unpaired, orange median res-

ervoir, and a pair of white lateral secretory

tubules (Fig. 2, R and LSTs). The lateral

secretory tubules are multiply branched

tubes formed by gland cells. Each mass of

tubules empties into the reservoir through

a duct near the ostiole. (Note that in Fig. 2

only the outline of each mass of LSTs is in-

dicated.) The reservoir is lined by cuticle.

Its wall contains a variety of evenly distrib-

uted secretory cells, and a ribbon-like ac-

cessory gland is embedded in the ventral

wall.'° The external MTG ostioles have

muscularly controlled valves, but no mus-

cles are attached to the reservoir wall or

lateral secretory tubules. The secretion is

often exuded onto the evaporative areas

when the bugs are disturbed; however, a

spray of secretion can be ejected, as well.

Apparently pentatomid bugs can aim a

spray from the MTG only by adjusting

their body positions.”

Chemistry

Nymph 3-4 DAGs—These glands are

minute and contain relatively little secre-

tion. Of the 4 compounds identified (Table

I) in an extract of five pairs of glands from

fifth-stage nymphs, (£)-2-hexenal was the

predominant component. The composition

of this secretion is similar to that of adult

females.

Nymph 4-5 and 5-6 DAGs—The secre-

tions of these glands from a single fifth-

stage nymph can be analyzed by GC.

Table I.—Chemistry of Podisus maculiventris exocrine gland secretions”

Nymph Adult

4-5 and male female

Compound 3-4 DAGs 5-6 DAGs 3-4 DAGs 3-4 DAGs MTG

(E)-2-hexenal La FD 45.07 69.33 0.54

(£)-2-octenal 10.62 1.24

(£)-2-decenal _ 10.74

nonanal 0.59

tetradecanal 1.01

benzaldehyde 4.69 5.14

(£)-4-keto-2-hexenal 23:13 12.73

(£)-2-hexenoic acid 23.70

(E)-2-decenyl acetate 3.42

linalool 28.94 0.83 0.28

(+)-a-terpineol 45.10

terpinen-4-ol 0.93

trans-piperitol 1.59

cis-piperitol 0.07

benzyl alcohol 6.41

1-tridecanol 0.02

n-dodecane 0.73 1.54

n-tridecane 12.47 43.58 70.52

n-pentadecane 0.15

thoracic gland.

'DAGs = dorsal abdominal glands, numbers indicate position of intersegmental openings; MTG = meta-

* Numbers listed in the table are % abundance of a component as determined by peak area from gas chro-

matograms (nymphal 4-5 and 5-6 DAGs, MTG, and adult male 3-4 DAGs) or reconstructed ion chromato-

grams (nymphal and adult female 3-4 DAGs).

P. MACULIVENTRIS SEMIOCHEMICALS 43

Comparisons of extracts from the 4-5 and

5-6 DAGs of several individuals showed

no consistent differences; therefore, the

components identified in these secretions

are listed together in Table I. The outstand-

ing feature of these secretions is the pres-

ence of the monoterpene alcohol, linalool,

as a major component. Tridecane and (E)-

4-keto-2-hexenal are also major compo-

nents, but (£)-2-hexenal was not detected

in these secretions. Tetradecanal is a unique

minor component.

Male 3-4 DAGs—Analyses of this glan-

dular secretion have been previously re-

ported” ° and the secretion has been shown

to constitute the long-range attractant phe-

romone of P. maculiventris.° However, we

here revise our earlier report in that the

compound tentatively identified as cis-

piperitol* is actually trans-piperitol (1.59%,

Table I). A compound that coelutes with

( + )-a-terpineol using packed GC columns

can be separated by capillary column GC

and has been identified as cis-piperitol

(0.07%, Table I). The proportions reported

here of previously known components differ

somewhat from our earlier reports which

used less accurate quantitation methods.

Female 3-4 DAGs—(E)-2-Hexenal is the

predominant component in the secretion

from these glands (Table I). (£)-2-Octenal

and benzaldehyde were minor components,

as in nymphs. Nonanal and (E£)-2-hexenoic

acid occurred in the female 3-4-DAG se-

cretion, but not in that of nymphs.

Adult MTG—The compositions of male

and female MTG secretions have been ex-

amined earlier and the secretions were not

noticeably different.° The per cent abun-

dance for the components of the MTG se-

cretion listed in Table I were determined

from a single P. maculiventris male of un-

known age. (£)-2-Decenyl acetate is evi-

dently produced only in the lateral secre-

tory tubules,’ and (E)-2-decenal is probably

enzymatically derived from the ester inside

the median reservoir.'” '* The organic se-

cretion in the reservoir is surrounded by an

immiscible fluid that is apparently aqueous

since it dissolved in the water of the dissect-

ing dish when the reservoir wall was sev-

ered. The esterase and dehydrogenase en-

zymes are thought to be secreted by the

accessory gland into the aqueous fluid.'” '”

Tridecane and the other hydrocarbons are

probably secreted by cells in the reservoir

wall,’° but the site of linalool synthesis is

unknown. The organic secretion is a mix-

ture of a polar phase and a non-polar

phase.’ The ratio of ester to corresponding

aldehyde, as well as the ratio of these com-

pounds to hydrocarbons and possibly lina-

lool, can vary drastically with the age of the

bug and the time since the secretion was

last emitted. The occurrences of linalool

and (£)-2-hexenal in this MTG secretion

are noteworthy: this is the third exocrine

gland secretion of P. maculiventris found to

contain linalool, here as a minor compo-

nent, and (£)-2-hexenal, which is a major

component of all the 3-4-DAG secretions,

is present but only as a very minor compo-

nent.

Discussion

Hemipterans emit chemicals to defend

themselves against the attacks of preda-

tors’ and parasitoids.'” In the spined sol-

dier bug, however, some exocrine secretions

are not released in defensive contexts and

are compositionally idiosyncratic. Since

some, possibly all, of the P. maculiventris

exocrine blends act as pheromones, this

discussion will emphasize the possible phe-

romonal roles for these secretions and their

kairomonal effects.

The chemical vocabulary of P. maculi-

ventris is much greater than the list of 19

identified compounds might suggest. Many

‘‘minor’’ components remain to be identi-

fied, and surface waxes have yet to be ana-

lyzed chemically. Only the fifth-stage

nymphs of P. maculiventris have been stud-

ied in detail; the exocrines of earlier stages

may differ.'° The turnover rates of the var-

ious exocrine components are unknown,

and, of the optically active components

that have been identified, the enantiomeric

composition has been determined only for

44 J. R. ALDRICH, J. P. KOCHANSKY, W. R. LUSBY, AND J. D. SEXTON

a-terpineol. Even so, it is clear that P. ma-

culiventris nymphs produce at least two

unique blends; adults, at least three unique

blends. What information might these ex-

udates convey between individuals of the

species, and how have other organisms,

particularly parasitoids, usurped these sig-

nals?

The male 3-4-DAG secretion attracts

both sexes of adults, and nymphs are at

least moderately attracted to the phero-

mone. Attracted adult bugs fly to the odor

source, and males release this secretion

during courtship (JRA, personal observa-

tion), so the secretion apparently functions

as a long-range attractant pheromone and

as a short-range mating stimulant. The natu-

ral pheromone contains ( + )-a-terpineol,

but an artificial pheromone, made with ra-

cemic a-terpineol, is as attractive to the

bugs as one made with (+ )-a-terpineol.

Single pheromone components were unat-

tractive to P. maculiventris in the field.'’

Whether individual pheromone constitu-

ents, including cis- and trans-piperitol, will

elicit particular behaviors has not yet been

studied. We believe that wild P. maculiven-

tris males, which are usually smaller and

mature faster than females,’® may first

search for food and then attract a mate

with their 3-4-DAG secretion.

At least four parasitic species sabotage

this long-range pheromone system. Females

of two flies, Hemyda aurata Robineau-

Desvoidy and Euclytia flava (Townsend)

(Diptera: Tachinidae), go the pheromone

and lay eggs on the spined soldier bugs they

see in the area, sometimes even on other

pentatomid species confined near P. macu-

liventris synthetic pheromone (unpubl.

data). The male flies are attracted to the

vicinity of calling P. maculiventris males

and appear to defend a territory in order to

mate with incoming female flies. Female

Telenomus n. sp. (Hymenoptera: Scelioni-

dae) are attracted to the male 3-4-DAG se-

cretion and become phoretic on mated fe-

male bugs.”’’ Eventually female wasps

Oviposit in recently laid P. maculiventris

eggs.'” Females of a fourth parasitic spe-

cies, an ectoparasitic biting midge, Forci-

pomyia crinita Saunders (Diptera: Cerato-

pogonidae), also find spined soldier bugs

by orienting to the male 3-4-DAG secre-

tion.” The ( — )-a-terpineol in pheromone

made with racemic a-terpineol inhibits the

response of E. flava and F. crinita to the

pheromone, but P. maculiventris and T. n.

sp. are unaffected by the presence of ( — )-

a-terpineol.°

Neither live female P. maculiventris’ nor

synthetic material blended to mimic the

female 3-4-DAG secretion attracted bugs

or parasitoids. Thus, this exocrine secre-

tion probably acts only over a short dis-

tance. Male bugs may recognize a female

and/or assess her willingness to mate by

the odor of her 3-4-DAG secretion. Parasi-

toids, especially the Telenomus species,

might sense near-by female bugs or recog-

nize females they encounter by the smell of

their DAG secretions.

Pheromonal roles for the MTG secretion

of P. maculiventris are, at this point, conjec-

tural. The MTGscent of an irritated P. ma-

culiventris adult arouses close-by conspe-

cifics, as in some other hemipteran species;

therefore, in this context the secretion

seems to function as an alarm pheromone.

Since neither the MTG nor its secretion are

sexually dimorphic in P. maculiventris, a

sexual role for this secretion is questiona-

ble. The composition of the MTG secretion

can vary with age,'' and this could be im-

portant information for courting bugs.

In our airborne trapping experiments,

when an adult pentatomid dies, the con-

tents of its MTGrapidly escape from its res-

ervoir. Some scavenging flies (e.g. mili-

chiids) are attracted to hemipteran MTG

secretions (Dr. Paula Mitchell, Louisiana

State University, personal communication)

or to esters similar to those in MTG secre-

tions.*’ This may explain how these scav-

engers quickly locate dead or injured adult

bugs.

First-stage P. maculiventris nymphs and

many terrestrial hemipterans are highly

gregarious, with later stage nymphs becom-

ing progressively more solitary with each

molt.’ Ishiwatari’” *° identified (E)-2-hex-

enal in whole body extracts of cabbage bug

P. MACULIVENTRIS SEMIOCHEMICALS 45

nymphs, Eurydema rugosa (Pentatomidae),

and showed that at low concentrations

this compound promoted aggregation of

nymphs whereas high concentrations of

(E)-2-hexenal dispersed aggregated nymphs.

Perhaps in P. maculiventris, the 3-4-DAG

secretion is the short-range pheromone re-

sponsible for aggregating young nymphs,

and emission of the 4-5- and 5-6-DAG se-

cretions disperses these aggregations. One

species of predaceous pentatomid is known

whose nymphs hunt singly but recongre-

gate to molt.”' If P. maculiventris nymphs

that become dispersed while searching for

prey periodically reaggregate, a longer-

range aggregation pheromone might have

evolved. The occurrence of linalool as a

major constituent of the large DAG secre-

tions in P. maculiventris may have evolved

as part of such a pheromonal message be-

cause nymphal DAG secretions usually

contain only unbranched compounds."

Tachinid parasitoids may use linalool to

locate spined soldier bug nymphs. In pre-

liminary experiments, performed. before

the nymphal DAG secretions had been an-

alyzed, we field-tested some components of

the male 3-4-DAG and the MTG secre-

tions, singly and in mixtures. Four H. au-

rata flies were caught in traps baited with 5

wl of linaloo!l and 5 ul of (£)-2-hexenal.

Hemyda aurata and E. flava do sometimes

parasitize nymphs in the field.” These tach-

inids may respond to the odor of a pro-

voked nymph or to the odor of DAG com-

ponents evaporating from the cast skin

since the exocrine gland contents are shed

at each molt. If tachinid parasitoids were

able to home in on the DAG odor from ex-

uviae, this would ensure that eggs are laid

on newly molted nymphs and have ample

time to hatch before the next molt of the

host.

In summary, P. maculiventris has an

elaborate pheromone system that has been

exploited by at least four parasitic insect

species. The male-produced attractant pher-

omone has been most intensively studied;

the behavioral correlates for the other exo-

crine secretions are, at this point, specula-

tive. Future testing of synthetic P. maculi-

ventris exocrine blends should answer many

remaining questions. Spined soldier bugs

are probably not exceptional among He-

miptera in using pheromones—this insect

order is a veritable treasure-trove for phero-

mone researchers.

Acknowledgments

I thank the following scientists of the Sys-

tematic Entomology Laboratory, USDA,

for identification of specimens: C. W. Sa-

brosky (Tachinidae), W. E. Wirth (Cerato-

pogonidae), P. M. Marsh (Scelionidae),

and T. J. Henry (Pentatomidae). I also

thank Dr. Norman Johnson, Department

of Entomology, Ohio State University, for

examining the scelionids.

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pods. Academic Press, New York. 562 pp.

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H. A. Lloyd and P. Roller. 1978. Proteins ina non-

venomous defensive secretion: Biosynthetic sig-

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Journal of the Washington Academy of Sciences

Volume 74, Number 2, Pages 47-50, June 1984

Exocrine Secretions of Bees IX.

Aliphatic Esters in the Dufour’s

Gland Secretion of

Synhalonia hamata*

F. Birmingham’, E. W. Riddick’, W. E. LaBerge’, J. W. Wheeler’, and

R. M. Duffield?

Departments of ‘Chemistry and *Zoology, Howard University,

Washington, D.C., 20059, and Section of Faunistic Surveys and Insect

Identification, State Natural History Survey, 172 Natural Resources

Building, Urbana, IL., 61801.

ABSTRACT

Chemical analysis of Dufour’s gland extracts of the eucerine bee, Synhalonia hamata,

showed the presence of four acetates. Octadecyl acetate was the major component of the secre-

tions and the Ci, C20, and C22 acetates were also present. This combination of chemicals in the

Dufours gland blend of S. hamata is unique.

Introduction

The Anthophoridae is a large, diverse

family of widely distributed bees. One of its

tribes, the Eucerini, is represented in the

United States by approximately 220 species

distributed among 15 of the 18 genera repre-

sented in North America.’ Melissodes is the

largest eucerine genus with close to 100

species represented in North America north

of Mexico. Synhalonia, another large euce-

rine genus, is represented in North America

north of Mexico by approximately 60 spe-

cies.' They fly primarily in spring and are

rarely observed during the summer. Most

Synhalonia are large, robust, fast flying

bees that are native to western USA.

“Hymenoptera: Anthophoridae

Several studies have provided informa-

tion on the chemistry of the Dufour’s gland

secretions of the Eucerini. Batra and He-

fetz’ reported a series of acetates including

n-tetradecyl acetate, dihydrofarnesyl ace-

tate and an isomer of farnesyl acetate of

unknown structure in the Dufour’s extracts

of Melissodes desponsa Smith. In compari-

son, the Dufour’s secretions of Svastra obli-

gua obliqua (Say) contain a complex mix-

ture of 32 aliphatic esters. These esters

range from a molecular weight of 256 (octyl

octanoate) to 508 (tetracosyl decanoate). A

series of saturated and unsaturated hydro-

carbons ranging from C2; to C3; were also

identified.’

As part of continuing comparative stud-

ies of the evolution of the chemistry, mor-

phology, and function of the Dufour’s

48 BIRMINGHAM, RIDDICK, LABERGE, WHEELER, AND DUFFIELD

gland, we describe the chemistry of the Du-

four’s gland secretions of Synhalonia ha-

mata (Bradley).

Materials and Methods

Synhalonia hamata were collected at the

Marine Training Base at Quantico, Vir-

ginia, during June and July, 1983. Bees

were netted as they gathered nectar and

pollen from Penstemon digitalis Nutt. Indi-

vidual specimens were placed in separate

glass shell vials and stored in an ice chest.

Dufour’s glands were excised under water

with forceps, and groups of 25 of them were

extracted with methylene chloride.

Extracts were analyzed using a Finnigan

3200 computerized gas chromatograph-

mass spectrometer (GC-MS) utilizing a 2.0-

m-x-l-mm 3% OV-17 on a Supelcoport

60/80 column, temperature programmed

from 60 to 300°C at 10°C/min. Each com-

pound was identified by comparing its

mass spectrum and retention time with that

of a standard synthesized from the corre-

sponding alcohol and acetic anhydride in

the presence of sodium acetate.

Results

One major peak was observed in the

Dufour’s gland secretion of S. hamata.

Three minor peaks were also present, one

eluting before the major peak and the other

two following it. All four were acetates,

based upon their base peak at m/z43 anda

peak of m/z 61. Comparison of the reten-

tion times and mass spectra of these ace-

tates with those of standard synthetic sam-

ples indicated that the major component

was octadecyl acetate, proceeded by hexa-

decyl acetate, and followed by eicosyl ace-

tate and docosyl acetate. Besides the base

peak at m/z 43 and the peak at 61(45),

peaks at m/z 312(0.1), 252(3), 224(2), 196(1),

168(2), 153(2), 125(20), 111(30), 97(55),

83(65), 69(60), 57(60), 55(65), and 41(35)

were useful in the assignment of the struc-

ture of octadecyl acetate. Similar peaks

were used to assign other acetates.

Discussion

The Dufour’s gland secretions of the

Colletidae* and Halictidae’ are character-

ized by series of saturated and unsaturated

macrocyclic lactones, as well as isopenteny]l

esters in some species of the Halictidae.°

Macrocyclic lactones also characterize the

Dufour’s gland of oxaeids.’ In contrast, the

Dufour’s gland secretions of the andrenids

are characterized by terpenoid and straight

chain aliphatic esters.*” Those of the Melit-

tidae contain monounsaturated alcohols as

well as a series of acetates and butano-

ates.'° For a review of the chemistry of bee

Dufour’s glands, see Duffield er al.''

In the Anthophoridae, the Dufour’s gland

chemistry has been investigated in four

genera representing two subfamilies. The

Dufour’s glands of Xylocopa virginica texana

Cresson and _X. micans Lepeletier (Xylocop-

inae: Xylocopini) contain a series of satu-

rated and unsaturated hydrocarbons.'”'* A

series of triglycerides has been identified in

Anthophora abrupta Say (Anthophorinae:

Anthophorini).'* The Dufour’s extract of

Melissodes desponsa (Anthophorinae: Euce-

rini) contains terpenoid and straight chain

acetates, whereas the Dufour’s glands of

Svastra obliqua obliqua (Eucerini)containa

complex mixture of 32 aliphatic esters as

well as saturated and unsaturated hydro-

carbons.”

At present, the Dufour’s gland chemistry

of S. hamata appears to be distinct from

other bees. Although acetates are not un-

common as natural products of bees, the

alcohol portion in S. hamata is longer than

in most. For example, a series of acetates

(Cs-Ci4) has been identified in the cephalic

extracts of several species of Andrena (An-

drenidae).'° Similar acetates (C4-Cio) have

been isolated from the sting apparatus of

worker honey bees, Apis mellifera Linn.

(Apidae),'° where they function as alarm

releasers. Octyl acetate has been isolated

DUFOUR’S GLAND CHEMISTRY OF SYNHALONIA HAMATA. 49

from the worker sting apparatus in all four

species of Apis.'’ Hexadecyl, octadecyl,

and eicosyl acetates have been isolated pre-

viously from male labial glands of several

species of European bumble bees.'* *' The

Cis acetate has also been isolated from

male mandibular gland extracts of the

small carpenter bee, Ceratina cucurbitina

Rossi (Xylocopinae: Ceratini).”

Acetates appear to be a common group

of compounds found as glandular products

of bees. They have been isolated from

mandibular glands, labial glands, sting

glands, and Dufour’s glands. The four ace-

tates isolated from S. hamata appear to

represent a unique Dufour’s gland blend

among bees reported in the literature.

The functions of acetates as glandular

products of bees are diverse. Male labial

gland secretions of bumble bees are used as

territorial markers.’* In contrast, the sting

shaft glandular secretions of worker honey

bees function as alarm pheromones.’° The

mandibular gland products of Ceratina

appear to be effective defensive allomones

against ants.”

It has been demonstrated that the Du-

four’s gland secretions of bees are used to

line the brood cells in Andrenidae,”> Antho-

phoridae,’* Colletidae,”* and Halictidae.®

Norden et al. have observed Anthophora

larvae ingesting their cell wall linings.”

Dufour’s components have been identified

in the larval pollen and nectar provisions of

Augochlora pura pura Say (Halictidae).°

Many authors believe the Dufour’s gland

secretions have some antimicrobial activ-

ity, thus increasing larval survival, as dis-

cussed by Cane et al.” We are presently in-

vestigating the functions of the acetates in

the Dufour’s gland secretions of Synhalo-

nia hamata.

Acknowledgements—

This investigation has been supported in

part by funds made available by grant RR

08016 from the Minority Biomedical Re-

search Support Program, Division of Re-

search Resources, National Institutes of

Health to RMD and JWW. In addition, we

thank Dr. Muriel Poston, Department of

Botany, Howard University for identifying

plant specimens. We also thank Dr. Donna

Maglott for her comments during revision

of the manuscript.

References Cited

1. Hurd, P. D., Jr. 1979. Apoidea. In: Catalog of

Hymenoptera in America North of Mexico. K. V.

Krombein, P. D. Hurd, Jr., D. R. Smith & B. D.

Burks.,eds., Smithsonian Institution Press, Wash-

ington, D.C., pp. 1741-2209.

2. Batra, S. W. T. and A. Hefetz. 1979. Chemistry of

the cephalic and Dufour’s gland secretions of

Melissodes bees. Ann. Entomol. Soc. Am.,

72:514-S15.

3. Duffield, R.M., W. E. LaBerge and J. W. Wheeler.

1984. Exocrine secretions of bees. VII. Aliphatic

esters in the Dufour’s gland secretion of Svastra

obliqua obliqua (Hymenoptera: Anthophoridae).

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4. Bergstrom, G. 1974. Studies on natural odourif-

erous compounds X. Macrocyclic lactones in the

Dufour gland secretion of the solitary bees Col-

letes cunicularius L. and Halictus calceatus Scop.

(Hymenoptera, Apidae). Chem. Scr., 5:39-46.

5. Andersson, C. O., G. Bergstrém, B. Kullenberg and

S. Stallberg-Stenhagen. 1966. Identification of

macrocyclic lactones as odouriferous components

of the scent of the solitary bee (Halictus calceatus

Scop. and Halictus albipes F.). Ark. Kemi.,

26: 191-198.

6. Duffield, R. M., A. Fernandes, C. Lamb, J. W.

Wheeler and G. C. Eickwort. 1981. Macrocyclic

lactones and isopentenyl esters in the Dufour’s

gland secretion of halictine bees (Hymenoptera:

Halictidae). J. Chem. Ecol., 7:319-331.

7. Cane, J. H. 1983. Chemical evolution and chemo-

systematics of the Dufour’s gland secretions of

the lactone-producing bees (Hymenoptera: Col-

letidae, Halictidae, and Oxaeidae). Evolution,

337: 657-674.

8. Tengo, J.and G. Bergstrom. 1975. All-trans-farnesy]

hexanoate and geranyl octanoate in the Dufour’s

gland secretion of Andrena (Hymenoptera: Api-

dae)..J. Chem... Ecol.,, 1:253-268.

9. Fernandes, A., R. M. Duffield, J. W. Wheeler and

W.E. LaBerge. 1981. Chemistry of the Dufour’s

gland secretions of North American andrenid

bees (Hymenoptera: Andrenidae). J. Chem. Ecol.,

7:453-463.

10. Tengé, J. and G. Bergstrém. 1976. Odor corre-

spondence between Melitta females and males of

their nest parasite Nomada flavopicta K. (Hymen-

optera: Apoidea). J. Chem. Ecol., 2:57-65.

11. Duffield, R. M., J. W. Wheeler and G. C.Eickwort.

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BIRMINGHAM, RIDDICK, LaBERGE,

1984. Sociochemicals of bees. In: Chemical Ecol-

ogy of Insects. W. J. Bell and R. T. Cardeé, eds.,

Chapman and Hall, London, pp. 327-428.

Vinson, S. B., G. W. Frankie, M.S. Blum and J. W.

Wheeler. 1978. Isolation, identification, and func-

tion of the Dufour’s gland secretion of Xylocopa

virginica texana (Hymenoptera: Anthophoridae).

J. Chem. Ecol., 4:315-323.

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Vinson. 1983. Chemistry of Dufour’s gland secre-

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micans (Hymenoptera: Anthophoridae)—A com-

parison and re-evaluation of previous work.

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and G. J. Shaw. 1980. Anthophora bees; unusual

glycerides from maternal Dufour’s glands serve

as larval food cell lining. Science, 207: 1095-1097.

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Physiol., 57B: 197-202.

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Collins. 1978. Chemistry of the sting apparatus of

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pale

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PEE

WHEELER, AND DUFFIELD

Bergstrom, G., B. Kullenberg and S. Stallberg-

Stenhagen. 1973. Studies on natural odouriferous

compounds. VII. Recognition of two forms of

Bombus lucorum L. (Hymenoptera, Apidae) by

analysis of the volatile marking secretions from

individual males. Chem. Scr., 3:3-9.

Bergstrom, G. and B. G. Svensson. 1973. Studies

of natural odouriferous compounds VIII. Char-

acteristic marking secretions of the forms /ap-

ponicus and scandinavicus of Bombus lapponicus

Fabr. (Hymenoptera, Apidae). Chem. Scr., 4:

231-238.

Svensson, B. G. and G. Bergstrom. 1977. Volatile

marking secretions from the labial gland of North

European Pyrobombus D. T. males (Hymenop-

tera, Apidae). Insectes Soc., 24:213-224.

Wheeler, J. W., M.S. Blum, H. V. Daly, C. J. Kis-

low and J. M. Brand. 1977. Chemistry of man-

dibular gland secretions of small carpenter bees

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635-636.

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Journal of the Washington Academy of Sciences,

Volume 74, Number 2, Pages 51-60, June 1984

The Effects of Population Density on

Patterns of Resource Utilization by

Yarrow’s Spiny Lizard*

George Middendorf III

Department of Zoology

Howard University

Washington, D.C. 20059

ABSTRACT

The influence of population density on patterns of resource utilization was examined using

small enclosed populations of adult Sceloporus jarrovi in which density was varied from nor-

mal to four times normal. Censuses of active lizards were conducted three times per day; loca-

tion, time, perch substrate, perch light condition, perch height, and perch diameter were re-

corded for each lizard. Stepwise multiple discriminate analysis revealed differences along time

and perch gradients. At higher densities, animals were active throughout the day and spent

more time in the shade and less in the sun. At higher densities, they shifted perch substrate

selection from normally-preferred rock substrate to log and ground substrates. Significant

differences among density groups were not found in selection of perch height or diameter. The

observed differences in patterns of resource utilization may act to reduce the effects of compet-

itive interactions since no significant differences in weight gain among groups were observed.

The importance of behavioral studies for

ecology is evident in recent plethora of arti-

cles and books concerned with such stud-

ies.’* Many of these writings focus on how

animal inter-relationships often affect pat-

terns of resource utilization and the con-

verse, how resources affect the ways ani-

mals relate to one another. As shown by

many recent publications, the behavior of

animals is closely tied to their ecology.

While behaviorists generally focus on the

behaviors exhibited by individuals and

ecologists on the behaviors exhibited by a

species, behavioral ecologists focus on the

impact individual flexibility has on ecolog-

*Sauria: Iguanidae

ical processes. Ecologists, for instance, usu-

ally define a species’ role in its community

by focusing on patterns of resource utiliza-

tion. Two different, general approaches are

used: comparisons of different populations

and manipulations of the same population.

Comparisons of geographically distinct

populations reveal the effects of resource

availability,’* seasonality, ° and commu-

nity composition’* on resource utilization

patterns. Experimental manipulations of

local populations show that both interfer-

ence and exploitative competition influ-

ence utilization patterns.” '° Crowell’ and

Roughgarden’ have suggested that popu-

lation density should influence utilization

patterns. Studies by McClure,'® Whitham,’

52 GEORGE MIDDENDORF III

and Alford and Crump” have addressed

the effects of density, but have only exam-

ined distribution effects. In this paper I

shall show that population density affects a

number of other aspects of patterns of re-

source utilization as well.

Traditionally, the dimensions of food,

space, and activity time are used to define

lizard niches. Measurements include activ-

ity time, perch substrate, perch height,

perch diameter, and perch light condition.

Intensive invesitgations’’ ~' of patterns of

resource utilization by Sceloporus jarrovi

show that these lizards partition food,

space, and time on the basis of size and sex.

Alterations in the availability of food*””’

and in the thermal environment” result

in adjustments in activity time and perch

site selection. Such flexibility makes this

species ideal for studying the effects of

population density. By varying density of

populations one can assess changes in pat-

terns of resource use. In 1976, I tested the

hypothesis that variations in density would

have no effect on patterns of time and space

utilization by lizards. Since direct assess-

ment of density effects on food selection

would have involved killing the animals or

handling them excessively, I assessed the

density effects on this dimension indirectly

by examining changes in their weight over

the duration of the study. Here, I hypothe-

sized that the limited availability of food

for animals at high density would result in

alterations in their patterns of resource util-

ization; if it did not, animals at high density

should show less weight gain than animals

at low densities. I tested this the following

year and showed that animals in high-den-

sity populations (3.5 times normal) given

supplementary food gained significantly

more weight than unsupplemented animals

at the same density.”°

Methods

During the summer of 1976, four popu-

lations of Sceloporus jarrovi were placed in

17-x-17-m enclosures constructed of poly-

ethylene plastic.*’ One of four density con-

ditions was randomly assigned to each en-

closure: normal, 2X, 3X,and 4X. Areas the

same size as each enclosure normally sup-

port approximately four individuals (two

males and two females with overlapping

territories between the sexes); densities

thus ranged from four to 16 animals per en-

closure or about 138 to 554 lizards per ha.

The four enclosures were located adja-

cent to one another and did not differ ap-

preciably in general appearance. In each

enclosure I mapped all rocks, logs, and

trees. Since S. jarrovi normally perches on

large rocks or rock piles, I assessed the

availability of these sites in each enclosure

and, where necessary, constructed artificial

sites such that the number available in each

enclosure was equal.

Adult S. jarrovi (Snout-vent length > 50

mm) captured from nearby areas were in-

dividually sexed, measured, toe-clipped,

paint-marked, and assigned randomly to

the enclosures with the restriction that

there be an equal sex ratio of different-sized

lizards. During the study, a few lizards

either escaped or died, so they were re-

placed by animals of the same sex and ap-

proximately the same size. Because of time

constraints, sufficient data were not col-

lected on some of these animals; therefore,

they were excluded from the analyses.

Data collection. Activity censuses were

made at different times throughout the day

from mid-July to mid-August such that all

portions of the day were equally covered.

During each census, a search was con-

ducted in every enclosure. Time, location,

perch substrate, height, diameter, and light

condition were recorded for each active,

i.e. visible, animal. Depending on the num-

ber of animals spotted, the procedure took

from 10 to 45 min. Because animals became

accustomed to my presence and were quite

visible, I feel certain that few active animals

were missed.

The data for each individual were sum-

marized following the format listed below:

1. Substrate. The relative frequency of

association with each of the following

POPULATION DENSITY EFFECTS ON RESOURCE UTILIZATION BY LIZARDS 53

substrate categories was determined:

rock, tree, ground, and log.

2. Light condition. The proportion of

time spent in each of the three follow-

ing categories was calculated: sun, fil-

tered sun, and shade.

3. Time of activity. The frequency of ac-

tivity within each of the following

time periods was determined: 0800-

1100, 1100-1300, and 1300-1600

hours. Proportions for 1, 2, and 3

were normalized using an arcsine

transformation.

4. Perch height. Average perch height

was determined, excluding all ground

observations.

5. Perch diameter. The diameters of all

perches utilized by lizards were aver-

aged for all substrates, except the

ground.

Data analysis. To identify the variables

significantly affected by population den-

sity, analysis of variance was runas the first

step of the discriminant analysis. The data

were then analyzed using stepwise multiple

discriminant analysis (SPSS).**°° This

method allowed for testing of the overall

difference among several group centroids.

Overall differences among the four densi-

ties were tested using Wilks’ Lambda sta-

tistic. This statistic allows the testing of

equality of group centroids and is often

converted to the equivalent F or X’ value.

When, and if, significant differences are

found, one may then examine the direc-

tions of these differences and the variables

which contribute to the differences. The

method enables the development of a set of

variables that can be used to predict group

membership and provides a profile of char-

acteristics for distinguishing between

groups.

The basic assumptions of multiple dis-

criminant analysis are that variables ex-

hibit multivariate normal distribution and

that equal variance-covariance matrices

exist between groups.’ Green’’ notes two

further assumptions: one, the groups must

be defined a priori and, two, the postulated

orthogonal discriminant functions are lin-

ear functions of the original correlated pa-

rameters. In this study, groups were de-

fined a priori and original parameters

transformed to minimize nonlinearity and

improve normality. However, because of

the categorical nature of several of the var-

lables, it was necessary to summarize the

data for each individual. As a result, for

some groups the number of variables ex-

ceeded the number of individuals in the

group. Thus, the final data matrix could

not be tested for homogeneity of covar-

lance and could result in a violation of one

of the assumptions mentioned above. Be-

cause the test is very robust, the assump-

tions may be violated. As Green’’ states

with respect to situations of this type, the

assumption of homogeneous within-group

matrices is unlikely to be satisfied with eco-

logical data, but if the overall test is highly

significant, if the discriminant function

coefficients are ecologically interpretable,

and if distinct separation occurs among the

groups on each discriminant function, then

it is reasonable to conclude that the differ-

ences are greater than would be produced

by drawing random samples from a mul-

tivariate swarm.

Results

Analysis of variance indicated signifi-

cant differences among groups for 58.3%

(7/12) of the variables (Table 1). Examina-

tion of light condition, activity time, perch

height, and perch diameter revealed that

differences in resource utilization patterns

changed markedly as density increased.

Significant differences existed among the

four densities with regard to substrate use

(Figure 1). Animals at higher densities were

observed to shift from rock substrate to

tree, log, and ground substrate. At normal

density animals were observed on rocks

almost 100% of the time, while at 4X ani-

mals were observed on rocks less than 50%

of the time. Utilization of the three differ-

ent light conditions also changed as density

increases (Figure 2). Animals at high densi-

54 GEORGE MIDDENDORF III

Table 1.—Univariate F values for each of the discriminant variables.

Significance

Variable Univariate F Level”

Rock 9.137 ee

Tree 3.103 *

Log 6.628 ae

Ground 6.128 =

Sun 9.036 aa

Filtered Sun 2.033

Shade 6.362 aj

Perch Height 2.910

Perch Diameter 2.320

Morning Activity 3.394 *

Midday Activity 0.171

Afternoon Activity 1.509

* Degrees of freedom: 3 and 28.

* p = 0.05; ** p = 0.01; *** p = 0.001.

ties were observed more often in shade and

filtered sun and less often in full sun than

animals at normal density. However, sig-

nificant differences were observed only for

sun and shade conditions. Perch height and

% OBSERVATIONS

perch diameter selection showed no signifi-

cant differences. While significant differ-

ences among the groups were observed

only for morning activity, the patterns of

daily activity appear quite different (Figure

100 N 2N [Jrock

LA tree

50 | log

BB ground

we 3N 4N

Fig. 1. Mean percent observations of individual Sceloporus jarrovi on different substrates as a function of

density level.

POPULATION DENSITY EFFECTS ON RESOURCE UTILIZATION BY LIZARDS 55

lOO N

“% OBSERVATIONS

OO 3N

Ld be

% OBSERVATIONS

2N [J] sun

filtered sun

BH shade

Fig. 2. Mean percent observations of individual Sce/oporus jarrovi in different light conditions as a function

of density level.

3). At higher densities activity was even

throughout the day, as opposed to the

““peaked”’ activity observed at normal

density.

The measured variables significantly dis-

criminate among the different densities;

Wilks’ Lambda was calculated to be 0.0862

and is equivalent to an F value of 5.02 with

18 and 65.54 degrees of freedom. The

probability of obtaining such an F value is

<0.0001. The untransformed means and

standard deviations for each variable at

each density are shown in Table 2.

The first discriminant function (DF1)

accounts for 57.4% of the relative variabil-

ity among the densities (Table 3). This

function seems to reflect both perch selec-

tion and thermal influences as it is primar-

ily formed from the rock and shade varia-

bles, as seen by the weighting factors or

standardized discriminant function coeffi-

cients (d;’s) for the variables. Separation is

achieved because animals at normal den-

sity spend more time on rocks and less time

in the shade than those at higher densities,

particularly at the highest density.

An additional 28.6% of the relative vari-

ability was accounted for by the second

discriminant function (DF2) which cen-

tered on thermal influences, as seen by the

large contribution of the sun variable in the

weighting coefficients (Table 3). Separa-

tion along this function was complex, as

perch diameter, morning activity and af-

ternoon activity were also influential. Ani-

mals at normal density were seen in the sun

more often than those at higher densities.

Note that normal density animals concen-

trated their activity during the midday pe-

riod (Figure 3); because of low density,

these animals may have been able to move

about more easily and, thus, thermoregu-

56 GEORGE MIDDENDORF III

—.

lOO e— N

O-— 2N

80 me , a ae

PERCENT ACTIVE

MORNING

Fig. 3. Mean percent activity of individual Sce/oporus jarrovi as a function of density.

MIDDAY AFTERNOON

Table 2.—Untransformed means of the microhabitat variables for each density level. Mean and one standard

deviation, in parentheses, are indicated. All refer to unit fractions unless otherwise indicated. Activity is measured as

percent population active during the census period.

Density Level

Variable Normal 2X Bp, 4X

Rock 0.97(0.06) 0.72(0.18) 0.64(0.13) 0.45(0.25)

Tree 0.03(0.06) 0.13(0.21) 0.05(0.13) 0.23(0.17)

Log 0(0) 0.02(0.03) 0(0) 0.14(0.15)

Ground 0(0) 0.13(0.12) 0.11(0.08) 0.18(0.11)

Sun 0.70(0.09) 0.46(0.10) 0.52(0.07) 0.46(0.09)

Filtered Sun 0.16(0.10) 0.33(0.09) 0.23(0.09) 0.22(0.13)

Shade 0.14(0.01) 0.21(0.09) 0.25(0.11) 0.32(0.08)

Height (meters) 0.32(0.11) 0.29(0.06) 0.28(0.07) 0.46(0.21)

Diameter (cm) 0.38(0.11) 0.31(0.08) 0.32(0.05) 0.40(0.09)

Morning Activity 0.41(0.21) 0.50(0.21) 0.80(0.25) 0.60(0.22)

Midday Activity 0.68(0.14) 0.66(0.21) 0.58(0.20) 0.62(0.29)

Afternoon Activity 0.31(0.10) 0.56(0.09) 0.47(0.22) 0.58(0.29)

Sample Size 4 6 6 16

POPULATION DENSITY EFFECTS ON RESOURCE UTILIZATION BY LIZARDS a¢

Table 3.—Standardized discriminant function coefficients (d,’s) showing the relative contribution of the variables

to each discriminant function.

Discriminant Functions

] 2 3

Percentage of among

groups variance 57.42 28.65 13.93

Cumulative percentage 57.42 86.07 100.00

Variables:

Rock =0.753 0.072 =0:205

Sun 0.194 =a 165 —0.344

Shade 0.795 —0.402 —0.545

Diameter 0.358 —0.742 —0.420

Morning Activity =—O:07 2 0.647 —1.046

Afternoon Activity Or57/2 —0.636 0.518

late more efficiently. Greater activity in the

morning and afternoon periods occurred at

higher densities (Figure 3) which explained

the contribution of these variables to DF2.

The third discriminant function (DF3)

accounted for a further 13.9% of the rela-

tive variability and was primarily a func-

tion of activity time. Differences for morn-

ing and afternoon activity followed the

pattern noted for DF2.

Based on the results of the discriminant

analysis, approximately 84.4% of all ani-

mals were correctly classified (Table 4).

The most distinct group was normal den-

sity with 100% correct classification, while

even the least distinct groups, 2X and 3X,

showed 66.7% correct classification. The

locations of the centroids for each of the

four densities on the first two discriminant

axes are shown in Figure 4.

Weight changes among the four densities

were not significantly different (ANOVA,

F = 1.49, df = 3, 28, p > 0.05, Figure 5).

Discussion

Patterns of resource utilization were

clearly affected by population density. This

alteration was generally characterized by

shifts at higher densities. For instance, ani-

mals shifted substrate use from the nor-

mally-preferred rock substrate to log, tree

and ground substrates. A shift in perch

light condition at high densities resulted in

increased numbers of animals in filtered

sun and shade conditions. Not only were

animals observed more often in partial sun-

light, but they spent more time in these

light conditions than animals at low densi-

Table 4.—Classification results of the discriminant analysis for density using microhabitat variables. Numbers in

parentheses represent the actual number of individuals placed in each group. The total percent of individuals cor-

rectly classified for all groups was 84.4. Sample size does not reflect density due to deaths and escapes (see text for

further details).

Actual Predicted group membership (%)

Group

Membership n Normal 2X 3X 4X

(density)

Normal 4 100.0(4) 0.0(0) 0.0(0) 0.0(0)

2X 6 16.7(1) 66.7(4) 0.0(0) 16.7(1)

3X 6 0.0(0) 16.7(1) 66.7(4) 16.7(1)

4X 16 0.0(0) 6.2(1) 0.0(0) 93.8(15)

58 GEORGE MIDDENDORF III

DF 2

e 4x NORMAL

-24

2xNORMAL « ¢3x NORMAL

“dbbstie ce (UO sidQ© pele

e NORMAL

18 24 30

DF |

Fig. 4. Centroids of different density groups on the first two microhabitat discriminant axes.

ties.” These observations, when coupled

with the increased activity throughout the

day at high densities, suggest that some of

the changes in perch substrate and light

condition selection might be due to an in-

creased heat load. Burns™ reported a shift

in perch substrate selection by S. jarrovi in

response to changing thermal stresses asso-

ciated with afternoon activity; animals

moved to higher perches in trees to increase

convective heat loss. Other studies report-

ing changes in activity time by S. jarrovi’'””

show little change in perch substrate selec-

tion; none of the changes in activity time,

however, were as marked as those observed

in this study.

Perch selection with regard to diameter

and height showed no significant differen-

ces In response to changes in density. Al-

though other studies of S. jarrovi have

shown alterations in perch height asa func-

tion of food availability,” the present re-

sults suggest that perch utilization patterns

are relatively insensitive to alterations in

population density.

The absence of significant differences in

weight gain for the animals in the four den-

sities strongly suggests that lizards at high

density alter their patterns of food utiliza-

tion. Normally, S. jarrovi forage early in

the morning and have full stomachs by

about 1100 hours,” suggesting that the in-

creased activity in the morning and after-

noon by high-density animals may allow

{

POPULATION DENSITY EFFECTS ON RESOURCE UTILIZATION BY LIZARDS 59

6.0

—

aye

LiJ

N ON

3N 4N

DEN Sea Peeve

Fig. 5. Weight changes of Sce/oporus jarrovi as a function of density level. The means and one standard devi-

ation are indicated.

them to forage throughout the day and

thereby obtain enough food. Their altera-

tions in perch substrate and perch light

condition selection may act to reduce ther-

mal stresses associated with day-long activ-

ity and thus allow the animals to remain

active.

Clearly the behavioral flexibility exhib-

ited by S. jarrovi aids in adjusting the ani-

mals to potentially stressful situations. To

say that such behavior is adaptive would

not, in this case, be presumptuous; altera-

tions in patterns of resource utilization to

increased densities up to four times normal

that result in non-significant differences in

weight gains over a 6-week period must be

adaptive.

Acknowledgements

Financial support for this study was

provided by the Theodore Roosevelt Me-

morial Award Program, Sigma Xi, and the

National Science Foundation (NSF

DEB76-16841). I would like to thank all

the people for the aid and hospitality they

provided, especially all the peopleat SWRS

and the Cave Creek Motel. But in particu-

lar I would like to thank R. E. Ballinger,

A.C. Echternacht, A. C. Hulse, S. H. Love,

L. H. Middendorf, I. Pluchinska, S. E. Rie-

chert, C. A. Simon, and R. Trapp for their

aid at various points during the past years.

The U.S. Forest Service allowed construc-

tion of the enclosures.

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In Volume 74, Number | of the Journal, the name of the Academy’s

Executive Committee was inadvertently misprinted. This has been

corrected in the current issue. We apologize for the error.

— ae ee

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Delegates continue in office until new selections are made by the representative societies.

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a3 VOLUME 74

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NH al of the ' September, 1984

WASHINGTON _

ACADEMY ., SCIENCES

ISSN 0043-0439

Issued Quarterly

= - at Washington, D.C.

Td Uae

CONTENTS

Commentary:

‘V. V. Raman: Why It’s So Important That Our Students Learn More About

BIRLENGE ner ences ahateete te sicher leigin ae -ore Alonaisle Win das ns ge aioe aed siete as

Articles:

Nina M. Roscher: High Technology, Can Higher Education Meet

dhe Challenge? .< ic dase de sels a RPGS Gas RI IO Sine ciel eis eel a eh miele SRL 61

Alan John Hu: Mathematical Selection Of The Optimum Uniform Partition

IS ANCA ee va Nice esc as cue, ay dr oie vot opener at eeelinve Wim. n) nia; o/s Spm caveats Wi wia olor D ion kona el erbiers #L¢

Albert G. Gluckman: On Electrodynamic Processes of Electrified Bodies In

Sherman Ross: The Scientific Achievement Awards of the Academy, 1984 .....

Jonn O'Hare: 1984 Elected Fellows'Of The Academy ......2..0.52ss0.00.-5.

instmictions to the ContHOWiorsy. 6 sue wo cids cds ooo Peles w elec caeia dle’ aces

Washington Academy of Sciences

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Journal of The Washington Academy of Sciences,

Volume 74, Number 3, Pages i-iii, September 1984

Commentary

Why It’s So Important

that Our Students

Learn More About Science

V. V. Raman

A world exposed to a scientific value system could be a world with less dogmatism

MANY PRESTIGIOUS GROUPS, including

the National Commission on Excellence in

Education, have lamented the sorry plight

of science education in this country. They

all warn us that, unless we correct the situa-

tion, it will not be long before the Euro-

peans—and what’s even more serious, the

Soviets—will overtake us in science, if they

haven’t already.

A great deal of impressive data have

been amassed to show that we have been

neglecting science education for some time.

Invariably such data are related to the

numbers of science graduates and teachers

as well as to the average test scores of science

students.

We must produce more science gradu-

ates and engineers, the argument goes, be-

cause unless we train enough people in

those fields, there will be disastrous conse-

quences in vital facets of our technology

and defense capability. We need scientists

and engineers to push forward the frontiers

of technology so that our industries can

turn out more competitive products, and

more and better military hardware to keep

the country safe from foreign aggressors.

I am not concerned here with the merits

of such goals and concerns; obviously, to

keep a technologically sophisticated society

functioning properly we need technically

well-trained people. But I do not question

the notion that we need to teach our stu-

dents good science to accomplish the goals

or to respond to the concerns. Technical

skills and useful information, yets; but not

necessarily science.

Indeed, our enormous technological prog-

ress has resulted not from teaching good

science but rather because many ingenious

people have been able to exploit scientific

knowledge and manage the business end of

it as well. It is entirely possible for a thriv-

ing and militarily strong industrial society

to function successfully with a sizable cadre

of technically trained people at various lev-

els who may beas unscientific in their extra-

professional lives as anyone else.

It is naive to think that the millions who

are engaged in the myriad scientific and

technical projects in this country are all

scientific in any serious sense of the term.

Science is not required to handle or solve

specific technical problems.

ii V. V. RAMAN

That a strict scientific training is not 1n-

dispensable for contriving useful gadgetry

is amply illustrated in the lives of many

competent inventors. From Savery and

Newcomen to Edison and the orignators of

air-conditioning and the helicopter, there

have been any number of imaginative and

ingenious people who have contributed

significantly to the advancement of tech-

nology. Conversely, there are some illus-

trious names in the history of science—Co-

pernicus and Huygens, Pauli and Bohr, to

name just a few—who were not directly as-

sociated with any major engineering device.

Science as an intellectual enterprise has

had little impact on the way people in gen-

eral look at things. Itis a sad but not surpris-

ing spectacle when well-meaning science

teachers and others argue in this day and

age from medieval and more ancient per-

spectives. Respectable school systems are

urged to teach mythologies in science cour-

ses, because many parents and teachers are

convinced that ancient views on the origins

of life or of the planet have the same valid-

ity as any modern scientific theory. At the

other extreme, in some societies so-called sci-

entists have argued that everything from the

theory of relativity to the quark model are

confirmations of Marxist-Leninist theology.

These would be merely amusing instan-

ces of human folly were it not for the fact

that looking to dogma for ultimate and un-

alterable truths about the world and his-

tory has often led to rigid and belligerent

idealogies that have wrought much harm

and ill will among peoples. A fanatical

conviction that one’s chosen way is the

only route to celestical Paradise or terres-

trial utopia has been at the root of many in-

ternational conflicts.

What has all this to do with the teaching

of science? I contend that science should be

taught not simply as a body of useful knowl-

edge clothed in technical vocabulary but as

a mode of inquiry into the nature of the

perceived world, as an intellectual frame-

work to guide us in the adoption of tenta-

tive interpretations of what is observed,

and as a world view that is not ultimate

truth but is applicable and acceptable only

in the context of a given set of available

facts. If that point of view is also encouraged

in situations beyond technical problems,

we may see a world where there is less dog-

matism and greater mutual understanding.

Science should be taught because of the

value system it fosters, because of its crite-

ria for the acceptance of points of view as

valid propositions—not because of its po-

tential exploitable results, or even for its

beautiful and powerful theories. Science

taught without reference to the scope and

limits of human knowledge, without allud-

ing to the collective nature of the enter-

prise, is incomplete.

INDIVIDUAL SCIENTISTS are not always

reasonable, of course, nor are they always

exclusively motivated by the highest ideals

in their quest for truth. The irrationality

and self-serving strategies of many sci-

entists, from Galileo and Newton to more

recent members of the scientific commu-

nity, have been amply exposed by histori-

ans and philosophers of science. Yet as a

collective enterprise, science is a model of

dispassionate exploration and objective anal-

ysis—more so, perhaps, than any other hu-

man endeavor.

To challenge the teacher or a text, to

raise questions and objections until one is

fully satisfied, to reject unsubstantiated

propositions—even if they come from the

highest authorities—these are among the

attitudes we need to develop while teaching

science:

It is our failure to do so that makes pos-

sible the appalling paradox of the twentieth

century: the indiscriminate acceptance of

medieval—and sometimes pernicious—

world views by the masses in many socie-

ties, including our own. Not one in a mil-

lion take seriously the inane predictions cor-

responding to their birthdays that are pub-

lished in magazines and newspapers. To

say nothing of numerology or the pseudo-

psychologies and pseudo-religions with man-

tras that dupe the multitude.

The reasons for this situation are twofold.

On one hand, the scientific world view is

not only difficult to comprehend in its de-

WHY IT’S SO IMPORTANT THAT OUR STUDENTS LEARN MORE ABOUT SCIENCE _ iii

tails, it is also far less reassuring than more

simplistic and homocentric versions of the

universe. On the other, formulas and prin-

ciples, rather than scientific outlook and

critical analysis, are generally taught in our

science courses.

The spiritual and aesthetic components

of the scientific quest are usually neglected

in favor of the practical. Efforts must be

made to convey to students the thrill and

excitement associated with new discover-

ies, the beauty and harmony of physical

laws, the mind-boggling vastness and also

the minuteness that constitute the universe,

the ultimate simplicity and order under-

lying scientific processes, the frustrations

and triumphs of individual scientists in

their struggle to unravel a secret of nature.

The Copernican revolution kicked man

off the center of the universe. Later, even

our sun was shown to be an insignificant

speck at the edge of a grand galaxy that in

turn is but one of billions in the vast ex-

panse of void. There would seem to be no

greater deflater of the ego than the revela-

tions of astronomy. A little reflection,

however, should reassure us that we are not

all that insignificant.

AS FAR AS WE KNOW, no Star ever specu-

lates on the birth and death of human be-

ings; no galaxy computes its distance from

Earth; no quasar compares its mighty energy

with that of our sun; and there is no pulsar

or black hole, no nova or galactic center

that is concerned with the human condition.

Yet the human mind has penetrated the

most distant recesses of space and time,

and the most subtle palpitations of physical

reality. Aside from electromagnetic radia-

tion, only the human mind is capable of

bringing together the past and the present,

the near and the distant elements of the

universe.

All this suggests our pre-eminence in the

cosmos, fleeting though it may be. It re-

minds us that our true glory lies not in our

physical dimensions or cosmic location but

in our intellectual and spiritual capacties—

to think and probe, to feel and reflect, to

experience joy and sorrow. We have been

made aware of such basic truths most effec-

tively by science. It will be unfortunate if

that insight is not experienced by our stu-

dents—all the more so now, when the my-

opic equate science with nuclear bombs,

acid rain, and pollution.

Scientific appraisal invariably transcends

cultural and nationlistic narrowness, puts

parochial claims of religious distinctiveness

in their proper perspective, and reveals the

absurdity of racial and sexual prejudices. If

we can enrich the awareness resulting from

such appraisal by encouraging our students

to develop respect, compassion, and con-

sideration for other human beings, how

fruitful our educational efforts will prove

to be.

V. V. Raman is professor of physics at the

Rochester Institute of Technology. This com-

mentary is reprinted with permission of the

author and the Chronicle of Higher Educa-

tion.

Journal of The Washington Academy of Sciences,

Volume 74, Number 3, Pages 61-66, September 1984

High Technology, Can Higher Education

Meet the Challenge’

Nina M. Roscher

Vice Provost and Professor of Chemistry

The American University

Washington, D.C. 20016

In order to better understand the inter-

relationships of high technology and edu-

cation, it is important to understand the

requirements for high technology and the

state of America’s colleges and universities

in the 1980s.

Technological development is based pri-

marily on individuals with basic back-

grounds in science, engineering and related

fields. Peter Drucker’ in a discussion on

applied science and technology, suggests

“Technology is not then the application of

science to products and processes as is

often asserted—at best, this is a gross over-

simplification. In some areas for example,

Polymer chemistry, pharmaceuticals, atomic

energy, space exploration and computers,

the line between scientific inquiry and

technology is a blurred one. The scientists

who find new basic knowledge and the

technologist who developed specific prod-

ucts and processes are one and the same

man. In other areas, however, highly pro-

ductive efforts are still primarily concerned

with technological problems and have little

connection to science as such.

“In the design of mechanical equipment,

machine tools, textile machinery, printing

presses, scientific discoveries as a rule play

a very small part and scientists are not

commonly found in the research laboratory.

More important is the fact that science,

even where most relevant, provides only

the starting point for technological effort.

The greatest amount of work on new prod-

ucts and processes comes well after the

scientific contribution has been made. Know-

how in the technological contribution takes

a good deal more time and effort in most

cases than the scientists know what. But

science is not a substitute for today’s tech-

nology, it is the base and starting point.”

Peter Drucker’ points out technological

research has not only a different metho-

dology for invention, it leads to a different

approach known as innovation or the pur-

poseful and deliberate attempt to bring

about through technological means a dis-

tinct change in the way man lives. Innova-

tion may begin by defining a need or an op-

portunity, which then leads to organizing

technological efforts to find a way to meet

the need or to exploit the opportunity. To

reach the moon, for example, required a

great deal of new technology. Once the

need had been defined, the technological

work was organized systematically to pro-

duce the technology.

Innovation can proceed from new scien-

tific knowledge in the analysis of the op-

portunities it might be capable of creating.

Innovation is not a product of the twen-

62 NINA M. ROSCHER

tieth century. Edison was an innovator as

well as an inventor. It is only, however, in

the twentieth century and largely through

the research laboratory and its approach to

research that innovation has become cen-

tral to technological effort. Innovation

technology is used as a means to bring

about change in education and in the econ-

omy. Thus, modern technology influences

traditional society and culture, but innova-

tion means that technological work is done

not only for technological reasons, but also

for non-technological reasons.

High technology requires not only the

inventor or innovator or the entrepeneur,

but development requires the finances or

the venture capitalist. No cash means trou-

ble in any industry. The new company is

not yet producing or selling a product so

the marketplace cannot pass judgment on

the company’s activities or products.’

A company and the venture capitalist

hope the product makes a splash in the

marketplace and sizeable profits will be

realized.

In a Wall Street Journal article* in Au-

gust of this year Ed Zschau and Don Ritter,

the Chairman and Vice-Chairman of the

Republican Task Force on high technology

initiatives in the House of Representatives

indicated that they believe the government

needs to foster an environment in which

innovation, new ideas and new companies

can flourish. They suggested four condi-

tions are needed for an environment that

promotes innovation.

@ “A strong commitment to basic re-

search. Deepening and broadening our un-

derstanding of fundamental processes will

form the basis for industries, processes,

and products in the future.

@ Incentives for investors, entrepreneurs,

and innovators provide the capital and

take the personal risks associated with

making technological advances, develop-

ing new products, establishing new com-

panies and rejuvenating mature industries.

@ A strong educational capability, par-

ticularly in the sciences that ensures an

ample quantity of trained technical and

managerial personnel and a broad base of

educated and well-trained citizens who can

meet the challenges of a rapidly changing

world.

@ Expanding market opportunities, do-

mestic as well as foreign, require healthy do-

mestic economic environment and aggres-

sive trade policy.”

How do the universities fit into this plan

for developing entrepreneurs and high tech-

nology. Obviously, there is the very vital

role of training scientists and engineeres in

a modern fashion. It is important to recog-

nize, however, that the number of docto-

rates in the physical sciences and mathema-

tics have been dropping. For example, in

1950 there were 200 mathematical scien-

tists completing their Ph.D.s which grew to

its peak in 1969-70 of 1300; it has dropped

back to about 800 with only 61% of the

Ph.D.s going to U.S. citizens in mathemat-

ics. The same pattern holds true in chemis-

try and physics’.

The pipeline of scientists and engineers is

also against us. Betty Vetter® reports that

the number of 22 year-olds will drop 26%

between 1983 and 1999. This year and next

year’s graduating classes will be the largest

in history and 25% larger than the class of

1998. The estimate is that currently from

seventh grade through college, 4.4% of the

men and 1.9% of the women earn a quanti-

tative bachelor’s degree. One in ten of the

men who earn a quantitative bachelor’s de-

gree will go on toa Ph.D. and one in twenty

of the women will go that far.

Universities have an added problem be-

sides not attracting the students to science

and engineering in large numbers, they are

not teaching the students with the latest

technology. Some reports have estimated

that engineering and science students today

are being trained on equipment that is

about four generations away from what is

being used in the new industries. The Na-

tional Science Foundation, the Office of

Education and other groups have conducted

surveys which suggest that probably a bil-

lion dollars would be required to provide

modern up-to-date equipment for the col-

HIGH TECHNOLOGY 63

leges and universities in the basic sciences

and engineering. A 1984 survey of univer-

sity chemistry departments suggests $500

million is needed for Chemistry instrumen-

tation alone’. Universities, neither public

nor private, have that amount of money to

invest. New modern instrumentation for

research is very expensive.

Spectrometers of all types, infra-red, ul-

tra-violet, visible, mass are all electroni-

cally run with their computers built in. The

“simple IRs”’ that cost $2-3,000 twenty

years ago now cost $40-50,000; which is

significantly greater than the inflation fac-

tor. The whole cost of the instrumentation

has escalated dramatically. A simple nuclear

magnetic resonance spectrometer to do

proton NMR that is designed for routine

work, nothing fancy, cost $30,000 four

years ago. The company no longer makes

the instrument because it would only do

routine work and was used only for teach-

ing purposes. A 90 megahertz instrument

cost $100,000 about six years ago. The state

of the art 500 megahertz instrument is

about a half-million dollars without con-

sidering the aspects of the money and per-

sonnel required to maintain it or the auxil-

lary computers required to process the data.

However, NMR is only one of four or

five spectral techniques which most or-

ganic and biochemists would employ to do

studies on molecular structure. A mass

spectrometer (simple version $100,000),

IR, UV-Visible, possibly X-ray, atomic ab-

sorption, etc., are also required by the or-

ganic chemist. The equipment required by

the biologist, in modern DNA studies, gene

splitting, etc., of course, is even more

expensive.

Engineering schools have always been

equipment based and have problems greater

than the sciences. However, the problems

for science and engineering departments of

universities go beyond the equipment; per-

sonnel is a very key aspect of the whole

process. The figures for the Fall of 1984 on

the unfilled vacancies in engineering and

computer science are not yet available but

there is no reason to expect that things will

have improved substantially. In 1983 engi-

neering schools across the country had

about 10% of their positions unfilled.*

Computer science faculty in most universi-

ties have degrees from either engineering or

sciences. Ph.D.s in computer science were

not generally offered 20 years ago, but

there are special problems with the scien-

tists and engineers who go into computer

science because they quickly find life is

more lucrative outside academia; academic

salaries are simply not competitive with in-

dustry. They never have been, but the gap

has been widening in recent years. In some

state universities while the salaries for fa-

culty may be higher overall than they are in

private institutions, many state universities

preclude paying differential salaries for

marketplace conditions so that added sal-

ary cannot be provided to the engineering

faculty. Private universities whose salaries

are often lower are more likely to pay the

added salary for the engineer or scientist

but they still simply are not competitive.

Unfortunately, the salary differential has

an additional impact on the high school

science and math teachers who are well

trained and who can find an even greater

salary differential. The number of trained

science and math teachers leaving secon-

dary education for the industrial market-

place is growing and is a problem that the

nation must face and recognize.”

The Panel on Technical Manpower Re-

sources’ reports:

‘““Today’s shortage in engineering faculty

comes at a time when the demand for an

engineering education is skyrocketing. The

Engineering faculty Shortage Project notes

that many deans—more than 80% surveyed

—report that the quality of instruction has

declined: class sizes are reaching unmanage-

able levels; existing faculty already over-

loaded have become more so; and the overall

system is showing signs of fatigue if not out-

right collapse. Although engineering grad-

uates may be turned out in appreciable

quantities, the quality of their education is

being progressively degraded.”’

64 NINA M. ROSCHER

The cooperation needed between univer-

sities and high tech industries is, of course,

best exemplified by Silicon Valley and Stan-

ford University. It is important to recognize,

however, that there are certain special char-

acteristics that led to the success of Silicon

Valley. First of all, Stanford owned 8,800

acres of land which they could not sell. Stan-

ford administrators were faced with the

problem of converting the University land

into money.’°

Stanford, prior to Silicon Valley, was not

the great university it is today. The whole

concept of Silicon Valley as a high technol-

ogy industrial park was really the idea of

Frederick Terman who was then Vice Presi-

dent of Stanford. Terman said the idea of

an industrial park near a university was

completely foreign, both to Stanford and

to the firms that would become leasees. The

first leasee for the Stanford industrial park

was Varian Associates who had some rented

buildings in San Carlos. In 1951 they

signed the first lease for four acres prepaying

$4,000 an acre for a 99 year lease. There is

no inflation clause in that original agree-

ment and it has been suggested that Varian

Associates probably has one of the sweetest

land deals in Silicon Valley. Hewlett Pack-

ard took a lease in 1954 and became really

the lease nucleus for Silicon Valley. Terman

would use Packard or Hewlett to talk

about the advantages of being close to a

university; today there are 90 tenant firms

employing 25,000 workers in the Stanford

research park.'°

The park contributed financially to the

growth of Stanford in that the prepaid

leases provided 18 million dollars which

was used to retain and recruit star faculty.

In 1981 the annual income was about 6 mil-

lion dollars per year. The advantage of the

income from Stanford Research Park is

that is is unrestricted and can be put to any

good use by the Stanford administrators. "”

A very important aspect of the develop-

ment for Stanford and the use of the funds

was Terman’s plan for Stanford’s assent—

the strategy ‘“‘Steeples of Excellence.’ His

view was academic prestige depends upon

high, but narrow steeples of academic ex-

cellence, rather than upon coverage of

more modest height extending solidly over

a broad discipline. Exactly what is a steeple?

Terman defined it as “A small faculty

group of experts in a narrow area of knowl-

edge and what counts is the steeple be high

for all to see and that they relate to some-

thing important.”

Many universities have attempted to fol-

low the Stanford model, route 128 in Bos-

ton is one example, the North Carolina Re-

search Park is another. All of the successes

relate to the association with a research

university. However, the research university

also must have policies that facilitate tech-

nological transfer through close industry-

university relationships. The successful uni-

versities also have had programs which are

strong in engineering, and the engineering

professors took the lead of spinning off

new high technological firms. Computer

science and biomedical professors are also

increasingly engaged in entrepreneurial ac-

tivities. Engineering, computer science and

biomedicine are all highly applied university

fields. They do not exist as pure academic

disciplines. Commercial firms exploit the

advantages and basic knowledge that are

made by university scholars.’”

Everett Rodgers and Judith Larsen”

point out “It is worth noting that Harvard

and Berkeley, universities near MIT and

Stanford, respectively, did not play much

of a role in Route 128 or in Silicon Valley.

They are excellent academic institutions,

but both Berkeley and Harvard lack an

ethos favorable for technology transfer

from university scientists to private firms.

Neither Berkeley nor Harvard is particularly

strong in engineering; their strength is in

more basic science and fields like the social

sciences and humanities. There were two

important spin-offs from Harvard Univer-

sity to Route 128, Wang Laboratories

begun in 1952 by Dr. Wang of Harvard’s

computer lab and Polaroid launched in

1937 by Ed Land. There were almost no

Harvard spin-offs during the 60’s and 70’s

when the MIT engineers were busy getting

Route 128 going.

California Institute of Technology in Pas-

HIGH TECHNOLOGY 65

adena is an outstanding engineering school;

it has one special kind of spin-off—the jet

propulsion laboratory which does high

technology work in aeronautics space in-

dustry. But other than JPL, Cal Tech did

not help create a high tech complex in Pasa-

dena. “It’s as if any entrepreneurial spark

that might have been generated at Cal Tech

suffocated in the smog of the greater Los

Angeles basin,” ° In an information society

the university, particularly the research

university, where the production of Ph.D.s

and the conduct of scientific research is the

main activity of the central institution

much as the factory was in the previous

area of industrial society, it is not an acci-

dent that most high technology systems in

the United States are centered around a

prestigious research university. A nearby

source of well trained graduates for work in

high technology firms plus a steady flow of

research-based technologies are important

contributions by the research university in

Silicon Valley.

Since the founding of Stanford in 1951,

there have been 18 other specifically related

research parks which have been created in

attempts to attract industrial firms—all were

modeled after Stanford’s. The University

of Miami has been unable to attract any in-

dustrial occupants and the university re-

search park in Georgia has been able to at-

tract only one occupant, the University

Nursery School for Faculty Children.’

Another very important aspect of all of

these is the venture capital. One third of the

available capital is concentrated in Silicon

Valley, most of the rest isin New York and

Boston and almost none of it in other parts

of the United States. Other important as-

pects are the climate and quality of life."

People who can work anywhere gener-

ally prefer to reside in an area with a sunny

climate. However, sunshine is not the only

aspect, the quality of life such as the avail-

ability of beaches, ski areas, theatres and

other culture amenities which can be found

in a metropolitan center also seem to be

important for success.

However, it has been suggested the most

important single factor is entrepreneurial

fever. It’s doubtful that a university in for-

mal classes can teach entrepreneurship.

Entrepreneurship is probably best learned

by example. Successful role models who

people can actually meet and get to know

lead to the “‘he did it, why can’t I’ concept.

Most communities and states that attempt

to establish a scientific complex seek to do

it by transplanting growth and appear to

ignore the importance of growth from

within. Instead of trying to seduce other cit-

ies’ companies, officials wanting to start a

high tech complex should be thinking about

their own spin-offs. The conglomeration of

spin-offs in the same neighborhood as their

parent firms is why high technology com-

plex builds up in a region. The chain reac-

tion of spin-offs from spin-offs is a kind of

natural process. Setting off the initial spark

is the key.'°

The research triangle in North Carolina

began in 1960 with the founding of Re-

search Triangle Park which was a 6,000

acre Research and Development center

that now contains 40 private government

organizations in such fields as electronics,

pharmaceuticals, and air pollution. An

early boost was provided by IBM when it

decided to locate one of its Research and

Development operations there in 1965.

With the cooperation of Duke, North Ca-

rolina State and the University of North

Carolina, along with the support of the

state government, the research triangle of-

fered low taxes, freedom from unionization

and a pleasant climate. The Research Tri-

angle has also generally concentrated on

microelectronics and the North Carolina

governor has recently convinced his legis-

lature to put up 24 million dollars for a

microelectronic center at North Carolina,a

research and training facility. However, the

Research Triangle does not yet have ven-

ture capital, nor has it yet developed the en-

trepreneurial spin-offs. '°

Everett Rodgers” suggests that the suc-

cessful high technology complexes have

been planned, have a research university

with policies to encourage the involvement

of faculty with industry, have venture capi-

tal present, have the entrepreneurial spirit

66 NINA M. ROSCHER

demonstrated by spin-offs and have either

good climate or quality of life or both. The

other aspect isa commitment from the uni-

versities, the state governments and a key

industry to begin the process. Both Virginia

and Maryland, through the state govern-

ments and universities, are promoting the

concept of developing research parks in the

Metropolitan area in Northern Virginia

and near the University of Maryland. It is

too early to tell whether or not these ven-

tures will be successful. Both have some of

the necessary ingredients, but neither has

them all. The Virginia General Assemby

has approved $11 million for the construc-

tion of a center for innovative technology

to be built near Dulles International Air-

port, plus an additional $19 million to im-

prove research facilities at five of the state

universities. '’

The state of Ohio is using fields in which

Ohio is already strong to develop its uni-

versity-high tech center. For example, the

Edison Polymer Innovation Corporation

received slightly more than five million dol-

lars from the state and will be operated

jointly by the University of Akron and

Case Western Reserve."

Will higher education meet the challenges

of high technology? Higher education can,

but only through the cooperation of indus-

try, state and federal government and chang-

ing approaches to university policies.

There is probably going to be a need for

increasing sponsorship by the government

for basic research, more tax incentives for

corporate contributions to educational in-

stitutions, more flexibility in both universi-

ties and corporations in their employment

policies and there needs to be strengthening

of patent laws. There needs to be estab-

lishment of a comprehensive and forward-

looking federal policy that recognizes the

role of science and technology in the eco-

nomic health of the country and encour-

ages innovative scientific and technological

development facilitating their incorpora-

tion into the economy.

As the American Chemical Society com-

municated recently'® ‘“We must sustain a

strong and long-term federal commitment

to the development of a creative scientific

personnel in a knowledge base upon which

the country can base its economic future.”

The universities are the central key in the

development of their faculty and their facil-

ities to better train students. It is going to

take everyone’s effort to ensure success.

References Cited

1. Presented in part of the September meeting of the

Washington Academy of Science, American Uni-

versity, Washington, D.C. (1984).

2. Krangberg, Melvin and Carroll W. Pursell, Jr., eds.

Technology in Western Civilization, Volume III:

Technology in the Twentieth Century, Oxford

University Press, Inc. (1967).

3. Burked, John G. and Marshall C. Eakin, eds. Tech-

nology and Change, Boyd and Frasce Publishing

Co., San Francisco (1979).

4. Zschau, Ed and Don Ritter. ““Encourage Innova-

tion Instead of Industrial Lemons’’. Wall Street

Journal, 1 August 1984, p. 24.

5. Doctoral Recipients from United States Universi-

ties, published by the National Research Council,

National Academy Press, Washington, D.C.

(1983).

6. ‘“‘The Science and Engineering Talent Pool,” Pro-

ceedings of the 1984 Joint Meeting of the Scien-

tific Manpower Commission and Engineering

Manpower Commission, Washington, D.C. May,

1984. Available from the Scientific Manpower

Commission, Washington, D.C.

7. “Instrumentation Needs of Academic Depart-

ments of Chemistry’, Anal. Chem. 58, 1225A

(1984).

8. Engineering Manpower Bulletin, published by En-

gineering Manpower Commission, New York,

New York (1983-84). ,

9. Technical Excellence in America: Incentives for

Investment in Human Capital. Work in Progress,

June, 1984. Center for Strategic and Interna-

tional Studies, Georgetown University, Washing-

ton, D.C.

10. Rogers, Everett M. and Judith K. Larsen. Silicon

Valley Fever, Basic Books, Inc., New York, New

York (1984).

11. ‘‘Virginia Tech Center’’, Washington Post, 12 Sep-

tember 1984, p. B14.

12. Lepkowski, Will, ‘‘States Launches High-Tech

Program to Bolster Industrial Economy”, Chem.

& Eng. News, 17 September 1984, p. 9.

13. Letter from Warren Niederhauser, President,

American Chemical Society to Honorable Trent

Lott, Republican National Committee dated 27

April 1984.

Journal of The Washington Academy of Sciences,

Volume 74, Number 3, Pages 67-69, September 1984

Mathematical Selection of the Optimum

Uniform Partition Search

Alan John Hu

La Jolla High School

La Jolla, CA 92037

(619)454—7283

ABSTRACT

Given a sorted list of records, traditional search algorithms attempt to minimize the number

of comparisons. If the list is on magnetic tape or similar media, however, time spent moving

the tape becomes significant. In this paper, the author develops a pair of formulae which deter-

mine the fastest search algorithm given the characteristics of the data storage device. Applying

the results to a typical test case resulted in a 42% reduction in search time over the binary

search and a 55% reduction in time over the sequential search.

1. Introduction

Given a sorted list of records, traditional

search algorithms attempt to minimize the

number of comparisons, or, equivalently,

the number of reads into the list. If the list is

on magnetic tape or similar media, how-

ever, time spent moving the tape becomes

significant. Thus, the problem is to mini-

mize search time if we include both time

spent reading records and time spent travel-

ing from one record to another.

We shall restrict ourselves to uniform

partition searches, i.e. searches which con-

sist of recursively dividing the list into sub-

lists of uniform size. The uniform partition

search that partitions each list into two equal

sublists is the binary search, designated by

p = 2. When p = 3, we partition each list

into three equal sublists. When p equals the

total number of records, we have a sequen-

tial search. Thus, the integer p, between 2

and n, determines a search algorithm rang-

ing from the binary search, when p = 2, to

the sequential search, when p =n. We

shall use the word “‘level”’ to denote parti-

tioning the list (or sublist) into p sublists,

1.e. one level of a search with p = 3 entails

partitioning the list into three sublists and

finding the sublist which contains the de-

sired record; the next level partitions this

sublist into three equal (sub)sublists and

finding the (sub)sublist which contains the

desired record.

2. Derivation

To find the optimum number of parti-

tions, p, we must derive a function which

returns search time given p. Since search

68 ALAN JOHN HU

time is the sum of travel time and read time,

we have:

f(p) = KirQ) + Kit) (1)

where

F(p) = the time function

p = the number of partitions per level

r(p) = the number of reads needed dur-

ing the search

t(p) = the distance (in records) traveled

during the search

K, = time required to read one record

K, = time required to travel over one

record

Let us now consider r(p) and t(p) sep-

arately. The number of reads, r(p), is equal

to the product of the number of levels and

the number of reads per level. Since each

level produces a sublist which is 1/p the size

of the list, searching a list of n records will

require log,n levels. The probability that

the desired record be in any one of the p

sublists is 1/p. It takes one read to discover

that the desired record is in the first sublist;

two reads, the second sublist; three reads,

the third; and so forth. However, if the de-

sired record is in the pth (the last) sublist,

we will know after making p-1 reads be-

cause the record was not in sublists 1

through p-1. Therefore, the average num-

ber of reads is:

rip) = (owen) [2] a2 +34...

hp ee a beeper ahr)

(pt 2p — I)

= (logpn)

The distance traveled on a given level is

related to the number of reads per level be-

cause, for each read, we must travel over

1/p of the list. On the first level, the list is n

records long, so 1/p of the list is n/p. There-

fore, the average distance traveled on the

first level is n(p + 2)(p — 1)/2p*. Each

successive level will have the same average

travel, except that it will be 1/p as much.

Therefore, the average travel, ¢(p), is the

sum of the geometric series:

Ee + 2\(p — 2]

= SSS

Combining equations (1), (2), and (3), we

get our function for search time:

“a (p.+ DO wy

S(p) = K, logy n on Cea

Kee

3. Analysis

Before we start general analysis of f(p),

let us consider two special cases. First, if we

disregard travel time, we should get min-

imum search time at p = 2, 1.e. a binary

search. Setting K, = 0, we have:

(P+ 2)(p — 1)

2p logn p ( )

IND) se ls

Since the numerator is 0(p*) and the de-

nominator is O(plogp), we know that p

should be small. Numerical calculations

show that p = 2 is, indeed, optimum.

The second special case occurs when we

disregard read time. In this case, p = n,1.€.

a sequential search, should be optimum.

Setting K, = 0, we have:

K, n(p + 2)

ap (6)

[Or-

which is monotonically decreasing as p in-

creases. Therefore, p should be as large as

possible, giving p = n as optimum.

MATHEMATICAL SELECTION OF THE OPTIMUM UNIFORM PARTITION SEARCH 69

In general, we differentiate equation (4)

and set it equal to zero, yielding:

a (p)

_K, Inn _ —p’—pt+2Inpt+ 4

2 p(inpy

Kin

Tero 6)

Asn approaches infinity, so will p. Asymp-

totically, we get:

K, Inn Kin

Texas (8)

21n p Pp

more beautifully expressed as:

aes (=) (/ny? o

Inp K,/} In Jn

which gives us the optimum p given 7, K;,

and K,.

Note the interesting relationship between

p and Jn.

4. Conclusions

We have two equations ((4) and (9))

which can be used to minimize search time.

Equation (4) returns search time. By using

any of several numerical methods, we can

find the optimum p. If n is large and the

ratio K,/K, is not close to zero, we can use

the simpler asymptotic formula, equation

(9).

Testing the results of equation (4) on

Knuth’s MIXT tape unit’ produced a search

time 42% faster than a binary search, 55%

faster than a sequential search, and only

0.04% slower than the empirical optimum.

Using the p from equation (9) produced

identical speed improvement. Thus, these

formulae should be eminently useful.

References Cited

1. D. E. Knuth. 1973. Description of the details of the

MIXT tape unit. Sorting and Searching, The Art of

Computer Programming. Vol. 3, Addison-Wesley,

Reading, Massachusetts, pp. 320-323.

Journal of The Washington Academy of Sciences,

Volume 74, Number 3, Pages 70-76, September 1984

On Electrodynamic Processes

of Electrified Bodies

in Motion*

Albert G. Gluckman

Naval Surface Weapons Center

White Oak, Silver Spring, Maryland 20910

ABSTRACT

It is shown that there exists a homology of structure between the electrodynamic field equa-

tions derived in accordance with non-relativistic concepts set forth by von Helmholtz and

Hertz (lacking the Fitzgerald contraction factor), and the similar electrodynamic field equa-

tions which are derived by means of the l-parameter Lorentz tranformation group. Hertz’s

generalized version of Faraday’s law which he expressed as 3 scalar equations, is re-developed

here in vectorial format. Although the vector equation expressing Hertz’s 3 generalized scalar

equations of the Ampére’s law was derived, it is not included, since the same method is used.

These equations are constructed with the symmetrized electric and magnetic 6 field equiva-

lence relations that relate a field in motion relative to an observer, to one at rest, and which

relations were respectively derived by Helmholtz in 1874 and Hertz in 1890, and which re-

semble the 6 similar expressions that are extracted from the Maxwell field equations after

transformation by the Lorentz group, in the special relativity theory. These 6 self-same rela-

tions were introduced by Hertz into his re-formulation of the Maxwell equations in order to

extend them to electrodynamics.

Mention is also made of the work of G. F. C. Searle in 1896 and O. Heaviside in 1881, to

indicate that researches had already been initiated towards a second order theory (i.e., v’/c’)

in electrodynamics at that time. And mention is also made of B. Riemann’s suggestion of 1861,

to show that he had a proto-recognition of the need for a theory to describe a second order

electrodynamics, which would go beyond the Weber-Fechner theory, before Maxwell’s theory

appeared.

§1. Introduction

The recent publication by my friend and

long time colleague Thomas Phipps [1], of

his demonstration of the form-invariance

*A version of this was distributed as Circular no.

168 (March 1984) by the Research Association of

Applied Geometry, Center for Prevenient Natural

Philosophy, 1570 Yotsukaido City, Chiba-ken, 284

Japan.

of the Maxwell-von Helmholtz-Hertz elec-

tromagnetic field equations [2a, 2b; 3]

under the group G. of Galilean transfor-

mations, has led me to consider re-empha-

sizing and extending my 1967 published ob-

servations that the Hertzian formulation of

the Maxwell electromagnetic field equa-

tions for bodies at rest, can be reformulated

by means of 1874 electric force construc-

tions due to von Helmholtz, in addition to

ELECTRODYNAMIC PROCESSES GF ELECTRIFIED BODIES IN MOTION 71

1890 magnetic force constructions due to

Hertz, in such a way, as will be shown in §3,

that the resulting field equations are com-

pletely homologous in structure to those

arrived at by H. A. Lorentzin 1904 and by

Albert Einstein in 1905 for bodies in mo-

tion. This result from historical perspec-

tive, is conjoined by Phipps’s demonstra-

tion of form-invariance of the Hertzian

formulation of the electromagnetic field

equations, when transformed under the

group G. of Galilean transformations.

At the time when I published my brief

note [4]in January of 1967, I was enamored

by the fact that I could express Hertz’s gen-

eralized equations 1, and 1; for the electro-

magnetics of bodies in motion

Faraday’s law of induction

Cao + VX (AX V)t VV A=

cVXE

with

WOH XV) = V- Via: VV.

sad AVA Aen AVAL ob

Ampere’s law

(1h) DE +VX(EXV)+VV-E=

tN KH 4nd

with

VX(EXV)=V:VE-E:VV

eV eV VV E,

c being the velocity of the propaga-

tion of light in vacuo,

J being the electric current-density

vector.

in the following format, after having made

suitable physical restrictions:

Cc Cc

aM = -a{z + - u) + aX

oN = afr - * ») an OyX

y y

denY = a{w—2 r) Jee 9

duZ = -a(a wes z] None 7

But the above reformulations of Hertz’s

anti-symmetric fundamental equations 1,

and 1,, expressing Faraday’s and Ampere’s

laws, lack the Fitzgerald contraction factor.

It can be seen that there exists a homologous

correspondence between Hertz’s electro-

dynamic fundamental equations for electri-

fied bodies in motion, to those covariantly

transformed by means of the Lorentz trans-

formation group. Hertz’s electrodynamic

equations were constructed from the Max-

well equations for electrified bodies at rest,

with the symmetrized electric and magnetic

6 field equivalence relations. These field

equivalence relations relate a field in mo-

tion relative to an observer at rest, toa field

at rest in the observer’s rest frame. These

relations were respectively derived by Helm-

holtz in 1874 and Hertz in 1890. They re-

semble the 6 similar expressions (each with

a Fitzgerald contraction factor attached as

a reciprocal) that are extracted from the

Maxwell field equations after transforma-

tion by the Lorentz group.

No conclusion will be drawn here con-

cerning the Einstein reciprocity interpreta-

tion that is implied from the kinematic

symmetry of reciprocal observers, who are

in relative motion with respect to each

other. Their respective coordinate systems

are related by the group of Lorentz transfor-

mations.

Considerations involving the formula-

tion of the Maxwell electromagnetic equa-

tions and the selection of units, as was dis-

cussed by Leigh Page [5] in 1933, may be

applied to the study of the Hertzian equa-

tions. But the homology of the structures

derived by Helmholtzand Hertz, to the sim-

ilarly structured field forces for electrified

bodies in motion that are derived under the

Lorentz group, is independent of the selec-

tion of units.

“The English still adhere to the electro-

static and the electromagnetic units of Max-

well and the two corresponding sets of

asymmetrical equations, whereas in Eu-

72 ALBERT G. GLUCKMAN

rope and to a considerable extent in this

country the symmetrical Heaviside-Lorentz

or the Gaussian equations are employed.”’

§2. The work of Phipps concerning the

demonstration of form-invariance of the

Hertzian formulation of the electromagnetic

field equations (An elementary method of

demonstration of form-invariance). Let us

examine for example, the reduced form

(since Vis constant) of the single curl equa-

tion (consisting of 3 scalar equations) which

expresses Faraday’s law of induction, to wit,

df eV - Vic X E.

This equation can be form-invariantly trans-

formed under the group G of Galilean

coordinate transformations, so that this

system of equations with reference to the

coordinate system (x, y, z, t) can now be

expressed with reference to the coordinate

system (€, 7, ¢, 7) in uniform translatory

motion with velocity v relative to (x, y, Z, ft).

The velocity relation V = V — v(forthe

particular case of motion along the x-axis

in this example) can be derived from the

coordinate transformation = x — vt by

differentiation by t, where 0,é = V’,d,x = V,

and 7 = t.

Examine the single equation’

ee, et re = alas Bs Gy VEE xt

By substitution of the partials derived by

means of the chain rule

Z, = 2, + Zn + Zby + Z,7y ete.

with respect to the Galilean coordinate trans-

formations

E€=x-vwyn=y,FC=z,7T=t

and further substitution of the velocity pa-

rameter relation V’ = V—v, one gets the

transformed scalar equation

Zi Nie haa Vag

The same kind of demonstration can easily

be shown in the case of Ampére’s law in the

' Use is made here of the sub-script notation as ap-

plied by R. Courant. See his Differential and Integral

Calculus, vol. II, Interscience Publ. Inc., New York,

1956 edn., p. 142.

absence of conduction and convection cur-

rents.

ADDENDUM. Further remarks about form-

invariance. With regard to form-invariance

of the Hertzian equations, Hertz [2b; pp.

246-7] wrote the following in 1890, about

his system of equations.

“‘Our method of deducing the equations

. . . does not require that the system of co-

ordinates used should remain absolutely

fixed in space. We can, therefore, without

change of form, transform our equations

from the system of co-ordinates moving in

any manner through space, by taking a, B, y

to represent the velocity-components with

reference to the new system of co-ordinates,

and referring the constants €, u,A,X’, Y’, Z,

which depend upon direction, at every in-

stant to these. From this it follows that the

absolute motion of a rigid system of bodies

has no effect upon any internal electromag-

netic processes whatever in it, provided

that all the bodies under consideration, in-

cluding the ether as well, actually share the

motion. It further follows from this consid-

eration that even if only a single part of a

moving system moves as a rigid body, the

processes which occur in this part follow

exactly the same course as in bodies at rest.

If, nevertheless, the existing motion does

exert any influence upon this part, this in-

fluence can only arise in those portions of

the system in which distortion of the ele-

ments occurs, and must be propagated

thence into those portions which move

after the manner of rigid bodies.”

§3. Derivation of a format of the Hertzian

electromagnetic field equations which is com-

pletely homologous to the format of the

Maxwell field equations transformed under

the group of Lorentz transformations. Hertz’s

formulation of the Maxwell field equations

for bodies at rest is

OcrL = yt, ree 0-Y

03M = OX ra OZ. Cus — 0,N a ee

Ocr.N = OnN er OyX Oe = Od: an: 0,M

von Helmholtz [3] first showed in 1874,

using the older action-at-a-distance theories

01X = 0:M — dyN

ELECTRODYNAMIC PROCESSES OF ELECTRIFIED BODIES IN MOTION 73

of Franz Neumann and W. Weber [6], that

if the electrostatic and magnetic forces are

placed in opposition to the electromagnetic

forces, then new relations could be derived

which express the orthogonal components

X, Y, Z, of electric force arising as soonasa

body moves in a magnetic field. Hertz de-

veloped a second set of such relations in

1890 which express the orthogonal compo-

nents L, M, N, of magnetic force experienced

in a non-conductor displaced through lines

of force of an electric field. Under suitable

physical and kinematical restrictions, the

following occurs where A = I/c.

von Helmholtz 1874

X, = A(yM — BN) 0

Pi Aah — ol). | ae

marge en) )o ot

Hertz 1890

L, = A(BZ — yY) 0

M, = A(yX — aZ) or

M, = A(aY — BX) a

X, Y,Z are orthogonal components of elec-

tric polarization (of the ether)

L, M, Nare orthogonal components of mag-

netic polarization (of the ether)

As Hertz has done, we split the forces so

that

X=X,+ XY L=1,+ 12

Y= yY,-+ Y, M=M,+ M

Z=Z:+Z, N=M+N,

where L2, M2, No are the magnetic orthogo-

nal components and X2, Y2, Z2 are the elec-

tric force orthogonal components of the

system in translational motion with veloc-

ity v, with respect to the rest frame of the

observer. The orthogonal electric field com-

ponents X, Y, Z, and the orthogonal mag-

netic field components L, M, N, are those

field components of a system at rest relative

to the observer.

In this conceptualization within the frame-

work of the Galilean transformation, this

motion describes a slowly moving electron

in the microcase for example, and is an ap-

proximation to the relativistic case. This

conceptualization is capable of being for-

mulated as either a 3- or 4-dimensional pic-

ture, in which latter case it depends on the

explicit usage of the homogeneous holo-

nomic coordinates x, y, Z, ct for a consistent

representation. The usage of the operator 0¢;

on Lpetc. instead of (1/c X d/dt) on Lzetc.

stresses the 4-dimensional picture, whereas

the latter lays stress upon the 3-dimensional

picture. The advantage of using the 4-

dimensional picture, it turns out, is that as

an added bonus, one is able to construct the

two anti-symmetric 2nd order cartesian

World tensors”

0 LiiirX 2 peer

eZ 0 X, —M)

Ve ee ag

15 M, N> 0

and

0 —N> M, —-X)

N? 0 Eat tak

—M, E> 0 soa Sp)

X2 Y> Z2 0

Because of the property of distributivity

of differential operators, and by taking dif-

fehences. 1c.

OnM =F Oc(M, oh M)) = OM, Zs Ocr1M2 aor

Oc.M> = 00M at Oc.M

etc., the original formulation of the electro-

* It is possible to use the operator format (1/c X 0/dt)

to express a second version of both of the above 4-

dimensional cartesian World tensors, but in this case

one gives up the application of homogeneous coordi-

nates. Both formulations of the field equations in

these 2 format cases however, use the Gaussian system

of mixed units, i.e., e.m.u. and e.s.u. Handedness of

the system of field equations must be taken into ac-

count for a complete sign correspondence of tensor

components.

74 ALBERT G. GLUCKMAN

magnetic field equations, can now be re-

formulated as

OctL2 = OyZ2 — 02Y2

OccM = 02X27 — 0x22

Ocr.N2 = 0xY2 — 0,X2

OcX2 = 0:Mr — 0,N2

Oc Y2 = 0,N2 — 02L2

OcrZ2 = OyL2 — 0xM2

where

X> ee L> ah

Bay, a i eZ

Cc C

7 Es ME Ina oi Sy

Cc Cc

which provides an equation structure that

is completely homologous to that arrived

at by H. A. Lorentzin 1904 and Albert Ein-

stein in 1905.

NOTE. If one changes the sense of the

coordinate system from a right

handed one to a left handed one,

those terms on only one side of the

Maxwell equations merely change

sign. Maxwell used a different hand-

edness from von Helmholtz, who

used the other handedness.

§4. Historical note. G. F. C. Searle [7]

had in 1896, by the use of different methods,

developed the same expressions as the ones

above. Thus he had:

x i

Y--W M+i=Z

Cc C

Zt MM

c z c

The term c’*/(c’ — v’) = (1 — v’/c’)' was

found by Oliver Heaviside in 1881. Hertz

acknowledged that Oliver Heaviside, work-

ing in the same vein as himself, had since

1885 begun to simplify and extract the es-

sence of the Maxwell field equations.

It may be of interest to review K. Hat-

tendorf, “Schwere, Elektricitat und Magne-

tismus nach den Vorlesungen von B. Riemann”

(Hannover, 1875) p. 326, for a description

of Riemann’s 1861 suggestion concerning

the presentation by Weber of his electro-

kinetic energy formulation. Refer to foot-

note 2 on p. 206, of E. Whittaker, “‘A His-

tory of the Theories of Aether and Electricity”,

vol. 1, Harper & Brothers, New York, 1960,

for the Lagrangian function of Riemann’s

electrokinetic theory of 1861. Note the Fitz-

gerald contraction factor.

Acknowledgments

My thanks go to Tom Phipps for his en-

couragement and warmth, and his stead-

fast position regarding the application of

the Galilean transformation to Hertz’s elec-

trodynamic equations. And my thanks go

also to my long time friend Morton Lutzky

(of the Naval Surface Weapons Center) for

his helpful crystallizing discussion on the

essentials of the Galilean transformation,

and the dependency of the velocity relation

on the coordinate transformations. I sup-

pose that as a first case, Woldemar Voigt

would have immediately written the trans-

formations as

E€=x—lvt,n = y-—mvt,C=z-—nvt,7r=t

with /’ + m?+n* = 1, forming a group

with 3 essential parameters; v and 2 direc-

tion cosines.

References Cited

1. T. E. Phipps, Jr., “BOOK REVIEW; Albert Ein-

stein’s Special Theory of Relativity: Emergence

(1905) and Early Interpretation (1905-1911)”, by

A. I. Miller; Foundations of Phys. /3, no. 9 (1983)

959.

2. (a) H. Hertz, ‘On the fundamental equations of elec-

tromagnetics for bodies at rest’, Gottinger Nachr.,

March 10, 1890; Wiedemann’s Annalen 40, p. 577;

and also see chapter XIII, “ELECTRIC WAVES”,

Dover Publications, Inc., New York, 1962.

(b) H. Hertz, ‘‘On the fundamental equations of elec-

tromagnetics for bodies in motion’’, Wiedmann’s

Annalen 4] (1890) 369; and also see chapter XIV,

“ELECTRIC WAVES’’, Dover Publications, Inc.,

New York, 1962.

3. H. von Helmholtz, ‘“‘Gesammelte Abhandlung’’ (Col-

lected Works) 1, p. 745; Borchardt’s Journal fur

Mathem. 78 (1874) 273.

ELECTRODYNAMIC PROCESSES OF ELECTRIFIED BODIES IN MOTION 75

4. A. G. Gluckman, “‘Historical Note on the symmetry

of electrodynamic processes of electrified bodies in

motion’, Proceedings of the IEEE, 55, no. 1 (1967)

123.

5. L. Page, “‘Mathematical considerations underlying

the formulation of the electromagnetic equations

and the selection of units’, Bulletin of the National

Research Council, no. 93, Dec., 1933, pp. 39-47.

6. K. F. Gauss, “Werke’’, 5, 629; letter of 1845 to

Weber.

7. G.F. C. Searle, ‘Problems in Electric Convection’,

Phil. Trans., clxxxvii (1896) pp. 675-713.

APPENDIX. Derivation of the vector for-

mat of Hertz’s version of Faraday’s law.

Hertz expressed his 1890 extension of Fara-

day’s law as

Af{da,L +0,(BL — aM) — d{aN — yL)

Ee — Oe, oy

A{a.M d.(BL — aM) + d(y~yM — BN)

+ BB} = —0;Z + 0X

A{d,N + d<aN — yL) — 0,(yM — BN)

+ yB} = 0xY — 0,X

where with respect to the x-, y-, and z-coor-

dinate axes,

L, M, N are the orthogonal components of

magnetic polarization

a = V;,, B = V,, and y = V. are the veloc-

ity components of the electrified body

in uniform motion

X, Y, Z are the orthogonal components of

the electric force vector E

B=0,L+0M+0:N=V-:H

A = 1/c where cis the velocity of the prop-

agation of light in vacuo

These equations to which Hertz referred as

1,in his paper [2b], can now be re-expressed

where

F\. = V,L — VM, F\3 = V;N — V.L,

F,3 = V.M — Vyn

and

if; = 1(0,F 2 — 02F\3),

The = J(0-Fo3 — 0xF 12),

kfs = k(0.Fi3 — 0)F23)

Derivation of the curl, V X (H X V).

ifi + jh +kfp =

10yF 2 — 10-F 13 + —jdxFio + jo-Fo3 +

kd.Fi3 — kdyF23

By distributing with respect to Fy (7

j = 1, 2, 3) one gets

(id, — jdx)Fi2 + (kd, — id2)Fi3

+ (jd: — kdy)Fr3 = (J X kay — k X 10x) Fi2

+ (i X jax —jJ X kd.)Fis

+ (k X id, — i X jd,) Fo:

= (j X ka, +i X kd.)Fi2

+ (i X jd, + k X ja)Fis

+ (k X id, + j X i0))Fr3

= (jd, + idx) X kFi2

+ (id, + kd2) X jFi3

+ (kd. + ja,) X iF;

= (id, + ja, + kd.) X kFi2

+ (id, + jd, + kd.) X jFi3

+ (i, + jd, + kd.) X iFx

= V X (iFo3 + jFi3 + kF 2)

= 7X ((V.M — V,n)i + (VN — V.L)j

+(V,L —V,.M)k]= VY X[(Li+ Mj+ Nk)

ks ich a. V XA XV)

idsL | + idyFir — i0-Fis | + iVdxL + iV.d,M + iV.d.N iaZ ay)

+ | + | + + +

jaiM | — jaxFir + j0-Fo | + jVydxL + jVydyM + jVyd:N >} =4 jc(a-X — d,Z)

ab biinsek + | + + +

kaiNj + kdxFi3 — kd,Fos I+ kV.dxL + kV.dy)M + kV.0:N ke(x¥ — 4,X)

a,H + ifi + ife + Kf + Va, +VdM+VaN = cVXE

Nis ed

VV-H

76 ALBERT G. GLUCKMAN

Notice that the above construction of the

operator V is made by adding the terms

ixi=jxj=Hkxk=0.

Three depictions of Hertz’s representation of

Faraday’s law. Therefore, from the above

reformulation, Hertz’s extension of Fara-

day’s law can be expressed as

H+ V X(HXV)4+ VV-H

=cV XE eqn. A

However,

ro\(HW X V) = VX (HX V)=V-VH

—(V-H)V+(V-V)H —H-VV

and therefore, the equation of the law can

now be expressed as

0H+V:-VH=cV XE eqn. B

since VV and V - V vanish because V is un1-

form and therefore unchanging.

By means of suitable restriction, the

components of magnetic polarization can

be reduced to the orthogonal components

L, M, N of the magnetic force vector H.

This can be accomplished if the second

order contravariant permeability tensor is

such that un” = 6’, where the contravariant

Kronecker delta

Oifi 4+;

Mir J

When this restriction is made, one can

then rewrite the vector equation as

0H+V:-VH=cV XE eqn. C

where H is the magnetic force vector.

Ampere’s law. The vector format for Am-

pere’s law may be derived in a similar

manner; and I have shown this as equation

1, of the Introduction. The vectorial deriva-

tion of Ampére’s law is omitted here in

order to save printing space. The above ex-

ample should suffice.

Historical remarks regarding Hertz’s use of

the partial derivative. The notation for the

partial differential coefficient that was used

by Hertz, was d/dx etc. This use of the

“‘straight-backed d’’ was in common usage

during the 19th century, and its meaning as

a partial was intended to be conveyed from

its context. This same notation, for ex-

ample, was also used by H. von Helmholtz,

J.C. Maxwell, O. Heaviside, and G. F. C.

Searle; authors, whose work in the study of

electromagnetics has been referred to above.

This failure to adopt the “‘curly-d”’ for par-

tial differentiation (which was independ-

ently rediscovered in 1841 by C. G. J. Ja-

cobi, although it was first used in 1770 by

the Marquis de Condorcet’, and a little

later by A. M. Legendre’ in 1786) is high-

lighted by the remark made by S. F. Lacroix”

in 1810, viz.,

“Really, dz/dx, dz/dy are as clear as

(dz/dx), (dz/dy) when one knows before-

hand that zis a function of two independent

variables x and y, which the statement of

the question, or the meaning of which it is

susceptible, always indicates”’.’

' See p. 225 of “A history of mathematical notations”,

vol. 2, by F. Cajori, The Open Court Publishing

Company, Chicago, Illinois.

*Ibidem, pp. 226-7.

>The above cited notation which parenthetisizes

the ‘‘straight d’’, is due to L. Euler, and he first used it

in the year 1755.

Journal of The Washington Academy of Sciences,

Volume 74, Number 3, Pages 77-80, September 1984

The Scientific Achievement Awards

of the Academy: 1984

Sherman Ross

General Chairman, Washington Academy of Sciences

The Scientific Achievement Awards of

the Academy were presented at a meeting

on March 28, 1984 at The American Uni-

versity, Washington, D.C. Nine awards

were made for significant contributions to

research, and one award for science teach-

ing. This program of the Academy was

started in 1939 to recognize young scien-

tists for “‘. . . noteworthy discovery, accom-

plishment, or publication in the Biological,

Physical, and Engineering Sciences.” An

award for Outstanding Teaching was added

in 1955 (renamed in 1979 as the Leo Schu-

bert Award), and in Mathematics in 1959.

In 1975 the award for the Behavioral Sci-

ences was added, as well as the Berenice G.

Lambert Award for Teaching of High

School Science.

Awards for Scientific Achievement were

presented to the following individuals for

distinguished contributions:

Robert J. Englar, (David W. Taylor Naval

Ship Research and Development Center,

Bethesda, MD) was selected in the Engi-

neering Sciences for outstanding achieve-

ments in high lift wing system development.

Throughout his career, starting in 1965asa

co-op student, Mr. Englar has demonstrated

an unusual understanding of engineering

principles and an exceptional ability in

applying these principles to problem solv-

ing in aerodynamic research. In particular

he developed a naval high lift wing concept,

the Circulation Control Wing (CCW). The

application can revolutionize aircraft wing

designs and structures so that they no

longer have to be compromised by the

complexities of low speed mechanical high

lift systems, and can be optimized as smaller

wings for high speed cruise. His reports,

papers, and patents indicate the availability

of a revolutionary improvement in simpli-

fied aircraft high lift systems, and have pro-

vided a major data base for many types of

airfoil/hydrofoil/control surface applica-

tions.

Mr. Englar received a B.S. degree in Aero-

space Engineering from the Virginia Poly-

technic Institute, and an M.S. degree in the

same area from the University of Maryland.

He has had additional study in advanced

technology and management.

Gordon C. Everstine, (David Taylor Ship

Research & Development Center, Be-

thesda, MD) was recognized in the area of

Mathematical and Computer Sciences for

advances in finite element techniques for

mechanical problems. He has made signifi-

cant contributions by developing effective

predictive methods for a variety of prob-

78 SHERMAN ROSS

lems. The key to the solution of these prob-

lems with existing general purpose of finite

element structural analysis computer codes

was his detailed development of the analo-

gies between the equations of elasticity and

those of classical mathematical physics.

This work led to Dr. Everstine’s develop-

ment of the first generally available proce-

dure for the reliable prediction of the linear

response of general submerged structures

to shock loadings. A second major finite

element contribution was the development

of a computer algorithm and program

(BANDIT) to speed up the solution of ma-

trix equations. This contribution has been

widely recognized.

Dr. Everstine received a B.S. in Engi-

neering Mechanics from Lehigh University,

an M.S. in Engineering from Purdue Uni-

versity, and a Ph.D. in Applied Mathematics

from Brown University. He has served at

the DTHSRDC since 1969.

Henry W. Heikkinen (University of Mary-

land) was selected for the Leo Schubert

Award for the Teaching of Science for his

outstanding teaching/advising in the De-

partment of Chemistry. He has been hon-

ored for teaching excellence, and has made

extensive contributions in the development

and improvement of textbooks, audiovisual

materials and microcomputer software for

student use. He is recognized nationally

and internationally for his activities in

chemical education.

Dr. Heikkinen received a B.Eng. in

Chemical Engineering from Yale University.

He was awarded an M.A. in Science Educa-

tion from Columbia University, and Ph.D.

in Chemical Education from the University

of Maryland.

Thomas J. Kelly, (U.S. Department of Ag-

riculture, Beltsville, MD) was recognized in

the Biological Sciences for innovative and

significant research in insect endocrinology.

In the area of insect reproduction and devel-

opment he has discovered a new larva

molding hormone, a new mode of action

for an antigonadotropic hormone in Dip-

tera and possibly in other insects and an-

thropods. In addition, Dr. Kelly has devel-

oped a number of highly sensitive assays

for quantifying insect hormones, and has

investigated their endocrinological roles

and interactions.

Dr. Kelly received a B.S. in Chemistry

and a Ph.D. in Cell Biology from the Uni-

versity of Illinois at Champaign-Urbana.

He did postdoctoral research at the Uni-

versity of Pennsylvania and the University

of Notre Dame. Then, he joined the Insect

Reproduction Laboratory at the USDA-

ARS, Beltsville, MD.

Raja Parasuraman, (The Catholic Uni-

versity of America) was selected in the Be-

havioral Sciences for his outstanding con-

tributions in the area of vigilance and

signal detection. These researches in neuro-

science are recognized as innovative and

exciting. His studies involve attention,

search, monitoring, perception, perform-

ance, signal detection, vigilance, and brain

correlates (evoked potentials).

Dr. Parasuraman received a B.Sc. degree

in Electrical Engineering from the Imperial

College of Science and Technology, Uni-

versity of London, and an M.Sc. and Ph.D.

in Applied Psychology from the University

of Aston, Birmingham, England. After ap-

pointments at the Lanchester Polytechnic

and the Wolverton Polytechnic in England,

he was a research fellow, in the Department

of Psychology at U.C.L.A. He came to The

Catholic University of America in 1982 as

Associate Professor of Psychology and Di-

rector of the Psychophysiology Laboratory.

Dr. Phil Skolnick (National Institute of

Arthritis, Diabetes, Digestive and Kidney

Diseases, Bethesda, MD) was recognized in

the Biological Sciences for his contribu-

tions toward the characterization of the

neurochemical basis of anxiety. In 1978 Dr.

Skolnick and his collaborators isolated,

characterized and identified the first en-

dogenous ligands of the benzodiazepine re-

ceptor and demonstrated behaviorally and

electrophysiologically that high concentra-

tions of these agents have high Diazepam-

like properties. They showed that the binding

of Diazepam to specific receptors occurred

in vivo and in vitro. Further extensive

research has yielded a stochastic model of

the benzodiazepine receptor. This theo-

THE SCIENTIFIC ACHIEVEMENT AWARDS OF THE ACADEMY: 1984 79

retical model may also be applicable to

other neurotransmitter systems. In 1982,

Dr. Skolnick and his collaborators de-

scribed the first reproducible, chemically

induced model of anxiety in primates.

Dr. Skolnick received a B.S. degree

summa cum laude from Long Island Uni-

versity, and a Ph.D.in Pharmacology from

The George Washington University. He

joined the NIAMDD in 1972, and is the

current Chief, Section of Neurobiology.

Robert A. Owens, (Beltsville Agriculture

Research Center, Beltsville, MD) was hon-

ored in the Biological Sciences for his out-

standing contributions to viroid molecular

biology structure, function, and detection

in plants. His efforts have centered about

the applications of viroid complementary

DNAs to investigations of viroid structure

and function. Complementary DNAs have

been used to study the molecular mecha-

nisms of viroid replication and to developa

new method for viroid disease diagnosis.

The demonstration that these cloned com-

plementary DNAs are infectious permits

the mechanisms of viroid replication, symp-

tom, induction and host susceptibility/re-

sistance to be studied by new approaches.

Dr. Owens received a B.S. degree in Bot-

any from the University of Rhode Island,

and a Ph.D. degree in Biochemistry and

Biophysics from the University of Cali-

fornia at Davis. He was a postdoctoral re-

search associate in the Department of Bio-

logical Sciences, Columbia University, and

then joined the Plant Virology Laboratory

as a research chemist.

Hubert Uberall, (The Catholic University

of America) was recognized for his distin-

guished contributions to the Physical Sci-

ences for exploring resonances through a

wide range of physical phenomena. While

originally a theoretical nuclear physicist,

Dr. Uberall has directed his attention to

classical physics, particularly acoustics

(underwater acoustics), elastic wave propa-

gation (nondestructive testing), and electro-

magnetic waves (radar). His work has been

recognized widely, and continues.

Dr. Uberall received Ph.D. degrees in

Physics from the University of Vienna and

Cornell University. He was a research fel-

low at the University of Liverpool, a Ford

Foundation Fellow at CERN in Geneva,

and a research physicist at the Carnegie In-

stitute of Technology. He served as Assis-

tant Professor of Physics at the University

of Michigan before coming to The Catholic

University of America in 1964.

John Weiner, (University of Maryland at

College Park, MD) was selected in the

Physical Sciences for his major contribu-

tions in the use of pulsed, tunable radiation

fields to control the outcome of molecular

collisions. Dr. Weiner studies the effects of

intense laser fields on the formation of the

products of reacting gaseous molecules.

The reaction products are detected by mass

spectrometry and photon and electron spec-

troscopy. The intense electromagnetic field

of the laser beam alters the electronic states

of the collision intermediates, which then

alter the reaction products.

Dr. Weiner received a B.S. degree in

Chemistry from the Pennsylvania State

University, and a Ph.D. from the Univer-

sity of Chicago. He was a postdoctoral fel-

low and Lecturer at Yale University, and

Assistant Professor at Dartmouth College.

He was a Visiting Professor at the Univer-

sity of Paris-Sud. He has been at the Uni-

versity of Maryland since 1978.

Charles L. Wilson, (Appalachian Fruit

Research Station, Kearneysville, WV) was

selected in the Biological Sciences for his

pioneering research in understanding and

manipulating plant diseases. Dr. Wilson

has carried out research leading to more

fundamental understanding of host-parasite

interactions in plant diseases, and the bio-

logical control of weeds with plant patho-

gens. He has made major contributions to

the understanding of mycoplasma diseases

of trees, organible behavior in fungal cells,

biological control of plant pathogens, and

strategies for dealing with exotic pest intro-

ductions.

Dr. Wilson received a B.A. degree in Bot-

any, M.S. and Ph.D. degrees in Plant Path-

ology and Entomology—all from West

Virginia University. He joined the Agricul-

tural Research Service in 1968, and his

80 SHERMAN ROSS

work in plant pathology has been widely

recognized.

Acknowledgments

The contributions of the chairmen of the

various panels and their colleagues, who

carried out the difficult task of making the

selections, are acknowledged with sincere

thanks. The chairmen were: Dr. James H.

Howard, Jr. (The Catholic University of

America)—Behavioral Sciences; Dr. C. R.

Creveling (NIADDK, NIH)—Biological Sci-

iences; Dr. John D. Anderson, Jr. (Univer-

sity of Maryland at College Park)—Engi-

neering Sciences; Dr. Joan Rosenblatt—

(National Bureau of Standards)—Mathe-

matical & Computer Sciences; Dr. Mary

H. Aldridge (The American University)—

Physical Sciences; and Dr. Joseph B. Morris

(Howard University)— Teaching of Science.

Thanks are due to the nominators and to

the sponsors of all the candidates. On be-

half of the Academy we commend the re-

cipients, whose work is honored, and we

wish them continued productive careers.

Department of Psychology

Howard University

Washington, D.C. 20059

Journal of The Washington Academy of Sciences,

Volume 74, Number 3, Pages 81-82, September 1984

1984 Elected Fellows of the Academy

John O’Hare

President Elect, Washington Academy of Sciences

The following 17 individuals have been

elected as Fellows of the Academy during

1984:

Behavioral Sciences

Dr. Randall M. Chambers

USA Research Institute for the Behavioral

and Social Sciences

Alexandria, VA 22333

In recognition of his research contributions

and publications in experimental psychol-

ogy and the aeronautical life sciences; in

particular for his original research on (a)

performance capabilities of pilots and as-

tronauts during centrifuge-computer simu-

lations of launch, abort and re-entry; (b) ef-

fects of high G forces on physiological and

life-support systems; (c) human factors anu

performance during air and ground simu-

lations of complex tactical maneuvers; and

(d) effects of unusual environmental stress

on human behavior.

Mr. Edward M. Connelly

Performance Measurement Associates, Inc.

Vienna, VA 22180

In recognition of his contributions to math-

ematical modeling of user-machine inter-

actions and, in particular, for his perform-

ance models for the aircraft pilot, the ship

navigator, and the computer programmer.

Biological Sciences

Dr. John R. Pancella

Montgomery County Public Schools

Rockville, MD 20850

In recognition of his contributions to science

education.

Chemistry

Dr. Gordon K. Riel

Naval Surface Weapons Center

White Oak, MD 20910

In recognition of his (a) original measure-

ments of gamma-ray spectra in the ocean;

(b) methods for analysis at very low con-

centrations of radioisotopes; (c) measure-

ments of neutron spectra at very low dose-

rates; and (d) technique for correction of

energy-dependent neutron dosimeter.

Earth & Space Sciences

Mr. Paul C. Etter

ODSI Defense Systems, Inc.

Rockville, MD 20852

In recognition of his contributions to oce-

anic research and, in particular, for his

work on heat-storage mechanisms in the

Gulf of Mexico.

82 JOHN O’HARE

Engineering Sciences

Dr. James E. Baker

AF Office of Scientific Research

Bolling AFB, DC 20332

In recognition of his contributions to au-

tomatic speech recognition and his man-

agement of Air Force research and develop-

ment.

Health Sciences

Dr. Walter E. Boek

National Graduate University

Arlington, VA 22201

In recognition of his pioneering and well-

recognized research in public health, un-

met medical needs, community develop-

ment, and ethnic relationships in the USA

and Canada.

Dr. Louis, D. Bourgeois

8701 Broadmoor Drive

Bethesda, MD 20817

In recognition of laboratory research and

improvement of clinical procedures in the

field of microbiology.

Dr. Marie J. Bourgeois

8701 Bradmoor Drive

Bethesda, MD 20817

In recognition of significant contributions

to the fields of anthropology, public health,

and nursing.

Dr. Stanley E. Edinger

HCFA/HSQB/OSC

Baltimore, MD 21207

In recognition of his contributions to re-

search on the chemistry of gypsum, clinical

accreditation and training, and health-care

standardization.

Dr. George J. Galasso

NIH-NIAID

Bethesda, MD 20205

In recognition of his significant contribu-

tions to public health and science through

his scientific and administrative skills lead-

ing to the advancement and acceptance of

antiviral drugs and vaccines.

Dr. Paul L. Kornblith

National Institutes of Health

Bethesda, MD 20205

In recognition of his contributions stem-

ming from his clinical and laboratory stud-

ies of human immunology and neoplasms.

Dr Paul Ev Tyler

Naval Medical R & D Command

Bethesda, MD 20814

In recognition of his work in physiology

and, in particular, on the effects of cold

exposure.

Dr. Thomas A. Waldmann

NIH-National Cancer Institute

Bethesda, MD 20205

In recognition of his significant contribu-

tions to the understanding of the regulation

of the normal immune system and the dis-

orders in these immunoregulatory mecha-

nisms that underlie human diseases.

Mathematics

Dr. Stefan Shrier

CTEC. Inc.

McLean, VA 22101

In recognition of his contributions to ap-

plied mathematics and, in particular, his

research on machine intelligence, applied

logic and computer science.

Physics

Dr. Bhakta B. Rath

Naval Research Laboratory

Code 6300

Washington, DC 20375

In recognition of his many and varied con-

tributions to advancing the field of physical

metallurgy and, in particular, his research

on transformations, recrystallization and

texture of metals and alloys.

Dr. Victor J. Sank

National Institutes of Health

Bethesda, MD 20205

In recognition of his contributions to med-

ical imaging and, in particular, to the de-

sign and construction of a high-resolution,

high-sensitivity positron emission tomo-

graphic scanner.

Journal of The Washington Academy of Sciences,

Volume 74, Number 3, Page 83, September 1984.

Instructions to Contributors

Type manuscripts on one side of white

bond paper. Double space all lines, includ-

ing those in abstracts, tables, legends, quoted

matter, acknowledgments, and references

cited. Number all pages consecutively.

Page | should contain the title (not to ex-

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CONTENTS

Commentary:

E. J. FINN: Science Advancement Programs for Secondary School Students .....

Articles:

CUONG VIET DO: Inter-Relationships Between Dietary Fatty Acids and Indometh-

acin: Prostaglandin E, Synthesis, Mamary Tumor Growth and Immune Responses 85

JONATHAN DWORKIN: Neural Mechanisms of Vision and the Evolution of the

PUA CLS 2c apn teem OR ae ARM gC ee aire Ata aig mae ye eet Me Reale a's be 97

ARTHUR J. KUDLA: Hydra Reaggregation: A Rapid Assay to Predict Teratogenic

Hazards Inducedsby Payirommental MOxtcny .. 62 sea liee sae wade es ele eee ee 102

ANA EDMY LUCCA-BROCO: Seagrass Leaves: An Alternative to Commercial

Fertilizers on Coastal Poor Soils on Tropical Islands .........................

ND AM APP. MRGUS 6 Sigh) cle oe ee a eS

KATHERINE M. SHINDLER: A Three Year Study of Fetal Auditory Imprinting . .

MICHAEL J. TOPOLOVAC: Transitional Location and Laminar Extension in a Heated

Peta PORTRAIT P80 er ca ada lin eRe Sag COS). Sudo. sual Rohe Moun a, «.9) Rises uavaeL Oden 125

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Journal of the Washington Academy of Sciences,

Volume 74, Number 4, Pages i-ii, December 1984

Commentary

Science Advancement Programs for

Secondary School Students

Edward J. Finn

Department of Physics, Georgetown University, Washington, D.C. 20057

The scientific community has supported

various programs for young people who show

interest in scientific and technical matters.

Who of us is not familiar with our local pri-

mary school’s annual ‘‘Science Fair’’? We

become involved, whether a practicing sci-

entist or not, when our child comes home with

a need to produce a science project at the

insistence of ‘‘teacher’’. Despite the forced

atmosphere of a homework assignment, a few

children (with appropriate assistance) do cre-

ate interesting posters and/or demonstrations.

This is only a part of a vast pool from. which

individuals with apparent interest and ability

in the mathematical and scientific areas begin

to be identified. Recall that each project is

reviewed by a person who has had training

and experience, the better projects are awarded

recognition and usually rewarded by having

the project entered in a second round of com-

petition. The competition is refined again and

again, culminating with an International Sci-

ence Fair, which was held this past year in

Columbus, Ohio in May of 1984. As witness

to level of sophistication attained by the young

people who reach the level of *‘international’’

competition, this issue of the Academy’s

Journal contains eight papers written by sec-

ondary school students. Each of these stu-

dents was a Finalist in her/his respective field

in Columbus, and the paper is based on their

investigations. We trust you will find them

not merely interesting in that young people

can perform at such a high level of research,

but truly remarkable in that many of these

projects were not funded at the level usual

for such research, nor were they performed

in laboratories equipped with the latest tools.

The Science Fair project is only one of a

number of programs sponsored by various or-

ganizations to help aspiring young people.

Another event is the Westinghouse Science

Talent Search, which is comprised of a rather

stiff examination coupled with a written pres-

entation of an independent science project.

This year over 15,000 students entered the

competition, and more than one thousand wrote

their papers to complete their entries. From

these fourty students will present their re-

search and be awarded various scholarships

after the judging. The purpose for this ‘‘Tal-

ent Search’’ is exactly that: to discover and

develop scientific and engineering ability

among high school seniors. It is not uncom-

mon to find the names of Westinghouse fi-

nalists among the list of international finalists

of the Science Fair competition.

The Washington Academy is involved in

ii EDWARD J. FINN

the encouragement of science among second-

ary students in two ways. The Academy spon-

sors the Washington Junior Academy of Sci-

ences, which is open to all Washington

metropolitan area secondary students who are

interested in scientific endeavors. The Junior

Academy holds a number of meetings each

year, primarily as field trips to scientific es-

tablishments in the region. These meetings

serve to familiarize members with the facil-

ities at the larger research laboratories as well

as to band together to share information on

possible sources of equipment and/or funding

through grants or summer employment. The

Academy also is co-sponsor of the Greater

Washington Area Junior Science and Hu-

manities Symposium. This two day sympos-

ium is designed to stimulate the interest of

secondary school students (who have been

carefully nominated by their school as having

scientific potential) in science as a possible

career, to put them in active contact with

professionals in the various disciplines and to

provide a measure of recognition within their

own environment for academic excellence.

These goals are performed in various ways:

plenary sessions of the 300 participants with

a major researcher who resides in the area;

visitation in small groups to individual re-

search laboratories; oral presentation of re-

search papers by members of the local sec-

ondary school population. Teachers usually

comprise about 20% of the total attendance

so they may gain new insights into the com-

munication of scientific principles and en-

courage them to return to their schools and

search more carefully for the interested stu-

dent who could perform basic research. As

with all these competitions, the student pre-

sentors are invited to a National Junior Sci-

ence and Humanities Symposium, with one

presenting there—and from there a few of the

National presentors are invited to attend the

London International Youth Science Fort-

night where approximately 400 students from

30 nations are gathered to exchange ideas and

enjoy each other’s company.

There are other programs available for the

interested student of science, many sponsored

by a scientific Society—such as the American

Mathematical Association’s sponsorship of

the Mathematical Olympiad. Let it be enough

to say that after some of the following papers

have been read, it will be apparent that we

all have a responsibility to see that opportun-

ities are constantly made available to such

individuals so they may grow intellectually at

a pace commensurate with their ability.

Dr. Finn is a Professor of Physics at

Georgetown University, a Fellow of the

Washington Academy and present Director of

the Greater Washington Area Junior Science

and Humanities Symposium.

Journal of the Washington Academy of Sciences,

Volume 74, Number 4, Pages 85-96, December 1984

Inter-Relationships Between

Dietary Fatty Acids and

Indomethacin: Prostaglandin E,

Synthesis, Mammary Tumor

Growth, and Immune Responses

Cuong Viet Do

Formerly with The Oklahoma Medical Research Foundation

ABSTRACT

Studies were performed to determine the effects of dietary fat and indomethacin on: (a) fatty

acid concentrations in blood serum; (b) Prostaglandin E, (PGE,) production by splenic mono-

nuclear cells; (c) growth of mammary tumors; (d) phagocytic activity of macrophages; and (e)

cytotoxic activity of Natural Killer (NK) cells. Female, inbred, Wistar-Furth rats were fed semi-

purified diets containing 2, 5, 10, or 20% stripped corn oil. Indomethacin was administered in

drinking water to give final dosage of 2.5 to 3.0 mg indomethacin/kg body weight/day. Feeding

of diets and treatment with indomethacin began when rats were weaned (21 days of age), and

continued until time of sacrifice at 35 or 50 days of age. Rats were divided into two groups. The

first group was injected with 5000 mammary tumor cells into the right inguinal lymph node area,

and was used to determine the first three parameters of the study. The second group did not

receive tumor cells, and was used to determine the latter two objectives of the study. Results

indicated: (a) fatty acid absorption was not influenced by indomethacin treatment; (b) linoleic

acid concentrations in blood serum were significantly higher in rats fed high fat diets compared

to rats fed low fat diets; (c) PGE, synthesis very significantly increased in untreated rats as dietary

fat content increased; (d) indomethacin treatment very significantly abrogated PGE, production

in all dietary groups; (e) tumor mass very significantly increased as dietary fat increased in

untreated animals; (f) indomethacin treatment very significantly reduced tumor mass in all dietary

levels; (g) phagocytic activity of macrophages very significantly decreased with high fat diets;

(h) indomethacin very significantly increased macrophage activity; (1) NK activity very signifi-

cantly decreased as dietary fat content increased; and (j) NK activity very significantly increased

with indomethacin treatment.

Introduction

A number of studies have shown a positive

correlation between the incidence of mam-

mary cancer and the intake of dietary fat in

both humans*!03!°>967.°8 and laboratory an-

imals.*-*°4?°° Other studies”*'3.7° have shown

that dietary fat increased the incidence of

mammary tumors in rats induced with a single

oral dose of 7,12-dimethylbenz(a)anthracene

(DMBA). For example, Carroll et al.°:** re-

ported that rats fed high fat diets, especially

86 CUONG VIET DO

unsaturated fats, developed a higher inci-

dence of tumors which appeared after a shorter

latent period compared to rats fed low fat diets

or high saturated fat diets. Differences in tu-

mor incidence were independent of small dif-

ferences in caloric intake. These observations

were confirmed by King et al.”° who also

noted that tumors grew more rapidly in rats

fed diets containing high levels of polyun-

saturated fat. Studies reported by Carroll and

Khor and Hopkins et al.” are consistent with

the hypothesis that dietary fat is a promoter

of tumorigenesis, since DMBA-induced tu-

mor incidence depended more on diets fed

after the carcinogen than on diets fed before.

Data summarized by Vitale and Broitman*?

suggested that diets containing high levels of

unsaturated fat were better promoters of tu-

morigenesis relative to diets containing high

levels of saturated fat. These observations

suggest that unsaturated fat diets were more

immunosuppressive.

Ip and Sinha™ excised mammary glands

from rats fed diets containing either 20% or

5% corn oil. These glands were exposed to

DMBA in organ culture before grafting into

rats on either diets. The final tumor incidence

in rats maintained on low fat diets varied from

20% to 28%, while incidence in rats on the

high fat diet varied from 72% to 76%. Hop-

kins and West” reported that the transplant-

ability of mammary adenocarcinoma was sig-

nificantly higher in mice fed unsaturated diets

compared to mice fed saturated diets. Similar

observations were made in rats by Kollmor-

gen et al.”? and Hillyard and Abraham”! when

using diets containing either 20% or 2% com

oil.

Plescia et al.*? were the first to demonstrate

that tumor growth in vivo was retarded when

rats were given daily injections of indometh-

acin. Other investigators reported similar

findings when mice were treated with indo-

methacin or other inhibitors of prostaglandin

synthesis.”°°?** Indomethacin also inhibited

tumor growth in rats exposed to chemical car-

cinogens which induced tumors of the gas-

trointestinal tract*°*°*! and of the urinary

bladder.’ Cytotoxic drugs were more effec-

tive when used in combination with inhibitors

of prostaglandin synthesis in treating tumors

in mice’ and rats.* In addition, indomethacin

potentiated the effect of immune stimulants.”

While the suppressive effects of PGE, on

various immune functions have been well

documented ,*-7+1!-15:17,18.46:54 several ‘Other fe-

lationships have not been established. This

study attempted to establish the relationships

between: (a) PGE, synthesis and dietary fat

intake; (b) tumor growth and diet; (c) phag-

ocytic activity of macrophages and diet; and

(d) cytotoxic activity of Natural Killer cells

and diet.

Materials and Methods

Rats

Inbred, Wistar-Furth, female, weanling rats

(21 days old) were obtained from Harlan,

Sprague Dawley (Madison, WI), and were

housed in a temperature- and humidity-con-

trolled facility with a 12 hour light: dark cycle.

Rats were divided into two groups. The first

group was used to measure tumor mass, PGE,

concentrations, and serum fatty acids con-

centrations. The second group was used to

determine the activity of macrophages and

NK cells. Diets and indomethacin treatment

were the same for the two animal groups.

Diets

Weanling rats were fed semi-purified diets

containing 2, 5, 10, or 20% stripped corn oil.

Diets were prepared by ICN Life Sciences,

Inc. (Cleveland, OH). Diets were stored in

sealed plastic containers in the dark and main-

tained at 4°C. Constituents of the diets are

shown in Table 1. While caloric density var-

ied from diet to diet, all rats were fed ap-

proximately 70 kcal/rat/day, and levels of

ingredients were adjusted to maintain a con-

stant nutrient: calorie ratio in all dietary groups.

Treatment with indomethacin

Indomethacin was dissolved in 95% ethanol

(8 mg indomethacin/ml ethanol). This solu-

INTER-RELATIONSHIPS BETWEEN DIETARY FAT AND INDOMETHACIN

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tion was diluted with 400 ml drinking water

(tap water). Final concentration of indometh-

acin in drinking water was 20 mg/liter, and

the final concentration of ethanol in drinking

water was 0.25%. Control rats were given

only 0.25% ethanol in their drinking water.

Indomethacin consumption was determined

to be 2.5 to 3.0 mg indomethacin/kg body

weight/day.

Tumor cells

Mammary tumor cells were originally in-

duced in Wistar-Furth, inbred, female rats

with DMBA. Metastases were observed in

lymph nodes of rats which have been given

partial-body radiation after exposure to

DMBA.” These metastatic mammary tumor

cells were serially transplanted into Wistar-

Furth, female, inbred rats, and were kindly

provided by Dr. Untae Kim (Buffalo, NY).

Tumor cells (5 X 10° in 0.2 ml phosphate

buffered saline, pH 7.0) were injected into

the right inguinal lymph node area of wean-

ling female rats of the first animal group. Rats

of the second animal group did not receive

tumor cells.

Autopsies

Rats were maintained until 35 or 50 days

of age, at which time rats of the first animal

group were sacrificed. At this time, blood was

drawn and serum extracted to be used for fatty

acid analysis and media supplementation.

Spleens were excised and single cell suspen-

sions prepared for use in PGE, assays. Lymph

nodes (right and left inguinal), right and left

axillary, lumbar, messenteric, and thymus)

were excised, weighed, and histologically

evaluated for tumor presence. Other tissues

removed and evaluated for possible tumor in-

volvement include lungs, kidneys, brain, gas-

trointestinal tract, and bone. However, this

paper only deals with metastatic involvement

in lymph nodes. Rats of the second animal

group were sacrificed at 50 days with the

procedures discussed below under “*Phago-

cytic activity of macrophages,’’ and *’Prep-

aration of spleen cells for NK assays.’’

Assays for PGE, in cultured spleen cells

Spleens were removed from 50 day-old rats,

and single cell suspensions were prepared from

these spleenocytes by placement in plastic petri

dishes containing RPMI 1640 media supple-

mented with 10% fetal bovine serum and 10%

autologous serum (20% total serum). Cells

were cultured in 10 mls of media (1.7 x 10’

cells/ml) for 24 hours with pH controlled at

7.0. Control dishes contained only media and

serum. When incubation was complete, su-

pernatants were removed and suspended cells

separated with centrifugation. 3 ml samples

of supernatants were acidified, extracted with

ethyl acetate, and dried under nitrogen.*’ The

dried extracts were dissolved in 1 ml of ben-

zene:ethyl acetate: methanol (70:30:5 v:v:v)

and applied to a 2 gram silicic acid column

that have been equilibriated with ben-

zene: ethyl acetate (70:30 v:v). Neutral lip-

ids were first eluted in 10 ml benzene: ethyl

acetate (70:30 v: v), PGA-PGB in 10 ml ethyl

acetate, and PGE with an additional 15 ml

ethyl acetate: methanol (93:7 v:v).

The fraction containing PGE, was dried un-

der nitrogen and resuspended with | ml meth-

anol. A 0.1 ml sample of the resuspended

PGE, fraction was assayed after appropriate

dilution with 0.1M sodium phosphate buffer

(pH 7.6). In each assay, a highly specific

PGE, antibody (Pasteur Institute, Paris) was

added to either samples or standards (2-2000

pg) in the presence of °H-PGE, tracer (7,000

cpm). The validity and reliability of the an-

tibody have been documented previously.’°

The PGE, antibody had a 3.2% cross-reac-

tivity with other prostaglandin species. In-

cubation occurred at 4°C for 8 hours. Bound

and free antibody were then separated by the

addition of 0.5 ml dextran-coated charcoal

(25 mg dextran, 250 mg charcoal, 100 ml

phosphate buffer).

Analysis of serum fatty acids

2 mls of serum were extracted according

to the method of Folch et al.'* Briefly, 2 ml

serum samples were added to a 50 ml sepa-

ratory funnel containing 10 volumes of cold

chloroform: methanol (2:1 v:v). The serum

INTER-RELATIONSHIPS BETWEEN DIETARY FAT AND INDOMETHACIN 89

was extracted with vigorous shaking for 3

minutes then allowed to stand at room tem-

perature for 30 minutes. One-fifth volume of

0.5% NaCl solution and an internal standard

(methyl arachidate) equal to approximately

10% of the total lipids being extracted was

added, and the mixture was reextracted as

above.

The 2-phase extraction system was held in

the dark at 4°C overnight for extraction and

phase separation. The lower chloroform layer

was transferred to round-bottomed flask, and

the flask connected to a vacuum rotary-evap-

orative system and evaporated to dryness.

Absolute ethanol was added to the flask (1 to

2 ml) to remove residual water and again

evaporated to dryness.

Fatty acid methyl esters were prepared from

the lipid samples. The chloroform was evap-

orated from the sample and 1 ml BF;: methanol

(1:1 v:v) added. The sample was boiled for

15 minutes in tightly capped test tubes with

Teflon-lined caps. After cooling, 1 ml water

and 2 ml chromatoquality hexane were added,

and the mixture was extracted using 90 sec-

onds of vigorous shaking with a vortex lab-

oratory mixer. The layers were allowed to

separate, the hexane layer was removed, and

2 additional hexane extractions performed,

each being removed and combined with the

first. The combined hexane extractions were

evaporated to dryness under vacuum, and the

fatty acid methyl esters assayed at 190°C with

N, as carrier at 40 ml/minute.

Phagocytic activity of macrophages

At 50 days of age, rats of the second animal

group were injected with a 3 ml suspension

of microbeads stained to floresce under flo-

rescent microscopy (1.2 x 10° beads/ml

phosphate buffered saline) into the peritoneal

cavity. Peritoneal exudate cells were obtained

from individual rats under anesthesia 24 hours

later. Rats were infused with 30 ml phosphate

buffered saline (PBS, 37°C) intraperitoneally.

10 minutes later, the exudate was recovered

by placing a 15-gauge needle into the cavity

and collecting the fluid by gravity flow into

an ice-cold polyethylene container. The ex-

udate was centrifuged for 5 minutes at 800

rpm and 4°C, and the cells were washed four

times with ice-cold PBS in order to terminate

phagocytosis and remove nonbound, non-

phagocytosed microbeads.

The number of cells present in the volume

were determined by coulter counter. Repre-

sentative samples of the volume were ex-

amined under florescent microscopy, and the

number of florescent beads counted. The

number of macrophages containing beads were

divided by the total macrophage population

to determine the percent of phagocytosis.

Preparation of spleen cells for NK assays

Spleen were excised, and single cell sus-

pensions prepared in RPMI 1640. Adherent

cells and macrophages were removed from

spleen cell suspension according to the mod-

ified method of Garvin.” Briefly, 10 ml plas-

tic pipettes (Falcon Products, Cockeysville,

MD) were filled with 10 ml plastic beads

(Separ-Aid, J. T. Baker, Bethlehem, PA) and

washed with 15 ml RPMI 1640. The columns

were loaded with 3 ml of spleen cells (2 x 10’

cells/ml), stoppered with plastic caps, and

incubated for 30 minutes at 37°C. The caps

were removed and the non-adherent cells col-

lected along the column wash of 6 ml media.

The cell concentration was adjusted to3 x 10’

cells/ml.

Non-adherent spleen lymphocytes were

further separated using discontinuous Percoll

density gradient centrifugation. Step gra-

dients were constructed by layering 26%, 50%,

55%, 60%, and 65% Percoll solutions into

conical centrifuge tubes (Corning, Corning,

NY). Lymphocyte suspensions (2 x 10’ cells)

were layered into the gradient and centrifuged

for 30 minutes at 800 rpm and 15°C. The

lymphocytes occurring at each Percoll density

fraction were collected, counted, and tested

for NK activity.

NK activity assay

0.1 ml YAC-1 tumor cells (1 xX 10° cells)

was added to triplicate wells of microtiter

90 CUONG VIET DO

plates. Spleen cells (2 x 10° cells) obtained

from the 55% Percoll fraction was also added

to each well. This resulted in an effector (spleen

cells) to target (YAC-1 cells) ratio of 2:1.

Effector and target cells were also cultured

alone to measure spontaneous proliferative

activity. Cells were cultured for 16 hours,

followed by the addition of 1.0 Ci of [6-

3H]thymidine (specific activity 15 ci/mmol,

New England Nuclear, Boston, MA). After

an additional 3.5 hours of incubation, cells

were harvested onto glass fiber filter strips

using a multiple automated sample harvestor,

and dried. The cells were transferred to scin-

tillation vials and 10 ml scintillation fluid

added. The amount of [6-°H]thymidine in-

corporated into the cells was determined by

liquid scintillation counting. Natural killer cell

activity was expressed as the percent of [6-

"H]thymidine of spleen cells cultured with

YAC-1 tumor targets compared to YAC-1 cells

cultured alone.

TEELE

SSS

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3 4

SSAA DHHNNnwW_oddDoNWW nw RR

VAM It pp Plt tlte

DWBWAQAA xER0U|.F*>°ei'’

SSESESSVAQVNAQNO

WML hhh

WI bh ith,

FATTY ACID CONCENTRATION (1ug/2m! serum/kg body weight)

“ ae

ag <S

PALMITIC PALMITOLEIC STEARIC

CONCENTRATION OF FATTY ACID

OF RATS FED 2%, 5%, 1IO%, OR 20% FAT DIETS

WCW FQ Baw’ WWE

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TAC

16:0 16:1 18:0 18:1

OLEIC

Results

Serum fatty acid concentrations were not

affected by indomethacin, as measured by ten

fatty acid species (Figure 1). Additionally,

most species were not affected by dietary fat.

The concentration of linoleic acid was very

significantly (p < .001) higher when rats fed

either 10% or 10% were compared to 2%

diets. Conversely, oleic concentrations very

significantly (p < .001) decreased as dietary

fat content increased. The total serum fatty

acid concentration was not affected by either

fat or indomethacin.

PGE, synthesis by cultured spleen cells very

significantly (p < .001) increased as dietary

fat content increased (Figure 2). Treatment

with indomethacin very significantly (p <

.001) reduced PGE, production in all dietary

levels. PGE, levels in the indomethacin-treated

group did not change as dietary fat level in-

creased.

IN SERUM

SSS

WMI

FRR

COOOL OA RAODDV VOOM LMAOROOULSARLILYII,

RRS NOON

OY ekazicnanrardcdddliticxll 2D} Witt tt,

E DSOOOOO OY

MMé@ce eeeedddedddddddeddtteds

S{QAQ{{{GGHE

LéeMddddidddddddddddedldtll

REVS

A’ RAAAYHniNDAW aa

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Cc) aT

SSe==r

THACHN TROL INDOMETHACIN CONTROL INDOMETHACIN CONTROL INDOMETHACIN © CONTKOL MDOME THACIN

TED TREATED TREATED TREATED TREATE:

18:2 20:4 22:6 TOTAL

LINOLEIC ARACHIDONIC DOCOSAHEXAENOIC TOTAL

Fig. 1. The concentrations of serum fatty acids are expressed in g/2 ml serum/kg body weight + one standard

deviation. Diets were started when rats were 21 days old, and rats were sacrificed at 50 days of age. Total fatty

acid concentrations were based on the sum of ten species (those shown and 14:0, 22:4, 24:1). Except for two

species, fatty acid concentrations did not differ significantly as dietary fat content increased. Linoleic acid very

significantly (p < .001) increased as dietary fat content increased and oleic acid very significantly (p < .001)

decreased as dietary fat increased. Total serum concentrations remained constant as dietary fat content increased.

INTER-RELATIONSHIPS BETWEEN DIETARY FAT AND INDOMETHACIN 91

PGE, IN SUPERWATES OF CULTURED SPLEEN CELLS

FROM UNTREATED AND INDOMETHACIN-TREATED RATS

Vf \NDOMETHACIN

Lp)

PGE. CONCENTRATION (ng/3.5 ml serem |

DIETARY FAT CONTENT | % |

Fig. 2. Mean values + one standard deviation are ex-

pressed in ng PGE, ml spleen cell supernatant. Spleens

were taken from 50 day old rats fed either 2, 5, 10, or

20% fat since weaning. PGE, concentrations increased

very significantly (p < .001) as dietary fat content in-

creased, and indomethacin very significantly (p < .001)

abrogated PGE, production.

Total body weight increased very signifi-

cantly (p < .001) as dietary fat content in-

creased (Figure 3). Carcass weight (total weight

minus tumor weight) also increased very sig-

nificantly (p < .001) with dietary fat content.

At 50 days of age, untreated rats were mor-

ibund and had significantly (p < .05) smaller

body weight than indomethacin-treated rats.

Tumor involvement in the mesenteric and

lumbar nodes frequently caused partial ob-

struction of the ureter and/or the intestine.

Rats treated with indomethacin had much less

tumor burden in these areas, and food con-

sumption was higher in these rats.

Primary tumor mass (right inguinal lymph

node) of rats at 35 days of age were smaller

than rats at 50 days of age (Figure 4). The

slope of the lines connecting these two time

periods revealed the relative growth rates, but

Statistical analyses were not performed on the

rates due to the limited sample size. However,

growth rates of rats fed 20% diets were sub-

BODY WEIGHT IN

CONTROL & INDOMETHACIN-TREATED RATS

a e

BODY WEIGHT (grams)

regesxze ee

"VW K«

10, 20

NOONE

INDOMETHACIN

Total Body Weight Body Weight minus Tumor Weight

NSS

SSS

"Wt

ALE

AKK

DIETARY FAT CONTENT (percent)

Fig. 3. The body weights of control and indomethacin-treated rats are expressed in grams + one standard

deviation. Diets and treatment with indomethacin started when rats were at 21 days of age. The above data was

taken when rats were at 50 days of age. Body weights increased very significantly (p < .001) as dietary fat content

increased, and indomethacin significantly (p < .05) increased body weight.

92 CUONG VIET DO

RATE OF PRIMARY TUMORS GROWTH ON

DIFFERENT FAT DIETS

20%

rf CONTROL

Tumor Mass _ (grams)

Time (days)

21 ,

2+ INDOMETHACIN

i+ TREATED

4 4

Time (days

Fig. 4. The growth rat for primary tumor site (right inguinal lymph node) are shown for control and indomethacin-

treated rats. Three rats were sacrificed at 35 days of age, and 7 at 50 days of age. No statistical analyses were

performed due to limited sample size.

WISTAR FURTH RATS WITH

TRANSPLANTABLE MAMMARY

INDOMETHACIN

Total Tumor Mass Primary Tumor Mass

TUMOR MASS (grams)

10 20 3 Shs 70

DIETARY FAT CONTENT (percent)

Fig. 5. The total and primary tumor mass of rats sac-

rificed at 50 days of age are expressed in grams + one

standard deviation. Total and primary tumor masses very

significantly (p < .001) increased as dietary fast content

increased, and indomethacin very significantly (p < .001)

reduced tumor masses.

stantially higher than any other untreated di-

etary groups. No differences were observed

among groups of the indomethacin-treated rats.

The tumor mass at 50 days of age very sig-

nificantly (p < .001) increased as dietary fat

content increased (Figure 5), and indometh-

acin very significantly (p < .001) decreased

the tumor mass in all dietary groups.

Figure 6 illustrates the phagocytic activity

of macrophages from peritoneal exudates.

Phagocytosis very significantly (p < .001)

decreased as dietary fat content increased, and

indomethacin treatment very significantly

(p < .001) increased macrophage activity in

all dietary groups. Increased uptake of [6-

*H]thymidine by YAC-1 tumor cells indicates

that cytotoxic activity of NK cells very sig-

nificantly (p < .001) decreased as dietary fat

content (Figure 7), and indomethacin very

significantly (p < .001) increased NK ac-

tivity.

INTER-RELATIONSHIPS BETWEEN DIETARY FAT AND INDOMETHACIN 93

Phagocytic activity of Macrophages from

Untreated and Indomethacin-treated rats

INDOMETHACIN

% Phagocytosis

2 5 10

Dietary Fat Content (% )

Fig. 6. Phagocytic activity of macrophages are ex-

pressed as percent of phagocytosis (means + one stan-

dard deviation) for control and indomethacin-treated rats.

Macrophages were allowed to phagocytose microbeads,

which were harvested and measured for macrophage ac-

tivity. Dietary fat very significantly (p < .001) de-

creased macrophage activity, and indomethacin very sig-

nificantly (p < .001) increased macrophage activity.

[6-"H] Thymidine incorporation from

Untreated and Indomethacin-treated

rats

INDOMETHACIN

% [6-H] Thymidine Incorporation

(% )

Dietary Fat Content

Fig. 7. The activity of NK cells were measured as a

function of the uptake of [6-*H]thymidine. Means + one

standard deviation are expressed for control and indo-

methacin-treated rats. Uptake very significantly (p < .001)

increased as dietary fat content increased, and indo-

methacin very significantly (p < .001) decreased up-

take. Increased uptake is indicative of decreased NK

activity.

Discussions

Results from these studies indicate that the

production of PGE, by splenic mononuclear

cells and the growth of mammary tumors very

significantly increased as dietary fat content

increased, phagocytic activity of macro-

phages and cytotoxic activity of NK cells very

significantly decreased as dietary fat in-

creased, and indomethacin treatment very

significantly decreased PGE, production and

tumor growth and increased macrophage and

NK activity.

Fatty acids concentrations were measured

in serum and serves only as an indicator of

the cellular membrane content and intestinal

absorption. In indomethacin-treated rats, a

concern existed that indomethacin might in-

fluence the gastrointestinal tract and ulti-

mately absorption. Analysis of blood serum

reveals that fatty acid levels were similar be-

tween untreated and indomethacin-treated rats,

thus the results suggest that the possible ef-

fects of indomethacin were not observed in

this particular study. Increased linoleic levels

as dietary fat content increased is expected,

for rats are being fed increasing quantities of

corm oil which binds linoleic acid on two of

its three side chains. No explanations, how-

ever, can be formulated to explain the de-

crease in oleic concentrations.

This study dealt only with the production

of PGE, by splenic cells. However, PGE,

production by other cells, particularly mam-

mary tumor cells, may also be increased by

dietary fat. No attempts were made to meas-

ure PGE, synthesis in lymph nodes containing

tumor cells. Lymph nodes vary considerably

in the amount of infiltrating lymphocytes and

monocytes/macrophages. Hence, determi-

nation of the PGE, source would be difficult

in this heterogeneous cell population. How-

ever, Roland et al.* assayed for PGE, in freshly

excised human breast cancer, in both primary

and metastatic lesions. They suggested that

elevated levels of PGE, could be used as

markers of high metastatic potential of neo-

plastic cells in breast cancer. Pelus and

Brockman?’ reported that peritoneal macro-

phages from tumor-bearing mice released sig-

nificantly more PGE, compared to macro-

94 CUONG VIET DO

phages of control mice. On the other hand,

Harvey et al.’? concluded that circulating lev-

els (venous blood) of PGE, did not correlate

with the non-specific immunosuppression seen

in cancer patients. Hence, PGE, concentra-

tions in the immediate environment of the

tumor is more indicative of tumor growth,

invasion, or metastasis compared to PGE,

concentrations in body fluids.

The growth rates between 35 and 50 days

of age are only indicative of the relative or

mean rate. If more points were taken over the

interval, a biological exponential curve would

be expected. The observation that indometh-

acin inhibited tumor growth at 50 days of age

is consistent with other investiga-

tors. "7033:54,3¢.39.42 The fact that indomethacin

was effective only in immunologically com-

petent mice argues against indomethacin being

a toxic antitumor agent.°°

Kollmorgen et al. indicated that the growth

promoting effects of diets containing high

levels of unsaturated fat may be due, at least

partially, to an increased PGE, synthesis. This,

in turn, may cause immune suppression.

Hence, immune defense mechanisms which

potentially controlled tumor = growth

may be severely compromised. Other

studies'*:?77805!.>4 have reported that DMBA-

induced mammary tumors were apparently

influenced by the immune system. Other

investigators’ **>38> suggest that decreased

macrophage activity may be due to increased

PGE, production. Results from this study,

perhaps the first in vivo study, also found

decreased macrophage activity with increas-

ing fat content and PGE, concentrations.

The measurement of NK activity was made

in titer wells with YAC-1 tumor cells. NK

cells of splenic origin were cultured with tar-

get tumor cells and [6-*H]thymidine. Uniess

the NK cells destroy the target tumor cells,

tritiated thymidine would be incorporated into

the tumor cells’ DNA during replication. Up-

take of [6-°H]thymidine increased as dietary

fat content increased, thus suggests a com-

promise in NK activity. Indomethacin de-

creased the uptake, indicating enhanced NK

activity. Mihas et al. indicated that the effects

of fatty acids on immune-related cells do not

seem to be toxicity. Vitale and Broitman™

suggested that the mechanisms may be an

alteration of membrane fluidity which may

alter the configuration of receptor sites or de-

creased macrophage action which could af-

fect antigen-lymphocyte interactions.

While indomethacin exhibited the ability

to reduce tumor growth and PGE, production

and increase macrophage and NK activity,

studies need to be conducted to consider its

effects on other products of the cyclooxygen-

ase and lipoxygenase pathways before the in-

hibitor can be effectively considered for ad-

dition to clinical therapeutic protocols.

Acknowledgment

I would like to extend my deepest appre-

ciation to Dr. G. Mark Kolmorgen for his

support and assistance through the years.

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Journal of the Washington Academy of Sciences,

Volume 74, Number 4, Pages 97-101, December 1984

Neural Mechanisms of Vision and

the Evolution of the Alphabet

Jonathan E. Dworkin

Hershey High School, Hershey, Pa. 17033

ABSTRACT

Eight subjects were tested on visual discrimination performance of pairs of letters from the

Roman alphabet, and two of its antecedent alphabets, the Etruscan and Early Phoenician. The

number of errors per trial decreased at the rate of .34% per century (p < .05). These data indicate

that the human visual system probably has influenced the evolution of the alphabet. The per-

formance of an original computer simulation of the feature detector model of form perception on

the task of letter discrimination was compared to human performances. Unique non-linearities of

the model’s performance may have implications for the effect of the magnitudes of neuronal

excitory thresholds on perceptual performance.

Introduction

The first part of this project evaluated the

hypothesis that the neurophysiological char-

acteristics of the human visual system have

had significant influence on the evolution of

the alphabet. The second part developed a

computer simulation of the Hubel and Wiesel

feature detector model of the neural mecha-

nisms of visual form perception and com-

pared its performance to human performances

on the task of letter discrimination.

Pigeons and humans demonstrate similar

patterns of letter discrimination within the

modern Roman alphabet,' suggesting that these

patterns are a manifestation of the character-

istics of the neural mechanisms of form per-

ception, rather than visual experience’ or higher

cognitive functions. If, in addition, the rate

of discrimination errors for letter pairs has

systematically decreased across the evolu-

tionary antecedents of the Roman alphabet,

then it is likely that the neural mechanisms

of form perception have had some influence

on alphabetic evolution.

Two rival models of the neural mechanisms

of form perception currently exist;> however,

because of the neurophysiological and per-

ceptual complexities of the visual system,**°

it is virtually impossible to assess the relative

validity of these models by simple inspection.

If it has evolved toward visual processing ef-

ficiency, the alphabet would offer a particu-

larly effective collection of stimuli to test a

model of the neural mechanisms of form per-

ception. Moreover, the correlation between

the performance of a computer simulation de-

rived from neurophysiological data and hu-

man performances on the task of letter dis-

crimination should provide a particularly

accurate measure of the validity of that model.

98 JONATHAN E. DWORKIN

Methods

I. Human Psychophysical Study

Every letter which has a continuous arche-

ological record,’ was used in a discrimination

paradigm with itself and with the letters with

which it is most and least often confused.®

All subjects were tested on the Early Phoe-

nician alphabet. Three were also tested with

the Early Etruscan alphabet and another three

were tested on the Roman alphabet (Times

Roman typeface). Two subjects were tested

with all three alphabets. Figure 1 presents the

three alphabets used. One half of the stimuli

were the same, and a quarter of the different

pairs were rarely confused by humans. This

procedure diminished bias due to subject an-

ticipatory responses.’ Letter pairs were pho-

“a

2 4 5

is lel dlls § =| é =|é

ts “t

Pelee l2lsle eleldle

€ar{

hem

Psu

mr Qmhiyaw>

iad

rH Zz

x A-05%

<imvo 10

CaS 8 Oh 2 Ss Ss

Se lercc

MURESRAPKS Ve HSBSePwue Bw eh4eUad nm

NX ESGHoOWMO vO ZErASH HF QNMHOOD>

NHxMSdeHHoWO VO ZErnur

Fig. 1. The Roman alphabet and its antecedent alpha-

bets. As adapted from D. Diringer, The Alphabet: A Key

to the History of Mankind, 3rd. Ed. New York, Funk

and Wagnalls 1968.

tographed on a high-contrast film (Kodak

Technical pan 2514) from Diringer’ using a

copy stand, developed, and mounted in slide

mounts. Eight subjects (ages 15-18) with

normal or corrected vision were seated 2.5 m

from a screen onto which images of size

4cm X 8cm, subtending a visual angle of

one degree, were projected using a Kodak

Carousel slide projector set at the low light in-

tensity with a Polaroid shutter. A blue gelatin

filter (Kodak Wratten gel #29) was placed in

front of the shutter to diminish the visual con-

trast afterimages. The brightness of the image

was 60 candles/sq. m. This value is higher

than reported by other investigators because

of the use of the blue filter in this study. The

ambient light level of the room was 6 lux.

Initially, each subject participated in a cal-

ibration procedure where the shutter speed

was adjusted so that all subjects made be-

tween 15%—25% discrimination errors on a

standard set of stimuli (shutter duration ranged

from 30—60 msec). The subject was then pre-

sented with 136 pairs in a randomly selected

predetermined order in ten second intervals

with a 30 second break between every 34.

Most subjects participated in two trials in the

second of which the order of presentation was

reversed. Each subject signed an Informed

Consent Statement approved by the IRB.

II. Computer Simulation of the Feature

Detector Model

The computer simulation of the feature de-

tector model was developed on a DEC VAX

11/780. An Optronics P-1000 densitometer

was utilized to digitize the letters (Black Hel-

vetica medium capitals, 38mm high) into ma-

trices containing two levels of contrast. Sev-

eral algorithms, representing segments of the

feature detector model’? were written in

Fortran 77.

Initially, in the computer program, an edge-

detecting algorithm,’ simulating the com-

putational characteristics of some retinal

ganglion cells is applied to the images. The

program searches for simple features (bars at

four orientations), representing the organi-

zation of several cortical receptive fields. A

parameter, SIMPCRIT, is the criterion for de-

VISION AND THE EVOLUTION OF THE ALPHABET 99

16%

14%

12%

10%

% discrimination errors per trial

m= -.34%

century

4 r=-.37 N=32, p<.05

2000 1500 1000 500 AD 500 1000

Early Early Roman

Phoeniczan Etruscan

TIME (YEARS)

Fig. 2. The percentage discrimination errors per trial

within an alphabet as a function of its time of initial

predominance. Within a tachistoscopic paradigm, 8 sub-

jects were tested on letter discrimination. 3 were tested

on the first and second alphabets, 3 on the first and third,

and 2 on all three.

termining the existence of a feature within a

specific region of the image. SIMPCRIT rep-

resents the magnitude of the excitory thresh-

old of the feature detector neurones. The fea-

tures, themselves small matrices, are dot

multiplied through all regions of the digitized

image. If the value of the dot product exceeds

SIMPCRIT, then the feature is defined as

present within that region. Values are then

added to another matrix, which is a linear

transformation of the original matrix, to sig-

nify the redundancy of identification for each

point. Using the Point Biserial Correlation

Coefficient (PBCC),'° the correlation be-

tween this matrix of redundancy levels and

all digitized letters is calculated. The higher

the correlation, the more accurate the dis-

crimination. Finally, the Pearson Product

Moment Correlation (PPMC) between the

PBCC for each letter and human perform-

ances on each letter® is determined, and the

mean of the PPMC values is calculated.

Results

The results of Part I are displayed in Figure

2. The abscissa represents historical time, with

each alphabet located along the continuum

according to its approximate time of initial

predominance.’ The ordinate represents the

mean percentage confusions per experimental

trial for all subjects. The slope of the linear

regression line, calculated using the least

squares technique, is — .34%/century. The

correlation between percent discrimination

errors per experimental trial and historical time

is — .37. The probability that this result could

have been due to chance alone is less than

.05 or one in twenty.'® Only one of eight

subjects had significantly more confusions on

a later alphabet than on an earlier one.

The results of Part II are illustrated in Fig-

ure 3, which shows the correlation of the

Correlation of model's performances with human performances

on the task of letter discrimination

SIMPCRIT

Fig. 3. Correlation between computer model’s per-

formances with human performances on the task of letter

discrimination as a function of a parameter of the model,

SIMPCRIT, which represents the magnitude of the ex-

citory thresholds of the theoretical neurons of the model.

The maximum correlation between the computer simu-

lation of the Hubel and Wiesel model of form perception

with actual human performances was .2975 at SIMP-

CRIT-187.0. The extreme values probably reflect the

characteristics of the simulation rather than of the model.

100

computer simulation’s performance with hu-

man performances on the task of letter dis-

crimination as a function of SIMPCRIT. The

graph demonstrates that the effect of SIMP-

CRIT on perceptual performance of the model

is non-linear; the correlation with human per-

formances rises to a maximum level of .2975

at SIMPCRIT-187 and then sharply falls.

Limited quantities of data were collected be-

cause of the large computational requirements

of the simulation.

Discussion

Although previous studies on the evolution

of the alphabet’ have not considered the neu-

rophysiology of the visual system, the results

obtained in this project (Fig. 2) seem to in-

dicate that the neural mechanisms of form

perception have played a significant role in

the evolution of the Roman alphabet. Addi-

tional factors, such as the introduction of new

technologies and the goals of ease and speed

in writing, have certainly also had important

influence on the evolution of the Roman al-

phabet;’’’ thus the correlation between per-

cent discrimination errors and historical time

is not particularly high. Other investigators’*”°

have used letter discrimination as a metric to

assess the validity of different models of the

neural mechanisms; these results greatly rein-

force the rationale of their paradigm. The re-

sults also suggest that it may be possible to

design an “‘optimal’’ alphabet or more effec-

tive reading strategies,”! once the organiza-

tion and characteristics of the neural mech-

anisms are established.

While it is commonly accepted that neu-

rones have an excitory threshold,” the effect

of the level of this threshold, SIMPCRIT in

the present model, on perceptual performance

is evident in Figure 3. These findings rein-

force the notion that the magnitudes and non-

linearities of neuronal excitory thresholds may

significantly effect the performance of both

theoretical and physiological neural net-

works.**3 The maximum correlation between

human and computer model performances was

.2975, somewhat lower than correlations for

other models.'””° This difference could be

JONATHAN E. DWORKIN

accounted for by the small feature set

employed™*—the result of limited available

computational resources—and thus does not

reflect upon the actual validity of the Hubel

and Wiesel feature detector model. Perhaps

with a larger repertoire of features and more

efficient computational algorithms, a more

definitive analysis of the validity of the model

could be completed. It is hoped that the letter

discrimination paradigm will be applied to

other proposed models of the neural

mechanisms**~*’ to assess their validity.

Acknowledgments

The author wishes to thank G. Rose for

providing access to the Research Computer

Facility of the M.S. Hershey Medical Center;

B. Dworkin, C. Fields, L. Hibbard, M. Jones,

R. Lehman, G. Nye, G. Rose, and R. Sha-

pley for helpful discussions; J. Banks and S.

Dworkin for editorial assistance.

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letter frequency effect and the generality of famil-

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VISION AND THE EVOLUTION OF THE ALPHABET

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Gervais, M. J., Harvey Jr., L. O. and Roberts,

J. O. 1984. Identification confusions among letters

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Journal of the Washington Academy of Sciences,

Volume 74, Number 4, Pages 102—107, December 1984

Hydra Reaggregation: A Rapid

Assay to Predict Teratogenic

Hazards Induced by Environmental

Toxicity

Arthur J. Kudila

Fitzgerald Public Schools Warren, Michigan

ABSTRACT

Before drugs, chemicals, and food additives are safety certified, they need to be tested in

lengthy and expensive experiments. Such evaluation, however, does not keep up with the rapid

development and production of new compounds. The purpose of this study, therefore, was to

design, develop, and validate a new rapid assay to simulate embryogenesis and to determine the

teratogenic potential of chemicals.

After testing many organisms, adult Hydra attenuata were used to evaluate the toxicity of

several substances, including salicylic acid, lithium chloride, 2,4,5-trichlorophenoxyacetic acid,

and Agent Orange. Each chemical’s lowest toxic adult and ‘‘embryo’’ dosages were determined,

through a series of 28 tests, to within one-tenth of a log concentration. Unique methods of tissue

culturing of ‘‘embryo’’ hydra were developed to dissociate Hydra attenuata into their component

cells and to form pellets which were ejected into reaggregation media containing specific con-

centrations of the test substances. While studying, at six time intervals, the growth reactions of

adult and ‘‘embryo’’ hydra exposed to the chemicals, numerous controls were maintained.

Through an analysis of the results, validation by comparison with published rodent studies,

and statistical verification, it may be noted that the Hydra attenuata assay is a viable screening

technique which can predict the magnitude of a chemical’s toxicity to developing organisms.

Since many compounds cannot be adequately tested by traditional methods before being distributed

within the environment, this new assay will identify those which mandate further testing before

dissemination.

Introduction

The teratogenic potential or developmental

mutagenicity of drugs, chemicals, and food

additives is routinely tested in lengthy and

expensive experiments which call for admin-

istration of a test substance to pregnant ro-

dents during the period of major organo-

102

genesis. Military and industrial facilities are

introducing new chemical compounds at such

an increased rate, however, that the absence

of rapid and inexpensive means for detecting

teratogenic hazards is a major obstacle in so-

ciety’s efforts to make safety evaluations of

chemicals.

The purpose of this study, therefore, was

to design, develop, and validate a rapid assay

HYDRA REAGGREGATION

which would simulate embryogenesis and de-

termine the teratogenic potential of chemi-

cals. Hydra, the most primitive organism with

complex structures, were chosen as the ex-

perimental animals because they exhibit, dur-

ing regeneration, many of the phenomena re-

quired of a zygote in becoming an embryo

and then a fetus. Some of the developmental

cell processes exhibited by the regenerating

hydra are: changes in cell size and shape,!

spatial orientation,” cell migration,’ intercel-

lular matrix formation,* cell division and dif-

ferentiation,’ and organ field® and tissue’ for-

mation.

It was hypothesized that this new hydra

assay could be used as a screening technique

to identify chemicals potentially dangerous to

an organism’s developmental processes. Such

a procedure would prioritize new substances

according to their toxicity and their need for

further study by more elaborate means.

Procedure

Three cultures of adult Hydra sp. were con-

tinually maintained within separate, aerated

tanks regulated at a constant temperature of

21°C, using a method® which included daily

feeding with iodine treated brine shrimp and

complete tank draining 5 hours after feeding.

Each tank contained hydra media (pH 7) which

consisted of 0.147 g CaCl, 0.115 g TES, and

0.004 g EDTA dissolved in 1 liter distilled

water.

Because extensive attempts using Hydra

littoralis were unsuccessful, adult Hydra at-

tenuata? were used to evaluate the toxicity of

lithium chloride, salicylic acid, acetamin-

ophen, lead dioxide, carbon tetrachloride, for-

maldehyde, 2,4-dichlorophenoxyacetic acid

(2,4-D), 2,4,5-trichlorophenoxyacetic acid

(2,4,5-T) and Agent Orange (50% 2,4-D and

50% 2,4,5-T). Each chemical’s lowest toxic

dose was identified and verified to within one-

tenth of a log concentration through a series

of twenty-eight tests which were divided into

four experiments. Experiment I determined

the lowest toxic whole-log concentration by

exposing hydra to solutions ranging from 0.0

mg/1 to 1000 mg/1. Experiment II confirmed

103

the lowest toxic whole-log concentration. Ex-

periment III divided the lowest toxic whole-

log concentration into tenths of a log and

Experiment IV confirmed the lowest toxic one-

tenth of a log concentration. In each of the

tests, 3 adult hydra were placed in 9 ml of

hydra media containing 150 mg/1 of Ami-

kacin sulfate (an anti-bacterial agent), and the

appropriate concentration of the substance

being evaluated. Every 24 hours, the hydra

were placed in a new solution with the iden-

tical chemical composition of the solution used

within the first trials. Amikacin sulfate was

used for all testing of adult and ‘‘embryo”’

hydra, as well as with all of the controls.

To test “‘embryo’’ hydra, hundreds of adult

Hydra attenuata were bathed in iodine to re-

duce the potential of bacterial contamination,

rinsed, and kept in a glass jar, separate from

the main culture, for 3 days. These adult hy-

dra were then placed into 3 ml of 70 mosmol

reaggregation media! (pH 7) which consisted

of 0.29 g KCI, 0.97 g CaCl, 0.16 g MgSO,,

1.94 g Na citrate, 0.73 g Na pyruvate, 3.00

g TES, and 0.10 g phenol red dissolved in 1

liter distilled water. 150 mg/1 of Amikacin ©

sulfate was added. After 30 minutes, the hy-

dra were removed from the reaggregation me-

dia and were dissociated into their component

cells and tissue fragments by repeated pipet-

ting. After this mixture of cells was centri-

fuged to form a cell mass, the supernatant

was removed and the mass was resuspended.

This suspension was drawn into ID 0.58 mm

polyethylene tubing which was then sealed

with wax. The tubing was centrifuged to ma-

nipulate the hydra cells into a long, thin pel-

let. This pellet of cells was slowly ejected

into sterilized, covered glass dishes contain-

ing 9 ml of 70 mosmol reaggregation media,

Amikacin sulfate, and specific concentrations

of the substance being tested. Because the

pellets were formed in a high molarity reag-

gregation media which was not suitable for

adult hydra, the molarity was reduced to 35

mosmol and 17.5 mosmol at 4 and 18 hours,

respectively. At 26 hours the pellets were

transferred to hydra media, which was re-

placed with fresh media at 42 and 66 hours.

The pH and the concentration of both the

Amikacin sulfate and the substance being tested

104 ARTHUR J. KUDLA

remained constant through all the media

changes.

During all experimentation, both the adults

and ‘‘embryos’’ were incubated at 21°C and

were observed at 4, 18, 26, 42, 66, and 90

hours of chemical exposure. Any abnormal-

ities, as compared to the controls, were noted.

Results

Figure I displays the reaction of “‘embryo”’

Hydra attenuata to 2,4,5-T in Experiment I.

1000 ESS,

c 80 |

- Eke

Eh aeiuba

Y ea

gale .01 ee

.001 Ce»

(Con a8 Ea

Figure II is a summary of the identification

of the lowest toxic concentration of 2,4,5-T

for ‘‘embryo’’ Hydra attenuata.

After identifying the lowest toxic dose of

a substance for both adult (A) Hydra atten-

uata and ‘‘embryo’’ (E) Hydra attenuata, a

ratio of the adult concentration to the ‘‘em-

bryo’’ concentration (A/E ratio) was calcu-

lated. Table I displays the lowest toxic con-

centrations of the test substances on adult and

‘‘embryo’’ Hydra, as well as the ratios cal-

culated using these two figures. A small A/

E ratio indicates that the substance disrupts

vese

we,

Adie

HOURS OF EXPOSURE

"Embryo" Hydra Legend

Classification

Solid pellet

Hollowed pellet

Tentacles

Polyps

Disintegrated

Silhouette Depiction

Fig. \t.

HYDRA REAGGREGATION 105

Ill nnnnnonnTT

AS2MmM SHAM x

0.0001

0.001

TDLo = 0.1 mg/1

oO Oo

(=) oO

ol oO

Com]

10,000

TEST SUBSTANCE CONCENTRATION (mg/1)

= toxic

= normal

Fig. 2. Summary of experimental identification of lowest toxic concentration of 2,4,5-T for “‘Embryo’’ Hydra

attenuata

development only at or near the concentration

also toxic to the adult (a developmentally non-

hazardous substance). A large A/E ratio in-

dicates that the substance disrupts develop-

mental events at a small fraction of the exposure

toxic to adults (a teratogenic hazard). A rank

order of a group of substances, beginning with

the lowest A/E ratio and finishing with the

highest A/E ratio, results in a substance list

showing increasing teratogenic potential.

To validate this new rapid assay using Hy-

dra attenuata, the A/E ratio for each of the

substances evaluated in this research was

compared to results of published rodent stud-

ies. Table II lists the lowest toxic concentra-

tions, obtained from the Registry of Toxic

Effects of Chemical Substances,'' for both adult

and embryo rodents, and the ratios calculated

using these dosages.

Limitations

Though all experimentation was carefully

controlled, the following limitations affected

analysis of results:

1. The technique described has been found

to be viable with only a specific hydra

species.

2. The development of all experimental

pellets must be verified and control pel-

lets at all times because of the general

tendency for some pellets not to be vi-

able due to incorrect dissociation proc-

esses.

3. This hydra assay is capable of evalu-

ating the toxicity of any compound ex-

cept those containing copper since cop-

per interferes with protein synthesis in

hydra.

Table I.—Lowest Toxic Concentrations for Test Substances on Adult and ‘‘Embryo’’ Hydra (mg/l).

Chemical Tested Adult

Acetaminophen 100.0

Agent Orange 0.08

Carbon Tetrachloride 0.50

2,4-D 4.0

Formaldehyde 0.003

Lead Dioxide 1.0

Lithium Chloride 50.0

Salicylic Acid 7.0

2,4,5-T 0.80

Adult/‘‘Embryo’’

**Embryo”’ ratio

0.01 8.0

50.0 1.0

400.0 0.018

0.10 0.86

106 ARTHUR J. KUDLA

TABLE II.—Published Lowest Toxic Concentrations for Test Substances in Utero and Adult Rodents

(mg/kg).

Chemical Tested Species—Route

Acetaminophen Rat—orl

Carbon Tetrachloride Rat—orl

Rabbit—ipr

2,4-D Mouse—suc/ orl

Formaldehyde Mouse—ims

Rat—ivn

Guinea pig—ipr

Mouse—ipr/ orl

Rat—orl

Mouse—orl

Lead dioxide

Lithium Chloride

Salicylic Acid

2,4,5-T

Adult/Embryo

Adult Embryo ratio

2400 1500 1.6

2000

478 0.24

368 882 0.42

259

87 0.34

220 = =

1165 320 3.64

1000 540 1°85

389 450 195

(For adults, the lethal dose for 50% of the entire experimental population was used. For embryos, the lowest dose

of a substance to produce any toxic event was selected.)

4. Though cautious comparison was made

with published rodent toxicity statistics,

not all comparisons could be validated

by published studies employing the same

organism or the same method of chem-

ical exposure.

Analysis

In comparison to published results of in

utero and adult rodent toxicity studies, the

following general characteristics of the Hydra

attenuata assay have been confirmed and sta-

tistically verified by the Spearman’s Corre-

lation Coefficient, with an alpha level equal

to 0.05:

1. Concentrations of chemicals toxic to adult

hydra are predictive to the magnitude

of toxicity for adult rodents but are not

predictive of the magnitude of toxicity

for rodent embryos.

2. Concentrations of chemicals toxic to

‘‘embryo’’ hydra are predictive of the

magnitude of toxicity for rodent em-

bryos but are not predictive of the mag-

nitude of toxicity for adult rodents.

3. A ratio (adult/‘‘embryo’’) of hydra toxic

chemical concentrations is predictive of

a ratio (adult/embryo) of rodent toxic

chemical concentrations.

4. Concentrations of chemicals toxic to adult

hydra are not predictive of the magni-

tude of toxicity for ‘‘embryo’’ hydra nor

are adult rodents predictive of the mag-

nitude of toxicity for embryo rodents.

Conclusion

Through the previous analysis of the results

and verification with the Spearman Correla-

tion Coefficient, it may be noted that the Hy-

dra attenuata assay, which was designed, de-

veloped, and validated through this research,

is a viable screening technique for the rapid

identification of chemicals which could be

potentially dangerous to developing orga-

nisms.

Calculation of the adult/‘‘embryo’’ hydra

ratio by this system quickly and accurately

reflects conclusions possible for complex an-

imal studies since it predicts the magnitude

of a chemical’s toxicity to developing orga-

nisms. The great majority of substances are

no more hazardous to embryos than to adults,

but the Hydra attenuata assay quantitatively

identifies the chemicals with the greatest pos-

sibility of disrupting developmental proc-

esses. This allows for rapid separation of de-

velopmentally nonhazardous substances from

potential teratogenic hazards, which would

mandate further testing before dissemination.

The extensive experimentation and the

careful use of controls within this project al-

low acceptance of the hypothesis that the Hy-

HYDRA REAGGREGATION 107

dra attenuata assay can be used as an accurate

screening technique for the identification of

chemicals which could be potentially dan-

gerous to an organism if such chemicals were

improperly distributed within the environ-

ment.

Acknowledgments

This research was possible through the help

and tolerance of my family and the assistance

and encouragement of Dr. James D. Edoff.

References

1. Gierer, A. 1977. Physical aspects of tissue evagin-

ation and biological form. Q. Rev. Biophys., 10:

529-593.

2. Wakeford, R. J. 1979. Cell contact and positional

communication in Hydra. J. Embryol. Exp. Mor-

phol., 54: 171-183.

3. Webster, G. W. and S. Hamilton. 1972. Budding

in Hydra: the role of cell multiplication and cell

movement in bud initiation. J. Embryol. Exp. Mor-

phol., 27: 301-316.

4. Epp, L. G., P. Tardent and R. Banninger. 1979.

Isolation and observation of tissue layers in Hydra

attenuata pall (cnidaria, hydrozoa). Trans. Am. Mi-

crosc. Soc., 98: 392-400.

. Burnett, A. L., R. Lowell and M. N. Cyslin.

1973. Regeneration of a complete Hydra from a

single, differentiated somatic cell type. In: Biology

of Hydra. A. Burnett, ed., Academic Press, New

York.

. Otto, J. and R. Campbell. 1977. Budding in Hydra

attenuata: bud stages and fate map. J. Exp. Zool.,

200: 417-427.

. Davis, L. E. 1975. Histological and ultrastructural

studies of the basal disk of Hydra. III. The gastro-

dermis and the mesoglea. Cell Tissue Res., 162:

107-118.

. Loomis, W. F. and H. M. Lenhoff. 1956. Growth

and asexual differentiation of Hydra in mass culture.

2 Exp, Zool), 132: 555-573.

. Johnson, E. M. 1981. Screening for teratogenic

hazards: nature of the problem. Annu. Rev. Phar-

macol. Toxicol., 21: 417-429.

. Gierer, A., S. Berking, H. Bode, C. N. David,

K. Flick, G. Hansmann, H. Schaller, and E.

Trenkner. 1972. Regeneration of Hydra from reag-

gregated cells. Nature; New Biol., 239: 98-105.

. U.S. Department of Health and Human Services.

April 1983. Registry of Toxic Effects of Chemical

Substances. R. J. Lewis, Sr. and R. L. Tatken, eds.,

prepared for the National Institute for Occupational

Safety and Health. DHHS (NIOSH) Publication No.

83-107-2.

Journal of the Washington Academy of Sciences,

Volume 74, Number 4, Pages 108-111, December 1984

Seagrass Leaves: An

Alternative to

Commercial Fertilizers

on Coastal Poor Soils in

Tropical Islands

Ana Edmy Lucca-Broco

Box 533 Guayanilla, Puerto Rico (00656)

ABSTRACT

In view of the increasing costs of commercial fertilizers and poor coastal soil conditions of

tropical islands, a study to determine the value of highly productive seagrass leaves (Thalassia

testudinum) (Konig, 1805) as a nutrient source for cultures of corn plants was conducted. The

experiments consisted of growing the plants from seeds placed in containers containing gravel,

as a control medium, and in containers with different proportions of dried, ground seagrass leaves

mixed with gravel. Plants grown in gravel alone were used to simulate soils with little or no

organic matter content. In addition the same plants were grown on sterile soil with or without

seagrass litter as fertilizer. All plants grown with seagrass litter grew significantly higher and

faster than control plants and presented no signs of chlarosis. Experimental plants were also

observed to grow relatively healthier than control plants. It was also determined that the tropical

seagrass, Thalassia testudinum, grows relatively fast (23-25 cm/15 days), suggesting that it could

be harvested in the future for growing such products on underdeveloped islands with inadequate

coastal soils. Seagrass leaves are rich in nutrients (Vicente, 1982), help preserve soil humidity,

and calcareous epiphytes on them help to stabilize the pH of the soil by acting as buffers.

Introduction

Seagrass meadows, mainly composed of

turtle grass (Thalassia testudinum) are abun-

dant on the South, East, West and North coasts

of Puerto Rico. They also provide nursery,

mating and feeding grounds for a wide variety

of commercial fishes, mollusc, shrimp and

other crustaceans. Seagrass meadows have a

high leaf production, and these leaves are high

in essential nutrients. In view of poor soil

conditions near the Puerto Rican coasts (mainly

108

sandy soils), a study was conducted to de-

termine the potential use of Thalassia leaves

as a nutrient source for poor soils for the

growth of vegetables. In addition, the growth

rate of Thalassia leaves was determined on

natural meadows on the North, South, East

and West coasts of the island of Puerto Rico

(see Figure 1). The results of this study in-

dicate that dried, grounded Thalassia leaves

are good source of nutrients and organic mat-

ter for vegetables grown in gravel (simulating

a poor soil), and a good fertilizer for these

SEAGRASS LEAVES 109

Atlantic Ocean

PUERTO RICO

Caribbean Sea

Pig. f.

A-La cueva del Indio station

B-Las Croabas station

C-Guayanilla Bay station

D-Punta Arenas station

plants grown in sterile soil. In addition, small,

calcareous epiphytes on Thalassia leaves, still

present on the processed leaves, stabilize the

pH of the soil.

Materials and Methods

Experiment I. Thalassia leaves as an or-

ganic source for corn plants grown in gravel.

Thalassia leaves were collected in Guay-

anilla Bay (South coast of Puerto Rico). A

total of 21 pounds were obtained. The leaves

were dried for seven days. 75 containers were

labeled as follows: 15 containers V; 15 con-

tainers W; 15 containers X; 15 containers Y;

and 15 containers Z. The necessary amount

of gravel was then obtained. Different con-

centrations of dried, ground, Thalassia leaves

Lay V W x Y Z

3 3 cm 3 cm. 4 cm 5 cm 8 cm

5 5 em 5 cm. 7 cm 9 cm 12 cm

7 7 cm 7 cm. 9 cm 10 cm 15 cm

9g 9 cm 9 cm. 12 cn 14 cm 18 cm

11 11 cm 12 cm. 17 cm 18 cm 21 cm

13 13 cm 14 cm 21 cm 22 cm 25 cm

15 16 cm 17 cm 24 cn 24 cm 29 cm

17 18 cm 19 cm 27 cm 27 cm 32 cm

19 25 cm 21 cm 33 cm 34 cm 41 cm

21 30 cm 32 cm 41 cm 43 cm 53 cm

Fig. 2. Experiment I: Growth rate of plants

V-Control

W-20% fertilizer

X-40% fertilizer

Y-60% fertilizer

Z-80% fertilizer

with gravel were prepared. Concentration V

contained 100% gravel as the control; W con-

tained 20% Thalassia fertilizer; X contained

40% of the fertilizer; Y concentration con-

tained 60% of fertilizer; Z contained 80% of

the fertilizer. Three seeds of each species of

plants were planted in each container and 200

ml of water were added. The plants were

measured every two days after germination

occurred, and the results were tabulated (see

Figure 2).

Experiment II. The potential of seagrass

leaves as a liquid fertilizer for corn plants

grown in Sterile soil.

Seventy-five containers were filled with

sterile soil, as in experiment I. Daily, 200 ml

of water were added. Every two days, liquid

fertilizer* prepared from Thalassia was added,

the plants measured, and the results were tab-

ulated. The mean and standard deviations were

determined for each of the above (see Figure

Seven

Experiment III. The growth of corn in dif-

ferent concentrations of Thalassia leaves with

sterile soil.

The containers were filled with the pre-

vious concentrations (V,W,X,Y,Z) of sea-

grass leaves substituting sterile soil for gravel.

Corn seeds were planted in the containers,

200 ml of water were added, and the plants

were measured every two days. Results were

Comparison t value p

V-W 9.43 001

v-X 14.42 001

V-Y 42.66 001

V-Z Sy loral| 001

W=X 8.91 001

W-Y Flie95 001

X-Y 8.61 001

X-Z 18.59 001

Y-Z 40.91 001

df=8

Fig. 3. Experiment II: Corn planted in sterile soil and

liquid fertilizer under four experimental conditions

*The liquid fertilizer was prepared adding 200 ml. by

volume of ground Thalassia to 1000 ml. of distilled water.

110 ANA EDMY LUCCA-BROCO

Comparison t value Pp

V-W 7.27 001

V-X 1.04 ns

vV-Y 24.95 -001

V=-Z 28.87 -001

W-X 0.70 ns

W-Y 24.00 001

W-Z 25.80 -001

X-Y 0.32 ns

X=-Z 0.78 ns

Y-Z 7.22 001

df=8

Fig. 4. Experiment III: Corn planted in sterile soil and

Thalassia under four experimental conditions

tabulated, and the mean and standard devia-

tion were determined (see Figure 4).

Experiment IV: Growth rate of Thalassia

testudinum in Puerto Rico.

Four stations were selected: La Cueva del

Indio (North coast), Las Croabas (East coast),

Guayanilla Bay (South coast), and Punta Are-

nas (West coast). A quadrant frame (1 ft. x 1

ft.) was placed in each station. Each leaf within

the quadrant was labeled according to the

method of Zieman (Zieman 1975). Every 15

days the leaves were cropped and measured.

The experiment was repeated for 3 months

and all results were tabulated. Final average

results are shown in Figure 5.

Station A Station B Station C Station D

25 cm. 23 cn. 24 cn. 25 cm.

*per 15 days

Fig. 5. Experiment IV: Growth rate of Thalassia tes-

tudinum

Results

After the seeds had been planted and plant

development under the specified conditions

(gravel, sterile soil and liquid fertilizer), it

can be seen that average plant growth in-

creases in proportion to the fertilizer concen-

tration. In I,V concentration (gravel control)

plants had a growing average of 30 cm. In

the I,W concentration which had 20% Tha-

lassia fertilizer, the growing average was 32

cm. In I,X, which contained 40% of the fer-

tilizer, there was a 41 cm. average. The I, Y

concentration, 60% of fertilizer, averaged 45

cm. The I,Z concentration plants had a grow-

ing average of 53 cm. (notice the fact that

this concentration continued 80% fertilizer,

but it did not affect the plant’s metabolism).

The plants seeded in sterile soil with different

concentrations of Thalassia fertilizer grew

faster; in the II, V concentration (the control),

plants grew an average of 34 cm. In II,W

concentration, with 20% Thalassia fertilizer,

plants averaged 37 cm. In II,X with 40%

fertilizer, plants grew an average of 45 cm.

In II,Y with 60% Thalassia, plants had a

growing average of 49 cm; and in II,Z con-

centration which contains 80% fertilizer, a 57

cm. average was achieved. In the III,V con-

centration (control) a 31 cm. average was ob-

tained, in the III,W where the Thalassia fer-

tilizer was used in liquid form (200 ml) there

was 36 cm. grow. The III,X, with 400 ml.

added daily, obtained a growing average of

44 cm. A 600 ml. of fertilizer were added to

the concentration III,Y each day, and a 49

cm. average was obtained. In III,Z, to which

800 ml. of fertilizer were added, a growing

average of 59 cm. was achieved (figure 6).

As shown, the fertilizer in liquid form was

more effective than the other feed forms.

Conclusions

After analyzing the results, it was found

that Thalassia leaves grow relatively fast

(21-25 cms./15 days), suggesting that it could

be harvested frequently. The rhizomes have

stored energy in the starch which probably

accounts for this fast growth. Dried, ground

leaves of Thalassia testudinum proved to be

an effective fertilizer for cultures for con-

tainer vegetables grown in sterile soils. Dried

Thalassia leaves are rich in essential nutrients

and minerals for plant growth; appropriate

quantities of magnesium, present in Thalassia

SEAGRASS LEAVES 111

Condition Mean

is 22.4

1 28.9

Tek 55.8

Tt; ¥ 33.6

I, 43.4

TOR AY 30.2

II, W Bia

rE, X 42.6

Ty bY. 49.4

LL 9Z 58.4

DEL. V, 30.2

Ill, W 35.0

III, X 44.9

PLL ¥ 49.4

1G (hay A 55.9

Fig. 6. Means of corn growth in different soil con-

ditions

A-Gravel + Thalassia, Experiment I

B-Sterile Soil + Liquid fertilizer, Experiment II

C-Sterile Soil + Thalassia, Experiment III

Comparison Condition t value p

VA-VB control 2.75 05

VA-VC control 2.73 05

VeE-VC’ control 0.00 ns

WA-Wb 20% flo WT 01

WA=WC 20% 4.06 01

WE-WC 20% 0.83 ns

XA-XB 40% 3.36 01

XA-XC 40% 0.64 ns

XB-XC 40% 0.16 ns

YA-YB €0% 6.81 -001

YA-YC €0% 9.94 001

YB-YC CO% 0.00 ns

ZA-Z2 80% 1.43 ns

ZA-ZC 80% 1.19 ns

ZE-ZC 80% 2.94 02

df=8

Fig. 7. Corn planted in three different soils with equal

concentrations of fertilizer

A-Gravel + Thalassia, Experiment I

B-Sterile Soil + Liquid fertilizer, Experiment II

C-Sterile Soil + Thalassia, Experiment III

leaves are important for chlorophyl! synthesis

(Vicente, 1982). Thalassia leaves also proved

to be a source of valuable organic matter since

plants grew healthy and significantly more (p

.O5) than controls (see figure 7). Stabilization

of soil pH was observed when Thalassia leaves

are used. This is most likely due to carbonates

of encrusting calcareaus (CaCO3) algae pres-

ent on Thalassia leaves. On coastal poor soils,

seagrass leaves which can be harvested or

collected on the shore can serve as fertilizer

or as an organic source for the growth of at

least some truck products. In view of increas-

ing costs of commercial fertilizers, seagrass

leaves may be a valuable alternative.

TAXONIMICAL CLASSIFICATION

THE SEAGRASS:

Order: Hidrocharitales

Family: Hidrocharitaceae

Genus: Thalassia

Species: testudinum

Filum: Espermatofite

References Cited

1. Alexander, Martin. 1961. Introduction to soil mi-

crobiology. Cornell University. 30-59.

2. Beywer, Bathil S. 1973. Plant Physiology. Prince-

town University, New Jersey. 234-256.

3. Buckman, Harry. 1969. The nature and properties

of soils. Cornell University. 79-94.

4. Gonzalez, Juan L. 1973. Manual ilustrado de plantas

acuaticas. Buenos Aires. 34-87.

5. Vincente, Vance & Almodovar, Luis. 1982. An

ecological evaluation of seagrasses in Guayanilla Bay.

Science, 7 #4, 91-103.

6. Vincente, Vance & Rivera, Jose A. 1982. Depth

limits of the sea grasses in Guayanilla Bay. Carib.

Scie. 73-79.

Journal of the Washington Academy of Sciences,

Volume 74, Number 4, Pages 112-116, December 1984

Argus

David A. Rapp

Wheeling Park High School, Wheeling, West Virginia 26003

ABSTRACT

Breaking technological barriers, Argus is an exceptionally versatile optical analyzer. This

project is designed so that any corporation can increase and ensure efficiency in quality control

and inventory control by the implementation of this low-cost inspection system on their production

lines. This represents a significant advance because the system can eliminate the production and

employment of defective components. This will conserve millions of dollars expended on recalls

and discarded inventory.

Argus has been designed to analyze an object electromagnetically and provide immediate

information about its type and quality. Then, this data is compared with previous data to enable

the system to watch for trending. Therefore, Argus will predict when machinery will begin

producing defective components because of tool wear. If the parameters should exceed their

limits, Argus immediately will commence shut-down procedure of machinery to prohibit the

production of unuseable parts.

Argus is an optical instrument consisting of an inexpensive dynamic memory which is light

sensitive when the protective cover is removed because of the photoelectric effect. The imager

is interfaced with a microcomputer which also is interfaced with the production lines. It is possible

to interface Argus with the corporation’s mainframe computer system and provide instantaneous

inventory information as well as quality control checks.

This project will supply the need for a low-cost inspection system. Also, the system can be

modified easily for use in many other applications (e.g., a night vision system for surveillance

and security, fingerprint and signature verification, robot vision, and missile guidance system).

Problem:

The objective of this project was to design

a solid-state imager so that any corporation

could increase and ensure efficiency in qual-

ity control, as well as inventory control, by

the implementation of a low-cost inspection

system on their production lines. The system

then should eliminate the production and em-

ployment of defective components. This could

save a corporation millions of dollars ex-

pended on recalls and discarded inventory.

112

Hypothesis:

An optical instrument should be designed

to analyze an object and provide immediate

information about its type and quality. Then,

the information could be compared with pre-

vious data to enable the system to watch for

trending. Therefore, the system could predict

when machinery would begin producing de-

fective components because of tool wear.

However, if the parameters should exceed their

limits before the tooling has been adjusted,

ARGUS 113

immediately the system should begin shut-

down of the production line to prohibit the

production of unuseable items.

Research:

An optical instrument is sensitive to light

and, since light is a form of radiation, re-

search of radiation was necessary.

After completing the research necessary to

understand electromagnetic waves, the design

of the solid-state imager was begun. The im-

ager must focus the image on many small

photoelectric devices in an array. Then the

array should change a voltage in response to

a change in incident light intensity. One way

of doing this would be to use a vidicon tube

similar to those in television cameras. How-

ever, after research, the practicality of the

vidicon tubes was questionable because of

their power consumption and the lack of com-

patability with computers. During the re-

search of the photoelectric effect, the idea of

using a dynamic RAM (Random Access

Memory) was conceived. If this theory could

be proven to be correct, the use of a dynamic

RAM would be excellent because of low power

consumption and computer compatability.

The memory known as a dynamic RAM is

an integrated circuit which stores its data as

a charge instead of in a flip-flop like a static

memory, and the electrical charge should be

able to be discharged by the exposure to light.

The rate at which the electrons are released

should also be related to the intensity of the

light. This should work because of the pho-

toelectric effect, since under certain condi-

tions the current flowing in an electrical cir-

cuit may be affected by the action of light

falling on some suitably prepared part of the

circuit.

To test this theory, the protective cover

would have to be removed from a dynamic

memory to expose the inside electronic die.

The cells used to hold data on this die should

be sensitive to light. Therefore, if all logic

ones are written into the memory exposed to

light, the locations getting strong light should

turn to logic zeros. So, if an image if focused

on the IC surface using an inexpensive lens

system, light should be distinguished from

dark areas by simply reading the contents of

the chip. Another feature of this approach is

that infrared light should also be detected;

thus, if a dark area is illuminated with infrared

light, one can see in the dark.

Since dynamic memories are ICs that store

data, the information is being stored inter-

nally as a charge on a tiny capacitor. Capac-

itors eventually bleed off their charges and

the time it takes depends on their size and

leakage. In this case, the capacitor is so tiny

that it takes a mere 2-milliseconds to lose the

charge.

After testing the dynamic RAM, it was de-

termined that light striking the cells serves to

accelerate the bleed off. Because each cell

has only two states (on or off), only black or

white can be detected. The important thing

is to try to sharply focus the image on the die

area of the chip. Two months of research and

testing of various designs resulted in the de-

sign of Argus.

The newly designed imager, Argus*, is an

optical instrument consisting of an inexpen-

sive dynamic memory which has been ex-

posed to light. Since the dynamic memory

has to be operated at high speeds, it was nec-

essary to interface it with a microcomputer.

After designing and constructing an interface

circuitry so that the microcomputer could read

the optic imager (dynamic RAM), a program

had to be developed that could read the im-

ager in less than 2-milliseconds. Programs

had to be written in Assembly Language (Ma-

chine Language) because the more common

language known as BASIC is not fast enough.

BASIC is a fine general-purpose tool, but it

has its limitations; Assembly Language per-

forms much faster. In Assembly Language

the programmer is speaking directly to the

computer. Actually, the Assembly Language

is the only language the computer under-

stands. When a programmer writes in BASIC,

the programs have to be interpreted by the

computer before the instruction can be per-

formed; therefore, BASIC cannot be as fast

as Assembly Language. Therefore, the most

*In Greek Mythology, Argus was the name of a hundred-

eyed monster; the name denotes a watchful guardian.

114 DAVID A. RAPP

crucial parts of the program were written in

Assembly Language and then called by the

SYS (SYSTEM) command in BASIC.

It required four months to learn Assembly

Language to write the programs. There are

56 instructions (commands) available in 6502

machine language. Most versions of BASIC

have about 50 commands. Some BASIC in-

structions are rarely used by the majority of

programmers: USR, END, SGN, TAN, LET,

etc. Some, such as END and LET, contribute

nothing to a program and seem to have re-

mained highly specialized. There are surplus

commands in computer languages just as there

are surplus words in English. For example,

people don’t often say “‘culpability.’’ They

usually say “‘guilt.”’ The message is under-

stood without using the entire dictionary. The

simple, common words can do the job.

Assembly Language is the same as any other

language in this respect. There are approxi-

mately 20 instructions used heavily. The 36

remaining ones are used much less often. As-

sembly Language, like BASIC, offers many

ways to accomplish a given job. Some pro-

gramming solutions, of course, are better than

others, but the main thing is to get the job

done.

The best way to approach the ‘‘instruction

set’’ might be to break it down into the fol-

lowing six categories which group the instruc-

tions according to their functions: 1. The

Transporters; 2. The Arithmetic Group; 3. The

Decisionmakers; 4. The Loop Group; 5. The

Subroutine and Jump Group; and 6. The De-

buggers.

One of the disadvantages of using Assem-

bly Language is that a completely different

instruction set is used, and the programming

usually is done in the hexadecimal system,

which is in groups of 16, rather than the dec-

imal system, which is in groups of 10.

After the programs in Assembly Language

had been written to obtain the necessary speed,

the circuitry was constructed to interface the

microcomputer with the imager. In order to

demonstrate the imager’s capabilities, a model

production line was designed and constructed

also. It took two months to design and con-

struct the imager and the model production

line. The model assembly line incorporated

a method of separating defective items from

those meeting specifications upon command

from the microcomputer.

Upon the completion of Argus, it was not

operating as planned. Another month was re-

quired to isolate and remove the imperfec-

tions in the system. Several flaws were found

in the focusing of the imager. Moreover, the

logical address of the cell did not correspond

with the physical placement of the cells on

the sensing array. In order to take care of this

problem, only every other column was read

across. There were also several errors found

in the program dealing with the time delay

between the writing and the reading of the

light sensitive cell.

Presently Argus is capable of seeing in black

and white. Experimentation with the possi-

bility of having Argus see in color was planned.

Since the design and construction of Argus

required more time than expected, there was

not sufficient time to conduct research in this

area.

Conclusion:

A vision system such as Argus will supply

the need for a low-cost inspection system.

An inexpensive dynamic memory utilized

as an optic imager will provide for the in-

expensive installation of an inspection system

that will conserve millions of dollars ex-

pended on recalls and the return of defective

products by consumers. Since the imager can

Fig. 1. The Imaging System (top); the model produc-

tion line, the conveyor system, (bottom).

ARGUS 115

Fig. 2. The Imaging System with the cover removed, Fig. 5. The home computer with its many modifica-

exposing the back of the imaging board. tions.

be used to watch for tool wear, money can

be saved also through the prevention of the

production of defective components. Because

of the utilization of an ordinary computer’s

dynamic RAM, this vision system wiil cost

as little as $50. Obviously, the prevention of

waste in production will pay for the system

soon after, if not immediately upon instal-

lation.

Fig. 3. The front side of the imaging board. (Note:

The chip in the center is the dynamic RAM which has

been made light sensitive by the removai of its opaque

cover.

Fig. 4. The interface board—this board interfaces the

microcomputer to the production line. Fig. 6. The completed project entitled ARGUS.

116 DAVID A. RAPP

For inventory control as well as quality

checks, it is possible to interface the system

with a corporation’s mainframe computer to

provide instantaneous information.

The system can be modified for use in many

applications (e.g., a night vision system for

surveillance and security, fingerprint and sig-

nature verification, robot vision, character

recognition, time-lapse motion studies, mea-

suration, telescope tracking system for as-

tronomers, barcode reading, and in a guid-

ance system for missiles).

Bibliography

Chester, Michael, Particles, New York:

MacMillan Publishing Co., Inc., 1978.

Dogigli, Johannes, The Magic of Rays, New

York: Alfred A. Knopf, Inc., 1961.

Moche’, Dinah, Radiation, New York: An

Impact Book, 1979.

‘‘The New Bad Nuclear News,’’ Ma-

clean’s, May 2, 1983, p. 48.

‘‘Radiation,’’ Academic American Ency-

clopedia, 1983 ed., XVI, p. 42.

‘*Radiation,’’ Encyclopedia Americana,

1980 ed., XXIII, p. 137.

‘*Radiation,’’ Encyclopedia Britannica,

1956 ed., XVIII, p. 875.

‘‘Radiation,’’” The World Book Encyclo-

pedia, 1978 ed., XVI, p. 72.

‘‘Radioactivity,’’ Collier's Encyclopedia,

1981 ed., XIX, p. 604.

Rossi, Bruno, Cosmic Rays, New York:

McGraw-Hill, 1964.

Tannebaum, Beulah and Stillman, Myra, |

Understanding Light, New York: McGraw-

Hill, 19609:

References Cited

Barber, Alfred W., Practical Guide to Digital Inte-

grated Circuits, Parker Publishing Company, 1976.

Cirovic, Michael M., /ntegrated Circuits, Reston Pub-

lishing Co., Reston Virginia, 1977.

Commodore, Commodore 64 Programmer’s Reference

Guide, Commodore Business Machines, Inc. and

Howard W. Sams & Co., West Chester, Pennsylvania,

1982.

Krute, Stan, Commodore 64 Graphics and Sound Pro-

gramming, Tab Books Inc., Blue Ridge Summit,

Pennsylvania, 1983.

Mansfield, Richard, Machine Language for Beginners,

Compute! Publications, Inc., Greensboro, North Car-

olina, 1983.

NEC, Digital Electronic Circuits, NEC Microcompu-

ters, Inc., Wellesley, Mass., 1981.

Osborne, Adam, An Introduction to Microcomputers,

Vol. I, Osborne/McGraw Hill, Berkeley, California,

1980.

Peatman, John B., Microcomputer-Based Design,

McGraw-Hill Book Company, New York, New York,

1977.

‘‘Photoelectric Effect,’’ The Illustrated Science and In-

vention Encyclopedia, 1977 ed., Vol. XII, p. 1730.

Robillard, Mark J., Microprocessor Based Robotics,

Intelligent Machine Series, Vol. I, Howard W. Sams

& Co., Inc., Indianapolis, Indiana, 1983.

Weinstein, Martin Bradley, Android Design, Hayden

Book Company, Inc., Rochelle Park, New York, 1981.

Young, George, Digital Electronics, Hayden Book

Company, Inc., Rochelle Park, New York, 1980.

Zaks, Rodney, From Chips to Systems: An Introduction

to Microprocessors, SYBEX, Inc., Berkeley, Cali-

fornia, 1981.

Journal of the Washington Academy of Sciences,

Volume 74, Number 4, Pages 117-120, December 1984

The Allelopathic Aspects

of Melilotus Alba

Through Coumarin

Mark Edward Schnute

North High School, 2319 Stringtown Rd., Evansville, Indiana 47711

ABSTRACT

White sweet clover is capable of producing sharp reductions in growth and germination of

competitive seeds. The majority, if not all, of these effects are caused by the chemical coumarin

which the clover plant produces and releases into the soil in excessive amounts to aid the clover

plant by inhibiting enzymes necessary early in germination.

Introduction

Numerous plants found in the world today

have been discovered to exhibit the ability to

influence the well being of other plants in the

surrounding vicinity. A complete scientific

division, called allelopathy, has been created

to study the abilities of these plants to gen-

erate harmful effects on another plant through

the production of chemical substances that the

plant releases into the environment.’ One plant

that is suspected of utilizing an allelopathic

capability is white sweet clover, Melilotus

alba. This biennial plant is commonly used

on farm land after numerous successive years

of planting in order to replenish minerals and

organic material to the depleted soil. If white

sweet clover does exhibit allelopathic abili-

ties, these traits may also be an agricultural

asset of the plant.

117

Experiment

If white sweet clover does actually have

allelopathic abilities, it would to some extent

affect the growth and germination of other

plants. To investigate this, two flats were pre-

pared by dividing each into seven adjacent

sections. In one flat, sections were divided

by a barrier of stained wood to prevent water

diffusion, and in the other no barriers were

placed. Clover seeds were planted in four sec-

tions of each flat and were allowed to mature

thirty days before ninety dandelion seeds were

introduced into the three remaining sections

between the clover. The number of germi-

nated seedlings and the growth of the plants,

the distance between the stem’s contact with

the soil and the tip of the longest leaf, was

recorded daily in the two experimental flats

and a control group.

118 MARK EDWARD SCHNUTE

Also, several groups of white sweet clover

were grown in flats for approximately four

months. At this time the plant material and

the soil were separated, and the ability of the

soil to reduce the germination of dandelion

seeds was tested. One hundred dandelion seeds

were planted in a flat containing only soil

from the sweet clover plants, and the number

of germinated seedlings was counted daily for

a period of eight weeks.

From research, one chemical was found to

be fairly unique to the white sweet clover

plant, and such uniqueness may be connected

to the allelopathic effects. This compound,

coumarin (Fig. 1), is a member of the organic

functional group of lactones,® and is present

in its pure form at high concentration in only

three plants: a sweet grass, Hierochloe odo-

rata, the tonka bean, Dipteryx odorata, and

white sweet clover itself.

From the previous set of experiments, the

compound influencing growth and germina-

tion of the dandelion plants would have to be

present in the plants themselves and the soil.

A method of extraction and detection was

developed to determine if coumarin was one

of the compounds present in both substances.

Approximately 4 gm of white sweet clover

plant material, 5 gm of soil where clover had

been grown, 5 gm of soil not exposed to clo-

ver, and 5 gm of white sweet clover seed were

independently ground in a mortar and then

extracted with a saturated sodium sulfate so-

lution for a period of 24 hours. The extract

H A

| |

HA Se

of exes

Fig. 1. Structural formula for coumarin. (1,2-Ben-

zopyrone)

was then steam distilled, and the distillate

extracted with chloroform since coumarin is

volatile in steam’* and very soluble in chlo-

roform.® Compounds present in the extract

were identified using thin layer chromatog-

raphy with a layer of silica gel G, a solvent

of hexane and ethyl acetate (5:2), and the

chromatograms were developed by spraying

them with 1% alcoholic potassium hydroxide,

which resulted in a green fluorescence in ul-

traviolet light.'°

Since coumarin was detected both in plant

material and the soil, a quantity of synthetic

coumarin was needed to determine if it was

the cause of the allelopathic effects of sweet

clover. The synthesis of coumarin was carried

out using a variation of the Perkins reaction.’

The melting point,° nuclear magnetic reso-

nance spectrum,"! and infrared spectrum’? were

used to test purity. The nuclear magnetic res-

onance spectrum showed a minute trace of

possibly triethylamine a starting product.

The effect coumarin has on the germination

of numerous seeds including dandelion, tall

fescue grass, radish, corn, and white sweet

clover itself was tested at varying concentra-

tions, as well as the ability of such substances

as amylase, sucrose, hydrogen sulfide, and

gibberellic acid to reverse the effect of cou-

marin. One hundred seeds of each variety

were placed in petri dishes containing 5 ml

of courmarin solution, ranging in concentra-

tion from 5 X 107? to 10° molarity which

corresponds to 570 mg to .0001 wg of cou-

marin per square meter. Similar procedures

were used to attempt to reverse the effect of

coumarin at the 570 mg/m? concentration.

Dandelion, tall fescue grass, and corn seeds

were also planted in soil contained in flats

which were then exposed to concentrations

of coumarin ranging from 5 gm to .1 mg/m?

by applying one liter of water solution con-

taining the proper amount of coumarin.

Results

The results obtained when dandelions were

grown to next to sweet clover plants indicate

sweet clover has the ability to reduce the growth

ALLELOPATHIC ASPECTS OF MELILOTUS ALBA THROUGH COUMARIN 119

and germination of these plants some 30%

and 23% from control, respectively. When

dandelion seeds were germinated in the soil

of white sweet clover, they exhibited an 84%

reduction in germination for the first four

weeks, though by the eighth week there was

only a 42% reduction.

The outcome of the thin layer chromatog-

raphy of both the extracts of white sweet clo-

ver plant material and the soil surrounding

the plants indicated the presence of coumarin.

Both chromatograms had bands of green flu-

orescence that had R; values which matched

fairly close to that of a control. Chromato-

grams of the extracts of white sweet clover

seeds did not indicate an appreciable amount

of coumarin, though an amount of o-coumaric

acid was detected. Since o-coumaric acid is

a precursor to coumarin in biosynthesis,' the

amount present in the seed is probably later

converted to coumarin.

Coumarin alone was found to be a potent

inhibitor of germination. In dandelion, grass,

and clover seeds the highest concentration of

coumarin, 570 mg/m’, when applied to the

petri dish caused a 100% reduction in ger-

mination while corn and radish seeds showed

a 51% and 86% reduction, respectively. In

clover, corn, and radish the germination had

risen to that of the control by the 11 mg/m?

concentration and remained there for the re-

mainder of the concentrations. On the other

hand, the grass (Fig. 2) and dandelion seeds

(Fig. 3) exhibit a pattern of high and low

peaks as the concentration decreases, yet dan-

PERCENT DIFFERENCE

& os

°o

-100

LOO IOO Gr a ot O20 toe ip fo” 40"

CONCENTRATION ( mg/m?)

Fig. 2. Percent increase or decrease in germination

from control according to concentration in tall fescue

grass. —-— at 48 hours, —A-— at 144 hours

PERCENT DIFFERENCE

~100

q000" soov ‘40h? «4 of F402! 400 tort

CONCENTRATION (mg/m* |}

Fig. 3. Percent increase or decrease in germination

from control according to concentration in dandelion.

—-— at 72 hours, —A— at 144 hours

40-7 40°®) 4077

delion seeds never attained less than a 14%

reduction in germination while grass at times

surpassed that of the control. At 144 hours

into germination, both seeds showed low peaks

at approximately .1 mg and .1 g/m’. A sim-

ilar pattern was observed in those that were

germinated in soil, though the greatest re-

duction was 42% in the dandelion seeds.

Early in germination the same pattern also

existed though the peaks were in slightly shifted

positions and were more pronounced. The shift

may be due to the possible metabolism of

coumarin by the seed,* reducing the total

amount present. At concentrations where re-

ductions of germination exist, the majority of

the seeds that do germinate do so at approx-

imately 96 hours, and a lower percentage than

the control germinated during the first 72 hours.

When certain metabolites were used to at-

tempt to reverse inhibition by coumarin, hy-

drogen sulfide, a proteinase enzyme activa-

tor,'* and gibberellic acid, which activates

a-amylase and numerous other enzymes,’ in-

creased the germination 24% and 41%, re-

spectively, while amylase and sucrose both

increased germination 9% from that of the

highest concentration of coumarin.

Conclusion

White sweet clover exhibits a potent alle-

lopathic ability to reduce germination of seeds

and to some extent growth of plants. These

actions are carried out through the compound

120 MARK EDWARD SCHNUTE

coumarin which is released into the soil where

it has a lag period of approximately four weeks

before it begins to decompose probably through

microbial attack. Apparently, the white sweet

clover plant is able to release an excessive

amount of coumarin into the surrounding soil,

since even at a concentration of 5 gm per

square meter, the amount of reduction in ger-

mination is far less than that created by the

soil where white sweet clover had been grow-

ing. Since lactones are known to bond with

sulfhydryl groups,’ as well as the delay in

germination when coumarin is present and the

ability of hydrogen sulfide to reverse its ac-

tions, coumarin apparently inhibits sulfhydryl

enzymes that are necessary during the first 72

hours of germination. Such enzymes include

proteinase which activates B-amylase,’* the

first form of amylase active in the seed, or

8-amylase itself since both are sulfhydryl en-

zymes.° Since coumarin is fairly selective to-

ward the smaller seeds, having less ability to

inhibit germination of large seeds such as corn,

and does not remain in the soil at high con-

centration for an excessive amount of time,

the use of white sweet clover as a deterrent

to severe weed problems in agriculture could

be a previously unforeseen advantage of this

plant.

References Cited

1. Bellis, D. M. and Stoker, J. R. 1962. The bio-

synthesis of coumarin in Melilotus alba. J. Biol.

Chem., 227: 2303-2305.

. Bonner, James. 1965. Plant Biochemistry, Aca-

demic Press, New York, p. 588.

. Buckles, Robert E. 1950. The use of the Perkins

reaction in organic laboratory classes. J. Chem. Ed.,

27: 210-211.

. Cottenie, J., J. De Greef, J. Kint and Van Su-

mere, C. F. 1972. Biochemical studies in relation

to the possible germination regulatory role of nat-

urally occurring coumarin and phenolics. In: Recent

Advances in Phytochemistry, Vol. 4. V. C. Runec-

kles, ed., Appleton-Century-Crofts, New York, pp.

165-221.

. Friedman, Mendel. 1973. The Chemistry and Bio-

chemistry of the Sulfhydryl Group in Amino Acids,

Peptides, Proteins, Pergamon Press, New York.

. Huntress, Ernest. 1941. Identification of Pure Or-

ganic Compounds, John Wiley and Sons, Inc., New

York.

. Mandava, Bhushan, N. 1976. Plant Growth Sub-

stances, American Chemical Society, Washington

XC:

. Mayer, A. M. and Poljakoff-Mayber, A. 1961.

Coumarins and their role in growth and germination.

In: Plant Growth Regulation. lowa State University

Press, Ames, Iowa, pp. 735-750.

. Moore, Thomas. 1979. Biochemistry and Physi-

ology of Plant Hormones Springer-Verlag, New York,

p: 132!

. Pouchert, Charles J. 1981. The Aldrich Library of

Infrared Spectra Ed. III. Aldrich Chemical Com-

pany Inc., Milwaukee, Wis.

. 1981. The Aldrich Library of NMR Spectra

Ed. II Aldrich Chemical Company Inc., Milwaukee,

Wis.

. Robinson, Trevor. 1964. The Organic Constituents

of Higher Plants. Bergess Publishing House, Min-

neapolis, Minn., pp. 55-66.

. Sherma, Joseph and Zweig, Gunter. 1972. CRC

Handbook of Chromatography. CRC Press, Cleve-

land, Ohio, p. 509.

. Somers, Fred G. and Sumner, James B. 1947.

Chemistry and Methods of Enzymes. Academic Press,

Inc., New York.

Journal of the Washington Academy of Sciences,

Volume 74, Number 4, Pages 121-124, December 1984

A Three Year Study of

Fetal Auditory

Imprinting

Katherine Marie Shindler

417 Millrun Road, Brandon, MS 39042, Northwest Rankin

Attendance Center

ABSTRACT

The study of learning in animals is an important and vital part of behavioral experiments. The

question of fetal learning and specifically fetal auditory imprinting is an area open to extensive

investigation. This research is designed to determine if chickens can be imprinted to sound,

variable sound frequencies and the sound of specific natural predators during the embryonic stage

and then respond to the specific sound upon hatching.

To establish positive auditory imprinting, each of three groups of fertile eggs were exposed to

the sound of ratio static, a high frequency sound (3000 Hz), and a low frequency sound (250

Hz). Another group was incubated with no sound to serve as a control.

To measure the response, each chick was placed in a Y maze with various sounds projected

at a given leg of the Y. The locomotor response of the chicks demonstrated that fetal imprinting

did occur in each of the experimental groups.

In the third year of study, an attempt was made to imprint the chicken embryo to the sound

of a specific natural predator. Five separate groups of fertile chicken eggs were used, four

experimental and one control group. The first two groups were separately exposed during the

embryonic stage to a mammalian predator, Felis rufus (bobcat), and Buteo lineatus (red-shouldered

hawk) respectively. The third and fourth groups were exposed separately to combination sounds

of each predator with the maternal sound.

Each chick demonstrated a positive imprinting response for the sound with which they were

incubated by exhibiting a positive locomotor response when placed in a Y shaped maze.

The significance of fetal auditory stimulation and ultimate responses of the neonate is established

by the results observed in this investigation. This type of perceptual learning observed in the

fetus and neonate of lower animals indicates a need for additional investigation in the area of

auditory stimulation during the fetal stage.

Introduction

Many experiments have established the va-

lidity of visual imprinting. Experimentation

has shown that a group of newly hatched chicks

will accept the first object seen as their mother.

Is it possible to imprint the chick in the fetal

121

stage? Of course the unhatched chick can not

see, but what about auditory stimuli? The use

of auditory stimuli is a comparatively new

field of study and is a form of fetal imprinting.

Fetal imprinting is the process of exposing a

specific animal to a particular sound while in

the embryonic stage of development.

122 KATHERINE MARIE SHINDLER

The study of learning in animals is an im-

portant and vital part of behavioral experi-

mentation. The question of fetal learning and

specifically fetal auditory imprinting is an area

open to extensive investigation. This research

is designed to determine if chickens can be

imprinted to sound, variable sound frequen-

cies, and predator sounds during the embry-

onic stage and then respond to the specific

sound after hatching. The significance of fetal

auditory stimulation and ultimate response of

the neonate is established by the results ob-

served in these investigations.

Method and Discussion

In the first year of experimentation, one

group of ten fertile chicken eggs (Gallus gal-

lus) was incubated with the sound of radio

static. Another group of ten eggs was incu-

bated with no sound as the control. After

hatching, each group of chicks was tested

three times a day for their sound preference

by exposing them to the radio sound for five

minutes in a ‘‘Y’’ shaped maze, with the si-

multaneous choice of the radio sound, peep-

ing chicken sound and no sound projected at

a given leg of the “‘Y’’. In the experimental

group exposed to the radio sound, the ratio

of preference of radio sound to no sound was

70:30. When given a choice of peeping to

no sound the majority chose no sound 20: 80;

and peeping to radio sound 30:70. The ratio

of responses in the control group with radio

to no sound was 50:50; peeping to no sound

30:70; and peeping to radio sound, 50:50.

Those chicks incubated to the radio sound

demonstrated a positive locomotor response

to that sound as a neonate.

In the second year of experimentation, in

order to establish positive auditory imprint-

ing, three separate groups of fertile chicken

eggs were exposed to either a high frequency

sound (3000 Hz), a low frequency sound (250

Hz), or no sound, as the control group. After

hatching, the chicks were tested for their sound

preference by exposing them to the specific

sound frequency in a ‘‘Y’’ shaped maze. To

measure each response, each chick was placed

ina ‘‘Y’’ shaped maze with the various sound

frequencies projected simultaneously from a

given leg of the “‘Y’’. The locomotor re-

sponse of the chick demonstrated that fetal

auditory imprinting did occur in each of the

experimental groups. The group exposed to

3000 Hz responded positively to that high

frequency. The group exposed to 250 Hz re-

sponded positively to that low frequency. The

control group, when given a choice of low

frequency or no sound, preferred 250 Hz.

They avoided 3000 Hz. In the experimental

group exposed to 3000 Hz, the ratio prefer-

ence was 250 Hz or 3000 Hz responded 10:90;

no sound or 3000 Hz responded 20:80; and

no sound to 250 Hz, 20:80. In the group

exposed to 250 Hz, the ratio of preference

was 250 Hz or 3000 Hz responded 60:40; no

sound or 3000 Hz responded 100:0. In the

control group incubated with no sound, the

ratio of preference was 250 Hz or 3000 Hz,

responded 90:10; no sound or 3000 Hz re-

sponded 80:20 and no sound or 250 Hz re-

sponded 30:70.

In a spectrum analysis an oscilliscope was

used to compare the sound waves of the fol-

lowing sounds: 3000 Hz, 250 Hz, maternal

vocalization, the vocalization of neonate chicks

exposed to 3000 Hz, and the vocalization of

neonate chicks exposed to 250 Hz. It was

determined that the low frequency sound cor-

related more closely with the maternal sound

of the species than did the other sounds. It

was also determined that the low frequency

sound correlated with the maternal sound of

the species. It was also determined that there

was no correlation of the vocal frequency of

the neonates and the specific sound frequency

to which they were exposed during incuba-

tion. The fact that the fetal group exposed to

the high frequency was the only group that

indicated preference to that high frequency,

demonstrates positive embryonic stimulation

and response.

In extending this research, an attempt was

made to imprint the chick embryo to the sound

of a specific natural predator. Five separate

groups of fertile chicken eggs were used, four

experimental and one control group. The first

group was exposed to the sound of a mam-

malian predator, Felis rufus, also known as

the bobcat. The second experimental group

A THREE YEAR STUDY OF FETAL AUDITORY IMPRINTING 123

was incubated with the sound of an avian

predator, Buteo lineatus, also known as the

red-shouldered hawk. The third group had

equal exposure to Felis rufus and the maternal

hen vocalization, and the fourth experimental

group had equal exposure to Buteo lineatus

and the maternal hen vocalization. The fifth

group was incubated without sound as the

control group.

After hatching, each chick was tested for

the sound preference by exposing it to com-

binations of specific sounds in a ““Y’’ shaped

maze. Each chick was placed in the center of

the maze with the various sounds projected

at a given leg of the “‘Y’’. The neonates that

were imprinted to the Felis rufus (bobcat)

sound responded with a positive locomotor

preference at the given leg of the maze. It

was found that chicks incubated with the bob-

cat sound were at ease while it was being

played, while the other groups were very timid

and scared. The chicks incubated with the

bobcat sound were tested with three different

sound combinations and responded as fol-

lows: When given a choice of bobcat, hawk

and no sound, 7:0:1; when given a choice

of bobcat, chicken and no sound, 1:5:2; and

when given a choice of chicken, hawk and

no sound, 5:1:2.

The second group of chicks incubated with

the hawk sound were given the choice of bob-

cat, hawk and no sound in which they re-

sponded 1:5:2; bobcat, chicken and no sound,

0:6:2; and finally given the choice of the

chicken, hawk and no sound, 5:3:0.

The third experimental group of chicks was

incubated with an equal combination of the

bobcat and the chicken sound. They were given

the choice of bobcat, hawk and no sound and

responded 8:0:0; bobcat, chicken and no

sound, 3:5:0; and then the choice of chicken,

hawk and no sound, 8:0:0. These chicks

demonstrated that they were not afraid of the

bobcat sound.

The fourth group of chicks was incubated

with an equal combination of the chicken and

hawk sound. When given the choice of the

bobcat, hawk and no sound, 0:8:0; bobcat,

chicken and no sound, 0:8:0, and chicken,

hawk and no sound, 6:2:0. In this experi-

ment it was found that the chicks seemed to

be more confused and very slow in reacting

to the sounds.

The fifth group was not incubated with a

specific sound and therefore was used as a

control group. The control group was used to

demonstrate the natural responses to the spe-

cific sounds. Given the choice of bobcat, hawk

and no sound, they responded 0:2:6; bobcat,

chicken and no sound, 0:7:1. These chicks

were very sharp and alert, but were very calm

and easy going.

The attempt was made to use the three dif-

ferent sounds at the same time, but the chicks

seemed unable to distinguish between them.

They became confused and therefore re-

mained in the middle of the maze chirping.

Summary

A chicken embryo exposed to a specific

sound during the incubation period will be

attracted to that specific sound as a hatchling.

This project demonstrates that a chicken in

the embryonic stage of development can be

imprinted to show a preference for an external

auditory stimuli to which it was exposed as

an embryo. Three types of sound stimuli were

introduced in this study, each supporting the

theory that pre-natal auditory learning does

occur.

Conclusion

In conclusion, these experiments demon-

strate that a chick embryo incubated with a

specific sound will be attracted to that sound

as a neonate. The chicks not imprinted to a

sound will respond to the sound frequency

most closely resembling the mature species

maternal vocalization. The chicks imprinted

to specific predator sounds will be attracted

to that sound as a neonate. The significance

of fetal auditory stimulation and ultimate re-

sponses of the neonate is established by the

results observed in this investigation. This

type of perceptual learning observed in the

fetus and neonate of lower animals indicates

a need for additional investigation in the area

of auditory stimulation during the fetal stage.

124 KATHERINE MARIE SHINDLER

Acknowledgments

1. Mrs. T. L. Richardson and Mrs. David

Raddin, sponsors

2. Choctow Maid Hatchery

3. Mississippi School For The Deaf

4. Mississippi Museum Of Natural Sci-

ence

5. Dave Wilson, ETV, Spectrum Analysis

6. Gilbert Gottlieb, Ph.D., University of

N.C.

7. Robert Esher, Ph.D., Mississippi State

University

8. Jackson State University, Statistical

Analysis

References Cited

. Brazier, Mary A. B. Brain Mechanisms In Memory

And Learning. New York: Raven Press, 1979.

. Brown, Jerram L. The Evolution of Behavior. New

York: W. W. Norton and Co., Inc., 1975.

. Bullowa, Margaret, ed. Before Speech. Cambridge:

Cambridge University Press, 1979.

. Drickamer, Lee C. and Stephen H. Vessey. Animal

Behavior-Concepts, Processes, and Methods. Bos-

ton: Willard Grant Press, 1982.

. Johnson, Timothy D. and Gilbert Gottlieb. ‘‘Vis-

ual Preferences Of Imprinted Ducklings Are Altered

By The Maternal Call.’’ Journal Of Comparative And

Physiological Psychology, 95, No. 5 (October 1981),

663-675.

. Sluckin, W. /mprinting And Early Learning. Chi-

cago: Aldine Publishing Co., 1965.

Journal of the Washington Academy of Sciences,

Volume 74, Number 4, Pages 125-129, December 1984

Transitional Location and

Laminar Extension in a

Heated Boundary Layer

Michael J. Topolovac*

Torrey Pines H.S., Del Mar, CA 92014 M-14 North Lane,

Del Mar, CA 92014

ABSTRACT

Reducing the drag on an object can play a major role in decreasing the amount of energy

required to propel it through its medium. The key in reducing drag on a submerged streamlined

body lies in studying and manipulating the boundary layer, which is the microscopic layer of

water that surrounds a body. The theory behind the heated boundary layer method of drag reduction

lies in extending laminar flow, thus also reducing turbulent flow. Because laminar flow creates

far less drag on a body than does turbulent flow, the drag should therefore be reduced.

In order to test this theory a streamlined aluminum body was constructed and tested in a home

built open-jet water tunnel. Water in the tunnel was propelled at variable speeds of 2—8.8 ft/sec

by a home built pump. The water was channeled into an octagonal observation box where the

body was tested.

Tests showed that the heated boundary layer method of drag reduction was effective in reducing

drag in various temperature differentials and at different Reynolds numbers.

Introduction

This ongoing project concerns itself with

reducing drag on a submerged, streamlined

body by heating the boundary layer and with

locating transitional flow with respect to the

Reynolds number. One of the key causes of

drag on a body is the turbulent flow. If tur-

bulent flow can be changed to laminar flow

(the optimum flow over a body), a drag can

be drastically reduced, sometimes by a factor

of four or five. It is for this reason that this

research concerns itself with extending lam-

inar flow and reducing turbulent flow. This

*Send all correspondence

125

was accomplished by heating the boundary

layer. By heating the boundary layer, the flow

in the transitional boundary layer becomes

more stable, thus extending laminar flow. The

second aspect of this project deals with dis-

tinguishing transitional flow in the boundary

layer. This is approached in a unique way,

through the use of thermographic liquid crys-

tal. Thermographic liquid crystal has the

property of changing colors through the entire

visible spectrum, with respect to temperature.

Applying this liquid crystal to the test body

and following the assumption that turbulent

flow will dissipate heat faster than laminar

flow, the transition zone should be distin-

guishable by its color. This zone can then

be related to the Reynolds number.

126 MICHAEL J. TOPOLOVAC

The application of this research can be ap-

plied to small underwater vehicles, torpedos,

submarines, etc. Its use could be either for

energy savings over long periods of time or

to allow high speeds for very short periods

of time. The energy required to heat the

boundary layer could be obtained from the

water used to cool nuclear reactors or com-

bustion engines in underwater vehicles.

Problem

Due to this project’s unique nature, most

of the equipment had to be designed and built.

This presented many complex engineering

problems which needed to be solved before

any experiments could be conducted. It is for

this reason that the engineering problems are

stated separately from the experimental prob-

lems.

Experimental Problems:

1. Can drag be reduced on a submerged

streamlined body by use of a heated

boundary layer? If so, how is the tem-

perature of the boundary layer and the

length Reynolds number related to the

drag on the body?

2. Can thermographic liquid crystal map-

ping be used as a means of detecting

various flow patterns on a submerged

streamlined body?

Engineering Problems:

1. Can a high speed, open jet, low tur-

bulence water tunnel be developed with

the ability to create a critical Reynolds

number on a 17.5 cm test body?

2. Can a test body be developed with the

capabilities of distributing an even and

steady temperature to its walls?

3. Can a measuring apparatus be designed

and built with the capacity of measuring

minute drag forces on a body under-

water, approaching a magnitude of

1.0 xX 10° newtons?

Comparison Charts

FORCE ON BODY (gm cm/sec’)

Results

REYNOLDS# VELOCITY 20°C Body

&X 10°) m/sec. (10°)

2.03 1.30 0.30

2.48 1.59 OxS1

2.87 1.84 0.81

i ee 2.05 1.05

Sh 5)l| DDS 1.46

Conclusions

Heating the boundary layer of a sub-

merged, streamlined body can be a very ef-

fective method of reducing drag. In this re-

search, tests were run at relatively low length

eynolds numbers (specifically between two

% DROP IN FORCE

40°C Body 60°C Body 40°—20° 60°—20°

O10) Cx 10) (body) (body)

0.24 0.59 20% 33%

0.39 LZ 24% 20%

0.67 1.74 21% 27%

0.86 2.26 22% 27%

1.10 3.18 25% 26%

hundred and four hundred thousand). These

tests were run with the temperature differ-

ential of the body wall to the tunnel water,

40°C and 60°C. The results showed that a

higher reduction in drag was found at a 60°C

differential than at a 40°C differential. The

60°C body yielded an average over the full

TRANSITIONAL LOCATION AND LAMINAR EXTENSION 127

Reynolds number range of 26.6%, while the

40°C body an average of 22.4%. The reduc-

tion in drag appeared to go down as the Rey-

nolds number went up for the 60°C body,

while the opposite seemed to be true for the

40°C body.

Using thermographic liquid crystal as a

means of mapping the temperature zones on

the heated body proved to be very successful.

The liquid crystal clearly illustrated where

transitional flow occurred over the body as

well as the length of the turbulent flow re-

gions. From pictures of the body coated with

liquid crystal, it was possible to gain quan-

titative results. These results were related to

the length Reynolds number. The relation-

ships showed that as the length Reynolds

number increased, the length of laminar flow

to the transitional region decreased, and the

length of turbulent flow increased. Both of

these relationships were relatively linear.

Discussion

From the results and conclusions of this

research, it is evident that heating the bound-

ary layer of a submerged streamlined body

can significantly reduce its drag. There are

several reasons why this is believed to hap-

pen.

The heated boundary layer method of drag

reduction works on extending laminar flow.

It is for this reason that a transitional body

(partly laminar, partly turbulent), is required

for the theory to work. If the flow over the

body were to be completely laminar, there

would be no laminar flow to extend. If the

flow over the body were to be completely

turbulent, laminar flow could not be started

again. It is believed that by heating the bound-

ary layer, the viscosity of the water in the

boundary layer is decreased. This decrease in

viscosity allows for a more stable velocity

profile, and thus allows for laminar flow to

be extended. Because laminar flow creates

far less drag on a body than does turbulent

flow, the drag is decreased.

A last note should be made pertaining to

the critical length Reynolds numbers. The

critical length Reynolds number for a sub-

merged streamlined body usually lies be-

tween six hundred thousand and six million

(critical Reynolds number meaning where there

is transitional flow over a body). All the ex-

periments run in this research were at length

Reynolds numbers between two and four

hundred thousand (higher numbers could not

be obtained due to the difficulty in reaching

the necessary velocities). At these low length

Reynolds numbers transitional flow over the

body would not be expected. However, this

was proven to be wrong by the thermographic

liquid crystal temperature mapping. It is be-

lieved that transitional flow occurred at the

relatively low length Reynolds numbers due

to the intensity of the turbulence in the water

tunnel.

Brief Description of Testing Equipment

A streamlined body was constructed out of

2" aluminum rod, with a wall thickness of 3”.

The length of the body was 7”. The body was

heated by circulating externally heated water

through it. The temperature of the body was

measured by a thermister. The body was tested

in a home built open-jet water tunnel, with a

velocity range of 2—8.8 feet per second, con-

trolled via an adjustable pully. The water was

propelled by a home built water pump, with

a maximum capacity of 11,600 gallons per

hour. The pump consisted of a slightly mod-

ified 8 3” outboard motor propeller mounted

in an 8 3” pipe. The water was routed to an

octagonal observation box where the water

was allowed to flow in an open jet. It was in

this section that the body was mounted. The

force on the body was measured in the sus-

pension apparatus by a strain gauge mounted

on a cantilever system that was directly con-

nected to the body.

128 MICHAEL J. TOPOLOVAC ;

PUMPING SYSTEM

SIDE SECTION VIEW

VORTEX SCREEN

FLOW DIRECTER PROPELLER —

HEATED BODY

SIDE SECTION VIEW

MAGNIFICATION

<— THERMISTOR

WATER EXITS

Spey tee ue Se pees s

PETES CE ai aE RR EN are: OR, \\\\ \ > pa

ic = v ~~ = 4 ee ~< laid Tres

4_ WATER INLET

129

TRANSITIONAL LOCATION AND LAMINAR EXTENSION

“g

”

FRONT VIEW

SIDE SECTION VIEW

STRAIN GAUGE —

WATER ENTRANCE

ATER EXITS

TEFLON BUSHINGS

‘ tt

Journal of the Washington Academy of Sciences,

Volume 74, Number 4, Page 130, December 1984

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leech. Hirudo medicinalis. J. Neurophysiol., 27:

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2. DeVellis, J. and G. Kukes. 1973. Regulation of glial

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Biol. Med., 31: 271-293.

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130

ERRATA

On page 75 of volume 74, no. 3, Journal of the Washington Academy

of Sciences, the following three corrections of typographical errors should

be noted:

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Journal of the Washington Academy of Sciences Call For Papers .................

Articles:

REVEREND ROYDEN B. DAVIS, S.J.: Circumstances of Undergraduate Education:

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Ld iC > ~ * ms

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————___

Journal of the Washington Academy of Sciences,

Volume 75, Number 1, Page i, March 1985

Commentary

Journal of the Washington Academy of

Sciences Call For Papers

With the issuance of Volume 75 of the Jour-

nal, the editors invite the submittal of articles

and papers from the scientific community for

publication. We welcome contributions from

the many disciplines represented by the so-

cieties affiliated with the Academy. Papers

from members should fall into one or more

of the following areas:

@ An historical perspective

@ Current status or general review of a

subject

@ Recent research results

@ New directions for the future

@ An editorial or commentary

@ News, announcements, letters

In addition, the editors would be pleased to

consider thematic issues, seminar or sym-

posium proceedings and guest editorships that

reflect the interests and commitments of the

Academy’s members.

All papers may be subject to regular review

procedures at the discretion of the editors. A

copy of the “‘instructions to Contributors”’ is

included in each issue. If there are any ques-

tions, please contact the editors.

In this issue, the Journal presents a reflective

examination of the future of undergraduate

education with papers prepared by Deans from

Georgetown University, the George Wash-

ington University, Gallaudet College, and the

American University. We expect that their

contributions will stimulate both the aca-

demic and business communities to air their

views on this and related topics through the

medium of this Journal.

Future issues will deal with energy conser-

vation, management, and alternatives, the ar-

chaeology of the Chesapeake Bay, the mu-

seum as an educational institution, and a variety

of individual contributions.

The Editors:

Irving Gray, Ph.D.

Joseph H. Neale, Ph.D.

Lisa J. Gray

(202) 625-4126

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Journal of the Washington Academy of Sciences,

Volume 75, Number 1, Pages 1-6, March 1985

Circumstances of Undergraduate

Education: Reflections

and Questions

Reverend Royden B. Davis, S.J.

Georgetown University, Washington, D.C. 20057

During the past year educators, parents and

representatives of government have perhaps

as never before been scrutinizing the nature

and quality of undergraduate education. Con-

cern for the humanities in the liberal arts tra-

dition has been especially a matter for thought

and reflection. Evidence of such scrutiny and

concern is abundant. The Department of Ed-

ucation recently issued a report sponsored by

the National Institute of Education. Entitled

Involvement in Learning: Realizing the Po-

tential of American Higher Education' it briefly

examines the achievements of higher educa-

tion and the ways and means of improving

its quality.

Mr. William Bennett, Chairman of the Na-

tional Endowment for the Humanities, in a

recent paper’ writes that ‘‘most of our college

graduates remain shortchanged in_ the

humanities’’’ and puts the responsibility for

'U.S. Department of Education, National Institute of

Education, Final Report of the study group on the Con-

ditions of Excellence in American Higher Education,

Involvement in Learning: Realizing the Potential of

American Higher Education, 1984.

*William Bennett, ‘‘To Reclaim a Legacy. A Report

on the Humanities in Higher Education’’, The Chronicle

of Higher Education, XXIX (November 28,1984) 11, p.

16.

‘Tbid.

such a failure in education ‘‘principally with

those of us whose business it is to educate

these students.’’* He continues:

‘“We have blamed others, but the re-

sponsibility is ours. Not by our words

but by our actions, by our indifference,

and by our intellectual diffidence we have

brought about this condition. It is we the

educators—not scientists, business peo-

ple, or the general public—who too often

have given up the great task of trans-

mitting a culture to its rightful heirs.”’

In February 1985 the Association of Amer-

ican Colleges meets in Washington, D.C. to

consider ‘‘Quality and Coherence in Under-

graduate Education.’’ And in March in Chi-

cago the American Association of Higher Ed-

ucation will focus its thoughts on the topic

‘*The Undergraduate Experience: From Tak-

ing Courses to Taking Charge.’’

It is interesting to note, I think, that the

cry for reform and renewal of the liberal arts

curriculum seems to come today more loudly,

more consistently, from faculty, parents and

those outside the campus than from the stu-

‘Ibid.

dents themselves. This generation of youth

seems different from the one of the late sixties

and early seventies. In those days of protest

and cry of conscience the students called for

‘‘relevance’’ in courses and programs and

many a college faculty responded by exper-

imental courses and changes and/or elimi-

nation of core requirements. By ‘‘relevance’’

the students then meant not so much “‘prac-

tical’’ as courses well taught which had mean-

ing for their individual and personal devel-

opment. For them, the yellowed musty lecture

notes of the faculty and the grade conscious-

ness of the students symbolized the opposite

of the active learning they desired. They wanted

a Clear initiation into involvement in the world

they sought to reform. Today’s generation’s

request is for usefulness and practicality for

there is great pressure to seek as immediately

as possible the next step which is to be profes-

sional and career success. Yuppies are for

many students the secular saints to be imitated

now and joined later.

Why does the topic of undergraduate ed-

ucation and a concern for the liberal arts tra-

dition demand the attention of so many fac-

ulty members, parents, college administrators,

and government representatives today?

Because for hundreds of years in the west-

er world the education of young people in

their teens and early twenties has been based

in what has come to be known as the liberal

arts—literature and history, language and the

sciences, philosophy and theology and the

fine arts like drawing and music. Universities

in each period of history have struggled to

use such courses and to arrange them along

with, more recently, the social sciences, into

curricula or programs which sought to meet

the needs of the times in which their students

lived. No one formulation necessarily fits all

times but the skills to be learned in the liberal

arts were those of clear writing and broad

reading, critical thinking and the making of

right judgments. Sensitivity to beauty, com-

passion in the service of others and patriotism

were virtues to be prized as they were de-

veloped through disciplined experience and

reflection. In its ideal, the education was for

living a human life, not just for earning a

living.

ROYDEN B. DAVIS, S.J.

On today’s college campuses, many feel

that the ideal of such a liberal arts education

needs rediscovery. Such education is not yet

dead but it is in danger of dying. It is seen,

when operative and effective, to be both rel-

evant and practical. Though not directly and

exclusively related to careers it affords a stu-

dent the opportunity for the free pursuit of

professional and business success. It has the

potential for teaching the individual to be a

free citizen in a free society.

To make an attempt at the rediscovery and

renewal of this kind of undergraduate edu-

cation requires that colleges today do as col-

leges have always done in the past when re-

newing programs of study. They must pay

serious attention to the circumstances of un-

dergraduate education on today’s campuses,

to those conditions which determine whether

or not undergraduate educational experiences

will be fruitful and rewarding not only for the

individual students involved but also for the

society of which they are members and for

the world of which they are citizens. What

circumstances are peculiarly relevant in the

renewal process? What circumstances affect

students today that must be considered in the

educational preparation of those students for

adulthood tomorrow? Let us reflect on three

circumstances: the peculiar pressures to be

practical which today’s students face while in

college, the state of teaching, bad and good

and its natural extension, student advising;

and the curriculum—How narrow 1s it? How

does it offer the experience of creating? How

does it present the relation of science and

technology to human society? and How does

it introduce students to the responsible service

of others?

The pressure to be ‘‘practical’’ is usually

understood to mean that one’s college edu-

cation should be of such a kind as to be of

immediate use in the world after college—

the world of profession and business. The

college student is not to be encouraged to

savor his education but rather to see in it a

job-securing instrument. It is the immediate,

not the remote, key to success and fortune.

That present day students perceive this as a

goal of education is borne out by a recent

survey of college freshmen, reported in the

CIRCUMSTANCES OF UNDERGRADUATE EDUCATION 3

Chronicle of Higher Education.° One star-

tling statistic indicates that 67.8 percent of

the students surveyed said a very important

reason for attending college was ‘‘to make

more money,’’ and 75.6 percent thought it

essential or very important ‘‘to be very well-

off financially,’’ while a distressingly low

percent (44.6) found it important ‘‘to develop

a philosophy of life.”’

There is added pressure on students in lib-

eral arts colleges which are joined to schools

of business or other pre-professional schools.

They sometimes feel threatened by the ap-

parently self-confident business or pre-med-

ical student who seems to know what she or

he is doing and where the doing will lead.

The pressure comes often from parents, who

understandably wishing the best for their sons

and daughters pay heavy tuition costs and

hope to see such a heavy investment return

dividends in the success of those sons and

daughters upon graduation. The pressure is

present to the students themselves who must

face the peer who asks, ‘‘What’s your ma-

jor?’’ and upon replying hesitantly ‘‘Eng-

lish’’ or ‘‘History’’ must face the peer’s final

condemnation, ‘‘What in the world will you

do with that?’’ The student could then reply

‘‘T don’t know, but I like it.’’ or “‘At least

Pll be able to read and write.’’ More than

likely, however, the condemning question will

end the conversation. Failure to choose a so-

cially acceptable major today causes many a

student heart burn! Yet the major ideally should

not be seen as a distinct entity, separate from

the entire educational endeavor. It is rather

that academic discipline which gives some

focus to the students’ education. It is com-

plemented or deepened by their elective

choices, and is ideally that area which the

student likes sufficiently to spend serious time

studying. The result of such an approach to

a major is a happier student, doing better ac-

ademically, growing in a sense of self-con-

fidence and ultimately having better choices

upon graduation.

°Thomas J. Meyer, ‘‘Freshmen are Materialistic but

not Conservative, Study Finds,’’ The Chronicle of Higher

Education XXX (January 16, 1985) 18, p. 1.

Pressure to be practical, whether it be direct

or subtle, tends to rob the student of a kind

of freedom to choose and to experiment im-

aginatively with his or her own education.

Too often choices of majors and programs are

viewed as life choices, when such choices are

of significantly less importance.

Obviously some academic disciplines have

a direct relationship to post graduation ca-

reers, €.g., a Major in accounting, or nursing.

The criteria for choosing such a major, how-

ever, should remain the same, if the under-

graduate truly wishes to reap the full benefit

of his college years.

The primary counter-balance to these kinds

of pressure to be practical, I think, lies in

good teaching and good advising of the in-

dividual student (and parents)—teaching and

advising go hand in hand. They are the ed-

ucation of the student. They offer the invi-

tation to learn. They pave the way for choice.

They stimulate imagination and curiosity so

that the work of learning, as lonely as it may

sometimes be, is never without encourage-

ment.

Poor teaching, on the other hand, contrib-

utes to the pressure surrounding a student’s

education. It manifests itself in so many

ways—ill prepared lectures repeated year after

year, courses filled with busy work, courses

in which content must be covered regardless

of time or active ‘‘audience’’ participation,

lectures given with materials far beyond or

far below the intellectual capacity of the stu-

dents, courses which are too large to allow

for any exchange between professor and stu-

dent—which reduce education to lectures,

wisdom to mere information.

Into the undergraduate college have come

the worst aspects of the graduate school men-

tality—an over-professionalization of the fac-

ulty and a very narrow disciplinary agenda

shaped by graduate schools. The teacher

teaches only what he has carefully studied in

graduate classes and is frequently not en-

couraged to use his own imagination and in-

tellectual ability. The result more often than

not is poorly presented lectures of a narrow

and confined nature. This makes for a truly

deadening teaching effort especially when the

course is required as part of an attempted

4 ROYDEN B. DAVIS, S.J.

liberal arts experience in learning. If a course

is ‘‘required,’’ if it 1s to have any effect other

than simply the amassing of credits necessary

for graduation, it must be well-taught, liter-

ally seducing the closed-minded to be open

to what it offers and encouraging the already

converted to see and understand how and why

this subject matter, these readings will con-

tribute to his intellectual and personal devel-

opment. |

Poor teaching can also result from an undue

emphasis on published evidence of a schol-

arly mind. No one will deny the real need for

scholarly minds in undergraduate teaching and

no one will deny that published articles in

appropriate journals and published books can

be tangible evidence of scholarly alertness but

publication for publication’s sake may simply

draw the teachers from the prime time they

should dedicate to the teaching of young col-

legians. Some of the most adroit and accom-

plished teachers I have known have been

scholarly and wise and yet their published

works were modest in number. As the amount

of published material continues to grow, we

should look to its quality just as we should

look to the quality of teaching whether the

number of students taught in a class be 10 or

110.

Research is vital to the life of the university

and to the life of the college. On the under-

graduate level, good teaching drawing on the

intellectual spirit, constantly renewed in re-

search is, every bit as vital to college life—

for in education there is both a drawing from

the world around us and a handing on to those

who are young what has been learned. The

good teacher has sympathy and understanding

for the work of his or her colleagues in other

departments. The students see the point of a

liberal arts education because in his or her

teaching it is clear that breadth and integration

of knowledge is important. Set fire upon the

earth. Let young men and women see visions

and old ones dream dreams.

Advising a student is an extension of teach-

ing. On one level, it may merely be the di-

recting of a student to the courses necessary

for his degree. On a deeper level, it requires

the advisor, whether it be a teacher or a coun-

sellor in an advising center, to know the stu-

dent, his interests, his background, and his

skills. Ideally there will exist a mutual respect

between advisor and advisee, a kind of friend-

ship, which allows free conversation in which

questions are nor feared now answers avoided,

in which both admonishment and encourage-

ment have their part to play.

Advising is especially important in aiding

students in the process of making informed

choices. It is equally important because it in-

vites the students and advisor to know one

another. The students can experience the

healthy dependence needed in the learning

movement towards adulthood. For a young

college man or woman to come to know a

teacher in this way is for that student to begin

truly the college learning experience. It can

mark the move from dependence on family

to dependence on self, a dependence which

does not deny the need for consultation.

Students learn from books and lectures, but

as young men and women they are very sus-

ceptible to learning by way of imitating those

whom they admire and respect. The teacher

as advisor can easily be the one to be so

imitated. The imitation is obviously not to be

one of mannerisms and style of dress but rather

one which imitates ways of solving problems

and thinking and searching for solutions. The

good advisor-teacher is often the one whose

example invites the student to consider a par-

ticular field of study which may be the ad-

visor’s own or who introduces the student to

new horizons of career and professional goals.

The importance of a friendly advising rela-

tionship cannot be underestimated in making

the undergraduate experience fruitful and re-

warding.

Related to the quality of teaching-advising

which when it is poor lets the humanities and

all subjects die, is the state of the curriculum.

How is it put together? How is it taught? Are

its required courses, if any, inflexibly dull?—

sO many mountains to climb and so many

holes to sidestep? Is the cirriculum so rigid

that it binds the mind just as an overly starched

collar binds and chafes the neck? How often

is it reviewed and evaluated or has it been

established in a garden of Eden which no

longer exists?

Every curriculum must be periodically re-

viewed, evaluated and then renewed. This

proposition is as true for a curriculum which

CIRCUMSTANCES OF UNDERGRADUATE EDUCATION 5

has no particular requirements as it is for one

which is rigid with the structure of required

courses. The process of renewal is not simply

‘‘up-dating’’ by brashly eliminating the past.

Nor is it simply a matter of gluing together

new courses or programs. It requires ques-

tions and reflections on the nature of the times

and the needs of this generation. It is a po-

litically and philosophically difficult under-

taking-politically difficult because faculty and

departments tend to fear in change the inva-

sion of their own academic turf. Will that

departmental turf be cut back while another’s

is enlarged? In so many institutions of higher

learning the departmental kingdoms know lit-

tle of the vision of a college at the service of

students who are to be educated for their day’s

world. As a result, instead of offering a di-

versity of courses in different disciplines which

point towards an integrity and unity of know!I-

edge and learning, the kingdoms remain bal-

kanized—more often than not each turned in

upon itself. No wonder students often grad-

uate indifferent to further academic learning

and the world passes by, without interest, the

ivied walls of academe.

The process of curriculum renewal is also

philosophically difficult because if the proc-

ess is to be successful wise heads must seek

patiently to clarify the goals of the institution

and to understand its traditions. They must

then patiently and broadly consult and build

towards an acceptable renewal and reforma-

tion. |

An interesting account of Harvard Col-

lege’s ten year journey to the center of the

curriculum may be found in Getting at the

Core: Curricular Reform at Harvard. It was

written by a participant in Harvard’s journey

to reform, Phyllis Keller, an assistant dean

during that period. In the preface Dr. Keller

writes:

‘Curriculum change is the most visible

way in which that institution adapts to

changing conditions in our society. Col-

lege faculties invest so much of their

time and energy in debate over curricular

structure because it provides a useful

framework for discussing issues of a more

complex, fundamental and elusive sort.

Here is a familiar battleground—a prac-

tical vocabulary—for the task of com-

peting educational values and ideas, and

for striking a workable compromise

among the claims of the academy’s in-

ternal constituencies.’’®

The importance of the periodic review and

reform of the undergraduate curriculum can-

not be underestimated. Every serious review

contributes to the vitality of the college’s in-

tellectual life. The review itself can foster the

sense of shared academic community in which

there should be the challenge and discussion

of alternative ways of achieving the college’s

goals and objectives in accordance with its

traditions.

As the review process begins, faculty and

administration must pose questions about what

is needed today to make the curriculum a vital

learning guide for the students in preparing

themselves for fruitful lives upon graduation.

The first such question that might be asked

is how narrow is the curriculum? i.e., does

it focus only on one’s own nation and culture

or does it invite and direct by suggestion and

requirement that the student look beyond? In

a world which has grown as small as ours,

there is no reason for a curriculum to focus

only on the tiniest part of the world—one’s

own. The knowledge of a language and a

culture other than one’s own would seem a

necessary virtue in any academic program of

today. Understanding and tolerance of, and

respect for, the thinking and the ways of oth-

ers are necessary elements in bringing peace

to a world harried by violence and the threat

of war.

An invitation to learn about other cultures

and so to learn from them are means to expand

one’s own knowledge. Perhaps the students

of today will be readied thus to see the one-

ness of the human race and to understand

themselves as members with responsibility for

its well-being.

The second question to be raised has to do

with the matter of science and technology,

and their role in the world. How does the

curriculum encourage the students to raise

‘Phyllis Keller, Getting at the Core. Curricular Re-

form at Harvard (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University

Press, 1982) pp. vili—ix.

6 ROYDEN B.

questions about the nature and quality of that

relationship?

Such a question presupposes in partial an-

swer that a student be exposed to a serious

and intelligent knowledge of science, its his-

tory, its methods and its potential. Such

knowledge and understanding comes ideally,

I believe, in a classroom-laboratory situation

through regular contact with a teaching sci-

entist who is active in research. What science

has done to our world and our way of thinking

and how it has done this, influences deeply

how we think and act. Sometimes the influ-

ence is direct, sometimes subtle and indirect.

The other partial answer to the question

demands that students be encouraged to think

in terms of ethical values. What are the effects

of science and technology on human life? Be-

cause something can be done, is it always

good and right that it be done? These are

philosophical and theological questions that

must be considered in science as in policy

matters with the help and fact-finding of the

social scientist.

This kind of wonderful wrestling with the

achievement of science and technology and

their continuing potential to better human so-

ciety should have an introductory place in the

undergraduate curriculum. The result may be

more thoughtful citizens after graduation, even

wise ones—future leaders of the nations.

The third question asked in any curriculum

review is not unrelated to the second. It is

this—How does it offer the student the ex-

perience of being a ‘‘creator,’’ i.e., how does

it offer the student the opportunity of wres-

tling with the material world to test and know

its limitations and yet to transcend those lim-

itations by the beauty and discovery he or she

effects in the very act of wrestling. Here are

involved wit, intelligence, and imagination.

The scientist does this and has taught the world

to do so. Alfred North Whitehead wrote: *‘This

new tinge to modern minds is a vehement and

passionate interest in the relation of general

principles to irreducible and stubborn facts.’’’

The sculptor forces his vision upon the stone,

knows the stone’s limiting qualities, and yet

7Alfred North Whitehead, Science and the Modern

World (New York: The Free Press, 1967) p. 3.

DAVIS, S.J.

his vision transforms, transcends them. And

so the musician with sound and the dancer

with movement, the actor with gesture and

speech and the writer with the written word.

Such experiences as these—not all, but the

opportunity for some—must be offered to to-

day’s undergraduate. They foster dreams and

give promise of the freedom of the human

spirit. They teach the limiting quality of the

world in which the student lives but at the

same moment suggest the possibility of its

mastery. A new respect for the human person

can and should be one result, a sensitivity to

beauty another. All these are experiences es-

sentially affecting the quality of free human

living.

The fourth question to be asked in a cur-

riculum review today has to do with the re-

sponsibility that each of us has in service to

one another. How does the curriculum intro-

duce the undergraduate to this notion of ser-

vice? Community service in the inner-city,

the tutoring of children, the care of the el-

derly, the feeding of the hungry, the clothing

and sheltering of the homeless—these are op-

portunities for student activity which lead to

a clear awareness of the interdependence of

human beings.

Exercises such as these give the young un-

dergraduate an opportunity to experience that

he or she is needed by those in need them-

selves. From this experience can grow sen-

sitivity to others and a growth in his or her

own maturity. It instills a freedom to give of

what one has to give. It sets a habit of service

so especially necessary in this republic and

this world.

Ask these four questions in any curriculum

review. Ask about its narrowness, the place

it gives to science, the presence in it of the

creative experience, and its efforts to promote

service of others. Try to answer them effec-

tively. Then the curriculum will begin to breath

with new life.

Undergraduate education in the United States

has much of which to be proud. Its achieve-

ments are outstanding. But the world does

not stand still. Neither must the education

offered to men and women of a free society.

The study of the circumstances of undergrad-

uate education through reflection and ques-

tions is key to movement and improvement.

Journal of the Washington Academy of Sciences,

Volume 75, Number 1, Pages 7-12, March 1985

Gazing into the Crystal Ball:

The

Undergraduate Experience in the

Twenty-first Century

Clara M. Lovett

Dean of Columbian College, The George Washington University,

Washington, D.C. 20052

‘‘At this University, several factors have

operated to de-emphasize the importance of

general education . . . . [the purpose of which]

is to give students the intellectual tools they

need to deal with personal, social, and polit-

ical issues throughout their lives.

Decentralization of responsibility for the

undergraduate curriculum. . . . is probably

the most important cause of the de-emphasis

of general education . . . This trend must be

reversed.”’

Since last March, when the authors of this

statement—senior faculty and administrators

known collectively as The Commission on the

Year 2000—released their report, I have given

a lot of thought to the undergraduate expe-

rience at The George Washington University.

Much as some of my faculty would like to

evade the issues, there can be no question

that they and I, together, are primarily re-

sponsible for the quality of undergraduate ed-

ucation at GWU. Undergraduate degrees are

conferred by four professional schools (En-

gineering, Education, Government and Busi-

ness, and International Affairs) but all can-

didates for a bachelor’s degree take a significant

number of courses in the College of Arts and

Sciences. Thus, aS we move toward the next

century, our responsibilities as liberal arts ed-

ucators seem to be growing rather than di-

minishing. My contemporaries and I recog-

nize the implications of those responsibilities

for our professional identities and for our in-

stitution. But we do not find it very easy to

face up to them.

At my University undergraduate applica-

tions have reached an all-time high. The Col-

lege of Arts and Sciences is the major ben-

eficiary of the bumper crop of applications,

with an increase of about 20% over 1983. As

in the past, some of those entering students

will choose to transfer to other universities or

to one of several professional schools within

GWU. But letters of application and inter-

views suggest that a majority of the entering

freshmen have chosen Columbian College of

Arts and Sciences because they want a liberal

arts education.

My faculty and I are thrilled that GWU is

doing so well, despite the diminishing num-

ber of high school graduates nationally and

the overall demographic decline in the North-

east. We are proud that most entering fresh-

men are choosing Columbian College, the

oldest school at our University, and one with

many distinguished alumni. Yet, we are am-

bivalent toward our collective success and un-

certain as to its implications for the future.

Many of us began teaching in the 1970s, lean

years for arts and sciences programs. Now

8 CLARA M. LOVETT

we are discovering the hidden advantages of

adversity. They have been habit-forming.

The lean years, of course, took their toll

on us, professionally and, in some cases, per-

sonally. Career advancement was slower and

more difficult for us then for those trained in

the Sputnik era. Some of us accepted teaching

and administrative jobs that to our graduate

school mentors were tantamount to a fall from

grace. And we watched less able (or perhaps

less persistent) colleagues be worn down by

once-a-year job changes or by negative tenure

decisions. However, if we were competent

and lucky enough to earn tenure and to ad-

vance to senior academic ranks, we found that

we could relax.

At most colleges and universities the de-

cline in undergraduate liberal arts enrollments

was severe enough to inhibit the growth of

the more traditional departments and to de-

press average salaries. But it was not severe

enough to threaten the jobs of tenured faculty

or to mandate drastic changes in the curric-

ulum. On the contrary, many colleges of arts

and sciences settled into a mode, halfway be-

tween despondency and complacence, that was

conducive neither to constructive self-criti-

cism nor to a convincing defense of liberal

arts education. As faculty members we were

occasionally unhappy with the vocational am-

bitions of our undergraduate students and with

their mediocre verbal and quantitative skills.

But most of us were not called upon to help

reverse the trend. We were simply called upon

to endure it. If the demands of undergraduate

teaching were relatively onerous, we looked

for ways to stop enduring: we moved to other

institutions, if we could, or we turned our

energies to graduate education, research,

administration or off-campus pursuits.

Educators (including our own presidents

and deans), journalists, and politicians blessed

our retreat from responsibility for undergrad-

uate liberal arts education. According to the

folk wisdom of the 1970s and early 1980s,

the trend toward undergraduate professional

education was regrettable, perhaps, but in-

evitable and irreversible. Liberal arts pro-

grams, which bore the imprint of their elitist

Origins, no longer met the needs of a society

shaped by advanced technology and corporate

organization. Nor, we were told, could they

meet the expectations of thousands of first-

generation college students for whom a bac-

calaureate degree was a ticket to an entry-

level job.

It was easy enough to believe the common

wisdom: we could remain fiercely loyal to the

intellectual value of liberal arts education while

at the same time refusing to take responsi-

bility, vis-a-vis our students and vis-a-vis so-

ciety, for its declining popularity. The most

dogmatic among us argued that the value of

a liberal arts education lay precisely in its lack

of any practical or “‘market’’ application. Most

of us did not go so far. In fact, we tinkered

with majors and programs that held some

promise of post-baccalaureate employment.

But whatever our position, we put some dis-

tance between ourselves and undergraduate

education.

At every turn, especially at commencement

exercises, we sang the praises of liberal arts

education. But there was only a tenuous con-

nection between our intellectual convictions

(however sincerely held) and our investment

of professional time and energy. There was

no point, after all, in changing the content

and method of our teaching or in making a

heavy commitment to undergraduate advising

if we knew that our students would migrate

inevitably to business or technical degree pro-

grams. This contradiction in our professional

lives was habit-forming. It will be difficult to

break away from it.

The apparent resurgence of liberal arts pro-

grams is welcome, of course, and in it we

find a validation of cherished beliefs. But it

comes at a time when most colleges and uni-

versities are not in a position to hire large

numbers of new faculty. In most cases, we

will be asked to do more for undergraduate

students than we have been accustomed to

do. We can expect that some of our colleagues

will stop complaining about ‘‘vocationalism”’

and start complaining about large classes and

advising loads.

The pundits who helped us in the 1970s

make peace with declining enrollments in arts

and sciences are now turning against us. The

media, in particular, have commented favor-

ably on the Asscociation of American Col-

UNDERGRADUATE EXPERIENCE IN THE TWENTY-FIRST CENTURY 9

leges’ report on the baccalaureate and on Ed-

ucation Secretary Bennett’s injunction to us

‘‘to reclaim [our] legacy,’’ in the form of

great books by (mostly) dead white males.

These forms of public criticism make us

uncomfortable not so much because they are

intemperate and unjust (academics have en-

dued worse things, such as the Scopes trials

and the McCarthy hearings), but rather be-

cause they expose the contradiction within

ourselves and in our institutions between the-

ory and practice, between beliefs and poli-

cies:

The politics of the various reports on un-

dergraduate education matter less than the ex-

pectations of students who again are choosing

to major in arts and sciences programs. We

do know some of the factors that influence

college choices. First, the classes of 1989—

1994 will face less severe competition for

entry-level jobs than did the classes of 1979—

1984. Second, the recent shift of a few large

employers, such as IBM, from hiring people

with technical degrees to hiring mathematics

and English majors has had an immediate (and

probably excessive) impact on high school

counselors.

Does this seemingly idiosyncratic phenom-

enon of the 1980s portend major trends in

American higher education for the twenty-

first century? It might, if we accept the chal-

lenge that is presented to us by the current

public debate on undergraduate education and

also by the increasing emphasis on lifelong

learning in the workplace.

The challenge is awesome. We are being

asked to put undergraduate education at the

center of our professional lives and of our

institutional reward systems. As if that were

not difficult enough, we are also being asked

to rethink the meaning and purpose of the

baccalaureate degree. Not to change this or

that requirement, not to add new subject mat-

ter, not to integrate experiential with class-

room learning, but to rethink the whole ex-

perience.

IBM’s decision to hire mathematics rather

than computer science majors has nothing to

do with a philosophical bias in favor of liberal

arts programs and probably very little to do

with the fact that its top executives tend to

be graduates of prestigious liberal arts col-

leges. The decision has a lot to do with IBM’s

perception of its need for human capital and

of the relationship between capital investment

and long-term profits. In an industry that is

highly competitive and subject to extremely

rapid change, IBM needs people who under-

stand the mathematical bases of computer

technology more than it needs people who

can work with one or another type of software

or equipment. Recruiters take for granted the

need for continuing professional education and

are prepared to provide opportunities for it,

on and off the job. Ideally, they want to invest

in people who are interested in learning, not

just earning, and who are not afraid to master

new concepts or fields of study. They also

take it for granted that job-related skills ac-

quired in college become obsolete within five

to seven years of graduation.

Liberal arts and sciences programs can help

future workers and citizens to become inter-

ested in learning, to cope with change, to

think logically, to speak and write effectively.

But these desirable outcomes do not occur

automatically and they certainly do not occur

by osmosis, through the accumulation of a

prescribed number of courses distributed in a

prescribed way.

At my own institution, and many others,

the arts and sciences undergraduate curricu-

lum reflects the past more than it portends

the future. The recent past, the bitter sweet

years of declining liberal arts enrollments, is

reflected in distribution requirements care-

fully balanced to assure that each department

gets at least a minimum number of available

bodies. In other ways our curriculum reca-

pitulates the long history of liberal arts edu-

cation, at least in its American forms.

The requirement that students choose a cer-

tain number of courses from the humanities

and from the studio or performing arts is evi-

dence of an era when undergraduate liberal

education was one of the hallmarks of elite

status. The main purpose of a baccalaureate

degree was to give those who earned it a

common cultural experience that set them apart

from their contemporaries. That sometimes

the degree was also useful as preparation for

a profession was not accidental, perhaps, but

10 CLARA M. LOVETT

certainly was of secondary importance. Thus,

for instance, in the second half of the nine-

teenth century elite women’s colleges were

founded and thrived not because they prom-

ised their middle and upper-class women stu-

dents useful training but because they offered

those students the same cultural experience

already available to elite men. In the era of

mass higher education, we retain some as-

pects of that experience, but we seldom bother

to explain to our students why we do so. Is

it any wonder that, especially from students

who grew up in homes without books and

artefacts, we often hear complaints about

‘irrelevant’’ requirements?

Ambivalent as we sometimes are about the

legacy of elite education, we give students

considerable freedom to specialize and to

choose professional or preprofessional ma-

jors. At GWU, scores of students choose eco-

nomics, political science, zoology, and psy-

chology in the belief that specialization in one

of these subjects will prepare them well for

lucrative professions. We complain about

‘“‘rampant vocationalism’’ and tell our stu-

dents that art and music, philosophy and lit-

erature are good for their souls. But we lack

a coherent rationale for rejecting a utilitarian

view of liberal arts education. Deep down,

we are aware that for many of our generation

the baccalaureate degree has been a ticket to

material well-being and middle-class status.

We are reluctant to call our students to task

for values and beliefs that the experiences of

our contemporaries on the whole tend to val-

idate.

To add to the confusion, a curriculum that

straddles uneasily between elite culture and

utilitarian impulses also reveals our efforts to

respond to the exigencies of the very recent

past—the advent of mass higher education,

the decline of SAT scores, the controversial

influence of television on students’ literacy.

Thus, we accept (grudgingly and apologeti-

cally) the teaching of basic grammar in fresh-

man English classes; we give college credit

for algebra courses; and we offer very abbre-

viated summer sessions.

On my own campus, few faculty and ad-

ministrators are comfortable with the legacy

of the very recent past. They hope it will fade

away as secondary school standards are tight-

ened and as our admission policy becomes

more selective academically. This is not sur-

prising because most of us in positions of

leadership at GWU were educated well before

the days of remedial English and remedial

mathematics for freshmen. Indeed, our deep-

seated conviction that such courses are not

legitimate components of the baccalaureate

experience often stands in the way of attempts

to develop, evaluate, and fund effective re-

medial programs. For better or worse, how-

ever, a broad consensus does exist on this

part of the undergraduate curriculum.

The consensus breaks down when we try

to come to terms with the older legacies which

our undergraduate curriculum mirrors and, like

most mirrors, distorts. Some of us are deeply

committed to the notion, however utopian it

may seem in the late twentieth century, that

the baccalaureate experience should set an

intellectual elite of cultured men and women

apart from the masses. However, we are not

at all certain that a democratic society can

nurture an intellectual elite without also nur-

turing social and powerelites. Moreover, when

we try to design an elite education that is not

ridiculously anachronistic we disagree sharply

on its content. Usually we end up arguing

that our own discipline or subdiscipline must

be the pivotal one in the undergraduate stu-

dent’s difficult progress toward enlighten-

ment. Thus, the curriculum becomes a hotly

contested battlefield and the rich educational

experience we want sincerely for our students

becomes a smorgasbord table.

Until quite recently, those of us who took

a utilitarian approach to the baccalaureate de-

gree and developed professional or preprofes-

sional curricula in such areas as ecology, jour-

nalism, radio and television, or actuarial

science, had it easier than our elitist col-

leagues. We argued that a job-minded gen-

eration of students would give up on liberal

arts programs altogether unless we recog-

nized the legitimacy of their interests and con-

cerns and found ways to adapt our programs

accordingly.

Our values and goals are not so clear now.

—— ss CU

UNDERGRADUATE EXPERIENCE IN THE TWENTY-FIRST CENTURY il

We are reeling from the blows of criticism

and condemnation dealt to us by highly pub-

licized national studies of undergraduate ed-

ucation. And we are discovering that once

popular job-oriented programs of study no

longer attract students and are a bigger drain

on our resources than the traditional disci-

plines.

Too few of us, elitists or utilitarians, are

looking at the undergraduate curriculum in

the broader context of cultural, economic, and

social changes in this country and abroad.

What is needed is a vision for the future and

not simply a reinterpretation of the past. It is

possible, I am convinced, to be proud of our

intellectual legacies and responsive to the short-

term preferences of our students without be-

coming enslaved to either. At a minimum,

we must understand clearly what undergrad-

uate education is not about in the late 1980s:

it is not about preparation for a life of leisured

refinement, as it was for nineteenth century

gentlemen and ladies of means; it is not a

passport to a life of stable employment, res-

idence, and social relations, as it was for the

organization men of the 1950s; it is definitely

not a substitute for continuing professional

education, the only growth sector of the ed-

ucational enterprise and one increasingly

shaped by major corporations, not by uni-

versities.

Although we can only see the contours of

the next century, some reasonable assump-

tions should guide our plans for undergrad-

uate education. One assumption is that higher

education will continue to be a mass phenom-

enon. Another is that the ““knowledge explo-

sion’’ characteristic of this century will con-

tinue and probably accelerate in the next. Thus,

it will be ever more difficult to agree on the

specific content of a four or five-year course

of study. And finally, we can assume that

future graduates routinely will experience

several changes of employment, residence,

and family and social relations during their

adult lives.

If we accept these assumptions, we come

to the conclusion that the primary purpose of

all formal education, and especially of the

undergraduate college years, must be to learn

how to learn. It may be important that stu-

dents be exposed to all facets of human

knowledge and that they study this or that

subject in some depth. But surely it is more

important that students develop—by what-

ever combination of subjects—a high level

of ability to communicate, to reason, and to

understand and cope with the demands of a

constantly changing world.

This view of undergraduate education,

however, runs counter to the academic trends

of the past twenty years at my own and at

many other universities. It implies that dis-

ciplinary boundaries should be largely irrel-

evant to the curriculum, and departmental

boundaries even more so. It certainly calls for

the demise of carefully negotiated distribution

requirements and ultimately, perhaps, for the

demise of traditional majors. Above all, this

view calls for a revolution in the role of the

teaching faculty. Once role models of intel-

lectual sophistication and genteel behavior,

we have become primarily transmitters of dis-

cipline-based knowledge and values. We are

unprepared, and in many instances, I suspect,

unwilling and unable, to refocus our teaching

around general intellectual abilities rather than

around disciplinary paradigms.

We do, of course, have the option not to

move in this direction at all and to muddle

through, as we have done more or less suc-

cessfully since the founding of Columbian

College in 1821. Most of us find it comfort-

ing, and certainly comfortable, to stay with

values and educational strategies that are fa-

miliar, that are part of our cultural heritage,

and that are reasonably compatible with spec-

ialized research, consulting, or other non-

teaching professional activities.

To depart from habits and traditions is al-

ways difficult. It is more difficult when there

are few models for change and when the in-

stitutional rewards favor the status quo. It is

almost heroically difficult when we are asked

to change our outlook, aspirations and work-

ing conditions for the sake of younger gen-

erations that may or may not perceive the

magnitude of our sacrifices and may or may

not benefit directly from them. As we ponder

on these issues, it might be useful to remind

12 CLARA M. LOVETT

ourselves that the students we will educate in

the next fifteen years will have no choice but

to cope with the unfamiliar and to interact

with cultures very different from their own.

As for our attachment to specialized subjects

or courses, it might be useful to admit to

ourselves that some are already obsolete (that

Journal of the Washington Academy of Sciences,

Volume 75, Number 1, Pages 12-16, March 1985

is, they no longer represent the cutting edge

of new research in our disciplines) while oth-

ers will have become so by the twenty-first

century. We should not be ashamed of cher-

ishing them, but neither should we claim that

they are indispensable to the education of to-

morrow’s liberal arts graduates.

Education in the Liberal Arts

James L. Madachy, Ph.D.

Dean, College of Arts & Sciences, Gallaudet College, Washington,

D.C. 20002

Being asked to comment about a topic as

general as ‘‘education today’’ is similar to

being asked to design a new internal com-

bustion engine. One knows or can research

the basic operating components, but to come

up with a new or innovative approach or con-

cept can be quite difficult. Therefore, I will

only express my personal opinion about where

education seems to stand now and where I

think we should stand. I do not wish to ignore

or denigrate any other type of postsecondary

institution, but I will focus on the liberal arts

and sciences because that is the arena I know

best. Since there have been so many articles

and national reports pubblished recently, I

will not offer another definition or listing of

what a liberal arts education is, but I will

focus on what I feel are two key aspects:

content or skill building and problem solving

or the higher cognitive processes.

It seems at times that we as educators have

to re-determine what our priorities are. The

traditional value of education in the past was

that it attempted to graduate students who had

learned how to think for themselves, i.e., they

learned how to absorb masses of information,

analyze that information, process it and arrive

at a solution to a problem. I feel that these

aspects still are and should continue to rep-

resent the value of an education. Instilling in

students the ability to think clearly and crit-

ically and to be intellecturally sophisticated

and well-read individuals should be the ulti-

mate goal of a liberal arts education. A grad-

uate with these abilities will continue to be

sought out by a variety of firms and agencies

which seek not specialists in a given field,

but generalists who have learned how to learn

and can easily be taught any necessary, spe-

cific new skills.

It is obvious that for students to reach the

point where they can learn, process, analyze,

and synthesize, they must first gain a solid

foundation in skills such as reading, writing

and mathematical computation. These are the

basis for all other learning which should hap-

pen in our colleges. If we have students whose

skills are weak, we must first bolster their

skills and content levels before a student fully

participates in the rest of the curriculum. I

have told students that I cannot teach them

anything in the true sense of the word, but I

EDUCATION IN THE LIBERAL ARTS 13

can help them to learn. Once skills are at-

tained, we need to provide increasingly larger

masses of information to our students. But

the major concern of a liberal arts institution

is to help students learn for themselves or to

show various methods of dealing with and

processing information. Basic information can

perhaps be better obtained outside of the

classroom. What must happen inside the

classroom is that the instructor, the mentor,

the tutor, illustrates how conclusions can be

drawn from various data and information.

We must perhaps think in different terms

when we deal with basic skills as opposed to

a real knowledge in a subject. In language

acquisition for example, a student must first

learn that a particular noun has a definite re-

lationship with a verb. He need not know why

this is true but can simply memorize the fact

that is is true. This skill building level in

language must precede a deeper knowledge

of the complexity of the grammatical struc-

ture of a language. Baasic skill must come

before that graceful manipulation of a lan-

guage we call good writing.

I can memorize, on my own, etlinds of

identifying various minerals. One role of the

teacher is to quicken the process by which I

memorize those methods or give me practical,

hands-on experience in learning to identify

those minerals. The teacher can speed up

the process of rote learning but more impor-

tantly can illustrate for the student methods

of dealing with what is being learned. It has

been said that a college education is com-

parable to ten years of living in the active

world. It seems to me that this statement is

basically true. A college education enhances

and compresses the acquisition of knowledge.

However, a person can live for ten years and

learn very little. A student can spend four

years in a liberal arts college and learn very

little. If one goal of education is to give stu-

dents the ability to problem solve and to make

intelligent and critical decisions, then all cur-

ricula and all teaching methodologies must be

geared toward achieving that goal. I suggest

that we must stop teaching our specific fields

in isolation and must show the interrelation-

ships among academic disciplines. The cur-

rent trend toward Writing Across the Curric-

ulum is a good example of teachers from a

variety of fields working toward a common

goal. We also need to explore more fully the

power of interdisciplinary courses.

We should not forget that skills are taught

on all levels, on the remedial or develop-

mental level, on the freshman/sophomore level,

and into the major level. This is true at most

levels with any discipline. In art, I first must

teach students as well as I can how to use a

pen or brush. I can most likely train students

who have sufficient physical capability,

teaching them to do line drawings or perhaps

teaching them to do oil painting. But to be-

come good artists, they cannot simply be cop-

yists; they must put something of themselves

into their art and make decisions of their own

about art. I can present, through my teaching

methods, various hints and guidelines for the

student to use, but ultimately it is the student

who must learn to apply personality to art. In

math, I must first teach students what a ratio

is and how to handle ratio problems that are

presented in simple form. That is thse skill

building level. But to really become capable

in mathematics, students must be able to take

a theoretical or a word problem, and decide

or discover for themselves how to apply their

knowledge of ratios in order to solve the prob-

lem. This is the stage where true teaching

enters in, moving a student from a skill level

to a problem-solving level. For me, this prob-

lem-solving level is the goal that all courses

in higher education should have.

A liberal arts graduate should be able to

read and understand sufficiently to be able to

pick up a text on psychological stress and

understand what is means and apply it if ap-

propriate, or read a tax manual and be able

to look at a problem, read about that problem

and discover how to solve it. A person who

can quote Shakespeare is trained, but a person

who can apply information to solving a prob-

lem, whether that problem be technical or

scientific, psychological, or philosophical is

educated. The person who can comprehend

one of Shakespeare’s situations in terms of

today’s world is a richer human being. So-

lutions may not always be obtainable in cer-

tain fields, but the drive should be toward the

solution or at least toward attempting the so-

14 JAMES L. MADACHY, Ph.D.

lution. I realize that this all sounds wonder-

fully naive, but I feel that our attitude toward

what we do in the classroom is as important

as the facts we teach. The goal of helping to

develop individuals who think must be up-

permost in our minds.

The future of education obviously depends

on us as faculty. There are numerous prob-

lems that we face. One very prevalent attitude

is that admission standards have declined con-

siderably in the last twenty years. This is per-

haps true and I would suggest that we do one

of two things. If we accept students who are

not prepared to do college work, we owe it

to those students and to ourselves to provide

them with the skills to succeed or fail on their

own, but with reasonable time limits. Ob-

viously, the other option is to accept only

students who are prepared to do college-level

work. Whatever we do, we must be prepared

to bring the traditional liberal arts curriculum

and education into today’s job market. I think

it is unacceptable to avoid facing the realities

of today’s world simply because we cling to

some old ideal of what a true liberal arts ed-

ucation is. Graduating students who are able

to get acceptable jobs and establish careers in

the real world of work, is not somehow break-

ing faith with the concept of a liberal arts

education. Our graduates should be able to

compete for many entry level jobs on the same

level as graduates with technical and/or

professional degrees.

There is a great deal of discussion now

about the possibility of proficiency exams in

various disciplines. If we are to graduate stu-

dents who have learned how to think for

themselves, we need to treat them as adults.

We must establish standards and apply them

fairly. Treating a student as an adult means

accepting that student’s right to fail. At pres-

ent, some faculty members knowingly or un-

knowingly seem to act in ways which con-

vince students that they have a right to graduate

from college simply because they have been

accepted in college. I support very strongly

the idea of proficiency exams and feel they

should be multiply applied. For example, stu-

dents should be able to show proficiency in

English language usage during the Junior year.

If they do not pass, they then have time for

more preparation. I also feel that each major

should establish field-specific proficiency ex-

ams. We would then be in a position of saying

to potential employers that our graduates have

x amount of field knowledge.

We are sometimes caught in a vicious cycle

which perhaps 1s spiraling downward at pres-

ent. What happens to our graduates has a

great deal to do with what kind of students

apply to our colleges. We obviously need to

continue enrolling students to survive as col-

leges. If we take students who are not college

material, and they somehow graduate, they

do not make a very good impression on their

employers and our reputation as educational

institutions diminishes. If we get a bad rep-

utation, the better students tend to go some-

where else. Therefore, our procedure must be

to reverse the spiral, and produce the best

students that we can. We must consider a

definition of what liberal arts graduate should

be, and find a way to assure that only students

who fit within that definition do indeed grad-

uate.

One of the problems with some of us in

liberal arts education is that we are somehow

ashamed of producing students who are able

to get jobs. There is no conflict between pro-

ducing a well-educated student who can per-

form well in the job market with the basic

concept of liberal arts in general. If we are

truly developing people as thinkers, they are

obviously the people who should get high-

status jobs. Iam not here talking about knowl-

edge somehow being its own reward, I am

talking about knowledge that is brought to

bear upon a topic and used to find solutions

to a problem. We must be able to tell the

difference in our teaching concepts between

teaching a student what is fact and how to

use those facts. We must also train students

to discern the differences between scientific

fact and scientific possibility or probability.

A question which was asked of me recently

was whether a core curriculum of required

courses is still a viable concept. I suspect that

a core of requirements is the crucial part of

what we are calling a liberal arts education.

Perhaps for the future of liberal arts, this core

curriculum is what we need to look at most

deeply. There is obviously variety in the types

EDUCATION IN THE LIBERAL ARTS 15

of courses we teach, or the range of courses

we teach. There is some possibility that we

can do better or that we do need some change,

but I think that our first issue should be to

look at the courses that many liberal arts col-

leges teach as a part of the core, that is roughly

Social Studies, English, Math, Foreign Lan-

guage, Science, and Physical Education, and

evaluate these courses in terms of whether

they meet the two goals that I’ve previously

discussed. That is, whether we teach skills

and at the same time go beyond teaching skills,

to teaching content and the logical and cog-

nitive processes that are so involved in the

basis of a liberal arts education.

I think as educational institutions and as a

group of well-meaning educators, we need to

sit together, within our own departments or

among departments, and carefully, in a non-

threatening, friendly way, analyze what we

are doing and see if we can do it better. Fac-

ulty morale in many institutions right now is

somewhat low for a variety of reasons. One

way that this morale problem can be handled

is through cooperation among faculty mem-

bers. I do not wish to propose an “‘us against

them’’ situation but, if nothing else, when

members of the faculty feel threatened by out-

side forces, it is perhaps an ideal time to gather

together and create improvement from within.

I am a faculty advocate and a student advo-

cate. I see the solution to most problems in

any collegiate situation as being a strong, uni-

fied, cooperating faculty attempting in all

honesty to do the best job it can with students.

There are obviously seeds of this and some

real growth that have already taken place.

Various curriculum reviews are a good indi-

cation of both faculty and administrative con-

cern with what education is doing.

What I am basically suggesting is that al-

though perhaps curriculum can be reinforced

and modified, the real task facing liberal arts

colleges in the future is perhaps not so much

a change in curriculum but an in-depth anal-

ysis of skill building and present course con-

tent and the teaching methods we use to instill

those skills and bring life to content areas.

Research and committee work are obviously

very important aspects of any faculty mem-

ber’s life. Research keeps one aware of de-

velopments in any particular field. Commit-

tee work keeps one knowledgeable about what

is happening in other areas of the college and

brings together people from different disci-

plines to solve mutual problems. But liberal

arts colleges are basically schools that need

strong teaching. Too often we all fall into the

trap of varying our course content and our

approach to that content very, very little—

boring ourselves and our students and not

contributing as much as possible to their de-

velopment.

Occasionally administrative structures can

be seen to interfere with the workings of fac-

ulty and students. There are obviously areas

in which decisions must be made by admin-

istration. The administration is responsible for

the smooth working of budget, admissions,

dorms, etc. However, there needs to be a

closer relationship between administration and

faculty, a more trusting relationship that is a

two-way street. Faculty members should be

in a position where the burden of detail and

budget and the daily necessities of running a

large organization are removed so that they

can concentrate on teaching. The administra-

tion, in turn, should not interfere with faculty

members in the daily process of their partic-

ular activities. The relationship must be open,

and must be based on trust. We should be

able to communicate needs and desires ef-

fectively with both a sense of confidence that

something will be done about problem areas,

and with a sense of trust that our problems

will be considered in good faith. Some ad-

ministrative decisions must be made very

quickly because of outside agencies that must

be handled. But major decisions should al-

ways be made only after consultation with

faculty. I think I would prefer to see change

delayed rather than see things happen too

quickly that are perhaps not well thought out.

Consultation with faculty members as indi-

viduals and with committees should not be

mere lip service. Faculty desires, committee

desires, should be considered as crucial. As

members of a faculty we must refuse to fall

into the trap where, as it has been said, only

10% of the members of any organization really

do 90% of the work. Committee work may

be boring and sometimes seem pointless, but

16 JAMES L. MADACHY, Ph.D.

it is important if faculty are to maintain con-

trol over our own situation. A faculty should

never condone the duplication of effort by

committees, and I feel that we need to provide

a much clearer charge to committees. But in

some institutions it is basically through com-

mittee work that we can create change for the

better.

We must keep constantly in mind that a

liberal arts education traditionally does one

of two things: it prepares students for further

study, or it prepares students to join a work

world and be trained by that world. Neither

should supercede the other. There is not dis-

honor in preparing a student in business

administration or in social work for moving

immediately into a career. We should not be

that elitist or snobbish. However, we must

not neglect students who wish to continue

their studies before they join any particular

profession, for example, teaching or law.

I feel that in the future, as is somewhat true

today, a good liberal arts graduate will always

find a job. Industry needs people who are

facilitators, people who can approach a va-

Journal of the Washington Academy of Sciences,

Volume 75, Number |, Pages 16-20, March 1985

riety of problems or subjects or topics because

of their strong generalist’s background, and

either solve a problem or bring together peo-

ple who can solve problems. Obviously a key

factor in being a facilitator is skill in com-

munication on all levels. We betray our grad-

uates if we do not help them become skilled

communicators.

Probably strong liberal arts colleges will

exist and perhaps become stronger regardless

of all the problems with administration and

faculty and curriculum changes as long as

honest people are attempting to pass on what

they know to a future generation, enabling

that future generation to build upon the past.

The role of the administration and faculty is

to provide the best atmosphere and conditions

for that educative process to happen. Admin-

istration should be in a supporting role to

faculty and ultimately to students. The busi-

ness aspects of collegiate life are important

but only as a body to support the head and

mind—the head and mind being faculty and

students.

The Warmed-over Debate on

Undergraduate Education

Frank Turaj

Dean, The College of Arts and Sciences, The American University,

Washington, D.C. 20016

When I am not annoyed with the present

form of the debate over undergraduate edu-

cation, I am amused. I try to be more amused

than annoyed. The amusing part is simply the

observation of the follies of those who pe-

riodically rediscover undergraduates. Be-

cause some politician or some commission

has raised the issue of curriculum again, all

the same old debaters or their clones tear

themselves away from their word processors,

attend one, maybe two meetings on the sub-

ject, and get all hot about whether English

THE WARMED-OVER DEBATE ON UNDERGRADUATE EDUCATION 17

IV is more important than English III or maybe

even more important than History V. What

should be taught? What should be read? Is

Virgil more important than Dostoyevski? Is

Shakespeare more important than Heming-

way? Are any of them more important than

the New York Times? Is the New York Times

more important than the Village Voice? And

of course the word “‘crucial’’ is thrown around

a lot even if no one ever means it literally.

Somehow the future of society is at stake. It

reminds me of Book III of Gulliver’ s Travels,

which of course is “‘crucial’’ and should be

required reading. My amusement is, as you

can see, Swiftian.

The annoying part of this experience comes

from observing how self-serving the argu-

ments are and how little is offered of that

which genuinely counts. It is not a required

core curriculum which creates the academic

good life, or yet any set of required courses,

nor any particular list of books but our own

willingness to be of help to our students. If

there is a magic formula it is concocted from

the following: the professional and personal

commitment to teach well, to make every class

a lively and intellectual experience, to spend

lots of time with your students one-on-one.

There is no substitute for this. I don’t care

what the curriculum is, if you can’t leave the

student with the impression that what you are

teaching is interesting, fundamentally per-

sonally useful, worth thinking about, worth

asking questions about, any curriculum is dead

in the water. Teaching needs emphasis.

Take the notion of a lecture. It continues

to astound me that here, almost at the begin-

ning of the 21st century, five hundred years

after the printing press, existing as we are in

the educational era of Xerox, the lecture con-

tinues to be a primary form of instruction.

The lecture was a medium that came into

being when there was no moveable type, no

Xerox, very few books around and those usu-

ally owned by the professor, and so the pro-

fessor would impart information. Many pro-

fessors still behave as if they couldn’t put

their lectures into a Dictaphone, have the darn

thing typed up, and have it distributed to the

Students to read, assuming that there was

anything new in the lecture that is not already

given in the textbook.

Obviously I speak of the formal lecture. I

am not at all saying that the professor does

not have or should not have the dominant role

in the classroom. The opposite extreme, the

free wheeling, formless, unstructured student

discussion approach is also the lazy man’s

approach to undergraduate teaching. The

classroom should be the place where ques-

tions are discovered, material is analyzed and

synthesized, where the professor is chal-

lenged to explain and explain and explain,

where the student is challenged to articulate

his understanding, where things not included

in the information spontaneously arise and are

related to the information, where the mate-

rials presented cease to be information and

become intellectual experience.

This is a lot harder to do than lecture. It is

a lot harder to prepare. To try to teach like

this in the classroom you have to have the

same dedication that an actor has to a new

role, that an inventor has to the solution of a

problem, that a painter has for a blank canvas.

You need to prepare as much and with as

much concentration as any athlete for an event.

Like a gymnast you need to get a good start,

run, spin, twist and land in the right place.

Undergraduate teaching should involve a whole

lot more than pulling your lecture notes out

of the file, getting into your car, arriving at

the class on time, giving your lecture, and

going back home to your word processor.

Professoriat of all colleges, arise! You are

wasting the minds of your students. Do you

want to exalt them in their questioning? Do

you want to know what books they should

read so that you can suggest them? Do you

want to know what courses they should take

to best suit their intellect and personality?

Then go to the students. Don’t sit around and

argue in committees! Don’t posture in the

academic senate! Neither the questions nor

the answers are there. Spend your time with

the students. Talk to them about their minds

and yours. Find out where they are strong and

where they are weak. Intuit their natural drift.

You know what? They will, in fact, read the

books that you suggest. They will, in fact,

take many of the courses that you suggest.

They will try on and wear for a while and

keep or discard ideas that you suggest. They

will get an education in spite of lecture courses,

18 FRANK TURAJ

core curriculum debates, changing fads, dis-

tributive requirements, committees and sen-

ates. Do you want the magic formula? Spend

time with the students. Spend time with the

students. Spend time with the students.

Try this. Pick out some small sample group

of people who you think are intellectually

pretty good. The farther they are from grad-

uation the better. Pick good intellectuals who

have graduated at least ten years ago. Ask

them about the high points, the intellectual

high points, of their undergraduate education.

And don’t ask professors, ask someone else.

Professors never quite get over thinking in

terms of curricular lists. Ask these intellec-

tuals about their undergraduate experience and

see how much of it has to do with some dis-

tributive group or other, with some core cur-

riculum or other, with some requirement or

other. In fact, all that will have long passed

away. Ask them what has stayed with them

over the years. Ask them about those expe-

riences that have led them to read more and

more books, or hang around various ideas.

Inevitably, inescapably, you wiil find that the

valuable and memorable experiences are re-

lated to an experience with a professor, with

time spent, with conversation, with a personal

exchange.

So I pay little heed to the terms of the

debates about curriculum. I know that nothing

particularly important will come from that

tinkering. One group of professors will push

their own group of courses, another group of

professors will push another group of courses,

they will all try to justify their jobs and their

disciplines. What I worry about most is that

they may be successful in imposing upon un-

dergraduates requirements which will deflate

rather than expand their curiosity.

I remember once when I was taking my

undergraduate degree in Literature, I was

bulldogged into taking a course involving the

writing of John Milton. I really didn’t feel

the necessity of it. It wasn’t a matter of pre-

ferring modern writers to so-called classics.

I always enjoyed and still do the writing of

Donne, Crashaw, and others of that general

time. So I took Milton. To this day I feel that

if I were on the proverbial desert island

and had to choose between having the works

of Milton to read or nothing at all, I would

choose nothing at all. So much, in my mind,

for being overly forceful in dictating a cur-

riculum in higher education, whatever the ar-

guments.

Some of the current objectives to free-form

general education go like this: a student can

earn a bachelor’s degree without ever taking

a course in American history, without having

studied a foreign language, without having

read any of the ancient classics, without hav-

ing read Shakespeare, without having read

Plato, or Marx. It may well be that the student

has had American history out the ears in high

school, prefers Tolstoy to Shakespeare, is more

interested in supply-side than Marxism, and

is more interested in Darwin than Marx. Who

is to say that these are the wrong choices?

To be sure, we want to know that our stu-

dents are learning and learning and learning.

Otherwise why should they be wasting their

time and money in college. But we are fooling

ourselves if we think that the value of their

education is in a prescribed curriculum. I am

talking about their general education. It is

obvious that pursuing professions and spe-

cializations does require a logical plan. In

chemistry certain things have to be learned

before other things are learned. In mathe-

matics, the same. In accounting, economet-

rics, biology, the same: certain things have

to be learned before other things are learned.

But insofar as the rest of a student’s education

is concerned there are two things we can do:

1) stay out of the way and do no harm; 2) get

in the way and do a lot of good. The latter

is accomplished by giving a good class, spot-

ting interest and curiosity, spending time with

the students, tuning into them and getting them

to tune into you. That’s where we do our work

as professors. Required curricula don’t do our

work for us. The recurrent debates about cur-

ricula are a side show.

What then should an undergraduate edu-

cation be? What will make the time, the money,

and the effort worthwhile? Is there an outline

of a good education that does not make an

undergraduate education something like buy-

ing one of those canvases on which the lines

are all drawn out and you paint in the land-

scape with colors that are indicated by the

THE WARMED-OVER DEBATE ON UNDERGRADUATE EDUCATION 19

numbers. I think yes. This is my approach.

This is what I tell my undergraduates.

1) Learn to write well. Learn to make

yourself clear, concise, and specific. Know

what a paragraph is and how to use it. Know

how to arrange information and present it.

Know how to take a sentence apart and put

it back together. Know how to explain what

you mean. I am not talking about fancy writ-

ing. I am not falking about creative self

expression, the results of which are often that

neither you nor anyone else understands what

you expressed. Learn how to be clear, spe-

cific, to the point. Learn how to write in such

a way that no one is vague about what you

mean.

In one of the reports (Involvement in Learn-

ing, National Institute of Education) often cited

in the current debate on higher education, I

read the following passage: ‘‘Faculty and ac-

ademic deans should design and implement

a systematic program to assess the knowl-

edge, capacities, and skills developed in stu-

dents by academic and co-curricular pro-

grams.’’ This is the kind of writing you should

NOT learn, let alone the kind of writing that

should be done by somebody commenting on

American higher education. What the writer

probably means to say is that we should de-

vise a way to figure out what our students are

actually learning. He or she should have said

that. Do not write like this. Learn to write

simply and clearly. This is the absolute prior-

ity. It is an intellectual priority, because if

you cannot explain it well, you cannot un-

derstand it and your readers won’t either. It

is also a practical priority, I know of no single

factor which will more guarantee success, plain

old promotional, salary-raising, status-climb-

ing success.

2) Take a double major, and major in two

things which are unrelated. Let one of the

majors reflect what you think you might want

to do for a living. In some cases, you already

know. You have decided to major in electrical

engineering, mechanical engineering, ac-

counting, or the like. If you are not sure what

you want to do for a living, pick out a major

that involves those things you think you like

hanging around, those things which seem now

of working interest to you. If you are inter-

ested in buying, selling, marketing, money,

you might choose business administration or

economics. If you like hanging around lab-

oratories and doing things with your hands,

you might choose chemistry, biology, phys-

ics, whichever seems best. If you know you

want to work with words, pictures, infor-

mation and its dissemination, you might ma-

jor in journalism. In any case, let your major

be the one which studies the mental stuff you

might want to spend the rest of your life hang-

ing around.

Then pick another major that has absolutely

nothing to do with any job you think you may

ever have. Let it be unrelated to the first ma-

jor. But let it be something you love in and

of and for itself. Let it be something you want

to spend the rest of your life hanging around

when you’re not working. My idea of sensible

paired majors runs something like this: busi-

ness administration and philosophy; econom-

ics and art history; pre-med and music; public

administration and studio art; chemistry and

literature; government and dance. If you do

this, you will have one major which gives

you vocational direction although it will not

give you a vocation all by itself, and one

major which belongs only and soley to you

and your own personal internal life.

3) If you do not already know how to do

it, learn to use a computer. Learn to put your

hands on it, put information in, take infor-

mation out, do some basic programming. It

is the nature of the world we live in that this

will be both professionally and personally

useful to you almost no matter what you do.

Whatever your job in the future will be, I

guarantee you that somehow or other you will

have to know about this. For your personal

life, you will not be able to avoid in the future

all the many things in every-day life, infor-

mation retrieval, public communications, video

and audio entertainment, that will be linked

up with the computer. Even your interests in

music, drama, art, philosophy, and literature

will be in one way or another in the future

enhanced by what you will be able to do with

the machine and with all the resources that

the machine will be hooked up to.

4) If you can hack it, learn one modern

20 FRANK TURAJ

foreign language well. I mean well. Learn it

to a degree of good, perhaps very good, com-

petence. I do not mean simply to take a course

or two, I mean learn the language well. This

is a key to innumerable things, including the

culture that the language represents, other

languages, the acrobatics of expression which

you gain by knowing two languages and de-

veloping a flair in linguistic skill. It might

even be a very marketable commodity.

Connected with this, if it can fit your

schedule, see if you can study abroad for at

least one semester in the country of the lan-

guage that you are learning. The value of the

experience of living and studying in a foreign

country during the course of your education

is obvious.

5) To the extent that you have electives

left, follow the questions which interest you

most. If you are intrigued by, say, whether

or not Reagan will some day be considered

a good or bad president, take courses in

American history or American government.

If you are confounded and upset by the debate

on abortion, study philosophy and biology; if

you want to know how things work, satellites,

fiber optics, space shuttle, the telephone sys-

tem, take physics; if you want to know why

you should some day read novels rather than

not read them, or what a poem is, or how

writers synthesize the form and substance of

their times, take literature courses; if you are

fascinated by the phenomenon of terrorism,

take some combination of the following, 19th

century European political movements, Rus-

sian history, abnormal behavior, and ethics.

If you happen to be majoring in chemistry

but you are interested to know how a bank

works, find the course and take it. If you are

majoring in banking but you are interested in

the substances which we ingest accidentally,

deliberately, or environmentally, take chem-

istry, biology, and toxicology.

The main point is that the intellectual world

is wide. It is wider than you are. So develop

the questions that naturally come to you.

Sharpen them. Let them grow. Let them change

form, shape, and wording. And study those

things which will surround the questions.

That is what I tell my students. *‘Learn.

Learn. Enjoy. Enjoy.’’ Ultimately the quality

of education will depend on the quality of

the teaching, on good lively classes devoid

of drone and boredom, on generating ques-

tions, on the confrontation of ideas, on the

explanations and similies and analogies and

suggestions of the professors. It will depend

on learning to write well, on a solid major

or, better, two solid majors, on understanding

the informational technology of the times, on

getting to know the rest of the world and how

it works. It does not depend on this core cur-

riculum or that. It certainly does not depend

on how the present debate turns out or the

wasteful expenditure of time and energy that

the debate will consume. Ask anybody who

is smart and has been to college . . . except

educators, administrators, and bureaucrats.

Journal of the Washington Academy of Sciences,

Volume 75, Number 1, March 1985

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ACADEMY... SCIENCES

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CONTENTS

Articles:

GEORGE L. FARRE: Is the Notion of a Just War Applicable to Nuclear Deterrence

UND BAS aa eee ae ERS Uf Ss 0 "5s. an aa eae ORS a 23

HERBERT MAISEL: Are Personal Computers Necessary for Use inthe Home .... 28

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Journal of the Washington Academy of Sciences,

Volume 75, Number 2, Pages 23-27, June 1985

Is the Notion of a Just War

Applicable to Nuclear Deterrence

(Nude)?

(An Evolutionary Argument for the

Nudist Camp)

G. L. Farre (1985)

Department of Philosophy, Georgetown University, Washington, D.C.

20057

A number of people who have taken an

anti-NUDIST stance have justified it in terms

of the Just War Tradition (or Theory), on the

grounds that

a. Nuclear War is irredeemably evil

b. The threat of an irredeemably evil act (ie

NUDE) is itself an irredeemably evil act.

I want to argue that the Just War Tradition

(JWT for short) fails to provide suitable grounds

for predicating evil of NUDE, mostly because

it is inapplicable in the circumstances in which

the question of NUDE arises.

I will begin with an analysis of the notion

of NUDE, then follow up with a list of the

main features of the JWT which are relevant

to the argument. I will then conclude with a

brief examination of whether the latter has

any bearing on the former.

(I) NUDE

The purpose of this section is to introduce

a number of needed notions. The key ones

are that of an organism, that of a nuclear

society as a particular kind of organism, and

that of nuclear deterrence as self preservation

of that kind of organism.

(A) On the Notion of Organism

1. An organism is a complex characterised

by a structure used for the acquisition, the

processing and the diffusion of information,

that is a Central Information System (CIS).

For present purposes, we may consider that

this structure forms the essential element of

the criterion of identity for the organism, and

gives point to what is meant here by its in-

tegrity.

2. The survival of an organism means the

continued applicability of the same criterion

of identity throughout. In no case can the

survival of the organism be thought of as in-

dependent of that of its CIS: in particular, the

independent survival of its parts and com-

ponents is not to be equated with the survival

of the complex.

3. An important characteristic of an or-

24 G. L. FARRE

ganism is what may be called its Binding En-

ergy (BE), which is normally distributed over

its elements. This energy is provided by a

corresponding proportional loss of autonomy

and perhaps even by a partial loss of integrity

of the elements of the complex.

The appearance of such constraints as are

indicative of the BE marks the emergence of

a higher organism, 1.e. an organism more

complex than the ones being.constrained. Due

to the structuring of the higher organism, these

constraints affect the relations between its ele-

ments, thereby dividing its world into internal

and external parts, that is with two distinct

environments and, by way of consequence,

with two distinct modes of adaptation and

therefore of definition.

4. These constraints, which bind the com-

ponents together into a single whole, provide

a suitable basis for understanding (i.e. for

constructing a model of) the natural (i.e. in-

herent) values embedded in it. These values

define what is good behavior for the com-

ponents of the whole, and thus what is not as

well. It gives content to the notion of the

integrity of the organism. The preservation

of this integrity may be defined as the ultimate

value of the organism, in the sense that the

destruction of this integrity and that of the

organism come to the same thing: death as

an identifiable and viable entity.

The integrity of an organism may be threat-

ened either internally or externally. In any

viable organism, there will naturally be found

internal mechanisms of defense and others

that are turned toward external threats.

(B) Human Society as Organism

5. In the case of a human society, the BE

takes the form of the culture, the principal

manifestation of which is the /anguage in which

it finds its expression, and more specifically,

the conceptual framework that it reveals.

This means, among other things, that the

rules governing the behavior of a human so-

ciety viewed as a whole in a context external

to it are likely to be very different from those

governing that of its component parts (e.g.

individuals and groups which are internal

to it).

(a) Such differentiated patterns of behavior

are quite general, and can be used to gauge

the strength of the bond keeping an organism

together. In the case of competing human

societies, the cultural character of the bond

is used to justify various forms of cultural

warfare (e.g. control of information, of its

origination and of its diffusion, disinforma-

tion campaigns, propaganda, etc)

In particular, the internal mechanisms of

defense are different from the external ones,

a circumstances particularly obvious in the

case of nuclear states.

(b) We may also expect the behavior of a

given society to be radically different, de-

pending on whether it is dealing with another

society that shares similar values or not, even

though the language be somewhat different.

In particular, in conflicts in which values are

seen to be threatened, we may expect to see

the behavior of the endangered society reflect

both the nature of the threat and the relative

importance of the values perceived as chal-

lenged. At the limit, the conflict will take the

form of a fight to the death with no quarters

given. At the other end of the spectrum, in

conflicts in which the values of a given so-

ciety are not threatened, we may expect to

find those forms of behavior which reflect its

traditional cultural attitude (e.g. Just War

Theories).

6. The cultural nature of the criterion of

identity for human organisms, such as na-

tions, links in an essential way its perception

of what is possible to its means of analysis

and therefore of action. We may therefore

expect a human society to have a tolerably

serviceable understanding of itself in the con-

text of its environment, a vision that is deeply

cultural. As the culture of a given society

evolves, for example through an increase in

knowledge or through the development of new

technologies, so will the culture sensitive view

it has of itself and of its world, and so will

its behavior.

7. The study of nuclear societies (VUCSO)

reveals that their behavior is markedly dif-

ferent from that of non nuclear societies, not

only relative to each other but also internally

(e.g. managing nuclear power, nuclear pol-

lution, nuclear weaponry, etc.) So much so

NUDE 25

that NUCSOs may be thought of for most

purposes as members of a more evolved spe-

cies than that to which a conventional society

(CONSO) belongs.

8. The idea of the deterrence of B by A

reveals on analysis five main elements:

a. the ability of both A and B to describe

different worlds

b. their ability to perceive some of them as

possible, that is as accessible from the ac-

tual world W

c. the perception by B that the path leading

form the actual world to a set of possible

worlds for B is accessible directly by A,

or even that such access is exclusively in

the hands of deterring agent A.

d. Among the possible worlds of B acces-

sible to A is a set of unacceptable ones

W*(B), and among those accessible to B

are possible worlds of A unacceptable to

A W*(A), thereby creating a mutual de-

pendence for the worst.

e. A is credible to B, 1.e. B knows, or has

grounds to believe that A will access W*(B)

if B accesses a possible world of A W*(A)

which is unacceptable to A.

9. The credibility, which is so essential to

deterrence, is borne of history, what the agent

has done in the past, how he views similar

problems and how he approaches them, how

he ranks the different possible worlds avail-

able to him (i.e. life is not worth living under

certain circumstances, etc), all cultural traits.

10. The ultimate element in deterrence is

the realisation by the party to be deterred (i.e.

B), that it has it in its own power to initiate

the path that leads to the worst of all possible

worlds for it (namely its non survivability as

an organism, with its own cultural integrity

intact). This is best achieved by making the

origin of the path leading to W*(A) identical

to that of the path leading to W*(B), thereby

insuring maximum credibility: for then it is

possible for B to be effectively dissuaded from

any course of action that would mean the

initiation of a path leading inexorably to un-

acceptable damages to his own integrity and

autonomy.

So what deterrence means, in fact, is that

the deterring party surrenders the power of

decision to its opponent by linking its own

fate irrevocably to that of its opponent. It is

a form of resistance which differs from the

‘‘turning the other cheek’’ theory in only this,

that it does not provide incentives to the pro-

spective aggressor to go through with its

aggression.

(D) NUDISM as the Only Way of Life

11. NUDISM is the only way of preserv-

ing the integrity of the organism and this for

two reasons. One is that the conflict between

the super powers is an essentially ideological

one. The second is that the super powers are

also NUCSOs, a circumstance which affects

the context in which the conflict is to be seen.

12. Nuclear Weapons (NUKES) strip the

social organism (ie society) of its cultural de-

terminations, and reduce it to the Lowest Cul-

tural Denominator, namely that of the bare

biological life of the members of NUCSO

(e.g. ““‘bombing them back to the Stone Age’’).

13. NUKES therefore gut out the idea of

preserving cultural integrity in the process of

the conflict, while stripping the opponent of

his, which is what an ideological conflict is

all about. They spell out the destruction of

the foundations of cultural identity.

14. Thus the suicidal character of NUDE

imposes new constraints on the members of

the group of NUCSOs marking therewith the

emergence of a new kind of global society,

that of the NUCHAVES (Nuclear Haves). The

process thus appears to follow a completely

natural pattern, raising the question of the

appropriateness of moral predicates to char-

acterise it.

(II) On the Notion of a Just War

1. Two main components: jus ad bellum

(has its origins primarily in theological and

clerical circles) and jus in bello (which has

its origins in military and legal (government)

circles).

26 G. L. FARRE

2. The jus ad bellum (the right to make

war) eventually came to incorporate the fol-

lowing elements:

—yjust cause

—right authority

—proportionality (that war should do more

good than harm)

—last resort

—purpose is the achievement of peace

3. The jus in bello (law of war). Two main

principles:

—discrimination (avoid harm to non-com-

batants)

—proportionality (banning certain kinds of

weapons, etc)

4. Two main aspects of this concept of Just

War: formal and applied.

5. The formal aspect is the result of the

enmeshement of the term is a conceptual

framework (COFRA) that is characteristic of

the culture of a particular society at a partic-

ular time and place; i.e. it is culture sensitive.

The term itself, like all concepts, will in fact

mean different things to different people at

different times and places.

6. The practical aspect results from the ap-

plication of a principle of intelligibility to the

elements of the domain in order to make sense

out of it. The viability of the formal aspects

is dependent on their ‘“‘meshing in’’ with the

other perceived features of the domain (ie the

real world), since the urgency of practical

problems often forces the decision makers to

resolve apparent inconsistencies in the per-

ceived fabric of sensicality.

7. An important feature of the formal con-

cept of a just war is not apparent in the enu-

meration of elements of the jus ad bellum

component of the just war tradition, but is

revealed by its history, and especially that

part which relates to the history of its appli-

cations, i.e. what has counted as a just war.

What appear are two things. One, that the

elements of jus ad bellum are not equally

weighted, a just cause being on occasion

counted as sufficient to overrule the other ele-

ments, unless we wish to regard it as incor-

porating the other elements at least implic-

itely. It seems that ideological wars tend to

be of this nature (eg. holy wars). Second, this

may go to the extent where the doctrine of

jus ad bello itself becomes caducous, justi-

fying in the prosecution of such wars a degree

and a scope of violence characteristic of the

modern total wars.

8. The Just War Theroy is inescapably cul-

ture bound. This means a number of things.

First, given the rapid development of culture

in the last four hundred years, and the present

acceleration of the pace of this historical proc-

ess, there results within a given society a cul-

tural gradient generated by the difference be-

tween what may be called the sources and

the sinks of information, in particular by the

time lag between the generation of new in-

formation by some and its diffusion and ab-

sorption by others in the rest of society. We

may expect this lag to be greater where the

cultural differences are already more pro-

nounced (e.g. levels of education, awareness

of the evolution of thought, etc.)

9. It also means that the information trans-

fer, slow as it may be in some cases, pre-

supposes a certain amount of cultural unity

among the members of that society: they share

a language, and not simply words. The lan-

guage, which is the mark of cultural unity

within a society, is also a mark of cultural

differentiation between different societies. So

we may also expect to find a cultural gradient

on a more global scale, an important consid-

eration when attending to matters of inter-

national character, especially those relating

to war.

10. The international cultural gradient is

of various steepness going gradually from the

minimal to the abyssal. In the latter case the

amount of possible cultural transfer in time

of crisis is minimal, barring a sudden con-

version.

(III) JWT: Not a Good Anti-NUDIST

Argument

1. Two sets of considerations, depending

on whether the threat to the integrity of NUKSO

and its CIS is external or internal.

NUDE 27

2. Internal considerations: cultural diver-

sity is an essential ingredient of the fabric of

the Western Democracies, and forms a part

of the integrity of our culture. The notion of

JWT does not accomodate the preservation

of this cultural diversity when cultural values

are themselves in question (historically, tol-

eration is born of diversity). In the case of

the East-West conflict this very cultural di-

versity is what is threatened.

3. External considerations: The conflict with

states of marxist obedience is ideological, at

stake is a different conception of man, of

nature and of man’s role in it. It is perceived

as a militant universalist ideology, essentially

inimical to our own ideology.

Evolutionary view of nature means that the

future does not resemble the past. The wars

engaged in by Western countries have, with

a few exceptions, been progressively ideo-

logical, rather than territorial, dynastic or

economic. The parallel therefore, is more with

wars of religion, which were ideological, than

it is with those in which some other issue was

at stake, such as territory, successions, etc.

The JWT was not meant to apply to ide-

ological wars without some profound modi-

fications, the just cause by itself making cad-

ucous the jus in bello restraints. A society,

as a culturally defined entity is fighting for

its life when it is fighting for its cultural iden-

tity.

4. NUDISM is not an advocacy of war in

any of its classical senses (e.g. as policy con-

ducted by other means). It is not a means of

furthering policy, but one for the survival of

one’s cultural identity, and thus of one’s in-

tegrity which is being threatened. In our

Western community, we have long passed the

stage where simple and unadorned biological

life was the supreme value, for us the life of

the person is not to be confused with that of

the biological organism which sustains it, and

we have long accustomed ourselves to the

sacrificing of the latter for the sake of the

former. Our culture has evolved, through many

vicissitudes, to the point where our society

has become, in essence, one of free men, the

freedom of each individual being the value

for the sake of which this and similar societies

have been created. The birthing revolutions

here as in France and elsewhere, were seen

as intrinsically just conflicts. NUDE is jus-

tified on the same grounds and so would the

use of NUKES in the defense of the same

values.

Bibliography

James Turner Johnson: *‘Just War Tradition

and the Restraint of War: A Moral and His-

torical Inquiry’’ Princeton U.P. (1981)

Michael Walzer: ‘‘Just and Unjust Wars: A

Moral Argument with Historical Illustra-

tions’’ Basic Books (1977)

Paul Ramsey: ‘‘The Just War: Force and

Political Responsibility’? Ch. Scribner’s Sons,

New York (1968)

John Langan: ‘‘The American Hierarchy

and Nuclear Weapons”’ in: Theological Stud-

ies

James Childress: *‘Just War Criteria’’ in

‘‘War or Peace?’’ (T. A. Shannon (ed) Orbis

1980)

Journal of the Washington Academy of Sciences,

Volume 75, Number 2, Pages 28-31, June 1985

‘*Are Personal Computers

Necessary for Use in the Home’’

Herbert Maisel

Professor of Computer Science, Georgetown University,

Washington, D.C. 20057

For most of us, personal computers are not

only not necessary, they are not even desir-

able for use in the home. A personal computer

in the home should be viewed as another

household appliance. To determine whether

any appliance is worth getting you should ask:

What will it do for you?,

What will you have to do to be able to

use it?,

How much will it cost?, and

All-in-all, is it worth it?

The answers to these questions are:

a. A handful of useful things,

b. a great deal,

c. at least several hundred dollars and as much

as several thousand dollars, and

no, unless you do a great deal of writing

at home or you are addicted to the games

that you can play on a computer or the fun

of writing computer programs.

The remainder of this paper is divided into

five sections. The first two provide a more

detailed answer to the questions: What will a

home computer do for you? and, What will

you have to do for the computer? The last

three sections contain the answers to the fol-

lowing questions:

1. How has the introduction of a home com-

puter affected household activities?

Is there a special reason for scientists to

have a computer at home?

. What about the desirability of having a

computer in the home in the future?

What Will It Do For You?

As a household appliance, a personal com-

puter can be used as a toy, an educational

device, a word processor and for such house-

hold activities as maintaining financial rec-

ords, maintaining an inventory of household

items, and storing and retrieving recipes.

Closer examination of the last category—

helping in a variety of household activities—

indicates that either the activity is effectively

handled now (through such mechanisms as a

checking account or a card file) or it probably

isn’t worth doing. Moreover, as we shall see

.in the next section, almost any household ac-

tivity to which we might apply the computer

would require too much data entry to make

it worth doing. This leaves the handful of

applications of its use as a toy, an educational

device or for word processing.

The value of a computer as a toy is a matter

of personal preferences. There are some peo-

ple who enjoy playing computer games or

writing computer programs so much that to

them a computer is the ultimate toy and well

ARE PERSONAL COMPUTERS NECESSARY 29

worth owning. For the rest of us, the com-

puter is a tool not a toy. However, if you are

addicted to playing games on a computer or

to writing and executing your own computer

programs, you need read no further. For you

the home computer is a necessity.

What about the value of the computer as

an educational tool? Television commercials

seem to emphasize this application. Students

doing their homework, youngsters learning to

spell and everyone learning how to write com-

puter programs are often shown in these com-

mercials. Unfortunately, this use of the

computer is oversold. Schools that use the

computer as an educational aid have a com-

puter available to the students for this pur-

pose. If the curriculum assumes no access to

a computer, students that do use the computer

as an aid in such things as carrying out arith-

metic calculations or in learning how to spell

may fail to learn what they are supposed to

be learning. Students should do the home-

work as assigned if they are to get the most

from their schooling.

Home computers can be helpful in getting

people to learn how to write computer pro-

grams. Beginning levels of this skill can be

self-taught. However, experience in com-

puter courses with programmers who were

self-taught indicates that such programmers

frequently develop bad habits. They write un-

necessarily complex programs. This is usu-

ally because they have mastered only a few

programming techniques and attempt to apply

them in places where other techniques could

be more easily applied. Although you can

teach yourself programming at a beginning

level on a home computer you had better take

some courses in programming if you wish to

progress beyond this level.

Finally what about computers as a writing

aid? Word processors facilitate the drafting

and editing of written products. If you record

your written product by keying (for example

by typing it) then a word processor is a very

useful tool. It permits you to organize your

thoughts, build a written product piecemeal,

correct and edit the product extensively, and

even may provide such things as a spelling

checker and a simple-minded grammar

checker. All of these are helpful. Anyone who

writes extensively at home should get a home

computer with a good printer and a family of

good word-processing programs. This will cost

thousands (not hundreds) of dollars but the

investment is worthwhile if you do a great

deal of writing at home.

What Will You Do For It?

The two principle problems with the use

of the computer in the home both arise from

the fact that computers are very stupid. First,

they do not know how to do what you want

them to do until they are told how. (This is

the purpose of computer programs—the com-

puter software.) Second, the principle way to

get information into a home computer is by

keying it in character by character.

Consider a possible household application

of a computer: storing and retrieving recipes.

There are computer programs available for

setting up a file of this kind and for retrieving

information from it. You would probably not

have to write such a program. But you will

have to tailor what you would like to do to

the program that is available at the price you

are willing to pay. This may result in your

doing such things as placing an upper limit

on the length of your recipes that is sometimes

too short or limiting the way you might clas-

sify and retrieve your recipes to just one or

two or three variables of classification.

This last restriction may be very important.

Suppose you wish to be able to retrieve your

recipes based on a wide variety of classifi-

cations. For example:

a. Geographic or ethnic type (eg.—Chinese

or Italian or French),

b. principle food ingredient (eg.—fish or fowl

or potato),

C. spice category (eg.—hot or mild or bland),

d. meal (eg.—breakfast or lunch or dinner

or snack),

. caloric content (number of calories),

f. cooking method (eg.—stir fry or broil or

barbecue), and so on.

The computer program should permit you

to enter this information with each recipe and

30 HERBERT MAISEL

to do such things as retrieve all recipes that

are in a given combination of classifications.

Programs that do this for a long list of possible

classifications are more expensive and more

difficult to use than those that do it for a short

list. Moreover, the longer the list the greater

the likelihood that the program will be dif-

ficult to use. Figuring out how to use the

program to do the job may be a difficult and

time consuming task in itself.

Let’s assume you have the right program

and you have also figured out how to use it.

Now you must key in all the recipes along

with all the classifications of each recipe char-

acter by character. Adding a clever color cod-

ing along the upper edge of your recipe card

file would almost certainly be much easier to

set up and would probably be just as effective.

By now you may be convinced that trying

to apply computers to household activities is

much more work than it is worth. If you are

still not convinced, you should read an article

that appeared recently in the Washington Post

Magazine (1).

How has it Affected

Household Activities?

Does the presence of a computer in the

home affect the activity of the members of

the household? If so, how are these activities

changed?

A systematic study was undertaken to an-

swer these questions. The methodology used

and the results obtained are presented in detail

in an article in the Communications of the

Association for Computing Machinery(2). The

principle findings are summarized here. These

findings are based on a survey of 282 house-

holds that used home computers.

Major changes in the time members of the

household devoted to various activities did

occur after the introduction of a home com-

puter. Time spent on the following activities

decreased: watching television, pursuing hob-

bies, outdoor recreation, sleeping and leisure

time with the family. Whereas time spent alone

and on studying increased.

The magnitude of the changes varied with

age. Greater changes occurred in persons be-

tween 26 and 55 years of age.

Some changes were effected by other dem-

ographic variables. For example, people with

higher incomes and married people reported

a greater decrease in television watching than

persons with lower incomes or persons who

were unmarried. Also, families with one child

reported greater changes than either house-

holds with no children or those with two chil-

dren. However, households with three or more

children had patterns of change more like those

with one child.

Evidently users with no previous computer

experience were spending more time with their

computers than persons with previous com-

puter experience. Are they learning or does

this reflect a burst of initial enthusiasm that

wears off? The survey could not answer this

question.

One final note regarding the households in

the survey. They had above average educa-

tional levels and incomes and tended to be

engaged in technical professions. That is, they

are more like you, the readers of this publi-

cation, than they are like the public at large.

This would imply that the results reported in

the article are highly likely to be applicable

to your Own experience.

What About Scientists and

Home Computers?

Are there special considerations that might

apply to the readers of this publication—

Washington area scientists? We have already

noted that the survey discussed in the previous

section is more likely to be applicable to you

than to the public at large. What about the

basic issue itself: the necessity for a home

computer?

More writing is probably done at home by

scientists than by the ‘‘average person’’. If

enough writing is done at home then, as we

have already noted, a home computer is a

valuable tool. But what about such things as

creating and exploring models, carrying out

statistical calculations and tests and, for those

of us who teach, preparing lecture materials

ARE PERSONAL COMPUTERS NECESSARY 31

and homework assignments? Computers are

certainly useful assistants in these and other

scientific activities. But nearly all of us have

access to a computer facility that is larger and

faster than a home computer. These other fa-

cilities also have a more extensive repertoire

of programs, may be directly linked to ex-

perimental equipment and computer networks

and may have special output devices to do

such things as prepare graphs. In short these

other facilities are better. But they must be

shared with others.

_ The principle special consideration that

might induce scientists to get a home com-

puter is that it is always available. (However,

your family may have other ideas about the

priority of its use.) This means that a personal

computer in the home might serve as an ef-

fective supplement to the other computer fa-

cilities that we use. But:

a. It is frequently the case that programs that

run on these other facilities will not run

on your home computer, or

b. data are stored in a medium or in a format

on these other facilities that is incompat-

ible with the medium or format required

at home, or

c. the computer at home is too slow or in-

sufficiently versatile to get what you are

accustomed to getting from the use of a

computer.

In short, if you wish to get a computer of

your own to supplement computer facilities

you have available at work or elsewhere be

sure you select one that is highly compatible

with these other facilities.

What of the Future?

Computers are getting smaller, faster and

less expensive. Programs are being written to

make them both more useful and easier to

use. For example, voice output from a per-

sonal computer is now possible and voice in-

put is being developed. These improvements

will undoubtedly result in a greater and greater

likelihood that the answers to the original

questions will be that there are lots of things

you can do with a home computer, it is easy

to use and very inexpensive and so, of course,

it is well worth buying. Right now, however,

these are not the answers to these questions.

Except for a few special applications, per-

sonal computers are not necessary or even

desirable for use in the home.

References Cited

1. Miller, T.: “‘The Truth About Home Computers’’,

The Washington Post Magazine, April 7, 1985, pp.

10-11, 18-19.

2. Vitalari, N. P., Venkatesh, A., Gronhaug, K.:

‘‘Computers in the Home: Shifts in the Time Allo-

cation Patterns in Households’’, Communications of

the Association for Computing Machinery, Volume

28 No. 5, May 1985, pp. 512-522.

Journal of the Washington Academy of Sciences,

Volume 75, Number 2, Pages 32-46, June 1985

On Galileo and Statics*

Raymond J. Seeger

National Science Foundation (Retired), Washington, D.C.

Whenever I re-read or re-view Galileo’s

writings, | am always pleasantly surprised to

discover that I continue to enjoy them. I find

myself apparently understanding so many of

his ideas that he seems to belong to our mod-

er age rather than to an earlier one. He 1l-

luminates whatever he touches, even ancient

mechanics; he excites the common reader with

his comments about new material. He is a

good example of serendipity in action. Thus

the urbane Venetian Giovan Francesco Sa-

gredo is made to remark, “‘If, by digressions,

we can reach new truth, what harm is there

in making one now, so that we may not lose

this knowledge, remembering that such an

opportunity once omitted, may not return; re-

membering also that we are not tied down to

a fixed and brief period but that we meet

solely for our own entertainment? Indeed, who

knows but that we may thus frequently dis-

cover something more interesting and beau-

tiful than the solution originally sought?’’'* I

am every grateful that Galileo had a genuine

desire to communicate his findings and un-

derstandings.

In the opening scene of “‘The Life of

Galileo,’’ Bertholt Brecht appropriately has

Galileo inform the ten-year old Andrea, ‘*When

a young man in Siena, I saw how a couple

of builders, after five minutes argument, re-

placed a thousand-year old system for moving

granite blocks by a new and more practical

*Invited address, Galileo Quatercentenary Congress,

Notre Dame University.

arrangement of the tackle. Then and there I

knew the old age is past and a new age is

here . . . What is written in the old books no

longer satisfies them.’’* Galileo sounds sin-

cere when he concludes the fifth chapter of

his early essay (unpublished) “‘On Motion’’

with the admission, ‘‘My aim is a richer com-

prehension of the matters under discussion,

and a more precise understanding on the part

of my readers.**

Even though I am concerned here today

primarily with the statics of Galileo, in order

to understand any phase of his activity, I be-

lieve, it is always necessary to regard him in

his totality, as an integral person*—not merely

aS an astronomer or as a mathematician, or

even as a churchman, et al. Mechanics, for

example, is a thread that runs throughout his

entire life’s work—from his early writings,

‘‘La Bilancetta’’ (1586), “‘De Moto’’ (ca.

1590), and ‘‘Le Meccaniche’’ (ca. 1600), to

his final publication in 1638 of the **Discorsi

e dimostrazioni matematiche intorno a due

nuove Scienze.’’ Throughout this span of 52

years statics emerges again and again! Even

in this familiar subject we find Galileo often

misunderstood. Yet, as an American scholar,

Ralph Waldo Emerson, notes in his essay on

‘*Self Reliance’’ (1841), ‘“‘Is it so bad then

to be misunderstood? Pythagoras was mis-

understood, and Socrates, and Jesus, and Lu-

ther, and Copernicus, and Galileo, and New-

ton, and every pure and wise spirit that ever

took flesh. To be great is to be misunder-

Stoods*

ON GALILEO AND STATICS 33

There is a particular merit, I suggest, in

having complementary re-views of physics by

physicists. In the first place, a present-day

physicist has the vantage point of nature it-

self. Uncertainties with respect to unknown

sources, to unspecified references in them and

to missing links of communication among

them, are well-known historical difficulties.

The physicist, however, does have a unique

advantage, namely, the so-called uniformity

of nature, which being the same yesterday

and today can still be checked as to phenom-

enological statements. Nature itself is a pri-

mary source of “‘historical’’ information, our

rightful material heritage—not only second-

hand book learning. From a humanistic point

of view “‘the principal forbears of modern

science were in fact the twin traditions of

Greek philosophy and mathematics,’’® but

we must not forget ‘‘“mother nature’’, the an-

cestress of such studies then and now.

Secondly, professional physicists have the

unique vantage point of the ever-changing

present. It is not sufficient, though necessary,

to stand where Galileo once stood and to look

back at his precursors. We must also look

forward to his postcursors. We must be con-

cerned with all historical material; not only

that for which Galileo is indebted, but also

for that which succeeding generations are in-

debted to Galileo. The continuity of history

extends in two directions, both past and fu-

ture. From the viewpoint of the present, in-

deed, we gain a significant outlook provided

by our progressive understanding of phenom-

ena, our cumulative experience, our scientific

heritage.

As we re-view today the statics of Galileo

from these two vantage points of nature and

of the present (supplementary to the careful

analysis of the precursors by others), we shall

focus our attention specifically upon three as-

(ee a bw

Fig. la

pects: machines, hydrostatics, and the strength

of materials.

We shall not, of course, attempt to cover

all phases of machines, but merely to glance

at some which are still critically significant

today, namely, the lever, the inclined plane,

and the principle of virtual velocities. Let us

start with the lever (the balance), which ap-

pears again and again throughout his works

(cf. ‘‘The Little Balance,’’ “‘On Motion,’’

‘On Bodies in Water,’’ and ‘‘Two New Sci-

ences.’’)

First of all, let us not consider Galileo’s

attitude from a general Aristotelian view-

point. What is important is not merely where

one stands but the direction in which one is

looking. According to the followers of Ar-

istotle (384—322), to be sure, “‘As the weight

moved is to the weight moving it, so, in-

versely, is the length of the arm bearing the

weight to the length of the arm nearer to the

power.’’’* A subsequent statement, however,

reads, *‘A longer radius describes a larger

circle;’’”” hence, the metaphysical claim at

the beginning, *“The original cause of all such

phenomena is the circle.’’”” Whereas the above

descriptive rule for the equilibrium of a lever

is certainly adequate for everyday use; this

particular explanatory view is not pregnant

with productive ideas.

Galileo’s own approach to the lever is more

like that of Archimedes, (ca. 287—212), the

founder of statics. His geometrical proof,'‘

though different in a minor detail from that

of Archimedes,* is of the same general na-

ture. Archimedes considers a symmetrical le-

ver balanced about a fulcrum F (cf. Fig. 1a);

he assumes ‘‘Aristotle’s axiom (also that of

Archimedes), that equal weights (2W) at equal

distances (2a) from the fulcrum were in

equilibrium’’**—on the basis of a Whittaker!’

postulate of impotence, which I shall call here

Fig. 1b

34 RAYMOND J. SEEGER

aU ces, ale Y

Ew] UW [w] W

Fig. 2a

the Principle of No Sufficient Reason. He

proceeds to divide one of the weights 2W into

two equal parts W, which are then displaced

symmetrically so that one of them appears at

the fulcrum F (cf. Fig. 1b) and the other at

a distance 4a away from it. Ernst Mach' has

indicated the logical error at this juncture of

the proof. Such a displacement can be made

only if the phenomena have a linear character.

Galileo, too, starts with two weights (2W)

placed symmetrically (2a) about a fulcrum F

(cf. Fig. 2a). In this case, if the phenomenon

is linear, then the moments of force are given

as follows:

for Fig. 2a

OWT 2ar =, 2Wais-2a

and for Fig. 2b

2W - 2a = W-act W- 3a.

On the other hand, if the relationship is not

linear, but of the second degree, say, then we

have the following situation:

for Fig. 2a

2W (2a)? = 2W (2a)’,

but for Fig. 2b

2W (2a)? # W (a)’? + W (3a)’.

Evidently equilibrium will not be maintained

for such a nonlinear relationship.

In physical proofs one may be concerned

not merely with mathematical operations, but

also with assumptions involved in physical

displacement. In the latter case success results

sometimes without awareness as to the un-

derlying assumptions. For example, one may

unknowingly choose linearity out of familiar

experiences. I certainly cannot subscribe

wholly to the dictum in a recent history of

science that ‘‘we shall not go into the question

whether the proof [Archimedes] reproduced

above is really valid . . . It is at all events

extremely ingenious and it was of great im-

Fig. 2b

portance for the history of mechanics.’’'' From

the long-range point of view man is concerned

also with the validity of a principle, as well

as with its mathematical role in sociological

development.

What’s in a name? At times, nothing! In

trying to understand, however, what has been

written long ago in an unfamiliar language a

name may be all important. The word ‘‘mo-

mento,’’ for example, is precisely one that

caused considerable confusion even in Gali-

leo’s own time. Both the late Professor Henry

Crew and Stillman Drake’, indeed, have found

it necessary to remark on the haziness of the

word as used by Galileo himself. (As far as

I can tell, he never used it in the strict sense

of modern momentum.) Galileo, himself, made

certain to define it in the second edition of

his *‘On Bodies in Water’’: “‘Moment, amongst

mechanicians signifies that virtue, that force,

or that efficacy, with which the mover moves,

and the movable resists. Which virtue de-

pends not only on the simple gravity, but on

the velocity of the motion, and on the diverse

inclinations of the spaces along which the

motion is made.’’' He goes on to call at-

tention to a similar connotation of the word

in the statement, ““This is a weighty busi-

ness.’’'** Likewise, today we still say, “‘It is

of great moment’’—meaning of great impor-

tance.

In general, we shall here interpret the word

‘‘momento’’ in the subsequent connotation of

torque, i.e., moment of force (i.e., impor-

tance of force—in rotation). In this connec-

tion, however, we must differentiate sharply

wy A

Fig. 3

ON GALILEO AND STATICS 35

between purely geometrical reasoning and

‘‘intuitive’’ physical experience. To illustrate

the former, consider two similar triangles

Figs).

For corresponding sides

Ber

= tie (1)

a fe

Hence Ac = aC. (1a)

This expression, viz., the product of a pair

of non-corresponding sides of similar trian-

gles is a constant. Do you recognize this im-

portant rule which is as familiar as Pytha-

goras’ theorem? Of course not! No one

presumably has ever used such a relationship

ab initio. The mere existence of a propor-

tionality is no guarantee that the potential

product itself will be regarded as significant.

Proportionality does not insure usefulness or

importance, or even familiarity.

Turning now to the formulation of machine

experience, we find the intellectual Florentine

Filippo Salviati insisting, “‘I shall take for

granted the well-known mechanical principle

which has been shown to govern the behavior

of a bar, which we call the lever, namely,

that the force bears to the resistance the in-

verse ratio of the distances which separate the

fulcrum from the force and resistance sepa-

rately.’’'* Thus we have for an effort E (Fig.

4a) at a distance a from the fulcrum F and

for a load L at a distance A

ae 2)

L a

but not directly the product

Ea = LA. (2a)

There is no evidence that Galileo or his pred-

ecessors, Archimedes, Jordanus Nemorarius

Fig. 4a

(ca. 1220) or even Leonardo da Vinci, (1452—

1519), used the product itself either as a dis-

tinct mathematical concept or as a physical

measure of turning power. The fact that one

may have a ‘‘potential arm,’’ which is not at

right angles to the direction of gravity, was

recognized clearly by both Jordanus and

Leonardo. The full understanding of torque,

to be sure, was not achieved until the inves-

tigations (1834) of Louis Poinsot (1777-1859).

Now why was the lever (or balance) re-

garded by everyone so highly? The principle

of the lever was considered fundamental. Thus

the peripatetic philosopher Simplicio quickly

reminds the group, ‘“‘This was demonstrated

first of all by Aristotle [or his school] in his

‘Mechanics’’’. To which Salviati replies,

‘“Yes, I am willing to concede him priority

in point of time; but as regards rigor of dem-

onstration, the first place must be given to

Archimedes, since upon a single proposition

proved in his book on ‘Equilibrium’ depends

not only the law of the lever, but also those

of most other mechanical devices.’’'* It is

noteworthy that in the book *“‘On Mechan-

ics,’’ after the above proof of the lever, Gal-

ileo presents also another point of view.** In

the case of the displaced balance (Fig. 4b)

the similarity of the triangles gives for the

arcs (c and C)

ae (3)

Hence Galileo had rightly concluded that in

a given time, ““The speed of motion of the

heavy body B (E) in descending comes to be

i Mietag eee

Fig. 4b

36 RAYMOND J. SEEGER

as much greater than the speed of the other

body A (L) in rising as the heaviness of the

latter exceeds that of the former.’’** All this

discussion appears obvious to anyone trained

in modern physics. It was, however, some-

times a non sequitur in the Florentine culture.

Giovanni Batista Benedetti (1530—1590), for

example, wrote, ‘“The laws of the lever do

not depend in any way on the rapidity or on

the extent of the motion.’’!** Accordingly, he

rejected both Aristotle’s statics and Jordanus’

solution for the inclined plane.

From the proportion (3) we obtain

Ec = LC. (3a)

To claim that we are concerned here with a

basic modern principle like that of work (for

a ideal machine) seems to me improbable.

The Greeks as well as their Renaissance fol-

lowers generally thought analogically in pro-

portions—not physically in products.

Let us return to our querry about the the-

oretical importance of the lever. If Ar-

chimedes and Galileo had been able to deduce

a priori any machine-law from symmetry alone,

they could then have used this law generally

to derive the specific laws of all other ma-

chines. Galileo, himself, proceeds to apply

the law of the lever to the steelyard, to the

windlass and the capstan, to the pulley, the

movable pulley, the block and tackle, and to

the inclined plane. To prove the law of the

lever, therefore, was fundamentally signifi-

cant. Much ingenuity was expended by Gal-

ileo, as well as by many others in succeeding

centuries, in attempts to derive the rule for

any given machine from that of some other

machine which was regarded as basic. The

game was even varied as to whether an in-

verse derivation might not be regarded as

equally fundamental. As Mach reminds us,

‘*One well-considered and tested observation

is as good as another.’’!°° No mathematical

proof, no matter how rigorous, can ever be

identical with or even equivalent to physical

experience itself. If we can identify a prin-

ciple latent in any single fact, we can then

proceed to recognize it in others.

Let us now consider the inclined plane (or

wedge, or screw). The Greeks had little in-

terest in such a plane, possibly because it was

apparently too puzzling. Pappus’ (ca. 300)

attempt at a proof, the only one known, was

incorrect owing to his belief that both a “‘static”’

force and a ‘‘kinetic’’ force would be nec-

essary for such a body to be in equilibrium.

Galileo corrected this particular error by not-

ing that the approach for a body is the same

whether it is moving with constant speed or

is at rest. Jordanus, or at least his ‘‘school’’!*4,

is customarily credited with the first deriva-

tion of the specific law of the inclined plane,

namely,

(4)

where h is the height of the inclined plane

and | its length—on the basis of what we

have called ‘‘instinctive’’ machine experi-

ence. Nevertheless, we usually credit Simon

Stevin (1548-1620) with the modern under-

standing of the inclined plane because of his

ingenious discussion of it. He considers an

endless chain placed about the plane (Fig. 5).

Instinctively we feel that there will be equi-

librium inasmuch as any motion at all would

imply perpetual motion, which we have never

experienced—another instance of the Prin-

ciple of No Sufficient Reason. Disregarding

the symmetrical, lower part of the chain, we

can look upon the upper left weight of the

chain (say, the effort E) as balanced by the

upper right weight (say, the load L). Since

the chain is uniformly distributed, the weights

are given by

(4)

In his ‘‘Hypomnemata Mathematica’”’ (1608)

Stevin states, ‘“The distance travelled by the

force acting is to the distance travelled by the

2913b

resistance.

ON GALILEO AND STATICS 37

Fig. 6a

Turning to Galileo’s books, ‘‘On Motion,”’

‘“*On Mechanics,’ and ‘“‘Two New Sci-

ences,’’ we find him using the law of the lever

(actually a bent lever) to prove the rule for

the inclined plane. The following derivation

is a slight modification of the one given early

by Galileo.'*'

In the diagram (Fig. 6a) the bent lever with

load L and arm BF, with effort E and arm a

has its fulcrum at F; the tangent to the circle

with radius FG = a may be regarded as the

equivalent inclined plane DG with length 1

and vertical height h. Now the law of ma-

chines states

iL, a

But the right triangle DBG 1s similar to the

right triangle GBF; hence for corresponding

sides we have

(5)

n_ BF

l an

Upon substituting for BF/a in equation (5) we

obtain

ho de (4a)

This expression agrees with equation (4) if

the side h of Fig. 5 is made vertical, as is

customarily the case (Fig. 6b), where the bal-

ancing effort E is provided by a weight sus-

pended over a pulley.

In the discussion following the proof in his

notes *“‘On Mechanics’’, Galileo makes a

highly significant comment. He points out

that the travel of the load L (cf. Fig. 6b) is

effective through the vertical height h while

that of the effort E is along the length | of the

Fig. 6b

plane. So he concludes, *‘One must not ig-

nore the consideration which from the begin-

ning has been said to hold for all mechanical

instruments, that is, that whatever is gained

in force by their means is lost in time and

speed.’’* We find the same idea expressed

later in the ‘‘Two New Sciences.’’'4 Mach, I

believe, has rightly sized up the situation when

he says, ‘‘Galileo’s conception of the inclined

plane strikes us as much less ingenious than

that of Stevinus, but we recognize it as more

natural and more profound.’’'™ In other words,

Galileo seems to delve more deeply into the

subject. I am impressed, too, with the ex-

perimentalist’s fingerprints; in his notes, ‘‘On

Motion’’, he cautions that a physically real

inclined plane must be ‘‘very carefully

smoothed and perfectly hard.’’**

A controversial question about Galileo’s

statics revolves about crediting him (and/or

his many so-called precursors) with the so-

called principle of virtual velocities (or dis-

placements, or work). Before discussing who

deserves credit for what, we might better

specify just what we mean by this principle

today. What is strictly the principle of virtual

velocities? Let us consider the static equilib-

rium of a group of material particles q; with

generalized forces Q; on each. Suppose that

each particle is given an arbitrary, infinites-

imal displacement 6,; at the same time t. The

principle of virtual work states that

OES eel

(It is usually convenient to restrict the dis-

placements to those compatible with any given

constraints.) This is the most general analy-

tical statement of its kind; it is both the nec-

essary and sufficient condition for equilib-

rium.

38 RAYMOND J. SEEGER

From a dynamic point of view, if the ki-

netic reactions (—mass X acceleration) are

regarded as so-called effective forces, then

the principle (1743) of Jean le Rond d’ Alem-

bert (1717-1783) states that equilibrium ex-

ists among the actual forces and these effec-

tive forces. By virtue of such equilibrium, we

can at once apply the above principle of vir-

tual work. In this way, dynamics can be re-

duced to statics, as was done by Joseph-Louis

Comte de Lagrange (1736-1813) one hundred

and one years after Isaac Newton (1642—1727)

had first reduced statics to a special case of

dynamics.

Historically, Jean Bernoulli (1667-1748)

first enunciated broadly this principle for in-

finitesimal displacements, but without proof,

in a letter to Pierre Varignon (1654—1722) on

26 June 1717. He was the first to recognize

both the generality and utility of the principle

for equilibrium problems. Subsequently

(1788), Lagrange traced its historical devel-

opment. Believing it necessary to base any

‘‘proof’’ of it upon some kind of mechanical

experience, he himself took the case of a pul-

ley system as easy to grasp, and attempted to

derive the principle for it.'" In this way, he

actually succeeded in giving mathematical

expression to the experiential foundation of

Statics.

What are the possible germinal sources of

this principle? What I have designated ma-

chine experience is certainly one, namely,

certain common knowledge about gain in load

at the cost of speed—something not just hid-

den in scholars’ books, but familiar to every-

day workmen. So we find, “‘In case of equi-

librium (bodies at rest) the momenta, the

velocities, or the tendency to motion, tra-

versed by them in equal times, must be in the

inverse ratio to the weights.’’'* In a footnote

Crew observes, that this is “a near approach

to the principle of virtual velocities.’’'* To-

ward the end of the *“‘Two New Sciences’’,

Sagredo remarks incidentally, *“The velocity

of a moving body, even its force is small,

can Overcome a very great resistance by a

slowly moving body, whenever the velocity

of the moving body bears to that of the re-

sisting body a greater ratio than the resistance

of the resisting body to the force of the mov-

ing body.’’'* The phrase ‘‘greater ratio than’’

signifies the observed direction of variation.

Only for an ideal machine could there be

equality. In this instance, ignoring the essen-

tial difference between products and ratios

one might presumably see here the principle

of work (strictly power in this instance),

namely,

Ev =LV,

where v is the speed of the effort and V that

of the load.

Some people would likewise read into the

following statement of Aristotle something

akin to this principle: ‘‘If, then, A the movent

have moved B a distance I in a time A, then

in the same time the force A will move 3 B

twice the distance I, and in 3 A it will move

+ B the whole distance I; for thus the rules

of proportion will be observed.’’ Certainly to

see in this statement our modern concepts of

velocity and of work is an anachronism, to

say the least. We have here a typical instance

of the use of proportions. Now proportions

are a good mathematical device to be em-

ployed physically only when there is some

experiential justification of the analogue. Even

Aristotle cautions (wrongly) later, ““But if E

move Z a distance I in a time A, it does not

necessarily follow that E, can move twice Z

half the distance I’ in the same time.’’'* Ar-

istotle’s meaning, unfortunately, is not quite

clear. Any operational criterion, indeed, is

always difficult with Aristotle’s ideas, be-

cause of his failure to solve actual problems.

He was more adept in discerning questions

than in obtaining their answers.

As noted above, the mere multiplication of

force or weight by distance is not as simple

a concept as it may nowadays appear to us.

Torque and work, indeed, are quite distinct

physical concepts involving directional dif-

ferences. The recognition of the significance

of products was d’Alembert’s resolution of

the famous 17th century controversy '* be-

tween the Cartesians and Leibnizians as to

the efficacy of force. If you multiply force

by time, then momentum is useful; whereas,

if you multiply force by distance then vis viva

is significant. The use of the latter product,

however, had to wait until the 19th century

ON GALILEO AND STATICS 39

before it was even given a name by Gustav-

Gaspard de Coriolis (1792—1843) and before

it was used extensively by Jean Victor Pon-

celet, both of whom gave a geometrical touch

to Lagrange’s analytical approach. The dis-

cussion, indeed, continues even to this day.

Is the concept of force fundamental or that of

energy? From the idea of force one can derive

that of work in the Galileo—Newton tradition

which led to the school of Poinsot (who stressed

the application of mechanics to machines).

From the idea of energy, on the other hand,

one can define force as the space-derivative

of work—in the Galileo-Huygens tradition

which led to the school of Poncelet (popular

nowadays because of the technological im-

portance of energy). Mach wisely cautions

that ‘‘it was only gradually and with great

difficulty that the concept of ‘work’ attained

its present position of importance.’’'°*

Looking back at Galileo’s own contribu-

tions to the principle of virtual work, we are

genuinely puzzled. Yet, without doubt Gali-

leo recognized several important factors in the

particularly simple problems with which he

dealt.

First of all, Galileo emphasized the im-

portance of direction. In a supplemental re-

mark to his inclined-plane proof, he considers

a component perpendicular to the horizontal

surface. Later he remarks, ‘‘It is very im-

portant to consider along what line the mo-

tions are made.’’* Galileo recognizes also the

quality of some kind of ‘‘input’’ of a machine

and its corresponding “‘output’’. Salviati says

for him, “‘Do you not think that inclination,

for example, of grave bodies to move down-

wards is equal to the resistance of the same

to the motion of projection upwards.’’!** In

many instances when Galileo deals with pen-

dulums (and inclined planes) and free fall,

where gains are considered ideally, he under-

lines this point of view. Later (1644) Evan-

gelista Torricelli (1608-1647) gave a more

precise statement about the lowering of the

center of gravity of a system. Here again,

there is greater instinctive appeal, but not more

physical understanding. Christiaan Huygens

(1629-1695) further generalized this state-

ment of Torricelli, as well as Galileo’s earlier

one involving the relationship of height and

velocity, in his so-called principle of conser-

vation of vis viva (1673)—what we nowadays

call the principle of conservation of mechan-

ical energy.

In conclusion, Galileo, it seems to me, did

use, and use properly, significant factors in-

volved in the principle of work, as applied to

machines, to pendulums and also to free fall.

If one is generous, one can claim that he used

the principle of virtual work in a “‘germinal

form.’’ Nevertheless, all such principles have

to be ultimately evaluated in overall terms of

aesthetic beauty and simplicity, of economy

and usefulness, of understandability and fa-

miliarity, et al. It is always difficult to assign

credit—particularly to nebulous germinal

sources. Due credit, however, must be given

to the specific applications by Galileo and

Torricelli, by Descartes and Huygens. It has

become fashionable nowadays in certain his-

torical circles to give credit also to Leonardo,

Jordanus, and even Aristotle. In this connec-

tion the late Professor Eric T. Bell concludes,

‘*An extremely liberal interpretation of the

ancient and medieval mechanical specula-

tions has enabled some scholars to detect elu-

sive hints of virtual velocities all the way back

to the Greek philosophers.’’! As a physicist,

I prefer Lagrange’s more conservative crite-

rion, namely, the formulation of the principle

in all its generality—by J. Bernoulli. Above

all, | would limit credit to what is known to

have been actually done—not to what is spec-

ulated as to what might have been done.

Let us now turn to the second aspect of

Galileo’s statics, namely, hydrostatics. Al-

though, historically, the laws of statics were

derived from observations of solid bodies,

there is no a priori reason why they could not

have been directly discovered from experi-

ences with fluids. Fluids, indeed, offer an

additional advantage in that they introduce us

to the concept of a physical continuum, which

turns out to be more fruitful for ordinary

mathematical applications. I should like to

stress some points with respect to Galileo’s

interest in fluids.

First of all, let us consider buoyant forces.

Galileo has evidently a complete understand-

ing of the work of Archimedes, the founder

also of hydrostatics. The famous principle of

40 RAYMOND J. SEEGER

Archimedes is embodied in Proposition 6 (for

lighter bodies) and 7 (for heavier bodies) in

his first paper ‘‘On Floating Bodies’’.*? With

publication of his works (and translations) in

the 16th century there was renewed interest

in such phenomena. Galileo'*> seems to have

been particularly impressed with the buoy-

ancy of a body floating in a relatively small

amount of fluid which could apparently raise

or sustain a body a hundred times heavier—

contrary to Aristotelian expectations. At the

end of his book he notes enthusiastically that

a ship which can displace six fathoms of water

can float in water six fathoms and one half

inch deep. I myself am fascinated by his re-

mark that ‘‘water has no gravity in water’’!*°“—

similar to Stevin’s endless chain.

Of special interest is Galileo’s experimen-

tal testing of floating bodies. A question had

arisen in Florence as to the properties of cold

bodies.'*4 Take ice, for instance; being cold

it should be denser than water; being denser,

it should sink—but ice floats. Aristotelians

claimed that the apparent buoyancy was ow-

ing solely to the shape of the ice. In his *‘Dis-

course on Bodies in Water’’ published in 1612,

Galileo reports a thorough experimental in-

vestigation of this matter. He cites Aristotle,

himself, against the Aristotelians, ““The shape

of bodies will not account for their moving

upward or downward in general, though

it will account for their moving faster or

slower.'*° He starts with the observations that

a flat piece of ice rises to the top and floats'”*

even if put originally on the bottom, and that

ice in the form of a sphere also floats. He

mentions how wood being soaked with water

or plugged with lead sinks, and how ‘‘air

combined with glass’’, as in the case of an

empty tumbler, floats. Most ingenious, how-

ever, is his use of wax figures’™ (to prevent

water logging) about the size of an orange.

He inserts metal filings in them so that they

become sensitive to a single grain as to whether

particular shapes float or sink. (He mentions

that he has never been able to get a model to

remain stationary within the water.) In the

‘“Two New Sciences’’"' Sagredo, too, recalls

experiments with wax balls embedded with

grains of sand. In this case he cites also ex-

periments at the interface of salt water and

ordinary water, and the use of a ball to test

the purity of water. For example, by adding

two grains of salt to six pounds of water one

can make such a ball rise; by adding 4 drops

of warmer or colder water one can have a ball

fall or rise, respectively. In a letter written to

the Grand Duke of Tuscany prior to the pub-

lication of his book he rightfully boasts, *‘I

have perhaps better investigated the causes of

the matters which constitute the subject of the

present contest than did Aristotle.’’'”8

The observational evidence, however, that

perplexed him most was the problem stressed

by his opponents, namely, the floating of an

ebony chip. Galileo recognizes immediately

that the critical state of the ebony chip!" is

owing to the failure of the liquid to wet it.

His diagrams, indeed, show the proper angle

of contact for non-wetting. He tries many in-

genious arguments to explain the phenome-

non solely in terms of the cavity of dimple

that is produced by a floating body. All this

effort, however, was to no avail in view of

his ignorance of surface tension, which com-

bines with the buoyant effort.'® Surface ten-

sion, to be sure, was not understood until the

work of Pierre Simon de Laplace (1749-1827)

a century and a half later. In the ““‘Two New

Sciences’’ Sagredo admits his own perplex-

ity, ‘‘If there be no tenacity or coherence

between the particles of water how is it pos-

sible for those large drops of water to stand

out in relief upon cabbage leaves without scat-

tering or spreading out?’’ Salviati replies sin-

cerely, “‘Let me confess I do not understand

how these large globules of water stand out

and hold themselves up.’’'? Regardless of the

failure of his heuristic explanation, Galileo

certainly shows great skill as an experimenter

in trying to ferret out this secret of nature.

Although our present discussion is not con-

cerned particularly with motion,’ I must call

your attention to those germane experiments"

of Galileo with respect to liquids because they

are highly significant. He insists repeatedly

that the start of motion'” downward or up-

ward in a fluid is essentially the result of the

buoyant force which, in turn, is dependent

upon the specific gravity of the body relative

to that of the medium—all of which started

him on his critical discussion of the free fall

ON GALILEO AND STATICS 41

of bodies. For example, two falling bodies

with a fixed difference in specific gravity will

separate further as time goes on. As for up-

and-down movement he rejects early the idea

of any levity in addition to universal gravity.

In line with Plato, he concludes that gravity

alone is basically sufficient for understanding

the movement of bodies up and down. He

cites the case of a boat traveling upstream.

How far it will go will depend upon the speed

of the boat relative to that of the stream. He

recognizes, of course, that the resistance of

a medium is a major factor in determining a

body’s limiting speed. It is owing to such

considerations that he conceives the possi-

bility of a vacuum.

Galileo is interested also in the equilibrium

of a liquid in connecting vessels,'” the so-

called hydrostatic paradox, i.e., the apparent

balancing of a large amount of liquid in the

wide arm of a U-tube by the small amount in

the narrow airm. Here he invokes again ma-

chine experience (paying due credit to Aris-

totle); he formulates it as the third of three

axioms (and five definitions) given at the be-

ginning of his discourse, viz., ‘‘Weights ab-

solutely unequal, do alternately counterpoise

and become of equal moments, as oft as their

gravities, with contrary proportion, answer to

the velocity of motions.’’!** He uses this ax-

iom here only in connection with this specific

problem. I cannot wholly agree with the

sweeping remark that ‘‘essentially his hydro-

statics was based on the principle of virtual

velocities, which was directly inspired by Ar-

istotle’s mechanics.’’'**’ Assuming that the

liquid in a connecting vessel is in equilibrium,

he notes that either vertical displacement for

any disturbance is inversely proportional to

its corresponding cross-sectional area, and

hence to the weight of the whole liquid on

that particular side. As Mach has indicated,'”°

this is not strictly true, inasmuch as any liquid

so displaced would necessarily have its center

of gravity raised—contrary to the natural mo-

tions of a free body.

Later Blaise Pascal'”* (1623-1662) ana-

lysed correctly the case of a confined weight-

less fluid. If w is the weight (E) applied to

the narrow arm (Fig. 7) and W the load (L)

on the wide arm, h and H the corresponding

displacements, s and S the corresponding cross-

sectional areas, then from machine experi-

ence we have

From the geometry of the apparatus for a dis-

placed volume V

V = sh = SH

Hence

w S

sama

S S

This constant quantity is called the pressure

(first conceived by Pascal). He had to assume

that the fluid is incompressible and that the

pressure in this case is transmitted instanta-

neously. His conclusion, we now know, ap-

plies also to a compressible fluid so that the

argument has to be changed accordingly. The

hydraulic press, a hydrostatic machine that

specifically utilizes Pascal’s principle, prob-

ably evolved out of Galileo’s initial discus-

sion.

One final remark with reference to Gali-

leo’s hydrostatics! As Stillman Drake '*' has

emphasized, this is Galileo’s first publication

on experimental physics. The experiments,

though simple, are interesting and well-de-

signed. They are used to explain phenomena

on the basis of known physical principles.

The material is not given in Archimedes’ de-

ductive fashion; instead, a number of specific

cases are cited. Thus, Galileo boasts, ‘‘I, with

a different method, and by other means, will

endeavor to demonstrate the same, reducing

the causes of such effects to more intrinsical

Fig. 7

42 RAYMOND J. SEEGER

and immediate principles.’’'’" Here we have

the essence of modern theoretical physics. In

Galileo’s time it had become impossible to

deduce natural phenomena from the first prin-

ciples of philosophy. Hence Galileo, follow-

ing Archimedes, sought intermediate physical

principles which could be used to describe

and predict the observed phenomena, as in-

dicated below:

First Principles of Philosophy

Intermediate Principles of Physics

Observed Phenomena

The gap thus created between speculative

philosophical principles and pragmatic phys-

ical principles has unfortunately persisted to

this very day. In this respect, perhaps one

should keep in mind the sound advice of

Leonardo da Vinci, 7° ‘‘Remember when dis-

cussing about water to use first experience

and then reason.’’ Certainly, Galileo employs

both experience (occasionally experiments)

and reason in a remarkably effective manner

to understand phenomena themselves. I agree

with Stillman Drake that Galileo is revealed

here as ‘‘the first truly modern physicist.’’'"

It is so easy to concentrate upon Galileo’s

more glamorous theoretical deductions of the

two new sciences that we may be inclined to

underestimate his significant experimental

explorations.

These hydrostatic investigations were read-

ily understood in the 17th century. Galileo

became immediately popular—and, there-

fore, naturally unpopular. His book turned

out to be the spark that ignited the sponta-

neously combustible resentment of various

groups antagonistic to such a clever and ar-

ticulate personage.

Let us turn now to that other ‘‘new sci-

ence’’, the strength of materials. It 1s strange

that so little interest has been shown by

professional historians of science in this par-

ticularly original work of Galileo. Is it pos-

sibly too practical? Nevertheless, his scien-

tific approach here has had great historical

significance. It opened up a whole new field

of beautiful and useful ideas, the first pub-

lication in this area. The special problems

studied led to the modern theory of elasticity

with the establishment (1821) of Louis M. H.

Navier’s equations of motion and conditions

of equilibrium. As Abraham Wolfe?! claims

for this new science, ‘‘We may say the foun-

dations of engineering theory were first laid,”’

i.e., the beginning of engineering science. In

its theoretical ordering of phenomena accord-

ing to physical principles Galileo established

a logical structure. Despite some wrong the-

oretical assumptions he gave a direction to

subsequent investigations of the strength of

materials, including rupture.”

Certainly Galileo is at his best in his casual

approach to this problem. He starts at an

everyday place—an arsenal. He tells of the

reply of an old workman to Salviati’s query

as to “‘the reason why they employed stocks,

scaffolding and bracing of larger dimensions

for launching a big vessel than they do for a

small one.’’ Just how much of Galileo’s the-

oretical analysis of this question may have

actually been experimentally based? Because

of his excellent artistic presentations, there is

always some reasonable doubt—though none

whatever as to its experiential foundation. We

shall consider some specific problems he dis-

cussed generally in the ‘“‘Two New Sci-

ences’

Galileo begins with the idea of the ultimate

tensile strength (Fig. 8) that a suspended ma-

terial can sustain. He finds that simple tension

is proportional to the cross-sectional area, but

independent of the length—a somewhat un-

expected result. For example, a wire of cop-

per weighing one ounce and one cubic long,

he notes, was able to support 50 pounds prior

to its rupture, i.e., about 6,450 pounds per

square inch (on the basis of modern data,

more likely 49,000 pounds per square inch).

LL Ap Abdi

———

ON GALILEO AND STATICS 43

Big. 9,

In this connection Galileo finds himself

wondering about the ultimate strength of a

vacuum.) Water experiences only a limited

resistance to a vacuum, as had been found

practically in the non-operation of a lift-type

pump, i.e., a column of water presumably

‘‘breaks’’ if it is more than 18 cubits high.

This finite force of a vacuum, he suggests,

should be separated out as a sort of zero cor-

rection in determining the strength of mate-

rials.

We come now to what is commonly called

‘‘Galileo’s problem.’’'* He considers a bar of

length | and thickness 2h used as a cantilever

(Fig. 9) first with only a load L, then with

solely its own weight, and finally with both.

He assumes that fracture occurs at the junc-

ture X owing to a uniform resistance R of the

tensile strength of the material fibers at that

end of the beam. On the basis of the lever

principle, using X as the fulcrum he notes

that R/L = l/h. A steel or glass rod, for

example, which sustained 1,000 Ib longitu-

dinally, broke under only 50 Ib when attached

horizontally.

Towards the end of the century, Edmé Mar-

1otte (ca. 1620—1684) improved Galileo’s so-

lution. Having to design water pipes for Ver-

sailles, he became interested in the strength

of materials. He found that empirical values

were all less than those given theoretically by

Galileo. Accordingly, he investigated criti-

cally the assumptions. The fibers, he decided,

are actually deformed, even in the case of

brittle materials. In 1680, using Hooke’s law

which he established independently, initially

for tension only, but then for tension and

compression, he obtained theoretical values

more compatible with those observed.

(Hooke’s law, unfortunately for this purpose,

does not hold entirely up to the point of rup-

ture.) Galileo’s naive assumption, neverthe-

less, did not vitiate his subsequent deductions

inasmuch as they involve relative strengths

of materials and not absolute values. At any

rate, the direction of future investigation was

thereby determined early in the 17th century.

Galileo discusses the ‘‘ruler problem’’,"'

viz., whether a ruler embedded horizontally

in a wall will have greater strength if it is flat

or if it is on edge. He concludes rightly that

there is greater resistance to fracture when the

ruler is on edge. In this connection he inves-

tigates the resistance due to other factors such

as the length of a beam, its diameter, et al.

A most interesting and important investi-

gation involves symmetrical beams.'" Under

what conditions do they fracture because of

weight alone? The bending moment is pro-

portional to the 4th power of a characteristic

linear dimension, whereas the resisting mo-

ment is proportional only to the third power.

Hence larger beams will necessarily become

weaker by virtue of their own weight—an

unexpected fact. Sagredo expresses his intel-

lectual chagrin, “*‘Since mechanics has its

foundation in [mathematical] geometry, where

mere size cuts no figure, I do not see that the

properties of circles, triangles, cylinders, cones

and other solid figures will change with their

size.’’'" Nevertheless, nature here insists upon

regarding material properties themselves, not

just abstract (geometrical) proportionalities,

in its laws of scaling. Salviati concludes, ‘* You

can plainly see the impossibility of increasing

the size of structures to vast dimensions either

in art or in nature.’’!" He had previously noted,

‘‘Nature cannot produce a horse as large as

twenty ordinary horses or a giant ten times

taller than an ordinary man.’’'

Galileo takes up also the case of a doubly

supported beam. Here again he finds his in-

spiration in a practical problem. A large mar-

ble column resting on two supports had been

given a third support at the center to insure

Fig. 10

4 RAYMOND J. SEEGER

its safety. After some months a crack devel-

oped precisely at this position. In solving this

problem he considers a load L (Fig. 10) at a

distance a from one support and at a distance

A from the other one. He deduces that the

bending moment is greatest just beneath it.

Moreover, it is proportional to the product

aA, which evidently becomes a maximum for

the distance a equal to A. Thus the maximum

bending moment for a given load will occur

at the center of a beam—as in the case of

breaking a stick across one’s knee. The amount

of material, therefore, can be reduced at the

ends without sacrificing any resistance to

bending.

Of particular theoretical interest is the in-

vestigation of solids of equal resistance."

Specifically, what is the generating curve of

a solid such that the resistance at each cross-

section will be exactly equal to the tendency

to rupture there? Galileo, finds that the gen-

erating for a rectangular cross-section curve

is a parabola (Fig. 11). One can thus eliminate

about one-third of the material (outside it),

and yet still have a beam of the same strength.

A memorable controversy” ensued! It is sur-

prising that the close relation of this problem

to the mathematical theory of elasticity did

not produce more development in that direc-

tion. Rather it was the flexure of a horizontal

beam that was almost entirely significant in

this regard.

Finally, Galileo considers the relative

strengths of two beams, having the same length

and the same weight, one of which is solid

and the other hollow." Now their absolute

strengths are the same, but their resisting mo-

ments are proportional to their respective di-

ameters. Salviati cites experiential corrobor-

ation of the theoretical conclusion, “‘It is found

that a hollow lance or a tube of wood or metal

is much stronger than would be a solid one

of the same length and weight.’’’" He illus-

trates in the cases of the bones of birds, the

stem of a wheat straw, et al. There has, of

course, been much subsequent improvement

along this line as mathematical and experi-

mental techniques have been further devel-

oped.

As a physicist, I am always impressed by

Galileo’s amazing insights, his sense of phys-

ical significance, his combination of exper-

iential evidence and theoretical reasoning.

The whole development of the strength of

materials, I believe, is an excellent illustra-

tion of Galileo as a working physicist.

In conclusion, I should like to comment

more generally on the relative roles of prac-

tical experience, of mathematical reasoning,

and of phenomenological understanding—

particularly with reference to the scientific

outlook of Galileo.

Galileo’s whole practical interest and ex-

perience is exhibited in his beginning state-

ment of the *‘Two New Sciences,’’ his most

important scientific book. The Florentine Sal-

viati graciously remarks, ‘‘The constant ac-

tivity which you Venetians display in your

famous arsenal suggests to the studious mind

a large field of investigation, especially that

part of the work which involves mechanics;

for in this department all types of instruments

and machines are constantly being con-

structed by many artisans amongst whom

there must be some who, partly by inherited

experience and partly be their own observa-

tions, have become highly expert and clever

in explanation.’’'S In a sense this is appro-

priately Galileo’s valediction.

As early as 1597, Venice had given Galileo

a patent for the erection of a water-raising

machine. We are all familiar with him in 1610

as a manufacturer of compasses and tele-

scopes, In 1630, in his capacity as superin-

tendent of Tuscany Waters, he wrote a report

on the river Bisenzio. It is said that he pro-

duced ‘‘the first well-founded set of range

tables’’, vitiated, to be sure by the neglect of

air resistance, which had yet to be appreci-

ated—by reference to these very tables. Even

in 1641 we find the blind Galileo deeply con-

cerned about his idea for combining the mo-

tion of a pendulum with the escapement of a

ON GALILEO AND STATICS 45

clock (pinwheel type). This idea had to wait

another one hundred years for its utilization.

August E. H. Love rightly concludes his

introduction to the ‘‘Mathematical Theory of

Elasticity,’’ ‘‘Most advances in natural phi-

losophy have been made by men who have

had a first-hand acquaintance with practical

needs and experimental methods.’’” Cer-

tainly this was true of Galileo!

Carl Friedrich Gauss (1777—1855) boasted

of mathematics, ‘‘the queen of the sciences.”’

But like other monarchs mathematics is no

longer queen. Many, indeed, would argue

(correctly) that mathematics is not even a sci-

ence. There are some few physicists, to be

sure, who still regard science as a material-

ization of mathematics, but most physicists

today regard mathematics as a scientific tool.

Mathematical physics, strictly speaking, is

essentially physics—in its mathematical as-

pects. It is interesting that Bell himself first

praised *“The Queen of the Sciences’’ (1931),

and then later recognized ‘‘The Handmaiden

of the Sciences’’ (1937), but finally paid

homage to *‘Mathematics, Queen and Hand-

maiden of the Sciences’’ (1951). As far as

nature is concerned, mathematics discloses

only patterns latent in the assumptions. In line

with the whole Greek philosophical approach

(exaggerated in Platonism), Archimedes and

Galileo both hoped initially to demonstrate

from certain first principles the validity of

their findings; but insofar as there is any nat-

ural validation at all it is inherent solely in

the experiential principles chosen as funda-

mental. I do not believe *‘we can demonstrate

by geometry that the large machine is not

proportionally stronger than the small.’’'

(Galileo’s geometry was physical geometry,

including physical factors.) Yet I do recog-

nize the scientific value of mathematics within

the proper limits of our understanding nature.

Salviati rightly observes, ‘‘I wish to convince

you by demonstrative reasoning’’'"—pro-

vided, of course, he starts from known and

accepted experiential facts, not merely from

a priori ideas.

Galileo’s unique contribution to the con-

tinuous development of man’s understanding

of nature, I believe, is his recognition that

phenomena themselves present an additional

necessary criterion for determining ‘‘what-

soever things are true.’’ He himself (1 am

certain) did not wholly appreciate the relation

of the content of the book of nature to the

language in which it is written. Nevertheless,

he continually discloses an experiential ap-

proach—often a definitely experimental

method, i.e., asking specific questions of na-

ture—including deductions from assumed

physical principles, not just inductive obser-

vations of nature, and certainly not mere de-

ductions from a priori first principles of phi-

losophy.

As one reads and rereads Galileo’s truly

living works, one is always impressed with

his persistent intellectual quest to understand

nature. When Sagredo confesses, ‘‘I, myself,

being curious by nature,’’'’ we detect Gali-

leo’s own handwriting, his intellectual sig-

nature. With respect to his life-long interest

in pendulums he slyly admits that it is ‘‘a

subject which may appear to many exceed-

ingly arid, especially to those philosophers

who are continually occupied with the more

profound questions of nature.’’'Y The Vene-

tian Sagredo, too, is admittedly impressed,

‘“You give me frequent occasion to admire

the wealth and profusion of nature when, from

such common and even trivial phenomena,

you derive facts which are not only striking

and new but which are often far removed from

what we would have imagined.’’ What a true

evaluation of Galileo as a physicist—partic-

ularly in his investigations of statics.

May I close this chapter of the Quatercen-

tenary Commemoration with a poet’s mus-

ings about this lover of poetry and nature?

Celeste, Galileo’s faithful daughter, muses,

“‘It may be

That he was wrong in these things, and

must pay

A dreadful penalty. But you must explore

His mind’s great ranges, plains and lonely

peaks

Before you know him, as J know him now.

How could he talk to children, but in words

That children understand? Have not some

said

That God Himself has made His glory dark

For men to bear it.’’™

RAYMOND J. SEEGER

References Cited

. Galileo Galilei. Dialogues Concerning Two New

Sciences. 1638 pp. (transl. H. Crew and A. de Sal-

vio). Evanston, Northwestern University. 1939. p.

a), Heb) 125;:c)mhlO} d) /£835e)n291,,-f) 67-68}

=) 710.) 2,1). G0 ))ble kK) oh SD Lee), 1243

fn) 130.0) 4. pi 134. @) 43 on TOs s) At).

u) 6, v) 94, w) 97.

. Bertolt Brecht. 1963. ‘‘The Life of Galileo (transl.

D. I. Vesey). London, Methuen. p. 21.

. Galileo Galilei. 1960. On Motion and On Mechan-

ics (transl. I. E. Drakkin and S. Drake). Madison,

University of Wisconsin. p. a) 20, b) 144, c) 156,

2) Rd ULAR) ial OA Nil

. Raymond John Seeger. 1963. Galileo Pilgrimage.

American Journal of Physics 32, 181. The Role of

Galileo in Physics. Physis V, 5 (1962).

. “‘Self-Reliance’’ in “‘Essays’’ by Ralph Waldo

Emerson New York, Thomas Nelson.

. Marshall Clagett. 1959. The Science of Mechanics

in the Middle Ages Madison, University of Wis-

consin. p. a) 103, b) 106.

. *‘Mechanica’’. 1913. (transl. E. S. Forster) in ‘‘The

Works of Aristotle’? VI ‘‘Opuscula’’ (ed. W. D.

Ross). Oxford University. p. a) 850a, line 38,

b) 850b, line 4, c) 847b, line 17.

. ‘‘The Works of Archimedes’’. 1912. (ed. T. L. Heath).

Cambridge University. a) ‘‘On Floating Bodies’’ I,

Dey2o 7s

. Alistair C. Crombie. 1952. Augustine to Galileo

London, Falcon. p. 84.

. Ernst Mach. 1942. The Science of Mechanics, 7th

ed. (transl. 9th ed., T. J. McCormack). La Salle,

Ii... Open Court.\p. a). 19.b))_ 93° c) 63, d) 310,

CS) jel ll eles) 7 A gee) Yl FA

. R. J. Forbes and E. J. Dyksterhuis. 1963. A His-

tory of Science and Technology I. Harmondsworth,

Penguin. p. 58.

. Galileo Galilei.1960. Discourse on Bodies in Water,

23.

24.

. Edmund Whittaker.

2nd ed. 1612 (transl. T. Salusbury 1663). Urbana,

University of Illinois. p. a) 6, b) 9, 18, 19, c) 37,

d)3,,e) 4, f).22,.27, -@))-XV,_h), 26. Senate

Dual Wit) dc oud Dos 0p ly R91

. René Dugas. 1955. A History of Mechanics. Neu-

chatel, Editions de Griffon. p. a) 103, b) 127,

S) AS. daa.

. ‘The Works of Aristotle’? IV. 1930. (ed. W. D.

Ross). Oxford University. a) ‘‘Physica’’. (transl.

R. P. Hardie & R. K. Gaye). p. 250a, line 1, 10.

b) ‘‘De Coelo’’. (transl. J. L. Stocks). p. 313a, line

14.

. Galileo Galilei. 1953. Dialogue Concerning Two

Chief World Systems. (transl. G. de Santillana).

New York. p. 228.

. Eric Temple Bell. 1940. The Development of Math-

ematics New York, McGraw-Hill. p. 347.

1949. From Euclid to Ed-

dington. Cambridge University. p. 58.

. Roy Stanley Burdon. 1940. Surface Tension and

the Spreading of Liquids. Cambridge University.

. ‘The Physical Treatises of Pascal’’. 1932. (transl.

L. H. B. & A. C. N. Spiers). New York, Columbia

University. p. 11.

. Ivor B. Hart. 1961. The World of Leonardo da

Vinci. New York, Viking. p. 238.

. Abraham Wolf. 1935. A History of Science, Tech-

nology, and Philosophy in the 16th and 17th Cen-

turies. London, George Allen & Unwin. p. 541.

. Isaac Todhunter. 1886. A History of the Theory

of Elasticity and the Strength of Materials. Cam-

bridge University. p. 1. Stephen P. Timoshenko.

1953. History of Strength of Materials. New York,

McGraw-Hill.

August Edward Hough Love. 1934. The Mathe-

matical Theory of Elasticity, 4th ed. Cambridge Uni-

versity. p. 31.

Alfred Noyes. 1922. ‘‘Watchers of the Sky’’ in

‘‘The Torchbearers’’. New York, Frederick A. Stokes

(1922).

Journal of the Washington Academy of Sciences,

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ZED:

. DeVellis, J. and G. Kukes. 1973. Regulation of glial

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. Mehler, W. R. 1966. Further notes on the center

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. Tremblay, J. P., M. Colonnier and H. McLennan.

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7 | VOLUME 75

Number 3

“ rnal of the September, 1985

WASHINGTON

ACADEMY ..SCIENCES

ISSN 0043-0439

Issued Quarterly

at Washington, D.C.

CONTENTS

Articles:

TED L. KURKOWSKI: How Commercial Buildings Use Energy ............

LAWRENCE F. SUTKOWSKI, ROBERT V. RUSSO, and LISA J. GRAY: Small-

scale Cogeneration at Military Installations in the United States .............

WILLIAM J. THALER: Photovoltaic Higher Education National Exemplar Facility

ECC OLP COMTI MIVETSIIYls ite oer cla Nepy ees lhe as ait Stews wa eslw de bee ae

ABRAHAM SAGEEV: Pressure Distribution Around a Well Producing at Constant

Pressure tna Double-Porosity RESEMVOIE 225.266. od ok eee oe ee ee ae

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Journal of the Washington Academy of Sciences,

Volume 75, Number 3, Pages 49-56, September 1985

How Commercial Buildings

Use Energy

Ted L. Kurkowski

United States Department of Energy Building Systems Division, Mail Stop

GH-068, Forrestal Building, Washington, DC 20585

ABSTRACT

Energy use in buildings had not become the subject of a comprehensive scientific study until

the mid-1970’s. Even now there is insufficient research being undertaken, due primarily to the

lack of cohesiveness of the building industry. Research done to date indicates that commercial

buildings act in a very different manner than residences; lighting and cooling tend to be the

primary energy problems. A commercial building’s form and orientation, and lighting, envelope

and mechanical systems can be designed to use less energy but this potential is limited by a lack

of understanding of fundamental issues. Thus buildings tend not to use the energy sources present

in their surrounding environment in any significant way, yet this environmental energy source is

quite substantial.

1. Introduction

Buildings use one-third of the total energy

consumed in the U.S. (The remaining energy

use is split roughly equally between trans-

portation and industrial production.)

Approximately 60% of the energy con-

sumed by buildings in the U.S. is consumed

by residential buildings, and 40% by com-

mercial. A large part of the residential stock

currently exists in cold climates so the ma-

jority of past research on building energy con-

sumption has focused on reducing the need

for heat in cold-climate houses. This tends to

be the “‘intuitive definition’ of the bounda-

ries of building energy research by the public

or policy-makers. There are two problems with

such a definition of the research question:

a. The demographic trend in the U.S. is a

population shift substantially to the south.

Dr. James Brown of the MIT/Harvard Joint

Center for Housing Studies predicts that

over the next 10 years, 50% of the U.S.

population growth will occur in just three

States: Florida, Texas, and California.

. Heating has very little to do with the en-

ergy problem of modern commercial

buildings (as will be explained later).

We have come a long way in understanding

how to reduce heating loads in houses, using

passive solar or energy conservation (e.g. in-

sulation) techniques. However, a substantial

portion of the national research problem re-

mains. We know very little about the con-

vective heat transfer mechanisms that could

be used to cool houses in hot climates, par-

ticularly hot-humid climates. Secondly there

is much unknown about energy use in com-

mercial buildings, and it is this latter subject

that will comprise the remaining discussion

in this paper. (1)

50 TED L. KURKOWSKI

The reasons why commercial buildings use

as much energy as they do, are not well under-

stood. Relatively speaking, energy use in

commercial buildings has received little re-

search attention in the US due to a number

of dichotomies of perspective. Of the total

funds expended by a commercial building

owner (or renter) over the life of a building,

over 90% will be invested in the salaries of

the occupants. The energy cost to provide

environmental conditioning of the building’s

interior is thus a secondary priority despite

the national energy importance of buildings.

Secondly, the process of producing buildings

is not one that is amenable to improvement

in energy efficiency because:

a. The building “*production industry’’ com-

prises a diverse, unstructured group that

includes product and material manufac-

turers and suppliers, general contractors,

construction trade workers, architects,

mechanical, electrical, and civil engi-

neers, homebuilders, home manufactur-

ers, building code, zoning, and planning

officials, realtors, real estate lenders, and

real estate developers.

b. The decision-making process is generally

diffused among the above groups; no one

group has total responsibility.

c. The thermodynamics of building energy

flow occurs in a regime of small temper-

ature differences, a regime not well under-

stood scientifically.

d. Buildings are the longest-lived ‘‘prod-

ucts’’ made in the US so the building in-

dustry tends to be extremely conservative.

The typical anecdotal illustration of this

fact is that twenty years elapsed between

the invention of plywood and its common

use. I was once told by representatives of

fossil-fired heating equipment manufac-

turers that they have difficulty meeting en-

ergy efficiency standards because the basic

design of such equipment has not changed

in 50 years. (I fear that their perspective

will be soon broadened by Japanese manu-

facturers. )

e. Building design is regulated by health and

safety codes that vary substantially by lo-

cal jurisdiction. ““National products’’ are

difficult to produce in a way that meets

all U.S. codes.

Weighed against the above problems is the

fact that improvements are sorely needed in

buildings because:

1) Buildings are the longest-lived ‘‘prod-

ucts’’ made in the U.S. so energy-wasting

buildings are with us for a long time.

2) Most people in the U.S. spend almost all

their lives within buildings; a comfortable,

pleasing environment is mandatory for their

physical, emotional, and spiritual well-

being.

Improvements in energy use in the building

sector have occurred very slowly, more slowly

than in other sectors as evidenced by the fact

that the building sector’s fraction of U.S. en-

ergy consumption has risen from 29.8% in

1960 to 36.1% in 1983. (2)

2. History

From the recorded history available to

western civilization it appears that buildings

until quite recently were typically heated by

small fires in individual rooms when they were

heated at all. Most lighting was provided by

natural light and cooling by natural ventila-

tion. Occasionally communities would ac-

tually plan to take advantage of the sun’s heat

and light. When the new city of Olynthus was

built in Greece, it was built on the south side

of a mountain with streets laid out such that

all buildings had good access to sunlight; this

occurred around 450 BC but rarely since then.

The Romans appear to have built passive solar

bathhouses using glass or mica glazing; Sen-

eca mentions this in a letter in 65 A.D. and

again this has occurred rarely since then. (3)

(There are Roman records of lawsuits con-

cerning buildings blocking other buildings’

access to sunlight dating from the second cen-

tury A.D.; lawsuits have unfortunately not

occurred rarely since then.)

In general buildings were heated by wood

and then coal for hundreds of years. The Lon-

don ‘‘fog’’ made famous by Arthur Conan

Doyle was in fact smog from coal stoves. This

HOW COMMERCIAL BUILDINGS USE ENERGY 51

‘‘fog’’ dissipated when these stoves were re-

placed by oil or gas heaters but this did not

occur until fairly recently.

In 1784 James Watt heated his office with

a central steam piping system. Forced ven-

tilation systems and water-spray air purifi-

cation began to appear, allowing buildings to

increase in size somewhat. Building dimen-

sions were still limited by the 15 feet or so,

that daylight could penetrate from windows.

The invention of incandescent lighting did

little to alleviate this problem because 90%

of the energy consumed by these lamps did

not produce any light, just heat. There was

no efficient way to remove this heat, the only

available techniques being natural or fan-forced

ventilation. So, occupied buildings remained

small until well into the 20th century. (4)

The (more or less) simultaneous invention

of flourescent lighting and practical electric-

driven air conditioning allowed buildings to

change dramatically in the late 1930’s and

early 1940’s. Windows became unnecessary

for lighting or ventilation and buildings could

be built as cavernous as the capability of

structural engineers allowed. As long as elec-

tricity was inexpensive an office worker could

be miles away from a window and still have

a thermal and lighting environment consid-

ered comfortable. Of course, senior corporate

management didn’t deem windowless offices

comfortable for senior corporate manage-

ment. ;

The Arab oil embargo caused some of the

building community-to wonder why it was

necessary to purchase electricity to light and

cool a building occupied during that part of

a 24-hour period when there was a lot of

daylight available. At the same time devel-

opers noted that companies were willing to

pay higher rents for office space with daylight

and good views, to satisfy an increasingly

sophisticated workforce. (Thus the atrium has

become a more common feature of commer-

cial office space.) The embargo stimulated an

interest in providing buildings in which nat-

ural light, heating, and cooling simultane-

ously offer amenity to occupants and reduced

energy costs to the owners.

In summary, the building cooling and light-

ing equipment used today is conceptually only

forty or fifty years old. As an established,

integrated area of scientific and engineering

investigation a major study of building energy

use is only a little more than 10 years old.

3. Basic Concepts

Buildings, like humans, require energy for

heating or cooling when there is an imbalance

between the heat normally produced within

the building and the heat lost or gained through

its skin. Buildings require energy for lighting

when there is insufficient penetration of day-

light within. The internal generation of heat

within buildings is considerable and comes

from lights, people, and equipment. Every

watt of electricity consumed in a building turns

into a watt of heat and the recent explosion

in the use of personal computers and repro-

duction equipment has caused this internal

heat generation to rise dramatically. Heat is

also gained within buildings by the penetra-

tion of sunlight through glazing. In all but

the smallest human-occupied commercial

buildings, with modern levels of insulation

summer heat gain from conductivity through

the opaque portions of the walls and roof is

a minor issue, contrary to popular intuition.

Heat is lost from a building through con-

duction and convection through the building

skin. Conductive losses in buildings depend,

as in any thermodynamic system, upon the

temperature difference between the interior &

exterior, the surface area available for heat

transfer, and the conductivity of the skin (gen-

erally limited by insulation mostly to preserve

human comfort in the perimeter zones). Con-

vective losses occur through cracks in the skin

and are poorly understood but presumed to

be somewhat a function of wind speed; little

measured data exist upon which to base the-

oretical calculations.

The surface area of a cube increases as the

square of its linear dimension but the volume

increases as its linear dimension cubed. Thus,

as the size of a building increases its volume

increases faster than does its surface area. In

larger commercial buildings far more internal

heat is produced than can escape through the

building skin during the time the building is

52 TED L. KURKOWSKI

occupied. At night, only the skin loss must

be compensated. The result of all this is that

the daytime cooling loads in most commercial

buildings, even in cold climates, are larger

than the nighttime heating loads, again con-

trary to popular intuition.

If the ‘‘energy problem’”’ in a building were

to be defined in terms of the energy consumed

by the building’s lighting, cooling and heat-

ing systems respectively, the result would

typically be that the lighting system con-

sumption is the highest, with heating and

cooling second and third, or third and second,

depending on climate and internal loads.

However, if heating is produced from natural

gas and cooling from electricity, the order of

priority in terms of annual cost to the building

owner will almost always be lighting first,

cooling second, and heating third. (Natural

gas is about one-third the cost of electricity

per BTU because electric power plants op-

erate at a thermodynamic efficiency of ap-

proximately one-third.)

If the order of priority of the energy cost

in a building is lighting, cooling, and heating,

the typical energy conservation measures used

in residences are substantially ineffective in

commercial buildings, again contrary to pop-

ular intuition. (5)

4. Building Systems

To reduce the energy use in a commercial

building, experienced building designers ma-

nipulate various aspects of the building during

the design process. These aspects can be ca-

tegorized as form and orientation, the lighting

system, the envelope system, and the me-

chanical system.

A. Form and Orientation

Within the constraints of the site and build-

ing budget, a building can be made less

‘‘compact’’ if penetration of daylight and nat-

ural breezes is to be enhanced in the design.

Daylight provides energy savings in two ways

in buildings so long as the electric lights are

turned off when sufficient daylight is present.

First is the obvious savings in electricity for

lighting. The second saving is not as obvious.

All lighting systems consume more energy

than is directly converted to light. Luminous

efficacy can be defined as the light output of

a source divided by the heat it adds to a space.

Incandescent sources have efficacies ranging

from 10 to 30 lumens/watt, and flourescent

sources tend to operate at 65 or 70 lumens/

watt. Daylight provides an ‘‘equivalent’’ ef-

ficacy of 100 lumens/watt. As long as the

building is designed so that no more daylight

is allowed to penetrate than is actually needed,

daylight reduces the cooling load in a build-

ing.

The high mid-day summer sun does not

penetrate into buildings nearly as easily as the

low, morning or late afternoon summer sun.

It is generally effective to orient a building

so its long axis is east-west to reduce the east

and west window areas and thus reduce cool-

ing loads.

It would seem that for a given type of build-

ing with a given energy problem, there should

be a preferred form and orientation to mini-

mize its energy consumption, or perhaps two

preferred configurations: one to allow maxi-

mum climate response (daylighting, ventila-

tion) and one to allow maximum climate de-

fense, depending on design philosophy.

However a rigorous investigation of this basic

issue has never been conducted.

B. Lighting Systems

As we have seen, lighting is usually the

critical issue in commercial building energy

costs. (Warehouses in northern climates are

an obvious exception.) Lighting is also the

most controversial issue due to a fundamental

technical problem. There is a commonly ac-

cepted quantitative definition of human ther-

mal comfort that includes ranges of temper-

ature, humidity, and air movement, and varies

depending on the level of physical activity in

which a particular human is engaged. Sur-

prisingly no such quantitative, accepted def-

inition exists for human lighting (or visual)

comfort. Definitions have been proposed but

none has proved satisfactory, presumably be-

HOW COMMERCIAL BUILDINGS USE ENERGY 53

cause light has so much more profound and

complex an effect on human psychological

and physiological well-being.

In the past lighting systems have been de-

signed using a metric of quantity (footcan-

dles) with the assumption that more was al-

ways better unless resulting cooling loads

became completely unreasonable. There may

have been some justification for this since

visual tasks in the past were more difficult:

pencil lead on yellow paper and mimeo-

graphed copy are difficult to read. Black-and-

white xeroxed copy or computer screens have

high contrast and are much easier to read. As

well, eye care and corrective lenses are much

more available. It appears that beyond some

threshold necessary to perform a particular

task, a high quantity of light does not sub-

stantially contribute to increased visual ac-

curacy. The direction from which the light

originates relative to the occupant’s eyes is

much more important. That is, the distribu-

tion of the light sources appears to be a key

issue, to avoid glare and veiling reflections.

Due to the lack of success of past attempts

to quantify lighting quality, lighting design is

today more art than science, conducted with

heuristic rules when it is conducted at all.

Most building designers have not been trained

in lighting design and there is only a handful

of schools that offer lighting design curricula,

a fact that continues to astonish me. There

exist a number of excellent lighting designers

who can illuminate spaces in ways that create

visual pleasure, sparkle, and even magic. They

tend only to be hired for situations where

lighting is critical to commerce (retail stores,

hotel lobbies) or corporate image (corporate

headquarters buildings). Most building light-

ing systems are “‘designed’’ by persons with

little background or training in lighting de-

sign.

Given the above, it is clear that the creation

of good lighting with good energy efficiency

is a murky issue at best. One can improve

lighting energy efficiency with more efficient

equipment to reduce installed power, and more

sophisticated controls to reduce unnecessary

time of use. Energy, the product of power

and time is thus reduced. More efficient lu-

minaires (light fixtures) and their compo-

nents, lamps and ballasts (high voltage trans-

formers) are available. Electronic switching

including occupancy sensors and daylight

sensors are available to dim or turn off lu-

minaires when appropriate. These techniques

can greatly reduce lighting energy consump-

tion without changing the quality of the visual

environment. An alternative technique often

used is to remove luminaires from a building.

This method, prevalent in situations where

the use of a lighting designer has never oc-

curred to anyone, almost always has the effect

of making a bad lighting situation worse.

A scientific basis for lighting design in gen-

eral, and energy-efficient lighting design in

particular, is sorely needed. Until this is de-

veloped, good lighting will be done by good

designers on an empirical basis for a small

group of buildings and the remainder of the

population will continue to work with lighting

that is at best, haphazard.

C. Envelope Systems

Of the four issues discussed in this section,

building envelope systems have received the

most research attention. Insulation and winter

solar heat gain can reduce building heating

loads and improve human comfort by increas-

ing the radiant temperature of room surfaces.

However, cooling loads are generally a more

significant and more complex concern. Here,

conductive heat gain tends to be a smaller

issue because the interior-exterior tempera-

ture difference in the summer is small.

The largest contributors to the cooling load

in the perimeter of a building are the solar

heating through glazing and the lighting sys-

tem. (People and equipment albeit large con-

tributors to the cooling load are obviously not

amenable to manipulation by building de-

signers.) Lighting contributions to the cooling

load can be reduced through the techniques

discussed previously. Specifically sensors can

be employed to dim perimeter luminaires when

daylight is present. Daylight penetration into

rooms can be enhanced with skylights, roof

monitors (which were a primary source of

light at the beginning of the industrial revo-

lution) or ‘‘light shelves’’ that reflect light

54 TED L. KURKOWSKI

from the perimeter glazing to the room ceil-

ing.

Solar heat gain can be reduced in a number

of ways. The most obvious is to reduce the

window area of the building, to that area needed

for view by the occupants. This was common

in areas with intense sunshine and hot climate

but fell from favor when architectural style

became international in focus. Recently de-

signers have begun to feel that architectural

style might acceptably vary according to re-

gional preferences and climate as it once did,

and there is an emergence of vernacular ar-

chitecture.

The question of suitability of architectural

style is an emotional issue beyond the scope

of this discussion. It is reasonable, however,

that building designers may not want to be

limited in the use of glass; there are alter-

natives available. Glazing can be shaded by

external projections from the building much

as awnings are used in residences. Or, glass

with a lower shading coefficient can be used.

Shading coefficient is roughly speaking, the

amount of solar heat gain the glass will trans-

mit relative to that transmitted by 1/8 inch

thick, clear double strength glass. To really

reduce heat gain very low shading coeffi-

cients can be used and these are commonly

called reflective glazings. These glazings have

two negative aspects. First, low shading coef-

ficient glass tends to have a low visible light

transmittance so the outdoors appears dark to

a person inside the building. (The shading

coefficient of glass is not necessarily coupled

to its visible transmittance but often this is

the case.) Particularly on a cloudy day it can

appear that a thunderstorm is always immi-

nent. Second, such glass has the external ap-

pearance of a mirror which is not to every-

one’s liking. In fact, it’s overuse has caused

it to be outlawed in San Francisco.

The building designer can use glazings with

moderate shading coefficients and visible

transmittances, and manipulate daylighting

and lighting strategies, glass area or external

shading devices to minimize cooling loads

while not increasing heating requirements. This

is currently done on a case by case basis since

systematic rules of thumb are just beginning

to emerge for a few building types in a few

climates. Only a few designers are proficient

in energy design of building envelopes.

Another research issue is the extent to which

modern building envelopes allow uninten-

tional air leakage, commonly termed infiltra-

tion. This has been studied to some extent in

cold-climate residences but seldom in com-

mercial buildings. Yet infiltration is poten-

tially a major contributor to energy con-

sumption in a building perimeter.

D. Mechanical Systems

Commercial building mechanical systems,

commonly referred to as Heating, Ventilat-

ing, and Air-Conditioning (HVAC) systems,

are substantially more complex than residential

systems because it is common for different

zones of a commercial building to respec-

tively have heating and cooling loads at the

same time. For example, for an office build-

ing on a winter day in a cold climate the

building core will require cooling, as it al-

ways does since the internally generated heat

has no natural escape path. The north perim-

eter zone will require heat and the south pe-

rimeter zone may or may not need heat de-

pending upon the penetration of sunlight

through the glazing. The east perimeter zone

may require cooling in the morning due to

low-angle sunlight penetration but heating in

the afternoon; the west perimeter zone will

act in a similar but opposite manner.

To respond to these varying loads mechan-

ical engineers will devise a HVAC system that

sequentially: moves air through a room, trans-

ferring heat to water in a pipe loop, that trans-

fers heat to a refrigerant loop with compres-

sors and evaporators, to move the heat

outdoors. The water loop is optional but usu-

ally necessary in large buildings because water

has so much higher a specific heat capacity

than air. Fan power requirements and the sheer

physical size of ducts prevent the use of air

as the major heat transfer medium; air is only

used as the medium in the initial stage of the

heat transfer process in large buildings.

HVAC equipment efficiency has risen dra-

matically in the last few years. There is, how-

ever, a bewildering array of ways that these

components can be assembled into a system.

HOW COMMERCIAL BUILDINGS USE ENERGY 55

(6) The common “‘generic’’ types of HVAC

systems respond to different variations of loads

in different, poorly understood ways. Recent

research has shown that in some buildings

replacing one type of HVAC system with an-

other type with essentially identical steady-

state efficiency, can change the building’s

annual energy consumption by 30%! This

appears to be due to highly nonlinear sys-

tem responses to part-load or varying-load

conditions. A scientific understanding of

this issue is lacking.

5. Systems Interactions

A modern commercial building is start-

lingly similar to a living organism; all of its

environmental conditioning systems are highly

interactive. For example, the lighting system

affects the HVAC system due to its heat out-

put. Conversely the temperature of a floures-

cent lamp system affects its light output. Sys-

tem efficiency falls dramatically below or

above temperatures around 75°F. (This can be

seen in any unheated garage on a cold winter

night.) As another example, a HVAC system

that blows air across a window changes the

conductivity coefficient of the air film next

to the glass and thus the window’s net con-

ductivity, which in turn changes the load on

the HVAC system. These system interactions

are only beginning to be investigated. As they

become understood, building designers will

be able to assemble environmental systems in

ways that cause them to operate synergisti-

cally rather than antagonistically. As well,

control system manufacturers will be able to

devise control systems that optimize building

system performance. At the present time con-

trol systems are generally designed to assure

that there are no complaints from building

occupants; energy consumption tends to be a

minor consideration.

5. Conclusions

Since the end of World War II many im-

provements have been made in the compo-

nents that provide environmental comfort to

humans in buildings. We are able to provide

reasonable air temperatures and humidities,

and adequate amounts of light. We often can

provide a very comfortable and pleasing en-

vironment as well although we often don’t

know how we did it, in quantitative terms

amenable to replication. There are fewer than

40 commercial buildings whose energy con-

sumption has been measured in a detailed,

scientifically useful way.

We generally accomplish the above at the

expense of a substantial consumption of en-

ergy, when it is unclear that this consumption

is necessary. To put this in perspective, con-

sider that a fairly well-designed office build-

ing in Washington, DC consumes approxi-

mately 75,000 BTU/ft*/year for thermal

conditioning and lighting. However, this

building receives 440,000 BTU/ft?/yr of so-

lar energy, on the average. The point is that

the environment appears to have much more

potential as a source of energy than it is given

credit for. Environmental energy sources tend

to be spatially or temporally removed from -

the building’s energy needs. (E.g. sunlight

on the roof vs. lighting needs in the building

core, or winter frozen ground vs. summer air-

conditioning loads.) Buildings are not de-

signed to transfer energy from system to sys-

tem or season to season in a simple, elegant

manner.

Some designers are starting to create ‘‘cli-

mate-adaptive’’ rather than *‘climate-defen-

sive’’ buildings. These buildings make use of

daylight, natural ventilation and other envi-

ronmental sources to provide human comfort.

They do not isolate humans from the outside

world yet provide much better comfort than

turn-of-the-century daylit buildings. Docu-

mented, measured data (7) indicate that they

consume far less energy than conventional

buildings at a zero to 5% increase in average

first cost. More important is the fact that oc-

cupants like these buildings. They like the

natural light and the feeling of open space

and connection to the outdoors. Experimental

climate-adaptive buildings that were built in

research programs under the author’s direc-

tion, that were public buildings (community

colleges, banks, engineering/sales offices, li-

braries) experienced far higher occupancies

56 TED L. KURKOWSKI

than the owners had anticipated. Qualitative

though it may be, this is the best measure of

value in a building. We are beginning to know

how to design good buildings.

Notes:

1. Residential energy problems and solutions

particularly for cold climates, are thor-

oughly discussed in The Passive Solar En-

ergy Book, Edward Mazria, Rodale Press,

1979. This text was written for the intel-

ligent layman as well as home designer or

builder and is possibly the best-selling

technical book in history, at over 300,000

copies.

2. State Energy Data Report, Consumption

Estimates, 1960-1983, Energy Informa-

tion Administration, May, 1985, page xxi.

3. A good discussion of the history of solar

energy use in buildings is contained in The

Golden Thread: 2500 years of Solar Ar-

chitecture and Technology, Ken Butti and

John Perlin, Cheshire Books and Van Nos-

trand Reinhold, 1980.

An interesting description of the emerg-

ence of modern building mechanical sys-

tems is contained in Chapter 2 of Energy

Conservation Through Building Design,

Donald Watson, McGraw Hill, 1979.

. An excellent text discussing alternative

design philosophies and options is The

Design of Energy-Responsive Commercial

Buildings, Solar Energy Research Insti-

tute, John Wiley & Sons, 1985.

. For more information of HVAC systems,

see ‘‘Air Conditioning Systems: An Ov-

erview of Operating Principles and Fea-

tures’, William Tao, Building Operating

Management, December, 1983.

. “‘Lessons Learned from DOE’s Commer-

cial Passive Solar Buildings Program’’,

William J. Fisher and Alexander Shaw,

Architectural Technology, Fall 1984.

Ted Kurkowski is a physicist and engineer in

the U.S. Department of Energy. He has di-

rected architectural and engineering research

on building energy use since 1977, and lec-

tures on the subject as Adjunct Professor at

the Catholic University of America.

Journal of the Washington Academy of Sciences,

Volume 75, Number 3, Pages 57-65, September 1985

Small-scale Cogeneration at

Military Installations in the

United States*

Lawrence F. Sutkowski, Robert V. Russo, and Lisa J. Gray

Meridian Corporation 5113 Leesburg Pike, Suite 700 Falls Church,

Virginia 22041

ABSTRACT

Military installations in the United States provide significant potential for cogeneration. These

potential applications, however, carry unique characteristics and requirements that must be ad-

dressed in order to promote the successful development of this market. In this paper, the authors

will present a discussion of this market, and the unique properties and characteristics of cogen-

eration at military installations, including incentives, disincentives, and potential financing con-

cepts.

Introduction

Military bases are large consumers of en-

ergy, particularly electricity. As a conse-

quence, military installations are faced with

high energy costs, including substantial de-

mand charges for electric service. The exist-

ing profile of military installations presents

some interesting and promising prospects for

small-scale cogeneration. Since military in-

Stallations generally have been developed over

a period of time, they contain many facilities

that are isolated from the installation’s central

heating/cooling plant, and hence, require in-

dividual energy systems. These buildings are

used for a variety of purposes, some of which

are favorable for cogeneration. Buildings such

*Presented at the 5th International Cogeneration So-

ciety Conference, October 1985.

as hospitals, dining halls, community centers,

gymnasiums, barracks, and family housing

require both electrical and thermal energy,

providing a good opportunity for the appli-

cation of small-scale cogeneration systems.

Such applications could benefit the military

services by promoting:

* Military operations cost savings;

* Utility capacity expansion deferrals;

* Fossil fuel savings, particularly petro-

leum fuels, that would have been used

to produce cogenerated thermal energy;

* Secure electric and thermal energy to meet

an Installation’s requirements; and

* A means for the military to meet their

congressionally mandated energy reduc-

tion goals.

Interestingly, few small-scale congenera-

tion systems have been installed or are cur-

58 LAWRENCE F. SUTKOWSKI, ROBERT V. RUSSO, AND LISA J. GRAY

rently operating at military bases in other than

demonstration or experimental programs, in

spite of what appears to be a good market.

This apparent paradox presents an interesting

example of how a technology that in many

respects receives favorable legislative and

regulatory treatment on both the federal and

state levels is somehow derailed in its intro-

duction to and penetration of the Department

of Defense (DoD) market. There are two ma-

jor obstacles that discourage the utilization of

small-scale cogeneration systems in the mil-

itary: current DoD procurement practices and

the evaluation procedures used to analyze DoD

energy projects.

In this paper, the authors will examine the

market for small-scale cogeneration, existing

incentives for cogeneration, and the factors

discouraging its use in the military. In addi-

tion, we will provide a sample evaluation of

cogeneration at a military installation to dem-

onstrate how it is evaluated in the military

vs. how it is evaluated in the private sector.

Finally, we will discuss the prospects for small-

scale cogeneration in the military and how

they may change.

Cogeneration Potential in the Military

The potential for cogeneration at military

installations can be defined in terms of the

need for energy conservation and the ability

of the technology to address the unique char-

acteristics of the DoD market. An apprecia-

tion for the size of the market for cogeneration

in the Army, Navy, and Air Force can be

gained by looking at their energy consump-

tion. In the aggregate, the DoD accounts for

approximately 82 percent of the total U.S.

Government energy consumption. This figure

includes shore facilities, ground support, air-

craft, and ships. In Fiscal Year 1983 (FY 1983),

this amounted to 1,481 Trillion Btu (TBtu).

While detailed assessments of cogeneration

potential have not been performed, available

data do offer some insight into the size of this

market.

A further examination of the energy pro-

files of the Army, Navy, and Air Force il-

lustrates the distribution of energy consump-

tion. Table 1 and Exhibit 1 provide a

breakdown of energy consumption for shore

facilities operations by fuel type for the Army,

Navy, and Air Force in FY1983. Total shore

facility consumption of 556 TBtu represents

38 percent of total DoD energy requirements

and 0.8 percent of total U.S. consumption.

Electricity consumption represents over 50

percent of DoD shore facility requirements.

On an aggregated basis, this energy profile

suggests that cogeneration might be appro-

priate, given the high electricity consump-

tion, as well as the significant amounts of

fossil fuels burned for thermal energy.

In addition to offering the benefit of energy

savings, cogeneration can provide the mili-

tary with secure, on-site energy for their bases.

Such installations could include communi-

cations stations, medical facilities, and com-

mand/control facilities, which require inde-

pendent power sources to reduce their

vulnerability to power outages.

Although military bases resemble other in-

stitutional complexes, there are a number of

unique characteristics that make this market

different from commercial or industrial co-

generation markets. Four primary character-

istics must be considered in small-scale co-

generation system applications. These include:

* Functions—Individual base and build-

ing mission, base configuration, geo-

graphic location, size, and energy use

profiles;

* Energy Security—Overall national se-

curity and emergency preparedness, as

well as assurance of secure and uninter-

ruptible power supply backup;

Table I.—Fiscal year 1983 Shore Facilities Energy

Consumption

(TBtu)

Fuel Type Army Navy Aijr Force Total

Electricity 100 90 106 296

Oil 43 36 30 109

Natural Gas 40 23 38 103

Coal 25 4 13 42

Other 4 1 1 6

Total PAI 156 188 556

SMALL SCALE COGENERATION FOR THE MILITARY 59

Exhibit 1

DEPARTMENT OF DEFENSE

SHORE FACILITIES ENERGY CONSUMPTION

FY 1983

212 TBtu

LEGEND

Electricity

A Oil

LOM

156 TBtu

Natural Gas

AIR FORCE

188 TBtu

* Energy Conservation Mandates—As

federal buildings, military facilities are

required to reduce overall consumption,

particularly petroleum fuels, by 20 per-

cent in relation to 1975 consumption lev-

els; and

* Procurement Practices—Federal pro-

curement actions must be based on life-

cycle costing as a primary decision cri-

terion.

Currently, three of these characteristics—

functions, energy security, and energy con-

EH Coal

Other

556 TBtu

servation mandates—act as incentives for

small-scale cogeneration applications at mil-

itary installations. However, current procure-

ment practices serve as barriers to its use.

These incentives and disincentives are further

described in the following sections.

Incentives for Cogeneration

Within the federal government, there are

several legislative and regulatory mandates

that promote cogeneration for the military, as

60 LAWRENCE F. SUTKOWSKI, ROBERT V. RUSSO, AND LISA J. GRAY

well as for other federal agencies. These man-

dates include the Public Utilities Regulatory

Policy Act of 1978 (PURPA), the National

Energy Conservation Policy Act (NECPA),

and the National Energy Plan. In addition to

these mandates, there are the standard ben-

efits of cogeneration, such as energy and cost

savings, utility capacity expansion deferrals,

and secure energy supplies.

The incentives provided by PURPA have

only recently been realized by the military.

The authority for the military to sell power

to utilities, consistent with PURPA, was

granted by Public Law 98-407, on August 28,

1984. Until then, military installations did not

have clearly defined authority to sell power

at avoided cost. This recently granted au-

thority now provides the military with the

Same incentives extended to other qualifying

facilities to promote cogeneration.

Energy conservation goals for the federal

government have been established by NECPA.

NECPA requires the installation of low-cost/

no-cost energy conservation retrofits, by 1990,

in all federal buildings with over | ,000 square

feet of floor area.

The National Energy Plan (NEP), which

defines the nation’s energy strategy, includes

the overall objectives of reducing dependence

on foreign fuel, limiting vulnerability to sup-

ply disruptions in the near term, and devel-

oping renewable and essentially inexhaustible

sources of energy for long-term sustained

economic growth. Specific goals cited in the

NEP include a reduction in energy consump-

tion in federal buildings by 20 percent per

square foot in existing buildings and 45 per-

cent per square foot in new buildings, based

on FY1975 consumption levels.

The DoD is the largest energy-consuming

federal agency, with over 400,000 buildings

and 2.4 million square feet. These buildings

account for approximately 69 percent of en-

ergy consumption in all federal buildings. By

the end of FY1983, the Department had

achieved a 13.7 percent reduction in Btu per

square foot in comparison to 1975 levels. This

was accomplished through the combined ef-

forts of all three branches of the military, as

mandated by their respective energy plans,

which are outlined below.

Army

The Army accounts for approximately 18

percent of DoD energy consumption, of which

almost 83 percent is consumed by shore fa-

cilities operations. The facilities’ energy con-

sumption goal for FY1985 is 203.3 TBtu—

a 16 percent absolute reduction in total con-

sumption from 1975 levels, and the level at

which the Army will achieve the 20 percent

per square foot savings goal required by the

NEP. In addition, the Army’s long-range con-

sumption goals are to:

* Reduce overall energy consumption by

35 percent by the year 2000 from 1975

levels;

Reduce dependence on nonrenewable and

scarce fuels by the year 2000;

Reduce the use of natural petroleum fuels

in facilities operations by 75 percent by

the year 2000 from 1975 levels;

Attain a position of leadership in the pur-

suit of material energy objectives; and

Achieve both near- and long-term goals

without degrading readiness.

Navy

Like the Army, the Navy has established

a goal of reducing overall energy consump-

tion by 35 percent below 1975 levels by the

year 2000. In approaching these goals, Naval

shore facilities have reduced their consump-

tion from 286.1 x 10° Btu/sq. ft. in 1975 to

257.8 X 10° Btu/sq. ft. in 1981, an overall

savings of 9.9 percent. One major Naval con-

servation activity is the Energy Conservation

Investment Program (ECIP), which provides

for improvements, alterations, and the up-

grading and repair of existing buildings and

utility systems to reduce energy consumption.

Although the program’s projects generally in-

clude the more traditional retrofit activities

for energy conservation (low-cost/no-cost

measures), it can also include cogeneration

applications. In fact, the Navy is the lead

DoD service for cogeneration and is respon-

sible for coordinating R&D efforts and de-

SMALL SCALE COGENERATION FOR THE MILITARY 61

veloping funding and contractual mechanisms

for cogeneration. To date, the Navy has com-

pleted 21 cogeneration feasibility studies, and

the Naval Civil Engineering Laboratory is de-

veloping guidelines for the application of small-

scale cogeneration systems. The FY 1983 Navy

Energy Plan estimates that savings achievable

by small cogeneration systems can be sub-

stantial.

Air Force

In FY1983, the Air Force showed a de-

crease in energy consumption of 14.9 percent

per square foot over 1975 levels. Projections

in the 1985 Air Force Energy Plan indicate

that reductions in building energy use will

continue to approach the goal of 35 percent

by the year 2000. The Air Force’s energy

supply goals include reducing petroleum fuel

use 35 percent by 1990 and 45 percent by

2000, and increasing the use of coal and re-

newable sources. Further, the 1985 Air Force

Energy Plan establishes a framework for

achieving these goals by implementing spe-

cific energy conservation strategies and ac-

tivities.

Disincentives for Cogeneration

The success of small-scale cogeneration at

military installations is not dependent solely

on the advantages discussed in the preceding

section. If it were, one would expect to find

numerous small-scale cogeneration systems

in the military. First, there are two major

impediments which have hindered the instal-

lation of these systems. These are the con-

tractual limitations imposed by the military

procurement system and the evaluation meth-

ods used by DoD for assessing cogeneration

feasibility. In addition, a significant barrier

to the adoption of cogeneration in the military

is the shortage of personnel to install, operate,

and maintain the equipment. This situation

enforces energy use patterns which may be

expensive, but which are appropriate when

constrained by manpower scarcities.

Military Procurement System

The existing DoD procurement system is

not conducive to fully realizing the true mar-

ket potential of small, modular cogeneration

systems. The current system is overburdened

with institutional barriers, rules, and regula-

tions established for purchasing weapon sys-

tems and other related military hardware—

not energy systems or services. Contract terms

required by the military procurement system

have hampered the ability to achieve energy

conservation goals with small-scale cogener-

ation.

DoD installations are required to procure

energy systems in one of two ways: either by

applying directly for Military Construction

Funds (MILCON), or through a two-step pro-

curement process outlined in each of the serv-

ices’ energy plans. MILCON funds are used

for all major military construction projects,

such as road improvements, air field con-

struction, and building construction. They are

appropriated based on a project’s overall mil-

itary and mission-specific value, and life-cycle

cost. As a result, it is very difficult to justify

funding for an energy system from the MIL-

CON budget, especially for a small cogener-

ation system. To date, the only energy proj-

ects that have been installed using MILCON

funds have been large central plants.

The most common alternate procurement

strategy for purchasing energy systems is the

use of funding mechanisms established in the

energy plans. The first step in the process is

to conduct a feasibility study to assess the

economics of a proposed project based on

DoD life-cycle costing procedures. At the end

of each fiscal year, feasibility studies are ranked

by each service according to their Savings-

to-Investment Ratio (SIR—the ratio of dis-

counted project savings to total investment).

Low-cost/no-cost projects will generally

achieve the best SIR under DoD’s analysis

procedure, due to their small capital outlays.

62 LAWRENCE F. SUTKOWSKI, ROBERT V. RUSSO, AND LISA J. GRAY

These projects are the first to be funded by

construction/installation awards. Since the

number of low-cost/no-cost projects that qualify

for funding is greater than the number of po-

tential small-scale cogeneration projects, con-

struction funds are generally allocated to low-

cost/no-cost projects. Therefore, few, if any

funds are available for higher-cost projects

such as cogeneration.

Alternative Procurement Strategies

An alternative methodology for tapping the

DoD small-scale cogeneration market is

through creative financing. Under this strat-

egy, an investor, such as a private energy

company, invests capital to design, construct,

retrofit, and/or operate and maintain a facil-

ity’s energy systems. In exchange, the inves-

tor receives a commitment from the particular

installation to purchase energy or share in the

energy cost savings produced from the proj-

ect. The investor also receives all the depre-

ciation, energy, and investment tax credits

applicable to the particular investment. These

strategies limit the amount of risk to the gov-

ernment by placing most of the contractual

and financial responsibilities on the third party.

However, current procurement regulations

prevent the DoD from entering into a service

contract that is greater than five years. This

places excessive financial risk on the third

party by not allowing sufficient time to recoup

the investment. Most private companies in-

volved in creative financing will not enter into

such agreements for terms of less than seven

years.

Although creative financing strategies are

viewed as service contracts by the private sec-

tor, DoD views them as equipment procure-

ments subject to a one-year contract to be paid

Over several years, with only some features

of a service contract. This increases the risk

to potential investors and, for cogeneration,

limits the possibilities even further.

Another advantage to the military with third-

party financed cogeneration is the inclusion

of installation, operation, and maintenance

services as the third party’s responsibilities.

In many cases, this not only permits the al-

ternative deployment of military personnel but

can also provide a greater incentive to base

managers.

To date, DoD has expressed a strong in-

terest in creative financing strategies, such as

shared savings and third party financing. This

can be seen in the energy plan developed by

the Navy. The DoD has chosen the Navy to

pioneer shared savings for the military. How-

ever, the Navy’s first few energy-services/

shared-savings requests for proposals (RFPs)

have run into the roadblocks outlined above.

In order to improve the DoD environment for

creative financing, the Navy has submitted a

proposed amendment to the FY 1986 Military

Construction Authorization Bill to both the

House and Senate (H.R.1409 and $.537) which

would give the military the authority to enter

into 30-year shared-savings agreements, in-

cluding the purchase of both energy services

and equipment.

In an effort to improve procurement pro-

cedures for shared-savings programs, the Navy

prepared draft Requests for Proposals (RFPs)

which were reviewed by the authors of this

paper. The RFPs had a number of restrictions

that made shared savings extremely unattrac-

tive to a potential investor. The RFPs severely

reduced the incentives for an investor to take

the risks that are inherent in shared-savings

propositions. More specifically, the proposed

RFPs declared that tax benefits, one of the

key benefits of shared savings, would be de-

ducted from energy savings estimates as a

Treasury offset. Thus, any company propos-

ing capital-intensive measures such as cogen-

eration would be penalized. Second, the pro-

posed RFPs did not allow demand savings for

the contractor, and one of the major benefits

of cogeneration is demand reduction. Hence,

this technology is further penalized by the

DoD. The proposed RFPs have since been

modified to reduce the risk to an investor,

and are scheduled to be released when the

Military Construction Authorization Bill is

passed. The modifications made to the model

RFPs include the allowance of tax benefits

and the flexibility to include demand charge

savings for the contractor.

Therefore, although the DoD procurement

system currently is a disincentive to small-

scale cogeneration applications, methods for

remedying the situation are being considered.

SMALL SCALE COGENERATION FOR THE MILITARY 63

DoD has not only recognized that there is a

high potential for small-scale cogeneration on

military installations, but also that current

systems for the procurement of traditional

military equipment do not meet the needs of

energy conservation equipment. Hence, it is

likely that, in the near future, this major bar-

rier will be eased, allowing for substantial

growth in the DoD small-scale cogeneration

market.

Evaluation Methods

The first step in the existing ECIP meth-

odology specifies that potential investments

are to be evaluated on a life-cycle cost basis.

By DoD definition, this method limits the

consideration of cost savings based on de-

mand reduction—the primary benefit of co-

generation. Therefore, the DoD life-cycle cost

evaluation method penalizes cogeneration

projects by not considering all of the potential

savings.

For example, the rate structures of utilities

for military installations generally include a

high peak demand charge. These demand

charges often account for a significant portion

of an installation’s total electric bill, some-

times as much as 60 percent. By reducing the

load placed on the utility system with cogen-

eration, the installation can realize substantial

savings from reduced demand charges. How-

ever, the DoD life-cycle cost algorithms do

not allow for the inclusion of 100 percent of

these savings or for capacity credits which

the utility may provide under avoided costs.

Similarly, a cogeneration system may reduce

thermal energy costs by displacing central plant

steam loads with more efficient cogenerated

steam or hot water. As with demand charge

savings, 100% of these cost savings are not

considered in the life-cycle cost calculations

used for military installations.

Military Evaluation Procedures Example

To demonstrate the impact of the military

procurement system on the evaluation of small-

scale cogeneration, a case example is pre-

sented. In this example, a 320-kW diesel-

fired cogeneration system at a Naval instal-

lation will be evaluated using actual building

load data, fuel prices, and other assumptions

in accordance with Navy ECIP specifications.

As this example will show, under DoD eval-

uation procedures the cogeneration system is

not an attractive option. However, with life-

cycle costing methodologies commonly used

in the private sector, excluding tax benefits

(e.g., ITC, ETC, and depreciation) and debt

financing, the same cogeneration installation

becomes attractive.

Exhibit 2 provides the assumptions used in

this analysis. It should be noted that, except

for system specifications, fuel prices, and utility

rates, these assumptions are those used for

evaluating energy conservation projects in the

Navy. For consistency, these data assump-

tions will be used in both the military and

private-sector evaluations.

One very significant assumption in this

analysis is the absence of power sales to the

grid. Since DoD facilities only recently re-

ceived the authority to sell power to utilities,

the DoD evaluation methodology used in this

example does not allow power sales to be

considered in the analysis. Hence, it is as-

sumed that all electrical and thermal outputs

from the cogeneration system are used to sat-

isfy energy requirements at the installation.

This displaces purchased electrical and ther-

mal loads.

For this evaluation, the total investment

cost of the cogeneration system is $224,000,

which includes design, installation, supervi-

sion, inspection, and overhead. The purchase

of the system is on a cash basis, paid in the

first year. The system is fully installed and

operational in the first year.

In the DoD/ECIP life-cycle cost analysis,

the primary objective is energy savings. As

a result, other benefits such as demand charge

savings or other non-energy savings are lim-

ited to 25 percent of the total savings. As

mentioned, ECIP projects are ranked on the

basis of life-cycle cost and payback, and are

quantified in a SIR. A SIR of greater than

one means the investment is cost-effective

(the higher the ratio, the greater the dollar

savings per dollar invested). Generally, the

Navy’s ECIP-funded projects have been low-

64 LAWRENCE F. SUTKOWSKI, ROBERT V. RUSSO, AND LISA J. GRAY

Exhibit 2—Sample Cogeneration Evaluation Assumptions

SYSTEM SPECIFICATIONS

—Fuel Type: Diesel

—Capacity: 320 kW

—Fuel Consumption Rate: 23.5 gal/hr

—Recoverable Heat: 1.257 MMBtu/hr

—Installed Capital Cost: $224,000

—Operating & Maintenance Cost: $3,360

—O&M Escalation Rate: 0%

—Capacity Factor: 0.85

—System Life: 25 years.

—Discount Rate: 7%

FUEL DATA

—Diesel Heating Value: 138,700 Btu/gal

—Diesel Price (Base Year): $4.97/MMBtu

—Diesel Escalation Rate: 8%/yr

—Coal Price: $2.50/MMBtu

—cCoal Escalation Rate: 5%/yr

—Electricity Price: $5.17/MMBtu

—Electricity Escalation Rate: 7%

BUILDING LOADS

—Thermal Energy Requirements: 378.29 MMBtu/yr

—Electrical Load: 255 kW

—Electricity Requirements: 450,000 kWh/yr

cost, no-cost programs, with SIRs greater than

fifteen.

Net energy savings consist of displaced

electrical and thermal energy, minus the en-

ergy used to operate the cogeneration system.

In this example, the annual electrical energy

displaced is 27,640 MMBtu, for a total annual

savings of $142,896 (adjusted for generation,

transmission, and distribution losses). The to-

tal discounted electric energy savings amount

to $2,069,141 over the system life. Thermal

energy savings amount to 9,360 MMBtu/ year.

Based on coal-fired generation, total dis-

counted thermal savings amount to approxi-

mately $485,000. Fuel costs for the cogen-

eration system, discounted over the system

life, are $2,127,758. Thus, net discounted

energy savings are approximately $426,000.

Discounted net non-energy costs (O&M)

are $5,848. Thus, the total net discounted

savings are approximately $420,000. Using

this figure, the SIR is 1.78. While greater

than one, the SIR would not justify the com-

mitment of funds under ECIP. This SIR trans-

lates to an internal rate of return (IRR) of

26.55 percent.

In the private-sector analysis, which does

include demand charge savings in net cash

flows, the IRR is 35.28 percent. This example

illustrates that the DoD ECIP evaluation pro-

cedure does not allow for a comprehensive

consideration of the benefits of cogeneration,

particularly in regards to power sales and

non-energy savings. As such, cogeneration is

limited by the evaluation process.

Conclusions

The prospects for small-scale cogeneration

at military installations do not end here. There

is a growing recognition of the value of co-

generation to the military. The most prom-

ising avenues for cogeneration include the use

of third party financing and shared savings.

As was discussed earlier, these methods offer

the necessary incentives for private investors,

while providing the military with cost and

energy savings. Currently, the military has

authority to enter third party contracts. The

procurement process, however, needs to be

PHOTOVOLTAIC HIGHER EDUCATION 65

streamlined to improve the viability of such

arrangements.

The first important step in developing the

military cogeneration market was the recent

authority given to DoD to sell electric power

to utilities. In addition, there is legislation that

has been proposed in amendments to the

FY 1986 Military Construction Authorization

Bill (H.R.1409 and S.537) which would au-

thorize a two-year test plan for shared-savings

programs. The proposed amendment would

give the military the authority to sign 30-year

contracts specifically for energy savings. This

would include construction, utilities, sup-

Journal of the Washington Academy of Sciences,

Volume 75, Number 3, Pages 65-75, September 1985

plies, and services. The service aspect is par-

ticularly attractive to the military, because it

would not require the deployment of addi-

tional personnel for operation and mainte-

nance of cogeneration facilities. The pros-

pects for this legislation are quite favorable.

The successful penetration of small-scale

cogeneration in the military has not yet oc-

curred. Recent and upcoming developments

may change that trend. For those companies

adept at military procurement practices and

shared savings/third party financing, or with

access to these qualifications, the future holds

great promise.

Photovoltaic Higher Education

National Exemplar Facility at

Georgetown University

William J. Thaler

Department of Physics, Georgetown University

Introduction

The energy from the sun falling on the sur-

face of the earth for two weeks is equal to all

the energy in an optimistic estimate of the

world’s original supply of fossil oil.' Since

sunlight is virtually inexhaustible, it is a very

attractive candidate for an alternate energy

source. One area of intensive research and

development is the use of solar cells to con-

vert sunlight into electricity directly. Loferski*

has estimated that 10% efficient solar cells

on most of the rooftops in the United States

could supply all the nation’s energy needs.

The incident solar power at sea level on a

sunny day when the sun is directly overhead

is almost 1000 Watts/Meter.* The physical

mechanism by which solar energy is con-

verted directly into electrical energy by the

solar cell is the photovoltaic effect. The solar

cell is essentially a p-n junction 1.e., a p-type

semiconductor and an n-type semiconductor

with no external bias voltage. When the solar

photons are absorbed, each photon creates an

66 WILLIAM J. THALER

electron and a hole. When these carriers dif-

fuse to the junction, the built-in electric field

of the junction sweeps them down the energy

barrier. This separation of the carriers pro-

duces a forward voltage across the barrier

because the electric field of the photo-excited

Catriers is opposite to the built-in field of the

junction. The appearance of this forward volt-

age across an illuminated junction is called

the photovoltaic effect.* So an illuminated

junction can deliver power to an external cir-

cuit. Large area p-n junctions of silicon can

be used to convert solar photons to electrical

energy. The research and development work

is directed toward exploring various materials

from which p-n junctions can be made which

will give maximum efficiency in the solar

energy to electricity conversion at minimum

overall cost. Single-crystal Silicon has been

studied extensively and, in the laboratory, un-

der carefully controlled conditions, the theo-

retical limit of conversion efficiency of about

22% is being approached but there is still an

excessive amount of energy wasted in the

process.

In the photon absorption process, only those

photons whose energies are greater than the

bandgap of the material will be absorbed. Sil-

icon has a bandgap of 1.1 eV so all photons

whose wavelengths are greater than 1.13 um

are not absorbed but pass through the mate-

rial. At the same time, photons with wave-

lengths shorter than 1.13 um will not con-

tribute effectively to the electrical output and

their energy is basically lost by conversion to

heat. Zalewski and Geist* estimate these losses

for Silicon at 24% as bandgap loss and 32.5%

as heat loss which means that more than half

of the available solar energy is lost. In order

to overcome some of these losses, research

is aimed at exploring other thin film junctions

using materials whose bandgaps are near the

point where the sun’s spectral radiance is

greatest (400-700 nm). Another technique is

the use of cells of different materials bonded

together in a cascade of layers, each layer

having a different bandgap. Solar photons with

high energy are captured in the high bandgap

first layer and the lower energy photons pass

through the first layer but are captured in the

several layers of lower bandgap material. By

repeating this process, a multi-layered solar

cell is theoretically possible. Loferski? has

calculated an efficiency of 43% for a seven

layer cascade or tandem cell. Practically,

however, only three or four layer cells appear

to be realizable due to other interface losses

in such a device. Materials such as Ge,

CulnTe,, CulnSe,, CuS,, InP, GaAs, CdTe,

CulnS,, Cu,O, Se, GaP, and CdS are under

active investigation. But about half of all R

& D money spent on photovoltaic research

goes to amorphous silicon because of its rel-

atively low cost and ease of volume produc-

tion. Amorphous silicon has dramatically dif-

ferent properties from single crystal silicon.

Instead of a bandgap of 1.1 eV, hydrogenated

amorphous silicon (a-Si: H) has a bandgap

of 1.6 eV and the cells can be made much

thinner than single crystal-silicon cells.

Government Program

Even though it is apparent that the need for

alternate energy sources will continue to in-

crease indefinitely, engineering firms are re-

luctant to commit large amounts of capital in

techniques that are not proven. To encourage

the industry to pursue novel ideas, the De-

partment of Energy began sponsoring projects

ranging from research and development on

solar cells to actual solar power systems. Con-

tracts are channeled through the Solar Energy

Research Institute, the Jet Propulsion Labo-

ratory, Sandia Laboratories, NASA Lewis

Research Center and MIT Lincoln Labora-

tory. The ultimate goal is to achieve solar

systems that will be competitive with coal and

petrochemical systems for producing electri-

cal energy. The 1986 goal is solar cells that

cost no more then $0.70 per watt of electrical

power produced and solar cell arrays that cost

no more than $2.20 per watt compared to

present costs of about $6 per watt per cell.

The photovoltaic Higher Education Na-

tional Exemplar Facility at Georgetown Uni-

versity is a part of this program.

Solar Collectors

The simplest arrangement for collecting large

amounts of solar energy is to combine many

PHOTOVOLTAIC HIGHER EDUCATION 67

individual solar cells together in a flat-plate

array. The individual solar cells are connected

together electrically in series and parallel

groups to obtain the desired voltage level and

power output. The array must face the sun

and be inclined to the horizontal at an angle

determined by the latitude. It is not necessary

to have the array track the sun because the

cells are non-directional and receive energy

over the entire forward hemisphere. Since the

electrical output is proportional to surface area

of the solar cells, many cells are needed for

a large electrical power system. Assuming an

array with a 10% conversion efficiency, 100

m’ of solar cells are required to produce 10

KW of electrical power. Each group of series

and parallel cells is called a module and a

number of modules are assembled together in

a large unit called a panel. A standard panel

might be composed of a vertical configuration

of 2, 4, 8, or 12 modules. The panels are

then used to form the array and usually mounted

on a south facing roof inclined at the proper

angle by a rigid mount attached to the roof.

Rectangular solar cells are used to optimize

the area of exposure per panel. |

Since single crystal solar cells are expen-

sive, techniques have been developed for con-

centrating the sunlight onto fewer cells. The

‘‘concentrator’’ may be, for example, a flat,

circular Fresnel lens which can be pressed out

of acrylic plastic in sizes up to at least 1 ft’

and are relatively inexpensive. The concen-

tration ratio is defined as the ratio of the lens

area to the solar cell area. Concentration ra-

tios of 500 are easily achieved. One problem

with concentration cells is the large amount

of heat generated which raises the tempera-

ture of the solar cell. Since solar cell effi-

ciencies drop with increasing temperature, the

cell must be cooled. So the cells are mounted

on a heat sink through which a coolant liquid

is circulated.

Obviously, both the Fresnel lens and the

coolant system add to the cost of the array.

In addition, the Fresnel lenses must point ac-

curately at the sun and a two axis motorized

mount and sun sensor must be provided. A

number of variations have been tried such as

domed Fresnel lenses, linear Fresnel lenses

and arched linear Fresnel lenses. Parabolic

reflecting troughs with the solar cells down

Table I.—Solarex cell characteristics.

Dimensions 9cm X 9.5 cm

Efficiency 11.6%

Power 1.00 Watt

0.458 Volt

2.18 Amperes

Maximum Voltage

Maximum Current

the focal line of the trough have also been

built. In many of the concentrator class solar

cells, the heated coolant fluid is used to pro-

vide the working fluid for heating or cooling

the building interior and this process is called

‘“cogeneration’’.

The Georgetown Facility

The Intercultural Center at Georgetown

University was designed specifically to ac-

commodate the Photovoltaic array. The

building was oriented so the roof faced south

and the roof sections were oriented at the

proper angle with respect to the vertical so

that maximum solar energy would be col-

lected.

The solar cells are manufactured by So-

larex. Table 1. lists the cell characteristics.

Each module incorporates 72 of these solar

cells. The array field is divided into twelve

subfields for reasons of control, analysis and

optimization of wire sizes. It consists of 4296

active modules divided into twelve subfields

and 179 parallel strings of 24 modules in se-

ries. Table 2. shows conservative estimates

of the module performance characteristics.

When the modules are connected together

to form the array, there are inevitable losses

due to mismatched module impedances and

conductor, diode shunt losses. Table 3. shows

the data on the overall array.

Table II1.—Module performance characteristics.

Power 72 Watts

Voltage 20.2 Volts at 1.5 Amp

Current 4.7 Amp at 100 mw/cm?

Voltage at Max Pwr 16.50 v @28°C

Current at Max Pwr 4.37 Amp

Efficiency 11.6%

68 WILLIAM J. THALER

Table I1J.—Array Specifications.

A. Area of One Module 0.675 m?

B. # of Modules in Array 4454

(24 Modules/ String with

@ 360 v Nominal) 4296 Active

C. Roof Area Occumpied by Array 3271 m

with

3155 m? Active

D. Module Packing Factor 0.92

E. Module Mismatch Losses 1%

F. Conductor, Diode, Shunt Losses . 2%

G. Average Module Power Output 72 Watts

H. Design Array Power Output 300 kw

I. Module Efficiency 10%

Figure 1 shows the roof configuration for

the array.

The system operates in parallel with the

local power utility (PEPCO) so the DC power

generated by the Photovoltaic array must be

inverted to AC by means of a power condi-

tioning system which includes a maximum

power tracker and a 300 KVA inverter which

fully complies with PEPCO interface require-

ments. Provisions are made to shutdown the

PV system in case of utility outage. Figure 2

is a simplified block diagram of the complete

system.

The power sensing circuitry includes an

ON-SITE DATA ACQUISITION SYSTEM

COMPUTER to collect data needed to mon-

itor the performance of the photovoltaic ar-

ray. Other data is collected on power shut-

downs, failures, array cleaning or adjustments

or testing which may temporarily reduce sys-

tem output.

Monthly status reports are generated from

these data and include the following param-

eters:

a) Total solar energy incident on the array.

b) Total DC energy produced by the array.

c) Total AC energy output by the power con-

version unit.

d) System efficiency.

e) Power conversion unit efficiency.

f) Hours of operation.

g) Rated power of the array at normal op-

erating cell temperature.

Results

The Georgetown facility was brought on

line in September 1984. Normal system start-

up problems were experienced and appropri-

pana

Pee ee

Array CEES ENE, COS PD I aa

lb iD FSC lst MMI To ca ge

180

Note:

Dimensions in feet

Fig. 1 Roof configuration and array nomenclature

PHOTOVOLTAIC HIGHER EDUCATION 69

P.V. INTERFACE

PROTECTIVE

CIRCUITS

AC LOAD CONTROL

AND PROJECTION

EMERGENCY

GENERATOR

INVERTER

HARMONIC FILTERS

AND

KVAR COMPONENTS

PROTECTIVE

AC CIRCUIT BREAKER

POWER SENSING

CIRCUITRY

MAXIMUM POWER TRACKING

AND INVERTER CONTROL

CAMPUS UTILITY

BUS

BUILDING LOAD

Fig. 2 System block diagram

ate corrective measures were taken. Boeing

Computer Services collects the data on the

entire photovoltaic array. The data is trans-

mitted to Science Applications International

Corporation on a daily basis where it is re-

duced to provide the monthly status report.

Tables 4 through 8 are the performance sum-

mary charts for November and December 1984

and January through March 1985. The charts

summarize the major important characteris-

tics of the operation of the photovoltaic array

on a daily basis. The first column represents

the day of the month. The second column

shows the total number of hours that the power

WILLIAM J. THALER

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PHOTOVOLTAIC HIGHER EDUCATION 75

conversion unit was converting the DC en-

ergy from the array into usable AC energy,

with a monthly total at the bottom. The third

column shows the total solar energy incident

on the solar collection area of the array. It

does not include the solar energy hitting the

support structures. This column represents the

total daily kilowatt-hours of solar energy in-

cluding the energy incident on the array when

the photovoltaic system is not up. So this

number is the total solar energy available to

the system for conversion. A monthly total

is at the bottom. The fourth column is the

arrary energy in kilowatt-hours. This is the DC

energy converted by the solar modules for the

entire day and represents the input energy to

the power conversion unit inverter. The fifth

column is the array efficiency. It is the ratio

of the DC energy of the array to the total solar

energy available to the system with the monthly

total at the bottom. The sixth column is prob-

ably the most important column. It shows the

total daily power conversion unit output AC

energy in kilowatt-hours. This is the energy

that directly offsets the energy requirements

of the Intercultural Center. The seventh col-

umn shows the power conversion unit effi-

ciency as a ratio of the power conversion unit

output energy to the array input energy. The

last column shows the peak power in kilo-

watts at normal operating cell temperature of

28°C. It is based on a series of measurements

taken during array acceptance tests performed

on August 22, 1984. During this acceptance

test, a number of conditions had to be satis-

fied before a data point was accepted. The

array had to be clear of shadows, the solar

energy had to be stable and above 600 watts

per square meter, and the cell temperatures

had to be stable for three minutes. The data

collected included the cell temperatures, in-

stantaneous array current and voltage, solar

incident insolation, and array short circuit

current. In order to correlate the data with

that taken during the acceptance test, a soft-

ware program in the ON-SITE DATA AC-

QUISITION SYSTEM COMPUTER decides

every ten minutes that the system is up whether

conditions are the same as they were during

the acceptance test. The number in the last

column represents the peak daily value for

the peak power at normal operating cell tem-

perature. It is the highest value recorded at

any time during the day. If at no time during

the day were all of the required conditions

met, than an asterisk is placed in the column.

The number at the bottom of the column rep-

resents the peak value recorded in the month.

Conclusions

The photovoltaic higher education national

exemplar facility at Georgetown University

is operating successfully. The data show that

the array efficiency to date has not achieved

the design efficiency of 10% but is increasing

as the sun rises higher in the sky. The peak

power at normal cell operating temperature

has not achieved the design goal of 300 KW

but it also is increasing monthly. The esti-

mated peak load demand of the Intercultural

Center is 600 KW so the photovoltaic array,

at best, can supply 50% of the peak power

loads.

References Cited

1. R. Reisfeld, Die Naturwissenschaften 66(1), 1-7 (Jan.

1979).

2. J. J. Loferski, IEEE SPECTRUM, 17(2), 26 (Feb.

1980).

3. C. Kittel, INTRODUCTION TO SOLID STATE

PHYSICS STH ED‘; p> 2435! 1976.

4. E. F. Zalewski and J. Geist, Applied Optis 18, 3942

(1979).

5. C. E. Backus, IEEE SPECTRUM 17(2), 34 (Feb.

1980).

6. SAIC Monthly Status Report—Sept. 1984 thru Mar.

1985.

Journal of the Washington Academy of Sciences,

Volume 75, Number 3, Pages 76-83, September 1985

Pressure Distribution Around a

Well Producing at Constant

Pressure in a Double-Porosity

Reservoir

Abraham Sageev

Department of Petroleum Engineering, Stanford University

ABSTRACT

This paper presents the characteristics of the pressure response of observation wells during a

constant pressure test in a double-porosity bounded system. Wellbore skin in the constant pressure

active well is considered negligible. The interacting effects of the exterior radius, r.p, and the

interporosity flow parameter, \, are examined in pressure-radius and pressure-time responses.

The pressure-radius semilog responses are semilog straight in the region around the well, indicating

a constant rate in space. The shape of the fracture interference pressure response of the observation

well is similar to the pressure response during constant rate tests in double-porosity systems. The

dimensionless pressure response has a transition period where, for the pseudo steady state inter-

porosity flow model, the pressure is constant. Interference fracture pressure responses for the

pseudo steady state and the transient interporosity flow models are compared.

Introduction

The model for a well producing at a con-

stant pressure is used for decline curve anal-

ysis. The mathematical solution for the rate

decline of a single-porosity system was pre-

sented by Carslaw and Jaeger [1960] and Van

Everdingen and Hurst [1949]. The interfer-

ence pressure response to a constant pressure

test was considered by Uraiet and Raghavan

[1980], again in a single porosity-reservoir.

They presented log-log type curves for var-

ious interference wells in an infinite reservoir.

In naturally fractured reservoirs, fluid flows

both in the fractures and in the matrix blocks.

Barenblatt and Zeltov [1960] and Warren and

Root [1963] presented a mathematical model

for double-porosity systems with pseudo steady

state (PSS) matrix behavior. Da Prat et al.

[1981] and Raghavan and Ohaeri [1980] con-

sidered the rate decline of a well producing

at constant pressure in a bounded double-po-

rosity system. Da Prat et al. [1981] presented

the Laplace solution for the rate decline of a

well including wellbore skin, but presented

type curves only for zero skin. Also, they did

not present a single log-log type curve for

various combinations of the three parameters

that were considered, r.p, w, and X.

Sageev et al. [1985] presented a decline

curve analysis method that extends the method

presented by Fetkovich [1980] to double-po-

PRESSURE DISTRIBUTION AROUND A WELL 77

rosity systems. They presented a single log-

log type curve that describes the rate decline

behavior as a function of four parameters: r,p,

S, @, and \. They used the PSS interporosity

flow model for developing the type curve,

but also considered the relation between the

PSS and the transient interporosity flow model

with fractured skin. The double-porosity model

that includes transient matrix flow with frac-

ture skin was presented by Moench [1983]

and Moench [1984].

In this paper, we examine the pressure dis-

tribution around a well producing at a con-

stant pressure, without wellbore skin, in a

bounded double-porosity reservoir. Both

pressure-radius profiles at fixed times, and

pressure-time responses at fixed locations are

presented. The effects of \ and r,p on inter-

ference pressure responses are considered, as

well as the practical aspects of interference

constant pressure testing in double-porosity

systems.

Theory

The following presents a short description

of the mathematical solution for a well pro-

ducing at constant pressure in a double-po-

rosity bounded reservoir. Reservoir and fluid

properties are considered homogeneous, and

gravity and inertial effects are neglected. De-

ruyck et al. [1982] presented the fracture dif-

fusivity equation: ,

ky op

Cale ype Bae as

f Pr = (dpc, Seana (1)

where q* is the rate of flow between the ma-

trix and the fractures. The initial and bound-

ary conditions associated with the fracture

diffusivity equations are:

pAr,0) = Pi (2)

PAT sD) Pig (3)

oo meee

: aii

Making use of the initial condition, the La-

place transformation of the dimensionless form

of equation (1) is, Deruyck et al. [1982]:

LD pp m0 dP ip

dr, Top tp

where p;,p(rp,5) is the Laplace transformations

Of Py(Tp,tp). The dimensionless groups are

defined as:

= Opp =0 (6)

iio, Sa (6)

Pi ak Pw

1 2 SS (7)

= Se SS

Kp ver (9)

The variable f(s) depends on the assumed

interporosity flow model. For the pseudo steady

state model:

OC 10))sy ok

(Fo) ok ey

For the transient interporosity flow model with

slab-shaped matrix, f(s) 1s:

f(s) =o + ft a tanh(a)

3(1 — w)s

For the transient interporosity flow model with

spherically-shaped matrix, f(s) is:

(11)

where: a =

f(s) = wo + x b coth(b)

fisc1 = @)5

Tb =

where .

The parameters w and A are defined as:

(12)

° = V0, + Gv,

Are

78 ABRAHAM SAGEEV

KN=atr (14)

and the other terms are defined in the No-

menclature.

The pressure solution for observation points

away from the constant pressure active well

in a bounded reservoir is:

I S [Ki(repg)lo(g) + 1(r.0g)Ko(g)]

(15)

where g = Vsf(s).

For an infinite system, the interference

pressure solution is:

» K((rp V sf(s))

Pp = >= (16)

SKo(V sf(s))

The matrix pressure for the PSS interpo-

rosity flow model is related to the fracture

pressure by Deruyck et al. (1982):

La as

Pmp = Pyp ose (17)

Pressure Distribution

As discussed by Sageev et al. [1985], the

dimensionless rate response of a double-po-

rosity bounded system depends on the values

of r.p, », and d. All the presented curves are

evaluated using a numerical inversion method

of the Laplace transformation developed by

Stehfest [1970]. The dimensionless rate re-

sponse of a double-porosity bounded reser-

voir is presented in Figure 1. The thin curve

in the middle represents the response of an

infinite homogeneous system. There are two

curves for double-porosity bounded systems

with a fixed value of the storage coefficient,

w = 0.01, and a fixed value of the dimen-

sionless radius, r.7 = 10*. In the uppermost

curve, the value of } is relatively large (10 ~*),

and the double-porosity effects take place prior

to the effects of the exterior no-flow bound-

ary. Hence, the rate response is infinite acting

at early time controlled by the fractured sys-

tem, then flattens out for about two log cycles

Qp (Dimensionless)

tp / @ (Dimensionless)

Fig. 1: A typical response of an infinite and finite

double-porosity system, PSS model, w = 0.01,

4 = 10%, 10°°, andr,p = 10°.

when the rate is almost constant, to be fol-

lowed by an exponential rate decline of the

combined fracture-matrix system.

In the lowermost curve in Figure 1 the value

of \ is small (10~’), and the effects of the

no-flow exterior boundary take place prior to

the double-porosity effects. In this case, the

infinite acting flow period is followed by an

exponential decline of the rate, controlled by

the fractured portion of the reservoir. The first

exponential decline is followed by the double-

porosity effects, yielding almost a constant

wellbore rate, as the matrix pressure ap-

proaches the fracture pressure. After the flat-

tening flow period, the rate declines expo-

nentially, representing the depletion of the

combined fracture-matrix system.

Figure 2 presents the dimensionless rate

decline curve when the double-porosity ef-

fects take place before the effect of the ex-

Gp (Dimensionless)

ty / & (Dimensionless)

Fig. 2: Log-log response for a finite double-porosity

system, PSS model, w = 0.01,’ = 10°‘, andr.p = 10%.

PRESSURE DISTRIBUTION AROUND A WELL 79

terior boundary. Also, six dimensionless times

are marked on Figure 2, denoted by | through

6. Dimensionless pressure profiles for both

the matrix and the fractures are presented in

Figure 3. The first profile, for tp/w = 10*

represents the end of the infinite acting flow

period of the fractured system. Hence, the

matrix dimensionless pressure is negligible,

and the fracture dimensionless pressure is

negligible at the boundary, r.5 = 10*. The

pressure profiles marked 2 and 3 represent

the intermediate flow period, when the fluid

flow from the matrix supports a constant well-

bore rate. During this flow period the matrix

is depleting, as suggested by curves 2 and 3,

yet, the fracture pressure is almost constant

as a result of the flow from the matrix to the

fracture. The fourth pressure profile repre-

sents the end of the infinite acting flow period

of the combined matrix-fracture system.

Hence, the pressure in the matrix is slightly

higher than the fracture pressure, but cannot

be distinguished in the figure. The fifth and

sixth profiles denote the exponential deple-

tion of the combined matrix-fracture system,

as the pressure profiles approach the value

anit:

Figure 4 presents the dimensionless rate

decline curve when the effects of the exterior

boundary take place prior to the double-po-

rosity effects. The same six dimensionless

times as in Figure 2 are marked on Figure 4,

denoted by | through 6. The pressure profiles

for the dimensionless rate response described

areas as

| i

Tn AL ee

Pp (Dimensionless)

Fig. 3: Dimensionless pressure profiles for a finite

double-porosity system, PSS model, w = 0.01,

he —alOr?, andr, — 107.

Gp (Dimensionless)

tp / @ (Dimensionless)

Fig. 4: Log-log response for a finite double-porosity

system, PSS model, w = 0.01,4 = 107°, andr.p = 10%.

in Figure 4 are presented in Figure 5. The

first three pressure profiles describe the in-

finite acting flow period of the fractured sys-

tem. The fracture pressure is declining

throughout the reservoir, while the matrix

pressure is constant at the initial pressure,

Pp = O. The fourth pressure profile describes

the exponential decline of the fractured sys-

tem caused by the presence of the no-flow

exterior boundary. The fifth profile represents

the double-porosity effects, resulting in a flat-

tening of the wellbore rate, see Figure 4. The

pressure depletion of the matrix is noticeable,

while the fracture pressure is almost constant,

indicated by the slow upward movement of

the pressure profiles. The sixth pressure pro-

file represents the end of the transition flow

period when the rate response changes from

being dominated by the fractured system, to

Sees ne

BS@E ioe es

BARES RGR eT

Pp (Dimensionless)

ARS SOS

a ee

ame IF apt

rp (Dimensionless)

Fig. 5: Dimensionless pressure profiles for a finite

double-porosity system, PSS model, w = 0.01,

N= 21052. and ny =: 04%

80 ABRAHAM SAGEEV

the combined matrix-fracture system. The

matrix pressure approaches the fracture pres-

sure and eventually, the complete reservoir

depletes exponentially.

The Semi-log pressure profiles presented

in Figures 3 and 5 are straight lines in the

region surrounding the wellbore. This indi-

cates a constant rate in space. The slope of

the semi-log pressure profiles is proportional

to the fracture flow rate that decreases with

time. The constant rate flow period at the well

is accompanied by a period when the slope

of the pressure profiles is almost constant.

Interference Responses

In this section we examine the pressure-

time responses at various locations away from

the active constant pressure well. The double-

porosity effects and the exterior boundary ef-

fects on interference pressure responses are

examined for the PSS interporosity flow model,

followed by a short discussion of transient

interporosity flow models. We assume that

wellbore storage is negligible at interference

wells.

Interference pressure responses when the

double-porosity effects take place prior to the

effects of the exterior boundary are presented

in Figure 6. Four dimensionless radii are con-

sidered for a fixed value of the dimensionless

exterior radius, r.5 = 10*. The thick family

of curves represents the dimensionless pres-

sure response of the fractures and the other

family of curves represents the dimensionless

pressure response of the matrix blocks. The

interference response of the fractures in-

creases initially, in this case up to tp/w = 10°.

Then, the dimensionless pressure becomes

practically constant for about two log cycles.

The length of the constant pressure period is

proportional to the log of 1/w. After tp/

= 5*10°, the pressure response of the

combined matrix-fracture system increases,

and is infinite acting up to tp/w = 10'° (as

can also be seen in Figure 1). Attp/w = 10'°

the system depletes exponentially, and the

dimensionless pressure approaches the value

of 1.

The matrix pressure response is smoother

than the fracture pressure response. The ma-

trix and fracture pressure responses join to a

single curve at tp/w = 5*10° for this case,

indicating a combined depletion of the total

system. The constant pressure period of the

interference fracture pressure response is sig-

nificant. This is similar to the dimensionless

pressure response of a well producing at a

constant rate, as presented by Deruyck et al.

[1982]. The flattening of the pressure re-

sponse 1s indicative of double-porosity be-

havior of fissured systems. The derivative of

the interference pressure response has a dou-

ble hump that is similar to the pressure de-

rivative presented by Bourdet et al. [1984].

Interference pressure responses when the |

exterior boundary effects occur prior to the

double-porosity effects are presented in Fig-

ure 7. In this case, the system behaves like

a single porosity system up to tp/w = 5*10’.

This is a much longer time in comparison to

the case when the double-porosity effects take

place prior to the boundary effects, that was

at tp/w = 10*. The matrix pressures for the

various dimensionless radii are practically the

same, as indicated in Figure 7, and can be

seen in the fifth and sixth matrix pressure

responses in Figure 5. Figure 8 presents the

responses of the same system described in

Figure 7, except that 1 — pp is used instead

of pp. Here, the constant pressure period is

present, but occurs late into the test, starting

at tp/w = 10’. Also, the difference between

the responses at various radii is much smaller

LL |”

COREE

el a [oy AL

0.1

0.01

0.001

Pp (Dimensionless)

1 10° 10° 10? 10!2

typ / @ (Dimensionless)

Fig. 6: Interference responses for a finite double-po-

rosity system, PSS model, » = 0.01, A = 107%,

rp = 10,50,100,500, and r,p = 10%.

PRESSURE DISTRIBUTION AROUND A WELL 81

Pp (Dimensionless)

tp /@ (Dimensionless)

Fig. 7: Interference responses for a finite double-po-

rosity system, PSS model, w = 0.01, A = 10°’,

rp = 10, 50, 100, 500, and r,p = 10%.

in comparison to the responses described in

Figure 6. When tp/w > 10!', the dimension-

less rate of the combined matrix-fracture sys-

tem declines exponentially, and 1 — pp ap-

proaches 0.

Interference fracture responses for the PSS

and transient interporosity flow models are

presented in Figure 9. Here, the double-po-

rosity effects take place prior to the boundary

efiects, f5>— .10*, rp = 100, m = 0-01, and

dh = 10~*. Slab and spherically shaped ma-

trix blocks for the transient flow model are

considered. The introduction of transient ma-

trix flow reduces the pressure differences be-

tween the matrix and the fractures, and re-

duces flattening of the pressure response. In

the responses presented in Figure 9, the PSS

flow model has a significant constant pressure

period, and the two transient flow models do

not. The three fracture responses converge to

rp 10 oS

FRACTURE DTN —

1—pp (Dimensionless)

tp /@ (Dimensionless)

Fig. 8: Interference responses for a finite double-po-

rosity system, PSS model, using 1 — pp instead of pp.

wo = 0.01, A= 10°, rp = 10,50,100,500, and

Fen = lO.

Pp (Dimensionless)

tp /@ (Dimensionless)

Fig. 9: A comparison between interference fracture

pressure response for PSS and transient interporosity flow

models.a, = O01 A \— 107 — 100/and 7, = 10°

a single curve at tp/w = 5* 10°, that is one

log cycle earlier than when the PSS matrix

pressure converges to the fracture response,

see Figure 6. Sageev et al. [1985] showed

that transient matrix blocks with fracture skin

greater than 3 yield a response similar to the

PSS interporosity flow model.

Conclusions

1. The fracture pressure profiles in the region

around the active constant pressure well

are semi-log straight, indicating constant

rate in space.

2. The slope of the fracture pressure profiles

is nearly constant during the constant rate

flow period at the active well.

3. The fracture pressure response at obser-

vation wells has a constant pressure period

(PSS interporosity flow model) similar to

the constant rate tests.

4. For a double-porosity reservoir with a small

value of the interporosity flow parameter,

d, the double-porosity effects occur late

into the test, and may be detected only if

(1 — pp) is used instead of pp.

5. The magnitude of the interference pres-

sure drops at observation wells increases

as the distance between the observation

well and the active well decreases.

6. Fora given reservoir, the interference ma-

trix pressure converges to the interference

fracture pressure at the same time, and the

double-porosity effects occur at the same

time for all interference locations.

82 ABRAHAM SAGEEV

7. Transient interporosity matrix flow re-

duces the pressure difference between the

matrix and the fractures, and reduces the

flattening of the interference pressure re-

sponse. The fracture interference pressure

responses for double-porosity reservoirs

with slab shaped or spherically shaped ma-

trix blocks are similar.

Acknowledgement

Financial support for this project was pro-

vided by the Stanford Geothermal Program,

DOE Contract No. DE-AT02-80SF11459, and

by Stanford University.

Nomenclature

B = formation volume factor

I) = modified Bessel function, first kind,

zero order

I, = modified Bessel function, first kind,

first order

K ) = modified Bessel function, second kind,

zero order

K, = modified Bessel function, second kind,

first order

V = ratio of volume of one porous system

to bulk volume

c = compressibility

h = formation thickness

k = permeability

p = pressure

Pp = dimensionless pressure

Pp = Laplace transform of pp

q = volumetric rate

dp = dimensionless rate

dp = Laplace transform of gp

q* = matrix flow rate

r = radius

s = Laplace variable

t = time

tp = dimensionless time

\ = interporosity flow coefficient

\L = viscosity

o = porosity

= dimensionless fracture storage

a = interporosity shape factor

Subscripts

dimensionless

fracture

matrix

total

wellbore

exterior

References Cited

Barenblatt, G. I. and Zeltov, Yu. P.: ‘“Fundamental

Equations of Homogeneous Liquids in Fissured Rocks,”’

Dokl. Akad. Nauk SSR, 132 (3) (June 1960), 545-

548.

Bourdet, D., Alagoa, A., Ayoub, J. A. and Pirard,

Y. M.: “‘New Type Curves Aid Analysis of Fissured

Zone Well Tests,’’ World Oil, April 1984.

Carslaw, H. S. and Jaeger, J. C.: Conduction of Heat

in Solids, 2nd ed. Oxford University Press, 1960.

Da Prat, G., Cinco-Ley, H. and Ramey, H. J., Jr.:

‘‘Decline Curve Analysis Using Type Curves for Two-

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354-362.

Deruyck, B. G., Bourdet, D. P., Da Prat, G. and

Ramey, H. J., Jr.: ‘‘Interpretation of Interference

Tests in Reservoirs With Double-Porosity Behavior:

Theory and Field Examples,’’ paper SPE 11025 pre-

sented at the 55th Annual Fall Technical Conference

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Fetkovich, M. J.: ‘‘Decline Curve Analysis Using Type

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Moench, A. F.: ‘‘Well Test Analysis in Naturally Fis-

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presented at the Ninth Workshop on Geothermal Res-

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1983.

Moench, A. F.: “‘Double-Porosity Models for a Fissured

Groundwater Reservoir with Fracture Skin,’’ Water

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846.

Raghavan, R. and Ohaeri, C. U.: ‘‘Unsteady Flow to

a Well Produced at Constant Pressure in a Fractured

Reservoir,’’, paper SPE 9902 presented at the SPE

1981 California Regional Meeting, held in Bakers-

field, March 25-26, 1981.

Sageev, A., Da Prat, G. and Ramey, H. J., Jr.: ‘“De-

cline Curve Analysis for Double-Porosity Systems,”’,

paper SPE 13630, presented at the California Regional

Meeting of SPE of AIME, March 27-29, 1985.

PRESSURE DISTRIBUTION AROUND A WELL 83

Stehfest, H.: ‘‘Algorithm 368, Numerical Inversion of | Van Everdingen, A. F. and Hurst, W.: “‘The Appli-

Laplace Transforms,’’ Communications of the ACM, cation of the Laplace Transformation to Flow Prob-

D-5 (Jan. 1970) 13, No. 1, 47-49. lems in Reservoirs,’’ Trans., AIME (Dec. 1949) 186,

Uraiet, A. A. and Raghavan, R.: “‘Unsteady Flow to 305-324.

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(Oct. 1980) 1803-1812. urally Fractured Reservoirs,’’ Soc. Pet. Eng. J. (Sept.

1963) 245-255; Trans., AIME, 228.

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CONTENTS

Commentary:

RAYMOND J. SEEGER: ‘‘On Science as a Liberal Art” .....................

Articles:

R. WARREN FLINT: Biological Control as a Management Strategy In the Great

MICHAEL H. ROBINSON: Predator-Prey Interactions, Informational Complexity

andr ine Oneimsi@@mlMeNiPENCe 652. 62662 6e eclsa cea esl wee ee eee wd gee eee es

NANCY J. BALTER AND IRVING GRAY: Enhancement of Mitogen Responsiveness

in Mice Exposed to Low Concentrations of Cadmium in Drinking Water ........

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1985 Washington Academy of Sciences Membership Directory ..... . ab

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Washington Academy of Sciences

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Journal of the Washington Academy of Sciences,

Volume 75, Number 4, Pages i-ii, December 1985

‘*On Science as a Liberal Art’’

Raymond J. Seeger, NSF (ret.)

The Editors are to be congratulated upon

the inauguration of symposia on contempo-

rary issues such as D.C. undergraduate ed-

ucation in the March 1985 Journal. Deans

from four representative Washington colleges

were invited to speculate on its future as they

see it: one is Roman Catholic, another Prot-

estant related, the third now secular, the fourth

largely federally funded. As a former teacher

at two of these institutions, I found the per-

sonal views expressed quite interesting.

I was, however, somewhat chagrined to

find comparatively little concern as to the

general function of a college and as to how

a department or course was related to it. There

was a tendency to speak glibly even about

liberal arts without bothering to define this

ambiguous term. Originally the seven liberal

arts included the trivium (grammar, logic,

rhetoric) and the quadrivium (arithmetic, ge-

ometry, music (i.e., applied mathematics),

astronomy (the science of that time)). Al-

though a physics major, I received a B.A.

degree from my liberal arts college, which

required Latin or Greek for it (I was the only

member of my class who had both). Nowa-

days even a B.S. does not necessarily signify

a major in any science. One Dean did list the

modern liberal arts: “‘literature and history,

language and the sciences, philosophy and

theology and the fine arts like drawing and

music.’’ (Note that mathematics per se is not

included, language is singular, but sciences

are plural.) Some years ago some Phi Beta

Kappa material used the phrase ‘‘the liberal

arts and sciences.”’ I inquired if that implied

that science is not a liberal art. I was assured

the phrase intended to emphasize that it is. I

did not counter with the observation that ‘‘boys

and girls’? does not usually mean that girls

are really boys. Today colleges frequently

shorten the phrase to arts and sciences, re-

sulting in an even more nebulous phrase. I

still appreciate the traditional approach of the

French philosopher Jacques Maritain, who can

not be accused of being a science: ‘‘Physics

should be taught and revered as a liberal art

of the first rank like poetry’? (my English

colleagues never agreed).

It is noteworthy, but accidental, that none

of the Deans happens to be a scientist. Often

a dean loses his own scholarly interests upon

becoming an administrator; he may actually

become anonymous. In one instance I had to

ask seven persons, including faculty, in the

dean’s office before I could ascertain his field.

The deans here represent history (two), lit-

erature (Polish), and jurisprudence. It would

be interesting to know their own scientific

backgrounds, particularly in view of their ap-

parent general lack of understanding or even

appreciation of science per se.

As sometime chairman of a curriculum

committee, I agree that the faculty as a whole

should periodically review all courses in the

light of changing goals and developments, as

well as their relations to one another. I, too,

deplore the administrative fights that have to

be settled continually about territorial do-

mains and tenure rights. Nevertheless, no

mention is made of the losses suffered by

students whose education is made to depend

upon the financial success of each course of-

fering. I am personally in favor of a professor

offering only what he himself understands and

enjoys. Much is made by some Deans about

research-and-education. In general, the max-

imum is achieved only when these two are

related—not research on this, but teaching

that. Moreover, there are cases where good

teachers have been poor researchers—and visa

versa. A teacher will be a better teacher gen-

ii RAYMOND J. SEEGER, NSF (RET.)

erally only if he is teaching about his own

research!

What is truly disappointing is the failure

of the group as a whole to appreciate a good

lecture, particularly a scientific lecture with

phenomenal demonstrations (not just slides

or movies). Derogatory remarks about lec-

tures are common: “‘poorly presented,’’ “‘ill

presented’’, “‘musty lecture notes’’ (I myself

used the same lecture notes each year—con-

tinually improved). There seems to be a com-

mon assumption that a lecture is merely a

poor reading of printed material. On the con-

trary, to give a good lecture requires ‘‘the

same dedication that an actor has to a new

role’’ (the audience is always new). There is

the organization, the emphasis, the enthusi-

asm! Good lectures are good; they may even

inspire and be long remembered!

The easiest way to conduct a class 1s to let

it conduct itself, often haphazardly, leading

nowhere. It takes an exceptional leader to

guide stray thoughts towards a reasonable

conclusion. A good discussion chairman is as

rare as a good lecturer! I certainly cannot help

feeling sorry for the Dean who would rather

have no book at all than Milton on a desert

island. Such lack of appreciation is due ini-

tially to his first teacher, but now is his own

responsibility. How often students are de-

prived of their rightful heritage by poor teach-

ers who crowd the gateway inscribed,

‘Abandon all hope, you who enter it.’’ One

wonders, too, about the unfortunate experi-

ence of the Dean who sees in great books

‘“‘only a legacy (mostly) by dead white males.”’

The health, race, and sex of authors is hardly

a criterion for judging the value of their works.

What discouraged me most of all was the

lack of attention given by the Deans—not to

science—but rather to the universe per se.

One factor that changes my own college ma-

jor from the classics to physics (academically

my poorest subject) was the intellectual chal-

lenge of this mysterious universe. Yet no one

mentioned that in addition to the 3 R’s there

is an increasing need today to learn to observe

phenomena—not to mention the fourth R re-

ligion. The science laboratory lies hidden be-

hind closed doors. And yet, it is here that the

student is brought into direct contact with nat-

ural phenomena in an understanding way. The

closest remark, ‘‘if you want to know how

things work, satellites, fiber optics, space

shuttle, the telephone system, take physics”’

is obviously technology—not science. It might

motivate an engineer, but not necessarily a

theoretical physicist (I am notorious as a re-

pairman about the house). The most impor-

tant ingredient for science, as well as for lit-

erature and art, is never even mentioned, 1.e.,

imagination. Einstein was once asked what a

child should read. He replied, ‘‘Fairy tales!”

‘“What then?’’ the mother persisted. “‘More

fairy tales!’’ ‘and then?’’ she said hopefully.

‘Still more!’’ What is lacking in the Deans’

concerns is the cultivation of insight, of spir-

itual points of view, of visions that lift up

and uplift!

There is one emphasis of the Deans that I

strongly endorse, viz, the desirability of an

interdisciplinary outlook, which should be

developed increasingly over the years. When

I was teaching an introductory course in phys-

ical science, I invited a professor of history

to discuss its relation to science. ““History,’’

he explained, “‘is the study of man and his

environment.’’ Later a professor of philoso-

phy claimed, ‘Philosophy is the study of man

and his environment.’’ The next year I began

the course, ‘‘Science is the study of man and

his environment!’’ I had gotten the idea. We

all live in one world, the same world—we

just look at it from different points of view.

Every professor, I believe, should state his

position and outline his outlook. He should

indicate where his horizon meets other hori-

zons. In their senior year students from dif-

ferent disciplines should meet in a seminar to

discuss some common, contemporary issue(s)

such as social, ethical, or philosophical (pos-

sibly theological) aspects of science—all un-

der interdisciplinary faculty guidance. (AlI-

though I invited professors of other disciplines

to speak in my classes, they never invited

men.)

The Dean’s pay some homage to the idea

of the unity and integrity of knowledge, but

fail to show how this can be realized. What

is more, they do not acknowledge the cu-

mulative progress that has actually been made

along this line by cooperative science—in

contrast with the self-satisfaction of individ-

ualistic humanities.

Journal of the Washington Academy of Sciences,

Volume 75, Number 4, Pages 85-90, December 1985

Biological Control as a

Management Strategy in the

Great Lakes!

R. Warren Flint

Research Center, State University of New York College, Oswego,

New York 13126

ABSTRACT

Nuisances in Great Lake environments have most often been attacked through the use of

chemicals or other unnatural means. Although many of these nuisances are economically unde-

sirable, in order to sustain our natural resources we must develop convergent strategies that do

not achieve economic goals at the expense of the environment. With the increased awareness of

biotechnology more attention should be paid to developing, adapting, and exploiting characteristics

of Great Lake ecosystems that will contribute to the biological control of nuisances. This paper

discusses alternatives to present management strategies focusing on the use of natural biological

systems to mitigate or eliminate nuisances such as aquatic weeds and sea lamprey, rather than

intervening with unnatural solutions after problems reach crisis levels. Discussion emphasizes

the control of aquatic weed growth through enhanced grazing by crayfish and the control of sea

lamprey parasitism on game fish through predation by Lake Sturgeon. It is hoped this paper will

demonstrate that biological controls applied to problems facing Great Lake natural resource

managers may show merit and be worth considering. If feasible, these strategies will provide

management options that emphasize sustainability of our natural resources.

Introduction economic and environmental goals in con-

cert. As we have already learned through nu-

The environment within which we live is ™erous case histories, over the long-term, de-

an arrangement of independent and yet co- terioration in environmental systems translates

operating systems that in one way or another to deterioration in economic systems. There-

support much of man’s economic growth. To fore, we must reevaluate management poli-

develop a philosophy of sustainability for our leS that emphasize rer sen a Pees from

natural resources requires the development of atural resources at t Hes ae i ergs

convergent strategies that minimize having to TOnment that ii home ee a mage f

choose between environmental and economic Biotechnology inclu x TS Sah .,

alternatives and maximize the achievement of ferent research areas and encompasses a l-

versity of means for using living matter to

‘Contribution Number 29, State University of New develop useful products, including the ae

York Research Center at Oswego. ploitation of biological processes occurring 1n

86 R. WARREN FLINT

nature for the benefits of man and the envi-

ronment. The National Science Foundation

defines biotechnology to include the ‘‘con-

trolled use of biological agents, such as or-

ganisms or cellular components, for benefi-

cial application’’ (Markle and Robin, 1985)

Biological control, which is an extension of

biotechnology, is largely based upon proc-

esses that occur continually in nature. Cotton,

one of the most developed insecticide-inten-

sive crops, serves as a good example of the

benefits derived from biological control

methodology. Cotton hosts more than 25 re-

sistant anthropods, many of which seriously

damage crops only after their natural preda-

tors have been eradicated by the same chem-

ical controls (Mlot, 1985). Alternative pest

control strategies are being developed for this

industry in order to prevent (1) genetic se-

lection in the pests leading to eventual re-

sistance to chemicals and (2) harmful effects

to other components of the environment that

might otherwise aid in control of the pests

(i.e. death of natural predators). The results

of this research into cotton pest control has

been the development of Integrated Pest Man-

agement (IPM; Frisbie and Adkisson, 1985)

where, among other strategies, insect pest

populations are monitored to gauge resistance

to chemical treatment and beneficial (preda-

tor) insects are stimulated to compete with

the pests, i.e., biological control.

Through history, there have been other bi-

ological control strategies applied to environ-

mental problems. The killifish, Fundulus het-

eroclitus, was examined for its ability to control

mosquito populations (in the larval stage) in

Long Island, New York (Chidester, 1916).

Because of the success of this fish in feeding

on larvae of mosquitos and green-head flies,

artificial stocking was proposed as a control

to the nuisance. Gypsy moths serve as another

example of biological controls lessening a

pest’s impact (Beroza and Knipling, 1972).

The use of the species’ own sex pheromone

served as a means of trapping males of the

populations and breaking the reproductive cycle

of the pest. Perhaps the most recent example

of biological control in the aquatic environ-

ment is the manipulation of trophic levels to

eliminate or control nuisance populations

(pests) in lake ecosystems. Fish and zoo-

plankton populations have been manipulated

to biologically control nuisance phytoplank-

ton (Shapiro, 1982; Vanni, 1984; Spencer and

King, 1984). Salmonid stocking programs in

the Great Lakes were initiated, among other

reasons, to biologically control the abundant

alewife populations and reduce the nuisance

of massive annual die-offs of this species. The

cascading effect of this control has been re-

duced predation on zooplankton by the ale-

wife (Eck and Brown, 1985) and in turn,

smaller phytoplankton standing stocks (food

of zooplankton), resulting in clearer waters

for Lake Michigan (D. Scavia, 1984; D. Sca-

via, Great Lakes Environmental Research

Laboratory, personal communication, 1985).

Disturbances to Great Lake environments,

which have impacted man’s use of these re-

sources, have most often been attacked through

an interventive approach. For example, the

accumulation of toxic compounds within the

food chain of Lake Ontario resulted in the

ban of human consumption of many fish spe-

cies. Likewise, the offensive growth of aquatic

weeds and macroalgae along the lakeshores

has been controlled through harvesting or with

the use of herbicide chemicals. Another nui-

sance to Great Lake environments has been

the sea lamprey and its parasitic attack on

stocked salmonids sought by recreational

fisherpersons. This problem has been at-

tacked by use of toxic poisons as an inter-

ventive control strategy, at the expense of the

habitats in which lamprey spawn. To protect

the large investments in fish stocking and cre-

ate suitable waters for recreational boating,

management responses to these and other Great

Lake environmental problems have been re-

active (interventive), usually through chem-

ical or other unnatural means, rather than

preventative, where action is taken before the

particular problem reaches a crisis level.

With the advent of biotechnology more at-

tention should be paid to the concept of de-

veloping, adapting, and exploiting natural bi-

ological characteristics of the Great Lakes to

address the ever-growing problems associated

with these ecosystems. It is recognized that

aquatic systems are quite resilient and capable

of tapping their own resources to recover and

adapt from perturbations (e.g., Harrison 1979;

Deangelis 1980). This recognition suggests

BIOLOGICAL CONTROL AS A MANAGEMENT STRATEGY IN THE GREAT LAKES 87

that man work with ecosystem characteristics

for the enhancement of natural attributes that

will contribute to the biological control of

disturbances. Consider, for instance, that

crayfish have the potential in lake systems to

control aquatic weeds. Is it possible that by

promoting crayfish populations need for us-

ing chemical or mechanical controls in weed-

choked lake embayments could be reduced?

It is also known that sea lamprey are used as

bait by sturgeon fishermen in midwestern lakes.

Sturgeon were all but eliminated in the Great

Lakes at about the time the sea lamprey made

significant inroads. Is it possible that the ben-

thos-feeding sturgeon could significantly re-

duce sea lamprey populations before their

parasitic stage, thereby reducing the need for

chemical controls?

Biological control strategies have proved

extremely successful in the management of

terrestrial environmental problems (e.g. pests).

In addition, lessons from terrestrial case his-

tories tell us that continued reliance on chem-

ical control of pests such as aquatic weeds

and sea lamprey will ultimately result in ge-

netic selection for resistance against treatment

and/or inhibition of natural predator effects.

Terrestrial approaches to biological control

can serve as a model to begin formulating

solutions for freshwater nuisances. We sug-

gest that biological controls are viable strat-

egies for the management of several pressing

problems that haunt Great Lake environ-

ments. Thoughts on a couple of potential

strategies are discussed below.

Aquatic Weed Control

The effects of grazing on aquatic vegeta-

tion have been extensively studied. Kajak and

Warda (1968) and Paine and Vadas (1969)

showed a definite effect of grazing on the

productivity of attached benthic flora. Cas-

tenholz (1961) compared the diatom cover

which developed in ungrazed intertidal areas

with that in adjacent areas of controlled graz-

ing by limpets. Cooper (1973) observed re-

duction in producer standing crops by grazing

of a starved herbivore, Notropis spilopterous.

Grass carp (Ctenopharyngodon idella) have

been observed to graze heavily on submerged

macrophytes and eliminate populations of these

plants from sublittoral areas of lakes (Shire-

man and Maceina, 1981). Herbivory on mac-

rophytes by crayfish in freshwater has also

been documented. Intense grazing by a dense

population of crayfish (Astacus astacus) was

responsible for the control of submerged veg-

etation of ponds in Sweden (Abrahamsson

1966). Dean (1969) found a decrease in aquatic

weeds to be related to high crayfish densities.

Flint and Goldman (1975) observed that cray-

fish (Pacifastacus leniusculus) reduced the

biomass of Myriophyllum in the clear waters

of Lake Tahoe. Lorman and Magnuson (1978)

and Lodge (Univ. Wisconsin, personal com-

munication, 1984) noted that even low den-

sities of the crayfish Orconectes rusticus re-

duced macrophytes. They manipulated the

density of this crayfish in four replicated en-

closure-exclosure experiments in the littoral

zones (1—3 m depths) of three northern Wis-

consin lakes. In Trout Lake, natural densities

of crayfish reduced macrophyte stem number

by about 50% (1 crayfish/m7), 80% (5/m*),

and 100% (10/m7). In all experiments, mac-

rophyte species number was also reduced.

Littoral zones are essential for growth and

survival of many species and the structural

heterogeneity created by macrophytes is one

of the reasons they are important lake habi-

tats. Some restoration techniques, focusing

on macrophyte removal, destroy littoral zones

by the use of herbicides and mechanical har-

vesting. Other technology involves the use of

grass carp (Ctenopharyngodon idella) to

manage submerged weeds. These grazers are

capable of completely eliminating weeds in

a relatively short time interval. Structurally

complex habitats thus become relatively sim-

ple areas. Complete weed removal has been

shown to cause problems within the lake eco-

system, such as greater availability of nu-

trients to support nuisance phytoplankton

blooms in the water (Carpenter et al., 1983).

Other observations have indicated that sub-

merged macrophyte removal appears to dis-

rupt food web stability by reducing predation

on zooplankton, creating a size shift to larger

zooplankton, reducing phosphorus recycling

and thus affecting phytoplankton production

(Loucks, 1985).

88 R. WARREN FLINT

Crayfish population manipulations could

provide a less harmful and more natural so-

lution to controlling macrophyte growth. They

do not completely remove weeds but rather

control their densities (Flint and Goldman,

1975) below nuisance levels. Despite wide-

spread crayfish abundance, no examples exist

of the use of these grazers to control nuisance

macrophytic growths in littoral areas of the

Great Lakes. In general, these decapods pop-

ulate estuary and embayment regions, where

shoreline development is usually greatest and

man has most consistent contact with the

aquatic environment. These are also areas that

routinely cause greatest concern as a nuisance

to boating and unaesthetic appearance of shal-

low water weed overgrowth. Historical lit-

erature indicates crayfish may serve as a

biological control for macrophytic over-

population. Recently manipulation of higher

trophic levels (zooplankton and fish) to

control nuisance phytoplankton biologically

has been illustrated (Shapiro and Wright, 1984;

Spencer and King, 1984). The questions to

address for crayfish are: 1) why does crayfish

control of excessive macrophyte growth not

occur in many regions of the Great Lakes

where there are problems, and 2) what ma-

nipulations can be considered using crayfish

populations as a controlling mechanism to of-

fensive aquatic weed growth?

Sea Lamprey Control

Predation by sea lampreys (Petromyzon

marinus) has long been recognized as a sig-

nificant mortality source of fish in the Great

Lakes, although historical data do not quan-

tify the actual role of this predation in the

decline of native fish stocks (Christie and Ko-

lenosky, 1980; Pearce et al., 1980). Interest

in sea lamprey control increased following

invasion of the upper Great Lakes in the late

1930’s, which was in part responsible for the

formation of the Great Lakes Fisheries Com-

mission (GLFC) in 1955. Among other re-

sponsibilities, the GLFC developed measures

and implemented programs to decrease ef-

fects of sea lamprey in the Great Lakes, which

by 1958 had resulted in control methods uti-

lizing selective chemical toxicants to destroy

lamprey ammocoetes (larvae) in their stream

habitat (Smith and Tibbles, 1980). Despite

the recognized threat from predation, sal-

monid restoration in Lake Ontario was initi-

ated in 1968 without lamprey control. Impact

assessments later indicated significant effects

of sea lamprey predation on adult salmonid

populations and stimulated a program which

now chemically treats identified lamprey

spawning tributaries every 3—5 years. Despite

implemented controls, lamprey attacks and

mortality on salmonids through 1983 were

still considered excessive (Eckert, 1984).

Sawyer (1980) was the first to suggest that

there may be other, more natural, means of

controlling sea lamprey in the Great Lakes

than relying on chemical treatment which im-

pacts more than just the target species. He

borrowed the approach of ‘‘Integrated Pest

Management’’ for sea lamprey control, which

included examining the manipulation of nat-

ural ecosystem characteristics to effectively

limit lamprey impacts. As described previ-

ously, the control of pests to terrestrial crop

production has relied upon this approach for

years and the successes in these areas suggest

biological control of the sea lamprey may ul-

timately be possible.

Comparative species evaluation for similar

population dynamics may suggest alternative

management techniques that can be applied

to control sea lamprey in the Great Lakes. If

the missing mortality factor is the lack of

natural enemies, then the manipulation of the

ecosystem by introduction and/or enhance-

ment of predators could be the solution. One

potential candidate to utilize as a biological

control for sea lamprey is the Lake Sturgeon

(Acipenser fulvenscens). This species 1s ex-

tremely rare in most Great Lake environments

and has been since the early 1900’s, which

correlates with sea lamprey invasion. The life

cycle of the sturgeon, which includes spawn-

ing in tributaries, overlaps the distribution of

sea lamprey ammocoetes during their devel-

opmental stages in tributary sediments. In ad-

dition, the sturgeon feeds off the benthos where

ammocoetes are growing before transition to

parasitic phases. Anecdotal information is

BIOLOGICAL CONTROL AS A MANAGEMENT STRATEGY IN THE GREAT LAKES 89

available that indicates sea lamprey are used

as bait by fishermen for Lake Sturgeon in

many western lakes. Biological control, either

alone or in concert with chemical treatment,

which is not environmentally sound or uni-

versally effective by itself, in that it impacts

other populations besides lamprey, presents

a viable alternative to present sea lamprey

management. Alternative strategies deserve

investigation and the use of Lake Sturgeon as

a biological control warrants consideration.

Discussion

The goal of this presentation has been to

stimulate thought concerning the need to be-

gin considering alternative means of solving

Great Lake environmental problems in order

to preserve these valuable natural resources.

Although many management strategies pres-

ently applied to solve Great Lake disturbances

are somewhat successful with respect to the

target problem, many of these strategies are

reactive and stop-gap in nature. In addition,

these solutions often do not address the over-

all sustainability of the ecosystem. Recent

success of biological control strategies ap-

plied to terrestrial problems demonstrates the

need for considering them in aquatic envi-

ronments that now are managed through some

of the same dependencies on chemical/phys-

ical control concepts previously applied to

terrestrial nuisances.

The consideration of biological control

strategies to manage Great Lake resources also

answers the long overdue cry for an ecosys-

tem approach to management of natural re-

sources (€.g., Risser, 1985). If manipulations

of crayfish populations are a viable alternative

to the artificial harvest and herbicide treat-

ment of aquatic weeds, then an additional

benefit is to be realized. Crayfish are a food

source of many warm-water fish sought by

recreational fishermen. In addition, crayfish

are sought both as a food and as bait for the

booming sport fishery industry in the Great

Lakes. Therefore, potential benefits to be de-

rived from crayfish stocking as a biological

control could include the direct impact on

nuisance weed growth and the indirect effects

on fishery enhancement. The above discus-

sion also poses the hypothesis that juvenile

Lake Sturgeon can act as natural predators on

larval stages (ammocoetes) of the sea lamprey

in the Great Lakes. If this hypothesis is proven

with future research then a reasonable ap-

proach would be to consider reestablishment

of Lake Sturgeon populations in Lake Ontario

through stocking, which is now being done

in the midwest (F. Binkowski, Univ. Wis-

consin, personal communication, June, 1985).

The reestablishment of Sturgeon populations

in Lake Ontario would provide added benefits

beyond its potential for controlling the sea

lamprey nuisance. Deep offshore waters of

Lake Ontario are thought to support very low

densities of fish (J. Elrod, FWS, Oswego; T.

Eckery, DEC, Cape Vincent, personal com-

munication, 1985). Further evidence for this

contention is the fact that oppossum shrimp

(Mysis) and amphipods (Pontoporeia) are dense

in the deep water habitat, suggesting no major

predator in these waters. Establishment of

sturgeon populations in Lake Ontario may

provide a species that will utilize this deep

water habitat, further fortifying some of the

trophic interactions of the ecosystem and cre-

ating more efficient food chains.

The potential benefits of examining bio-

logical control methodologies as management

strategies should be obvious. Difference in

resources expended (i.e., time and money)

for reliance on unnatural control mechanisms

(e.g., chemical treatment) versus tapping nat-

ural environmental characteristics through

biotechnology methods, could be significant.

Various management groups presently rely on

weed harvestors coupled with applications of

Diquot, an aquatic herbicide, to eliminate weed

nuisances and pesticides to treat lamprey-in-

fested streams. The mechanical harvestor, be-

sides being expensive, damages fish habitat

in the lake areas used and Diquot application

restricts swimming for up to two weeks after

use. Lamprey treatment impacts not only the

target species but also the entire habitat. The

development of biological control technology

as described above would significantly ben-

efit user groups by providing alternative so-

lutions to nuisance problems that emphasize

sustainability of the natural environment.

90 R. WARREN FLINT

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Journal of the Washington Academy of Sciences,

Volume 75, Number 4, Pages 91-104, December 1985

Predator-Prey Interactions,

Informational Complexity, and the

Origins of Intelligence

by Michael H. Robinson

National Zoological Park, Smithsonian Institution, Washington, D.C. 20008

ABSTRACT

The origins of intelligence, consciousness, awareness and higher brain functions have been a

recent focus of attention by biologists and others. In evolutionary perspective they have described

the changes in brain structure that have paralleled the growth of sophisticated functions. In addition

some consideration has been given to the context(s) in which intelligence and higher functions

would confer selective advantages to the possessors. It has been generally concluded that the

initial function of intelligence was for the facilitation and exploitation of social relationships

within a species. I here argue that intelligence probably arose, in the rainforest, as a means of

exploiting complex information to competitive advantage. The rainforest is, and probably was,

the most informationally complex habitat on earth. I further argue that rather than intraspecific

activities it was interspecific exploitation that intelligence first facilitated. In particular I suggest

that it was in the field of food finding and prey recognition that sophisticated learning and cognition

evolved.

An outline examination of insect anti-predator adaptations is used to illustrate the possible

steps that could have occurred in this process of progressive expansion of brain function. In

addition other areas of interspecific interactions conducive to the evolution of intelligence are

detailed and it is concluded that consciousness may have a major function as a process to prevent

information saturation.

‘‘the Germans .. . also developed a most ingenious paint for their U-boats to camouflage

them against infra-red as well as against visible light. If a normal grey-painted ship, which is

thus camouflaged well against typically grey sea, is viewed by infra-red it still looks grey but

the sea looks blackish. They therefore had to make a paint which looked grey to the human eye,

but blackish to the infra-red viewer. They achieved this . . .”’ Jones, 1979. 410-411.

Introduction

There have been a number of attempts in

the last few years to provide a biological and

evolutionary background for the evolution of

intelligence in animals (for example Beck 1980,

Humphrey 1976, Jolly 1966, Moynihan 1976,

Robinson 1979, and Sagan 1977). A much

earlier treatment of complex learning in an-

imals by Rensch (1950, 1967) is full of in-

sights. In addition, the issues of concept for-

mation, consciousness and animal awareness

have been raised as legitimate concerns of

biologists in general and behavior students in

particular (the whole field was sparked into

life by Griffin 1976, see also 1984, and Crook

92 MICHAEL H.

1980). Although intelligence and the above-

used related terms are difficult to define, gen-

eral agreement exists on the range of phe-

nomena that they comprise. In evolutionary

terms one can ask what morphological, an-

atomical and behavioral characters accom-

panied the evolution of intelligence and re-

lated phenomena, this is the approach of Sagan

(1977). This is an interesting question but a

more fundamental problem concerns the sit-

uations in which intelligence-like properties

were likely to have contributed to fitness (or

to have acquired survival value; to use a less

fashionable term). This approach has been

adopted by Jolly (1966), Humphrey (1976),

Robinson (1979), and Moynihan (1976). Of

these Moynihan’s (ibid) is the more compre-

hensive review that assumes that a plethora

of factors was involved. Humphrey (ibid) as-

sumes that intelligence arose to allow pri-

mates to cope with the complexities of social

interactions.

In this paper I argue that mental processes

akin to those subsumed under the term intel-

ligence probably evolved when the ability to

process complex information allowed some

animals to exploit resources unavailable to

other animals. Thus it is argued that the trop-

ical rainforest was the cradle of intelligence

since this, by virtue of the extreme range of

species diversity and interspecific interactiv-

ity 1s the most information complex of all

terrestrial habitats (Robinson 1977, reviews

an extensive literature illustrating the inter-

specific complexity found in tropical rainfor-

est and coral reef ecosystems). Furthermore

it is argued that the context of interspecific

behavior provided the most opportunity for

exploiting the capacity to process complex

information, particularly with respect to ob-

taining food.

This hypothesis implies a rejection of the

contrary view that it is in the context of social

interactions, within species behaviors, that the

ability to process complex information first

arose. The main arguments against the func-

tion of intelligence being primarily intraspe-

cific (i.e. social) are that selection has favored

the evolution of a circumscribed number of

unambiguous social signals that facilitate in-

formation processing by recipients (displays

ROBINSON

are displays because they are ritualised). The

social context is thus a relatively simple one

vis-a-vis information. Moynihan (1970) has

emphasized that the total content of display

repertories is remarkably constant across wide

taxonomic spectra, and over a range of de-

grees of sociality. On the other hand the con-

tinuing arms race between predators and prey

has increased, and continues to do so, the

complexity of signals generated by most po-

tential prey other than those depending on

aposematism.

I came to this view of the origins on in-

telligence as a consequence of a long-term

interest in both sides of the predator-prey in-

teraction (see Robinson 1969a, 1969b and

particularly 1970). By reviewing the defen-

sive adaptations of a range of tropical insects

this paper provides evidence of the generation

of information complexity. This complexifi-

cation can lead, logically, to two major ev-

olutionary pathways for predators. These are,

quite simply, either the path of increasing

specialization or the development of complex

information processing capacities. In short it

is argued that intelligence could have begun

its evolution as a means of exploiting the con-

siderable resources potentially available to a

sophisticated tropical entomophage. Of course

detecting the presence of organisms that have

evolved complex anti-predator adaptations is

only part of the information processing task

involved in food-finding. Most organisms also

have to ‘*know’’ where and when to search.

This may involve an extensive stored memory

map and a scanning of clock and calendar

information. And food-finding is not the only

aspect of interspecific activity in which the

tropical animal is potentially confronted by a

vast array of information that can be used in

a way that has great survival value. Many

predators are also potential prey and need

appropriate defensive behaviors. These de-

fenses may utilize considerable quantities of

information (for instance topographic details

of home ranges for escape routes and refuges,

specialized responses to specific predators and

so on; see later). Animals may also need to

store and process information about shelter

from climatic variables and care of injuries

and wounds.

THE ORIGINS OF INTELLIGENCE 93

At this stage it is appropriate to consider

two ways in which information can be ac-

quired from the environment. It can either be

acquired ‘phylogenetically’, in the lifetime of

the species; or in the lifetime of the individ-

ual. Lorenz’s treatment of this issue (1965)

is a really important one. There is little doubt

that many animals are hard-wired to be highly

successful in niches that require relatively small

amounts of information processing. For in-

stance an animal that feeds on only moving

insects may (probably does) require a smaller

program of food-finding information than one

that can find motionless insects. On the other

hand the more complex the environment the

more there will be niches for animals that can

utilize a wider range of information. Thus the

tendency that seems to have occurred in the

evolutionary process towards increase in brain

size, and more individual non-genetic storage

of information (see Jerison 1970). These mat-

ters are dealt with in the following treatment

although not as extensively as they merit. Fi-

nally, in considering how animal information

processing systems might operate I will re-

view some possible functions of conscious-

ness.

Prey Detection Versus Defenses

Studies of the cues used in prey recogni-

tion, whether this is the principal focus or

merely an incidental part, lag far behind other

studies of the ethology of predation. For in-

stance, only around 8% of Curio’s (1976)

review of predation behavior deals with prey

recognition per se. This relative neglect is not

due to the fact that the subject lacks intrinsic

interest. For example, food-finding has been

most heavily studied in birds. Many special-

ized entomophages are birds, yet we know

little about how they recognize prey. Tinber-

gen (1963) has stressed our ignorance: “‘We

know that young birds have, at the start, a

very ‘“‘open mind’’ with regard to food; they

respond to an enormous variety of objects,

edible and inedible alike, and learn to confine

themselves to those they find edible. My sug-

gestion is that we have as yet no more than

the faintest idea of the kinds of things such

birds learn when young’’. There are some

exceptions, see for instance, Greenberg (1984)

but this is still true in essence. In the absence

of direct studies it is tempting to make infer-

ences about the behavior of predators from

the presumed anti-predator adaptations of their

prey. This kind of deduction is often both

logical and useful. Thus anyone encountering

the submarine painted in the manner de-

scribed at the head of this paper would be

able to deduce that the predator had, in this

case, detectors capable of operating in visible

light and the infra-red. Similarly if the so-

called Stealth Bomber is ever built, an ex-

amination of its structure could lead to the

deduction that radiodetection devices (Radar)

exist. Examples of successful deduction of

function from structure are readily found in

the literature on recent military intelligence

operations (see Jones, 1979, for intricate ex-

amples). (There are perils in deducing func-

tion from structure. Wood-Mason in 1878,

published a description of a phasmid that he

claimed was specialized for aquatic life. It

had a flattened body, with a concave under-

surface fringed with hair, and flattened limbs.

All these adaptations are found in mayfly lar-

vae that live in streams, where they are aquatic

adaptations. However, in the case of Prisopus

berosus they are adaptations to profile con-

cealment when the insect is in its concealment

posture, see Figure 16 in Robinson 1969a).

Despite these problems there are good ex-

amples of verified deductions of function from

structure in relation to insect defensive sys-

tems. Thus color-matching camouflage,

counter-shading, Batesian mimicry, and apo-

sematism have all had their deduced functions

subjected to experimental testing (rather than

cite a plethora of references the reader is re-

ferred to Edmunds 1974, and Curio 1976, for

examples and bibliographies). A particularly

interesting example of such deduction con-

cerns the function of eye-like markings in

lepidoptera. These have long been regarded

as Startle devices, when large and closely sim-

ilar to the vertebrate eye, and as deflection

devices when small and generalised (Blest

1957). Blest (ibid) was able to show, exper-

imentally, that the startle effect was greatest

when the resemblance to an eye was closest.

94 MICHAEL H. ROBINSON

A number of major visual defenses are still,

to my knowledge, untested. These include

outline concealing structures (Figure 1), oblit-

terative patterning, flash coloration, and be-

haviors such as dash and freeze locomotion

to name but a few. It is probable that obli-

terative patterning (= disruptive coloration)

has been tested in its military applications.

My own studies of the mimetic postures of

stick- and leaf-mimicking insects (1969a,

1969b, 1970, 1973, 1981a) including data on

more than fifty species of phasmids from Papua

New Guinea that is as yet unpublished be-

cause of the impossibility of obtaining species

identifications, have led me to conclusions

about predator behavior. These can be summed

up very simply; the insects have elaborate and

complex devices that apparently serve to con-

ceal structures that are typical of insects in

particular and many anthropods in general.

The structures concealed are segmentation,

legs, heads, antennae and (often) wings. The

concealment of these structures occurs in some

phasmids that are not specialised stick and

leaf-mimics and could have preceded the ev-

olution of such mimicry although it now en-

hances the disguise. Functionally such con-

cealment could have evolved in cryptic insects

to enhance their crypticity and then been a

preadaptation to plant part mimicry (= dis-

guise). This argument is presented in detail

in Robinson (1969a, 1969b) and other ex-

amples are cited by Edmunds (1974). A re-

vised outline of how stick and leaf-mimicry

could have evolved is shown in Figures 2-6.

Merely looking at the visually operating

systems of primary defence found in terres-

trial arthropods allows us to make some guesses

about how prey detection abilities could op-

erate in predators. Thus the existence of color-

matching camouflage, diurnal immobility,

disruptive patterning and countershading sug-

gests that visually hunting predators can rec-

ognize prey by their shape. A huge literature

in experimental psychology suggests that an-

imals can learn to respond to a considerable

catalog of shapes or patterns. Humans also

have an impressive ability to do this (Haber

1970), it is a right brain function. However

a predator responding to the shape of a prey

organism in the tropics would be confronted

with an enormous array of specific learning

tasks. It could encounter a multitude of spe-

cies. (Recent studies of tropical forest insects

in the canopy, by Erwin (1982, 1983), have

suggested that estimates of the total number

of insect species in the world needs upgrading

from 1.5 million to as much as 30 million;

most of these are in the tropics). Furthermore

the hunting pressure of predators may have

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Fig. 1. Profile of the neotropical tettigoniid Acanthodis curvidens (Stal). This has both concealing coloration and

a posture and structure that tend to conceal its outline. The inset shows the head of the leaf-tailed gecko Uroplates

fimbriata which also rests on trees and has profile concealing devices such as the irregular-edged lateral fringe on

the ventral surface. This, shown enlarged, breaks up the dividing line between the lizard and its substrate. (photo

M. H. Robinson)

THE ORIGINS OF INTELLIGENCE 95

Fig. 2. The evolution of stick- and leaf-mimicry in the insect Order Phasmida and convergent postures found in

other arthropods. The central grouping of insects with solid black bodies connected by broad arrows is the phasmid

element of the diagram. The other figures show anatomically and/or posturally convergent forms. Explanation in

Appendix 1.

tended to accentuate differences between ap- Species diversity and aspect diversity com-

pearances, by apostatic selection (Clark 1969), bine to produce massive informational com-

thereby increasing the learning task confront- _ plexity. To treat this kind of complexity there

ing predators, by producing aspect diversity are at least two conceivable mechanisms. One

(Rand 1967, Rickleffs and O’Rourke 1975). is to store information about all the prey that

"ES

96 MICHAEL H. ROBINSON

Fig. 3. The tettigoniid Acauloplacella immunis Brunner, from New Guinea, in its cryptic posture. The wings

are flattened so that they tent over most of the intermediate and posterior legs and touch the leaf surface, producing

a very low profile. Note the position of the anterior legs (compare with X, on Figure 2). (Photo M. H. Robinson)

Fig. 4. The Australian preying mantis Neomantis aus-

tralis (Saussure and Zehntner) which has a permanently

flattened posture for the wings, this is essentially similar

to that shown in Figure 3. (compare with X, on Figure

2). (Photo M. H. Robinson)

are encountered and have an efficient system

of reviewing the stored information (see later,

for comments on this possibility). The other

is to group the information into subsets and

act on these; this is the process of stimulus

generalization or nonverbal concept forma-

tion. I am inclined to think that predators may

have an impossible task if they rely on in-

dividual recognition of prey types. Scanning

the floppy-disc of memory could be an im-

possibly complex operation when the data base

is massive. It would help to be able to rec-

ognize some general characteristic of subsets

of the general assemblage of prey. To do this

would require the beginnings of intelligence.

What are some of the possible bases for sub-

sets?

Possible Simplifying Mechanisms

One, of course, is the recognition of the

insect “‘taxonomically’’ by its diagnostic parts.

This is suggested by the extreme modifica-

tions for concealing these parts which are dis-

cussed above, and illustrated in Figures 2—6.

There is, so far, little evidence that this is

how prey recognition works. However, I have

carried out some experiments the results of

THE ORIGINS OF INTELLIGENCE 97

Fig. 5. Leaf insect from New Guinea, note the huge gauntlet-like dilated and flattened femora (arrowed) of all

six legs. The arrows show the direction in which the legs move to form the resting outline shown in X of Figure

2. (Photo M. H. Robinson)

which are at least suggestive (Robinson 1970).

These show that some predators can use the

presence of heads or legs to find otherwise

concealed prey. There are also experiments

that show that even creatures with such small

brains as jumping spiders (salticidae) respond

to leg-like projections on models when at-

tacking prey (Drees 1952). And a number of

birds show head-recognition in the manipu-

lation of prey. A further possibility is that

predators may respond to the bilateral sym-

metry of insect prey. Cryptic patterns on the

wings of moths are invariably bilaterally sym-

metrical. The use of symmetry as a detection

device can be easily demonstrated in human

subjects confronted with photographs of cryp-

tic insects. It would provide an almost uni-

versal cue in the detection of immobile cryptic

prey since the developmental processes of in-

sects seem to rigidly produce symmetricality

of patterning. Significantly, military camou-

flage patterns avoid this symmetry in moth-

like objects as shown in Figure 7. Elegant

experiments by Delius and Nowak (1982) have

shown that pigeons can learn to recognize

symmetry and make discriminations between

patterns, that are based on symmetry. It has

also been shown that pigeons can solve in-

version problems at least as well as humans

(Hollard and Delius 1982).

Thus it is possible that predators may have

an ‘averbal taxonomic ability’ (named after

Koehler’s ‘averbal counting ability’ concept,

see Rensch 1950) and also an ‘averbal sym-

98 MICHAEL H. ROBINSON

Fig. 6. The orb-web spider Arachnura melanura. This sits at the center of its web with all its legs folded against

themselves or the margins of the body. Legs I and II project forwards, legs III and IV fold against the body. The

spider is bright yellow and flower-like. (Photo M. H. Robinson)

metry discrimination’. These abilities, it can

be argued, could imply complex mental phe- .

nomena. If it turns out that visually hunting

predators can store and review large numbers

of bits of information, in a ‘directory of prey

shapes’, which is not impossible, then they

will prove to have an information processing

system that could be an important adjunct/

precursor of induction.

It has been suggested, for two reasons, that

orangutans may be intelligent (Galdikas 1978).

One reason is that although they are the least

social of the great apes they have to store

social information for long periods between

encounters. I do not find this very convincing.

On the other hand the fact that they may have

a sense of ‘averbal botanic taxonomy’ to cope

with a plethora of plants is suggestive. (For

comments on orangutan intelligence see also

Maple 1980).

Other Complex Information

Processing Tasks

Food finding is not the only situation that

could evoke the evolution of intelligence. I

suggested earlier that there were a number of

interspecific tasks that faced many animals

and were of great survival importance. In many

of these cases the ability to store, review and

‘‘abstract’’? complex information could be

crucial to success. Admittedly animals can be

well adapted in tropical forest niches without

apparently using this information, but its ex-

istence opens up the possibility that a clever

animal would have a greater evolutionary po-

tential. In these cases, reviewed below, con-

ventional learning paradigms may be inappli-

cable—animals may need new types of plastic

behavior to exploit the new opportunities to

the full. A case in point involves the acqui-

sition of detailed familiarity with a home range

(familiarity with a territory may be a similar

phenomenon, worth consideration at length,

but omitted here for space considerations).

Many mammals show detailed familiarity with

the topography and contents of their home

range. This knowledge can be of value to

them in locating food and in the urgent sit-

uation of finding escape routes and refuges

when pursued, or confronted, by a predator.

It is not clear that the kind of learning in-

volved in this kind of information acquisition

fits any conventional paradigms. The learning

of maze layouts by rats, which were merely

given maze experience without extraneous re-

THE ORIGINS OF INTELLIGENCE 99

Fig. 7. Photograph of a sphinx moth showing symmetrical markings and a delta-winged bomber showing asym-

metrical camouflage markings (moth photo M. H. Robinson, aircraft courtesy of National Air and Space Museum,

Smithsonian Institution).

inforcement, was called ‘latent learning’ by

Hinde (1966). He has since pointed out some

of the problems involved in this kind of cat-

egorization but argues that ‘place learning’

could best be explained in cognitive rather

than stimulus-response terms (Hinde 1970).

Mackintosh (1983) remarks of these phenom-

ena “‘the topic of maze learning has shown a

marked revival in recent years, partly due to

the suggestion that such learning depends on

the establishment of a cognitive map of the

rat’s environment’’. Bernard (1983) still uses

the term latent learning, cites a 1930 exper-

iment as an example, but states that ‘‘a de-

tailed geographical knowledge of the home

area could be crucial in escaping from pred-

100 MICHAEL H. ROBINSON

ators’’. It seems to me that this kind of con-

ventionally unrewarded learning is of great

interest. There is a dearth of field studies on

the extent to which free-living animals use a

cognitive map. Many observations suggest that

they do. It is tempting to speculate, by in-

trospection, that some kind of mental reward

may accompany such types of learning. The

possibility that some kinds of locality learning

may be of survival value only in the context

of extremely rare events is raised by the use

of water holes by baboons in East Africa. This

rare use may occur during droughts that may

be many, many years apart. Here the old

members of a troop prove their usefulness as

repositories of knowledge (Altmann and Alt-

mann 1970). The occurrence of rare climatic

events even in purportedly stable, humid trop-

ics (Rand and Rand 1982), suggests that an-

imals could gain survival advantages from

long term knowledge of resource distribution.

Lorenz (1981) has argued that exploratory

behavior plays an important part in the kinds

of mental cartography described above, and

some classic treatments suggest that curiosity

is an important appetitive behavior. The link-

age or parallel of exploration to play is also

a link to intelligence.

Tool use by animals (Beck 1980, Griffin

1984) may be another instance where intel-

ligence may immediately confer an adaptive

advantage. Insight learning may give an op-

portunity to exploit resources that are out of

reach or otherwise unavailable. The classic

experiments of Kohler (1925) are still cited

as examples, although Goodall’s chimpan-

zee’s termite catching behavior (1968) may

have arisen this way.

Animals also have to cope with climatic

variables that affect the distribution of food

supplies. Species that range widely to exploit

resources that are localized in space and time

could benefit from having a capacity for

learning phenological sequences of flower-

ing, fruiting and leafing (for instance). Using

a calendar of biological seasonality would be

as useful as possessing a cognitive map of

resource distribution. Knowledge thus ac-

quired could guide an animal to flowers, fruits

and new leaves or to the animals (insects per-

haps) that feed on them. Of course simple

trial and error patrolling would achieve the

same end, but could involve the expenditure

of a great deal more energy. A calendar would

be more efficient.

Most animals face the possibility, in their.

lives, of experiencing injuries or wounds.

Predators, in particular, because of their ex-

treme reliance on maximum efficiency in cap-

turing prey, cannot afford debilitating inju-

ries. They must therefore not only learn what

organisms are edible but also what organisms

they should not attack. The avoidance learn-

ing of distasteful and dangerous organisms

may be simplified by the evolution of warning

coloration by prey organisms. On the other

hand the existence of Batesian mimicry and

other kinds of false warning coloration means

that a ‘‘simplistic’’ response to aposematism

could result in a predator ignoring a whole

range of potentially edible organisms. Al-

though there has been extensive research

showing that predators learn to generalize

aversive responses to aposematic prey, there

~have been few studies of whether sophisti-

cated predators can learn to detect deception.

I suspect that such discrimination will even-

tually be discovered. My own studies suggest

that tamarins (small monkeys) are not fooled

by eye-markings and startle displays, al-

though birds are (Robinson 1966, Blest 1957).

Furthermore there is a whole range of insects

that bring stings and other weapons into play

only as secondary defense and the alpha pred-

ator needs to be able to discriminate between

these and harmless look-alikes. It is in the

tropics that by far the greatest number of kinds

of potential prey could either be dangerous

or be falsifying information (lying) about their

dangerousness. Thus the need for intelligent

behavior in detecting food is likely to be par-

alleled by a similar need in determining sources

of danger. One of the most intriguing aspects

of animal behavior is the care of injuries and

wounds. This care is of immediate adaptive

value. As far as I know it has not been studied

by ethologists; it should be possible to do so

without inflicting pain and injury on experi-

mental animals.

This brief review suggests that the begin-

THE ORIGINS OF INTELLIGENCE 101

nings of tendencies to process complex in-

formation, through systems of complex learn-

ing and cognition, could provide a whole series

of adaptive windows for the possessor in fields

other than food-finding. This raises the ques-

tion of the evolution of consciousness, does

this have some relationship to information

processing?

Consciousness

Mayr (1982) has argued that consciousness

is undefinable and, by implication, not sus-

ceptible to discussion or study: ‘‘As far as

consciousness is concerned, it is impossible

to define it. . . therefore detailed discussion

is impossible.’’ Griffin (1984) ranges over a

whole series of attributes of consciousness

without approaching a single satisfactory def-

inition. Crook (1980) also uses a multi-com-

ponent definition.

To avoid definitional problems it is perhaps

_ appropriate to consider particular aspects of

consciousness. Thus there is the question of

memory-awareness as it might be called. One

introspectively available datum is that only a

small portion of the memory store is available

to our minds at any one time. It is as if a

huge memory store (nonconscious) were

scanned and the appropriate piece of infor-

mation were brought onto the screen of the

mind for conscious viewing. The impossibil-

ity of being simultaneously aware of the entire

contents of a memory store suggests one ma-

jor function of consciousness. It allows for

ordered review of the information that is nec-

essary for action. It is difficult to imagine any

other mechanism that could allow selective

review of stored information in animals. To

the computer enthusiast, reading off the se-

quential content of a ROM provides a be-

wildering succession of information. The brain

does not consciousiy work that way. Infor-

mation is not presented in massive succes-

sional series. The extensive content of the

nonconscious visual memory banks is nicely

illustrated by the act of reviewing a box of

color slides from, say, twenty years ago. De-

spite the enormous volume of visual experi-

ences that have occupied the twenty inter-

vening years most people will recall all the

scenes on a roll of film and be able to add

verbal detail to describe them (I owe this il-

lustration to Blakeslee 1980). This is, coldly

considered, an amazing feat. Lorenz (1981)

has drawn attention to a similar phenomenon:

“*It borders on the miraculous the way in which

gestalt perception can abstract configurations

of distinctive features from a chaotic back-

ground of accidental stimulus data, and then

retain these over the years.’’ It is interesting

that for most people sights are retained in

greater profusion than sounds and smells. We

may be impinging on a device that once served

our predatory past. Perhaps consciousness is

not the problem; perhaps nonconsciousness is

really the important adaptation. Without it all

animals could be in a state of constant infor-

mation shock, overwhelmed by the simulta-

neous input of countless bits of stored data.

Conclusion

If intelligence is a response to information-

processing in an information-rich environ-

ment this may have been only its originating

function. Because the adaptive steps to higher

learning conferred advantages in enabling the

possessor to exploit new resources, there is

no need to assume that this was the only func-

tion. In postulating the origins of intelligence

we have merely described an interspecific cli-

mate that favored the start of an evolutionary

progression. The milieu of increasing social

complexity may then have added its syner-

gism to that of interspecific complexity.

Humphrey (1975) and Jolly (1966) have, per-

haps, identified a later stage of the evolu-

tionary progression.

I have suggested elsewhere (Robinson 1977,

1981b) that there is a fundamental difference

between tropical biology in complex habitats

(rainforests and coral reefs) and the biology

of all other regions. I have characterized this

difference as being reflected in the utter com-

plexity of the biotic component of the habitat.

102 MICHAEL H. ROBINSON

The suggestion made throughout this paper is

that one way of coping with biotic complexity

is for some animals to have a capacity for

plastic behavior and for individuals to store,

process and adaptively reorganize informa-

tion during their lifetimes. (In contradistinc-

tion to the phylogenetic processing of infor-

mation involved in preprogrammed behaviors.)

When animals that evolved in information-

rich environments later moved into relatively

simple ones, those that had evolved sophis-

ticated cognition and intelligence may have

had a surplus capacity. This release from

pressures of survival may have been analo-

gous in many ways to infancy in higher mam-

mals. It could have been a period in which

mental exploration and intellectual play were

possible for the first time. It could have been

the point at which abstract thought had its

first flowering. It may have happened when

our ancestors moved from the information-

rich forests into the savannas.

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THE ORIGINS OF INTELLIGENCE 103

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Appendix I

The Evolution of Stick- and Leaf-

mimicry in the Phasmids and Convergent

Postures in Other Arthropods

The argument is simply that, from a rela-

tively generalized ancestor (1), adaptations

for profile concealment in cryptic postures led

to apparent elongation. These adaptations in-

cluded extension of legs I in front of the head

(which incidentally concealed its structure and

the antennae) and posterior extension of legs

II and III apposed to the body as shown in 2.

This concealed the legs and profile. Together

these behaviors enhanced the stick-like ap-

pearance of the resting insect. A further step

would be to become increasingly flattened (as

in element 2a and detail: this is the insect

Prisopus berosus, referred to in the text, that

was once assumed to be aquatic). Dorso-ven-

tral flattening could be a pre-adaptation to

leaf-mimicry as in X. Once the insect became

elongate and had appropriate leg postures the

next evolutionary step could be the one to

stand-alone stick mimicry shown in element

3. Once this is achieved the insect is no longer

cryptic but a true mimic and can be protected

from predators by its resemblance to the in-

edible rather than merging with a _back-

ground. Disguise is substituted for conceal-

ment. Element 3a is the total stick position

assumed by many phasmids after dropping

from a substrate—all legs are folded against

the body. Stages 4 and 4a are a further en-

hancement of stick posture 3. They involve

either structural concealment or structural and

postural concealments of other legs in a stick-

with-branches position. The insect shown in

element 4a is illustrated in detail by Robinson

1969a.

Around the central block of phasmids the

other drawings show similar postures and

structures found in other arthropod groups,

2a' and 2a’ are tettigoniid resting postures that

exactly parallel that shown in 2a. Element 2a’

is the tettigoniid shown in Figure 1 while

element 2a? is a tettigoniid from Asia (see

Robinson 1977 for details). Element 2a? is

another tettigoniid that assumes an essentially

similar posture to 2a but which rests on flat

rather than curved surfaces (from Robinson

1969b). Elements 4a', 4a” and 4a? show leg

concealment postures in which legs become

branches associated with a stick or leaf. Ele-

ment 4a’ is a West African mantid that as-

sumes a stick-with-branches position (from

Robinson 1966), 4a* is a dead leaf katydid

(from Robinson 1969a) and 4a? is the spider

Dinopis rufipes which hangs from vegetation

with its legs grouped into four stick-like units

(original, from a color slide). Element 3b is

a stick posture found in stick-like mantids

which involves the protraction of both legs I

in a similar manner to that shown in 3. Ele-

ment 3a! shows the grass dwelling mantid

Pyrgomantis pallida in its resting posture which

is essentially similar to 2 and 3a but with the

anterior legs folded beneath the thorax and

very closely apposed to it (original from a

color slide).

Elements X,, X, two insects, a tettigoniid

and mantid respectively, that are at a stage

that could lead to the evolution of leaf mim-

icry. Both have broadly flattened wings that

are leaf-like and cover the body and parts of

Journal of the Washington Academy of Sciences,

Volume 75, Number 4, Pages 104-110, December 1985

the legs. Compare with Figures 3 and 4. Ele-

ments X; and X, are functionally leaf mim-

icks, with complex leg concealment postures

(see Robinson 1969a for details). Element Y

is the orb-weaving spider Arachnura melan-

ura that is a flower mimic with a complex

mimetic posture involving leg concealment

and specialized form (compare with Figure 6).

Enhancement of Mitogen

Responsiveness in Mice Exposed to

Low Concentrations of Cadmium

in Drinking Water

Nancy J. Balter and Irving Gray

Department of Biology, Georgetown University, Washington, D.C. 20057

ABSTRACT

The effects of cadmium on the immune system have been extensively studied with reports of

both immunoenhancement and immunosuppression associated with cadmium exposure. These

studies have generally used a cadmium dose well above normal levels of exposure. In the present

study, we report the immunologic effects of exposure to very low levels of cadmium using the

lymphocyte transformation test as a reflection of immunocompetence. Male Balb/c mice were

exposed to cadmium, 0, 0.01, 0.1, 1.0 and 10 ppm, in drinking water for 4-5 weeks at which

time the mitogen- and MLC-responsiveness of their splenic mononuclear cells was determined

in a standard lymphocyte transformation test. Cadmium exposure was associated with an enhanced

response to both LPS and Con A. The LPS response of mice exposed to 10 ppm cadmium was

Statistically significantly higher than that of non-cadmium exposed mice. Cadmium exposure had

no effect on either unstimulated DNA synthesis or that induced by co-culture with allogeneic or

syngeneic, irradiated splenocytes. These results suggest that the immune system may be modified

by very low levels of cadmium in the environment.

104

CADMIUM AND LYMPHOCYTE TRANSFORMATION 105

Introduction

As a heavy metal of environmental con-

cern, the effects of cadmium on the immune

system have been extensively studied. Cad-

mium exposure significantly alters resistance

to infection following bacterial (Cook et al.,

1975) or viral (Gainer, 1977) challenge,

resistance to tumor challenge (Kerkvliet

et al., 1979) the humoral (Koller, 1973;

Koller et al., 1975) and _ cell-mediated

(Muller et al., 1979) response to immuniza-

tion with defined antigens, and macrophage

function (Koller and Roan, 1977; Loose

et al., 1977). Generally, cadmium is re-

ported to suppress the immune system, how-

ever, a number of studies have reported an

immunoenhancing effect of cadmium expo-

sure (Koller et al., 1976; Exon et al., 1979).

A review of the literature suggests that the

immunologic effects of cadmium exposure are

dependent on a variety of factors including

strain and species of animal, nature of the

immunologic challenge, and the regimen of

cadmium exposure.

Immunotoxicologic studies of cadmium have

generally used a cadmium dose below that

associated with clinical toxicity but well above

normal environmental levels of exposure. We

have been particularly interested in the effects

of low level cadmium exposure on the func-

tional response of lymphocytes. Low con-

centrations of cadmium added in vitro to cul-

tured murine splenocytes, are associated with

enhanced lymphocyte transformation while

higher concentrations totally inhibit both un-

stimulated and mitogen-stimulated DNA, RNA

and protein synthesis (Shenker et al., 1977;

Gallagher et al., 1979). In addition, the en-

hanced rejection of allogeneic skin grafts

(Balter et al., 1982) and decreased mortality

rate following MOPC-104E tumor cell chal-

lenge (Matarazzo et al., 1979) in mice ex-

posed to 0.01 to 1.0 ppm cadmium in drink-

ing water suggest that very low levels of

cadmium exposure may enhance immune re-

sponsiveness. In the present study we report

an enhanced splenocyte response to mitogen

stimulation in mice exposed to low levels of

cadmium in drinking water.

Materials and Methods

Male Balb/c mice, 5—6 weeks of age were

obtained from Harlan Spraque-Dawley

(Walkersville, MD) and housed in de-

partmental animal quarters. After 5 days

on standard laboratory chow and water, ad

lib., the mice were randomly divided into

treatment groups, 12 per group, and placed

on drinking water containing 0, 0.01, 0.1,

1.0 or 10 ppm Cd?*, as its chloride salt, in

3x glass distilled water. The water stock con-

tained less than 0.01 ppm, and the chow, 0.4

ppm cadmium.

After 4-5 weeks of cadmium exposure, the

mitogen- and mixed lymphocyte (MLC)-re-

sponsiveness of the Ficoll-Hypaque separated

mononuclear cell fraction of each mouse spleen

was determined. The washed mononuclear

cells were resuspended at a concentration of

2 xX 10° cells/ml in RPMI 1640 supple-

mented with 20% fetal calf serum and 2% of

an antibiotic solution containing 5000 U/ml

penicillin and 5000 ug/ml streptomycin. Cell

number and viability were determined by he-

macytometer counting and trypan blue exclu-

sion. Cell cultures were established in quad-

ruplicate in 96 well microtiter plates with each

well containing 0.1 ml of the cell suspension

and 0.1 ml of stimulator, either mitogen or

allogeneic or syngeneic cells prepared in RPMI.

Control (unstimulated) wells received 0.1 ml

of RPMI. The mitogens, Lipopolysaccharide

W, E. coli 055:B5 (LPS, Difco) and Con-

canavalin A (Con A; Pharmacia), were used

at previously determined optimal mitogenic

concentrations of 25 and 5 ug/ml, respec-

tively. Allogeneic and syngeneic stimulator

cells were obtained from the spleens of non-

metal exposed C57BI and Balb/c mice. Stim-

ulator cells were prepared at a concentration

of 2 x 10°/ml and irradiated (2000 rad, Ce-

sium source) before use.

The microtiter plates were incubated at 37°C

in a humidified atmosphere of 5% CQ, in air

for 3 days for mitogen-stimulated cultures and

5 days for MLC cultures. Lymphocyte trans-

formation was estimated by measuring the

incorporation of tritium-labelled thymidine,

(?H-TdR) into DNA. For this purpose 1 uCi

ee Na Sa

106 NANCY J. BALTER AND IRVING GRAY

3H-TdR (24 Ci/mmole, Amersham) was added

to each well 18 hours before termination of

the culture. DNA was collected on glass fiber

filters using an automated cell harvestor

(Bellco) and the radioactivity associated with

each filter was measured by liquid scintilla-

tion counting. The mean *H-TdR incorpora-

tion of quadruplicate wells was calculated and

used as a single determination.

Since the lymphocyte transformation test

is at best associated with a large variability,

the study was designed to control as many

parameters as possible. Each experimental run

contained 2 animals from each treatment group,

processed in a random order. A single stock

of culture medium, serum, mitogens, etc. was

used throughout the six runs. Due to the var-

lability associated with determinining cell

concentration by hemacytometer counting,

each cell suspension was sampled and counted

independently by two individuals and then

recounted if the counts varied by more than

10%.

The stimulation index (SI) for the mitogen

and MLC responses of each animal was cal-

culated by dividing the *H-TdR incorporation

in the presence of the stimulator by the un-

stimulated °H-TdR incorporation for that an-

imal. The results were analyzed for an effect

of cadmium exposure using a one-way anal-

ysis of variance. Individual cadmium treat-

ment groups were compared to the 0 ppm

control using the. L? statistic for contrasts

(Dixon and Massey, 1969). Differences were

considered significant when p < 0.05.

Results

Cadmium exposure was not associated with

any clinical toxicity although 2 of the animals

in the 0.01 ppm treatment group died of an

apparent infection. There was no significant

difference in the spleen weights among the

treatment groups.

The gross *H-TdR incorporation in un-

stimulated, LPS- and Con A- stimulated cul-

tures for each mouse are presented in Figure

la, b, and c respectively. The mean responses

for each group are represented by the bars in

Figure 1 and listed with the standard errors

in Table 1. Within each treatment group there

was considerable variation in the magnitude

of the DNA synthetic response as measured

by °H-TdR incorporation. This animal to an-

imal variation was not related to differences

between experimental runs or the order of

processing within an experimental run.

Regression analyses were performed to de-

termine whether the animal to animal vari-

ation in the magnitude of the mitogen and

MLC responses was related to the magnitude

of the unstimulated *H-TdR incorporation of

the animals; i.e., were the animals with high

values of unstimulated 7H-TdR incorporation

also the animals with the high values of mi-

togen- or MLC-induced incorporation and those

with low unstimulated responses the ones with

low responses to stimulation. The regression

analyses (stimulated incorporation as a func-

tion of unstimulated incorporation) indicated

that there was no correlation between the

magnitude of the unstimulated *H-TdR in-

corporation and that of the stimulated cul-

tures.

In spite of the range of responses within

cadmium-treatment groups, an analysis of

variance of the results of the mitogen study

demonstrated a statistically significant treat-

ment (cadmium) effect on each parameter

measured: unstimulated, LPS- and Con A-

stimulated °H-TdR incorporation. When spe-

cific treatment groups were compared, the °H-

TdR incorporation of unstimulated cells from

mice exposed to 0.01 ppm cadmium and the

LPS-stimulated incorporation by splenocytes

from mice exposed to 10 ppm cadmium were

each significantly different from the corre-

sponding values obtained from control mice

(0 ppm cadmium).

The MLC response of splenocytes from

cadmium-exposed mice to non-metal exposed

allogeneic (C57BL) and syngeneic (Balb/c)

splenocytes as well as the *H-TdR incorpo-

ration in unstimulated 5-day cultures appear

in Table 2. There was no significant effect of

cadmium treatment on the unstimulated °H-

TdR incorporation or that induced by co-cul-

ture with allogeneic or syngeneic cells.

107

CADMIUM AND LYMPHOCYTE TRANSFORMATION

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108 NANCY J. BALTER AND IRVING GRAY

TABLE 1.—Mitogen Response of Splenocytes from Cadmium-Exposed Mice

°H-TdR Incorporation (cpm) Stimulation Index

Mean + SE Mean + SE

Treatment Group ee TT oo Oi

(ppm Cd?*) n Unstimulated LPS Con A LPS Con A

0 12 665 + 114 10214 + 1966 MOORS) ==) 20923) (lg Suse 134e dae

0.01 10 1682 + 4247 32963 + 12410 150690 + 23989 27.9 + 9.3 1705S == 53-4

0.10 12 908 + 156 15939 + 2295 KaS2 530-3 bT8oL 27 4 == one 2630 E= lee

1.00 1 633 + 101 13880 + 3777 83772 + 17913 31-9 = OD" 22026 4r6

10.00 12 1679), 183 42149 + 5483° 154148 + 21444 505+9.4 193.0 =) 37a

‘Significantly different from 0 ppm, p < 0.05.

Significantly different from 0 ppm, p < 0.01.

Discussion

Splenocytes from mice exposed to 0.01-—

10 ppm cadmium in drinking water had sig-

nificantly enhanced DNA synthesis in re-

sponse to LPS- and Con A-stimulation com-

pared to splenocytes from non-metal exposed

controls. The one-way analysis of variance

also demonstrated significant cadmium effect

on the magnitude of 3-day unstimulated DNA -

synthesis. Cadmium exposure had no effect

on the magnitude of the DNA synthetic re-

sponse to allogeneic or syngeneic cells or on

the unstimulated DNA synthesis in the 5-day

cultures.

The data from the mitogen cultures has been

presented as the cpm of *H-TdR incorporation

for each animal (Figure 1) so that the indi-

vidual variability within treatment groups and

the differences in the response between treat-

ment groups is readily evident. When specific

treatment groups are compared statistically to

the non-metal exposed control group, the large

within group variabilities in combination with

the reduced n results in only 2 statistically

significant comparisons: the LPS response at

10 ppm and the unstimulated *H-TdR incor-

poration at 0.01 ppm. This statistical analysis

in combination with the patterns of response

of individual animals suggests the following

conclusions: (1) The LPS response of animals

exposed to 10 ppm cadmium is significantly

higher than that of non-cadmium exposed an-

imals. This conclusion is statistically valid

and supported by the distribution of the re-

sponse of individual animals: 10 out of 12

animals exposed to 10 ppm cadmium have a

response greater than the highest response ob-

served in non-exposed animals. (2) Cadmium

exposure tends to enhance the Con A re-

sponse. Eight out of 10 animals in the 0.01

ppm treatment group, 12 out of 12 in the 0.1

ppm group and 9 out of 12 in the 10 ppm

group have a Con A response which is greater

than the mean response of the 0 ppm treat-

ment group. Although these differences are

not significant by comparisons based on the

analysis of variance, they are significantly

different when Student’s f-test is used to com-

pare the means. (3) Cadmium exposure has

TABLE 2.—MLC Response of Splenocytes from Cadmium-Exposed Mice

7H-TdR Incorporation (cpm)

Stimulation Index

Mean + SE Mean + SE

Treatment Group TH —_

(ppm Cd?*) n Unstimulated C57B1 Balb/c CS7B1 Balb/c

0 12 804 + 163 3032 + 416 IAG tel SS GPA Wart |) 1.2 UES

0.01 10 TSPSTG 4993 + 1411 952: 282 D.2ie 25 1.6 + 0.3

0.10 12 73) 228 4452 + 1149 675 + 129 Sai 2a ISB

1.00 12 482 + 97 3360 + 663 569 + 119 10:2. 27 1.9 + 0.6

10.00 12 988 + 214 3849 + 569 7125 = 108 Bei pea I 1.0 =u

CADMIUM AND LYMPHOCYTE TRANSFORMATION 109

no effect on unstimulated *H-TdR incorpo-

ration. Although in the 3-day cultures, the

mean incorporation of the animals exposed to

0.01 ppm cadmium is statistically signifi-

cantly higher than that of non-cadmium ex-

posed animals, the mean response of the cad-

mium group has been substantially increased

by the response of two animals with “H-TdR

incorporation values of more than twice that

observed in any other animal in this study.

These two animals were housed in the same

cage as the two animals which died during

the study and there is, therefore, the possi-

bility that they had a subclinical infection which

resulted in splenocytes with a higher baseline

reactivity. If these two animals are dropped

entirely from the one-way analysis of vari-

ance, there is no cadmium treatment effect

on unstimulated DNA synthesis; the signifi-

cant effect of cadmium on the mitogen re-

sponses, however, remains. The finding that

there was no effect of cadmium exposure on

the unstimulated DNA synthesis measured at

5 days in the MLC also supports this conclu-

sion. (4) Cadmium exposure did not modify

the response to allogeneic or syngeneic cells

in a mixed lymphocyte culture. This conclu-

sion is supported statistically as well as by

examination of the distribution of individual

animal responses.

Several alternative methods are available

for the analysis of the results of the LTT, but

none were felt to provide additional infor-

mation or reduce the animal to animal vari-

ability. When the mitogen-induced lympho-

cyte transformation is expressed as a

stimulation index (SJ), the changes associated

with cadmium exposure follow the same pat-

tern as that of gross cpm although none of

the differences are statistically significant

(Table 1). The use of the SI is based on the

assumption that, in normal individuals, the

magnitude of the mitogen-induced response

is related to the magnitude of the background

response and that dividing by the background

incorporation will normalize the mitogen re-

sponse. However, many authors (Jensen et

al., 1981; Burford-Mason and Gyte, 1979)

have pointed out that presentation of data as

stimulation indices gives undo weight to the

unstimulated response. In the present study,

there was no correlation between the values

of unstimulated and mitogen-stimulated *H-

TdR incorporation. Therefore, presentation

of the data of this study as stimulation indices

only compounds the problems associated with

the animal to animal variability.

Several other studies of the effect of cad-

mium exposure via drinking water on murine

lymphocyte transformation have been re-

ported although it is difficult to compare stud-

les since strain of mouse, cadmium concen-

tration and length of exposure are all important

factors in determining the effect of cadmium.

Koller et al. (1979) found that 3, 30 and 300

ppm cadmium had no effect on the Con A

response of CBA splenocytes while exposure

to 30 and 300 ppm (but not 3 ppm) cadmium

resulted in a statistically significant enhance-

ment of the LPS response. This is in agree-

ment with our finding of an enhanced LPS

response in the 10 ppm treatment group. Ga-

worski and Sharma (1978), using a small

number of animals per treatment group (4 or

less), reported that exposure of mice to 160

ppm cadmium in drinking water depressed the

response of splenocytes to both PHA and

Pokeweed mitogen. Koller and Roan (1980)

have reported that exposure to 3, 30 and 300

ppm cadmium tends to enhance the response

of DBA splenocytes to allogeneic cells in the

MLC although this enhancement was not sta-

tistically significant.

The mechanism by which cadmium ex-

posure affects the lymphocyte response to mi-

togens may involve a change in the distri-

bution or reactivity of specific lymphocyte

subpopulations in the spleen. Koller and

Brauner (1977) have demonstrated a decrease

on the percentage of EAC-rosette forming cells

in mice exposed to 30 or 300 ppm cadmium

suggesting a decrease in the number of splenic

B-lymphocytes as a result of cadmium ex-

posure. This finding does not explain the in-

creased response to the B-cell mitogen, LPS,

and suggests that cadmium acts by enhancing

the cellular response to stimulation. It is un-

clear whether this effect is a generalized phe-

nomenon or specific to certain lymphoid pop-

ulations. However, the fact that cadmium

exposure does not affect the response to stim-

ulation by allogeneic cells suggests that there

110 NANCY J. BALTER AND IRVING GRAY

may be specificity in the action of cadmium.

The results of this study suggest that low

levels of cadmium exposure, over a relatively

short period of time, affect the lymphocyte

response to both a B- and a T-cell mitogen.

This finding is particularly significant since

the cadmium exposure was at levels around

and including that presently allowed in drink-

ing water in the United States (0.01 ppm,

Federal Register, 1975).

Acknowledgment

This work was supported by PHS Grant

ES02064. We wish to thank William S. Nieder

for his excellent technical assistance.

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I. (1982). Modification of skin graft rejection and

acceptance by low concentrations of cadmium in

drinking water of mice. J. Toxicol. Environ. Health.

10: 433-439.

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Meth., 28: 391-394.

Cook, J. A., Hoffman, E. O. and Diluzio, N. R. (1975).

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of rats to bacterial challenge. Proc. Soc. Exp. Biol.

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duction to Statistical Analysis, 3rd Edition, p. 167,

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Exon, J. H., Koller, L. D. and Kerkvliet, N. I. (1979).

Lead cadmium interaction: effects on viral-induced

mortality and tissue residues in mice. Arch. Environ.

Health, 34: 469-475.

Federal Register. (1975). Vol. 40, p. 59566.

Gainer, J. H. (1977). Effects of heavy metals and of

deficiency of zinc on mortality rates in mice infected

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38: 869-872.

Gallagher, K., Matarazzo, W. J. and Gray, I. (1979).

Trace metal modification of immunocompetence. II.

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kinase activity and blastogenesis during B-lymphocyte

transformation in vitro. Clin. Immunol. Immuno-

pathol., 13, 369-377.

Gaworski, C. L. and Sharma, R. P. (1978). Effects

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Jensen, B., Moller, S. and Bentzon, M. W. (1981).

Statistical evaluation of the lymphocyte proliferation

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40: 259-274.

Kerkvliet, N. I., Koller, L. D., Baecher, L. G. and

Brauner, J. A. (1979). Effect of cadmium exposure

on primary tumor growth and cell-mediated cytotox-

icity in mice bearing MSB sarcomas. J. Can. Inst.,

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Koller, L. D. (1973). Immunosuppression produced by

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1457-1458.

Koller, L. D., Exon, J. H. and Roan, J. G. (1975).

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Koller, L. D., Exon, J. H. and Roan, J. G. (1976).

Humoral antibody response in mice after single dose

exposure to lead or cadmium. Proc. Soc. Exp. Biol.

Med., 151: 339-342.

Koller, L. D. and Roan, J. G. (1977). Effects of lead

and cadmium on mouse peritoneal macrophages. J.

Reticuloendothel. Soc., 21: 7-12.

Koller, L. D. and Roan, J. G. (1980). Response of

lymphocytes from lead, cadmium and methylmercury

exposed mice in the mixed culture. J. Environ. Pathol.

Toxicol., 4: 393-398.

Koller, L. D. and Brauner, J. A. (1977). Decreased

B-lymphocyte response after exposure to lead and cad-

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Mitogen stimulation of lymphocytes in CBA mice ex-

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Journal of the Washington Academy of Sciences,

Volume 75, Number 4, Pages 111-112, December 1985

1985 Elected Fellows of the Academy

Armand B. Weiss

Chairman, Membership Committee, Washington Academy of Sciences

The following 13 individuals have been elected

as Fellows of the Academy during 1985.

Behavioral Sciences

Dr. Charles A. Boneau

George Mason University

Fairfax, VA 22030

In recognition of his contributions to behav-

ioral psychology and his research leading to

improved understanding of professional re-

sources and manpower utilization in the be-

havioral sciences.

Dr. Bert T. King

Office of Naval Research

Arlington, VA 22217

In recognition of his significant contributions

to the disciplines of organizational psychol-

ogy, personnel retention, and social change,

as well as his direction of outstanding re-

search programs in organizational effective-

ness and group psychology.

Dr. Allen Raskin

National Institute of Mental Health

Rockville, MD 20857

In recognition of his contribution to psycho-

pharmacology and, in particular, his re-

searches on psychoactive drug use in de-

pressed, geriatric, and anxious patients.

Dr. Jeffrey M. Schneider

Office of Naval Research

Arlington, VA 22217

In recognition of his contributions to social

psychology and, in particular, his research on

the achievement norms, organizational be-

havior, and status attainment of different so-

cial groups.

Biological Sciences

Dr. Prabhakara V. Choudary

National Institutes of Health

Bethesda, MD 20205

In recognition of his contributions to human

genetics and cell biology, and especially to

his research leading to the cloning of the gene

in the enzyme suspected of causing Gaucher’s

Disease.

Dr. Warren W. Schultz

Office of Naval Research

Arlington, VA 22217

In recognition of his contribution to micro-

biology and, in particular, his research on

hepatitis and immunology.

Dr. Robert J. Sousa

U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service

Washington, DC 20240

In recognition of his contributions to how am-

monia affects toxicity in fish. This same

mechanism may have broader application to-

ward resolving how metabolic ammonia is

detoxified in humans with impaired hepatic

function.

Mr. Robert A. Warren

Naval Air Systems Command

Washington, DC 20361

In recognition of his conceptual understand-

ing, development, and contribution to bio-

technology and, in particular, his ideas for

111

ULE SS Se

112

new materials and devices that could be made

using genetic engineering.

Chemistry

Dr. Barbara F. Howell

National Bureau of Standards

Gaithersburg, MD 20899

In recognition of her work which proved that

the properties of polywater are due to im-

purities and for her contributions to certifi-

cation of clinical Standard Reference Ma-

terials, to measurement techniques for deter-

mining lactate dehydrogenase activity, and to

measurements of the diffusion coefficients of

small molecules in polymers.

Engineering Sciences

Mr. Thomas W. Doeppner

Defense Systems Management College

Fort Belvoir, VA 22060

In recognition of his leadership in advancing

electromagnetic compatibility in the design

and operation of telecommunications sys-

tems.

Dr. Jude E. Franklin

Planning Research Corporation

McLean, VA 22102

In recognition of his contribution to the field

of electrical engineering and, in particular,

his leadership of research programs in arti-

ficial intelligence and signal processing.

Mrs. Marylin Krupsaw

University of the District of Columbia

Washington, DC 20008

In recognition of her outstanding achieve-

ments as a woman in engineering and her

personal contributions to the science educa-

tion of young people.

Health Sciences

Dr. Phyllis Burbrink Moser

University of Maryland

College Park, MD 20742

In recognition of her contributions to nutrition

and, in particular for her research on mineral

and vitamin concentrations as influenced by

the diet for different human groups.

Journal of the Washington Academy of Sciences,

Volume 75, Number 4, December 1985

1985 Washington Academy of Sciences

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CLINE, THOMAS L. (Dr), 13708 Sherwood

Forest Dr., Silver Spring, MD 20904 (FP)

COATES, JOSEPH F. (Mr), 3738 Kanawha

St., N.W., Washington, DC 20015 (F)

COFFEY, TIMOTHY (Dr), 976 Spencer Rd.,

McLean, VA 22102 (F)

COLE, RALPH I. (Mr), 3431 Blair Rd., Falls

Church, VA 22041 (F)

COLWELL, RITA R. (Dr), University of

Maryland, Department of Microbiology,

College Park, MD 20742 (F)

COMPTON, W. DALE (Dr), Ford Motor

Company, P.O. Box 1603, Dearborn, MI

48121 (F)

CONNELLY, EDWARD McD. (Mr), 1625

Autumnwood Dr., Reston, VA 22094 (FP)

COOK, RICHARD K. (Dr), 4111 Bel Pre

Rd., Rockville, MD 20853 (F)

COOPER, KENNETH W. (Dr), 4497 Pi-

cacho Dr., Riverside, CA 92507 (E)

CORLISS, EDITH L. (Mrs), 2955 Albemarle

St., N.W., Washington, DC 20008 (F)

CORMACK, JOHN G. (Mr), 10263 Gains-

borough Rd., Potomac, MD 20854 (M)

COSTRELL, LOUIS (Mr), 10614 Cavalier

Dr., Silver Spring, MD 20901 (F)

COTTERILL, CARL H. (Mr), U.S. Bureau

of Mines, 2401 E St., N.W., MS # 5040,

Washington, DC 20241 (F)

CRAGOE, CARL S. (Mr), 6206 Singleton

Pl., Bethesda, MD 20817 (E)

CRAIN, DARRELL C. (Dr), 6422 Garnett

Dr., Chevy Chase, MD 20815 (F)

1985 MEMBERSHIP DIRECTORY

CREVELING, CYRUS R. (Dr), 4516 Am-

herst Ln., Bethesda, MD 20814 (F)

CULBERT, DOROTHY K. (Mrs), 109 Calle

la Pena, Sante Fe, NM 87501 (M)

CULLINAN, FRANK P. (Dr), 4402 Beech-

wood Rd., Hyattsville, MD 20782 (E)

CURRAN, HAROLD R. (Dr), 3431 N. Ran-

dolph St., Arlington, VA 22207 (E)

CURRIE, CHARLES L. (Dr), Xavier Uni-

versity, Office of the President, 3800 Vic-

tory Parkway, Cincinnati, OH 45207-1096

(F)

CURTIS, ROGER W. (Dr), 6308 Valley Rd.,

Bethesda, MD 20817 (E)

CUTKOSKY, ROBERT D. (Mr), 19150 Ro-

man Way, Gaithersburg, MD 20879 (F)

DAVIS, JR., CHARLES M. (Dr), 8458 Port-

land Pl., McLean, VA 22102 (M)

DAVIS, MARION MacL. (Dr), Crosslands,

Apt. # 100, Kennett Square, PA 19348

(L)

DAVIS, ROBERT E. (Dr), 1793 Rochester

St., Crofton, MD 21114 (F)

DAVISON, MARGARET C. (Mrs), 2928 N.

26th St., Arlington, VA 22207 (M)

DAVISSON, JAMES W. (Dr), 400 Cedar

Ridge Dr., Oxon Hill, MD 20745 (E)

DAWSON, ROY C. (Dr), 7002 Chansory Ln.,

Hyattsville, MD 20782 (E)

DAWSON, VICTOR C. D. (Dr), 9406 Cur-

ran Rd., Silver Spring, MD 20901 (F)

DEAL, GEORGE E. (Dr), 6245 Park Rd.,

McLean, VA 22101 (F)

DeBERRY, MARIAN B. (Mrs), 3608 17th

St., N.E., Washington, DC 20018 (M)

DEDRICK, ROBERT L. (Dr), 1633 Warner

Ave., McLean, VA 22101 (F)

DeLANEY, WAYNE R. (Mr), 4801 Bradley

Blvd., Chevy Chase, MD 20815 (M)

DeMUTH, HAL P. (Mr), 24 S. Washington

St., Winchester, VA 22601 (F)

DENNIS, BERNARD K. (Mr), 915 Country

Club Dr., Vienna, VA 22180 (F)

DESLATTES, JR., RICHARD D. (Dr), 610

Aster Blvd., Rockville, MD 20850 (F)

DEUTSCH, STANLEY (Dr), 7109 Laverock

Ln., Bethesda, MD 20817 (F)

DEVIN, JR., CHARLES (Dr), 629 Blossom

Dr., Rockville, MD 20850 (M)

DeVOE, JAMES R. (Mr), 17708 Parkridge

Dr., Gaithersburg, MD 20878 (F)

DeWIT ROLAND (Dr), 11812 Tifton Dr.,

Rockville, MD 20854 (F)

DICKSON, GEORGE (Mr), 52 Orchard Way

North, Rockville, MD 20854 (F)

DIMOCK, DAVID A. (Mr), 4291 Moles-

worth Terr., Mt. Airy, MD 21771 (E)

DIXON, PEGGY A. (Dr), 9011 Eton Rd.,

Silver Spring, MD 20901 (F)

DOCTOR, NORMAN (Mr), 6 Tegner Ct.,

Rockville, MD 20850 (F)

DOEPPNER, THOMAS W. (Mr), 8323 Or-

ange Ct., Alexandria, VA 22309 (F)

DONALDSON, EVA G. (Ms), 3941 Ames

St., N.E., Washington, DC 20019 (F)

DONALDSON, JOHANNA B. (Mrs), 3020

N. Edison St., Arlington, VA 22207 (F)

DONNERT, HERMANN J. (Dr), 5217 Terra

Heights Dr., Manhattan, KS 66502 (F)

DOOLING, ROBERT J. (Dr), 4812 Mori Dr.,

Rockville, MD 20853 (F)

DOUGLAS, THOMAS B. (Dr), 3031 Sedg-

wick St., N.W., Washington, DC 20008

(E)

DRAEGER, HAROLD R. (Dr), 1201 N. 4th

St., Tucson, AZ 85705 (E)

DRECHSLER, CHARLES (Dr), 6915 Oak-

ridge Rd., University Park, MD 20782 (E)

DUBEY, SATYA D. (Dr), 7712 Groton Rd.,

Bethesda, MD 20817 (E)

DUERKSEN, J. A. (Mr), 3134 Monroe St.,

N.E., Washington, DC 20018 (E)

DUFFEY, DICK (Dr), University of Mary-

land, Department of Chemical and Nuclear

Engineering, College Park, MD 20742 (F)

DUNCOMBE, RAYNOR L. (Dr), 1804 Vance

Circle, Austin, TX 78701 (F)

DUNKUM, WILLIAM W. (Dr), P.O. Box

461, Carmel, CA 93921 (F)

DuPONT, JOHN E. (Mr), P.O. Box 297,

Newtown Square, PA 19073 (FP)

DURIE, EDYTHE G. (Mrs), 1008 Moore-

field Creek Rd., Vienna, VA 22180 (F)

EDDY, BERNICE E. (Dr), 6722 Selkirk Ct.,

Bethesda, MD 20817 (E)

EDINGER, STANLEY E. (Dr), 12000 Old

Georgetown Rd., Apt. # 404-N, Rock-

ville, MD 20852 (F)

1985 MEMBERSHIP DIRECTORY

EISENHART, CHURCHILL (Dr), 9629 El-

rod Rd., Kensington, MD 20895 (E)

EL-BISI, HAMED M. (Dr), 135 Forest Rd.,

Millis, MA 02054 (M)

ELISBERG, F. MARILYN (Mrs), 4008 Queen

Mary Dr., Olney, MD 20832 (F)

ELLINGER, GEORGE A. (Mr), 739 Kelly

Dr., York, PA 17404 (E)

ELLIOTT, F. E. (Dr), 7507 Grange Hall Dr.,

Fort Washington, MD 20744 (E)

EMERSON, K. C. (Dr), 560 Boulder Dr.,

Sanibel, FL 33957 (F)

ENGLAR, ROBERT J. (Mr), 3269 Catkin

Ct., Marietta, GA 30066 (F)

ETTER, PAUL C. (Mr), 16609 Bethayres

Rd., Rockville, MD 20855-2043 (F)

EVERSTINE, GORDON C. (Dr), 12020

Golden Twig Ct., Gaithersburg, MD 20878

(F)

EWERS, JOHN C. (Mr), 4432 N. 26th Rd.,

Arlington, VA 22207 (E)

FARMER, III, ROBERT F. (Dr), 7 Jodie Rd.,

Framingham, MA 01701 (F)

FAULKNER, JOSEPH A. (Mr), 1007 Sligo

Creek Parkway, Takoma Park, MD 20912

(F)

FAUST, WILLIAM R. (Dr), 5907 Walnut

St., Temple Hills, MD 20748 (F)

FEARN, JAMES E. (Dr), 4446 Alabama

Ave., S.E., Washington, DC 20019 (F)

FEINGOLD, S. NORMAN (Dr), 9707 Sin-

gleton Dr., Bethesda, MD 20817 (F)

FERRELL, RICHARD A. (Dr), University

of Maryland, Department of Physics, Col-

lege Park, MD 20742 (F)

FILIPESCU, NICOLAE (Dr), 5020 Little Falls

Rd., Arlington, VA 22207 (F)

FINN, EDWARD J. (Dr), 4211 Oakridge Ln.,

Chevy Chase, MD 20815 (F)

FISHER, JOEL L. (Dr), 4033 Olley Ln.,

Fairfax, VA 22030 (M)

FLINN, DAVID R. (Dr), 8104 Bernard Dr.,

Fort Washington, MD 20744 (F)

FLORIN, ROLAND, E. (Dr), 7407 Cedar

Ave., Takoma Park, MD 20912 (E)

FLYNN, JOSEPH H. (Dr), 5309 Iroquois Rd.,

Bethesda, MD 20816 (F)

FOCKLER, HERBERT H. (Mr), 10710 Lo-

rain Ave., Silver Spring, MD 20901 (E)

FONER, SAMUEL N. (Dr), Johns Hopkins

University, Applied Physics Laboratory,

11100 Johns Hopkins Rd., Laurel, MD

20707 (F)

FOOTE, RICHARD H. (Dr), Lake of the

Woods, Box 166, Locust Grove, VA 22508

(F)

FORZIATI, ALPHONSE F. (Dr), 15525

Prince Frederick Way, Silver Spring, MD

20906 (F)

FORZIATI, FLORENCE H. (Dr), 15525

Prince Frederick Way, Silver Spring, MD

20906 (F)

FOSTER, AUREL O. (Dr), 4613 Drexell Rd.,

College Park, MD 20740 (E)

FOURNIER, ROBERT O. (Dr), 108 Paloma

‘Rd., Portola Valley, CA 94025 (F)

FOWLER, WALTER B. (Mr), 9404 Under-

wood St., Seabrook, MD 20706 (M)

FOX, DAVID W. (Dr), University of Min-

nesota, Department of Computer Science,

136 Lind Hall, 207 Church St., S.E., Min-

neapolis, MN 55455 (F)

FOX, WILLIAM B. (Dr), 1813 Edgehill Dr.,

Alexandria, VA 22307 (F)

FRANKLIN, JUDE (Dr), 7 Sutton Ct., Up-

per Marlboro, MD 20772 (F)

FRANKLIN-RAMIREZ, LOUISE (Ms), 2501

N. Florida St., Arlington, VA 22207 (E)

FRANZ, GERALD J. (Dr), Box 695, Bay-

view, ID 83803 (F)

FREEMAN, ANDREW F. (Mr), 5012 N. 33rd

St., Arlington, VA 22207 (E)

FRENKIEL, FRANCOIS N. (Dr), 4545 Con-

necticut Ave., N.W., Washington, DC

20008 (F)

FRIEDMAN, MOSHE (Dr), 4511 Yuma St.,

N.W., Washington, DC 20016 (F)

FRIESS, SEYMOUR L. (Dr), 6522 Lone Oak

Ct., Bethesda, MD 20817 (F)

FRUSH, HARRIET L. (Dr), 4912 New

Hampshire Ave., N.W., Apt. # 104,

Washington, DC 20011 (F)

FURUKAWA, GEORGE (Dr), National Bu-

reau of Standards, Bldg. 221, Rm. B-307,

Gaithersburg, MD 20899 (F)

FUSONIE, ALAN E. (Dr), 5611 Victoria Ln.,

Sunderland, MD 20689 (F)

1985 MEMBERSHIP DIRECTORY

GAGE, WILLIAM W. (Dr), 10 Trafalgar St.,

Rochester, NY 14619 (F)

GALASSO, GEORGE (Dr), 636 Crocus Dr.,

Rockville, MD 20850 (F)

GALLER, SIDNEY R. (Dr), 6242 Wood-

crest Ave., Baltimore, MD 21209 (E)

GANT, JR., JAMES O. (Dr), 4349 Klingle

St., N.W., Washington, DC 20016 (M)

GARVIN, DAVID (Dr), 18700 Walker’s

Choice Rd., Apt. # 807, Gaithersburg, MD

20879 (F)

GAUNAURD, GUILLERMO C. (Dr), 4807

Macon Rd., Rockville, MD 20852 (F)

GENTRY, JAMES S. (Dr), University of

Maryland, Department of Chemical and

Nuclear Engineering, College Park, MD

20742 (F)

GHAFFARI, ALBOLGASSEM (Dr), 5420

Goldsboro Rd., Bethesda, MD 20817 (L)

GHOSE, RABINDRA N. (Dr), 8167 Mul-

holland Terr., Los Angeles, CA 90046 (F)

GIACCHETTI, ATHOS (Dr), Organization

of American States, Department of Sci-

entific Affairs, 1889 F St., N.W., Wash-

ington, DC 20006 (M)

GINTHER, ROBERT J. (Mr), Naval Re-

search Laboratory, Code 6570.1, Wash-

ington, DC 20375-5000 (F)

GIST, LEWIS A. (Dr), 1336 Locust Rd.,

N.W., Washington, DC 20012 (E)

GLASER, HAROLD (Dr), 1346 Bonita St.,

Berkeley, CA 94709 (FP)

GLASGOW, JR., AUGUSTUS R. (Dr), 4116

Hamilton St., Hyattsville, MD 20781 (E)

GLUCKMAN, ALBERT G. (Mr), 11235

Oakleaf Dr., Apt. # 1619, Silver Spring,

MD 20901 (F)

GLUCKSTERN, ROBERT L. (Dr), West-

chester Park, 6100 Westchester Park Dr.,

Apt. # 1116, College Park, MD 20740 (F)

GOFF, JAMES F. (Dr), 3405 34th Pl., N.W.,

Washington, DC 20016 (F)

GOKEL, GEORGE W. (Dr), University of

Maryland, Department of Chemistry, Col-

lege Park, MD 20742 (F)

GOLDBERG, MICHAEL (Mr), 5833 Poto-

mac Ave., N.W., Washington, DC 20016

(F)

GOLDSMITH, HERBERT (Dr), 238 Con-

gressional Ln., Rockville, MD 20852 (M)

GOLUMBIC, CALVIN (Dr), 6000 Highboro

Dr., Bethesda, MD 20817 (E)

GONET, FRANK (Dr), 4007 N. Woodstock

St., Arlington, VA 22207 (E)

GOODE, ROBERT J. (Mr), Naval Research

Laboratory, Code 6301, Washington, DC

20375-5000 (F)

GORDON, RUTH E. (Dr), American Type

Culture Collection, 12301 Parklawn Dr.,

Rockville, MD 20852 (E)

GRAY, IRVING (Dr), 9215 Quintana Drive,

Bethesda, MD 20817 (F)

GREENOUGH, M. L. (Mr), 616 Aster Blvd..,

Rockville, MD 20850 (F)

GREENSPAN, MARTIN (Mr), 12 Granville

Dr., Silver Spring, MD 20901 (E)

GREER, SANDRA C. (Dr), 11402 Stone-

wood Ln., Rockville, MD 20852 (F)

GRISAMORE, NELSON T. (Dr), 9536 E.

Bexhill Dr., Kensington, MD 20895 (F)

GROSS, ROSALIND L. (Dr), 6302 Queens

Chapel Rd., Hyattsville, MD 20782 (M)

GROSSLING, BERNARDO F. (Dr), 10903

Amherst Ave., Apt. # 241, Silver Spring,

MD 20902 (F)

GRUNTFEST, IRVING (Dr), 1900 S. Eads

St., Apt. # 1025, Arlington, VA 22202

(F)

GURNEY, ASHLEY B. (Dr), 4606 N. 41st

St., Arlington, VA 22207 (E)

HACSKAYLO, EDWARD (Dr), Scientists

Cliffs, Port Republic, MD 20676 (F)

HAENNI, EDWARD O. (Dr), 7901 Glen-

brook Rd., Bethesda, MD 20814 (F)

HAINES, KENNETH A. (Mr), 3542 N. Del-

aware St., Arlington, VA 22207 (F)

HALL, E. RAYMOND (Dr), 1637 W. Ninth

St., Lawrence, KS 66044 (E)

HAMER, WALTER J. (Dr), 3028 Dogwood

St., N.W., Washington, DC 20015 (E)

HAMMER, II, GUY S. (Mr), 8902 Ewing

Dr., Bethesda, MD 20817 (F)

HAND, JR., CADET H. (Dr), Star Route,

Bodega Bay, CA 94923 (F)

HANEL, RUDOLF A. (Dr), 31 Brinkwood

Rd., Brookeville, MD 20833 (F)

HANIG, JOSEPH P. (Dr), 822 Eden Ct., Al-

exandria, VA 22308 (F)

1985 MEMBERSHIP DIRECTORY

HANSEN, LOUIS S. (Dr), University of Cal-

ifornia, O. M. & D., Oral Pathology, Rm.

S-524, San Francisco, CA 94143 (F)

HANSEN, MORRIS H. (Mr), WESTAT Re-

search, Inc., 1650 Research Blvd., Rock-

ville, MD 20850 (F)

HARR, JAMES W. (Mr), 9503 Nordic Dr.,

Lanham, MD 20706 (M)

HARRINGTON, FRANCIS D. (Dr), 4600

Ocean Beach Blvd., Apt. # 204, Cocoa

Beach, FL 32931 (F)

HARRINGTON, MARSHALL C. (Dr), 4545

Connecticut Ave., N.W., Apt. # 334,

Washington, DC 20008 (E)

HARRIS, MILTON (Dr), 3300 Whitehaven

St., N.W., Suite 500, Washington, DC

20007 (F)

HARTLEY, JANET W. (Dr), National Insti-

tutes of Health, National Institute of Al-

lergy, Bethesda, MD 20892 (F)

HARTMANN, GREGORY K. (Dr), 10701

Keswick St., Garrett Park, MD 20896 (E)

HARTZLER, MARY P. (Ms), 1250S. Wash-

ington St., Apt. # 203, Alexandria, VA

22314 (M)

HASKINS, CARYL P. (Dr), 1545 18th St.,

N.W., Suite 604, Washington, DC 20036

(E)

HASS, GEORG H. (Dr), 7728 Lee Ave.,

Alexandria, VA 22308 (F)

HAUPTMAN, HERBERT A. (Dr), 73 High

St., Buffalo, NY 14203 (F)

HAYDEN, GEORGE A. (Dr), 1312 Juniper

St., N.W., Washington, DC 20012 (E)

HEIFFER, MELVIN H. (Dr), Whitehall, 4977

Battery Ln., Apt. # 701, Bethesda, MD

20814 (F)

HENDERSON, EDWARD P. (Dr), 4600

Connecticut Ave., N.W., Washington, DC

20008 (E)

HENNEBERRY, THOMAS J. (Dr), 1409 E.

Northshore Dr., Tempe, AZ 85283 (F)

HERMACH, FRANCIS L. (Mr), 2415 Ec-

cleston St., Silver Spring, MD 20902 (F)

HERMAN, ROBERT (Dr), 8434 Antero Dr.,

Austin, TX 78759 (F)

HERSEY, JOHN B. (Mr), 923 Harriman St.,

Great Falls, VA 22066 (M)

HEYDEN, FRANCIS J. (Rev), Manila Ob-

servatory, P.O. Box 1231, Manila, Phil-

lipines D-404 (E)

HEYER, W. RONALD (Dr), Smithsonian In-

stitution, N. H. B., Amphibian and Rep-

tile, Washington, DC 20560 (F)

HIBBS, EUTHYMIA (Dr), 7302 Durbin Terr.,

Bethesda, MD 20817 (M)

HICKOX, GEORGE H. (Dr), 9310 Allwood

Ct., Alexandria, VA 22309 (E)

HILLABRANT, WALTER J. (Dr), 421 But-

ternut St., N.W., Washington, DC 20012

(M)

HILSENRATH, JOSEPH (Mr), 9603 Brunett

Ave., Silver Spring, MD 20901 (F)

HOBBS, ROBERT B. (Dr), 7715 Old Ches-

ter Rd., Bethesda, MD 20817 (F)

HOFFELD, J. TERRELL (Dr), 11307 Ash-

ley Dr., Rockville, MD 20852 (M)

HOFFMAN, CLARENCE H. (Dr), 6906 40th

Ave., Hyattsville, MD 20782 (E)

HOGE, HAROLD J. (Dr), 5 Rice Spring Ln.,

Wayland, MA 01778 (E)

HOLHOUSER, WILLIAM L. (Mr), Route

2, Box 151, Banner Elk, NC 28604 (F)

HOLLIES, NORMAN R. S. (Dr), 9823 Sin-

gleton Dr., Bethesda, MD 20817 (F)

HONIG, JOHN G. (Dr), 7701 Glenmore

Spring Way, Bethesda, MD 20817 (F)

HOOVER, LARRY A. (Mr), 801 Croydon

St., Sterling, VA 22170 (M)

HOPP, HENRY (Dr), 6604 Michaels Dr.,

Bethesda, MD 20817 (E)

HOPP, THEODORE H. (Mr), National Bu-

reau of Standards, Bldg. 220, Rm. A-127,

Gaithersburg, MD 20899 (M)

HOPPS, HOPE E. (Mrs), 1762 Overlook Dr.,

Silver Spring, MD 20903 (E)

HORNSTEIN, IRWIN (Dr), 5920 Bryn Mawr

Rd., College Park, MD 20740 (E)

HOROWITZ, EMANUEL (Dr), 14100

Northgate Dr., Silver Spring, MD 20906

(F)

HORTON, BILLY M. (Mr), 14250 Larch-

mere Blvd., Shaker Heights, OH 44120 (F)

HOWARD, JR., JAMES H. (Dr), 3822 Al-

bemarle St., N.W., Washington, DC 20016

(F)

HOWELL, BARBARA F. (Dr), 13405 Ac-

cent Way, Germantown, MD 20874 (F)

HUANG, KUN-YEN (Dr), 1445 Laurel Hill

Rd., Vienna, VA 22180 (F)

HUDSON, COLIN M. (Dr), 143 S. Wild-

flower Rd., Asheville, NC 28804 (E)

1985 MEMBERSHIP DIRECTORY

HUGH, RUDOLPH (Dr), The George Wash-

ington University, School of Medicine,

Department of Microbiology, 2300 Eye St.,

N.W., Washington, DC 20037 (F)

HUHEEY, JAMES E. (Dr), University of

Maryland, Department of Chemistry, Col-

lege Park, MD 20742 (F)

HUNTER, RICHARD S. (Mr), 1703 Briar

Ridge Rd., McLean, VA 22101 (E)

HUNTER, WILLIAM R. (Mr), 6705 Caneel

Ct., Springfield, VA 22152 (F)

HURDLE, BURTON G. (Mr), 6222 Berkley

Rd., Alexandria, VA 22307 (F)

HURTT, WOODLAND (Dr), U.S. Depart-

ment of Agriculture, A.R.S., Fort Detrick,

Bldg. 1301, Frederick, MD 21701 (M)

HUTTON, GEORGE L. (Mr), South U.S.

421, Box 2055, Zionsville, IN 46077 (E)

IRVING, JR., GEORGE W. (Dr), 4836

Langdrum Ln., Chevy Chase, MD 20815

(F)

IRWIN, GEORGE R. (Dr), 7306 Edmonston

Ave., College Park, MD 20740 (F)

ISBELL, HORACE S. (Dr), 8502 16th St.,

Silver Spring, MD 20910 (F)

ISENSTEIN, ROBERT S. (Dr), 11710 Cav-

erly Ave., Beltsville, MD 20705 (M)

JACKSON, JO-ANNE A. (Dr), 4412 Inde-

pendence St., Rockville, MD 20853 (F)

JACOBS, WOODROW C. (Dr), 234 Ocean

Palm Dr., Flagler Beach, FL 32036 (E)

JACOX, MARILYN (Dr), 10203 Kindly Ct.,

Gaithersburg, MD 20879 (F)

JAROSEWICH, EUGENE (Mr), Smithson-

ian Institution, Mineral Sciences, MRC 119,

Washington, DC 20560 (M)

JEN, CHIH K. (Dr), 10203 Lariston Ln.,

Silver Spring, MD 20903 (E)

JENSEN, ARTHUR S. (Dr), Westinghouse

Defense & Electronics Center, Box 1521,

Baltimore, MD 21203 (F)

JOHNSON, DANIEL P. (Dr), P.O. Box 359,

Folly Beach, SC 29439 (E)

JOHNSON, EDGAR M. (Dr), 5314 Dunleer

Ln., Burke, VA 22015 (F)

JOHNSON, PHYLLIS T. (Dr), National Ma-

rine Fisheries Service, Oxford Laboratory,

Oxford, MD 21673 (F)

JONES, JR., HOWARD S. (Dr), 6200 Sligo

Mill Rd., N.E., Washington, DC 20011

(F)

JONG, SHUNG-CHANG (Dr), American

Type Culture Collection, 12301 Parklawn

Dr., Rockville, MD 20852 (F)

JORDAN, GARY B. (Dr), 1012 Olmo Ct.,

San Jose, CA 95129 (F)

KAISER, HANS E. (Dr), 433 South West

Dr., Silver Spring, MD 20901 (M)

KAPETANAKOS, C. A. (Dr), 6101 Overlea

Rd., Bethesda, MD 20816 (F)

KARR, PHILIP R. (Dr), 5507 Calle de Ar-

boles, Torrance, CA 90505 (E)

KAUFMAN, H. PAUL (Mr), P.O. Box 1135,

Fedhaven, FL 33854-1135 (E)

KEARNEY, PHILIP C. (Dr), 8416 Shears

Ct., Laurel, MD 20707 (F)

KEELER, R. NORRIS (Dr), 7756 Eads St.,

La Jolla, CA 92037 (F)

KEISER, BERNHARD E. (Dr), 2046 Carr-

hill Rd., Vienna, VA 22180 (F)

KESSLER, KARL G. (Dr), 5927 Anniston

Rd., Bethesda, MD 20817 (F)

KEULEGAN, GARBIS H. (Dr), 215 Buena

Vista Dr., Vicksburg, MS 39180 (F)

KING, BERT (Dr), 4023 Byrd Rd., Ken-

sington, MD 20895 (F)

KIRK, KENNETH L. (Dr), National Insti-

tutes of Health, Bldg. 4, Rm. 232, Be-

thesda, MD 20892 (F)

KLINGSBERG, CYRUS (Dr), 4620 N. Park

Ave., Apt. # 1105-E, Chevy Chase, MD

20815 (F)

KNOBLOCK, EDWARD C. (Mr), 7767 Dol-

lyhyde Rd., Mt. Airy, MD 21771 (F)

KNOWLTON, KATHRYN (Dr), 2122 Mas-

sachusetts Ave., N.W., Apt. # 837, Wash-

ington, DC 20008 (F)

KNOX, ARTHUR S. (Mr), 2008 Columbia

Rd., N.W., Washington, DC 20009 (M)

KNUTSON, LLOYD V. (Dr), Agricultural

Research Center, Bldg. 003, Rm. 001,

Beltsville, MD 20705 (P)

1985 MEMBERSHIP DIRECTORY

KRAMER, CAROLYN M. (Dr), B. R. A.

D., The Gillette Company, Gillette Park,

5G-2, Boston, MA 02106 (F)

KROP, STEPHEN (Dr), 7908 Birnam Wood

Dr., McLean, VA 22102 (F)

KRUGER, JEROME (Dr), 619 Warfield Dr.,

Rockville, MD 20850 (F)

KRUPSAW, MARYLIN FEF. (Ms), 10208

Windsor View Dr., Potomac, MD 20854

(F)

LANG, MARTHA B. C. (Mrs), 3133 Con-

necticut Ave., N.W., Apt. # 625, Wash-

ington, DC 20008 (E)

LANGFORD, GEORGE S. (Dr), 4606 Hart-

wick Rd., College Park, MD 20740 (E)

LANGSTON, JOANN H. (Ms), 14514 Far-

aday Dr., Rockville, MD 20853 (F)

LAPHAM, EVAN G. (Mr), 2202 S. E. 28th

St., Cape Coral, FL 33904 (E)

LAWSON, ROGER H. (Dr), 4912 Ridge-

view Ln., Bowie, MD 20715 (F)

LEE, RICHARD H. (Dr), 5 Angola by the

Bay, Lewes, DE 19958 (E)

LEIBOWITZ, HAROLD (Dr), 9112 Le Velle

Dr., Chevy Chase, MD 20815 (F)

LEIBOWITZ, LAWRENCE M. (Dr), 9704

Galsworth Ct., Fairfax, VA 22032 (F)

LEINER, ALAN L. (Mr), 850 Webster St.,

Apt. # 635, Palo Alto, CA 94301 (E)

LEJINS, PETER P. (Dr), College Heights Es-

tates, 7114 Eversfield Dr., Hyattsville, MD

20782 (F)

LENTZ, PAUL L. (Dr), 5 Orange Ct., Green-

belt, MD 20770 (F)

LESSOFF, HOWARD (Mr), Naval Research

Laboratory, Code 6820, Washington, DC

20375-5000 (F)

LEVINSON, NANETTE S. (Dr), American

University, CTA, Hurst # 206, Washing-

ton, DC 20016 (M)

LEVY, SAMUEL (Mr), 2279 Preisman Dr.,

Schenectady, NY 12309 (E)

LIEBLEIN, JULIUS (Dr), 1621 E. Jefferson

St., Rockville, MD 20852 (E)

LINDSEY, IRVING (Mr), 202 E. Alexandria

Ave., Alexandria, VA 22302 (E)

LING, LEE (Mr), 1608 Belvoir Dr., Los Al-

tos, CA 94022 (E)

LINK, CONRAD B. (Dr), University of

Maryland, Department of Horticulture,

College Park, MD 20742 (F)

LIST, ROBERT J. (Mr), 1123 Francis Ham-

mond Parkway, Alexandria, VA 22302 (E)

LOBENSTEIN, WILLIAM V. (Dr), 8501

Sundale Dr., Silver Spring, MD 20910 (F)

LOCKARD, J. DAVID (Dr), University of

Maryland, Department of Botany, College

Park, MD 20742 (F)

LONG, BETTY J. (Mrs), 416 Riverbend Rd.,

Fort Washington, MD 20744 (F)

LORING, BLAKE M. (Dr), Route 2, Box

46, Laconia, NH 03246 (E)

LUSTIG, ERNEST (Dr), Ges. Biotechnical

Forsch., Mascheroder Weg 1, D-3300,

Braunschweig 541, Federal Republic of

Germany (F)

LYONS, JOHN W. (Dr), 7430 Woodville Rd.,

Mt. Airy, MD 21771 (F)

MADDEN, JEREMIAH J. (Mr), NASA,

Goddard Space Flight Center, Code 403,

Greenbelt, MD 20771 (FP)

MADDEN, ROBERT P. (Dr), National Bu-

reau of Standards, Physics Bldg., Rm. A-

251, Gaithersburg, MD 20899 (F)

MAENGWYN-DAVIES, G. D. (Dr), 9608

Cedar Ln., Bethesda, MD 20814 (E)

MAHAN, A. I. (Dr), 1128 Spotswood Dr.,

Silver Spring, MD 20904 (E)

MAIENTHAL, MILLARD (Dr), 10116 Bev-

ern Ln., Potomac, MD 20854 (F)

MALONE, THOMAS B. (Dr), 6633 Ken-

nedy Ln., Falls Church, VA 22042 (F)

MANDERSCHEID, RONALD W. (Dr),

10837 Admirals Way, Potomac, MD 20854

(F)

MARCUS, MARVIN (Dr), University of

California, Department of Mathematics,

Santa Barbara, CA 93106 (F)

MARTIN, EDWARD (Dr), 7721 Dew Wood

Dr., Derwood, MD 20855 (F)

MARTIN, JOHN H. (Dr), 440 N. W. Elks

Dr., Apt. # 205, Corvallis, OR 97330-

3749 (E)

MARTIN, ROBERT H. (Mr), 2257 N. Not-

tingham St., Arlington, VA 22205 (E)

ee AA

1985 MEMBERSHIP DIRECTORY

MARTIN, ROY E. (Mr), National Fisheries

Institute, 1101 Connecticut Ave., N.W.,

Washington, DC 20036 (M)

MARTON, L. (Dr), 4515 Linnean Ave.,

N.W., Washington, DC 20008 (E)

MARVIN, ROBERT S. (Dr), 11700 Stoney

Creek Rd., Potomac, MD 20854 (E)

MASON, HENRY L. (Dr), 7008 Meadow

Ln., Chevy Chase, MD 20815 (F)

MATLACK, MARION B. (Dr), 2700 N. 25th

St., Arlington, VA 22207 (E)

MAYOR, JOHN R. (Dr), 3308 Solomons Ct.,

Silver Spring, MD 20906 (F)

McBRIDE, GORDON W. (Mr), 3323 Stuy-

vesant Pl., Washington, DC 20015 (E)

McCONNELL, DUDLEY G. (Dr), 926

Clintwood Dr., Silver Spring, MD 20902

(F)

McCRACKEN, ROBERT H. (Mr), 5120

Newport Ave., Bethesda, MD 20816 (M)

McCULLOUGH, JAMES M. (Dr), 6209

Apache St., Springfield, VA 22150 (F)

McCULLOUGH, NORMAN B. (Dr), 6 Ap-

ple Blossom Ln., Okemos, MI 48864 (E)

McCURDY, JOHN D. (Dr), 5531 Green Dory

Ln., Columbia, MD 21044 (F)

McELROY, JOHN H. (Dr), 13035 Mindanao

Way # 8, Marina del Rey, CA 90292 (F)

McKENZIE, LAWSON M. (Mr), 1902 Erie

St., Hyattsville, MD 20783 (F)

McNESBY, JAMES R. (Dr), 13308 Valley

Dr., Rockville, MD 20850 (E)

McPHERSON, ARCHIBALD T. (Dr), 403

Russell Ave., Apt. # 804, Gaithersburg,

MD 20877 (L)

MEADE, BUFORD K. (Mr), 5903 Mt. Eagle

Dr., Apt. # 404, Alexandria, VA 22303-

2523 (F)

MEARS, FLORENCE M. (Dr), 8004 Hamp-

den Ln., Bethesda, MD 20814 (E)

MEARS, THOMAS W. (Mr), 2809 Hatha-

way Terr., Wheaton, MD 20906 (F)

MEBS, RUSSELL W. (Dr), 6620 N. 32nd

St., Arlington, VA 22213 (F)

MENZER, ROBERT E. (Dr), 7203 Wells

Parkway, Hyattsville, MD 20782 (F)

MERRIAM, CARROLL F. (Mr), Colonial

Manor Nursing Home, 110 College Ave.,

Waterville, ME 04901 (EB)

MESSINA, CARLA G. (Mrs), 9800 Mar-

quette Dr., Bethesda, MD 20817 (F)

MEYERSON, MELVIN R. (Dr), 611 Golds-

borough Dr., Rockville, MD 20850 (F)

MILLAR, DAVID B. (Dr), 1716 Mark Ln.,

Rockville, MD 20852 (F)

MILLER, CARL F. (Dr), P.O. Box 127,

Gretna, VA 24557 (E)

MILLER, MARGARET D. (Dr), 11632

Deborah Dr., Potomac, MD 20854 (E)

MILLER, PAUL R. (Dr), 207 S. Pebble

Beach, Sun City Center, FL 33570 (BE)

MITTLEMAN, DON (Dr), 80 Parkwood Ln.,

Oberlin, OH 44074 (F)

MIZELL, LOUIS R. (Mr), 108 Sharon Ln.,

Greenlawn, NY 11740 (F)

MOLLARI, O. MARIO (Dr), 4527 45th St.,

N.W., Washington, DC 20016 (E)

MOORE, GEORGE A. (Dr), 1108 Agnew

Dr., Rockville, MD 20851 (E)

MOORE, JAMES G. (Mr), Library of Con-

gress, Congressional Research Service,

Washington, DC 20540 (M)

MORRIS, J. ANTHONY (Dr), 23-E Ridge

Rd., Greenbelt, MD 20770 (M)

MORRIS, JOSEPH B. (Mr), Howard Uni-

versity, Department of Chemistry, Wash-

ington, DC 20059 (F)

MORRIS, MARLENE C. (Mrs), 1448 Lee-

gate Rd., N.W., Washington, DC 20012

(F)

MORRISS, DONALD J. (Mr), 102 Baldwin

Ct., Point Charlotte, FL 33950 (E)

MOSTOFI, F. K. (Dr), Armed Forces Insti-

tute of Pathology, WRAMC, 6825 16th

St., N.W., Washington, DC 20306 (F)

MOUNTAIN, RAYMOND D. (Dr), 5 Mon-

ument Ct., Rockville, MD 20850 (F)

MUEHLHAUSE, C. O. (Dr), 9105 Seven

Locks Rd., Bethesda, MD 20817 (E)

MUESEBECK, CARL F. W. (Mr), 18 North

Main St., Elba, NY 14058 (E)

MULLIGAN, JR., JAMES (Dr), 12121 Sky

Ln., Santa Ana, CA 92705 (F)

MUMMA, MICHAEL J. (Dr), 210 Glen Oban

Dr., Arnold, MD 21012 (F)

MURDAY, JAMES S. (Dr), 7116 Red Horse

Tavern Ln., Springfield, VA 22153 (F)

MURPHY, THOMAS J. (Dr), 6521 Divine

St., McLean, VA 22101 (F)

MURRAY, THOMAS H. (Mr), 2915 N. 27th

St., Arlington, VA 22207 (M)

1985 MEMBERSHIP DIRECTORY

MURRAY, WILLIAM S. (Dr), 1281 Barton-

shire Way, Rockville, MD 20854 (F)

MYERS, RALPH D. (Dr), 4611 Guilford Rd.,

College Park, MD 20740 (E)

NAESER, CHARLES R. (Dr), 6654 Van

Winkle Dr., Falls Church, VA 22044 (E)

NAMIAS, JEROME (Mr), University of Cal-

ifornia, Scripps Institute of Oceanography,

La Jolla, CA 92093 (F)

NEALE, JOSEPH H. (Dr), Georgetown Uni-

versity, Department of Biology, Reiss Sci-

ence Bldg., Rm. 406, Washington, DC

20057 (F)

NEF, EVELYN S. (Mrs), 2726 N St., N.W.,

Washington, DC 20007 (M)

NELSON, R. H. (Mr), Bethany Village, 512

Albright Dr., Mechanicsburg, PA 17055

(E) .

NEUBAUER, WERNER G. (Dr), 4603

Quarter Charge Dr., Annandale, VA 22003

(F)

NEUENDORFFER, J. A. (Dr), 911 Allison

St., Alexandria, VA 22302 (E)

NEUPERT, WERNER M. (Dr), NASA,

Goddard Space Flight Center, Code 680,

Greenbelt, MD 20771 (F)

NEUSCHEL, SHERMAN K. (Dr), 7501 De-

mocracy Blvd., Bethesda, MD 20817 (F)

NEWMAN, MORRIS (Dr), 1050 Las Alturas

Rd., Santa Barbara, CA 93103 (F)

NICKUM, MARY J. (Mrs), 12000 Old

Georgetown Rd., Apt. # N-1407, Rock-

ville, MD 20852 (M)

NOFFSINGER, TERRELL L. (Dr), Route 1,

Box 305, Auburn, KY 42206 (E)

NORRIS, KARL H. (Mr), 11204 Montgo-

mery Rd., Beltsville, MD 20705 (F)

OBERLE, MARILYN E. (Ms), 2801 Quebec

St., N.W., Apt. # 622, Washington, DC

20008 (M)

OEHSER, PAUL H. (Mr), 9012 Old Domin-

ion Dr., McLean, VA 22102 (E)

O’HARE, JOHN J. (Dr), 301 G St., S.W.,

Apt. # 824, Washington, DC 20024 (F)

O’HERN, ELIZABETH M. (Dr), 633 G St.,

S.W., Washington, DC 20024 (F)

OKABE, HIDEO (Dr), 6700 Old Stage Rd.,

Rockville, MD 20852 (F)

O’KEEFE, JOHN A. (Dr), NASA, Goddard

Space Flight Center, Code 681, Greenbelt,

MD 20771 (F)

OLIPHANT, MALCOLM W. (Dr), 1606

Ulupii St., Kailua, HI 96734 (F)

ORDWAY, FRED (Dr), 5205 Elsmere Ave..,

Bethesda, MD 20814 (F)

OSER, HANS J. (Dr), 8810 Quiet Stream

Ct., Potomac, MD 20854 (F)

OTA, HAJIME (Mr), 5708 64th Ave., Riv-

erdale, MD 20737 (F)

PANCELLA, JOHN R. (Dr), 1209 Veirs Mill

Rd., Rockville, MD 20851 (F)

PARASURAMAN, RAJA (Dr), 3901 Con-

necticut Ave., N.W., Washington, DC

20008 (F)

PARKER, ROBERT L. (Dr), 9728 Digging

Rd., Gaithersburg, MD 20879 (F)

PARMAN, GEORGE K. (Mr), 4255 Donald

St., Eugene, OR 97405-3427 (F)

PARRY-HILL, JEAN (Ms), 3803 Military

Rd., N.W., Washington, DC 20015 (M)

PARSONS, H. McILVAINE (Dr), Essex Cor-

poration, 333 N. Fairfax St., Alexandria,

VA 22314 (F)

PELCZAR, MICHAEL J. (Dr), 4318 Clagett

Pineway, University Park, MD 20782 (E)

PELLERIN, CHARLES J. (Dr), NASA

Headquarters, Code EZ-7, 600 Independ-

ence Ave., S.W., Washington, DC 20546

(F)

PERKINS, LOUIS R. (Mr), 1234 Massachu-

setts Ave., N.W., Apt. # 709, Washing-

ton, DC 20005 (M)

PERROS, THEODORE (Dr), 5825 3rd. Pl.,

N.W., Washington, DC 20011 (F)

PIEPER, GEORGE F. (Dr), 3155 Rolling Rd.,

Edgewater, MD 21037 (E)

PIKL, JOSEF M. (Dr), 211 Dickinson Rd.,

Glassboro, NJ 08028 (E)

PITTMAN, MARGARET (Dr), 3133 Con-

necticut Ave., N.W., Apt. # 912, Wash-

ington, DC 20008 (E)

PITTS, JOHN A. S. (Dr), 11527 Hearthstone

Ct., Reston, VA 22091 (M)

1985 MEMBERSHIP DIRECTORY

PLAIT, ALAN O. (Mr), 5402 Yorkshire St.,

Springfield, VA 22151 (F)

POLACHEK, HARRY (Dr), 11801 Rock-

ville Pike, Rockville, MD 20852 (E)

PONADER, HEATHER B. (Mrs), Stanford

University, Department of Geology, Stan-

ford, CA 94305 (M)

PONNAMPERUMA, CYRIL (Dr), Univer-

sity of Maryland, Department of Chemis-

try, College Park, MD 20742 (F)

POOS, FRED W. (Dr), 5100 Fillmore Ave.,

Alexandria, VA 22311 (E)

POST, MILDRED A. (Ms), 8928 Bradmoor

Dr., Bethesda, MD 20817 (F)

PRESLEY, JOHN T. (Dr), 3811 Courtney

Circle, Bryan, TX 77801 (F)

PRESTON, MALCOLM S. (Dr), 10 Kilkea

Ct., Baltimore, MD 21236 (M)

PRINCE, JULIUS S. (Dr), 7103 Pinehurst

Parkway, Chevy Chase, MD 20815 (F)

PRINZ, DIANNE K. (Dr), Naval Research

Laboratory, Code 4142, Washington, DC

20375-5000 (M)

PRO, MAYNARD J. (Mr), 7904 Falstaff Rd.,

McLean, VA 22102 (F)

PRYOR, C. NICHOLAS (Dr), Bleak House,

Atlantic Ave., Newport, RI 02840 (F)

PURCELL, ROBERT H. (Dr), 17517 White

Grounds Rd., Boyds, MD 20841 (F)

PYKE, JR., THOMAS N. (Mr), National

Bureau of Standards, Technology Bldg.,

Rm. A-247, Gaithersburg, MD 20899 (F)

QUIROZ, RODERICK S. (Mr), 4502 Yuma

St., N.W., Washington, DC 20016 (F)

RABINOW, JACOB (Mr), 6920 Selkirk Dr.,

Bethesda, MD 20817 (F)

RADER, CHARLES A. (Mr), Gillette Re-

search Institute, 1413 Research Blvd.,

Rockville, MD 20850 (F)

RADO, GEORGE (Dr), 818 Carrie Ct.,

McLean, VA 22101 (F)

RAINWATER, IVAN H. (Dr), 2805 Liberty

Pl., Bowie, MD 20715 (E)

RALEIGH, LANI H. (Ms), 8491 Imperial

Dr., Laurel, MD 20708 (M)

RAMSAY, MAYNARD J. (Dr), 3806 Viser

Ct., Bowie, MD 20715 (F)

RANSOM, JAMES R. (Mr), 107 E. Sus-

quehanna Ave., Towson, MD 21204 (M)

RASKIN, ALLEN (Dr), 9207 Lindale Dr.,

Bethesda, MD 20817 (F)

RATH, BHAKTA B. (Dr), 10908 Timbermill

Ct., Oakton, VA 22124 (F)

RAUSCH, ROBERT L. (Dr), University Sta-

tion, P.O. Box 85447, Seattle, WA 98145-

1447 (F)

RAVECHE, ELIZABETH S. (Dr), 27 24th

St., Troy, NY 12180-1914 (F)

RAVITSKY, CHARLES (Mr), 1505 Drexell

St., Takoma Park, MD 20912 (E)

RAY, JOSEPH W. (Dr), 2740 Vassar Pl. , Co-

lumbus, OH 43221 (F)

READING, O. S. (Mr), Bellport, 6 N. How-

ells Point Rd., Suffolk City, NY 11713 (E)

REED, WILLIAM D. (Mr), 4740 Connect-

icut Ave., N.W., Apt. # 708, Washington,

DC 20008 (E)

REHDER, HARALD A. (Dr), 5620 Ogden

Rd., Bethesda, MD 20816 (FP)

REINER, ALVIN (Mr), 11243 Bybee St.,

Silver Spring, MD 20902 (M)

REINHART, FRANK W. (Dr), 9918 Suth-

erland Rd., Silver Spring, MD 20901 (F)

REMMERS, GENE R. (Mr), 6928 Hector

Rd., McLean, VA 22101 (M)

REYNOLDS, HORACE N. (Dr), 8795 Graves

Ave., Apt. # 1-C, Santee, CA 92071 (F)

REYNOLDS, ORR E. (Dr), American Phys-

iological Society, 9650 Rockville Pike,

Bethesda, MD 20814 (F)

RHODES, IDA (Mrs), c/o Israel Rotkin, 11504

Regnid Dr., Wheaton, MD 20902 (E)

RHYNE, JAMES J. (Dr), 20505 Dubois Ct.,

Gaithersburg, MD 20879 (F)

RICE, ROBERT L. (Mr), 12041 Winding

Creek Way, Germantown, MD 20874 (M)

RICE, SUE A. (Ms), 6728 Fern Ln., An-

nandale, VA 22003 (M)

RIEL, GORDON K. (Dr), Naval Surface

Weapons Center, White Oak Laboratory,

Code R-41, Silver Spring, MD 20910 (F)

RITT, PAUL E. (Dr), 36 Sylvan Ln., Wes-

ton, MA 02193 (F)

ROBBINS, MARY L. (Dr), Tatsuno House,

A-23, 2-1-8 Ogikubo, Suginami-ku, To-

kyo, Japan (E)

1985 MEMBERSHIP DIRECTORY

ROBERTS, ELLIOTT B. (Mr), 4500 Weth-

erhill Dr., Bethesda, MD 20816 (E)

ROBERTSON, A. F. (Dr), 4228 Butterworth

P]., N.W., Washington, DC 20016 (F)

ROBERTSON, RANDAL M. (Dr), 1404

Highland Circle, S.E., Blacksburg, VA

24060 (E)

RODNEY, WILLIAM S. (Dr), 8112 Whites

Ford Way, Rockville, MD 20854 (F)

ROLLER, PAUL S. (Dr), 1440 N St., N.W.,

Apt. # 1011, Washington, DC 20005 (E)

ROSADO, JOHN A. (Mr), 8821 Cardinal

Ct., Laurel, MD 20707 (F)

ROSCHER, NINA M. (Dr), 10400 Hunter

Ridge Dr., Oakton, VA 22124 (F)

ROSE, WILLIAM K. (Dr), 10916 Picasso

Ln., Potomac, MD 20854 (F)

ROSENBLATT, DAVID (Dr), 2939 Van Ness

St., N.W., Apt. # 702, Washington DC

20008 (F)

ROSENBLATT, JOAN R. (Dr), 2939 Van

Ness St., N.W., Apt. # 702, Washington,

DC 20008 (F)

ROSENTHAL, SANFORD M. (Dr), 12601

Greenbrier Rd., Potomac, MD 20854 (E)

ROSS, FRANKLIN J. (Mr), 3830 N. Staf-

ford St., Arlington, VA 22207 (F)

ROSS, SHERMAN (Dr), 19715 Greenside

Terr., Gaithersburg, MD 20879 (F)

ROSSINI, FREDERICK D. (Dr), 605 South,

U.S. Highway #1, Apt. # T-900, Juno

Beach, FL 33408 (E)

ROTH, FRANK L. (Mr), 200 E. 22nd St.,

Apt. # 33, Roswell, NM 88201 (E)

ROTKIN, ISRAEL (Mr), 11504 Regnid Dr.,

Wheaton, MD 20902 (E)

RUTNER, EMILE (Dr), 34 Columbia Ave.,

Takoma Park, MD 20912 (M)

SAENZ, ALBERT W. (Dr), Naval Research

Laboratory, Code 6603.5, Washington, DC

20375-5000 (F)

SAILER, REECE I. (Dr), 3847 S. W. Sixth

Pl., Gainesville, FL 32607 (F)

SALISBURY, LLOYD L. (Mr), 10138

Crestwood Rd., Kensington, MD 20895

(M)

SALLET, DIRSE W. (Dr), 4205 Tuckerman

St., University Park, MD 20782 (M)

SANDERSON, JOHN A. (Dr), B-206 Clem-

son Downs, Clemson, SC 29631 (E)

SANK, VICTOR J. (Dr), 5 Bunker Ct.,

Rockville, MD 20854 (F)

SARMIENTO, RAFAEL (Dr), 5426 30th St.,

N.W., Washington, DC 20015 (F)

SASMOR, ROBERT M. (Dr), 4408 N. 20th

Rd., Arlington, VA 22207 (F)

SASS, ARTHUR H. (Mr), RFD 3, Box 423A,

Warrenton, VA 22186 (M)

SAVILLE, JR., THORNDYKE (Mr), 5601

Albia Rd., Bethesda, MD 20816 (F)

SCHALK, JAMES M. (Dr), 267 Forest Trail,

Isle of Palms, SC 29451 (F)

SCHECHTER, MILTON S. (Mr), 10909

Hannes Ct., Silver Spring, MD 20901 (E)

SCHINDLER, ALBERT I. (Dr), Purdue Uni-

versity, Materials Research Laboratory,

West Lafayette, IN 47907 (F)

SCHLAIN, DAVID (Dr), P.O. Box 348, Col-

lege Park, MD 20740 (F)

SCHMIDT, CLAUDE H. (Dr), 1827 Third

St. N., Fargo, ND 58102 (F)

SCHNEIDER, JEFFREY M. (Dr), 5238

Richardson Dr., Fairfax, VA 22032 (F)

SCHNEIDER, SIDNEY (Mr), 239 N. Gran-

ada St., Arlington, VA 22203 (E)

SCHNEPFE, MARIAN M. (Dr), Potomac

Towers, 2001 N. Adams St., Apt. # 640,

Arlington, VA 22201 (E)

SCHOOLEY, JAMES F. (Dr), 13700 Darnes-

town Rd., Gaithersburg, MD 20878 (F)

SCHUBAUER, GALEN B. (Dr), 5609 Glos-

ter Rd., Bethesda, MD 20816 (F)

SCHULMAN, FRED (Dr), 1115 Markwood

Dr., Silver Spring, MD 20902 (F)

SCHULMAN, JAMES H. (Dr), 5628 Mas-

sachusetts Ave., Bethesda, MD 20816 (E)

SCHWARTZ, ANTHONY M. (Dr), 2260

Glenmore Terr., Rockville, MD 20850 (F)

SCOTT, DAVID B. (Dr), 10448 Wheatridge

Dr., Sun City, AZ 85373 (E)

SCRIBNER, BOURDON R. (Mr), 123 Pep-

percorn Pl., Edgewater, MD 21037 (E)

SEABORG, GLENN T. (Dr), 1154 Glen Rd.,

Lafayette, CA 94549 (F)

SEEGER, RAYMOND J. (Dr), 4507 Weth-

erill Rd., Bethesda, MD 20816 (E)

SEITZ, FREDERICK (Dr), Rockefeller Uni-

versity, 1230 York Ave., New York, NY

10021 (F)

1985 MEMBERSHIP DIRECTORY

SHAFRIN, ELAINE G. (Mrs), 800 4th St.,

S.W., Apt. # N-702, Washington, DC

20024 (F)

SHAPIRO, GUSTAVE (Mr), 3704 Munsey

St., Silver Spring, MD 20906 (F)

SHEAR, RALPH E. (Mr), 1916 Bayberry

Rd., Edgewater, MD 21040 (M)

SHEPARD, HAROLD H. (Dr), 2701 S. June

St., Arlington, VA 22202 (E)

SHERESHEFSKY, J. LEON (Dr), 4530

Connecticut Ave., N.W., Apt. # 400,

Washington, DC 20008 (E)

SHERLIN, GROVER C. (Mr), 4024 Ham-

ilton St., Hyattsville, MD 20781 (L)

SHIER, DOUGLAS R. (Dr), Clemson Uni-

versity, Department of Mathematical Sci-

ence, Clemson, SC 29631 (F)

SHOTLAND, EDWIN (Dr), 418 E. Indian

Spring Dr., Silver Spring, MD 20901 (M)

SHRIER, STEFAN (Dr), 624-A S. Pitt St.,

Alexandria, VA 22314 (F)

SHROPSHIRE, JR., W. (Dr), 12441 Park-

lawn Dr., Rockville, MD 20852 (F)

SILVER, DAVID M. (Dr), Johns Hopkins

University, Applied Physics Laboratory,

11100 Johns Hopkins Rd., Laurel, MD

20707 (M)

SIMHA, ROBERT (Dr), Case Western Re-

serve University, University Circle, Cleve-

land, OH 44106 (F)

SIMMONS, LANSING G. (Mr), 3800 N.

Fairfax Dr., Apt. # 809, Arlington, VA

22203 (F)

SIMPSON, MICHAEL M. (Mr), Library of

Congress, Congressional Research Ser-

vice, SPR, LM 413, Washington, DC 20540

(M)

SKOLNICK, PHIL (Dr), National Institutes

of Health, Bldg. 4, Rm. 212, Bethesda,

MD 20892 (F)

SLACK, LEWIS (Dr), 27 Meadow Bank Rd.,

Old Greenwich, CT 06870 (F)

SLAWSKY, MILTON M. (Dr), 8803 Lanier

Dr., Silver Spring, MD 20910 (E)

SLAWSKY, ZAKA I. (Dr), 4701 Willard

Ave., Apt. # 318, Chevy Chase, MD 20815

(E)

SMITH, JR., BLANCHARD D. (Mr), 2509

Ryegate Ln., Alexandria, VA 22308 (F)

SMITH, MARCIA S. (Ms), 6015 N. 9th St.,

Arlington, VA 22205 (M)

SMITH, JR., ROBERT C. (Mr), 6151-A Ed-

sall Rd., Alexandria, VA 22304 (F)

SNAVELY, BENJAMIN, L. (Dr), 360 Blos-

som Hill Dr., Lancaster, PA 17601 (F)

SNYDER, HERBERT N. (Dr), R. F. D. A-

1, Box 7, Cobden, IL 62920 (F)

SOKOLOVE, FRANK L. (Mr), 3015 Gra-

ham Rd., Falls Church, VA 22042 (L)

SOLAND, RICHARD M. (Dr), 5460 Fill-

more Ave., Alexandria, VA 22311 (F)

SOLOMON, EDWIN M. (Mr), 5225 Pooks

Hill Rd., Apt. # 123-N, Bethesda, MD

20814-2031 (M)

SOMMER, HELMUT (Dr), 9502 Hollins Ct.,

Bethesda, MD 20817 (E)

SORROWS, HOWARD E. (Dr), 8820 Max-

well Dr., Potomac, MD 20854 (F)

SOUSA, ROBERT J. (Dr), 2548 Arbor Ct.-

Lavall, Gambrills, MD 21054 (F)

SPATES, JAMES E. (Mr), 8609 Irvington

Ave., Bethesda, MD 20817 (F).

SPECHT, HEINZ (Dr), 311 Oak Ridge Dr.,

Schenectady, NY 12306 (E)

SPENCER, LEWIS V. (Dr), P.O. Box 87,

Hopkinsville, KY 42240 (F)

SPERLING, FREDERICK (Dr), 1110 Fid-

lers Ln., Silver Spring, MD 20910 (E)

SPIES, JOSEPH R. (Dr), 507 N. Monroe St.,

Arlington, VA 22201 (E)

SPILHAUS, JR., A. F (Dr), 10900 Picasso

Ln., Potomac, MD 20854 (F)

SPRAGUE, G. F. (Dr), University of Illinois,

Department of Agronomy, Urbana, IL

61801 (E)

STAUSS, HENRY E. (Dr), 8005 Washington

Ave., Alexandria, VA 22308 (F)

STEELE, LENDELL E. (Mr), 7624 High-

land St., Springfield, VA 22150 (F)

STEERE, RUSSELL L. (Dr), 6207 Carroll-

ton Terr., Hyattsville, MD 20781 (F)

STEGUN, IRENE A. (Ms), 62 Leighton Ave.,

Yonkers, NY 10705 (F)

STEINBERG, ALFRED D. (Dr), 8814 Bells

Mill Rd., Potomac, MD 20854 (F)

STEINER, ROBERT (Dr), 2609 Turf Valley

Rd., Ellicott City, MD 21043 (F)

STEPHENS, ROBERT E. (Dr), 4301 39th

St., N.W., Washington, DC 20016 (E)

STERN, KURT H. (Dr), Naval Research

Laboratory, Code 6179, Washington, DC

20375-5000 (F)

1985 MEMBERSHIP DIRECTORY

STEWART, T. DALE (Dr), 1191 Crest Ln.,

McLean, VA 22101 (E)

STIEF, LOUIS J. (Dr), NASA, Goddard Space

Flight Center, Code 691, Greenbelt, MD

20771 (F)

STIEHLER, ROBERT D. (Dr), 3234 Que-

sada St., N.W., Washington, DC 20015

(E)

STILL, JOSEPH W. (Dr), 1408 Edgecliff Ln.,

Pasadena, CA 91107 (E)

STOETZEL, MANYA B. (Dr), BARC-West,

Systematic Entomology Laboratory, Bldg.

004, Rm. 6, Beltsville, MD 20705 (F)

STRAUSS, SIMON W. (Dr), 4506 Cedell

Pl., Camp Springs, MD 20748 (L)

STRIMPLE, HARRELL L. (Mr), 904 Bow-

ery, lowa City, IA 52240 (F)

STUART, NEIL W. (Dr), 49 Lakeshore Ln.,

Chattanooga, TN 37415 (E)

SULZBACHER, WILLIAM L. (Mr), 8527

Clarkson Dr., Fulton, MD 20759 (F)

SWEZEY, ROBERT W. (Dr), Clarks Ridge

Rd., Route 3, Box 142, Leesburg, VA 22075

(F)

SYKES, ALAN O. (Dr), 304 Mashie Dr.,

Vienna, VA 22180 (M)

TALBERT, PRESTON T. (Dr), Howard Uni-

versity, Department of Chemistry, Wash-

ington, DC 20059 (F)

TALBOTT, F. LEO (Dr), R. D. # 4, Beth-

lehem, PA 18015 (E)

TASAKI, ICHIJI (Dr), 5604 Alta Vista Rd.,

Bethesda, MD 20817 (F)

TATE, DOUGLAS R. (Mr), 11415 Farmland

Dr., Rockville, MD 20852 (F)

TAYLOR, ALBERT L. (Mr), 2620 S. W.

14th Dr., Gainesville, FL 32608 (E)

TAYLOR, BARRY N. (Dr), 11908 Tallwood

Ct., Potomac, MD 20854 (F)

TAYLOR, JOHN K. (Dr), 12816 Tern Dr.,

Gaithersburg, MD 20878 (F)

TAYLOR, LAURISTON S. (Dr), 7407 Den-

ton Rd., Bethesda, MD 20814 (E)

TEAL, GORDON K. (Dr), 5222 Park Ln.,

Dallas, TX 75220 (F)

TERMAN, MAURICE J. (Mr), 616 Poplar

Dr., Falls Church, VA 22046 (E)

THOMPSON, F. CHRISTIAN (Dr), 4255 S.

35th St., Arlington, VA 22206 (F)

THURMAN-SWARTWELDER, E. H. (Dr),

3443 Esplanade Ave., Apt. # 325, New

Orleans, LA 70119 (E)

TODD, RUTH (Ms), P.O. Box 687, Vine-

yard Haven, MA 02568 (F)

TOLL, JOHN S. (Dr), University of Mary-

land, Office of the President, Adelphi, MD

20783 (F)

TORRENT, RAUL R. (Mr), D-16, Calle 3

Arbolada, Caguas, PR 00625 (F)

TOUSEY, RICHARD (Dr), 7725 Oxon Hill

Rd., Oxon Hill, MD 20745 (E)

TOUSIMIS, A. J. (Dr), Tousimis Research

Corporation, P.O. Box 2189, Rockville,

MD 20852 (M)

TOWNSEND, CHARLES E. (Dr), 3529 Til-

den St., N.W., Washington, DC 20008 (F)

TOWNSEND, LEWIS R. (Dr), 9900 Ash-

burton Ln., Bethesda, MD 20817 (M)

TOWNSEND, MARJORIE R. (Mrs), 3529

Tilden St., N.W., Washington, DC 20008

(F)

TRAUB, ROBERT (Mr), 5702 Bradley Blvd.,

Bethesda, MD 20814 (F)

TUNELL, GEORGE (Dr), 4625 Via Gen-

nita, Santa Barbara, CA 93111 (E)

TURNER, JAMES H. (Dr), 11902 Falkirk

Dr., Potomac, MD 20854 (E)

TYLER, PAUL E. (Dr), 12604 Stable House

Ct. N., Potomac, MD 20854 (F)

UEBERALL, HERBERT M. (Dr), Ken-

wood, 5101 River Rd., Apt. # 1417, Be-

thesda, MD 20816 (F)

UHLANER, J. E. (Dr), 4258 Bonavita Dr.,

Encino, CA 91436 (F)

USDIN, VERA R. (Dr), 6 Stevens Ct. , Rock-

ville, MD 20850 (F)

VAN COTT, HAROLD P. (Dr), 8300 Still

Spring Ct., Bethesda, MD 20817 (F)

VAN DERSAL, WILLIAM R. (Dr), 8101

Greenspring Ave., Baltimore, MD 21208

(E)

VAN TUYL, ANDREW H. (Dr), 1000 W.

Nolcrest Dr., Silver Spring, MD 20903 (F)

1985 MEMBERSHIP DIRECTORY

VEITCH, JR:, FLETCHER P. (Dr), P.O. Box

513, Lexington Park, MD 20653 (F)

VILA, GEORGE J. (Mr), 5517 Westbard

Ave., Bethesda, MD 20816 (F)

VINTI, JOHN P. (Dr), Massachusetts Insti-

tute of Technology, Bldg. W, Rm. 59-216,

Cambridge, MA 02139 (FP)

VON HIPPEL, ARTHUR (Dr), 265 Glen Rd.,

Weston, MA 02193 (E)

WAGNER, A. JAMES (Mr), 7007 Beverly

Ln., Springfield, VA 22150 (F)

WALDMANN, THOMAS A. (Dr), 3910

Rickover Rd., Silver Spring, MD 20902

(F)

WALKER, DELORES H. (Mrs), 2521 Branch

Ave., S.E., Washington, DC 20020 (M)

WALKER, EGBERT H. (Dr), Friends House,

17330 Quaker Ln., Sandy Spring, MD

20860 (E)

WALTHER, CARL H. (Dr), 1337 27th St.,

N.W., Washington, DC 20007 (E)

WALTON, SR., WILLIAM W. (Dr), 1705

Edgewater Parkway, Silver Spring, MD

20903 (F)

WARING, JOHN A. (Dr), 1320 S. George

Mason Dr., Apt. # 1, Arlington, VA 22204

(M)

WARRICK, EVELYNE J. (Ms), National

Color Inc., 10314 Willard Way, Fairfax

City, VA 22030 (M)

WATERWORTH, HOWARD E. (Dr), 10001

Old Franklin Ave., Seabrook, MD 20706

(F)

WATSON, ROBERT B. (Dr), 1176 Wim-

bledon Dr., McLean, VA 22101 (E)

WAYNANT, RONALD W. (Dr), 13101

Claxton Dr., Laurel, MD 20708 (F)

WEBB, RALPH E. (Dr), 21-P Ridge Rd.,

Greenbelt, MD 20770 (F)

WEBER, ROBERT S. (Dr), P.O. Box 9153,

E] Paso, TX 79983 (E)

WEIHE, WERNER K. (Dr), 2103 Bassett

St., Alexandria, VA 22308 (E)

WEINBERG, HAROLD P. (Mr), 11410

Strand Dr., Bldg. 1-B, Apt. # 314, Rock-

ville, MD 20852 (F)

WEINER, JOHN (Dr), 8401 Rhode Island

Ave., College Park, MD 20740 (F)

WEINTRAUB, ROBERT L. (Dr), 305 Flem-

ing Ave., Frederick, MD 21701 (E)

WEISS, ARMAND B. (Dr), 6516 Truman

Ln., Falls Church, VA 22043 (F)

WEISSLER, ALFRED (Dr), 5510 Up-

pingham St., Chevy Chase, MD 20815 (F)

WEISSLER, PEARL (Mrs), 5510 Up-

pingham St., Chevy Chase, MD 20815 (F)

WELLMAN, FREDERICK L. (Dr), North

Carolina State University, Plant Pathology,

Raleigh, NC 27607 (E)

WENSCH, GLEN W. (Dr), R. R. #1, Box

54, Champaign, IL 61821 (E)

WERTH, MICHAEL W. (Mr), 14 Grafton

St., Chevy Chase, MD 20815 (E)

WEST, WILLIAM L. (Dr), 1428 Whittier

St., N.W., Washington, DC 20012 (M)

WHITE, JR., HOWARD J. (Dr), 8028 Park

Overlook Dr., Bethesda, MD 20817 (F)

WHITELOCK, LELAND D. (Mr), 2320

Brisbane St., Apt. # 4, Clearwater, FL

33575:(E)

WHITTEN, CHARLES A. (Mr), 966 Suth-

erland Rd., Silver Spring, MD 20901 (E)

WHITTLER, RUTH G. (Dr), Bay Ridge, 83

Bay Dr., Annapolis, MD 21403 (E)

WIGGINS, PETER F. (Dr), 1016 Harbor Dr.,

Annapolis, MD 21403 (P)

WILDHACK, W. A. (Mr), 415 N. Oxford

St., Arlington, VA 22203 (E)

WILHELM, PETER G. (Dr), 206 Gretna

Green Ct., Alexandria, VA 22304 (F)

WILSON, BRUCE L. (Mr), 423 Valentine

St., Highland Park, NJ 08904 (E)

WILSON, CHARLES L. (Dr), P.O. Box 1194,

Sheperdstown, WV 25443 (F)

WILSON, WILLIAM K. (Mr), 1401 Kurtz

Rd., McLean, VA 22101 (F)

WISTORT, ROBERT L. (Mr), 11630 35th

Pl., Beltsville, MD 20705 (F)

WOLF, OLIVER R. (Dr), 557 Berkeley Ave.,

San Marino, CA 91108 (E)

WOLFF, EDWARD A. (Dr), 1021 Crest-

haven Dr., Silver Spring, MD 20903 (F)

WOLFSON, ROBERT P. (Mr), 10813 Lark-

meade Ln., Potomac, MD 20854 (M)

WOOD, LAWRENCE A. (Dr), National Bu-

reau of Standards, Polymers Bldg., Rm.

A-209, Gaithersburg, MD 20899 (E)

WORKMAN, WILLIAM G. (Dr), 5221 42nd

St., N.W., Washington, DC 20015 (E)

1985 MEMBERSHIP DIRECTORY

WYATT, DOROTHY K. (Mrs), 7924 Ivy-

mount Terr., Potomac, MD 20854 (M)

YAPLEE, BENJAMIN S. (Mr), 8 Crestview

Ct., Rockville, MD 20854 (F)

YEKOVICH, FRANK R. (Dr), Catholic Uni-

versity, School of Education, Washington,

DC 20064 (F)

YODER, HATTEN S. (Dr), Geophysical

Laboratory, 2801 Upton St., N.W., Wash-

ington, DC 20008 (F)

YOUMAN, CHARLES E. (Mr), 4419 N. 18th

St., Arlington, VA 22207 (M)

YOUNG, JR., DAVID A. (Dr), 612 Buck

Jones Rd., Raleigh, NC 27606 (E)

YOUNG, M. WHARTON (Dr), 3230 Park

Pl., N.W., Washington, DC 20010 (E)

ZELENY, LAWRENCE (Dr), 4312 Van Buren

St., University Park, MD 20782 (E)

ZIEN, TSE-FOU (Dr), Naval Surface Weap-

ons Center, White Oak Laboratory, Silver

Spring, MD 20910 (F)

ZOCH, RICHMOND T. (Dr), Route 1, Box

930, Shelby, AL 35143 (F)

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DELEGATES TO THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES,

REPRESENTING THE LOCAL AFFILIATED SOCIETIES

EMnosophicaly SOciety-Ol WASHINGTON «6:6. c065'6 oS ce ec och howe nde Sake be ebewc er seeds James F. Goff

PABLO OLOPICAlSOCIELY Of WASHINGTON. 6. a c.5e ei 2s oslo cw adie abel ae bw els ss ab eine we we Ruth H. Landman

Promo OPical SOCciety Of WaSRINSION! . ...2 64.0626 cee see bese eev ens aus dewevenceneees Margaret Collins

DO COLTADMICAl SOCICUV > co's «nic.vis onic Gis'ee dV Sloane @ nieuw aw sea Wane see Ries mare eee T. Dale Stewart

PEPIEAESOCICLY Ol, WASHINGEOM: ots 2 cs 2 5b Sk cco eases scenes calesdiec@eeuwas James V. O’Connor

memeausociety Of the District of Columbia... ....0. 062. c000nceneaceccaseoncoaes Charles E. Townsend

(LT ALELEN@ LEN CIOVS CES TCC eee ge eae eree n Paul H. Oehser

Pee TIESOCICHY Ol VASNINGCOM ss <iccc. ots see ns vont rele bo aes we oes s dele sw ueseewn blows Conrad B. Link

aM MOTTE TI CATE NOTE SUES) syct Sie 1.2) c4a(08 2 sos Ae of 8k Wliehin a/a "oS esare dele mye 0. 6 Sate cad ONO Ow as) arte anol Boyd W. Post

ee emONESOCICIY OLJEMPINECELS: Bian. isiieie tine seine we edie e as Va ea Wh aesle be awe sewane George Abraham

Pisrecon Ejectiical and ElectromicS EMBINEErS 2... wee cele cee deed aces eee eeeees George Abraham

PaEmeam society Of Mechanical ENgine€ers ......2 22.6 ses dec cece svcd eee ees swowsemoncone Michael Chi

PEMMnNolOrical SOCIety Of WaShimGtOM ec5 xs i- caelie os cnc ced cca e eee ee eeeeenecaees Robert S. Isenstein

Pee tm SOCICtY LOL IVICEODIOIOPY cigs. esc ecde ss see Ce ea ee seas de ewe nc veel eee Lloyd G. Herman

Pec NineriCAn WMiliLany VENGINEEIS a5 4.25 54 ccapicls ce seg ecnd ces wales Qe see eOecwb aan H. P. Demuth

PECTS O CIE UN Ol CVE ME MPIMECES) (2s) -./016 eo wcers ara vce wilde obec voce sei edie ee seleae wens Wallace J. Cohen

Eaclemnon Experimental Biology and MedICING.... 22... 66. secs eces ccense nescence Cyrus R. Creveling

ADEE GANT, SOGICIM VORA SBIR ees 2 SRS ia ieee Ca cee oon eee ee Charles G. Interrante

PMmoneatneAssociation ot Dental Research inc ees vcd eee eae ee ce ee bee ee ee ees William R. Cotton

pimencaniinstitute of Aeronautics and Astronautics...............0000ceceeceenees Richard P. Hallion

aE ee COLOIOPICAll SOCIELY. 2). cice ei S Fe opis 6 tcc ele gee ba eide wes wea wales wee one A. James Wagner

Insecticide Society of Washington........ EE CHCA Chon oR ee Ee ee IM CARY AL REND GREMO Jack R. Plimmer

PMEPISHEAMSOGICIY Of AMECKICA.. oo iciccce oc hous sence cesewceses cess Ba aeaseere te cies Sioa Richard K. Cook

Feige Hie TMI CLEARISOCICOM er eho ciel e216 See Ge HOS. 5 Ge Guhl 6 Eso wide HE wi bipie S-v miata, e woke etal Dick Duffey

PeAMIMEE ROTO LOO MECHMOIOPISES =. caer esos dee oR a Kaede Gee ee Bele e eS ee melee A. D. Berneking

ASTEGIRNSDE (CUESTA IG SSCLEIICLAVRE S IAe Ere eer ROPE Ge ge een Edwin R. Fuller, Jr.

PRE CPLOGHCHMCAISOGICLY ce peicinc cece a oi ike. o ataiee Re) ck SW ieils tavaherdl ole ew! siete miele Pai ore wi aiae Save Alayne A. Adams

REAM NM LISUOLY. Of SCIENCE CIID) sicicrd ccewicd vad eas dows c ew cee Re Gb ee aw ee ee eee Deborah J. Warner

PUREREAM ASSOCIAMON OF PHYSICS TEACHEFS: .< x. 50460 oa see ves eee ese eew es ene deb eee Peggy A. Dixon

Wptical Society of America ...<)..:-..-..- OR eh een ah a ee ie tia ame George J. Simonis

pemachican Society Of Plant PAYSIOIOPIStS 22sec ccs cee ew ces ee see een eee ene’ Walter Shropshire, Jr.

Pasion Oneranons Research COUN... oc oo cea ecw eles ies oe be marae cee s ee cew aes John G. Honig

SEES OCIS OV MONe ATIIENIGA ye «ore. ois) o.oo ace ie als Senco dvs 5)46)'s ole. a GNe elle enw Bile oper ® Wes Sele wide aS Jewel B. Barlow

American Institute of Mining, Metallurgical

AIP UMONGHUIM SESE PUTIE ETS oe faire ein ete ais ms vases « (Gee wi wicoS oie elacelale wie bowie @reletese ae eles» Garrett R. Hyde

Nai@hiall Capital eAStROMOIMENS . 2.015 cave ac aco Sw ce cle cose gins oa eee wee AKER Ree es Robert H. McCracken

MALIN ALIESP ASSOCIATION OfJAMENCA..05 c.nc2e once hada sms we de eee wee a creiee sme eens s 60s 8s Patrick Hayes

We Ore Stith tO MEMESES Herne er ia, sain cace ta ain ce) ocd ele ais Greve va: wis ale wel oe Ob remem ees Miloslav Racheigl, Jr.

Pe ESV GHOlOPICAlV ASSOCIATION scl tise co's ode Mie ne oncom aienaiar nies jes she ano receiele is qpeie's eo 0/4 ein H. N. Reynolds

he Washington Paint Technical (Group 5.5.0.0. .cc ee we we eee ee eee ee eee awe eens Paul G. Campbell

American Hhytopatholopical Society 22.52.6660 aces ee eee cin bere e sce ecnew ees Howard E. Waterworth

Society ton General SVStemis INGSEATCH! oi... - eels civ sdie sts cows cee eee ae mes ewe Ronald W. Manderscheid

PAT AG COTS NOCICUN Bead hie ore cents Sic SN 8a) s Swan ORS so wiele cake ebb KO ees eR Sem e es Stanley Deutsch

American Fisheries Society ...... PRS meee ets WiRiie mB eye a elle tu vee ale Pagehone Siang ak acy rade, ® Irwin M. Alperin

Association for Science, Technology and Innovation .............cecccccececsceescccens Ralph I. Cole

EB ASteGHESORIGIOPICAL SOCIELY a. ciuie </2jc1t ears cle oS SO sw dleele ewe eee hws hye Ronald W. Manderscheid

Delegates continue in office until new selections are made by the representative societies.

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