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JOURNAL

OF THE

WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

Vou. 16 JANUARY 4, 1926 No. 1

VOLCANOLOGY.—The eruption of Santorini in 1925. H. S.

WasHINGTON, Geophysical Laboratory, Carnegie Institution of

Washington. |

The small island group of Santorini, among the southernmost islands

of the Greek Archipelago, is well known through the monumental

work of Fouqué,’ who described the island and its eruptions, especially

that of 1866-70. I was able to study the present eruption during the

13th—20th of September last, in company with Prof. K. A. Ktenas,

of the University of Athens and his assistant, Dr. P. Kokkoros. At

the date of writing, three short notes on the early stages of the erup-

tion, by Prof. Ktenas and others, have appeared.’

Since the explosion that formed the central lagoon in the original

prehistoric voleano (Fig. 1), volcanic activity has been almost ex-

clusively confined to a group of small islands in the center of the

lagoon, the products of eruptions of different, and all historic, times

(Fig. 2). The dates of the chief of these eruptions and the names

given to the cones are as follows: Palaia Kaimeni,‘ 46 A. D.; Mikra

Kaimeni, 1570 A. B.; Nea Kaimeni, 1707-1711 A. D.; and Giorgios

Kaimeni, 1866-70. This last was in a feebly fumarolic state when I

visited it in 1893. For the present voleano, Prof. Ktenas® has pro-

posed the name Fouqué Kaimeni, in honor of the eminent French

savant, and I gladly adopt his very appropriate name.

After some feeble, apparently preliminary, earthquakes at the end

1 Received December 3, 1925.

2F. Fouqué, Santorin et ses Eruptions, Paris, 1879.

3K. A. Ktenas, C.R. Acad. Sci. 181: 376. 1925; Georgalas and Liatsikas, ditto,

p. 425; Ktenas, ditto, p. 518.

4 Kaimeni (meaning burnt) is the modern Greek term for the voleanic cones. Palaia

Kaimeni is not shown in Fig. 2.

= Ktenas,' C. R. 18h: 377. 1925.

2 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 16, NO. 1

of July and during the first nine days of August, the eruption began on

August 11,° and the volcano has been in a continuous state of activity

” o ee

s tax, Wh

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= Egan e \

ee er dee in bas

= * as =

2 * te ‘ “er 5

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Fig. 1.—Map of the Santorini Group, prior to the eruption of 1925

ever since, or at least until October 27, according to a note kindly sent

me by Prof. Ktenas. The initial center was submarine, in the strait

6 For some details as to the early stages I avail myself of the data in the three papers

cited above, in addition to information obtained during my visit.

JAN. 4, 1926 WASHINGTON: ERUPTION OF SANTORINI 3

between Mikra Kaimeni and Nea Kaimeni, and apparently about half

way between their craters (x in Fig. 2). An islet was formed and lava

flows were poured out, which flowed east and north in the narrow

NORD.

Bobote Mai :

Fig. 2.—The central islands of Santorini (from Fouqué, Plate XXIX), showing

Fouqué Kaimeni (IF. K.) and the two lava flows. September 19, 1925.

channel, gradually filling it and rising several meters above the pre-

vious water level. When I left September 20 the northern flow had

practically ceased moving, but the eastern flow was slowly pushing

out into the lagoon, and was still in motion on October 27. A small

4 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 16, No. 1

lava flow also extended to the south, on the flat land east of the cone

of Giorgios.

The lava flows were of the usual Santorini type—loose agglomerate

of large and small, angular blocks. An immediate evidence of flow

was that these blocks would fall down or tumble over each other from

time to time, as the more continuous lava flow, of which they formed

the upper part, moved slowly onward. Where the flows entered the

lagoon the water was very hot. Dr. Kokkoros measured temperatures

up to 69°, and at places near the flows the water was apparently

boiling, or almost so. Much steam was given off, and at times there

was a rather strong odor of H.8 from the water. Near this part of the

shore the lagoon water was colored bright yellow or orange, from the

hydrolytic precipitation of iron hydroxide.

The material of the lava flows and of the ejected blocks is a hyper-

sthene andesite that in megascopic and microscopic appearance closely

resembles the generality of the Santorini lavas, being dense, black,

and highly vitreous. A chemical analysis by Miss Keyes shows that

it contains 64.99 per cent of Si0., and that otherwise it is almost

identical chemically with other lavas of Santorini, of different dates,

that have been analysed.’ A description of the petrographical and

chemical features must await a later publication, but attention should

be called here to the very remarkable and almost unique constancy in.

physical, modal, and chemical characters that the Santorini lavas

exhibit, from the earliest times until the present day.

A good view of Fouqué Kaimeni was to be had with binoculars

from the town of Phira, about 2 miles east-northeast. From this

point the spectacle at night was magnificent. Near-by views of the

dome were to be had from the lagoon, although these were not very

satisfactory. Attempts to see and study the eruption from the sum-

mit of Nea Kaimeni and the north slope of Giorgios were frustrated

by showers of stones, but finally on September 19 good view-points

were found along the ridge of the easterly flow of Giorgios Kaimeni,

about 500 meters from and about due south of the dome (S in Fig. 2).

From this ridge on September 19, Fouqué Kaimeni was seen to form

alow circular dome, estimated by me to be nearly 150 meters in di-

ameter and about 50 meters high. During our stay its form changed

continually, the summit being for a time flat and truncated, again

7Ci. H. S. Washington, C. R. XII Cong. Géol. Int., 235. 1914.

8 Ktenas (op. cit., 181: 520. 1925) estimates the diameter at not over 100-120

meters and the height at about 75 meters. According to him the height of the lava

flow in the strait is 20-48 meters above sea level. There would seem to have been some

ascensional movement at the east end since my departure.

JAN. 4, 1926 WASHINGTON: ERUPTION OF SANTORINI 5)

regularly domal, and again asymmetrical, with an apex at the west

side. The dome appeared to be formed of a carapace of solid lava,

much cracked and fissured, a brilliant red incandescence being visible

at night, but only rarely during the day. The cracks and fissures were

constantly altering their position and, although we thought that the

dome was a more or less continuous carapace, yet it is possible that

it consisted mainly of a mass of loose, piled up lava blocks. No

definite crater was visible. The dome rested upon a plateau formed

by the earlier lava flows and, to judge from the observations made on

September 19 and from Ktenas’ map, the center of activity had shifted,

from its initial site in the strait, to a point a couple of hundred meters

to the south, that is, onto the previously existing shore terrace. A

battery of white-vapored fumaroles was in constant activity at the

top of the east slope of Nea Kaimeni.

The voleanic activity of Fouqué Kaimeni was continuous but ir-

regularly pulsatory in intensity, and there were at least three kinds of

eruption, one being practically uninterrupted, while the other two were

intermittent.

(1). From the north end of the Fouqué dome there rose almost

continuously a vertical column of white or yellowish vapor, thin at

the base and gradually expanding, that attained heights of about 200

meters or more. ‘This gave rise to a loud hissing noise and was unac-

companied by the ejection of stones or ash. Another similar blast of

white steam issued, with less force but with intermittent suddenness,

from the southeast side of the dome, being projected upward at an

angle of rather less than 45° from the horizontal.

(2). The most violent explosions were dominantly of Mercalli’s

vuleanian type, although there was, at times, some admixture of the

strombolian. ‘These spectacular ejections took place from or near

the summit of the dome, but apparently not from a fixed point or

crater. ‘They occurred at irregular intervals, and consisted of a suc-

cession of huge puffs, generally accompanied by aloud and deep roar.

Some were practically noiseless. The successive puffs, as at many

‘other volcanoes, formed a thick column, of the usual ‘‘cauliflower”’

type, that attained varied heights, from 500 to 2000 meters and more,

gradually thinning out and drifting to leeward at still greater heights.

These cauliflower columns were white to dark gray in color, apparently

composed very largely of water vapor, highly charged with gray

lapilli, sand, and fine ash. There was a scarcely perceptible odor of

H.S at about 500 meters to leeward. The emission of the cauliflower

columns was generally accompanied by the violent ejection of many

solid blocks of lava, that attained heights of 200-300 meters, and often

6 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 16, No. 1

much more. ‘The stones were scattered in all directions and to con-

siderable distances, some being found by us near the small harbor of

St. George, about 600 meters to the west. It was reported that some

had fallen on the shallow former anchorage, the ‘‘Banko,”’ about one

kilometer to the east, so that this was abandoned by shipping. In

daylight most of the ejected stones appeared black, only a few being

dull red; but at night they were brilliantly red, forming a magnificent

spectacle, as has been said. These blocks varied much in size, from

that of one’s fist to lengths of 50, 60, or more centimeters. On impact

with the ground they broke up, and there was further cracking from

the strains set up as the glass cooled. We found no rounded bombs

nor other masses evidently ejected in a fluid condition, nor were

there any bread crust bombs. We could see no electrical discharges

in the columns, either by day or by night.

(3). The third kind of explosion was most unusual—indeed, I can

recall no record in the literature of anything exactly like it, although

something similar appears to have occurred at Giorgios in April,

1866,° and the eruption of Novarupta, near Katmai in Alaska!° may

have presented some analogous features. ‘The probable cause of the

phenomenon will be discussed in a subsequent paper.

As studied with the glass from Phira at night, the foot of the dome of

Fouqué Kaimeni was seen to be often partly surrounded by a thin ring»

of bright red incandescense, evidently an encircling crevice. Occasion-

ally an outer brilliant concentric crevice was visible here and there.

These crevices were not evident in the daytime from our viewpoint

on September 19, but at intervals there issued from the site of the

crevice, at the foot of the dome on the west and southwest sides, a

semicircular or quarter-circular series or battery of narrow jets of

white or light gray vapor. These jets always exploded simultaneously

and formed a crown around the dome. They were approximately

equidistant from each other, and not far apart—possibly not more

than 10 to 20 meters. They reached altitudes of only about 50 or 100

meters, possibly a trifle more. It seemed that the emission of these

series of jets usually preceded the great vulcanian explosions, or were

at least coincident with them. I would venture to suggest that the

technical term coronet be used for this type of volcanic explosion.

At night, from Phira, a few flames were to be seen playing over the

dome. These were mostly bluish, but some were yellow or red. They

were not visible in the daylight from points near the dome.

® Fouqué, op. cit., p. 75.

10 Cf. C..N. Fenner, Jour. Geol. 28: 588. 1920; and Tech. Papers Nat. Geogr. Soc.,

Katmai Series, 1: 55. 1928.

JAN. 4, 1926 ALLISON: LEVELS OF ATOMS 7

The inhabitants of Phira and the other towns were somewhat

panicky, fearing serious damage to buildings from the volcano or from

earthquakes. In our opinion there is scarcely a possibility of danger

that the towns on Thera and Therasia will suffer serious damage from

the voleano, and probably not from earthquakes, although the vine-

yards may be damaged from falling ash, especially when the vines

begin to burgeon in the spring.

As to the future, it appears to be probable, from analogy with other

recent eruptions at Santorini, that the eruption of Fouqué will be of

considerable duration—at least one year and probably several years.

ATOMIC PHYSICS.—WNote on the LyLy, levels of the atoms Si, P,

S, Cl. Samurt K. Auiison. Geophysical Laboratory, Carnegie

Institution of Washington.! :

Many investigators have made measurements of the energy levels

of atoms by means of experiments on the photo-electric effect of the

radiations given off by these atoms when they are excited by various

means. ‘This method is particularly useful in the region between the

softest X-rays which can be studied by crystalline diffraction and the

shortest wave-lengths in the ultra violet which can be studied with

gratings as in the experiments of Millikan.

In some cases it has been possible to compare the energy level values

obtained by these photo-electric methods with those obtainable by the

ordinary methods of X-ray spectroscopy, either directly, or by appli-

cation of the combination principle. In the cases in which it has been

possible to carry out such comparisons, it has often been found that

no convincing agreements could be obtained. For instance, the meas-

urements by Rollefson? of some critical potentials of iron which he

ascribes to the L and M series are difficult to reconcile with the recent

measurement of the La and 8 lines of iron by Siegbahn and Thoraeus.?

It is the purpose of this note to call attention to the fact that recent

X-ray measurements by Ray‘ and Backlin,® together with the older

measurements of Lindh*:? make possible a rather rigid comparison

between the two experimental methods for obtaining the Ly and

Li limits of Si, P,S, and Cl. The experiments of these investigators

1 Received December 1, 1925.

2 Rollefson, Phys. Rev. 23: 35. 1924.

3 Siegbahn and Thoraeus, Arkiv. f. Mat. Astr. Fys. 18: No. 24. 1924. See also

Siegbahn, Spectroscopy of X-rays (English Ed.), p. 238.

4Ray, Phil. Mag. 50: 505. 1925.

’ Bicklin, Zs. f. Phys. 33: 547. 1925.

6 Lindh, Diss. Lund. (1923.)

7 Lindh, Zs. f. Phys. 31: 210. 1925.

8 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 16, No. 1

make it clear that the energy levels of these light atoms depend in

value on the particular chemical combination in which the atom is

involved. From their results it is now possible to calculate the values

of the Ly In levels of these atoms in different chemical

combinations. |

TABLE 1.—\ AND v/R VALUES FOR Kaps AND Kane

ELEMENT COMPOUND UX.U ym v/R Kai A, v/R Kaz

Si0, O007 25. 1Saaceo 7106.83. 128.224

14 Si ee | :

Si Gol; 135.38 7109.17 128.182

P05 5751.5 158.44 6141.71 148.374

1 BNE 7 ANTS A EAS BNE TLE) ARE

Peed 5767.4 158.00 6144.43 148.308

2 MSO, 4987.9 182.70 5358.50 170.061 || 5360.90 169.984

16 See ee |e eee | ree

S 5008.8 181.93 5360.90 169.984 |} 5363.90 169.889

NaClo, 4369.4 208.56 (4715) (193.3)

17 Cl ae) a EE ee

KCl 4382.9 207.92 4718.21 193.1389 | 4721.18 193.017

The result of such a calculation is shown in the tables. The

wavelengths have been obtained from the following sources.

The K, critical absorption wave-lengths of the compounds of P, 8,

Cl, as well as of the elements themselves, are taken from the disserta-

tion’ of Lindh. The value for the K, limit of S10, and Si was obtained

by Lindh at a later date.’ The wave-lengths of the unresolved Ka

doublet of Si, P in P.O;, and of the Ka, line of Cl in KCl have been

taken from the early measurements of Hjalmar.® :

Recently Backlin® has measured the doublet separation of these

lines for Si and P in various compounds but apparently no new ab-

solute measurements of the wave-lengths have been made. ‘The wave-

lengths of the Ka doublet in sulfur and sulfates (MSO.) have been

taken from the work of Ray. The wave-length of the Ka, line of

Cl in KCl is obtained from Ka, by the recent measurement of Backlin®

of the doublet separation. The wave-lengths of the unresolved Ka

doublet in SiO, and red P have been obtained from the old measure-—

ments of Hjalmar on Si and P.O;, by means of the results of Backlin®

on the shift of these lines with varying chemical combination. A

hypothetical wave-length for the unresolved Ka doublet in Cl in

NaClO, has been inserted on the assumption that a shift of the doublet

8 Hjalmar, Phil. Mag. 41: 675. 1921.

JAN. 4, 1926 ALLISON: LEVELS OF ATOMS 9

of the same order of magnitude as found by Backlin between the lower

and highest valences of Si, P, and S occurs. Due to this assumption

an error of as much as 1 volt may be introduced into the Ly Ly;

levels of Clin NaClO, in Table 3.

TABLE 2.—— VALUES OF L LEVELS

ELEMENT 5 COMPOUND Ly Lit

Si0, 7.63

14 Si

Si 7.20

P30; 10.07

15 P ier SEIT ST

Feed 9.69

MSO, 1 agp 12.64

168 2 See ee

S 12.04 11.95

NaCloO, L573)

t7 Cl

KCl 14.90 14.78

TABLE 3.—L LEVELS IN VOLTS

Joti Sakae CRITICAL JoNTBAmION VOLTAGE

Element Compound | oe i Compound er

S102 103.4

14 Si

Si $7.5 SiH, 98 = 2

P30; 136.4

Pred [eS PH; 128 = 2

MSO, 172.3 a2

168

N) 163.1 161.9 HS 163 = 1

NaClO, (207)

17 Cl ee

: KCl 201.8 200.2 HCl 203 = 1

Holweck? has made measurements of the L;; Ly, energy levels of

the elements Si, P, S, Cl by an ingenious method which differs con-

siderably from the usual photo-electric methods. It is essentially a

measurement of the critical ionisation potential of gaseous com-

pounds of these elements by increasing the highest frequency in a beam

9 Holweck, Compt. rend. 180: 658. 1925.

10 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 16, No. 1

of X-rays partially absorbed in an ionisation chamber filled with a

gaseous compound of the element in question until a sudden increase

in the ion current through the chamber shows that a critical frequency

has been reached. ‘The skillful technique which enables this method

to be applied to very soft X-rays has been described by Holweck. In

this work the gaseous compounds SiH., PH;, H.S, and HCl were used.

The results for the Ly, Ly limits of $i, P, 8, Cl in these compounds

are given in Table 3, and are there to be compared with the values

obtained from X-ray data for other compounds. Such a comparison

has been indicated by Turner.!° The X-ray data available at that time

indicated a discrepancy between the results of Holweck and X-ray

predictions, but it will be seen that the present agreement is good.

It is evident from Table 3 that the X-ray data indicate an energy

difference in volts between the LyLy, levels of these atoms in their

highest and lower valencies which is greater than the experimental

error which Holweck ascribes to his measurements, and in fact his data

agree well with the lower valencies (in $i, P, S with the elements them-

selves) and disagree definitely with the higher valency values.

The necessity of taking account of the particular chemical com-

pound involved in seeking agreement between data in this region has

been emphasized by Siegbahn."

The agreement between Holweck’s measurements on the hydrides

and the X-ray values for the free elements in the case of Si, P, 8,

indicates that the difference between the energy level values of the

hydrides and those of the free element is much less than that between

those of the free element and its higher ‘‘positive’’ valence compounds

with oxygen. Such a result is perhaps not at variance with modern

chemical ideas as to the type of linkage in these compounds.

SUMMARY

By application of the combination principle it is possible to calculate

the energy values of the L,, Ly, levels in the atoms Si, P, 8, Cl in

various compounds from recent X-ray data. ‘The resulting values

are compared with a determination of these levels in the hydrides of

these atoms which was carried out by Holweck by photo-electric

methods. The results show that for Si, P, S these levels have very

nearly the same energy in the hydrides as in the elementary substance

itself, but that in the higher oxides of these elements there is an ap-

preciable difference in this respect between the element and oxide.

10 Turner, Phys. Rev. 26: 148. 1925. (Footnote p. 145.)

11 Siegbahn, Spectroscopy of X-rays (English Ed.) p. 241.

JAN. 4, 1926 WHERRY: NEW PRICKLY-PEAR 11

BOTANY.—A new circumneutral soil prickly-pear from the Middle

Atlantic States. Epcgar T. Wurrry, Bureau of Chemistry.

Jn the course of studies upon the relation between soil reaction and

the distribution of native plants, the prickly-pears of the north-

eastern states have received some attention, and evidence has been

found that, instead of the single species listed by Britton and Rose,?

there are actually at least four species represented in this region. One

of these appears to have been hitherto unrecognized, and the name

Opuntia calcicola is here proposed for it, in reference to its frequent

growth on calcareous rocks. ‘The differences between them may now

be considered.

AcID-SoIL SPECIES

Opuntia compressa.—The most widespread of these prickly-pears is the one

long known as Opuntia vulgaris Miller, now believed to be more correctly

designated as Opuntia opuntia (L.) Karsten under codes permitting dupli-

cate binomials, or preferably as O. compressa (Salisbury) Macbride. The

center of distribution of this species appears to be in the Piedmont of

Virginia and adjoining states; it ranges southward to an as yet unknown

distance—possibly though not certainly into the Applachian Plateau prov-

ince in Alabama—and northward into the Appalachian Valley province of

central New York state, the northern Coastal Plain in New Jersey, and the

New England Upland in Connecticut and Massachusetts. In all of these

regions it grows in rocky or sandy soil which shows a distinctly or often a

strongly acid reaction (subacid to mediacid).

This is a prostrate plant with fibrous roots; the jointsare orbicular to oblong,

averaging 8 to 10 cm. long, rather thick in proportion to their length (except

in shaded situations, when they may become much elongated and thinned)

and in color (following Ridgway’s Color Standards) dull grayish green-yellow,

either ‘‘jade green” (27’’ k) or adjacent hues; the leaves are 4 to 5 mm. long,

and more or less appressed; slender brown and white-banded spines, about

0.8 mm. thick and 2 cm. long, are occasionally present, one or rarely two to an

areole; the numerous glochids are pale dull orange-yellow, near ‘‘deep colonial

buff”’ (21’’b); the flowers are pure yellow (‘lemon yellow’, 23), and about 7

cm. in diameter, with 8 or 10 petals; the fruit is obovoid, 3 to 4 em. long and

1.5 to 2.0 cm. in diameter at the top, more than twice as long as wide only

exceptionally in crowded situations; and the seeds are 4 to 5 mm. broad, with

a prominent roundish keel.

Opuntia pollardiz.—Though usually recorded as limited to the southern

states, this species actually extends at least as far north as eastern Maryland

and Delaware, if not into New Jersey, growing typically in the subacid to

mediacid Coastal Plain sands. It is distinguished from the preceding by

having sweet-potato-like thickenings on its roots; thick and stubby joints of

1 Britton and Rose, The Cactaceae 1: 127. 1919.

12 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 16, No. 1

somewhat more bluish green color (near ‘‘cress green”’, 29’’k) ; more spreading

leaves; stouter spines 1.5 to 2 mm. thick and 2 to 4 cm. long; and seeds having

an even thicker keel.

CIRCUMNEUTRAL-SOIL SPECIES

Opuntia humifusa.—Though sometimes included under Opuntia compressa,

the plant from west of the Appalachian Mountains, ranging over the Interior

Low Plateau and Central Lowland provinces, from Tennessee to Illinois and

Ohio, has several features which distinguish it. It appears to be limited to

limestone rock ledges and calcareous gravel. It grows more erect, with

larger and relatively thinner joints, usually bearing a glaucous coating, so

that their color is near “deep dull yellow green” (31’’k), although old joints

from which the glaucous coating has disappeared may be similar in hue to

those of O. compressa; the areoles are fewer and more widely spaced; the

leaves are longer and more spreading; 3 to 5 cm. spines are frequently de-

veloped; the glochids are strikingly different, being orange-brown in color,

near “‘ferruginous” (9/1) when fresh, becoming ‘‘tawny”’ (13/1) with age; the

flowers often have a red center, owing to a triangular blotch of orange-red

(“scarlet,”’ 5) at the base of each petal; and the fruit is normally longer in

proportion to its width. |

Opuntia calcicola Wherry, sp. nov.—Growing on limestone and in other

circumneutral soils in the Appalachian Valley and adjacent portions of other

provinces, there is another type of prickly pear, which lies in many respects

intermediate between O. compressa and O. humifusa yet seems sufficiently

distinct from either to justify its separation. Its characters are as follows:

Planis ascending, with fibrous roots. Joints oblong to obovate, mostly

from 7 to 21 cm. long, 4 to 8 cm. wide, and 5 to 9 mm. thick; color a dull

grayish yellow-green, ranging from about ‘‘chromium green” (31/1) on young

joints bearing more or less glaucous coating, to ‘‘krénbergs green” (25’’k) on

oldones. Areolesfew and widely spaced. Leaves spreading, early deciduous,

6 to 8 mm. long and 1.5 mm. thick, dull green-yellow, around ‘‘mignonette

green” (25’1), toward the tip often of a dull orange-brown, such as “‘sayal

brown” (15’1) or asimilar color. Spines none, except for a few small whitish

ones on seedling plants. Glochids numerous, pale grayish orange-yellow

approximating to ‘‘chamois’” (19’’b). Wool similar in hue to glochids, but

paler, near “cartridge buff’ (19’’f). Flowers numerous, 7 to 10 cm. broad,

opening during June; petals 10 to 14, pure yellow (“lemon yellow,” 23).

Stamens about 150, 1.5 to 1.8 cm. long; filaments somewhat more orange-

colored than petals, often ‘“‘lemon chrome” (21); anthers pale whitish yellow,

“Gvory yellow” (21’’f). Style 1.8 to 2.2 cm. long, more or less yellow-colored;

stigma lobes 3 mm. long, yellowish gray. Fruit slender obovoid, normally

3.5 to 4.5 em. long by 1.2 to 1.5 cm. wide at the top, thus three times as long

as thick; on ripening becoming dull grayish red, “hay’s maroon” (1’m) and

adjacent colors; seeds 4.5 to 5 mm. in diameter, 2.5 to 3 mm. thick, with an

acute-edged keel rather less prominent than in its relatives, in color grayish

orange-yellow, near ‘‘clay color” (17”’).

As the type locality may be designated an occurrence on the west side of the

JAN. 4, 1926 WHERRY: NEW PRICKLY-PEAR 13

B. & O. R. R. tracks, a short distance north of Bolivar, Jefferson County,

West Virginia. Type specimens, collected here on June 9, 1925, have been

deposited in the U.S. National Herbarium (no. 1,242,156, type) and the New

York Botanical Garden. The photograph reproduced as figure 1 was taken

at that time and place, and brings out the lack of spines and the long fruit.

This plant has been thus far observed at the following localities: On lime-

stone at two places about 2 km. (1.5 miles) north of Luray (in one locality

covering several acres) and at Overall, Page County, Virginia; on brown shale

(Devonian) at several places in the vicinity of Moorefield, Hardy County,

Fig. 1. Opuntia calcicola Wherry, new species

West Virginia; on shaly limestone along B. & O. R. R., at Martinsburg, Berke-

ley County, West Virginia; on dolomitic limestone near Bolivar, Jefferson

Co., West Virginia (type locality); on red shale (Triassic) 6 km. (4 miles)

south-southwest of Poolesville, Montgomery County, Maryland; and on

limestone near Mechanicsburg, Cumberland County, Pennsylvania. Soil

reaction ranging from specific acidity 10 to specific alkalinity 10, thus typi-

cally circumneutral. In the report on the Living Flora of West Virginia by

Millspaugh, published by the state in 1913, the occurrence at Moorefield

is referred to in the tabulation (p. 309) as Opuntia Opuntia, but in the intro-

duction (p. 15) as the western Opuntia polyacantha; as the latter species, true

14 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 16, No. 1

to its name, bears numerous spines, while the West Virginia plant has none

at all, this was a curious case of misidentification.

Opuntia calcicola differs, then, from its relative, O. compressa, in often grow-

ing on limestone, or in any case on rocks yielding circumneutral soils, in being

more upstanding in habit, in having longer and relatively thinner joints of

somewhat more bluish coior, in the areoles being wide-spaced, and in lacking

spines. ‘The flowers are similar in color but larger, and the fruit is normally

decidedly longer in proportion to its thickness, the seeds having a more acute

and less prominent keel. Even allowing for some variation in these respects

shown by the widespread O. compressa, the distinctness of the two seems

evident. After the aspect of these plants is once in mind, as a result of ob-

serving them at one or two typical localities, it is possible to tell which is

represented in a given colony from a considerable distance, and this may be

regarded as a final criterion of the separateness of the species.

BOTANY.—WNew plants from Chiapas collected by C. A. Purpus.

Pau C. STANDLEY, U.S. National Museum.

The nine species of plants here described as new form part of a

large and interesting collection made in the State of Chiapas, Mexico,

in 1925 by Mr. C. A. Purpus. Mr. Purpus’ Mexican collections are

too well known to need comment. Many of the new species found

in them were described by the late Townshend 8. Brandegee in a ~

series of papers entitled ‘‘Plantae Mexicanae Purpusianae,” the last

of which was issued in 1924.”

Neea chiapensis Standl., sp. nov.

Branchlets terete, pale brownish, minutely and densely grayish-puberulent

at first but quickly glabrate; leaves opposite, or the upper verticillate, the

petioles slender, 1.2—3.cm. long, glabrate, the blades elliptic or broadly elliptic,

7.5-15 em. long, 4.5—7 em. wide, abruptly acute or acuminate, at’ base acutish

or abruptly acute, rarely rounded, thin, glabrous, the lateral nerves very

slender, about 7 on each side, arcuate, laxly and irregularly anastomosing

near the margin; pistillate inflorescence few-flowered, on a slender peduncle

5 em. long; fruit elliptic-oblong, 18 mm. long, 9 mm. thick, the stone com-

pressed, coarsely costate.

Type in the U.S. National Herbarium, no. 1,208,246, collected in a ravine

in mountains east of Monserrate, Chiapas, Mexico, April, 1925, by C. A.

Purpus (no. 271).

No. 414, from the same locality, is perhaps referable here, but in this the

leaves are much smaller. The fruit is immature.

All the Central American species of Neea are closely related. This one is

similar in most respects to N. psychotrioides Donn. Smith, but in that the

leaves are relatively narrower and shorter-petioled, and the fruit only half as

large.

1 Published by permission of the Secretary of the Smithsonian Institution.

2 Univ. Calif. Publ. Bot. 10: 403-421.

JAN. 4, 1926 STANDLEY: NEW PLANTS FROM CHIAPAS 15

Zanthoxylum tenuipes Standl., sp. nov. E,

Branchlets unarmed or bearing stout broad-based prickles 1 cm. long;

petioles terete, 2-3 cm. long; leaves odd-pinnate, the rachis setulose-hirtellous,

the leaflets 5-9, opposite or the lower sometimes alternate, sessile or nearly so,

ovate to oblong-elliptic, 3.5-6 cm. long, 1.5-38 cm. wide, acute or obtuse, thin,

remotely and very shallowly glandular-crenate or subentire, deep green and

somewhat lustrous above, paler beneath, sparsely setulose-hirtellous on both

surfaces; inflorescences, axillary, lax, few-flowered, paniculate, much shorter

than the leaves, slender-pedunculate, the branches very slender, sparsely

setulose, the pedicels almost filiform, 6-8 mm. long, glabrous; follicle 1,very

oblique, produced at base, glabrous, coarsely glandular-punctate, 5mm. long;

seeds black and shining, 4 mm. long, sharp-edged.

Type in the U: 8. National Herbarium, no. 1,208,237, collected in rocky

2ulch in mountains east of Monserrate, Chiapas, Mexico, July, 1925, by C. A.

Purpus (no. 126).

Perhaps related to Z. mollissimum (Engler) P. Wilson, but easily recog-

nized by the very long and slender pedicels and scant pubescence.

Buddleia purpusii Standl., sp. nov.

Branches quadrangular, densely stellate-tomentose, the tomentum loose,

whitish or fulvescent; leaves sessile, lanceolate, 6—-8.5 cm. long, 1.7—3 cm. wide,

attenuate to an acute apex, cuneate at base, finely serrate-dentate with acute

teeth, entire toward the base, green above, gland-dotted and rather finely

stellate-tomentose, the venation impressed, beneath densely tomentose with

a tomentum of loose whitish hairs; flowers sessile in dense few-flowered heads,

the heads spicate, the spikes panicled; spikes 2-5 cm. long, about 8 mm. thick, .

‘sessile, interrupted below, dense and continuous above, often branched;

calyx densely stellate-tomentose, the lobes 1-1.5 mm. long, narrowly triangu-

lar; corolla densely tomentose outside, 2mm. long, the lobes ovate-triangular,

obtuse; capsule densely tomentose, equaling the calyx lobes.

Type in the U.S. National Herbarium, no. 1,208,235, collected along creek

near Monserrate, Chiapas, Mexico, March, 1925, by C. A. Purpus (no. 160).

Jacquemontia mollissima Standl., sp. nov.

Woody vine, the stems red-brown, with few large pale lenticels, when

young densely stellate-tomentose with lax spreading hairs; petioles 3-7 mm.

long; leaf blades ovate or oval-ovate, 1.5-8 em. long, 1-2 em. wide, acute to

rounded at apex, sometimes apiculate, rounded or subcordate at base, above

densely stellate-pilose, the hairs very slender, long, and soft, with few rays,

_ beneath densely tomentose with long soft whitish hairs; flowers few, solitary

or fasciculate in the leaf axils, the pedicels 2-3 mm. long; sepals 3-3.5 mm.

long, oval or rounded, rounded at apex, the outer ones densely tomentose;

corolla (probably white) 8-10 mm. long, glabrous.

Type in the U. 8. National Herbarium, no. 1,208,236, collected on

ae 2a at Monserrate, Chiapas, Mexico, March, 1925, by C. A. Purpus

no. 47). |

In general appearance this plant suggests J. nodiflora (Desr.) Don, but in

that the sepals are glabrous, and the tomentum of the leaves fine and close.

Columnea purpusii Standl., sp. nov.

Small epiphytic shrub, the branches very stout, pale brownish or ochrace-

ous, leafy near the tips, sparsely pilose with appressed or ascending hairs;

16 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 16, No. 1

petioles 4-8 mm. long, densely villous-pilose with ascending, septate, whitish or

purplish hairs; leaf blades narrowly elliptic-oblong or lance-oblong, 4-9.5 em.

long, 1-2 cm. wide, acute or acuminate, at base obliquely acute, glabrous above,

beneath paler, sparsely setose-pilose along the nerves with pale appressed hairs,

sometimes with a few appressed hairs between the nerves, the lateral nerves 3

or 4 on each side, ascending at an acute angle; flowers solitary in the leaf

axils, the pedicels 4-12 mm. long, villous-pilose; calyx lobes narrowly lanceo-

late, rounded at base, 16-18 mm. long, 3-4 mm. wide, attenuate to an acute

apex, ciliate, sparsely appressed-pilose outside, entire; corolla bright red,

rather densely shorter-villous, the tube 4.5-5 cm. long, 7-9 mm. broad in the

throat, the upper lip 2.5-38 em. long, straight, the lower lip 1.5 em. long, linear-

lanceolate, recurved, the lateral lobes about 1 cm. long, obtuse; anther sacs

2am. lone:

Type in the U. 8. National Herbarium, no. 1,208,240, collected in damp

forest in mountains near Fenix, Chiapas, Mexico, April, 1925, by C. A. Purpus

(no. 239). No. 96 from the same locality also represents the species.

Only three species of Columnea have been reported from Mexico. C.

flava Mart. & Gal. has yellow flowers. C. erythrophoea Decaisne is closely

related to C. purpusii, but has cordate and dentate, rose-colored calyx lobes.

C. schiedeana Schlecht. is distinguished from the present plant by its spotted

corolla and copiously pubescent leaves.

Columnea stenophylla Standl., sp. nov.

Small epiphytic shrub, the branches reddish or pale brownish, when young

pilose with stiff, appressed or ascending, septate hairs; petioles stout, 3-5

mm. long, pilose; leaf blades linear-lanceolate to linear, 6—9.5 em. long, 0.5-1.5

cm. wide, long-attenuate, obliquely acute at base, glabrous above, beneath

paler, sparsely pilose with very slender, long, appressed, lustrous hairs, the

lateral nerves inconspicuous; pedicels axillary, solitary, 4-8 mm. long, pilose

with ascending hairs; calyx lobes lanceolate or linear-lanceolate, 15-18 mm.

long, 2.5-5 mm. wide, long-attenuate, rounded at base, entire, green, densely

appressed-pilose with very slender, whitish, multiseptate hairs; corolla bright

red, densely villous with very long, slender, spreading, red hairs, the tube 4.5

cm. long, 9 mm. wide in the throat, the upper lip broadly oblong, rounded at

apex, 3 cm. long, 1.3 cm. wide, the lower lip triangular-oblong, 1.5 cm. long,

acutish, the lateral lobes obtuse, 1-1.5 em. long.

Type in the U. S. National Herbarium, no. 567513, collected at Finca

Irlanda, Chiapas, Mexico, June, 1914, by C. A. Purpus (no. 7206). Collected

also at Cafetal Copalito, Oaxaca, May, 1917, by Blas P. Reko (no. 3894).

A relative of C. purpusii but distinguished by the narrow leaves and the

long pubescence of the corolla.

The species of Columnea are among the most beautiful plants of tropical

America because of the large, brightly colored (usually red) flowers. Only a

few species reach the mountains of southern Mexico, but in Costa Rica the

genus attains probably its greatest development, and the number of species

occurring there is very large.

Hillia chiapensis Standl., sp. nov.

Small epiphytic shrub, glabrous throughout; stipules oblong to obovate,

3-4 mm. long, rounded at apex, caducous; petioles 2 mm. long or less; leaf

JAN. 4, 1926 STANDLEY: NEW PLANTS FROM CHIAPAS 17

blades elliptic or oblong-elliptic, 9-14 mm. long, 4-7 mm. wide, rounded at

apex, obtuse or acutish at base, fleshy, the lateral nerves inconspicuous,

ascending at very acute angle; capsule subsessile, 17-22 mm. long, the valves

after dehiscence 3-4 mm. wide.

_ Type in the U. S. National Herbarium, no. 1,208,244, collected in damp

forest in mountains near Fenix, Chiapas, Mexico, April, 1925, by C. A. Purpus

(no. 262).

Of the three other species of Hillia known from North America, only H.

tetrandra Swartz could be confused with this Mexican plant. That species is

much larger in all its parts, and I have no doubt that the Chiapas plant,

although represented only by incomplete material, is specifically distinct.

Psychotria chlorobotrya Standl., sp. nov.

Branches green, subterete, glabrous, smooth; stipules distinct, green,

herbaceous, persistent, glabrous, broadly triangular-ovate, 5 mm. long, bilo-

bate to the middle, the lobes acute; petioles slender, 1.5—-4.5 cm. long, remotely

and minutely puberulent or glabrous; leaf blades narrowly elliptic to lance-

elliptic or oblanceolate, 8-23 cm. long, 2-7 cm. wide, long-acuminate, acute at

base or usually long-attenuate, thin, bright green above and glabrous, be-

neath slightly paler, glabrous or along the nerves sparsely and obscurely

puberulent, the lateral nerves 12-16 pairs, divergent at an angle of 45° or

more, arcuate, obscurely anastomosing near the margin; inflorescence ter-

minal, cymose-paniculate, dense, many-flowered, the peduncles 2-3 cm. long,

puberulent, the panicles 1.5-4.5 cm. long, the flowers in dense headlike cymes ©

on puberulent peduncles 1 cm. long or shorter; bracts ovate, green, obtuse or

acute, 5-8 mm. long; bractlets broadly ovate to obovate, obtuse, green,

glabrous or nearly so, much exceeding the calyx; calyx about 2 mm. long, 5-

lobate, the lobes about 1 mm. long, ovate or deltoid, obtuse or acute, unequal,

green, glabrous; corolla salverform, 4 mm. long (not fully developed), gla-

brous, with short obtuse lobes.

Type in the U.S. National Herbarium, no. 1,208,242, collectedin damp forest

in mountains near Fenix, Chiapas, May, 1925, by C. A. Purpus (no. 104).

No. 83, from the same locality, also is referable here.

The species is well marked among those of Mexico by the large green

bractlets, which nearly conceal the flowers.

Psychotria phoeniciana Standl., sp. nov.

Branches subterete, glabrous; stipules persistent, intrapetiolar, bilobate,

united, the sheath 3 mm. long, the lobes obliquely ovate or triangular, acute,

glabrous; petioles slender, 2.5—5 cm. long, glabrous; leaf blades oblong-lanceo-

late to ovate-lanceolate, 10-17 cm. long, 3.5-4.5 cm. wide, acuminate, cuneate-

acute at base or sometimes abruptly acute, thin, glabrous, slightly paler

beneath, the lateral nerves about 17 pairs, divergent at an angle of about 60°,

arcuate, laxly anastomosing near the margin; inflorescence terminal, glabrous,

the penduncle 15 cm. long, curved, the flowers very numerous, corymbose-

_paniculate, the panicle much branched, 10 cm. long, 15 cm. broad, the pedicels

slender, 10-15 mm. long; bracts triangular, acute, 1-2.5 mm. long, the bract-

lets minute; calyx limb scarcely 1 mm. long, 5-lobed to the middle, the lobes

ovate, obtuse, glabrous; fruit oval, 5 mm. long, 4 mm. thick, 10-costate, the

nutlets concave and sulcate on the inner face.

18 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 16, No. 1

Type in the U. 8. National Herbarium, no. 1,208,247, collected in damp

forest in mountains near Fenix, Chiapas, Mexico, “May, 1925, by C. A.

Purpus (no. 316).

_ Although not marked bya any outstanding characters, unless it be the large

inflorescence and long pedicels, this plant seems distinct from any Psychotria

of Mexico or Central America that is known to the writer.

ENTOMOLOGY .—WNew termites from Guatemala, Costa Rica, and

Colombia. THos. E. Snyper, Bureau of Entomology, U. S.

Department of Agriculture.

The seven new termites described in this paper were collected by

Dr. W. M. Mann, of this Bureau, in the winter and spring of 1924,

and by Mr. F. Neverman, of Costa Rica, late in 1924 and in 1925;

a portion of this material has already been described.! In addition

to descriptions of the new species, new geographical distribution

records of known termites based on these collections are given.

Most of the new species represent ‘‘powder-post”’ termites or poten-

tial house termites, and may become of economic importance. ‘The

writer uses the term powder-post termites for certain groups in the

family Kalotermitidae; the impressed pellets of finely digested, ex-

creted wood fall from wood infested by these termites and reveal their

presence. Such termites must be rigidly excluded and guarded against

by Federal quarantines; they are likely to be introduced in furniture,

and become cosmopolitan in distribution. Kalotermes (Cryptotermes)

brevis Walker occurs from Florida in the United States to the West

Indies, Central and South America, and South Africa.

Powder-post termites live in hard dry wood and are difficult to

collect, hence, since they are not conspicuous, many new species are

being found when specially sought after by such excellent collectors

as Dr. Mann and Mr. Neverman. No single specimen was definitely

designated as a holotype; since the specific descriptions were made

from a series, these specimens are cotypes.

Family KALOTERMITIDAE

Kalotermes (Rugitermes) costaricensis, new species

Winged adult—Head yellow-brown (light castaneous-brown), smooth,

shining, longer than broad, sides almost parallel, rounded posteriorly, with

fairly dense long hairs. Postclypeus white, tinged with yellow, short but

broad. Labrum light yellow-brown, broader than long, broadly rounded to

1 Snyper, T. E.: New American termites. This Journau 15: 152-162. 1925.

JAN. 4, 1926 SNYDER: NEW TERMITES 19

nearly straight at apex, with long hairs. Eye black, not round, fairly large

and projecting, separated from lateral margin of head by a distance greater

than the diameter of an eye. Ocellus hyaline, projecting, suboval, at an

oblique angle to eye, from which it is separated by a distance equal to the

long diameter of the ocellus.

Antenna light yellow-brown, whitish towards apex, with 17 to 20 aencates

segments bead-like, or wedge-shaped, but becoming longer and broader

toward apex; with long hairs; third segment longer than or subequal to second,

but longer than fourth segment; last segment narrow, elongate, subelliptical.

Pronotum yellow (margins darker), not twice as broad as long, broadest

at middle, roundly and shallowly concave both anteriorly and posteriorly;

sides round, narrowed posteriorly, with scattered long hairs and denser short

hairs.

Wings smoky dark brown, coarsely punctate. In forewing, median vein

uniting almost directly with the radial sector; radial sector close to and parallel,

and with seven branches to costal vein, first four long and oblique, others

short; cubitus running parallel to radial sector, above middle of wing, to:

apex, with 11 branches or sub-branches to lower margin of wing; subcostal

veln uniting with costa before middle of wing; seven irregular to crescentic

transverse branches between cubitus and radial sector. In hind wing, median

vein lacking; radial sector with two long and two short branches to costal

vein; cubitus running to apex of wing with 10 branches or sub-branches to

lower margin of wing: subcostal vein uniting with costa at about middle of

wing; five irregular transverse branches between cubitus and radial sector.

Wing scale as lcng as pronotum.

Legs dark brown to fuscous (tarsi lighter), elongate, slender, hairs long.

Abdomen with tergites golden-yellow; tergites with fairly dense and fairly

long hairs near base of each; cerci fairly elongate and prominent.

Measurements.—Length of entire winged adult, 11.5-12.25 mm.; length of

entire dedlated adult, 9-10 mm.; length of head (to tip labrum), 2.1 mm.;

length of pronotum (where longest not at median line), 1.2 mm.; length of

forewing, 8 mm.; length of hind tibia, 1.5 mm.; diameter of eye (long diame-

ter), 0.37 mm.; width of head (at eyes), 1.8 mm.; width of pronotum, 2.05

mm.; width of forewing, 2.5 mm.

Soldier.—Head yellow-brown (light castaneous-brown, darker anteriorly

and lighter posteriorly), cylindrical, markedly broadest anteriorly, sides

slightly concave, with scattered long hairs, very dense on frontal slope or

epicranial suture, where there is a median depression or groove. Eye spot

hyaline, prominent, reniform, parallel to antennal socket. Gula about half

as wide at middle as where widest anteriorly.

Mandibles black, base reddish-brown, broad at base, tips more slender, but

fairly broad, pointed and incurved; left mandible with two fairly large sharp

pointed marginal teeth on apical third, a small pointed tooth, a molar in the

middle and a small blunt tooth near the base; right mandible with two large

pointed marginal teeth, one in middle, the lower nearer the base; edge of right

mandible roughened between apex and first tooth (Fig. 1).

Antenna yellow-brown to castaneous (lighter towards apex); with 15

segments, segments wedge-shaped, becoming longer and broader toward

apex, with long hairs; third segment dark, markedly subclavate, longer than

. second or fourth segments; fourth segment about half as long as second; last

segment elongate, slender, spatulate.

Pronotum yellow (margins darker), not quite twice as broad as long,

broadest slightly anterior to middle; anterior margin broadly and roundly

20 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 16, No. 1

concave; generally convex posteriorly except at middle where shallowly

Sree ai sides narrowed posteriorly; pronotum with dense, fairly long

airs.

In some specimens, meso- and meta-nota with short wing pads. :

Legs tinged with yellow; femora markedly swollen; three dark-colored

spines at apex of tibiae.

Abdomen with tergites yellow to light yellow-brown; a row of fairly long

hairs at base of each; cerci fairly elongate; styli present.

Measurements.—Length of entire soldier, 10-12.5 mm.; length of head with

mandibles, 5.25 mm.; length of head without mandibles (to anterior margin),

3.5mm.; length of left mandible, 1.8 mm.; length of pronotum, 1.45 mm.;

i VM

New species of Kalotermes. Mandibles of soldiers showing marginal teeth. (Camera

lucida, high power.)

Fig. 1.—Kalotermes (Rugitermzs) costaricensis Snyder

Fig. 2.—Kalotermes (Calcaritermes) asperatum Snyder

Fig. 3.—Kalotermes (Calcaritermes) guatemalae Snyder

length of hind tibia, 1.2 mm.; width of head (anteriorly), 2.1 mm.; width of

head (posteriorly), 1.7 mm.; height of head at middle, 2 mm.; width of pro-

notum, 2.8 mm.

Type locality Hamburg Farm, Santa Clara Province, Costa Rica.

Described from a series of winged adults and soldiers collected with

nymphs of the sexual form at the type locality on January 22, 1925, by Mr.

F. Neverman in dead hardwood of Manic.

Co-types, winged adult.—Cat. No. 28655, U. S.. N. M.; co-morphotypes,

soldier.

The winged sexual adults of K. (R.) costaricensis are large and bicolored;

and the soldier is also large.

Kalotermes (Calcaritermes) asperatum, new species

Winged adult—Head castaneous-brown (lighter posteriorly and below .

eyes) smooth, shining, longer than broad, elongate, sub-oval, rounded pos-

teriorly, a V-shaped marking at epicranial suture, with scattered, fairly long

hairs. Eyes black, not round, but little projecting, separated from lower

JAN. 4, 1926 SNYDER: NEW TERMITES 21

margin of head by a distance less than the short diameter of an eye. Ocelli

hyaline, suboval, close to eye.

Antenna light yellow-brown, with 12 segments, with long hairs; third seg-

ment subclavate, slender, longer than second or fourth segments; fourth

segment bead-like; from fourth on segments becoming longer and broader

toward apex; last segment elongate, slender, subelliptical.

Pronotum same color as head, shallowly concave anteriorly; posterior

margin convex except for median emargination; sides narrow posteriorly;

pronotum with scattered, long hairs.

Wings smoky, costal area darker (brown); tissue coarsely punctate; in

forewing, median vein closeto and paralleltosubcosta; cubitus nearly in center

of wing branching to apex, with about 11 to 12 branches or sub-branches to

lower margin of wing; in hind wing, median branching from subcosta near

base of wing.

Legs yellow (femora darker), slender, elongate; pulvillus present; legs with

long hairs.

Abdomen with tergites castaneous-brown, a row of leas hairs at base of

each; cerci short, broad at base; styli present.

M easurements.—Length of entire winged adult, 5.8-6.2 mm.; length of

entire dedlated adult, 3.6 to 3.7 mm.; length of head (posterior margin to tip

of labrum), 1.05 mm.; length of pronotum, 0.5-0.6 mm.; length of forewing,

4.24.3 mm.; length of hind tibia, 0.75-0.8 mm.; diameter of eye (long diame-

ter), 0.25 mm.; width of head (at eyes), 0.75 mm.; width of pronotum, 0.7

mm.; width of forewing, 1.4 mm.

Soldier.—Head light castaneous-brown (with reddish tinge) to piceous on

front (paler posteriorly), in profile head slightly concave in middle, short,

cylindrical, front vertical to slightly projecting (overhanging) dorsally; head

constricted (narrowed) dorsally at front, front scooped out; head with deep

V-shaped median suture, lobes elevated, broadly rounded, and markedly

roughened (tuberculate); head with transverse rows of long hairs anteriorly

and in middle.

ee spot not distinct, suboval. Gula blackish, not much narrowed in

middle.

Mandibles blackish, short, broad at base, but pointed and incurved at

apex; left mandible with two pointed marginal teeth near apex and a broad

ie. “ middle; right mandible with two sharp-pointed teeth in middle

ig. 2

Antenna SElloie browns with 10 segments, segments becoming longer and

broader toward apex, with long hairs; third segment narrow, short, shorter

than second or fourth segments; last segment slender, elongate, subelliptical.

Pronotum of same color as head; anterior margin deeply and roundly con-

cave, roughened, with minute serrations or denticules; anterior corners high;

posterior margin straight, except for median, round emargination; sides

angularly narrow posteriorly.

Presternal processes dark colored.

Legs tinged with yellow; femora swollen; two chitinized spines and a spur

at base of fore tibiae.

Abdomen with tergites yellowish, with a row of long haars at base of each;

cerci short.

Measurements.—Length of entire soldier, 3.8—4.7 mm.; length of head with

mandibles, 1.55-1.75 mm.; length of head without mandibles (to anterior

margin), 1.2-1.4 mm.; length of left mandible, 0.6 mm.; length of pronotum,

22 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 16, No. 1

0.55-0.6 mm.; length of hind tibiae, 0.6 mm.; width of head (anteriorly),

0.85—1 mm.; - width ¢ of head (posteriorly), 1-1.1 mm.: ; height of head at middle,

0.9-1. mm.; - width of pronotum, 0.9—-1 mm.

Type locality. —Hamburg Farm, Santa Clara Province, Costa Rica.

Described from a series of winged adults and soldiers collected with nymphs

at the type locality by F. Neverman on May 15, 1925, in heartwood.

i. Co-type, soldiers.—Cat. No. 28656, U. 8. N. M.; co-morphotypes, winged

adult.

Kalotermes. (C.) asperatum is smaller than either K. (Calcaritermes)

emminens Snyder and recessifrons Snyder from Colombia or guatemalae

Snyder from Guatemala and Costa Rica.

Kalotermes (Calcaritermes) guatemalae, new species

Winged adult——Head very dark castaneous-brown (with reddish tinge),

(lighter below the eyes and anteriorly), smooth, shining, longer than broad, |

(broadly suboval), rounded posteriorly, with few scattered short hairs, and a

row of long hairs posteriorly. Eye black, not round, projecting, separated

from lower margin of head by a distance about equal to half the short diame-

ter of aneye. Ocellus hyaline, suboval, very close to eye.

Antenna yellow-brown near base, whitish with yellow tinge towards apex,

with 13 segments; segments wedge-shaped to bead-like, becoming longer and

broader toward apex; with long hairs; third segment subclavate, longer than

fourth segment but approximately subequal to second; last segment elongate,

subelliptical.

Pronotum of same color as head; anterior margin broadly roundly emargi-

nate (shallowly concave); anterior corners high; sides roundly narrow towards

posterior margin, which is nearly straight; short hairs on anterior margin;

a row of long hairs just posteriorly to middle and on posterior margin.

Wings dusky brown (smoky), costal veins darker; membrane coarsely

punctate; in forewing, median vein close and parallel to subcostal vein;

cubitus in about middle of wing, branching to apex with about 12 branches or

sub-branches to lower margin; in hind wing, median originates from subcosta

near apex.

Legs with coxae and femora dark castaneous-brown; tibiae and tarsi white

with yellow tinge; legs slender and elongate.

Abdomen with tergites dark castaneous-brown, with a row of long hairs at

base of each; cerci fairly prominent; styli present.

Measurement.—Length of entire winged adult, 8-8.25 mm.; length of entire

dealated adult, 5 mm.; length of head (posterior margin to tip labrum), 1.4—

1.45 mm. ; ‘length of pronotum, 0.7 mm.; length of forewing, 5.75 mm.; length

of hind tibia, 1.1 mm.; diameter of eye (long diameter), 0.275 mm. ; - width of

head (at eyes), 1.15-1.2 mm.; ; width of pronotum, 1-1.05 mm.; - width of fore-

wing, 1.8 mm.

Soldier—Head castaneous-brown (lighter posteriorly and darker—to

piceous—at anterior margin), elongate, cylindrical, thick, wider posteriorly

than anteriorly, concave (dorsally) in middle in profile; head longer ventrally

(2.40 mm.)—projecting to post-clypeus—than dorsally (2.25 mm.), where

vertical; epicranial suture concave (hollowed out); head lobed medianly, a

broad U-shaped cleft or suture, lobes but slightly roughened: head with Aiea

scattered long hairs. Eye spot hyaline, large, suboval, separated from

antennal socket by a distance equal to its long diameter. Gula narrowed

in middle.

JAN. 4, 1926 SNYDER: NEW TERMITES 23

Mandibles piceous, broad at base, sharp-pointed and incurved at apex; left

mandible with three sharp-pointed marginal teeth, two near apical third, the

other, larger tooth near middle; right mandible with two large pointed teeth

near middle (fig. 3).

Antenna light on. mere near base (lighter anteriorly), with 12 seg-

ments; segments wedge-shaped, becoming longer and broader toward apex,

with long hairs; third segment short, ring-like, shorter than second or fourth

segments; last segment short, slender, suboval.

Pronotum castaneous-brown (margins darker), similar in shape to that of

K. (C.) emarginicollis Snyder, but not quite so emarginate posteriorly, with

scattered long hairs.

Legs tinged with yellow (femora darker and swollen); fore tibiae with

spur.

Abdomen with tergites dirty white, tinged with yellow, a row of long hairs

at base of each; cerci small; styli present.

Measurements.—Length of entire soldier, 6.5—-7.5 mm.; length of head with

mandibles, 3 mm.; length of head without mandibles (to anterior margin), 2.4

mm.; length of left mandible, 1 mm.; length of pronotum, 0.8-0.9 mm.;

length of hind tibia, 0.9 mm.; width of head anteriorly, 1.5 mm.; width of

head posteriorly, 1.7 mm.; height of head at middle, 1.4-1.5 mm.; width of

pronotum, 1.5 mm.

Type locality —Mixco, Guatemala.

Described from a series of winged adults collected with soldiers and nymphs

at the type locality in May, 1924, by D. W. M. Mann. Other specimens of

this termite (winged adults and soldiers) collected at Estrella, Costa Rica,

in April, 1924, by Mann and soldiers at Bananito on April 20, 1925, by F.

Neverman.

Co-type, soldier.—Cat. No. 28657 U.S. National Museum; co-morphotypes

winged adult.

The soldier of K. (C.) guatemalae is similar to that of K. (C.) emarginicollis

Snyder from Panama, but it is darker colored, larger, and has a wider head

and a longer, and less deeply emarginate pronotum.

Kalotermes (Calcaritermes) thompsonae, new species

Winged adult—Head yellow-brown or light castaneous-brown (slightly

immature), shining, sides parallel, approximately suboval, with scattered

short hairs and row of longer hairs posteriorly. Eye black, not round, pro-

jecting, separated from lower margin of head by a distance less than long

diameter of eye; ocellus hyaline, suboval, close to and at an oblique angle to

eye.

Antenna light yellow-brown at base, yellow at apex, with 13 segments,

segments wedge-shaped, becoming longer and broader toward apex, with

long hairs; third segment subclavate, longer than second or fourth segments;

last segment elongate, narrow, subelliptical.

Pronotum of same color as head, broadly and roundly concave anteriorly;

posterior margin nearly straight; sides angularly narrow posteriorly; margins

with scattered short and long hairs.

Wings hyaline (slightly immature) costal area yellow-brown; membrane

coarsely punctate; in forewing, median vein close to and parallel to subcosta;

cubitus in about middle of wing, branching to apex of wing; with 11-12

branches or sub-branches to lower margin of wing; in hind wing, median origi-

nating from subcosta near base.

24 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 16, No. 1

Legs yellow, elongate, slender, pulvillus present, hairs long.

Abdomen with tergites light yellow-brown, a row of long hairs at base of

each tergite; cerci short.

Measurements.—Length of entire winged adult, 7-7.5 mm.; length of entire

deailated adult, 4.3-4.6 mm.; length of head (posterior margin to tip of la-

brum), 1.15-1.2 mm.; length of pronotum, 0.5—-0.55 mm.; length of forewing,

5.4mm.; length of hind tibia, 0.7 mm.; diameter of eye (long diam.), 0.25 mm.;

width of head (at eyes), 0.9 mm.; width of pronotum, 0.85 mm.; width of fore-

wing, 1.5 mm.

The winged adult of K. (C.) thompsonae is lighter colored and smaller

than either zmminens Snyder or recessifrons Snyder from Colombia.

Soldier—Head castaneous to piceous on front, and yellow posteriorly,

semicylindrical, nearly straight in profile, longer ventrally than dorsally;

front of head with oblique slope, ventrally, seen from front, more or less

shallowly concave, only slight outlines of a rim about median suture, which

is broad, shallow, and V-shaped, lobes rounded and slightly roughened, with

scattered short hairs anteriorly and a row of long hairs posteriorly. Eye spot

indistinct. Gula narrowest at middle (where broadest in K. (C.) recesszfrons

Snyder from Colombia).

Mandibles piceous, short, broad at base, pointed and incurved at apex;

left mandible with two sharp-pointed marginal teeth at apical third, another

in middle; right with two larger pointed marginal teeth near middle.

Antenna light yellow-brown, with 11 segments, segments wedge-shaped,

becoming longer and broader toward apex, with long hairs; third segment ring-

like, shorter than second or fourth segments; last segment slender, elongate,

semi-elliptical.

Pronotum light yellow-brown (margins darker), short, nearly twice as

broad as long; anterior margin broadly, roundly concave; anterior corners

high; posterior margin shallowly concave in center; sides nearly straight,

narrow posteriorly; pronotum with but few scattered short hairs and a row of

longer hairs posteriorly.

Presternal processes dark (yellow-brown).

Legs yellow, femora swollen, spur on fore tibiae.

‘ Abdomen with tergites tinged with yellow, with a row of long hairs; cerci

short.

_ Measurements.—Length of entire soldier, 4 mm.; length of head with

mandibles, 1.8 mm.; length of head without mandibles (to anterior margin ven-

trally), 1.5 mm.; length of left mandible, 0.55 mm.; length of pronotum,

0.5 mm.; length of hind tibia, 0.55 mm.; width of head anteriorly, 0.9 mm.;

width of head posteriorly, 0.95 mm.; height of head (at middle), 0.8 mm.;

width of pronotum, 0.9 mm.

Type locality— Hamburg Farm, Santa Clara Province, Costa Rica.

Described from a series of winged adults and a soldier collected with

nymphs at the type locality on May 29, 1925, by F. Neverman in dead dry

wood of standing tree.

Co-type, soldier—Cat. No. 28658 U.S. National Museum; co-morphotypes

winged adult.

The soldier of K. (C.) thompsonae has a shorter, more pointed mandible

than in recessifrons Snyder and a shorter pronotum; it is smaller than emar-

ginicollis Snyder from Panama.

Named in honor of the late Dr. C. B. Thompson of Wellesley College.

JAN. 4, 1926 SNYDER: NEW TERMITES 25

Kalotermes (Glyptotermes) marlatti, new species

Winged adult—Head lght castaneous-brown, punctate, shining, sides

parallel; head suboval, with scattered long hairs. Eye black, not round,

projecting, separated from lower margin of head by a distance less than the

diameter of aneye. Ocellus hyaline, suboval, close and at an oblique angle to

eye.

Antenna yellow-brown, with 11 segments, segments bead-like, becoming

longer and broader toward apex, with long hairs; third segment subclavate,

slightly longer than second or fourth segment; last segment elongate, subellip-

tical.

Pronotum of same color as head, broadly roundly concave anteriorly;

anterior corners high; straight at posterior margins; sides angularly narrowed

posteriorly; pronotum with scattered long hairs.

_ Wings dusky with golden tinge (costal area yellow-brown); tissue coarsely

punctate; in forewing, median vein close to and parallel to subcosta; cubitus

in about middle of wing, branching to apex, with about 12 branches or sub-

branches to lower margin; in hindwing, median originating from subcosta

near base (at about basal fourth of wing).

Legs yellow, elongate, slender, with long hairs.

Abdomen with tergites castaneous-brown, with a row of long hairs at base

of each; cerci short.

Measurements.—Length of entire winged adult, 6.2 mm.; length of entire

deadlated adult, 4.5 mm.; length of head (posterior margins to tip of labrum),

0.9 mm.; length of pronotum, 0.45 mm.; length of forewing, 4.5 mm.; length

of hind tibia, 0.6 mm.; diameter of eye (long diameter), 0.225 mm.; width of

head (at eyes), 0.75 mm.; width of pronotum, 0.65 mm.; width of forewing,

1.2mm.

The winged adult of A. (G.) marlatt: is hghter colored than that of barbourt

Snyder of Panama.

Soldier.—Head light castaneous-brown (darker—piceous—anteriorly and

lighter posteriorly), slightly concave in middle in profile, slightly longer

ventrally than dorsally, markedly narrowed or constricted dorsally at front,

front darker, nearly vertical, a deep U-shaped median suture, lobes darker,

raised and slightly roughened; head with two transverse rows of long hairs.

Eye spot hyaline, suboval. Gula narrowed at middle.

Mandibles piceous, short, broad at base, sharp and incurved at apex;

left mandible with two sharp-pointed marginal teeth on apical third, another

near middle; right mandible with two larger, pointed teeth near middle.

Antenna light yellow-brown, with 10-11 segments, segments wedge-

shaped, becoming longer and broader toward apex, with long hairs; third

segment small, ring-like; last segment slender, elongate, subelliptical.

Pronotum of same color as head, broadly roundly concave anteriorly,

nearly straight at posterior margin, anterior corners high, sides narrow poste-

riorly, margins with long hairs.

Presternal processes light yellow-brown.

Legs yellowish, femora swollen, three castaneous chitinized spines at base

of fore tibiae; legs with long hairs.

Abdomen with tergites dirty gray-white with yellowish tinge, with a row of

long hairs on each; cerci fairly elongate.

Measurements.—Length of entire soldier, 4.25 mm.; length of head with

mandibles, 1.65 mm.; length of head without mandibles (to anterior margin),

1.25 mm.; length of left mandible, 0.55 mm.; length of pronotum, 0.5 mm.;

length of hind tibia, 0.5 mm.; width of head anteriorly, 0.75 mm.; width of

26 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 16, No. 1

head posteriorly, 0.85 mm.; height of head (at middle), 0.75 mm.; width of

pronotum, 0.8 mm.

Type locality —Hamburg Farm, Santa Clara Province, Costa Rica.

Described from a winged adult and a soldier collected at the type locality

by F. Neverman, February 1, 1925, in hardwood of Mant.

Co-type, soldier—Cat. No. 28659 U. S. N. M.; co-morphotype, winged

adult.

The soldier of K. (G.) marlattz is smaller than that of angustus Snyder of

Panama; is close to barbourz Snyder but the head is not so high, and the

marginal teeth on the left mandibles are sharp pointed and not molar, and also

the pronotum is of slightly different shape.

Named in honor of Dr. C. L. Marlatt of the Federal Horticultural Board

who carefully guards the United States against importation of foreign

termites.

Kalotermes (Glyptotermes) nevermani, new species

Soldier.—Head light yellow, darker (yellow-brown) anteriorly, longer than

broad, cylindrical, only slightly broader posteriorly than anteriorly, front

obliquely, angularly sloping, a broad, rounded suture medianly, margins of

lobes rounded, but slightly roughened, slightly elevated; head with several

transverse rows of long hairs. Eyespot hyaline, large, suboval. Gula elong-

ate, about half as wide in middle as where widest anteriorly.

Mandibles dark reddish-brown to piceous at tips, broad, narrowed, pointed

and incurved at tips; left mandible with one pointed marginal tooth near

apex, a molar with sharp point anteriorly and broader molar; right mandible

with sharp-pointed tooth near middle and molar about as in K. (G.) ——

Snyder.

Antenna light yellow, (darker near base), w:th 10 to 12 segments, usually

11, segments becoming longer and broader (wedge-shaped) toward apex,

with long hairs; third segment short, ring-like, shorter than second or fourth

segments; last segment slender, elongate, subelliptical.

Pronotum yellow (margins darker), broadly and shallowly concave an-

teriorly, posterior margin nearly straight, anterior corners high, sides angu-

larly narrowed posteriorly; hairs scattered, and long.

Presternal processes yellow.

Legs whitish, tinged with yellow, femora swollen, with long hairs.

Abdomen oray-white, with a row of long hairs at the base of each tergite,

cerci fairly elongate; styli present.

Measurements.—Length of entire soldier, 5—6.25 mm.; length of head with

mandibles, 2.5-2.7 mm.; length of head without mandibles (to anterior), 1.8—

1.9 mm.; length of left mandible, 0.95 mm.; length of pronotum, 0.6—0.7

mm.; length; of hind tibia, 0.9 mm.; width of head (dorsally) anteriorly, 1.2

mm.; width of head posteriorly, 1.25 mm.; height of head in middle, 1.2 mm.;

width of pronotum, I-1.05 mm.

Type-locality—Western slope of the volcano Irazt, at 1500 meters, Costa

Rica.

Described from three soldiers, collected with nymphs at the type locality by

F. Neverman on February 22, 1925, in a dry stump.

Co-type, soldiers —Cat. No. 28660 U.S. N. M.

Kalotermes (G.) nevermani is close to K. (G.) suturzs Snyder, also from Costa

Rica, but is larger and has more segments to the antenna; the winged adult

is unknown.

JAN. 4, 1926 SNYDER: NEW TERMITES | 27.

Family TERMITIDAE

Capritermes ( Neocapritermes) longinotus, new species

Soldier.—Head yellow to pale yellow-brown, darker anteriorly and on

sides, with a distinct dark median line running from posterior margin to

epicranial suture, sides nearly parallel, but head broader posteriorly than

anteriorly, rounded posteriorly, with fairly dense long hairs, especially

anteriorly. Labrum of same color as head, elongate and faintly trilobed,

broad at apex, narrowed in middle, long hairs on median lobe. Gula elongate,

slender, about half as wide in middle as where widest anteriorly. Mandibles

black, twisted, asymmetrical; left mandible longer than right.

Antenna yellow, with 16 segments, segments becoming longer and broader

toward apex, longest in middle; with long hairs; third segment shorter than

second, but approximately subequal to fourth segment, or slightly shorter;

segments becoming markedly longer from seventh to twelfth segments, then

becoming shorter; last sezment elongate, slender, subelliptical.

Pronotum white with tinge of yellow, darker on anterior margin, very

elongate anteriorly, high (saddle-shaped), and markedly roundly emarginate,

hairs dense, and long. .

Legs tinged with yellow, elongate, slender, with long hairs.

Abdomen dirty white, tinged with yellow; tergites with fairly dense long

yellow hairs; cerci not elongate.

Measurements.—Length of entire soldier, 7.75-8 mm.; length of head with

mandibles, 4.6 mm.; length of head without mandibles (to anterior margin),

2.4 mm.; length of left mandible, 2.2 mm.; length of pronotum, 0.85 mm.;

length of hind tibia, 1.25 mm.; width of head (anteriorly), 1.8 mm.; width of

head (posteriorly), 1.4 mm.; height of head at middle, 1.2 mm.; width of

pronotum: 1.05 mm.

Type locality.—Rio Frio, Colombia.

Described from four soldiers collected with workers by Dr. W. M. Mann in

February, 1924, at the type locality.

Co-type, soldiers.—Cat. No. 28661, U.S. N. M.

Capritermes (N.) longinotus is a very small species with a narrow head and

a very long pronotum, which is markedly roundly, emarginate anteriorly; the

winged adult is unknown.

LIST OF KNOWN OR DESCRIBED TERMITES COLLECTED BY MANN AND NEVERMAN

IN GUATEMALA, COSTA RICA AND COLOMBIA

Family KALOTERMITIDAE

Cryptotermes dudleyz Banks.

Costa Rica:—San Jose, May 5, 1925, F. Neverman, colr. (winged adults

flying at light in house)

Family RHINOTERMITIDAE

Coptotermes niger Snyder

Guatemala, Bobas; May, 1924, Dr. W. M. Mann, colr. (soldiers and

workers).

Costa Rica, Colombiana; March, 1924, Dr. W. M. Mann, colr. (soldiers

and workers). Hamburg Farm, Feb., 1925, F. Neverman, colr. (soldiers

and workers); June 2, 1925 (winged soldiers and workers). Bananito,

April 20, 1925, F. Neverman, colr. (soldiers and workers).

28 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 16, No. 1

Prorhinotermes molinot Snyder

Costa Rica, Parisiana Ranch; Feb. 6, 1925, F. Neverman, colr. (soldiers

and workers in rotten log).

Family TERMITIDAE

Cornitermes acignathus Silvestri |

CotomsiaA, Santa Anna; Feb., 1924, Dr. W. M. Mann, colr. (soldiers and

workers).

Armitermes chagresi Snyder

Costa Rica, Hamburg Farm; Jan., 1925, F. Neverman, colr. (soldiers and

workers).

Nasutitermes ( Nasutitermes) columbicus Holmgren

Costa Rica, Hamburg Farm; Jan., 1925, F. Neverman, colr. (soldiers and

workers).

Nasutitermes ( Nasutitermes) rotundatus Holmgren

CotomstA, Rio Frio; March, 1924, Dr. W M. Mann, colr. (soldiers and

workers).

Nasutitermes (Obtusitermes) panamae Snyder

Cotomsra, Rio frio; Feb., 1924, Dr. W. M. Mann, colr. (two ‘types of

soldiers and workers).

Amutermes beaumonti Banks

GUATEMALA, Mixcc; May, 1924, Dr. W. M. Mann, colr. (soldiers and

workers).

Microcerotermes exiguus Hagen

CoLomBia, Santa Anna; Feb., 1924, Dr. W. M. Mann, colr. (queen, soldiers

and workers).

SCIENTIFIC NOTES AND NEWS

The following lectures have been given in the Carnegie Institution’s series

since the last record in this JouRNAL: November 24, Dr. Arraur L. Day

of the Geophysical Laboratory, The Santa Barbara earthquake; December 1,

Dr. Haraup U. SverprRupP of Captain Amundsen’s “Maud” Arctic-Drift

Expedition, cooperating with the Department of Terrestrial Magnetism,

The scientific work of the ““Maud” expedition, 1922-1925; December 8, Dr.

ARTHUR 8. Kine of the Mount Wilson Observatory, Laboratory methods of

analysing spectra, with application to atomic structure.

Ernest F. BurcuHarp of the U. 8. Geological Survey has returned from a

trip across South America from the Pacific to the Atlantic Coast, having

examined iron-ore deposits in Misiones Territory and in Catamarea Prov-

ince for the Argentine Government. On his return journey he visited the

principal iron and manganese-ore deposits in central Minas Geraes, Brazil.

T. S. Loverine has been appointed Junior Scientist in the Geological

Survey.

The 1925 exhibition of current scientific work of the Carnegie Institution

of Washington held during December 11 to 14 was attended by over 2,300

visitors. The exhibits shown may be classed into four groups: (1) Original

materials or photographs of such materials on which research work was

done; (2) methods, especially instrumental, for solving such problems; (3)

models and simple experiments illustrating the principles on which a re-

search problem is based; (4) tables, graphs, models, and other means of

presenting results obtained by research work.

ee a

Saar

3 _ The e Philosophical Society.

y 12. Tae AcaDEMyY, be

ey: 13. The ee Boge

OnrorwaL Pappas |

Voleanology.—The eruption a Santorini in 1925. H. 8. Ws

Atomic Physics.—Note on the Loli levels of oe, atoms a ;

ALLISON. «0.205. s eee e eve ee sce ses sae teneteea deer entice

Botany.—A new micvuuentral soil ariuklocaene foi the J

Epear T. Wahine ene 2

Botany.—New plants from Chiapas collected by C. A. Purpus

Entomology.—New termites from Guatemala, Costa Rica,

E. SNYDER, .50 12-50) cite eves he chats eeveoetspceces

Scrmntirie NovEs AND NEWS ¥. Jct. csc. cease ewe el ue Oe

Recording abe ee W. D, aoe Coast and Ge ode

Treasurer: R. L. Farts, Coast and Geodetic Survey.

Pee VeliG January 19, 1926 No. 2

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VoL. 16 JANUARY 19, 1926 No. 2

GEODESY.—The deflection of the vertical in Porto Rico. WtILLIAM

Bowie, U.S. Coast and Geodetic Survey.

Island masses furnish numerous cases of large deflections of the

vertical by which the distribution of densities in the earth’s crust

may be studied. A notable case is in the island of Porto Rico in the

West Indies. Astronomic latitude stations on the south and the north

coasts are connected by triangulation. ‘The difference in the astro-

nomic latitudes is 35’ 36’’.00 while the difference in the latitude of

the astronomic stations as derived from the distance between them

obtained by triangulation is 34’ 40’’.20. The difference between these

two values is 55’’.80, or about one statute mile. This value is the

relative deflection of the vertical. Since the plumb line at each of the

stations is attracted by the island mass and repelled by the deficiency

of mass in the space occupied by water in the Atlantic Ocean or in the

Caribbean Sea, it is certain the direction of the plumb line at each

station is affected.

TABLE 1.—Isostatic REDucTIONS oF Two STATIONS IN Porto Ricc:

EFFECT OF TOPOGRAPHY AND COMPENSATION

EFFECT OF TO DEPTHS OF

STATION TOPOGRA-

PEPE cergis eames <p ee Te

96 km. 120.9km. | 162.2km. | 231.3 km.

seconds seconds seconds seconds seconds

Muertos Island Light House on south

Pt... - Je Ss Aan et aie —0.65 | —18.83 | —20.84 | —22.92 | —24.65

San Juan Light House on north coast.| +74.63 | +20.37 | +23.26 | +26.93 | +31.35

Combined effect at the two stations. . (28 39.20 44.10 49.85 56.00

The isostatic reductions of the two latitude stations were made by

Messrs. C. H. Swick and W. D. Lambert of the Coast and Geodetic

Survey with the results shown in table 1.

The densities below the surface of the island are not known, and, of

30 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 16, No. 2

course, there is no way of learning by direct means the density of the

crust under the water surrounding Porto Rico. In the computations

the density of the mass above sea level was taken as 2.67, this being

the value adopted and used in the isostatic reductions by the U. S.

Coast and Geodetic Survey. | 3

The most probable depth of compensation resulting from isostatic

investigation by that Bureau is 96 kilometers. But with that depth,

applied to Porto Rico, the effect of topography and compensation is

only 39’’.20, or 16’’.60 less than the relative deflection of the vertical

between the two stations.

If the astronomic work and the triangulation were perfect, the crust —

in perfect isostatic equilibrium, the density conditions as used in the

computations true and no errors exist in map readings, then the depth

to which the compensation is distributed under and around the island

would be about 230 kilometers. The combined topographic and

compensation effect for the two stations is 56’’.00 for the depth 231.3

kilometers, used in the computations.

Since the computed deflection to the south for the San Juan station,

and that to the north for the Muertos station are too small to account

for the observed combined deflection, we must conclude that there is

something abnormal about the Porto Rico region. It does not seem

to be probable that the depth of compensation in the region is as much

as 230 kilometers. This is nearly two and one-half times the depth

derived for the area of the United States. The astronomic work is

believed to be very accurate, while the distances by triangulation are

correct. There is no detailed topographic map of the island, nor are

the depths of the surrounding waters given in much detail. Some

error in the computed effects may be due to erroneous map and chart ~

data, but probably not very much. No definite conclusions are possi-

ble as to the cause of the Porto Rican deflection remaining after the

corrections for topography and compensation have been applied.

The density of the materials of the crust to the north and to the

south of the island seems to be too low. That is, the normal density

of the crust augmented by the compensation distributed to a depth of

96 kilometers is greater than the excess of deflection indicates to

be the case. Or it may be that the crust under the water areas is

normal in density, but that the upper crust under the island is ex-

cessively dense.

If the compensation of the island material is regionally distributed

horizontally throughout the pedestal on which the island stands, the

effect of the compensation of the island would be such as to increase the

JAN. 19, 1926 HANN: NEW THIAZOLIDONES 31

deflection of the plumb line at the two stations toward the island, thus

making for closer agreement between the computed and observed

deflections.

While the application of the isostatic method with a depth of 96

kilometers leaves a residual of 16’’.60, and with depth of 120.9 kilo-

meters a residual of 11’’.70, the residual found by applying the effect

of topography alone is 19’’.48. All of these residuals are of the same

order of magnitude.

It would seem: that the region around Porto Rico, if in isostatic

adjustment and if densities are otherwise normal, has a great depth of

compensation or, if in isostatic equilibrium at depth of about 100

kilometers, there is very irregular distribution of densities near the

surface under the island and also under the adjacent water areas.

The other condition might be absence of isostatic equilibrium: of the

region, but with isostasy applied the computed deflection is smaller

than the observed value, while by applying the topographic effect

alone the computed value is larger than the observed one. The writer

favors the view that the cause is abnormally heavy rock in the upper

crust just below the island, but no definite conclusions should be drawn

until we shall have accurate topographic maps of the island and charts

of the extensive water areas to the north and south of the islana.

When they are available a revised computation will be made.

CHEMISTRY .—2-thi0-3-(2-p-rylidyl)-4-keto thiazolidone and some

of wits derivatives. RaymMonp M. Hann, George Washington

University. (Communicated by Edgar T. Wherry.)

- In previous papers of this series the reactions of 2-thio-3-aryl-4-

thiazolidones (rhodanic acids) with isatin? and with halogen substi-

tuted 3-methoxy-4-hydroxy benzaldehydes? have been reported.

During the course of the above mentioned investigations several new

thiazolidones were prepared in pure condition and the purpose of the

present paper is to record the preparation and properties of 2-thio-3-

(2-p-xylidyl)-4-thiazolidone and some of its derivatives.

The synthesis of 2-thio-4-thiazolidones, commonly known as rho-

danic acids, and in reality the anhydrides of di-thio carbamo thio

glycollic acids, is easily effected through the interaction of the am-

monium salt of a substituted dithiocarbamic acid with an a-halogen

substituted monocarboxylic acid. In the present instance ammonium

1 Contribution from the Chemical Laboratory of the George Washington University.

* Hann, Journ. Am. Chem. Soc. 47: 1189. 1925.

3 Hann, Journ. Am. Chem. Soc. 47: 1998. 1925.

32 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 16, No. 2

2-p-xylidyl dithiocarbamate (I) was allowed to react with brom acetic

ester, when ammonium bromide and ethyl alcohol were eliminated with

subsequent ring closure to form the 2-p-xylidyl thio thiazolidone (II).

HNCSSNH, ies eee

aces) CH.BrCOOC.H Cae |

CEs ee DU CLLN, |

(I) CH” ~ |

\ /CHs

(IT)

Attention has previously been called to the marked activity of the

methylene hydrogen of keto thiazolidines due to the CO-CH,-S

linkage. In common with other members of the series the 2-p-xylidyl

homologue reacts readily with aldehydes to given beautiful crystalline

derivatives which act as weak yellow dyes. These compounds are

insoluble in water, but dissolve in concentrated sulphuric acid with the

production of brilhant red colors. In this paper are described the

benzilidene, cinnamilidene, vanillidene, 5-brom vanillidene and dibrom

phenyl] proprionilidene derivatives.

EXPERIMENTAL

Ammonium-2-p-aylidyl dithiocarbamate.—Forty-five grams of 2-p-

xylidine! (boiling point 215.4°C.), 60 ec. of strong ammonium hydrox-

ide and 30 grams of carbon disulfide were mixed. Upon vigorous

agitation the mixture gradually warmed up and finally resulted in a

clear red oil. Upon standing overnight some slight separation of a yel-

low crystalline material had taken place. This was crushed and the

now viscous solution thoroughly stirred and placed in cold storage room

(—10°C.) for 24 hours. At the end of this period of time an abundant

separation of the desired salt had occurred. ‘This was filtered off by

suction and dried on the filter. The yield amounted to 58 grams which

is approximately 80 per cent of that required by theory.

Ammonium 2-p-xylidyl dithiocarbamate is a slightly yellow crys-

talline solid, possessing a marked somewhat disagreeable odor. Itis

soluble in water and alcohol, but can not be recrystallized from these

solvents due to decomposition. Upon standing in the air it gradually

decomposes, yielding a yellow oil.

2-thio-8-(2-p-xylidyl)-4-keto thiazolidine.—Fifty-eight grams of am-

monium 2-p-xylidyl dithiocarbamate was suspended in 50 cc. of

absolute ethyl alcohol and to the suspension 45 grams of mono brom

4 The 2-p-xylidine was prepared by J. F. T. Berliner of the Graduate School of the

George Washington University.

JAN. 19, 1926 HANN: NEW THIAZOLIDONES 33

ethyl acetate rapidly added. An exothermic reaction took place at

once and the flask containing the reaction mixture was placed under

a reflux condenser to prevent loss of its volatile constituents. Am-

monium bromide separated and the flask contents boiled vigorously.

When the violence of the original reaction had somewhat abated, heat

was applied and the suspension gently refluxed for a period of five

hours. After standing overnight, an excess of water was added, caus-

ing the separation of a heavy yellow oil. This oil was washed

thoroughly with water to remove ammonium salts, then with sodium

carbonate solution and finally again with water. Upon standing for

a week a considerable portion had solidified. The solid portion was

filtered off and the residual oil worked up for more of the reaction

product. The total yield was 44 grams, which is 70 per cent of

theory.

Thio-3-(2-p-xylidyl])-4-keto-thiazolidine is a yellow crystalline solid,

readily soluble in acetic acid and alcohol, practically insoluble in

water. When heated in a capillary tube it melts at 119-20° C. (cor-

rected) to a clear light yellow oil.

Analysis: 0.1040 gram consumed 4.4 cc. X, acid (Kjeldahl-Gunning

Arnold method) = 5.93 per cent N. Eheor for anil SoS

5.91 per cent N.

2-thio-3-(2-p-xylidyl)-5-benzal-4-thiazolidone—Three grams of 2-

thio-3-(2-p-xylidyl)-4-thiazolidone, 1.5 grams of benzaldehyde and 5

grams of fused sodium acetate were refluxed with 25 ce. of glacial

acetic acid for 24 hours. After cooling an excess of water was added

and the precipitated condensation product was filtered by suction and

recrystallized twice from glacial acetic acid. The yield was quantita-

tive.

The 2-thio-3-(2-p-xylidyl)-5-benzal-4-thiazolidone is a_ brilliant

yellow crystalline compound, readily soluble in hot glacial acetic acid

and only sparingly so in cold. The compound dissolves in concen-

trated H.SO, with production of a brilliant red color. When heated

slowly in a capillary tube it melts at 188-9°C. (corrected) to a clear

yellow oil.

Analysis: 0.1061 gram consumed 3.2 cc. X, acid (Kjeldahl-Gunning

Arnold method) = 4.22 per cent N. rihicoty for CisHi;ONS2 =

4.31 per cent N.

2-thio-3-(2-p-aylidyl)-5-cinnamal-4-thiazolidone—Three grams of the

xylidyl cyclic ketone, 1.7 grams of cinnamic aldehyde, 5 grams of fused

sodium acetate and 25 ce. of glacial acetic acid were refluxed for about

34 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 16, No. 2

an hour. The condensation product separated after 10 minutes of

heating. After cooling an excess of water was added to the reaction

mixture, the precipitated solid was filtered off and recrystallized from

75 ce. of glacial acetic acid. The yield was quantitative.

Thio-3-(2-p-xylidyl)-5-cinnamal-4-thiazolidone is a solid, erystal-

lizing in beautiful brilliant needles of an orange yellow color. It is

soluble in glacial acetic acid and insoluble in water. Heated in a

capillary tube it melts at 194-5°C. (corrected) to a clear yellow oil.

Analysis: 0.0982 gram consumed 2.8 cc. of =X, acid (Kjeldahl-Gun-

ning Arnold method) = 3.99 per cent N. Theory for CoH,ONS, =

3.99 per cent N.

2-thio-3-(2-p-xylidyl)-5-(a 8 dibrom-B-phenyl propional)-4-thriazolr-

done.—The mother liquors from the recrystallization of the cinnamili-

dene derivative were cooled in an ice salt bath and bromine vapors

passed over the solution. An immediate precipitation of an orange

yellow solid occurred at the liquid surface. To complete the reaction

an excess of bromine dissolved in glacial acetic acid was added. ‘The

precipitated solid was filtered by suction and dried, when it was ob-

tained as a yellow brown powder. Upon heating in a capillary tube it

melted, after preliminary softening, at 119-20°C. (corrected) with

decomposition.

Analysis: 0.1130 gram consumed 2.3 ec. 4, acid (Kjeldahl-Gunning

Arnold method) = 2.85 per cent N. Theory for CooH1,ONS.Br2 =

2.74 per cent N.

2-thio-8-(2-p-xylidyl)-5-vanillal-4-thiazolidone.—This derivative was

prepared by the general method used above, from 3 grams of the thia-

zolidone and 1 gram of 3-methoxy-4-hydroxy-benzaldehyde.

Thio-3-(2-p-xylidyl)-5-vanillal-4-thiazolidone erystallizes in flower-

like clusters of bright yellow needles. It is soluble in hot acetic acid

and in alcohol, but insoluble in water. It is also soluble in concen-

trated sulphuric acid with production of a brilliant red color. It melts

at 155-6°C. (corrected) to a clear yellow oil.

Analysis: 0.1137 gram consumed 3.0 ce. SN, acid (Kjeldahl-Gunning

Arnold method) = 3.69 per cent N. Theory for CisHiOzNS2 =

3./7 per cent N.

2-thio-3-(2-p-xylidyl) -5-(5-brom-vanillal)-4-thiazolidone—The con-

densation of the brom substituted vanillin was carried out in the usual

manner. This compound crystallizes in compact masses of golden

brown glistening crystals, which yield a bright yellow powder when

crushed. The compound dissolves in sulphuric acid with development

JAN. 19, 1926 HAY: TWO NEW PLEISTOCENE MASTODONS OO

of a bright red color. It melts at 192-3° (corrected) to a clear deep

yellow oil.

Analysis: 0.1468 gram consumed 3.38 cc. ;\, acid (Kjeldahl-Gunning

Arnold Method) = 3.15 per cent N. Theory for C,,H:cO0;NS.Br =

3.11 per cent N. :

SUMMARY

2-thio-3-(2-p-xylidyl)-5-thiazolidone has been synthesised.

Its condensation products with benzaldehyde, cinnamaldehyde,

vanillin, 5-brom vanillin and ef dibrom £ phenyl-propionaldehyde

have been prepared and described.

PALEONTOLOGY.—Two new Pleistocene mastodons. OLuivER P.

Hay, Carnegie Institution of Washington.

On examining a collection of the teeth which are identified as those of

Mammut americanum, one is surprised to see the great amount of

variation among them; variation in size, in width relative to the length,

height of the cones of cross-crests, roughness or smoothness of the

enamel, number of cross-crests in the hindmost molars; development

of the talons, strength of the crests (cristae) which descend from the

summits of the principal cones into the valleys, and various other

features. One is compelled, too, to recognize the frequent intergrada-

tions among these various molars; and one is led to wonder whether one

highly variable species is represented or whether a number of closely

related forms are indicated. Apparently nobody has yet undertaken

to connect the differing molars with geographical regions or with

geological horizons.

The writer has before him two molars which he ventures to describe

as new species.

Mammut francisi, new species (Fig. 3 and 4)

The writer has received for examination, from Dr. Mark Francis,

College Station, Texas, a tooth of a mastodon which presents a

number of peculiarities and which appears to be worthy of description

and a distinctive name. This tooth was found in Brazos River, at

Pittbridge, Burleson County. It is the upper right third molar and

had not yet begun to wear. One striking feature is the great width

of the tooth. It is possible that this is abnormal, but there is no indica-

tion of it, and a tooth of M. americanum at hand is as wide at the first

two crests, but does not diminish so much in width at the third and

Figs. land2. Mammut oregonense. Type. X0.65+. 1. View of grinding face.

2. View of inner face. Fig.3. Mammut francist. Type. xX 0.71+. View of outer face.

JAN. 19, 1926 HAY: TWO NEW PLEISTOCENE MASTODONS o¢

fourth crests. The total length is 147 mm.; the width taken at the

first and second cross-crests is 100 mm. At the third and fourth

Fig. 4. Mammut francisi. Type. 1. View of grinding face.

38 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 16, No. 2

cross-crests the width is respectively 86 mm. and 70 mm. It may be

said that there is a small fifth crest, only the pretrite portion of which

is developed. Behind this is what may be regarded as a small talon.

The buccal border of the tooth is straight; the lingual border, strongly

convex. One might expect the reverse condition. |

Around the base of the crown is a cingulum, showing especially in

front and at the ends of the valleys, small on most of the ends ofthe

crests. In all of the valleys is a thick deposit of cement, and this

covers the slopes of the cross-crests almost to their summits, (fig. 4).

The enamel is white; the cement is stained brown. The bases of the

roots, as seen in figure 3, are covered with cement.

The crown is of moderate height. The following are the measure-

ments of the cones taken along the slopes from the base of the crown.

On the posttrite side these measurements differ but little from the

perpendicular height; on the pretrite side they are greater, because of

the lesser slope.

Heights of cones of cross-crests are as follows:

Posttrite Pretrite

mn mm

il 57 Ie 8 eee Gee re

Dee RINE I PON ce et AN 56 Dest te JOE a ae 67

Ce ap SO Toe ae Ta att a 50 Boe Aes foe 65

(ROE dR 8 See Rs tS? i er AT A. i Go 55

Ovo: a os eee ay

The pretrite cones possess conspicuous front and rear crests, or

ridges, which descend into the valleys from the apex of each cone.

These ridges are exaggerations of those found in most teeth of Mammut

americanum, but they are in some cases even surpassed in teeth which

pass for those of the species last mentioned. From the summit of the

principal cone of the posttrite half of the cross-crests, a less prominent

ridge descends to the valley on each slope; also from the secondary

cone of this half, a feeble ridge or welt is sent down in front and behind.

What especially characterizes the tooth from Pittbridge, aside from

its shortness and width, is the extent to which the valleys are blocked

up by the bases of the cross-crests. The heights of the first and second

pretrite cones are 71 mm. and 67 mm. respectively. From a line

joining their summits the first valley is not more than 20 mm. deep;

the second valley is 15 mm. deep. The shallowness of the valleys

is shown by figure 3. Notwithstanding the great width of the

tooth the distance apart of the apices of the pretrite and posttrite

cones is small, 40 mm., 39 mm., 35 mm., 30 mm., respectively from

JAN. 19, 1926 HAY: TWO NEW PLEISTOCENE MASTODONS 39

the first to the fourth cross-crests. That part of the cross-crests

_ between the principal cones is sharp and the conules usually present in

Mammut americanum are feebly or not at all developed.

An upper left third molar of Mammut americanum (Cat. no. 335,

U. 8. Nat. Mus.), said to have been found in alluvial banks of the

Susquehanna River, is 175 mm. long and 102 mm. wide at the second

cross-crest. It has strong descending ridges on the faces of the pretrite

cones, weak ones on the cones of the other half of the cross-crests.

The whole crown is rough with welts and small knobs. At the ends of

the valleys are large conules. On the summit of the posttrite half of

each cross-crest is a row of four or five conules; others less distinct on

the pretrite side. The cones are high, the second about 73mm. The

valleys, where the descending ridges meet, are 30 mm. from the sum-

mits of the cones in the first and second valleys.

Believing that the tooth here described from Pittbridge represents a

species of Mammut not hitherto recorded and wishing to honor the

finder, the writer proposes to call it Mammut francisi.

Mammut oregonense, new species (Fig. 1, 2)

In the U. 8. National Museum is a mastodon tooth (Cat. no. 4911)

which was sent there in November, 1900, by Dr. Waldemar Lindgren,

from Baker City, Baker County, Oregon. It had been found by the

Cartwright Brothers, placer miners, at Rye Valley, on Dixie Creek, in

township 13 south, range 43 east. Dr. Lindgren reported that the tooth

had been found in a fluviatile clay bed which had formed a part of a

bench of auriferous gravels, overlying the Payette beds. He regarded

the fluviatile clay as of Pliocene age. It appears more probable that

- the bed belonged to the Pleistocene, for in it was discovered a tooth of

Elephas columbi.

With this tooth came another of Mammut (Cat. no. 4912), a well-

worn fragment of the rear of M; of left side, showing 2 cross-crests,

width 68 mm. It may or may not belong to M. oregonense. ‘The

type tooth here described and figured is the upper left second molar. —

It has been regarded as belonging to VM. americanum, but it is so differ-

ent that the writer ventures to give it a distinct name.

The tooth had apparently not yet begun to suffer wear; or, if at all,

only slightly on the first cross-crest. The length is 111 mm.; the

width of the front end, 74 mm.; of the rear end, 80 mm. ‘The crown

presents 3 cross-crests and, in the rear, a talon. The crests are high,

and the valleys narrow. The ends of the cross-crests slope steeply

40 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 16, No. 2

and nearly equally. The summits of the two principal cones of each

crest are well separated, as follows: First crest, 38 mm., second, 40

mm., third, 40 mm.

The heights of the principal cones from the base of the crown are as

follows:

Pretrite Posttrite

mm mm

Deh Cae cg amc oh ee oe 55 A il adele. «. Gaia 43

DR Nhl a, oe hee oO 58 Dia Gene tewcls gaan. 48

nes ead ete re ee 58 3S. Meee ee 52

On the front and rear faces of the main pretrite cones strong

ridges, or crests, run down into the valleys, but where they meet they

block the valley but little, inasmuch as they flatten and subside. The

first and second valleys are 30 mm. deep below a line spanning the

summits of the pretrite cones. On the posttrite side narrower ridges

descend into the valleys from the summits of both the main and the

secondary cones. Besides these ridges, stronger or feebler welts

occupy the sides of the cones.

All around the tooth is a heavy cingulum composed, at the pretrite

ends of the valleys, of 5 or 6 tooth-lke conules. On the posttrite

side the conules are smaller and more numerous. At the front and.

rear ends the cingulum is more bead-like. At the rear, in front of and

above the cingulum, is the talon composed of 3 large conules, of which

the inner one has an elongated, the middle one a triangular, the outer

one an elliptical base.

In his work on mastodons, Dr. Giinther Schlesinger,! in an endeavor

to show that Mastodon tapiroides belongs, not in the bunodont, but in

the zygolophodont series, calls attention to the crests which descend

from the summits of the cones on the posttrite ends of the cross-crests

of the zygolophodont mastodons. On his page 160 he presents the

characters which distinguish //. tapiroides from the bunodont type, as

represented by M. angustidens (= Gomphotherium leptodon). On his

page 174 he goes on to say that in addition to all those characters there

is another which excludes from the bunodont type not only M.

taprroides, but all of the zygolophodonts. ‘This is the presence of those

cristae, or crests, which are found on the slopes of the principal and

the secondary cones of the posttrite end of the cross-crests. Among

the bunodonts he affirms they are never present. The present writer

regards this statement as an error. ‘These crests are found especially

1 Die Mastodonten, etc. Denkschr. nat.-hist. Staatsmus. 1. 1921.

a ee =

JAN. 19, 1926 AUSTIN: RADIO ATMOSPHERIC DISTURBANCES 4]

well developed on the posttrite ends of the cross-crests of Gompho-

therium (Mastodon) floridanum; and distinct traces at least, of these

crests are seen in other bunodont species, even in upper molars of G.

leptodon.

RADIOTELEGRAPHY.—The present status of radio atmospheric

disturbances.1 L. W. Austin, Laboratory for Special Radio

Transmission Research.’

Our knowledge concerning the atmospheric disturbances is still

very meager. ‘The observed facts may be cataloged as follows: (1)

In general, atmospherics are stronger at the longer wave lengths. (2)

Except for the effects of local storms, they are nearly always stronger

in the afternoon and night, while for the higher frequencies this in-

crease in strength is confined usually to the night alone. (3) They

are stronger in summer than in winter, (4) in the south than in the

north, and (5) on the land than on the ocean. (6) A large proportion

of them appear to be directive; that is, to come from definite regions,

or centers, as mountain ranges, rain areas, or thunderstorms. It is

also reasonably certain that (7) at least most of the long-wave dis-

turbances travel along the earth with a practically vertical wave front,’

like the signals; (8) that a considerable portion are oscillatory in char-

acter, though a certain portion are non-oscillatory and give rise to

shock oscillations in the antenna at all wave lengths; and (9) that dis-

turbances sometimes occur simultaneously at stations thousands of

miles apart.‘

The origin of the ordinary rumbling disturbances (grinders) has

been the subject of many conjectures. Eccles* believed at one time

that he had found the source of this type of disturbance, as far as

England was concerned, in distant thunderstorms, especially in West-

ern Africa. DeGroot® has suggested that the grinders are due to the

bombardment of the upper atmosphere by electrons from the sun or

1 Presented at the annual meeting of the Section of Terrestrial Magnetism and Elec-

tricity of the American Geophysical Union, Washington, D. C., April 30, 1925. Pub-

lished by permission of the Director of the Bureau of Standards of the U. S. Department

of Commerce.

2 Conducted jointly by the Bureau of Standards and the American Section of the

International Union of Scientific Radio Telegraphy.

2 Phis JOURNAL, 11: 101; “1921.

4M. Baumler, Jahrb. d. Drahtlosen Teleg., 19: 325. 1922. This matter of simul-

taneous crashes needs further investigation since a certain number of such coincidences

may evidently occur by chance.

° Electrician (London), 69: 75. 1912.

} Proc lots. foe: fo. 1917.

42 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 16, No. 2

charged cosmic dust. The idea that this type of disturbance comes in

some way from above has also been held by Weagant.? Mosler,’

while ascribing the disturbances to thunderstorms, concluded in con-

tradiction to the ideas of Eccles, that thunderstorms could give rise to

atmospherics only over a radius of about 60 miles. This limitation in

distance was very probably due to insensitive apparatus. A very

systematic study of thunderstorms and atmospherics, undertaken by

the British Meteorological Office and the Admiralty, has apparently

settled the fact that thunderstorms can be located with modern ap-

paratus up to about 1500 miles.®

There is still much difference of opinion as to the proportion of

atmospherics which is due to thunderstorms. Professor Appleton,

at a symposium! on atmospheric ionization and radiotelegraphy,

November 28, 1924, expressed the opinion that practically all atmos-

pheric disturbances might be produced by thunderstorms somewhere

in the world.

It is undoubtedly true that thunderstorms produce many atmos-

pherics, but it is not by any means certain that the lightning flashes

themselves are always the actual sources. There is a widely prevailing

idea among radio operators that the lightning flash often produces only

a harmless click in the telephone receivers. I have made some ob-

servations during thunderstorms, using a coupled circuit with rectify-

ing vacuum tube and galvanometer, which indicated that hghtning

flashes, even within three or four miles, were not as powerful in their

effects on the receiving apparatus as many of the disturbances which

occurred when no flashes were apparent. This comparatively feeble

effect of the flashes is difficult to understand if the current rise at the

beginning of the flash is as steep as is often assumed but would be

understandable if the lightning discharge curves were of the form and

duration of the atmospheric disturbance curves observed by Appleton

and Watt (figs. 1-5). On the other hand, it is quite possible that the

small deflections from the lightning flashes were due to a paralysis of

the detector tube, a phenomenon which often occurs when the tube is

exposed to very high electromotive forces. It must, therefore, be

concluded that the connection between lightning and atmospherics is

‘still not clear, and valuable work can be done by anyone who will watch

the lightning and listen to the atmospheric crashes from thunderstorms

in the neighborhood.

“Procst.R. Be 1: 207.) digi,

8 Hlektrot. Zeits. 1134. 1912.

° World Power, 3: 20. 1925.

40 Proc. Phys. Soc., London, 37: 2D-50D (appendix). 1925.

“JAN. 19, 1926 AUSTIN: RADIO ATMOSPHERIC DISTURBANCES 43

At the London Physical Society symposium already mentioned,

Professor C. T. R. Wilson discussed the probability of there being dis-

charges of thunderclouds to the upper conducting region of the atmos-

phere. His calculations indicated that thunderclouds of common

electric moment might very readily discharge to a conducting layer

at a height of 60 or 80 kilometers, since the electric force required to .

produce discharge decreases even more rapidly with the height than

the electric force of the thundercloud. Discharges of this kind, prob-

ably non-luminous, may possibly furnish the explanation of the strong

atmospherics heard from thunderclouds when no flashes are visible.

Mr. Watson Watt, in analyzing the records of European" direction-

finding stations, concluded that in only about 35 per cent of the cases

could thunderstorms be identified as the sources of atmospheric dis-

turbances, though in about 75 per cent of the cases the indentified

sources were rain areas of some kind.

Captain Bureau” of the French Meteorological Office has recently

published papers in which he shows that many of the atmospheric

disturbances in France are closely connected with the advance of

meteorological cold fronts and that the atmospherics are accentuated

when these air movements come in contact with mountain ranges.

For the determination of the direction from which atmospheric

disturbances come, Mr. Watt® has invented an automatic recording

apparatus in which a radio compass coil, tuned to about 30,000 meters,

is rotated slowly and continuously by clockwork, the atmospheric

crashes being recorded on a drum attached to the coil.

It should be said in this connection that it has been very common in

Europe to estimate the strength of atmospherics by the number of

disturbances occurring in a given time. ‘This method, of course, would

hardly seem to be applicable to our Washington summer conditions,

or to the conditions during the disturbance season in the tropics where

often in the afternoons and evenings the noise in the telephones forms .

an almost continuous rumbling through which no signal can be heard

unless it is strong enough to rise above the background of disturbing

sounds.

p If, indeed, there is a physical difference between the atmospherics,

crashes, grinders, etc., it is not at all certain that what is being meas-

ured in Europe by the counting method is the same thing that is being

measured in America, either by direct estimates of the average dis-

i Nature, 110: 680. 1922.

2 C.-R. Acad. Sci. 176: 556 and 1623. 1924; L’Onde Electrique 3: 385. 1924.

13 Proc. Roy. Soc., A, 102: 460. 1923. Phil. Mag. 45:1010. 1923.

44 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 16, No. 2

turbance strength, or by measuring the strength of signal which can

be read through the disturbances.

On the Atlantic and Pacific coasts of the United States, except for

occasional local thunderstorms, very little certain connection has been

noticed between the direction of the atmospheric disturbances and rain

areas. On the Atlantic Coast, the main disturbances seem to come

roughly from the southwest, but it seems uncertain whether the sources

are in the Allegheny Mountains or much farther removed, perhaps in

Yucatan. Experiments reported by the Navy Department in New

Orleans have indicated the more southerly origin.

Unfortunately, very few triangulation experiments have been made

in America for fixing the exact positions of sources of atmospherics.

In most cases, therefore, the direction is all that is known.

Observations made at Madison, Wisconsin, by Professor Terry of

the University of Wisconsin, covering the last two years, show condi-

tions in the Middle West which are similar to those described by the

continental European observers; that is, there is no single prevailing

direction of the atmospherics, but a more or less definite connection

with thunderstorms and other rain areas. ‘This absence of any pre-

vailing southerly source of atmospherics in the central portion of the

country casts doubt on the Mexican origin of those observed in the

Atlantic Coast region, since the distance from Yucatan to Madison,

Wisconsin, is about the same as from Yucatan to Washington.

On the Pacific Coast of the United States it is pretty well established

that at least at San Francisco and San Diego the sources of disturb-

ances are largely local, lying in the mountain ranges not far from the

coast. These centers seem to be permanently fixed, resulting in very

constant directional conditions.

It seems to be pretty well settled, in all parts of the world where ob-

servations have been made, that there is a very definite connection

between the intensity of the disturbances and the position of the sun.

In the northern hemisphere during the winter when the sun is far in

the south, the disturbances are generally moderate even as far south

as Panama, within 9° of the equator. But as the sun comes north in

the spring, there is often a rapid and, sometimes, very sudden increase

in strength, and it is reported that stations close to the equator ex-

perience two disturbance maxima, corresponding to the two periods

when the sun is nearly overhead.

In addition to the study of the sources of the disturbances, the ques-

tion of their wave form is of much importance. Messrs. Watt and

JAN. 19, 1926 AUSTIN: RADIO ATMOSPHERIC DISTURBANCES 45

Appleton“ in England, working under the Radio Research Board,

have made some investigations of this problem, making use of the

cathode-ray oscillograph (Braun tube). In their work the atmospheric

disturbance, after being received on an aperiodic antenna and ampli-

fied by an aperiodic resistance-coupled amplifier, was impressed on one

pair of plates of the oscillograph, while a source of 60-cycle current was

connected to the other pair of plates for the purpose of drawing out

the spot of light into a line on the fluorescent screen. ‘The resulting

movement of the spot of light could not be photographed, but could

: \

i$ eee

| 2!

(1) (2)

ae Ys

; | :

(4) (5)

Figs. 1, 2, 3,4 and 5. Atmospheric disturbance curves observed by Appleton and Watt

be observed and sketched with some accuracy. Five typical curves

are shown in the figures. Most of these appear to be aperiodic, though

some are feebly oscillatory.

In figure 3 it is seen that there are minute oscillations superposed

on the main curve. It will be noted that the period of the main oscilla-

tion is, in all cases, of: audio frequency; and Eckersley has pointed

out recently that the relatively prolonged impulses of Watt and Apple-

ton can not account for the observed intensity of the atmospherics

144 Proc. Roy. Soc., A, 103: 84. 1923.

16 Hlectrician (London), 93: 150. 1924.

46 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 16, No. 2

ordinarily experienced in radio reception. He suggests that possibly

the ripples, such as are shown in figure 3, may be the actual atmos-

pheric waves. Mr. Watt in the symposium ‘cited accepts this view

and adds that more recent experiments in Egypt and elsewhere in the

tropics show that there the fine ripple structure is much more common

and of much greater amplitude than in England. Professor Appleton,

on the other hand, holds that the low-frequency wave forms shown in

the figures are capable of producing the observed disturbances at all

wave lengths by shock excitation.

In conclusion, the differences of opinion mentioned in this paper

show that there is still much to be done before the sources of the dis-

turbances are identified with certainty. While many of the atmos-

pherics undoubtedly come from thunderstorms, many appear to come

from regions where no such storms are occurring. It is also believed

that even in thunderstorms some of the heaviest disturbances do not

come from the lightning itself, but the nature of these non-luminous

sources of such great power is still a matter of conjecture.

PROCEEDINGS OF THE ACADEMY AND AFFILIATED

SOCIETIES

PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY

| 923D MEETING

The 923d meeting—the first meeting following the summer intermission—

was held in the auditorium of the Cosmos Club on Saturday evening, October

3, 1925. The meeting was called to order by President FLEMING at 8:15 with

33 persons in attendance.

Program: 8. P. Fmerausson. Meteorology of the total solar eclipse of Janu-

ary 24, 1925. (Illustrated by lantern slides). The circumstances of the total

eclipse of January, 1925 were, in one respect, most favorable for the study of

the very small, temporary disturbance of the atmosphere caused by the

shadow. The path crossed a region abounding in easily-accessible sites for

observing-stations and instruments capable of indicating the small changes

of condition to be expected were available at several observatories in and near

the path. On the unfavorable side, even near the coast of Connecticut and

Rhode Island, totality occurred only two hours after sunrise, the altitude of

the sun was below 20°, and the probabilities were that the effects would be

small, at best, and negligible west of the 75th meridian. Furthermore, in

January, in this region, the variability of the weather and its storminess at-

tains the annual maximum—conditions likely to obscure the small effect

probable.

Through the courtesy of W. G. Fors of Wesleyan University, in providing

facilities for the exposure of instruments during the eclipse, the author ob-

tained continuous records of atmospheric pressure and the direction of the

JAN. 19, 1926 PROCEEDINGS: PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY 47

wind, observations of the kind,direction, velocity, position, and density of

clouds and attempted the measurement of shadow-bands. The wide scales

of the automatic instruments permitted readings of pressure to 0.03 millibar

and of the direction of the wind to 2° of azimuth, at intervals of two minutes.

The observations of clouds were made at irregular intervals, usually of three

to seven minutes. To these data have been added observations of tem-

perature with an Assmann psychrometer at Wesleyan, records from Draper

anemoscopes at Central Park, New York, and Blue Hill Observatory, Massa-

chusetts, and observations of temperature and wind at New London, Con-

necticut, and Westerly, Rhode Island, for which, respectively, the author is

indebted to W. I. MitHam, J. H. Scarr, ALEXANDER McApIE and C. F.

BROOKS.

The weather on the day of the eclipse was unusually favorable for all ob-

servations, but very uncomfortable; a severe cold wave prevailed and the

temperature ranged between —25° and —15°C. The data referred to have

been compared with normals or averages of each element (1) for all conditions

at the time of year and (2) for the conditions prevailing on the day of the

eclipse. The more important results may be summarized ‘as follows: The

fall of temperature of 1°.9C. (slightly more than one half that occurring during

average conditions) did not begin until within 30 minutes of totality and the

rate of fall at first was very slow; the lowest temperature occurred about

ten minutes after totality.

The change of pressure was so small that it may be submerged in irregular

fluctuations, of which many occurred during the 12 hours preceding the

eclipse. It is possible, however, that the fall of only 0.4 millibar beginning

30 minutes after totality was caused by the shadow, for, under the conditions

prevailing, retardation of all effects is to be expected.

At stations in Connecticut the usual calm and irregular changes of the wind

occurred during totality, followed by an increase of velocity and a reversal of

the direction after totality, indicating a tendency to blow toward the region

of lowest temperature and pressure. Similar tendencies were noticeable in the

record at New York, but at Blue Hill the velocity was too high and too

variable for the detection of the very small eclipse-effect.

A slight decrease in the amount of the alto-cumulus clouds is believed by

some observers to be due to the shadow. There was a fall followed by a de-

cided increase in the velocity of the clouds, and the changes of direction in-

dicated a tendency of the air at their level (estimated at 2000 metres above

sea-level) to move toward the region of lowest pressure; these results confirm:

the first observations of this effect during the eclipse of May, 1918.

The shadow-bands, on first appearance, were a mass of fine, bright lines in

‘rapid irregular motion lengthwise as well as laterally; on second appearance

the bands were more definitely outlined, but in both instances precise measure-

ments were impossible. There was a general movement, nearly parallel to the

path of the shadow, at a rate of between one and two meters a second.

Observations, accumulated mostly since 1900, indicate that these bands

probably occur chiefly, perhaps only, during the mixing of masses of air having

different densities or temperatures, the necessary contrasts of density being

maintained to an appreciable degree only during the rapid decrease and in-

crease of temperature immediately before and following totality. The gen-

eral movement or drift of the bands appears to be more closely related to that

of the eclipse-wind than to the natural wind prevailing at any level. (Author’s

abstract.)

48 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 16, No. 2

Discussion. The paper was discussed by Messrs. Pawziine, Curtis,

HuMPHREYS, and PRIEST.

C. Moon: A method of comparing the relative frequencies of a tuning fork

and a pendulum. (Illustrated by lantern slides.) An experimental arrange-

ment was described for measuring the relative frequencies of a tuning fork

and a pendulum by the well-known method of coincidences. The frequency

of the fork must be very near an exact multiple of that of the pendulum.

A series of flashes of twice the frequency of the fork is obtained by the

device used by Curtis and Duncan. The light from the slit in the vanes

carried by the prongs of the fork is reflected directly into a telescope by two

mirrors placed side by side, one attached directly to the pendulum and the

other to the pendulum support. The flash images of the slit from the fixed

mirror appear superposed at the same place in the telescopic field, those from

the moving mirror being separated into a series of lines which appear in the

field at each forward and backward swing of the pendulum. For convenience

a crude auxiliary pendulum is used to intercept the light source during the

backward swing of the pendulum, so that only one series of images are seen

for each complete oscillation of the standard pendulum. If the fork fre-

quency is an exact multiple, say N times that of the pendulum, then the

image of the first flash, the (2N + 1)th, the (4N + 1)th... . ete., will

always appear at the same place in the telescopic field. Since the multiple

relation will not be exactly fulfilled, there will be a slight progression of suc-

cessive images and at regular intervals coincidences will occur between one of

the lines from the moving mirror and the line from the fixed mirror.

The time interval between two successive coincidences can be measured

with a stop watch. It represents the time required for the fork to gain or lose

one-half of a vibration on the pendulum. ‘This interval known, the relative

frequencies can be readily computed.

The method has been applied to a 100-cycle fork driven by a vacuum tube

and a standard Coast Survey gravity pendulum. With the fork adjusted so

that coincidences occurred at about 20 second intervals, the time of a single

coincidence may be measured with an error of 5 per cent. This causes an

error of approximately one part in 100,000 in the relative frequencies. By

measuring five consecutive coincidences, the error can be reduced to two parts

per million. (Author’s abstract.)

Discussion. The paper was discussed by Messrs. Swick, HUMPHREYS,

Curtis, Hey and Prisst.

O24TH MEETING

The 924th meeting was held in the auditorium of the Cosmos Club on

Saturday evening, October 17, 1925. The meeting was called to order by

President FLEMING at 8:16 with 55 persons in attendance.

Program: L. B. TuckERMAN. We see things which are not there. (Illus-

trated by lantern slides.)

If the carbon copy of a typewritten sheet is placed in register over the

original and then rotated slightly, a series of concentric circles is seen. When

the carbon copy is displaced vertically the circles shift horizontally, the center

of the circles always lying at the point of coincidence of the two copies. This

effect must have been seen many times, but only one stenographer was found

who has recognized the character of the pattern seen. Similar results are

obtained from any irregular pattern. An example is a doubly printed photo-

graph, the negative being slightly rotated between the two exposures. An-

JAN. 19, 1926 PROCEEDINGS: PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY 49

other example is a trail photograph of circumpolar stars. The phenomenon

is familiar to astronomers who match star photographs in detecting comets or

asteroids or in determining proper motion of stars. The illusion is caused by

the fact that in looking at objects we mentally complete the patterns which

are suggested by the geometrical arrangement presented. A multitude of

similar illusions are known and are effectively used by artists. (Author’s

abstract.)

Discussion. 'The paper was discussed by Messrs. Hryu, Stimson, SToK-

LEY, PRrEST and FERGUSSON.

Puitiep P. QuayLE: Single spark photography and its application to some

problems in ballistics. (Illustrated by lantern slides.) An apparatus was

described for obtaining shadow pictures of objects in rapid motion by a

properly timed illuminating spark. The general principle involved is not new

but the means for carrying it out are believed to be unique and considerably

more effective than any hitherto described. The apparatus is so arranged

that the illuminating spark occurs when the object to be photographed is be-

tween it and the photographic plate. There results an ordinary shadow of

opaque objects, such as bullets, and inhomogeneities due to sound waves and .

turbulence of the air give distinctive patterns owing to refraction effects.

In the illustrative photographs presented are to be found some striking sound

wave phenomena. i

The photographs were presented primarily to illustrate the usefulness of the

method but they give interesting and important information concerning the

gas leakage in a revolver, the acceleration of projectiles outside the muzzle,

the so-called stringing effect in shot shells and many other phenomena at-

tending the discharge of firearms. Other characteristics of the photographs ,

were pointed out and in part explained. (Author’s abstract.)

Discussion. ‘The paper was discussed: by Messrs. Hreyi, LAportE, HawK-

ESWORTH, Breit, TUCKERMAN, WRIGHT and others.

Q25TH MEETING

The 925th meeting was held in the auditorium of the Cosmos Club on

Saturday evening, October 31, 1925. The meeting was called to order by

President FLEMING at 8:17 with 33 persons in attendance.

Program: N. E. Dorsry: A thunderbolt and its results. (Illustrated by

lantern slides.) The nature of the damage which was done when lightning

struck a tulip tree was described, and the more interesting features were illus-

trated by lantern slides. The tree was an interior one of a small, isolated

group surrounding the frame church at Annapolis Junction, Md. In the

group were several others of the same kind and of the same height (47 feet)

as that struck. The most exposed of the tulip trees is about 55 feet high, and

the tower of the church is 56 feet high and only 30 feet from the tree which

was struck. Neither of these were damaged in the least. Furthermore, the

tree was struck within nine feet of the ground. A segment on the northwest

side of the tree was splintered, and sections were torn from it; the larger, un-

splintered portion of the trunk was split and bowed apart; the blazed area

extended only to a height of 27 feet, and the split extended only a short dis-

tance higher. Above that, the trunk was undamaged; the lower thirty inches

of the trunk was not split. On a large section torn from the tree was a limb

of which the overgrown portion had been broken squarely across the grain,

and had been pulled from the trunk as a tenon might be pulled from a mortise.

This break could have been produced only by a longitudinal pull. Along the

50 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 16, No. 2

western edge of the splintered segment, and, as nearly as could be determined,

in the plane bounding the splintered segment, were four small isolated holes

burned through the bark. The hole next to the top extended into the wood

for about two inches; and for most of its length it was about the size of the

lead of a pencil. The topmost and largest hole was eight feet from the ground;

thé wood around it was badly torn, and much of it was lost. These four holes

mark the spots in which the tree was struck; they pass straight through the

sap-wood, which was not seriously damaged. The plane defined by them

passes between, and close to, two trees exactly similar to the one struck.

Everything indicates that the path of the stroke was essentially uninfluenced

by the local field near the ground. The stroke appears to have been of the

nature of a free electrical charge travelling, under its own momentum, along a

line determined by conditions in the clouds. It was suggested that such a

stroke may be closely akin to, and perhaps may actually be, an intense, con-

centrated beam of cathode rays. It was pointed out that the production of

such a beam is not inconsistent with what we know of the conditions in a

thundercloud and it was shown that such a suggestion serves to correlate in a

logical manner all the prominent effects observed. That the suggestion in-

volves assumptions of which the validity can not at present be demonstrated,

was admitted. (Auwthor’s abstract.) | |

Discussion. 'The paper was discussed by Messrs. Wuitr, HUMPHREYS,

PAWLING, Bowre, and others.

Ropert H. Gautt: Touch as a substitute for hearing in the interpretation

and control of speech. (Illustrated by achart.) Thisis a report of psychologi-

cal experiments that are being conducted in Washington under the auspices of

the National Research Council. The problem is to determine (1) whether

tactual sensation can be made a sufficiently fine means of discrimination to

enable one to distinguish the forms of speech and to interpret them, and (2)

whether tactual sensation,can be successfully employed as sufficient cues to

aid in the control of speech—particularly the speech of semi-mutes.

The author employs for his purpose a telephone-like instrument and an

amplifier. Each observer (fifteen approximately totally deaf persons) holds

a receiver of the instrument in his hand. As many as six sit as observers simul-

taneously. Each one can feel the words of the experimenter upon the palm

of his hand or upon a finger tip, depending upon how the receiver is held.

Theoretically no two words feel alike and no two sentences feel alike.

Charts are presented showing the progress of learning sentences, vowel

qualities and isolated words. The most successful subjects, working from

October 8, 1924, to November 25, 1924, became able to identify, with over

90 per cent of complete accuracy, ten sentences of six monosyllabic words

each. They practiced but 25 minutes daily, five days each week. Subse-

quently the same subjects in the course of three weeks attained a like degree

of accuracy in identifying the long vowels. From June 11 to July 8, 1925,

four observers, practicing three half-hour periods daily, five days weekly,

attained a fair degree of accuracy 1n identifying 58 words.

In the course of this period selections from the 58 words were employed

from day to day to form new sentences that had never before been felt as

sentences. The subjects were given an opportunity to interpret the sentences

by their feel if they could. One hundred and seventeen such sentences were

used in this manner. From the four subjects there were 468 reports; 225 of

these were correct word for word; 131 more were correct in sense.

During the summer period referred to, 103 groups of homophonous words

JAN. 19, 1926 PROCEEDINGS: PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY 51

(words that are alike from a lip-reader’s point of view, such as “‘aim, ape’’)

were chosen as stimuli to determine how nicely those of a group could be dis-

tinguished by touch. There were groups of two words, three words, etc.,

up to ten. The members of each group are supposed to look alike. Asa mat-

ter of fact in many instances the members of a group can be distinguished

by vision in our experimental situation. Only 50 of the 131 groups are made

up of truly homophonous words according to the author’s findings. Among

the 131 groups there are but seven in which the subjects distinguished better

by lip-reading than by touch. In one instance the two methods produced a

tie. Ordinarily touch proved to be by far superior to lip-reading inrelation

to these groups of words.

The author applied the tactual method to the improvement of the voice

of asemi-mute. He was made to feel the experimenter’s voice upon his hand;

thereupon he undertook to reproduce the feel by applying his own voice to a

transmitter that duplicated the one operated by the experimenter. Thus the

subject improved the pitch and syllabication of his words. It was found

possible to employ several subjects simultaneously in this experiment. In

that situation members of the group criticised their companion who was

trying to copy the experimenter’s voice. This practice stimulated interest,

and furthermore, the subject with the receiver was aided thereby to discover

the tactual criteria for vocal control. (Author’s abstract.)

Discussion. The paper was. discussed by Messrs. HawkKESWORTH,

HumpuHRreys, Gipson, Bowir, Merwin and others. President FLEMING on

behalf of the Society thanked Professor Gattr for his interesting paper.

On request by the President, Major Bowis presented an informal report on

the computations of the gravity observations done under a grant from the

Society. Five stations in the Southern Pacific were completed and the results

will appear in an early issue of the JouURNAL.!

926TH MEETING

The 926th meeting was held in the auditorium of the Cosmos Club on

Saturday evening, November 14, 1925. The meeting was called to order by

President FLEMING at 8:19 with 55 persons in attendance.

Program: L. V. JUDSON: Geodetic instruments from the viewpoint of the

physicist. (Illustrated by lantern slides.) The instruments particularly re-

ferred to are the base line tapes and apparatus for their test; also theodolites

and instruments for testing their angular graduations. The design of appara-

tus used for testing base lines shows striking differences in the different

countries. The apparatus used at the Bureau of Standards for testing base-

line tapes is both simple and accurate.

The need of extensive investigations in the field of precise graduations of

circles was emphasized, and a view of an apparatus for this purpose was

shown. It was pointed out that the modern geodetic instrument must em-

body all the improvements which the physicist can apply, and that funda-

mental investigations were necessary as a preliminary to advances in design.

As an example of the investigation of 50-meter invar base line tapes which

is being carried on at the Bureau of Standards the question of the effect of

concentrated loads upon the distance between the terminal graduations of the

tape was taken up in some detail. (Author’s abstract.)

Discussion. ‘The paper was discussed by Messrs. Bowirm and Hopason.

W.L. Humpureys: An unusual display of mammato-cumulus. (Illustrated

1See this JouRNAL 15: 445-450. 1925.

52 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 16, No. 2

by lantern slides.) The mammato-cumulus cloud, also called pocky-cloud,

festoon-cloud, sack-cloud, and other more or less descriptive names, is a sheet —

of cloud with numerous, thick-set, hemispherical pendants. This peculiar

feature appears to be the result of an overflowing sheet of potentially cold air,

dropping down slightly at numerous places and forming cloud as it goes. This

phenomenon is most frequent in connection with thunderstorms, and some-

times is well developed in association with a tornado.

Two pictures were shown of an exceptionally fine example of the mammato-

cumulus, obtained at Ashland, Ky., on the afternoon of July 3, 1925, just

preceding a heavy but not intense local thunderstorm. (Author’s abstract.)

Discussion. 'The paper was discussed by Major Bow1n.

Paut R. Heyu: Perpetual motion in the Twentieth Century. Prior to the

recognition of the principle of the conservation of energy it was believed that

perpetual motion was impossible, but every proposed device of this character

had to be examined on its own merits, and the special reason for its failure to

work pointed out. The establishment of the principle of the conservation of

energy made this unnecessary; all such devices could be dismissed as violating

this general principle.

Very soon the question was raised as to whether there could not be a

perpetual motion of a second kind; that is, whether it was not possible under

some circumstances for heat to run up hill. Maxwetu showed in the early

seventies that the second law of thermodynamics could be set aside by the

interposition of intelligence; BoLrzMaNN and PLANCK later showed that the

basis of the second law was one of probability merely, and that actual depar-

tures from this law on a microscopic scale must be expected to occur contin-

ually and spontaneously.

In 1900 LippMaNN suggested two perpetual motion devices based on this

principle, and in 1907 SvEDBERG proposed others. In 1912 SmMoLucHOWsKI

pointed out a general principle which, as he supposed, rendered these devices

inoperative. The speaker showed that SMoLUCHOWSKI was in error in the

application of this principle and that the devices of LippMANN and of SvED-

BERG must be regarded as valid on a molecular scale. (Author’s abstract.)

Discussion. The paper was discussed by Messrs. DrypEN, HAWKESWORTH,

Breit, ADAMS, TUCKERMAN and others.

H. A. Marner, Recording Secretary. —

SCIENTIFIC NOTES AND NEWS

The Petrologists’ Club met at the home of F. E. Wright on January 5.

H.S. WASHINGTON described the methods now being used in Italy to obtain

potassium salts, alum, and pure silica from leucite which is extracted me-

chanically from certain leucitic lavas in the central Italian volcanic region,

There was also a general discussion, led by W. T. ScuatteRand C. §.

Ross, on What is a magma? From the discussion it appears that current

usage of the word is not uniform, the stress being laid by different writers

upon such different qualities as (1) high temperature, (2) liquidity, (3) location

in a reservoir, (4) action as a source of lava or ore-bearing solutions, (5) pos-

session of dissolved water in various percentages.

‘

ANNOUNCEMENTS OF THE MEETINGS OF THE ACADEMY AND

AFFILIATED SOCIETIES*

Thursday, January 21. Tue AcApDrEmy.

Saturday, January 23. The Philosophical Society.

- Wednesday, January 27. The Geological Society.

“Saturday, January 30. The Biological Society.

_- Tuesday, February 2. The Botanical Society.

Thursday, February 4. The Entomological Society.

*The programs of the meetings of the affiliated societies will appear on this page if

sent to the editors by the thirteenth and the twenty-seventh day of each month.

tives. Rivaons M. aie eee Co ee

Paleontology —Two new Pleistocene mastodons. OLIvER P. 5

teeta ee: oO

The Philosophical Society 7" a cA ; "

Scrmnrivic Norms anp NEWS ..-ceecceeeceeeeceeesseeeeeeecees

OFFICERS OF THE ACADEMY —

President: Grorce K. Burcsss, Bureau of Standards. Bo

Corresponding Seoal ala Francis B. SinsBen, Bureau of

Vol. 16 Fresruary 4, 1926 | No, 3

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JOURNAL

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Won; 16) - FEBRUARY 4, 1926 No. 3

ENTOMOLOGY .—Entomological taxonomy: tis aims and failures.

1. From a Taxonomic Viewpoint. 8. A. RoHwer, Bureau of

Entomology

When the idea of this symposium occurred to the chairman of the

Communication Committee, it is very probable that he had recently

seen some paper of a “taxonomic”’ nature which seemed to be lacking

in a number of desired features. Otherwise the symposium would

probably have been given a different subtitle, for I doubt very much

the propriety of the use of the word “‘failures.”” The strongest idea

it was intended to convey was ‘“‘shortcomings.”’ Be that as it may,

we have accepted the subject for discussion and I think it is one we

may well discuss. The science of Biology has made remarkable

strides in the last twenty years. It has had opened before it many

lines of investigation which were heretofore unknown. |

Some of these new studies have gained such popularity that their

patrons have thought so well of themselves and the importance

of their investigations that they have coined new ‘‘ologies’’ to separate

themselves from the other workers. All this time taxonomy has con-

tinued and has attracted the attention of only afew. More recently,

however, the pendulum has swung back and today the classifier is

held in more esteem. ‘The time seems to be passing when it will be

necessary to apologize for the fact that one is a taxonomist. This

returning into the good graces will not last long unless the students of

taxonomy avail themselves of the materials which have been gathered

by investigators in related fields, for taxonomy can not be a deaf and

dumb science and still live. For this reason it seems desirable to

discuss the aims of taxonomy, and as we consider these perhaps we

may in our reflection see some shortcomings.

1 Papers presented at the 373d meeting of the Entomological Society of Washing-

ton, held March 5, 1925.

53)

54 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 16, No. 3

Before getting too far into the subject it will be well to accept, at

least for the moment, a definition of taxonomy; and while we may not

all agree, I venture the following for consideration. Taxonomy con-

sists of the grouping of organisms in a phylogenetic manner after a

consideration of all of their characters and characteristics.

Accepting such a broad definition, the taxonomist must base his

classification not only on external morphology but he must also call

to his aid anatomy, physiology, embryology, cytology, ecology,

paleontology, and distribution; in fact, he must consider his organism

not by itself alone, but he must understand its function and its place

in relation to other organisms past and present. To do all this is no

small task, and to say that, isnot all. If in entomology we were dealing

with a limited number of forms and if these forms had such habits as

to permit a detailed study of them, the task would be of sufficient

magnitude. But when we consider that conservatively estimated

there are about 640,920 described insects, and that this represents

perhaps less than one-tenth of the forms which actually exist, and

that for most of these 640,920 forms, we know only a few cabinet

specimens of adults and nothing concerning their habits, the task

becomes stupendous. It is very probable that this very fact has

caused the taxonomist to become so deeply involved in the details

that he has lost sight of other allied ‘‘ologies,’”’ and thus received

such criticisms as ‘‘Oh! he is only a narrow taxonomist.”’ But let us not

stop with these apologies. We grant the magnitude of the task and

we admit also that some very good results have apparently been

obtained by a careful comparison of morphology. If good results

have been accomplished by a study of parts, how much better the

results will be if we consider the whole.

But let us go back and consider briefly some of the various lines of

investigation a taxonomist should be familiar with and include in his

consideration when making a phylogenetic grouping. I imagined I

saw a shaking of the head when I suggested paleontology—I hope

not. Yet most taxonomic entomologists ignore the fossils. So much

are they forgotten that many times they are not cataloged. Such an

attitude can not be defended by any scientific excuse. Where would be

the classifications and the fundamental results derived from them in

mammalogy had the fossils been thrown aside because there were too

many recent things to describe?

When I used the word “anatomy” a short while ago [ meant to

restrict the use of the word somewhat, and had in mind more a con-

sideration of the internal softer organs. So little is known concerning

FEB. 4, 1926 ROHWER, BAKER AND BALL: ENTOMOLOGICAL TAXONOMY 55

these in insects that not much can be said, yet when more is known and

_ their function better understood, I venture the suggestion that the

taxonomist will find valuable evidence to refute or uphold his major

groupings. Of embryology and cytology little can be said, yet both

of these lines of investigation will furnish valuable aids to a true

phylogenetic arrangement. Distribution if studied carefully will

often prove of great aid. When I hear discussions of so-called dis-

- continuous distribution, the first thought that comes to my mind is,

how about the true relationships? Perhaps many of the examples of

discontinuous distribution are due to faulty taxonomy. If there is

anything in this thought then a study of distribution may help the

taxonomist to see some of the weak points of his classification; hence

it is a line of study the taxonomist should consider. And there is also —

the converse, for a study of distribution may just as well tend to show

relationships.

In including ecology in the list of fields from which the taxonomist

must expect aid, I have ventured to use a comprehensive definition of

the word “ecology,” and I have therefore included under this head the

information usually listed by taxonomists under such headings as

“host,” “‘habitat,” and ‘“‘habits.’”? Taxonomists have long paid con-

siderable attention to the host and host plants, and to a lesser extent

have they considered the habitat and habits. The consideration of

these points is of importance, and when we get the phylogenetic point

of view it becomes more so. We cannot logically expect that groups

which have complex host relationships and specialized habits will

give rise to groups with simple host relationships and generalized

habits. Such may be the case. Cases of reversion are known, but a

classification which indicated that this was true might well be carefully

and critically examined before it is pronounced as having been made

along phylogenetic lines.

We have considered only very briefly some of the points but before

my time is completely gone, I want to include a word about nomen-

clature, the bug-bear of most taxonomists. I said ‘most’? and I

believe advisedly because there are some who have in my opinion so

completely forgotten the true significance of nomenclature as to be in

the position of trying to put the cart before the horse. My apprecia-

tion for the standardization of names, the application of general rules

and suggestions on procedure is very great. In fact I fully appreciate

nomenclature, so much so that I have been guilty of doing nomencla-

torial things. But I have not as yet forgotten, and I trust I never shall

forget, that nomenclature, as we entomologists use the word, is only a

56 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 16, No. 3

handmaid to zoology. Nomenclature deals with names, not animals.

I venture the guess that less than ten per cent of the changes in the

names of insects are due to nomenclature. Most of them are due to a

change in the conceptions of groups. In other words, they are made

for zoological reasons. It must be so. The classification of insects

must change. New facts are before us every day. We apply these in

our taxonomic work and we change the name of some little insect or

other. Such a change is not due to nomenclature. But I have almost

forgotten why I brought up this handmaid to taxonomy. No taxono-

mist likes to change names but no taxonomic work, however sound

from a phylogenetic point of view, can stand for a long period of

usefulness unless its author carefully considers the nomenclature of

the group. It is essential that entomologists agree on. names, and if

all taxonomic workers hasten to establish the landmarks by which

group names may be recognized, fewer changes will be necessary and

their work will be of a more permanent nature. The establishment

of genotypes for all genera and especially those on which supergeneric

names are founded is important, and to a very large extent this must

be done by the taxonomist.

In our definition we said taxonomy was the grouping of organisms

and this presupposes there are organisms to be grouped. So a study

of taxonomy must first await the accumulation of materials. A

taxonomist without a collection is as bad off as the man at sea without.

water and the one with a small collection is perhaps, as far as real

progress is concerned, worse off. If proper taxonomic work can be

done only when all factors are considered then to work in a taxonomic

way over only an incomplete assemblage of specimens can not produce

good results. Jn almost every group in insects we have examples of

poorly constructed classifications because of an examination of an in-

adequate number of specimens. We must not discourage the collecting

instinct in the taxonomist. On the other hand we should lend him all

encouragement. We should place at his disposal for study all the

material of his group. He should have material from all regions and

in sufficient abundance for him to study the variation of individuals.

This need for collections imposes an obligation on the taxonomist

as well as those who foster his work. It makes it necessary for him to

care for these collections; they must be arranged in a careful, orderly

manner; they must be labelled. The taxonomist must leave to his

science and posterity evidence from which he made his conclusions.

There must be no doubt about the fact that certain specimens were

seen. The taxonomist has therefore devised a method by which his

FEB. 4, 1926 ROHWER, BAKER AND BALL: ENTOMOLOGICAL TAXONOMY 57

co-workers and successors can know what he was talking about. He

- calls certain specimens types. But this is not enough; he forms con-

ceptions about other workers’ groups and he must leave evidences of

the limits of his conception. Here many workers are negligent. They

do not tell us definitely about these. The aim of all taxonomists

should be to leave the evidences of their work in such good order as to

leave no doubt in the minds of other workers on what their conclusions

were founded. In short the taxonomist should care for his collec-

tions and arrange and label them so as to aid, not hinder, other

investigators. Jam sure all of you could cite many shortcomings here.

Another aim of taxonomists is large libraries. The taxonomist

must know what others have done. In a field as vast as entomology

this is of the greatest importance. It is impossible for one worker

to know all. It is imperative that he know what has been done

before. Large libraries must also be considered a necessary aid to —

taxonomic work. Sut libraries are of but little use unless one knows

what is in them and where to find it, so indices are necessary. In

view of the rapidity with which work is being published, these indices

must be up to date to be of real service. While in a certain sense one

can hardly say these libraries and indices are aims to taxonomic

entomology, we must admit they are aims of taxonomic entomologists,

and you all will agree it would fill a large volume to list the short-

comings because of their lack.

Summing up briefly, the aim of taxonomic entomology should be

the phylogenetic classification of insects based on all available evi-

dence, such evidence to include a consideration of anatomy, mor-

phology, embryology, cytology, physiology, paleontology, ecology and

distribution. If such are the aims of taxonomy then we have only to

examine our literature to see how completely we have met them.

Such a consideration of the literature would probably make many

feel that there had been many shortcomings. Of course there have.

But many of them are due to the magnitude of the task and some of

them are due to the changing viewpoint.

I hope the viewpoint may continue to change, that taxonomists

will continue to include in their papers more and more information

concerning all the characters and characteristics of the insects they

treat. Many taxonomists have much of this information at their

command and use it consciously or unconsciously in forming their

classifications. Let us urge them to include more of it in their papers

so they may be storehouses of information to other workers. By

doing so their usefulness will greatly increase and they will rise in the

esteem of workers in allied fields.

58 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 16, NO. 3

2. From AN Economic Virwpornt. A. C. Baker, Bureau of

Entomology

I have been asked to discuss the relation of taxonomic entomology

to economic entomology and the failures of the former in this relation-

ship. Such a request in itself indicates the failure I shall mention.

Perhaps, however, it is not a failure. Perhaps it is merely a circum-

stance incident to growth.

Lest I be misunderstood I wish to distinguish clearly between the

science of insect life and those practices in the art of agriculture which

concern themselves with insects and with which entomologists as

agricultural advisors have much to do. This dual function of the

entomologist, as advisor and as discoverer, has confused certain

practices of the art with the science that underlies them. I presume

that I am not expected to discuss the relation of taxonomic entomology

to the art of agriculture.

Since this symposium is on taxonomy it may be well at the outset to

delimit the different fields that are often confused with taxonomy by

reason of the fact that taxonomists work in them. We must dis-

tinguish taxonomy, classification, and nomenclature. Taxonomy, as

its name implies, is not concerned with the arrangement as such but

with the reasons and causes back of that arrangement, with the under-

lying principles. Classification, on the other hand, constitutes the

arrangement itself. Thus the same taxonomy may be employed in

a classification of a family of Hemiptera or in that of a family of

Hymenoptera. Nomenclature, again, is a subject which is concerned

with the correct names for the units in a classification. It deals neither

with the methods back of the classification nor with the classification

itself. Thus we have nomenclature as a result of classification and

classification as a result of taxonomy. In this relationship taxonomy

is basic. |

As I see it, there are three types of taxonomic entomology today,

and these three types recapitulate the three stages in its growth.

The first is the accumulative type. Here the main interest centers

on the collection. The aim is to complete the series, to amass material.

Species are described. These are carefully placed away, perhaps

according to some accepted classification, and other species are

described. Of this type I shall have little to say for the reason that it

concerns itself very little with taxonomy as I understand it. In many

cases even the classification is already a fixed conception. The author

merely adds to the nomenclature of that classification in the naming

FEB. 4, 1926 ROHWER, BAKER AND BALL: ENTOMOLOGICAL TAXONOMY 59)

of species not already included. In regard to this type, however,

-I shall say one thing. It might be of enormous advantage. As it

stands today its devotees are interested in individual groups. They

pick these from the population and ignore the others. But in.a study

of the accumulative type the interest should lie in the equilibrium of

the population. It is better to know the workings of a field than the

disconnected items of a world. |

The second type is the morphological one. Here the main interest

centers on structure. Dissection is not uncommon and an attempt is

made to reconstruct the relationships by means of the structures

studied. Phylogenetic trees therefore are the mode and theoretical

discussions are common. ‘There may even develop a voluminous

literature on the interpretation that should be placed on the veins of

the wings or the spines of the legs. Most taxonomic entomology

today is of this type. Perhaps it is so of necessity. While I realize

the valuable contributions that have been made from this viewpoint

and the great handicaps under which brilliant men have labored in

this field, I can not help feeling that this type of taxonomy has one

decided fault. The structure is the primary concept and in concen-

tration upon it the entomologist is apt to lose sight of his real goal.

The broader visioned taxonomists of the morphological school, how-

ever, are alive to this danger. Hence they constantly discuss and

write about the suitability of characters. They talk of natural

characters and of artificial characters, but they do not tell us how one

character can be more natural or more artificial than another.

The third type is the biotic one. Here the main interest centers on

the insect alive rather than on its dead body. The taxonomic labora-

tory is no longer an orderly array of dead insects. It is a dynamic

world of living things. In its fullest realization this type requires some

departure from the usually accepted ideas. Side by side with the

collection will be, not only the morphological laboratory, but the

insectary where the insects may be studied alive. And beyond all

this there will be the outdoors. The taxonomist will once again

become the naturalist, but with this difference he will have at his

command a great store of modern technical methods.

The biotic type of taxonomy will not only change the work, the

publications too will change. They will be appreciated. A mono-

graph of a genus will no longer lie uncut upon the shelf. It will become

a live book full of interest for the biologist, the agriculturist and

the physician. It will be used and its author will receive the credit

he deserves.

JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 16, NO. 3.

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Most work today is associated with the evolutionary viewpoint.

_ As taxonomists, however, we have conceived of morphologic evolu-

tion. We have concentrated upon supposed species. But if there is

an evolution it is the entire environmental complex that evolves.

Things change only in relation to other things. Perhaps I can make

myself clear by saying that taxonomy should concern itself with

events more, with supposed things less, with the quantitative record

of conditions all the time. Our enthronement of type specimens is an

admission of the failure of our taxonomic method.

I may be pardoned if I refer to the group on which I have worked

the most, the aphids. My excuse is that I know this group the best.

Five years ago I presented a classification of this family. That classi-

fication was woefully inadequate. In order to illustrate the taxonomy

employed, however, I am showing a tabulation of one subfamily, the

Eriosomatinae (Table 1). It will be noted that an attempt was first

made to determine something of the living insects. Host relation

was selected by reason of the fact that the insects are peculiarly phyto-

phagus. The selection thus of one factor is admittedly weak. For

as it is, the total association evolves so that it is the assemblage of

factors that must picture the events. One factor however appears

at times to be almost a master one and to reflect the others. On this

possibility we have chosen host relation in this subfamily. The

primary phase of the life cycle was accepted as fundamental for reasons

that are obvious.

It will be noted that certain associations at once become evident,

such as the Elm Association, the Poplar Association, and the Pistacia

Association. The insects falling in these associations were again

segregated, using type species and the habits of type species as a

basis. The list of genera falling in the Elm Association reveals

certain morphological characters common to all species and peculiar to

the genera in this Association. These characters therefore distinguish

the tribe. A similar examination of the forms in the Poplar Associa-

tion shows other characters peculiar to these genera and common to

them. ‘The correct diagnosis of the tribe Pemphigini therefore be-

comes evident. And so the examination proceeds throughout all of

the associations. In the end we have tribal descriptions which reflect

not only structures common to the insects falling therein, but life

habits which are equally common to them—a classification of the

animals alive. | |

‘ It will be urged by some that taxonomic studies of this kind deal

altogether with secondary things, that structure is basic. But if we

62 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 16, No. 3

accept evolution surely it is activity that is basic. Unrelated forms

- may of course show similar habits but such forms would segregate

earlier on other biotic factors.

But aside from this question the economic value of the taxonomy

employed will be clear if we look for a moment at the Tribe Fordini.

Species of the genus Forda are common in this country on the roots of

plants and in ants’ nests. Considerable study has been given to the

species, and occasional revisions or partial revisions have been pub-

lished. But these revisions left us in much the same state as we were

before, for the reason that the investigators worked from the morpho-

logical viewpoint. More supposed species were described, but this

‘only meant, at bottom, a more complete catalogue of our ignorance,

for the work was all done on the incomplete secondary phases of the

life cycles. The workers did not conceive of the Pistacia Association.

Had they done so they would have realized that the key to the genus

on this continent lay only in Texas and southward, and that years

might be spent on the secondary northern remnants of these Pistacia

forms without any real advance in knowledge.

A similar picture of this very kind is the history of the study of the

woolly apple aphis, Hrisoma lanigerum. For a hundred years men

tried to solve the life history of this economic insect. Medals and

prizes were offered for its solution. Years of research and large sums

of money were spent without result.

A glance at the biotic arrangement on the screen will show how

simple the solution becomes; and it is equally simple in other instances.

When we find another species of Hriosoma as a pest on pear roots we

turn at once to the elms. When-we find still another very injurious

to the roots of gooseberries we turn once more to the elms. Still

another species is abundant on the roots of service berry and once

again we take our way to the elms.

Another example may be given. When a Pemphigus is discovered

as a pest of the beet fields we can turn at once to the poplars for its

complete cycle. In another, region the poplar segregated does not

exist but the beets are nevertheless attacked. So we find a different

poplar with a different Pemphigus migrating to the beets as before.

Still another species is a pest of crucifers, and turning to the poplars

we can determine its identity and the economic factors involved.

Time will not permit me to follow the argument further, but I shall

give one word in regard to the reception this work has had. My

paper in 1920 did not give completely my taxonomy. For obvious

FEB. 4, 1926 ROHWER, BAKER AND BALL: ENTOMOLOGICAL TAXONOMY 63

reasons I contented myself with a classification—with tabulating and

discussing the characters resulting from the taxonomic study. Never-

theless a thorough student might discover the method in the back-

ground. Such a student is Professor Albert Tullgren of Sweden.

In 1925 he referred to my classification in the following words:

“One of the most important and in parts most interesting systematic work

on aphids that has been published in the last ten years is A. C. Baker’s Generic

Classification of the Hemipterous family Aphididae. Baker presents, often

in 2, very alluring manner an entirely new system for the Aphididae and bases

it on reasoning which often has a very convincing effect. He divides the

entire family into 4 sub-families, Aphidinae, Mindarinae, Eriosomatinae

and Hormaphidinae which are among themselves almost equal although the

Aphidinae and the other three subfamilies are derived from two different ori-

- gins of the hypothetical stem. The reasons given for this separation into 4

subfamilies do not appear to me, however, to be entirely free of criticism and

I deem it therefore more cautious for the present to consider the three last

groups as one subfamily.”

And again he says:

“Baker divided his subfamily Eriosomatinae into five different groups, Erio-

somatini, Pemphigini, Malaphini, Prociphilini and Fordini. If one studies

closely the characteristics of differentiation one finds that he derived the

same first of all from the biological differences of the generic elements. And

one can not help thinking that he put a higher value on these characteristics

than on the morphological ones. For this reason presumably he has arrived

at the peculiar conclusion, according to my opinion, that the Pemphigini and

the Prociphilini represent two different branches of the stem which are about

equal to the Eriosomatini.”’

I have cited Tullgren because I know him to be a scholar. Perhaps

he is right. I forsee the day, however, when the taxonomist will not

be set apart from the economic entomologist, when the collector will

concentrate on true samples of the population, when the morphologist

will consider function as important as form, and when all life history

studies will be made by taxonomists of the biotic school. When that

day comes there will be only one type of entomology. It will be

economic. Its aim will be to understand and to express with mathe-

matical exactness the laws and principles underlying the elements, the

contacts and the inter-relations of the insect world. We are fast

approaching the saturation point of our population and the day may

not be far distant when we shall be pressed for that understanding.

64 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 16, No. 3

3. FRom AN EDUCATIONAL VIEWPOINT. E. D. Bau, Department of

Agriculture

Taxonomy in its highest development, as I conceive it, is an explana-

tion of the actual relationship of existing forms of life to each other.

Although of necessity expressed in a linear series it should be an

arrangement of the existing branches of the tree of life into groups

according to their derivation and into a series showing inter-relation-

ship of the groups. In the major branches of both botany and zoology,

taxonomy has already approached this idea. When it comes to the

lesser divisions and more obscure relationships it is still far from

certain of its foundations and is undergoing a gradual evolution as new

- discoveries in fossil forms are made and new interpretations of rela-

tionships in living species are established. ‘Taxonomy, then, in its

ideals is an interpretation of evolution, one of the most profoundly

interesting and profitable fields of biological research.

Taxonomy in its lowest expression is merely an enumeration of a

group of individuals. Enumerating individuals for taxing purposes

was man’s earliest effort and from this the science received its name.

Some taxonomy has not materially advanced above this level. Let

us illustrate: It would be possible to classify an indefinite number of

wooden blocks of different shapes so that each one of a given group

would fall into a definite category. The primary division might easily

be (A) long blocks; (AA) short blocks; and (B and BB) under each one

might be blocks with right angles and blocks without right angles, and

so on indefinitely, and when you finished your task you would have a

classification for taxing purposes only. It certainly would not be of

value for any other purpose. You could take a saw and in a few min-

utes change a given block so that it would go into an entirely different

classification. Your classification was therefore entirely artificial

and empirical. On the other hand, you might have classified your

blocks into hard woods and soft woods. You might have gone further

and classified your soft woods with reference to certain structures

which would have separated the coniferous from the deciduous forms,

and continued this segregation to a completion of the group. Such a

classification could not be altered by any use of a saw. The block of

wood would fall-into its correct classification regardless of what was

done to it. In other words, it would have been a classification rather

than an enumeration. In many of our taxonomic efforts, especially

where working with a very small representation of a group or with

little knowledge of ancestral forms, our classifications may be very

FEB. 4, 1926 ROHWER, BAKER AND BALL: ENTOMOLOGICAL TAXONOMY 65

little better than the long and short sticks of wood, but if we attempt

to make a rational classification and follow it as far as our knowledge

at the moment permits, correcting it from time to time as our knowl-

edge increases, we are doing the best we can and following the path

of the evolution of all knowledge.

There existed for a long period a large school of morphologists who

openly ignored and belittled taxonomy. Happily that day is passing.

I remember working in a laboratory for a year with an earnest and

conscientious young man who was working industriously tracing the

development of the lateral line and its sense organs in an embryo

of a salamander. I was at the same time working on the evolution

(taxonomy if you please) of a certain group of leafhoppers and we used

to have frequent arguments as to the value of taxonomy, a value he

did not at that time recognize. When, however, he had his work

completed and was preparing it for publication he suddenly discovered

that there were other genera of salamanders and that the references

which he had been consulting were all about a certain common species.

Not knowing that there were other genera he had failed to look up

these references until his work was completed, and then he found a

large volume of morphological work which indicated that there were

wide variations in the embryonic development of the three groups,

and the poor fellow did not know to which group his original sala-

mander belonged. ‘That was a quarter of a century ago and as far

_as I am aware he has never been able to name his salamander or pub-

lish his results.

Most of you are familiar with the classical case of the entomologist

who worked on the spermatogenesis of a certain species of insect or

thought he did. He had the species in the wrong genus, worked up

the wrong literature, found that it did not agree with the determina-

tions made by European workers, wrote a strong criticism of their

work only to have his material re-investigated and the discovery made

that he had been wrong in his taxonomy and wrong in his morphology.

Although not belonging to the genus, it did agree in the morphological

changes.

There have been taxonomists who were equally indifferent to the

biological and morphological relations of their work. All insects with

long spines were placed in the group as against those with short

spines. All dark insects were segregated from the light ones, entirely

ignoring the fact that the length of spines or the color might easily be

adaptations to certain food plants or environment and have occurred

independently in groups of widely separated ancestry.

66 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES | VOL. 16, No.3

Evolution does not take place in structure alone or in function

alone. Variations in animals take place in all lines, in structure, in

function, in habit. It is only when we consider all of the factors in

their relation to each other that we arrive at a true concept of the

path of evolution. |

The teaching of economic entomology has departed widely from

that of the related sciences. ‘The major portion of our textbooks has

dealt with apple insects, corn insects, cotton insects, and the like.

The student has a large amount of miscellaneous information of

detailed life history and remedial measures centered around a certain

crop plant and its environment. Instead he should obtain a thorough

understanding of the fundamentals of insect biology so that if he

meets a new pest he can apply his fundamental knowledge, and in a

majority of cases have a fairly definite idea of the methods to use in

control. Instead of getting the details of the 17-year locust in con-

nection with the apple he may well learn that the Cicadidae as a

group spend a long larval period in the earth, that their resemblance

to an army tank is not accidental but an adaptation to that environ-

ment. He can then learn that the wireworms as a group also have a

long larval period, that in general they have a definite relationship to

weed growth or known cultivated crops, and even when he meets an

exception to this general rule it will be noted as an exception only to

emphasize the fundamental importance of the general adaptation.

On the other hand, when he is studying the leaf-feeding forms he will

readily realize that short larval periods are absolutely essential to

the preservation of the species and will marvel at the many modifica-

tions which nature has worked out to adapt insects to the particular

favorable period for this larval appearance. Such a course in ento-

mology will train him to think and arouse his interest and enthusiasm,

while the other course will be largely a training in memory and the

mastery of definite details rather than the working out of principles

and the development of theories.

In conclusion I would say that every entomologist should study

taxonomy. In fact I would go further—that every entomologist

should be a taxonomist in some group, large or small. If every

economic worker would carry the responsibility for working out some

small unit of our classification he would find it a wonderful stimulus to

further development, as well as a broadening influence that would give

him a wider series of contacts which would be of value. The aggre-

gate of such small contributions would rapidly advance our knowledge

of many little known groups, and if he selected his own economic group

FEB: 4, 1926 -ROHWER, BAKER AND BALL: ENTOMOLOGICAL TAXONOMY 67

for consideration it might easily change his whole viewpoint of the

- economic relations. |

In the same way I believe every taxonomist should be deeply

interested in and a student of the biology of his group, that as far as

possible he should work with living material, and that in every case

at least one or more species should be studied in large numbers, and

thus develop the normal range of variation and adaptation within the

species. In this way the systematist would be much clearer in his

concept of what constitutes a species and be much more sympathetic

with those who are struggling with biologic forms. In a number of

fields it is becoming impossible to ignore the fact that there exist

definite and fixed biologic forms which. we can not, as yet at least,

recognize by ordinary taxonomic characters.

Taxonomy as a whole has already reached a position where many

divergent lines of proof can be brought to bear, all of which indicates

that our major conclusions with reference to the evolution of our

- groups are accurate. A study of the parasites of the higher animals,

for instance, shows a parallel development with that of the hosts. It

shows that the parasites have differentiated as the hosts have differ-

entiated. There are internal parasites and external ones; each one of

these can be subdivided into different groups, and when the same

evolutionary detail can be worked out for all of the groups each one

will tend to confirm the accuracy and authenticity of the others. The

writer was much interested a few years ago in checking up with Dr.

W. D. Pierce on the classification of the Stylops in relation to the

classification of the Jassidae and Fulgoridae that they parasitized.

The Jassidae as a group are primitive with a certain number of special-

ized lines. The Fulgoridae as a group are highly specialized with

only a few primitive lines. Dr. Pierce’s classification of the Stylops

indicated that the same relationship held with reference to the para-

sites. When taxonomy is approached from this standpoint it becomes

one of the most valuable forms of biological study and can be recom-.

mended as part of the training of every entomologist and a part of the

life work of a much larger number than at present.

68 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 16, No. 3

PROCEEDINGS OF THE ACADEMY AND AFFILIATED

SOCIETIES

THE GEOLOGICAL SOCIETY

398TH MEETING

The 398th meeting was held at the Cosmos Club January 7, 1925, President

STEPHENSON presiding. The Secretary announced the election to active

membership of F. E. WuHITE.

Program: Dr. Lauer Kocu, Chief of the Danish Explorations, who spent

six years in northern Greenland, addressed the Society on The geology of

Greenland: (1) Physiography and glaciology, (2) Structural geology and stratig-

raphy.

399TH MEETING

The 399th meeting was held at the Cosmos Club January 28, 1925, Presi-

dent STEPHENSON presiding.

Program: Prof. FrepERIcK J. Pack of the University of Utah gE

the Society on Scenic aspects of Utah geology.

Hueu D. Missr: Erosion in San Juan Canyon, Utah. The enna of

San Juan River extends west across a high arid region in southeastern Utah

and joins the Glen Canyon of Colorado River near the southern boundary of

the State. It reveals a magnificent geologic structure section possessing the

same dimensions as the canyon, as much as half a mile high and 133 miles

long. The rocks aggregate a thickness of 5000 feet and consist of limestone,

sandstone, and shale, ranging in age from Pennsylvanian to Jurassic. Most of

the rocks are red beds and, since soil is scanty and rock ledges abound, red is

the predominating color in any landscape view. The rock strata have been

flexed into a broad gentle arch, but neither the arch nor the minor structural

features, such as anticlines, synclines, monoclines, faults and joints, have

influenced the course of the river.

The present crooked course of the river in the canyon is a striking example

of an entrenched meandering stream. Such a course may have been devel-

oped on a former cover of Tertiary sediments or on a peneplain, fragments of

which stand near and above the walls. The peneplain is possibly of Pleisto-

cene age, and the canyon cutting therefore apparently began in Pleistocene

time. The cutting was rapid but did not continue uniformly as there were a

few short pauses when the river was graded and deposited gravel which now

floors benches of small area on the walls.

Rock debris, consisting of sand, gravel and boulders, forms the bed of the

river and attains a depth of perhaps 100 feet or more. But it is presumably

absent in a few of the rapids that are produced by inclined Jedges of hard rock

which cross the channel. Long stretches of the canyon, where the debris is

deepest, present the peculiar example of an alluvial stream flowing between

close walls of solid rock, but much of the debris is apparently moved by high

floods that take place many years apart.

San Juan River carries an unusually large quantity of debris for streams in

the United States and it is one of the chief contributors of mud to Colorado

River. The water is always muddy, but during flood stages the river is actu-

ally a river of mud; and according to samples taken by Pierce it occasionally

carries by volume three times as much silt as water. The heavy load of debris

carried during floods causes a peculiar kind of waves known as sand waves.

FEB. 4, 1926 PROCEEDINGS: GEOLOGICAL SOCIETY 69

These waves attain a height of about 7 feet and resemble those thrown up by

- astern-wheel river steamboat. They travel upstream, in marked contrast to

other kinds of waves that are stationery and also to waves that travel down-

stream.

If the proposed storage and power projects on San Juan and Colorado

rivers are carried to completion the river, on reaching the heads of the reser-

voirs, will change its work from erosion to deposition. An important ques-

tion concerning the reservoirs is, How soon will they be filled with rock

debris? ‘The answer to this question remains for the future, because the data

available at present are not sufficient for making an estimate of the total load

of debris that is carried each year by the San Juan and discharged into the

Colorado. (Author’s abstract.)

400TH MEETING

The 400th meeting was held in the Cosmos Club February 11, 1925,

President STEPHENSON presiding.

Program: GEORGE P. MrrRRILL: Early American geologists and their work.

(illustrated with lantern slides.)

Davip WHITE: Geologic factors affecting and possibly controlling Pleistocene

ice sheet development in North America. A review of the physiographic and

continental changes following middle Tertiary and Pliocene times can not

fail to strengthen the idea that the movements of the Pleistocene ice sheets in

North America, if not their origin itself, were determined mainly if not wholly

by terrestrial factors. It appears more than possible that not only the regu-

lation but the creation also of those ice caps will find adequate explanation

in changes of level of the land, great reduction of the epicontinental seas,

especially in the temperate and higher latitudes, the expansion of the con-

_tinental surfaces, the corresponding differences in sub-oceanic topography,

and the changes in ocean currents, air currents, rainfall and temperatures

consequent to the changes in the land and water.

Among the conditions particularly to be taken into account are the emer-

gence of the continents and the uplift of the higher land masses essentially to

the maximum in the course of the post-Tertiary diastrophic revolution which

probably is stillin progress. Not only are the continental shelves in general

unusually exposed, but the epicontinental seas, great stabilizers of continen-

tal climates, are in general greatly restricted. The Tertiary seas have largely

receded.

The conclusion appears justified that the Laurentian shield embracing the

Hudson Bay region was a broad plateau at the close of Tertiary time. Its

drainage is an interesting and profitable study. No marine late Cretaceous,

no marine Tertiary of any sort, lie on it in some ancient valley or flank it

short of the Arctic coast, a great distance to the northwest. It was a land

surface on which, in what is now the Arctic British-American Archipelago,

fresh-water Tertiary basins existed during late Eocene or Miocene time,

with climatic temperatures and rainfall favorable to the growth of temperate

arboreal vegetation nearly to the 80th parallel. Within this region the so-

called Arctic Miocene flora spread from Alaska through the Arctic islands,

central Greenland, Spitzbergen, Nova Zembla, Franz Joseph Land and Siberia,

plainly indicating a subsequent climatic revolution that could not take place

without critical changes of landandsea. The post-Tertiary revolution lifted

the northern lands much higher even than they arenow. Anelevation of 300

feet, which may well have taken place, would now close Bering Strait, and a

70 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 16, No. 3

rise of 1200 or 1800 feet in the sea bottom around the north Atlantic would

essentially connect up northeastern Europe and northwesternAsia through the

islands very nearly to Greenland, leaving narrow and relatively shallow

straits. Impressive geographical changes would follow an uplift of 750 feet.

The mapping of the sea bottom in this region yields evidence in support of

such changes and plant and animal distribution predicate recurrent uplifts or

deformations sufficient to permit intercontinental migration of land animals

and plants.

The geologic profession is too prone to close its notebook as soon as its

feet are wet by tidal salt water. Not only its consecutive constructive

thought, but its geological observations too often stop at tide level. The

submerged beaches are not less interesting and significant than those so enthu-

siastically traced around the exposed lands; they may be as numerous and

span even greater intervals. The topography and tectonics of the seas, soon

to be traced by sonic sounding, are essential portions of the field of geology..

The geologic history of the sub-oceanic regions is a subject for study insepa-

rable from that of the land.

The northern Rocky Mountains have been shown to be progressive in

growth. ‘They were relatively low at the close of Tertiary time, so as to per-

mit comparatively free transit of moisture-laden winds from the northern

Pacific (possibly abnormally warm and moist if Bering Strait was temporarily

closed) across to the elevated Laurentian plateau where, due either to post-

Tertiary increase in elevation or changes in Arctic climate, the snow and ice

of winter might have gained upon the melting capacity of summer’s warmth,

with consequent development and spread of the glacial ice sheet. Rise of the

surface of the ice sheet itself naturally accelerated both the arrest of moisture

and, through increased altitude, the lowering of mean temperature.

The strangulation of the north Atlantic and Bering Straits would conduce to

great Arctic frigidity, with consequent marked effects on the climates of the

northern lands.

Under loading of the ice sheet the shield should in due time have sunk iso-

statically, presumably with concomitant elevation to a minor extent of the

land in portions of the peripheral zone, a procedure fairly well established for

the Labrador sheet. Rasmussen reports shore terraces up to an elevation

of over 1300 feet on Bylot Island and above 550 feet on Melville Island.

Depression of the surface of the region to lower elevations would tend to raise

the mean temperature, while retarded temporary elevation of the western

border rim which, at maximum extension embraced the foothills, at least, of

the Rocky Mountains, could only have cut off a portion of the moisture

driven inward from the Pacific. ‘Thus, conditions of reduced precipitation,

especially in winter, and lowering of the land, should bring a check in the

growth of the ice and reverse the annual increment of winter ice precipitation

to annual gain of thaw, which, in due time, automatically would accelerate

itself, with the lowering of the ice surface and the uncovering of the land mass.

It may do no violence to facts yet observed to assume that the Hudson Bay

region has been depressed and uplifted more than once since the development

of the first ice sheet. Submerged beaches may alternate in time with some of

the raised beaches between which the period of exposure of the land is so

commonly distributed.

It is important, however, to note that the ultimate or concomitant moun-

tain-building movement is marked by the final progressive uplift of the

Rocky Mountain region, in the course of which morainal deposits on the

flank of the mountains were raised to an elevation of around 4500 feet, as has

FEB. 4, 1926 PROCEEDINGS: GEOLOGICAL SOCIETY “¢ |

been noted by Alden. That the termination of Laurentian glaciation may

have resulted both from the subsidence of Laurentian land itself on the one

hand, and, on the other, the straining of moisture from the warm humid winds

drifting from the north Pacific against the risen mountains, with consequent

reduction of winter precipitation in the shield province, is indicated by the

-known elevation of the Rockies during this time, the evident depression of

what is now the Archipelago region of British America, and the absence of all

marine deposits of Mesozoic or Tertiary age in the entire Hudson Bay basin.

This basin is to be viewed as now in the process of isostatic uplift, with slow

emptying out of Hudson Bay. An elevation of 300 feet will drain the greater

part of the Bay; 1200 feet will dry it. Irregularity of the movement, which

was retarded as compared with the more prompt rebound of about 1000

feet in a portion of the Labrador-New England region, is geologically nor-

mal. The configuration of the basin, the strand deposits, and the presence of

Pleistocene marine fossils at an elevation of 600 feet in the Hudson Bay depres-

sion show that the land has rebounded to a certain extent, though the Bay is

not yet emptied and its floor is almost certainly many hundreds of feet below

its maximum post-Tertiary elevation. Similarly, marine terraces have been

noted by P.S. Smith along the north Atlantic coast and by Koch in northern

Greenland at elevations of around 700 feet above tide. ~The argument pred-

icates a continued rise of the Hudson Bay area but does not depend upon it.

The great depression of this region is indicated also by the relatively recent

(Pleistocene?) diversion of drainage in the western slope from north-south

systems eastward into Hudson Bay.

In Eurasia changes of differential elevation and configuration of the land

have received much attention, even on the part of biogeographers, but the

possible consequent effects on the areas, depths, temperatures, densities and

currents of the seas, and the joint effects on radiation, distribution of cyclonic

centers and other climatic factors affecting the land do not seem to have

engaged the close consideration that they deserve.

Obviously, outward movements of the continental shore lines, with closing

(partial at least) of Arctic connections, which may tentatively be assumed to

have occurred, and the assured existence of extensive ice sheets in the north-

ern hemisphere could not fail, through their effects on water and air currents,

to affect prevailing winds and weather in the subtropical and even the tropical

areas, and, by disturbance of the equilibrium, in the Equatorial belt, with

diversion of atmospheric currents, may well have affected the normal drift of

warm air into the Antarctic zone. This is probable, regardless of the certain

effects of post-Tertiary Andean uplift. If true it would favor the develop-

ment of climatic cold and ice in the Antarctic regions contemporaneously, or

nearly contemporaneously, with the growth of glacial sheets and extreme

cold in the north. It will be recalled that Arctic mammals were driven into

the lower Mississippi valley, while many indigenous plants and animals,

including the horse, were exterminated.

The premises outlined above suggest factors possibly explanatory both of

shifting in the areas of ice expansion and of some features of Cordilleran

glaciation. ‘The elevation of the interior region of North America in late

Tertiary time, with the consequent expulsion of the sea from the Central

region and even from the Mississippi embayment, taken in conjunction with

the low stand of the Rocky Mountains at the earliest stage of the Pleistocene,

would be favorable for the great extension of the earliest glaciation, Nebras-

kan and Kansan, to more southern limits in the Great Plains region. On the

other hand, the growth of the Rocky Mountains from the south, with increas-

72 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 16, No. 3

ing interference with transit of wind-borne humidity to that region, must have

restrained the expansion of the later ice caps in that direction without cor-

responding effect on the spread of the northeastern sheets.

Similarly, the widespread glaciation of the Sierras while the Coast Ranges

were relatively low contrasts strongly with the relatively restricted extent of

the later glaciation at a time when the Coast Ranges were much more fully -

developed. Mountain growth to the west and consequent interference with

precipitation on the Sierras may have terminated glaciation in this region,

just as in the north, though, on the other hand, it is left to the glacialist and

the climatologist to determine whether ice erowth i in the Sierra regions was

not dominated by the causes and the growth itself of the great Laurentian

sheets.

The.author does not deny the possible effects of astronomical phenomena

on earth climate. - Variation in solar radiation, even for short periods like the

three years of deficiency just past, may cause notable changes in ocean cur-

rents and air currents, with consequent marked effects on climate that may

be felt in most unexpected quarters, once the approximate climatic equilib-

rium is disturbed, and by shifting and producing “‘highs”’ and ‘‘lows” of at-

mospheric pressure may touch off earthquakes, influence volcanic action, and

if continued sufficiently long may cause isostatic adjustment. Pleistocene

glaciation may, in his belief, largely if not wholly be explained by terrestrial

rather than astronomical changes. At least the geologist should not look

unto the heavens for help in the solution of his problem before he has duly

and most earnestly considered all the facts already within his reach. The

object of this presentation is to stimulate study of the questions here specu-

latively set forth. The more important evidence has to do with continental

exposure, elevation, and configuration, Quaternary mountain building, elimi-

nation or reduction of epicontinental seas, migration of shore lines, strangula-

tion of Arctic circulation, great changes in currents and temperatures of water

and air, and changes in season and amount of precipitation.

The problem is one demanding the attention not only of the geologist, but

of the oceanographer and the meteorologist, as well as the geographer. Its

best solution can not be reached without their closest cooperation. When the

causes of glaciation in Pleistocene time are determined it will be in order to

consider the glaciations of earlier epochs. (Author’s abstract.)

AQIST MEETING

The 401st meeting was held in the Cosmos Club February 25, 1925, Presi-

dent STEPHENSON presiding. ‘The Secretary announced the resignation from

active membership of J. B. Epy.

Program: C. D. Waucott: Robson Peak section. (Illustrated with lan-

tern slides.) |

R. 8. Bassuter: The stratigraphic use of conodonts. (Illustrated with lan-

tern slides.) Certain Paleozoic formations particularly black shales, are

often crowded with tooth-like fossils averaging a millimeter in diameter,

resembling in part microscopic sharks’ teeth. In 1856 a monograph upon

Russian examples of these fossils was published by Pander who termed them

‘“‘conodonts.’’ Since then the systematic position of the conodonts has been

much in question and little work of systematic value has been published upon

them partly because it was believed that these structures were too variable

to be of stratigraphic value. A detailed study of the ample collections of

conodonts in the U.S. National Museum by E. O. Ulrich and the writer has

FEB. 4, 1926 PROCEEDINGS: GEOLOGICAL SOCIETY 73

resulted in a classification of the group, which, if not entirely natural, has

proved very useful in correlation. ‘The work has also convinced us that the

conodonts are the teeth of primitive fishes of perhaps several distinct groups

and that the supposed great variability of structure in the same species does

not exist. The conodonts show a marked evolution from simple undenticu-

lated teeth in the Ordovician to complex forms with a main cusp and com-

plicated denticulation in the Mississippian. Their value as horizon markers

was proved particularly in working out the correlation of the Devonian and

Mississippian black shales in the Eastern part of the United States, identical

faunas having been found scattered over a wide range of country. (Author’s

abstract.)

Wo. C. ALpEN: Glaciation and physiography of Wind River Mountains,

Wyoming. Remnants of several finely developed sets of gravel-capped, cut

terraces ranging from 15 or 30 feet to 1500 feet above the streams indicate

successive notable stages of still-stand and stream planation alternating

with stages of regional uplift. ‘These have been described by Blackwelder,

Westgate, and Branson and others. The Lenore terrace 15 to 30 feet above

the streams is generally confined between the lines of bluffs. The moraines

of the last, the Pinedale (or Wisconsin) stage of glaciation, extend’ down onto

the Lenore terrace.

One to two hundred feet above the Lenore terrace is the Circle terrace.

The moraines of the next older, or Bull Lake stage of glaciation, extend down

- onto but not below the Circle terrace. Some notable shifts in the locations of

streams and valleys took place after the Bull Lake stage (which may cor-

respond to the Iowan stage of the Keewatin ice sheet) and prior to the Pine-

dale stage. The Circle terrace seems to correspond to the main, or lower

level of the second set of terraces throughout the Yellowstone drainage basin.

There are scattered remnants of much more eroded higher and older sets of

terraces some of which may correspond to the higher level of the second set of

terraces on the Yellowstone of early Pleistocene age.

The highest tablelands 1000 to 1500 feet above the streams, represented by

the top of Table Mountain near Lander, are remnants of a vast gravelly

alluvial piedmont terrace (the Table Mountain plain). This is believed to

have been completed in Pliocene time and to be the correlative of Meeteetse

terrace in Big Horn Basin and of the Flaxville and associated terraces of

Montana. The much-weathered deposits of big boulders capping Table

Mountain and other remnants are believed (in part at least) to have been

deposited by mountain glaciers on the Table Mountain piedmont terrace

before it was much dissected. This is probably as old as, or older than,

Blackwelder’s ‘‘Buffalo drift’’ of the Wind River and Teton Mountain region.

It is probably the correlative of similar deposits of early Pleistocene age on

high mesas at the east front of Big Horn Mountains, and of the oldest moun-

tain glacier drift (Nebraskan) on the highest benchlands in the region of

Glacier National Park.

Several thousand feet above the Table Mountain remnants is the sum-

mit peneplain or plateau on Wind River Mountains, the product of Black-

welder’s Fremont cycle of erosion. In the opinion of the writer this is older

than Pliocene, possibly Miocene or Oligocene. Notable regional uplifts

followed both the development of this peneplain and that of the Table Moun-

tain plain. The latter uplift probably closed the Tertiary, brought on the

first mountain glaciation, and started the streams to dissecting the Table

Mountain plain or piedmont terrace. These correlations are, as yet, tenta-

tive. (Author’s abstract.)

74 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 16, No. 3

402D MEETING

The 402d meeting was held in the Cosmos Club March 11, 1925, President

STEPHENSON presiding. The Secretary announced the election to active

membership of R. L. Faris.

Program: KX. T. Auten: Further evidence of the nature of hot springs.

(Illustrated by lantern slides.) Drilling for natural steam as a source of

power has been in progress for some time at a place called ‘‘The Geysers,”’

Sonoma County, California. ‘‘The Geysers’’ are situated in the St. Helena

Mt. Range. The hot areas in this locality extend along the side of a narrow

canyon, occurring at intervals for a distance of about six miles. No igneous

rocks, lava or volcanic ejecta have been discovered in the immediate neigh-

borhood; the rocks are sandstones, shales, serpentines, schists, and other

metamorphics. At The Geysers sandstone is. encountered by drilling at a

depth often less than 100 feet from the surface. The temperature close to

the surface is very generally near 100°C.. As cracks are cut by the drill

the steam flow increases and the temperature rises rapidly—25°C. or more

per 100 ft. in the upper strata, and measurements show that water could not

penetrate to any considerable depth without being vaporized. Small hot

springs often of high mineral concentration are frequent. Their maximum

temperature reaches about 98°C.—the boiling point of water for the eleva-

tion. The mineral matter in the springs is chiefly sulphate and acid sulphate

of ammonium and magnesium, or in the alkaline springs carbonate, bicarbon- .

ate and sulphate. The evidence shows that the volatile matter is derived

from the volcanic gases which are escaping from springs and fumaroles. ‘The

non-volatile matter is derived from the serpentine and other metamorphic

rocks and of the area. That it comes from rocks near the surface is supported

by the fact that surface water can not penetrate deeply and fresh pyrite in

the sandstone drillings shows that oxidation also extends only to shallow

depths.

The phenomena of The Geysers are best accounted for on the assumption

that superheated steam and other volcanic gases are ascending from a hot

batholith through a deep crack in the overlying strata; that the steam is

heating surface water by condensation, and the gases, hydrogen sulphide and

carbon dioxide through logical chemical changes are decomposing the super-

ficial rocks. (Author’s abstract.)

W. 4H. Brapuey: An interpretation of the Green River formation. (Illus-

trated by lantern slides.) The field observations on the Green River forma-

tion and study of the microfossils of the oil shale together with the appli-

cation of the principles of limnology to the interpretation of these lake beds

indicate the following trend in the formation’s geologic history.

The Green River lakes were initiated, by gentle downwarping of the basin

floors, as large and relatively stable though quite shallow fresh water lakes in

which flourished an abundant flora and an active fauna. Limy shale, oolitic

limestone, sandstone, and a small amount of low grade oil shale were

deposited in the lakes of this stage.

The lakes of the second stage were still shallower and under climatic influ-

ence repeatedly filled and evaporated either partially or completely. At the

beginning of the cycle they may be pictured as broad sheets of clear and fresh

or moderately alkaline water, but at the close of the cycle, after a long, hot,

dry season, as a large number of disconnected ponds of various sizes and vari-

ous degrees of alkalinity. Plankton organisms, mostly algae and Protozoa,

thrived in these ephemeral ponds and reduction in volume not only greatly

FEB. 4, 1926 PROCEEDINGS: GEOLOGICAL SOCIETY 75

concentrated those already present, but also stimulated a vastly greater pro-

duction of them by reason of the stagnation and corresponding rise in tempera-

tures of the water. Active putrefaction, probably also assisted by the activ-

ity of saprophytic fungi, protozoans, various round worms, and minute

crustaceans reduced the dead organisms to a nearly structureless jelly.

Organic acids resulting from the putrefaction together with the increas-

ing content of dissolved mineral salts finally became effective toxins and the

ooze became an almost perfectly antiseptic medium. This structureless,

semifluid organic ooze with its occluded algae, fungi, protozoa, pollen, and

spores together with various proportions of finely divided mineral matter was

then covered by the deposits of the next cycle and subsequently lithified into

oil shale.

The closing phase of Green River deposition was characterized by strongly

alkaline lakes, probably playa-like, in the wet muds of which considerable

glauberite crystallized out. The conditions of deposition of this third phase

were evidently too unfavorable for the growth and accumulation of large

quantities of microorganisms and only an insignificant amount of oil shale

resulted. A period of vigorous stream abrasion terminated the alkaline

playa phase and was followed by the deposition of stream channel sands and

fluviatile clay which now make up the top of the Green River formation.

(Author’s abstract.)

Kirk Bryan: Recent deposits of Chaco Canyon, New Mexico, in relation to

the life of the pre-historic peoples of Pueblo Bonto. (Illustrated by lantern

slides.) The part of the valley of Chaco River known as Chaco canyon lies

on the southern border of San Juan Basin, New Mexico, and is about 12

miles long, from 1 to 3 miles wide, and 200 to 400 feet deep. Theruins of 13

large communal houses stand on the canyon floor and the adjacent cliffs and

with numerous smaller ruins testify to the flourishing civilization that once

existed in this now desolate region. Pueblo Bonito, the largest of these ruins,

is now being excavated by an expedition under Neil M. Judd, organized and

supported by the National Geographic Society. The geologic work here

recorded in a preliminary statement was done at the instance of Mr. Judd and

at the expense of the Society. |

The flat floor of Chaco Canyon is marked by a relatively recent gully in

which the floods of Chaco River are now wholly confined. This gully, or

arroyo, is now fron 150 to 450 feet wide and 30 feet deep at Pueblo Bonito.

In 1877 it was 40 to 60 feet wide and 16 feet deep. An exploring expedition

in 1849 makes no mention of an arroyo and it therefore seems likely that the

arroyo was initiated at about the same time as the similar gullies in other

southwestern canyons, i.e., since the year 1870.

The alluvial deposits that form the floor of the canyon are of unknown

thickness, but the upper 30 feet is well exposed in the walls of the arroyo.

The sand, silt, ‘‘adobe,” and gravel of this valley fill are all characteristic of

deposition in muddy floods similar to those of the present ephemeral stream

and give no evidence that the Canyon ever had a perennial water course.

The agriculture of the prehistoric peoples was, therefore, not carried on by

irrigation with living water but probably by the methods of floodwater farm-

ing—a system still in use in the region.

Relics of man, in the form of hearths, bone-fragments, potsherds, etc., are

found to a depth of 21 feet. The zone from 4 to 6 feet below the surface con-

tains the remains of the people who built the large ruins and was therefore

deposited in the Pueblo period. The zone from 6 to 21 feet contains the relics

76 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 16, No. 3

of pre-Pueblo peoples. In addition to this normal relation showing a transi-

tion in the type of human culture with the progress of alluviation of the valley,

there is a buried channel containing potsherds of the latest type known in

Pueblo Bonito. The buried channel is from 15 to 18 feet deep and has been

traced a total distance of 1500 feet. It was evidently formed and refilled

either very late in the occupancy of Pueblo Bonito or shortly after its aban-

donment, and represents a post-Bonito or post-Pueblo period.

If this buried channel represents a period of erosion followed by a period of

sedimentation intervening between the period of alluviation that formed the

main valley fill and the present period of erosion which began in 1870, very

important consequences result. The formation of the channel would have

so reduced the agricultural area subject to floodwater farming as to furnish an

approximate cause for the abandonment of Pueblo Bonito. The refill of

the channel would have restored the flood plain to a condition nearly like its

original condition and thus would have provided conditions suitable for the

expansion of the Navajo tribe in the years before and since the Spanish

conquest.

Further investigation is planned for the purpose of tracing this buried

channel and further unravelling the history of the valley fill. Since, however,

the various members of the complex mass of otherwise similar sediments

contain potsherds of characteristic type, the problem can be attacked by

ordinary stratigraphic methods in which potsherds take the place of fossils.

(Author’s abstract.)

403D MEETING

The 403d meeting was held in the Cosmos Club March 25, 1925, Vice-

President HEWETT presiding.

Program: W. T. SCHALLER: Genesis of lithium pegmatites. (Illustrated

with lantern slides.) Studies in the field and laboratory of the lithium peg-

matites of southern California and laboratory studies of similar specimens

from other localities have shown that these pegmatites as now composed are

not original crystallizations from a magma but are a hydrothermal replace-

ments of a much simpler, earlier formed, magmatic rock free from any

lithium minerals. In the California field graphic granite was the earlier rock

replaced, the well-defined texture of graphic granite serving as a “‘key’’ for the

determination of the replacement:processes. In volume percentage, albite is

the chief mineral replacing both the microcline and quartz of the graphic

granite. Other stages of the replacement show that the albite was later

replaced by lithium minerals. The well known rubellite and lepidolite speci-

mens were shown to have been originally graphic granite. Other pegmatitic

minerals accompanying the albitic and lithium mineralic replacements include

muscovite, biotite, garnet, black tourmaline, beryl, columbite, etc. The

original pegmatitic magma was therefore not rich in the so-called mineralizers,

all of which were introduced later in the hydrothermal replacement processes.

The formation of some of these minerals in bands and the formation of crystal

lined cavities are likewise due to the replacement processes. (Author’s

abstract.)

FRANK L. Huss: Oélites. (Illustrated with lantern slides.) Some odlites

from Carlsbad Caverns, New Mexico, were turned over to the speaker for

study. They were formed through the precipitation of calcium carbonate in

small pools under stalactites, the drip from which stirred the water of the pools,

FEB. 4, 1926 PROCEEDINGS: GEOLOGICAL SOCIETY 77

so that precipitating lime carbonate was keptin motion. It was shown by

other examples, including calcium carbonate odlites, formed in boiling sugar

_ refuse; nickel odlites formed from gas in the regular production of nickel by the

Mond carbony] process; sulphur odlites formed in crater lakes from sulphurous

gases bubbling through the water; hailstones apparently formed through the

precipitation of ice from gaseous H,O; and odlites formed in Great Salt Lake

from calcium carbonate brought down by streams, that the same principle

governed the formation of all these different types of odlites, that is, that

many solids precipitated in a moving fluid take on an odlitic form, and it is

therefore unnecessary to call on the aid of bacteria or other more or less

mysterious agencies to explain the formation of odlites. Calcite, hematite,

phosphorite and odlites have apparently all been formed in the same way.

(Author’s abstract.)

W.P. Wooprine: Miocene climate of tropical America. (Illustrated with

lantern slides.) At the close of Miocene time many genera of marine

animals suddenly disappeared in the Caribbean Sea and adjoining waters of

the Gulf of Mexico and Atlantic Ocean. Most of these genera that are now

living are found in the warm waters of the eastern Pacific and some are con-

fined to the tropical western Pacific. Therefore it seems probable that in its

physical features the Miocene Caribbean Sea resembled the present tropical

Pacific. Among the mollusks characteristically tropical families such as the

Terebridae, Conidae, Cancellariidae, Mitridae, Columbellidae, Cypraeidae

and Arcidae had a much richer representation in the Miocene Caribbean

Sea than in the present Caribbean Sea. The whole Miocene Caribbean

fauna had a more tropical aspect than the living fauna.

Perhaps the most significant feature accounting for the change in the Carib-

bean Sea and the extinction there of Pacific genera lies in the closing of the

channels that extended across Panama and Costa Rica during Miocene and

earlier Tertiary time. The problem of the effect of these channels on oceanic

circulation can hardly be avoided even though available data may be too

meager to attempt to evaluateits significance. All geologists who are familiar

with Central America agree that the channels were open during at least parts

of Eocene, Oligocene, and Miocene time and were closed after middle Miocene

time. Some geologists believe that water from the Caribbean Sea was trans-

ferred into the Pacific across the Central American channels. It seems more

probable that the slightly higher mean sea level in the Pacific.and the much

greater tidal range on the Pacific side of Central America would cause a move-

ment in the opposite direction, carrying into the Caribbean Sea water having

the same temperature, salinity, and food supply as Pacific water, and offering

a means of transporting pelagiclarvae. Asthe Tertiary faunas of the Pacific

coast of Central America and northern South America are being studied, it is

becoming apparent that, at least so far as the mollusks are concerned, many

of the Pacific genera that have disappeared in the Caribbean Sea were autoch-

thonous in the eastern Pacific. They moved into the Caribbean Sea as

temporary migrants and remained there only as long as the channels were

open. ‘This explanation is far from satisfactory when an attempt is made to

apply it to genera that were established in the Caribbean Sea during the long

period from Eocene to Miocene and even spread as far north as the southeast

coast of the United States. It is purely speculative, but it seems to offer a

reasonable basis to account for the striking change in the Caribbean fauna—

a change caused by the elimination or impoverisbment of genera and families

that are characteristically tropical. (Author’s abstract.)

78 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL 16, No. 3

404TH MEETING

The 404th meeting was held in the Cosmos Club April 8, 1925, Vice-presi-

dent Burts presiding.

Program: J. B. Mertiz, Jr.: The Paleozoic geology of interior Alaska.

The oldest rocks in Alaska comprise a group of rocks, known collectively as

the Birch Creek Schist, which crop out typically in the valley of Tanana

River, in interior Alaska. These consist essentially of quartz-mica schist of

sedimentary origin, together with orthogneiss and metamorphosed basic

igneous rocks. ‘The schist is of pre-Ordovician and probably of pre-Cam-

brian age. The included metamorphic igneous rocks may be in part of early

Paleozoic age.

Overlying unconformably the Birch Creek Schist in its type locality is a

great thickness of slate and metamorphosed arkose, known as the Tatalina

group, in the upper part of which occur lower Ordovician fossils; and at the

very top of the Tatalina group is found a formation of metamorphosed basal-

tic lavas, in the tuffs of which late middle Ordovician fossils occur. To the

eastward, along the international boundary, rocks which are believed to be

stratigraphically equivalent to the Tatalina group contain fossils ranging in

age from middle Cambrian to upper Ordovician; while to the southward and

southwestward, both Utica and Richmond horizons in the upper Ordovician

have been recognized, the former being essentially an argillaceous and the

latter a limestone formation.

Lower Silurian rocks have not been found in the interior of Alaska, but

middle Silurian rocks are widespread and form one of the best known hori-

zon markers in the Paleozoic section. The type locality is in Brooks Range,

of northern Alaska, where a middle Silurian limestone about 6000 feet thick,

extends for more than 500 miles from east to west across the Territory. <A

similar limestone of like age is found in the Yukon-Tanana region, and along

the international boundary. Upper Silurian time is represented in northern

Alaska by a formation of slate, quartzite and relatively thin bands of lime-

stone; and rocks of similar character and age, in the Yukon-Tanana region

are grouped together under the designation Tonzona group.

A great structural inconformity is believed to separate the Silurian rocks

from the overlying Devonian rocks; and during this stratigraphic hiatus in

lower Devonian time, granitic rocks, now gneissoid, are believed to have

originated in Northern Alaska, and perhaps in the Yukon-Tanana region.

The succeeding middle and upper Devonian rocks, and the base of the

Mississippian sequence of northern Alaska, are essentially quartzitic sand-

stone and slate, with some limestone beds. ‘These rocks are strikingly free

from igneous intrusives and extrusives but south of Brooks Range, and par-

ticularly in the Yukon-Tanana region, ancient basic lavas are interbedded

with middle Devonian limestones, and ultra-basic intrusives, believed to be

of upper Devonian age, are found. Similarly, in the Yukon basin, another

great series of basic lavas and intrusives, known as the Rampart group, are

found, which contain Mississippian fossils in their tuffaceous members.

The Carboniferous rocks of northern Alaska include the basal sandstones

and shales, known as the Noatak formation; an overlying formation of lime-

. stone and chert, known as the Lisburne formation; and possibly a still higher

chert formation, all three being of Mississippian age. The Lisburne forma-

tion, like the Silurian limestone, is a well defined horizon marker, extending

600 miles east-west across the Territory. The Pennsylvanian is represented

by the Sadlerochit sandstone, but in northern Alaska, Permian rocks have

FEB. 4, 1926 | SCIENTIFIC NOTES AND NEWS 79

not beenfound. Southward, in the Yukon basin, several formations of Car-

boniferous rocks are known. The Mississippian rocks include the Rampart

- voleanics, the Calico Bluff formation composed of thin-bedded shale and lime-

stone, the Livengood Chert formation, and a chert-argillite (?) group of rocks.

These formations occur at different localities, and the stratigraphic relations

between them are therefore obscure. The Pennsylvanian is believed to be

represented by the Nation River formation, which may be in part of non-

marine origin; and the Permian is represented by a marine highly fossiliferous

limestone.

A regional uplift of all of Alaska began in late Carboniferous time, culminat-

ing perhaps in the lower Triassic, with the resumption of marine sedimenta-

tion in the upper Triassic. This elevation was of the continental type and

was accompanied by a minimum of rock deformation and mountain building,

though it doubtless resulted in tilting and some folding of the rocks. In

Jurassic time, however, another great elevation of interior Alaska occurred,

accompanied by orogenic movements of the first magnitude, and the intru-

sion of great granitic batholiths. It was during this, and subsequent periods

of similar tangential thrusting from the south, in Cretaceous and Tertiary

time, that the late Paleozoic rocks of interior Alaska acquired their present

complex structure. (Author’s abstract.)

Grorce C. Martin: The Mesozoic rocks of Alaska.

Pai 8. Smita: Fields for future Alaskan studies. (Illustrated with

lantern slides.) The speaker exhibited a map of Alaska on which were dis-

tinguished the areas that have or have not been surveyed by the U. 8. Geologi-

cal Survey in the territory. He discussed the physical conditionof the various

unsurveyed tracts and the major geologic problems of each and pointed out

those areas which because of their promise of containing mineral deposits of

value were most worthy of early investigation. Large tracts of the lowlands

adjacent to the coast which because of their physical condition afford little

information to the geologist regarding the unusual resources and which

because of their swamps will be extremely expensive to map, will probably

not be surveyed until airplanes or some other effective means of transporta-

tion are available. (Author’s abstract.)

EpWARD Sampson, J. D. Sars, Secretaries.

SCIENTIFIC NOTES AND NEWS.

Dr. E. W. WASHBURN has been appointed Chief of the Chemistry Division,

Bureau of Standards to succeed Dr. W. F. HILLEBRAND, whose death occurred

about a year ago. Dr. WASHBURN is a graduate of the Massachusetts Insti-

tute of Technology with the degrees of B.S. and Ph.D. He was on the staff

of the University of Illinois from 1908 to 1922 as Professor of Physical Chemis-

try and as Head of the Department of Ceramic Engineering. For the past

three years he has served as Editor-in-Chief of the International Critical

Tables. His principal research work has been on the hydration of ions, theory

of eons, and the high temperature chemistry and physics of ceramic

materials.

Dr. SEwatt Wricut, formerly of the U. S. Department of Agriculture, has

been appointed associate professor of zoology at the University of Chicago.

80 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 16, NO. 3

The Ore Deposits Club met on Friday evening, January 22, at the Geo-

logical Survey. Messrs. Lockr and Kinessury discussed Mineralization

stoping.

A circular has been issued by Chairman Davip WHITE on behalf of the

Division of Geology and Geography of the National Research Council, in

cooperation with the Geological Society of America, outlining plans for the

Fourteenth Geologic Congress which will be held at Madrid, Spain, May 24

to 31, with excursions preceding and following these dates. A number of

Washington geologists are planning to attend the Congress.

@bituary

Dr. Witit1aAm EDWIN SAFFORD, a member of the AcapEmMy and a frequent

contributor to its Journal, died of pneumonia on January 10, in his 67th year.

After more than twenty years’ service in the United States Navy, during

which he acted for one year (1899-1900) as vice-governor of Guam. Dr.

SAFFORD entered the Department of Agriculture in 1902 and was at the time

of his death economic botanist of the Bureau of Plant Industry. Dr. Sar-

FORD was a man of unusually broad interests and pronounced linguistic and

literary ability, whose numerous publications on economic plants were

enriched by his knowledge of ethnology, art, and languages. During his

service in the Department of Agriculture he devoted himself particularly

to the study of the plants and plant products used by the American aborig-

ines, especially of the tropics, and of the early history of the cultivated plants

both of the Old and the New Worlds. At the time of his death he was

bringing to completion a work on the useful plants of Mexico. His principal

botanical publications include a flora of the island of Guam and revisionary

works dealing with the Annonaceae and the bullhorn acacias.

ANNOUNCEMENTS OF THE MEETINGS OF THE ACADEMY AND

AFFILIATED SOCIETIES*

Saturday, February 6. The Philosophical Society.

Wednesday, February 10. The Geological Society.

Thursday, February 11. The Chemical Society.

‘Saturday, February 13. The Biological Society.

Tuesday, February 16. The Anthropological Society.

Thursday, February 18. THE ACADEMY.

Program. Address of the retiring President, VERNON KELLOGG: Some

things science doesn’t know.

*The programs of the meetings of the affiliated societies will appear on this page if

sent to the editors by the thirteenth and the twenty-seventh day of each month.

aa Sobor race B. ye Bureau of § S

Recording Secretary: W. D. Lampert, Coast and Geodetic

‘Treasurer: R. L. Faris, Coast and Geodetic Survey.

‘\

Vol. 16 Fresruary 19, 1926 No. 4

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Vou. 16 Fesruary 19, 1926 No. 4

MATHEMATICS.—Transformations associated with the Lorentz group.

CHARLES Bararr, U.S. Patent Office. (Communicated by

L. H. ApaAms.)

Einstein’s special relativity theory transformation? is:

ti = Bp (x = vt) !

Pig

a= 2 |

fi = 8B (: sf =) (1)

where 8 = !

CG |

Another form of this transformation is:

—

% = x cos é-+ ict sin 6

Laat

t, = t cos 6 + — sin 6 |

Cc {

| J

unl constant velocity of light. Minkowski?

where 6 = tan = and c

calls this form the special Lorentz transformation group.

1 Received January 16, 1926.

2 HinsTEIn, A. Annalen d. Physik 17: 891. 1905.

§’ Minxowskl, H. Grundgleichungen fiir die elektro-magnetische Vorgdnge, p. 10.

82 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 16, No. 4

Still another equivalent form is:

we —- Ct? = 2 — CP

Ya 2G

21 = @

t— ch =e ** (& — ct)

where 6 = tan?

bake cos! 8B

The above equations represent the finite transformations of the special

relativity theory. They may be derived by integrating the differen-

tial equations

dx c di dy dz : |

ch, 4 0 0 ; ( )

the initial conditions being that when @ or v = 0 then

= x

21 = @

i ab

The most general function of the space time coérdinates that remains

invariant to the special relativity transformation is derived from the

integration of the partial differential equation:

the solution of which is

i (x? — ct, Y, 2)

Tf set equal to zero, to wit, f = 0 represents the most general space

time configuration that is unaffected or invariant to a special relativity

transformation. This is a three dimensional surface in a four dimen-

sional space time universe.

The physical interpretation of invariants in this paper is that they

are quantities or the relations of quantities which appear alike to a

stationary observer and to an observer moving uniformly relative to

the stationary observer. They are relations which have the same

form both in a stationary system and in a moving system.

FEB. 19, 1926 BARAFF: TRANSFORMATIONS 83

The special relativity transformations of velocities are:

, Uz — U , Uy !

u = —— CS SSS |

vu, vu, |

be, B(1— |

c Ge

C= “ |

VU,

nl =e) |

Their derivation follows easily from the Lorentz form, for differ-

entiating,

dz, = dz cos 6 + 1c dé sin 6

dy: = dy

dz; = 62

di, = dé cos @ + = sin 0

Dividing dz, by dé,

z ;

Serie ee oe

ee Fons 1 dx VU,

a sais i epee

1 4- — tan 6 di 2

Similarly:

CLL visio dele: Gianna Uy

dee ary VU,

cos @ (1 + tan 057) 8 ( — =

Jae ey U,

This is the same result as that obtained by Einstein‘ from the

consideration of the invariance of the Maxwell equations toward the

*HinstTeIn, A. Jahrbuch d. Radioaktivitét und Elektronik, 1907 p. 411.

84 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 16, No. 4

special relativity transformation. Here the components of velocity

were the Uz, Uy, Uz in the equations:

SEES GBS tl es

oy ee sal |

OL PON eel oY

ee tee ae K6)

a ee ee |

On, Vay cr eee a) |

By means of the special relativity transformation, this equation, which

is one of Maxwell’s four fundamental equations, passes over into the

equation

1 at 4. ox OM Ome '

(+ : a) Byes Mee |

1 a yee on | wove |

c (> oe as x) Wee NO meres we

Ligne ee |

C (+ ee “a Weel hoe ie

where wu, u, u, have the values in terms of u, u, u, given in

Equation (5).

It should be noted that the transformation equations for velocities

also form a group of one-parameter transformations. They may be

derived from the differential equations

by integration, with the initial conditions that when

Oey a

then Un = Up

u, =u

FEB. 19, 1926 BARAFF: TRANSFORMATIONS 85

The most general distribution of velocities that remain invariant to

the special relativity transformation are determined by the partial

differential equations:

of x Of Me OK ca

tag ee on

Onion 4a of

Se ce Ot me AC eR

OF. # afi. 1 of

Sas We i ae a

Ti:

ct — ‘i

epee il Cee Uan8)

This gives a velocity X-component for any assigned point of space,

and any instant. The substitution of u, in the second and third

equations and the integration thereof results in values for u, and u;

in terms of 2, y, 2, t.

III

Accelerations are transformed by the special theory of relativity as

follows:

dx, i" di

dy VU,

Catt lye di 1 C2 d2x

De meet A eee CaN ae Oe ee

dt, P (1 ie my @ (1 a = di

dz vu,

d22; di? G

wee

di? VU, \2 Vib, Vee

oe) ee)

86 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 16, No. 4

These relations may be easily derived thus:

0D i a

da? d dz, ce

— eee

du, d?z

dx, dt di?

Similarly:

age

Gil UU

deyi, adeday ( (: 2 y

Git >) den dies: dt;

dy ea

d’y; Ms di? i e Siar

dies) | VU, \2 VU, \3

ee oe) e (1 - se

22,

; ‘ d

Likewise for dea

These equations for the transformation of accelerations are con-

tained in the differential equations:

dw,’ dw,’ dw,

Tsim / / Grae

3 U, W; 2 U, Wy, + W, Uy -~2-Uu, w+ wae

from which they result by integration with the initial conditions

that when

6orv = 0,

then

We == 1B

Wy. = UW,

LD Ta

dx,

Here w,’ = —— ete

_ dt,

FEB. 19, 1926 DORSEY: A LIGHTNING STROKE 87

In a future paper, the writer hopes to develop the consequences of

- these abstract formulae to the concrete relations and phenomena

occurring in mechanics, astronomy, and electricity.

I beg to acknowledge the inspiration of my sister Ella in this work.

METEOROLOGY.—A lightning stroke. N. ERNEst Dorsery.

~ The detailed examination of a tree (height 47 feet, girth near ground

49 inches) which had recently been struck by lightning brought to light

a number of facts! which do not readily conform to the usual ideas

regarding the nature of a lightning stroke. Some of the more strik-

ing are these: (1) The tree was surrounded by the following objects,

each about half the height of the tree distant from it: To the north-

west was a tower which was 2 higher than the tree; a tree of essentially

its own height was to the southwest, another to the south and a third

to the southeast; a tree about half as high was to the west and another

to the north of east. Though surrounded in this manner, it was

struck at an altitude of less than $ its height. At about twice its

height distant, and on the other side of the building with the tower,

was a tree of the same kind, about 2 taller than the one which was

struck. This was in a far more exposed position, but it was not dam-

aged in the least. The building was not damaged, neither was another

tree of the same kind, of nearly the same height, and about twice its

height distant, although it was far more exposed than the one which

was struck. (2) Other than by mechanical tearing, the bark and sap-

wood suffered only minor and very local damage, although one side of

the tree was blown to pieces, and the unsplintered portion of the trunk

was split. (3) The splintering extended to only a little more than half

the height of the tree; the split reached the same height, but did not

extend to the ground. (4) Along the apex of the blaze, which was

about 4 inches from the bark and not at the center of the tree, there

was a column of fibers which were quite completely shredded. This

column extended from the roots to a point above the top of the split;

it closely followed the grain of the tree. At all places, except one, it

was separated from the bark by unshredded wood. ‘The one place

where it communicated with the bark was on the upper side of a minor

branch, 15 inches above the top of the split. There, very near the

trunk, was a small hole where the wood had been blown outwards and

1 For a detailed account of the observations, see Monthly Weather Review, Novem-

ber, 1925.

88 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 16, No. 4

the bark blown off. From this hole, a small tuft of shredded wood was

projecting; the hole had been blown so empty that, by means of a

No. 26 copper wire, it could be probed to a depth of 4 inches. (5)

Along one edge of the splintered section there were four small spots

where the bark had been charred. At three of them the bark had

been perforated. The wood, back of the highest and largest spot,

was so completely splintered that little could be learned regarding

the nature of the hole; it appeared to have been nearly horizontal.

A short distance beneath the bark there was a column of shredded

fibers, then a region of little or no shredding, and then the shredded

fibers at the apex of the blaze. The next hole, about a foot lower,

could be quite satisfactorily reconstructed from the material available.

Shortly after entering the trunk, it was scarcely larger in section than

the lead of an ordinary pencil. It extended 2 inches beyond the bark,

was inclined to the vertical by about 50°, and lay very nearly in the

plane bounding that side of the splintered section. The third hole,

which was about a foot lower than the second, merely penetrated the

bark; it seemed to be inclined to the vertical by about 28°, but, on

account of its short length, it was not possible to determine the angle

with certainty. (6) Only one large section was torn from the tree.

This section bore several branches; not far from its center, it was

broken and bent, and the fibers were crumpled and crushed in such a

way as to show that the lower portion had been forced violently into

the upper. This occurred before the section left the tree. Attached

to the lower portion, was a branch which, within the trunk, had been

broken squarely across the grain, and pulled from the trunk as a

tendon might be pulled from a mortise. And this was done so nearly

that the fibers were not bent and that a sliver (one inch wide, 4 inch

thick, and 4 inches long, which was split from the branch) was left

attached to the trunk and undamaged. Two inches of this sliver

projected free from the undamaged portion of the trunk and had

been pulled out of the section bearing the limb. Such a break could

have been produced only by a longitudinal tension which was quite

closely parallel to the fibers in the plane of cleavage between the sliver

and the branch. In passing up and around the branch, the fibers of

the trunk bend outward at the sides of the branch and then inward to

the point where they meet above the branch. ‘Thus, above the branch

and at a certain depth within the trunk, the fibers are almost perpen-

dicular to the plane of cleavage between the sliver and the branch;

and a little nearer to the surface the overhang is still greater, so that

FEB. 19, 1926 DORSEY: A LIGHTNING STROKE 89

they form almost an inverted cup. This branch lay just within the

western boundary of the column of shredded fibers. A small part of

the column passed to the west and the remainder to the east of the

branch; the two portions reunited above the branch, where the fibers

are inclined and cupped, as just described. ‘The shredded fibers lay

in the boundary between the torn out section and the standing trunk.

Even a casual observer would have noticed that the center of vio-

lence was not over 10 feet from the ground, and there seems no room

for doubt that the main discharge which caused the damage passed

through the charred spots, of which the largest and highest was only

8 ft. 3in. from the ground. Situated as the tree was, it seems certain

that, prior to the advent of the stroke, the local field at these points

could not have been essentially greater than that at many neighbor-

ing points; and must have been far less than that at the top of the

tree, and still less than that at the top of the tower, or at the top of the

exposed trees mentioned.

Also, it is difficult to believe that the electrical senipih of the air

along the narrow paths leading to the holes differed from that else-

where sufficiently to more than offset the reduced field at these lower

levels. And surely the conductivity of the fibers which were shredded

was not significantly greater than that of those surrounding them,

and must have been appreciably less than that of the sap-wood, which

was undamaged.

The widely accepted belief that the path of the flash deinindds at

each point either with the direction of the antecedent local field,

or with the antecedent line of minimum electrical strength, or with a

compromise between these two, appears to be entirely incompatible

with these observations. In many ways, the observations suggest

_ that we are here concerned, not with ordinary conduction, in which the

carriers of the electricity drift slowly and follow the direction of the

local field, but rather with a mighty rush of carriers—with something

analogous to the well-known cathode stream.

And this is fully in accord with the observation made by Sir J. J.

Thomson at the beginning of this century, that a spark does not occur

until, at some point, the field is sufficiently intense to confer upon an

electron, in the interval between its encounters with the molecules, a

velocity sufficient to enable it to dislodge an electron from the mole-

cule with which it collides. Then, if there were no mutual repulsion

between the several free electrons, and if the positive residues were

removed so rapidly as to keep the field constant, a swarm of electrons

90 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 16, No. 4

would result. The swarm would be elongated in the direction of the

field, and the number of electrons in the swarm would increase expo-

nentially with the length of the path. After the first encounter there

would be two electrons, after the tenth there would be over a thou-

sand, after the 60th there would be over 1018 electrons; which represents

a gross charge of over 1/8 coulomb. For electrons moving with only

a moderate velocity, 60 encounters will occur in a distance of about

40 microns. Owing to the mutual repulsion of the electrons, the

swarm will tend to spread in all directions, but more especially in the

direction of its motion; it will draw out into a dart. The leading elec-

trons will be subjected to the repulsion of the trailing ones, as well as

to the field arising from other causes, and hence their acceleration will

be augmented. ‘They will gain energy at the expense of the trailing

electrons. Instead of a very great number of electrons moving at a

moderate velocity, there will be a much smaller number moving with

a correspondingly greater velocity. At velocities exceeding a certain

value, the amount of energy an electron expends per unit length of

path decreases as the velocity increases; consequently, at these veloci-

ties a weaker field will suffice to maintain the velocity. Once started

with sufficient velocity, such a dart can continue to travel with

unabated energy although the field is weak and, with a progressive

reduction in energy, it can travel even in an opposing field. At high

velocities, approaching that of light, the mutual fore-and-aft repulsion

of the electrons is greatly reduced, and the effect of the attendant mag-

netic field (attraction of parallel currents) in great measure compen-

sates the lateral repulsion. At these velocities the dart may be

relatively compact. A high speed dart possesses a very considerable

amount of momentum, and can strike a correspondingly powerful

blow.

At low velocities, the path of a dart will coincide at each point quite

closely with the direction of the local field existing antecedently to

its arrival; as the velocity is increased, it will travel more and more

under its own momentum, ignoring the local field. A high speed

dart does not seek out a tree to strike, but merely collides with it. It

makes no difference whether the tree is exposed or not; whether it is

struck at the top or at the roots is merely a question of how it happens

to be situated with reference to the path of the dart. ‘True, the direc-

tion of the path just before collision will undoubtedly be modified by

the presence of the tree, but the extent of the modification will be

slight if the velocity of the dart is great. Where it collides, small

FEB. 19, 1926 DORSEY: A LIGHTNING STROKE 91

holes will be burned. Without other damage, the electrons will

_ penetrate the trunk until their velocity is so reduced that they can

become attached to the molecules composing the contents and walls

of the cells; then their velocity abruptly decreases, and their progress

becomes much more difficult. As their velocity is reduced, so is the

magnetic field produced by their motion, and they are left more

and more completely subjected to the full force of their mutual elec-

trostatic repulsion, which urges them in all directions. In the partic-

ular tree studied, it appeared that the molecules were so crowded

that they could not pass transversely to the grain without actually

punching out the fibers ahead of them (as at the hole in the

branch 15 inches above the split), but along the grain in the direc-

tion of the flow of the sap they could pass with a certain amount of

freedom and in so passing the fibers were shredded. ‘The longer the

column over which the charged molecules are spread, the more pro-

nouncedly longitudinal will be the resultant stress. If they can not

pass across the grain, the tree will be splintered. The center of vio-

lence will be at the level of the entrance of the charge, and from this

level the extent of the damage will decrease in both directions. In

their passage up the fibers, in the case here considered, they encoun-

tered the overhanging fibers above the branch which was broken

squarely across the grain, and which subjected them to a stress nor-

mal to their direction; this tore out the branch and drove upward the

section of trunk containing it. Or, if it is preferred, we may say that

a charge accumulated on these fibers, and was subjected to the repul-

sion of the charges which lay below them. Only a relatively small

charge is needed to account for this damage. If there were only 1/600

coulomb on these fibers, and only twice as much at a point 30 cm.

below it, the mutual repulsion would amount to more than the weight

of 50 tons. ‘This is more than ten times the longitudinal force required

to tear apart a seasoned white oak rod having the same sectional area

as the square break. Estimates of the amount of charge which could

be involved in a lightning stroke run as high as tens and hundreds of

coulombs, but what proportion of this is carried by the dart itself is

not known.

If, while driving along the grain, the loaded electrons come suff-

ciently near the surface, the strength of the wood will be insufficient

to stand the strain and the wood will be blown out and, through the

opening so made, some of the shredded fibers will be ejected. Such

was the case at the blow-out mentioned and also in the roots. Only

92 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 16, No. 4

two of the latter showed damage, and in each case the center of dam-

age was a single slender column of fibers. Where this came too near

the surface a split occurred and the borders of the split were more or

less shredded.

It seems that the observations which we have been considering can,

on the basis of the present electron theory, be logically correlated with

one another and with other well known facts by assuming that the

stroke is initiated by a high speed dart of electrons. This delivers

its entire charge practically at once, and is followed, along the ionized

trail left by the dart, by a current of the usual type. This current will

continue until there is such an equalization of potential that no more

can flow, or until the negative carriers have become exhausted. If the

conditions are such that at any point of the path, especially near the

cloud, the field is sufficient to impart to the positive residues a veloc-

ity which enables them to dislodge electrons by collision, there will be

a continuing supply of electrons until that condition ceases to exist.

Scattered throughout the atmosphere, below the cloud as well as

in and above it, are regions in which the atmosphere is electrically

charged; some are charged positively, others negatively. All are

drifting under the action of the electric field, and are being carried

hither and thither by the wind. Between two such regions, oppositely

charged and suitably placed, the electrical field will be much greater

than if these regions were uncharged. In such a place the dart may

originate and acquire the velocity requisite for its continuance in the

weaker, undisturbed field. The intensity of the field required to pro-

duce a dart depends in some measure upon the velocity with which

the electron enters the field.

The dart which we have been considering traveled towards the

ground. Obviously, under other conditions, a dart might originate

at the ground and travel in the reverse direction. It would originate

where the field is intense, as at the top of an elevated object. The

dart itself would do no damage; the damage, if any, would arise from

the current of positive residues. Like other charged gas molecules,

these move relatively slowly and possess but little momentum, but on

account of their great number they may convey a great current.

They will not penetrate deeply into the trunk of a tree, but will pass

mainly along the well conducting sap-wood, that will bear the brunt of

the damage. Lightning strokes possessing these characteristics are

well known.

In neither case is the stroke the result of the cloud discharging to

earth, though the cloud does become discharged as a result of the

FEB. 19, 1926 BLACKWELDER: PHOTOGRAPHY 93

stroke. That, however, is purely an incidental and a subsequent

effect. The negative charge of the dart is assembled along the path;

the remainder of the charge involved in the stroke comes from the

- ionization produced by the dart. The charges in the cloud are, prob-

ably in large part, neutralized in situ, either by the spreading of the

delivered charge by its own mutual repulsion, or by the dissemination

of the ions by the wind. It is distinctly an after effect of the spark.

Such seems to be the essential nature of a lightning stroke. There is

first a rush of electrons, which blazes the path, then, along this con-

ducting path, flows a more leisurely conduction current of the usual

type. Under certain conditions, perhaps usually, this conduction

current will convey a far larger quantity of electricity than is carried

by the dart of electrons. The direction in which the dart flies is in a

very real sense the direction of the stroke—the direction in which it

is delivered. ‘The effects produced where the stroke starts differ quite

characteristically from those produced where it ends.

PHOTOGRAPHY.—Photography for the field geologist. Eiot BLAcK- |

WELDER. Stanford University.

GENERAL

Nearly every field geologist carries a camera; but it is a common

experience at the end of the season to find that pictures taken of some

of the most important subjects were failures and that a much larger

number were neither as distinct nor as bright as they should have

been. ‘This is due to the fact that the taking of good photographs

under all sorts of conditions is an art understood by but few users of

the camera. Success in it requires a comprehension of certain facts

and principles and close attention to the necessary details. The

accuracy of photographs as records of field conditions makes them a

valuable supplement to the usual notes, maps and sketches; and there-

fore it is advisable for every geologist to inform himself to such an

extent that he may be able to take good photographs under nearly

all possible conditions. As a result of some twenty-five years of more

or less painful efforts to reach such proficiency, the writer ventures to

offer the younger geologist a few suggestions that may improve his

results. In general the difficulties are not the same as those which

confront the professional studio photographer, and so these remarks

_ apply more particularly to field work.!

1A paper of interest in this connection is Stereoscopic Photography in Geological

Field Work, by F. E. Wright. This Journat 14: 63-72. 1924.

94 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 16, NO. 4

EQUIPMENT

Good results should not be expected without good equipment.

The small pocket camera is not capable of giving photographs of much

use to the geologist, except for nearby objects under favorable light

conditions. Therefore he will do well to provide himself with a more

elaborate camera, equipped with a ground glass for focussing, and as

large as he can reasonably carry. The 5 xX 7 inch size is one of the

most satisfactory, but in some kinds of work a smaller camera may be

all that circumstances permit.

One of the most important things is to get the best convertible lens

and shutter that can be obtained. After trying various lenses, the

writer finds that the Goertz Dagor type gives the sharpest detail;

but some prefer other convertible lenses, such as the Zeiss Protar or

Tessar, the Bausch and Lomb, or the Cooke lenses. One of the best

shutters is the Compound; but there are others in the same class. It

is advisable to have a lens consisting of two elements, one of which

‘can be removed to permit using a long focus for telephoto views.

For this purpose it is necessary that the camera have a rather long

bellows.

To record the picture one now has considerable range of choice.

Glass plates are perhaps the best means, but their fragility and weight

are serious disadvantages in the field. Fortunately, cut films, which

are free from such defects, give almost equally good results. Roll-

films and film-packs are distinctly inferior on account of their slight

tendency to curvature, so that they seldom give as sharp images as

plates. Nevertheless, they are tempting because of their greater

convenience, and they may well be used for photographs of minor

import or those in which minute detail is not required.

Various kinds of cut films may now be obtained for different purposes.

For moving objects, or for taking views from trains or from windy

stations, rapid films, such as Eastman ‘‘Portrait Super-Speed”’ film,

may be required; but the results are usually not as good as those

obtained with slower films. For general work within one or two

miles of the camera, and where it is not important to bring out the

more unusual colors, Eastman ‘‘Commercial Ortho” and other equiva-

lent films are satisfactory. For distant mountain pictures with more

or less blue haze, or for any pictures in which colors need to be especi-

ally differentiated, the writer finds nothing equal to ‘‘Panchromatic”’

films. In fact, he has found nothing else that will give even tolera-

bly satisfactory results in photographing desert mountain scenery,

FEB. 19, 1926 BLACKWELDER: PHOTOGRAPHY 95

where the blue haze is nearly always in evidence. The only disad-

- vantages to using Panchromatic films are their slightly greater cost,

and the fact that they must be loaded and developed in darkness.

Ray-filters, or color screens, are indispensable for many geologic

photographs. It is best to carry several kinds for different purposes.

The function of the ray-filter is to equalize the rays of various photic

intensities and thus to give truer color-values. A suitable filter is

particularly important for the purpose of counteracting the effects of

the blue and violet rays which predominate in the light coming from

distant mountains. In photographing ordinary landscapes with Com-

mercial Ortho films, the author has found the Wratten K-1 filter (made

by the Eastman Kodak Company) satisfactory. When using Pan-

chromatic films on distant mountains or desert. scenes, best results

have been obtained with the G filter of the same series,—a rather deep

orange-colored glass. Even better results are given by using a red

filter, but this requires about five times as much exposure, and that is a

serious disadvantage when the wind is blowing. Various smaller

ray-filters for pocket cameras are on the market.

Sharp definition of the details in a photograph depends partly upon

accurate focussing of the lens and partly upon the stability of the

camera. If ascaleis used for focussing, it is advisable to test the scale

carefully before going into the field, and it is also necessary for the

operator to be sure of the distance to be covered in each photograph.

In general, it is probably best to focus on the ground glass every time,

and for this purpose it is desirable to carry a black cloth to shut out the

light.

Beginners seldom realize the importance of stability of the camera.

It is true that very rapid exposures, such as zy of a second, may be

taken from a moving train or when a violent wind is blowing; but ordi-

nary snapshots, even with an exposure of sr of a second, generally

show the effects of slight movement. With the slower.films and ray-

filters, it is necessary to use a solid support, such as a tripod. While

the ordinary tubular metal tripod is better than none, and may be

satisfactory in calm weather, it is not stable enough for ordinary con-

ditions. It is much better to use a fairly heavy wooden tripod of the

type that can be folded into a small space.

It is now possible to obtain for the tripod head a ball-and-socket

joint attachment that facilitates the photographing of objects on the

ground or in other awkward positions. However, for a heavy camera

it may be necessary to have such an attachment specially reinforced

96 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 16, No. 4

to overcome vibration. Still better, one can use the tilting tops that

are now obtainable; they are screwed on the top of the usual tripod.

One of the most important problems confronting the photographer

is that of the length of exposure to be given when taking the picture.

Since this varies with the latitude, altitude, sky conditions, climate,

nature of subject, time of year, hour of day, distance from subject,

shadows, etc., it is really a very complex problem. To facilitate the

necessary calculations, it is almost essential to use some kind of expo-

sure meter. Of these there are now many types on the market. The

writer has obtained best results with the Harrold exposure meter, and

finds it compact, durable, and easy to operate. Only the most experi-

enced photographer can afford to depend upon judgment or memory,

when it comes to estimating the length of exposure required in a given

case, except where all of the various conditions are what may be called

normal.

TAKING THE PICTURE

It is well to remember that the camera is not capable of giving every-

thing that the human eye can see. In order to show topographic

details, the light must be favorable. Since it is the small shadows that

bring these details into prominence, it is best to take the picture from

such a position that the sun’s rays are nearly at right angles to the line

of sight. For the same reason, photographs taken within two hours

of sunrise or sunset show the greatest detail in mountain slopes,

because the shadows are longer then than at noon.

Timing the exposure is perhaps the most acute problem at the mo-

ment of taking the picture. Exposure meters are usually devised for

the conditions which prevail in the populous part of the eastern

United States. For other regions certain allowances must be made.

For example, in the western plateaus and mountains, at elevations of

about 5000 feet, it is found necessary to reduce the time to one-half

that which is indicated by the exposure meter. Above 10,000 feet,

it should be reduced to one-third. On the deserts of the southwestern

states, similar reductions should be made at much lower altitudes,—

2000 and 6000 feet respectively. Few people realize how important

the factor of distance is, in this respect. Ata distance of 2 to 3 miles,

the time should be further reduced about 10 per cent; and for 25 or

more miles, about 50 per cent, as compared with nearby objects. Itis

often impracticable to obtain a good image of both the near and the

distant objects; but suitable films and ray-filters, with carefully calcu-

FEB. 19, 1926 - BLACKWELDER: PHOTOGRAPHY 97

lated exposures, will give fair results that are impossible without

- them.

In order to photograph very light-colored objects, such as desert

plains, quartzite outcrops, sand dunes, snowy peaks, and lakes, it is

necessary further to reduce the time of exposure by 25 per cent to 75

per cent, according to the degree of reflection of light from the surface

In question. One must acquire by experience an intuitive perception

of the light-reflecting properties of the various subjects to be photo-

graphed.

There is another correction which is nearly always overlooked, but

which is rather important when taking photographs at early or late

hours in certain parts of the country. It should be remembered that

the exposure-meter has been designed for correct time, i.e., solar time,

but that our watches generally give ‘‘standard time.” It therefore

happens that if one is situated near the boundary between two stand-

ard time zones, his watch is in error as much as half an hour with refer-

ence to solar time.

In order to obtain contrast in the larger outlines of the picture, it

is better to under-expose the film a little. On the other hand, to obtain

detail in smaller objects, especially within a few feet of the camera, it

is better to over-expose somewhat. For example, a dissected moun-

tain slope some miles away would show best in the former case, and a

rock specimen photographed in the laboratory would need the latter.

FINISHING THE FILMS

Developing and printing are important operations. They should

be performed only by experts who are instructed in advance regarding

the general nature of the photographs that have been taken and the

kind of negatives especially desired. It is unwise to entrust such

matters to the ordinary drug-store agency, or even to the average town

photographer. It is best to seek out a qualified, experienced photog-

rapher, explain one’s problem to him, and then send him all the films,

even though it sometimes involves more or less delay. It is especially

important never to let a careless or inexperienced person either load or

develop the highly sensitive Panchromatic films. ©

aes

98 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 16, No. 4

PROCEEDINGS OF THE ACADEMY AND AFFILIATED

SOCIETIES

THE PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY

927TH MEETING

The 927th meeting was held in the auditorium of the Cosmos Club on

Saturday evening, November 28, 1925. The meeting was called to order by

President FLEMING at 8:15 with 46 persons in attendance.

Program: G. Breit and M. A. Tuve. Radio evidence of the existence of the

Kennelly-Heaviside Layer. (Presented by Mr. Breit and illustrated with

lantern slides.) A method of testing for the existence of the Kennelly-

Heaviside Layer has been described by the authors (see Journal Terrestrial

Magnetism and Atmospheric Electricity, March, 1925). This method has

given a definite indication of the existence of the layer. The transmission

took place from Bellevue, Anacostia, as well as other stations. The layer is

found to have different reflecting powers for different wave-lengths. Its

properties change rapidly with time. Frequently it is capable of sending down

more than one wave. This appears to be especially true in the afternoon and

at night. The effective height of the layer is not quite constant but varies.

It is generally in the neighborhood of 100 miles. The wave returned from the

layer is differently polarized from the wave traveling along the ground.

Discussion. 'The paper was discussed by Messrs. WHITE, HUND, LAPORTE,

Bauer, GisH, Curtis, MoHLER and WENNER.

V. E. Wuitman. Studies in the electrification of dust clouds. (Illustrated

with lantern slides.) Dust clouds were formed by blowing various pure

chemical substances through tubes and the net electric charge imparted de-

termined as a function of the composition of the dust, tube material, area of

contact between the dust and the tube in being blown out of the tube, velocity

with which the dust moves through the tube, and the length of the path of the

dust through the tube. An apparatus was described with which photographic

records of the paths of particles are obtained. Such photographs show the

presence of positive, negative, and neutral particles in all dust clouds, even

of very pure substances. The ratio of positive to negative electrification in a

cloud is found to change as the larger particles in the cloud settle out, but

evidence is obtained which contradicts the hypothesis that the large par-

ticles carry an opposite charge from the small particles in a given cloud. The

paper closed with a few remarks bearing on the relation of the present ex-

perimental data to the concept of a tribo-electric series. (Author’s abstract.)

Discussion. The paper was discussed by Messrs. DrypEN, TUCKERMAN

and SILSBEE.

928TH MEETING

The 928th meeting, constituting the 55th annual meeting, was heid in the

Cosmos Club auditorium Saturday, December 12, 1925. It was called to

order by Vice-President. AwLT at 8:16, with 37 persons present.

The report of the Treasurer showed total receipts, $3828.44; disburse-

ments, $2974.70, leaving a balance of $353.74. The report of the secretaries

showed that 18 meetings were held during the year, several in conjunction

with other societies.

The following officers were elected for the ensuing year: President, W1LLIAM

FEB. 19, 1926 PROCEEDINGS: BIOLOGICAL SOCIETY 99

Bowtg; Vice-Presidenis, J. P. AvutT and Paut R. Hey; Treasurer, W. D.

LAMBERT; Corresponding Secretary, H. L. DryDEN; Members-at-Large, General

~ Committee, G. Breit and EK. W. Woouarp.

At the conclusion of the business meeting Dr. Witiram H. Datu addressed

the Society on Some recollections of the founding of the Philosophical Society.

The address was highly appreciated, the presiding officer voiced the senti-

ments of al! present in thanking Dr. Datu for his address. Following Dr.

Datw’s address Prof. James H. Gore and Dr. Witi1am H. Hoimess also

spoke on the early days of the Philosophical Society.

H. A. Marner, Recording Secretary.

THE BIOLOGICAL SOCIETY

681ST MEETING

The 68lst meeting of the Biological Society was held in the assembly

hall of the Cosmos Club, October 24, 1925, at 8 p.m., with President RoHwER

in the chair and 51 persons present. W. F. Rusery, Geological Survey, was

elected to membership.

VERNON Batury described the effects of fire in a ee muskrats in

marshes in J.ouisiana. Many muskrat houses are burned and dozens of the

animals are sometimes found dead. In places where extensive fires occur, it

is estimated that thousands of muskrats may be killed.

J. N. Ross reported that plans are being made for a 5,000 acre arboretum

with a prospective endowment of $20,000,000 near Los Angeles, California.

A. A. DoouiTTLe described examining a cat found in poor condition. It

proved to be heavily infested with tape worms of a species usually met with

in man.

S. A. RoHwrrR announced the recent death of a member, Dr. W. D.

Hunter of the Bureau of Entomology, in El Paso, Texas. Dr. HunrTEr,

who had been in charge of important work in Texas for some years, was for-

merly active in entomological and other biological work in Washington.

P. B. JoHNSON referred to observations on viscachas recently living in the

National Zoological Park. After a heavy rain a young one of a more bluish

color than older animals was seen nestling close against the body of an adult

male, presumably for warmth.

VERNON Barry, Biological Survey: T’wo years’ progress in beaver farming.

—Two beaver colonies established in 1923 in northern Michigan, where the

animals are thriving and increasing in a satisfactory manner, were described.

From one fully enclosed area one of the beavers escaped by digging under the

fence when their dam raised the water above the bottom wires, but in a short

time returned and was admitted to the inclosure with its companions. In

the other colony, where only a drift fence had been built across the creek

below them, a few of the beavers had crossed to the head of a neighboring

creek and a second colony was established. This can be controlied by another

short section of fence across the creek and meadow below. Both colonies are

in excellent location for beaver farms.

The importance of feeding beaver when the food supply near the shores

is exhausted was emphasized and lantern slides of some of those caught in

Mr. Bailey’s improved beaver trap were shown. (Author’s abstract.)

AcGnes Cuass, Bureau of Plant Industry: Hunting grasses in Brazil—

The speaker spent 7 months in Brazil, visiting the states of Pernambuco,

Alagoas, Bahia, Rio de Janeiro, Minas Geraes, and Sao Paulo. The sertdo

100 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 16, No. 4

of both Pernambuco and Bahia was badly overgrazed. A trip was made to

Paulo Alfonso Falls in Rio Sao Francisco. The falls, which are 81 meters

high in all, form a stupendous cascade, not a straight fall. The region is a

rocky desert with very little vegetation. In January Mrs. Chase botanized

in the region about Rio de Janeiro and with a party from the Jardim Botanico

visited Itatiaia, the peak of which, Agulhas Negras, was until recently

believed to be the highest point in Brazil. Its altitude is now in dispute.

On the ascent through tropical jungie a group of monkeys was seen. Above

timber line grasses were abundant. About three months were spent in Minas

Geraes, the highland campos of this state being especially rich in grasses.

Serra de Cipd, 150 kilometers northwest of Bello Horizonte, yielded the best

results of the entire trip. Three weeks were spent in the vicinity of Vicosa

in the eastern part of Minas Geraes, where Dr. P. H. Rolfs is building up a

school of agriculture for the state. With Dr. Rolfs and his daughter a trip

was made to Serra da Gramma, and later with Miss Rolfs to Serra de Caparaé.

The highest peak of this range, Pico de Bandeira, 2884 meters, disputes with

Agulhas Negras the place for highest point in Brazil. The party ascended

Pontéo Crystal, 2798 meters, instead of Pico de Bandeira, 2884 meters in

altitude, but the botanical results were probably as good as if the higher

peak had been attained. A last trip into highland campos was made to

Campos de Jordao, Sao Paulo. (Author’s abstract.)

682D MEETING

The 682d meeting was held in the assembly hall of the Cosmos Club,

November 7, 1925, at 8:05 p.m., with President RoHwer in the chair and 59

persons present. FRANK THONE, Science Service, Washington, D. C., J. K.

STRECKER, Baylor University, Waco, Tex., and Grorez M. Linp, Fort

Collins, Colo., were elected to membership. oie

H. C. OBERHOLSER referred to the establishment of the Upper Mississippi

River Wild Life and Fish Refuge by Act of Congress providing for the pur-

chase of over 300,000 acres of overflowed lands along the Mississippi River

from Rock Island, Il., to Wabasha, Minn. A sum of $1,500,000 has been set

aside, a part of which is now available for the acquisition of lands by the U.S.

Department of Agriculture through the Biological Survey, which in cooperation

with the Bureau of Fisheries will administer the area. Attention was directed

to the high value of this great refuge, the object of which is to conserve recrea-

tional and economic'resources in the interest of all the people.

VERNON BaILEY mentioned seeing a woodchuck near Washington and

requested that members report any similar observations, with dates, with a

view to securing more definite information relative to the length of the hiber-

nation period of this animal in the District of Columbia.

F. C. LIncoLn reported seeing a woodchuck about a month ago near White’s

Ferry, Va. Its actions were unusual as it came running down the road and

passed close between him and a companion before finally turning off into the

brush.

L. O. Howarp, Bureau of Entomology: Something about the salt marsh

mosquito problem.—The speaker described the biology of the most prominent

salt-water mosquitoes, namely Culex sollicitans and Culex taeniorhynchus,

showing that in spite of his own efforts to learn the life histories of these

species, they were not understood until a very thorough investigation had been

made by the late Dr. John B. Smith, State Entomologist of New Jersey

(and former Secretary of the Biological Society of Washington), and his

FEB. 19, 1926 PROCEEDINGS: BIOLOGICAL SOCIETY 101

associates in 1902. He then spoke of the extraordinary work that has been

done by the State of New Jersey along its whole ocean front in draining and

diking the marshes so as to prevent the breeding of these mosquitves which

were for years the dominant mosquitoes of New Jersey and which had given

that State its mosquito reputation. Both forms fly for great distances, and

in the summer may be found 40 miles from the coast.

The speaker mentioned other salt-marsh work which had been done on

Staten Island, in Connecticut and, to a slight extent, in Florida; and then

proceeded to tell about the great scourge of mosquitoes along the Gulf coast

of Louisiana, Mississippi, and Alabama during the past season, which had

aroused sreat excitement among the owners of 7 property in these regions and

had caused them to organize a survey of mosquito conditions which eventually

may bring about a large-scale effort to drain the marsh breeding places. The

speaker pointed out that this would be an enormous undertaking. He showed

that, of the approximately 12,000 square miles of salt marsh on the

whole of the Atlantic, Gulf and Pacific coasts of the United States, more than _

6,000 square miles are included in the State of Louisiana. Complete

and successful work will probably cost an enormous sum of money, but the

value of the reclaimed land, to say nothing of the abatement of the mosquito

scourge, will undoubtedly make such work well worth while. (Author’s

abstract. ')

E. A. GotpMAN, Biological Survey: Over-browsing by Kaibab deer.—

The deer inhabit the Kaibab Plateau on the north side of the Grand Canyon

of the Colorado River, embracing an area set aside as the Grand Canyon

National Game Preserve in 1906, and a part of the territory now included in

Grand Canyon National Park. There is little migration from the area and,

under protection from hunters and partial protection from predatory animals,

the deer have increased to numbers estimated by some at more than 30,000.

The forage producing capacity of the area is being progressively reduced by

over-browsing until it has reached a point where many deer are threatened

with starvation.

In addition to the wide-spread destruction of shrubs favored by deer,

forest trees, especially reproduction of aspen, yellow pine, pinyon, white fir,

spruce and juniper are being seriously injured or killed. The critical situa-

tion that has arisen emphasizes the importance of regulating the numbers of

game on limited areas in accordance with the forage supply, as a general

conservation measure. The Grand Canyon National Game Preserve, with

boundaries nearly identical with those of the Kaibab National Forest is

under the administrative control of the Forest Service which is seeking a

solution of the many-sided problem. (Author’s abstract.)

683D MEETING

The 683d meeting of the Society was held in the assembly hall of the Cos-

mos Club November 21, 1925 at 8:05 p.m., with President RoHWER in

the chair and 120 persons present. Dr. F. H. CoirrTENDEN and Miss MaBeu

CoxLcorpD were elected to membership.

T.S. Patmer, Biological Survey: Report on the recent meeting of the Ameri-

can Ornithologists’ Union, New York.—The speaker gave an account of the

annual meeting of the American Ornithologists’ Union heid in New York

City in November, referring especially to the exhibition of the bird paintings

and to the widespread membership of the Union. Mention was made of

the next meeting of the Union, to be held in Ottawa, which will be the first

meeting held outside the United States.

102 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 16, No. 4

W. C. Henpverson, Biological Survey: When the elk come down.—Of the

two large herds of elk now in existence in the United States, the principal

herd is that i in the Jackson Hole region in Wyoming. Under the protection

afforded it, the herd is increasing rapidly i in numbers and to such an extent that

the greatest problem connected with its preservation is that of providing

sufficient food in winter. The only solution that seems practicable is that

of keeping down the numbers by more extensive hunting in the open season.

The speaker showed slides illustrating the herd and in conclusion gave a mov-

ing picture film, prepared by the Biological Survey, showing the way in which

elk are killed by poachers for the sake of the teeth.

H. C. OBERHOoLsER, Biological Survey: Birds on the Farallon Islands,

California.—The speaker described the Islands and showed moving pictures

illustrating the murres, guillemots, cormorants, gulls, and petrels, which make

up the bird life. The most abundant birds are the murres, whose numbers

are estimated at about 20,000.

H. C. Ospernouser: The bird reservations of Louisiana.—The speaker

showed films illustrating the bird refuges on small sandy islands off the coast

of Louisiana, which are populated principally by laughing gulls and royal

terns, together with a much smaller number of shore birds, such as willets.

684TH MEETING

The 684th regular meeting of the Biological Society was held in the

assembly hall of the Cosmos Club December 5, 1925, at 8:05 p.m., with

President RoHweEr in the chair and 48 persons present. Dr. D. N. SHon-

MAKER was elected to membership.

L. D. Miner reported the observation of a black-billed cuckoo feeding on

caterpillars along the canal in the vicinity of Washington on 28 October.

A. 8. Hircucock spoke of the close relationship between the floras of the

northeastern United States and northeastern Asia and added another to the

already long list of identities in the two floras, Brachyelytrum erectum. ‘This

is a common grass in the northeastern United States, and was recently found

by him in a collection sent from China.

W. B. Greevey, Forest Service: The proposed changes in the boundaries

of Yellowstone National Park in relation to wild life (llustrated).—The speaker

discussed the existent National Forests and National Parks with special refer-

ence to the proposed enlargement of the boundaries of Yellowstone National

Park to include the rest of the Yellowstone River basin, most of the Grand

Tetons, and the winter range of the Jackson Hole elk herd. With the other

members of the coordinating committee appointed at the recent Conference

on Outdoor Recreation called by President Coolidge, he made a trip through

the area during the past summer. The paradise of wild life found in the

vicinity of Bridger Lake was described, with illustrations of the scenery and of

the bear, elk, moose, mule deer, bighorn, and other large mammals. The

problem of providing winter food for the Jackson Hole elk herd still awaits

solution. The speaker proposed the restriction of the herd by hunting to

about 15,000 as the only way to prevent the starvation of large numbers of

elk in bad winters. The additions proposed to Yellowstone Park follow ~

natural drainage lines instead of the present artificial boundaries, and small

additions on the northwest and northeast sides and a larger one on the south-

east, with some restriction of boundary on other sides. The coordinating

committee has recommended that the Grand Tetons area be preserved in a

completely wild state as a National Park.

FEB. 19, 1926 PROCEEDINGS: ENTOMOLOGICAL SOCIETY 103

The paper was discussed by 8. T. Matusr, who accompanied Col. GREELEY

as a member of the coordinating committee. He reported that the Hopi

Ranch north of the Yellowstone had recently been purchased from a privately

raised fund and will be used as a shelter for antelope in winter.

T. H. Kearney, Bureau of Plant Industry: Pollination in cotton (llus-

trated).—Cotton plants are adapted for both close and cross-fertilization.

Close fertilization is desired by plant breeders to preserve the purity of selected

‘strains, and insect pollination must be prevented. Experiments show that

insect pollination is much more effective at Sacaton than near Phoenix,

Arizona, owing to the greater comparative abundance of insects, especially

honey bees. Few natural hybrids occur, even if both Egyptian and upland

cotton are grown close together, owing to the fact that the bulk of the pollen

grains on the stigmas are found to be self pollen. Selective fertilization—the

greater effectiveness of like pollen than of an equal amount of unlike—also

tends to prevent the formation of hybrids. Hybrids in the F, generation are

uniform and intermediate in most characters, but in F, the characters break

up badly. Strict inbreeding for seven generations has produced no bad

effect.

685TH MEETING

The 685th regular and 46th annual meeting was held in the lecture hall

of the Cosmos Club December 19, 1925, at 8 p.m., with President RoHWER

in the chair and 24 persons present. The minutes of the previous Annual

Meeting were read and approved. New members elected: C. DENLEY, G.

B. Grant, O. J. Muri.

The annual reports of the Corresponding Secretary, the Recording Secre-

tary, the Treasurer, and the Publication Committee were read and ordered

placed on file. T.S. Patmer, for the Board of Investing Trustees, presented -

an informal report showing that the George Washington Memorial Fund

amounts to $600, that there is about $1500 in the Publication Fund, and the

sum of $430 is due the Publication Fund from the General Fund. F.C. Lin-

COLN gave a sketch of the history of the George Washington Memorial Fund.

The election of officers then took place, resulting as follows:

President, H. C. OBERHOLSER; Vice-Presidents, E. A. GoLpMAN, A. WET-

mMoRE, C. E. Cuamstuiss, H. H. T. Jackson; Recording Secretary, S. F. BLAKE;

Corresponding Secretary, T. E. SnypER; Treasurer, F. C. Lincotn; Members of

Council, H. C. Futter, W. R. Maxon, C. W. Stites, A. A. DooitTtie, B.

H. Swauss. President-elect H. C. OBERHOLSER was nominated as a Vice-

President of the Washington Academy of Sciences to represent the Biological

Society. On motion of Dr. STILEs a rising vote of thanks was given S. A.

RouweERr for his efficient service in the presidential chair.

ENTOMOLOGICAL SOCIETY

376TH MEETING

The 376th meeting was held in Room 43 of the New National Museum,

Thursday, June 4, 1925, with President R. A. CusHMaAN in the chair and 17

persons present. THomas R. CHAMBERLAIN of the Bureau of Entomology,

Salt Lake City, Utah, was elected to membership.

_ Program: C.’H. Ricwarpson: Some aspects of insect physiology. —Certain

aspects of physiology as applied to insects were presented briefly. General

physiology has suffered a one-sided development largely because the higher

104 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 16, No. 4

vertebrates, particularly man, have been the subjects of most of the investi-

gations. Digestion in insects was compared with that in the vertebrates,

and with a few exceptions was shown to present no unusual features. Absorp-

tion from the alimentary tract and from the malpighian tubules was discussed

and the need for more studies on permeability was emphasized. <A discus-

sion of the nutritive requirements of insects concluded the paper. It was

discussed by Dr. McInpoo. | |

C. HrrnricH: Comments on the distribution of the European pine-shoot moth.

A trip was recently made through New Jersey, New York, Connecticut,

Massachusetts, and Rhode Island to determine the present status of the

European pine-shoot moth (Rhyacionia buoliana Schiffermiiller). The situa-

tion today is about what it was in 1914 except that on Long Island a greater

area is infested, R. buoliana having appeared in many new localities and on a

number of private estates that were uninfested in 1914. The species was also

found in Tarrytown, N. Y., and at Newport and on the Duke estate at

Somerville, N. J., but in several other places where it had been found in 1914

it was no longer present. In Tarrytown and Somerville and in the nurseries

at Newport it was considerably less abundant than formerly, owing to efforts

by nurserymen and gardeners to eradicate the insect. In a few localities

about Boston and in Connecticut where it had jbeen located in 1914 it was not

found on the recent trip. The situation was summarized as follows: RA.

buolzana has been able to survive local conditions and to thrive in this country

for something like thirteen or fourteen years. It is established and well dis-

tributed on Long Island, which will remain, as long as the insect is there, a

source of infestation for other places. It is also well established, though not

so widespread, in Newport and vicinity, and it has been distributed from

nurseries to various private estates in New York, Connecticut, Rhode Island,

New Jersey and probably in other localities further west. Attempts have

been made by nurserymen and gardeners to eradicate the pest in their locali-

ties by cutting buds, but this work, though conscientious, has not been under

the supervision of an entomologist and has not been thorough. Consequently

the moth has persisted in most of the localities where it has been introduced.

In places where the clean-up has been thorough (at points in Massachusetts

and at Great Neck, L. I.) the insect has completely disappeared. It has appar-

ently not escaped into any of our forests or into large plantings or standing

growths of native pines. The advisability of eradicating this moth from the

United States before it becomes a forest problem was urged. ‘The paper was

discussed by Messrs. ALpRiIcH, Baker, BOvine, GraF, and McInpoo.

Dr. Bovine exhibited a recent book from Denmark, which contained

numerous fine pictures of the pine-moth work in Denmark.

R.A. Cusuman: Some parasites of the pine-tip moth_—Parasites reared from

the pine-tip moth, Rhyacionia frustrana Comstock, were considered in con-

nection with a projected attempt to colonize them in the Nebraska National

Forest, where the host has caused great havoc in the young pine. The

habits of the various species in relation to the host and their relative

abundance and effectiveness were discussed. The paper was discussed by

Messrs. BakER, CRAIGHEAD, HEINRICH, RICHARDSON and ROHWER.

37/TH MEETING

The 377th meeting was held in Room 43 of the New National Museum,

Thursday October 1, 1925, with President R. A. CusHMAN in the chair and

38 members and 14 visitors present.

FEB. 19, 1926 PROCEEDINGS: ENTOMOLOGICAL SOCIETY 105

Mr. CusHMAN announced that since the last meeting the Society had lost,

by death, Dr. B. H. Ransom, who passed away September 17, 1925. A com-

mittee composed of Dr. M. C. Haru, Dr. H. E. Ew1ne, and Mr. 8. A. RoHwER

drew up the following resolution which was read and adopted by the Society:

Resolution: Dr. Brayton Howarp Ransom, Chief of the Zoological Division

of the Federal Bureau of Animal Industry and for many years a member of the

Etomological Society of Washington, died September 17, 1925, at the age

of forty-six years. In his investigations in the broad field of animal parasi-

tology, Dr. Ransom made frequent contributions to the subject of medical

and veterinary entomology. His publications which have a direct bearing

on entomology include a wide range of subjects, such as habits and biology

of the Texas fever tick; arsenical dips for ticks; eradication methods for ticks;

a nematode parasite of the house fly and certain dung beetles; miscellaneous

cattle parasites; and sheep scabies. Perhaps hismost comprehensive paper on

insects is that published in Pierce’s “Sanitary Entomology.’’ ‘This paper deals

with the relation of insects to the parasitic worms of vertebrates. The

studies of arsenical dipping for the control of ticks conducted by Dr. Ransom

and his collaborator, H. W. GRAYBILL, are basic investigations of great economic

importance. Dr. RaNsomM was a man of great modesty and personal charm,

a delightful friend and companion and a man of sound judgment and conser-

vative ideas. His advice and counsel were highly prized by his associates and

collaborators. His death at such an early age is a loss to science and his

friends. The Entomological Society of Washington regrets the loss of this

active worker and wishes to record its sincere appreciation of the man and the

scientist.

W. H. Larimer of the Bureau of Entomology, Washington, D. C., was

elected to membership.

Program: Dr. L.O. Howarp: The Third International Congress of Entomol-

ogy at Zurich.—The speaker described briefly the principal features of the

congress held at Zurich, July 19 to July 26, 1925, and showed on the screen

portraits of forty or more to the principal delegates from different countries,

reproduced from photographs taken by himself at Zurich.

Dr. J. B. PARKER: Some notes on the nesting habits of Bembix comata Parker.

—This paper has been published in full in PRocEEDINGS OF THE ENTOMOLOGI-

CAL SOCIETY OF WASHINGTON (27: 189-195. 1925).

Dr. WituiaAM Barnes of Decatur, Illinois, spoke briefly about his trip

abroad.

Dr. E. A. Back spoke of a soap spray for Aleyrodidae, stating that enough

of the oil remained on the leaves to kill the eggs. He also spoke of a new

process for spraying raisins that isused at Fresno, California. If successful,

it will be of greater value than the old methods. .

Dr. T. E. Snyper gave the following note on Mastotermes darwiniensis

Froggatt: Dr. GERALD Hitt of Australia, one of the active British students of

termites has recently discovered that Mastotermes darwiniensis Froggatt,

the primitive Australian termite, lays its eggs in a mass similar to that of the

Blattids; this mass is approximately 5 mm. in length and consists of two paral-

lel rows of eggs cemented together; 14 to 24 eggs to a mass.

In the Blattids, Mantids and Mastotermes, Crampton had found that the

seventh sternite in the female was prolonged and that this covered the ovi-

positor. The roach-like wings of Mastotermes, the large anal area, and this

egg mass, similar to an oothecum, further establishes the relationship of

termites to the ancient roaches. Three fossil species of Mastotermes have been

106 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 16, No. 4

found in England, one in the Upper Eocene and two in the Middle Oligocene.

A primitive South African genus of termites has recently been discovered as

a fossil in the Rott of Germany.

378TH MEETING

The 378th meeting was held in room 43 of the New National Museum,

Thursday, November 5, 1925, with President R. A. CusHMAN in the chair and

30 members and 18 visitors present.

Mr. CusHMAN announced the death of Dr. W. D. Hunter, which occurred

October 18, 1925, at El Paso, Texas.

A committee composed of Messrs. C. L. Maruatrt, F. C. BisHop, A. Buscx,

and Dr. L. O. Howarp, chairman, drew up the following resolution:

Resolution: The announcement of the death of Dr. WaLTER Davip HUNTER

has caused the members of the Entomological Society of Washington to sor-

row very deeply. Although seldom present at our meetings of late years,

Doctor HUNTER was the dear friend of many of us, and all of us respected him

and admired him for his notable achievements in applied entomology. We

realize that by his work and his sound judgment and by his high character as

a man he had gained the confidence of the people, especially of the South, to

an unparalleled degree. We realize further that he has had a most important

influence in the awakening of a realization of the very great value of entomo-

logical work. No memorial could express adequately the value of his life

work, and we can only grieve with others that blind fate should have stopped

it in mid-career. The Society authorizes the preparation of a biographical

account of Dr. Hunt:R, and its publication together with his bibliography in

the PROCEEDINGS OF THE SOCIETY.

This resolution was adopted.

Program: Dr. A. G. B6vine. Entomological collections in the museums of

Denmark and Sweden.—The speaker explained the educational training re-

quired for the attainment of the scientific positions in the Scandinavian

museums, and mentioned the salaries, working hours and holidays that go with

these positions. Rather detailed information was given concerning the

arrangement and the contents of the entomological main collection in the

Copenhagen Museum and on the origin and history of its most valuable special

parts. Biographical remarks were added on the two famous Danish entomolo-

gists, FaBricrus and ScuiopTE, the latter a most enthusiastic and successful

collector and observer in the field. The personalities and scientific contribu-

tions of some of the now living Danish entomologists were sketched.

Dr. Stepan SoupeEk, Assistant, Zoological Institute of the College of Agri-,

culture and Forestry at Brno, Czechoslovakia, spoke briefly to the SociETY.

Dr. J. Bequarrt of the Harvard School of Tropical Medicine spoke briefly

on the Tabanidae or horse flies as disease carriers.

A. T. GAHAN reported two interesting records of little known parasitic

Hymenoptera. The material was received from Guy A. K. MARSHALL,

Director of the Imperial Bureau of Entomology, London, England. There

were four males of Paracarotomus cephalotes Ashmead reared from a pupa of

Paragus sp. at Ibadan, South Nigeria, by O. B. Lean, and Telenomus nawaiz

Ashmead reared from eggs of Prodenia litura at Levuka, Fiji.

Dr. J. M. Atpricu spoke of the high prices charged for the German

scientific publications, especially those in ‘‘Archiv. fur Naturgeschichte.”’

Mr. SHANNON made a few remarks regarding the use of the name “‘Insect”’

in which he referred to his proposal made at the 373d meeting to apply this

FEB. 19, 1926 SCIENTIFIC NOTES AND NEWS 107

name to all Arthropods exclusive of the Crustacea. He read from a recently

published book on medical entomology by Dr. Carrouu Fox, ‘Insects and

Diseases of Man,” the definition given for medical entomology: ‘‘Entomology

is that part of zoology which treats of insects. . . . . Itis generally agreed

that the term medical entomology may include acarines or other arthropods

which have been implicated in the occurrence or spread of disease.’’ This

shows that the medical entomologist at least finds it convenient to use the

name ‘‘insect’’ as was proposed by the speaker.

Mr. Rouwer told of receiving a specimen of T7phia punctata Robertson

which had been collected by Haroup E. Box two miles south of Santiago in

the Dominican Republic. He stated that this was the first record of this

species of 7'7phia occurring outside of the United States. In 1912, 1913, and

1914, G. N. Watcort, while working for the Porto Rican government, col-

lected a number of Tzphia cocoons from various parts of the United States.

Most of the adults emerging from these cocoons were used in cage experiments

but from a lot of material that was collected in the autumn of 1914, 79 per

cent of the emerging adults were liberated in cane fields in Porto Rico.

Since the liberation of these adults no specimens of any American species of

Tiphia have been reported from the island of Porto Rico and it is surprising

to find an American species in the Dominican Republic now.

Cuas. T. GREENE, Recording Secretary.

SCIENTIFIC NOTES AND NEWS

Dr. Henrik LUNDEGARDH, Director of the Ecological Station, at Torekov,

Sweden, recently gave at the Department of Agriculture an illustrated ac-

count of investigations in plant ecology conducted on the island where his

station is located.

A Bibliography of Bibliographies on Chemistry and Chemical Technology,

1900-1924, by CuarRENCE J. West and D. D. BrRrouzEImer, is announced by

the National Research Council, Washington, D. C., as their Bulletin No. 50

(308 p., $2.50). This work is composed of the following sections: General

Bibliographies, Abstract Journals and Year-Books, General Indexes of Seri-

als, Bibliographies of Special Subjects, and Personal Bibliographies. As the

title indicates, the work is a compilation of bibliographies published as sepa-

rates, or at the end of books or magazine articles, or as footnotes to the same,

on the numerous aspects of pure and applied chemistry. Each entry gives

name of author or compiler, title, and place of publication and most of them

state the number of references. An approximate analysis shows that there

are about 2400 subject headings, 7500 author entries and a total of 10,000

individual bibliographies.

The seventh annual meeting of the American Geophysical Union and of its

sections will be held April 29 and 30, 1926, in the Building of the National

Academy of Sciences and the National Research Council at 21st and B Streets,

Northwest, Washington, D. C., with the exception noted in the schedule.

The schedule of meetings is as follows:

April 29—9:30 a.m. to 12:30 p.m., Section of Geodesy; 2:30 p.m. to 5:30

p.m., Sections of Volcanology and Oceanography; 8:00 p.m. to 11:00 p.m.,

Section of Terrestrial Magnetism and Electricity (in the assembly room of

the Administration Building, Carnegie Institution of Washington, 16th and

P Streets, Northwest).

108 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 16, NO. 4

April 30—9:30 a.m. to 12:30 p.m., Sections of Meteorology and Seis-

mology; 2:30 p.m. to 5:30 p.m., general meeting of the Union.

The Petrologists’ Club met at the home of H. G. Fmrrcuson on February 2.

Program: B. 8. Buruer: Some features of the tops of Keeweenawan lava

flows; N. L. Bowen: Crystalline compounds in the lime-soda silica system;

H. 8. Wasuineton: Italite from the Alban Hills.

The Pick and Hammer Club met at the Geological Survey on January 23,

to hear reports on the geological papers presented at the Kansas City meet-

ing of the American Association for the Advancement of Science, and the

New Haven meeting of the Geological Society of America.

Dr. L. H. Dewey, chief of the Office of Fiber Investigations, Bureau of

Plant Industry, has gone to Porto Rico for two months of field work.

Dr. JaNeT Perkins, an American botanist long resident in Berlin, author

of numerous works in systematic botany, is visiting Washington. She is

studying collections at the National Herbarium.

PrTer KLAPHAAK, assistant pathologist in the Office of Sugar investiga-

tions, Bureau of Plant Industry, died December 14, 1925, of pneumonia.

Mr. Klaphaak was born and educated in Holland, and did post-graduate work

at the University of Michigan. He had been working on the mosaic disease

of sugar cane in the Department of Agriculture for the last few years.

ANNOUN CEMENTS OF THE MEETINGS OF THE ACADEMY AND

AFFILIATED SOCIETIES*

Saturday, February. 20. The Philosophical Society.

The Helminthological Society.

Wednesday, February 24. The Geological Society.

Saturday, February 27. The Biological Society.

_ Tuesday, March 2. The Botanical Society.

Thursday, March 4. The Entomological Society.

*The programs of the meetings of the affiliated societies will appear on this page if

sent to the editors by the thirteenth and the twenty-seventh day of each month.

“Onrancat Lares ie ‘on ‘

Neteaoloos Ll fantcing steaks: N. Msn ‘Deuber taleoes wee

Photography—Photography for the field geologist. _Euior Buaoxy

ProcnepiNas

The Philosophical Society... ett Foes ate te adhere 2 a : a6 ae ee te

The Biological Society .................. MOR eee cs

The Entomological Society.................-.- be aha a ee a

ar a

Scimntiric Norms AND NEWS............00.20000e 00s ae 3

OFFICERS OF THE ACADEMY

President: GEORGE K. betes ae Bureau of Standards.

Vol. 16 Marcu 4, 1926 No. 5

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JOURNAL

OF THE

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Vou. 16 Marcu 4, 1926 No. 5

TERRESTRIAL MAGNETISM.—The magnetic and electric survey

of the earth: Its physical and cosmical bearings and development.!

J. A. Femina, Department of Terrestrial Magnetism, Carnegie

Institution of Washington.

The last presidential address? covered so thoroughly and admirably

the progress during the past quarter-century of research respecting the

earth’s magnetic field that I fear the presentation of my subject-matter

may impose some repetition upon you. My excuse, however, is that

you have brought it upon yourselves since apparently the accepted

rule is that presidential addresses should cover efforts or developments

in the particular science in which the speaker is engaged and, therefore,

presumably competent to speak.

In terrestrial magnetism and electricity, as in most physical sciences,

coordinated data and experiment must pave the way for the develop-

ment and test of theory. The problems presented are extremely

complex and so interrelated with other physical, geophysical, and

cosmical ones that they offer greatest resistance to attack; their solu-

tions, therefore, call in marked and exceptional degree for cooperative

endeavor of the highest and most unselfish caliber. Herein appears

to lie the most promising hope of ultimate successful interpretation,

in part or in whole, of the many fascinating complexities and variations

shown by these fields of the earth and its atmosphere.

In the collection of data through the magnetic and electric survey of

the earth attention must be given to the geographical and space

distributions and the time variability characterizing the phenomena

1 Address of retiring President of the Philosophical Society of Washington, January

9, 1926.

2D. L. Hazarp, This Journat 15: 111-125, 1925.

109

110 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 16, No. 5

concerned. The word “survey” is here used in a broad sense to include

not only isolated land and sea observations to determine the geo-

graphic distribution and long-period variations but also continuous work

at fixed observatories to follow the time variations and coordinated

effort in the physical laboratory, in the astronomical and astrophysical

observatory, and in the instrument shop. :

The survey, so far as the earth’s magnetic field is concerned, may be

said to have had its inception in the work of Halley on the Paramour

Pink during 1698 to 1701 ‘‘on an expedition to improve the longitude

and variations of the compass” in the north and south Atlantic oceans

under the auspices of the British Government. To its leader we owe

the method of portraying by isomagnetic curves the distribution of

the magnetic elements although he used it only for declination. At

present the magnetic survey involves the measurement of the direc-

tion and intensity of the lines of magnetic force, that is, of the so-called

magnetic elements on the earth’s surface, namely, declination, inclina-

tion, and horizontal intensity. Defining the magnetic meridian at

any place as the direction of the compass needle there, the declination

is the angle between the magnetic meridian and the astronomic me-

ridian, the inclination (or dip) is the angle which a magnetic needle

mounted on a horizontal axis and swinging in the vertical plane con-

taining the magnetic meridian makes with the horizontal plane, and

the horizontal intensity is the horizontal component of the total inten-

sity of the earth’s field. Charts showing curves drawn through places

of equal values of the magnetic elements are called isogonic, isoclinic,

and isodynamic charts, respectively. .

Our planet is not uniformly magnetized, and its magnetic poles are

distant 1,200 miles and more from its geographic poles, with the north

pole approximately in latitude 70° north and in longitude 96° west of

Greenwich, and the south pole approximately in latitude 73° south

and in longitude 156° east of Greenwich; the line joining these poles

passes some 750 miles away from the center of the earth. In addition,

there are many regions where local natural disturbances, for example,

those caused by magnetic ore deposits, give rise to further irregularities

in the earth’s general field. Therefore, observations of the magnetic

elements must be made at many places to delineate the field with

reasonable correctness.

There are also progressive changes in the earth’s magnetic elements,

which vary from placeto place and for the same place from time to time.

Since no laws satisfactorily covering these phenomena have been found,

MAR. 4, 1926 FLEMING: MAGNETIC AND ELECTRIC SURVEY Tih

secular-variation observations, as they are called, must be made at

widely scattered points and at frequent intervals of time so that the

isomagnetic charts can be corrected for such progressive changes.

The complexity of the earth’s magnetism is still further increased

by other periodic and irregular changes. ‘Thus there is a daily varia-

tion of each element, the range of which varies with time, geographic

position, season, and sunspot frequency and other cosmical relations.

There is also an annual inequality. Perhaps the most fascinating of

the magnetic perturbations are those irregular ones known as magnetic

storms. ‘These are of various types. Some occur almost simultane-

ously over the whole globe, their intensity more frequently increasing

as the station is nearer a magnetic pole. Others having more local

characteristics occur, for example, on the daylight face of the earth.

Types of disturbances are (1) those designated ‘‘pulsations”’ of a ripple-

like or pulsatory character, (2) those called “‘sudden commencements”’

of sharp and sudden beginning without any marked preliminary indi-

cation in the record, and (3) others best defined by their designation as

“bays” of less irregular character lasting about 30 minutes or less.

Some have the feature of repetition at the same place and time of day

over periods of three to five days and even more as though there were

local clouds of ionized material rotating with the earth influenced by

cosmic radiations on successive days until the clouds are dissipated;

this type, when aurorae are visible as at high-latitude stations, exhibits

parallel features of recurrence, a phenomenon beautifully shown in

Mawson’s recently published discussion’ of the records of the aurora

polaris made by the Australasian Antarctic Expedition. Magnetic

storms are generally simultaneous with displays of polar lights, are

related in some measure to the sun’s condition increasing with increased

solar activity, and are frequently accompanied by pronounced disturb-

ances of the natural electric currents within the earth.

The data for the preparation of isomagnetic and isoelectric charts for

a given epoch are obtained by observations at many ‘‘distribution”’

stations and by repeat determinations made from time to time at

selected “‘secular-variation” stations. Those for the study and inves-

tigation of the short and complex periodic, progressive, and irregular

inequalities of the earth’s magnetism and electricity are obtained best

from continuous observations extending over many years at fixed

observatory stations. At present there are about 50 active magnetic

observatories, of which less than 20 per cent carry on electric work.

3 Scientific Reports, Ser. B., 2: Pt. 1, 1925,

112 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 16, No. 5

Their geographic distribution is by no means ideal, fully 40 per cent

being in Europe and only about 20 per cent in the southern hemisphere.

Natural electric currents or “earth-currents,” originally noted by

Barlow, circulate in the crust of the earth and are generally weak,

but in times of disturbance may attain such strength as to interfere

seriously with telegraphic transmission. These currents and the

electric phenomenon of atmospheric electricity including polar lights

may be grouped as the electric field of the earth and its atmosphere.

The survey, so far as this field is concerned, may be said to have had

its initiation with Franklin’s classical kite experiments on the electri-

fication of clouds and the nature of lightning and with the nearly con-

temporaneous work of Le Monnier which showed that even under

cloud-free conditions the atmosphere is the seat of an appreciable elec-

tric field. The development of the study of the electric phenomena of

the atmosphere advanced somewhat after the introduction of the

quadrant electrometer by Kelvin and following the work of Exner.

Greater study and development began after the introduction by J. J.

Thomson of the ionic theory of the electrical conduction in gases,

and under the enthusiastic leadership of Elster and Geitel the founda-

tions were laid for present-day investigations of the electric field.

These investigations have assumed, in the last decade, a greater impor-

tance because of their bearings on recent theories of electricity and

because of their intimate association and correlations with the phe-

nomena of the earth’s magnetism with which strong parallelism as

regards space and time distribution and variations is found. The

range and perturbations of the electric diurnal-variations are very

much greater than those for the magnetic elements and are much more

dependent upon meteorological conditions, but on the other hand the

change of absolute values with geographic position is not so great.

In general, the atmospheric-electric phenomena observed include

potential gradient, conductivity, and ionization. On clear days the

earth is negatively charged with respect to the air, and in the lower

layers of the atmosphere the potential difference between the earth

and a point in the atmosphere increases with its height above the earth.

The change in potential per meter is defined as the potential gradient;

under good meteorological conditions its average value determined

at many stations on land and sea is of the order of 125 volts per meter

at sea-level, that is to say, the potential of the air 1 meter above the

ground is 125 volts higher than the potential of the ground. Fair-

weather values of the negative and positive conductivities of the lower

MAR. 4, 1926 FLEMING: MAGNETIC AND ELECTRIC SURVEY 113

atmosphere are of the order of 10-* £.s.U., the positive conductivity

- being in general 10 to 20 per cent larger than the negative conductivity.

Observations of ionic content indicate average values ranging from 500

to 1,000 ions of either sign per cubic centimeter, the number of positive

ions being about 20 per cent greater, thus leaving a volume charge in

the atmosphere amounting to several hundred free positive ions per

cubic centimeter. Values of the air-earth current-density from simul-

taneous observations of potential gradent and conductivity are of the

order of 10-* £.s.U., the value being somewhat greater over land than

over sea.

The contributon to the survey through continuous work at fixed

observatories was initiated by Gauss in the establishment in 1832 of a

magnetic observatory at Géttingen to measure variations of declina-

tion and horizontal intensity. Following this, with the assistance of

Weber and Humboldt, Gauss aroused such interest that international

’ cooperation for the extension of the survey to regions unexplored

magnetically was effected soon after 1840 in the establishment of a

number of observatories in widely separated parts of the world and in

the development of satisfactory instruments for determining all three

magnetic elements and their variations. The history of the develop-

ment of observatory methods, instruments, and progress is of great

interest but must be passed over to permit some account of the survey

and of results obtained in the last two decades, of their physical and

cosmical bearings, and of the future needs.

The contribution to the magnetic and electric survey to which I

wish to refer more in detail is that‘ in which I have had the privilege

for the past 20 years to work with Bauer, Peters, Ault, Fisk, Mauchly,

and others in the Department of Terrestrial Magnetism of the

Carnegie Institution of Washington and which has been an effective

agency for coordination and cooperation. While a large share of the

general survey has been taken by that Department, very notable con-

tributions have been made by various countries either through repeti-

tion of former magnetic surveys or through new surveys. Our work

has been confined mainly to the oceans and to those countries or regions

where magnetic data were generally lacking. In some regions the

magnetic surveys required were accomplished by cooperation with

existing organizations or with interested individual investigators.

Furthermore, particular effort has been made to use every opportun-

4C.1I. W. Year Books, 4-24: 1905-1925. C.I. W. Pub. No. 175, 1-5: 1912, 1915, 1917,

1921, 1926.

ee 7 se

6 La

A ee

)

~ 4 ‘

ai S\

pz :

paces

a \

EEE ~

ow the land stations.)

—— ee

ington during 1905-1925. (Cruises of the Galilee are indicated bye:

Arabic numbers, those of the Carnegie by Roman numerals. Black dotssh

Bi’

cP By

NGAW,

. apis aT y= 7 : rT

ee op ; Pa ; a KN

Fig. 1.—Magnetic Survey Work of the Carnegie Institution of Washin

ANI

Lie

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- MAR. 4, 1926 FLEMING: MAGNETIC AND ELECTRIC SURVEY 115

ity to cooperate with expeditions® to the polar regions where data are

very scarce. Such work was done on the Peary Arctic Expedition, the

Australasian Antarctic Expedition under the leadership of Mawson,

the Maud expeditions of Amundsen in the Arctic Sea during 1918 to

1921 and 1922 to 1925, and the Baffin Land and North Greenland

expeditions under the command of MacMillan during 1921 to 1922 and

1923 to 1924.

To determine with requisite completeness the so-called Gaussian

coefficients defining at any one epoch the earth’s general magnetic

field for investigating the theory and origin of the earth’s magnetism,

accurate values of the magnetic elements are needed at fundamental

points which may be about 5° apart in latitude and longitude or about

one station for each 100,000 square miles. On land, because of the

frequent local and regional disturbances often caused by geological

formations, the endeavor has been to attain distribution of primary

stations on the average of one about every 5,000 square miles. For

regions of local disturbance, observations are generally made at subor-

dinate stations near the primary ones, but at sea, because of the usual

absence of local disturbance, except in shallow waters or near land

masses, stations may be much farther apart than on land. The land

work (see Fig. 1 ) has been carried on, to greater or lesser extent accord-

ing to circumstances, in every major political subdivision of Africa

except British and Italian Somaliland; in every country in Asia except-

ing Afghanistan, the Himalayan States, and Chosen, but including

every province of China except Tibet; in every state of Australia;

in New Zealand; in 11 European countries; in every country of North

America; in Greenland and Iceland and the ice of the Arctic Sea; in

every country of South America; in the principal islands of the Atlan-

tic and Indian oceans; and in 25 of the principal groups and isolated

islands of the Pacific Ocean. During 1905 to 1925, inclusive, nearly

5,000 stations were established. In the last five years many of the

stations have been reoccupied, so that at the present time from 60

to 70 per cent of the work done each year consists of such reoccupations

~which now number nearly 700 (see Fig. 2). Table 1 summarizes the

land stations geographically, showing also the distribution of secular-

variation primary stations. |

Now that the greater part of the necessary distribution of magnetic

stations has been realized, increasing attention is being given to obtain-

Oat We Pub. No. 175, 12°15 -116,1912. C.1. W. Pub. No. 175; 2: 127,1915. Terr.

Mag., 27: 36-56, 1922. C.I. W. Year Book, 21: 278, 1922; 24: 188, 194, 1925. C.I. W.

Pub. No. 175, 5: 191, 1926.

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MAR. 4, 1926 FLEMING: MAGNETIC AND ELECTRIC SURVEY 117

ing secular-variation data. Particular attention has also been given

the selection of primary secular-variation stations so that together

with existing observatories they may form a net with approximately

500-mile intervals. Since 1922 the diurnal variations in the three mag-

netic elements on some one day for each have been determined at

every reoccupation, using the combined C. I. W. magnetometer-

TABLE 1.—GerocGrRApuHic DISTRIBUTION OF MAGNETIC WORK ON LAND BY THE CARNEGIE

INSTITUTION OF WASHINGTON DURING 1905-1925

STATION OCCUPATIONS

REPEAT

GEOGRAPHICAL DIVISIONS LOCALITIES

Primary Auxiliary Secondary

a Lb oy a re 1053 56 13 88

22). 7 ee Se 759 63 39 64

2 FUSS 612 bd 78 96

LU LD Ee) SoS a oe ee 94 aL 9 14

rnmerngWerica... =. ....-. 586 122 31 res

RnerIMACTICA 2... eee ee 815 111 31 111

Islands:

2) DOE 2 ee a 154 115 47 30

ME ee Sn 94 16 9 4

Peewee oy So)... 188 48 25 44

Mediterranean........ 8 0 0 3

SLED LIE: i os a 25 1 5 2

aL EMG S22 Gta Sepia aearae 26 67 212 1

a 4410 687 499 534

inductor. These data will be used in the determination of correction-

factors to reduce to mean of day with the aid of data at observatories

more or less distant from the field stations. Such a net-system of

stations has been planned for Mexico, Central America, and South

America, and observations have been made accordingly. Similar

nets have been begun in Australia and Africa and at scattered points

elsewhere. ‘The results so far amply justify the plan, though there is

room for improvement which ultimately must come with the develop-

ment of instruments better adapted to this particular form of land

work. The need is to secure secular-variation data at intervals of

five years and even at shorter intervals in those regions where the

changes are unusually rapid. ‘To insure continuance of a series it is

planned to observe always at one or two stations comparatively close

to the primary secular-variation stations, thereby making it possible

to transfer the series in case the station originally selected becomes

unsuited. oles Ae hia |

118 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 16, No. 5

The ocean work® of the Department was initiated in 1905. The

early work in the Pacific Ocean during 1905 to 1908 was carried out on

the chartered brigantine Galilee. In 1909 a specially designed non-

magnetic vessel, the Carnegie, was built, and all our work at sea since

that time has been done with this vessel excepting a special expedition

into Hudson Bay in 1919 on a chartered schooner. The summary of

ocean magnetic work of the Galilee and the Carnegie during 1905 to

1921 as given in Table 2 (see also Fig. 1) shows the total number of

TABLE 2.—Summary or MaGnetic WorK AT SEA BY THE GALILEE AND THE CARNEGIE

DURING E1Ggut CruIsEs IN 1905-1921

NUMBER OF CRUISE SQUARE STATUTE

OBSERVED VALUES INTER- MILES PER STATION

NU ME SECTIONS

OCEAN AND APPROXIMATE EPOCHS OF Sy aoa 7", Sea ee ics

OF OBSERVATION NAUTICAL Inclina- | USE2¥08 | Jnclina-

MILES Declina- tion and | ANNUAL” | Declina- | tion and:

jit eB ene tion horizontal

intensity

tion horizonta

ee | | | —

Pacific: 1905-08, 1912, 1915-16,

ODI es Oy ots We Seon ee ca 181,423 | 1,800 | 1,183 47 35,600 | 53,700

Atlantic: North, 1909-10, 1913-

14, 1919; South, 1910-13, 1920...| 92,053 | 1,039 682 27 30,300 | 46,300

indian: 1901, 19202) v2.2. 2") 482060 477 282 7 | 59,100 | 99,800

SS yay 7 eH SN MS Pc 316,586 | 3,316 | 2,147 |. 81.. | 37/200 amaae

observed values of declination to be over 3,300, and of inclination and

horizontal intensity to be over 2,100, the stations being distributed

in the Pacific, Atlantic, and Indian oceans in the proportion of about

4,2, and 1, respectively. The average time-intervals and the average

distances apart for stations for the Galilee work have been decreased

by about 40 per cent in the Carnegie work because of the increased

efficiency resulting from the fact that the Carnegie was built for the

work and because of the steady improvement in the instrumental

appliances and observational methods. While the oceans have now

been quite thoroughly traversed between parallels 60° north and 60°

south, there still remain areas of 500,000 square miles or more in extent,

especially in the Pacific Ocean, within which no magnetic observations

have been made. However, the area in general for each declination

station is less than half the theoretical requirementof 100,000 square

miles, and for an inclination and intensity station about three-fifths

of the theoretical requirement. ‘Thus it may be said that there are

6C. I. W. Year Book, 4: 264-274, 1905. C.I. W. Pub. No. 175, 3, 5: 1917, 1926.

MAR. 4, 1926 FLEMING: MAGNETIC AND ELECTRIC SURVEY 119

available accurate ocean magnetic data at points distributed about 3°

in latitude and 3° in longitude or, on the average, about 200 miles

apart.

The results of the ocean work have been incorporated in the isomag-

netic charts of the leading hydrographic offices, and chart-errors, which

reached an appreciable magnitude in 1905, are now within limits suffi-

cient for all economic purposes and to a large degree for general mag-

netic investigations. Such as do exist may usually be attributed to

imperfect knowledge of the secular changes which are more compli-

cated even over the deep sea than was supposed to be the case.

TABLE 3.—ATMOSPHERIC-HLECTRIC STATIONS AT SEA AND DIURNAL-VARIATION SERIES

DURING CRUISES OF THE CARNEGIE, 1915-1921, For ONE oR More ELEMENTS

AND SERIES OF Four Hours or More

OCEAN

Atlantic Pacific Indian Southern

CRUISE oS So As Oe eee

Number of | Number of | Number of Number of eee eee Number bee

: 2 : of D.V. of of

if i ‘ E a

stations |D.V.series| stations | D.V. series stations ae a atstiones sation

IV 22 1 293 27 76 14

V 38 2 66 7

VI 164 8 178 27 118 10

Totals....| 224 11 537 61 118 10 76 | 14

Total for all oceans 1915-1921: stations, 955; diurnal-variation series, 96.

During the earlier work of the Carnegie atmospheric-electric obser-

vations were made at sea primarily to develop methods and appli-

ances for the determination of electric distribution. Much of this

preliminary work gave relative values only, but as the result of this

work and of experimental work in the laboratory it was possible,

beginning in March 1915 with the fourth cruise of the vessel, to make

systematic absolute determinations of the atmospheric-electric ele-

ments at sea.

The atmospheric-electric results’ at sea from 1915 to 1921 include

potential gradient (see Fig. 3), negative and positive ionic content,

conductivity, and ionic mobility, penetrating radiation, radioactive

content, together with accompanying detailed meteorological data.

They are summarized in Table 3 for 955 stations in all oceans at which

one or more elements were observed and for 96 series for diurnal-

70.1. W. Pub. No. 175, 3: 361-422, 1917; 5: 385-424, 1926.

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120

MAR. 4, 1926 FLEMING: MAGNETIC AND ELECTRIC SURVEY 121

variation of one or more elements including four hours or more of

~ observation.

The question of standards to coordinate the work by various organi-

zations the world over and in the development and design of instru-

mental appliances, especially for the high order of precision attained

in the magnetic observations, has been important. ‘There being no

agreement among nations as to international magnetic standards, it

was necessary that the Department of Terrestrial Magnetism adopt

-standards in 1905 at the very beginning of its work. Control of the

instrumental constants has been carefully maintained, and the preci-

sion of the provisionally adopted standards to the order of 0’.2 in

declination and inclination and of one five-thousandth part in horizon-

tal intensity has been confirmed by frequent and detailed intercompari-

sons (1) with field and observatory instruments of various types at the

Standardizing Magnetic Observatory in Washington, (2) at over 80

per cent of the active magnetic observatories of the world repeated at

intervals of from three to five years at the leading observatories, and

(3) with absolute electric instruments especially designed for the

determination of the magnetic intensity and inclination. ‘The stand-

ard in horizontal intensity is Justified within the limit of reasonable

precision by the results, direct and indirect, of comparisons with elec-

tromagnetic instruments summarized in Table 4. Of this type of

instrument three have been designed and constructed within recent

years,? namely, the Barnett sine-galvanometer of the Carnegie Insti-

tution of Washington, the Schuster-Smith magnetometer of the

National Physical Laboratory at Teddington, and the Watanabe

electric magnetometer of the Japanese Central Bureau of Weights

and Measures; the constants for all three instruments are based on

absolute electrical units.

These investigations of magnetic standards have stimulated great

interest and have been supported by most generous cooperation in

time and laborious observation by practically every organization

engaged in the world survey. The importance of the subject has been

recognized in recent resolutions!® and recommendations on govern-

mental and international control of standards by such bodies as the

International Geodetic and Geophysical Union in 1924 at Madrid and

8 C. I. W. Pub. No. 175, 2: 211-278, 1915; 4: 395-475, 1921.

9C. 1. W. Pub. No. 175, 4: 273-294, 1921. Proc. Phys. Soc., 26: 279-291, 1914. Proc.

Phys.-Math. Soc. Japan, Ser. 3, 2: 210-223, 1920.

10 Trans. Sec. Terr. Mag. Elect., Madrid, 1924. K. Ned. Met. Inst., No. 112, 1924.

122 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 16, No. 5

the International Meteorological Conference of Directors and the

International Meteorological Committee in 1923 at Utrecht.

TABLE 4.—SumMary or RESULTS oF HoRIZONTAL-INTENSITY COMPARISONS BETWEEN

PROVISIONAL INTERNATIONAL MAGNETIC STANDARD OF CARNEGIE INSTITUTION

oF WASHINGTON AND ELEcTRIcC MAGNETOMETERS, AUGUST, 1922, TO

Marcu, 1923*

STANDARD OR INSTRUMENT HORIZONTAL-INTENSITY CORRECTION, Tt’ ON

ete Desig-

Description natn IMS SG SS W

Provisional International Magnetic

Standard of a Institution

of Washington}.. 5 .| IMS +0.00007 |+0.00015i/++0.00031

Sine galvanometer Ni O. tl of Girdesie

Institution of Washington........ SG |—0.00007 +0.000081/-+-0.00024

Schuster-Smith magnetdémeter of

National Physical Laboratory....| SS |—0.00015i/—0.00008{ +0.00016

Watanabe electric magnetometer

INO. SFO Mee a W_ }—0.00031 |—0.00024 |—0.00016t

* The table is to be read thus, for example first row: SG — IMS = + 0.000074;

SS — IMS = +0.00015H; W — IMS = +0.00031H. The results are based for the

three electric instruments on absolute units.

j This provisional standard was adopted in 1914 (see Res. Dep. Terr. Mag., Vol. II,

1915, pp. 270-279).

i This value is subject to correction for any station- difference which may be Found

between the two observing piers used at Teddington, England, for the comparisons in

September 1922.

Continued extensive field use of the C. I. W. magnetometer-induc-

tor! for the determination of declination and horizontal intensity by

magnetic methods and of the inclination by the inductor method shows

this type of instrument to be very satisfactory even under most severe

conditions. The time required for complete determinations of the

three magnetic elements using the magnetometer-inductor is greater

than would be required by an instrument based entirely on electro-

magnetic methods, but the difficulties of maintaining electric batteries

and appurtenances on long journeys under severe and variable field

conditions would offset any gain by such an instrument since the actual

time required for magnetic observations is but a small part of that

required for all the work at a field station. In view, however, of the

desirability of portable designs of electromagnetic instruments for

observatory and special field use, for example, diurnal-variation work

at land stations and on board ship at sea, an electric magnetometer and

mM lerr. Mag. 18: 105-1105 1923.

MAR. 4, 1926 FLEMING: MAGNETIC AND ELECTRIC SURVEY 123

variometers with rotating coils are being designed for the observation

of declination and, by suitably mounting the coil on a horizontal axle

permitting orientation of its rotation axis at any angle, of the intensity-

components, and inclination.

The Carnegie Institution of Washington following its policy, not to

duplicate the work of other organizations but to obtain data where

most needed for world-wide considerations and development, has in

operation two magnetic and electric observatories in the southern

hemisphere, where the distribution of existing observatories is most

inadequate. One at an elevation of about 800 feet, is near Watheroo,

Western Australia, about 125 miles north of Perth, and the second

at an elevation of 11,000 feet above sea-level, is near Huancayo,

Peru, practically on the magnetic equator and some 120 miles east of

Lima. Both these observatories maintain the full program of obser-

vational and investigational work in terrestrial magnetism, atmos-

pheric electricity, and earth-currents. The Institution is cooperating

also with the New Zealand Government in the maintenance of the

atmospheric-electric program at the Apia Observatory which, because

of its location in the midst of the Pacific, is a unit of large importance

in the magnetic and electric survey. The great altitude above sea-

level of the station at Huancayo and its location, practically on the

magnetic equator, with the possibility of auxiliary stations within 100

miles at. differences of elevation of as much as two miles, affords

unique opportunity at least for initial work in the study of altitude

effects on the magnetic and electric fields. Time at all three observa-

tories is determined by means of radio signals, thus insuring the accu-

rate time control necessary to the study of the propagation of magnetic

disturbances.

Now that the distribution stage of the general magnetic and electric

survey of the earth is practically completed, we must look forward to

the future needs of this survey, for as Humboldt says, ‘‘the interpreta-

tion of an undertaking of such cosmical importance depends on its

long continued repetition.”’ But first it is necessary to consider in

how far we must call further upon cooperation from the physical

laboratory, the astrophysical observatory, and related geophysical

observations for help in interpreting the results and discussions so far

made, for quoting Burgess” in his presidential address to this Society,

‘“‘A scientific man would hardly be so rash as to pose as a prophet,

yet he may, nevertheless, try to assemble and pass in review some of

122 This JOURNAL 9: 57, 1919.

124 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 16, No. 5

the tendencies of the time; and it is only by an intelligent examination

of the underlying changes which are being produced in science and in

its relation to society that he is enabled to see his way ahead a little

more clearly into the mist of the future; and he may thereby be enabled,

at least in some small degree, to chart his course and take advantage of

the various currents that have been set in motion.”

Among some results thus far obtained as a result of the magnetic

and electric survey may be mentioned the following: The analysis’

of the earth’s magnetic field for the epoch 1922 for the first time based

upon thoroughly homogeneous data between the parallels of 60°

north and south as discussed by Bauer and his co-workers, which shows

that about 95 per cent of the earth’s magnetic field is to be ascribed to

internal magnetic and electric systems, about 3 per cent to external

systems or systems in the atmosphere and the remainder, about 3 per

cent, to a magnetic system the evoking agencies of which, for example,

vertical electric currents, may pass from the atmosphere into the earth

and out again. Although the last two systems contribute only about

6 per cent to the magnetic field as observed on the earth’s surface, their

further study may be of first importance in revealing entirely new

facts in the investigation of the origin of the earth’s electric field.

This discussion also shows that the secular variation results from

changes in both direction and intensity of magnetization with the lapse

of time. ‘The intensity apparently has steadily decreased during the

past 80 years at an average annual rate of one fifteen-hundredth part,

and ‘its average value for corresponding parallels north and south is

generally larger for land-predominating than for ocean-predominating

parallels. ‘There are, however, larger secular changes in the southern

or ocean-predominating than in the northern or land-predominating

hemisphere. The internal uniform magnetic field of the earth as

deduced from this work for 1922 is 8x10” c.a.s., the relation of its

components parallel and perpendicular to the earth’s axis of rotation

being about as five to one.

Secular-variation studies over the sea! by Ault and Peters and over

land by Fisk,'* especially those for Latin America and adjacent waters

including all of South and Central America and the Atlantic and Pacific

oceans adjoining, show results singularly like long-period types fof

pulsation about primary and secondary foci, and perhaps not unre-

13 Terr. Mag., 18: 1-28, 1923.

14C, I. W. Pub. No. 175, 5: 185-191, 1926; 3: 430-435, 1917.

15 Terr. Mag., 29: 189-148, 1924.

MAR. 4, 1926 FLEMING: MAGNETIC AND ELECTRIC SURVEY 125

lated to those amplitude pulses of regular diurnal inequality, which

vary accordingly as the disturbance waxes and wanes, so strikingly

brought out by Chree’s discussion'® of magnetic phenomena in the

region of the south magnetic pole. The accumulated data of the

ocean survey emphasize the disadvantage of attempting to control

normal secular-variation by observations at isolated island stations,

most of which are notoriously centers of local magnetic disturbance;

thus far, intensive work by the Department on relations of secular and

diurnal variations in such locally disturbed regions has been confined

to that of Fisk in the Bermudas. Ault finds, from his discussion of

ocean results, regions of apparent anomaly at sea which suggest the

need of sounding to determine topography and effect of sea bottom

since places have been noted where residuals are persistently of the

same sign over limited areas.

The discussions and analyses by Bauer, Mauchly, and their col-

leagues of the extensive atmospheric-electric observations at sea since

1915 have yielded results and conclusions also of fundamental impor-

tance.17 Thus Mauchly finds the chief component of the diurnal varia-

tion of the potential gradient over the oceans is a ‘‘wave’’ of 24-hour

period occurring simultaneously in the same phase in all localities

and from consideration of land series a strong probability is established

that, in general, this 24-hour wave progresses also approximately accord-

ing to universal time over the entire land surface of the earth. The

ereatest valueof the gradient occursat an average during the year of be-

tween 17" and 195 Greenwich mean time, which is approximately the

time when the Sun is in the meridian of the north magnetic pole of the

earth, a fact indicating possibly a close relationship between the mag-

netic and electric fields; thus far, the character of this relationship is

unexplained. In cooperative work of the Department with the Arctic-

Drift Expedition of Amundsen, beautiful confirmation of this funda-

mental deduction has resulted from series of observations during the

three winters of 1922 to 1925 through the work of Sverdrup.'® These

observations were obtained during the first two winters in the drifting

ice observatory off the north coast of Siberia and during the last winter

at a temporary land station near Bear Island. The data obtained

for density of air-earth current from simultaneous potential-gradient

and conductivity results at sea show also that atmospheric-electric .

16 London, Proc. R. Soc., A, 104: 165-191, 1923. |

17C. I. W. Pub. No. 175, 3: 361-422, 1917; 5: 385-424, 1926.

18 MS. Scientific work of the Maud Expedition, 1922-1925.

126 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 16, No. 5

phenomena can not be wholly interpreted on the basis of local con-

ditions, however characteristic such features may be.

Not only in this but also in the evidence of solar-activity correlations

is the value of a moving observatory such as the Carnegie clearly

shown. The studies'® by Bauer of sunspot and annual variations of

atmospheric electricity and by Mauchly in atmospheric electricity,

both as based on the observations during 1915 to 1921 aboard the ves-

sel, show beautifully the close parallelism during this period of obser-

vation in all oceans between waxing and waning in sunspot activity

and atmospheric potential-gradient—a parallelism whose confirmation

indeed is as evident from the sea observations as it is from observations

made at fixed land observatories during the same period. The general

conclusion from the investigations of Bauer, Peters, Duvall, and Ennis

based on land and ocean results indicates that during the cycle 1913

to 1922 the atmospheric potential-gradient increased with increasing

sunspottedness by at least 20 per cent of its mean value for the cycle

between the years of minimum and maximum sunspottedness. This

also applies with regard to measures of diurnal variation and of annual

variation of the potential gradient. ‘The evidence, ever growing with

the accumulation of observational data, that the annual variation

progresses according to the time of year rather than according to

local seasons, is significant from the viewpoint of solar relationship;

also the maxima of activity occur near the equinoctial months March

and September and the minima of activity near the solstititial months

June and December, corresponding as well to the fluctuations in the

activity of earth-currents and in the frequency of the northern lights.

From the great number and distribution at sea of the atmospheric-

electric data secured (as shown in Fig. 3) it is now possible to prepare,

tentatively, the first isoelectric chart of the oceans which shows the

potential gradient varying with latitude. The regular increase from

the equator to 60° north and to 60° south again suggests world-wide

predominance of the chief features of this element.

A most promising method of examining the apparent interrelations

of the earth’s magnetic activity represented by the magnetic storms

and the solar activity represented by sunspot data extending now more

then a century back, is by investigating abruptly beginning magnetic

_ storms or ‘‘sudden commencements.”’ Recent studies by Bauer and

Peters?° of data for the high sunspot period 1906 to 1909 and for the

19C. I. W. Pub. No. 175, 5: 359-384 and 385-424, 1926.

20 Terr. Mag., 30: 45-68, 1925.

MAR. 4, 1926 FLEMING: MAGNETIC AND ELECTRIC SURVEY 127

low sunspot period 1922 to 1925 indicate possibly an origin in low

- magnetic latitudes and progression to the magnetic poles with an

average speed around the earth such that the uninterrupted progres-

sion of an average disturbance of this type from the magnetic equator

to the pole might take about 1.8 minutes. Here we see, as in other

problems of cause and effect, the necessity of the greatest precision

and accuracy not only in record but in thorough analysis and discus-

sion of the magnitude of errors of the record and particularly of the

time element. These studies also show the necessity of establishing a

greater number of recording stations in regions where limiting condi-

tions of the phenomena prevail, namely, the Arctic and Antarctic—

a desideratum recognized by resolutions of the International Geodetic

and Geophysical Union at Madrid in October 1924. Observational

data regarding such propagation have been previously discussed” by

Bauer, Faris, Chree, Chapman, Angenheister, and Rodés, with various

conclusions. We must improve the control of time as recorded on

the photographic records to insure accurate timing of given features

to within one-fourth minute at least and to determine in how far the

feature of a sudden commencement may be identical or vary with

geographic distribution. ‘This research shows need of a more ac-

curate and reliable method for recording vertical intensity than the

present type of variometer.

Briefly, some of the future needs and lines of development for the

magnetic and electric survey, therefore, include (1) continued accum-

ulation of data on land and sea, less intensive than heretofore as

regards distribution stations but more so as regards observatories, and

(2) concurrent theoretical discussions, experiments, and investigations

in the physical laboratory and in the astronomical observatory.

While the first general ocean survey covering so large a part of the

earth’s surface is largely accomplished, there is still great need for

additional data for the determination and investigation of marine

earth-currents, for the important question of magnetic secular-varia-

tion or progressive changes and their accelerations over ocean areas,

and for the examination of regions of local magnetic disturbance.

There is also great need for more data for the study of the diurnal

and other variations and the distribution of the electric elements and

their magnetic interrelations for which sea conditions are superior to

21 Terr. Mag., 15: 9-30, 93-105, 1910. Géttingen, Nachr. Ges. Wiss., Math.-Phys.

Kl., 1913. London, Proc. Phys. Soc., 27: 134-153, 1914; 30: 205-214, 1918. Terr. Mag.,

27: 162-166, 1922; 30: 45-68, 1925.

128 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 16, NO. 5

those on land, where topography, culture, and variable meteorological

elements mask the true characteristics of the phenomena. Instrumen-

tal improvements based on electromagnetic principles should include

the actual continuous or semi-continuous recording by photography of

the magnetic and electric fields at sea.

The practical impossibility of realizing a network of continuous

recording observatories so close together as to permit direct interpola-

tion to correct survey data for diurnal variation makes some provision

necessary for deriving diurnal variations for each of the elements at

selected field stations. Comparisons of such data with records

obtained simultaneously at the nearest observatory must increase our

limited knowledge of the way in which the range, time of extremes,

and other characteristics of the diurnal variations change from place

to place and in the two hemispheres. The recent extraordinary

developments in the evolution of physical science demand increased

accuracy and constant functioning of observatory recording instru-

ments. While the present declination and horizontal-intensity variom-

eters are of high precision, the vertical-intensity variometer is not

entirely satisfactory, because certain mechanical difficulties inherent in

suitably supporting the moving magnetic element cause frequent dis-

continuities of base-line and of scale-value. An important instrumen-

tal need, therefore, is the design and construction of variation instru-

ments on electrical principles, for example, by means of rotating coils

oriented appropriately for the study of the various intensity compo-

nents with recording galvanometers of sensitivity suited to various

problems being studied.

Upper-air observations of the magnetic and electric elements and

similar observations below the surface of the land and sea are needed

because magnetic and electric activity, diurnal ranges, and other

periodic and irregular variations may undergo considerable modifica-

tion with changes in altitude, as is already indicated by the few data

gathered in upper-air electric work. Such development calls for care-

ful study of methods and the design of instruments most suitable for

accurate determinations of changes above the surface of the earth in

unmanned carriers or below the sea in bells.

The magnitude of the work of observation, control, and reduction of

magnetic and electric data from continuous records at observatories

is appallingly great, and most urgent needs include development of

simplified methods for such reductions and for publication. There

also is need of better theoretical foundations for really representative

MAR. 4, 1926 FLEMING: MAGNETIC AND ELECTRIC SURVEY 129

but simple scales to characterize magnetic and electric activities upon

which to build relations with physical and cosmical phenomena.

To make possible the complete mathematical analyses of the magnetic

and electric fields, it is very desirable that additional observatories be

established and distribution stations be occupied in regions where

auroral displays are frequent and where limiting conditions of the

other phenomena prevail. In the regions above latitude 60° north

and 50° south, that is, over 18 per cent of the earth’s surface, there are

very few data. Therefore, every advantage must be taken of every

opportunity to cooperate with, and to encourage such work by, polar

expeditions.

The world-wide increasing interest in the magnetic and electric

survey has been such within the past few years that many countries

heretofore inactive in such work have taken it up intensively both at

field stations and at observatories. Through the rapid development

and design of special instruments and standardized equipment, it is

now possible to obtain physical coordination of new work being under-

taken. Cooperative efforts with physical laboratories and astronomi-

cal observatories are evolving and offer much promise. Thus a

research between the Geophysical Laboratory and the Department of

Terrestrial Magnetism on the effect of pressure on the critical tempera-

ture of magnetization for pure metals and natural ores is in progress,

and may yield results not only applicable in the investigation of the

contribution of magnetized materials in the earth’s crust to the per-

manent magnetic field but also to physics, to geology, and to applied

geology in the detection of ore deposits. Cooperative work” has

recently been carried on by the Department with the Bureau of Stand-

ards, the Naval Research Laboratory, and various other organizations

interested in questions concerned with upper-air conductivity particu-

larly with the supposed Kennelly-Heaviside layer. Breit and Tuve,

through theoretical and experimental attack evolved from an idea origi-

nally suggested by Swann, have recently shown the existence of such

a layer at a height averaging about 150 kilometers above the earth’s

surface. Such a layer affords a possible explanation of some variations

in the earth’s magnetic field according to which the motions of the

layer induce electric currents which in turn may produce some of the

variable part of the earth’s magnetism, an idea advanced by Stewart,

further developed by Schuster, and quantitatively considered by Chap-

man; the motion of the layer as a whole may affect the electrical con-

22 C. I. W. Year Book, 24: 1925.

130 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 16, No. 5

dition of the lower atmosphere and produce changes in the observed

atmospheric potential-gradient. Here again we have the possibility

of an intimate relation in that the ionized gases of such a layer may

consist largely of helium, and its further study may lead to better

understanding of northern lights following the recent laboratory

experiments” of Vegard at Leyden and of McLennan and Shrum at

Toronto.

Another development of the survey calling for experimental work

in the laboratory is a proposed study of earth-currents at sea suggested

by Mauchly and Gish. The extent and homogeneity of the oceans of

our globe, as compared with land areas, are such that the ocean

area must be given, as we have seen from the magnetic and atmos-

pheric-electric results at sea, a large measure of consideration in the

collection of any geophysical data that assume an approach to com-

pleteness. The homogeneity acts in a number of ways to make the

sea especially favorable for the observations of earth-currents as com-

pared with any of the available solid portion of the earth’s crust.

The “penetrating radiation” or high frequency rays of cosmic origin,

recently reported upon by Millikan’ and also earlier investigated by

Kohlhorster?* and others, must have some bearing particularly on the

electric field of the earth. These results stimulate further experimen-

tal investigation in the laboratory to give more definite information

about the properties of penetrating radiation and its possible relation

to the maintenance of the earth’s charge; for example, investigations

on the nature of the scattering of hard gamma-rays from various

materials.

As regards the relations between atmospheric electricity and radio

phenomena, Dellinger’* has summarized specific interrelations to

include (1) lightning and thunder-clouds and atmospheric disturbances,

(2) variations of atmospheric potential-gradient and conductivity and

similar variations of atmospheric disturbances in field intensities,

and (3) earth’s magnetic field and upper-air conductivity and differ-

ing radio-wave propagation at various frequencies.

Among the problems of the electric field demanding further comenene

tion, as stated in the 1924 report?’ of the committee on observational

23 Comm. Phys. Lab. Univ. Leyden No. 175, 1925. London, Proc. R. Soc., A, 108:

501- 512, 1925.

24Science, 62: 445-448, 1925. Nature, 116: 823-825, 1925.

25 Die durchdringende Strahlung in der Atmosphire, Hamburg, 1924.

26 Bull. Nation. Res. Council, No. 53: 61-62, 1925.

27 Trans. Sec. Terr. Mag. Elect., Madrid, 1924.

MAR. 4, 1926 FLEMING: MAGNETIC AND ELECTRIC SURVEY 131

work in atmospheric electricity of the International Geodetic and

Geophysical Union, are: (1) Character of the annual variation of

‘potential gradient over the southern hemisphere as to whether as a

whole its maximum is in the summer or in the winter and further obser-

vations confirming the universal-time function of the daily variation

of potential gradient, a matter of fundamental importance, both call-

ing for more measurements especially at sea; (2) more measurements

for determining air-earth currents, if possible, by direct measure-

ment of the electricity passing from a portion of the earth’s surface

into the atmosphere during the whole year taking into account cur-

rent due to precipitation, these to be made at a number of widely-

distributed stations, thus affording some means of determining the

total loss of electricity from the earth’s surface; and (3) additional

measurements on the conductivity of the air and its variations and

their changes with geographic position. Other problems which lend

_ themselves better to investigation at individual stations involve the

part played by different factors in ionizing the air, the electricity of

thunder-storms and the distribution of electrical factors in the upper

air. ‘The development of instruments for air-earth currents and con-

ductivity is still in the experimental stage.

The importance of cooperative work in the study of interrelation of

solar activity and the magnetic and electric activities of the earth has

been emphasized further by consideration of international bodies includ-

ing the International Geodetic and Geophysical Union2’ in 1924 and the

International Research Council for the study of solar and terrestrial

relationships in July 1925,?8 the latter calling particular attention to the

necessity of organizing a service for the supply of information to solar

observatories as to magnetic storms, prospective or in progress.

A possible extension of the survey is indicated in Chevallier’s

recent and interesting paper?? discussing the direction of magnetiza-

tion of various lava flows at Mount Etna. Following lines indicated

by Folgheraiter, Brunhes, and others in-studies of the magnetism of

rocks and lavas and with a knowledge of the dates of eruption he has

deduced declination secular-variation curves. Perhaps by the cau-

tious use of such methods we may delve into the history of the earth’s

magnetism before the period of observation and even perhaps in geo-

logic ages. ,

In asummary of some of the interrelations of the magnetic and elec-

28 Trans. Internat. Astron. Union, 2: 186-188, 1925.

29 Ann. Phys., Paris, 4: 5-162, 1925.

132 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 16, No. 5

tric survey with other branches of physical, geophysical, and cosmical

work we may include: In oceanography and navigation—the study of

local magnetic disturbances along coast lines, on islands and at sea as

related to depths, bottom formations and earth-currents; in geology,

geodesy and seismology—relations to magnetic and electric suscep-

tibilities and character of materials in the crust of the earth, to gravity

anomalies and to isostacy; in engineering and physics—relations to

radio and telegraphic transmission, applications of magnetic and

electric methods to mineral surveys and determinations, fundamental

problems of magnetism, electricity and radiation; in meteorology and

astronomy—relations to meteorological conditions including upper-

air conditions, dust content and absorption and scattering of sun’s

radiation, to solar activity especially for measures other than visual,

to penetrating radiation, to planetary motions, and to magnetic and

electric conditions of heavenly bodies. All of these demand continued :

and incessant prosecution of the survey by observations at temporary

stations and at fixed and floating observatories on the surface of the

earth, in the upper regions of the atmosphere and in ocean depths,

and in the physical laboratory and the astronomical observatory if

we are to make nearer approach to the elucidation of the phenomena

concerned. The continued cooperative efforts of international and

national bodies and organizations and of physicists, geophysicists,

astronomers, and astrophysicists must be looked. forward to and

counted upon in an ever-increasing degree in the future development

and interpretation of the magnetic and electric survey of the earth.

PALEONTOLOGY.—New Eocene mollusks from Jackson, Miss.

WytTHE Cooks, U. 8. Geological Survey.

For many years the writer has been accumulating data for a mono-

graphic account of the stratigraphy and paleontology of the formations

of Jackson age in the United States, and from time to time he has

published short papers dealing with the stratigraphy or correlation of

some of those deposits.2. As the completion of this report has been

unavoidably delayed, it seems advisable to publish now some of the

new species which were to have been described in it.

1 Published by permission of the Director of the U. 8. Geological Survey.

2 The age of the Ocala limestone: U. 8. Geol. Survey Prof. Paper 95: 107-117. 1915.

The stratigraphic position and faunal associates of the orbitoid foraminifera of the

genus Orthophragmina from Georgia and Florida: U. 8. Geol. Survey Prof. Paper 108:

109-113. 1917.

MAR. 4, 1926 COOKE: NEW EOCENE MOLLUSKS 133

All of the shells figured in this paper are in the U. 8. National

Museum. They were collected by Dr. T. Wayland Vaughan and the

writer from the Jackson formation (upper Eocene) at the stations

listed below. With the single exception of Turritella rivurbana,

which came from the Yazoo clay member on Town Creek, all are from

the Moodys marl, which forms the basal member of the Jackson forma-

tion and underlies the Yazoo clay. The illustrations are from photo-

graphs made in the laboratory of the U. 8. Geological Survey by Mr.

W. O. Hazard and retouched by Miss Frances Wieser.

Station 4250. Moodys Branch, Jackson, Miss.; from the first

bluff below the first bridge east of the Institution for the Blind. T. W.

Vaughan, 1900.

Station 6458. Moodys Branch, Jackson, Miss.; 8. W. ¢ sec. 35,

T.6N., R.1E. Wythe Cooke 1912.

- Station 6466. Town Creek, Jackson, Miss.; 200 yards south of the

intersection of Rankin and South State Streets. Wythe Cooke, 1912.

Terebra jacksonensis Cooke, n. sp. Fig. 1

Shell slender, apical angle about 20°, suture distinct; nucleus containing

3 or 4 smooth, polished, convex whorls; postnuclear whorls 94 in type, orna-

mented by even, rounded, slightly sinuous axial ribs which are cut by an

impressed spiral line one-third the width of the whorl in front of the suture

and which become obsolete at the anterior end of the body whorl. Rounded

fasciole bordered posteriorly by a strong cord which terminates abruptly

at the inner lip. Altitude 133 mm.; lat. of body whorl 34 mm.

Station 4250, Moodys Branch, Jackson, Miss. U.S. N. M. No. 353,937. |

This species, which is very abundant in the Moodys marl member at

Jackson, somewhat resembles de Gregorio’s figure of T. andrega, which has a

deeper spiral furrow on the whorls.

Drillia dorseyi Cooke, n. sp. Fig. 2

Shell small, robust, apical angle 35° to 40°; nucleus blunt, polished, con-

taining about 33 convex whorls, about # mm. long. Postnuclear whorls

4? in type, about 23 times as wide as long; polished, smooth or very faintly

threaded back of the suture but distinctly threaded on the anterior half of

the body whorl; decorated with 11 or 12 rounded, axial ribs on each whorl.

Deposits of Claiborne and Jackson age in Georgia (jointly with H. K. Shearer):

U.S. Geol. Survey Prof. Paper 120: 41-81. 1918.

Correlation of the deposits of Jackson and Vicksburg ages in Mississippi and Ala-

bama: This JouRNAL 8: 186-198. 1918.

Correlation of the Eocene formations in Mississippi and Alabama: U. S. Geol.

Survey Prof. Paper 140: 133-136. 1925.

The Cenozoic formations [of Alabama]: Alabama Geol. Survey, Geology of Alabama

(in press).

134 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 16, No. 5

Suture distinct, somewhat flexuous. Canal straight; aperture about two-

thirds as long as the body whorl. Outerlip broken. Alt. 54. mm.; lat. 2mm.

Station 4250, Moodys Branch, Jackson, Miss. U.S. N. M. No. 358,988.

Drillia dorsey2 is smaller, less slender, and has a somewhat shorter nucleus

than D. tantula (Conrad) from the Byram, marl at Vicksburg. A somewhat

larger shell of 5 whorls, measuring 65 mm. in altitude and 2; mm. in latitude,

has only 7 ribs on each whorl. It may be a distinct variety.

Pleurotoma julia Cooke, n. sp. Fig. 3

Shell small, fusiform; apical angle about 30°. Nucleus large, smooth,

tip broken, 25 whorls remaining. Postnuclear whorls 4+ in type, shouldered

cancellated; entire whorl covered by regularly spaced and nearly equal spiral

threads, 7 threads on the third whorl; many low, rounded, protractive ribs

becoming obsolete on the body whorl. Canal straight; aperture wide,

three-sevenths as long as the shell; columella smooth; outer lip thin, smooth

within. Sinus adjacent to the suture, shallow. Altitude 7 mm.; latitude

2+ mm.

Station 4250, Moodys Branch, Jackson, Miss. U.S. N. M. No. 353,939.

This pretty little species, of which only one specimen is in the National

Museum collection, is given the obsolete name ‘“‘Pleurotoma”’ because of the

chaotic condition of the nomenclature of the Turritidae.

Cancellaria jacksonica Cooke, n. sp. Fig. 4

Shell large, stout, falsely umbilicated, apical angle about 60°. Nucleus

naticoid, of 2 smooth whorls. Postnuclear whorls 5 in type, decorated with

many spiral threads; ribs retractive, making an angle of about 25° with the

axis, about twice as thick as the threads; 13 moderately large varices on type.

Pillar lip with 3 folds; outer lip with 9 denticulations. Altitude 15 mm.;

latitude 83 mm.

Station 4250, Moodys Branch, Jackson, Miss. U.S.N.M. No. 353,940.

Cancellaria jacksonica is very abundant in the Moodys marl member of

the Jackson formation at Jackson. It is stouter, more profusely ribbed, and

has larger varices and more denticulations than C. mississippiensis Conrad,

from Vicksburg.

' Olivella jacksonensis Cooke, n. sp. Fig. 5

Shell small, spire high, apical angle about 40°. Nucleus spherical, ? mm.

in diameter. Whorls 43 or 5, slightly convex, suture deep; no deposit of

enamel behind the suture. Altitude 11 mm.; latitude 4 mm.; altitude of

outer lip 55 mm.

Station 4250, Moodys Branch, sere ee Miss. U.S. N. M. No. 353,941.

This species is very common in the Moodys marl member at Jackson.

Most of the shells are a little smaller than the type. O.jacksonensts is similar

in general aspect to specimens from the Gosport sand at Claiborne, Ala.,

labelled Oliva gracilis Lea, which are somewhat higher-spired and have

larger nuclei. The suture is like that of O. mississippiensis Conrad from

the Byram marl at Vicksburg, but O. mzssisstppiensis is much higher-spired

and its nucleus is much larger.

Conomitra jacksonensis Cooke, n. sp. Fig. 6

Shell fusiform, stout, apical angle about 45°. Nucleus small, globular,

smooth. Postnuclear whorls 5}, cancellated, turrited; entire whorl except

Figs. 1-17.—Fig. 12 natural size; all others X 2.

1—Terebra jacksonensis; 2—Drillia dorseyi; 3—Pleurotoma julia; 4—Cancellaria

jacksonica; 5—Olivella jacksonensis; 6—Conomitra jacksonensis; 7—Alectrion jacksonen-

sis; 8—Turritella jacksonensis; 9—Turritella lowet; 10—Turritella rivurbana; 11—E pi-

tonium cribrum; 12—Levifusus moodianus; 13—Barbatia jacksonensis; 14—Spisula jack-

sonensis; 15—Tellina vicksburgensis var. moodiana; 16—Tellina vaughani ; 17—Cardium

gardnerae.

135

136 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 16, No. 5

a narrow band in front of the suture covered with fine, impressed, spiral

lines; axial sculpture of close, rounded riblets with interspaces as wide as

the ribs, tending to form beads on the sutural band, becoming obsolete near

the aperture. Inner lip with 4 strong, straight, parallel folds; outer lip with

14 threads within. Altitude 85 mm.; latitude 4 mm.

Station 4250, Moodys Branch, Jackson, Miss. U.S. N. M. No. 353,942.

This species greatly resembles Conomitra fusoides (Lea), but its protoconch

is smaller and its sculpture more uniform and more persistent than in the

species from Claiborne.

Alectrion jacksonensis Cooke, n. sp. Fig. 7

Shell small, robust, apical angle 50°. Nucleus small, smooth, globular,

about 3 whorls. Postnuclear whorls 5, with a narrow band in front of the

suture cut into beads by the ribs; area between the band and the periphery

crossed by about 4 spiral striae; base of body whorl with spiral threads;

axial riblets high, narrow. Outer lip thick, with 6 strong threads within;

columella straight, short, with 5 short folds. Canal outcurved. Altitude

7% mm., latitude 4 mm.

Station 4250, Moodys Branch, Jackson, Miss. U.S. N. M. No. 353,943.

The type of Alectrion jacksonensis 1s unique.

Turritella jacksonensis Cooke, n. sp. Fig. 8

Shell rapidly expanding; apical angle 25°. Suture impressed. Whorls

postero-medially constricted, twice as broad as high, ornamented with faintly

nodular spiral threads which continue over the base. Growth lines deeply

sinuated on the constriction and gently flexed on the periphery. Altitude

20 mm.; latitude 7 mm. ;

Station 4250, Moodys Branch, Jackson, Miss. U.S. N. M. No. 353,944.

Turritella lowei Cooke, n. sp. Fig. 9

Shell slender, apical angle 20°, becoming stouter with increasing growth.

First 8 or 10 whorls nearly cylindrical or slightly constricted; later whorls

flat. Suture deeply depressed; growth lines sigmoid. Sculpture of faint,

spiral threads becoming more conspicuous on larger whorls; many young

shells appear almost smooth. One or two whorls broken from tip of type;

12 whorls remaining. Altitude 23 mm.; latitude 8 mm.

Station 4250, Moodys Branch, Jackson, Miss. U.S. N. M. No. 353,945,

Turritella rivurbana Cooke, n.sp. Fig. 10

Apical angle about 20°. Whorls carinated, slightly constricted medially,

suture depressed; spiral sculpture of one strong thread on the carina and

several finer, widely spaced threads. Altitude of a fragment of 5 whorls

17 mm.; latitude 8 mm. .

Station 6466, Town Creek, Jackson, Miss., U. S. N. M. No. 353,946.

In form, this species resembles T’.. carinata Lea from Claiborne, but lacks

the crowded, microscopic, spiral threads, its suture is more depressed, and it

differs also in the direction of its growth lines. In front of the carina the

growth lines of 7’. rivurbana are strongly protractive (bent clockwise to the

axis), making an obtuse angle with the lines behind the carina, but in T.

carinata they are retractive and make an acute angle.

MAR. 4, 1926 COOKE: NEW EOCENE MOLLUSKS 137

Epitonium cribrum Cooke, n. sp. Fig. li

Subulate, apical angle about 25°. Nucleus small, of at least 4 smooth

convex whorls (broken in type); 10 succeeding whorls moderately convex.

Entire surface (including base and varices) covered by fine, close-set, reticu-

lating threads which produce a punctate or sievelike appearance under the

microscope. Axial sculpture of low, rounded, retractive ribs which become

fainter on the larger whorls; strong, round, cordlike varices on fourth and

seventh whorls and at the aperture; base with one strong cord. Altitude

23 mm.; latitude 8 mm.

Station 4250, Moodys Branch, Jackson, Miss. U.S. N. M. No. 353,947.

Levifusus moodianus Cooke, n. sp. Fig. 12

Shell stout, apical angle 75°. Nucleus smooth, whorls rounded (tip

broken). Postnuclear whorls 53, rounded, becoming faintly shouldered,

covered with close spiral threads except a bare band on the anterior part of

the body whorl. Canal fong, straight (tip broken). Inner lip with two

low broad folds. Outer lip thin, smooth within (broken). Altitude 31}

mm.; latitude 20 mm.

Station 6458, Moodys Branch, Jackson, Miss. U.S. N. M. No. 353,948.

Barbatia jacksonensis Cooke, n. sp. Fig. 13a—b

Shell small, inflated, trapezoidal; beaks at the anterior fourth; with a

more or less well defined depression extending from the umbones to the ven-

tral margin; sharply angulated on the posterior slope; posterior border acutely

angulated with the base; exterior surface strongly ribbed, the ribs some-

what farther apart on the posterior slope than elsewhere, strongly imbricated

in harmony with the lines of growth. Longitude 13 mm.; altitude 8 mm.;

semidiameter 3 mm.

Station 6458, Moodys Branch, Jackson, Miss. U.S. N.M. No. 353,949.

This species is much smaller than B. cuculloides, from the young of which

it differs in its greater inflation, stronger ribs, and much coarser and more

even imbrication, which imparts to B. jacksonensis a cancellated appearance

like a tile roof.

Spisula jacksonensis Cooke, n. sp. Fig. 14a-c

Shell small, subovate, moderately inflated; beaks central, adjacent; sur-

face smooth except the dorsal areas, which are wrinkled; anterior dorsal

area slightly depressed; base arcuate; pallial sinus little longer than wide,

rounded in front; hinge with strong ventral lateral laminae, adjacent sides

of laminae striated; arms of cardinal tooth of left valve forming a right angle.

Longitude 8.2 mm.; altitude 6.2 mm.; semidiameter 2 mm.

Station 6458, Moodys Branch, Jackson, Miss. U.S. N. M. No. 353,950.

The type of Spisula jacksonensis is a left valve. This very abundant

species differs from S. funerata (Conrad) from Vicksburg in its central beaks,

more rounded base and shoulders, and in the symmetrical position and rec-

tangular shape of its left cardinal tooth, which in S. funerata is twisted for-

ward and forms an acute angle. ,

Tellina vicksburgensis var. moodiana Cooke, n. var. Fig. 15a-b

The variety at Jackson differs from the typical form at Vicksburg in its

138 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 16, No. 5

larger size, proportionately greater altitude, and slightly stronger sculpture.

Longitude 113 mm.; altitude 8 mm. semidiameter 23 mm.

Station 4250, Moodys Branch, Jackson Miss. U.S. N. M. No. 353,951.

Tellina vaughani Cooke, n. sp. Fig. 16a—b

Shell subelliptical, beaks slightly anterior, moderately inflated; anterior

end somewhat more acute than the posterior; surface covered with close,

flat, concentric threads which are fewer, narrower, and farther apart on the

dorsal slopes. Longitude 11} mm.; altitude 8 mm.; semidiameter 3 mm.

Station 4250, Moodys Branch, Jackson, Miss. U.S. N. M. No. 353,952.

Cardium (Laevicardium) gardnerae Cooke, n. sp. Fig. 17a—b

Shell small, rather thick, subcircular; entire surface smooth and polished,

with faint radial markings; faintly ribbed within; worn shells more or less

cancellated, with concentric ridges or wrinkles predominating; original color

apparently purple. Longitude 84 mm.; altitude 8 mm.; semidiameter

25 mm.

Station 4250, Moodys Branch, Jackson, Miss. U.S. N. M. No. 353,953.

PROCEEDINGS OF THE ACADEMY AND AFFILIATED

SOCIETIES

ANTHROPOLOGICAL SOCIETY

591ST MEETING

The 591st meeting was held in the New National Museum October 20, 1925.

Dr. Joun M. Coopsr read a paper on The Tétes de Boule of the upper St.

Maurice, basing his remarks on two visits to them, one in 1916, the other

in June, 1925. They are a hunting and trapping people who occupy most of

the watershed of the St. Maurice River in Quebec, the northern band strad-

dling at points the Hudson Bay divide. Some of the anthropometrical aver-

ages obtained for adult men were: stature, 168.6; cephalic index, 80.67;

face breadth, 147.4. The linguistic material gathered seems to show quite

clearly that the language spoken is a Cree dialect. ‘The Tétes de Boule thus

appear as the easternmost Cree. The chief phonetic change is Téte de Boule

r for common Cree y. The northern band of the Tétes de Boule call them-

selves Obidjiwan iriniw&k, “men of Obidjiwan.” They have the typical

northeastern family hunting grounds, with inheritance usually in the male

line and with use of selection and rotation for conserving the game supply.

Marriage is usually patrilocal. Women are well treated. No trace of sib

organization or of totemic tendencies was found. ‘The chief has very limited

power. There are two assistant chiefs. The chieftaincy is not necessarily

hereditary, but actually tends to pass from father to son. Among the ado-

lescent boys and girls, chums are common, but no indication of the gang ap-

peared. Baskets are decorated with spruce root, but the double-curve mo-

tive, quill and moose hair ornamentation, and bark etching are absent.

Psychically the Tétes de Boule are characterized by evenness of temper,

good humor, truthfulness and honesty, and socially by marked peacefulness

and democratic spirit. The social atmosphere and organization is distinctly

non-competitive, even competitive play being seemingly absent.

MAR. 4, 1926 PROCEEDINGS: ANTHROPOLOGICAL SOCIETY. 139

592D MEETING

The 592d meeting was held in the National Museum, November 17, 1925.

"Dr. AuES HrpuicKa addressed a crowded hall on Ancient man in the far

east. He had just returned from a trip around the world made to study at

first hand some of the crucial evidence on primitive man of the past and

present. He dealt more particularly with the Rhodesian skull. As a result

of his research and observation at the Broken Hill mine, he has been able to

clear up many of the uncertainties that have surrounded the discovery

of this remarkable specimen. It was found by a miner near the lower end

of an old bone- and detritus-filled cave that sloped down from the former

surface. The upper part of the cave was largely filled with a great quantity

of animal bones, among them a few human remains, and some stone arte-

facts. The long bones, including the human ones, had been broken or split

to extract the marrow. Beyond this part of the cave was a stratum, thirty

feet thick, of laminated soft lead ore, separating the anterior from the lower

posterior section of the cave. The skull of Rhodesian man was found in the

lower section, at a depth of 60 feet from the surface. It was not associated

with other bones, but not far from it was found a human tibia and a fossil

skull of a lion. The bones brought with the skull to England, aside from

the tibia, may not belong to the lower part of the cave. These remains are

from both male and female skeletons, show varying alteration, and clearly

do not belong with the skull. The skull itself was found resting upright

and intact, without the lower jaw, in a pocket of detritus and ‘‘bat’’ bones,

as if put there intentionally. It showed originally no scratches or damage.

Below it was found what looked to the discoverers like a roll of mineralized

thick hide, and still lower and at some distance the human tibia and lion’s

skull. The last has apparently disappeared since the discovery. ‘The roll

may have been laminated lead ore. It was smelted, as was the mass of miner-

alized bones from the outer part of the cave. How the skull came to be in

such a place at the base of the cave, and who may have put it there, are

questions which may never be answered. Nor is it possible at present

definitely to classify Rhodesian man among any of the human races of the

past or present. The find will probably remain a great anthropological

enigma until further evidence bearing on this form of man be discovered,

593D MEETING

The 593d meeting was held on December 15, 1925. Mr. W.H. Jackson,

photographer (1870-79) to the Hayden Geological Surveys, related his Ez-

periences with the Pawnee Indians 50 years ago, his address being illustrated

with slides from his negatives made in 1868-71. Mr. Jackson crossed the

plains to California in 1866, the last year of overland travel by wagon train.

Returning eastward as far as Omaha, he went into the business of photog-

raphy, making pictures of the Indians, frequent visitors to the city, and of

their outlying villages, with occasional trips to take views along the com-

pleted portions of the Union Pacific Railroad. The Pawnee Reservation,

where most of the pictures were made, was on the Loup Fork of the Platte

River, about 100 miles west of Omaha. The two principal villages, com-

posed entirely of earthen lodges 30 to 60 feet in diameter, at the eastern end

of the reservation, were the ones most frequently visited. Lieut. Long, who

had passed that way 50 years previously, had estimated the Pawnee there to

number 10,000 or more, but disease and constant warfare with the neighbor-

140 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 16, No. 5

ing Sioux, had reduced them to less than one-fourth of this number. Further

aggressions, intensified because of the enlistment of many Pawnees in the army

to assist in protecting overland travel, led finally to their removal to the ~

Indian Territory and the entire abandonment of their villages by 1875.

Besides detailed views of the villages, typical portraits, and the Industrial

School with groups of children, ‘‘before and after’ illustrations were shown in

conclusion of the laborious and complicated ‘‘wet plate” process for making

photographs 50 years ago. )

JoHN M. Coopnmr, Secretary. —

SCIENTIFIC NOTES. AND NEWS

Dr. R. B. Sosman of the Geophysical Laboratory, Carnegie Institution of

Washington, is giving a continuation of a course of lectures on “‘Geophysics,”

begun at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology last year. The general

subject of the present series is Elastic waves and the Earth’s structure.

The Ore Deposits Club met at the Geological Survey on February 19, to

discuss the subject of Zoning of ore deposits.

The Pick and Hammer Club met at the Geological Survey on February 20.

Program: Kirk Bryan: Application of geology to archaeology; T.S. LoVERING:

Organic precipitation of copper.

Corrigenda.—The following corrections are to be made in the preceding

issue of the JouRNAL: p. 88, 14th line from bottom, for “tendon” read “tenon”

and for “‘nearly” read “‘neatly’’; p. 88, 12th line from bottom, the parenthesis

should close with “‘long”’ and a comma should follow “‘branch’’; p. 91, 9th and

10th lines, read ‘it appeared that, after becoming loaded with the molecules,

they could not pass’ instead of ‘‘it appeared that the molecules were so

crowded that they could not pass”; p. 91, 22d line, strike out “‘which’’; p. 91,

9th line from bottom, read ‘“‘may”’ instead of ‘‘could”’.

ANNOUNCEMENTS OF THE MEETINGS OF THE ACADEMY AND

: _ AFFILIATED SOCIETIES*

tRatinday, March 6. The Philosophical Society.

Tuesday, March 9. Joint meeting of the AcapEmy and the Ameri-

can Institute of Electrical Engineers. Program:

Dr. Ratex Bown: Some interesting things about radio transmission.

. Wednesday, March 10. The Geological Society.

Thursday, March 11. The Chemical Society.

Saturday, March 13. The Biological Society.

‘Tuesday, March 16. The Anthropological Society.

Thursday, March 18. Joint meeting of the Acapremy, the Chemical

Society, and the Philosophical Society of Washington. Program:

Dr. Epwin E. Stosson: The chemical interpretation of history.

*The programs of the meetings of the affiliated societies will appear on this page if

sent to the editors by the thirteenth and the twenty-seventh day of each month,

CONTENTS

| Ontainat Papurs — a ss

Terrestrial Magnetism.—The conerivtie and electric cline of the

FLEMING «2.0.0 s eee eee eee ete eee ec eee e sees eet ees eeeeeeee

PROCEEDINGS _ oi

The Anthropological Society... <+..:<seass-+-eshs-shabvn4-coeeee eee :

Scnunture Norns Np Nawa!: +... 05. 2i.. ce. etch eh ee ee oe

OFFICERS OF THE ACADEMY __

President: Guorce K. Burauss, Bureau of Standards. __ et

Corresponding ars Francis B. crete Bureau of — ads

Vol. 16 Marca 19, 1926 No. 6

4 ‘

ee. OF THE

BOARD OF EDITORS —

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@EOLOGICAL SURVEY DEPARTMENT OF TERRESTRIAL MAGNETISM BUREAU PLANT INDUSTRY

ASSOCIATE EDITORS

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PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY ENTOMOLOGICAL SOCIETY

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BIOLOGICAL SOCIETY GEOLOGICAL SOCIETY

R. F. Griaees J. R. SWANTON

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JOURNAL

OF THE

WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

Vou. 16 Marcu 19, 1926 No. 6

MATHEMATICS.—-A simple formula for welding curves in graduating

observational data.1. JoHN Rick Miner. (Communicated by

RAYMOND PBHARL.)

In smoothing data it often happens that a single curve will not fit

the whole range satisfactorily and it is therefore necessary to fit differ-

ent sub-ranges with different curves. As these curves will in general

have different slopes at their points of intersection it will often be

desirable, in order to avoid the discontinuity in the first derivative

that this involves, to use some kind of welding formula which will

make a less abrupt transition from the one curve to the other. This

may be done by the use of two parabolic segments, each tangent to

one of the curves and to the other segment. Let the interval over

which the welding formula is to be used be 2n. We know the ordinate,

Y —n, and slope, y’_», of the first curve ¢, at « = —n, and the ordinate,

Yn, and slope, y’», of the second curve ¢, at x = n. Our problem is

then to find the coefficients of f: = ao + aww + aor? and fo = bo +

6,2 + box? so that

ee fi (en) S49 fs (Hn) = 9!

the condition that f; shall be tangent to ¢, at —n

Fo (M) = Yn F's (NM) = Y'n

the condition that f, eaT be tangent to ¢: at n

Fr (0) = fe (0), f1 0) = f’2 O),

the condition that f; and f. shall be tangent to each other at 0.

1 Received January 28, 1926. Communication from the Institute for Biological

Research of the Johns Hopkins University.

141

142 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 16, No. 6

That is

Qo — NA, + NA. = Yn (1)

d4 — 2nd, = y'—n (2)

bo + nb, + n*bo = Yn (3)

6b, + 2nb, = Jia (4)

Ay = bo | (5)

a, = by (6)

Eliminating a, and a, respectively from (1) and (2), and b, and 6b. from

(3) and (4) |

2a) —nd, = 2y_, + ny’ _n (7)

Oy 18 = 9 ey (8)

2b, +nb, = 2y, — ny’'n (9)

bo — nb» Sia a ny’ n (10)

But from (5), (6), (7) and (9)

doi = by 5 Ua + Ys) — 4 > — oe (11)

1 Oey /

A, = by = 7 Ya — Yon) > 5 Yn T Yn) (12)

and from (8) and (10)

ay —i75 (Gq 2 (13)

bs = x2 (bo — Yn + y's) (14)

As an example we may take the values of 1000q. for material in

course of reduction in this laboratory. Up to 57 years these are fitted

with? :

y = 6.795105

which at 57 years has an ordinate of 13.449, and a slope of 0.287 per

year, while from 63 years up they are fitted with?

y = 264 — 1132 + 14.40? — 0.4823

which at 63 years has an ordinate of 26.236, and a slope of 4.541 per

year.

Therefore n = 3,

ao = bo = $ (26.236 + 18.449) — # (4.541 — 0.287)

19.843 — 3.191 = Seep

a; = b, = 2 (26.236 313449) = 2 (er ae

— 4262 = 2.414 =) ee

ay = 4 (10,652 = 13.449" 35 9287) = a oen2

col col

be = 4% (16.652 — 26.236 + 3 X 4.541) = + 0.4488

2 These equations are taken with origin at 25 years and with a five-year interval

for the x unit.

a ee a ee rn ete)

MAR. 19, 1926 MEGGERS AND LAPORTE: SPECTRUM REGULARITIES 143

The ordinates for the different years are therefore as shown in

Table 1.

: TABLE 1.—OrRpDINATES

YEAR z 10009,

o7 —3 13.45

58 —2 14.00

59 | —1 15.06

60 0 16.65

61 +1 18.95

62 +2 22.14

63 +3 26.24

SPECTROSCOPY .—Are spectrum regularities for ruthenuum.’ W. F.

MEGGERS AND Otto Laporte, Bureau of Standards.

In a preliminary note on this subject the authors described? under-

_ water-spark observations which led to the identification of the lowest

term in the ruthenium spectrum. ‘This was a 5-fold term with separa-

tions 392.2, 621.7, 900.9, 1190.8 cm.~, which from analogy with the

structure of the iron spectrum was regarded as a quintet-D term. The

lack of Zeeman-effect data for the identification of absolute quantum

- numbers was deprecated and it was announced that new observations

were being made in coéperation with Prof. B. E. Moore of the Uni-

versity of Nebraska. ‘The untimely death of Professor Moore inter-

rupted these experiments, but the kind offer of Prof. H. H. Marvin to

continue them finally put us in possession of some data. Meanwhile

L. A. Sommer in Gé6ttingen has also observed? some Zeeman patterns

for ruthenium lines, and has indicated that the lowest term is in reality

a quintet-F term, requiring that all our quantum numbers be in-

creased by one unit. This has been confirmed by our own measure-

ments, some of which appear in Table 2. The purpose of this paper

is to make this correction and to extend the analysis of the are spec-

trum of ruthenium. )

There are presented in Table 1 eighteen multiplets which have been

selected as representative of quintet, triplet, and inter-system com-

binations. The notation‘ here employed is that which is now in

1 Published by permission of the Director of the Bureau of Standards of the Depart-

ment of Commerce.

' 2 Science, 61: 635. 1925.

3 Die Naturwissenschaften, 13: 840. 1925.

* Astrophys. Journ., 61: 60. 1925.

144 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 16, NO. 6

TABLE 1.—MULTIPLETS IN THE Ru I Spectrum

BR s....- LOO. 8ai.< Bg t....900.9.2,, gs G27, 5B 392.2 SR

5D, 3799. 34(8)a 3979. 44(5) 4127.46(3)

26312.9 25122.1 24291.2

1194.0

5D; 3798.90(8)a 3983.55(4) 4032.21(3)

26316.0 25415.2 24793.3

‘

969.2 |

5D» 3790.50(10)a 3882.00(3) 3942.06(3) :

26374.3 25752.6 25360.3

652.9

5D, 3786.05(10)a 3843.07(3) :

26405.3 26013. 4 :

451.1

‘Dy | 3777.58 (3)a

26464. 5

SF,’ | 3728.03(10R)a 3901.24(4)

26816.2 25625.6

1198.7

5F, | 3568.47(1) —- 3726.93(10R)a 3856.39(3)

_-(28015.2 26824. 1 25923.7

875.5

5B,’ 3609.10(2) 3730.44(4)a 3819.04(4)

27699.9 26798.9 26177.2

536.9.

5F,’ 3657.17(2) - 8742.29(10)a 3798.06 (3)

27335.8 26714.0 26321.8

266.2

oF, 3705.36(2) 3760.03(4) 4

26980. 3 26588 .0

Buy

MAR. 19, 1926

SRE loU.o OR,

5Ge *3498.95(50R)a

28571.8

1707.9

Ten 3301.59(8)a

30279.7

— 388.8

en 3344. 53 (8)

29891 .0

646.2

1163.2

1372.5

TABLE 1—Continued.

*3436.74(30R)a

29089 .0

3483. 32 (4)

28700. 1

3406. 59 (2)

29346. 5

3348. 69 (2)

29853. 8

900.9

MEGGERS AND LAPORTE: SPECTRUM REGULARITIES

Ss ( 62157

3596. 17(20)a

27799.4

3514. 50(3)a

28445.4

3463. 14(8)

28867. 2

3452.91(3)

28952.8

3319. 52(1)

30116.2

145

5B, 392.2 SPY

3593.03 (20)a

27823. 7

3539.37 (4)a 3589.23 (5)a

28245.5 27853.2

3528.70(5)

28331.0

3389. 50(3) 3435.20(3)

29494. 5 29102.1

3238.77 (2) 3280. 46(3)

30867.0 30474.7

30348. 3

3294.13(10)a

3428. 65(4)a

29157.7

3204.04 (2)

31201.6

3037.96(5)a

28256. 9

3299. 34(2)

30300. 4

3216. 61 (3)

31080. 6

3368. 45(8)a

29678.8

(?) 3325.00(3)

30458. 8 30066. 6

146

SH dl 90.8

8Gs (?)

28495.2

1395.9

8Ga 3304. 81 (2)

30250. 2

1962.0

3G;

‘=D, 5309. 26 (20)

18829.8

1194.0

5D, 4992.73(7)

20023. 6

969.2

sf,’ 5171.02 (40)

19333.2

1198.7

oR! 4869. 16 (25)

-|20531.7

875.5

oP,’ 4669. 96(8)

21407.5

536.9

1092.6

TABLE 1—Continued.

5K, 900.9 oF’,

3661.34(6)a

27304.6

3440. 22(3) 3550. 28 (3)

29059. 6 28158.8

3260. 36(5)a

30662. 6 29761.5

5D’, 608.2 sD’,

5636. 23 (35)

17737.5

5280.81 (4) 5456. 13(8)

18931.2 18322.9

5026. 17(8) 5184.72 (2)

19890.3 19282.1

5014. 95(8)

19934.8

5142.76(8)

-19439.4

4921.08(12) 5072.97(7)

20315. 1 19706.8

4794.38(4) 4938. 43 (10)

20851.9 20243.7

4874.33 (3)

20509.9

621.7

3359.09 (5)a

436.6

JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 16, No. 6

5, 392.2 oF

3430.77 (5)a

29139.7

‘Dp ? 5D"o

5304. 85(7)

18845. 5

5127.25(5) (?)

19498.2 (?)

5011.22(9)

19949. 7

5047. 30(6)

19807. 1

4980.35(9)

20073.3 (2)

MAR. 19, 1926 MEGGERS AND LAPORTE: SPECTRUM REGULARITIES 147

TABLE 1—Continued.

‘1D’, 1092.6 5D’; 608.2 *D’, 436.6 sD, 2 Sa

5G,

1707.9

5G; 4385. 40(4)

22796. 6

—388.8

5G, (?) 4690. 11(5)

22407.9 21315.5

646.2

5G; | 4336.42(2) 4552.10(5) 4681. 79(10)

23054.0 21961.7 21353.4

421.8

5G. 4466.34(1) 4591. 11(6) (?)

22383.4 2175.2 21338.6

5P, — 727.1 ea 1029.2 =

sDy 5699.06 (20)

17541.9

1194.0

5D, 5335. 92(10) 5136. 55(25)

18735.7 19462.9

969.2

5D, 5076.07 (5) 4895. 28(6) 5155. 12(12)

19694. 8 20422..2 19392.8

652.9

‘D, 4743.66 (1) 4987. 25(5)

21074.9 20045.5

451.1

je “3 4877.41(3)

20496.7

148 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 16, No. 6

TABLE 1—Continued.

SPs — 727.1 SP, 1029.2 bP,

oF,

1198.7

5h,’ 5195.01 (10)

19243.9

875.5

5F 3’ 4968.87 (7) 4795.57 (6)

20119.7 20846. 8

536.9

by,’ 4839.75(4) 4675.19(1) 4911.58(3)

20656. 5 21383.5 20354. 4

266.2

sy)’ 4617.66(3) 4848.17 (2)

21650.0 20620.6

5G,

1707 9

— 388.8

5G, 4733.47 (12)

21120.3

646.2

5G; 4593.08 (1) 4444 .50(3)

21765.8 22493 .4

421.8

5G. 4505. 64(1) 4362.71(1) 4567.92(1)

22188.2 22915.1 21885.7

TABLE 1—Continuea.

1539.4 af,

4354. 14(5)

22960. 2

4144.18(10)

24123.4

4490. 22 (3)

22264.4

4112.76(8)

24307. 8

3984.86(10) —

25087 .9

973.4

MEGGERS AND LAPORTE: SPECTRUM REGULARITIES

3K,

4546.93 (1)

21986.7

4318.43 (3)

23150.0

4076.75(8)

24522.5

4284. 34(5)

23334. 3

4145.75(8)

24114.3

149

_- '"'-——- OOoOoOoono—w—ooo??*9@"@”'_—_—__— oO———— ns ww — es

Pe : 5 ON se

MAR. 19, 1926

sR,

sD; 4080. 63 (20)

24499 .2

1163.2

s—D,

1372.5

3D,

shy’ 4199.91(10)a

23803.3

2043.6

3H,’ 3867. 82(8)

25847.1

730.0

3F,’

8G; 4554. 52 (50) a

21950. 1

1755.0

en 4217. 28(5)

23705.3

1602.6

8G, 3950. 22 (3)

25307.9

4510. 12(8)

22166.2

4206.02 (5)

23768.8

4385.66(4) -

22795. 2

150

1194.0

969.2

652.9

451.1

JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 16, NO. 6

sf,

5057. 33 (30)

19767.8

4769.30 (9)

20961. 6

4931.72 (0)

20271.3

4656. 42 (3)

21469. 7

4473. 92(4)

29345.5

TABLE 1—Continued.

3H’, 973.4

5484. 33 (10)

18228.7

5147. 24(10)

19422.5

4905.01 (4)

20381. 7

5015.99 (0)

19930. 7

4804. 87 (8)

20806. 4

4684.02 (10)

21343. 2

aR,

5418. 85(6)

18449.0

5151.06(8)

19408. 1

4983.44(4)

20060. 9

5040.74(6)

19833. 3

4907. 88(8)

20369.8

4844. 54(9)

20636.0

MAR. 19, 1926 MEGGERS AND LAPORTE: SPECTRUM REGULARITIES 151

TABLE 1—Concluded.

“Bis 1539.4 sh, 973.4 aF,

4212.08(10)

23734.6

4282.20(2) 4584. 45(30)

93346.0 21806. 8

4166. 88(3) 3 (?) 4654. 31(10)

23992. 1 22452.9 21479.5

4370.42 (2) 4564. 69 (5)

22874.7 21901. 2

common use for the symbolical description of regularities in line

spectra except that the letters 8, P, D, F, G are understood to corre-

spond to / values 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, respectively, / representing the quantized

sum of the & values of all the individual electrons. The spectral

term symbols are shown at the margins together with the separations

of the sub-levels. Wave lengths in air, intensity estimates (in paren-

theses) and wave numbers in vacuum represent the spectral data,

the measurements of Kayser® being used from the ultraviolet to 4500A

and those of Meggers® for the longer waves. Because of the larger

scale of intensities given by Exner and Haschek’ their estimates have

been quoted instead of Kayser’s. Lines which we have observed as

absorbed in under-water-spark spectra are marked a; the raves ultimes

are indicated by asterisks. The present grouping of the higher levels

depends, in a few cases, on the rules for spectral line intensities and

separations of sub-levels, and since it has been shown that these rules

are frequently violated in spectra of the heavier atoms it may be neces-

sary to revise some of the higher level groups when more conclusive

data are available. <A host of still higher levels has been found but

5 Astrophys. Journ., 7: 101. 1898.

7 Spektren der Elemente bei normalem Druck II: 212. 1911.

152 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 16, No. 6

these are reserved until further Zeeman-effect observations permit

unambiguous assignment of their / values.

For the purpose of observing Zeeman effects an alloy of ruthenium

and platinum was prepared by Dr. E. Wichers of this Bureau. Elec-

trodes of this alloy were supplied to the Brace Laboratory of Physics

where the exposures were made, the films being returned to the Bureau

of Standards for measurement. Between the wave-length limits 3428

and 4552A the Zeeman patterns of 34 ruthenium arc lines were photo-

eraphed. Most of these naturally involve the low *F term since the

strongest lines of the spectrum originate with this term. On account

of the relatively large quantum numbers the majority of lines are

very complex in a magnetic field and are therefore difficult to resolve;

only those involving the quantum transition 7 — 7 between terms of

the same / values are simple triplets. Some of the latter and two

unaffected lines are listed in Table 2. The separations are expressed

TABLE 2.—ZEEMAN EFFECTS FOR RUTHENIUM LINES

ZEEMAN EFFECT

aN COMBINATION

Observed Theoretical

3726.93 = ie (0) 1.36 (0) 1.35

3728.03 bh, — 5B! (0) 1.40 (0) 1.40

3730.44 5, — SF,’ (0) 1.26 (0) 1.25

3742.29 ap — 5! (0) 1.05 (0) 1.00

3760.03 5R, — 5Fy/ (0) 0 (0) 0

3777.58 bf, — 5D, (0) 0 (0) 0

4112.76 aR, — 3F,/ (0) 1.16 (0) 1.08

4145.75 3p = Sikly! (0) 0.69 (0) 0.67

4199.91 iF, = any | (0) 1.27 (0) 1.25

in terms of a normal triplet; the perpendicular components follow the

parallel ones which are enclosed in parentheses. Comparison of the

observed and theoretical patterns shows that the Landé® g values are

fairly well represented by these particular levels. Considerably larger

deviations may be expected for the Zeeman effects of lines involving

the higher terms.

The spectral terms for ruthenium, like those for iron, are inverted

but the separations of the sub-levels are much larger. After assigning

the value zero to *F;, which is the lowest energy level of the normal

ruthenium atom, the relative values of the levels combining to give

the multiplets of Table 1 were computed. ‘These relative term values

and the corresponding term symbols are presented in Table 3. The

8 Zeit. f. Physik, 15: 189. 1923.

a -— ™

(ao

MAR. 19, 1926 MEGGERS AND LAPORTE: SPECTRUM REGULARITIES 153

interval rule cannot be said to be obeyed by any of these terms al-

though most of the low levels satisfy the rule better than the higher

ones. ‘Thus the low *F term has separation ratios 5:3.8:2.6:1.6, the

higher *F’ has ratios 5:3.6:2.2:1.1, whereas the rule in both cases

requires 5:4:3:2. Similarly 3F has separations in the ratio 5:3.2, and

3H’ in the ratio 5:1.9; both should be 5:4 according to rule. Attention

is called especially to the irregular intervals 1707.9, —388.8, 646.2,

421.8 in the ®G term and —727.1, 1029.2 in the *P term. In the are

spectrum of iron where, in general, the interval rule is more exactly

fulfilled, the strictly analogous terms are also irregular as to their

separations. They are —61.5, 474.9, 354.3, 244.8 for °G and 176.8,

200.4 for ®P.

TABLE 3.—RELATIVE TERMS IN THE Rv I SPECTRUM

oF, 0.0 ’5Da 28466.0

oF, 1190.8 3G 28495. 4

by, 2091.7 5G 28571.8

oF, 9713.4 oF! 28890. 7

5Fy 3105.6 EDs 29118.9

aR, 6545.0 ois 29427 .5

5D,’ 7483.0 5D 29570. 1

Py 8044.0 5F,’ 29693.8

3F, 8084. 4 5G 29891.0

oSiD.! 8575.6 3G 30250. 4

5P, STL al Ter 30279.8

aF, 9057.8 3B! 30348.5

Py 9073.2 5G; 30537 .2

5D,’ 9183.8 Ten 30959.0

5-),’ 9620.4 3D; 31044.4

5]) ,’ ? 3G; 31853.0

5:—D, 26312.9 3D» 32207.8

oF! 26816.3 3F,/ 32392.1

5D, 27506. 8 af! 3317262

bR,! 28015.2 3—, 33580.3

From the relative terms recognized in the arc spectrum of ruthenium,

we draw the following conclusions as to their characteristic electron

configurations. Since the normal configurations of nearly all the

atoms in the second half of the fifth period are demonstrated to be

of the type® z—1 d and one s electrons, we may expect the same for

ruthenium also. The low metastable terms found in the Ru I spec-

trum confirm this, and the presence of *D’ shows also the relatively

°z denotes the number of valence electrons, e.g., 8 for Ru. The notation s, p, d, is

used for 5, 59, and 4; electrons respectively.

— 154 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 16, No. 6

high stability of a configuration of six d and two s electrons which,

as is well known, represents the normal state of the analogous iron

atom. The configuration seven d and one s furnishes the terms °F,

3H’, §P, 3P, 2H, etc.; the first three of which have been identified, and

parts of a *P are found. ‘There are also indications of another °F

term, which must be accounted for by a configuration of eight d and

no s electrons. The higher terms which combine with the terms

discussed above, viz., °G, °F’, ®D, 3G, ?F’, 3D, by their occurrence in

“triads,” reveal their origin as the consequence of the addition of a

p electron (52) toa‘+F in RuIl. But this ‘F term is indeed supposed

to be the normal state in Ru IJ, belonging to the configuration of

seven d electrons.!® We therefore account for all the higher levels

presented in this paper by an arrangement of seven d and one p

electrons.

PALEONTOLOGY .—Description of remains of an elephant found at

Port Williams, Washington. OttverR P. Hay, Carnegie Institu-

tion of Washington.

From Professor Howard 8. Brode, of Whitman College, Walla

Walla, Washington, the writer received for examination a part of a

collection of elephant remains made several years ago by Rev. Myron

Eells at Port Williams, Clallam County, Washington. This place is

on the southern shore of the eastern end of the Strait of San Juan de

Fuca. The writer has learned nothing regarding the geology of the

locality. Professor Brode informs the writer that Rev. Myron Eells

was a missionary among the Twana and Clallam Indians for over 30

years. He collected much ethnological material, many fossils, and

natural history specimens. He also wrote about 18 books and articles

of considerable length. |

The collection made by Mr. Eells consists of two third molars, an

upper and a lower, which are referred to Hlephas columbi, a fragment ~

of a skull, which is here described, and tusks, one small and some others

of large size. These tusks the writer has not seen. They may belong

to EL. columbi or to the elephant forming the subject of this paper. I

regard the skull as belonging to a hitherto undescribed species, and,

with the intention of honoring the finder, I name it Elephas eellst.

At first view the specimen is an unpromising one. It consists of a

part of the left maxilla and a smaller part of the right. The left

portion presents the bone from the midline to the outside of the

10 Kiess and Laporte, Science, 63: 234, 1926.

MAR. 19, 1926 | HAY: A PORT WILLIAMS ELEPHANT 155

sheath of the tusk; further backward, to the middle of the infraorbital

foramen and the rim of the orbit; thence backward and inward, to the

year of the alveolar border. The palatal portion extends backward

to the maxillo-palatine suture. The damaged alveolar border retains

sockets for some of the fangs of the teeth. Mesiad of the rear of the

aveolar border, the palatal portion of the maxilla is missing to within

about 28 mm. of the midline. On the right side the palatal border

of the maxilla is present a distance of 150 mm., nearly to its union

with the palatine bone. Viewed from above the specimen shows a

part of the inner surface of the sheath of the left tusk and a multitude ~

of air sinuses.

This fragment of skull presents some characters which the writer

has seen in no other elephant. ‘The principal of these is found in the

structure of the palate. As in other elephants, there is in front, on

each side, a prominent, sharp ridge, the continuation forward of the

alveolar ‘border. In the specimen these ridges, where closest, are

about 30 mm. apart. Between these points of closest approach and

the front of the tooth rows the palate rises about 25 mm. to the anterior

palatine fissure, the sloping sides being at an angle of about 80° with

each other. A little behind the palatine fissure the downward and out-

ward slope amounts to 73 mm. ‘The result is that, near the front of

the tooth row, the midline of the palate is at least 50 mm. higher than

its lateral borders. The damaged condition of the bone precludes _

any definite statement regarding the height farther back. At least,

however, the sockets for the fangs of the root become shallower back-

ward, and it is probable that the palate was high and vaulted through-

out its length. Its width at the front of the tooth rows appears to

have been a little more than 75 mm. ‘The alveolar borders appear to

have diverged rapidly backward. Measured from the maxillo-palatine

suture to the anterior palatine fissure, the palate is 140 mm. long.

Throughout most of this course it is straight along the midline, but

as 1t approaches the palatine fissure it curves upward.

It is difficult to determine much that is certain about the teeth of

this animal. On the left side, towards the front, is an opening due

to the loss of bone (Fig. 1, inner d.s.). Evidently, on both

sides, a considerable part of the lower edge of each alveolar border is

broken away. On the right side (left in the figure) a depression is

seen at the front of this border. ‘This appears to have received the

front fang of whatever tooth was present; not, however, necessarily

the front root found in a little-worn tooth. On the left side are

better indications of the fangs and their sockets. In front is a rough

156 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 16, NO. 6

Figs. 1 and 2.—Fragment of skull of Elephas eellst.

(For description see page 157.)

aes

MAR. 19, 1926 HAY: A PORT WILLIAMS ELEPHANT 157

surface which probably corresponds to the front socket of the right

side. The left alveolar border stands about 20 mm. in front of that

of the right side, the left tooth being apparently more advanced than

the other. |

Farther back on the left side, near the outside of the alveolar border,

is a socket which retains a fang about 35 mm. long, 18 mm. from side

to side, and 11 mm. from front to rear (Fig. 1, df., upper guide

line). Mesiad of this (d.s., upper guide line) is the front and outer

wall of another socket. Just behind these is another pair of sockets,

the outer one shallow, the inner one 50 mm. deep. Still farther in

the rear, on the outer side of the alveolar ridge, is another fang in its

socket (d.f., lower guide line). The lower guide line of the inner d.s.

leads to what is apparently a partial socket, paired with the outer

one containing the fang. Between the two is a hole which is appar-

ently factitious. From this opening, a ridge, smooth on its steep

front and its sloping rear, runs inward and backward. Behind the

ridge is another partial socket (lower d.s.). The writer concludes

that probably the alveolar border of each side bore a second molar

tooth, that the partial socket in front, on the right side received the

larger inner front root and that on the left side the partial socket is the

sear left by the absorbed outer front root. The other sockets and the

snags belonged apparently to three pairs of small fangs. Between the

_ hinder pair of these and the great hinder root was a notch which was

occupied by the outer end of the transverse ridge above described.

In elephants there is usually, on each side, between the alveolar

border and the base of the sheath of the tusk, an excavation, or fossa,

of little depth. In the specimen under consideration the front of the

alveolar border rises perpendicularly about 70 mm. to the summit

of the fossa and then curves outward and upward to the front of the

infraorbital foramen. In a specimen of Elephas primigenius found

many years ago at Pastolik, Alaska, by Dr. W. H. Dall, the roof of this

Fig. 1.—Specimen seen from below X 0.4: alvb, alveolar border; a.p.f., anterior

palatine fissure; d.f., dental fang; d.s., dental socket; inf. for., infraorbital foramen.

The line from alvb. traverses the front socket of a part of the root of the tooth. It

ends at the summit (as seen from below) of the alveolar border. On the opposite side

the corresponding point isin front of the anterior fang indicated by d.f. In front of

d.s., upper guide line, are seen indications of the foremost socket of that side.

Fig. 2.—Specimen seen from in front and below: abbreviations as in Fig. 1: d.s.,

the guide-lines run to the right and left anterior sockets; d.f., indicates the first fang

present. In this figure the smooth surface just below the word ‘‘tusk’’ was in contact

with the tusk; elsewhere are seen the air sinuses.

158 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 16, NO. 6 |

fossa extends outward nearly horizontally beneath the sheath and

curving around meets at nearly a right angle the lateral face of the

sheath just in front of the infraorbital foramen. In the Alaska speci-

men the lower border of the foramen is only about 90 mm. above the

front end of the alveolar border; in the Port Williams skull the corre-

sponding distance is about 120 mm. |

Of the sheath of the tusk there remains only the lower and outer

part of its base. It is estimated that the diameter of the tusk was

about 4 inches. Of the bone in actual contact with the tusk there is

left only a patch 90 mm. long. This is seen in figure 2 of the plate just

below the word ‘‘tusk.’”’ The removal of the rest has exposed the air

cells between the inner and outer layers of compact bone.

The writer finds that the different species of elephants, so far as he

has examined them, have each a form of palate more or less different

from that of other species. The palate of the African elephant is

broad behind and narrows rapidly forward. From front to rear.

it is slightly concave. From side to side it is concave, but the con-

cavity may be interrupted by a low median ridge. In the Indian ele-

phant the palate is somewhat convex from front to rear, but there

may be at one or both ends a short concavity. From end to end it is

traversed by a prominent median ridge, on each side of which is a

groove. Cross-sections, therefore, present right and left concavities.

The alveolar borders are more nearly parallel than they are in the

African species.

The elephant brought by Doctor Dall from Pastolik has a peculiar

palate. Between the anterior palatine fissure and the front of the

teeth it is strongly concave; in the space between the front ends of the

alveolar borders the palate is flat; farther back it becomes strongly

convex as far as the maxillo-palatine suture. From end to end, then,

the palate presents a pronounced sigmoid curve. At the front of the

flat portion a median ridge begins which increases in height backward.

In front the alveolar borders are on a level with the palate, but back-

ward they descend, so that near the maxillo-palatine suture they are

35 mm. below the palate. In this region there is, therefore, a broad,

deep groove on each side of the palate.

In the U. S. National Museum is a fine skull of Elephas primigenius

from Siberia. It is mounted for exhibition and the iron supports

conceal the palate to such an extent that a view of it can hardly be

obtained; but so far as can be determined, the palate is like that of the

Pastolik specimen.

MAR. 19, 1926 HAY: A PORT WILLIAMS ELEPHANT 159

In his work on the frozen elephant found in Beresovka River,

Siberia,’ Dr. W. Salensky furnished a figure of the skull as seen from

below. The palate, as seen in that figure, presents no such construc-

tion as does that of the Pastolik specimen. It appears to have been

quite flat from end to end and from side to side. The Pastolik animal

has a palate only about 60 mm. wide, with the sides parallel. The

Beresovka élephant’s palate appears to be 80 mm. wide in front and

wider behind. ‘These deviations from the palate of E. primigenius

appear to confirm the writer’s conclusion arrived at in 1922? from the

thickness of the plates of the teeth that Salensky’s elephant did not

belong to EL. primigenius, but was then an unnamed species. ‘This

was accordingly called Hlephas beresovkius.

In the U. S. National Museum is the type of Elephas boreus. As

in the case of the Siberian specimen the iron supports prevent any

determination of the structure of the palate. It is possible that the

method of mounting the skull of the great elephant of the same species

in the American Museum of Natural History, at New York, will

permit an examination of the palate. This elephant was found in

Indiana and is nearly complete. It is worthy of being regarded as the

plesiotype of the species Hlephas boreus.

In the U. S. National Museum is a part of a skull of Elephas imper-

ator from an unknown locality. It presents the palate and the two

fine hindmost molars. From the anterior palatine cleft to the rear

of the palate the midline is nearly straight. This, however, is the

crest of a prominent ridge, low in front, but increasing in height to the

maxillo-palatine suture, then decreasing. On each side of this is a

groove whose depth at the suture mentioned is quite an inch. The

borders of the palate descend somewhat below the median ridge. The

length of the palate is 12.5 inches; its width at the rear, 4.5 inches.

_ A specimen of an elephant found at Buckeye, Matagorda County,

Texas, whose teeth indicate HL. amperator, has a palate much like the

one just described, as is shown by a cast sent me by Dr. Mark Francis.

A photograph of the palate of Elephas roosevelti, as represented by a

palate and teeth at Milwaukee, shows so much at least that its palate

is different from that of Elephas eellst. I have not had the opportunity

to examine the palate of EL. columbi.

1 Scientific Results, ete., 1903, pl. VI, fig. 45.

2 Observations on some extinct elephants, p. 4.

160 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 16, NO. 6

BOTANY.—WNew South American species of Rubus. ALWIN BERGER,

New York State Agricultural Experiment Station, Geneva, N. Y.

(Communicated by A. 8. Hitchcock.)

The-United States National Herbarium is rich in South American

material of the genus Rubus, the extensive collections of J. N. Rose,

A. 8. Hitchcock, F. W. Pennell, and E. P. Killip having been recently

added to it. In view of the investigations which I have been carrying

on in this genus all of this material was sent me, and I have thus had

an opportunity for thorough study. Although convinced that the

collection contains several new species and forms, I hesitate to de-

scribe more than the following.

Rubus gachetensis Berger, sp. nov.

Rami floriferi teretes, breviter dense griseo-tomentosi aculeis parvis sparsis

recurvis armati; rami steriles desunt. Stipulae ovatae, obtusae. Folia

ternata, suprema subtriloba vel simplicia; petioli 1 cm. longi, tomentosi,

parce aculeati petiolulus medius fere aequilongus; foliola obovata, obtusa,

coriacea, supra glabra nitidula vel minute puberula, subtus griseo-tomentosa,

in costa media parce aculeata, costis lateralibus utrinque 6, (5-7) margine

recurvulo inaequaliter crenato-serrata, foliola terminalia, 4-5 cm. longa, 3

em. lata. Ramuli floriferi axillares et terminales 3—5-flori; pedicelli 1-3 em.

longi, villoso-tomentosi, aculeis recurvis armati. Calyces tomentosi, sepalis

ovato-deltoideis 6 mm. longis, petala duplo longiora rubra.

CoLomBia: Camino de Gachetd, in forests, alt. 2300 m. Brother Ariste-

Joseph A543.—F lowering, January 1920. (Type, U.S. National Herbarium,

no. 1,059,773.) .

Species subgeneris ‘‘Orobatus” Focke, Rubo mandonii affinis, differt foli-

olis coriaceis, obtusis, paucinerviis etc.

Rubus choachiensis Berger, sp. nov.

Fruticosus, ut videtur decumbens. Rami teretes, ut petioli, petioluli

etc. dense tomentosi aculeisque minutis recurvis parum numerosis asperi.

Folia ternata. Stipulae magnae ovatae, acutae, integrae vel subcrenulatae.

Petioli 3-4 cm. longi, petioluli terminales 15 mm. longi, laterales brevissimi.

Foliola crassa, obovato-oblonga, basi rotundata, breviter acuta, utroque

latere nervis 8-10 percursa, supra obscure viridia velutino- pubescentia,

subtus densissime incano-tomentosa, costula media aculeata, margine sub-

aequaliter crenato-serrato, terminalia 5-8 cm. longa et 4 cm. vel ultra lata,

in ramis floriferis minora obtusiora. Flores 3-4 in ramulis lateralibus race-

mosi; pedicelli 10-13 mm. longi ut calyces dense tomentosi, aculeolis sparsis

armati. Sepala orbiculari-ovata, cuspidata, 7 mm. longa et 8 mm. lata;

petala longiora pulchre coccinea.

Cotomsia: Dept. of Cundinamarca, Paramo de Choachi, near Bogoté,

alt. 3700 m.—“Low shrub, flowers deep red.” EL P. Killip & Brother Ariste-

Joseph 11967.—Flowering, August 8, 1922. (Type, U. 8. National Herba-

rium, no. 1,140,050.)

Species ex subgenere “‘Orobatus” Focke, affinis Rubo weberbauert, differt

autem habitu robustiore, tomento eglanduloso, calycis lobis late ovato-

deitoideis.

MAR. 19, 1926 BERGER: NEW SPECIES OF RUBUS 161"

Rubus roseorum Berger, sp. nov.

Fruticosus. Caules floriferi teretes, brunnei, puberuli, aculeisque re-

-curvis complanatis armati aliisque setiformibus sparsis asperil, superne ut

petioli, pedunculi etc. glandulis stipitatis confertis vestiti. Folia inferiora

quinata, superiora ternata, floralia simplicia; stipulae subulatae; petioli

5-6 cm longi, dense glandulosi, aculeisque 3-4 recurvis armati; petioluli

consimiles, terminalis circ. 15 mm. longus. Foliola oblongo-lanceolata,

breviter acuminata, basi rotundata vel vix cordata, terminale 6—7 cm. longum

et ultra 3 cm. latum, lateralia minora, membranacea, costularum mucronibus

dentibusque interjectis serrulata, costulae laterales 10-12, utrinque glabra,

costulis tamen puberulis. Inflorescentiae terminalis inferne foliferae rami

pedicellique albo-villosi glandulisque stipitatis brunneis muniti. Sepala

ovato-deltoidea, utrinque albo-tomentosa glanduligera, petalis albis oblongis

dimidio breviora.

Ecuapor: Vicinity of Quito. J. N. Rose & George Rose 23548. Flower-

ing and fruiting, October 26 to November 1, 1918. (Type, U. 8. National

Herbarium, no. 1,023,038.) Chillo Valley; Santa Rosa, alt. 9600 ft. H. E.

Anthony & G. H. H. Tate 204. Fruiting, August 26 to September 2, 1923.

Eubatus e grege Adenotrichorum Rydb. Frutex ut videtur e humilioribus,

caules steriles adhuc ignoti.

I take pleasure in naming this species for Dr. J. N. Rose and his son, Mr.

George Rose, who accompanied his father in 1918 to South America, and

who always showed a great interest in plants, and did much good work.

Rubus killipii Berger, sp. nov.

Fruticosus. Rami floriferi teretes, minute tomentelli demum glabre-

scentes, aculeis raris vel deficientibus. Folia ternata; stipulae subulatae;

petioli 6 cm. longi, minute tomentelli aculeisque nonnullis faleato-recurvis

sat robustis armati; petiolulus terminalis 3 cm. longus, laterales 5 mm. longi.

Foliola oblonga, utrinque rotundata, apice abrupte acuminata, coriacea, dura,

glabra, supra nitidula obscure viridia nervis impressis tomentosulis, subtus

pallidiora costaque aculeata, utrinque nervis lateralibus 8-10 rectangulariter

patentibus prominentibus minute puberulis percursa, secus margines dentibus

parvis minute mucronatis remote serrata; foliolum terminale circa 12-13 cm.

longum et 9 cm. latum. Inflorescentiae amplae eximie multiflorae rami

inferiores axillares circa 40 em. longi, ut pedunculi pedicelli calycesque dense

tomentosi. Pedicelli 1 cm. longi, bracteis deltoideis vel lanceolatis tomen-

tosis muniti; calycis lobi ovato-deltoidei breviter cuspidati, 5-7 cm. longi

reflexi; petala obovata obtusa 12 mm. longa rosea; stamina numerosa, car-

pella tomentosa.

CotompBia: Department of El Cauca, “La Gallera,’’ Micay Valley, Cordil-

lera Occidental. Clearing near Rio San Joaquin, alt. 1100-1300m. ‘Shrub,

petals pink.” Ellsworth P. Killip 7835. Flowering, June 29-30. 1922.

(Type, U.S. National Herbarium, no. 1,142,423.) ‘‘The place where I col-

lected this was about the most isolated imaginable, away down in the south-

western corner of Colombia. Two new genera and a number of new

species have been found among these specimens.” (E. P. Killip.)

Frutex ut videtur altus, copiose ramosus, floribundus et praepulcher, ex

affinitate Rubi fiorulentz, Portoricensis plantae, sed robustior in omni parte,

caulibus minus aculeatis, et foliis floribusque majoribus.

I take great pleasure in naming this species for Mr. E. P. Killip who has

done so much for the exploration of the Colombian flora.

162 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 16, No. 6

RADIO-TELEGRAPHY.—A pplication of radio transmission phe-

nomena to the problems of atmospheric electricity... J. H. DEt-

LINGER, Bureau of Standards.

_My remarks are in the nature of a brief progress report on the

inter-relations of the problems of radio transmission phenomena and

those of atmospheric electricity. While there is no novelty in the

idea of this inter-relation, it having been prominently in the minds

of many workers in both fields for years, it nevertheless does appear

that recent radio developments will shed considerable light on the

things with which the student of atmospheric electricity concerns

himself. I hasten to say that the applications of the radio phenomena,

which I have in mind, are applications to the underlying rather than

to the immediate problems of atmospheric electricity and terrestrial

magnetism. From the beginning of their study, the seat of the

phenomena of atmospheric electricity has been obscure and it is

becoming increasingly plain that the phenomena of radio wave propa-

gation are attributable to the same seat. Indeed, I could equally

have entitled my remarks “Application of atmospheric-electric

phenomena to the problems of radio transmission.”’

There are two reasons for putting it the way I did, one having to do

with the mode of conducting work in this field, and the other having

to do with the question of who is to analyze and interpret the results.

On the first point it is apparent that radio gives us a direct means

of conducting controlled experiments on phenomena affected by the

electrical conditions of the atmosphere, a means which is wholly im-

possible in the field of direct atmospheric-electric measurements.

These means are being abundantly used; as you all know, radio

experimentation is becoming very widespread and its results are

increasingly fruitful. We are learning to select radio wave trans-

missions in particular directions, at particular times, and on particular

frequencies, such as to produce an effect conditioned in a definite way

upon electrical conditions in the atmosphere. Organization of such

work is proceeding, from the sporadic work of the individual, to organ-

ized effort on a large scale, The second reason which I mentioned

as determining the viewpoint chosen for this discussion, is simply

that atmospheric electricity, rather than radio, is the science which

must take the responsibility and the labor of deciphering the inner

1 Presented before Section of Terrestrial Magnetism and Electricity, American

Geophysical Union, April 30, 1925. Published by permission of the Director, Bureau

of Standards.

MAR. 19, 1926 DELLINGER: RADIO TRANSMISSION PHENOMENA 163

relations between these various phenomena and the deduction of the

underlying causes thereof. I shall return to this point later, and hope

to justify it.

After much study of the available data and consideration of possible

causes, radio science now considers that the major phenomena of radio

wave transmission have their origin in the stratosphere. Irom the

beginning of radio there have been efforts to find connections between

characteristic radio transmission conditions and weather. By and

. large, the conclusion may now be stated that the effects of weather

are minor in comparison with-the effects of atmospheric electricity.

Stated in another way, the major radio phenomena occur in the

stratosphere rather than in the troposphere. I would not give the

impression that weather conditions are entirely without effect on radio

phenomena; if I were to make a comprehensive discussion of my

subject I would be inclined to add to the title the words ‘‘and meteor-

ology.”’ However, the weather-radio phenomena are less definite

and less certainly proved. For example, there is some indication

that the strays or atmospheric disturbances of radio have-some definite

relation to maxima of pressure gradients as determined meteorologi-

ealiy, but in comparison with this tentative conclusion, slenderly

supported, the evidence on the other hand is overwhelming that all

radio-atmospheric disturbances have their origin in some form of

atmospheric-electric discharges. C. T. R. Wilson’s recent theory

indicates that these discharges may not necessarily be lightning, but

may, in large measure, be discharges taking place above the clouds.

Here we see that the most likely explanations even of atmospherics

can not neglect causes in the stratosphere.

The vagaries of radio wave transmission are so well known as to

need no summarizing. The citizen listening to a broadcast program

feels cheated when the signal intensity variation known as fading

spoils his program. He is puzzled by the reports he hears that trans-

missions carried on with very high frequencies at certain times of day

accomplish with very small power results which are impossible with

very large power on the low frequencies. He is inclined to be impa-

tient with the scientists and engineers because they can not eliminate

these fluctuations and anomalies. Studies made during the past

year and now still in progress are leading to a very considerable degree

of understanding of these phenomena. ‘The causes of the vagaries

are pretty definitely localized in the stratosphere and are certainly

closely tied in with the phenomena of atmospheric electricity. I shall

164 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 16, NO. 6 ©

not attempt, in my few minutes, to summarize the behavior of high

radio frequencies. Both popular and technical magazines are full of

data and speculation on the subject.

Suffice it to say that these phenomena have thoroughly established

the hypothesis proposed by Eccles in 1912 (and developed by Ken-

nelly and others) which explain the great differences of distance of

radio transmission at night and in the day by the daytime ionization

of the air caused by the ultra-violet light in the sun’s rays. The

removal of this cause of ionization at night clears up the lower atmos- .

phere so that the waves can penetrate to high altitudes at night.

At some level in the atmosphere there must be a pressure so low that

the permanent ionization above this level will render the medium

conducting, thus providing something of the nature of a surface along

which the waves can glide at night. Turbulence of the medium

near this surface explains? fading (i.e., intensity fluctuations). A

theory definitely worked out by Larmor during the past year has

more firmly established this theory by showing that the effect of the

interaction of the radio wave with the ionized particles leads to a

bending down of the waves, thus establishing a calculable quasi-refrac-

tion which gives a real physical picture of the wave transmission

and is a great advance over the conception of a wave sliding along a

hypothetical conducting surface. Machinery of a very reasonable

sort is thus established for the wave propagation. |

This theoretical work comes simultaneously with the experimentally

established facts of propagation of very high frequency waves without

appreciable absorption, such remarkable effective propagation being

observed even in the daytime when the frequency is sufficiently high.

The remarkable thing about the Larmor theory is that it permits an

explanation of new phenomena which had not hitherto been sus-

pected, and enables a determination of the approximate height in the

atmosphere of levels of various degrees of ionization from the observed

effects of radio transmission in terms of the frequency, times of day,

and other known factors of the transmission. I think it is sufficiently

well known to you that with the very high frequencies there is a zone

relatively near the transmitting station in which the waves can not be

received at all but that beyond this zone they come in very effectively.

An analogy which I like to use for the mechanism of transmission of

radio waves is that of the German long range gun which bombarded

2 Radio signal fading phenomena. J. H. DELLINGER and L. E. WHiTTEMORE.

Tuis JOURNAL, 2, p. 248: June 4, 1921.

MAR. 19,1926 . DELLINGER: RADIO TRANSMISSION PHENOMENA 165

Paris at a distance of 60 to 80 miles. The rarefied higher -portions

of the atmosphere which permitted the projectile to fly toward Paris

with little resistance has a remarkable similarity to the atmospheric

electric strata which, by their particular conditions of ionization,

permit radio waves of a particular frequency to travel enormous dis-

tances around the earth.

This very fruitful theory is being supplemented by a very recent

addition made by Messrs. Nichols and Schelleng of the Bell Telephone

Laboratories and by, English physicists, in which they have definitely

worked out the additional effects caused by the interaction of the

earth’s magnetic field with the motions of the ionized atmospheric

particles set up by the passing radio wave. Eccles had previously

used the same theory to explain the variations of radio wave direction.

This remarkable addition to the explanation of this phenomena is

only a month old and it shows that some things, such for example

as the predominance of radio fading at certain frequencies, are closely

tied in with the effect of the earth’s magnetic field as well as the differ- .

Ing ionization at various levels in the atmosphere.

I feel that I am speaking in generalities but that more specific

explanation of the trend of current theory as well as the revelations

of experiment would require very much more time than is at my dis-

posal. Before I close I want to warn you against a number of current

theories or, let us say, ways of referring to these radio phenomena,

which are more or less in error. The first of these is the explanation

of all these phenomena in terms of an alleged “Heaviside layer.”

Related to this is the ascribing to Heaviside of the current explanations

of radio wave propagation phenomena. Heaviside did not know

much about the phenomena of radio wave propagation and did not

postulate a layer. What he did do was very valuable and still stands,

namely the suggestion that at a certain height in the atmosphere a

surface can exist, at which there is a greater or less discontinuity of

conductivity, and that this can affect and assist the propagation of

radio waves. Beyond this he did not go, and it seems to me that the

expression ‘‘Heaviside surface’ is in accordance with Heaviside’s

ideas but that the expression ‘‘Heaviside layer’ isnot. Since, further-

more, the recent theories of Larmor and of Nichols lead to the existence

of numerous levels rather than a single level in the atmosphere which

facilitate the propagation of waves at particular frequencies, even the

expression ‘‘Heaviside surface” is no longer very useful.

Another misconception or instance of loose thinking is the ex-

166 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 16, NO. 6

planation of the wave propagation as reflection. I do not say that

reflection may not eventually be established as the proper explanation,

but the evidence is that the waves are guided by a conducting surface

and that their propagation is in large part explained by a quasi-refrac-

tion caused by the interaction of the radio field intensity and the

velocities of the lonized particles. Reflection in the true sense is not

an accurate description of any phase of this process.

Another theory which I cannot accept and which is closely tied

to the reflection theory is that the differing characters of propagation

at different frequencies are due to differing heights of the strata which

are effective; that is, the popular idea conceives the waves of varying

frequency or wave lengths to be shot out from the transmitting

antenna and that certain of them are reflected from a sort of sky mirror

located at one height, and those of another frequency or wave length

from a different sky mirror at a different height. These strata of differ-

ing conductivity doubtless exist and exist at different heights, but the

phenomena which result are almost certainly not due to the difference

in height of the strata but to the difference in character, that is, differ- —

ing ionization and ionization gradient.

If I may be pardoned for still another attack on what I believe to

be misconceptions I will refer to the rather free use of the idea of

interference (as between light waves) as explaining fading. This

again is tied in with the conception of propagation by reflection. Now

it is almost inconceivable that the effective atmospheric strata are so

uniform as to permit reflection of the uniform character that would be

- required to produce interference like that in optics, or that individual

conditions of interference would not be statistically averaged out.

The nature of the phenomena is such that the more probable explana-

tion of the received intensity fluctuations is variable absorption in the

medium caused by turbulence in the ionized strata. The result of

this is that the wave arriving at a given receiving point is really a

complex of waves from different directions, with differing intensities,

phases, and polarizations. Variation in the air path of any part of

this complex appears to the observer as a change in the resultant

received wave. ‘There is only one recorded instance that I know of

which looks like genuine interference of optical type, and that is a

series of remarkably regular fluctuations in received signal intensity

obtained at the sunset period by five observers cooperating with the

Bureau of Standards in some sunset transmission tests which closed

on the 2nd of this month.

MAR. 19, 1926

DELLINGER: RADIO TRANSMISSION PHENOMENA

167

I would list the specific applications or inter-relations of radio

phenomena and those of atmospheric electricity as in Table 1.

TABLE 1.—INTER-RELATIONS

ATMOSPHERIC ELECTRICITY

Lightning and thunder clouds

Aurora and magnetic storms

Atmospheric potential gradient, and con-

ductivity; diurnal and annual varia-

tions

Earth’s magnetic field and upper air con-

/? ductivity

RADIO PHENOMENA

Atmospheric disturbances

Radio and electric line telegraph dis-

turbances .

Similar variations in atmospheric dis-

turbances and field intensities

Differing radio wave propagation at var-

ious frequencies, distances, and direc-

tions

Summarizing, it is abundantly evident that the vagaries of radio

transmission phenomena have an application to the problems of atmos-

pheric electricity and terrestrial magnetism. In the latter field,

fundamental explanations must make use of a system of currents in

upper atmospheric strata which are subject to daily variations of

ionization. In radio, we have a tool with which we can actually ex-

plore these strata and determine some of the facts having direct bear-

ing on atmospheric electricity and the earth’s magnetic field. Radio

must leave to the science of atmospheric electricity the duty of de-

ciphering the inter-relations between the two fields and applying them

to the determination of fundamental causes. ‘There are two reasons

for this, first, radio is too fully engrossed with the determination of

the immediate facts and applying them to the numerous important

uses which are at hand, and second, there is no reason why radio

should be concerned with going back of the immediate causes of the

wave phenomena. ‘The radio scientist will be happy indeed to get a

reasonable picture of the wave transmission mechanism. He is not

at all concerned with whether this mechanism is due to particles shot

directly from the sun, cosmic dust, radioactive material in the air or

soil, penetrating radiation, currents below ground, or lightning. A

complete picture of the ionized strata in the atmosphere directly

affecting his transmitted waves will satisfy him very well, and the

deeper insight into the cause of this ionization and its characteristics

he leaves to the worker in the larger field of atmospheric electricity.

168 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 16, NO. 6

SCIENTIFIC NOTES AND NEWS

An expedition to Africa to collect living giraffes, rhinoceroses, and other |

animals for the National Zoological Park will sail from New York March 20.

The funds for the work have been presented to the Smithsonian Institution

by Wauter P. Curysuter. The Expedition will consist of W. M. Mann,

Director of the National Zoological Park, ARTHUR LOVERIDGE of the Museum

of Comparative Zoology at Cambridge, Mass., and StprpHEN HAweEIs, artist,

and will be accompanied by CHARLES CHARLTON, of the staff of the Pathe

News.

The Petrologists’ Club met at the home of F. E. Wricgut on March 2.

Program: T. 8. Loverine, The need of certain physical constants in physical

chemistry; C. 8. Ross, Replacement of igneous rock minerals in sedimentary

beds; A. C. SPENCER, Alteration of plagioclase to sericite plus quartz; F. E.

Wricut, The new geological map of South Africa.

W. R. Smits has resigned as geologist in the Alaska Branch of the U.S.

Geological Survey.

SrpneyY Paras, chief of the Areal Geology Section of the U. 8. Geological

Survey, has accepted an engagement with the Amerada Corporation for

work in South America. ,

G. N. Coxuins and F. E. Kempton sail March 17 for Haiti for the pur-

pose of inaugurating experiments with perennial teosinte (Euchlaena peren-

nis) and teosinte-maise hybrids. They plan to remain five or six weeks and

cover the region between Port au Prince and Cape Hatien.

20. wih Piiisogtient Society. Program:

Bor: Ne ew methods in the Quantum pera

The Biological ie

‘The Entomological Society. , ae

‘The Philosophical Society. Program:

: Recent advances in our the igs of the atom,

CON TENTS

Onrerat Pavan re = Sy -

Mathematics.—A ants formula for welding curves in cere.

data. Joun Rice MINBR......00-.0seeseeettiseesseerseeees ;

Ae ae South ‘Aca iuen species of Rubus. ALWIN Bisa :

Radio Telegraphy.—Application of radio transmission pha ae

of atmospheric electricity. Sekt: DELIANGER. een ees pene

ScrentiFic Notes: AND NBWS..ssesesesesecseseseeseseeesenees

pian Sadar: fuancr B. SitsBEE, Bureau of Standards, —

Recording Secretary: W. D. LAMBERT, Coast and Geodetic Survey. tes

Treasurer: R. L. Faris, Coast and Geodetic Survey. 3 eee

ott egeg ah 5 Pee aes $ Aa

cae we 4

ne 4 !

- Vol. 16 APRIL 4, 1926 No. 7

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JOURNAL

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Vou. 16 Aprin 4, 1926 No. 7

CHEMISTRY.—The condensation of aldehydes with diphenyl isothio-

hydantoin. RaymMonp M. Hann and Kuare 8. MARKLEY,!

George Washington University. (Communicated by Epear T.

WHERRY. )

In continuing the series of researches upon rhodanic acids now

being pursued in this University it became a matter of interest to

study, comparatively, the reactions of compounds possessing an

analogous constitution. Rhodanic acids are the cyclic anhydrides

of the dithio-carbamo glycollic acids and may be considered as 2-thio-

3-alkyl (or aryl)-4-thiazolidones (I), while the isothiohydantoins are

cyclic anhydrides of substituted thiohydantoic acids and may be >

classed as 2-imino-3-alkyl (or aryl)-4-thiazolidones (II). The close

similarity in structure of these compounds has led us to prepare a

a. LOGS 7S

De ats YC = NH

Ve did aan)

O=C N ee AES

R R

(I) (II)

number of derivatives of 2-phenyl-imino-3-phenyl-4-thiazolidone.?

Dipheny! isothiohydantoin or 2-imino-pheny]-3-pheny]-4-thiazolidone

has been prepared by Lange,? and further studied by Lange and

Liebermann,‘ who showed that its reduction with alcoholic potassium

1 Presented before the meeting of the American Chemical Society, Los Angeles,

California, Aug. 3-8, 1925.

* Numbering is according to the recommendation of Bogert and ABRAHAMSON

(Journ. Amer. Chem. Soc. 44: 826. 1922) taking the sulfur atom as 1.

8 LANGE. Ber. Deutsch. Chem. Ges. 12:595. 1879.

4 Lance and LirBeERMANN. Ann. Chem. 207: 123. 1881; see also ANDREASCH. Ber.

Deutsch. Chem. Ges. 12: 1835. 1879.

169

{

;

170 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 16, NO. 7

hydroxide yielded thioglycollic acid and diphenylthiourea. This

decomposition and other substantiating facts led them to revise the

original structure proposed by Lange (1)

| CH

H.C——N _ -H,C—S

E vere.

| sts | >C = NGH: |

0 = C——_N O=C Nae

CoH CoH

(I) (IT)

and substitute the pseudo-thiohydantoin structure (II).

The later structure includes the S-CH:-CO linkage which has been

pointed out by various workers to be a very reactive grouping. Among

the compounds which react with the methylene hydrogen in such a

combination may be mentioned the aldehydes,’ isatin,® formamidines,’

alloxan,® phthalic anhydride,® and phenanthraquinone.*°

The present paper describes the preparation and properties of a series

of aldehyde condensation products of diphenyl isothiohydantoin.

EXPERIMENTAL

Diphenyl rsothiohydantoin..1—The parent substance was prepared

from diphenylthiourea and monochloracetic acid according to the

method of Lange."2 The yield calculated on the basis of diphenyl-

thiourea used, was 60 per cent of theory.

3.5-Dichloro-salicylic aldehyde.—Twenty grams of salicylic aldehyde

was dissolved in 80 grams of glacial acetic acid and a stream of dry

chlorine allowed to bubble through the solution as it was gently

heated on the steam bath. Following saturation with the halogen

the solution was cooled and a stream ‘of cold water added to cause

precipitation of the substituted compound. After filtering by suction

the derivative was recrystallized from dilute alcohol. The yield was

25.3 grams.

’ WHEELER and JAMIESON. Journ. Amer. Chem. Soc. 25: 366. 1903.

5 Hitt and Henze. Ibid. 46: 2806. 1924.

7Darns and STEPHENSON. Ibid. 38:1841. 1916.

8’ ButscHEeR. Monats. fiir Chemie 32:9, 1911.

°Kucera. Ibid. 35:137. 1914.

10 Hann. Unpublished results.

11 This substance has been prepared by Dixon and Tarytor (Journ. Chem. Soc. London ~

101:561. 1912) from n-phenyl-v-carbethoxy phenylthiourea and chloroacetyl chloride.

2Lance. Ber. Deutsch. Chem. Ges. 12:595. 1879.

CHO H,C———8 oe:

-L | »C=NCH— | SONC:Hs + HO

C N C N

| C.H; {| CHEE

O O

APR. 4, 1925 HAHN AND MARKLEY: CONDENSATION OF ALDEHYDES AEE

8-M ethoxy-4-hydroxy-5-chloro benzaldehyde.—V anillin was dissolved

in glacial acetic acid and a small amount of fused sodium acetate

‘added. Dried chlorine was then lead in, substitution taking place

with rise in temperature of the solution and evolution of a slight

amount of hydrochloric acid gas. As the reaction continued brilliant

colorless crystals separated. Following saturation the crystal meal

was filtered off and recrystallized from glacial acetic acid. The

ehloro-vanillin crystallizes in the tetragonal system and melts at

164-5°C. | |

3-Methoxy-4-hydroxy-5-nitro benzaldehyde.—Vanillin was nitrated in

the cold with fuming nitric acid according to the directions of Bentley."

The nitrated compound may be separated from small amounts of side

reaction products by recrystallization from alcohol.

3-Methoxy-4-hydroxy-5-bromo benzaldehyde-—Vanillin was bromi-

nated according to Dakin’s" directions, the bromo-aldehyde separat-

ing in pure condition from the reaction mixture.

Aldehyde condensation products

§-Benzal-2,3-diphenyl isothiohydantoin.—Dissolved 3 grams of di-

phenyl isothiohydantoin and 1.2 grams of benzaldehyde in 25 ce. of

glacial acetic acid and after adding 5 grams of fused sodium acetate

refluxed the mixture for 23 hours. After cooling an excess of water was

added to the reaction mixture, the precipitated condensation product

was filtered off, recrystallized from acetic acid and analyzed. The

yield was 3.6 grams. Theory 3.98 grams. The reaction was

as follows:

5-Benzal-2,3-diphenyl isothiohydantoin is a solid, crystallizing in

brilliant platelike crystals of a slight yellow color. It melts at 215-6°C.

(cor.).

13 BENTLEY. Amer. Chem. Journ. 24:172. 1900.

144 Dakin. Amer. Chem. Journ. 42:477. 1909.

172 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 16, NO.7 .

Analysts (Boric acid method)

0.2095 gm. consumed 16.3 ce. ai acid, equivalent to

7.78% N. Theory for C..H;,0ON,S is 7.86% N.

5-(e-Nitro-benzal)-2,3-diphenyl isothiohydantoin.—The substitution

of o-nitro-benzaldehyde for benzaldehyde gave the nitro homologue

of the substituted hydantoin. This crystallized in crystalline aggre-

gates of a yellow brown color which gave a yellow powder when crushed.

The derivative dissolves in concentrated sulphuric acid with produc-

tion of a brilliant red color. When heated in a capillary tube it melts

at 196-7°C. (cor.).

Analysis (Salacyl-Sulfonic acid method)

0.1128 gm. consumed 8.7 cc. 0.1 N acid, equivalent to

10.80% N. Theory for C2.H,;,03N38 is 10.47% N.

5-Cinnamal-2,3-diphenyl isothtohydantoin.—This derivative was pre-

pared exactly as that preceding, using 1.5 gms. (theory 1.48 gms.)

of cinnamic aldehyde and 3 gms. of thiazolidone. The compound

separated from the boiling reaction mixture. It was filtered off from

the hot solution, washed with hot glacial acetic acid and dried. ‘The

yield was quantitative. This condensation product separates in

brilliant yellow needles, which are slightly soluble in hot glacial acetic

acid and almost insoluble in other organic solvents. It melts at

225-6°C. (cor.) to a clear red oil.

Analysis (Kjeldahl-Gunning-Arnold method)

0.1264 gm. consumed 6.4 cc. 0.1 N acid, equivalent to

7.09% N. Theory for.C.,H;,ON.S is 7.33 ZN.

5-Furfural-2,3-diphenyl isothiohydantoin.—Three grams of the cyclic

ketone, 1.1 (1.07 theory) gm. of furfural, 5 gms. of fused acetate and

25 cc. of glacial acetic acid were heated at the boiling point under

reflux condenser for 2 hours. To the cold solution an excess of water

was added when the furfurilidene derivative separated in brown

needles. These were filtered by suction, washed repeatedly with water

and recrystallized from acetic acid. Heated in a capillary tube they

melted at 221—2°C. (cor.) to a black tar-like mass.

15 MARKLEY and Hann, Journ. Assoc. Off. Agric. Chem. 8: 455. 1925.

APR. 4, 1926 HAHN AND MARKLEY: CONDENSATION OF ALDEHYDES 173

Analysis (Boric acid method)

0.2050 gm. consumed 16.65 ce. acid, equivalent to

14.01

8.12% N. Theory for CoH yO.N;S is 8.09% N.

5-Salicylal-2, 3-diphenylrsothiohydantoin.—Three grams of thiohydan-

toin and an excess of salicylic aldehyde (theory 1.386 gms.) were heated

with 5 gms. of fused sodium acetate and 25 cc. of glacial acetic acid.

After 20 minutes an orange crystalline compound separated out, but

the heating was prolonged for two hours to insure complete reaction.

After cooling the mass was treated with water, filtered, dried and

recrystallized from acetic acid. It separates in yellow acicular

needles which dissolve in concentrated H.SO, to give a deep red color.

Heated in a capillary tube it melts at 249-50°C. (cor.) to a clear red

oil,

Analysts (Boric acid method)

i — acid, equivalent to

7.538% N. Theory for C2:H;,0.N;8 is 7.58% N

§-(8, 5-Dichloro-salicylal)-2, 3-diphenyl tsothiohydantoin.—This com-

pound results as a product of the condensation of 2.5 (2.13 theory)

ems. of chlorinated aldehyde and 3 gms. of the cyclic thiazolidone.

After purification by several recrystallizations from acetic acid it

separated in yellow needles which melted at 234-5°C. (cor.).

0.2006 gms. consumed 15.1 cc.

Analysis (Boric acid method)

0.2006 gms. consumed 12.6 cc. acid, equivalent to

14.01

6.28% N. Theory for C..H.O.N.CI1.S is 6.35% N

5-(3,4-Dihydroxy-benzal)-2,3-diphenyl isothiohydantoin.—When a so-

lution of protocatechuic aldehyde (1.72 gms.) and diphenyl isothio-

hydantoin (8 gms.) were heated in 25 cc. of glacial acetic acid, this

product precipitated after one hour. It was filtered off by suction,

washed with hot acetic acid and upon drying was obtained as a brilliant

microcrystalline powder of light brown color. It does not melt below

300°C.

Analysts (Kjeldahl-Gunning-Arnold method)

0.1458 gms. consumed 7.0 cc. 0.1 N acid, equivalent to

6.73% N. Theory for C22H,,0;N:5 is 7.22% N

174 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 16, NO. 7

5-(8-Methoxy-4-hydroxy-benzal)-2,3-diphenyl isothiohydantoin.—If an

excess of vanillin be heated in the presence of a dehydrating agent

with diphenyl isothiohydantoin, the elements of water are eliminated

and the vanillal compound is obtained. ‘This crystallizes in yellow

shining leaflets which melt at 250-1°C. (cor.) to a clear yellow oil.

Analysis (Kjeldahl-Gunning-Arnold method)

0.1205 gms. consumed 5.7 cc. 0.1 N acid, equivalent to

6.68% N. Theory for C.3;H,,03N3S is 6.97% N.

&-(8-Chloro-vanillal)-2, 3-diphenyl isothiohydantein.—Chloro-vanillin

(2.1 gms.) and diphenyl] isothiohydantoin (3 gms.) were heated in the

presence of acetic acid and sodium acetate for a period of 8 hours.

After standing overnight the solid which separated was filtered off and

recrystallized from acetic acid. It separates in fluffy crystalline

masses of yellow needles which melt with decomposition at 132-4°C.

(cor.).

Analysis (Kjeldahl-Gunning-Arnold method)

0.1115 gms. consumed 4.8 cc. 0.1 N acid, equivalent to

6.08% N. Theory for C.3;H,,03;N.SCI is 6.41% N.

§-(8-Nitro-vanillal)-2,3-diphenyl isothiohydantoin.—This compound

was precipitated as a yellow microcrystalline powder by addition of

water to a heated reaction mixture containing its constituents in

molecular proportion. It melts slowly and with decomposition at

100-2°C.

Analysis (Salicyl-sulphonic acid method)

0.1155 gms. consumed 7.5 cc. 0.1 N acid, equivalent to

9.10% N. Theory for C.;Hi,0;N38 is 9.40% N.

§-(5-Bromo-vanillal)-2,3-diphenyl isothiohydantoin.—The brominated

3-methoxy-4-hydroxy benzal condensation product was prepared by

the general method, given above. It separates from acetic acid as a

yellow brown powder which fails to melt sharply, some decomposi-

tion beginning at 100°C. and incipient formation of a black tar results

as the temperature is raised.

Analysis (Kjeldahl-Gunning-Arnold method)

0.1186 gms. consumed 5.0 cc. 0.1 N acid, equivalent to

5.91% N. Theory for C.3H,,0;NSBr is 5.82% N.

APR. 4, 1926 MANSFIELD: CHOPTANK FORMATION 175

SUMMARY

Dipheny! isothiohydantoin has been condensed with benzaldehyde,

o-nitro-benzaldehyde, cinnamic aldehyde, -furfural, salicylic aldehyde,

3,5 dichloro salicylic aldehyde, protocatechuic aldehyde, vanillin,

chloro-vanillin, nitro-vanillin and bromo-vanillin, and the condensation

products analyzed and described.

- GEOLOGY.—WNote on the occurrence of the Choptank formation in the

Nomint Cliffs, Va... WENDELL C. MansFietp, U. S. Geological

Survey. (Communicated by L. W. STEPHENSON.)

The Choptank formation, the middle formation of the Chesapeake

group of the Maryland Miocene, was recognized in the Nomini Cliffs,

Westmoreland County, Va., by Shattuck? in 1904. He says: “In

the Nomini Cliffs, Virginia, it [the Choptank formation] is present

as a 50-foot bed between the Calvert formation below and the St.

Mary’s formation above.”

In 1906 Clark and Mailler,? discussing the occurrence of the Cy ocak

in Virginia, stated: ‘This formation is- prominently exposed in

southern Maryland and Virginia, outcropping in a nearly complete

section in the Nomini Bluffs on the Potomac River.”

In the same year Shattuck and Miller‘ reiterated the earlier state-

ment of Shattuck as to the occurrence of the Choptank in the Nomini

Cliffs.

In 1912, however, Clark and Miller® referred the entire Miocene

portion of the section at Nomini Cliffs to the Calvert formation,

recognizing neither the Choptank nor the St. Marys formation in that

exposure. They wrote:

‘““The deposits hitherto described as Choptank in the Nomini Bluffs are now

known, from a more exhaustive study of both the stratigraphy and paleon-

tology, to belong to the Calvert formation. Itis possible that the Choptank

may be represented, as it gradually thins out, in the low country lying be-

tween the known outcrops of the Calvert and St. Mary’s formations but

buried beneath the cover of Pleistocene formations.”

The purpose of this note is to confirm the presence of the Choptank

formation in the section at Nomini Cliffs, as originally interpreted

1 Published by permission of the Director of the U.S. Geological Survey.

2 SHattuck, G. B., Md. Geol. Survey, Miocene Text, pp. LX XIX-LXXX, 1904.

3 CLARK, Wm. B., and Mitumr, B. L., Va. Geol. Survey Bull. 2: 18, 1906.

4SuHattuck, G. B., and Mitusr, B. L., U. S. Geol. Survey Geol. Atlas, St. Marys

folio (No. 136), Md.-Va., p. 3, col. 2, 1906.

5 CLARK, Wm. B., and Mitr, B. L., Va. Geol. Survey Bull. 4: 140-141, 1912.

176 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 16, NO.7

by Shattuck, and also to indicate the occurrence of the basal portion

of the overlying St. Marys formation.

The Choptank formation in Maryland, according to Maryland

Geological Survey Text, 1904,° is subdivided into five zones, which are

numbered 16 to 20, inclusive. Zones 17 and 19 are very fossiliferous,

corresponding respectively to ‘“‘zone e” and ‘“‘zone f”’ of Harris,’ while

zones 16, 18 and 20 are either without fossils or sparingly fossiliferous.

A comparison of the stratigraphic sequence, lithologic character, and

faunal contents of the beds exposed in the Calvert Cliffs, Maryland,

with those in the Nomini Cliffs and elsewhere in Virginia, seems to

show conclusively that the Choptank formation is represented in the

Nomini Cliffs. One section in the Calvert Cliffs very closely dupli-

cates the section in one part of the Nomini Cliffs. The Maryland and

Virginia sections are given below.

Section about 13 miles below Flag Pond, Calvert Cliffs, Calvert County, Maryland

By W. C. MANSFIELD and W. P. PoPENOoE

Approximate

: thickness

Pleistocene: . Feet

Sand and gravel........ cy gore eleldue trace he tart ata 30-40

Miocene:

St. Marys formation:

Drab plastic clay (gone 22)... 250. 15

Clean fine-grained sand, 3 feet, underlain by dark gray

slightly sandy semi-plastic clay, with a few fossil im-

pressions (zone 21)..... Detecsdeces ae 18

Choptank formation:

Bluish sandy clay, with a 1-foot layer of indurated fossilifer-

ous sand at top containing the following species:

Pedalion maxillata (Deshayes), Pecten madisonius Say,

Asaphis centenaria (Conrad), Metis biplicata Conrad,

Discinisca lugubris (Conrad), Schizoporella doverensis

Ulrich and Bassler® (zone 20)... . 32... a. aoe eee 20

Light brown very fossiliferous sand with an indurated sand-

stone layer, about 2 feet thick, at the top, carrying many

individuals of Pecten madisonius Say (zonel9)....... 10-12

Bluish poorly fossiliferous sandy clay (zone 18).............. 8-10

Dark gray very fossiliferous sand (zone 17), exposed......... ib

The subdivisions in the preceding section are separated into zones

believed to correspond approximately to those designated in the

Maryland Geological Survey Miocene Text, 1904.

§ Op. cit., pp. LX X XI-LX XXII.

7 Harris, G. D., Amer. Journ. Sci. 45: ser. III, pp. 21-31, 1893.

8 Identified by Dr. Ray S. Basstsmr, of the U.S. National Museum.

APR. 4, 1926 MANSFIELD: CHOPTANK FORMATION 177

Section of Nomini Cliffs, right bank of Potomac River, Va., about 13 miles from

lower end of Cliffs

By W. C. MANSFIELD

Approximate

; thickness.

Pleistocene: Feet

Reddish clive samcandmravel <font ous. Saas. des Pa 40:

Miocene:

St. Marys formation:

Very plastic unfossiliferous sandy clay. Upper 3 feet con-

sists of laminated clay alternating with thin fine sand

partings. (Corresponds to zone 21.)............6...45 18

Probably Choptank formation:

Material similar to the above but contains 2 or 3 ferruginous

layers. Appears to be unfossiliferous. (Corresponds

AmpLoximavelyn tO; Zone! 2Os\isd.. haces dhe ciel waives 30

Choptank formation:

Dark brown rather soft fossiliferous sand, with an indurated

sandstone layer about 2 feet thick at the top containing

many individuals of Pecten madisonius Say. The fol-

lowing species were obtained from the sands: Arca

staminea Say, Pecten madisonius Say, Pecten mary-

landicus Wagner, Astarte obruta Conrad, Dosinia sp.

(Sormesponds torzone Ob). Se. Pools ee Oe ee ee 10.

Probably Choptank formation:

Fossiliferous greenish-gray clayey sand. One large specimen of

Isocardia fraterna Say was found 20 feet below indurated

sandstone ledge. (Believed to correspond to zone 18 and

DERM A ps LONZOMe niall. eke GEO oil BT OSs Lowes. eS 30

In the above section no fossils were found above the indurated layer

that overlies zone 19. In places, where the material has not slumped,

the cliffs stand nearly vertical and are impossible to scale, and the exact

thickness of the Choptank formation can not readily be determined,

but it probably amounts to 50 feet or more. The recognition of the

Choptank formation in the section is based chiefly on the fossils con-

tained in the dark brown sand 30 to 40 feet above the base. The

following species, as listed above, indicate the correspondence of this

layer with zone 19 of the Maryland Choptank: Arca staminea Say®

is reported only from the Choptank formation; Pecten Marylandicus

Wagner’? is reported at six localities in the Choptank formation and

at only one in the Calvert formation; Astarte obruta Conrad" is re-

ported only from zone 19 of the Choptank formation at Governor Run.

® Md. Geol. Survey, Miocene Text, p. 388, 1904.

TO Op: cits, Pp. ort.

PE Opicit.i pice.

178 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 16, NO. 7

MINERALOGY.—A_ petrographic and X-ray study of the thermal

dissociation of dumortiertte. N.L. Bowmn and R. W. G. Wrckorr.

Geophysical Laboratory, Carnegie Institution of Washington.

INTRODUCTION

Dumortierite is an aluminous mineral to which the formula

4A1,03-38i102 was originally assigned but which is now known to

contain boron as an essential constituent. Several studids of the

boron content, especially by Whitfield, by Ford, and by Schaller, have

led to somewhat inconclusive results as to whether it is a fixed quan-

tity, but Schaller’s conclusion that dumortierite is represented by the

definite formula 8A1,0;-6S8i0.-B.03;-H,O appears to be in accord

with most reliable analyses.1 A recent analysis, however, gives results

closer to the formula 8A1,03;-7Si0,-B203;-H.O so that the question

of variability in composition must be left more or less open.2. Never-

theless, no reliable determinations indicate any important departure

from the formula suggested by Schaller. ‘There is present ordinarily

a moderate amount of iron and titanium whose oxides presumably

replace alumina and impart the commonly observed colors.

On account of its high Al.O; content dumortierite has been con-

sidered as a possible basis of refractory wares. Its behavior at high

temperatures is of some interest in the light of the revised Al,O;-Si0,

diagram which shows that the stable compound of these oxides at

high temperatures is mullite, 3A1,03;-2SiO.. A paper setting forth the

results of an examination of the mineral is therefore an appropriate

addition to the series of papers from this Laboratory on alumina-

silica and aluminum silicate minerals.’

In the present study attention was directed principally to the du-

mortierite from Clip, Arizona, because its chemical composition 1s

known and the actual analyzed sample, U. 8. National Museum No.

48,200, was available for study. The analysis of this material as given

by Whitfield is stated in Table 1 under A‘ and with it, under B, a later

analysis by Ford of dumortierite from the same locality. The agree-

ment is seen to be reasonably good. ‘Titanium is undoubtedly present

1W.T. ScuHatter. Amer. Journ. Sci. (4) 19: 211. 1905.

2T,.L. WaLKER. University of Toronto Studies, Geol. Series No. 14, p. 80. 1922.

3 BowEN and Greic. Journ. Amer. Ceram. Soc. 7: 238-254. 1924.

Bowen, Greic and Zins. This JourNAt 14: 183-191. 1924.

Greig. Journ. Amer. Ceram. Soc. 8: 465-484. 1925; and Amer. Journ. Sci. 11: 1-26.

1926.

4 Amer. Journ. Sci. 37: 218. 1889.

5 Amer. Journ. Sci. 14: 428. 1902.

apr. 4, 1926 BOWEN AND WYCKOFF: DISSOCIATION OF DUMORTIERITE 179

in this mineral in considerable quantity but no determination of the

amount has been made.

In addition to the more detailed thermal examination made of this

Arizona material occasional comparative tests of other dumortierites

were made as noted below.

THERMAL STUDY

The Clip mineral is of a deep blue color. This color disappears in

a few seconds if the mineral is heated at about 800°C., at least in an

oxidizing atmosphere, and the mineral becomes pure white. After

Ai hours at 800°C. the powdered mineral shows no trace of sintering.

Under the microscope there is a suggestion of turbidity indicating that

some decomposition may have begun, but there is no change of re-

fractive indices or definite measurable change of any kind.

TABLE 1.—CompositTion oF DUMORTIERITE FROM CLIP, ARIZONA

A B

IIT res fe sie dca oie nw wae aed Hoe Meo,» 27.99 29.86

le ba To 22's PE ener oer 64.49 63.56

Fes03 PE En eet ool e tetshte isa bo shattne & © Sine eo slaps O:23

ps as, et orl bbs. 4.95 5.26

Eb. 2 J ne bee Rei MLN hd higZ 1.41

After four hours at 950° the fine powder, again shows no sintering.

A definite change is now to be made out under the microscope.: Irregu-

lar dark streaks have developed with elongation transverse to the

prism, giving a fibrous appearance, but each grain as a whole is still

of uniform extinction and negative elongation similar to the original

grain of dumortierite. The refractive indices are, however, definitely

lowered, y now being 1.68, whereas it was originally 1.69.

When held at 1200° for only 10 minutes the dumortierite is almost

completely changed to a material of very much lower refractive index

than dumortierite. Each grain still contains, however, rare rests of

unchanged dumortierite of random distribution but of uniform orien-

tation. After 30 minutes at this temperature the mineral is com-

pletely transformed into the same substance of low refraction. This

is made up of fanlike groups of radiating, fibrous structure, the fibers

having fairly strong double refraction and positive elongation. It has

all the appearance, even under the highest powers of the microscope,

of a crystalline aggregate made up of a single substance with a mean

refractive index of 1.61. When heated for longer periods the only

180 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 16, No.7

further change is the increasing development of irregular dark streaks

that are probably cracks or voids which do not extend to the exterior

of the grain and therefore do not become filled with the immersion

liquid. The fibrous aggregate itself does not change appreciably in

properties and is still of mean index 1.61 after heating for some days at

1200°, although the mineral continually loses weight during this

period.*

X-ray examination (powder method) of the decomposition product

of dumortierite as obtained at 1200° shows all the characteristic lines

of mullite strongly developed and mullite is unquestionably the prin-

cipal constituent.

Greig has shown that the mixture of mullite and silica obtained by

heating cyanite has a mean index of 1.625, a value which is satis-

factorily accounted for by the relative proportions of silica and mullite

in the aggregate.’?7 The very low index (1.61) of the material obtained

by heating dumortierite at 1200° can not be similarly explained, for

after long heating, when most of the B.O3; is expelled, the material

should contain only a very small amount of silica in addition to the

mullite revealed by the X-rays as the dominant constituent. The

mean index should therefore be only slightly lower than that of mullite.

It would appear to be necessary to imagine the presence of submicro-

scopic voids in order to account for the low index.

Results of an intermediate character are obtained at temperatures

between 950°C. where the first suggestion of a change is observed,

and 1200°C., where complete transformation to material of low index

(1.61) is readily effected. At 1100° the product is not significantly

different from that obtained at 950°. At 1150° after 4 hours a small

proportion of the dumortierite is transformed into the material of low

refringence, and at 1180° after 4 hours a large proportion has suffered

a like change. The X-ray diffraction patterns of these intermediate

products show increasing development of the mullite lines and de-

creasing effects from dumortierite (Fig. 3).

After two hours at 1400°C. there is again no appreciable sintering

of the powder. Under the microscope each grain is now seen to be

completely decomposed and to show with moderate magnification as a

nearly opaque, turbid aggregate. With high powers, two substances

are definitely to be made out and, while the material is too fine-

grained to permit accurate determinations, the one appears to have

6 See loss of B.O3 on heating as given on a later page.

7J.W.Greie. Amer. Journ. Sci.11; 5-6. 1926.

APR. 4, 1926 BOWEN AND WYCKOFF: DISSOCIATION OF DUMORTIERITE 181

the refractive indices of mullite, 3Al.0;-2S10.; the other, which occurs

in very small amount, is of very low index and must consist essentially

of silica and boric oxide. There is no definite relation between the

elongation of the fibers of mullite and the crystallographic directions ~

of the original dumortierite, nor is there more than a moderate tend-

ency for the mullite fibers to grow normal to the surfaces of the original

dumortierite grains. In these respects the decomposition of dumor-

_ tierite differs from that of andalusite on the one hand and cyanite on

the other. The actual arrangement of the mullite fibers in the aggre-

gates formed from dumortierite seems to be entirely random. Each

grain of dumortierite gives a number of interfering fan-shaped aggre-

gates of mullite fibers. Continuation of the heating for 6 hours at this

same temperature (1400°) does not afford any appreciable further

growth of the mullite fibers. It is to be noted that both products of

decomposition are less dense than the original dumortierite, so that

the change must involve some increase of volume.

After 4.5 hours at 1500° the powder is very weakly sintered into a

mass which readily breaks down again into a powder between the

fingers. The microscope shows the same type of decomposition as

that obtained at 1400°. The mullite fibers are not significantly

coarser. One observes under the microscope merely that the main

bulk of the substance is a birefracting aggregate which matches a

liquid of the mean index of mullite and that in it are embedded minute

dots of a substance of very much lower index which can be only silica.°

By way of confirmation of the microscopic determination of the

principal substance as mullite an X-ray photograph of the powder

has been made and it shows all the characteristic lines of mullite well

developed. No lines indicating any form of silica were noted, but

since the silica is present in such very small amount this fact is not

surprising. The lines of mullite are not distinguishable from those

of sillimanite with certainty, but sillimanite is definitely ruled out in

_ the present case because the excess material would then be corundum,

and the very low index of the excess material proves that it is not.

The formation of mullite and silica is in fact in complete accord with

all our past observations on the behavior of synthetic mixtures or

natural minerals more siliceous than 3A1,03-2S8i0¢.!°

8 J.W.Greic. Amer. Journ. Sci. 11: 3-12. 1926.

® As shown on a later page, B.O3is now completely expelled.

10 Vernapsky heated dumortierite from this same locality to a “dazzling white heat’’

and concluded that the product was sillimanite. (Bull. Soc. Min. Fr. 13: 258. 1890.)

The above observations show that the product was necessarily mullite with a very little

silica. :

182 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 16, No. 7

After # hour at 1550° there is decided sintering to a firm cake and

the color is now no longer a pure white, as it is after heating at lower

temperatures, but is a pale grayish buff. Under the microscope it is

found that definite prisms of mullite have developed, with an intersti-

tial material of low index which is undoubtedly glass. Definite

formation of some liquid is indicated by both the macroscopic and

microscopic characters, the structure of this mass being altogether

different from that of the individual grains as decomposed in the solid

state at lower temperatures.

The behavior of dumortierite on heating is thus seen to be for all

practical purposes that of material containing only alumina and silica.

2000 2000

and LIQUID

1900: s LIQUID CORUNDUI9 1900 ~

/800 om SSCS, 800

1700 1700

“15

(2)

oy Va

BALOQ:2SiQ, and LIQUID

TEMPERATURE ~ DEGREES CENTIGRADE

G es

\ CORUNDUN

/600 oe oe and IAL, 0, 2 Si0; ! 1600

1300 1500

CRISTOBALITE and 3AL,0,25i0,

JO" WE S2On ao 4 Thee goon aNmeo) 70 80 90

SiO. ad Y leh 0

2 O TEMPERATURE OPTICALLY 3AL0;2 SIO, Al, 4s

Fig. 1.—Equilibrium diagram of the system: Al.O3-Si02 after Bowen and Greig

The equilibrium diagram of these oxides, Fig. 1, shows that beginning

of melting occurs at 1545° in all mixtures lying between 3AI1.0;-

2810, and SiO, and in dumortierite no melting is observed until that

temperature is reached. The B.O; is either lost at these tempera-

tures or the retained portion of it exerts a negligible influence.

Loss OF B.O; ON HEATING

In order to determine the readiness with which boric oxide (and

water) can be driven off from dumortierite on heating, weighed samples

were heated at various temperatures and the loss of weight deter-

mined.

APR. 4, 1926 BOWEN AND WYCKOFF: DISSOCIATION OF DUMORTIERITE 183

It is to be borne in mind that the losses here given are those sus-

tained by pure dumortierite and nothing is implied regarding the rate

of loss from impure mixtures containing bases that may form more

stable compounds with B,.O;. As might be expected, the rate of loss

increases with increasing temperature, the actual results obtained

being given in Table 2

TABLE 2.—Loss oF WEIGHT OF DUMORTIERITE ON HEATING

NUMBER TEMPERATURE TIME LOSS OF WEIGHT

XG hrs. per cent

1 950 4 1.76

2 1200 1 Zals

3 1200 19 3.48

4 1200 46 4.10

5 1200 86 5.02

7 1400 1 2.95

8 1500 2.5 5.9

9 1500 4.5 6.6

Note: The product of No. 5 was returned to the furnace at 1250° and found to suffer

an additional loss of 1.42 per cent in 44 hrs. Thusin 130 hrs. of heating, 86 of which were

carried out at 1200° and 44 at 1250°, the total loss was 6.44 per cent.

The dumortierite contains about 6.7 per cent H.O + B,O3; (see

analyses of Table 1) and by reference to Table 2 it will be seen that

these are quantitatively expelled at 1500°C. in 4.5 hours, whereas at

1200°C. it requires more than 130 hours to accomplish this result. At

temperatures above 1500°C. B;O; is, no doubt, given off still more

rapidly. It is not surprising, therefore, that dumortierite should

behave at high temperatures as an alumina-silica mixture. One might

expect some melting at temperatures below 1545°, the eutectic between

silica and mullite, on account of the retention of some B.O; for a

considerable period at those temperatures, but apparently its effect is

negligible, for no evidence of melting is observed until after a tem-

perature of 1545° is passed.

X-RAY OBSERVATIONS

Powder diffraction photographs have been prepared and analyzed

from Arizona dumortierite and from samples of 8 mineral heated at

various temperatures.

Accurate spacing measurements upon its principal powder lines

were obtained from a series of comparison photographs from samples of

dumortierite mixed with NaCl to serve as a standard. The spacings

184 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 16, NO. 7

thus determined were employed in standardizing a series of films of

dumortierite alone. From these last photographs the spacings of

additional lines could be found. Results of these calculations are

contained in Table 3. The pattern of dumortierite contains many

faint lines. On account of this multiplicity of lines many of them are

not clearly resolved in the present photographs and several of the

TABLE 3.—PowpsrR PHoTOGRAPHIC DaTA ON DUMORTIERITE

SPACING INTENSITY

5. 996A

5.116

4.306

3.88

3.483

3.258

2.92

2.69

Oyaleg

2.089

2.01

1.925

1.656

1.617 |

1.546

1.460

1.330

1.291

1.175

1.063

— 1.040

0.973

0.934

0.914

0.877

0.846

0.820

—

re eRe RR ER IP RRR TS

Note: Lines marked (d) in this table are diffuse. Probably they are unresolved pairs

of reflections. In this and in Table 4s, m, f and ff stand for strong, medium, faint

and very faint.

spacings of Table 3 undoubtedly refer to such composite reflections.

This table, furthermore, is not complete because in several instances

clearly visible groups of partially resolved reflections give effects so

diffuse that no precise significance can be attached to measurements

upon them. For the present essentially analytical uses of these

patterns, however, such incomplete data are entirely adequate.

Writing the formula of dumortierite as 8Al,0;-B,0;-6810.-H,O,

APR. 4, 1926 BOWEN AND WYCKOFF: DISSOCIATION OF DUMORTIERITE 185

this mineral might conceivably be considered as a hydrated mullite,

3A1,03-2Si0>2, in which some of the alumina is replaced by boric oxide.

In view of, this possibility it is of interest to contrast the powder

patterns of these two compounds. ‘Tracings of their photographs are

shown in Figure 2. They clearly have no obvious relation to one

another.

Powder photographs have also been studied from samples of dumor- -

tierite heated for 4 hours at various temperatures. Spacing measure-

- ments upon them are stated in Table 4, their tracings are to be found

in Figure 3. The principal lines of these photographs are seen to be

essentially identical with the principal lines in the patterns of either

Dumortierite

Mullite

<«—— Intensity

Fig. 2.—Tracings of the positions of the principal powder lines of dumortierite and of

mullite. The lengths of the lines in this diagram are roughly proportional to the relative

intensities of the corresponding reflections.

dumortierite or mullite. The measurements upon these photographs

are not absolute determinations of spacings but were obtained by

_ taking three or four conspicuous lines on each film as standard and

establishing the relation of other lines to them. Such a simple pro-

cedure is sufficient for the present purposes.

Since dumortierite loses boric oxide and water at temperatures far

below those at which the mullite pattern is observed it might be

expected either that the dumortierite pattern itself would change as a

result of these heatings, or that an amorphous material would appear

as an intermediate stage in the decomposition of dumortierite. Small

differences in relative intensities between the patterns of natural

dumortierite and of this mineral after heating to 1100° and 1150°

186 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 16, NO. 7

appear to exist but the data of Table 4 show no well-defined altera-—

tions in the observed spacings. These diffraction observations thus

prove that the structure of dumortierite remains essentially unchanged

after heating for 4 hours at 950° and 1100°C. and that mullite is the

chief product arising from heating dumortierite to 1200° or 1500°C.

TABLE 4.—Spactine Data ON DUMORTIERITE DECOMPOSED AT VARIOUS TEMPERATURES

SPACINGS AND APPROXIMATE INTENSITIES

ORIGIN OF

LINE

950° 1100° 1150° 1180° 1200° 1500°

D m| 5.914 5. 82A a — a

D ae Ween 5.00 ae Panty: ae

D f | 4:33 4.42 ae oe an

D foe ei88 3.90 = — ss

D m | 3.48 3.49A 3.47 mea a ss

M pas — (3.411)A| (3.411)A] (3.411)A] s

D 3.25 3.25 nos

D m | (2.918) |. (2.918) 4 (2.998), | {2-98 “a+ a

M —— —— — |\ 2.88 2.88 f

D,M ff 2.68 2.70 2.70 2.70 2.72 f

M =“ mess = 2.53 2.53 2.54 m

M hap REED aie = ses 2.29 2.28 f

a m | 2.20 2.21 2.21 | (2.197) | (2.197) | @.197) | m

M a a = apne 2.11 2.12 f

D s | (2.089) | (2.089) | (2.089) | \2.08 ai te

D f 1.93 1.93 1.92 1.93 mee ae

M — = = — 1.88 ff

M —_ — — iy 1.83 ff

M —— = 1.70 1.70 1.70 m

D ff 1.67 a ae _—

D ff 1.62 = ab =

M — ee — 1.60 1.59 1.59 f

D f 1.55 1.54 1.54 une ats anes

M a — —— | (1.518) ©] (1.518)) 4 (@e50s) eee

D s | (1.460) | (4.460) | (4.460) | 1.46

M ee eee _ 1.42 1.43 1.43 f

D,M m| 1.34 1.34 1.34 1.34 1.33 1.33

D f 1.29 1.29 1.30 see uae —

M anes ios a 6 (1.260) | (1.260) | m

Note: In the first column of this table D and M refer to dumortierite and to mullite

respectively. The patterns of dumortierite decomposed at 1200° and at 1500° are prac-

tically those of mullite ;!! the spacings of the principal lines of dumortierite are given in

Table 3. Absences of reflections are indicated by bars; vacancies (as for instance for the

long spacing lines in the 1100° column) do not mean the absence of these lines. Stand-

ard lines are enclosed in parentheses.

11 J.T. Norton. Journ. Amer. Cer. Soc. 8: 401 (1925); L. Navras and W. P. Davey,

Journ. Amer. Cer. Soc. 8: 640 (1925); R. W. G. Wycxorr, J. W. Greta and N. L. Bowen,

Amer. Journ. Sci. (in press).

———S a

Apr. 4, 1926 BOWEN AND WYCKOFF: DISSOCIATION OF DUMORTIERITE 187

The pattern of this mineral heated at 1150° is to be interpreted as that

of dumortierite with a small amount of admixed mullite; the photo-

‘graph arising from the 1150-80° heating shows mainly mullite with

some undecomposed dumortierite. The patterns of these high tem-

perature products are somewhat weaker than those of unchanged

1150 —'1180°

Fig. 3.—Tracings showing the positions and the approximate relative intensities of

the principal lines observed in the powder photographs of dumortierite heated at

various temperatures.

dumortierite, but they do not show the intense blackening which

should be found if any considerable portion of the sample had become

amorphous.

DUMORTIERITE AS A REFRACTORY

Dumortierite is to be regarded favorably as a basis for refractory

bodies, and, on account of its higher Al.O; content, as having some

188 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 16, NO. 7

advantages over the silicates of composition Al,03;-SiO., namely,

sillimanite, andalusite, and cyanite. Indeed, dumortierite may, for

refractory purposes, be looked upon as having the formula which was,

by mistake, originally assigned to it, namely, 4Al,03-3S10., and its

thermal behavior may be read off from the alumina-silica diagram.

Though some liquid is formed at 1545° the amount (4 per cent) is

considerably less than that formed with sillimanite, andalusite, or

cyanite (14 per cent) so that failure under load at that temperature

should be much less notable. With further rise of temperature in-

crease in the amount of liquid is very slow until about 1700°, where it

amounts for the 4:3 mixture to about 6 per cent. The liquid then

increases more rapidly until at 1810° it amounts to about 18 per cent.

The 4:3 mixture has therefore only a slightly greater amount of liquid

at 1810° than the 1:1 mixture has at 1545°, though, in the latter case,

the liquid is much more viscous. At 1810° the 4:3 mixture is abruptly

transformed from mullite with a little liquid (18 per cent) to corundum

with much liquid (nearly 70 per cent) and all its refractory power

must there disappear.

In so far as dumortierite approaches the theortical composition

represented by the formula 8A1,0;-6Si0,-B,03-H.O its behavior at

high temperatures should approach that outlined above. If it is

really somewhat variable in composition, and especially if the ratio of

alumina to silica may in some examples be not so great then these

examples will not be quite so refractory.

OBSERVATIONS ON DUMORTIERITE FROM NEVADA

In addition to the very pure dumortierite from Arizona, dumor-

tierite from the Rochester Mining District, Nevada, was examined.”

None of this dumortierite is free from foreign matter which is almost

exclusively muscovite. Two classes of material were treated, the one

a select specimen with 3 or 4 per cent muscovite, the other, with about

20 per cent muscovite, which appears to represent the general run of

material there available. At lower temperatures decomposition of

the dumortierite into mullite and silica takes place in exactly the same

way as in the Arizona mineral. Even at high temperatures the speci-

men with only a little mica did not show any significant departure in

behavior from the purer Arizona mineral. In the specimen with the

greater amount of mica, however, definite sintering begins at a lower

12 This material was kindly supplied by Ernest E. Fatrpanxks, Bureau of Mines

Reno, Nevada.

APR. 4, 1926 BOWEN AND WYCKOFF: DISSOCIATION OF DUMORTIERITE 189

temperature. The formation of some liquid is in fact apparent at

1500°, and at 1550° the amount of liquid is definitely greater than that

in the specimen with only a little mica. “Both give a pure white prod-

uct even when definite partial melting has occurred. In this respect

the pale-colored dumortierite from Nevada differs from the deep-blue

Arizona mineral which, as we have seen, gives a slightly colored product

when carried to temperatures where some formation of liquid occurs.

No observations on the loss of weight were made on the Nevada

~ dumortierite.

SUMMARY

The dissociation of dumortierite, 8Al,03;-6Si10.-B.03;-H.O, at

high temperatures has been studied and it is found that decomposition

of the crystals occurs with formation of mullite, 3A1,.03-28i0., and a

little excess material. The first definite evidence of a change is

obtained at 950°, but the products of decomposition are recognizable

by their microscopic and X-ray characters only at higher tempera-

tures.

X-ray diffraction photographs (powder method) have been made of

dumortierite and of its decomposition products as obtained at various

temperatures. The results of measurements of the lines of these

photographs are given in Tables 3 and 4 and Figures 2 and 3.

Formation of a little liquid with definite sintering occurs first at

1550°. Determination of the loss on ignition shows that B.O; and

H,O are completely expelled at 1500° in 4.5 hours and almost com-

pletely in a much shorter time. At such temperatures, then, the

product of decomposition is mullite with a little free silica, and the

fact that liquid first appears at 155C° is due to melting at the eutectic

between mullite and SiO, (1545°).. The mineral thus behaves for all

practical purposes as a simple mixture of alumina and silica, nearly,

if not actually, in the proportion 4A1,03-38i0.2, and its thermal be-

havior can be read off directly from the alumina-silica diagram, Fig. 1.

190 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 16, NO.7

ENTOMOLOGY.—The_ occurrence of Phlebotomus in Panama.)

RAYMOND C, SHANNON, Bureau of Entomology. (Communi-

cated by 8. A. RoHWER.)

The members of the genus Phlebotomus form one of the best known —

groups (Psychodidae) of bloodsucking Diptera. Particularly is this

true in certain southern European, Asiatic, and African countries

where, owing to the fact that certain species are carriers of disease and

others are suspected to be, a rather thorough investigation has been

made of their habits, distribution, and classification.

The American species have yet to undergo such an intensive investi-

gation, for only twelve have been described, and these mostly from

South America. Several species have been suspected of carrying

disease, there being considerable evidence to show that P. verrucarum

Townsend is the vector of verruga fever in Peru, while both P. brumptz

and P. intermedius are suspected of being transmitters of American

leishmaniasis. :

There are as yet no published records of the occurrence of Phle-

botomus in Panama. However, in 1911, Mr. August Busck collected

two females at Cabima, Panama. These were tentatively determined

by Knab as “P. squamiventris L. & N.” and “U. rostrans Summers,”

respectively.

In 1923, the writer collected a number of specimens, at three locali-

tiesin Panama. ‘The first were taken in the month of May in the day-

time by means of sweeping with a net at the bases of large coipu

trees growing in the midst of an uncut forest area located near Cano

Saddle, on one of the back arms of Gatun Lake. A number of females

and one male were secured in this manner. In June and July, while

the writer was investigating the mosquito fauna of Barro Colorado

Island, in Gatun Lake, at that time a wholly uninhabited and nearly

virgin forest area, he again encountered Phiebotomus. The midges

were attracted by the camp light (a gasoline lantern) and rested upon

objects well within the range of the light. They bit rather frequently,

the bite being distinctly sharper than an ordinary mosquito bite.

Towards morning they would leave the light and hide themselves

1 An excellent summary of our knowledge of the species of Phlébotomus has been

published by F. LarroussE, Htude Systematique et Médicale des Phlébotomes, 1921, pp.

1-106.

Fig. 1.—Male terminalia of Phlebotomus panamensis Snn. Fig. 2.—Male terminalia

of P. vexator Coq. Fig. 3.—Female terminalia of P. panamensis Snn. Fig. 4.—Female

terminalia of P. vexator Cog. Fig. 5.—Female terminalia of P. cruciatus Coq.

APR. 4, 1926 SHANNON: OCCURRENCE OF PHLEBOTOMUS 191

oo \\N

te Saas ae

a oS Nh Yi.

) WLAN WAg

ar SIPEG DIB er

P. vexator Coq. 3

Fi od Ppanamensis Onn. fe)

FP cruciatus Coq. 9

Figs, 1, 2, 3, 4, and 5; see page 190 for description

192 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 16, NO. 7

away for the day. Only females were taken. At Porto Bello,

Panama, the writer collected a single female in a cave-like dungeon in

one of the old Spanish forts in the city. The dungeons were inhabited

both by bats and snakes; either, or both probably, serve as hosts for

the midges.

It would seem from the above abeaaione that man is not a normal

host for these bloodsucking midges; and, in the writer’s experience,

no ill effects were felt from their bite.

All of the collections of Phlebotomus from Panama proved to belong

to a single new species, which is here described.

Phlebotomus panamensis, new species

Description of male and female.—Very similar in general appearance

to other species of Phlebotomus. Integument pale yellow; antennae

sixteen-jointed; palpi apparently four-jointed, the basal joint well

fused with the second, the relative lengths of the joints (considering

the two basal joints as one and the first joint) are 1: 0.90: 0.15: 0.25.

All of the body pile long and erect. Subcosta ending free at about the

basal third of the wing; distance between tips of R, and Rz greater

than distance between tips of R. and M;; petiole of upper forked cell a

little more than half the length of R»; petiole of lower forked cell is

to the upper branch of the cell as 3:5

Male clasper: Four spines present, arangedee in a double group; =

terminal spine the longest. Other genitalic characters are shown in

the figure. Apparently eight abdominal segments are present, the

seventh and eighth appear to be telescoped into the sixth.

Female terminalia: The cerci, or terminal lobes, and the ventral

lobes of three species before me, P. panamensis, P. cruciatus, and P.

vexator show certain differences which may aid in distinguishing these

species in this sex. (See figures 3, 4, and 5.) P. cruciatus has much

larger terminal lobes than have the other two species, and they are

more than twice as long as broad and more finely setulose; in P.

panamensis the terminal lobes are subquadrate, except that the lower

distal corner is obtusely produced; in P. vexator the terminal lobes are

similar to those of P. panamensis, except that they are somewhat

larger.

The key to the American species, based on male genitalia, given by

Larrouse, shows that P. longipalpis Lutz & Neiva (Brazil) may be the

nearest ally, among the known species, to P. panamensis. The

terminal palpal joint in that species is longer than any of the preceding

APR. 4, 1926 SWANTON: SUBJECTIVE ELEMENT IN MAGIC 193

joints, whereas in P. panamensis, the last joint is much shorter than

the antepenultimate joint.

Type locality—Cano Saddle, Canal Zone, Panama.

Type.—Cat. no. 28726, U.S. N. M.

Male type, female allotype, Cano Saddle, Canal Zone; eight female

paratypes, Cano Saddle, Barro Colorado Island, Canal Zone, Porto

Bello, May—August, 1923, collected by R. C. Shannon; Cabima,

Panama, May 22, 1911, collected by A. Busck.

ANTHROPOLOGY .—The_ subjectwe element in magic. JOHN R.

SWANTON, Smithsonian Institution.!

The theory that religion originated in animism, belief in souls

resident in or associated with plants, animals, natural and artificial

objects, was, as is well known, propounded by E. B. Tylor more than

fifty years ago; and, as is also well known, J. G. Frazer later set up an

opposing theory to the effect that animistic beliefs were secondary,

having sprung from an earlier stage in which men’s minds were

dominated by magic. Frazer’s hypothesis has been repeatedly and

thoroughly grilled by leading British and American anthropologists

such as Lang, Marett, Goldenweiser, and Lowie, al! of whom take issue

with the learned author, and in general it may be said that there is no

tangible proof for the evolutionary succession for which Frazer con-

tended. However, his critics have not found it altogether easy to

place magic and religion in their proper mutual relations.

Magical practices seem to be accomplished in three ways, (1) through

spirit intermediaries whose coéperation can not be counted upon with

certainty, (2) through spirit intermediaries who are absolutely gov-

erned by the magician—or perhaps rather by the magical incantation,

or (3) without spirit intermediaries. The first of these is generally

conceded to belong in very large measure in the province of religion,

while the second is usually classed as magical. But since the theoreti-

cal control over spirits exercised by a worker in magic varies greatly

it is difficult to draw a sharp line between practices belonging to these

two classes. The conception of spirit helpers is certainly furnished by

religion, and where their services are absolutely constrained we may

perhaps say that we have a magic-religion complex with magic

- dominant.

Practices of the third type are, of course, those most typical of

magic as distinguished from religion, but when we come to concrete

1 Received February 19, 1926.

194. JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 16, No. 7

examples the anthropomorphizing urge is so great that it is difficult

to be sure that they are entirely sterilized of the religious element.

And, having apparently segregated cases of true magic, are we sure

that what we have left is anything more than the effect of a theory of

causation differing in no respect from hypotheses involving purely

natural phenomena? Indeed primitive man frequently applies terms

generally reserved for the supernatural to purely natural occurrences.

There are people with little or no superstition in their make up who

believe that mind may communicate with mind directly over wide

spaces. If it should turn out that they are right, the primitive

magician who attempts to benefit or injure at a distance by mental

action would deserve so much the more credit. Should we then class

his efforts as magical or scientific? But that is not all. Granted

that they are magical and supernormal from our point of view, are

they from his? Lowie well says: “But the residue [of native lorel,

which we are obliged to reject when testing it in the light of our knowl-

edge, does not, for that reason, belong to a different category from a

psychological point of view. . . . . In so far as [primitive man]

observes and reasons without enveloping his menial operations with

the atmosphere of supernaturalism he is none the less a scientist or at

least a precursor of science because of his errors, for mistakes from

sheer ignorance are committed by our greatest thinkers.’’? Not only

so, but some of our greatest thinkers, Kepler for instance, hit upon

cardinal scientific truths while their minds were enveloped in “the

atmosphere of supernaturalism’”’ and therefore the atmosphere of

supernaturalism becomes a rather insecure determinant of the distinc-

tion between magic and science.

But whether or not any of the scientific attitude attaches to magical

practices and superstitions of related character numbers of them per-

form subjective services, or supposed services, of another kind which go

far toward explaining their existence and their persistence. I mean

simply this, that the act in question keeps a desired end in view, or at

least serves to exclude from the thoughts an undesired and hence

unpleasant end. When, for instance, the Zulu chews a bit of wood

“in order, by this symbolic act, to soften the heart of the man he wants

to buy oxen from, or of the woman he wants for his wife,’ the pro-

ceeding at least suggests and keeps before his mind the accomplish-

ment of something agreeable. In view of the unexplored character of

2 KR. H. Lown, Primitive Religion, p. 148.

3 EK. B. Tytor, Primitive Culture, 1: 118 (quoted from Grout, Zulu-land).

APR. 4,1926 | SWANTON: SUBJECTIVE ELEMENT IN MAGIC 195

much of the mental life even a civilized man might, under similar

circumstances, think that perhaps his rite would be of some avail, and

in the grade of development to which the Zulu belongs such a sugges-

tion would be tenfold more powerful. At least, if timidity, remote-

ness from the persons in question, or other causes prevented the per-

former from taking more effective action, such a bit of imitative magic

would furnish an outlet for his unsatisfied mental strivings.

Similarly, when the wizard endeavors to injure or kill an enemy by

making an image of him and mistreating it in various ways, his efforts

will ordinarily be without direct avail. Still, the desired end may be

accomplished by the effect of these activities on the equally super-

stitious mind of his victim, and in any case the act serves to feed the

spirit of hatred which the magician entertains, helps him to “nurse

his wrath,’ and thus performs a service, although a perverted one, to

the doer. The same argument applies in the case of hunting charms,

war medicines, mascots, etc. They suggest success, help to keep up

the spirit of the owner or owners, and hence actually add to their

courage and feeling of competency. Even the possession of a rabbit’s

foot may have an exhilarating effect on a highly educated gentleman of

our own times which he would be ashamed to admit. Faced with an

uncertain future of infinite possibilities, and recognizing that unknown

laws are at work about him, the bewildered individual tends to grasp

at anything which suggests a happy outcome and, at least, something

associated in his mind with success. This may be a thing purely

individual, as in the wearing of a particular scarf-pin, or a certain

dress, or the carrying of a sketch as in instances cited by Tozzer,’ or

it may be something which his group or associates have come to hold

in such esteem. Cases of the latter kind are the rabbit’s foot just

mentioned, the mascot of the college or the athletic team, or the

palladium of a tribe. When in doubt or perplexity, man tends to lean

on his fellows or his group, and when the group has come to associate

good or ill fortune with this, that, or the other object, it is the easiest

thing in the world to resolve the perplexity by accepting the group

superstition. This, of course, applies to group ideas of all kinds,

whether or not of the nature of charms. ‘‘Of course,’ we say, “we

are not superstitious,’’ but we do not know how to meet the present

emergency, the use of a rabbit’s foot or a particular amulet is an

ancient and widely spread custom, and that fact argues that ‘‘there

must be something in it,” and anyhow “it can do no harm.”

4 A.M. Tozzzr, Social Origins and Social Continwities, pp. 242-266. 1925.

196 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 16, NO. 7

A personal experience may help along the thought at this point.

When a boy the writer used to dress in a room heated by an airtight

stove. Before brushing his hair he was in the habit of wetting the

hairbrush at the washstand, and as this was on the opposite side

of the room from the mirror, he was obliged to pass the stove going

and coming. As he passed the stove on his way back he fell into the

habit of flirting a little water off of his brush upon it in order to hear

the sizzle. But, after this little custom had been kept up for some

time, he one day determined he would omit the ceremony, and he was

straightway conscious of a distinct sense of discomfort, while the

thought flashed through his mind from nowhere in particular, “Sup-

posing bad luck should follow the omission.” Evidently the cause

of the discomfort was the breaking of a partially established habit,

a discomfort of the kind that compelled old Dr. Johnson to go back

and strike any fence post he had omitted hitting with his cane. ‘The

thought consequent on the discomfort may have had a religious origin;

it was perhaps a vague attempt to interpret in religious terms an

unpleasant sensation which was purely psychological, the distaste of

the organism toward any interference in a customary exercise.

In most cases such superstitions probably do “do harm,’ because

life is too short to clutter it up with useless formulas. The mental

machinery will register impressions based on sound reasoning as

readily as meaningless imitations of what our neighbors do or our

ancestors have done, and our time should be devoted to the former

occupation.

However, there are suggestions connected directly with magic which

are beneficial, even though they may be irrational. There is no ques-

tion that certain sights and sounds have an alleviating effect on the

sick. Some perhaps serve merely as counter irritants to remove the

mind from its immediate troubles, but others are of a kind to turn the

flow of the patient’s thoughts strongly to a happy outcome. When a

Haida woman was about to give birth, it was customary to let an eel

slide down to her feet inside of her clothing, the slippery nature of the

creature and the direction it took indicting easy parturition, and a

similar suggestion was involved in many magical practices on this and

other occasions. If a patient strongly believed that the pain in his

arm was due to a witch arrow and the doctor could seem to suck this

out and actually show it to him, the alleviation of the apparent symp-

toms was probable and their actual alleviation in certain cases more

than likely.

APR. 4, 1926 PROCEEDINGS: PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY 197

The Chickasaw attempted to cure by a powerful use of group sug-

gestion. The entire neighborhood would be summoned to the house

_ of the sick person, a fire lighted east of the main doorway, which was

always toward that quarter as being the good luck direction, little

canes adorned with ribbons, images, and other objects properly con-

jured by the doctor, were stuck in the ground near the fire, and all of

the guests danced about between the fire and the house while the sick

man himself sat in the doorway looking on, or was supported by

others in that position. The vigorous actions of the dancers were

supposed to energize the patient and ‘‘dance away” his malady. In

other words he was made the focus of a powerful assembly of sugges-

tions, composed of all kinds of good luck signs, the concentrated belief

of his neighbors, and their display of energy which he was taught

to think was working upon his indisposition.

The elaboration of the charm, mascot, fetish, palladium, or cere-

monial in order to suggest more intensely the end to which it was

believed to lead would of course be thought to increase the possibility

of attainment, but it would certainly make the desire more vivid and

in the same measure increase the subjective satisfaction of the magician

and his friends. Hence such efforts cannot be said to have been

entirely unserviceable although in many cases they were socially

undesirable. It is perhaps worth considering whether this motive

may not have acted as a powerful stimulus in the evolution of the arts.

My conclusion is that, whatever religious element may attach to.

magic, it is to be explained mainly by reference to immediate psycho-

logical processes, particularly those of the magician himself.

PROCEEDINGS OF THE ACADEMY AND AFFILIATED

SOCIETIES

PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY

929TH MEETING

The 929th meeting, the first of the year 1926, was held in the Cosmos

Club auditorium on Saturday evening, January 9, 1926. The meeting was

called to order at 8:31 by President Bowie with 67 persons present. The

address of the evening was given by the retiring president, J. A. FLEMING, on

The magnetic and electric survey of the earth; its physical and cosmical bearings

and development. It appears in full in an early issue of the JourNaAL. (This

JOURNAL, 16: 109-132, 1926.) .

930TH MEETING

The 930th meeting was held in the auditorium of the Cosmos Club on

Saturday evening, January 23, 1926. The meeting was called to order by

President Bowie at 8:15 with 49 persons in attendance. |

198 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 16, NO. 7

Program: E. O. Hutspurt: The propagation of radio waves over the earth.

—In this paper a quantitative theory of the propagation of radio waves

over the earth is presented. Larmor’s theory of refraction due to the elec-

trons of the Kennelly-Heaviside layer does not explain the “skip distances”

for short radio waves (regions of silence around the transmitter which Taylor’s

measurements showed to be 175, 400, 700, and 1300 miles in radius in the

daytime, averaged over the year, for waves of 40, 32, 21 and 16 meters,

respectively, and which are surrounded by zones of strong signals). The

range as a function of wave-length shows a minimum for about 200 meters

which suggests the introduction of a critical frequency term. lf the effect

of the magnetic field of the earth on the motion of the electrons is taken into

account, as suggested by Appleton and by Nichols and Schelleng, the modifica-

tion a the Larmor theory necessary to fit it to the experimental facts is

secured.

The upper atmosphere is assumed to contain N free electrons per cubic -

centimeter, and neglecting absorption the dispersion equations are worked

out for various modes of polarization of the radio waves. Then the skip

distances are computed, making various. assumptions as to the electron

density distribution. (a) Reflection theory. As a first approximation the

layer is taken to be sharply separated from the un-ionized lower atmosphere.

At this layer total reflection occurs in accordance with Snell’s law. (b) Re-

fraction theory. The following distributions are considered: (1) Density

increasing linearly with the height h, beginning at a certain height ho; (2)

Density proportional to h?; (8) Density proportional to e*; (4) Density

proportional to h}/”. Comparison with the experimental skip distances

shows good agreement, and indicates that the radio waves which just reach

the edge of the zone beyond are refracted around a curved path, reaching

in the daytime a maximum height of from 97 miles (case 1, ho = 21 miles,

and case 2) to 149 miles (case 3). At this height the electron density comes

out close to 10° electrons per cubic centimeter. At night the electron density

gradient is less and the height is greater.

These conclusions agree with physical conceptions from other evidence.

From the dispersion equations it follows that for waves of 60 to 200 meters,

total reflection may occur from the electron layers at all angles of incidence. .

From this result, combined with interference between various modes of

polarization of the radio rays, a detailed qualitative explanation of many

fading phenomena is presented. Further conclusions are: That the ions

in the atmosphere have little effect in comparison with the electrons; that for

longer waves the Larmor theory is correct; that short waves are propagated

long distances by refraction in the upper atmosphere and reflection at the

surface of the earth, not by earth-bound waves; that waves below 14 meters

can not be efficiently used for long distance terrestrial communication, but

appear to offer a possibility of interplanetary communication. (Author’s

abstract.)

J.H. Service: Recent results with radio-acoustic ranging. (Illustrated with

lantern slides.) The radio-acoustic method of position finding was taken

up by the Coast and Geodetic Survey in the fall of 1923. The introduction

to the paper reviews briefly the construction and operation of the original

apparatus and the procedure originally followed, involving stopping the

ship, firing a bomb in the water alongside and recording the time. Sound

energy from the bomb travels through the water to hydrophones at two or

more shore stations. The reception of sound at a given shore station, by

means of amplifier and relays, causes a characteristic radio signal to be sent

APR. 4, 1926 SCIENTIFIC NOTES AND NEWS 199

out from that station, which is received aboard the ship and timed. Time

of travel of sound energy and thence distance to each station is thus obtained.

The following improvements have been made during the past two years:

‘Design of a special bomb for great distances, more efficient procedure in

hydrophone and cable installation and recovery, the obtaining of fixes without

reduction of the speed of the survey ship, elimination of stray hydrophone

ences, automatic shore station operation and improved methods of

plotting.

The method has been shown to be practical for distances between ship

and shore station up to 200 miles (unless unfavorable bottom conditions

_ intervene), and gives a location for the ship with a maximum distance error

_ varying from some 75 meters to somewhat less than a mile as the distance

between ship and shore stations increases from 10 miles to 200 miles. A

shore station will function automatically for over a week of continuous opera-

tion without attention.

Some of the problems awaiting solution are: obtaining a more suitable

hydrophone cable, the modification of the apparatus to permit the use for

short distances of a sound source more convenient than explosions, the

development of a sound receiver better than a microphone, and modification

of the apparatus so as to make possible the detection of sound energy trans-

mitted across unfavorable bottom conditions.

The use of the method has brought to light strong evidence to indicate

that the sound energy from bomb to hydrophone is transmitted largely by

means of multiple reflections between the surface andthe bottom. (Author’s

abstract.)

H. A. Marmer, Recording Secretary.

SCIENTIFIC NOTES AND NEWS

The annual party of the Pick and Hammer Club was held on March 6.

Among the former members of the U. S. Geological Survey present were:

RaLtepH ARNOLD, petroleum engineer of Pasadena, California; Epwarp

SAMPSON of Princeton University; and K. C. Hna.p.

Mrs. Nora DowELL STEARNS resigned from the Water Resources Branch

of the U. 8. Geological Survey on March 1.

The following members of the U. 8. Geological Survey expect to attend

the International Geological Congress in Madrid, Spain, May 24-31: H. G.

FrrGuson, M. I. Gotpman, G. M. Hatt, D. F. Hewert, and E. O. ULRicH.

Mrs. Ferguson, Mrs. Goldman, and Mrs. Hewett will also be members of the

party. Most of the geologists will attend one or more of the geological

excursions to regions of especial interest in Spain and northern Africa. Mr.

Hewett left Washington March 12, and will make several geologic investiga-

tions in Greece, Italy, and Sardinia before the congress. Mr. GOLDMAN

leaves on April 15, Mr. Ferauson April 24, and Mr. Utricu May 12.

ARTHUR KEITH is on leave from the U. S. Geological Survey for the two

months beginning March 17, to give a course of lectures on Structural geology

of North America at the University of Texas, at Austin.

RosBeErt T. Boot will be succeeded April 1, 1926, by RicHarp H. GopparRp

as observer-in-charge of the Huancayo Magnetic Observatory (Peru) of the

200 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 16, No.7

Carnegie Institution of Washington. Mr. Booth will return to Washington

across South America via the Amazon as a member of the special expedition

of Messrs. Dauut and RAMBERG.

Davip Wurtz, W. C. MENDENHALL, W. T. THoM, Jr., L. W. STEPHENSON,

H. D. Miser, C. H. Dans, H. W. Hoots, N. W. Bass, and J. D. NortHop

of the United States Geological Survey attended the annual meeting of the

Petroleum Geologists at Dallas, Texas, on March 25, 26, and 27.

ANNOUNCEMENTS OF THE MEETINGS OF THE ACADEMY AND

AFFILIATED SOCIETIES*

Tuesday, April 6. The Botanical Society.

Thursday, April 8. The Chemical Society.

Saturday, April10. The Biological Society.

Thursday, April15. Joint meeting of the Acapremy and the Philo-

sophical society.

Saturday, April 17. The Philosophical Society. Program:

H. L. DrypEn: Measurement of the performance of desk electric fans.

W. W. Cosientz: Impressions of the Sumatra eclipse expedition.

The Helminthological Society.

* The programs of the meetings of the affiliated societies will appear on this page if

sent to the editors by the thirteenth and the twenty-seventh day of each month.

CONTENTS |

ie ath at | Ontarwan Parans

Ghetusiry: —The condensation of aldehydes with diphenyl

foo

Mineralogy.—A pubtoeonhey and aay ae of a, thermal

dumortierite. We BowEN and R. Ww. G. Wrexorr. .. By

| Proceepines:

; + I i bs

he : 7 ys Nip

The Philosophical ee

Vol. 16 | APRIL 19, 1926 No. 8

WASHINGTON ACADEMY

OF SCIENCES

BOARD OF EDITORS

D. F. Hewett . S. J. Maucuiy

A@anrss CHAsy

GEOLOGICAL SURVEY

DEPARTMENT OF TERRESTRIAL MAGNETISM BUREAU PLANT INDUSTEY

tae ASSOCIATE EDITORS

L. H. Apams

S. A. Ronwsr

PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY

ENTOMOLOGICAL SOCIETY

E,. A. GoLtpMAN G. W. Strosz

BIOLOGICAL SOCIETY

R. F. Griaes

BOTANICAL SOCIETY

GEOLOGICAL SOCIETY

J. R. Swanton

ANTHROPOLOGIGAL SOCIETY

E. WiIcHERS

CHEMICAL SOCIETY

PUBLISHED SEMI-MONTHLY

EXCEPT IN JULY, AUGUST, AND SEPTEMBER, WHEN MONTHLY

BY THE

WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

Mr. Royat anp GuILFoRD AVES,

BALTIMORE, MARYLAND

Entered as Second Class Matter, January 11, 1923, at the post-office at Baltimore, Md., under the

Act of August 24, 1912. Acceptance for mailing at special rate of postage provided for

in Section 1103, Act of October 3, 1917. Authorized on July 3, 1918

Journal of the Washington Academy of Sciences

This JourNAL, the official organ of the Washington Academy of Sciences, aims to

present a brief record of current scientific work in Washington. To this endit publishes:

(1) short original papers, written or communicated by members of the Academy; (2)

short notes of current scientfiic literature published in or emanating from Washington;

(3) proceedings and programs of meetings of the Academy and affiliated Societies; (4

notes of events connected with the scientific life of Washington. The Journat is issu